MASTER NEGA TIVE NO . 92 -8054 7 MICROFILMED 1992 COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY LIBRARIES/NEW YORK as part of the _, . „ "Foundations of Western Civilization Preservation Project Funded by the NATIONAL ENDOWMENT FOR THE HUMANITIES Reproductions may not be made without permission from Columbia University Library COPYRIGHT STATEMENT The copyright law of the United States - Title 17, United States Code - concerns the making of photocopies or other reproductions of copyrighted material... Columbia University Library reserves the right to refuse to accept a copy order if, in its judgement, fulfillment of the order would involve violation of the copyright law. AUTHOR: JARDINE, GEORGE TITLE: OUTLINES OF PHILOSOPHICAL PLACE: GLASGOW DA TE : 1818 COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY LIBRARIES PRESERVATION DEPARTMENT BIBLIOGRAPHIC MICROFORM TARGET Master Negative # Original Material as Filmed - Existing Bibliographic Record i 107 i I Jardine, George, 1742-1827. Outliiios of philosophical education, illustrated by the method or teacliiiig the logic, or, first class of piiiiosophv, m the University of Glasgow. By George Jardine .'.. Glasgow, Pniited by A. & J. Duncan for Anderson & Alac- dowell, Edinburgh; [etc., etc.] 1818. viii, 3, 485 p. 2H I tcm 1. hitcllcct. 2. Philosophy— ^Stiidy and/ teaching. 3. Kducation. H 9-1669 Library, U. S. Hur. of N«^' Education I,B675.J28 Restrictions on Use: TECHNICAL MICROFORM DATA FILM SlZE:___^JZ^jrL REDUCTION RATIO:. IMAGE PLACEMENT: I A C® IB IIB DATE FILMED: ^A^J^SJU INITIALS___-Z7!^^ HLMEDBY: RESEARCH PUBLICATIONS. INC WOODBRIDGE. CT //X <6. <^^. o %^.\^. r Association for information and Image Management 1100 Wayne Avenue, Suite 1100 Silver Spring, Maryland 20910 301/587-8202 Centimeter 12 3 4 5 iiiiliiiiiiiiiliiiiiiiiiliiiiiiiiiliiiiliiiiliiii liii \T\ 1 Inches iiiiiii 7 TTT 1.0 LI 1.25 8 iJii 9 iiilii T 10 11 12 liiiiliiiiliiiiliiiiliiiilii II I 13 14 15 mm iiiiliiiiliiiiliiiiliiii 1^ 2.8 2.5 if 5 6 3.2 2.2 2.0 l£ 1 3.6 4.0 1.8 1.4 - 1.6 MPNUFnCTURED TO RUM STfiNDRRDS BY APPLIED IMfiGE. INC. \ v^ 5«S*|,^ 'Z'.*i^ it ij ^•^ ii<-./.A., ».*+ , ~r^ >.fo. ^=s;*:. ;#m*s*?ai«^ *■^^f?*5^^J^f^^^ -.i*.Cf^'A.v .*^2^ i mmi am ^iii "v«^j .^yia ' ■■iu.e--*'- '•^^"^■I^'.3':'*i';^i-r*': Ef^ IS'itrf;' ^-^\#- ir^^i i *i^-ipl|Pii^. Columbia (Hnitte rsftp THE LIBRARIES OUTLINES OF PHILOSOPHICAL EDUCATION, ILLUSTRATED BY THE METHOD OF TEACHING THE LOGIC, OB jftrst Class of |3t)Uosopt)Pj IN THE UNIVERSITY OF GLASGOW. By GEORGE JARDINE, A. M. F. R. S. E. PKOFESSOR OF LOGIC AND RHETORIC IN THAT UNIVERSITY. " Sicut avesad volatum, equi ad cursum, ad saevitiam ferae gignunturj ita nobis est agitatio atque soUertia, unde origo animi coelestis creditur." QuiNCT. Lib. I. Cap. L / GLASGOW: PRINTED BY ANDREW & JAMES DUNCAN, Printers to the University, FOR ANDERSON & MACDOWALL, BOOKSELLERS, EDINBURGH ; LONGMAN, HURST, RE£S, ORME, & BROWN, LONDON J AND A. & J. M. DUNCAN, GLASGOW. 1818. PREFACE, The Author of the following Outlines has long been of opinion that Philosophical Education, as it is generally conducted in our Universities, is too much confined to the mere communication of knowledge ; and that too little at- tention is bestowed on the formation of those intellectual habits of thinking, judging, reasoning, and communication, upon which the farther prosecution of science, and the business of active life, almost entirely depend. He is fully sensible of the genius, the knowledge, and the eloquence, which have been displayed in the public Lectures delivered to the Students by many Professors in our Universities, — some of whom, during the last century, have attained to the highest rank in their respective departments; but still he cannot help thinking that little or nothing has been done to generate, in the Student, that activity of mind, and that - r\ n ^ ■^' IV PREFACE. facility of applying his intellectual powers, which ought to be the great object of all education. The communication of knowledge is indeed necessary to furnish suitable materials for the exercise of the mental fa- culties; and, perhaps, with a few of the Students, whose minds are easily awakened to scientific pursuits, little else may be required. But this can only apply to a very small proportion indeed of those who enter upon a course of Phi- losophical Education ; and, even with regard to them, nearly the same advantage may be derived from the judicious and systematic perusal of the writings of ancient and modern Philosophers. It has been the object of the Author, who has been em- ployed for more than forty years in the department of the First Philosophy Class in the University of Glasgow, to endeavour, as much as possible, to remedy this defect; and while he has, in the course of his public Lectures, explained to his Students the first principles of the Philosophy of the human mind, he has uniformly accompanied these Lectures with a system of active discipline on the part of his Stu- ■ dents, with a view to create, invigorate, and improve, the important habits of inquiry and of communication. These Outlines, accordingly, consist of Two Parts: — s PREFACE. V The First exhibits a view of the Lectures which are de- livered to the Students ; in which the Author does not lay claim to the merit of any new discoveries in the science of mind, but has endeavoured to select those subjects which seemed most adapted for the employment of Youth, at the first commencement of their Philosophical Studies. With this view, he has not confined himself to the Art of Logic^ or to any one department of knowledge, but has endea- voured to lay before his Students, in a simple and intelli- gible form, the elements of the science of mind, with an analysis of the different intellectual powers, in the order of their connexion and dependence, — the theory of lan- guage, as illustrative of human thought, — the principles of taste and criticism, — and the means of improving the powers of communication by speech and writing, as ex- hibited in the best models of ancient and modern com- position. The Second Part — which, to the Author, appears by far the most useful department of his labours — contains an ac- count of the practical system of discipline to which the Students of this class are regularly subjected, for the pur- pose of acquiring habits of inquiry and of communica- tion. This consists, Jirst^ of an account of the mode in which the daily examination of the KStudents is conducted; and, secondly^ of the Themes and Exercises which are re- VI PREFACE. gularly prescribed, and executed by the Students, and afterwards submitted to the criticism of the Professor. Neither in this part does the Author claim the merit qf any new discovery; because the principles on which ho pro- ceeds have been long known and admitted : but he is not aware of any public seminary, where a system of practical exertion, on the part of the Students, has been enforced to such an extent as that to which he has endeavoured to carry it. The Author was induced to publish these Outlines by tlie suggestion of some of his Pupils, who were pleased to express their conviction of the advantage which they de- rived from this mode of instruction ; and also by the hope that, imperfect as they are, they may perhaps be the means of directing the attention of the public to the important subject of Academical Education. The long experience which he has had in the business of teaching, while it has made him fully aware of several defects in the general sys- tem of Academical Education, has emboldened him to speak of these defects with more freedom, perhaps, than he was entitled to use, considering the genius and ability of many of those who are entrusted with the instruction of Youth, in our public seminaries. But, as he has not been actuated by any desire of censuring particular individuals, or particular seminaries, he hopes that, in the strictures PREFACE. vu which he has occasionally ventured to make upon the general objects of Education, it will not be supposed that he is insensible to the merits of our Academical establish- ments. Of the style and manner in which this little Treatise is written, it would be unbecoming in the Author to say any thing, were he not afraid that the long habit of lectur- ing from notes to an audience, to whom frequent repeli- tion and illustration was, in some degree, indispensable, may have imparted to his style a degree of diffuseness un- suitable to this species of composition. With the view, in some measure, of remedying this fault, of which he was perfectly sensible, the Author subjected the Manuscript to the critical inspection of some of his literary friends ; and he must acknowledge the benefit which he has derived from their corrections and retrenchments. After all, how- ever, some repetitions, and redundancies of style, he is aware, still remain ; but as his chief aim is to be distinctly understood, and to explain, in simple terms, the Outline of that system of Education which he has pursued, he trusts he will be pardoned for a greater copiousness of illustration than may be necessary for the generality of Readers. Of the great number of Pupils who have passed through the First Philosophy Class in the University of Glasgow, Vlll PREFACE. during the last forty years, many are now advanced to high and respectable situations. It has been a great grati- fication to the Author of these Outlines, to look back up- on the early indications of talent which they exhibited while under his care ; and to understand, that not a few of them reflect with pleasure upon the occupations in which they were then engaged; and ascribe, in some degree, their advancement in knowledge, to the active and industri- ous habits, which it is the object of these Outlines to re- commend and to enforce. CONTENTS. PART I. Introduction^ ------ On the Change in the Method of conducting the First Class of Philosophy^ in the University of Glasg&w^ On the Subjects of the Lectures which have beoi substitut- ed for the Ancient Logic and Metaphysics^ in the First Class of Philosophy, - - - - Oil the Science of the Human Mind, On the Origin and Progress of Language, and the Principles of Geiieral Grammar, - - - On the Origin and Progress of Written Language, On the Elements of Intellectual Culture, - On the Edmation of Art, - - On the Improvement of the Faculty of Attention, On the Improvement of Perception by the Organs of Sense, ------- On the Improvement of the Faculty of Memory, On the Culture of the Imagination, On the Inprovemefif of the Pcnx>ers of Judging and Reasoning, - - . - On the Baconian Method of Induction, - - - On the Improvement of the Powers of Genius, Page 1 18 36 46 69 81 88 93 97 108 116 119 128 148 167 2 contents. On the Elements of Taste, ... On the Beauty of Colour, . . - - - On the Cidture of the Powers of Taste, On the Study of the Beauty and Grandeur of Exteinal Nature, ------- On (he Improvement of the Powers of Taste by the Study of Composition, - - - - - On the Improvement of the Powers of Taste by the Study of Criticism, ------ On the Substitution of Natural Philosophy as an Intro- duction to the Study of Philosophy, On the Composition of Lectures for a First Class of Philosophy, .----- Page 176 195 213 219 224 240 259 267 PART II. Introduction, On Public Examinations, - - - - On Themes, ------- Of the First Order of Themes^ - - - " Of the Second Order of Themes, - - - - Of the Tliird Order of Themes, - - - " Of the Fourth Order of Themes, - ^ - On Complex Themes, - - - - - On the Fifth Order of Themes, . - - - On the Method of determining the Merits of the Themes, Conclusion. -^On Themes, - - - " " 283 292 302 309 313 318 326 336 341 350 365 CONTENTS. s On Academical DiscipUiie, - - - - On the Institutioji of Prizes, - - - - On the Extension of this Mode of Teaching to the Higher Departments of Study in Uriiversities, - On the Extension of this Mode of Teaching to the Study of Theology, . _ • - - On the Conduct of Study during the Vacation, On the Extensio7i of this Method ofteachirig Philosophy to the Universities of England and Ireland, Conclusion, -.----- Page 378 383 411 426 436 451 480 Ill ON THE COURSE OF PHILOSOPHY IN UNIVERSITIES. Introduction. The ancient division of Philosophy into Physics, Ethics, and Logic, probably suggested the order of teaching the different branches of it, which has long been followed in the Universities of Europe : and, in this arrangement, the first place was as- signed to Logic; not only because it was regarded as a valuable acquisition in itself, but, more espe- cially, because it was considered as an instrument of a peculiar kind, by the skilful application of which, all other knowledge, whether of body or of mind, was to be acquired. The principal Universities in Europe, it is well known, w^ere founded during the reign of the Scholastic Philosophy, which consisted of such a mixture of the doctrines and opinions of the i i £ INTRODUCTION. ancient Philosophers, as could be derived from corrupt copies, and imperfect translations, of their works, combined with the numerous Theological controversies which exercised the ingenuity, and employed the barbarous style, of thf writers in the middle ages; and, as the chief object of education, at that time, was to qualify young men for the church, the motley system, which has just been described, was made the subject of study, in the schools of Cathedrals, of Monasteries, and other Religious houses. Although, in the earlier ages of Christianity, the doctrines of Plato maintained a disputed authori- ty with those of Aristotle, yet, upon the revival of learning in Europe, (more correct copies of the ancient authors having been previously discover- ed,) it was found that the works of the latter Phi- losopher had obtained an almost exclusive pos- session of the Schools; and this preference will not, perhaps, appear surprising, when it is recol- lected that the writings of this celeorated charac- ter embrace almost every subject of human know, ledge or inquiry; Physics, Metaphysics, Ethics, Logic, Rhetoric, Natural History, Politics, and Criticism. On these various and interesting branches of Science he discovers, too, a greater degree of acuteness, combined with a sound and discriminating judgment, than any other of the Greek Philosophers ; and his several treatises hav- ing been, at an early period, translated into Latin, INTRODUCTION, s the technicalities of his system, his forms, essences^ entities, predicables, and categories^ became very soon incorporated with the whole mass of scho- lastic learning. His Analytics, for the reasons al- ready mentioned, were held in particular esteem, and sedulously cultivated by all who aimed at academical distinction. That Logic, at a particular period, and from par- ticular circumstances, should have been cultivat- ed more than any other art or science, is not per- haps very wonderful; but that it should have taken such hold of the minds of men as to pre- clude all other studies, and to constitute, in fact, the chief occupation and pleasure of the learned, is certainly a singular phenomenon in the history of Literature and of the human race. I shall, therefore, point out some of the causes and cir- cumstances which are supposed to have originally led to this universal reception of Aristotle s Logic ; as well as to the continuance of its au- thority, in certain College estabUshments in our own times, so long after the causes, now alluded to, have ceased to exist. The ancient history of the Church informs us, that considerable differences of opinion, as to doctrine and ritual observances, subsisted even among the primitive Christians. In the beginning of the sixteenth century, however, when Letters had revived, and the Reformation had made some INTRODUCTION. progress, the topics of religious controversy were greatly multiplied: and, as these topics, at the era in question, were always more or less associat- ed with speculations of a metaphysical nature, the addition thus made to the number of philoso- phical disputes, formerly agitated, not only opened a wider field for the exercises of the Dialectician, but suggested the expediency of paying more attention to the manner in which they might be carried on. The combatants on either side, ac- cordingly, recurred with increased earnestness to the study of the Analytics of Aristotle; which, abounding in nice distinctions and definitions, in abstract notions, and general terms, supplied them with the means of maintaining an interminable disputation, without once entering into the merits of the subject upon which it turned : and thus the Controversialist, although incapable of securing a decisive victory, was never in danger of an irre- parable defeat. As soon, therefore, as the utility of the Syllogism for this purpose was discovered, the knowledge of its form, and structure, of predi- cableSy of categories, of figure and moody and the ready application of that instrument, in every par- ticular case, became the chief object of study in all seminaries of learning. The young Academic had no sooner entered his college, than he was taught to arrange all his notions in strict Logical order, and agreeably to the rules of art, for the purpose of Syllogistic exercises. Theses on controvertible fiubjects were regularly proposed; and the stu- INTRODUCTION. 5 dents, having taken their sides, were encouraged by the masters to display their skill in the use of this intellectual weapon, and to call into action the various resources with which it supplied them, as well for defence as for attack. In process of time, the taste for this species of intellectual com- bat became very general. Disputations, no longer confined within the walls of Colleges, were fre- quently carried on in public assemblies, convened for the express purpose, and consisting of persons of the highest rank, whether in church or state. The greatness of the number of individuals who attended these public exhibitions would appear to us altogether incredible, did we not recollect that we are speaking of occurrences which took place before the invention of printing, when such occasions furnished the only opportunity which the learned enjoyed for displaying their knowledge and talents, or which fell to the lot of the unin- structed for receiving information on philosophi- cal and religious subjects. Like the knights er- rant of Chivalry, too, or like the pugilists of our own days, the keener disputants of those times went from place to place in quest of adventures; challenging, every where, those who had obtained the highest reputation for learning, or for success in Syllogistic competitions. The topics selected for those controversial dis- quisitions were naturally taken from the favourite studies of the age. A variety of abstract questions. INTRODUCTION. on different subjects of Philosophy, employed at that period the attention of monks and schoolmen, one of which questions was usually propounded for discussion: and, as the same views were constantly singled out for disputation, and, as the same points were repeatedly argued upon in their debates, the Logicians of every district, according to the opinions which they severally supported, were naturally arranged in different parties, and distinguished by different denominations. One of the most celebrated of these Philosophical contro- versies was that so long maintained between the Nominalists and Realists; and which, as every one knows, was carried on with so much violence and acrimony as actually to threaten the public peace, and on that account to call forth an edict from Louis IL of France, prohibiting all disputation on such inflammatory subjects. In short, the restless and vehement passions of mankind, which, in more recent periods, have found ample scope in political agitation and in religious controversies of a higher order, were usually found, during the times in question, to exhaust their strength and gratify their malignity, in such abstracted and frivolous discussions as those to which we have now aU m luded. This literary phrenzy was still further increased by the distinction and rewards which were con- ferred upon those who, as expert Logicians, had signalized their zeal or ability in defence of the INTRODUCTION. ? church. The titles of Bachelor, Master, and Doctor, remunerated their first exertions in sup- port of the Orthodox faith; whilst a long line of preferment, from the simple benefice to the Papal chair, was opened up to the more ambitious, to stimulate their ardour in repelling the attacks of heretics, and in upholding the authority of the ancient belief. There is good reason to con- clude, that the defenders of the Catholic church derived much assistance from the philosophy of Aristotle, particularly from their dexterous use of the Syllogism. This opinion is strongly con- firmed by the remarkable fact, that both Luther and Calvin exerted themselves to the utmost of their power, and with no small portion of acrimonious abuse, to disparage the Aristotelian doctrines, and even to fix the charge of Atheism and impiety upon their celebrated author. From the operation of these causes, as well as for other reasons, of which it is unnecessary to give a minute detail, the philosophy of Aristotle, and particularly the doctrine of the Syllogism, had, even at a date considerably prior to the Refor- mation, been received with a degree of enthusi- astic admiration, approaching almost to idolatry. There is, accordingly, no epithet of praise or of adulation which has not been lavishly bestowed on the talents of that writer ; nor is there any object, in nature or in art, so exalted as not to have afforded to his admirers the ground of a com- 8 INTRODUCTION. parison of it with his works, and even of a decid- ed preference of those works to all created things. « The syllogism," it was said, "is the noblest and most useful invention ever discovered by man. It is the universal organ of Science ; the eye of In- tellect; and, like the Sun, the light of the world." Nay, one of the panegyrists of this intellectual instrument, a little more extravagant than the rest, not satisfied with comparing it to the Sun, boldly maintained its superiority to that glorious object ! " Utque supra ^thereos Sol aureus emicat ignes, Sic artes inter prominet hsec Logica : Quid? Logica superat Solem: Sol namque, diumo Tempore, dat lucem, nocte sed hancce negat : At Logicse sidus numquam occidit ; istud in ipsis Tarn tenebris splendet, quam redeunte die" In like manner, the whole force of Antithesis and Alliteration was employed in illustrating and dignifying this favourite study. " Est, ergo, Ars Artium, Scientia Scientiarum, organum organ- orum, instrumentum instrumentorum, ancilla, clavis, testa, murus philosophiae, docendi dicendi- que magistra, veri falsique disceptatrix et Judex." The encomiums, too, which were passed upon the Philosopher himself, rose to an equal height above decency and common sense. " If," exclaims one, « Aristotle, in his Natural Philosophy, spoke as a man, in his Morals and Metaphysics, he spoke as a God— Que si, dans sa Physique, Anstote a INTRODUCTION. 9 parle en homme, dans sa morale, il a parle en Dieu; qu* il y a sujet de douter si, dans ses morales, it tient plus du jurisconsulte que du Pretre ; plus de Pretre que du Prophete; plus de Prophete que de Dieu !" Le Fere Pardies. " It is doubtful whether he did not discover more of the mora- list than of the priest, more of the priest than of the prophet, more of the prophet than of the God.*' AverroiSy too, one of the best as well as most devoted of his admirers, gravely tells us, "That Nature was not altogether complete till Aristotle was born ; and, that, in him, she re- ceived the finishing stroke, and could not ad- vance further.*' " Ac nemo cui cor sapiat, non satius esse ducet, in iis quae ad philosophiam pertinent, cum Deo, ut ita dicam, philosophiam errare, quam cum aliis recte sapere, minorum gentium magistris," Niciics Erythr(£us. Nor were this extravagant praise, and this bound- less deference, confined to the mere scholar or professional commentator. On the contrary, the doctrines of Aristotle were very widely dissemi- nated; and, what is more, were every where receiv- ed with implicit confidence, even by the lowest ranks of society. Regarded, at length, as the surest guide to a sound faith, and as the best support of Christianity itself; the works of this author were, in some parts of Germany, actually read in the churches, and listened to by the people, with as much veneration as they were taught to feel for B ir i II 10 INTRODUCTION. the inspired writings. From this unnatural alliance between the philosophy of Aristotle and the cause of Revealed Religion, the authority of the former, as might have been expected, became every day more extensive and irresistible ; until, in process of time, the weight attached to his name had so much influence, in suspending the rights of con- science and of private judgment, that it was accounted nothing short of heresy to dispute any of his opinions. Ipse dixit; M agister dixit; effec- tually silenced all discussion, and precluded all difference of sentiment, on religious or philo- sophical subjects. The effects of this blind ad- miration, in short, pervaded every department of Literature and Science ; moulding the turn of thought, the structure of the argument, and the general form of reasoning. The prose compo- sitions of the period in question, are accordingly full of cumbersome Technicalities, and of endless distinctions without any difference; whilst the works of Imagination are so deeply affected with the same spirit, as to present to the reader little else than versified metaphysics, or a personi- fication of logical subtilties. It was during this triumphant period of Aris- totle's fame and authority, that the principal Aca- demical establishments in Europe were founded j on which account, it is not very surprising that, in chalking out the plan of education in these institutions, the first place should have been given INTRODUCTION. 11 to the Logic and Metaphysics of that author, as affording, agreeably to the received opinions of the times, the only certain means of acquiring useful knowledge : and, having once obtained this place in the academical arrangements, our ordinary views of human nature will enable us to explain why, in certain circumstances, they should have been permitted to retain their rank, as objects of human study, long after the causes to which they owed it had ceased to exist. It may not perhaps be so easy to account for the singular fact, that, even at the present day, the treatises just mentioned, are, in many seminaries of learn- ing, allowed to hold an almost exclusive posses- sion of the schools, during the principal part of the Academical course. It might indeed have been expected, upon the revival of learning in Europe, and particularly after the publication of the Novum Organum, which tended so greatly to shake the authority of Aristotle, that the unfitness of the Grecian Logic, for the purposes of a rational education, and es- pecially for training the minds of youth to sci- entific pursuits, would have instantly become apparent. It is well known, however, that, long after this period, and at a time when the Baconian method of investigation had been successfully exemplified by Newton and Locke, who followed closely the footsteps of their great master, no change in the system of philosophical instruction 12 INTRODUCTION. took place in any of the Universities of Europe. The following, among other causes, may perhaps have contributed to produce these effects. The Greek philosophy, in general, had been received in Europe with great veneration. It came from Attica, the mother of Science, the land of Heroes, and the theatre of splendid achievements. From that little spot emanated the first rays of that precious light, which, with in. creasing splendour, continues to irradiate a great part of the habitable world. Nor was it only the Sciences and Arts, transported thence into the European states, which laid the foundation for that authority and reverence of which we are now investigating the cause; but the language itself, in which these precious deposits had been pre- served and transmitted, by opening an immediate access to the valuable treasures of ancient Liter- ature, acquired a firm hold of the mind, even among general scholars ; and thus became, in a very Thort time, a necessary part of Academical education. During many centuries, too, after the first reception of the Greek Philosophy in the western parts of Europe, there was no other system of knowledge which could be put m com- petition with it: and it must accordingly be admitted, that, even with respect to Aristotle, the preference, which was so decidedly manifested for his works, did not proceed altogether from pre- iudice. It is but justice likewise to that great man to observe, that his Analytics, although by no INTEODUCTION. 13 means entitled to the high praise of being the only standard whereby truth is to be distinguished from falsehood, and the sole introduction to all other parts of human knowledge, contain, never- theless, many things of unquestionable and perma- nent utility. Among these may be mentioned his several rules, at once so clear and precise, for dis- tinction, definition, and division, and which must ever constitute an essential part of every system of intellectual philosophy,— a portion of his work, of which succeeding writers have very freely availed themselves, without always acknowledging their particular obligations. The Sijllogism itself, too, the great boast of ancient Logic, certainly exhibits the best analysis of a simple art of reasoning, which consists in the comparison of two things with a third: and, although miserably calculated for promoting invention, or for furthering the interests of science, yet, from the regularity of its struc ture, and from the precise and determinate nature of the rules upon which it proceeds, it may often be very happily applied to express Axiomatic truth, as well as to detect vague or inaccurate reasoning. Lord Bacon himself has, accordingly, admitted that the Dialectic method of teaching was professorial or magisterial, and favourable to an authoritative communication of undisputed knowledge. But nothing, perhaps, contributed more to the continuance of the ancient Logic and Metaphy- sics, as a part of the Academical course in all our 14 INTRODUCTION. Universities, than the practice of disputation already mentioned ; which, whilst it formed an essential article among the things appointed to be taught in the schools, was universally regarded as the chief path to distinction and preferment amontj the more advanced students. Academical degrees could not be obtained without the candi- dates having previously pubHshed, and defended a Thesis according to the AristoteHan Dialectics, in the presence of the whole University. Candidates for Fellowships or Professorships were required to contend for these appointments in Syllogistic disputation. Bursaries or exhibitions were award- ed on the same principle ; and this mode of electing Professors, continued in the University of Glasgow, till near the beginning of the last century. Among the causes which contributed to retain the Metaphysics and Logic of Aristotle in the course of Academical study, we ought also perhaps to regard the ditficulty of substituting in their place any other system of instruction more efficient. The method of induction taught by Lord Bacon was chiefly applied by him to inquiries connected with Natural philosophy ; which, in the age of that great Reformer, was esteemed, in a scientific point of view, greatly inferior in dignity and importance to the study of Mind. Besides, had any attempt been made, at that period, to extend the application of the induc- tive philosophy to mental Phenomena, there is INTRODUCTION. 15 every reason to suspect, that the pride of ancient science would have refused to stoop to the humble method of proceeding, by observation and experi- ment. The lofty pretensions, the general prin- ciples, and the undefined but magnificent concep- tions of the old school, would, in all probability, have maintained their ground, in opposition to the innovating spirit of the Novum Organum; which, as is well known, began by divesting the pompous teacher of nearly all his acquirements, and by im- pressing upon the mind of the pupil, that the use of his own senses and reflection were the only sure guides to knowledge. Be that as it may, nothing is more certain, than that established methods of teaching in Universities, from whatever cause they may have originated, very soon take a firm hold of the minds of both teachers and scholars; the former considering themselves bound to maintain the order and discipline to which they themselves had been subjected, and which they may have been long in the habit of enforcing ; whilst the latter naturally contract a prejudice in favour of the system according to which they were instructed, of the persons who taught them, and even of the place in which they received their education. The retirement of Academics, too, which, in for- mer times, amounted almost to an entire seclusion from the world, by producing habits of a peculiar cast, rendered them indifferent to the opinions which floated around them, and altogether inat- tentive, of course, to the progressive improvements 16 INTRODUCTION. INTRODUCTION. 17 of the times. The practice also, then general, of composing their lectures in Latin, and of dictat- ins to the students in the same language, gave a mysterious semblance of learning, to every thing which they taught ; and contributed not a little, we may suppose, to conceal from common obser- vation, and even from the masters themselves, the intrinsic defects of the system which they con- tinued to pursue. Perhaps, too, considerations of an inferior nature had more influence than would be readily acknowledged, in perpetuating, at a more recent period, the ancient discipUne of the schools. New methods of teaching, particularly when directed to new subjects of study, necessa- rily require fresh efforts on the part of the teacher, new lectures, and new criticisms on books and systems; and, while teachers and pupils, from a natural indolence, willingly per- suade themselves that their own methods are the best, their views are powerfully seconded, from without, by a numerous body of men, who de- precate any alteration whatever in established usages. Thus, the causes which gave rise to the revival of Letters, and to the improvements of modern times, particularly in the science of human nature, were, every where, in constant operation, and had produced great changes in every department of life, long before they reached the Universities. Fortified by ancient Foundations, by ancient Sta- tutes, and by ancient practice, these Institutions persevered in their original plan; heedless of complaint, and undisturbed by the increasing objections which were now openly directed a- gainst their contracted views, and their still more imperfect methods, in teaching Philosophy. As civilization advanced, and as the intercourse among nations, resulting from Commerce, be- came gradually more extended, a new field of knowledge presented itself to the eye of the Phi- losopher, and new inducements were held out to the exertions of the ingenious and the enter- prizing; and thus the defects of the prevailing system of education, and its total unfitness for the general purposes of life, became more strik- ingly apparent. But, altliough these defects were clearly pointed out, and although inventions and discoveries, arising from the improved method of philosophizing, were multiplied on every hand, yet neither example nor success had any in- fluence on the learned in Universities, nor pro- duced any alteration in their modes of teaching. " The improvements," says Doctor Smith, " which have been made in several different branches of Philosophy, have not, the greater part of them, been made in Universities, though some, no doubt, have. The greater part of Universities have not been very forward to adopt those improvements after they were made; and several of these learned societies have chosen, for a long time, to be the sanctuaries in which exploded systems, and obso- lete prejudices, found shelter and protection, after 16 INTRODUCTION. INTRODUCTION. 17 of the times. The practice also, then general, of composing their lectures in Latin, and of dictat- ing to the students in the same language, gave a mysterious semblance of learning, to every thing which they taught ; and contributed not a little, we may suppose, to conceal from common obser- vation, and even from the masters themselves, the intrinsic defects of the system which they con- tinued to pursue. Perhaps, too, considerations of an inferior nature had more influence than would be readily acknowledged, in perpetuating, at a more recent period, the ancient discipline of the schools. New methods of teaching, particularly when directed to new subjects of study, necessa- rily require fresh efforts on the part of the teacher, new lectures, and new criticisms on books and systems; and, while teachers and pupils, from a natural indolence, willingly per- suade themselves that their own methods are the best, their views are powerfully seconded, from without, by a numerous body of men, who de- precate any alteration whatever in estabUshed usages. Thus, the causes which gave rise to the revival of Letters, and to the improvements of modern times, particularly in the science of human nature, were, everywhere, in constant operation, and had produced great changes in every department of life, long before they reached the Universities. Fortified by ancient Foundations, by ancient Sta- tutes, and by ancient practice, these Institutions persevered in their original plan; heedless of complaint, and undisturbed by the increasing objections which were now openly directed a- gainst their contracted views, and their still more imperfect methods, in teaching Philosophy, As civilization advanced, and as the intercourse among nations, resulting from Commerce, be- came gradually more extended, a new field of knowledge presented itself to the eye of the Phi- losopher, and new inducements were held out to the exertions of the ingenious and the enter- prizing; and thus the defects of the prevailing system of education, and its total unfitness for the general purposes of life, became more strik- ingly apparent. But, although these defects were clearly pointed out, and although inventions and discoveries, arising from the improved method of philosophizing, were multiplied on every hand, yet neither example nor success had any in- fluence on the learned in Universities, nor pro- duced any alteration in their modes of teaching. " The improvements,*' says Doctor Smith, " which have been made in several diflferent branches of Philosophy, have not, the greater part of them, been made in Universities, though some, no doubt, have. The greater part of Universities have not been very forward to adopt those improvements after they were made; and several of these learned societies have chosen, for a long time, to be the sanctuaries in which exploded systems, and obso- lete prejudices, found shelter and protection, after 18 CHANGE OF METHOD they had been hunted out of every corner of the world. In general, the richest and best endowed societies have been the slowest in adopting those improvements, and the most adverse to admit any considerable change in the established forms of education. Those improvements were more easily introduced into some of the poorer Universities, in which the Teachers, depending upon their repu- tation for the greatest part of their subsistence, were obliged to pay attention to the current opinions of the world." ON THE CHANGE IN THE METHOD OF CONDUCTING THE FIRST CLASS OF PHILOSOPHY IN THE UNIVERSITY OF GLASGOW. During the seventeenth century, various cir- cumstances concurred to prove, both that the Aristotelian Philosophy was declining in repu- tation, and also that the Scholastic method of teaching it was felt to be no longer suitable to the spirit of'the times. About 1 646 or 1 647, complaints upon this head had reached the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland; who, conceiving them- selves to be invested with the right of super- intending Universities, as well as inferior Schools, appointed Commissioners to examine into the practical details of their several modes of teaching, with powers to remedy abuses of every kind. In one of the Acts, accordingly, of these Commis- IN FIRST PHILOSOPHY CLASS. 19 sioners, it is declared, " that the dyting (dictating) of long notes have, in time past, proven not only a hinderance to the necessary studies, but also to the knowledge of the text itself, and to the examination of such things as are taught ; it is therefore sincerely recommended by the Commis- sioners to the Dean and Faculty of Arts, that the Regents (the Professors who had the charge of educating the youth) spend not so much time in dyting of their notes ; that no new lesson be taught till the former be examined ; that every student have the text of Aristotle in Greek ; and that the Regent first analyze the text, viva voce^ and thereafter give the sum thereof in writing." We may also mention in passing, that it was like- wise proposed to the Commissioners, by their Reverend Constituents, to introduce a uniform system of instruction into all the Scotch Uni- versities ; but this object, after much conference and discussion on the part of the Commissioners, and an actual comparison of the several plans of teaching then in use, was afterwards aban- doned, as wholly impracticable, or at least clearly inexpedient, in the existing circumstances of the times. A Royal Visitation, which took place in 1 727, was the means of introducing, into the College of Glasgow, the first radical reform in the method of teaching Philosophy. Prior to this date, each Professor conducted his pupils through the whole philosophical course; giving lectures in three 20 CHANGE OF METHOD successive years, on Logic, Ethics, and Physics : whereas, the principal change recommended on this occasion, by the Royal Visitors, consisted in restricting the Professors of Philosophy to one particular department. The former method was, no doubt, attended with some considerable advantages altogether peculiar to it; and, accordingly, it still remains questionable with many persons, fully competent to form a judgment on such matters, whether the innovation now stated, was, in every point of view, a decided improvement. When the primary object of a Professor is not so much to extend the bounds of science, by original specula- tions of his own, as to communicate to youth ele- mentary instruction, drawn from the works of others, he will not find much difficulty in makmg himself sufficiently master of all that is necessary to be taught, in each department ; whilst, from an intercourse with his students, during three sessions of College, he will have such an opportunity of becoming acquainted with their several talents and dispositions, as will enable him to adapt, with every prospect of success, his mode of in- struction to their respective capacities. If, m addition to this, we could have any ground for assurance, that the duties of a Professor would always be discharged by the ablest men, and the best of teachers, there could be no hesitation in pronouncing the ancient system decidedly su- perior to the modern; but, when, on the con- trary, it is morally certain that Professorial chairs will not always be filled by individuals so highly IN FIRST PHILOSOPHY CLASS, 21 qualified, and, as men of ordinary talents may, nevertheless, by confining their attention to one particular field of study, not only acquire some eminence, but become very successful instructors, it is extremely probable, all things considered, that every branch will be better taught by being put into the hands of a separate Professor. Be- sides, there is possibly some improvement to be derived from the opportunity, thus furnished to a young man, of observing and comparing different modes of communicating instruction; and, at all events, it will be reckoned an ad- vantage, not entirely to be overlooked, that stu- dents should have it in their power to attend the lectures of any distinguished Professor, who, at any time, may happen to adorn our seats of learning. The improvements in this University, arising from the regulations introduced, in consequence of the Royal Visitation, were greatly promoted by the appointment, which took place shortly af- ter, of more than one Professor of singular zeal and ability. The first of these was Dr. Francis HUTCHESON. This celebrated Philosopher, whose mind was stored with the rarest gifts of learning, illustrated, with a copious and splendid eloquence, the amiable system of Morality which he taught, and which is still associated with his name; produc- ing thus the happiest effects, not only on his own students, but also on his Colleagues in the other 22 CHANGE OF METHOD chairs; and infusing, at once, a more liberal spirit, and a greater degree of industry, into all the de- partments of teaching. Great obstacles, however, still remained. The Professor of the first Philoso- phy class, according to the practice of the times, continued to deliver his lecture! in the Latin lan- guage; a method of instruction, which, although it must long have proved a great bar to the ready communication of knowledge, on the part of the teacher, and to the reception of it on the part of the pupil, was not discontinued, in this College, till upon the following occasion. In the year 1750, Dr. Adam Smith was appoint- ed Professor of Logic here; and, being unexpect- edly called to discharge the duties of that office, read to his pupils, in the English language, a course of lectures on Rhetoric and Belles Lettres, which be had formerly delivered in Edinburgh. It was only during one session, however, that Dr. Smith gave these lectures ; for, at the end of it, he was elected Professor of Moral Philosophy ; and it was on the occasion of this vacancy in the Logic chair, that Edmund Burke, whose genius led him afterwards to shine in a more exalted sphere, was thought of, by some of the Electors, as a proper person to fill it. He did not, however, actually come forward as a candidate ; and the person who was appointed to succeed Dr. Smith, without in- troducing any change, as to the subjects for- merly taught in the Logic Class, followed the ex- IN FIRST PHILOSOPHY CLASS. 2S ample of his illustrious predecessor, in giving his prelections in English. Nothing, certainly, can more retard the pro- gress of Science, and particularly of elegant litera- ture, than the practice of teaching and writing in a foreign language. Imperious convictions of uti- lity have now altogether removed that obstacle to improvement; yet, several years after the period now alluded to, when the Professor of Law in this University began to deliver his lectures in the English language, the Faculty of Advocates complained of this as an innovation, and requested that the former practice of prelecting in Latin might be resumed. At present, however, a total change of opinion on this subject has taken place; and, among no class of men, was it sooner or more decidedly manifested, than in the learned body of which we have just made mention; a great number of whom, almost immediately afterwards, repaired hither to study under the late cele- brated Professor Millar, who delivered all his prelections in English. This change in the mode of delivering lectures, which was soon extended to all the other classes, was obviously unfavourable to the practice of Scholastic disputation; and accordingly, from the time that the practice of lecturing in English began, the public disputations gradually declined. All the terms and expressions, employed in these S4 CHANGE OF METHOD intellectual combats, were so closely associated with the use of the Latin language, that an at- tempt to dispute in our Vernacular tongue, ac- cording to the forms of the Aristotelian Logic, would not only have appeared extremely awk- ward, but, what is worse, would have infallibly exposed the inanity of the discussion. The last instance of a Degree in Arts obtained by defend- ing a Thesis in the Public Hall of this University, oct:urred in the year 1762; the only vestiges of the practice being confined to the mode of con- ferring medical degrees, and, even in this case, it is in the option of the candidate whether he shall defend a Thesis publicly or not. A strict examination in private, by a Committee of Pro- fessors, followed up by a public examination be- fore the Senatus Academicus, is esteemed a much more effectual method, for judging of the quali- fications of candidates, than any trial of skill in the use of Syllogistic Mood and Figure. From the above period till the year 1774, when I had the honour of being elected Professor of Logic, the subjects prescribed by the Royal Com- missioners continued to be taught in that Class in the following order. The Class opened on 10th of October (the an- nual commencement of the Session, or Term), with reading and commenting on some portions of the Memorabilia of Socrates; which exercises con- IN THE FIRST CLASS OF PHILOSOPHY. 25 tinued two or three weeks, or until the greater part of the students were assembled. On the 1st of November, accordingly, the proper business of the course began, with an explanation of Aristo- tle's Logic, in the order of a short printed Synopsis. This subject occupied the attention of the class till about the beginning of February, when the Professor entered upon Metaphysics^ commencing with that part which treats of the Human Mind; after which, about the middle of April, he pro- ceeded to Ontology^ or that branch of Meta- physical Science which comprehends the various doctrines on the general attributes of Being, Ex- istence, Essence, Unity, Bonity, Truth, Relations, Modes of Possibility, Impossibility, Necessity, Contingency, and other similar abstract concep- tions of pure intellect; which topics, together with the usual questions connected with them, relative to the Immateriality and Immortality of Mind, the Liberty or Necessity of human action, and other subordinate points, constituted the whole Course of study. The lectures were delivered to the students at an early hour in the morning; and, in the forenoon, the Students were again assembled, one hour every day, for the purpose of examination ; in addition to which, two or three Themes, not very closely connected with the subjects discussed by the Professor in public, were usually prescribed by him as private ex- ercises, at certain intervals during the session. D 26 CHANGE OF METHOD Having myself attended the Logic class in this University, I remember well the general impression which was made upon my mind by the lectures which were then annually delivered in it; and also the opinion which was entertained of them by the most intelligent students. The senti- ment which universally prevailed among us was. That, though the Professor explained the sub- jects, of which he treated, with great perspicuity and distinctness, yet no useful or permanent effects could possibly result from his prelections, either in the way of promoting activity of mind, or of leading to sound Scientific principles. So far from affording any help or inducement to the study of Philosophy, the ancient Metaphysics ap- peared to us only to act the part of a Cerbe- rus, in guarding the passage, and in deterring from every attempt to enter. Respect for the Teacher, rather than any interest in the subjects which he brought before them, induced the more industrious of the students to listen to the Lectures with patience, and with a decent degree of at- tention : yet, the well-known attainments of the Professor as a scholar, and the benign simplicity of manners by which he was distinguished, could not prevent his class from being emphatically, though rather rudely designated " the drowsy shop of logic and metaphysics.'' The charm which had formerly created so much interest and attention, in relation to these subjects, was now completely dis- solved. They were no longer subservient to the art IN THE FIRST CLASS OF PHILOSOPHY. 27 of Disputation, which, at an earlier period, was wont to inflame ambition, and invigorate industry, among youthful Academics; and almost the only motive which now remained, to secure attendance upon this part of the Course, was the title, thereby procured, of being admitted into the succeeding classes, and particularly into those which qualify candidates for the Church. This conviction of the general uselessness, and even positively hurtful consequences, of spending six or seven months in the study of Logic and Me- taphysics, was not confined to the youth within the walls of the College. From the time that the lec- tures began to be delivered in English, the eyes of men had been opened to the unsuitable nature of the subjects upon which they turned; and the de- fects of the System, as embracing a very important part of public Education, became every day more striking, and called more loudly for a radical re- form. It was observed by those who interested themselves in this question, that the subjects in- troduced in the Logic class, even when perfectly understood, had little or no connexion with that species of knowledge which was necessary to pre- pare the student, either for the speculative pur- suits of Science, or for the active business of life. The local situation, too, of this University, in the vicinity of a great commercial city, where a quick perception of utility, and a clear insight into the adaptation of means to ends, may be sup- 28 CHANGE OF METHOD posed to predominate, gave frequent occasion to animadversions on our scheme of preparatory instruction. Intelligent persons, who sent their sons to the Logic class, although not themselves proficients in Literature, could not fail to observe, that the subjects to which their attention was directed, had no relation to any profession or employment whatever; that the discussions con- nected with them had no analogy to those trams of thinking which prevail in tlie ordinary inter- course of society; and, in short, that nothing could be derived from prelections on such topics, which was likely in the smallest degree, either to adorn conversation, or qualify the student for the concerns of active lite. About this time, according- ly some very severe strictures were published in Glasgow, the chief object of which was to impress upon the public at large, as well as upon those who were more immediately engaged in teachinir, an idea that Universities adhered much too rigidly to the principles on which they were founded, and to the limited objects which they were meant to serve, in the ages of Scholastic ig- norance and pedantry; when education was con- fined to a few bigotted Churchmen, for whose purposes it was almost exclusively calculated. ** Some of the classes in Universities, bear evident marks," it was said, " of their original design; being, either totally, or in part, intended for the disputes and wranglings of Divines, and of little use to the Lawyer or Physician, and still less to ^v. IN THE FIRST CLASS OF PHILOSOPHY. 29 the merchant and the gentleman. Of this sort we reckon Logic and Metaphysics. These Arts or Sciences (for it is not agreed yet which of them they are) are, to the greatest part of stu- dents, quite unintelligible; and, if they could be understood, we cannot for our life discover their use." Even, before this period, Lord Shaftesbury, in his Characteristics, had given an opinion to the same effect " Had," says he, " the craftiest men, for many ages together, been employed in find- ing out a method to confound Reason, and to de- grade the understandings of men, they could not perhaps have succeeded better than by the esUbliAing o( thi, ™„* ^nce." J During several sessions after my appointment, the former practice was regularly followed; that is, the usual course of Logic and Metaphysics was explained by me in the most intelligible manner I could — subjected, no doubt, to the same animad- versions as my predecessor had met with. Though every day more and more convinced that something was wrong in the system of instruction pursued in this class; — that the subjects on which I lectured were not adapted to the age, the capacity, and the previous attainments of my pupils, I did not, how- ever, think it expedient to make any sudden or pre- cipitate change. Yet the daily examination of the students, at a separate hour, gave me an opportunity of observing that the greater number of them comprehended very little of the doctrines so CHANGE OP MtfiTHOD explained ; that a few only of superior abilities, or of more advanced years, could give any account of them at all; and that the greatest part of the young men remembered only a few peculiar phrases or Technical expressions, unaccompanied with any distinct notions of their meaning. Im- pressed with this conviction, which the experi- ence of every day only tended to confirm, I found myself reduced to the alternative of pre- lecting, all my life, on subjects which no effort of mine could render either useful or interesting to my pupils, or of making a thorough and radical change, in the subject-matter of my Lectures themselves. In adopting the latter determina- tion, I was influenced by several other conside- rations, though of subordinate import, in addition to those which have been just detailed. About the period to which the above remarks ap- ply, young men were sent to College at an age con- siderably earlier than formerly; and were conse- quently so much the more unqualified to enter upon the abstruse inquiries, connected with the Metaphysics and Ontology of the Schools. Be- sides, for the same reason, more time was now oc- cupied with the study of Greek than had usually been devoted to that language, by students in the Logic class; and, as various employments, at home and abroad, which, at the period in question, began to open for our youth, drew them away from College at an earlier stage of life, their edu- IN THE FIRST CLASS OF PHILOSOPHY. 31 cation necessarily became less systematic, and con* siderably more abridged. Thus, the changes which were taking place in Society required a more miscellaneous and practical kind of instruction, in the first Philosophy class; for we found not only that our pupils, generally speaking, were younger, but that they had less time to spare for the abstract doctrines of ancient Metaphysics. But the evil of persisting in the old system was not confined to the mere loss of a Session, and to the sacrifice of the useful knowledge which might otherwise have been acquired by the juvenile stu- dent. The effect was of a much more pernicious nature; for, to require the regular attendance of very young men, two hours every day, during a session of six or seven months, to listen to lectures which they could not understand, and in which, of course, they could take no interest, had a direct tendency to produce habits of negligence, in- difference, and inattention ; which, it is well known, terminate but too frequently in a positive and rooted aversion to study of every description. The transition, too, from their former studies, the animated perusal of the Greek and Roman classics, to the dry unfathomable depths of Logic and Metaphysics, was by far too abrupt. The know- ledge of facts,-^-of the particular objects from which the abstract conceptions of the Meta- physician are drawn,-— was still wanting. A tran- sition so great and so sudden is, in truth, directly 32 CHANGE OF METHOD IN THE FIRST CLASS OF PHILOSOPHY. 33 opposed to the progress of natural culture, in the development of the human Faculties, as well as to the established modes of improving the under- standing, and of communicating instruction, in every other department of knowledge. In what other Science or Art, it may be asked, are the more difficult parts made use of, as an intro- duction to those other parts which are more easily acquired and understood? Another disadvantage connected with the an- cient Logic and Metaphysics, as this study was formerly conducted in our Universities, arose from the circumstance, that, as it was wholly directed to the improvement of those particular Faculties which are employed in Acts of Reason- ing, Comparison and Inference, it had an immedi- ate tendency to produce an irregular and partial development of the mental Energies, and to dis- turb that due balance and connexion which is established among them by nature. It seems not to have occurred to the Scholastic philosopher, that the intellectual powers of man can only be successfully cultivated by a system of dis- cipline which applies to the whole; for that, as these powers grow up together, in the closest connexion and affinity, so, in their progress to- wards perfection, they affiDrd to one another an increased degree of strength and mutual assist- ance. The Faculty of Memory, for example, is improved by whatever tends to produce habits of attention; and the Faculty of Combination and Inference is rendered more certain and vigorous in its operations, by the previous culture of those in- ferior powers of Intellect, whose office it is to ob- serve, to define, and to arrange the materials of knowledge, than it could be done by any arti- ficial rules, applied directly to that Faculty itself. The truth of these remarks is sufficiently illustrated by the effiscts which were actually produced, and by the distinguishing cast of character which pre- vailed, in the times under review. During the Scholastic ages, when the art of Logic was culti- vated with unremitting and assiduous attention, the faculty of Reasoning was found to be improved only in one mode of application; while the powers of Taste, of Eloquence, and of Composition, were nearly altogether neglected, throughout the whole course of education, whether at School or College. And Mr. Stewart, in his Elements of Philosophy, has very satisfactorily shown, upon the authority of unquestionable facts, that men may become expert reasoners, with regard to a particular class of ob- jects or ideas, without any general improvement of the faculty of Reason. But the great object of a first Philosophy class should be to supply the means of Cultivation, not to one Faculty only, but, to a certain extent at least, to all the powers of Intellect and Taste; to call them severally into action ; to present appro- priate subjects for their exercise; to watch over :1 i S4» CHANGE OF METHOD IN THE FIRST CLASS OF PHILOSOPHY. 35 their movements, and direct their expanding ener- gies; so as to maintain them in that just relation to each other, and to secure that reciprocal aid, in their progressive improvement, which seems pomt- ed out to us by the order of nature itself. For Youth, destined to fill various and very different situations in life, the course of instruction ought not certainly to be limited to the narrow range of Logic and Metaphysics, but, on the contrary, should be made to comprehend the Elements of those other branches of Knowledge, upon which the investigation of Science, and the successful des- patch of Business, are found chiefly to depend. Thus, we seldom find that those who are most celebrated, whether for Learning, or for Eloquence, or for skill in the practical business of life, avail themselves, on any momentous occasion, of the abstract reasonings of Logic, or of the subtleties of the Metaphysician ; while, on the other hand, they are constantly observed both fortifying their Arguments and adorning their Language, with the knowledge which they have drawn from History, Morals, Jurisprudence, and Politics. This part of the subject must not, however, be brought to a close, without remarking, that the objections which have now been made, do not so much apply to the art of Logic itself, as to the imprudent and very unseasonable introduction of it, as the principal business and field of study, in- to a first Philosophy class. After students have made some progress in the science of Physics, and in the doctrines of Ethics; that is, after they have acquired some knowledge of Facts and Principles ; this abstract mode of reasoning may occasionally be applied with considerable advantage ; and, at all events, affords no unsuitable exercise to the mind. It should always be remembered, too, that the im- proper use which the Scholastic Philosophers, as well as some other teachers of more modern days, have made of the Dialectics of Aristotle, as an in- strument for initiating young persons into their Philosophical studies, is by no means to be attri- buted to the Inventor of the Art. It never was his intention that his speculations should be em- ployed for such a purpose. The absurdity in question is altogether attributable to later times; and the views have already been explained, which induced the patrons of Education, in the dark ages, to introduce these subjects into that particular part of the Academical course which they have so long occupied; and, being once fairly established, they have kept their place in spite of the progress of Science, the prevailing conviction of their utter inutility, and the ridicule which has been directed against those who have adhered, with such per- tinacious bigotry, to the practice of their Ances-^ tors. 36 SUBJECTS OF THE LECTURES IN THE FIRST CLASS OF PHILOSOPHY. 37 ON THE SUBJECTS OF THE LECTURES WHICH HAVE BEEN SUBSTITUTED FOB THE ANCIENT LOGIC AND METAPHYSICS, IN THE FIRST CLASS OF PHILOSOPHY. The system of instruction, now long established in the first class of Philosophy in this University, consists of two parts: the first, comprehending a course of lectures delivered daily, throughout the whole term, on such subjects as seem best suited to the Age, Habits, and actual Attainments of the students; the second comprising a daily examina- tion of the young men, on the subjects discussed in the lectures, accompanied with prescribing, read- ing, and correcting a progressive course of Themes or Exercises, founded chiefly on the Lectures, and executed by every individual in the class. The de- tails of this latter division of the business will be set forth, at considerable length, in a subsequent part of this volume.— I shall, therefore, at present, proceed to mention the subjects upon which the Lectures are composed; the sources whence they are drawn; and, in one word, the nature, the ex- tent, and the particular character of that species of knowledge which is daily communicated to the students, as materials for thinking, and as the foundation of their further progress in Science or general Literature. The term Lecture, it may be proper to remark, has a peculiar, and somewhat restricted, meaning in the Scotch Universities. The common accepta- tion of this word is extremely loose and indefinite, extending to the explanation or illustration of ob- scure passages in ancient authors, and to general Criticism on their Beauties, or Defects; and, thus, the Tutor in an English College is said to give a Lecture, when, in translating the classics with his pupils, he occasionally removes difficulties, and points out, as he goes along, whatever may require their particular attention. But a Lecture, as appli- cable to the practice of the Scotch Universities, may be described as either an Analytic or Synthetic ex- position of some literary or philosophical subject, drawn up in rather an expanded and popular form, and interspersed with copious illustrations, to assist the comprehension of the younger students. I here use the terms analytic and synthetic in their com- mon, and not in their strict Geometrical meaning, as descriptive of the two different paths or tracks which the mind pursues, in the acquisition and communication of knowledge ; that is, either when it collects particular facts, which lead to more gen- eral facts and principles, where such facts or prin- ciples can be obtained; or when, being in posses- sion of general principles, it applies them to the explanation of such particular cases as may fall under them. In Academical Lectures, these two methods of investigation are sometimes separated, but much more frequently combined; according to the nature of the subject under discussion, and to the particular object which the Teacher may happen to have in view. 1-, 38 SUBJECTS OF THE LECTURES IN THE FIRST CLASS OF PHILOSOPHY. 39 if A Professor, accordingly, in composing Lectures to be delivered to young persons, must be sup- posed to have studied the several branches of knowledge which he teaches, with a reference to this particular end; to have selected and adapted every topic which he introduces into them, with a strict regard to the capacity, and previous ac quirements, of his pupils, as well as to the precise point to which he proposes to conduct them, in their progress through Science. He ipust be sup- posed to have read and thought for his students, nearly as they might be imagined to read and think on the subjects which he is about to com- municate to them; not, indeed, that he may there- by do their work for them, but that, on the con- trary, he may occupy their time and their industry, with the most important, the most suitable, and, consequently, the most useful Studies. In the pro- secution of these objects, it ought to be the aim of the teacher, in every part of his Lectures, to lay before his students, at the proper time, those particular Elements of Knowledge with which they ought to be first acquainted; to facilitate their progress towards more recondite subjects of enquiry; to prevent all unnecessary labour; to ob- viate all perplexity; to assist all their endeavours; and gradually to lead them into those paths which will guide them, with ease and certainty, to still higher degrees of Scientific Attainment Such, I conceive, is the meaning of the word Lecture, in the Scotch Colleges. In addition, however, to what has now been stated, the Professor will occa- sionally find it useful to comprehend, in his Ele- mentary discourses, particularly when his subject naturally suggests them, such Literary incidents or anecdotes as may, at once, seem calculated to ex- tend information, and to create a lively interest in the minds of the Students; for, in this way, he will render knowledge agreeable, from the manner in which it is conveyed, and highly efficient from the powerful motives which it can hardly fail to inspire. It has been already shown that the Logic and Metaphysics of Aristotle do not furnish suitable materials for a course of Lectures in a first class of Philosophy ; and it may be added, that Antiquity does not present to us any practical system what- ever for initiating the youthful mind in the prin- ciples of Science, which, in these times at least, could be adopted, as the basis of an Academical course. Indeed, after the most candid and diligent survey which we can take of ancient Learning, whether among the Greeks, or among the nations from whom they are supposed to have derived their knowledge, we cannot discover that, with the single exception of Geometry, they possessed any Elementary treatise, or any work on Philosophical education, which would, in the smallest degree, answer our purpose. The Pythagorean system of discipline, for example, so far as we have the means of becoming acquainted with it, was far too speculative, either for acquiring knowledge or 40 SUBJECTS OF THE LECTURES for improving the Mental powers ; and that Mys- tical Philosophy, which required of its disciples so many years of silent contemplation, would not be adapted to modern manners and pursmts, with any prospect of advantage. The Institutes of Per- sian education, mentioned with so much applause by Xenophon, appear chiefly to have been directed to the improvement of the Bodily powers,-Acti. vity, Dexterity, Muscular strength, and the Endur- ance of pain; and, accordingly, do not afford us much assistance, in constructing a system of rules and exercises for cultivating the endowments ot the mind. From the Memorabilia of Socrates, indeed, and particularly from the works of Plato, many valuable hints may be extracted for traming youth to Reflection and Self-command ; but, aU though, in this respect, these writings merit the closest attention, and even contain many fine specimens of that description of reasoning which applies most successfully to the affairs of Lite, they certainly do not exhibit any regular System of Edu- cation, nor even the leading Principles upon which such a system could be formed. In like manner, though much was unquestionably done by the Philosophers of the Portico, the Academy, and the Gardens, in the way of communicating know- ledge on many important subjects, still we are left almost entirely in the dark, as to the mode which these distinguished persons severally adopted, in their processes of instruction. Nor have we received from Roman Philosophy, even m its IN THE FIRST CLASS OF PHILOSOPHY. 41 most enlightened periods, any regular system of public or private Education. The Institutions of Quintilian, no doubt, although drawn up at a late period of that brilliant Era, which sheds so much lustre on the History of Rome, constitute one of the richest gifts which we have had bequeathed to us by former times ; but, as they were origi- nally calculated to assist young men, who were pro- secuting the study of Law, they cannot be consi- dered as possessing all the requisites of a general system of Academical culture. Much advantage may, however, be gained from that celebrated work, both by Teacher and Pupil ; and, on this ac- count, several portions are extracted, and printed, for the use of the Students in the Logic class here- to be occasionally read by them at the hour of Ex- amination, and lectured upon, in the course of that reading, by the Professor; who makes it his business not only to explain the original views of the author, but to accommodate them to the cir- cumstances of the present day, and to the parti- cular object of his Course. In modern times, numerous treatises have been written, both in our own and in foreign languages, on the subject of Education. No one of these works, however, able and judicious as some of them undoubtedly are, deserves to be implicitly followed as a guide, in a matter confessedly so important ; for no one of them comprehends, in its details, the various Topics which ought to beintro- F 42 SUBJECTS OF THE LECTURES IN THE FIRST CLASS OF PHILOSOPHY. 43 M duced in a first class of Philosophy, nor sets forth those still more essential duties of the Teacher, which consist in adapting his instructions to the opening capacity of his Pupils ; in supplying them with constant and suitable employment; and in conducting them gradually from things more easy to things more difficult, in the natural order of the Sciences. The truth, indeed, seems to be, that a Systematic exposition of the different me- thods of teaching, considered merely as an art, rather than as a practical and progressive scheme, for directing the efforts of those who are just entering upon the Study of Philosophy, has oc cupiedthe attention, and exhausted the ingenuity, of the more eminent among the writers to whom I have now alluded. There appears to be still wanting a regular Elementary system of Academi- cal study; which, uniting Speculation with Prac- tice. Principles and Rules with suitable illustration and exercise, would embrace the means which seem best calculated to call forth and strengthen the intellectual powers of youth. It is of less moment, perhaps, from what branches of Science or of Art the materials of the Lectures, constituting such a system, should be drawn ; provided they be carefully adapted to the actual state of infbr- mation in which the Students, generally speaking, are found, at the commencement of the course, and agreeing in their tendency to create Habits of Diligence, and of independent Exertion. Were it, indeed, the main object of the Professor, in the first class of Philosophy, to expound the doctrines of Logic, or of any other Art or Science, there can be no doubt that his Lectures ought to be re- stricted to that particular end ; and the shortest and clearest explanation, which he could devise, would best serve his purpose. But, as that is only a very subordinate part of his aim, and, as his lead- ing object is not so much to convey Information, as to stimulate Industry, and cultivate the natural abilities of his Pupils, he justly considers himself at liberty to make choice of his materials from the wide range of the Sciences and Arts, and as bound by no other rule, in the use of them, than that of making them all bear, more or less directly, upon the point which he wishes to accomplish. Indeed, there is even a particular advantage gained by selecting the Materials of the Lectures, delivered in a first class of Philosophy, from dif- ferent branches of the Sciences and Arts. The variety of subjects, thus introduced into the course, is more likely to attract the attention of young persons of different Dispositions, Talents, and Ha- bits, than if the lectures were of a more Systematic and homogeneous character. Some may be capti- vated with the Philosophy of Mind, and others may feel a greater interest in the department of Taste»in the theory of Language, and in the rules of Criti- cism; and, when the command of attention is once secured, and habits of application once thoroughly formed, it is comparatively easy to transfer them 44, SUBJECTS OV THE LECTURES ft„„,o.e,u.Jece.a„otW. Besides, ho. variou, soever the subjects may be, which constitute the ground-work of such Lectures, it is always under- stood that they should be connected, not only by the general aim of the Teacher, but by the relations which subsist among themselves ; and, above all, that they should be so arranged as to conduct the Student, step by step, as weU through the more limited field of knowledge with which he is to be made actually acquainted, as into the more exten. sive range which leads to greater attainments. The method'of teaching by Geometrical Demonstra- tion is, without doubt, the most perfect of aU modes of communicating Science ; and, in propor- tion as the principles of that method are adhered to, in constructing a scheme of Elementary edu- cation, so much more complete and successful will it be found in practice. With regard to the Selection of materials here presented to the reader, as the subject of Lectures deUvered in the Logic Class, at Glasgow, it is by no means pretended that it is the best, or the most appropriate, that could have been devised. Many valuable additions and changes might pro- bably be suggested ; and yet, imperfect and defi- cient as it may appear, it has been found by ex- perience to answer at least some of the important purposes of a first course of Philosophical educa. tion. It is conducted upon Principles, too, which, combining Elementary Instruction with Active IN THE FIRST CLASS OF PHILOSOPHY. 45 Habits on the part of the Student, seem to be strongly recommended by the most intelligent Philosophers, both of Ancient and Modern times. ** Neque est omnino," says Cicero, "ars uUa, in qua «* omnia, quae ilia arte efBci possunt, a Doctori tra- « dantur, sed qui primarum et certarum rerum ge- " nera ipsa dedicerunt, reliqua non incommode « per sequuntur." De Oratore.—'' Qiiinipsis docto- « ribus hoc esse curae velim, ut teneras adhuc « mentes, more nutricum, molUus alant, et satiari " velut quodam jucundioris disciplina^ lacte pati- « antur.'' Quinct. lib. 2. cap. 4.—" The business « of Education," observes Mr. Locke, " is not, « as I think, to perfect the Learner in any of the « Sciences, but to give his mind that freedom and « disposition, and those Habits which may enable '' him to attain every part of knowledge, himself." The views which I have of Education, and which I endeavour to put in practice in the first Philosophy Class, concur most perfectly with the sentiments, now expressed, of these great and enlightened minds* It is somewhat difficult, in giving a prospectus of the business of the Logic Class, to draw the line between detailing too much and too little,— between a tedious explanation of common sub- jects, and a mere Skeleton of Contents. But it must ever be remembered, that these Essays were not written with the view of extending the Bound- aries of those Sciences from which the Lectures ii 46 ON THE SCIENCE are taken ; on the contrary, they are solely in- tended for the use of young men entering upon the Studies of a first Philosophy Class, and, pos- sibly to afford some assistance, in the way of ac- quiring Knowledge, by their own exertions, to those who have not enjoyed the benefit of a Public Education. ON THE SCIENCE OF THE HUMAN MIND. After the objections which have been stated to the ancient Analytics and Metaphysics, as an in- troduction to the study of Philosophy, it may be thought a little inconsistent to adopt, as the sub- ject of the first division of Lectures in the Logic Class, the very abstruse and difficult doctrines which respect the Science of Mind. If, indeed, it w^ere proposed to engage the Students, upon this their first entrance into the threshold of Phi- losophy, in the Abstract Speculations which have been so long agitated by ingenious men, on the nature of Mind, generally considered ; on its Es- sence, as separated from its various Properties ; on the characteristic difference between Mind and Matter, as Metaphysical substances; or in any other of the innumerable questions which have been start- ed, in relation to the reciprocal Action and Influ- ence of these constituent parts of the Human being, the charge of Inconsistency would certainly be well founded. But none of these Speculations OF THE HUMAN MIND. 47 form any part of this branch of the Lectures. The study of Mind, as well as that of Matter, has its plain and simple Elements; placed within the reach of those who are only beginning to acquire the Rudiments of Knowledge, and founded upon that acquaintance, which every one possesses, even in early life, with the operations of his own Faculties in the Perception and Discrimination of the ob- jects which surround him. In this Science, too, as in every other which proceeds upon regular Principles, the attention of the Student is confined at first to simple views, and particular facts; and it is only upon these, when properly ascertained and classified, that he afterwards advances, by successive and connected steps, to general Conclusions, or general Laws, with regard to the several Qualities and Operations of Mind. To the Elements of this Science, therefore, I have recourse, on the present occasion, as the Mother Science^ so to call it, from which all others derive at once their origin and nourishment. Thus, Logic, Metaphysics, Ethics, Jurisprudence, Law, and Eloquence, have their common origin in Mind; whilst, in all the branches of Natural Phi- losophy, the powers of Intellect are the instruments, by which Knowledge must be acquired. However much these Sciences may diverge from one an- 4S ON THE SCIENCE other, in their more advanced stages, and in the practical applications to which they lead, there can be no doubt that they are closely allied in their origin; that they have common Principles and a common Language; and, consequently, that an intimate acquaintance with the Phenomena of Mind must form a suitable introduction to the study of every branch of human knowledge. The Mind of Man, then, when first presented to the inquiries of the Student, may be described as that which, in Human Beings, thinks, and feels, and wills, and is conscious of its Actions or Operations. But, as it is necessary that he should know his subject, not only as a whole, but as consisting of parts capable of Analysis, so far at least as to an- swer the purposes of a more minute examination, it becomes requisite that the several Faculties which manifest themselves in its different states of Thought and Feeling, should be placed before him, and separately explained, agreeably to some consistent Theory. The Powers or Faculties of the Human Mind, therefore, may perhaps be divided, and arranged, under the following heads ; which division, although including more particulars than maybequite compatible with the Simplicity aimed at by some Modern Authors, seems to me, upon the whole, better calculated than a more restricted Analysis, to effect the object which I have in view. OF THE HUMAN MIND. 49 1st, The Powers of acquiring and preserving Knowledge. 2d, The Powers of Sensation. 3d, The Powers of Volition. 4th, The Powers of Communication. It is the first of these divisions to which the at- tention of the Students in this Class is particularly directed — to the powers of Perception, Reflection, Memory, Association, Imagination — to the pro- cesses of Abstraction, Generalization, Judging, and Reasoning. These Powers are classed together as having for their common Object the Acquisition of Knowledge J and they are named according to the particular oflSce which each performs, in the complicated Mental Process by which that acquisi- tion is made. Thus Perception is that particular Energy or Modification of Mind, by which Notions are acquired; Memory is that by which they are retained; and Judgment is that by which they are compared and discriminated : and, without this Di^ vision and Nomenclature, as applied to the Facul- ties of the Human Being, I see not how the study of Mind could possibly be carried on, or upon what ground it could be ranked amongst the Sciences. The Analysis, accordingly, which is in- stituted in this department of the Lectures, res- pects the several Modifications of Mental Power mentioned above — their Operations, their Offices and Objects — their Connection, and intimate De- pendence upon one another. 50 ON THE SCIENCE OF THE HUMAN MTND. 51 In conducting this Process, it ought not to be regarded as a matter of indifference with what part, or quaUty of the subject, the Analysis begins. There is a certain order established by Nature which will prove the best guide to the young Philosopher, in following out his investigations; and to which, indeed, the Mind is inured by its earliest habits of inquiry, whether in the depart- ment of Art or of Physical Science. In examining a tree, for example, the Mind naturally passes from the trunk to the branches, the leaves, the flowers and the fruit; and, in the Analysis of a Watch, or Steam Engine, the process commences with the source of Motion, and advances, through a series of connected powers, till it arrives at the Result or ultimate Effect. Similar connexions or dependencies may be traced among the Faculties of the Human Mind ; and, in this case, as in all others, the Student is most likely to attain success by a faithful adherence to those simple Rules, which are dictated by the natural Order and Con- nexion of the several parts of his subject. It has, perhaps, arisen from the application of a defective Analysis, that Authors of Eminence, even in the present improved state of Philosophy, are found to use the various Terms, which denote the Faculties of the Human Mind, in meanings so extremely different. Ever since the time of Aris- totle. Philosophers have attempted to found a Dis- tinction of the Mental Powers upon the peculiar nature of their several operations; and yet, sounsuc- cessful have all their endeavours, to effect this pur- pose, hitherto been, that Writers, at no distant pe- riod, have disputedwhether Ideas were not a distinct Substance, per se^ different both from the Faculty of Perception, and from the Object perceived. One Philosopher has maintained, too, that Percep- tion and Judgment are precisely the same Facul- ty; and an eminent Modern Author of this country has attempted to identify the two important Fa- culties of Conception and Imagination. One class of writers, again, have described the Powers of Taste, and of Moral Approbation, as Internal Senses, innate and infallible; whilst others persist in considering them as nothing more than Modifi- cations of Intellectual Energy, subject to the influ- ences of Education, of Fashion, and Caprice. Surely, if the Analytical Investigations of Pneu- matologists had been skillfully conducted, the Science of Mind, after the exertion of so much Talent and Industry, during nearly Three Thousand Years, would not be found incumbered with the numerous Imperfections and Deficiencies, which still adhere to it. The Astronomer has ascertained the true Principles of the Solar System, given names to the Stars, and traced the paths of Co- mets; but the Metaphysician has not yet succeeded in even defining the Limits of his Inquiries, or in opening up a path for his successors to tread in, by an intelligible Division of his Subject. ,7 I (•I 52 ON THE SCIENCE OF THE HUMAN MIND. 53 m til *i Some part of this want of success may, perhaps, be attributed to the Neglect or Contempt which has been manifested, particularly in our own days, for all researches connected with the Science of Mind; at least for that department of it which is called Pneumatology. We have been told, for instance, that the mere giving of Names to the Faculties of the Mind cannot serve any good purpose, nor make us better acquainted with these Faculties themselves. Will a person, it has been asked, perceive, remember, or reason better, by being informed that he has a distinct Faculty of Perception, another of Memory, and a third of Reason ? It would be improper to answer these objections at any length, in this place; it will, therefore, be sufficient to observe, in passing, that the mere giving of Names, does not constitute the study of Mental operations; and, moreover, that it would be impossible to proceed one step, in the explanation of the most common Phenomena of Intellect, and Feeling, far less in employing the appropriate Means for Cultivating these original endowments, without previously dis- tinguishing the several Powers of the Human Mind, by the application of suitable terms. As these Essays are intended to point out the Manner in which the Faculties of the Mind may be explained, in a course of Lectures addressed to young men who have just entered a first class of Philosophy, I shall find it necessary to hazard an Example of the Method which has long been pursued, for that purpose, in this University. It is not requisite, however, in such a Work as this, to give an exact Transcript of the Lectures which are actually read to the Students in the Logic Class; for, in the circumstances in which they are delivered, they necessarily com- prehend many Illustrations and Repetitions, that would be thought insufferably tedious, by those to whom such subjects are familiar. The Reader will, therefore, be prepared to meet with a plain- ness and familiarity of address, not to be expected in Lectures composed for the Literary world, or even for Students of advanced years and acquire- ments. I begin, then, by remarking that the particular Modification of Mental Power which is the sub- ject of the Analysis now to be entered upon, is cal- led Perception — that faculty, whose Office it is to open up the first Communication between Mind and Matter. In beginning the Analysis of each Mental Faculty, I have found it useful to present it to the minds of youth, by a general Description of its Object and Operations ; and, afterwards, to di- rect their attention, successively, to the several Modes in which it puts forth its power, in different cases and circumstances: and, in particular, to con- duct the Explanation, in such a Manner, as to appeal from the description of the Faculty, thus given, to the consciousness of my Pupils; and to refer 54 ON THE SCIENCE OF THE HUMAN MIND. 35 i them, from the Theoretical view of its Operation, to the actual Feelings or Notions excited in their own minds. According to this view '' Perception is that Power or Faculty of the Human Mind, by tlie Operation of which we receive Notions, Ideas, Sensations, from the Qualities of external ob- jects, by the means of certain Impressions, or Effects, upon the Organs of Sense, when the Attention of the Mind accompanies the Direc- tion of these Organs to the particular Object before them." cc n a u I have here called Perception a Mental Power or Faculty. It is impossible to proceed one step in this Analysis, without leading the Student to form a Notion of Power, — or rather, putting him in the way of acquiring the only Notion of it which he can ever expect to attain. The first notion of Power, it is obvious, is derived from observing the Changes which are made, or the Ef- fects which are produced, by one External Object upon another, as well as by these Objects upon the Mind through the Medium of the Senses. Thus, the Child long perceives these Effects, with- out acquiring any notion of Power distinct from the Object, itself, which operates the particular Change which it perceives; and it is not until the Mind has become a little more matured, and has been furnished with Experience, that the young observer learns to draw Inferences, and to form general Conclusions. For those who are farther advanced, there is little difficulty in adapting such Illustrations as will enable the inquiring Mind to perceive the Connexion, or Relation which sub- sists between cause and effect. Suppose to be plac- ed before them, a Needle at rest upon a Table, and a Magnet lying within a certain Distance of it ; Motion instantly commences in the Needle ,and it rushes to the Magnet, in opposition to the laws of Gravity ; here a Change is perceived ; an Effect is produced ; the two objects are conjoined. The Needle is again placed at rest upon the Table — the Magnet is removed, and a piece of common Stone is substituted — the Needle now remains at rest. A question then naturally occurs to the Student — what is it in the Magnet which produces the Motion of the Needle ? It must be something which does not meet the Senses j it must be something which is not perceived ; for it is nei- ther in the Weight, nor in the Shape, nor in the Colour of the substance that this singular Energy resides. To that unperceived Property in the Magnet — to that unknown something — the term power is applied; and, when we speak of it, in re- lation to the Effect, we call it the Caicse of the Motion which appeared in the Needle. By a similar Process, we arrive at a similar Conclusion with respect to the changes of Motion and Di- rection, in the several Members of the Body, arising from an act of Volition. We are conscious of an exercise of that Faculty, and we observe. SG ON THE SCIENCE at the same instant, that a change, connected with the body, has taken place. We are likewise conscious of certain Acts of Volition directing the motions of the Mind ; in all which cases, the Act of Volition and the corresponding change are conjoined so closely that they naturally force themselves upon our observation, and remain as- sociated, ever after, in the particular relation of Cause and Effect. We observe the Change in- deed—but we observe nothing more. We see a Fact, in particular Circumstances, resulting as a Consequent from an Antecedent ; but, of the Cause, considered Metaphysically, we can form no Notion whatever. " Vis est notissima— Causa latet." Nor is it at all singular that, while we are able to form clear and distinct Notions of an Effect, we should find it impossible to penetrate into the Nature and Mode of Operation of the Cause, from which that effect proceeds. We have a vivid perception, for instance, of the Effects which spring from the Union of Mind and Body, in the'Human Constitution ; and yet we cannot form the most distant conception of the Principle upon which that union is founded. Indeed, our purest and correctest Notions of Power are derived from Mind. A Billiard ball, for example, is at rest upon a Table :— a Mace is made to come in Contact with that ball, which is instantly put in Motion ; and, in this case, although it is the Hand which moves the Mace, the Source of Mo- OF THE HUMAN MIND. 57 tion is in the Mind, which, by an act of Volition, stretches forth the bodily Organ. By attending to these, and similar examples, the Student will be assisted in forming the Abstract Notion of power. The terms Power and Faculty, as applied to Mind, it may be observed, have nearly the same radical meaning. The former, however, is of a more extensive import than the latter, and may be used in relation to Material as well as Mental objects. Thus, we say of a Stone that it has the Power, not the Faculty, of Gravitation ; whilst, on the contrary, in reference to the Understand- ing and Volition of the Human mind, the term Faculty has a much more suitable application than the term Power. As a proper use of words is of the utmost consequence for preserving our notions clear and distinct, it may be farther ob- served, with regard to the Terms now under con- sideration, that there are in the Soul of Man cer- tain Energies or Active Principles, to which neither the one nor the other will properly apply; and, accordingly, that, though we speak of the Faculty or Power of Memory, of Judgment, or of Reason, we do not employ such expressions as the Faculty of Desire, or, the Power of Hatred. It is said above, that, by the Faculty of Percep- tion, the mind acquires or receives Sensations, Ideas, Notions, &c. In going over with the Stu- H 58 ON THE SCIENCE i: dent the several parts of this general Description, it naturally occurs to remark, that the Term oc- quire merely denotes a certain Operation by which the mind becomes possessed of something which it had not before; and that this and other Analogi- cal expressions, are used in the explanation of Mental Phenomena, only from the imperfection of Language, and from the difficulty of substitut- ing, in their place, any Forms of speech which would prove more definite and intelligible. Beginning, then, with the first in order. Sensa- tions may be described as Effects, or Changes, of which we are conscious ; and which are produced in the Mind by certain Impressions on the Bodily organs. According to Mr. Locke, all Changes of wh tever kind or degree, made upon the Mind, directly or indirectly, through the medium of the External Senses, are to be called Sensations; for, says he, " all our Ideas are either Ideas of Sensation or of Reflection." There is, however, an obvious distinction applicable to our Sensations, founded on the different degrees of Pleasure or of Pain with which they are accompanied, or ra- ther, perhaps, in which they consist. The Odour of a Rose, tor example, produces on the mmd of the Percipient an effect so different from the Colour of a Board or the Coldness of an Iron Bar, that these sensations ought certainly to be dis- criminated, and classed under separate heads. In like manner, the sensations of Pain from the OP THE HUMAN MIND. 59 Gout, are very different from the ordinary sen- sations of Touch ; and so with regard to all the Senses, and their respective Objects. On this Topic, it is farther observed, that while Perception always implies a greater or smaller degree of Knowledge, in relation to the Subject upon which it is exercised. Sensation conveys no knowledge whatever of its Cause ; being confined, in its intima- tions, to the different degrees of Intensity in which the various secondary qualities of Body may happen to subsist, in particular Substances. The knowledge derived from Perception of the Material world around us, is expressed by the se- veral terms o{ ideas, of notions, of thoughts, repre- sentative of certain Objects, with their Qualities and concomitants. The term Idea, coming from the Greek verb iSsiy, properly signifies a Thought representative of such objects as have been per- ceived by the sense of Sight; and it is solely owing to the Poverty of Language that it is trans- ferred to the first degrees of Knowledge, received by means of all the other Senses; and, farther still, to those Primary notions, or Elements of Ab- stract thought, which compose Trains of argument and Chains of reasoning, in the mind of the Philo- sopher or the Statesman. This Term, however, having been applied by certain writers to express the Conceptions which are formed of genera and species, — and having been restricted by others to signify that Image of External objects which was n I I 60 ON THE SCIENCE OF THE HUMAN MIND. 61 supposed to be conveyed into the mind, during the process of Perception, and constituting a Spe- cific Substance, distinct at once from the outward object which it represented, and from the Sense rium of the Percipient into which it was introduc ed,— the word notion has, in latter times, been very generally substituted in its place, as being originally of a wider import, and much more free from ambiguity. Of the Qualities of External objects, made known by Perception, some are Secondary, and others are Primary ; a distinction which is to be found in the works of Ancient Philosophers. Ihe latter, it is well known, comprehend Sohdity and Extension,-properties which were deemed es- sential to the existence of Matter, and insepar- able from it : under the former are classed the more numerous attributes of Colour, Smell, Taste, Sound, Roughness, Smoothness, Heat and Cold. Were it not that every thing which can tend, even in the smallest degree, to Clearness of Conception, and to a proper use of Language, is important m the commencement of a Philosophical Education, it would not, perhaps, be deserving of remark, that, although we may apply the words attribute, quality, and properti/, almost indiscriminately to every Species or Class of objects, yet the first of these terms is more commonly used, when speak- ing of Dignified objects and persons. Thus, m re- ference to the Supreme Being, we employ the term attributes, and not qualities, or properties. In the same simple mode of instruction, the attention of the Student is directed, when on the subject of Perception, to the important dis- tinction established by Philosophers, between the Qualities and the Substance of External objects. A stone, to take a very famiHar example, is hard, and heavy, and rough, and cold; and these are some of the Qualities of the stone; but the in- quisitive youth will naturally ask, whether there be any thing in the stone, besides its qualities, in- capable of Change, and essential to its Subsis- tence, as a Portion of Matter? The answer given to such inquiries will guide his mind in forming the Abstract Notion of substance. He will be told that there is, in the stone, something besides its Sensible Properties, and altogether different from them — the Basis or substratum upon which these properties rest — the Principle of Union by which these properties are combined and held together, and which, unlike them, can sufl^er neither Increase nor Diminution— being the Characteristic Arrangement of its Essence, so to speak, w^hich forms the ground of distinction be- tween a piece of Stone, of Metal, and of Wood. This principle of union, or substance, is not, it- self, an object of perception ; on the contrary, we infer its existence, by an Act of Reason, from the qualities which inhere in it, but we remain entire- ly ignorant of its Nature, when considered apart. As to the History of Perception, or, as some 62 ON THE SCIENCE OF THE HUMAN MIND. 63 have expressed it, the generation of Ideas, it can only be remarked, that the Process commences with the Impression which is made by any ex- ternal object upon the Organs of Sense;— those parts of the Human Body which are wonderfully fitted for opening a Communication between the Mind and the Material world in which it is placed. To each of these External organs is as- signed its peculiar part in maintaining this com- munication ; for they are all adapted to receive certain Impressions from the Qualities of Material objects, and to convey to the mind their respec- tive Sensations of Sound, of Colour, of Smell, of Taste, of Hardness, Softness, Extension, Heat, Cold, &c. That Sensations are produced by the impres- sions made upon the Senses by the Qualities of External objects, is a fact which admits not of doubt or controversy; but, as to the particular Na- ture of the change effected in the Organ, in the Nerves, or in the Brain, by the Secondary qualities of Matter, in the process which constitutes Sen- sation, we have no clearer knowledge than if we ourselves were not the subject of that Mysterious operation. We borrow the word impression, as is usual with the Pneumatologist in other cases, from the most familiar actions of ordinary life. A Seal is said to make an Impression upon melt- ed Wax : a Hammer is said to make an impres- sion upon heated Iron ; and the effects of Colour upon the Eye, or of Sound upon the Ear, were imagined to bear some analogy to the effect which one external object produces upon another. But the youthful Student is cautioned not to con- found the Literal with the Analogical Acceptation of this Term ; which, when applied to Mind, car- ries a meaning totally different from a change in the Collocation of Parts, or a new Arrangement of Surface. Though both the organ of sense, and the external object corresponding to it, be strictly Material, no effect of a Sensible or Phy- sical nature is produced upon the former in the Act of perception : and a thousand succeeding impressions may be made upon the same organ, without altering its Anatomical structure, or leaving any traces of the Archetype of any one of the countless ideas which have been thereby formed. The term Impression, therefore, in the department of Mental Science, merely denotes an unknown Effect ; which Effect, however, is ab- solutely essential ♦ to the grand result — the Per- ception of objects and the Formation of thought In our endeavours to comprehend the Mode in which impressions are produced on the organs of sense, particularly on those of Touch and of Taste, we are stopped short at the very first step j whilst, from our more intimate knowledge of the organic Structure of the Eye and Ear, as well as of certain properties of Light and Sound, we are enabled to proceed at least one step p t 64 ON THE SCIENCE OF THE HUMAN MIND* 65 farther. The Science of Optics informs us that the Rays of Light, in passing from an object to the eye are subjected to Reflection and Refraction, in such a manner, that, when they reach the Re- tina, or back part of that organ, a Picture in Mmia- ture of the object whence they proceed, is there- in completely formed; somewhat in the same way as Reflected Rays are concentrated in a Concave Mirror. Still, although we can trace the process of Perception thus far, we continue as much in the dark as ever, with regard to the Nature ot the Connexion, and the precise point of union, between Matter and Mind. We cannot even as- sign any reason why the Faculty of Perception, in the case of Visible objects, should requure the intervention of an Optical Image ; while, with re- spect to all the other senses, the mind perceives, immediately and directly, whenever the several organs are addressed by their appropriate Attn- butes in the Material world. That the presence of an external object is indispensable, both to the Existence of Sensation, and to the Conception of the mind, in forming the Elements of Thought, is a point clearly ascertained ; but beyond this we cannot advance : an impenetrable Veil is drawn over the wonders that follow, which, in our pre- sent state of being, we shaU never be able to re- move. There is no ground, however, to be sur- prised that we should encounter such an obstacle in our search after Causes, when approaching the farthest boundaries which divide Matter from Mind ; it is only requisite, in communicating Ele- mentary instruction to Youth, to draw as exact a line as possible between the known and the unknown ; between what is certain and what is only probable. In conducting this Analysis of Perception, no- thing should be omitted that may tend, in any degree, to awaken Curiosity, to excite Interest, and to confirm habits of Attention and Inquiry, in the minds of Youth. At this stage, the zeal- ous Student, who has now, perhaps for the first time, been informed of some of the Facts just men- tioned, relative to the Senses, will, in all proba- bility, be disposed to prosecute his inquiries still farther, with regard to the interesting Organ of Sight. Why is it, he will ask, that the Visible ob- ject is perceived erect ; whilst the Picture of that object, in the eye, is inverted? and how does it happen that we see only one Object, there being a distinct Image formed in each Retina ? Upon what Principle is the fact explained, that the mind measures distance by the Eye, although dis- tance is not an object of sight ; and in what man- ner do the senses of Sight and of Touch afford as- sistance, and occasion improvement, the one to the other ? These questions, indeed, cannot be satisfactorily answered ; but the Investigations and Reasonings, to which they lead, will prove highly advantageous to the young Philosopher. He will find that the curious Facts, which stimulate his 1 66 ON THE SCIENCE OF THE HUMAN MIND. 67 research, must be traced back to that early Edu^ cation which is conducted, not by the skill of a Professor, but by the wisdom of that great Teach- er who put a Spirit in man, and taught him more than the beasts of the field and the fowls of hea» ven. He will discover that the most valuable part of our Education is begun at an earlier date than we are ready to imagine ; and that, whilst, according to our hasty conclusions, children are acquiring nothing, they are, in fact, busily employed in the Acquisition of those important Habits, on which all future Instruction is founded, and which could not be so successfully formed at any after period. To the general account which has now been given of the Faculty of Perception, is subjoined, in the Lectures, a separate Explanation of each of the external Senses— or rather— of the different Modifications of Perception which are connected with the Functions of the different Senses. In this detail, an attempt is made to characterize these modifications, by stating the Source whence they are derived, the Objects to which they bear a Reference, • and the external organs through which the respective Sensations are conveyed. The attention of the Student is directed first to the Material process in Sensation, so far as that process can be traced ; then, to the sensation it- self, as an object of the Mind's consciousness ; and lastly, to the Comparison and Determination in- 5 stituted by the Judgment, by which the Sensation is raised to the rank of an Idea, or Notion, or Thought, and becomes a complete Perception. This Analysis, too, is concluded with an attempt to lead, by easy steps, the minds of the Youth to the Solution of two Questions connected with the external Senses, and deeply involved in Me- taphysical perplexity ;— first, whether the Senses ever deceive us,— and, secondly, whether there be any other proof of the Externality of the ob- jects of Sense, than that intuitive Belief which accompanies the Act of Perception ? After the external Senses, I proceed, in a similar manner, to the explanation of the other powers of Knowledge,— viz. Attention, Reflection, Consciousness, Memory, Imagination, Association; advancing, in due order, to the Analysis of the more complex processes of Abstraction, General- ization, Judging, Reasoning, and Invention. The principal object, and one which is constantly kept in view, in the Lectures on these Faculties, is to distinguish them from one another, by point- ing out their respective Operations and Offices— to state their mutual Connexion and Dependance— and to illustrate the manner in which they assist and invigorate one another. To render this Ele- mentary instruction more efficacious and intelli- gible, the Student is invited to cultivate an in- timate acquaintance with his own mind; to in-r stitute a Comparison between the Explanation of )« gg ON THE SCIENCE, &C. every Faculty, as given in the Lectures, and the actual Operations of it, as recorded by h.s own consciousness, when directed to its proper object: and, above all, to form Clear Notions, and to use a well defined Language, in his reasonings, and discussions, on the several subjects which con- stitute the Basis of Mental Philosophy. Such an Analysis of the Powers of the Mind as has now been described, comprehending the appropriate operations of the Intellectual Powers, in their simple or combined processes-the Gene- ration and Formation of Ideas-the manner of Expressing them-the modes of Combination and Deduction, is the only proper foundation of Rules for Conducting the Mind in the search of Know- ledge, or of Communicating it clearly and distinct- ly to others. The frequent and constant com- plaints of a Defective Logic have chiefly arisen from the want of sufficient Knowledge of the Principles on which such Rules are estabhshed. I conclude this head with observing, that such Exercises of Mental Powers as these Lectures en- courage and tequire-while they tend to instruct, and to increase our Knowledge, leave their traces behind, in strengthening and confirming theiHabits which bear on the Powers of acquiring and com- municating Knowledge. They serve this purpose much more effectually than Rules or Precepts directly prescribed for the improvement of them. ON THE PROGRESS OF LANGUAGE, &C. 69 4 ON THE ORIGIN AND PROGRESS OF LANGUAGE, ANP THE PRINCIPLES OF GENERAL GRAMMAR. These Subjects constitute the Materials of the second division of Lectures read in the first Class of Philosophy; and no Inquiry, certainly, regarded as a medium through which to study the Powers of Mind, can be more suitable than that which respects the Origin and. Structure of those Exter- nal Signs which are used to denote the various operations of the Mental Faculties with which it is our object to become acquainted. No subject can be more closely connected with another than Notions and Sensations are with the external signs which represent them : — the latter yield a sensible Representation of the former. In the former divi- sion of the Lectures, the attention of the Student was directed immediately to the Intellectual Fa- culties themselves, and their several Offices and Relations; but, as he must have found it extremely difficult to form a just Conception of their Nature from a mere Description of their Object, or even to keep his attention alive to a detail of Mental processess, abstractedly considered, he is furnished, in the present Section, with the means of knowing these Faculties, and their respective Modes of ope- ration, from seeing them represented, by external Symbols, in the Formation and Uses of Language. Independently of the advantage now stated, there is, perhaps, no other subject at once so easily ac- 70 ON THE PROGRESS OF LAKGUAGE, commodated to the Understandings of the young, and so closely connected with every other branch of Science and of Art, as the study of Language and General Grammar. The difficulty of forming a System of Artificial Signs, whereby men might communicate to one another their various thoughts and feelings, has appeared to some Philosophers so very great, as to exceed the utmost efforts of Human Ingenuity. They«have, accordingly, ascribed the Origin of Language to the immediate interposition of Hea- ven ; and, endeavouring to support this opinion by the authority of Divine Revelation, they re- mind us that Adam gave names to the numerous tribes of animals wiiich were made to pass before him in the Garden of Eden. But this Inspired Language, it may be observed, in reply, must have been solely adapted to the limited circumstances, in which the First Man was placed ; and could not exceed, in the amount of its Terms, the number of objects to which Names were to be given. Indeed, an Unwritten Language must necessarily be re- stricted, in point of copiousness, to the few words, whether denoting Things, or the Relations of things, which may be necessary to express the simple Conceptions of the people who employ it; and, whatever might have been the nature and extent of the original language now alluded to, -we know that, at a future period, owing to the wickedness and presumption of mankind, it was AND THE PRINCIPLES OF GRAMMAR. 71 entirely lost ; and that, consequently, the Human Being was reduced to the necessity of inventino-, anew, the art of Communication, upon the strength of that Sagacity and of those Resources, which were originally furnished to him, in the Constitu- tion of his Nature. Thus, it should seem, that the power of Forming Language, like the Faculty of Reason, and those other Endowments which are engrafted upon our Mental Frame, was committed to the industry of man to bring it into Use, and adapt it to his purpose, according as his know- ledge of the things around him became more ex- tended and refined. And, in the wide field of human Discoveries and Improvement, there is not, perhaps, one Invention which aflTords a stronger proof of the natural Ingenuity of our Race: for the art of embodying their Thoughts and Feelings, in Sensible Signs, must have made considerable progress, at a very early period, and before the use of other arts could have adorned the intercourse of Society. In his rudest and most uncultivated state, the Language of Man is of the same kind with that of the Inferior Animals; differing only in the greater degree of perfection which arises from the higher and more noble Faculties possessed by the former : and, on this account, the Collection of Signs, audil ble and visible, by means of which Communica- tion is then carried on, is denominated Natural Language—being those particular Manifestations 72 ON THE PROGRESS OF LANGUAGE, of Want, of Desire, or of Intention which man is prompted, by the constitution of his nature to make, and also to understand when made by others. In attempting, however, to trace the progress of this wonderful Art, we are necessarily unprovided with any regular History of its origin, and of the Steps by which it ad- vanced, as the Invention of Writing was long pos, leriortothe use of Articulate Sounds ; and also because great advancement must have been made in it, before the attention of Mankind could be directed to an Analysis of those particular Work- ingsoftheir Minds, upon which the origm and structure of Speech are found chiefly to depend. Nor can any assistance in our Researches, be deriv- ed from examining into the Formation even of such Languages as appear the most Original. Their Aniogies are too perfect, and their general structure too complete, to serve the P^rpose of leading us back to those First Essays, and Rude Be- mnnink of Verbal Intercourse ; when men spake from their Feelings rather than from their Reason, and gave utterance to Ardent Emotion rather than to Profound Reflection. We are left, therefore in this research, to note the various Resources which Necessity would create, in the first instance, and afterwards to guide our opinions by the know- ledge which we possess of the Laws of Association, according as that powerful principle would modify the exertions of the Human mind in the Forma- tion of an Artificial and Conventional Language. AND THE PRINCIPLES OF GRAMMAR. 73 The Student will best form a notion of the Manner in which men communicate by Natural Signs, by supposing two Solitary Savages to meet together for the First Time. After mutual sur- prise, they would perceive their Likeness, in many respects, to each other; and each would conclude that the other was constituted with Similar Powers, possessing a similar Principle of Life and Motion, and affected in a similar way by the same Objects. The one, prompted by a powerful sensation of Hunger or of Fear, would be understood by the other, who, in like circum- stances, had experienced Similar Sensations. If the object or cause of such sensations and emo- tions were present, it would be easy to make Signs, - whereby to point them out: if these objects were not present, an attempt would be made to indicate them, by imitating certain Sounds, Cries, Motions, or Actions, peculiar to them, or in some degree descriptive of them: and, lastly, if it were neces- sary to make a Communication respecting things that are not objects of Sense, — an Inference of the Understanding, for example, or a Senti- ment of the Heart, — the natural sagacity of the Human Mind would suggest some Analogy be- tween these Impressions and the Qualities of Sen- sible Objects, by which they might be represented to the Imagination, and conveyed to the feelings of the Auditor. Such are the Elements of the Language of Na- K 74 ON THE PROGRESS OF LEARNING, ture— an Instrument originally calculated for denoting and describing those Objects which ad- dress themselves immediately to the External Senses, or which are closely connected with the several Sensations which are made through the Medium of these Senses; and which, of conse- quence, could alone fully answer the purposes of Communication, when Intercourse among men was nearly confined to Outward and Sensible ob- lects. It is very obvious, however, that this mode of communication would be gradually extended and improved, in proportion as Society enlarged, and the Number of objects and ideas mcreased; and, being ourselves in possession of a more per- . feet System of Language, we cannot easily be brought to comprehend to what a degree of Per- fection the former is capable of being carried. Some notion of it, indeed, may be formed by at- tending to the progress of Natural Language m Children— to the language of Dumb Persons— to the art of Pantomime, as practised both in Ancient and Modern times— and to the modes of conduct- ing Traffic among Rude Nations unacquamted with one another's Language. These subjects afford instructive, and, at the same time, very amusmg Materials for Lectures, at this Stage of the course. They lead the mind of the Student to the history of Remote Times, and supply him with interestmg views of Human Nature in its progress towards Civilization. A Contest, for instance, is recorded to have taken place between Cicero and the fa- I AND THE PRINCIPLES OF GRAMMAR. 75 mous actor Roscius. The actor challenged Cicero to give him a Sentiment which he could not express by significant Gestures. Cicero ac- cepted the Challenge, and gave him a subject; — a Passage, it is probable, selected from one of his animated Orations. Roscius expressed the mean- ing to Cicero's satisfaction. The latter then made some Change in the sentiment, and varied the Tone of Passion; whilst the former, with great fa- cility, accommodated his Natural Language to the several changes thus introduced. Still, it will be readily admitted, that the mode of Communication now alluded to, was, in many respects, essentially defective; and it was the Perception of its defects, and the increasing Necessity for a more perfect System of Signs, which, in process of time, gave birth to the most surprising and useful of all hu- man inventions, an Artificial Language; consisting of sounds having scarcely any Connexion with the Things signified. This eflbrt of ingenuity, too, ap- pears still more astonishing, when it is considered that the Principal Steps which led to its establish- ment were taken in those periods of Society which are usually thought Rude and Ignorant: and, in- deed, it is a remarkable Fact, that no Nation, how- ever uncivilized, has been found altogether desti- tute of a Spoken Language. ^t has been already remarked that, from the very nature of the Case, and owing to the want of early documents, which, perhaps, w^ere once in existence, 76 ON THE PROGRESS OF LEARNING, we are unable to trace the' History of Human Speech . Still, it will prove of some advantage to the Student, if any Assistance can be given him in tracing or in marking the probable Steps by which the Inventors and Improvers of Language were conducted, in their departure from the language of Natural Signs, to that of an Artificial Notation. During the existence of Natural Language, as the sole Vehicle of Communication, it would be found, that, of all the Classes of Natural Signs, Uiose by the Voice were capable of the greatest Distmct- ness and Variety. Vocal Intonations, too, are, in some respects, the most Natural Expression of Feeling; and the application of Sounds to denote External Objects, would be much promoted by the principles of Association and Imitation, which would lead men to use, as the Names of things, the particular sounds which any of these objects respectivelv emit. Thus, every one has had an opportunity of observing the disposition in Children to call the Dog, the Cat, Birds, and other domes- tic Animals, by names resembling the several sounds which these animals utter. Many Analogies and Relations would, in like manner, be observed between Sounds and objects not animated. Their Loudness, their Lowness, their Softness, their Hardness, their Quickness, and their Slowness, would all be associated with objects possessing qualities of a similar character. In the early pe- riods of Language, in fact, Men are unacquainted AND THE PRINCIPLES OF GRAMMAR. 77 with words altogether Arbitrary. Prompted by Ne- cessity, aided by the Powers of Imagination and Association, in discovering Analogous Sounds, and guided by Reason in the Application of them, their number of Imitative Vocables would, in due time, become so great as to form the Basis of a Regular Language. The Sounds first made use of in Primi- tive Languages, it is therefore very probable, repre- sented a whole Action or Event; the same Terms denoting at once the principal Occurrence, and the several Circumstances connected with it: and, as the words in the Iroquoise and other Rude Lan- guages are, in general, very long, it is not unlikely that these Tongues have not arrived at that Stage of Improvement, when the Parts of Speech are broken down into smaller Fragments, expressing, separately, the various ideas which enter into the conception of a complex Object or Event. In following out this subject, I find it useful to bring into view certain Questions which have been agitated by writers, in relation to the Topics under consideration; as having a strong tendency to awaken Interest and Attention in the minds of my Pupils. The following may be given as a Speci- men. " How do men learn to appropriate Artificial " Signs as the Names of Things before the Connec- " tion between the two Ideas has been confirmed by " Association ? How came the sounds Horse — " House — Cow — at first to represent objects with " which they have no natural Connexion or Resem- 78 ON THE PROGRESS OF LEARNING, « blance?" — It is answered — By the Aid of Natural Language. The Sound is uttered, and a Look or Gesture indicates the objects to which it is to be applied. Repeated efforts of this kind must, no doubt, be made, before the Power of Association can perform its office without the Directing Sign ; but no sooner does Experience form the Connect- ing Link, than Natural Language ceases to be ne- cessary. In tliis respect, the Language of Nature serves as a handmaid to the language of Art; stepping in to give assistance whenever it is ne- cessary, and retiring from view when assistance is no longer required. This Connexion, or Alli- ance, may be traced even where Artificial Lan- guage has reached its ordinary degree of perfec- tion. When a person, for example, finds that he cannot clearly convey his Conception of a Visible object by Words, he naturally attempts it by a Draught or Outline of his Subject; and on all oc- casions, much force may be added to Verbal Ex- pression by means of Natural Language; of which the Range and Power are much more extensive than can ever be acquired by mere Artificial Signs. Indeed, the Perfection of Spoken Language con- sists in a happy Union of the two. Again, it is asked, in what Manner, and by what Steps, do Mental, or Intellectual Objects,— Thoughts, and Trains of Reasoning, and Conclu- sions of the Understanding, — come to be repre- sented by Artificial Signs ? The Answer is easy. AND THE PRINCIPLES OF GRAMMAR. 79 and the Ground upon which it rests is fully ex- plained in the Lectures. In one word, it may be said, that the Language of the Senses is the Foundation of the Language of Mind. The Signs which represent Sensible Objects, are applied figuratively to Mental Phenomena; and, from an Analogy more or less remote, the Terms used to describe the Qualities, and mark the Relations of the former, are transferred to express our Notions relative to the Latter. Thus, a person is as well understood when he speaks of the Extent, Com- prehension, Depth, and Acuteness of the Mind, as when he applies the same words to Material Objects possessing these Sensible Qualities. Cold, Soft, Hard, applied to the heart; Agitations, Storms, Tempests, denoting States of Mind, are all Terms first applied to objects of Sense, and after- wards, from some fancied resemblance, or Analogy, transferred to the Feelings and Passions. The word Above, Below, Before, Behind, on the Right Hand, and on the Left, are as intelh'gible, when applied to Mental relations, as in their Pri- mary Application to those which are Sensible and Local. After adverting to these and similiar Questions, I conclude this branch of the subject with two General Remarks applicable to what has been now advanced, viz. that, in whatever Country, and at whatever Period, the departure from Natural Lan- guage, and the progress towards that of Conven- ^jJI^ 80 ON THE PROGRESS OF LEARNING, tion, took place, that progress must have been slow and gradual. It is not to be supposed that any Nation, feeling the Defects of their existing Lan- guage, would assemble together, and adopt a ge- neral Resolution to depart at once from their former mode of Communicating with one another, and to adopt an entire New System of Artificial Signs. The slightest attention to the Principles of the Human Mind, and to the History of Society, will satisfy us that such a Measure is impossible. Men do not invent Signs until they find the Want of them; and then only gradually, and as their Necessities require. Secondly, In our endeavours to trace the origin and progress of Artificial Language, it must not be forgotten, that, in this, as in every other Art, many important and very difficult Steps have been gained, not in the ordinary Course of things, but by the Invention and Sagacity of Men of superior Genius, whose attention may have been particular- ly directed to this subject. It is the natural province of Genius, when conversant with the Arts, to remove Obstacles, to supply Resources, and to practise methods above the reach of ordi- nary Abilities; and, in the Early Stages of the great art of forming andusing a Conventional Language, there can be no doubt that many Individuals, more ardent and successful than others, would occasionally arise ; though the Barren History of those Times has not preserved the particular Names, to which Mankind are so much mdebted. ORIGIN AND PROGRESS OF LANGUAGE. 81 ON THE ORIGIN AND PROGRESS OF WRITTEN LANGUAGE. A Spoken Language, by addressing itself to the Ear, is necessarily confined within certain Limits, can be heard only at a certain Distance, and depends for its preservation, entirely upon the Memory. Many Circumstances, too, must have occurred even in the early progress of Society, when Languages Avere forming, which would require a System of Signs not only more perma- nent than Spoken Words, but such as might be used in facilitating intercourse between absent friends, and in conveying intelligence from one place to another. The desire of Communication with persons at a Distance, and of preserving the remembrance of distinguished Characters and remarkable Events, would lead, in the course of a little time, to the invention of Symbols ; which, addressing the Mind through the Eye instead of the Ear, might be used for transmitting a know- ledge of Facts to the remotest Corners of the Earth, and for preserving the Thoughts of those who had been dead a Thousand Years. :f The art of Embodying Language in Visible Signs would be, without doubt, considerably Posterior to that which respects the use of mere Vocal Sounds: and, accordingly, we have accounts of many Nations who are ignorant of the Art of Writ- I 82 ON THE ORIGIN AND PROGRESS ing; butr as has been already remarked, of none who are not in the possession of a Spoken Lan- guase. The following are probably some of tlie Steps which were taken, in laying the Foundation of the wonderful Improvement now under Review. The First, and indeed the most obvious Device for representing a Visible Object would be to draw an Outline of the whole Figure; and the Next step, in the Progress, would consist m an Abridgement of this outUne, by fixing on some Characteristic Parts, and leaving out the Rest— the Head of a Man, for example, instead of the Entire Body. When, again, it became necessary to represent Invisible objects, the intention ot the Rude Artist would most probably be fulfilled by using emblems, founded on some Analogy, or Allusion, to objects of Sense ; and the Minuter Parts of the information, the peculiar Circum- stances attending the Event, or Fact, concerning which intelligence was to be communicated, would be expressed by multiplied Variations or Additions on the Original Draught. These Views as to the Origin of Writing, are, in some measure, confirmed by authentic Records— by the narra- tive of a Voyage to the Straits of Magellan— by the History of the Conquest of Mexico and Peru ^and, particularly, by an Iroquoise History of an Expedition made by the French, when they possessed Canada, from Montreal, against a re- mote Tribe of Indians. This curious Document was, many years ago, brought to Europe j and 3 OF WRITTEN LANGUAGE. 83 consists of Tablets, wherein is given, by means of a Drawing in Outline, and of Emblem, an ac- count of the Time when the Expedition set out from Montreal — of their March — of their Arrival at the Indian village — of the Attack — the num- ber of Killed and Wounded, &c. See " Traite de la Formation Mechanique de Langues." The Imperfection and Obscurity of the Hiero- glyphic mode of Writing, which would necessarily increase with the Progress of Knowledge, and the utter Impossibility of ever accommodating it to the manifold purposes of an extensive Communication, suggested, it is probable, to some happy Genius, the most valuable of all Improvements in the Art of embodying thought in Visible Signs — the Me- thod of writing by Alphabetical Notation. This astonishing Invention, it is well known, proceeds upon an Analysis of the various Sounds employed in Human Speech, and upon a Discrimination of the principal Elements into which they are reduc- ed, by means of distinct Visible Characters. As soon as the Attention was directed to this View of the subject, it would naturally enough occur to the mind of an Ingenious Man, that, as the same Sounds are frequently repeated in Vocal Enunciation, the whole Elementary Sounds of a Language, even when arrived at considerable Perfection, might be represented by a Limited Number of Marks or Let- ters: and, in this way, was constructed that Sys- tem of Characters, denoting at once the Simple 84 ON THE ORIGIN AND PROGRESS Sounds of Spoken Language, and the component parts of Written Language, to which has been given the name of Alphabet. As, too, the Prin- cipal Elementary Sounds depend almost entirely upon the Conformation of the Organs of Speech, this Discovery could be easily adapted to all thj Tongues and Modes of Utterance in use among men ; and, as the same Alphabet suits the Lan- guage of ancient Rome, and those of Modern Europe, so might there be the same Uniformity among the Greeks and all the Nations of the East.— In the Lectures delivered on this Subject, the method of conducting an analysis of Vocal Sounds is explained at length, and illustrated by Examples. It is extremely probable, that Mankind owe this noble Invention to the Genius or Industry of one Individual; and yet no Memorial of the Inventor is to be found ; no Account of the Country in which he lived; nor even of the particular Epoch in the History of the World in which he accomplished this great Achievement. On no occasion is the Philosopher more disposed to lament the Defi- ciency of Ancient History, and the very imperfect and deceitful notices which are furnished by Tra- dition. This Division of the Lectures is concluded with some account of General Grammar ; or, in other words, of the Principles upon which Philosophical OF WRITTEN LANGUAGE. 85 Grammarians have attempted to discriminate and classify the component parts of Human Speech, wliether Written or Spoken. As men have every- where the same Powers of Mind; as the Intellec- tual Faculties manifest, in every Tribe of Human Beings, the same general Character, and perform the same Operations according to their several degrees of improvement or perfection; and, as the people of every Climate have nearly the same Feelings to express, and the same Objects to name, it was to be expected, that a Common Basis, and a great Similarity of Structure, would be found in all Languages. They all necessarily agree in Substance; differing only in External Form, and in what may be called their Minor Accidents. Thus, every person, acquainted with more than one Language, must have perceived, that, in all, there are the same Classes of Signs, the same Re- lations, and the same Functions among the Words which compose them. The Order in which General Grammar is treat- ed of, in the Lectures, is given in a printed Sylla- bus of these Lectures, which is put into the hands of the Students. 1st, An Account is given of the different Classes of Signs, and of what constitutes a different Part of Speech.— 2d, Of the Changes on the Termination of some of the Classes of Signs, made with the View of accommodating them to the purposes of Communication.— 3d, Of the Princi- ples which regulate the Position or Collocation of hi 86 ON THE ORIGIN AND PROGRESS Words in the Formation of Sentences; according to what may be denominated, the Natural— the Artificial— or the Rational principle of Arrange, ment. But, as it would be improper to enlarge on these subjects here, suffice it to say, that the principal writers on General Grammar have been carefully consulted, for the express purpose ot Extracting from them such Materials as might seem best adapted for giving a distinct account of the Origin, the Progress, and Formation ot Lan- guage; for explaining the Connexion which sub- sists between the several Classes of Words and certain Operations of the Mind; and, lastly, for affording such a degree of .knowledge to the common Source and Affinities of Human Speech, as will constitute the best Foundation for an inti- mate acquaintance with any Particular Language, which it might, at any time, be necessary to study. Finally, on this head, the subjects of this Division are peculiarly calculated to promote the General End of these Lectures; namely, the Improvement of the Powers of Acquiring and Communicating Knowledge; for they afford suitable Means of en- couraging Thought and Reflection in young per- sons. A happy Illustration of the Origin and Pro- gress of Artificial Signs, may be obtained by watch- ing the Beginning and Progress of them in Children. The Student can extend his observations to the Condition of Children, before they know the use of Artificial Signs, when all their Communication OF WRITTEN LANGUAGE. 87 is by Natural Language. They may perceive how the Association begins — and how it is strengthen- ed — the Steps by which they pass from Natural to Artificial signs — from signs that first denote Sensible Objects, and are afterwards transferred by Analogy to those that are Intellectual and Spiritual — and, finally, the Principles which lead them to join words together in Sentences, to ex- press a Complete and Continued Thought. In this way, it must be allowed that Mental Experiments may be gone through. Trials may be made to dis- cover the natural Workings and Tendencies of the Mind, in the Efforts it makes to Communicate by External Signs. Thus instructed, the Student can raise his thoughts a Step Higher, and direct his At- tention to the State of Early Nations and Tribes, and the progress of Language among them. He will find a constant Relation between the Progress of Reason and that of Language. Where the Lan- guage is Imperfect and Defective, the people who speak it will be found Rude and Uncivilized : and, wherever a Language is found Improved and Perfect, there the people have arrived at high degrees of Science and of Civihzation. These subjects invite Attention from young per- sons, and enable them to read the Books which treat of them with Curiosity and Interest. 88 ON THE ELEMENTS OF INTELLECTUAL CULTURE. 89 ON THE ELEMENTS OF INTELLECTUAL CULTURE. The object which was kept in view, in the Lee- lures of the Former Division, was to enable the Student to form clear and distinct notions with respect to the Number and Offices of the In- tellectual Powers, or Powers of acquiring Know- ledcre— and also, with respect to their Mutual De- penllence and Co-operation, in the several Proces- ses of Sensation, Perception, and Reasoning. I am now to explain, in a similar manner, the Means whereby these Powers may be Improved, whether in pointof Acuteness, Strength, or Voluntary Direc- tion; thafis, by which they may be brought to dis- charge their Several Offices, with the Greatest Readiness and Success. As there is not any where to be found a Com- plete System of Intellectual Culture, from which Materials for Lectures, in this Department, might be collected; and, as the Rules and Principles, according to which the Improvement of the Higher Faculties of the Mind is actually carried on, have not, as yet, assumed the Regular Form of an Art; it becomes necessary for him who conducts this Important Branch of Public Education, to Select and Arrange, from a Great Variety of Authors; who, both in our Own and in Foreign Countries, have written at great length on the Philosophy of Mind, though without any Direct View to the Cultivation of its Power. The various means, then, for unfolding the In- tellectual Faculties of the Human Being, from their First or Original State, 'to their Highest Pitch of Improvement, may be brought under these Two Heads — the Education of Nature, and the Education of Art — the First comprehending those which are Provided by the Constitution of the Mind itself, for exercising and Strengthening its Native Energies; The Second embracing such Methods as are employed by Parents and Instruc- tors, in the Season of Youth, or which the individ- ual himself may Apply, when he becomes Qualifi- ed to understand the Nature and Object of Men- tal Culture. It is, perhaps, impossible to Define the Exact Limits which divide these two Sources of Improvement, or to point out precisely where the Former Ends and the Latter Begins; for, by the Secret Operation of the Laws of our Nature, many important Steps are gained before we are capable of receiving Instruction, or Assistance, from those around us. Of this kind are those Nume- rous Intellectual Habits, of which we cannot ex- plain either the Origin or Progress. We can- not, for example, form any Conception of the Manner in which the Sense of Touch Instructs the Eye to judge of Distances. Nor can we un- derstand those Mysterious Lessons, by which the Mind was first taught to associate External Signs with Notions and Sensations; or those by which it is led to infer the Externality of Material Ob- jects, from the Impressions produced by them on M 90 ON THE ELEMENTS OF INTELLECTUAL CULTURE. 91 4r I III i: I t the Sentient Principle within. These Lessons do not proceed from the Counsels, or Wisdom, ot Man; but are provided for by the Great Author of Nature, in the Constitution which he has given both to the Human Race and to the Organized Matter with which they are surrounded: and, thus, as the Tree, planted in a proper Soil, springs up from the Seed, and reaches Maturity, without the intervention of Care or Labour, so do our Men- tal Powers possess Principles of Inherent Growth and Strength, by which, in due time, they arrive at that degree of Perfection and Vigour to which they are limited upon earth. "Crescit, occulto velut arbor aevo." Ignorant, to the Degree we confessedly are, of the Nature of Mind and of Matter, we shall never be able, in our present state of Existence, to comprehend the precise Character of those Impressions which Material Objects produce, through the Instrumentality of the Senses, upon the Sentient Principle in the Soul of Man. We know, however, that External Circumstances may be more or less favourable to the Expansion of the Intellectual Powers; that, in one Situation, the Progress is more Rapid, and that, in another, it is Slower and more Limited. Thus, suppose an Individual shut up in a Dungeon, from the eariiest period of his life, with the means of receiving support within his reach, but altogether removed from the Impressions of External Objects; his In- tellectual Powers, from want of Exercise, would remain in a Dormant State, weak, and hardly capa- ble of Excitement. But, let the same individual be exposed to the Influence of External Situation ; let him come in Contact with the various objects of Desire and Aversion — of Pain and of Pleasure — of Occupation and Pursuit — which occupy the Regions of Society; in such Circumstances, his Faculties would instantly make a Start forward; he would speedily acquire the Use of Reason and of Language, and gradually form those Habits of Mental and Corporeal Activity, upon which Happiness and Improvement so essentially de- pend. In this division of the Lectures, I endeavour to give a view of the State and Acquirements of Rude Nations, prior to the influence of Systematic Education — of the Intellectual Powers which are unfolded in such a Condition of Society — of the Circumstances Favourable or Unfavourable to their Developement— of the peculiar Talents and Vir- tues which are called forth by their Situation — of the Origin and Progress of their Ideas in rela- tion to Property and Personal Rights — of the Com- mon and more Necessary Arts ; and of their first Approaches to Science and General Knowledge. It is shewn that to this Education of Nature may be traced the Rudiments of those Useful and Sur- prising arts, which are carried to such high De- grees of Perfection in Civilized Society. The i: ti: 92 ON THE ELEMENTS, &C. Ship-of-War, with all her Appurtenances, may be referred to the Indian Canoe— the magnificent Palace, to the Hut or Cottage— and the compli- cated Systems of Modern Government, to the Simple Forms of Authority or Subordmation, which prevailed among the Primitive Tribes of our Race. • An opportunity is thus given of Enlivening the Lectures, by introducting a variety of Notices and Anecdotes, well calculated to make an Im- pression on Youthful Minds ;-to Invigorate their Faculties by the constant Exercise of them ;— to suggest Subjects for future Speculation and En- quiry-and, above all, to supply Materials for Executing the Essays which, agreeably to the plan of Discipline established in this Class, are regularly Prescribed and Exacted. In Selecting these Notices, too, particular Attention is paid to such as will illustrate the Progress of the Human Faculties, under the Education of Nature, whether as it respects Rude Nations, or the Condition of Early Childhood amongst ourselves. Such Subjects are well suited to the Comprehension even of the Youngest Student. His Observation is invited, on all hands, to the Study of Human Nature in every Stage and Degree of Advance- ment. A Child thus becomes an Instructive Companion to the Young Philosopher. He be- holds, in the gradual Opening of the Infant Fa- culties, Propensities, and Desires, the best ON THE EDUCATION OF ART. 93 Natural History of Mind ; he perceives, in the First Play of Imagination, and in the First At- tempts at Reasoning, the Prolusions of those Brilliant Powers, which Charm the World in the Poet, and Instruct it in the Man of Science ON THE EDUCATION OF ART. The Education of Nature is the Basis of that of Art. The Teacher does not Begin the Course of Education, but merely Carries forward that which is already considerably advanced; and, the more closely Artificial Systems follow the Method which is pointed out by Nature, the more likely are they to attain success. But, al- though much is unquestionably done by Nature, there is, notwithstanding, a wide field opened up for the Industry and skill of the Preceptor; for it is a Truth founded upon Philosophy, and con- firmed by Experience, that, as there is one Art for improving the Vegetable Tribes, by which they are frequently brought from Weakness to Strength and Beauty, and another for training the Inferior Animals to Obedience and Usefulness, so is there an Art for Improving and Training the Children of Men, in Mental Vigour, and the most Valuable Acquirements. In Proportion, too, as the Original Powers and Capabilities of the Human Being surpass those of every other Order r I g4 ON THE EDUCATION OF ART. of Created things with which we are conversant in this Lower World ; so will his Progress be greater, in actual Improvement, and the Fruits more Precious which spring from a well directed Culture. Were we to compare a Wild Man- such as was found in the woods of Hanover, in the reign of George I.-with a Monkey, we should no doubt, perceive that the Degree of Reason in the former somewhat exceeded the Portion possessed by the latter. The great Specific Differ- ence, however, between the two Animals, con- sists, not so much in their Actual Condition, as in their respective Capacities of Improvement : for, whilst the one, by Suitable Culture, at a Pro- per Season, might have been taught to Speak— to Read— to Write— to Acquire Art and Science- no Knd or Degree of Culture could have produc ed such Eifects upon the other. The Man might have been improved so as to enter upon the Deepest Calculations, and to follow out the most Intricate Trains of Reasoning; whereas, theMon- key, even under an Enlightened Instructor, would have only continued to Chatter, and to Practise its various Unintellectual Mimickries. The Range of Improvement in the Inferior Animals is very limited ; and, in every Case, begins and ends with the Individual. It is never communicated to the Species. Thus, the Bees on Mount Hyble, at this present day, have neither more Art nor more Industry than those which made Honey on it, in the time of Virgil. Nor do Beavers, in these ON THE EDUCATION OP ART. 95 times, build their Houses more Scientifically nor do Birds make their Nests more Skilfully, than in the Early Ages of the World. But, in the Human Kind, the Species at large Improves, as well as more favoured Individuals : and Man, who once lived in Caves, or on Trees, or amid the Rocks of the Desert, now forms for himself Convenient and even Magnificent Houses to dwell in— builds Ships — makes his way over the pathless Ocean — and mounts up into the Air in Balloons. Without entering at greater length into General Views, and without any reference to the Plans of Mental Culture which are pursued in other Se- minaries, I am now to give some Account of the System of Instruction, acted upon in the First Philosophy Class, in this University; and which consists chiefly in such Exercises of the Intellectual Faculties, and in such Practical Means and Helps, as appear best calculated to call forth the Natural Powers of the Mind— to Engraft upon it a facility of Acting— to invest it with a ready Command of its various Re- sources, and to give full Scope to an Habitual Act of Reasoning. It will not cost much trouble to the Student to peruse the principal Treatises which have ap- peared, on the Art of Intellectual Culture. Pre- vious to the Analytics of Aristotle, no Work on this Subject has come down to us. His Analytics, 96 ON THE EDUCATION OF ART. or Treatise on Logic, suffered no Elementary Change during the Course of near^ wo Thousand vpars till the period of Descartes, auu Bacon when the Treatise on Method by the for- mer a^d the Novum Orgamm by the latter pro- du;d a Revolution in that part of Science. Many • Treatises have appeared on the f t ^f Reasomng- the Art of Thinking-and on the P™ples of In- tellectual Culture,-but they are ch.efly to be le- earded as Commentaries, Abridgements, and U- fustrations. of those Ancient and Modern Works, adapted to the particular View of the Authors. In conducting the Analysis of the Faculties by which we Acquire Knowledge, I began with the Consideration of those which come first m the Order of Nature ; as a Clear Understanding of these leads by easy Steps, to a Certain and Distinct Per- ception of the Rektions and Offices of all the rest. I shaU here follow the same Principle; and con- sider the Effects of Culture, as applied, m the first instance, to those Powers of the Mind upon v^hich the Exercise of the others depend ; or in other words, to tlie Formation of those InteUec - ual Habits, which serve as the Basis of all Excel- lence, in the Higher Departments of Human Pur- suitandAcquirement-Someof our Mental Endow. ^rntrmay be viewed in the light of Handmaids, or Auxiliaries, to the others ; but their Iniport^n^.^ in the System is not to be measured by their apparent Dignity ; and he that would secure the ON THE FACULTY OF ATTENTION. 97 successful Exertion of the whole must begin with the Improvement of those which seem in- ferior. Indeed, the order of Intellectual Proce- dure requires that the means of Culture should be applied, in the outset, to those Faculties from the Operations of which our first Notions and Judg- ments are formed, and, afterwards, to those which are employed in the more Complex Functions of Comparison, Deduction, and Invention ; and, as that particular Faculty by which the Mind di- rects her various Energies, and acquires the Know- ledge of all the other Faculties, ought, in this re- spect, to take Precedence of every other, as the Subject of Culture, we shall therefore begin with the Power of Attention. ON THE IMPROVEMENT OF THE FACULTY OF ATTENTION. In the General Analysis already given of the Powers of Knowledge, that of Attention was par- ticularly described; and the import of certain Terms, denoting different degrees of Intensity in its operation, was minutely explained. Thus, Observation, Reflection, Meditation, may be re- garded, as far at least as Attention is considered, as being the same Intellectual Act, modified only by the particular Circumstances which determine the Preference, or degree of Interest, which N gg ON THE IMPROVEMENT the Mind feels for the several Objects of its In- auky I state, then, explicitly, that, by the fSv of Attention, I mean the Inte lectua Cer of Notice, whether directed to External o'ects, or to Objects of Consciousn^.-and. by the Habit of Attention, 1 mean a Facil ty ana R adh,ess in exerting that Power, acquned as all other Habits are, by frequent repet.Uon of its p cuHar Act. But I am -- -^-7^!^^;^^ filing Instructions as to the Means ot Acquir- Sg the Voluntary Direction of this most imj^r- tent Faculty, than with regard to the particular Words in which its Office may be defined, or its Speratons described; for, though Attention j vSy frequently Summoned, and even Commanded. I7l-Pressi0.>s seizing the Mind from Without there can be no doubt that it is susceptible of Sea' Improvement, both as to the Intensity of £ Action, and, more particularly, as to the Ready Usf which can be made of it by the other Fa- culties. Indeed, it would be extremely difficult to explain the Means of Cultivating the Intellec- tual Powers of Perception. Memory, Imagination, of Judging, and Reasoning, without a constant Retencf to the Effects of Attention; and, on Siis account, it may be justly observed, that Se surest way to attain Successin Improving the Former, is to acquire a Voluntary Direction of the Latter. The Art. then, of acquiring the Habit of Atten- a OF THE FACULTY OF ATTENTION. 99 tion can be learned by those only who are willing and desirous to make the Acquisition; and the first Step towards Realizing their wish must con- sist in removing the various Obstacles, Hindrances, and Temptations, which, scattered thickly in the Paths of Youth, would for ever retard their Pro- gress, and defeat their Object. The Diligent Stu- dent knows well that the Variety and Constant Re- currence of Sensible Objects exert a powerful Influence in distracting his Attention, even when he most endeavours to fix and command its Opera- tion: he will, therefore, in his hours of Study, remove himself as far as possible from the Reach of an Influence so dangerous and seducing; he will quit the "busy Haunts of men;" withdraw to Retirement and Silence, and thus preclude, at least to a certain Extent, those Solicitations which arise from External things. It is known that a Cer- tain Person, engaged in deep Study, was accustom- ed to go to Bed at Mid-day, that he might pre- serve his Mind free from the Distractions to which he would otherwise have been exposed: and the Student, in like manner, will avoid all such Cir- cumstances as would steal away his Attention, or, what is not of less moment, prevent the Stre- nuous and Undivided Application of it. But the Disturbing Causes are not all from With- out: the Student has also Secret Enemies to en- counter from Within, who follow him into the Deepest Solitude. Memory, the faithful Reposi- jQQ ON THE IMPROVEMENT tory of his Past Pains and Pleasures-Imagina- tion, the ready Instrument for Anticipating those v^hich are to come-are ever Actwe in Wahdraw- ing his Attention from the proper Subjects of his Study. To these may be added many hidden Causes of Restlessness, Fretfuhiess, and Impatience, ^hich cannot so easily be brought to Account, and yetharass the Mind, and unfit itfor Exertion. From whatever Source, however, and in whatever Shape the Impediments to Attention spring u^ the Student must endeavour to throw them oft, with Spirit and Determination ; and. if they should not yield to his first EfForts-as it is probable they will not-he must redouble his Exertions, and in- crease his Watchfulness, in order to secure a Ue- cisive Victory; for Success in this Matter becomes less Attainable in proportion to the lime the Con- flict is delayed. The Stream which may be kept within bounds, near its source, gathers Strength as it advances, and may ultimately break down every Opposing Barrier. To this sort of Negative Preparation for Stiidy must be added certain Endeavours, of a more Di- rect Tendency, for acquiring the Command of this valuable Quality of Mind. But nearly the whole that can be comprehended on this Head may be expressed in one general Precept;-"Do every thing with Attention." Let the Student Observe, Eead, Hear, and Compose with Attention-, let him exert Attention in all the Pursuits connected OF THE FACULTY OF ATTENTION. 101 with the Business of the Class, and in all the more General Occupations by which Knowledf. 119 now recommended, as being completely within the reach of Practical Discipline, all proceed on the well known Principle, that the Power of Remi- niscence is enlarged by Strengthening the Bond of Association among the several Parts of our Know- ledge; particularly among those which happen to have a common Basis, or which bear upon a com- mon Object. These Subjects are illustrated at considerable length, and with copious Details, in the Lectures delivered to my Pupils; and this particular To- pic is concluded with an Account of some of the Artificial Methods for Improving the Memorv, which have been adopted both in Ancient and Modern Times: and with an attempt to account for a Peculiarity of Memory not Uncommon, viz. Extraordinary Powers of Retention united with In- feriority of Judgment, in the same Individual. ON THE CULTURE OF THE IMAGINATION. In the Analysis of this Faculty, presented in a former Part of these Outlines, it is stated, that its peculiar Office is to Reproduce to the Mind No- tions and Sensations formerly acquired by the Or- dinary Exercise of the Intellectual Powers; and to render them again the Subject, or the Materials, of other Mental Operations. In this way, the Mind is empowered to Contemplate, Compare, and 220 ON THE CULTURE Select the Ideas of Absent Objects, as if they were actually Present to the Senses; and the Repre- sentations, thus made, might almost be considered as Another Mode of Perception; differmg only in point of Reality, and in the Vividness of the Impression. It is further stated, in the Analysis, that the Operations of this Faculty are General; and extend to the Reproduction of Notions, or Combma- tions of Thought, as well as of Sensible Impres- sions, originally made on the External Organs ;- that it supplies, at once, the appropriate Materials and the Bond of Association, for those Intellectual Processes, which are constantly going on m the Mind;— and that it acts a principal Part in those creations of Fancy which, derived from a umon of Abstraction, Generalization, and Taste, consti- tute Works of Genius in the Fine Arts. The Ima- •gination,indeed,neitherAbstracts,norGenerahzes, nor Selects; but it Reproduces, and supplies Ma- terials for these several Processes, according to the Laws of Association which regulate the Procedure of the Mind, in its Recollections and Combina- tions. , It has been maintained that, as Imagination is the gift of Nature, it cannot be Acquired, or ^en greatly Improved, by any species of Culture. This Opinion, however, it is very evident, must proceed from a Narrow View of its Nature and Offices; just as, in common Language, a Man is said to OF THE IMAGINATION. 121 have no Imagination, who discovers no marks of Poetical Fancy. There are, indeed, it will be readily admitted, Peculiar and very Singular Modi- fications of this Faculty; arising either from Ori- ginal Differences in the Constitution of Mind, or from early Associations afterwards Forgotten, and which cannot, at a more Advanced Period, be pro- duced by the utmost Efforts of Study, how long so- ever continued: and this holds more particularly true with respect to that Variety of Imagination on which Poetic Genius chiefly depends. But, not- withstanding these Facts, it may be Asserted, with- out fear of Contradiction, that, with regard to this Intellectual Power, as with regard to all the other Endowments of Mind, certain Degrees of Improve- ment are within the reach of every Individual who earnestly endeavours to attain it. In truth, the simple Consideration that this Fa- culty, like most others, is in a constant state of Action, necessarily implies the Notion of Culture and Improvement. In very young Persons, too, its Efforts are Weak, and its Combinations Unsteady; but, as the Range of Knowledge Enlarges, and the Number of Ideas is Increased, its growing Power makes itself manifest in the Vivid Reproductions which it places before the Mind, and in the Boldness of its varied Creations. When Philip Planned the Conquest of Greece, or when Scipio and Polybius Anticipated the Destruction of Car- thage, their Imagination must have been Strong Q 122 ON THE CULTURE OF THE IMAGINATION. 123 and Steady Enough to Present, before the Eye of their Minds, Extensive Combinations ot DisUnt Events respecting the relative State and Condi- tion of these Nations and the various Probabilities which fell within their View. Their Imaginat^ns coukl not have Performed for them this Office when they first began the Study of Politics ^ hen Sir Isaac Newton first began the Study of AstTono- my. he would probably find it extremely difficult tocombinethe Revolutions of the Earth andMoon in their Orbits round the Sun; but, in process ot Time, his Imagination would, with the utmost Ease and Steadiness, place before him the whole Solar System, in the order of the relative Distances, Mag- nitudes, and Dependencies of the several Planets which compose it. When the celebrated Mr. Burke, too at the very Time when the greatest part of the learned Men in Europe were rejoicing at the pleasing Prospect opened up by the French Kevol"tion, foresaw the Confusion, Anarchy, and Bloodshed, which followed so hard upon it, his Imagination roust have held up to him a long Tram of Events, linked totate of the Atmosphere to the Recollection of Similar Appearances, on a former occasion, when Rain actually fell — and then, from the fall of Rain, Associated with these Appearances, it goes on to something which was done in Consequence of that Event, on the occa- sion alluded to. In this respect, the Manner of Expressing the Inference Drawn by the Mind, although it does not strictly Coincide with that em- ployed by the Mathematician, impUes the very same Train of Thought ; the only Difference is, that, before he can Pronounce the Line A Equal to the Line B, because both these Lines are Equal to a Third Line C, he must bring forward all the Three Terms, and Incorporate them into Three Separate Propositions, constituting a Regu- lar Syllogism. M 138 ON THE IMPROVEMENT OF THE POWERS In this part of the Lectures, an Abridged Nar- rative is introduced of the Reception given to the Syllocrism in Ancient and Modern Times— the Causes of the Universal Admiration conferred upon it at One Period, and of the Neglect into which it fell at Another— the Discovery of its Im- perfections and Defects; and the Substitution, m its place, of the Inductive Mode of Reasoning- together with some Remarks on Certain Plans ot Reform in the Art of Logic, proposed by some Phi- losophers of the Present Day. These Subjects ad- mit of Useful Detail, and lead to many interesting Anecdotes; and they are Subjoined to this Part of the Course, not only for promoting the Gene- ral Information of the Student, but, more particu- larly, with the View of Encouraging Speculation and Enquiry, and also of supplying him with Suit- able Materials for Conductingthe Practical Portion of his Business, as Assigned to him by the Estab- lished Discipline of this Class. It does not appear, (and itis a Fact worthy of At- tention,) that, at any Period of the Greek Philo- sophy, subsequent to the Age of Aristotle himself, the Syllogism was much used in Reasoning, whe- ther in Physical Science, or hi that of Mind. In- deed, the Term is scarcely to be found in any other Greek Author; whilst the Syllogistic Mode of Argument does not seem to have been employ- ed even by the Philosopher himself, with whose Name it is so closely Associated, in any of his Writ- OF JUDGING AND REASONING. 139 ings, except in the Analytics. An Accident, for- merly mentioned in this Work, which happened to the Manuscripts of Aristotle, soon after his Death, had nearly Buried them in Endless Oblivion. Af- ter this, they fell first into the hands of Theo- phrastus, his immediate Successor, who bequeath- ed them to one Nileus his heir. The latter, proud of possessing such a Treasure, and afraid lest the Precious Deposit should be seized by the King of Pergamus, who, it is said, was then Collecting Manuscripts for the Alexandrian Library, conceal- ed them in a Cellar, at Scepsis, where they lay for more than a Hundred Years. Rescued from this Cellar, after having sustained, as may readily be imagined, no Slight Degree of Damage, they were purchased by a Disciple of the Peripatetic School, and transmitted once more to Athens; where they were Subjected to such a Variety of Corrections, Amendments, and, probably, Interpolations, as have injured them, it is feared, to a still Greater Extent then the Damp Walls of Scepsis. After enjoying an Asylum, during Several Ages, at that Celebrated City, the Aristotelian Manuscripts were carried to Rome, by the Dictator Sylla, the Conqueror of Greece: and to this Event we may ascribe the Rapid Progress which the Peripatetic Doctrines made among the Latin Philosophers, du- ring the Reigns of the First Emperors, and their Subsequent Triumph over the Opinions of Pla- to, so long Admired by the Sages of the Western 140 ON THE IMPROVEMENT OF THE POWERS World, and so much in Unison with the He- roic Character of Romans. It is not proper toneglect thisoccasion of remark- in-r the Strange and Unexpected Vicissitudes in Human Affairs. When the M>S of Aristotle were brought out of the Cellar at Scepsis, where, it is said, they had lain One Hundred and Thirty Years, amidst Dust and Vermin, who would have supposed that tliey would, One Day, Engross the Attention of a Great Part of the Civilized World, become the Principal Study of all Men ot Learning, the Great Object of a Learned Educa- tion, and the Means also of Raising their Author to a Higher Pinnacle of Literary Fame, than any Man, either before or since his Time, iias enjoy- ed, of procuring for him, too, an Absolute Des- potism of Opinion for the space of nearly Two Thousand Years? An Event so Singular, and certainly so unexpected on the part of Aristotle or his immediate Disciples, shows how Imperfect our Knowledge is of the Secret Causes and Combina- lions which Silently, but Certainly, bring about the most Important Revolutions in Human Affairs. The Philosophy of Greece bein^ thus trans- ferred to Rome, it would be a Subject of much Curiosity and Interest to trace the Progress of Opinion among the Inhabitants of the latter, as modified by the Views of their more Enlightened Neighbours. We leai^n, indeed, from an Incident OF JUDGING AND REASONING. 141 mentioned by Cicero, that, in his Time, the Re- putation of Aristotle, as a Pnilosopher, was very lit- tle known in the Capital of Italy. Trebatius a Friend of the Orator, found him one day in his Library; and, observing a Book entitled " De **Locis," asked him who was the Author of it? Cicero answered that one Aristotle, a Greek Philo- sopher, was the Author; and that it was a Book w hich deserved to be better Known. Tliis Anecdote affords a Proof, at once, of the Slow Proorress of Aristotle's Fame, in tht Last Age of the Repub- lic, and also of the Correct Opinion which Cicero, individually, had formed of his C'harac* ter. In the Lectures, an Account is here Introduced of the Various Causes which first di ew the At- tention of the Scholastic Philosophers to the works of Aristotle, and which Contributed so much to Create that Authority for his Opinions, and Veneration for his Character, which, prior to the Revival of Learning in Europe, had raised him almost to the Rank of a Divinity. I mention, too, although in a still more abridged form, the Efforts which were made by some Foreign Philosophers, particularly Ramus, Descartes, and Leibnitz, to introduce into Science a New Method of Investi- gation. In this Retrospect, we find that, in some Countries, and especially in France, it required more than the Strength of Reason, and a Convic- tion of Utility, to pull Down the Syllogistic Fa- fiff I -- ] 42 ON THE IMPIIOVEMENT OF THE POWERS brie which had been so long estabhshed: for the Aristotehans, Conscious oi" Weakness, and per- ceiving, every where around them, Symptoms ot a Rapid" Decline, threw themselves upon the Iro- tection of the State, and were but too Successful in Engaging the Strong Arm of Secular Power, to put Down and Overwhelm their Antagonists. In this Crisis of Affairs, so likely to prove Decisive against the Cause of Philosophy, Boileau. the ce- lebrated Satirical Poet, came forward with the Powerful Weapons of Ridicule and Derision, in Support of Science, Reason, and Common Sense. Whilst the Advocates for the Old School were endeavouring to Secure, in their Interests, the Authority of the Parliament of Pans. Bo.leau published a Mock Petition, in the Name of the Professors and Students of the Universities of that City, Craving an Interdict of the Court against Two Strangers. Reason and Experience who had Endeavoured to Shake off the Yoke of the said Aristotle, and to Banish from the Schools Jus formalities. Entities, Identities. Virtualities. Vel- leities, &c. This Petition, Executed with Infinite Humour, was followed by a favourable Edict, sup- posed to be pronounced by the Court, andexpressed in the formal Style of such Deeds, re-establishing Aristotle in the Full and Peaceable Possession of all his Rights and Privileges in the Schools; and subjecting the Factious Vagabonds. Reason and Experience, to Fine, Imprisonment, &c. &c. OF JUDGING AND REASONING. 143 This Piece of Pleasantry, which was Read by every one, did Material Service to the Cause of Philosophy and Common Sense, and found its way to the Root of those Prejudices which Sober Argument had in vain Endeavoured to Assail. The Doctrines of the Reformers, accordingly, were every where seen gaining ground ; whilst the Props of the Aristotelian System fell, one after another, leaving the Magnificent Fabric to Tumble by its own Weight. The Principal Attack, in Britain, upon the Doc- trines of the Schools, was made by Lord Bacon, so justly celebrated for Ixis Grand and Philosophic Views, and for the Complete Success which has Crowned his Undertaking. This Distinguished Writer far surpassed, in Knowledge and Sagacity, those Continental Philosophers who first lifted their heads against the Ancient Logic; and, ac- cordingly, he succeeded where they had failed, and not only levelled with the ground the Stately Edifice upon which they had commenced the As- sault, but, what was incomparably more difficult, he erected in its stead a Building at once more Noble and more Durable. In this part of the Historical Sketch, of which I now present the mere Outlines, an Attempt is made to communicate to the Students the Train of Thought which occupied the Mind of that great Man, and to point out to them the Cautious ■'I v:" 144 ON THE IMPROVEMENT OF THE PO\rERS and Gradual Steps by which he proceeded from the Beginning to the happy Conclusion of his Mi'^hty Project. They are conducted to the Starting Post, as it were, from which Lord Bacon set out ; they travel along by the Side of the Learned and Judicious Philosopher; they enter into his Secret Resolves and Purposes; and fol- low him, with increasing Interest and Delight, m every subsequent Stage of his Progress, and through every Scene of his Manifold Triumphs. No Exercise can be imagined more Conducive to the Improvement of Young Minds. The Gra- dual Disclosure of his Great Plan tends to En- large and to Enlighten their Understandings; his Method of Philosophizing is the Best Example to guide them in Similar Investigations; and the Bri - liant Success which attended his Labours is cal- culated at once to Excite and Encourage them to Prosecute their Studies with Perseverance and Alacrity. It was Natural for such a Mind as that of Lord Bacon, well acquainted not only w.th Ancient Literature, but with the Learning and Philosophy of his own Country, to be deeply struck with the Survey which he had instituted, ot then Origin and Progress. Compared with the actual Condition in which he found them. Irom the Period of the Greek Philosophy, dowii to his own time, he perceived that, instead of Advancing to Higher Degrees of Perfection, the Doctnnes ot OF JUDGING AND REASONING. 145 both Greek and Roman Philosophers had heen corrupted and disfigured by the Ignorance, or Superstition, of every Succeeding Age ; and that even the Ancient Languages themselves were almost entirely lost, or very generally neglected. No Discovery in Science, no Invention in the Arts, and no Addition to the Stock of Economi- cal Knowledge, graced the Annals of that length- ened period. Not satisfied, however, with the general Conviction, arising from these Facts, that the Method of Inquiry followed by the School Philosophers was Radically Defective, he resolv- ed to institute a still more Minute Survey into the actual condition of Science, and of Art, with the View of Ascertaining the Exact Point to which each of them had been carried — to mark their Imperfections, or Inaccuracies— and, above all, to Separate the Things which Philosophers had Explained from those which they had either not attempted to Explain, or had failed in the At- tempt. And to secure, for the future, a great- er share of Success, by establishing a more Ration- al Method of Investigation, he endeavoured to penetrate into the Remotest Sources of Error, and to guard the Student against the Natural Biasses of the Mind, as well as against those which have their Origin in Education, Custom, or Authority. Having ascertained that no Material Progress had been made in any Department of Human 146 ON THE IMPROVEMENT OF THE POWERS Knowledge, during the Lapse of many Centuries —that the Seeds which had sprung up and look- ed so vigorous, in the Philosophical Ages of Greece and Rome, had never arrived at Matu- rity — and being satisfied, at the same time, that this Want of Success did not arise from any De- feet in the Genius, or Talents, of the Scholastic Authors ; (there being, even in their Errors and perverse Mode of Investigation, abundant proofs both of Acutenessand Perseverance;) he concluded that the Unpromising Condition of Science was altogether to be Ascribed to an Unnatural System of Philosophizing, Encouraged by the Spirit, and Temper, and Pursuits, of those Bigotted Times. Fixing, in this manner, upon the Ultimate Cause of the Effect which he had taken into considera- tion, and viewing more closely the Unwieldy In- strument of Inquiry then in general Use, in con- nexion with all its Properties and Imperfections, he boldly pronounced this memorable sentence : That the Ancient Instrument of Science was al- together incapable of Amendment or Improve- ment; that no Partial Helps or Specifics could be of any Use ; and that no Eiibrt of Human Skill could ever render it fit for promoting the Disco- very of Truth, or for furthering Useful Inventions. He found, in short, that Aristotle, in the very First Step which he took in the Formation of the Syllogism, had confined his Method of Reasoning to Abstract and General Truths— that he had set out with a General Proposition, containing in Q OF JUDGING AND REASONING. 147 it, of course, the Particular Truth which was afterwards to be Evolved by the Structure of the Syllogism; and that, consequently, his Instrument of Investigation could never be Applied to the Discovery of Truth, by a Regular Deduction from Facts, from Experience, Analogy, Proba- bility, or Testimony. He maintained that the Natural Access to Science was Obstructed by the very Means appointed for its Cultivation; and that, as Particulars precede Generals, in the Order of Observation and Experience, what was then placed First ought to be placed Last, in the order of Scientific Inquiry. Freed from the Trammels of the Ancient Phi- losophy, and Anticipating, with Steady View, a more Enlightened Condition of Science and of Art, he assured Mankind of complete Success in all their Endeavours, provided they would relin- quish the Absurd System of following out their Inquiries by Means of an Artificial Logic, and adopt the Plain, Natural, Method of Investigation which all Men, except Philosophers, had, at all times, made use of, in their Pursuits of every De- scription. He declared, however, at the same time, that the Natural Method which he recom- mended was altogether Incompatible with the slightest adherence to the Syllogistic Logic, as an Instrument of Science; and that, to render the Reformation Available to the Purposes of Ge- nuine Philosophy, it must be Radical and Com- 148 ON THE BACONIAN METHOD OF INDUCTION. 149 !■; ^ plete. " Frustra expectatur," says he, " Augmen- « turn in Scientiis ex Superinductione Novorum « supra Vetera. Instauratiofaciendaestabimis fun- " damentis, nisi perpetuo circumvehis cum exili et " quasi contemnendo progressu/' He hoped, by the Aid of Experience, founded on Observation, and Guided by Judgment, to change entirely the State of Philosophy, and to teach Mankind one Art which would Minister to the Improvement of all others. ON THE BACONIAN METHOD OF INDUCTION. Although the Method of Prosecuting Philo- sophical Inquiry, by means of Induction, has been generally associated with the name of Bacon, it is not to be understood that he is the Author or Inventor of that Method. No Man ever taught another his first Inductions. It is a Mode of In- ference which the Human Being is prompted to make, by the very Constitution of his Mind; which regul^es his Procedure in the ordinary Affairs of Life; and which would have guided him, with equal Steadiness, in the Department of Science, and general Reasoning, had he been allowed to listen to the Dictates of Nature. It was only in bringing back Man to his Natural, Unsophisticated, Condition, as an Intellectual Creature, that Bacon introduced the Inductive Method into Philosophy- Nor is it to be imagined that Aristotle was igno- rant of Induction, because he did not admit it in- to his Analytics. On the contrary, he exhibits, in many parts of his Multifarious Works, the most satisfactory Evidence that, whilst he employed his leisure in constructing an Artificial System for others, he himself followed the simpler Pro- cess of Nature; and, in his Politics, for example, he endeavours to establish the principles of good Government on an Induction, or, more properly, perhaps, an Enumeration of Particular Facts, drawn from the consideration of certain Forms of Govern- ment which had actually existed. The young Student may require to be inform- ed that a mere enumeration of Facts is to be care- fully distinguished from an Induction. An Infe- rence drawn from an Enumeration can extend no farther than to the Particulars Enumerated; as the sum total in Addition is neither More nor Less than the amount of the Units contained in it. An Induction, on the contrary, always implies the Discovery of a Principle, as well as the Knowledge of particular Facts ; and every Inference grounded upon an Inductive Process is, when technically expressed, the Enunciation of a Law of Nature. It is, in short, a general Truth, derived from the Consideration of common Properties in Individual Facts. In this part of the Lectures, an Analysis is given. 150 ON THE BACONIAN METHOD and fully illustrated, of the Inductive Process ac- cording to the views of Lord Bacon. It sets out upon the Principles, already in some degree ex- plained, viz. that, when we observe, in many Indi- vidual Substances, the same Properties and Powers, we ascribe these Properties and Powers to the whole Class of which the Individuals observed constitute a Part. For instance, it has been found, upon trial, that This, and That, and many Different Bodies, Gravitate to the Earth; hence, it is con- eluded, although Experiments have been made on comparatively very few Members of the numerous Varieties of Substances, that all Bodies gravitate to the Earth. By a similar process, too, upon ob- serving that Lead sinks in Water, and Cork swims on its Surface, we arrive at a Second Induction, or Law of Nature, relative to Gravitation, as be- ing regulated, to a certain extent, by the Specific Weight of the Gravitating Body, compared with the Density of the Medium through which it de- scends. It is, also, upon a Principle strictly analo- gous, although somewhat Different in its Origin, that we believe that the Sun will rise to-morrow, and that the Tides in the Ocean will continue to Ebb and Flow, in all time coming, as they have hitherto Ebbed and Flowed: for, when such Ex- pectations are fulfilled, in an indefinite number of Instances, they are immediately succeeded by complete Assurance, or absolute Certainty found- ed upon a firm Conviction, that the Laws of Na- ture will continue to act, Hereafter, as they have all along acted, since the Beginning of the World, OF INDUCTION. 151 A Description is likewise introduced here of the Cautious and Vigilant Character of the Baco- nian Philosophy — the severe Maxims upon which Experiments are to be conducted — the Number of Trials— the Exact or Imperfect Similarity of Cases — and, above all, the watchful Scrutiny into Contradictory Instances, and False Appearances. A full Account is also given, •in this Part of the Lectures, of what Lord Bacon calls his Ascending and Descending Scaler. By the Former of these Processes, as might be conjectured, the Mind ad- vances from Particulars to the next more General Step, and proceeds again, in the same way, to others still more general ; till, by a Series of pro- gressive Movements, it arrives at the most General Conclusion, or Law of Nature. In the order of the Descending Scale, the Mind sets out in possession of these Laws of Nature, or general Doctrines; and, thereafter, applies them, with the Characteristic Caution and Reserve of the Baconian School, to the Explanation of particular Phenomena. It naturally occurs, at this stage of the Nar- rative, to inform the junior Student, that the Mis- takes into which Men have fallen, in the prosecu- tion of the Inductive Method, are to be ascribed not to this Mode of Reasoning, but to the Reason- ers themselves; and, particularly, to their Neglect of the several Marks whereby a Perfect is to be distinguished from an Imperfect Induction. They have persisted in overlooking minute Differences, 152 ON THE BACONIAN METHOD OF INDUCTION. 153 SI in Cases apparently similar; or they may have drawn a General Conclusion from too Small a number of Instances, seizing upon a Principle not sufficiently established by decisive Experiments. Hence, it has come to pass that more false Theories, and dangerous Notions, have arisen from hasty Inductions, than could ever be imputed to the use of Syllogism. t)mens, Prodigies, Lucky and Unlucky Days, of which we read so much in An- cient History, are all to be traced to hasty Infe- rences, from Pacts not inquired into, or not clear- ly understood; as are also those Mystical Associa- tions which subsist in the Minds of most Men, between the Occurrence of one Event and the Expectation of another; which ages of Knowledge, and the most enlightened Education, have not been able completely to dissolve. Such is the Baconian Instrument of Science, as described in that Author's Works De Augmentis Scientiarum, and Novum Organnm: and no plan of Study, certainly, was ever more fully justified by Success. It is truly surprising how Soon, and how Widely, the Spirit of his Philosophy pervad- ed every Department of Science. The Student of Nature, at once, forsook the Ancient Method of Philosophizing, and eagerly followed the Di- rections of Bacon, in investigatino; the Laws of the Material World. Previous to this Epoch, Natural Philosophers undertook to explain all the Phenomena which presented themselves in the Heavens and the Earth, upon mere Hypothesis and Conjecture; and, when they had succeeded in Moulding these Conjectures into something hke a System, supported by a few plausible Ap- pearances, they imagined that they had penetrat- ed into the inmost Recesses of Nature, and dis- closed her most Secret Contrivances. Descartes, for Example, observing, as he himself inlbrms us] that Chaff is carried round in a Vessel full of Wa- ter, and passively yields to the Fluid in which it is supported, concluded that the Revolution of the Heavenly Bodies, in their Orbits, was a case precisely similar— that they, too, were carried round in a Fluid of a pecuhar Quality:— and, then, as was to be expected from his fertile Ge! nius, he created fir them a Medium wherein they might eternally float, and gave to them a degree of Motion, corresponding to the Times and Pe- riods of their respective Circuits. But, what appears still more wonderful, this most absurd and ridiculous Imagination of Descartes was re- ceived, with Respect and Admiration, by the Philosophers of that Age; and even continued, during no small portion of Time, to divide the Opinions of the Learned, with the Theory of At- traction so admirably unfolded by Newton. As well might we listen to the Conjectures of a Child, relative to the Construction and Equipment of a Man-of-War, as to a Philosopher who was guided solely by his Fancy; and yet this egregious Tri- fling, under the Cloak of Science, which makes us V I lS4f ON THE BACONIAN METHOD Blush so often for the Weakness and Presumption of the Human Race, might have contmued until our own Times, had not a New Method been de- vised of interpreting the Laws of Nature. Among the many happy Effects resulting from the Reform introduced by Lord Bacon, may be mentioned the Encouragement which was thus held out to Men, in every Country, and every Con- dition of Life, to enter upon the Study of Na- ture; and, by Observing, Comparing, and Ke- cording Facts, to contribute their share to the common stock of Knowledge. Philosophy was now brought down to the Level of the most Ur- dinary Abilities, and was Prosecuted according to the Natural Conceptions of Mankind. A New and Easy Path was opened up, in which not only the Learned, but the Studious and Inquisitive in every Rank of Society, might Walk with Safety and Sue cess It was soon after his Time, accordingly, that the Republic of Letters, properly so called, received its Establishment, and was endowed with the true Riches of Genius and Freedom. Socie- ties were formed for the express purpose of Col- lecting and Circulating Knowledge. Kings and Princes encouraged the rising Spirit of Industry and Research. Theory and Experiment, Specula- tion and Practice, went hand in hand; and a reasonable prospect was now entertained ot Unit- ing the Labours and Genius of all the Nations on the face of the Earth, in Promoting the interests OF INDUCTION. 155 cc it of Science. Never could it be more truly said than now, that " Wisdom was justified of her chil- dren:** for, soon after this great Luminary appear- ed, a band of Ingenious Men arose, who made the most striking Discoveries in Natural Philosophy. " TorricelH announced the Pressure of the Atmos- " phere : Harvey discovered the Circulation of *' the Blood: Huygens perfected the Telescope; " and applied the Pendulum to Clocks. Leuen- " hoeck, by his Microscope, laid open a New " Worldwhich had formerly been concealed. Boyle engaged in his Physical Experiments. Halley attempted a Theory of the Comets, Bradley " subjected to Regular Laws the Aberrations of " the Fixed Stars. The great Newton Analysed " the Rays of Light, and Taught the Gravitation " of Worlds.'* Though Lord Bacon directed the Application of the Inductive Method of Reasoning chiefly to the Discovery of the Laws of the Material World, it may, notwithstanding, be also applied, in its leading Principles, at least, to Investigate the Pro- perties and Laws of Mind. It is true that Ex- periments, literally of the same kind with those to which Matter is subjected, cannot be made upon the Thinking Substance ; but no one will deny that Experiments, equally well Adapted to the Nature of Mind, may be Contrived, and Execut- ed, with Success. Thoughts and Feelings cannot be treated with a Menstruum, nor can Opinions be 156 ON THE BACONIAN METHOD OF INDUCTION. 157 Decomposed, or Prejudices be got rid of, by any- known Process of Dissipation. It is not, there- fore, in the Gross and Common Acceptation of the Term that the Pneumatologist speaks of Ex- periments on Mind. The Object, however, which he keeps in view is strictly Analogous to that of the Astronomeror Chemist:— viz. a faithful Interpreta- tion of the Laws of Nature. The Facts upon which he proceeds may, perhaps, be more closely con- nected with Observation than with any Actual Trial or Experiment; and it would be extremely Nuga- tory to dispute about the use of a Word, when ap- plied to things so Essentially different as Matter and Mind. The Knowledge obtained, in either case, is the result of Attention, Comparison, and sound Reasoning, founded upon a careful exa- mination of Facts : and, in this, more than in Ac- tual Manipulaticm, consists, it is presumed, the true Spirit of the Baconian Philosophy. Observa- tion and Consciousness are, indeed, the only In- struments which the Mental Philosopher can em- ploy, in Collecting the Facts, and Tracing the Ope- rations, connected with the Intellectual and Moral Faculties of the Human Being; but these he can use in all Places, and in all Circumstances, by Night as well as by Day. on the Mountain, or in the Val- ley. in Society, or in Solitude, in the Company of Wise Men, and even in the Company of Fools. In truth, although Lord Bacon, as has been already observed, applied his Method of Induction chiefly to Natural Science, the Spirit of his Philo- sophy was soon, likewise, extended to the Study of Mind. Mr. Locke, in his Essay on the Hu- man Understanding, trode exactly in the Path which Lord Bacon had pointed out ; and as he was the first who attempted an Analysis of tiie Mental Powers, uninfluenced by the love of Hypothesis his Work may be regarded as a real Histo. y of 1 bought and Feeling; whereas, ill Former Trea- tises could be considered in no other light than in that of Pneumatological Romances. It is true indeed, that neither Locke nor any one of the great Philosophers who have succeeded him in this Department, viz. Hutcheson, Hume, Smith, and Keid, has left any .-ystem or Treatise on the Art ot Reasoning, as peculiarly applicable to Mental Inquiries ; but their Works contain some excel- ent Specimens of the Baconian Logic, on Intel- lectual and Ethical Subjects, and prove, by their successful use both of Analysis and Synthesis, that this Mode of Investigation may be profitably pursued in the Philosophy of Mind, as well as in that of Body. The Volumes of Hume, for exam- pie, making allowance for a little artful Ingenuity sometimes resorted to by him. in answering ob-' jections, present the most perfect Specimens of close Reasoning and Logical Deduction: but no one of the great Men now mentioned, has Shown himself a more intelligent, or more faithful Scholar of Bacon, than the late venerable Dr Reid. To uncommon Candour and genuine Simplicity, it 158 ON THE BACONIAN METHOD this celebrated Philosopher added an Absokite Com- mand of his Attention, great Powers of Discern- ment, and an indefatigable Industry, uniformly di- rected by the love of Truth. No other Writer has so well Dehneated the Method of Studying Mind; and no one has treated Metaphysical Sub- lects with so much Propriety and Clearness. But, on this particular Topic, the Author of these Re- marks may, not without some justice, be charged with Partiality. He studied under him as a Pro- fessor; and, during the last Twenty Years of his life, lived with him in the most perfect Habits oi Friendship and Familiarity ; enjoying, thus, the Happiness of such Frequent and Unreserved Com- munication, as to make it now extremely difficult to distinguish Thoughts and Sentiments sug- gested by that excellent Author from those which may have been derived from other Sour- ces. Considering the Nature of the Reformation brought about by Lord Bacon, and viewmg it, as it ought to be viewed, in the light of a simple Re- turn to the Principles of unsophisticated Reason, it was not to be expected that any Matenal Addi- tion to the Rules of Investigation, considered as an Art, could be made, either by his immediate Sue cessors, or by more Modern Philosophers. The Novum Organum Professed to Accomplish httle more, than to Induce Men to Reason on I hUoso- pbical Subjects, as they are accustomed to Reason OF INDUCTION. 159 in the Ordinary Affairs of Life ; to Rescue them, in short, from the Dominion of Art, and to restore them to the Clear Light, and Unfettered Liberty, of Nature. It is, however, made a Subject of Com- plaint by several distinguished Writers, both at liome and abroad, that a Philosophical or Rational System of Logic^ embracing every thing which ought to be Comprehended in such an Art, is still a Desideratum in Science. De Gerando, a French Philosopher of Great Eminence, for in- stance, lamenting the manifold Imperfections of all former Attempts, has suggested a very compre- hensive Plan, which he describes with much mi- nuteness : constituting, according to his views, a System of Logic, Solid in its Principles, Practical in its Precepts, Satisfying every Demand, Prevent* ing all Doubts, Embracing every Form of Argument, Directing all Methods, and Accompanying the Mind in all its Operations. This Rational Sys- tem of Logic he divides into Six Parts. He pro- poses, in the First Division, to begin with an Analysis of the Operations of the Mind — of the Faculties employed in these Operations, whether in their Simple or Combined State — or, in other words, to give the History of the Formation of Thought in every Individual. The Second Part comprehends an Enumeration, and Classification, of the Precepts which ought to Direct Mankind in their Reasonings on Speculative Subjects, and includes, at the same time, a great portion of the Ancient Dialectics, together with the Application 160 ON THE BACONIAN METHOD of the Modern Analysis to the Solution of Ab- stract Questions. The Third Division contains what may be called the Logic of Facts; which is thus made to follow the Explanation, and Estab- lishment, of the Principles upon which Men Judge and Reason about Tilings. Here, too, are unfold- ed the Rules of Four very Important Arts— the Art of Observing— the Art of making Experi- ments— the Art of Generalizing— and the Art of Anticipation, or Conjecturing. The Fourth Di- vision is dedicated to the Fixing, or Determining, the Import of those Signs which distinguish Truth from Error— the Different Degrees of Probability —the Origin of Error and Prejudice— and the Remedies or Means of Preventing them. The Fifth Division treats of Method— the various Kinds of it— the Uses of Method— the Means of Improving it— and its Application to the diffe- rent Branches of Science. The Sixth and Last Di- vision comprehends the Practical Rules which he recommends for Improving the Mind generally— for Cultivating the Senses, Memory, Attention, Imagination, and, above all, the Inventive Faculty, upon the wise Direction of which the Progress of Science and of Art so essentially depend. To this Rational and Comprehensive Logic, the Author further adds, a Series of Remarks on its Application to the General Knowledge of Men— to Prudence in the Conduct of Life— to the Art of Conversation and Discussion— to that of Read- OF INDUCTION. 161 ing with Advantage — to Grammar, Criticism, and Eloquence; — and to an Art which embraces all others — the Art of Meditation. This plan of a Reformed Logic is, without doubt, sufficiently Comprehensive; embracing every thing, either in Point of Precept, or the Order of Study, which could possibly be required to Conduct the Intellectual Powers of Man, in the pursuit or Ap- plication of Scientific Truth. It might, indeed, be considered as an Encyclopedia of Logic; af- fording to the Student not only the proper degree of Direction, in his several Researches connected with the Principles of just Reasoning, but the actual Knowledge, too, which it is the Ultimate Object of such Reasoning to Attain. It is a Work, however, which is not to be expected from the Labours of any Individual: the Genius re- quisite for the Execution of Some Parts, being hardly Compatible with the Minute Details and Common-place remarks indispensable in Other parts. But, supposing it Executed in the most Complete Manner imaginable, exhibiting a degree of Knowledge, Genius, and Experience never be- fore united in any Single Composition, I doubt much whether it would, after all, preclude the Ground of Complaint, mentioned above, of De- fects and Imperfections in the Art of Reasoning. For, although the Materials of such a Plan of Logic may never have been Combined in any one Trea- tise, yet all the Principles and Maxims, which it was meant to Incorporate, are to be found in X 162 ON THE BACONIAN METHOD different Works, well known to Men of Letters, and accessible to every Student. Aristotle, for ex- ample. Two Thousand Years ago. taught the Manner of Forming Clear and Distinct Notions. by Rules of Definition, Division, and Classifica, tion : and these Rules have been Recommended by almost all succeeding Philosophers, who have seen no reason either to alter them, or to add to their number. Descartes, too, in his Work oil Method, has set forth many sound and practical Rules for general Reasoning and Investigation. Lord Bacon has taught men how, by a well re- gulated Induction, they may interpret the Laws of Nature ; disclosing, at the same time, the Sources of those Numerous Prejudices and Pre- dilections of the Human Mind which have the greatest Influence in perverting its Judgments. Locke has delineated, with a masterly hand, the Faculties of the Soul; pointed out the Limits and Extent of Human Knowledge ; detected the 1 re- vailing Abuses of Language, as applied to the Functions of the Reasoning Powers; and recom- mended the proper Helps and Remedies to Guide the Understanding, or to Correct its Aberrations. Hutcheson, Hume, Reid, and Stewart, m more modern times, have presented, in their respective Publications, many fine instances of Successtul Investigation and of Legitimate Reasoning; so that, as far as Rule and Example are considered, the zealous Student has no Reason to bewail the Absence of Means for Constructing a System oi Rational Logic. There are no Difficulties which OF INDUCTION. 163 can occur, or Obstacles that can come in his way, which he is not Instructed by Precept, or by the Actual Success of others, to Explain or Remove. Still, were these Helps greater than they are, and were the Specimens of Philosophical Investi- gation and Sound Argument which are presented in the works of Modern Authors, more Perfect than I have described them ; I apprehend that the Desideratum, so often alluded to, of a Ration- al, Systematic Logic, would continue to be as much required as ever, so long at least as the pre- sent Method of teaching Philosophy shall remain Unchanged. After the memorable Exertions of Aristotle, Bacon, and Locke, to Improve the In- struments of Thought and Reason, we must as- cribe the complaints, which reach our ears, of De- fect and Failure, to a very different Cause from want of Scientific Precept, or of Luminous Example. The Truth is, that the Art of Reasoning, like all other Arts, can only be Acquired by Habit; not by the mere Knowledge of Speculative Rules. Ten Thousand Treatises might be written on the Arts of Spinning and Weaving, and the Rules con- tained in them might be fully understood, whilst yet neither Yarn nor Webs would be Produced, to honour the ingenious Author. In learning the Art of Reasoning, accordingly, the Young Artist must submit to be Instructed and Exer- cised, in a manner not less Practical than the Apprentice to a Common Trade, He must be 164 ON THE BACONIAN METHOD subjected to Authority and Discipline: compelled to Exert his Talents in General ; and particularly those which respect the Perception of Truth, and the Relations of Things : and, these Elementary Steps oMce taken, and persevered in, it will be easy for him to Direct the Faculty of Reason to what- ever subject may be brought before his Mind, without any immediate Reliance upon Abstract Doctrines of Logic, or Theories of Reasoning. The Perfect Plan of a Logical System sketched out by De Gerando, Learned and Comprehensive as it may be, is not at all calculated for the pur- poses of a First Philosophy Class. It sets out, as was observed, with Speculative and Abstract Knowledge of Mind; with a Review of the An- cient Dialectics ; and an Application of the Modern Analysis to the more Abstruse questions of Meta- physical Science: whereas, if we allow ourselves to be guided by the Natural Developement of the Rational Faculties themselves, we shall find that the Third Division ought to be placed First ; and only that species of Knowledge communicated, at this early stage, which directs to the Culture of Attention, Observation, and the Habit of Arrang- ing Simple Facts. The First Step towards good Reasoning consists in taking Clear Views of the Subjects concerning which the Determination of the Mind is to be made ; and, in order to invest the Perceptive Powers with this invaluable Habit, it is absolutely necessary, in the very commence- OF INDUCTION. 165 ment of a Philosophical Education, to cultivate,by means of Regular Exercise, the Faculties of Atten- tion and Observation. The chief Improvement in Logic, therefore, which I can anticipate, or which, indeed, seems at all Practicable, will arise from the Manner of Teaching it ; not, as at present, by mere Specula- ation on the Nature of Mind, and by Abstract Precepts founded upon Doctrines not well under- stood ; but by a Constant and Regular Exercise of the several Faculties which are employed in Lo- gical Deductions, on Subjects selected and ex- plained by the Teaclier for tliat express purpose. There is no other way of teaching Young Men a True and Rational Logic, except that of Inducing them to Think and Reason ; and, to render Edu- cation Effectual for these Important Ends, he who conducts it must have the Means of Exciting Industry in all liis Pupils, of Assisting the Willing, Encouraging the Irresolute, Directing the Igno- rant, Compelling the Refractory, and of Rewarding the Successful. When the Exertions of the Stu- dents are Optional, they will neither be Constant nor Uniform ; and, indeed, we might as well look for Effects without Causes, in the Material World, as for Activity and Diligence in Youthful Minds, without a Concurrence of Motives derived from the Discipline of the School, the Authority of the Teacher, and from the Feelings of Emulation which he may have succeeded in Awakening. Professors of Universities may be well Employed, 166 ON THE BACONIAN METHOD OF INDUCTION. whilst Exercising their Genius, and Employing their Leisure, in Attempts to enlarge the Boun- daries of Science, or to Kxtend its Usefulness ; but Teachers\n Universities must Condescend to act an Humbler Part. They must submit to Constant and Painful Labour ; directing their Zeal and Talents to the Means of Cultivating Endowments of which the Pupil hardly knows he is possessed; of fixing Attention upon Subjects little calculated to Arrest the Juvenile Imagination ; and of Draw- ing forth Regular Eflorts, where there are so many Temptationsto Kemissness. It is in vain, therefore, to complain of Defects in the Art of Logic. The Defect is in the Art of Teaching— a Defect for which no Artificial System of Reasoning can, in the smallest degree. Compensate— inasmuch as no degree of Genius, no Extent of Resources, on the part of the Teacher, can make up for his Un- skilfulness, or for his Negligence, in not producing Re.nilar, Animated, and Increasing Exertions, on the'^patt of the Student. It must, however, be ad- mitted that, in all the Departments of Science, and of Business, many Persons have attained to High and Exalted Exercises of the reasoning powers, without having gone through the Disci- pline of a Logic Class. But such persons must have gone througiia Similar or Aualagous course, either under their own, or some other. Private Direction. Some may be favoured witli stronger Powers of Intellect than Others; or may have been placed in more Favourable Circumstances ; but no man ever ac(iuired the Habit of Reasoning ON THE IMPROVEMENT OF GENIUS. 167 well, on any Subject, except by Reasoning Fre- quently and Regularly. ON THE IMPROVEMENT OF THE POWERS OF GENIUS. In the Analysis of the Intellectual Powers, given in the First Division of the Lectures, Ge- nius was described as consisting in a Happy Combination of these Powers; excited strongly by a particular Object, and Concentrated to- wards the Attainment of some particular End. It is an Endowment, indeed, not to be Traced to any one Faculty, nor to be Defined by a Reference to any single Operation; it is most easily Characterized by its Splendid Effects, whether in Science or in Art. Agreeably to this view, it is farther stated, in the Analysis already mentioned, that Invention in the Arts, and Discovery in the Sciences, are usually held as the last Criteria of Genius; and an attempt is made to Trace a Connection between such Achievements of Ingenious Men, and certain Com- binations of the Intellectual Faculties, Imagination, Judgment, and Taste, which are commonly sup- posed to Constitute the Basis of the Power in question. The Analysis of Genius is Concluded with some Remarks on the Early Indications of its Workings; with the view of Attracting the At- tention, and Rousing the Diligence, of Youth, to the Means ofi Calling forth its Dormant Energies. J^gj^ 168 ON THE IMPROVEMENT It IS not pretended that there is any Art, the Direct Object of which is to Teach Men to In- vent or Discover. Nothing more is meant than that Rules may be of Use in Performing certain Mental Acts, and in Acquiring Particular Habits, upon which the Last Step in a Discovery or In- vention may materially Depend. In truth, as Genius is universally regarded as springing from a Peculiar Combination of the Intellectual Facul- ties, so, the more perfectly these Faculties are Cultivated by the due Application of the Means Appropriated to each, the more likely are we to Succeed in Developing the Latent Powers of Ge- nius, properly so called, and in Strengthening their Operation. If, on the contrary, the First Steps are Neglected, and the First Rules Despised, the Native Talents of the Youthful Genius will either remain Languid and Unimproved, or they will shoot forth into all the Wildness and Extrava- gance which usually characterize Strong Powers, and Bad Taste, in Young Men. Although it has just been remarked that there are no Rules or Lessons whereby Man can be in- structed to Invent and Discover, I must not fail to notice that Aristotle, whose Genius was not Easily Impeded in its Efforts, has actually left us an Art of Invention. The Structure of the Syllo- gism requiring the use of Middle Terms, as Media of Comparison, he found it necessary to make Pro- vision for the Discovery of these Terms; and, with this view, accordingly, he added to this OF THE POWERS OF GENIUS. 169 Explanation of that celebrated Instrument, his Doc- trine De Locis, or a Treatise on the Seats, or Places, where such Intermediate Notions were to be Dis- covered. And, although succeeding Philosophers do not seem to have made much use of the Logi- cal Topics, Cicero and other Rhetoricians profess to have derived Considerable Advantage from them. They, accordingly, admitted this Work into their Systems of Rhetoric: and Cicero, in the same spirit, recommends to the Young and Ambitious Rhetorician to Study Subjects in the Abstract; that he might be Prepared on every Topic which should come into Discussion, or, at all events, require only a little Time to fill up Names, Dates, and Circumstances. But, without any farther reference to the An- cient Doctrine of Invention, I proceed to inquire, a little more particularly, whether the Student has it in his Power to Improve that Special En- dowment denominated Genius. It is very evident, then, whether we Ascribe it to Original Constitution, to the Influence of Surrounding Objects, or to early Habits in As- sociations, that the Powers of Genius frequently Manifest themselves in Individuals, before any Voluntary or Artificial Means of Improvement could have been Applied. But, notwithstanding this Fact, and the farther Concession that little is to be expected from any Direct Means of Y m»MiaiL 170 ON THE IMPROVEMENT OF THE POWERS OF GENIUS. 171 Improvement, it is not to be Concluded that Genius can Derive no Advantage from Constant and well Regulated Study. In perusing the History of Invention, it will be found that almost every thing Great has been eftected by the Studious and Industrious ; and, even, that those Inventions which have been made, apparently, by Accident, have very seldom fallen to the lot of the Idle or the Careless. Regular Action and Diligent Ha- bits naturally prepare the Mind for the Exertion of its Higher Powers; and Many Things must, of course, occur to the Student, whose Attention is Habitually Occupied, which will never present themselves to him who Applies only by Fits and Starts. Who ever heard of an Idle Man Disco- vering any thing of Importance ? If Diligence be the Path which leads to Invention, the Sloth- ful will never be found in it. Let the Young Philosopher, therefore, who wishes to Improve his Talents, and who sighs for Distinction as an Ornament, or Benefactor, to his Kind, begin his Career with Perfecting, to the Utmost of his Power, the Habits of Attention and Industry ; and, should he not, at once, obtain for himself the First Rank in the Scale of Public Estimation, let him be assured that these good Habits will Ad- vance him every day nearer and nearer to the Object of his Ambition : for, when Active Perse- vering Diligence Starts in Competition with Mere Talent, unaided by Study, the Former, al- most, never fails to be Crowned with Victory. Further : it has been observed that all who have Effected Important Discoveries, or Improve- ments, are Persons who, either from Necessity or Choice, have had their Attention Vigorously Di- rected to the Particular Science, or Art, which they have, in the end, Enriched by their Genius. It was a deep Conviction of Actual Defect, or Imper- fection, and Clear views of a Higher and more Per- fect State, to which their favourite Pursuits might be carried, which encouraged their Perseverance and directed their Research. The Man who first threw aside the Mattock and made use of the Plow ; he who first applied Water to Turn a Wheel for Grinding Corn, instead of doing it with the Hand ; had, it is very probable, long smarted under the Drudgery of Manual Labour, and frequently revolved in his Mind Various Expedients for Alleviating the Fatigue, and for Shortening the Toil, of these respective Processes. Before Lord Bacon attempted to Substitute the Inductive for the Syllogistic Mode of Reasoning, he had clearly perceived all the Defects of the Former. It was, in like manner, a decided Con- viction, that the Steam Engine was Faulty, in rela- tion to the Consumption of Fuel, wliich led Dr. Watt, the Great Improver of that Wonderful Instrument, to Devise an Appropriate Remedy. The last Act, in short, or that which Constitutes the Invention, cannot be performed by those who are ignorant of the Previous Steps ; and, although the Former may require a more Vigorous Effort : ;:: 172 ON THE IMPROVEMENT i.l of the Mind, or greater Display of Genius, yet the Latter are Absolutely Indispensable as a Basis for that Effort. The plain Inference, therefore, from this Doctrine is, that the Diligent and Persevering Student has no Reason to De- spair of Reaching even the Highest Degrees of Eminence, and of Contributing to those Disco- veries. Inventions, or Improvements, which confer Reputation upon their Authors, and Benefit upon the Age in which they live. His First Endea- vours, accordingly, for this purpose, should be Directed to the formation of Clear and Distinct Notions, as to the Elementary Doctrines of what- ever Science, or Pursuit, may happen to Employ his Industry ; for it is only by these Means that he will Successfully make his Way through the more Obscure and Complicated Parts of Study, which will Rise before him as he Advances, and that he will be enabled to discover where the Art has Reached Perfection, and where it may still Ad- mit of Improvement. He requires not to be in- formed that Darkness cannot lead to Light, nor Confusion to Order ; whilst a Feeble Light may conduct to a Stronger, as the Dawn ushers in the Effulgence of Noon. In all cases, indeed, Clear- ness and Certainty, in the Elementary Steps, give Vigour to the Imagination, and Facility to the Memory; and, at the same time, Enable all the Other Powers of the Mind to Discharge their Respective Offices with Readiness and Effect. OF THE POWERS OF GENIUS. 173 It has been still farther observed that those Persons who have Successfully Exerted their In- ventive Powers, in any Department whatsoever, have, in general, been Distinguished by Great Ar- dour in Pursuit of their Objects. The great End of their Endeavours has been Constantly Present to their Minds — has been their Companion by Night and by Day — constituting the chief Spring of Activity, and the Main Source of tbei: Pleasure. And, it is after the Labour, perhaps, • It has been Objected, I am quite aware, that such Topics Ought not to be ranked among the Pursuits of Philosophy ; as being only suited to the Dissertations of the School-room, or for enter- ing into the Pre-lections of a Classical Tutor. No Argument has yet been Advanced, however, to make me change my Opinion that the Philoso- phy of Language is better fitted than any other, at a certain Stage of the Student's Progress, to Open Iiis Mind, and to Further his General Im- provement. It should be remembered that the 228 ON THE IMPROVEMENT OF TASTE Inquiries, on this Head, are not Confined to the mere Properties, or Offices, of the different Parts of Speech, but, on the contrary, Extend to the Con- sideration of the Connection which subsists be- tween these External Signs and the Mental Ope- rations which they Denote— to a Comparison of the Matter with the Language in which it is clothed, and the consideration of their Reciprocal Influence upon each other— to an Examination of the Prin- ciples which, in different Languages, give occasion to Peculiarities in their Arrangement— and, lastly, to Diversity of Style, as founded upon Varieties in the Character and Talents of Individuals, or of Nations. These Subjects, and others connect- ed with them, may, it is imagined, furnish a Se- lection of Materials, which wiU afford a Constant and very suitable Exercise for the Intellectual Powers of the Student, at this Early Period of the Philosophical Course. Having finished the Lee- tures on these Elementary Topics, I proceed, as has been already Explained, to set before my Pu- pils the best Models of Composition, in the seve- ral Departments of Literary Skill and Enterprise, as specified in a preceding Paragraph. Composition, as it respects the Subject-matter of it, has been divided, by Lord Bacon, into Three Classes, according to the Three Principal Faculties of the Understanding, Memory, Reason, and Ima- gination. In the First Class are comprehended all Historical Compositions, of every Form, and on BY THE STUDY OF COMPOSITION. 229 every Subject. All Philosophical Compositions, by whatsoever name they are called, belong to the Second Class ; and to the Third All those Works whatever be their Description, in which the Fa- culty of Imagination is chiefly, or almost wholly Exercised. It does not appear to me that there is any thing gained by this Division, either in point of Accuracy or of Clearness ; for there is no Com- position, under any one of these Three Heads, which could possibly be Executed without the Use of all the Three Faculties, upon which the Classification is founded. At any rate, how Scientific soever it may be, it proceeds on Prin- ciples much too General ; is altogether Unsuitable to the Purpose of these Lectures ; and is ill calcu- lated for giving Assistance to Young Students in forming their Judgment on Works of Literature, on the Specific Character of the Various Orders of Writing, whether in Poetry or Prose, and on ,the Merits of Individual Compositions, regarded with a Reference to the acknowledged Canons of Criticism. With a View to the Object of Lectures, in a First Philosophy Class, Literary Composition may perhaps be more Usefully divided ; ] st. Ac- cording to the Particular End proposed to him- self by the Author of the Work ; 2dly, According to the Nature and Qualities of the Materials Em- ployed by him for that Purpose ; 3dly, According to the Form which these Materials are made to 230 ON THE IMPROVEMENT OF TASTE Assume, and the Principles of Arrangement adopted in their Distribution ; and, 4thly, Accord- ing to the Particular Style in which the Composi- tion is Executed. It is very Obvious, indeed, that no Just or Adequate Notion can be formed of any Composi- tion, or any Judgment pronounced on its Merits, without our first having the Means of Comprehend- ing the Design of the Writer. To that every Part must bear a strict Reference and Relation; and, whatever be the Nature of the Materials, they must, at least, possess the Particular QuaHties necessary to Effect the End in View. Again, however judiciously the Materials may be Select- ed, they must also be Arranged, and Disposed, on Principles Calculated, in like manner, to Ac- complish the Object of the Work : and, in Addi- tion to all tliis, it is very Manifest that the Style, or Peculiar Choice of Language, which the Author Employs, must be Adapted, at once, to the Natiue of the Materials, and to the General Design intended to be Realized. • The Standard, Implied in this Method of Classi- fication, may be Extended to Comi)Ositions of every Kind and Form, whilst it affords the best Means for Ascertaining the Genius and Skill of an Author in every part of his Work ; — his Powers of Inven- tion, Arrangement, Argumentation, Narration, and Description j— and the Details on these BY THE STUDY OF COMPOSITION, 231 points, as delivered in the Lectures, are meant to Assist the Student in forming a Correct Judg- ment, with regard to the Structure and General Merits of the most Approved Works, in History, Poetry, and Eloquence. As an Example of the Manner in which this is attempted, but without en- tering into the Minute, and Familiar, Illustration indispensable in Lectures addressed to very Young Men, I shall here introduce a few Remarks on Epic Poetry, one of the most difficult kinds of Literary Composition. In the Outset, the Student is directed to Form an Acquaintance with the Author, byEntering into his First Conception of the Particular Work, sub- mitted, for this purpose, to his consideration ; and afterwards, to Follow him Closely, in every Train of Thought, in every Suggestion of Fancy, and every Correction of Taste, which fills up the Space between the Design and the Execution. In doing this, the Young Student is likely to take a Greater Interest than he would otherwise feel, in the Pro- gress of the Poem. The Subject gradually Opens and Extends before him ; and, by having a Clear Conception of the General Plan, he will necessarily acquire more Distinct Notions of the Subordinate Parts, as they are Successively Developed. Sup- pose the Instance fixed upon to be the Iliad of Homer, the great Model and Standard of Epic Compositions. On the Mind of Homer, then, Dis- tinguished as it was by Vigour of Imagination, and 232 ON THE IMPROVEMENT OF TASTE BY THE STUDY OF COMPOSITION. 233 Powerful Sensibility, the Great Events, and Splen- did Achievements in the Trojan War, may be conceived to have made a deep Impression. His Active Fancy, it is very probable, would often Wander amid the Scenes of Heroism and Glory, which are Associated with that Memorable Event, and insensibly Contract that Ardour and Enthu- siasm which first prompted his Great Undertaking; and, at this Stage of his Progress, or rather upon this Original Suggestion of his Attempt, the Stu- dent is directed to Examine, along with the Au- thor, who may now be imagined to be so employ- ed, into the Fitness of the Materials, hereby pre- sented, for the Subject of an Epic Poem ; their Re- moteness from his own Time ; and the Interest with which they would be viewed by the Mass of his Countrymen, as Descendants of the Grecian Heroes. It is even probable that the Poet's Ardent and Adventurous Mind may have prompted him to the Execution of Detached Parts of this great Work, before he had fully Completed his General Plan ; and that it was only as he proceeded in Dressing up his Scanty Materials in the Rich Garb of Poetry, that the Various Incidents, which consti- tute so much of its Charm and Interest, were sue cessfully suggested to his Mind. A Vigorous Imagination, it is well known, trusts to its own Creations more than to the Real Events, or Actual Occurrences, upon which it Exerts its Powers : thus, the Poem of Paradise Lost is built upon a Few Hints, taken from the Sacred Scriptures. The General Plan of the Poem being Conceiv- ed, and the Course of Action being Sketched out, it next devolves upon the Author to Connect these with such Characters, selected from among the He- roes of his Story, as will Realize, in the most proper manner, the several parts of the varied Enter- prize, which he has undertaken to Commemorate. In this respect. Homer enjoyed very Singular Advantages ; for Tradition had brought down, to the Times in which he lived, not only the Splendid Events of the War which he had chosen for his Subject, but also the Names, the Rank, and Genealogy of the several Persons to whose Valour or Wisdom these Events were Ascribed. Such Actions, again, could not be performed without the Accompaniment of Others of a Subor- dinate Nature, requiring, of course, Characters of an Inferior Order to Execute them. In the Structure of the Epic, accordingly, a certain nun>- ber of Detached and Separate Actions, perform- ed at Different Times, and in DiflFerent Places, may be permitted to share the Interest and At- tention of the Reader j but in such a Manner, at the same time, as not to Violate the Three Unities, as they are called, of Action, of Time, and of Place. The Execution of the Principal and more Difficult Parts of the Enterprise is uniformly As- signed to One Personage of Superior Rank, Abi- G g 234 ON THE IMPROVEMENT OF TASTE lity, and Character. It is not to be Inferred, how- ever, that the Strict Observance of these Rules is Absolutely Essential to an Epic Poem ; for they have been frequently Violated, by Authors of Great Eminence, without Impairing, in any De- gree, the Interest of their Works. In following out the Leading Principles of this Species of Composition, it is still farther to be ob- served that, as Great and Valorous Actions na- turally imply Difficulty, and Dangers, in the Exe- cution of them, the Poet, with the view of Engag- ing our Sympathies, and of Raising our Estima- tion of the Courage and Perseverance of his Heroes, contrives to link together such a Com- bination of Events, as will give Ample Scope for Displaying all the Fine Qualities, and all the No- ble Principles, which ought to Distinguish the Chiefs of the Epic. As, however, the Reader would be disappointed and grieved, were the Principal Actors to sink under their Difficulties, or to be left struggling with Misfortunes, the Course of Events must be so Arranged as to lead to a Natural and Gradual Extrication from every Untoward Adventure, and to bring the Enterprise, in due time, to a happy Conclusion. These Qua- lities, too, in point of Action, Character, and Ge- neral Result, must be crowned with the additional recommendation of Virtuous Motive, Disinterest- edness, and Magnanimity, on the part of the BY THE STUDY OF COMPOSITION. 235 Actors; at least on the part of Him who is Digni- fied with the Title of Hero. These General Principles of Epic Poetry, which have been frequently Illustrated by Writers on Criticism, are Derived from an Examination into the Works of Homer ; in whom Genius and Judg- ment were Combined, in singularly Happy Pro- portions. His Genius, for example, is strikingly displayed in the Grand and Comprehensive De- sign of his Poem ; whilst his Judgment is no less manifested, in Confining the Action to the Busiest and most Interesting Period of the Trojan War ; Uniting thus, in his Plan, and bringing forward, in his Details, every thing that could lay hold of the Affections, the Prejudices, and the Vanity of his Countrymen ; and, at the snme time, give Pleasure to Cultivated Minds, in all Countries, and in all Succeeding Ages. Nothing, indeed, could afford a higher Idea of the Power of Imagi- nation, regulated by a Sound Judgment, than the Invention of so many Characters as are exhibited in the Iliad — all so admirably calculated for the various parts assigned to them, — all possessing Valour and Courage, as their Predominant Quali- ties, while they are, at the same time, distinguish- ed from one another by a certain Peculiarity of Disposition and Manners. So closely Consistent, and so naturally Allied, is every Character with the Actions Performed, and with the Senti- ments Expressed, in every Combination of Cir- 236 ON THE IMPROVEMENT OF TASTE BY THE STUDY OF COMPOSITION. 237 cumstances in which the several Personages are placed, that, it is scarcely necessary to Intro- duce them to the Reader by Name. In all situa- lions, each speaks, thinks, and acts, in a Manner peculiar to himself; and in such a Manner, too, as to Distinguish him Completely from every Other. Achilles is Brave; and Hector is Brave; so are Ajax, Menelaus, and Diomede ; but the Bravery of Hector is not of the Same Kind with that of Ajax ; and no one will mistake the Battle- Shout of the Son of Atreus, for the War-Cry of the Son of Tydeus.— To connect all the parts together, and to make the Various Events, and Incidents, of the Story bear upon the Main De- sign of the Poem, Homer fixed upon the Resent- ment of Achilles ; as being the Source from which all these Events, and Incidents, took their Rise, more or less directly, and to which the Principal Exploits of his Heroes bear, throughout, a Con- stant Reference. With regard to the Fiction of Poetry, as Sanc- tioned by the Practice of Epic Writers, it would be Supei-fluous to enter into much Detail, in these Outlines. The Student is reminded that this Species of Poetical Licence is not confined to the Intro- duction of Supernatural Personages, but may be extended to Every Part of the Design, as well as to Every Part of the Execution; Enlarging what is Contracted, Raising what is Low, Embellish- ing what is Beautiful, Removing what is Defective or Unbecoming; and thus acting in subserviency to the Main Object of the Poet, viz. the Excite- ment of Wonder, Delight, Admiration, and Love, in the Mind of the Reader. Events, Characters, and Manners ; the Dangers of the Field ; the Triumphs of Victory ; the Horrors of Servitude ; the Lamentations of the Vanquished; and the Generous Clemency of the Conqueror, are, all, within the reach of this Magic Power. The Origin of Fiction in Poetry is, no doubt, to be traced to the Wish, which so naturally oc- curs to the Mind of a Poet, to overcome that In- difference with which we Contemplate such Or- dinary Characters, and Actions as are to be found in History ; and this Violation of Strict and Li- teral Veracity seems, in a great measure, justified by the Powerful Influence which Sentiment Exer- cises over the Imagination ; it being, in some in- stances, of Equal Strength with the Impressions derived from External Objects, and even, in cer- tain cases, Superseding the Function of Sense, and Obliterating the Traces of Consciousness. The Range of this Licence, however, although Extensive, is not Boundless. The Poet is expect- ed to Regulate the Use of Fiction, by the Parti- cular Object which he professes to have in view, in the Composition of his Work : and, in every case, he must Adhere, in his Poetical Creations, to what is Natural, Probable, and Consistent. It is not easy to Define more exactly the LimitJ^ i 238 ON THE IMPROVEMENT OF TASTE which ought to Divide Truth from Fiction, in Epic Poetry; for as this is the Field in which Genius displays most its Power, and its Taste, the Laws of Criticism, as they will not be Regarded, ought not to be too strictly Enforced. The Student is next instructed in what is Tech- Dically called the Machinery of an Epic Poem ; or the Occasional Introduction of Divine Persons, Di- recting, and Assisting, the Endeavours of Favourite Mortals. This practice, obviously originating in theMythology of Ancient Greece, is represented, in the Lectures, as attended with both Advantages and Disadvantages. There can be no doubt, on the One hand, that it has given occasion to much Sublime Description in Homer, and in the Other Epic Poets who have followed his Footsteps, in his Manner of Writing, as well as in the Choice of a Subject ; but it may be fairly questioned, on the Other, whether it has not Detracted very consi- derably from the Admiration which would other- wise have been bestowed upon Human Energies, left to their Natural Vigour and Foresight. After a Comparative Statement of the Good and Bad Effects attending the Use of Pagan Machinery, some Remarks are added, on the Influence which it Exerts on the Minds of Young Men, in the course of their Literary Pursuits, to whom the Study of it has been recommended with much In- genuity and Eloquence. The purer Dispensation of the Christian Religion, indeed. Precludes, in a BY THE STUDY OF COMPOSITION. 239 great measure, all Modern Poets from Using, at least with any prospect of success, the Machin- ery so freely employed by the Ancients; and to me, whatever may be the Opinion of Critics, it has always appeared an Indispenable Duty to En- deavour to Strengthen, in the Minds of my Pupils, the Power of Reason, even in Matters of Poetry, and to Establish its Supremacy over Prejudices, and Prepossessions, of every Description. In no other way will Young Persons be prepared to Receive the Good, and to Avoid the Evil, so closely connected with the Doctrine in Ques- tion. This account of the Principles of Epic Com- position is brought, in the Lectures, to a close with Remarks — on the Introduction and Use of Epi- sodes — on the Rules of Arrangement inEpic Poetry — and on the Various Qualities of Style requisite in this Species of Writing. The Explanation given, in the Lectures, on these Subjects, and on others nearly allied with them, necessarily leads the Teacher to bring be- fore the Student such Doctrines, and Illustrations, as will throw some Light, not only on Epic Poetry, but on Poetical Compositions at large, and even on History, whether Real or Fictitious. In forming a Judgment of these, and indeed of all other kinds of Writing, the Foundation of Criticism will, as has been stated above, Respect 240 ON THE IMfROVEMENT OF TASTE BY THE STUDY OF CRITICIS]^!. 241 the Object, or Purpose, of the Author — the Qua- lity of the Materials which lie brings forward to accomplish his End — and the Skill which he Dis- plays in their Arrangement; together with the Propriety, and Eloquence, of the Language in which they are Embodied. Philosophical Com- position, whether in the way of Analysis or Syn- thesis, or according to the Scholastic Method of Syllogism, has been already explained, under a former Division of the Lectures. Here, too, the General Rules just mentioned will be found to Ap- ply, when «ierely modified by the Simple Observa- tion that, as the Subjects, in this Department, are strictly of an Intellectual Nature, turning upon the Relations of Things, as they present themselves to the Understanding, and not to the Imagination, so that Arrangement will be the Best, which contri- butes most to Clearness and Accuracy of Investi- gation; and that Language the most Suitable, which expresses the Different Processes of the Mind, with the least Ambiguity. directed, in the last place, to a judicious Examina- tion of those Rules, which Observation and Ex- perience have Established, for the regulation of the Judgment, in Matters of Literature and of the Fine Arts. These Rules, it is hardly neces- sary to observe, do not precede, in the Order of Time, the Appearance of Excellent Specimens in Poetry, History, and Painting; but are, on the contrary, derived from a Critical Perusal and Examination of these Models, and afterwards promulgated for the Guidance of such as rather Imitate than Invent. Many fine Specimens of Reasoning and Eloquence, for example, existed, before the Rules of Logic or of Rhetoric had Assumed a Regular Form; and the Works of Homer had gained the Admiration of the World, long prior to the time at which Aristotle composed his Art of Poetry. In short, it was by observing what some Authors had done, with General Approbation, that Writers on Criticism were en* abled to point out what ought to be done by others. ON THE IMPROVEMENT OF THE POWERS OF TASTE BY THE STUDY OF CRITICISM. With the View of Improving the Delicacy, and Discernment, of his Taste, the Student is The Pleasure received from the best and most approved Works, in Literature and the Fine Arts, and the General Admiration bestowed upon the Powers of Genius which produced them, must have soon excited Attention to the specific Na- ture and Source of that Pleasure, as connected with the Faculty of Taste in the Human Mind. Hh 242 ON THE IMPROVEMENT OF TASTE BY THE STUDY OF CRITICISM. 243 Hence, the Origin of the Art of Criticism ; in the very commencement of which it would be per- ceived that, with Certain Discrepancies arising from Defective Instruction or Early Associations, the Opinions of Men on the Qualities of Com- position, or other Works of Art, exhibited a Strik- ing Uniformity ; that, in general, they agreed in calling the same things Excellent or the Contrary, and in receiving, from the Perusal of them, a similar Emotion, whether of Satisfaction or Dis- like. Thus, in process of time, from Examining into a great variety of Instances, and from Ascer- taining with Precision that which Pleased or Dis- pleased, in particular cases, a Set of Rules would be constructed ; directing what ought to be done and what ought not to be done, and thereby founding the distinction, upon the Basis of Prin- ciple, between Good and Bad Taste. In Prosecuting his Studies, in this Department, there is no Quarter to which a Young Person will be more likely to go for Assistance or more likely to obtain it, than to Standard Works of Criticism. Those who have gone before him, in the Path in which he wishes to tread, and who have travelled in it prosperously, are no doubt well Qualified to Direct him, as to the Manner in which he ought to Proceed. It is Expedient, however, to infonn him that even under this Enlightened and Experienced Direction, he must proceed with Cautionj and, in his First Acquaintance with Works of Taste, he must be Reminded to make but a Sparing Use of the Technical Forms and Maxims of the Professed Critic. The Respect due to Great Talents and to Superior Knowledge is apt to dispose Young Minds to receive, with Implicit Confidence, the Opinions of Established Writers, and to deter them from suflSciently Ex- ercising their own Understanding and Natural Sensibility. The Student should, therefore, in the First Place, attach himself to the Unassist- ed Perusal of the Best Models; forming such Opinions as his Judgment may Sanction, and Cherishing such Emotions as the Subject of itself may happen to Excite. He must not go to the Critic to learn what ought to Please or Displease, or when to Approve and when to express Disap- probation. His part is, to begin with Thinking and Feeling for himself; and then to compare his Opinions and Feelings with those which bear the Stamp of Authority and of Established Taste. The General Object of the Lectures, indeed, on this particular Head, is to Instruct Young Men at what Period, in what Manner, and with what Views, they ought to Apply themselves to the Study of Critical Writers ; how they may de- rive from such Authors the Assistance and Direc- tion of which they may stand in need ; and how they may Escape those Errors and Mistakes to which they are Exposed, both from not Under- standing, and from Misapplying, the established Rules of Criticism, 244 ON THE IMPROVEMENT OF TXSTE BY THE STUDY OF CRITICISM, 245 The Student is here taught to view in its pro- per light the Objection which has been sometimes urged against the Critical Art, as being Prejudi- cial to Rising Genius. It is remarked, in An- swer to this Cavil, that the Knowledge of Rules founded upon the Constitution of the Human Mind, and collected from the Works of Judicious and Enlightened Authors, cannot possibly be Hurtful to Taste, nor check the Exertions of Youthful Talent. On the contrary, such Know- ledge Communicated at the Proper Time, and Used with Discretion, can hardly fail on many important occasions, to correct Mistakes, to supply Defi- ciences, and to suggest Improvements, in their General Reasonings, as well as in their Perception of the Higher Qualities of Composition. It ought accordingly to be a Leading Object with every Professor, to Adapt his Instructions so as not only to Convey Useful Information upon the Subjects which he himself actually discusses, but more particularly to prepare his Pupils for Reading, with Advantage, the Publications of those Wri- ters, whose Opinions are most Approved, and who are usually recommended as Guides, and Patterns. Such Authors may, indeed, be regard- ed as Constituting or Expressing that General Standard of Taste by which PubHc Opinion is Regulated; and in becoming Acquainted with their Works, the Young Student, so far from Sus- pending the Exercise of his own Judgment, mere- \y Investigates the Grounds upon which their Conclusions are Supported, and Compares their Doctrines with the Simple Dictates of his own Mind. Indeed, the Great Object of the Professor, in thi? Stage of his Course, will be to afford to his Pupils,' from the Various Sources which Reading and Reflection have afforded him, the Means of Forming for themselves a Standard of Taste, to which they may refer such Productions of the Fine Arts, as fall under their Observation. And, in Pursuance of this End, he will naturally State to them, that Writers on Taste have Endeavoured to Establish such a Standard on the Basis of Ge- neral Consent, modified by such Circumstances as will render this Consent Definite and Apparent. In every Nation, it is true, and in every Age of the W^orld, there have been but a Small Number of Individuals, comparatively speaking, whose Habits and Pursuits have led them to examine into the Principles of Taste, or even to Attain any Practical Acquaintance with the Productions of Genius, in Poetry, Sculpture, or Painting. In Particular Countries, too, and Epochs of Society, the General Taste has been Vitiated and Deprav- ed. During the Scholastic Ages of Superstition and Ignorance, for example, the Love of the Fine Arts, and a Correct Perception of their Excel- lencies, were Unknown over the Whole of Europe ; and in like manner, under the Government of Charles the Second, the Public Taste in England 246 ON THE IMPROVEMENT OF TASTE was deeply Affected by the Corruption and Pro- fligacy of Manners which, at that Period, charac- terized the Intercourse of Society. The Standard founded on General Consent must be still farther Modified by the Licence which is conceded to Men of great Genius, whether as Authors or Critics. Distinguished Writers, and Celebrated Artists are invested with a certain Privilege to Dispense with the Strict Laws of Criticism, in their own Performances, as well as in Judging of those of others ; and thus, the Authority of General Consent is frequently diminished in the very Quarter from which it might be expected to derive its Greatest Support It ought to be remembered, besides, that the Majority of Men of Taste, are Judges only in one Department ; that there is no such thing as a Universal Tact, that a Person may be a Good Judge in Poetry, and not in Painting or Sculpture ; nay, that he may be a Good Judge in one Species of Poetical Composition, and not in another. Under Modifications so Numerous, and Essential, General Consent cannot fail to afford a very Imperfect Standard. It is Suffi- cient for determining with respect to General Excellence in Matters of Taste ; but not for de- ciding with regard to Minute Points and Rival Beauties. For Example, it has left no room for Doubt, that the Works both of Homer and of Virgil are Excellent, and most Approved Specie BY THE STUDY OF CRITICISM. 247 mens of Epic Poetry; but it. has left the Ques- tion still Undecided to which of these Great Au- thors the Palm of Superior Poetical Merit belongs. In these Circumstances, the Student who wishes to satisfy himself, as to the Comparative Excellence of those immortal Poets, must institute a Severe Analysis of the Poems in question— direct his Judgment to the Several Parts, in which Similar Powers are Displayed— compare the Genius, Taste, Sensibility, Imagination, Command of Language, and General Qualities of Style— and, thus, arrive at a Conclusion, guided at once by the Light of his own Understanding, and by the Established Rules of Criticism. The French Critic JIapin has given a good Specimen of this Mode of Determining Comparative Merits; while the Remarks which accompany his Estimate, In- struct the Student not only how to Express his Approval, or Disapproval, but also how to State the Grounds upon which his Judgments may have been Formed. Such is the Sketch to which I have confined^ myself of the Substance of the Lectures delivered in the Class, on the Means of Improving the Powers of Taste. One Particular still remains to be stated, which the best System of Instruction and the most Profound Knowledge of the Subject can neither supersede nor supply; namely the Method of Conducting a Regular Progressive ll 248 ON THE IMPROVEiMENT OF TASTE Course of Exercises, performed by the Students, corrected by the Teacher, and afterwards return- ed to them with Instructions for Directing their Future Efforts. But an Explanation of the Plan, adopted in carrying on this part of the Discipline of the First Philosophy Class, will form the Sub- jectof the Second General Division of these Out- lines. The Lectures on the Powers of Communication containing a theoretical View, and a copious 11- lustration of the Means of Improving these Powers by the Arts of Eloquence and Rhetoric, constitute no part of the Business of the Stu- dents who attend the First Course. These may, perhaps, become the Subject of another Essay. A General Sketch has now been given of the Subjects of the Lectures, which are Annually delivered in the Logic Class, in the University of Glasgow, and also of the Order in which these Subjects succeed each other, in the general Ar- rangement of the Course. The chief difficulty in drawing out such a Sketch has arisen from the Necessity of exhibiting a distinct Specification of the several Parts, and, at the same time, of avoiding a Minute Discussion of Topics which are avowedly Common, and therefore familiar to every Person of liberal Education. It is hardly neces- sary to subjoin that, in the Lectures of which he BY THE STUDY OF CRITICISM. 249 has thus Detailed the Outlines, the Author dis- claims all Pretence to Originality: indeed, he conceives that attempts after Novelty, and Ingeni- ous Views, in these Matters, would have render- ed them only less adapted for the Purpose which they are meant to accomplish. There will, no doubt, be a Diversity of Opinion whether the Subjects now Described are the Fit- test and Best, all things considered, for Initiating Young Persons into the Study of Philosophy, and for Supplying them with the Means of following out the Pursuits which may be thereby Suggested —whether they are the Subjects most likely to Interest and Exercise the Intellectual Powers of Youth— whether they Comprehend proper To- pics for Essays to be Performed by Young Men just beginning to Think and Compose ;— whether, in a word, the Professor of the First Philosophical Class in the University might not, in some other way. Occupy, to greater Advantage, the Time and Labour of those who are committed to him for Instruction. It has been thought, for example, by some, not altogether incompetent to judge, that the Science of Geometry, on account of its Clearness and Certainty, is better calculated than any other for accustoming Young Persons to Accurate Reason- ing, and for inuring them to Habits of Attention and Perseverance; and this Science, accordingly, li 250 ON THE IMPROVEMENT OF TASTE has been EstabUshed in some Seminaries, as the Chief Occupation of Young Men, in the com- mencement of their Studies, It is readily admitted, that Geometrical Science has a Powerful Tendency to fix the At- tention of Youth, and to accustom them to Dis- tinctness in the Use of Terms, as well as to Clear and Accurate Habits of Thought, in appreciatmg Evidence, and in balancing Arguments: And these Points, it is farther admitted, are so Essen- tial to the Formation of the Logical Character that, if Provision had not been made for them in the Academical Course, I should have thought it necessary to Select, from the Elements of Euclid, a Series of Fundamental Propositions, and to have Introduced them into these Lectures as a Specimen of Close Reasoning. This, how- ever, is rendered unnecessary by the Establish- ment of a Mathematical Professor, who gives Lee tures, every day during the Session, on the Elements of Euclid, of Plane Trigonometry and Algebra; and, at a separate hour, to more advanced Stu- dents, on the higher parts of Mathematics, Conic Sections, Fhixions, and the Principia of Newton. As the Students in the Logic Class, generally gpeaking, attend the Elementary Class of Mathe- matics, they enjoy all the Advantages that they would otherwise derive from the Introduction of any part of the Latter, into the business of the Former. BY THE STUDY OF CRITICISM. 251 Nor could the Object which the Professor of a First Philosophy Class has in View be properly attained, by Confining the Attention of his Pupils Entirely to Geometry. Thaf Science, every one knows, addresses itself chiefly to the Intellec- tual Powers of Comparison and Deduction; and it is found from Expenerice that, amid the great Diversity of Human Talents, there are hut few Minds which discover any peculiar Aptitude for Geometrical Investigations. Besides, as the Men- tal Faculties, in their Growth and Progress, Exer- cise a Reciprocal Influence, and Exhibit a Close Dependence upon one another, it is to be Appre- hended that the Partial Direction of some of those Powers, while the rest remained Unemployed, might prove Hurtful to their General Culture. It may, indeed, be Established as a Principle that, whenever, in a Course of Early Education, this Dependence and Connexion are overlooked, one Faculty is apt to acquire such a Preponderance as greatly to retard the Expansion, and Improve- ment, of all the others. Thus, during the Scho- lastic Ages, as the whole force of Education was djrected to the Improvement of the Powers of Rea^ soning, many surprising instances of Acuteness and Penetration appeared among the Learned, and thus, in some degree^ rewarded the Labour so painfully bestowed upon the Crude and Technical Jargon, by which the Mind was, at that time, Conducted through her Intellectual Processes; but the Bad Eflects of this Exclusive and Partial I. 252 ON THE IMPROVEMENT OF TASTE BY THE STUDY OF CRITICISM. 253 Manner of Instruction were, at the same time, strikingly manifested, in the total Absence of In- vention, in the Decay of Taste, and in the Ne- gleet of the Important Powers of Communication. The Lectures, the Exercises, and the Discipline, of a First Philosophy Class ought, therefore, to be such as will promote equally and gradually the general Culture of the Mind, and the Improve- ment of every Separate Faculty. Were the Business confined to the Elements of Geometry, the Students would be Deprived, in a great measure, of all those Means of Improve- ment which are connected with the Know- ledge and Habits of Language, and upon which their Future Progress in Science, and in Art, so intimately depend. Mathematicians, it is well known, make but a Sparing Use of Language. Their Vocabularies are of small Extent; being confined to a few Abstract Terms, Algebraical Characters, and Diagrams. These, it is very obvious, are not only restricted to one Science, but are suited to call into Exercise only One Class of the Mental Powers: whereas, in every Period of Education, from the First to the Last, the Study of Language, including, of course, the formation and expansion of those Associations which connect 1 bought and Feeling with Verbal Signs, whether as used by the Orator, the Poet, or the Philosopher, gives full Scope and Exer- cise to all the Intellectual Endowments, — calls into Play the Imagination, the Memory, and Reason— and gives Birth to those rapid Processes of Thinking, Speaking, and Writing, which dis- tinguish the accomplished Scholar and the intelli- gent Man of Business. The very Perfection of this Science, and the vigorous Intellectual Efforts necessary to reach it, in some measure disqualify it for becoming the Basis of a First Class of Philosophy. Every Step in the Process is equally clear and certain. There is no room for Diversity of Opinion, Doubt, Conjecture, Hypothesis, or Theory. All must travel in the same Beaten Path, and the farther the Students Advance, the more is their Entrance Contracted. Those who have arrived at the highest parts of it, have few with whom they can converse. It has been already admitted, that the Study of Geometry has a Tendency to produce Habits of Regular and Steady Attention, and to accustom Young Persons to Form their Judgments, on Clear and Certain Evidence. This, however, it must be observed, is not the Kind of Evidence with which they will be chiefly Conversant, in prose- cuting other Branches of Science. The Conclu- sions of the Geometrician are founded upon Truths, either intuitive or demonstrable; whereas, in Ethics, Politics, Jurisprudence, Criticism, and Theology, our Reasonings are Supported upon 254 ON THE IMPROVEMENT OF TASTE 1 w i ^ different Principles, and are Sustained by quite a different Species of Evidence. The Mathemati- cian cannot proceed one Step without the Aid of Demonstration; while the Student, in other Departments of Human Research, must rest sa- tisfied with Certain Degrees of Probability, and even with Conjecture. There is, accordingly, no fimall hazard that the Young Mathematician may acquire such Notions of Evidence as will com- pletely disqualify him for making Progress, in other Branches of Study. Indeed, there have been many instances of able Writers, who, having formed their Habits of Reasoning on Geometric cal Principles, and having acquired a Predilection for the Kind of Evidence on which that Science rests, have absurdly attempted to carry them into Discussions which did not admit of their Applica- tion ; and there have been not a few distinguished Mathematicians, so devoted to their Favourite Pursuits, and so insensible to the Charms of all others, as not to have shewn any relish for Poetry, Eloquence, or the very Rational Studies of Taste jmd Criticism. It is not meant to be insinuated, however, that there are not many Minds of sufficient Strength, to resist this Tendency to an exclusive and bigot- ted Attachment On the contrary, it is most readily admitted, that there are many Individuals, and I have the pleasure of knowing som^ of them, who are not more distinguished by their Geome- BY THE STUDY OF CRITICISM. 25^ trical Knowledge than by their Acquirements, and the Strength and Soundness of their Judg- ment, on other Subjects. But no general Conclu- sion is to be drawn from Particulars ; and I have likewise known several persons, highly distinguish, ed by Mathematical Attainments, who were to be ranked even below Mediocrity, in more Common Studies. At all events, it is Certain that, in every Case where the Time and Attention are chiefly devoted to Geometrical Inquiries, and where a Strong Taste is contracted for these Pursuits, not only will a Reasonable Portion of Study be denied to other Departments of Learning, but even a Certain Degree of Indifference, or of Dislike, to these, will be permitted to grow upon the Mind, and ultimately to Disqualify the Student for en. tering upon them with Success. These remarks are not to be considered as Ap- plicable to the Science of Geometry, viewed as a Separate Branch of Human Learning, but solely to the Use which is sometimes made of it, as an Introduction to Philosophical Educa- tion. Its Unbounded Utility in Extendin«r the Sphere of Physical Knowledge; its Dignity and Sublimity as an Instrument of Thought, in the very highest Tracks to which Intellect Soars, in the Search of Truth ; and its general Subser- viency to the most Exalted Pleasures which Rea- son, enlightenedand refined, is capable of Enjoying, are neither doubted nor denied. It is, in no respect. o V*" 256 ON THE IMPROVEIiENT OF TASTE BY THE STUDY OF CRITICISM. 257 derogatory to this noble Science, nor can it be construed as implying the Slightest Impeachment of the Wisdom of those who Introduced it, at a Certain Stage, into the Academical Course, to maintain that there are other Subjects, in the wide Field of Human Learning, better fitted for the Purposes of a General Education. Why should all the Students in a University, however Different their Abilities, their Taste, their Cir- cumstances in Life, and Future Destination in the World, be obliged to follow one Particular Line of Study, beginning, and ending, in the Principles of One Science ? I have often wished that some of those able Men who support this View of Things, in Relation to the Materials of Public Instruction, would take the trouble to point out wherein consists the Connection be- tween the Study of Mathematics and the General Culture of the Mental Powers ; and, particularly, between the Higher Parts of Geometry, and the mode of Studying Ethics, Politics, Law, Jurispru- dence. Theology, and the Fine Arts, — the Sci- ences, so to call them, of Business, of Human Life, and of Manners. We certainly do not find that Philosophers, Divines, Legislators, Orators, or Men of Business, are particularly distinguished by their Acquisitions in this Science ; and we seldom hear them, where they refer to their Education and acquired Knowledge, ascribe their Sue* cess to Geometrical Skill, or to a minute Ac- quaintance with Algebraical Analysis. It is, on the contrary, to Studies of a more General Ten- dency, to Language, History, Eloquence, Morals, and Law, that they are usually found to Attribute whatever Art may have added to Nature, in Strength of Talent, or in Command of Ke- sources. Nor is it a satisfactory Answer to these Re- marks to say that, when Young Persons have once been Accustomed to Reason closely, on Mathematical Subjects, this Improved Habit may easily be Transferred to Subjects of every other Description. Such Transferences are not so easi- ly made as seems to be imagined. When Persons, as has been already remarked, have been accustomed to Exercise the Reasoning Powers, on any Particular Class of Objects, there arises an Inclination, and an Aptitude, to Employ them in that Way, and not in any Other. This is a Fact fully confirmed by Experience. The same Views which have been here given of the Study of Geometry, as Unfit for the Business of a First Class of Philosophy, seem to have been en- tertained by Dr. Warburton— -a name high in Literature. In his Introduction to Julian, he thus expresses himself. «* But the truth is, all its " use seems to be only habituating the Mind to « Think Long and Closely, and it would be well " if this Advantage made Amends for some In- conveniences inseparable from its Study. It JtV iC €t cc u 258 ON THE IMPROVEMENT OF TASTE, &C. « if, it a a a il<'i f •\ 326 OF THE FOURTH ORDER OF THEMES. states of society, from his observation of the state of arts among them, and the facts which are nar- rated, he will be at no loss to form pretty dis- tinct notions of the internal state of such societies. Finally, the Professor should often present such subjects of investigation to his Students, and never leave them .without affording them some- thing to inquire about, or to search for, and if he can once render this process of mind habitual, the Student will require little farther assistance from his Teacher ; and the great end of this part of education will be in a great measure accom- plished. OF THE FOURTH ORDER OF THEMES, 327 OF THE FOURTH ORDER OF THEMES. Of the Themes hitherto explained, the chief object has been to teach the student to acquire materials or elements of reasoning and communi- cation. About one-half of the session is occupied with such exercises. After that period, they are made to take a wider range. The Students may now be supposed to have added considerably to their knowledge by the daily Lectures, by the course of reading in which they have been engaged, and by some progress in habits of such preparation, they are now required to ex- ecute Themes of a higher order, of which the object is, to communicate their knowledge to others, in compositions, by which certain subjects are explained or illustrated in all their parts, or by which the truth or falsehood of propositions is established by appropriate arguments. The former Themes employed the labours, some of them, of one, and others, perhaps, of two even- iuffs, but for the execution of these exercises, a longer portion of time is allowed, perhaps five, or six, or even eight days, that they may have sufficient time for collecting and arranging their materials. The Students have now more time to account for; but these Themes are com- posed under the conviction, that they are to be subjected to minute examination by the Profes- sor and their fellow Students, and that one of the first general criticisms will be to determine whether the execution corresponds to the time al- lowed, and to the industry which might be reason- ably expected. But before I proceed to give directions for the composition of these Themes, which have been sug- gested to me by experience, I find it advisable to give the Students the advantage of those rules which the logicians have presented for the assist- ance of young composers. They are certainly useful, if not as rules to be closely observed, attention, investigation, and composition. With S28 OF THE FOURTH ORDER OF THEMES. OF THE FOURTH ORDER OF THEMES. 329 at least as suggestions which may often prevent omissions. The rules of composition which have chiefly been added to the ancient logic, by the scholastic writers, are such as may be applied to the manage- ment of simple and of complex Themes. They are said to be simple, when the subject is such as may be expressed by a term or terms without affir- mation or negation, as philosophy, education, emu- lation, chivalry — the taking of Troy — the battle of Cannae — the fall of the Roman Empire. Complex Themes are important and probable propositions, which require proof or confirmation. Logic is a useful study — ^youth is the season of improve- ment — wisdom is better than riches — evil com- munication corrupts good manners, &c. The rules are intended to conduct the Student from the first step to the last, to suggest the order in which the materials are to be introduced, and to prevent them from deviating from the path which leads most directly to the end in view. Before the Student sets out on his investigation, they afford, as it were, a general prospect of the country through which he is to pass, of the route he must take, and of what may be required to accomplish it with success. These rules direct the Student to begin with fixing exactly the meaning of the term or terms by which the subject of the theme is expressed, that every thing doubtful or equivocal may be re- moved respecting the meaning which the com- poser has adopted. Difficulties on this point are to be settled by the canons of Etymology and the sig- nification adopted by the best writers. They are next required to explain the subject, by a selec- tion and enumeration of its essential and acciden- tal qualities, according to the order of their im- port, so as to convey clear notions of the subject of the Theme. When the subject will admit of it, the Student must not be satisfied with a direct explanation of the Theme, but must also give an account of its origin and progress, the perfection or decline of the matter to which it relates, and its connexion with things of a similar nature, with a division of it into its logical or integral parts. It is not every Theme which requires the appli- cation of all these rules. The first rule may be sometimes necessary ; the second is indispensable in all subjects; the other rules are only occa- sionally required. A rigid adherence to these rules might render composition formal, but that, in a great measure, will be remedied by frequent use and judicious application. These rules may be aptly illustrated by taking the ancient logic as the subject of a simple Theme. The object of the first rule is attained by settling the derivation of the term, and the analogy on which it is found- ed, together with the meaning of the epithet an-^ cient applied to it. Next follows an explanation of Tt 330 OF THE FOURTH ORDER OF THEMES. the qualities, uses, end of this art, and of the means by which the end is accompHshed, viz. by its rules of distinction, definition, classification, syllogism, and method, with the other appendages of the ancient logic, loci, sophisms, &c. each of them re- quiring a short explanation. This Theme also ad- mits of an abridged narrative of the origin pro- gress, and reception which the ancient Logic met with, at different times, its decline, the substitution of another mode of reasoning, and, lastly, the rela- tion it bears to other branches of Philosophy. Supposing chivalry the subject of a simple Theme, it admits of a similar application of the above rules. The rules which experience has enabled me to prescribe to juvenile composers, are such as are addressed not only to the understanding, but to the feelings of youth, and should carry with them the authority both of reason and of senti- ment ; but still they are such as cannot be practis- ed, unless they proceed from the voluntary deter- mination of the individual. The young composer must be firmly convinced, that the application of these technical rules supposes the disposition and resolution to put them in practice. He must carry with him to his study a sincere and earnest desire to execute his Theme in the best manner he can,forhe cannot expect to attain what he does not desire, nor to .observe these or any other rules, unless he com- mand his attention to them. He may as well OF THE FOURTH ORDER OF THEMES. S3l expect to see a visible object without turning his eyes towards it, as to compose a Theme without exerting the power of thinking ; and, whatever his genius or talents may be, he must employ time and labour in proportion to the extent of his Theme, and the difficulty of completing it. When the Student sits down to compose his Theme, I am aware that he requires some other assistance than that afforded by logical rules. In- structions cannot be too plain, or too minute, when directed to young persons just entered upon a new and difficult course of study. The experi- ence which I have had of the anxieties and per- plexities which assail the youthful mind, in its first endeavours to arrange and express, in a regular form, the elements of reasoning, has induced me to place myself beside the Student in these moments when his difficulties are most formidable. Let emulation be prescribed as the subject of a simple Theme, which the Student is required to explain and illustrate ; and let it be the business of the teacher to watch over his efforts, and his demands, and to give seasonable assistance. Comprehend- ing the end or purpose of the Theme, the de- mand of the Student is for materials to execute it. Where are these to be found? His first recourse will probably be to authors who have treated of emulation. But he is instructed that there . is a much more fertile source near at hand, which will furnish him with materials, pro- 332 OF THE FOURTH ORDER OF THEMES. vided he seek after them in the proper way-his own mind-his own experience and recollections. When he puts the question to h.mself. what is emulation? Let him recollect the scenes on which he hi already acted, or on which he has observed others act He will remember, that when he was en<^aged with his companions, the common Ta w'among them was. » I can do this and Tyi innot.il can do it better than you. When farther advanced, he may remember how he contended to be first in all youthful amuse- ments. He must have read the beautiful descnp- tion of Gray. Who, foremost now, delights to cleave . With pliant arms the glassy wave ; The captive linnet which enthrall ; What idle progeny succeed, To chace the rolling circle's speed, Or urge the flying ball. The Student may have still more recent remem- brances. He may recollect, that when at schoo he contended for the first place m his class or for the first prize in the preparatory classes at Col- leire Upon the clear recollection of these asso. ci!ti;ns. and from congenial feelings -hich may now actually exist in his mind, !«*/"" ^""^"fs from himself an answer to the question, What s emulation ? A desire and endeavour to excel. What is it that excites this desire? An o^ect which other competitors wish to possess. Must OF THE FOURTH ORDER OF THEMES. 333 the object of competition have intrinsic value ? No, it may be a sprig of laurel, a palm branch, a fox's tail, a medal, a book, a seat of preferment or of honour. What is it then which gives value to the object ? It is the circumstance of obtain- ing it before all other competitors, and in the pre- sence of spectators. It is their reflected praise which animates the competitors, and which makes the breast of the Student palpitate when he re- ceives his prize. The experience of competitions in which the Student has been engaged, or those which he has observed, will suggest to him that emulation, in its purest form, can only take place where the prize is won by the personal exertions of the in- dividual. When any undue means are used to obtain it, or any obstacle directly or indirectly thrown in the way of a rival competitor, the ge- nerous flame of emulation is extinguished, and a mean degrading spirit is substituted in its place. One would think that the mortification which the Student must suffer, when he receives a prize which he is conscious he did not deserve, should dispose him to spurn it as altogether unworthy of his acceptance. He cannot have forgotten the manner in which the friendly stratagem of Nisus, in favour of Euryalus, was received by the other competitors, at the celebration of the Virgilian games. S34 OF THE FOURTH ORDER OF THEMES. Again, what are the effects of emulation? When this principle operates with full effect, it is the cause of vigorous conflict, of persevering exertion, con- tempt of difficulties and danger, increasing hopes, eager expectation, and, in the moments of success, of exquisite delight. But that the Student may have a clearer view of this generous and energetic feeling, he may be directed to the histories of great characters and great events, distinguishing that which belongs to emulation, from the effects of other feelings not unfrequently associated with it. He will be enabled to draw a clear line of distinction, when he considers that the love of fame, and the love of power, are fixed upon the possession of their objects, without any view to competition, or the means by which they may be obtained; whereas the effects of emulation spring from the desire of excelling the other competi- tors. The Student must also beware of taking a contracted view of the field of competition. That field may be called up by the imagination. The person in whom the true spark of emulation is kindled, may imagine himself placed upon the same arena with the competitors of other coun- tries, and other ages. When Caesar passed the statue of Alexander, he is said to have burst into tears, because the Macedonian had surpassed him in all his actions at an eariier age. Virgil en- deavoured to rival the fame of Homer, and Ci- OF THE FOURTH ORDER OF THEMES. 335 cero that of Demosthenes. When the principles of emulation and ambition are conjoined in the same character, and in the same actions, it will require nice discrimination to determine what be- longs to each. The principle of emulation, though inherent in man, is one of those which is unfolded in the social, and not in the solitary state. It is not con- fined to the breasts of kings and princes, of heroes and men of genius ; but is to be found in the cottage, as well as in the palace. In many situa- tions, its influence is peculiarly exerted, and will be found a most valuable auxiliary in public se- minaries of education. It is the constant and pleasing resource of the Student, which enables him to support intellectual labour, and to sur- mount difficulties in the way to academical fame and honour. A shade of this principle seems to descend to the inferior animals. The race-horse is prompted to exertion, by the struggle of other horses engaged in the same career. This sketch is not intended to serve as a specimen of a simple Theme on emulation, but merely as a general survey of the ground, with the view of pointing out to the Student where materials may be found. There is indeed but little difficulty in conducting him over this field. He has only to embrace the subject of the Theme closely, to apply to his own mind, to press him- 336 ON COMPLEX THEMES, ON COMPLEX THEMES. 337 self with interrogatories relative to his demands, to follow out the natural associations of things, and he will soon find materials enough, and arrive at much information which he could not other- wise have conceived to be within his reach. When he has once obtained his materials, he has only to select and arrange them, according to the end he has in view ; nor will he find much difficulty in suitably expressing what he distinctly knows. cui lecta potenter erit res, Ncc facundia deserct hunc nee lucidus ordo. ON COMPLEX THEMES. It will not be necessary to enlarge on the rules which Logicians have recommended for the ma- nagement of complex Themes, the general object ofwhich is to confirm the truth of propositions by argument or evidence, and to establish the truth of causes, or the certainty of relations. The most important of the rules required foi conduct- ing both kind of Themes are the same, in so tar at least as the object of both is the attainment of clear notions, lucid arrangement, and perspicuous expression.-The special rules which relate to the management of these Themes may be short- ly enumerated. That no Propositions but such as are important and probable, can form pro- per Subjects; that the meaning of the Subjects, and predicates of the Proposition, be accurately fixed and freed from every degree of doubt or am- biguity; that the extent of the affirmation or nega- tion be distinctly ascertained, that the Proposition be stated in the most intelligible manner, and the subject divided according to the logical rules of division; — That the attention of the Student be next directed to the kind of Evidence by which the Proposition is to be established; that the arguments be so arranged as to support each other, and be introduced in such order as that those which precede shall throw light on those that are to follow, and form a connected chain of com- parisons by which the agreement or disagreement expressed in the Proposition shall be made manifest. It may often happen that some of the intermediate arguments or proofs may themselves require illus- tration. These must be brought forward in their proper place. Finally, all objections against the Proposition must be explicitly and candidly an- swered ; and the Proof be concluded with a re- capitulation of the united strength of all the argu- ments which have been brought to confirm it It is imposible to prescribe rules which shall exactly accord with the variety of subjects which many come under this order of Themes; and there- Uu 338 ON COMPLEX THEMES. fore much is necessarily left to the judgment and sagacity of the Composer in particular cases. Though he cannot properly apply rules of demon- stration, yet the method and cef »»V ^^7*^- stration ought to be his standard as the best and most irresistible method of gaining admission to the assent of the mind. He must imitate the Geometn- cian in first attempting to establish ^.ith clearness the principle or datum on which each deduction rests The Reasoner, however, on general subjects, cannot follow closely the demonstrator because a demonstration consists of one kind of Data only, ^vhereastheproofofa probable P-^op.osition may admit of various kinds of arguments, each of them adding something to the strength of the proba- bility, till their united strength be sufficient to de- termine the assent of the mind. That the Student may be aware of the different grounds or principles on ^hich deductions m pro- bable reasoning may rest, he is directed to have recourse to consciousness, common sense, expen- ence, axioms, intuitive propositions, analogy, tes- timony, facts already proven, and the undeviat- ing laws of nature. To these the Student should applv as the particular case may require ; and in orde'r to a right application of them, his attention ,is first directed to some of the -ost approved specimens of sound reasoning. One of Ucero s Tusculan questions, or one of his paradoxes, the 6th for example, is selected-So/ww saptentem dmtem I ON COMPLEX THEMES. 3S9 esse^ and the Student is required to state in writ- ing the data from, which the deductions or con- clusions are taken, to specify the different kinds of evidence by which the leading Proposition has been supported, and to characterize the illustra- tions which are adopted. They may be also re- quired, in such exercises, to appreciate the num- ber, strength, and importance of the respective ar- guments, and the precise extent of the conclu- sions which they warrant. A similar analysis is ap- plied to the arguments in the Philippics, by which Demosthenes induced the Athenians to oppose the designs of Philip ; those by which Cicero de- fended Milo, or impeached Verres; or by which Hanno attempted to dissuade the Carthaginians from intrusting the command of the army to Han- nibal. It is obvious, that frequent occupations^of this kind, suggested from former studies, or from such other specimens of reasoning as may fall within the reach of the Students, must be a good preparation for those of a higher order, when a sub- ject or Proposition is proposed which they are re- quired to confirm or establish. ' The following subjects have been prescribed, " Logic is a useful study.'* " Youth is the seap son of improvement." " The hand of the diligent maketh rich." " Personal talents and virtues are the noblest acquisitions." Other subjects are prescribed in the form of questions. What are the great obstacles in beginning a course of Philo- S40 ON COMPLEX THEMES. sophy ? What are the advantages of classical li- terature ? Is the institution of prizes in Universi- ties useful ? Do holidays promote study ? Some- times again the Students are required to execute comparisons, between public and private educa- tion, between the diligent and careless Student, between a town and country life, the syllogistic and inductive mode of reasoning, &c. &c. It is presumed, that these occupations constantly and regularly practised, must tend to accustom the mind of youth to investigation, and not only to enable them to find the materials, but to put them together, and to express them in the manner best adapted to the end which they have in view. It may be said, that the Students of a First Class of Philosophy cannot possess sufficient knowledge or materials to write upon such sub- jects ; and if perfect or finished compositions were expected, there might be good grounds for entertaining that opinion. On the other hand, it is abundantly obvious, that if Students did not be- gin to compose on any subject till they had obtain- ed-a complete knowledge of it, they would never begin at all. The season for forming that im- portant habit would thus be utterly lost. In all cases, perfect specimens must be preceded by many unsuccessful efforts. An eminent writer has candidly acknowledged, that he would be ashamed to disclose the many unsuccessful at- ON THE FIFTH ORDER OF THEMES. 341 tempts he had made before he could produce any thing worthy of public attention. Imperfect then as the first exercises of the Students may be, they constitute the natural and indispensable steps which lead to higher degrees of perfection ; and « to whom can such imperfect attempts be so pro- perly submitted, as to a teacher who can direct how they may be rendered more complete ? Be- sides, these subjects have all of them their easier ' and more accessible parts, and it is moreover in the power of the Student to add to his knowledge by reading and by reflection. He may be said to begin his work with the small capital he has already acquired, and to trust also to that which, by assi- duity and diligence, he may afterwards realize. Nor ought the difficulty of the execution to be altogether remedied. It must be allowed to press upon his mind, not indeed with such force as to break his spirit, but so as to rouse his faculties to powerful and continued exertion. " Possunt ** quia posse videntury ON THE FIFTH ORDER OF THEMES. The object of this order of Themes is the im- provement of the powers of Genius and of Taste, by a practical course of discipline. Having in a 1^^- 342 ON THE FIFTH ORDER OF THEMES. former part of these essays, endeavoured to give an analysis of that combination of the intellect- ual powers to which the term Genius is commonly applied, I now proceed to state the course of exercises, which are prescribed with the view of unfolding and invigorating those powers. The following are such as seem best calculated to lead the minds of youth to those important distinctions in the matter and in the manner of composition, which will instruct and guide them, not only m their early efforts, but in their subsequent progress. The more perfect the knowledge of the Stu- dent in classical literature, the greater advantage will he receive from the Themes of this order. It is an important step to form clear and just notions of those efforts which are considered as the immediate result of Genius. Such knowledge will not indeed confer the capacity, but where the germ of Genius exists in the mind, it must lead to encourage and unfold it. Some of the questions which are here put to the Students may be thought too difficult, but let them attempt to answer them, even if they should partly fail. What are those parts in the Iliad which best discover the invention of Homer; and what are those passages which betray the least of it ? What are various shades of courage, with their combinations, in the Heroes of the Iliad? What are those traits in the poetry of Virgil, by which it is distinguished from Homer ? Similar ques- ON THE FIFTH ORDER OF THEMES. 343 tions may be put respecting modern as well as ancient Poets. Subjects still more general may be prescribed. What is the distinction between poetry and prose ? What are the limits to which poetic fiction should be subjected. At other times, the Students are re- quired to imitate a dialogue in the manner of Socra- tes — a fable in that of jEsop — an eastern story simi- lar to those in the Arabian Nights Entertainments. On reading the biographical accounts of men of eminent talents, they are desired to state the cir- cumstances and incidents which gave an early direction to their genius; and the manner in which obstacles were removed. I mention so many and various subjects, that the Teacher may perceive the resources which are withiil his range. It is again admitted that Genius does not ori- ginate in the technicalities of education, or in the observance of abstract rules for training the powers of intellect. But it naturally occurs to ask. Has the teacher no other way of working but by the mechanism of rules ? Has he no op- portunities of communicating vivifying impres- sions, and of rousing activities which cannot be touched by artificial precepts ? He is the instruc- tor of young men who are just come from classic ground, and, it may be supposed, have had their minds in some degree awakened to those beauties 344 ON THE FIFTH ORDER OF THEMES. which they have met within thesefavoured regions. The first dawn of manly study is new and pleasnig; and young men are delighted with the conscious- ness of their mental activities. The presence of a numerous band of youth, in similar circumstances; nearly of the same age, engaged in the same pur suits, and contending for the same distmctions, affords favourable opportunities of exciting those sparks of emulation and ambition which have such powerful influence on the intellectual energies. Sanguine in their hopes, willing to labour, and pleased with instruction, they set out with the most agreeable anticipation and are elated with the hopes of success. With the same view of unfolding and ex- tending the power of Genius, exercises are oc casionally presented, towards the end of the Ses- sion,which afford still more ample scope for their ingenuity and industry. In the former Class of Themes, the Students have been accustom- ed to the strict observation of rules, but they should be sometimes left to make rules for them- selves, in the management of their Themes. In the fine arts, unless the work of the imitator excel the copy, the arts are at a stand, and no farther pro- gress can be expected. Rules prevent deviations and irregularities, but they cannot create inven- tions, or lead to any high degree of excellence. The noblest works of genius have not been the re- OF THE FIFTH ORDER OF THEMES. 34^5 suit of rules, but, on the contrary, they have often sprung from ignorance, and even from a positive violation of rules. Many men of genius have had none of the advantages of regular education. Young persons, therefore, in the course of their education, should be left on some occasions to the native impulse of genius and of taste; to make bold attempts ; to disdain the little limits of their reign ; and " unknown regions to descry.*' The great diversity of talents and of taste, in so many young persons, should be allowed to disclose it- self, and not always be forced into the same direction, or be stretched upon the same Pro- crustes' bed. In this class, therefore, of voluntary Themes, the choice of the subject, and the manner of treat* ing it, are left to the direction of the Student, with those restrictions only, that the subject shall be important, and that it shall bear the accus- tomed relations to the Themes, usually prescribed in this class. If any Student make an improper or unseemly choice, his labour is lost, and the Theme is returned with the stigma it deserves. Experience has suggested a necessary precau- tion in the entry upon this sort of exercise. Young persons, in such circumstances, are apt to be undecided in their choice of a subject, and to spend much time in chusing, and in re- jecting. They are, therefore, required in two X X 346 OF THE FIFTH ORDEE OF THEMES. days, to intimate the choice they have made. They are desired to chuse a subject according to the Ln known precept of Horace:--" Sujnrte materiam." &c. from among the number ot those ^ith which they think themselves best acqu^n^ ed; one, on which they are disposed to think, or 'to reflect; and one, if possible, of which th^y may have already made some tnal. They ai e allowed also to chuse the form and method of their exercise. It may be a narrative, or a de^ scription. an argument conducted >« ^e Jorm of a dialogue or essay, or of declamation or de- bate ; an epistle or a fable ; a specimen of inu- Ution or of investigation. It may be either com- posed in prose or in verse, epic, dramatic, or pastoral. The Students are particularly de^r. ed to bring forward their performance in their own manner, that an opportunity may be Bi- forded of giving them instruction, as the parti- cular case may require. They a/e required to subjoin a signed declaration ^oi^^-J^^^^^^ it is their own composition, and not seieciea or copied from any Author. This exercise is very important, and ought not to pass without a particular review. The stu- dents have been invited to try their strength, to discover the natural bent of their mmds, and and those peculiar talents on which their future prospects and success in life depend. Ihey are entitled to the deliberate judgment of their in- OF THE FIFTH ORDEE OF THEMES. 347 structor. A rash or inconsiderate judgment might flatter delusive hopes, or check the rising efforts of talents. The Teacher may have it in his power to impart such counsels as may save much fruit- less labour, and prove the means of much future success. The Teacher has, indeed, a diflScult task to perform in passing his judgment on such essays. He may, perhaps, find it necessary to commu- nicate instructions which are not to be found among the canons of criticism, and to oppose partial judgments in their own favour. He may have to recommend a different direction of talent from that which may be discovered in the specimen, and to tell the Students plain- ly where their strength or their weakness lies, where the current is likely to carry them, and where it is to set. When he has to judge of poe- tical essays, he may have to intimate, whether he thinks the promises in that direction are suffi- ciently strong, or in what department of poetry they are most likely to succeed ; and not unfre- quently to advise those who conceive, that to clothe their thoughts in metrical enunciation is to write poetry, to confine themselves to the more humble path of prosaic composition. To the exercises which lead to the improve- ment of the powers of genius, I have added those which respect the improvement of the memory. » 348 ON THE FIFTH ORDER OF THEMES. This faculty has a close connexion with all the other powers of mind, and in a certain sense may be said to be the basis of them all. A good me- mory, is in some measure, essential to genms. Plato and Aristode call the memory, the health of the senses, and of intelligence ; and one of them ex- pressly says, that those who excel in genms remem- ber most easily. Quintilian considers it as a mark of early genius. " Ingenii signum in puero praeci- puum memoria est." " Ejus duplex virtus facile percipere et fideliter continere." It carries with it almost the force of an axiom, that a ready, distmct, and tenacious memory, must greatly facilitate the exercise of the higher powers of the mind. It is, however, scarcely necessary here to men- tion the Themes or exercises which respect the improvement of memory; for the whole busmess of the class, in one way or other, tends to the improvement of this faculty. Every thing that contributes to improve the power of attention, has a direct influence on the power of remembrance. The Students are every day responsible for an ac- count of the Lecture, and soon after they hear it, must give a written sketch of it. The exami- nations, in the manner in which they are conduct- ed. afford a constant and regular exercise to the faculty of memory. The only direct exercises, therefore, which I have been in the habit of pro- posing for the improvement of the memory, are the following, which are optional. The Students OF THE FIFTH ORDER OF THEMES. 349 who attend the College Chapel on Sunday, are de- sired to give a specimen of recollection, without notes or assistance of any kind, of the sermon, which specimen is read in the class on the fol- lowing day« Upon one occasion, near the end of the Session, a prize is proposed to the Students for the best specimen of recollection of a particular sermon, which, by a note subjoined, they must de- clare was the sole effort of their own memory with- out taking notes. To secure to the candidates an impartial determination, the specimens are put into the hands of the preacher, and he is desired to put his mark, not on the best composed specimen, but oft the one which contains most of the substance of his sermon. The general effect of such exer- cises, in addition to the religious and moral know- ledge which they are calculated to impart, is the improvement of the faculty of recollection, and the habit of carrying from discourse or conversa- tion whatever may seem of importance. An attempt was made some years ago in this, and I believe also in most of the other Universi- ties, ty a person calling himself a German Profes- sor, to introduce what he considered as a great improvement on the ancient doctrine of artificial memory; and, I have no doubt, that by his clumsy local compartments and aiTangements, and a very industrious method of preparing his pupils, which he kept out of view as much as pos- sible, he might enable them to remember by asso- 350 OP THE THIED OEDEE OF THEMES. ciation a few things readily. But his method was not calculated to afford any general aid to the faculty of memory. In truth, the extension of his association would of itself soon become a cum- brous load to the memory of most persons; and the more it is practised, the more inimical it seems to the general culture of this faculty. Some of those who zealously espoused this doctrine, ima- gined that they had engrafted prodigious memo- ries in their children, but had the mortification to find, that no general effect had been Produced, and that the whole system was nothmg more than a piece of metaphysical quackery, which was at first sight a Uttle imposing in its ostensible effects, but was not productive of any permanent im- proveroent on the faculty of memory. ON THE METHOD OF DETEEMINING THE MEEITS OP THE THEMES. The labours and the anxieties of the Student are by no means at an end when he has executed the prescribed Theme, nor those of tbe Professor when he has deUvered his Lecture, and finished his exa- xnination. It cannot be expected, A^t the difficu t art of composition can be acquired by the Students from listening to Lectures, and makmg a tew un- connected efforts to express their thoughts onpaper. ON DETERMINING THE MERITS OF THEMES. 351 The execution of a series of such specimens, is the foundation on which the only effective system of discipline can be constructed; without which, nei- ther the Professor nor his Students, can be pro- perly said to have discharged their respective duties. What, let me ask once more without offence, is the line of conduct which the master- artist pursues, when his apprentice has shewn him his first specimen of workmanship ? He examines it carefully, he minutely compares it with the in- structions he gave, and points out to his appren- tice where he has done right, where he has failed, and where also he has succeeded vbeyond expec- tation. He accompanies his remarks with still farther instructions, to be observed in the next succeeding attempt. When the next specimen is produced, he makes a still more scrupulous ex- amination, he extends his instructions to smaller imperfections, and directs his attention to nicer beauties. The Teacher of Philosophy, if he wishes to do any good, must follow this example ; and I take the liberty to add, that such a person neither understands his art nor his duty, if he does not cheerfully bestow the additional time and la- hour, which the circumstances of his Students certainly require. The specimens executed by the Students are not all of that order which require to be submitted to the deliberate examination of the Professor. On the specimens of the first class of Themes, 352 ON DETERMINING THE MERITS OF THEMES. he requires only that the Student should read them, when called upon, in the presence of the class; and he takes an opportunity of making such re- marks as occur. Those which are to undergo a more complete examination, are usually entered upon about the middle of the Session, and are composed with that view. A greater degree of attention is bestowed upon them, and longer time is given for their execution. The Themes must be written out in a clear distinct hand, without interlineations or corrections. They must likewise be delivered at the appointed time, that another exercise may be prescribed wh?le the former is under examination. The Professor car- ries the exercises home with him for private exa- mination, and brings a certain number of them every day to the class, with the corrections which which he has made, and reads such parts of the Themes and criticisms as he finds necessa- ry. In this manner, during the two or three months of the Session, the business is carried on ; one Theme being under inspection, and in the course of being read in the Class, and returned to the Students, while they are preparing another to be subjected to the same trial, to undergo the same process of remark in private, and reading in public. The advantages of this method ot in- struction can scarcely be appreciated except by those who have seen them realized in their actual experience. For example, it is impossible for the Professor to anticipate by instructions what can ON DETERMINING THE MERITS OF THEMES. 353 only be suggested by the specimens in his hand. The Student, we may suppose, has exerted all his skill, and no small share of labour, in the composi- tion of the Theme, and it now remains with the Teacher to appreciate his success. He thereby knows, too, what farther instruction may be re- quired, and the Student is in a favourable situa- tion to profit by any thing that may be said. Without such or similar intercourse, in short, the production of first specimens of composition can- not contribute much to the improvement of the Student. It is scarcely necessary to remark, that the na- ture of the judgments which the Professor passes on the compositions of his Students, must vary ac- cording to the merits or demerits of the execution, the form of the composition, and the progress which the Student has already discovered. There are two general views, however, which the Pro- fessor endeavours to keep before him in the exami- nation of these Themes. First, to trace the course or tenor of the Student's mind, from the beginning to the end, in the introduction, selection, and con- nexion of his materials that he may be enabled to point out, when he has gone astray, when he has kept on the right path, and whether he has chosen the best course to attain his end. Secondly, To observe whether the quality of the style be such as seems best accommodated to the nature Yv 354 OK DETERMINING THE MERITS OF THEMES. and kind of the materials, and to the end in view. When the Professor returns these exercises, he delivers his judgment publicly in the class, and reads those parts of the Theme, when he cannot overtake the whole, to which his remarks have a particular reference, at the same time, informing the author for his benefit, and that of the class, whe- ther upon the whole the subject has been properly treated, in what points it is defective, whether digressive matter has been introduced, the rules of method properly attended to, and the language adapted to the subject; nor must he forget to point out these parts of the Theme in which the Student has been most successful, that by his public approbation he may confirm the industry and ambition of the author, and excite the emula- tion of his fellow-Students. Thou'rh the time and labour requisite to exa- mine the Themes of a class, which of late years has amounted to nearly twohundredStudents.be consi- derable, experience and habit enable the Teacher to execute this work more expeditiously than would be at first sight believed. A few hours in the evening during the latter period of the session, are sufficient for the examination ot as many Themes as he can publicly discuss the following day. A slight perusal of many of them is all that is necessary to perceive their general defects or merits, and the facility which ON DETERMINING THE MERITS OF THEMES. 355 every teacher may acquire in this sort of criti- cism, has enabled him to make his remarks use- ful, even when the Theme is not publicly read. Referring to certain technical marks previously explained to the class, indicative of digression, redundance, repetition, obscurity — defective or ill arranged sentences, — faulty epithets, which he fixes on the margin, the Student is directed to those parts of his Theme which require farther attention, and to the general nature of the defects which have been noticed. And if the Student has any doubt regarding the import of these tech- nical marks, he has every day an opportunity of becoming acquainted with the principles of Criticism, which regulate the opinion of the Pro- fessor. It must be acknowledged that the correction of Themes in this manner, and, particularly, the ex- posure of defects, so as not to give offence, is a matter of considerable delicacy, and requires some prudence. Young persons may be readily excused for thinking too highly of their own per- formances, while they are apt to be disappointed and discouraged upon discovering imperfections where they were not expected. In such circum- stances, the Professor must touch their failings with a tender hand, and in the spirit of parental kindness and forbearance. The earliest buds of Spring are easily affected by the inclemency of the atmosphere, and harsh remarks, or even the f 1 356 ON DETERMINING THE MERITS OF THEMES. delivery of them in a forbidding and authorita- tive manner might prevent altogether the farther effects of such useful and improving exercises. The instructions and admonitions, therefore, ot the Teacher, should fall upon the tender minds of youth, like gentle rain on the new sown-fields; and communicate both nourishment and vigour. When the Professor, in this way, lays open to youth the sources of mistake and of error, and smooths the access to the Sciences, their candid and ingenuous minds readily yield to salutary in- struction. It is on such occasions, when their minds are rendered attentive and docile, that he has it in his power to reach the latent springs ot action, to give young minds a favourable direc tion, and to do more good than could be done by ingenious Lectures, or by severe remonstrance. The most difficult, at least the most delicate, part of the Professor's business, is the treatment of the more faulty exercises. Were he to expose them m the unqualified terms of disapprobation which they may possibly deserve, he might ruin every chance of being useful to their Authors. He must be satis- fied with overlooking at first some of these faults, and neglecting no opportunity of encouraging the Student to do better. The approbation which he bestows on meritorious exercises is to many » sufficient reproof, and were the Professor to add a fuU exposure of defects, alienation and aversion from study would probably be the immediate con- ON DETERMINING THE MERITS OF THEMES. 357 sequence. The Teacher, therefore, as far as he is warranted by prudence and ulterior views, must mingle some approbation even with his severest censure, and lay hold of every thing that can afford encouragement. On no account must he lose that influence which he possesses over the minds of his Students, in the use of which stands his only chance of bringing them within the reach of improvement. This regular method of appreciating the merit of Themes, in a class of Philosophy, has not been much followed; but it will appear still more novel to commit the de- termination of the merits of Themes to the Stu- dents themselves. Yet according to the plan of conducting the business of the first class establish, ed here, this plan is absolutely necessary. With all the time and attention the Teacher can bestow on so numerous a class, and with all the expedi- tion he can acquire by constant practice, he can- not possibly overtake the examination of all the Themes ; and yet unless the Themes are regularly examined and brought into public notice, the at- tention of those Students whose exercises are overlooked, will soon become relaxed, their spirits depressed, and their feelings irritated. If our Themes pass without notice, they will naturally ask, why need we give ourselves so much trouble in composing them ? The whole Themes there- fore must be examined, or the plan must be given up. II I 358 ON DETERMINING THE MERITS OF THEMES. This situation has suggested a method of review, of which much use is made in the Logic Class, which not only removes that objection, but brings with it incalculable advantages which cannot be obtained in any other way. When the Themes are ready for examination, the Professor makes choice of tenortwelveStudents most distinguished by their abilities and progress, and to them are committed the review of such Themes as he cannot himselt overtake. These are, in the language of the class, called Examinators, a less assuming title than that of critics or censors: Toeach of them acertain num- ber of Themes is committed, for which of course they are accountable, and which they are required to read over carefully, to examine in every part, that they may be able to appreciate their merits, and to give in a report in the form of a written cri- ticism attached to the Theme, and signed by the Examinator. When the Theme and the criticism come to be reviewed by the Professor in the class, unless he finds something particular or exceptiona- ble in it, he reads pubhcly the parts of the Exercise on which criticisms are made by distinct references, makes upon them such observations as he finds necessary, and returns the Theme with the criti- cism to the Author. If the criticism does not give satisfaction, a method is pointed out to be after- ward explained, by which both the Theme and the criticism are brought again under the inspec- tion of the Professor- ON DETERMINING THE MERITS OF THEMES. 359 This mode of appreciating the merit of Themes, in a Philosophy class, may appear unsatisfactory, or objectionable, but experience has sufficiently shown, that many advantages are derived from it. It has always happened, I believe, in most public schools, that the more advanced Students, in some way or other, have given assistance to inferior scholars. This method was practised here long before the names of Lancaster or Bell were known to the public. The management of such assistance is no doubt somewhat delicate, and the advantages connected with it depend not a little upon the ex- perience and prudence of the Teacher. Were not the Examinators subjected to strict discipline and controul, the practice so far from being useful, might be extremely pernicious. Ignorance, con- ceit, partiality, and petulance, on the part of those juvenile assistants, might give occasion to disap- pointment, chagrin, and irritation, in the minds of such as might conceive that their Exercises had been unjustly criticised. But with the pre- cautions that are taken, these disagreeable ef- fects are altogether prevented. The Examinators are publicly and solemnly appointed to their of- fice, which is considered as highly honourable; and before they enter upon it, they are bound to discharge it according to the instructions which they receive, and from which they are made to understand that there must be no deviation what- ever. S60 ON DETERMINING THE MERITS OF THEMES. The Examinators are first of all expressly pro- hibited, from allowing the Themes committed to them, to pass into the hands of others, and also from taking any assistance m forming oi in ex- pressing their judgment. Did they not stncUy observe this rule, occasion might be given to the circulation of remarks, and conversations among the Students offensive to the authors, while, at the same time, the Examinators would be prevent- ed from exercising their own judgment, by mendi- cating the opinions of others. Again, the Examinators are required to read over the whole Theme committed to them, for the express purpose of fully comprehending its gene- ral outline. They are next to give an account of the method in which the Theme is conducted, and the particulars which follow in their order, from the beginning to the end. Then they are to ap- ply the rules of criticism which belong to that kind of Theme, and to determine how far it has been executed according to the instructions given, and the end proposed, whether digressive mat- ter has been introduced, or any thing of import- ance omitted. When they have exhausted their critical powers upon the matter or substance of the Theme, they are next desired to extend their remarks to the arrangement of the sentences, the choice of the epithets, the propriety and the use of figurative language. Finally, they are m- structed not only to report faults and defects, but ON DETERMINING THE MERITS OF THEMES. 36 1 also to point those parts of the Theme which best deserve to be read publicly in the class, that the Author may be gratified with his success, and also that it may prove an encouragement to others. The Examinators are farther required to de- liver to the Professor the Themes, with the Cri- ticisms annexed, at the time appointed, contain- ing distinct and obvious references to those parts of the Theme which have given occasion to their remarks ; and also to make use of the Tech- nical marks already alluded to. In the dis- charge of this duty, there is one rule absolutely indispensable, and which is never allowed to be violated with impunity, viz. the Criticisms, how- ever just or well founded, must be expressed in liberal and becoming terms, with that diffidence, and candour, which are due from those who must be conscious of many defects and imperfections of their own. It is farther understood, as an obligation binding upon the whole class, that no mention whatever be made out of doors of any strictures or remarks which may have been made on the Themes by the Professor, or by the Students, with certification, that, in case of such an oflTence being discovered, the individual convicted can take no part for the future in the public business of the class, or receive any prize or mark of distinction, to which he might other- wise have had a just claim. Great politicians will, Zz I S62 ON DETEBMINING THE MERITS OF THEMES. no doubt, smile at this humble Code of academical iurisprudence ; but it ..ould be well for the public that laws of higher authority were as regularly observed, and as seldom violated. The advantages derived from this mode of cri- ticism suggested the idea of extending them to all the Students in the class, and of affording to every one. in his turn, an opportunity of exercising his powers of criticism. This object is easily attain- ed by interchange of Themes prepared for ex- amination, by committing to each Student the Ex- ercise of one of his class-fellows for the purpose of criticism. The experience which the Teacher has acquired of the abilities and progress of his Students, enables him to distribute the Themes in such a manner as to render the competition fair and equal. He makes the strong enter the lists with the strong, and those of moderate or inferior abilities to engage with such as are nearly on a footing with them. There are certain ex- ercises, which are evidently of a superior cast, which the Professor reserves for his own inspec tion, and also such as he perceives abound with de- fects, and he returns the latter with such remarks as are most likely to encourage, and to direct future efforts. The more distinguished essays, he often descants upon at great length ; and draws from them lessons suited to rouse th\^"»"l.*^;°"/"^ '"■ dustry of youth. In this way the spirit of emuk- tion is not checked by great superiority of talents 5 jOn determining the merits of themes. S63 being thrown all on one side, and nothing is re- quired from any individual which he is not known to be able to perform. Thus, opposed to each other, with as much equality as can be expected^ every single Student is furnished with the strong- est motives to exert his attention, and his inge- nuity. It becomes a sort of Single Combat, in the presence of many spectators, and it has been found to produce attention and diligence in many Students, when other motives had failed. To give full effect to this method of discipline, one step farther has been found necessary. Among so many spirited industrious young men, it may be expected that the Author of the Theme is not al- ways satisfied with thejudgmentof his Examinator ; and he may, perhaps, be suspicious of ignorance, or misrepresentation, in the criticism. The more the Author is conscious of ability and industry exerted in the composition of the Theme, the more apt will he be to question the judgment which has been formed of it. To remove, therefore, every ground of misunderstanding, in a manner acceptable to both parties, and to give encouragement to farther exertions of in- genuity or industry, the work of criticism is con- tinued. The Author of the Theme is allowed to peruse the criticism, and to return it to the Pro- fessor, with such explanatory remarks as he may think necessary ; and, on certain more impor- tant points, this warfare is carried one step far- <:f ) R 364 ON DETERMINING THE MERITS OP THEMES. ther Still. But the Professor takes the first op- portunity of putting an end to the controversy, by interposing his own judgment on the subjects m dispute, to which both parties readdy and cheer, fully submit. During this amusing conflict, new lights and prospects are discovered, which often conduct the parties beyond their expectations. It is perfectly understood, however, that none but points of importance can be admitted to a second review. The utility and efficacy of the rules by which these Themes are conducted, have been demon strated by long experience. Not hall a dozen of cases have occurred, for more than forty years in which it became necessary to inflict censure for improper discharge of this duty. Mistaken as the Examinators must often be, in the remarks which they make, they always express their opinion, such as it is. in modest and inoften- sive terms. When any important difference has occurred between the Author and the Exami- nator, the Professor has ever found it easy to settle it to their mutual satisfaction. Xoung persons will always ^rove docile and reason- able, when they feel that they are treated with candour and with kindness. Esteem and conh- dence open the minds of ingenuous youth, and keep alive a sense of obligation and of duty. FinaUy, the method of conducting the Themes CONCLUSION. — ON THEMES. 365 and criticisms of the first Philosophy class, is highly beneficial, both to the Authors and Examinators ; and has been found, from experience, an excellent expedient for calling forth the intellectual ener- gies of the Student. There are few situations in which young men can be placed more favourable to application and industry. Their interest, honour, and spirit, combine with the exhortations of the Teacher, in disposing them to an animated dis- charge of their duty. The Authors of the Themes compose them under the impression of their be- ing subjected to a strict review ; the Exami- nators employ their utmost efforts to discover im- perfections and defects; and the Teacher himself must acknowledge, that, by thus watching over, and directing, this intercourse between his Stu- dents, he has derived much experimental instruc- tion in the proper manner of conducting the busi- ness of the class. CONCLUSION. — ON THEMES. Such an account has now been given of the na- ture and object of the Themes prescribed and executed in the Logic Class, and also of the me- \% i 366 CONCLUSION. — ON THEMES. thod of determining their merits, as, it is hoped, may enable any Teacher, who approves of this plan, to put it in practice as far as circumstances will permit. It is not to be understood, that all the subjects of Themes which have been mention- ed are discussed in one or even in several Ses- sions. The number and variety of them are in- tended merely as specimens, to show that the sources from which the labour and exertion of the Students may be drawn are almost inexhaustible. Nor is it strictly necessary that the Themes should always be prescribed in the same order in which they have been explained in this essay. The Teacher ought to regulate his conduct in this re- spect according to circumstances, and to pre- scribe more or fewer of one kind than another, as he may see fit Before I come to the conclusion of this essay, I am tempted to propose another order of Themes, different from any of the former. I do it, however, with great diffidence, because I apprehend it is the first experiment of that kind which has been made in any class of Philosophy. It has been sufficiently explained that the ob- iect of all the Themes, which have been pre- scribed, is the acquisition to the Student of clear and distinct notions, accompanied with proper arrangement, and habits of judging, reasoning, and communication. The attainment of these CONCLUSION. — ^ON THEMES. 367 habits is more or less connected with premedita- tion and study. But, if we take a survey of the powers and habits which are required to carry on the business of life, we shall find that there are other active processes and habits than those alrea- dy noticed, the possession of which is of infinite consequence, and which, as has been already re- marked, are not called forth by the ordinary rou- tine of public education. The science of Pneu- matology is not yet so far advanced as to enable us even to give appropriate names to the powers of mind here alluded to. The great talents, by which the important business of life is carried on, cannot be acquired by a system of prepara- tory studies, but only by such exercises as tend to promote decision and despatch, to remove doubt and hesitation, and to lead the mind to seize the fittest occasions, and the happiest mo- ments, for decisive and vigorous exertion. In the management of great and complicated negotia- tions, for example, where there are various inter- fering interests, requiring mutual adjustments and accommodations, with little time to devise expe- dients, the man of solid and methodical talents, who can only think according to a slow and regu- lar process, is completely outstripped by the use of those superior powers by which men conceive, judge, and determine, as if by intuition. Many persons can make a set speech for a public assem- bly, at once argumentative and eloquent, if you give them time for preparation, but are altogether 368 ' CONCLUStJON.— ON THEMES. thrown out, if any thing unexpected occur to de- range the train of their thoughts and the conca- tenation of their reasoning; but how d'fferen is this slow methodical process, from the facility and dexterity with which the accomplished orator draws his materials, in the instant, from the most remote sources of his knowledge ; or from the readiness and success with which the man ot science supplies himself with appropriate argu- ments, and lucid illustrations, to support and to adorn his theory. Any system of education, therefore, which pro- motes the developement of those intellectual energies ; which cultivates ,.resence of mmd, a ready command of the intellectual faculties, fer- tility in expedient, spirit in the attempt, and cele- rity in the execution, must prove of incalculable benefit. These important processes of mmd are but little promoted by the common disciphne and ordinary routine of our systems of public educa- tion ; and many have doubted even how far these S intellectual energies are under the controul of°education at all, and whether they are not al- together inherent and constitutional. But, without pretending to deny the great and the striking difference in the original constitu- tion of the human mind, I think it cannot [eas^^^^ ably be doubted, that these high mtellectual CONCLUSION. — ON THEMES. 369 endowments to a certain extent, at least fall with- in the range of intellectual improvement. In proof of this, it may be remarked, that no person ever possessed them, in their highest degree, at the first attempt ; while, on the other hand, we may observe them enlarged and confirmed by fa- vourable situations and circumstances. When the experienced general served his first campaign, he did not possess that nice tact of fixing on a fa- vourable field of action which he afterwards ac- quired. Many are tlie quick and dextrous pro- cesses of the mental powers which are acquired, even in the earliest period of life. The boy at first finds great difficulty in binding ideas to signs, in combining letters and sounds, which he after- wards does with a rapidity that escapes his consci- ousness. What quickness and despatch, in the exercise of bodily and mental powers, do even common characters display in their respective arts and professions? What rapid judgments are formed by the rope-dancer, the ventriloquist^ the profes- sors of legerdemain ? It seems impossible to de- ny that the force of habit extends also to those pure movements of mind now under considera- tion, so as to bring them within the range of im- provement Let us next inquire what are those means of improving them which may be included in the discipline of a first class of philosophy. It is admitted, on all hands, that these processes and habits of mental action cannot be attained either % A 370 CONCLUSION.— ON THExMES. by rulesand precepts,or by study and premeditation. If any thing can be done in this way, it must be by placing Students in situations and cnxumstan- ces which render their exercise indispensable or necessary, and in encouraging and assisting it. We cannot, indeed, anticipate the real scenes and occasions of future life, which may call forth ha- bits of actions ; but we should approach them as nearly as can be done in a system of education : and certainly Students may be placed in circum- stances favourable to the acquisition of these ha- bits. This is one of those advantages of a public education, to which a private education can lay no claim. To counteract doubt, hesitation, and procrastination, in the Student, the sources of so much evil and unhappiness in life, Exercises should be prescribed to him which admit not of delay;— questions should be asked which oblige him immediately to take his ground ; and encou- ragement should be given to those who discover the greatest activity and despatch. Again, to enable the Student to apply his faculties to any subiect with the same ease, in the presence of others, as in private, let him be accustomed to stand up in his place, to collect his thoughts, and to express them, on subjects so selected as to require him, upon the instant, to survey his store of knowledge, and to bring forth what may be necessary for his present purpose. And, as it often occms that the Student is totally dis- couraged from making any attempt, by the iirst CONCLUSION. — ON THEMES. 371 view of the difficulties which attend it, every thing should be done, on the part of the Teacher, to overcome this repugnance, and to encourage him to make a voluntary effort to a certain extent, at least, in the full assurance that his future efforts may be more successful. Many of the subjects of Exercises already men- tioned, and which have been executed with study and premeditation, may be fitly employed for the acquisition of those habits now under considera- tion. Some of these are proposed to the class as subjects for extempore discussion ; and, after a few moments* consideration, such Students as think themselves qualified, are desired to explain the subject in their own manner. On the first open- ing of it, if any difficulty occur, the Professor con- ducts them through the first and preliminary step, and then leaves them to proceed in their own way»l When one Student has concluded his account, it is asked, whether there be any others in the class who may choose to enlarge, or to correct what has been already advanced. It is necessary that the subjects th us proposed, for an instantaneous display of mental activity, should have a relation to the knowledge the Students may be supposed to have acquired from the Lectures, or their own observation. On such subjects, they are required to collect, to arrange, and to express their knowledge, and to trust to their particular resources for the accomplishment of the proposed end. 372 CONCLUSION ON THEMES. In following up this plan, the Professor puts in requisition the knowledge acquired from the pe- rusal of history. With a view to this exercise, in the beginning of the Session, the Students are advised to fill up the time which the daily bu- siness of the class may not require, by reading the histories of rude and of uncivilized nations. They are afterwards required to give an account of certain subjects within the supposed course of their historical studies. Suppose the Student has been engaged in the narratives relative to rude and un- polished nations, many questions may be asked re- specting their government, their arts, and their occupations. The effect of such inquiries is to ac- custom him to arrange and express his ideas, and to afford a strong motive to read with attention and interest. Experience has taught me to render this exer- cise particularly useful to one description of Stu- dents. There are always some young men, in a numerous class, who, either from their early years, from aversion to scientific study, from habits of idleness already contracted, or from the defects of former discipline, in spite of every effort that can be made to induce them to exertion, do not enter heartily into the business of the class ; and who accordingly, though obliged to give their per- sonal presence, are usually seen to sit with vacant and unoccupied minds, sometimes to the annoy- CONCLUSION. — ON THEMES. 373 ance of their more industrious neighbours. Keep- ing in view this class of Students, I have found it useful to enjoin more particularly upon them the reading of history, and of the classics, which is confessedly within their reach, and of the sub- stance of which a regular account, from time to time, is required. In following out the plan, an easy aphorism of Lord Bacon, a maxim of ancient or modern Philo- sophers, or a sentiment in a classical author, is pro- posed, of which immediate explanation is required. When the Students have distinctly conceived it, they are required to take their ground, and to state, in order, the particulars which it contains. When one is not successful, another is called on to repeat the effort. The whole is concluded by the Professor pointing out the causes of any diffi- culty which may have occurred, and suggesting a proper explanation and arrangement. It is unnecessary to add, that a full and com- plete explanation of those subjects cannot be ex- pected from such extemporaneous eftbrts. That is not the object in view. The purpose of the exercise is to accustom the Student to exert his intellectual faculties without preparation, — to ren- der him prompt in expedient, and active in re- source, — and, at the same time, to accustom him to facility in expressing his sentiments. 374 CONCLUSION ON THEMES. On some occasions, this mode of discipline is particularly directed to the powers and habits ot deduction :-a probable proposition is suggested, and such of the Students as think themselves qua- lifted to take part in the discussion, are desired to support one or other of the sides of the argument, with such reasons as occur to them at the time. The following are some of the propositions which have been proposed. « Wisdom is better than riches." " With ordinary talents, the diligent „,an is more likely to be successful than the man of genius." " A public is preferable to a private education." " An institution of prizes ^s usetul. « The habit of reading novels is hurtful to the Student," &c. &c. When any one of these pro- positions is proposed, after a few moments ot consideration, the Students aie required to choose their side; when those who think themselves pre- pared are called upon to maintain the proposition by bringing forward an argument in defence ot it. This being done, another is required to state the obiection. The former is then allowed to reply, and other Students are called upon for addi- tional arguments and objections, till the subject be exhausted. During this exercise of ratioci- nation, an argument, or objection, that may have been overlooked, is occasionally suggested by the Professor, and an immediate answer is required. This exercise is sometimes carried on with still more formality. The Students are informed, the CONCLUSION. — ON THEMES. 375 preceding day, of the subject proposed for argu- mentation, that they may come to the discussion with arguments, and objections, ready for the con- flict. They are required to state the arguments and objections simply and distinctly, without any thing extraneous or declamatory. It is the duty of the Professor to keep the disputants closely to the subject ; to interfere whenever he finds it ne- cessary; and to continue the dispute no longer than he thinks proper or useful. When the busi- ness of argumentation is finished, in order to se- cure the attention of the other Students to its progress, a recapitulation is required, from those who were not engaged in the disputation, of the various arguments and objections, which may have been advanced on either side. This method of discipline was suggested by the scholastic practice of disputation: and it is cer- tain that tlie characteristic acuteness and ingenui- ty of the scholastic Philosophers were, in a great measure, to be ascribed to the Aristotelian mode of debate, which was cultivated, in those days, with much industry and ambition. It is equally obvious that, in the details, it had a manifest tendency to accustom the youthful mind to dis- crimination and accuracy in its conceptions, to a reliance upon its own resources, and to a ready command of language and expression. The scholastic discipline, however, with all these ad- vantages, was attended with several bad effects. ■►,1 376 CONCLUSION.— ON THEMES. in some degree, perhaps, inseparable from the ha- blTmincf which it generated. The disputations were too frequently directed to frivolous subjects; rev were often maintained with violence and pertinacity; and thus afforded, to such o the dis- putants as were so disposed, an opportunity ot gratifying the most malignant ^f^^^'^t.^l^l dul-ing in the most vexatious ridicule. Nor was tWs petulant and wrangling spirit confined to the formal exercises of the school; on the contrarjs .t has been remarked, by those who have drawn the character of those times, that the same p^^niac. ous and pedantic manner which infected the cd- lege and the monastery, was carried mto society, and applied to the ordinary busmess ot We. I am, accordingly, satisfied that disputations, car- ried on in the scholastic manner, are, in maiiy re- spects. hurtful, and ought not to be admitted as a branch of public education. Were there no other d advantages, it would be a suffic ent reason ^L the'ge'neral use of it, that the forward and petulant would engage the whole attention of the class, and drive the more bashful and meritormu. altogether off the field. Nor would it be an easy matter for the Professor to keep these youthful disputants within bounds. It is hoped, however, that these hurtful effects are, in a great mea- sure, prevented by the chastened and limited mode of disputation which I have endeavoured to CONCLUSION. ON THEMES. 377 establish, in which I never allow the subject of debate to go out of my own hands. These Exercises are concluded by an attempt to apply the powers of investigation, and of reason- ing, to the arguments commonly adduced in proof of the belief of a First Cause, and of the necessity of a Revelation. This is not done by any regu- lar lecture on the subject, which falls more proper- ly under the department of another class, but in one of those modes of conversation which has been mentioned, in which the Students are re- quired, without preparation, to bear their part The principles and facts on which the conclusions on these doctrines are founded, are separately stated, in the order in which they are most likely to be clearly conceived by the Students. On each of these, they are desired to express the no- tions which they entertain, and the illustrations which have occurred to them. This affords an opportunity to the Professor of rectifying, enlarg- ing, and confirming the grounds on which their belief and conviction of these fundamental truths ought to rest. These are subjects in which the Students have great interest ; and just notions, thus early communicated, may tend not a little to fortify their minds against the attacks of sophis- try and infidelity, with which they may be assail- ed ; and to put them in possession of those wea- pons of defence which are furnished by enlight- ened reason. The whole of this part of the 3B 378 ON ACADEMICAL DISCIPLINE. ON ACADEMICAL DISCIPLINE. 379 subject is concluded with an earnest advice to the youths, never to commit themselves rashly, or to be forward in expressing their opinions on such subjects ;— to listen, at all times, to the sug- gestions of reason and of truth ; and, in general, to canvass such subjects only with those who, like themselves, are desirous of forming their opinions on the basis of rational and solid evidence. ON ACADEMICAL DISCIPLINE. The method which has here been explained of conducting the first Philosophy class, is much assisted by the simple and rational system of disci- pline established in the University, and by an in- stitution of prizes, relative to the objects of the course. The University of Glasgow is vested, by Royal Charter, confirmed by Acts of Parliament, with such jurisdiction over the Students as the other ancient academical institutions were in use to possess. These powers originally extended to the cognizance of crimes, even to that of capital offences ; and there is extant a document, con- taining an account of one trial, involving the highestpunishment, which was carried on before the Rector of the University and his Assessors, towards the end of the seventeenth century. There seems also to have existed a large code of statutes, re- specting the studies, conduct, and manners, of the Students, of the same kind with those that are still in force in some Universities : and, if we were to judge by the multiplicity and severity of these laws, we should conclude that it must then have been held to be an arduous task, to keep under proper controul the inmates of a College. The greatest part of these rules, however, have long since fallen into desuetude in this University; leav- ing only a few practical regulations, which effec- tually serve all the purposes of academical legisla- tion. These are read every year at the beginning of the Session, in the hearing of the whole Students ; and, by these laws, their conduct is regulated, and their delinquencies punished. The discipline of the College is, in the first in- stance, committed to the Principal and the five Professors of Languages and Philosophy, who constitute what is called the Jurisdictio Ordina- RiA, a court of summary procedure, without any record; which meets as often as occasions require, and adjusts all matters of common delinquency, its decisions being subject to the review of the Rector, Dean, and Faculty at large. This mode of discipline is conveniently con- ducted by a meeting, every Saturday, of the Jur n 380 ON ACADEMICAL DISCIPLINE. rlsdictio Ordinaria in the Public Hall, where all the Students of Language and Philosophy are conven- ed" and a Latin oration is delivered by the semor Students, which oration is afterwards committed to the Jurisdictio Ordinaria, who, after examination, beLw a prize, on the first of May. on the author ofthl be^t composition. This general meeUng is attended with many advantages. The ca alogue of all the classes is called over. The Students are brought under the view of the P'f «.«7«; ^^° have thus a convenient opportunity of gwng and receiving information respecting individuals in the several classes, and of administering advice, and re- monstrance, as circumstances may require. Upon these principles, and. often, without an hour s m- terruption of study during the whole Session, is the necessary discipline of twelve or thirteen bun- dred Students regularly administered. It too much importance be not given to forms and cere- monies which have no tendency to promote science ; if nothing is required of Students but XtTs necessary and useful; and if their minds are kept in a constant state of activity in regard to their studies, the rules of academical disciphne need not be numerous. It is not, however, pre- tended that there is any thing uncommon m these arrangements, or that all our Students are equally regular and mindful of their business ; but it de- serves to be mentioned, as an advantage arising from this state of things, in which the greatest part of the Students, actuated by a spirit of nidus- ON ACADEMICAL DISCIPLINE. S81 try and laudable emulation, are fully occupied in their pursuits, that the few who are of adiflFerentcast are carried almost involuntarily forward to certain degrees of improvement, as they must, otherwise, find themselves in a state of degradation and con- tempt, from which young persons of common feel- ings will naturally desire to escape. When the irregularity and disobedience of any individual have become inveterate, so as to obstruct the ap- plication of others, he is, by a short process, ex- pelled from the College. The discipline of each class is committed to its own Professor, who may call for the advice, or invoke the authority, of the Jurisdictio Ordinaria, if he finds it expedient. The chief part of this discipline consists in requiring, and enforcing, the regular attendance of the Students at the hours of public lecture and examination. This punctuali- ty is indispensable in every course of education ; for, when Students do not attend their classes regularly, they can expect little or no benefit The good effect of one day's attendance is lost by the absence of the next. Nor is it only necessary that the Students should attend ; the Professor ought to know whether they be present. There seems to be no way of ascer- taining this, but by regularly calling over a cata- logue of the names of the Students, every hour be- fore entering on business, and there is an additional ri 382 ON ACADEMICAL DISCIPLINE. reason for calling the catalogue when any Theme, or Exercise, is due. Two Students, called Censors, are accordingly appointed in rotation every week ; the one for taking an account of the Students who are absent, and the other, of those who fail in presenting their Themes at the appointed time. To facilitate this duty, the catalogue of the Stu- dents is annually printed. Those who cannot give a sufficient reason for absence, or for the want of Themes, have imposed upon them a more labo- rious task, and sometimes a small fine; and regula- rity of attendance is considered as one of the requi- sites to entitle the Student to the honour of a prize at the termination of the course. By these means, the Professor ensures the punctual atten- dance of the Students at the hours of lecture and examination; and, in point of fact, very few in- stances occur, during the Session, of irregular at- tendance. The preservation of order, and the correction of improper behaviour, during the hours of lecture and examination, cannot be a very difficult matter, where the Students have such an interest in their business, as it is our object to excite. If they do not give attention to the lecture, they cannot be prepared for the examination, nor, consequently, for executing the Themes which are founded upon the lectures. Every object, and every oc- currence, must turn them inward upon themselves, and put them in mind of their own carelessness ON THE INSTITUTION OF PRICES. 383 and insignificance; and of the disappointment they are preparing for their parents and friends. Eventhe frequent accents of praise and approbation, which fall upon virtuous and emulous Students, must occasionally excite feelings which it would be painful to describe. When, besides, the Pro- fessor is in possession of the esteem of his Stu- dents, the fear of incurring his displeasure, and the desire of being favoured with his approbation, will generally prove the strongest of all induce- ments to regularity of conduct. ON THE INSTITUTION OF PRIZES. The objections sometimes made to the use of e- mulation, in systems of public instruction, arechief- ly founded on ignorance; or, at all events, on an in- judicious application of that most active and ani- mating principle. Of all the faculties and desires with which the human being is endowed, no one seems more capable of ministering to his improve- ment than that under our consideration ; for, at every period of life, and in every rank of society, its influence is manifested in the most unequivocal manner, prompting the man as well as the boy ; and in the cottage, as well as in the senate and in the field, to engage in competition with their 384 ON THE INSTITUTION OF PKIZES. fellows, regardless alike, in ^^^VT'I^d^Ifthe „ere prize wich calls them to the hst, and of the labour by which it is to be obtained. The pnn ciple of emulation, indeed, seems ^"te^f^^by^^;^ great Author of our frame, to supply the want or fo make up for the weakness of o^^^^ ^^'^^e action The love of knowledge, for example. :r :; crele exertion, until the ^^^^^^^^^^ ing that acquisition has been in some degree ex perienced. The sense of interest ^o^-^^^^' Ling of duty are not of -y P- f^^ ^^^ in the youthful mind. The prospect oi advantage makes but a faint ^^Vr^'^T'^X counteracted by the seducements of V^^-^^^l bv the arguments of idle companions ; but the spi Sof emulation overcomes all obstacles, and sup- pies all deficiencies, animates *« Stud-^^^^^^^^^^ most arduous attempts, and sustains his perseve ranee amidst the severest labour. And why should not the public teacher who 1, JTo many difficulties to encounter, avail him- setf of the'advantages with which he is thus sup. p L; and follow out the path so clearly del neat- Ia to him by the very finger of f "^^^ /* '^ J. doubt, considered by some as ^l^g^^^^^^^^^^^^ tnrv to the dignity of science, that its precious S'ef Lufd b^ obtained indirectly and not sought for, purely and solely, on th«r °wn count. Others again have maintained, that to e. cite emulation among young men at College, ON THE INSTITUTION OF PRIZES. 385 only to stir up amongst them jealousy, envy, and a thousand similar causes of irritation. These opi- nions, however, are all so ill founded, and con- nected with views of human nature so narrow and unphilosophical, that I cannot allow myself to waste time in exposing their absurdity ; and I am satisfied, that, upon the minds of those who have had any experience in the education of * youth, and who have thereby become acquainted with the more energetic springs of action in the mind of a Student, these objections will make no impression but that of ridicule or contempt. It will, indeed, be readily admitted, that the practice of giving prizes, which has long subsist- ed, in one shape or other, in most seminaries of education, has not always been regulated by just views of advantage. In the Jirst place, they are commonly proposed to Students who have alrea- dy distinguished themselves by genius or profi- ciency, and are already possessed of academical honours. Few or no prizes are proposed to un- der-graduates ; and thus the great body of the Students, including those who stand most in want of excitement, are altogether shut out from the operation of that powerful feeling, which so fre- quently sustains the youthful spirit in the pursuit of excellence. Again, the greater number of the prizes, proposed in our seats of learning, are con- fined to single Essays, which are written on cer- tain occasions, on determinate subjects, and ac- 5 c 386 ON THE INSTITUTION OF PRIZES. cording to fixed rules ; whilst no means are em- ployed, or, indeed, can be successfully employed, lo ascertain whether such Productions be actual- ly, and bom Jlde, the works of the individuals m whose names they are claimed. But, to be productive of general utility, the principle on which prizes are awarded m a Col- lege, must rest on a very different foundation from that now alluded to. The influence of the system must be felt through the whole academi^ cal establishment, extended to every descu^^^^^^^^^ of Students, and modified ^^^^rdmg to their ag^^ progress, and other circumstances. The honours Ld ™rds attending it, too, must be bestowed on such a principle as to come more or less withm the reach ^f every degree of talent and mdustry and to excite hope and expectation m every breast. None must have reason to consider them- Selves excluded, but such as exclude themselv^es, by idleness or bad conduct. Nor must these ho- nours be conferred for single efforts, or upon oc casional instances of success ; but, on the con- to ; they must be so distributed as to be consi- dered the reward of habitual industry, combmed with talent-of regular and spirited exertion, in every part of the Student's business— ot general xnerit and eminence, in the ordinary exercises of the class-and also, for progress and improvement in the habits of composition. The great object of the Teacher ought to be to carry his pupils so ON THE INSTITUTION OF PRIZES. 387 far; and, thus far advanced, they will find them- selves at once prepared and inclined to go far- ther. The number of prizes in any class must, no doubt, be, in some degree, proportioned to the number of competitors ; though this, for obvious reasons, cannot be done with perfect exactness. There must be a step within the reach of every individual; and the partialities of self-love will sometimes induce the Pupils to place this higher than it would be fixed by the judgment of the Master, and thus occasion'unavoidable disappoint- ment. In the case of literary competition, the maxim of Virgil cannot be strictly adhered to, " Nemo— non donatus abibit;" for it is the success of some, and the defeat of others, whence spring the interest and struggle of which the Teacher here avails himself, to further the progress of his Students. One point, however, must be fixed, as far as the nature of the thing will permit, which is, that every individual must be satisfied, that the honour for which he is a competitor will be award- ed with the severest impartiality and justice. It is with much diffidence that I mention the scheme of giving prizes, which has been long es- tablished in this University. It is confessedly im- perfect, requiring to be matured by farther ex- perience ; still, I believe, it is the first regular at- tempt that has been made to extend the principle 388 ON THE INSTITUTION OF PRIZES. of emulation to every order of Students, and to all departments of study, in such a Seminary of learninsr; and it is therefore hoped, that the account now to^be given of it will be received with candour, as professing nothing more than a hint to others, who may hereafter carry it to higher perfection. The institution of prizes, according to the prin- ciple now acted upon in this University, was m- troduced somewhat more than thirty years ago. Before that period, one or two prize-essays were occasionally prescribed here, with the restrictions and conditions which usually accompanied them in the few cases where they were to be found in similar establishments of education. Nothing far- ther had yet been attempted. It occurred to some of us, that this mode of procedure was nearly tan- tamount to a total exclusion of the principle of emulation from the business of Colleges ; whilst its powerful operations were acknowledged in every other department of human pursuit. It is with much satisfaction, then, that I can add my name to those of my much respected colleagues, the late Mr. Richardson, Professor of Humanity, and Mr. Young, the present Professor of Greek, who heartily concurred with me, in laying the founda- tions of this institution. The plan, of which we had thus privately arranged the outlines, was first realized in our own classes, and was, indeed, tor some time, confined to them. Experience, how- ever, not only verified all our expectations, but ON THE INSTITUTION OF PHIZES. 389 soon recommended our example to others in the University. The principle of action, which we had brought into play, speedily manifested its good effects, by rendering our Pupils more regular in their attendance, more eager in all their endea- vours to excel, and by infusing into them a strong- er spirit of industry and application. In a short time, as has just been observed^ the practice now under consideration was intro- duced into all the other public classes ; and it suggested, moreover, to the Senatus Academicus, the expediency of extending the principle still farther, by prescribing, to the more advanced Stu- dents, at the end of every Session of College, a number of prize-essays, to be executed during the ensuing vacation. Of these essays the sub- jects are very various, as selected from the wide fields of science and literature; and the premiums, as is usual in such cases, consist of medals, both gold and silver, of books, and, even in some in- stances, according to the direction of the Donor, of specified sums of money : for, I have much pleasure in adding, that several opulent and libe- ral-minded persons, in token of their approbation of this part of our system, have supplied us with a certain amount of annual revenue, for its mainten- ance and extension. For determining, again, on the merit of the several essays given in, a Committee of Professors is appointed, some time prior to the date at which the prizes are bestowed, who meet regularly to hear them read, and who, afterwards. 390 ON THE INSTITUTION OP PRIZES. without, of course, knowing the names of the authors, decide formally which of them are en- titled to the respective premiums. The first of May, the usual termination of the Session, at least in the philosophical department, is the period fixed for the public distribution of the premiums to the successful candidates ; and this anniversary now exhibits one of the most interesting spectacles that can well be imagined, being attended not only by the Students in the University, by the Principal and Professors, but by a great number of Clergymen from the town and neighbourhood, and by many country gentlemen. On these occa- sions, some suitable portions of the successM essays, whether in prose or verse, are read by their authors; thus affording at once an opportii- nity to judge of their merits, and an additional in- dtement to^he great body of the Students.-But tie object which I have more immediately m view. „ this detail, is to give an ac-unt o thjs ms^- tution, so far as it respects the first class of Philo- sophy. As soon, then, as this class is fully convened in the beginning of the Session, a day is appointed for ex- plaining distinctly, to all the Students, the grounds Un which they are to enter into competiUon for the honours which are to be conferred at the end l^it and for placing before their eyes the scale of IrVaccording to which their determinations, m Thaf^a t" - to be regulated. It is then part. cutTy stated, that the prizes are to be awarded ON THE INSTITUTION OF PRIZES. 391 upon a judgment formed, in cumulof of their dili- gence, proficiency, general abilities, regularity, and propriety of conduct and manners. They are informed, in short, that those Students who are most distinguished in the whole business of the class, and throughout the whole course of the Session, are to stand highest on the list of success- ful candidates. The field of competition being thus defined, and the standard of merit established, the young men are requested to keep their minds steadily fixed upon the one and the other ; being assured that, in the scale which measures the latter, there are several degrees, and that it is in the power of every one of them to fix his name on it, somewhere between the two extremes. In order, too, that these enviable honours may be more accessible to all, and the competition made as equal as circum- stances will permit, the class is divided into Senio- res and Juniores ; it being understood that such of the two divisions as occupy corresponding places in their respective lists, possess equal merit, and are entitled to the same honour, in the eyes of their class-fellows, and of the University. From the day that this arrangement is made, and the path of competition is clearly marked out, the spirit of emulation begins its work, and con- tinues to operate, in the minds of by far the greater number of the Students, until the very 392 ON THE INSTITUTION OF PRIZES. end of the Session. Though the object at which they strain be still at a great distance, their hopes and expectations keep pace with all their labours ; and often do they breathe, with tumultuous feel- in.-s, the ardent wish of Sergestus, in the Trojan games : «* Non jam peto prima, Mnestheus ; nee vineere certo : " Quanqiiam, O !" &c. During the progress of such a varied and length- ened competition, many circumstances will occur to rivet their minds upon the standard by which their labours are to be estimated; and this refe- rence will sometimes be made with the hope of success, and not unfrequently with the fear of dis- appointment. In such circumstances, the Teacher will find it incumbent upon him to afford them, as far as he can, the means of judging with respect to the issue of the conflict. Without the gift of prophecy, he may disclose to them, what it is chiefly of importance they should know, and con- stantly remember, namely, that, other things being equal, those will be most successful in obtaining prizes who are most deeply interested in their present business, and who have the greatest plea- sure in performing their various exercises. He will tell them, that the premiums will certainly fall to the lot of those who receive instruction with patience, and willingly submit to sacrifices, in order to improve by it ;— of those who, every ON THE INSTITUTION OF PRIZES. 393 morning, take their places in the class, with the unfeigned desire of adding to their knowledge, and of making progress in the path of science ; — of those who execute every part of their busi- ness with punctuality and fidelity, disdaining the miserable shifts and evasions of the thoughtless and the idle ; — of those, in fine, who, when they have finished the labours of the day, can lay their heads upon their pillows, with the soothing consciousness of having done their duty. Such, in general, he will add, is the character of those individuals whose names will stand highest in the ranks of merit at the close of the Session. Such is the conduct of those who are to com- pose the happy band with whom their Teacher will be surrounded on that auspicious day which will reward all their exertions and sacrifices ; from whose delighted countenances he will de- rive the sweetest compensations for his toils, and in which he will discover the presages and pledges of still greater achievements. One diflScult and very important part, in admi- nistering the system of prizes, still remains to be stated ; namely, the method by which the different degrees of merit among the Students are ascer- tained and determined ; a point in which any error with regard to principle, or suspicion of practical mistake, would completely destroy all the good effects aimed at by the establishment in question. It has been already mentioned, that the qualifica- 3D I 394, OH THE INSTITUTION OF PRIZES. tions which form the ground of competition for the class prizes, as they are sometimes called and Ihich. at all events, are to be distinguished from The University prizes, are diligence, regularity of ^tendance, general eminence at the dai^^ exanu nations, and in the execution of Themes pro priety of academical conduct, and habitual good Triers; and, on these heads, it is v^^^-ous a judgment must be pronounced either by the Profefsor. or by the Students themselves as no others have access to acquire the requisite infor. mation. It may be imagined, at first view that the office of iudge here would be best performed by the Professor , but, after long experience, and Lch lentio;i to the subject in all its bearings Tarn inclined to give a ^^<^^^f /^^'T'^IXI' exercise of this right as vested in the Students. Were the Professor to take this office upon him- Sit would be impossible, even with the most "rfet conviction, on the part of the Students. ?hat his judgment and candour were unimpeach- Ibk ti give full satisfaction to all parties: whilst, on ftie other hand, were there the slightest reason :suspe"t his integrity in either of .he. po^^^^^^^^^^^ the remotest ground for ^^^'^^^^''''^^^f .^^^^^ undue advantage to any individuals, >« bunging forward their claims to the P>^ej"dic««f others he charm of emulation would be dissolved once, and every future effort among his Pupils i, ?l T -ON THE INSTITUTION OF PRIZES. 395 would be enfeebled. Students are naturally very jealous with regard to every appearance of favour, or partiality, in the conduct of their Teacher. The caprices of an ambitious mind are easily pro- voked, and are not more reasonable in their na- ture than those of the lover ; andj in the circum- stances of which we are now speaking, the expres- sions of the Professor, whether of approbation or disapprobation, his smiles and his frowns are watched with keen and interested eyes, by all who have engaged their feelings in the competition. Indeed, the incidents, unavoidable in the practice of teaching, which have been known to excite suspicion, are truly amusing, and, at the same time, full of admonition to every Teacher. If he speak to one Student, and not to another, if he examine one a little longer or shorter than usual, if the re- marks made on a particular essay seem to occupy too much or too little of his time, if approbation, or censure, be expressed with coldness or with more than ordinary warmth, the more jealous and peevish of the young men feel their minds tor- tured with apprehension that they are wilfully overlooked. Even more trivial occurrences than these prove the occasion of alarm. If an indivi- dual happen to be examined oftener than the rest, there are some who will consider such an event as a mark of favour, whilst others would view it as a plot to expose his ignorance. It may be remarked, in passing, that, to prevent such suspicions, and to do real justice to all, the Profes- 396 ON THE INSTITUTION OF PRIZES. sor keeps before him a catalogue of his class, and puts a mark at the name of every Student who is examined, or whose exercise is read; by which means, although they are not called upon in any regular order, every Student is ultimately placed on'' the same footing as to his public appearances. But even this precaution does not always satisfy, or preclude unpleasant surmises. To return, however, to the mode of determining the prizes in the Logic class, I repeat, that they are adjudged by the Students themselves, guided and restricted by certain rules laid down for that purpose ; and, as this method of decision has been regarded by some as objectionable, it will be ne- cessary to explain it a little more at length. The indispensable qualities of good judges, then, are a competent knowledge of the grounds and eyi- dence upon which their judgment is to rest, and a firm resolution to determine on the matter before them with strict impartiality. It is presumed that the Students, in these respects, are sufficient- ly qualified. They are every day witnesses of the manner in which the business of the class goes on, and have, accordingly, the best opportunities of judging as to the merits of their fellow-Students : they have it in their power to observe the regu- larity of their attendance, and the general pro- priety of their conduct ; they hear the questions which are put, and the answers which are given; ON THE INSTITUTION OF PRIZES. S9T their various Themes read aloud, and the observa- tions made on them from the chair. They have likewise an opportunity of comparing the respec- tive merits of all the competitors, in the extempora- neous exercises of the class ; and they, no doubt, frequently hear the performances of one another canvassed in conversation, and made the subject of a comparative estimate. Besides, as every in- dividual is, himself, deeply interested, it is impossi- ble but that he will pay the closest attention to what is going on around him ; whilst he cannot fail to be aware that he, in like manner, is con- stantly observed by others, and subjected to the ordeal of daily criticism. In truth, the character, the abilities, the diligence, and progress of Stu- dents are as well known to one another, before the close of the Session, as their faces or their dress : there cannot, therefore, be any deficiency as to means of information to enable them to act the part of enlightened and upright judges. But they likewise possess the other requisite for an equitable decision : for the great majority of them have really a desire to judge honourably, and fairly, on the merit of their fellows. The natural candour, and generosity of youth, the sense of right, and obligations of justice, are not yet so perverted, by bad example and the ways of the world, as to permit any deliberate intention of violating the integrity on which they profess to act, or any wish to conspire together in supporting an ■1 398 ON THE INSTITUTION OF PIUZ E. unrighteous judgment There is greater danger, ;;h!ps,that young persons, in theircirc^^^^^^^^ mav allow themselves to be influenced by triend. Xp or personal dislike, rather than by the pure and unbiassed sense of meritorious -ertion or g^od »hilities- but, on the other hand, when an mdivi- dulr:;sider's of how litUe con-quen- ^-^ ; vote will be among so many, it is not at a^ Ukely that he will be induced to sacrifice it either to Mendship, or to enmity. There -.however. - nerfect iudges in any department of human ife. Oies 'and unperceived biasses make th^r way into the minds even of the most upright of ouJfellow-creatures; and, there can be no doubt that votes are sometimes thrown away, or very iniudiciously given, by young Students in the Lo- jLs. Ik these little aberrations are „e^^^^^^ found to disturb the operation of the general principle on which the scale of merit is determin- ed, and the list of honours filled up. Though the Professor takes no immediate share in this business, by giving his vote, his habitua conduct, and the occasional f P-^^.^^^^^. ;f, .^'^ opinions, have no small effect in forming the judg- ments of his pupils, and in keeping them from misapprehension and prejudice. Indeed, the maintenance of this salutary but imperceptible influence is an object which he preserves m view, from the beginning to the end of the Session. On the day when the prizes are first announced to ON THE INSTITUTION OF PRIZES. 399 the class, it is solemnly impressed u]pon the minds of the young men, that the utility of the institu- tion depends wholly upon the purity and impar- tiality with which it is administered — that it rests almost entirely with themselves whether it is to prove highly beneficial to the cause of good edu- cation, or to be rendered useless, and positively hurtful; and that they individually have the deepest interest in the just and impartial direction of the principle, upon which the system is founded,— a fair and open competition. On every subsequent occasion, too, when any reference is made to the institution of prizes, it is uniformly held up as an essential branch of College discipline, and as inti- mately connected with the success of Education. With respect, again, to the ultimate determination and adjudgment of these honorary tokens, the Students are expressly prohibited from indulging in loose conversation with one another, and par- ticularly from soliciting, or receiving, any promises of support. Such as are found to disobey these in- junctions are considered as academical traitors, viewed with contempt and reproach; and if the fact be proved against them, they are subjected to a forfeiture of their privilege as voters, and deprived of the honours which they themselves may have otherwise deserved. The habit of viewing the institution in this light, and hearing it constantly spoken of as a 400 ON THE INSTITUTION OF PRIZES. matter of the first importance, naturally creates. In the breasts of Students, a species of reverence tor the thing itself, and a chivalrous feeling of honour with retu. dents to my own; and it is certainly highly honourable to the candour and ingenuousness ot youth to state that, with few exceptions, neither ON THE INSTITUTION OF PRIZES. 403 friendship, nor enmity, nor national feeling, has ever disturbed the right order of determination. With respect to the first prize, indeed, about which the emotions of rivalship and envy are the most warmly excited, it is often awarded to stran- gers, in preference to friends and brothers, and to English, Irish, Scotch, and Americans, without any perceptible distinction. It may be thought singu- lar, but it is true, that, in the course of forty years, not above one or two complaints have ever been made to me, founded on the suspicion of impro- priety, or injustice, in relation to this matter; and there can be no doubt that there would have been many complaints every year, if the determination had rested with the Professor. When the prizes are all voted, the Professor brings the business to a close, by addressing the successful and disappointed respectively, in such terms of approbation, sympathy, and kindness, as the occasion seems to require. I have now explained, and with too much mi- nuteness, perhaps, the method of conducting the first studies of those who enter upon a course of philosophical education in this University. The great object of the course, it will have appeared, is to combine the communication of such elemen- tary knowledge as may seem necessary for fur- thering the subsequent pursuits of the Students, with a system of exercises, calculated to form, in 404 ON THE INSTITUTION OF PRIZES. their minds, those intellectual habits which are in- dispensable at once to the cultivation of Science, and to the business of active life. And 1 have no hesitation in adding, that every system of pubhc education which does not proceed on that prm- ciple, and embrace those means of improvement, is greatly and radically defective.-It is hoped too that the manner of conducting the practical bus'iness of the class is calculated, in some degree, to infuse into the minds of Students such spirit and emulation as will sweeten labour, and stimu- late to the highest degrees of exertion in pertorm- ing the tasks assigned to them. It is farther claim, ed for tais plan of conducting philosophical edu- cation, that it secures many of the advantages ot a private, or domestic education, whilst it obviates some, at least, of the evils which are supposed in- cident to a public one. I do not here mean to enter into a comparison between private and pub- lie instruction— a question much agitated both in ancient and in modern times-my object is to show, what has been much less attended to than it ought, that the principal advantages of each may, to a considerable extent, be united, without involv- ing any sacrifice of either. For instance, in this mode of education, a close and intimate connexion is established between the studies of the evening, and the exhibitions of the Student on the following day. It is understood, as a solemn stipulation entered into, betwixt the ON THE INSTITUTION OF PRIZES. 405 Professor and his Pupils, at the commencement of the session, that a certain portion of time shall be set apart, every evening, to be employed in pre- paring for the public appearances of the following day. For the faithful employment of this time, the Students are held strictly responsible to their Teacher; and, from the daily examinations, as well as from the written exercises, which, during the first three months, are required almost every day, he knows exactly what preparation has been made, and whether the preceding evening has been pro- perly occupied. Whenever, also, he perceives, in any individual, symptoms of failure, or relaxation, he puts the question directly, in the presence of the whole class, how the evening was spent, and demands a specific answer. When, again, in the latter part of the session, Themes are prescribed, which require five or six days for their execution, the Students are requested, when half that time is expired, to produce their Essays in an unfinished state, that a judgment may be formed of the pro- gress which has been made. This expedient is in- tended, of course, as a check upon the idle, and to secure their application, in the intervening space; and, chiefly indeed, to prevent all the Students from trusting, as young persons are very apt to trust, to a hasty preparation at the last moment. In this way, the Professor exercises a superin- tendence over the private studies of his Pupils; directs, to a certain extent, their course of reading; and possesses, in no small degree, from his daily 406 ON THE INSTITUTION OF PEIZES. scrutiny, the means of checking and stimulating the thoughtless and the indolent, even when they are out of his siglit. It is another good effect of this system, too, that it places the Students in such circumstances, with regard to the sense of shame, and respect for character, that they stand nearly as much m awe of one another as of the Professor, and are nn- pressed, in both cases, with a correspondmg re- sponsibility, as to improvement in their stml.es and general good conduct. Their public ap- pearances are made, every day, in the presence of the whole class; and they know that, at a period not very distant, much will depend upon the opinion which shall have been formed of their re- gularity, their attention, and progress. Whils engaged in study, during the evening hours it is impossible but that they must look forward to their appearance next day, in the presence ot a numerous band of class-fellows, eagerly exerting themselves in the same field of competition, and of a teacher zealously interested in their success. —All these circumstances combined, constitute perhaps a stronger and more natural species of restraint on the minds of ingenuous and spin ed young men, than that which arises from the watchfulness of private tuition; and are certainly better suited to prepare the Pupil tor the busmess of the world, where he will have much competi- tion to encounter, and where he cannot always ON THE INSTITUTION OF PRIZES. 407 avail himself of the assistance of a Tutor. That plan of instruction is unquestionably the best, which has the most direct tendency to make the Student instruct himself, to put him in the pro- per track for acquiring knowledge, to inspire confidence in his own exertions, and to lead him to take pleasure in the activity of his own mind. When these objects are gained, the most valua- ble and the most difficult part of education is accomplished. , It will occur to most readers, as an advantage resulting from the system of education and dis- cipline now explained, that it must obviate, in a great measure, the effects of bad example so com- monly deplored wherever there is a concourse of young persons in a large public seminary. Perhaps the charges of vice and idleness, brought against such schools, are greatly exaggerated; and it is very certain, on the other hand, that these evils, viewed with a reference to youth, are not con- fined to places of public education. I have not any intention of repeating, in this place, what has already been frequently advanced on this very important subject, that, as boys cannot be shut up all their lives, and must meet with vice in their passage through the world, it is of little consequence whether they become acquaint- ed with the ways of men a year sooner or later ; that there are vices, perhaps equally dangerous, to be encountered even under the paternal roof, ;l y^ 408 ON THE INSTITUTION OF PRIZES. notwithstanding every degree of restraint and watchfulness ; and that the evils attending a pub- «c eduLion/as they are n,ore efy discovered' so are they more easily corrected. It is admitted, however, that there are dangers to be incurred th^ eve a number of young persons are gathered together, and it is hoped that the constant em- IZme^ and superintendence secured by the me- Sod of philosophical education adopted here, go a great ly to provide an antidote. At all even s it is certainly a much better expedient foi cor- ec ing^ce and irregularity in Colleges than that adopted in some Universities, viz the appomtmg high Officers for the detection and punishment of misdemeanours ; which functionaries, as they pos- sess no means of preventing improper conduct ^an only act the part of spies, and must expect to be regarded with the dislike and suspicion which attach to informers. It is idleness and want of Interest, in the pursuits wherein they are engaged which most commonly lead to irregularity and faulty conduct in Students. Take away these in- spire a love for study, and create industrious habits and you will at once supersede the invidious office of Proctor, and render obsolete all penal statutes. Occupy the Student's time, and use means to „,ake him feel the spirit of emulation reject for his own character, and reverence for h,s Teache , and you will thereby abridge the labour of disci- pline; as far as regards regularity and deco- Lu These are the principles upon which wc ON THE INSTITUTION OF PRIZES. 409 endeavour to act in this University; and it is credit- able to the characters of youth, to have it to observe that they are, in most cases, completely efficacious. After the minute detail which has been given of the public and private business of the first class of Philosophy, I am afraid it may be thought by some altogether a Utopian scheme, and that neither the Teacher nor his Pupils can be supposed to execute the parts therein assigned to them. Formidable, however, as the task may appear, at first sight, it will be found, on nearer inspection, that nothing is required of either which demands more than ordinary talents, zeal, and industry. Let it be remembered, at the same time, that the duties of a Professor are more laborious and ex- tensive than is commonly imagined; and that they cannot be fully discharged by devoting one, or even two hours a-day to their performance. He has, or ought to have, a definite object in view ; and this object ought to regulate his hoursof teach- ing in public, and his labours in private. A very great difference of opinion seems to have taken place on this subject of late, compared with the views and practice of the ancient Philosophers ; for, while the latter are known to have spent many years in patiently training their Students in the mysteries of their profession, the former have brought the business of philosophical education within the compass of anut-shelljby confining their labours to the delivery of a Lecture, once a-day, 3 F I 410 ON THE INSTITUTION OF PRIZES. during a short Session. The practice now mention- ed is, to say the least of it, most irrational and ndi- culous. Would we not laugh at the musician who should propose to teach young persons to play upon the harp or violin, by giving them a Lecture daily, during the winter months, without once maldng them touch the strings of either mstru- ment ? But the attempt to teach a class of young men to think and reason, and more particularly to form in their minds the intellectual habits upon which reasoning, speaking, and writing depend by means of Lectures only, is more absurd and ridiculous still. After all, the time and labour necessary for conducting the business of the first Philosophy class, in this College, are by means so considerable as might be expected. During the first three months of the course, the exercises performed by the Students are of such a kind that by simply hearing them read in the class, the Professor, from his knowledge of the subject, and his experience in the details of teaching, can, at the moment, xnake such remarks, and give such instructions, in relation to them, as appear requisite; and it is only in the latter part of the course, when the essays given in are longer and more difficult, that it be- comes necessary to devote an additional or third hour every day, for the purpose of reading and criticising. ON THE EXTENSION, &C. 411 ON THE EXTENSION OF THIS MODE OF TEACHING TO THE HIGHER DEPARTMENTS OF STUDY IN UNIVER- SITIES. It will require but little reflection to satisfy a candid mind, that the method of teaching which is found successful, in the earlier branches of Philosophy, will, with a few modifications, apply to the more advanced departments of it ; tor it is abundantly manifest that, as the same faculties of the mind are employed at every stage of philoso- phical investigation, the same principles of reason- ing must be called in to guide their operations, and a similar mode of training be adopted to invi- gorate their powers. In passing from one depart- ment to another, there is only a change of object, a different set of materials to work upon ; the in- tellectual instrument, the mental processes of analysis, discrimination, and arrangement, remain- ing unchanged. Whether the subject-matter upon which the attention is fixed be Logic, Ethics, or Physics, the method of teaching will imply only a slight change, as to the way in which the Professor exerts his talents and influence on the one, and in which the Students employ their abiUties and industry on the other. Perhaps, the greatest difficulty is already over- come; and the chief obstacle to this plan of 412 ON THE EXTENSION OF THIS MODE instruction removed, by the exertions made, in the first class, to form habits of thinking, and to create a love for study. In the formation of all habits, whether bodily or strictly mental, the first efforts are the least agreeable, and require, of course, the most unremitting endeavours on the part of both Teacher and Pupil: whence it follows that, what- ever progress is made at this stage, in acquiring the use of the intellectual powers, and in deriving pleasure from their exercise, will proportionably facilitate the advancement of the Student in all his subsequent pursuits. His acquisitions in this field may be regarded as a free stock, ready to be employed in any future undertaking. Still there is some reason to apprehend that the indolence or vanity of Teachers will supply them with powerful objections to this plan of study. The daily examination of Students, on the subjects discussed in their hearing, and the perusal of their Themes in private, with the view of reporting on them in the class, are employments of more drud- gery than fame, and afford not the same oppor- tunity for the display of eloquence, or ingenuity, as is enjoyed by him, who is known only to his Pupils in the character of a Lecturer. To submit to the labour of teaching would be to put himself on a level with the common school-master and artist, who are compelled to sacrifice a large por- tion of their time to the fatiguing duty of using all kinds of precept and example, with the view OF TEACHING IN UNIVERSITIES. 413 of instructing the learner to perform what they themselves profess, and what they undertake to communicate. But, without repeating what has been again and again said on this head, I still maintain that, without imitating, to a certain ex- tent, the examples now mentioned, no Professor can discharge his duty with facility and success. The Professors of Moral and Natural Philosophy enjoy considerable advantages, in carrying on, in their respective classes, a plan of study similar to that which has now been described. The sub- jects of their Lectures present to themindsofyouth compaiatively strong motives and allurements to study. The various powers of action which are analysed in the Ethic class, such as instincts, appe- tites, desires, affections, and passions; the origin of moral sentiment; the development of those ener- getic principles which animate and impel the vast mechanism of human society; the grounds and dis- tinctions of good and evil, of praise and of blame; the sources of depraved taste in the public mind, with the remedy, or antidote; the opinions of learn- ed men in ancient and modern times, relative to tlie obligations of virtue; the qualities of mind and of action in which it consists; and the ultimate standard of excellence, as applicable to all ages and nations — these, and other similar inquiries, take a firmer hold of the youthful imagination, than ab- stract discussions on the generation of ideas, and on tlie means of intellectual culture. Theoretical 414 ON THE EXTENSION OF THIS MODE views and speculations, too, on the principles of go- vernment, of jurisprudence, andthehistory of civil society, afford ample scope for eloquence, and ad- tnit of various and very interesting ^["f nation. In like manner, the subjects of Natural Philosophy, the beauty, the grandeur, and sublimity of the material world, are well calculated to gratify curiosity, and to prompt investigation, ihe ap- plication of analysis and induction to the pheno- mena of Nature, and to the interpretation of her laws, cannot fail to prove a delightful employment to the inquisitive Student: and, in one word, the Professors, in the two departments now referred to will find no difficulty in arranging a proper system of exercise and mental culture, suited to the circumstances of the young persons under their charge. The proficiency which the Students are sup- posed already to have made in the acqmrement ot knowledge, and of intellectual habits, may per- haps render daily examinations, in their case, less necessary, and, at the same time, suggest some alterations in the mode of prescribing Exercises. The essays, written in the Ethic and Physical classes, ought, for example, to be longer and more difficult than those to which the young men were accustomed in the Logic class, proceeding on a small stock of materials, supplied by the Profes- sor, and subjected to a less indulgent criticism both as to matter, and style of composition, btili OF TEACHING IN UNIVERSITIES. 415 the Teacher, even there, must not trust too much to any appearance of superior advantage, as con- nected with the subjects of his course, or with the previous acquirements of his Pupils. He must not cease to use all the means in his power to stimulate their efforts, and to maintain their industry. He must remember that their intellectual habits are not yet fully confirmed; that they are naturally averse to labour; exposed to many temptations; and not always sufficiently masters of their deter- minations, to follow out the good resolves which they may have made. The former course of dis- cipline, therefore, is not to be hastily abandoned. Its essential parts, and particularly the unceasing watchfulness w^hich it exercises over the conduct of the Student, and the distribution of his time, ought to be firmly retained, and merely accommo- dated to the gradual change of circumstances, in which maturer age, and extended knowledge, are understood to place him. The spirit of emulation must not be allowed to expire; nor ought the feel- ing of responsibility, in relation to the Professor and the class at large, to suffer any diminution. I have much satisfaction in stating that my re- spected colleagues, the Professors of Moral and of Natural Pliilosophy, approving of this system of teaching, have now had full experience of its nu- merous advantages, and are in the constant prac- tice of examining their Students, and of prescribing 416 ON THE EXTENSION OF THIS MODE a regular course of Themes and Exercises, on the subjects of their respective Lectures. It is hardly necessary to observe that this plan of teaching is equally applicable to the study of every branch of Science;-of Medicine, of Law and Xo'to that of Theology. In truth, ^ha-^^ may be the subject of inquiry or pursuit therej^. only one way of teaching it, namely, that of com- niunicating suitable knowledge of the facts and principles, which constitute the subject-matter ot research, and of rendering these the means of in- tellectual exertion, and culture, to the Student. It has, I am aware, been frequently maintained, that with regard to the departments now mention- ed a course'of examination and exercise is quite unnecessary; because, as the Students of M. cine. Law, and Theology, are commonly of -ore advanced age than those in the preparatory classes. :„d prosecute their studies with --diate P^ fessiLai vi.ws, they ^y^:::!!^::^^^^ ficient interest in the Lectures, to aen all the advantages which such a mode of instruc "n is capable of conferring. This, however is not a fair statement of the case. A very con^ - rable number o^ the Students, attending the classes now under consideration, are far from being of mature years; their education, in many instance^ has neither been regular, nor complete ; then OP TEACHING IN UNIVERSITIES. 417 minds have not been improved; nor have their ha- bits been formed on systematic industry; on which account, they stand very much in want of the direction, and vigilant superintendence, which constitute the discipline of the junior classes. But, granting that they were of an age considerably advanced, there appears no good reason why they should be deprived of the manifold advantages of this practical tuition. It is not meant, indeed, that the same number, or even the same kind, of exercises should be prescribed in the higher classes, that are regularly enjoined by the Professors of Philosophy. It is merely intended that such a mode and course of practical teaching should be adopted, as will best promote the purposes of study, secure attention to the Lectures, and lead the Stu- dent to acquire a minute and familiar knowledge of all the subjects brought before him. In what- ever circumstances Lectures are delivered for the instruction of youth, the system of Education is eminently defective, if it is not followed up with a regular examination ; for, even a class of Philo- sophers would give more attention to a scientific discourse, did they know that they would be called upon to render an account of it, either in conver- sation or in writing, by any one vested with autho- rity to demand such a proof of their application. There is another objection urged against the extension of the practical method of teaching to the higher or professional classes, which, however, 3 G 418 ON THE EXTENSION OF THIS MODE scarcely deserves a serious answer. It is said thart Students in such classes ought not to be treated like boys, and subjected to the discipline of a school. Now, it is admitted that the same species of restraint andcontrolis,inthem,neitherdesirablenor expedient ; still there is a kind and degree of both, which, if judiciouslyadapted to the age and pursuits of the Students, cannot fail to be at once reason- able and useful ; and I have no hesitation in re- peating, with a particular reference to such a case, what I have already stated generally, that, where there are no checks on the part of the Teacher, and no responsibility on the part of the Student, the mode of education does not deserve the name of teaching. What evil, it may well be asked, could possibly arise from the Masters insisting upon knowing whether his pupils actually attend his Lectures ?— whether they fully understand them? or whether further instructions might not be necessary ? Such precautions would never ap- pear unreasonable to sensible young men, desirous of instruction and improvement. Besides, how absurd and preposterous is it to imagine that a system of education should be constructed to meet the taste and conveniency of those who are to be taught, and who, upon this supposition, must be un- derstood to prescribe the plan upon which they are to receive instruction, and to dictate terms as to the amount of the labour and sacrifices to which they will be pleased to submit. In no other case, where advice or assistance is asked, is it usual to restrict 1 OF TEACHING IN UNIVERSITIES. 419 him, to whom such a request is made, to any one mode of conferring the favour. Nor can I perceive on what ground the prac- tice of putting questions, and enjoining the com- position of Essays, in a class of young men, can be construed as in the least disrespectful to them. If, indeed, this system implied an occasional re- course to the bodily chastisement which, in other parts of the island, is said to be sometimes inflicted on lads of eighteen or nineteen, there might be some reason to complain. But, here, nothing is re* quired which can in the smallest degree mortify the Student, or subject him to reproach or deri. sion. Socrates, the great moral Teaclier of an- cient times, adopted, for his mode of instruction, the form of question and answer, and, in this way, endeavoured to enlighten the minds of his coun- trymen, without respect to their ag€ or condition. "Why, then, should advanced Students regard this method of improving their knowledge as either disrespectful or undignified, merely because it is employed in the education of their juniors? Are they prepared to give up every thing they do, upon finding that boys do the same ? If so, they must not walk, nor run, nor eat, nor receive les- sons at all; all these things being practised by the most youthful inmates of a school. Such are the absurdities into which men are doomed to fall, whenever they depart widely from reason and common sense. 420 ON THE EXTENSION OF THIS MODE There is, moreover, a peculiar inconsistency in neglecting examinations and exercises in the class- es'of Medicine, Law, and Theology; for, whilst the Students are exempted from all the details of teaching, during their attendance upon the Lee tures, they are subjected to a strict examination afterwards, when they become candidates for a degree, or for a professional establishment. Why, then, are they not accustomed to questions during the regular course of education ? The neglect of that practice, it is well known, ibrces the Student at last to submit to a mode of tuition the most discouraging and degrading. The medical Stu- dent, in particular, places himself under the charge of one of those Teachers who are vulgarly called Grinders, whose business it is to collect the ques- tions which are commonly put by the Examina- tors, and to drill the candidates upon these inter- rogations, some time previous to the public exami- nation. It may be remarked, in passing, that this public examination, in other respects so objectionable, is rendered still more useless by continuing to conduct it in the Latin language. As long as the Lectures were delivered in Latin, there was a good reason for examining the Students in that language; but now, when the Professors, without exception, ad- dress their classes in English, and, often, on subjects which were unknown to the Romans, and inca- pable of being translated into their tongue, the use OF TEACHING IN UNIVERSITIES. 421 of that ancient language, in conducting the public examination, is become highly inexpedient and ob- jectionable. It is, indeed, the most effectual mode that could have been devised, for preventing the Examinator from discovering whatever talents and knowledge the candidate may possess ; and, on the other hand, for precluding the latter from availing himself of the information which he may happen to have. Besides, when such examinations take place forty or fifty times in a year, it is impossible but that the questions, which will necessarily as- sume a kind of form, must reach the Grinders ; who, of course, will arrange them, for the benefit of their pupils, under the names of the respective Professors. In one lesson, they will put the ques- tions of Dr. A. in another, those of Dr. B. and thus, in due order, exhaust the Latinity and Science of the whole medical school. It has been stated, as one reason for continuing these Examinations in Latiii, that the Students are thereby induced to pay greater attention to that valuable language. This expectation is founded on a very incorrect view of the subject ; for, supposing that the Students have already made proficiency in that field of classical litera- ture, the technical use of it, in medical science, would only tend to corrupt their taste, and des- troy the purity of their compositions, whilst, on the supposition that they have not made such proficiency, it may be confidently asserted that 422 ON THE EXTENSION OF THIS MODE they will never arrive at a competent knowledge of it, by practising under the Grinders. Nor can any good reason be alleged, why Professors of Anatomy, Chemistry, and Physic, should feel it incumbent upon themselves to become Teachers of Latin. But, if so,-if they do imagine it to be a part of their duty to make up for the defects of an imperfect classical education, let them at least set about it in earnest ; let them lecture in Latin every day, and examine their pupils as frequently in the same language, and not satisfy themselves with discoursing three or four years in Lnghsti, and then, once for all, come forward, with more than the learning of Celsus, to puzzle them with questions in a strange tongue. The present prac tice of lecturing in English, and examining m Latin, manifests about the same degree of wisdom, and acquaintance with the human capacity, as it we were to conduct a stranger through an intrica e town, with his eyes open, and insist that he should perform the same circuit, in our presence, with his eyes shut. To return, however, to our proper subject ; I have heard it mentioned, as an obstacle to the extension of the system of teaching now recom- mended, that the delivery of the Lecture occupies the whole hour allotted to the business ot the class, so that no time remains for Examinations and Themes. This reason, however, can only be of weight in the absence of all means of adding OF TEACHING IN UNIVERSITIES. 423 another hour to the daily employment of Master, and Pupil, to be devoted entirely to the exercises just mentioned : even, if a second hour be not suffi- cient, let a third be appropriated, and the ground of the objection will be removed. The apology now alluded to, so little creditable to the judgment and zeal of those who urge it, is indeed but a branch of that foolish prejudice which makes phi- losophical education consist wholly in the mere communication of knowledge, and without any re- ference to the more valuable acquisition of intel- lectual habits, which enable the Student to acquire knowledge of his own. Nothing, it is presumed, can be more obvious than that, in these days, when scientific publications are so generally diffused, the chief object with a Professor ought not to be the outpouring of his whole stock of knowledge into the minds of his Pupils, but rather the exhi- bition of a sketch, or outline, of what ought to be known in his particular department, to be filled up by the private studies ot* the young men, and to be used by them as a guide in their future inquiries* The great point with a Teacher in a philosophi- cal class is to habituate and inure his pupils to think for themselves ; to investigate, analyze, compare, and reason consequentially ; and these habits are not so likely to be acquired in any other way as by regular examinations, and frequent compositions, on the various subjects which are laid before them. It is of much less consequence to the Students that the Professor shall finish what he is pleased s ♦24 ON THE EXTENSION OF THIS BIODE to call his course, than that he take notice of what they are doing, every evening and every morning; —that he ascertain the extent of their progress, and. above all, their success in acquiring the use of those intellectual instruments by which all real knowledge must be sought for, and obtained. According to these views of utility, it would even be advisable, where an additional hour could not be introduced, to shorten the Lecture, and devote a part ot the time to examination. Nor are examples wanting in which this practice has been adopted. Mr. Millar, the late celebrated Professor of Law, in this University, found time to examine the Students, every morning, on the Lecture of the preceding day, before commencing his usual prelections, and, occasionally, also to prescribe subjects for written exercises. It gives me pleasure to subjoin that the present Professor of Law follows, in this respect, the example of his distinguished predecessor. When speaking on the various duties and obli- Rations of a Professor, it may perhaps be allowed me to remark that, in some circumstances, the Lec- tures are rendered less useful than they would otherwise be to the Students, by being accommo- dated to the taste of such individuals as happen to attend for casual instruction, or amusement. It is no easy matter to unite, in the same Lectures, what the scientific Student requires, and what will prove agreeable to him who only seeks to be en- Ltained; in which case the Professor will incur OF TEACHING IN UNIVERSITIES. 425 the hazard of making his prelections too superfi- cial for the one, and too scientific for the other. The ancient Philosophers, for a different reason, had their esoteric and their exoteric doctrines; and, in the circumstances referred to, this distinction would not, perhaps, be without its use. But this is only mentioned in passing. I conclude this section with observing, what I believe has been already observed, that the neglect of examinations and exercises by the Professor is a great loss to himself, as well as to his Pupils. He must for ever remain a stranger to the art of Teaching, and content himself with the reputation of a mere public speaker. It is only by experience that he can learn how to accommodate himself to the opening capacity of youth, and how to recon- cile their minds to the irksomeness of labour, in following out the more difficult tracks of science. He who has no deeper acquaintance with his Pupils than this, that he delivers to them a Lecture every day, in a room where they are supposed to as- semble, will not, at the end even of a long life, be better qualified to discharge the proper duties of a Teacher, than on the day that he entered upon his office. If his class be numerous, and no catalogue called over upon their daily meeting, which is the case in some Universities, he cannot even have the satisfaction of knowing, whether his Pupils fa- vour him with their personal attendance; whilst the mere possession of a ticket will go but a little 3 H 426 ON THE EXTENSION OF THIS MODE way to make good the assiduity, or to aid the pro- gress, of the juvenile Student. ON THE EXTENSION OF THIS MODE OF TEACHING TO THE STUDY OF THEOLOGY. According to the existing laws of the Church of Scotland, Students of Divinity enter upon their course, after an attendance of four years in the several classes of Literature and Philosophy; and continue in the prosecution of the various studies connected with Theology during an equal period of time; or, in case of irregular attendance, during the more extended term of six years. The irregular or occasional attendance, now alluded to, is permitted by the Ecclesiastical courts, rather in consideration of the circumstances in which many Theological Students are placed, as tutors in families, or teachers in schools, than from any view to the encouragement of sacred learning: for, as an ac tual residence of three or four days, once a year, is all that is required of such individuals, it is very obvious that, in pursuing their studies, they are more indebted to their own industry, than to the superintendence of a Professor, or to the wise in- stitution of Divinity Lectures. OF TEACHING TO THEOLOGY. 427 Indeed, according to the present mode of con- ducting Theological study, in the greater number of our Universities, the young men are left very much to themselves, as to the distribution of their time, and the way in which they shall be pleased to employ it. During the long period of four Ses- sions of College, no examination takes place on the numerous, and very important, topics to which their attention is invited ; whilst the few profes- sional discourses which, in compliance with the rules of the Church, are delivered in the Hall, as they may, or may not, be written by those who read them, afford but very unsatisfactory evidence either of talent or industry. In some Universities, personal attendance at the Lecture is almost en- tirely optional ; and, when we consider the age of the Students, the general aversion to intellectual labour which characterizes their time of life, and the many temptations to idleness with which they are constantly surrounded, it will be acknowledg- ed that this relaxed discipline is highly unfavour- able to the acquirement of those habits, and of that learning, which are usually deemed essential to the Teacher of religion. In most of our Halls, too, one hour a day is far from being sufficient to enable the Professor to perform his duty, as it ought to be performed. The necessity of devoting time to hear the dis- courses which the Church demands of the Stu- dents, leaves to the Professor, at an average, only I i 428 ON THE EXTENSION OF THIS MODE two hours a-week for Lecturing ; and thus puts it completely out of his power to explain, to the satis- faction of the Student, the great leading doctrines of Natural and Revealed Religion. In consequence of this, it frequently happens that the course re- mains unfinished, after the statutory attendance ot the young Divine is over; and 1 have heard ot a Professor of Theology whose course of Lectures did not come to a close sooner than in twenty years. Why, then, it may be reasonably asked, is the duty of a Theological Professor confined to what can be overtaken in one hour a-day? His ap- pointment is to teach Theology; and the obliga- tion implied in such an office unquestionably de- mands of him that he shall employ as much time, daily and yearly, as will enable him to teach it in a successful manner. There cannot certainly be any statute, in our academical constitutions, pro- hibiting the extension of Theological study, and I am warranted in saying that no such obstacle exists in this University. In former times, indeed, as is well known, the Professors of Divinity here did not confine their labours to the short space ot one hour, five times a-week; on the contrary, they occupied as much time in Lectures, and other ex- ercises, as the purposes of a good Theological edu- cation seemed to require. The celebrated Bishop Burnet, for example, who was, for several years. Professor of Divinity in the University of Glasgow, conducted his class in a manner well deserving ot OF TEACHING TO THEOLOGY. 429 imitation by all who fill such chairs. In the ac- count of his life, published at Edinburgh, page 243, we have the following detail of his own labours, and those of his Students : — " On Mondays, he made each of the Students read a head of Divinity in Latin, and prepare such Thesis from it as he was to defend against the rest of his Scholars ; and this exercise concluded with a Latin oration from the Professor. " On Tuesdays, he gave them a prelection in the same language, wherein he proposed, in the course of eight years, to have gone through a complete course of Divinity. " On Wednesdays, he read them a Lecture for above an hour, by way of a critical commentary on St. Matthew's Gospel, which he had conclud- ed before he quitted that chair. " On Thursdays, the exercise was alternate. On Sunday, he expounded an Hebrew Psalm, comparing it with the Septuagint, the Vulgar, and the English version ; and, the next Thuisday, he explained some part of the ritual and constitution of the primitive church, making the apostolical canons his text, and reducing every article of practice under the head of one or other of these canons. >l 430 ON THE EXTENSION OF THIS MODE " On Fridays, he made each of his Scholars, in course, preach a short sermon upon some text he Zgnli; and, when it was ended, he observed upon any thing that was defective or amiss, show- ing how the text ought to be opened and apphed. This was the labours of the morning. « In the evenings, after prayer, he, every day, read them some portion of Scripture, on which he " de a short discourse -, and, when that was over, he examined into the progress of t^-r severa^^^u dies, encouraging them to propose their difficul ties to him upon the subjects they were reading This he performed during the ^l^o^^J'T J^^ schools were open, hereby answering the duty of a Professor with the assiduity of a school-mastei , and Tn order to acquit himself with credit, he was Ob ted to study from four to ten in the morning ; ^he fest of the day being either allotted to the use of his Students, or to hear the complaints of the clergy, who, finding he had interest wih men m power, were not sparing in their applications. I have produced this extract, not because I think it contains a perfect model of teaching a Theological class, but simpl/ as exhibiting a com- ple" prtf that a Professor's office, - these times. Ls one of great laboriousness and ass»dmty. Viewing matters in a very different light fimn some of those who have succeeded them, the Teachers, of the period now referred to, considered OF TEACHING TO THEOLOGY. 431 a constant intercourse with their Pupils as a neces- sary part of their duty, not imagining themselves degraded by condescending to examine the young men, on what they professed to teach them; to in- quire into the progress of their studies ; and to prescribe to them a regular series of exercises on the leading subjects of their course. It is, no doubt, some satisfaction to reflect, that the mode of teaching Philosophy here is supported by so high an authority as that of Bishop Burnet ; and I should fail injustice to my much respected friend and colleague, the present Professor of Theology in this University, did I not mention that he has already made considerable progress in adapting this method to the study of Divinity, and in re- storing the ancient system of activity and emula- tion by examinations — ^by Essays prescribed on the Lectures — and by those of a critical nature, on passages of Scripture in the original language. Into no department, indeed, could the practical mode of teaching be more happily introduced, than into that of Theology. Young men carry with them into that class a fund of knowledge, and ha- bits of study, which must greatly facilitate their inquiries in this new field of research ; whilst the subjects on which they are to be engaged are of a nature so highly interesting and important, as ef- fectually to excite their curiosity, and keep up their attention. At this period, too, their minds are less distracted by variety of studies than at 432 ON THE EXTENSION OF THIS MODE any earlier stage of their progress ; and the mere Sumstance of their continuing four or five years under the same Teacher, who must thereby become intimately acquainted with their character and ta- ents. and whose opinion of them cannot fad tohave a great effect on their prospects in the world, seems, of itself, to hold out many motives to diligence, and to invest the professorial chair with more than com- mon efficiency, for the advancement of study. Whv I beg leave to ask, should the principle of activity be relaxed, and habits of research and as- Sd^t/ thrown aside, at the very moment tha young men are entering upon the studies mos closely connected with their future profession? Certainly, if there be any good -a.on -hy the Students in the preparatory classes should be sub- tcted to discipline, and inured to exertion merely foQualify them for prosecuting successfully their several professional pursuits, it must appear more Tan commonly irrational to allow the-.justwhen iheir pursuits are to commenqe. to shake off entire- ly all the restraints of discipline, and to rehnquish Si habits of industry. The spirit of dihgence, and of scientific research, cannot be arrested m its pro- gress without manifest disadvantage ; when it doe not advance, it loses ground ; when it dc^s not receive fresh life, it dies: and nothing is more Ukely to hasten this decline than the lazy, deaden- tZl^-^t\^^^ -°de of studying Theology, which ',r%l too much at present -font apphcaUon. without object, without regularity, without check. OF TEACHING TO THEOLOGY. 433 or responsibility of any kind. Upon what princi- ple is that Professor to be acquitted in the eyes of his constituents, or of the public at large, who confessedly knows nothing, as to the progress and proficiency of his Pupils ; knows not whether his Lectures be comprehended by them; what difficul- ties they have to struggle with; and what miscon- ceptions they may labour under? On every account, then, it is highly expedient that Professors of Divinity should set apart an hour every day for examinations, and exercises, suited to the circumstances and progress of their Pupils. Besides the knowledge which he conveys to them, on subjects strictly Theological, a Profes- sor of Divinity has much in his power, in the way of recommending attention to accomplishments of a secondary nature,— to eloquent composition, and clear reasoning, — to a chaste and classical oratory, — to a warm, easy, and graceful manner; in a word, to whatever may enable them to reach at once the heart and the understanding of their au- dience. It is, indeed, to be regretted, that opinions prevail among a certain class of people, of which the direct tendency is to bring about a species of divorce between the science of Theology, and the human art^, as they are called, of Reasoning and Eloquence. In all situations, however, public men ought to possess public talents ; and it should not 51 Ml |i# 434 ON THE EXTENSION OE THIS MODE be forgotten that, how sacred and important soever the J^atter may be, whi.ch a clergyman has to con^- munTcate, it must be conveyed to the mmds of the rngrega ion. through the medium o the sense coital cj, . A similar obiection was, at and the imagination. A/'""'"/; ^ ^f .^^ .^me one time, entertained by persons oi t Lrrow views, relative to the use of protane Sat- and Philosophy, considered as mean, orqualify-g men for offices in the ch-xh J is n'ot ver'y easy to discover "Pon ^ ^^^^ such opinions are founded. At all eve , j Teiive no countenance whatever from the In- S Writings : for we are not to imagme that he strktures found in the New Testament, on te vSn Philosophy of the Greeks, can, m any degree, warrant' an attempt to connect Bety Jh ignorance, and the knowledge of God w th r studied neglect for all those --ces wh ch make us acquainted with his works. When tlie ^^ghty condescended to remonstrate with his ^Sdie'nt people, he e^ioyed not t e vo- of Moses, the slow of speech but that of the «nore eloquent Aaron. When the disciples were sent tl to preach the Gospel among Jews and Ge- tiles the learned and the unlearned, they were clmmanded to be wise as serpents, as well as halless as doves: and, -hen situatmns of grea difficulty and danger were in P;o;P ^t. a" Apo t^ was chosen of great talents and fo^'tjide whohas exhibited, to all preachers, an exampl oflearned, powerful, and manly eloquence. In all times, has OF TEACHING TO THEOLOGY. 435 the Christian orator very formidable enemies to encounter — principalities and powers, spiritual wickedness in high places — and must, therefore, be girt about with the whole Christian armour. He has to combat with ignorance, indifference, infide- lity, sophistry, and perverted learning — enemies which require, in him who opposes them, other qualifications besides seriousness and good in- tention. But, it is unnecessary to obviate objections which are now very seldom urged, and which, at no time, deserved a serious answer. It is every where admitted that learning and science are in- dispensable requisites, as the ground-work of a clerical education ; and that knowledge of the Scriptures, biblical criticism, oriental literature, ancient history, a clear methodical style of com- position, good utterance, and a persuasive manner, ought to be the principal objects of profes- sional study. All this is now taken for granted. The great point, then, is to fix upon a system of means for realizing these important ends : and I know of none more likely to prove efficacious than that which I have ventured to recommend. It is founded on principles analogous to those on which the art of teaching is practised, in every other department of human pursuit and industry ; it is sanctioned by the example of some very learned and approved Professors, both of our own and other countries, and, I will add, it is justified ^ 436 ON THE CONDUCT OF STUDY DURING THE VACATION. 437 IS by the experience of nearly half a century, during Jhich it has been acted upon in the Philosophical classes of this ancient College. ON THE CONDUCT OF STUDY DURING THE VACATION. There is only one Term, each year, in the Uni- versity of Glasgow; which term contmues more IhTn s'even months, in certain of the classes, and s.x months in others; with the interruption of a few • 1 i.«i;,iav« The vacation, therefore, oc- occasional hohdavs. ine vd,c ', ^ . .. cupies a considerable portion of the Students Z ; and it is part of the duty of ^^^^^^^^^^ take the charge of the education of his Studen s, tm theyente? the succeeding department m l^e a ademical course. He cannot, indeed, give his personal presence ; but he may be present in the Lirit of his instructions, which ought to be of /uch a kind that the Student may receive some assistance from them, in all his difficulties. The Student ought not to think that a vacation is a cessation from labour, but a termination only of the public instruction of the Teacher, and of the regular daily business of the Scholar A vaca- ion, properly and judiciously occupied, far from being an interruption, is, in fact, a necessary part of a public course of education. The great and ge- neral object of all the means of education is to qua- lify young men for acting their part, in the various situations and conditions into which they may be afterwards thrown. Now, this important end can- not be effected by keeping the Students constantly under the trammels of academical rules and dis- cipline. They ought, occasionally, to be accus- tomed to voluntary direction in the course of their studies; and opportunities ought to be afforded of putting in practice the instructions they have re- ceived, and of confirming the habits in which, it is to be hoped, they have made some progress. The manner in which public studies are con- ducted during the Term, render a vacation abso- lutely necessary. The frequency of Lectures, Exa- minations, and Themes, and the limited time the Students are allowed for to go through them, render it impossible, during the term, to give, to each part of the business, that full attention and consideration which they require. Many subjects have been explained, in the Lecture, which the Student had not sufficient time to examine, and which must have been imperfectly understood. It must, therefore, be both useful and acceptable to the Student to obtain leisure and tranquillity, for reviewing, in detail, the various doctrines of the Lectures, and for obtaining more satisfactory knowledge in those subjects in which he feels himself deficient. i 438 ON THE CONDUCT OF STUDY Before the Student enters upon his vacation studies, there are. however. --« P-^'^-^^^^^^^^^^^^^ ments to be made. He must consider what portion of time he can aflbrd to devote to h,s studies; and he must distribute it among them, according to their importance or difficulty. Another thing is essential ; viz. that he draw an exact Ime betwixt Z portion of time appropriated to study, and that which is required for relaxation or amuse, ment; for. if the occupations of those two po. tons of time be allowed to interfere with each other, no regular plan of study can be accomplished. When these arrangements are once made, they ought to be considered as sacred and inviolable Tlfe time thus appropriated is devoted to the study of knowledge and virtue ; and no encr^ch ment ought to be made on it, on any account what- ^ver. Lgular study profiteth httle. and is often hurtlul. The irregular Student freq-^riy ^- ceives himself with the semblance of st"dy. - th- out the reality. Inconstant, ill-regulated minds are ver changing their occupations, ever making :„d breaking Lir resolutions. ^^^^'^^^^^^^ day with themselves, the power of se't;d«te'""'°^' JSi is weakened, and that power and liberty are lost, which might have led to success and honour- able distinction. In such circumstances he Stu- dent never, in fact, overcomes the diftcult) « beginning new habits ; and never advances to that facility and dexterity of exertion which is reward- ed by success. DURING THE VACATION. 439 No habit ought to be more assiduously cultivat- ed by the Student than that of passing quickly from amusement to study, or from one occupation to another. Valuable fragments of time are, for want of this, lost. To put a stop to one train of thought, and immediately to begin a different one» is a most important habit, in the management of business and of study. When the Student has the full command of his time, during the vacation, he should dedicate the morning to study, in preference to every other part of the day. The morning, it has been said, is a friend to the Muses. Experience has suffi- ciently shewn that, with the exception of those who have early formed contrary habits, the facul- ties of the mind, after the repose of the night, are, in general, more vigorously and successfully exert- ed. But, were there no other reason for selecting the morning for study, it is sufficient that it is less 'exposed to avocation or interruption. In truth, when the morning is lost, the whole day is in danger; and the loss of ons day leads the way to the loss of another. The habit of studying in the morning has also this additional advantage, that the Student may thus carry on the principal parts of his business, upon a visit, as well as at home, without much interruption. These matters thus adjusted, the Student is di- rected to consider what ought to be his principal 440 ON THE CONDUCT OF STUDY occupations; the order in which he intends to pro- ZZ them; and the definite portion of Ume to he allotted to each. The great objects of his stu- dLfdur ng the vacation, are the farther cultwa- tn of thf intellectual habits of r^^^lf^^, tation, and composition. It ts not to be unde stood that any one of these exercises can be well performed wLut the other-that a person can be said to read without thinkmg-or that he can think long without composing-but that each of these exercises are, proportionally, tooccupy a se- parate portion of his time. The Student is directed to begin with a conti- nuation of his classical reading, =»"f ^o leave no „art of this delightful region unexplored. It is Tow he is to reap the fruit of his early and severe "abours, in acquiring a grammatical knowledge ot taiSentlanVges-Theutilityofclassica^^^^^^ ing is so universally acknowledged, as abianch of^ducation. that it would be superfluous heie to enter upon the discussion of the subject. The sLdy of the classics should form a part of the bu- Ss of every vacation ; and the Stu eiU^.t .to be supposed, has now the advantage of being able to apply those principles of taste and composition, Ihich he has acquired during the Session, to this part of his vacation studies. The next department of reading, to which the Student" direc'ted. is that of those Philosophical DURING THE VACATION. 441 authors, who have written upon the subjects of the course. During the Session, the Student is, in a great measure, confined to the liasty consultation of such parts of those works as had an immediate reference to the subjects of those Lectures which required farther explanation. Now, he has time to consult these authors with more composure ; and to begin, and continue, a regular study of them, as far as his other occupations will permit. In this way he enlarges his knowledge of the subjects of the Lectures; he examines and compares what he has read, and what he has heard, with the ma- tured knowledge there to be found; and is prepar- ed to alter or confirm the judgments which he had formerly adopted. In such a system of reading, it should be the constant aim of the Student to follow closely his author, his manner of thinking and feeling, and to mark the progressive steps by which he arrives at the conclusions he has formed. Another portion of time should be devoted to the study of history. The knowledge which any individual can acquire by his own observation and reflection, bears but a small proportion to what he may derive from others. No man can build up bis superstructure of knowledge on his own foun- dation. He must extend his knowledge of hu- man science to the state and phenomena of the human mind, and to the various conditions in which it is placed, in its progress from rudeness to "iH'' ^1 442 ON THE CONDUCT OF STUDY refinement. Such, knowledge of the facts and events of history is the basis of the sciences of morals, politics, jurisprudence, oeconomics, and law. Some persons have advised the Student to begin with ancient history; and, after connecting it with modern history, to proceed, in the order of time, to a detail of the latter. Others recommend to him to begin with the history of his own country; and to proceed to that of other countries, in pro- portion as their connexion with it is gradually de- veloped. But every individual must fix on the plan of reading history most suited to the state of his progress and previous attainments, and to his future objects of pursuit. In general, the read- ing of political modern histories should be delay- ed to future vacations, when the Students must be supposed to be farther advanced, and better prepared to comprehend such subjects. That portion of the time which is appropriated to readinc^, in the immediate vacation, will be most properly "employed with histories, travels, voy- acres. &c. which treat of nations in an early period of society. Thence may be drawn the elements of the sciences, already mentioned, in their simplest state, before man becomes that comphcated, artiti- cial being which he appears in political history. There may be discerned the rudiments of socie- ty— the principles in human nature, which dispose the many to be governed by the few-the origin and progress of government, science, and art DURING THE VACATION. 443 —the various forms of delegated power, and their effects upon tlie talents and the happiness of nations. The perusal of such narratives na- turally encourages thought and reflection in youthful and inquisitive minds. To this may be added ancient biographical history, which is full of important information. The Student should also have always at hand some book of elegant amusement, suited to his taste and humour, to which he may apply, at times, when he wishes to unbend his mind, after severer studies. It is obvious that a smajl part of this plan of reading can be executed during the ensuing va- cation. The prudence and experience of the Student must be consulted, not only in the choice of the books which lie proposes to read, but also in fixing those resting places, at wliich he may in- terrupt his studies at one time, to return to them at another, with the least disadvantage. But the attention of the Student is not exclu- sively directed to the study of authors. He is re- quired to set apart a portion of his time for re- flection on the knowledge he has acquired ; and the natural materials which occur for this exercise are, thesubjectswhich have beenbroughtuuder his view in the course of Lectures which has just been con- cluded. When occupied with hearing these Lectures, accompanied by the daily exercises in which he was engaged, the Student must have marked many 444* ON THE CONDUCT OF STUDY DURING THE VACi^TION. 445 subjects, which he was obliged to pass over with- out sufficient time for due consideration. Some parts of the Lectures may have been imperfectly understood; and farther light and assistance may be required, from the authors who have written on the subjects. There is scarcely an important to- pic in the Lectures which may not be selected, as a subject of farther meditation. The Student has now time and leisure to make the knowledge he has acquired from others properly his own. He can again bring before his mind the principal sub- jects of all the different departments of the Lee lures, and select those which he thinks afford suitable materials for the exercise of attention and reflection. On some of these subjects, he may em- ploy the process of Analysis, endeavouring to discri- minate the qualities of complex objects; on other occasions, he may begin with appearances, or phenomena, and endeavour to trace them through a connected series to their cause; or, begmning with the cause, by a similar process, he may ex- plain the phenomena. He may, at other times, at- tempt the proof of a proposition, and employ his ingenuity and resources in selecting and applying the arguments, which are suited to the subject; or, by an inductive process, may endeavour to esta- Wish general laws, or causes. By these, and similar occupations, diligently and earnestly prosecuted during the vacation, the Student will gradually become habituated to the processes of reflection, reasoning, and investigation, and prepared for their application to whatever subjects he may find pro- per or useful. This reflected review of the Lectures is neces- sary on another account. The Student, at the beginning of the next Session, is subjected to a strict public examination on the subject of his stu- dies during the preceding year; and nothing can better qualify him for that public appearance, than such a review of the subjects of the Lectures as has been here recommended. The third portion of the Student's time, in the vacation, should be appropriated to exercises of composition. The Student must never forget that the mere acquisition and possession of know- ledge is but the one-half of his work, having a refe- rence merely to the improvement and pleasure of the individual; but, it is only by the habits of com- munication that he can extend the benefits of this knowledge to others. If the Student has entered into the spirit of his business, during the Term, and has regularly executed the different Themes pre- scribed, he has only to continue to employ himself in similar exercises, and he must, every day, make farther advances in his habits of composition : for there is no way by which a person can effectually learn to compose well, but by composing frequently. When young persons complain of the difficulty of first compositions, it is because the attempt is made without due preparation. It is an impossible task to 446 ON THE CONDUCT 6F STUDY DURING THE VACATION. 447 attempt to compose without previous knowledge and reflection, and without some degree of spirit and industry in the attempt. It remains, then, for the Student, with the advantage of the instruction he has received, and the habits he has acquired, to prosecute, under his own direction, the same kinds of exercises in which he has been sometimes for- merly engaged. It is needless to specify farther, the nature and kinds of the compositions the Stu- dent is now called to execute. There are, in par- ticular, two exercises proposed by the Professor, which he recommends to his Students to execute, during the vacation, viz. one, a subject of argumen- tation and reasoning, another on taste and criti- cism. These Essays are to be delivered to the Pro- fessor, at the beginning of the following Session, and the committee of examination adjudge prizes to the authors of the best Essays. One great advantage the Student has, in com- posing during the vacation, is this; he has full time to subject h;s specimens to severe and reiterated correction; he can write over and over agam, avail- ing himself of repeated amendments, till he has brought his Essay nearer and nearer to the per- fection at which he aims. It is impossible to lay down any general rule for composition more useful than to require, at intervals, the subject of the com- position to be brought under the review of the wri- ter. Till the Student can submit to the tedious, and often disagreeable,business of frequent corrections, and numerous copyings, with some degree of pa- tience, his work will not be what it might have been, nor can he ascertain the degree of improve- ment, in composition, which is within his reach. '* Vir bonus et prudens, versus reprehendet inertes; Culpabit duros ; incoratis allinet atrum Traiisverso calamo signum ; ambitiosa recidet Ornamenta ; parum claris lucem dare co^et, Arguet ambigue dictum; mutanda notabit." The French critic, Boileau, has advised to put the work even twenty times upon the frame; to polish and repolish continually; sometimes to add; and often to erase. ** Vingt fois sur le metier remettez votre ouvraore. Polissez le sans cesse, et le repolissez, Ajoutez quelque fois, et souvent effacez." The very prospect of such future criticism gives more freedom and indulgence in the moments of first composition, by allowing the writer to fol- low the natural bent of his thoughts, and to admit the language and expression which the matter suggests, as he knows that he will afterwards have an opportunity of cutting off excrescences and redundancies. The Professor takes leave of his Students with an affectionate address to them, reminding them of their mutual intercourse and labour, what they mB-m^^^ 448 ON THE CONDUCT OF STUDY, &C. have gained, and what they may lose. With this affectionate farewell, he commits the immediate inspection of their studies, during the vacation, to parents, and those whohave the charge of their conduct. Few parents, indeed, are quahfied to ludge of the proficiency of their children in Ian- guie and philosophy; and fewer still have leisure or inclination to do so. They can, however, do what may be of much more importance to them, and that without any trouble. When their sons return from College, they may discover, by their conversation, whether or not they have been in- terested in their studies, and whether they have obtained approbation or censure. They must soon discover, from their conduct, whether they prose- cute their studes regularly, when no longer sub- iected to discipline; whether they readily yield to temptations which take them from their business; and finally, whether they suffer their amusements to encroach upon the hours set apart for study. When parents are possessed of this knowledge, which is certainly within their reach, they alone are accountable, if they do not make use of that authority, for the benefit of their children, which God and nature has placed in their hands. ON THE EXTENSION OF THIS METHOD, &C. 449 ON THE EXTENSION OF THIS METHOD OF TEACHING PHILOSOPHY TO THE UNIVERSITIES OF ENGLAND AND IRELAND. As the Teachers of Youth, in all seminaries, whether of ancient or modern foundation, profess to have in view the same great end, and are sup- posed to be at all times ready to direct their en- deavours, so as the most effectually to enlarge the knowledge, and to improve the talents, of such as are committed to their care ; I feel encouraged to suggest, for the consideration of my fellow-la- bourers, in other parts of the United Kingdom, a few points on which it seems practicable to amend their system of education, and to accommo- date it somewhat more to the spirit of the times in which we live. I am the more readily induced to enter on this step, so apt on many occasions to be deemed invidious, that I have already repeatedly dis- claimed all pretensions to the merit of discovery, whether as to the theoretical views, or even as to the method actually pursued for calling these views into action. I profess to have accomplished no- thing more than to have adapted, to the higher branches of education, some parts of that practical system of teaching, which is acted upon in the in- ferior schools ; and exemplified, indeed, in every other department of human pursuit, where proficien- cy depends upon the formation of habits. In imitating, however, the village school-master, the 5 L 450 ON THE EXTENSION OF THIS METHOD common craftsman, and the artist, it strikes me that we approach more nearly to the method of instruction dictated by nature; for, as in the case of corporeal habits, so in those that are more strictly mental, facility and excellence are to be acquired in no other way, than by regular and persevering efforts. Viewing the matter, too, on general grounds, when we reflect that the period, at which the principal Universities of Britain were founded, was not distinguished either by general knowledge, or by very just notions relative to the main object of academical education ; and, as it is admitted, that, since these times, much valuable light has been thrown upon every other field ot human exertion ; it is reasonable to expect, that the modes of teaching may, in like manner, be within the reach of a gradual and progressive im- provement* Every one knows that the method of teaching Philosophy which is pursued in the Scottish Col- leges, differs considerably from that which has be'^en long acted upon in the Universities of Eng- land. In the former, a series of written Lectures, composed or compiled by the Professors, are an. nually delivered from their respective chairs; whereas, in the latter, the business of education is carried on almost entirely by means of private reading, and a species of colloquial examina- tions. In the prosecution of this last method, the College Tutor, instead of lecturing, peruses OF TEACHING TO OTHER UNIVERSITIES. 451 certain authors along with his Pupils, explaining particular passages as he goes along, and con- versing with them on the doctrines or facts to which their attention has been directed. Both plans, no doubt, have their peculiar advan- tages ; but it appears to be easily practicable to combine the best parts of each, without sacrifi- cing any thing essential in either. Could this not be effected, I must acknowledge that I should have no hesitation in preferring the reading sys- tem, limited and restricted as it must be, as infi* nitely more useful than a bare course of Lec- tures, unaccompanied with examinations and ex- ercises. The leading improvement, then, which I should venture to recommend, is the introduction into the English Colleges of Lectures, properly so called, to be incorporated, to a certain extent, with their present method of teaching by means of reading and conversation. This addition to their system, so far from obstructing or superseding any of their accustomed processes of intellectual cul- ture, would, I am convinced, both render them more efficacious, and, at the same time, more agreeable to the Student. Indeed, the compara- lively small number of Pupils, and the full com- mand of their time and arrangements, which is placed in the hands of the College Tutor, are cir- cumstances eminently favourable to a successful application of the method of teaching I have endeavoured to unfold in the foregoing pages. 4- « 452 ON THE EXTENSION OF THIS METHOD The greatest obstacle which we have to encounter, in this part of the Island, in following out the details of our plan, by daily examinations, and Themes, arises from our very numerous classes, consisting in some instances of nearly two hun- dred Students. In a College, therefore, where not more than thirty or forty generally attend the Lectures on Mental Philosophy and Ethics, we have the best reason to conclude that the bene- ficial effects of the system in question, would be realized to their fullest extent ; that each ot the young men would be examined every day on the subjects discussed in the Lecture, and that Essays would be regularly prescribed on the pnncipa topics thus previously illustrated and brought home to their comprehension. The age, too, ot the Pupils who enter at the English Universities, presents another facility for adopting, in such schools, the Lecture system, as the means ot I'hi- losophical instruction. The mind of a youth ot seventeen or eighteen is sufficiently mature to fol- low out a train of reasoning, and to perceive the connexion of a discourse ; whereas, m Scotland, there are always a number of Students m the Phi- losophy classes, who are not qualified, either m respect of age or of previous acquirements, for en- tering upon such pursuits. In every point of view, then, the method of teaching by Lecture, exami- nation, and the performance of Essays, is fully more suitable to the circumstances of the English OF TEACHING TO OTHER UNIVERSITIES. 453 and Irish Universities, than to those of Scotland ; and seems calculated, of course, to produce still greater advantages in the former, than have ever yet been actually realized in the latter. But, I am aware, it may still be proposed as a preliminary question, whether the method of teaching, in present use, does not answer all the purposes of education, as m ell as that which is here recommended : Whether a careful perusal of select authors, and a subsequent conversation upon them, between the Tutor and his Pupils, are not employments as likely to improve the minds of youth, as a formal Lecture pronounced in their hearing, even when it is made the ground-work of examination, and converted into materials for exercises in composition. To decide this important point, it will be previously necessary to come to an understanding as to wliat are, or ought to be, the main purposes of education; and I should imagine, there will be no difficulty in admitting that these are all comprehended, Jirst, in the communication of knowledge; and, secondly, in the cultivation of the mental powers, without a reference to any specific acquirement, whether in literature or science. With regard to the communication of know- ledge, there can be no doubt that, as far as classi- cal learning, mathematics, and the higher parts of arithmetic are considered, the only rational 454 ON THE EXTENSION OF THIS METHOD method of conveying instruction is to peruse, with the Pupil, the best works in these several departments ' No man ever thought of teaching a boy to understand Homer, Euchd, or La Place, by means of Lectures. But, we are now speak. ine of philosophical education, as it relates to the mg oi pi ^ ^ jj jjjg . science of mmd, ot morals, anu the principles of reasoning and of taste ; the dis- incL of good and evil, of justice, of law and of gov rnment'; and, certainly, in this wide fie d Ihere opinions have so long remained unse tied and where no authority is Permitted to give a final decision, a very different -"o^^.o^ »f ^^ "*" ought to be pursued. It is here, m short, that the lecture system ought to be introduced, as sup- plementary to that of individual reading. For instance, it is only necessary to observe that no one writer contains all that the Student lught to know, and that every writer comprehends Ze than it is either requisite or expedient should Z laid before him. Our greatest "^"^hors it i. tell known, wrote, not for beg-ners, nor wi h the view of giving a didactic system, but for the learn, ed world at large, and commonly, too -ith the intention either of attacking or supporting some particular hypothesis. It is impossible, therefore I find, in any single work, the elementary state^ ments. combined with the general views, on which Tphilisophical education should be constructed : and thus it necessarily becomes the office ot a OP TEACHING TO OTHER UNIVERSITIES. 455 Teacher to read, to select, and to arrange, for the use of his Pupils ; and, from the copious stores of knowledge with which his professional stu- dies have furnished him, to bring forward what shall appear best suited to their previous attain- ments, as well as to the particular object of his Course. In drawing up his Lectures, in such cir- cumstances, the Professor will frequently see it expedient to confine himself to the outlines of subjects, which may be treated by the original au- thor in great detail : he will give, at some length, the history of opinion, on the more important questions which present themselves for discussion: he will call the attention of his Pupils to the va- rious stages in the progress of the human mind, from its first attempt at generalization to the ac complishment of a connected system: and, in par- ticular, he will point out the numerous sources of error, whether arising from the nature of certain inquiries, or from the imperfection of human rea- son, which have at various times materially re- tarded the advancement of science. Indeed, in many subjects of study, such as divinity, law, ethics, and politics, the history of opinion consti- tutes the sum and substance of our knowledge. Our inquiry, therein, after the statement of a few first principles, is directed to little more than the succession of truth and error, to the varying forms which they may have assumed, and to the circumstances which paved the way for their al- ternate reception. It must then be abundantly 456 ON THE EXTENSION OK THIS METHOD evident, that the perusal of no one work, in these departments, nor, indeed, of all the works, at any one period, would be sufficient for the purposes of instruction. phy, *'^« ?'^ . . ^ that could be ima- is uiTquestionably tne oebi "•a-- lined to gratify their ambition; for. they have 'on y to tufn up the chapter and section of the Tailicular work, to examine the argumen . and to note down the conclusion. But it, on tne Sher hand, their views extend to the mor^ -xaU^ .A obiect of inquiring what are now recen ea L the general opinions, on the various subjects f^ ^, ircnrressfullv by Aristotle, Bacon, Locke, handled so successiuiiy uy rx and Reid, in their respective ^^'^^J^^; ^72- the notions which prevailed as to the object oi Philosophy, and the principles of human know- fed^e, in tiie long interval between the hrst and the last of these distinguished ^"ters-what >vere te dTscoveries or modes of thinking which led to t slral changes of doctrine on the- PO-nt. „ we find them recorded in the history ience, a^d upon what particular grounds every succeeing theory was ultimately mamtamed or OF TEACHING TO OTHER UNIVERSITIES. 459 rejected, it is manifest that all the reading which the Pupil, directed by his Tutor, could pos- sibly overtake, during the whole time allotted for College residence, would not enable him to ac- complish this end. In short, the reading system of instruction can only be recommended, when the Teacher wishes to convey to his Students the views of some individual Philosopher; and, as such a limited undertaking is altogether inconsistent with the present state of science, it follows, that, m order to realize the first mentioned purpose of academical education, namely, the communication of knowledge, the Tutor ought to draw up, from his own stores of information, a course of Lec- tures for the use of his Pupils; containing at once an outline which they should endeavour to fill up, and a guide to the best source of materials. Let us apply these general observations to the actual practice of the Schools where the reading plan of teaching Philosophy is adopted. The books usually read in the Colleges alluded to, as an introduction to the philosophy of mind, are, I believe, Aristotle's Analytics, or an abridgment' of them in the Latin tongue, Locke on the Human Understanding, Reid's Essays, Stewart's Elements, and one or two other works written on the same subjects, and with the same views. Now, it can- not fail to strike every person acquainted with the character of the publications just specified, that, in many respects, they are quite unsuitable for the 3M 456 ON THE EXTENSION OF THIS METHOD evident, that the perusal of no one work, in these departments, nor, indeed, of all the works, at any one period, would be sufficient for the purposes of instruction. If indeed, we shall be allowed to suppose, that the object of the Tutor and his Pupil is confined to the very limited attainment of knowing what were the opinions of an individual Author ; ot Aristotle, for example, of Bacon, of Locke or of Reid, on any particular point of Philoso- Dhv the plan of education at present pursued is urrquestionably the best that could be ima- ginedto gratify their ambition; for, they have only to turn up the chapter and section of the particular work, to examine the argunient, and to note down the conclusion. But if, on the other hand, their views extend to the more exalt- ed object of inquiring what are now received as the general opinions, on the various subject^ handled so successfully by Aristotle, Bacon, Locke, and Reid, in their respective works-what were the notions which prevailed as to the object of Philosophy, and the principles of human know- ledge, in the long interval between the hrst and the last of these distinguished writers-what were the discoveries or modes of thinking which led to the several changes of doctrine on these points as we find them recorded in the history ot science, and upon what particular grounds every succeeding theory was ultimately maintained or OF TEACHING TO OTHER UNIVERSITIES. 459 rejected, it is manifest that all the reading which the Pupil, directed by his Tutor, could pes! sib y overtake, during the whole time allotted for College residence, would not enable him to ac- complish this end. In short, the reading system ot instruction can only be recommended, when the Teacher wishes to convey to his Students the views of some individual Philosopher; and, as such a limited undertaking is altogether inconsistent with the present state of science, it follows, that, m order to realize the first mentioned purpose of academical education, namely, the communication of knowledge, the Tutor ought to draw up, from his own stores of information, a course of Lee tures for the use of his Pupils; containing at once an outline which they should endeavour to fill up, and a guide to the best source of materials. Let us apply these general observations to the actual practice of the Schools where the reading plan of teaching l>hilosophy is adopted. The books usually read in the Colleges alluded to, as an introduction to the philosophy of mind, are, I believe, Aristotle's Analytics, or an abridgment'of them m the Latin tongue, Locke on the Human Understanding, Reid's Essays, Stewart's P:iements, and one or two other works written on the same subjects, and with the same views. Now, it can- not fail to strike every person acquainted with the character of the publications just specified, that, in many respects, they are quite unsuitable for the 1^1 3 31 460 ON THE EXTENSION OF THIS METHOD purpose of elementary instruction ; particularly, as they contain, even in the first parts of them, much of abstraction, generalization, and deep reasoning, entirely beyond the comprehension ot the youthful mind. I pass over the Analytics, . which are now generally considered as altogether unfit to be used as an introduction to the study of Philosophy. But even the Lssay of Mr. Locke is little better calculated for the com- mencement of a Philosophical course. He begins with a very argumentative dissertation on the doc- trine of innate ideas, and goes on to explain our notions of power, time, space, infinity, which are some of the most abstract conceptions of the hu- man mind. Dr. Keid, again, in his Essays on the Intellectual Powers, after some very judicious ob- servations on the method of studying mind, pro- ceeds almost immediately to certain hypotheses on the nerves and brain, the phenomena ot external obiects, and the doctrine of ideas illustrated by the theories of Berkley, Leibnitz, and Hume. The work of Mr. Stewart, too, although entitled Elements of Philosophy, can be considered as ele- ments to those only who have already made consi- derable progress in the study of mind. It requires only to run over the contents of the A/^t Part of his first volume, to be satisfied of this fact. The general and enlightened views which he gives on education, on the art of reasoning, and on theories of perception, cannot be fully comprehended by those to whom the very term Philosophy has OF TEACHING TO OTHER UNIVERSITIES. 461 never been explained, and who are of course com- pletely in the dark as to the precise object of all their inquiries. It cannot be necessary to remark, I should hope, that these strictures have no reference whatever to the general merits of the works now mentioned, all of which have so materially extend- ed the bounds of science, and done so much ho- nour to their respective authors. Nothing more is meant, than that from the subjects which are dis- cussed in them, and the abstract manner in which they are composed, they are not at all suited, as school-books, to the habits and acquirements of those entering on their first course of Philo- sophy. But, supposing that the works of an individual philosopher, Mr. Locke or Dr. Reid, for instance, were completely calculated for the uses of a College Lesson; that the matter, the arrange- ment, and the mode of writing, were, in all re- spects, suitable to the capacity of beginners, it is clear that Pupils taught in this way, would only become acquainted with the opinions of one man, and with the state of Philosophy at the par- ticular period when he wrote. With respect, then, to the acquisition of knowledge as connected with the history of opinion on the subject of mind, of reasoning, of morals, tiie method of teaching pursued in the English Colleges would, in my 462 ON THE EXTENSION OF THIS METHOD estimation, be greatly improved by introducing the practice of Lecturing, in the Scottish acceptation of the word. The communication of knowledge is not, how- ever, on any account the principal object which ought to be kept in view, in constructing a system of academical education. However important the knowledge received from particular authors may be, and whatever improvements may be made in the modes of communicating it by more strict and minute examinations, by collections or other- wise, it must be observed, that these exercises embrace chiefly the means, but not the ultimate end of education. They, indeed, tend to improve the powers of comprehension and memory ; but they are not calculated to bestow that vigour, activity, and penetration, by which Students acquire knowledge of their own ; by which they generate new trains of thinking, and habits of weighing and estimating the grounds of their judg- ments; and of combining and expressing the know- ledge which has been acquired. In all these res- peels, the Lecturing system appears superior to that with which we are now comparing it. Whde listening to a discourse delivered with some degree of animation, the mind of the Student is necessarily more awakened, and feels a more powerful demand made upon its energies, than when perusing a printed volume; for, in the latter 3^ OF TEACHING TO OTHER UNIVERSITIES. 463 case, he is quite aware that inattention can be made up for by a second reading, and that every fit of absence maybe fully compensated by a little voluntary exertion, when he is more disposed to be studious. The Pupil, on the contrary, who hears a Lecture pronounced from the chair, and who knows he is to be examined on the subject of that Lecture, its principal topics, its arrangement and illustrations, and to be required to write an exercise on some part of it, composed, too, upon the materials with which he has been thereby sup- plied, is naturally actuated by every motive which can stimulate industry, and sustain attention. The memory is employed to store up the facts and reasonings brought forward by the Lecturer; the judgment is exercised in discovering their con- nexion and dependance; and the powers of rea- soning are called into action, while he draws con- elusions, and generalizes his inferences. Com- pared with these efforts of mind, the mere reading of a volume in private is a dull and uninteresting employment. The intellectual powers are never sufficiently roused; they are in a state approaching to passivity, being never stretched to their fuU tension, nor made to put forth all their strength. The young man, in short, is not induced by the mode of his pursuits to bring his energies into play; he is not permitted to know the extent of his talents, nor the amount of his endowments. He merely endeavours to deposit in his recollection a number of statements, and a fewgeneral arguments. 464 ON THE EXTENSION OF THIS METHOD without having had to strain the faculty of remi- niscence in gathering them together, or to task his judgment with the discovery of their relations. In a class-room, on the other hand, emulation and energy are found to result from the simple cir- cumstance, that a number of young persons simi- larly situated as to age and advantages, are engag- ed in listening to the same things, and in receiv- ing the same impressions. A sympathetic anima- tion pervades the whole; the glow of zeal, and an expression of curiosity are perceived in almost every countenance ; all the faculties of the mind are exerted, and powers unused before, are awak- ened into life and activity. The viva voce examination, too, would be at- tended with the best effects in an English Col- lege. The age of the Pupils, their previous ac- quirements as classical scholars, and the conve- nient number in which they assemble, are, as has been already mentioned, circumstances favour- able to a successful application of the method now recommended. Such examinations are obviously a much better test of ability, and afford, at the same time, a much more efficient means of im- provement, than a conversation, or even a series of questions, on the works of any writer, however eminent. For, in the latter case, the Pupil will be apt to give his answer in the words of his au- thor, without, perhaps, clearly understanding the terms of which he makes use ; whereas, in an OF TEACHING TO OTHER UNIVERSITIES. 465 examination on a Lecture, to which he had listened in the company of others, he is compelled to exercise at once his judgment, and his memory, and to express his meaning in language of his own composition. We may take an example from another department of mental exertion, the office of a Keporter in the House of Commons, and compare the effects produced on the faculties of memory, arrangement and expression, by the constant exercise of these powers in the details of such a duty, with those which would arise from the mere reading of a speech in the newspapers, even although he who reads were required to give some account of it, when he had finished the per- usal. This is exactly a case in point. The Stu- dent who listens to an academical Lecture, under the impression that he is to be examined upon it, and to give the substance of it in an essay, is in the situation of the Reporter in the House of Com- mons; and the Student who reads a book in his apartment, in the view of conversing upon it with his Tutor, resembles the mere reader of a speech in a newspaper; and it will be found, upon a candid inquiry, that the effects of the two systems of edu- cation, here indirectly compared, will be analogous to those connected with the two exercises now de- scribed. Every one knows, how astonishingly suc- cessful many Reporters are, both in the Houses of Parliament, and in the Courts of Justice, in giving the principal topics, as well as the leading points of illustration, of a long speech ; and, it is too 466 ON THE EXTENSION OF THIS METHOD obvious to require remark, that this command of the several faculties of memory, discrimination, and arrangement, arises from a species of mental exer- cise, in many respects similar to that which is followed out in the first class of Philosophy at Glasgow, and which I am satisfied, might easily be introduced, under certain modifications, into other academical establishments. With regard, in the next place, to the writing of Essays on the subjects discussed in the Lectures, it cannot fail to be considered as a most fruitful source of improvement, and eminently suited to the circumstances of English Colleges. I am per- fectly aware, that Essays are prescribed at present in the Universities of England, and in that of Ire- land ; but, as I have already remarked, they are usually confined to subjects quite unsuitable for very young Students, and frequently so restricted, indeed, as to exclude under-graduates altogether from competition. The great use of this kind of exercise must arise from the skill with which it is adapted, not only to the acquirements and pre- vious habits of the Pupil, in the outset of his Phi- losophical studies, but especially to his progress in knowledge and maturity of talent, according as these shall happen to be manifested, at every subsequent stage of his advancement. At first, the subject prescribed ought to be simple, and, at the same time, susceptible of copious illustration. The Essay itself ought not to be long, and the OF TEACHING TO OTHER UNIVERSITIES. 467 Pupil should even be directed, in his earlier efforts, how to distribute his materials, and to connect his paragraphs. In these acts of attention and assist- ance, we discover the judgment and usefulness of the Teacher; and in prosecuting the plan of essay- writing, to the extent to which it might easily be carried within the walls even of the largest of the English Colleges, a thousand occasions would present themselves to the intelligent Tutor, for giving a greater degree of efficiency to our mode of teaching, than we ourselves have ever been able to attain. The improvement of the Students in philosophy, taste, and composition, would be promoted at once, and by the same means. Their natural abilities would receive regular and appro- priate culture; and, what is more valuable than all these advantages put together, the young men, taught in this way, would acquire a force, and ready use, of all their intellectual faculties; and would be qualified for higher pursuits in the paths of science, or for engaging successfully in the busi- ness of actr life. The object of the Teacher who follows this practical method, as I have already re- peatedly observed, is not so much to convey know- ledge, as to put in the hands of his Pupils an in- strument for acquiring it by their own exertions; not so much to give them an abstract view of mind, in general, as to make them thoroughly acquamted, from experience and reflection, with all its powers and modes of operation, in the acts of perceiving, remembering, forming judgments, ^ N if 466 ON THE EXTENSION OF THIS METHOD obvious to require remark, that this command of the several faculties of memory, discrimination, and arrangement, arises from a species of mental exer- cise, in many respects similar to that which is followed out in the first class of Philosophy at Glasgow, and which I am satisfied, might easily be introduced, under certain modifications, into other academical establishments. With regard, in the next place, to the writing of Essays on the subjects discussed in the Lectures, it cannot tail to be considered as a most fruitful source of improvement, and eminently suited to the circumstances of English Colleges. I am per- fectly aware, that Essays are prescribed at present in the Universities of England, and in that of Ire- land y but, as 1 have already remarked, they are usually confined to subjects quite unsuitable for very young Students, and frequently so restricted, indeed, as to exclude under-graduates altogether from competition. The great use of this kind of exercise must arise from the skill with which it is adapted, not only to the acquirements and pre- vious habits of the Pupil, in the outset of his Phi- losophical studies, but especially to his progress in knowledge and maturity of talent, according as these shall happen to be manifested, at every subsequent stage of his advancement. At first, the subject prescribed ought to be simple, and, at the same time, susceptible of copious illustration. The Essay itself ought not to be long, and the OF TEACHING TO OTHER UNIVERSITIES. 467 Pupil should even be directed, in his earlier efforts, how to distribute his materials, and to connect his paragraphs. In these acts of attention and assist- ance, WQ discover the judgment and usefulness of the Teacher; and in prosecuting the plan of essay- writing, to the extent to which it might easily be carried within the walls even of the largest of the English Colleges, a thousand occasions would present themselves to the intelligent Tutor, for giving a greater degree of efficiency to our mode of teaching, than we ourselves have ever been able to attain. The improvement of the Students in philosophy, taste, and composition, would be promoted at once, and by the same means. Their natural abiHties would receive regular and appro- priate culture; and, what is more valuable than all these advantages put together, the young men, taught in this way, would acquire a force, and ready use, of all their intellectual faculties; and would be qualified for higher pursuits in the paths of science, or for engaging successfully in the busi- ness of active life. The object of the Teacher who follows this practical method, as I have already re- peatedly observed, is not so much to convey know- ledge, as to put in the hands of his Pupils an in- strument for acquiring it by their own exertions; not so much to give them an abstract view of mmd, in general, as to make them thoroughly acquainted, from experience and reflection, witli all its powers and modes of operation, in the acts of perceiving, remembering, forming judgments, - N 468 ON THE EXTENSION OF THIS METHOD conducting a process of reasoning, and generaliz- ing particular inferences. He undertakes not ta confer upon them the riches of learning to any given amount, or of any specified description; but rather such a degree of improvement, and such a ready use of their intellectual powers, as like the philosopher's stone, will convert into gold every thing to which they are applied. In the outset of the course, accordingly, he regards knowledge as valuable to youth, on hardly any other account than as it constitutes the materials of thmking, and the means of carrying on a practical system of instruction ; convinced that, if he succeed in training his Students to reason, to inquire, to ar- range their thoughts clearly, and to clothe them with ease in a suitable form of expression, the principal end of an academical education will as- suredly be attained. It is not to be inferred, from any thing now stat- ed, that the judicious perusal of select authors, even during the course of the Session, ought to be alto- gether disregarded- On the contrary, the Lec- ture-system when properly conducted, by frequent reference to works connected with the several sub- jects discussed, necessarily leads to the perusal of a variety of publications ; and the only danger at- tending it, is, that the reading of the Students may become desultory and promiscuous, and consequently unprofitable. To prevent this, I usually specify such parts of every work as ought OF TEACHING TO OTHER UNIVERSITIES. 469 to be read in the meantime, being those, of course, that are most nearly allied to the business in hand ; requesting the young men to postpone the farther examination of its contents till the ensuing vaca- tion, when they will have more leisure to profit by such studies. During the term, there is no time for extensive reading, the attention of the Students being chiefly taken up with exercises which they have to write, and with preparing for the daily ex- amination. The Lectures, indeed, so far from pre- cluding the advantage of private study, are meant to afford directions for reading : while the prac- tice of essay-writing carries with it, to the Student, a very strong inducement to consult authors, both in order to obtain materials, and to ascertain the justness of his own conclusions. The great ob- ject, however, at this stage of his progress, is the improvement of his faculties, to which mere read- ing is supposed to contribute but in a subordinate degree, and is therefore not made the principal part of his occupation. In justice, however, to a system, of which I have not hesitated to point out what appears to me the defects, I will add, that the plan of education by means of books, conversation, and abridgments, is infinitely superior to the Lecture method, when not accompanied with regular examinations, and a systematic, progressive course of Themes. Of the latter mode of conducting philosophical edu- "cation, if education it ought to be called, I am I li 470 ON THE EXTENSION OF THIS METHOD unwilling tospeak in termswhich its gross absurdity suggests to my mind. But it is not to this very imperfect method that I now direct the atten- tion of the reader; and, while indulging in a few remarks on the plan pursued in the English and Irish Colleges, I may be permitted still farther to observe, that, in the subjects selected by the Tutors, there seems to be, in some instances, at least, a total neglect of mental Philosophy, and of that natural logic which is founded upon the knowledge of our intellectual powers. In one College, classical literature is almost the sole study; in another, mathematics, and the higher parts of algebra, engross all the attention; but in scarcely any, do we find a regular process of in- tellectual culture going on, conducted with a re- ference to the natural order of the human facul- ties, their growth, their progress and maturity. It is, therefore, whh the view of supplying some defects, and correcting seme errors, as upon the most candid constiuction they appear to me, in several of our Academical Institutions, that I have brought forward, into public notice, the plan of teaching the first Philosophy Class in this Univer- sity, now firmly established from a conviction of its usefulness. To give full effect, however, to this method of teaching Philosophy, the office of Tutor, in the several Collies, ought to be permanent. Such an arrangement seems absolutely essential to OF TEACHING TO OTHER UNIVERSITIES. 4?! proficiency and success, in the art of teaching ; for this art, like all others, being founded on prac- tice and observation, must derive, from that quar- ter, all the improvement of which it is susceptible. Upon the erroneous supposition, that the art of teaching consists in the mere communication of knowledge, it has been inferred, that wherever a person has acquired a certain portion of science, or literature, he is immediately qualified to in- struct others. But knowledge and intellect are not the only quah'fications of a teacher, nor even the most important. On the contrary, it is suffi- ciently confirmed by experience, that the most profound scientific attainments, the finest imagina- tion, and the most exquisite taste, do not, of themselves, qualify their possessor for becoming a discriminating or useful Teacher. The knowt ledge which will most avail him, in aiding the en» deavours of youth, is that which is drawn from a strict attention to the development oftheintellec tual powers and habits, and from a close and con- tinned intercourse with his Pupils, in all their ef- forts, in their success, and in their failure. A Teacher, no doubt, when he enters upon his ofl^ce, must gain experience at the cost of his Students,' on the same principle that a young Physician im-' proves in skill, at the hazard of his patients; but in Colleges, where the Tutors have their eyes fixed on senior fellowships, or achurch-living, from the moment they enter upon their duty, it is impos- sible that much progress can be made by them in Il 472 ON THE EXTENSION OF THIS METHOD the difficult art of teaching. In this way, there is a constant and rapid succession of inexperienced Tutors thrown into the only active department ot the Colleges; and education, viewed in reference to its most important objects, never can rise above a state of infancy. The Tutors relinquish their office, just when they are becoming qualified to fill it The appointment, indeed, according to the notions prevalent in such places, is at no time considered of high estimation; it may be filled by any one who has been elected to a fel- lowship, and it is abandoned by all, whenever an opportunity offers. In such circumstances, then, we may safely infer there can be nothing of that ardour and enthusiasm so necessary to carry a Teacher through the drudgery of his professional duties. There can be no such thing as an art of education. The old and the experienced quit the helm, and the vessel is left to the direction of those who have scarcely made one voyage. In every other art, it would be thought singular m- deed, if those who were appointed to teach it were' persons who, from their age or practice, had the fewest opportunities, and the most con- fined experience, who were to continue in that office only a very short time, who consider it mere- ly as a temporary employment, and who, moreover, during that short time, so far from having a suf- ficient inducement to exert their talents to the utmost of their power, would have their minds fixed on a better situation, soon to be enjoyed by OF TEACHING TO OTHER UNIVERSITIES. 473 them, not as the reward of services, but as the mere contingent of seniority. If this would be thought absurd in every other department of life, why is an exception to be made in the case of one of the most difficult, and, certainly, not the least important, of all arts— the art of teach- ing. It is to no purpose to urge, in support of the pre- sent system of appointing Tutors, that many of them have distinguished themselves by great ability and success in the discharge of their office. It would be wonderful indeed, if, among such a number as exercise that duty, and amid such a variety of genius and taste as must occasionally adorn it, there should not be found some individuals pos- sessed of the proper qualifications; who are seen to take pleasure in communicating knowledge to youth, and in being instrumental in their progress; who do not allow their minds to be alienated from their office by future prospects ; and who find, in the consciousness of discharging a weighty oblio-a- tion, a motive sufficient to support the exhausting labours with which it is attended. Such instances, however, are not to be attributed to the spirit of the system. They are rather to be viewed in the light of exceptions, and as exhibiting, in strong colours, the manifold advantages which would re- suit from a mode of appointment, calculated to secure all the talent and the zeal of the Teacher, ibr the furtherance of education. The lower MM i:.sS£msi:,amwmL\ 474 ON THE EXTENSION OF THIS METHOD seminaries all over the country, are provided with Masters on abetter principle, than the Colleges, in either of the English Universities. They are filled by men who make education their profession; and who, having their eyes fixed on nothing beyond it, devote all their time to its details, and all their talents to its improvement. I am not ignorant that another argument, if such it should be called, has been repeatedly employed, in support of the general plan of instruction pur- sued in the English Universities. It has been maintained, that, with all their defects, these In- stitutions have sent out into the world more great men — a larger number of persons distin- guished in the different walks of science and literature, as well as in all the pursuits of public life — than almost any other establishment of the same kind. The views upon which this argument is founded are extremely fallacious, and prove ra- ther, that native genius cannot be depressed by de- fective systems of education, than that eminent talent, or even great acquirements, are to be at- tributed to any mode of teaching. The greatest men whom the world has produced, have owed but a very slight obligation to the care or skill of masters ; and, when we peruse the biography of Milton, Locke, Newton, and Johnson, we are at a loss to discover upon what other ground, than that their names were entered in a College record, any merit has been taken by the seminaries wherein OF TEACHING TO OTHER UNIVERSITIES. 475 they happened to keep their terms. Is it iraa- gined, that if men of genius were to give the history of the various steps of their secret stu- dies, and the accidental helps by which they gradually attained celebrity, they would have much to ascribe to the forms, and lessons, and commentaries, of a College Tutor? It were to be wished, indeed, in order to place this mode of reasoning on its proper foundation, that w^e had a list of the thousands who might have been scho- lars and men of science, if they had been suitably instructed ; for, it is worthy of remark, that the merit of academical institutions is to be estimated, not by the few men of uncommon talents who have been there educated, but by their success in cultivating ordinary ability ; in raising the low- est mental endowments to that degree of eminence which nature has placed within their reach ; and, above all, by the tendency which they have to confirm habits of industry and a love of research. In short, we must not draw our conclusions in this field of inquiry from particular instances; and we have it not, in general, in our power to found them upon a comparative estimate of what is actu- ally performed; because we cannot determine how much is due in every single case to natural gifts, how much is to be ascribed to individual exertion, and, of course, how much belongs to the Teacher and to the system of the school. We must, there- fore, form our opinion on the subject on princi- ples connected with general experience relative to 'SO :,i 476 ON THE EXTENSION OF THIS METHOD the human faculties, and the most natural method of culture ; on the analogy of nature in the de- velopment of our mental energies ; and on the practice of those who have been most success- ful in instructing the young, whether in action, fact, or principle. To this criterion I am willing to submit the propriety of whatever I have ad- vanced, either in the way of stricture, or of sugr- gestion. • I am not Inclined to flatter myself with the ex^ pectation that any material change, in the system now alluded to, will be adopted, in consequence of any recommendation which is contained in these pages. But every person deeply interested in the success of education is entitled to expect that whatever is candidly proposed, as an im- provement in the plan of conducting it, should receive, at least, an impartial consideration. Nor is there any thing, I should hope, in the constitu- tion of Colleges in the South, positively to pre- clude all changes whatsoever, in the mode of ap- plying the industry and genius of their Students; for a statute to this effect would be tantamount to a determination, not to admit any of the im- provements which the progress of science may bring to light, how essential soever to the further- ance of the object for which they were originally founded. Every change which is calculated to improve philosophical education must be in per- feet accordance with the spirit and intent even OF TEACHING TO OTHER UNIVERSITIES. 477 of the most ancient of such establishments; and it is always to be presumed, that, if the founders had possessed the knowledge and experience which has elsewhere led to any particular inno- vation, they would have been the first to adopt it. For instance, the statutes left in force, at the last visitation of the University of Glasgow, required that the Professor of the First Class of Philosophy should teach Aristotle's logic, and those parts of his metaphysics which treat of ontology and the human mind. But the present Professor does not think that, by any change of subject which he has introduced, he has deviated in the smallest degree from the spirit of these statutes; and his immediate superiors, accordingly, have sanc- tioned the modifications which he has thought it expedient to make, whether in the subject- matter of his Lectures, or in the details of teach- ing. This is nothing more than that accommo- dation to circumstances which the imperfect na- ture of all human institutions is found to demand. Laws become obsolete from the change of manners and opinions; and, although permitted to remain on the statute-book, have no more force than if they had never been in existence. So should all enactments which restrict education fall into desuetude when- ever they are found to oppose the advancement of sound views, and of useful knowledge. And were the plan of teaching Philosophy, which is here re- commended, to be adopted in our Universities, the reproach which is so often thrown out against 478 ON THE EXTENSION OF THIS METHOD them, of not teaching any thing connected with the business of active life would, in a great mea- sure, be removed. But I fear not so much the opposition which arises from statutes and the caprice of founders, as that generated by prejudices which spring up in learned societies, and are, in some degree, fostered by the habits and modes of life which there pre- vail. The magnificence and splendour of ancient establishments, with the power and privileges with which they are endowed, have contributed to separate them, in some very important re- spects, from almost every other learned society, and to create a feeling of superiority, which does not easily brook any change in their habits and institutions. It is to this constitutional pride and importance that I allude, when I anticipate opposition from the habits of thinking which prevail among some of those classes of men to whom these observations are addressed; for no- thing is likely to be so ill received by them as an allusion to supposed defects and imperfections, except, perhaps, a comparison of their system with that of similar establishments. It is not my object here to moralize on human weakness, nor to remonstrate with human folly; but, certainly, neither great age nor great wealth ought to be made the ground on which to raise a claim of superior excellence for a public seminary OF TEACHING TO OTHER UNIVERSITIES. 479 of education. Antiquity, be it remembered, is the infancy of society ; and riches, in this case, as in all others, reflect honour on their possessor, only in proportion to the wisdom with which they are employed. Beside^, the revenue of a College ought to be viewed in the light of wages, and not in that of an unconditional donation. It originally sprang from the piety or liberality of individuals who wished to promote the education of youth; on which account, it becomes the bounden duty of the members of Colleges, to provide, with the utmost assiduity, that the means af- forded for the instruction of the young persons committed to their care, shall not only be such as they have hitherto been, but the best that the improved state of information, in modern times, can possibly supply. It continues, however, to be a reproach on some learned societies, that a pre- judice in favour of certain modes of teaching is apt to become so powerful, as to withstand every effort to improve them; and that, while every other order of professional men are disposed not only to borrow but to steal improvements from one another. Teachers in Universities avoid all communication and intercourse, think it beneath them to take a hint which might prove useful, or to profit by the experience of those who may have ventured out of the common track. Such conduct is neither wise nor liberal. Engaged in the same dignified and important work, upon which the great interests of society so much I 480 CONCLUSION. CONCLUSION. 481 I depend, it ought to be the common duty of every public Teacher to exert himself to the utmost, whe- ther by adopting new methods, or by improving upon tlie old, to raise higher and higher the intel- lectual and moral character of the human being. But 1 forbear from insisting uponmatters so obvious and common-place. No man doubts that it is in- cumbent on him to do his duty in the best way that it can be performed. The only difference of opin- ion is respecting the means; and, to come to a right judgment on this head, nothing more seems ne- ces^ary than candid inquiry and a fair comparison. In this, as in all other questions as to right and wrong, better and worse, the power of truth is great, and must ultimately prevail. CONCLUSION. In taking a review of the foregoing pages, I am anxious to discover whether I have sufficiently ex- pressed what was meant to be stated relative to the beneficial effects of a system of philosophical education, calculated to improve the reason of Youth, and to give them a turn for reflection and inquiry. The advantages of such disciphne, it is abundantly evident, must have the effect ot strengthening and invigorating the faculty of rea- son, and of preparing it, not only as an instrument of science and literature, but for its higher office of forming rules of duty and of conduct. The daily necessity which this mode of instruction im- poses upon Students, of acquiring distinct notions, of attending to the grounds and evidence of their judgments, of arranging their thoughts in ordeiv of pursuing, by analysis and induction, the links which constitute a chain of reasoning, and of ex- pressing their ideas with perspicuity and proprie- ty, must have the effect of producing habits of thought, deliberation, foresight, and decision, in the mind. It is such a plan, or one similar to it, which Philosophers, Politicians, and all men of re- flection, have had in view, when they have main- tained that a good education'is the most solid foun- dation of the happiness and prosperity of indivi- duals and of nations. But, to eftect this great end, education must comprehend something more than classical literature, the knowledge of ancient or modern systems of philosophy, or of the properties or relations of figures. It must touch the springs of feeling and of action, and contribute to the for- mation of intellectual and moral habits. Did all the Universities and Seminaries of a nation send fortli annually their hundreds and thousands, thus pre- pared for speculation, orfor action, who, by theirex- ample, their instruction, and their influence, might produce great effects upon the opinions and con- duct of others, the effect upon the general mass of human society would, I am persuaded, become f 482 CONCLUSION. far from imperceptible. When it is farther con- sidered that a great share of the misfortunes, dis- appointments, and miseries of human life, have their origin in ignorance or indolence, in rashness or indecision, in incapacity or feebleness of exer- tion; such a plan of education, improved as it might be, by experience and talents, must greatly tend to fortify the minds of Youth against the evils with which they might be assailed in their journey through life. Another object which has been present to my mind, during the execution of these outlines, and has, I hope, been in some measure realized, was to lay down a more definite notion of what is meant by what is generally called a philosophical education. At present it means every thing, and imports no- thing. At one place, it is the knowledge of Aristo- tle's logic and metaphysics; at another, it is the stu- dy of geometry ; at a third, it is confined to the read- ing of certain books of Philosophy, with examina- tions on them; at a fourth, to a course of Lectures delivered from the chair of a Professor, without either examinations or exercises ; while, at a fifth, it comprehends a portion of all the occupations now mentioned, employed generally as the means of improving the powers of acquiring knowledge, and of creating intellectual habits. What I should wish, then, above all things, to impress upon the Teachers of Youth, is to keep before their eyes a definite object, to be realized in due time by CONCLUSION. 483 their own exertions co-operating with those of their Pupils; and, in this way, affording a standard for estimating the progress which may be made, and the work which still remains to be achieved. For in such circumstances, it will be impossible to refrain from occasionally asking themselves, whe- ther the labour they perform, and that which they require from their Students, are at all likelv to accomplish the end which they have in view ? It appears also, in the third place, that, whatever improvements are made on practical education in our Universities, must begin with the Teachers themselves, and not with constitutional innova- tions, or with new foundations. The art of edu- cation, like other arts, is built upon experience and observation. Improvements are not to be ex- pected from legislators, or politicians, who have many other objects which press upon their attention; nor even from Philosophers, unless they have drawn their knowledge from the above source. It is the indispensable duty, therefore, of every one engaged in teaching Philosophy, to collect facts, to record observations, to watch the progress of the unfolding of the human faculties, to begin the work of reformation with trials or experiments; and thus to unite their efforts in contributing to the general improvement of human reason. Lastly, it is comfortable to think that all the improvements of which philosophical education is 3P 484 CONCLUSION. susceptible may be brought about without impos- ing any new burdens on society, and merely by adding a little to the labour, and introducing a few modifications into the systems, of those to whom the department of education is now entrust- ed. Were any farther arrangement of a pecuni- ary nature requisite, the public, I am persuaded, would not withhold it. But the funds, under the management of the greatest part of our Colleges, were they judiciously appropriated, would be found sufficient for all the purposes of a good education. In the most opulent seminaries, indeed, a full pro- vision is made, not only for the support of perma- nent Tutors, were they established on such a footing, but also for the retirement of men ot science. This remark, however, applies not to the Universities of Scotland, where the emolu- ments of the Teacher are generally so scanty, that the Patrons of some of our Colleges have been oblic-ed to resort to the hurtful expedient of unit- ing ^Professorships with church livings, at the ha^zard of sacrificing, to a certain extent, the in- terests of both. Nor is any provision secured tor the support of aged Teachers, when they are no loncer able to discharge the fatiguing duties ot their office. The Professors in Scotland must con- tinue to teach as long as their health will permit ; and when they are no longer equal to the drud- eery, they must submit to a diminution of their income, by paying those who supply their place. The arrangement by which judges of a certain CONCLUSION. 485 standing are allowed to retire on their salaries, has been very generally approved ; and it has often occurred to me, that a small part of the hereditary revenue of this country could not be better ap- plied than in granting an allowance to eineritt Professors. It is not likely, that at any time there would be many on the pension list; for, in the course of years, the power of custom becomes so strong, and the taste for teaching is generally so much confirmed, that Professors find it their pleasure, as well as their interest, to do the duty of their office as long as they are able. This suggestion proceeds from no selfish mo- tive; for before such an arrangement could take effect, it is probable, that the author of these re- marks, after nearly fifty years service in the cause of education, shall have finished his course, and have his dependence upon rewards of a different nature. THE END, A. tc 1. DUNCAN', PRINTEBS, GLASGOW. 4 COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY LIBRARIES This book is due on the date indicated below, or at the expiration of a definite period after the date of borrowing, as provided by the library rules or by special arrangement with the Librarian in charge. DATE BOKfVOWEO MAR \ 3 19 31 DATE DUE C28 (,449)M50 DATE BORROWED DATE DUE H COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY LIBRARIES 0023600403 ( 107 '1 ,1 i A G30t9-P ^s**' S&l e {*■« i