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A UTHOR : 
 
 SEWALL, J.B. 
 
 TITLE: 
 
 GREEK CONDITIONAL 
 SENTENCES 
 
 PLACE: 
 
 BOSTON 
 
 DA TE : 
 
 1885 
 
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 -^:%^*«r: 
 
 G R 
 
 CONDITIONAL SENTENCES 
 
 BY 
 
 V 
 
 J. B. SEWALL 
 
 HEAD MASTER, THAYER ACADEMY 
 PBEVIOUSLV PKOFliSSOK OF GRliEK IN BOWUOIN COLLEGE 
 
 JOHN ALLYN, PUBLISHER 
 
 1885 
 
THE 
 
 GREEK 
 
 CONDITIONAL SENTENCES 
 
 BY 
 
 J. B. SEWALL 
 
 HEAD MASTER, THAYER ACADEMY 
 PREVIOUSLY PROFESSOR OF GREEK IN BOVVDOIN COLLEGB 
 
 Boston 
 
 JOHN ALLYN, PUBLISHER 
 
 1885 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 Hnibrrsitg iprrss: 
 John Wilson .\nij Sum, Cambridge. 
 
 Some years since, when teaching a class the members of 
 which were using Professor Hadley's Grammar, I drew off 
 and had printed for them Professor Goodwin's Classification 
 of the Conditional Sentences, — then new, but now generally 
 in use, and not only acknowledged as philosophically made, 
 but as a great step in advance upon all previous treatment of 
 the subject. In doing this at first, I condensed the state- 
 ment as much as possible, and used my own phraseology 
 and Professor Goodwin's indifferently ; but as the process 
 was repeated for successive classes, naturally some change 
 and growth took place. It first seemed an improvement to 
 me, contributing to simplicity and clearness of apprehension, 
 to view the sentences from the standpoint of the fact as 
 hypothetically presented, — that is, whether the fact sup- 
 posed is put forward as actual, or contrary to reality, or 
 contingent, or purely as a conception, — and this change \vas 
 incorj)orated. In the next place, I came to think that the 
 distinction between the subjunctive and optative, as used 
 in the third and fourth classes, was one of kind rather than 
 degree, and the paper was made to conform. Finally, many 
 pupils needed a more full and expanded treatment of the 
 
 343694 
 
 I'REKACE. 
 
4 rREFACE. 
 
 General and Relative sentences, and I endeavored to meet 
 the want. The result is the paper in its i)resent form. It is 
 published, with Professor Gootlwin's cordial assent, for the 
 future use of my own pupils, and for the benefit of any who 
 are using any other grannnar than Professor Goodwin's ad- 
 mirable one, and even for any who, using it, would like in 
 the jwints named a more expanded view, and to gain any 
 new light, if there be any new light, from considering the 
 subject from a different standpoint. 
 
 THAVER ACADEMV, RRAtNTREE, MaSS., 
 January, 1885. 
 
 GREEK CONDITIONAL SENTENCES. 
 
 GREEK CONDITIONAL SENTENCES. 
 
 1. A conditional sentence is one in which the assertion 
 made in the leading clause is modified by a condition. In 
 other words, it is a supposition and a conclusion : e.^\ " If I 
 should depend upon promises, I should certainly foil ; " " If 
 the weather continues favorable, the farmers will have good 
 crops." 
 
 2. The condition is called the protasis (xpoTttCTi?, from 
 TrpoTciVw), or simply the condition; the conclusion, the apodo- 
 sis (a7ro8oo-i9, from dTroStSw/xi) , or simply the conclusion. 
 
 3. The condition is introduced by a conditional conjunc- 
 tion : ei, lav, ar, or r}v, OX a word implying condition. 
 
 a. lav is a union of d and ar, i being dropped and 
 c and a standing without contraction ; av is the same 
 contracted with the a sound prevailing, while jjv is the 
 same contracted with the c sound prevailing. 
 
 b. lav, av (conditional), or r;»', as a rule, stands the 
 first w^ord of its clause. 
 
 Note. — Exceptions are rare: as in Dem., Olyn. II. 28, 'An<plTro\i5 
 Kau Kr]<p6fi, — " even if Amphipolis is taken ; " Phil. I. 29, toDt' &v 
 yivqrai, — "if this happens;" Phil. I. 43, koX rpi-hpus Kivas koL ras irapb. 
 Tov Zuvoi iKwiSas ikv aTroo-rcf Ar^re, — " and if you despatch empty ships 
 and hopes from this person or that ; " where the change of position is 
 for emphasis. K&v as a first word does not constitute an exception, 
 since the conjunction is only a connective of the clause. 
 
 GREEK CONDITIONAL SENTENCES. 
 
6 GREEK CONDITIONAL SENTENCES. 
 
 4. The conclusion is sometimes with and sometimes with- 
 out the particle uv : without, when it is a statement of actual 
 fact, either past, present, or future ; 7inth, when it is a state- 
 ment contrary to fact, or w hen it is simply a conceived fact. 
 
 a, av is here called modal, being an adverb modify- 
 ing the verb; and its jjosition is next after the most 
 emphatic word in the clause, never first. 
 
 5. Suppositions are made with reference to single facts, 
 and the sentence is then called particular ; or so as to sug- 
 gest to the minil an indefinite number of cases, and the sen- 
 tence is then called general : e,g. Anab. HI. i, 25, d v/xets 
 iQiki-Tf. liopixau, lir^aOai viilv fiovKofiai, — " if you wish to set 
 forth, I am willing to follow you." Here the supposition is 
 confined to a particular case, or single instance, — ^particu- 
 lar conditional sentence. Thucyd. B. II. 39, 4, ^]v hi ttou 
 
 fioptu) TLvl TrpoafJLLiiiKTLf K'paTJ/crai'Tc's T€ Ttvas yfjiiov TTiivTa'i 
 
 avxovaiv aTrcaicr^ai, — **if at any time they have engaged with 
 any portion [of the army], and have overpowered any of us, 
 they boast that all have been repulsed." Here the supposi- 
 tion suggests an indefinite number of cases, and the conclu- 
 sion applies to any and every one of them, is true every time 
 the condition is true, — a ^iv/tv*?/ conditional sentence. 
 
 6. There are four forms, or classes, of ijarticular conditional 
 sentences, and two of general. 
 
 Particular, i. Supposition of actual fact. 
 
 2. Supposition of contrary fact. 
 
 3. Su])position of contingent flict. 
 
 4. Supposition of conceived fact. 
 
 General. i. Supposition of fact suggesting to the mind 
 
 ini indefinite number of cases in present 
 or fiiture time. 
 2. Supposition of fact suggesting to the mind an 
 indefinite number of cases in past time. 
 
 GREEK CONDITIONAL SENTENCES. 
 
 GREEK CONDITIONAL SENTENCES. ^ 
 
 7. PARTICULAR. 
 
 FOUR CLASSES. 
 
 I. First Class. Supposition regarding actual fact. 
 
 ct TovTo Acycts, a/xuprdvcts, — if you say this, you are 
 mistaken. 
 
 Anab. II. 5. 41, — if, contrary to the oaths, he was 
 violating the truce, he has his deserts. 
 
 ct 8c Tts otcrat piKpav d<^op/>LT;i/ ctmt ariT-qpicrLov, ovk 
 
 opOCx: iyvioK^v, Dem. IV. 29, — if any one thinks ration- 
 money to be small inducement, he has not rightly 
 learned. 
 Form : In the condition, ct with the indicative ; in the 
 conclusion, the indicative without ar, or any form of expres- 
 sion asserting actual fact, or the imperative. 
 
 It is a simple supposition regarding fact, without implica- 
 tion one way or the other as to its actuality ; only if it is or 
 is not fact, then // is or is not thus and so. 
 
 ct PovXevop^eOa rrdXiV avToU 8ta c^tXta? teVat, avdyKT] 
 r)fia^ TToXXijv aOvpiav cx^lv, Anab. III. 28, — if we are 
 deliberating going to them again in friendly fashion, it 
 must be that we are gready discouraged. 
 
 ci /xcVrot SiavoovfJieda avv rots orrXot? ^lktjv cxt^cirat 
 auTot?, TToXXai rjpxv kol KaXal cXttiSc? cto-t (TiorrjpLaq, 
 
 Anab. III. 2. 8, — but if we intend to inflict punishment 
 on them with our arms, we have many and fiiir hopes 
 of safety. 
 
 ct 8c Tt? vpLU}V aOvfiei on, ktA.., IvOvfirjdyjre oti, ktX., 
 
 Anab. III. 2. 18, — if any one of you is discouraged 
 because, etc., consider that, etc. 
 
 ct 8c Tis aAAo 6pa I^IXtlov, AcJaToj, Anab. III. 2, 58,— 
 if any one sees anything better, let him speak. 
 
 CREEK CONDITIONAL SENTENCES. 
 
8 
 
 GREEK CONDITIONAL SENTENCES. 
 
 u)S f^paxvs coTt 6 TTas avOpw-mvo*; yStos, ci rovrtov yc 
 coiToji^ Toaovrmy ovSci? €S iKaroaTW €To^ iripUa-Taif 
 Herod. VII. 46, — how short is all human life if no 
 one of tlicse, so many though they are, will survive to 
 the huntlrecllh year. 
 
 ct Se Tts vfJi<^)V 6v(r7roX.€fJLrjTov oierai tov ^^LKtTnrov chat, 
 opOw^ okrai, Dem. IV. 4, — if any of you thinks Philip to 
 be hard to war with, he thinks rightly. 
 
 11. Second Class. Supposition contrar>- to fact. It is 
 implied in both condition and conclusion that the contrary 
 is the truth. 
 
 ct Tt €Lxovy cSi'Sow av, — if I had anything, I would give 
 it (implied, I have nothing, therefore I shall not give). 
 
 ct K-aAuJs €7rpa^€y tTnjviOrj ar, — if he had done well, 
 he would have been praised (imphed, he did not do 
 well, therefore was not praised). 
 
 Form : In the condition, ct with a past tense of the in- 
 dicative ; in the conclusion, a past tense of the indicative 
 with av. 
 
 The imperfect tense denotes present time, sometimes re- 
 peated or continued action in past time ; the aorist or pluper- 
 fect, past time. 
 
 With the imjjcrfect tense our English idiom is the same : 
 "if I needed the article, 1 would buy it." " Needed " is in 
 the imperfect tense, but expresses present time, '' needed it 
 now." 
 
 rffuv y av Tpuraarfifvos ravr* cVot'ci, ct cwpa rjfia^ /xc- 
 v€ii' 7rapa(TK€va^ofi€V(w<;, Anab. III. 2. 24, — he would 
 thrice gladly do this for us, if he saw us preparing to 
 remain, 
 
 ct fi€VTOL TOTC TrActou^ cTui/cXcyTycrtti^, €KLvSvv€V(T€v av Sta- 
 <f>Oap?jvat iroXv tov cTTpaTci'/xaro^, Anab. IV. I. Ii, — if, 
 
 10 
 
 GREEK CONDITIONAL SENTENCES. 
 
 GREEK CONDITIONAL SENTENCES. 9 
 
 howTver. more had been assembled, a large part of the 
 army would have been in danger of being destroyed. 
 
 cywy' at'Tos cKaAAwo/xr/t' t€ Kat ij(^pvvop.rjv av, ct lyrr.- 
 (TTafjLTjv TttiTa, Plato Apol. 20. C, — I should plume and 
 pride myself upon it, if I understood this. 
 
 ct TTCpt Kaivov Ttj/o? Trpay/xttTO? TrpovrlOeTo Acycir, »;ori.- 
 X''ai' av rjyoi'y Dem. IV. I, — if it were proposed to speak 
 in relation to some new subject, I should keep cpiiet. 
 
 ct TOLi'vv 6 fln'AtTTTros TOTC Tai'Ttjv €iT)^€ Trjv yvo')fjiT]v , ov^ikv 
 av uiv injvl 7rc7rot7;Kcv tTrpa^ci', Dem. IV. 5, — if there- 
 fore Phili]) had then held this opinion, he would have 
 done none of the things which he now has done. 
 
 ct firj wfirjv rj^iLV irapa Oeov^; oAAoi;'?, ySiKovv av ovk 
 dyavaKTu)v tw davdrio, PI. Phaedo, 63. B, — if I did not 
 think that I should come to other gods, I should do 
 wrong in not grieving at death. 
 
 in. Third Class. Supposition of contingent fact. The 
 fact supposed is dependent upon circumstances or experi- 
 ence, may or may not be true or prove true, is hanging as it 
 were in the balance. 
 
 idv Tt e^yj SoWct, — if hc has anything, he will give it. 
 (It is uncertain. He may and he may not have any- 
 thing. If it proves that he has, he will give it.) 
 
 idv TTpd^yj TOiTo, KaAuis c^ct, — if he does [shall have 
 done] this, it will be well. (He may do it, he may not, 
 — we shall see ; if he does, it will be well.) 
 
 Form : In the condition, idv (dv or yv) with the sub- 
 junctive ; in ^the conclusion, the future indicative, or the 
 imperative, or a form of expression implying the future. 
 
 7]V pXv yap xprf^LO-tiiVTaL CTrcor^at, v/xct? SofcTC atTtot cti^at, 
 
 Anab. I. 4. 15, — for if they vote [may or shall have 
 voted] to follow, you will seem to be the cause. 
 
 GREEK CONDITIONAL SENTENCES. 
 
 I 1 
 
lO 
 
 GREEK CONDITIOXAE SENTENCES. 
 
 TL €crrtti T019 <TTfuiTuoTaL<;y iuv avTiti TttiTa ^^apuTun'Taty 
 Anal). II. I. lo, what will tho soldiers get, if they do 
 [may or shall have done] him this favor. 
 
 iav S* uAT/^ci'fr>;9, v7rL(T\i'oi fxai croi ScVa rdXavTa, Anab. 
 I. 7. 18, — if you have spoken the truth [if it proves that 
 you have spoken truly], I promise you [implied future] 
 ten talents. 
 
 ^i^ 8c Tt? avTiov Tp€\l/y Ta<; yi'w/xa?, 7ro\v cvOvfiorepOL 
 
 €(TovTaiy Anal). III. I. 41, — if any one diverts their 
 thoughts, they will be in much better sjiirits. 
 
 TTokv jiikv IdxvpoTipov 7rauro/x€r, 7;i' ti? Trpocri'r;, Anab. 
 
 III. 2. 19, — we shall strike with much greater force 
 if any one comes near. 
 
 TU)V TjV KpaT7J(TWfX€l'j OV fl/f Tt5 yjflLV d/VAo? OTpUTO? dvTL- 
 
 {rrfj KOT€ dv6pu)Tro}Vy Her. VII. 53, — if we conquer these 
 no other army of men will ever withstand us. (Good- 
 win's Gr. § 257; Allen's Hadley, 1032.) 
 
 dv ravTa TropiarjTe ra xpVf^o.ra^ TravaearO^ act Trepl twv 
 avTuiv ^ov\€v6fi€voi, Dem. IV. ^^, — if you will provide 
 this money, you will cease always deliberating about the 
 same subject. 
 
 KUV fX-tj I'll' iOikwflCV €K€L TToXc/lCU' aiTW, €v6d^* LCTltX; 
 
 dvayKao-O-qadfiiOa rovro Trotctv, Dem. IV. 50, — and if we 
 are not willing to war with him there, perhaps we shall 
 be compelled to do it here. 
 
 €vprj(T€L TO. aaOpd tCov ckciVou irpayfiaTtDV avTo*; 6 iro- 
 
 Xc/Ao?, dv lTi)^€ipu)fjL€v, Deui. IV. 44, — tlic War itself, if we 
 undertake it, will find out the rotten parts of his affairs. 
 
 IV. Fourth Class. Supposition of possible fact, or fact 
 conceived only. The fact supposed is merely conceived 
 and presented as existing only in the mind — pure sup- 
 position. 
 
 €1 Tavra irpda-a-oi, fiiya ryjv ttoXlv dv PXaij/cic, — if he 
 should do this, he would greatly injure the city. 
 
 12 
 
 GREEK CONDITIONAL SENTENCES. 
 
 GREEK CONDITIONAL SENTENCES. 
 
 I 1 
 
 oTkos 8* ai'To?, tl <t>Onyyr)V Ad/3oi, (T(ujit<rraT* av Xc- 
 
 ^ctci', — the house itself, if it should take voice, would 
 speak most clearly. 
 /^onn : In the condition, ct with the optative ; in the con- 
 clusion, the optative with dv. 
 
 Qho7roLrj(T€L€ 7' dv avVots, kol ci tri'V T^OpLTnroL^ pox- 
 \oLVTo dTTicmt, Anab. III. 2. 24, — he would at least 
 make a road for them, even if they should wish to go 
 with four-horse chariots. 
 
 oi'K dv C'avfidCoLfJiLy ct ot TToXc'/xtnt Jifuv aTTLovcnv liraKi- 
 
 kovOolev, Anab. III. 2. 35,— if the enemy should follow 
 us when we go, I shoukl not be surprised. 
 
 ct (iTroSetx^tt'v TtVtt xpi], OVK uv ISovXcikaOai ^//xd? Scot, 
 
 Anab. III. 2. 36, — if the right man should be ap- 
 pointed, it would not be necessary for us to resort to 
 
 counsel. 
 
 €t opi^yjv I'/xd? ao}Tr]pL6v tl PovXcvofiivov^y eXOoifiL av 7rpo<: 
 {./Ltd?, Anab. III. 3. 2, — if I sho'ild see that you were 
 devising something promising safety, I would come to 
 you. 
 
 ct VO/Xtfot/Xt ^COt'? dvOpf^TTOiV Tt <l>pOVTL^€LV, OVK UV dfX€- 
 
 XotV ^vtCov, Xen. Mem. I. 4. n, — i^ I could think that 
 the gods had any care for men, I would not be neglect- 
 ful of them. 
 
 8. G E N E R A L. 
 
 TW'O CLASSES. 
 
 I. First Class. Supposition of general truth or existing 
 
 customary fiict. 
 
 The condition suggests to the mind an indefinite number 
 of cases, and the conclusion applies as true to each and every 
 one of the cases which may arise, — is true every time the 
 condition is true. 
 
 GREEK CONDITIONAL SENTENCES. 
 
 I^ 
 
12 
 
 GREEK CONDITIONAL SENTENCES. 
 
 €«»• 8c T19 SuiiKT) TO €T€pov Kul Aa/i./?(ir?;, (r\€^6v TL (iiay- 
 icaf€T(U XafiPdveiv kol to €T€p(n\ Pliacclo, 6o. B, — if OIIC 
 
 pursues [ever] the one and takes it, he is all but com- 
 pelled [always] to take also the other. 
 
 *}v iyyi'<; eXOf) ^aiaro?, ovSeU PovX^rai Ov^a-Kuv, Kur. 
 
 Ale. 671, — if death comes near [at any time or in any 
 case], no one is willing to die. (The truth of the con- 
 clusion is api)]i(:al)le in any and every case.) 
 
 Form : In the condition, hiv with the subjunctive ; in the 
 conclusion, the indicative present, or any form expressing 
 present, customary, or repeated action. 
 
 riv Tt TTcpt T7/xas d/uaprai'oxrt, Trcpt tu? mvrwv ipvxa^ 
 Kol TO. aMfiara ufiapTdvovcri, Anal). III. 2. 20, — if they 
 make any mistake in regard to us, they make mistake in 
 regard to their own souls and bodies. 
 
 Trai^TCS TTora/xoi, *)v koi Trpoao) tu)V mfyoiv airopoi w(n, 
 xpotowt Trpo? Ttt? Trrjyas SuifiaTOt yiyvovTai, Anal:). III. 
 
 2. 22, — all rivers, even though they be impassable at 
 a distance from their sources, become passable to those 
 who go to their sources. 
 
 ot 8ciAot KiVc? TOi'? pikv Trapiorra? Zlmkovo-i t€ SaKvovcni', 
 7]v 8i'i'aji'Tai, Toi'? 8c 810^01^09 <^ciryouo-ti', Anab. III. 2. 35, 
 
 — cowardly dogs are wont to pursue and bite passers- 
 by, if they can, but flee from those who pursue them. 
 
 lav cV Xcppon'7/fja» irvOrjaOi ^iXnnroVj iK€L(T€ porjOiiv 
 j/rryr/n'^ccr^c, Dem. IV. 41, — if you hear of Philip in Cher- 
 sonesus, there you vote to go to the rescue. 
 
 II. Second Ci^ss. Supposition of general truth or cus- 
 tomary foct in past time. 
 
 €1 Tis icAcTrrot, cVoAa^cTo, if any one stole [ever], he was 
 punished [always]. 
 
 ct tk; (ii'TctVoi, €v6v<i TtBvrjKn, if any one refused, he was 
 immediately put to death. 
 
 14. 
 
 GREEK CONDITIONAL SENTENCES. 
 
 GREEK CONDITIONAL SENTENCES. 
 
 13 
 
 Form : In the condition, ci with the optative ; in the con- 
 clusion, the imperfect indicative without av, or a form imply- 
 ing repetition in past time. 
 
 ct Tt €Vf)L(jKOL€v TuiV iLf)r}jX€i'(i)V fX7] a<^ci/AcVoF, ucfirjpoZvTO, 
 
 Anab. IV. i. 14, — if they Ibund any of the things men- 
 tioned not left behind, they took them away. 
 
 ct TtS ttVTU) SuKdU] Tii)V TrpoS TOt'TO T€Tay/X€l/(j)V /3AaKci'cti', 
 
 CKAcyo'/xcvos Tov €7riT>y8ctoi' cVatVcv av (Goodwin, 2o6 ; 
 Hadley, 704, fine i)rint ; Allen's Hadley, 835 a), Anab. 
 II. 3. II, — if any one of those ordered to this duty 
 seemed to him to be shirking, selecting the proper man, 
 he would strike him. 
 
 ct ^€ KOL 8ta/3atVctv Tti^a 8cot huif^acnv *] yi<f>vpav^ ovk 
 
 cVapaTToi'To, Anab. III. 4. 23, — and if it was necessary 
 to cross any ford or bridge, they were not thrown into 
 disorder. 
 
 9. CONDITIONAL RELATIVE SENTENCES. 
 
 A relative word (pronoun, adjective, or adverb), referring 
 to an indefinite antecedent, has a conditional force. It may 
 then take the place of the conditional particle ct in all the 
 forms of conditional sentences, so that for each of the direct 
 forms there will be a corresponding relative form. There will, 
 therefore, be six classes, — /our particular and two general. 
 
 10. CONDITIONAL RELATIVE SENTENCES 
 
 PARTICULAR, 
 
 FOUR CLASSES. 
 
 I. First Class. Supposition relating to actual Hict. 
 
 oo-Tt5 ToiTo Acyci, a/xapTfU'€t, whoever says this [= if 
 any one says this], he is mistaken. The corresponding 
 
 GREEK CONDITIONAL SENTENCES. 
 
 IS 
 

 GREEK CONDITIONAL SENTENCES. 
 
 direct would be, ct rts tovto Xcyct, ajiaprdvu. The rela- 
 tive o^ rc|)laces the particle d. 
 
 Form: In the condition, the relative word (instead of c?) 
 with the indicative ; in the conclusion, the indicative without 
 Ji', or any form of exi)ression asserting actual fact, or the im- 
 perative. As in the direct first, there is a simi)le supposition 
 regarding flict, without implication one way or the other as to 
 its actuality ; only, if it is or is not fact, then it is or is jwt 
 thus and so. 
 
 oTTocrot /icv /xao-Tei'ouGTi fJ}^ Ik iravToq rpoTTOv Iv TOi? 
 
 TToAc/AtKOtS, Ol'TOt KaKwS TC Kflt ala^pUj^ W9 cVt TO TToXv aTTO- 
 
 6vi]<jKov(TiVy Anab. III. i. 43, — those who [as many as] 
 strive in every way to live in time of Ijattle, for the most 
 part cowardly and disgracefully die (ottoo-oi = ct Tivt^). 
 ot fji} Itv^ov Iv rats raticriv oitc? ct? ra? ra^Uf; lOeoVy 
 
 Anab. II. 2. 14, — those who did not happen to be in 
 their lines ran to their lines (ot = ct Ttic?). 
 
 OTOi SoK€L Tai'T, (U'ttTCll'ttTOJ TJJV ^^tpa, Anal). III. 29, 
 
 let him to whom these things seem good raise the hand 
 
 (oTa> = €t TU'l). 
 
 OtTTt? VflOU' TOV<; Ot/CCtOV? €7rL0v/JL€L iScU', flifULVrjaOo) ai'7jp 
 
 aya^o? etmi, Anab. III. 2. 39, — who of you desires to 
 see his friends at home, let him remember to be a brave 
 
 man (orrn? = €1 Tts). 
 
 o'u9 rt€ firf €vpL(TKOVy Ka'OTd<f>toi' avT()i<; eTroiqcrav ftcya, Kal 
 (TTerfidvov:: cVe'^co-ar, Anal). VI. 4. 9, — and what [dead 
 bodies] they did not find [= if tliere were any they 
 did not find], they made for them a great cenotaph, and 
 placed garlands upon it (ow = ct nvaq). 
 
 Kal cTTi'iyero orrTt*; reti/ fxyj £Ti'y;^ru'€V i7ri(TTd/JL€V0<;^ Anab. 
 
 V. 7. 25, — and whoever [if anyone] did not happen to 
 know how to swim was drowned (mm? = ct tl<;). 
 
 a fii] oTSa ovSe olnp.ni elSa'ai^ Pi. Apol. 21. D., — what 
 
 I do not know, I do not think I know (a=ct nva). 
 
 16 
 
 GREEK CONDITIONAL SENTENCES. 
 
 GREEK CONDITIONAL SENTENCES. 
 
 '5 
 
 II. Second Class. Supposition of contrary fact. As in 
 the direct conditional of the second class, it is implied in both 
 condition and conclusion that the contrary is the truth. 
 
 00-ot ctxov. iStSovv di\ — as many as had would give, 
 i. e. if any had they would give (implied, none have, 
 therefore they do not give). 
 
 otrot K'aAco? tTrpa^av^ €TnjviOf](Tav ar, — as many as did 
 well would have been praised, i. e. if any had done well, 
 they would have been praised (implied, none did well, 
 therefore none were praised). 
 
 For?ji : In the condition, the relative word ( instead of ct) 
 with a past tense of the indicative ; in the conclusion, a 
 past tense of the indicative with dv. 
 
 As in the direct form, the imperfect tense signifies present 
 time, and the aorist or pluperfect past time. 
 
 ot 8c TratSe? vp.Co]\ ocrot /xci' ivOdSe yjcravj inro tovtwv 
 
 av vfipL^ovTo, Lys. XII. 98, — your children who were 
 here would be maltreated by them (oo-ot = ct riveq). 
 0VT€ yap av avTOL e7r€)(€LpovfjL€v Trpdrretv a p.7j i-yTrioTa- 
 
 fl€Uaj OVT€ TOt? tlAA-Ot? €7r€Tp€7rO/X€Vf WV 7]p\nfl€l'y ttAAo Tl 
 
 TrpdrrtLV r; o tl irpdrTovTeq opOutq c/xcAXoi/ Trpd^iiv ' tovto 
 
 8* tJv' av, ov c7rtoT7//x?;i' €t;^oi', PI. Charm. 1 7 1. E., — for nei- 
 ther should we ourselves undertake to do what we did 
 not know how to do, nor should we allow others whom 
 we were ruling to do anything else than what, if doing, 
 they were going to do rightly : and this would be what 
 they had knowledge of. a = ct rtm, wv = ct Ttvtor, ov 
 
 = ct Ttl'09. 
 
 III. Third Class. — Supposition of contingent fact. As 
 in the direct, the fact supposed is dependent upon circum- 
 stances or experience ; may or may not prove true. 
 
 Form : In the condition, the relative word with dv with 
 
 GREEK CONDITIONAL SExNTENCES. 
 
 17 
 
i6 
 
 GREEK COXDITTONAL SENTENCES. 
 
 the subjiinctiv^e ; in the conclusion, the future indicative, or 
 a form of ex[)ression implying the future. 
 
 As in the direct form ei is com[)oun(led with ar, forming 
 idv, avt or rjVj SO here the relative word, when i)ossible, is 
 compounded with uv. Thus or€ Ji' becomes orai', eVctSi; av 
 becomes cVctSup, and cttci av becomes cVryi'. Otherwise, dv 
 stands immediately after tlie relative wonl, as os dv, oo-tl^ dv, 
 oaoL av, etc. 
 
 Tw dy^pl ov uv iXrjrrOc TrftVo/xat, Anab. I. 3. 15, — 
 I will obey the man whom you shall have chosen (f>v dv 
 = idv TLva) ; or, whatever man you may choose, I will 
 obey him. 
 
 iTTctSav Ta;(toTa y (TTparein Xy]irjj €v6v<; dTrmri/Juf/tn (T€, 
 Anab. III. 1.9, — just as soon as the expedition is 
 ended, I will send you back (iTretSdv = idv Trore). 
 
 irreL^dv 8e ^taTrpdiioiJML a Se'o/tat, >/^o), Anab. II. 3. 29, 
 
 — when I have effected what I desire, I will come 
 
 (c7ra8av= idv ttotc). 
 
 TToAv Se iJ.dWnv orov *tv /?oi'Xoj/X€^a rcv^ofieOay Anab. 
 
 III. 2. 19, — we shall hit much more certainly what- 
 ever we wish (oTou dv = idv tlvo^). 
 
 avTov TTJSc ficv^nfJLev Ictt dv kol rcXctTT/froyxcr, Her. 
 
 VII. 141, — we will remain here until we die (eVr dv 
 
 = idv TTore). 
 
 IV. Fourth Class. — Supposition of possible fact, or fact 
 as conceived merely. 
 
 jFonn : In the condition, the relative word wnth the opta- 
 tive ; in the conclusion, the optative with dv. 
 
 cyoj yap okvqltjv dv ct? ra TrXola ifi/3aLV€LV a rffxiv 8007, 
 
 Anab. I. 3. 17, — I should hesitate to embark on the 
 vessels which he w^ould give us (u = €r nm). 
 
 <ti0^ot^7}v K dv Tw r;y€/xo'rt <5 Sou; cTrccr^at, Anab. 
 
 18 
 
 GREEK CONDITIONAL SENTENCES. 
 
 CREEK CONDITIONAL SENTENCES. 
 
 17 
 
 I. 3. 17, — I should fear to follow Uie leader which he 
 might give (w attracted from o»/=ct nva). 
 
 tTjjs dv Tis, d ye /xr) eVio-Tairo, raiTa aocfyoq €Lrj ; 
 
 Mem. IV. 6. 7 — how coultl one be wise in those things 
 which he did not understand ? /. r. if a man should not 
 understand things, how could he be wise in them.'* 
 
 (d :=■ €L TLVa.) 
 
 II. CONDITIONAL RELATIVE SENTENCES 
 
 TWO CLASSES, 
 
 I. First Class. — Supposition of general truth, or custom- 
 ary fact in present time. 
 
 As in the direct form, the condition suggests to the mind 
 an indefinite number of cases, and the conclusion is true 
 every time the condition is true. 
 
 Form : In the condition, the relative word joined with dv, 
 with the subjunctive ; in the conclusion, the indicative pres- 
 sent, or any form expressing present customary or repeated 
 action. 
 
 6 ^/ dv7if) TToXXov fJi€v dt\o? </>i/\o? (iaTi) w ai^ t/>iXo? tJ, 
 Anal). I. 3. 12, — the man is a valuable friend to 
 whomsoever he is a friend ; /. c. if he ever becomes a 
 friend to any one, he is [always] a valuable friend (w dv 
 
 = idv TLVi) . 
 
 €aj? ai' ^ouru' €vSaifxovi(TT€pov Stdyovras toi'tovs opui, 
 
 Anab. III. i. 43^—^'^^ ^o"g ^^ they live I see them 
 living in greater happiness (ews a»'= idv nva xpov^^')- 
 
 oTrJrcpot dv avv rot? ^cot? rats ij/vxaU ippoifievia-repoi 
 LiiXTiV cVt Tovq TToXc/xtoi;?, toi'tov9 a>9 cVi TO TToXv ot dvTLOl 
 
 ov SixovTat, Anal). III. I. 42, —whichever [of two 
 parties at war with each other] with more resolute spirit 
 
 GREEK CONDITIONAL SENTENCES. 
 
 19 
 
i8 
 
 GREEK CONDITIONAL SENTENCES. 
 
 with the help of the gods fall upon their enemies, these 
 generally those in the opposite ranks do not wait to 
 
 receive (oruVcpoi ai'=:iav crepot). 
 
 yfjidq 8c Set tovto o tl av SoktJ tois ^cot? Trdax^tv, Anab. 
 
 III. 2. 6, — it is necessary for us to suffer that which 
 may seem good to the gods (o tl av = idv tl). 
 
 OLTrep LKavoL cio-t oroS^cii' cuTrcxto?, orai^ ^orAwrrat, Anab, 
 
 III. 2. 10, — [the gods] who are able to save [men] 
 easily whenever they wish (orai/ = idv ttotc). 
 
 ot Se dv^pi^ ilo-lv ot TTOioirrc? o ti uv iv rai? /Aa^atS 
 ytyvr/rat, Anab. III. 2. i8, — the men are they who do 
 whatever is done in batde (o n av = edv tl). 
 
 oTav airor? 8to'»Kw/x,cv, iroXv oi'X otoV T€ (ecrri) x^P^^v 
 airo Tou o-TpaTei'/i,aT05 StwKca', Anab. III. 3. 15, — 
 
 whenever we pursue them, it is not possible to pursue a 
 great distance from the army. 
 
 oTav fJikv yap vtt €vvoLa<; to. irpdypaTa orv(Trrj kol -rraa-L 
 ravTo. (Tvii<l>iprj rots /Li€T€;(ovcrt Toi) iroXepiw, Kal (Tvp,Trov€7v 
 
 Kal <f>€p€LV TCt? (TVp.(f>Opa'^ KOL piviLV lOiXoVdlV dvOplDTTOL, 
 
 Dem. Olyn. 2. 9, — for whenever a power is held 
 together by good will, and is alike advantageous to all 
 who share in war, men are willing to toil and bear mis- 
 fortunes and wait. 
 
 a; TOL "AxaLOL TrpujTLcrTu) ^i^opcv^ €vt av irTokLcOpov 
 €/\cu/x€i', II. II. 228, — which we Achaeans give to thee 
 the very first whenever we take a city {€vt av = Attic 
 
 OTav = idv ttotc). 
 
 IT. Second Class. — Supposition of general truth or cus- 
 tomary fact in past time. 
 
 Form ; In the condition, the relative word with the opta- 
 tive ; in the conclusion, the imi)erfect indicative without dv, 
 or a form implying repetition in past time. 
 
 GREEK CONDITIONAL SENTENCES. 
 
 19 
 
 TOI 8* au To)V a-Tpanuyruiv ottotc iv6vp.0Lpr}Vj tu? o-7rov8as 
 fidXXov l(f>nl3ovpr]v */ viv tov ttoAc/xov, Anal). III. I. 20, 
 
 — whenever I considered the circumstances of the 
 soldiers, I feared truce more than war (ottotc :=ct7roTc). 
 
 ot he oAXot TTaptt tus Ta^ct? ioVtc?, ottov (rTpaTr]yo<i 0-015 
 ca;, Toj' (TTpaTTjyov TrapiKoXovVf Anab. III. I. S^y — "^*- 
 
 rest, going to the divisions where a general remained 
 alive, summoned the general (ottou = ct ttov). 
 
 oTToaov SLii)^€Lav ot "EA.A>;vc9, too-ovtov ttulXlv cVaia- 
 Xwpcli/ /xaxo/xcVous c8ct. Anal). III. 3. 10, — as far as the 
 Greeks pursued, so far was it necessary to make their 
 way back again fighting (ottoo-ov = ct ttoo-o^). 
 
 OTT?; €LT] (TTivbv x^'^P^^^ irpoKaTa\apPdvovT€% iKioXvov tus 
 7rapo8oi;9, Anab. IV. 2. 24, —wherever there was a nar- 
 row place, seizing it beforehand they tried to hinder the 
 passage (oTnj = ct nij). 
 
 OTTOTC p.kv ovv Tovq TTptoTovs kidXvolcv, 'B€VO(j>u)V ottlgOiv 
 CK^atVtoi/ 7Tpo5 Ta 6p-q lXv€ ttjv dTTO</)pa^ii/ t^<? Trapo8ov, 
 
 Anab. IV. 2. 25, — whenever they were hindering 
 the van, Xenophon, leaving the rear and ascending the 
 mountains on one side, broke the blockade (ottotc = 
 
 ct 
 
 ttotc). 
 
 cxP^i^TO Se aln-oU ot 'EXXr;^c?, cVct Xd^otci', dKOi'Ttot9, 
 
 Anal). IV. 2. 28, — the Greeks used them as javelins 
 whenever they found them {i-n-el = ct ttotc). 
 
 OTTOTC Trapctr;, ov?)€U dXXo% /?ao-tXca cVt toi/ ittttov 
 
 SivifSaXXcr, Anab. IV. 4. 4, — when he was present, no 
 other lifted the king on his horse (ottotc = ct ttotc). 
 
 follows: 1. It is complete, rtMiuiring 110 jL^rainmar for those who take I^tm for 
 fi clinrt tim*. '> If w ciiiK-isn withoiif hi'iiiL' (h'licient in matorial for drill. 3. It 
 
C031ST0CK'S FIRST LATIN BOOK. 
 
 A First Latin Book, designed as a Manual of Proc^rt'ssive Exercises and 
 Systematic Drill in the Elements of Latin, and Introiluctory to C'x'sar's 
 Conuuentaries on the Gallic War. By I). Y. Comskx k, M. A., Instruc- 
 tor in Latin, Phillii>a Academy, Andover, Mass. 12mo, half leather. 
 310 pages. §1.00. 
 
 The design of this book is to furnish a Manual, complete in itself, 
 which shall give a thorough preparation for the intelligent study of Casar's 
 Gallic War. It contains • I. A Brief Review of English Grammar ; II. 
 The Elementary I'rineiples and Definitions of Latin Accidence; III. The 
 Latin Lessons, with exercises for translation, notes, and test questions ; 
 IV. The Note.-, ^Mving a concise but complete outlme of all essential princi- 
 ples of Latin Syntax ; V. An Appendix of all the necessary forms of 
 inflection ; VL Latin-English and English-Latin Vocabularies. 
 
 It is heartily commended by the many teachers who are 
 using it as superior to all other books of the same class, in the 
 vital points of fulness and accuracy, of clearness and concise- 
 ness, of judicious gradation and arrangement, and of absolute 
 completeness. 
 
 John S. White, LL.D., Head-. If aster Berkeley Sclwol, New York C'dij.^ 
 Comstook's Latin Book 1 Had the best book for its j)ur[»<.st- that 1 havi- wer iised. 
 Thf review of English Grammar at the beginning ; the separation of the vocabu- 
 laries from the exercises ; judieinus and progressive presentation of the various 
 uses of the verb in the different iix.tHls , anil the condensed exhibit of the gram- 
 mar, — are such valnable features gathered withm the covers of a text-book, that 
 it has iiu rival. 
 
 C. S. MooKE, Principal flif/Ji Miaol, Tniintm, J/as5. — Ilaviiig compared 
 the book with several other elemeiitarv Latin books, I have come to the conclusion 
 that Comstock's is the best one for our use. My reasons for preferring it are as 
 
 Tm\ri?i>'tt IT T A 1^ —Hi^^rkirc t .^rr 
 
 follows: 1. It is complete, rerpiiring no grammar for those wlio take I^tin for 
 a short time. *2. It is ctmcise without being deficient in material for drill. 3. It 
 is judicious both in tli«' arrangement of vocabularies, notes, &c., and also in the 
 gradation of matter. 4. The " Lsst-ntials of Grammar" and the *' Notes on .'syn- 
 tax" give, in about liO pages, a very useful and conveniently arranged summary of 
 all that the ordinary pupil needs to know. 5. The brief synopsis of English 
 Grammar gives an opportunity (much needed) to review tlie fundamentals of Eng- 
 lish Grammar, and compare and contrast them with those of Latin (Grammar. 
 I tind no other book that combines these advantages. 
 
 Nathan Thdau-son, A.M., Priiicij»il Lawrence Academy, proton. Mass, — 
 It is altogether the best Latin l)ook for beginners with wliieh I am accpiainted. 
 
 Professor 11. W. JnnNsT(»N, Illinois College, Jacksonville, Jllinois. — It seems 
 to me superior to any l)ook of tiie kind hitherto published, and I regard the Essen- 
 tials of Latin Grammar as the best statement possible of what a boy must learn in 
 his first 3'ear. 
 
 Professor John L. CoorEU, Vamleihilt Pre/Kiratory School, Nashvillef Tenn. — 
 With reference to the book, I can speak only in the highest terms. Indeed, I do 
 not think that there has ever been issued an Elementary Latin Exercise Hook that 
 can compare with it in any resix>ct. I say this advisedly, as I have examined 
 almost all issued in this country, and the most prominent English ones; anti, with- 
 out hesitation, I pronounce Mr. Omistock's the l)est book of its kind publislitMl. 
 
 Professor n. C. MissiMEK, Ilifjh School, Erie, Pa. — \i is very ea<y to see 
 that Comstock's First Latin Book is the work of a thorough teacher, who has had 
 actual cxi)crience in the class-room with the difliculties ^vllieh beginners in Latin 
 usually meet. Its classilicatiim and methods are thorough and complete. The 
 language is so clear, so simple, and school-like, that the dullest pupil, if he read 
 carefully, should understand without further explanation. 3Ir. C'omstock has hit 
 the nail on the head. lie knows just what and just how much grammar is needed 
 for good, clean work. We have had Leighton and Jones, — both good, — but we 
 like Comstoek more, l>ecause it is better. 
 
 Professor R. F. Penxell, IIead-}fa.<ter Rufalo Latin School, Buffalo, 
 V. y, — I liave examined with care ('oinstoek*s First Lessons in Latin. The book 
 shows the hand of a practical teacher, who understanils the dilHculties which are 
 constantly encountered by the beginner in Latin. 1 consider it the best book yei 
 published on the subject, and shall atone." use it in the Buffalo Latin School. 
 
 JOHN ALLYN, Publisher, 30, Franklin St., Boston. 
 
 of the Iliad of Homer, Books I.-VL, leaves so little roc»m for fault-finding that we 
 
 filinU Tifif iftj'tnut !>iiv 
 
 I^n^'inc till' t it li>tin(i"»i lo n l>r>fiiif ifiil f-ir.-ciinilo nf '.i iMnrit i\i 
 
HOMER'S ILIAD. -BOOKS I -VI. 
 
 With an IntriMliietion ami Notes by R«)hi:kt I*. Kekp, Ph. 1)., Williston 
 Seminary, Easthaiiipton, Mass. I'lnw, ch)tli. 364 pages. $1.60. 
 
 In this edition much labor has been bestowed upon the introductory 
 matter, which constitutes a distinctive feature of the book. It contains an 
 Essay upon tlie Origin, History, and Transmission of the Homeric Toems, 
 giving in the form of a connected narrative full ex[danation in regard to the 
 Homeric question ; an Essay on Scanning, which presents the subject in a 
 simple, untechnical way, and illustrates the Homeric verso by the aid of 
 English hexameters ; and a concise yet complete Sketch of the Homeric 
 Dialect. The Notes have lieen made quite full, and aim to supply that col- 
 lateral information so nmch needed in the study of Homer. References 
 are made to the Greek Grammars of Iladley (Allen's new edition) and 
 Goodwin. 
 
 A very attractive feature of the book is a perfect fac-siraile of a page 
 of the famous Venetian Manuscript of tlie Iliad, — the best manuscript of 
 Homer and one of the finest of all existing manuscripts. 
 
 No pains have been spared to make this the best-equipped 
 and the most useful edition of the Iliad which can be put into 
 the hands of a pupil, and it is almost universally accepted, not 
 only as the best school-edition in the English language of any 
 part of Homer, but also as a text book of altogether exceptional 
 merit. 
 
 Professor J. H. Wia.iirr. Dartmi>uth Colletje. —It possesses many features 
 that place it far Ix-yoiid all its competitors. 
 
 W. C. CoLLAK, rhad-.) faster Roxbunj Latin School, Boston.— U is certainly 
 one of the !iiost heautifi.i, as well as one of the most useful, of school-hooks; in 
 fact, I (ion't know what euuld be better suite-l to the n.-e.ls of a i-tudent beginning 
 Greek. 
 
 Professor B. L. Cilley, rhUlips Exeter Academy, Exeter, N. //. — When mv 
 next class take the lUad I shall certainly use your new edition. It is just the 
 thing for them. 
 
 The Nation, N. Y. — U is seldom that we fed called upon to express un- 
 qualified approbation of a text-book for schools; but Mr. Itobert P. Keep's editioi 
 
 3 
 
 < 
 
 of the Iliad of Homer, Hooks I. -VI., leaves so little room for fault-finding that w« 
 shall not attempt any. Facing the titlepage is a bcautifid fac-sinnio of a page ol 
 the Codex Venetus A (13 x 10 inches), the most important MS. of the Iliad. The 
 introduction gives a very good snnnnary of the results of investigations of modern 
 scholars as to the origin and mode of transmission of the Homeric Poems ; and, 
 though necessaril}' brief, it will yet inform the student of what many (juite recent 
 text-books of the Iliad do not, that there is such a thing as "the Ilonierie (pics- 
 tion," and impart some idea of its natiin- and the difi'erent answi-rs which have 
 been g'ven to it. The .sections »>u the structure and scansion of Homeric verse, 
 on the dialect of Homer, and the commentary generally, show a nit e appreciation 
 of what a student needs and ought to liavf. Altogether the tiook is very handsome 
 »nd very scholarly, antl we have no doubt will j)rove very useful. (October 18, 
 1883.) 
 
 Professor jAcon (\tori-:i:, Riityivs Ci>lU'<je, New BninswicL; N.J. — No col- 
 lege edition of Homer lias appeared, either in this or any other country, in the last 
 twenty years, that shows a superior knowledge of what .s needed in the class- 
 room. 
 
 Professor N. L. Andrews, Madison Eniversifi/, Hamilton, N.Y. — A more 
 satisfactory edition of the first six Books of the Iliad than this by Dr. Keep could 
 hardly be prepared. Every scholarly instructor and every good student will valuo 
 especially the introductory matter. 
 
 Professor CiKoncE II. Wiiitk, Principal Preparatory Drpartment, Oberlin 
 College, Ohio. — Keep's Iliad is evidently superior to any edition now in use, and 
 we have voted to adopt it for our classes. The introductory matter is valuable, and 
 includes a satisfactory outline of the Homeric forms ; the notes are scholarly, grace- 
 ful, and suggestive ; and the whole work reveals the hand of the experienced and 
 enthusiastic teacher. 
 
 Professor B. Pei:iiin, Adelbert Odlif/e, Clevilmd, Ohio. — I can clearly see thai 
 it is by far the best in the field, and I shall at once recommend it for the preparatory 
 department, and use it myself. I am e-[.ecially grateful for the chapter on scan- 
 ning, which could not bo imiuoved ; also for the fac-simile of Venetus, and the 
 table ot grammatical references; but atjove all for the wealth of class-room ex- 
 perience which has been incorjwrated n\ the book. That cannot be supplied by 
 mere erudition. 
 
 Professor CilAS. F. Smith, Vnivkrlnlt Eni versify, Nashinlley Tenn.^l have 
 examined Keej)'s Iliad with the greatest care, and consider it by far the best Amer- 
 ican edition, and, indeed, one of the very best text-books we have. 
 
 Professor Alexandeu Kerr, State Enirtniity, ^fadis'^^l, ir/.<. — Keep's IHad 
 is incomparably the best edition which has appeared in this country. 
 
 ^ 
 
 JOHN ALLYN, Publisher, 30, Franklin St., Boston, 
 
 eT?T TPnT'Tr^XTO T7»T-i/-k^/r 
 
 T XT/~>iT 4 ^T 
 
SELECTIONS FEOM LUCIAN. 
 
 With Introductions and Notes by Charles R. Williams, A.M., Professor 
 of the Greek Language and Literature in Lake Forest University 
 ICmo. ;340 pages. §1.40. 
 
 The general Introduction has been made long and full, from a belief 
 that the student's interest and enthusiasm in an author are quickened by 
 a knowledge of his jiersonal and literary history, and by an acquaintance 
 with the conditions un<ler which he wrote and tlie purpose of h \s writings. 
 The special Introductions to the sevtral selections will, it is h.-ped, be found 
 useful in stimulating the curiosity of the student and in putting him in 
 sympathy with the surroundings and object of the piece. The Notes have 
 intentionally been made ample, as it is thought that Lucian will be used 
 especially for rapid reading; and there are frequent references to the stand- 
 ard grammars. Attention is constantly called to peculiar Lucianic con- 
 structions and words, and to other later usages. Historical, archajologicai, 
 philosophical, and mythological questions are succinctly discussed, with 
 references to the original authorities or to modern treatises. 
 
 His modern tone, his felicitous style, his strong common sense, and 
 bis abounding humor make Lucian delightful reading; and it is hoped 
 that this edition may help to make his writings more widely used in our 
 colleges than has hitherto been the case. 
 
 "These Dialogues of Lucian are just the thing for rapid reading or for reading 
 at sight. Lucian is so alert, so keen, and withal so nuHhmi in feeling and temper, 
 that the student is driven to read on and on, just to see how the wittv debate will 
 end. I am glad t<. see that Professor Williams has furnished an edition which will 
 fully meet the demands of the class-room." — /'/v*/'. J. E. Goodrich, ruiversity of 
 Venniml. 
 
 " A convenient edition of Lucian has long been needed. The want has now 
 been met by Professor WiHiams's industry and scholarship, ami I have no doubt that 
 the book will be duly appreciated. The editor has collected in his introduction all 
 that is most e><. iitial for the >tu.lint to know respecting the author of the dialogues 
 and respecting the dialoicues themselves ; while tlu- notes show a most judicious 
 choice between the extremes of too great fuhios an.l barrenness of illustration. 
 The typograj.Iiy and external appearance are unexcei.tionable." — Firf. Henry M. 
 Bnird, Univtrsity of the CHy oj NtwYork. 
 
 '' The book is very wi-ll edited, and admirablv gotten up as arc all of your 
 recent publications. It tills a gap, certainly, in tliJ list of serviceable text-books, 
 and I hope to put it to a practical test before long." — Prof. //. Pernn, Wtstem 
 Reserve College^ Ohio. 
 
 JOHN AILTN, Pnbllsher, 30, Franklin Street, Boston. 
 
Alu II Alc Giu:i:c 1 
 
 AND THE EAST 
 
 BY riiK 
 
 RiciiT IIox. W. K. (a.ADSTOXK. M.V., 
 
 ■UKSlliKM cF niK ^K'TION H'lt AUCHAIC «;UKKtK AN1> JUK KAST. 
 
ARCHAIC GREECE AND THE EAST. 
 
 However indulgent may be the audience that I have 
 the honour to address, some apology is unquestionably 
 necessary for the association of my name with the 
 work of an Oriental Congress. Ignorant of the 
 languages of the East, I am not cognizant of its 
 races, manners, and institutions, except at a period 
 which must still be termed pre-historic, although 
 some important parts of what belongs to it have, 
 during the present century, gradually acquired the 
 solidity of history. That, however, was the period 
 when, from a central point in Asia, population 
 radiated towards most, if not all, points of the com- 
 pass : under a kindred impulsion, but with incidents 
 and destinies infinitely various. 
 
 The oldest civilizations tolerably known to us are 
 those which appear to have sprung up with a marvel- 
 lous rapidity in the Babylonian plain and in the valley 
 of the Nile. With one or both of these was minis- 
 terially associated a navigating and building race, 
 which touched the Persian Gulf eastwards and the 
 Mediterranean westwards, and probably kept open 
 and active the line of traffic and passage between 
 
 B 
 
2 
 
 the two. Through this race seems to have been 
 distributed over the coasts of the great inhmd sea, 
 and beyond them, a knowledge of the arts. It 
 was this wealth of the East, which was thus 
 gradually and irregularly imparted, to relieve the 
 poverty and develop the social life of the West. 
 
 The receptivity, so to speak, of the different 
 countries and races lying within the circle of these 
 visits would appear to have been extremely 
 diversified, and the traces of the process are, for 
 the most part, fragmentary and casual. In one 
 case, and in one only, there is cast upon it tlie 
 liglit of a literary record. Of all that was said or 
 sung on the shores of the Mediterranean in those 
 shadowy times, nothing great or weighty has 
 survived, with the solitary, but inestimable and 
 splendid exceptions of the two works known as 
 the Poems of Homer. They alone (to use the lan- 
 guage of a great modern orator) have had buoy- 
 ancy enough to float upon the sea of time. In 
 them we see the life of those times, such as it was 
 actually lived. We see it as we see in some great 
 exhibition what is termed going machinery. They 
 exhibit to us, as their central object, in the forma- 
 tion stage of its existence, the nation which then 
 inhabited the Greek Peninsula, together with im- 
 portant, though isolated or subordinate, traits of 
 other races and lands. 
 
 We have then liefore us the following group of 
 
 3 
 
 facts : — First, there is a great treasure of social art 
 and knowledge accumulated, perhaps for the first 
 time, by human labour in the East. Secondly, we 
 have a seafaring people on the Syrian coast, filled with 
 the vivid energy of commerce, who left in different 
 shapes on every accessible shore the marks of im- 
 ported arts. Next we have obtained, during the 
 present century, a large access of independent 
 knowledge, which exhibits to us the particulars of 
 these Eastern civilizations in their original seats, and 
 which, as we shall see, has found its counterpart or 
 echo in some recent researches of Western archae- 
 ology. To this we have to add, from the Poems of 
 Homer, a delineation of what may ftiirly be called 
 contemporary life, which is so copious as to apparently 
 exhaust the whole circle of the simple experience of 
 those times, and to be indeed encyclopaedic. 
 
 It may seem, then, that we possess in the poems 
 rare and unrivalled means of interpreting the voice- 
 less treasures supplied from the various sister sources, 
 and of estimating now, somewhat less imperfectly 
 than heretofore, the aggregate of the original debt, 
 which Europe and the West owe to Asia and the 
 East. 
 
 And here I reach the point at which, if anywhere, 
 I may find an apology for my intervention in the 
 proceedings of an Oriental Congress. For w^hat I 
 may fairly term a long and patient, though necessarily 
 often intermitted, study of the text of Homer may 
 
 B 2 
 
possibly enable me to offer a small and exotic con- 
 tribution to the great and many-sided purpose of the 
 present distinguished assembly. 
 
 In approaching my immediate subject, I have 
 no other concern with the long and, in tlie main, 
 unprofitable group of controversies, known as tlie 
 Homeric question, than this — that I have to treat 
 the Poems as an integral mass of contemporary 
 testimony to the life, experience, and institutions of 
 a particular age and people ; to which they add otlier 
 collateral illustrations. Whatever speculators may 
 have fancied as to their origin and authorship, the 
 general rule has been to treat their contents as 
 an unity for practical purposes. Whether the aim 
 has been to describe the Zeus or the Hermes of 
 Homer, or the ship, or the house of Homer, the 
 voice of the Poems has been accepted as one 
 authentic voice. The chief exception to that rule 
 has been made in the case of the glimpses of 
 other religions supplied by the Odyssey ; glimpses 
 which, in my firm opinion, do not impair, l)ut 
 illustrate and confirm belief in that unity of mind 
 which has governed the composition of tlie Poems. 
 But this is a point on which it is unnecessary to 
 dwell. 
 
 In considering the contributions of the East to the 
 life and manners of the Achaians — for that is the 
 designation most properly attaching to the Homeric 
 forefathers of the Greek nation — I shall not becin 
 
 
 ( ■ 
 
 with religion. We are not now inquiring what 
 elements of religion were carried westwards by those 
 who progressively migrated from the central seat in 
 Asia ; l)ut what aggregate of all arts and knowledge, 
 after the first peopling of the Greek Peninsula, was 
 imparted to its inhabitants and their neighbours from 
 the stores of those Eastern civilizations wdiich had 
 been developed during the intervening ages, and 
 through the medium generally of the Pha-nicians ; 
 that is to say, of that navigating race, who were, to 
 all appearance, the exclusive intermediaries of inter- 
 course by sea between Asia and Europe. 
 
 It is recognized as a certainty that this people 
 formed the maritime arm of the great Egyptian 
 Empire. But commerce is comprehensive in its sym- 
 pathies, and disposes men rather to profit as neutrals 
 by the quarrels of other people than to share in them 
 as parties ; so a people like the Phoenicians would, 
 in the natural course of things, and regardless of 
 partisanships, be carriers from Babylon and Assyria, 
 or from any region with which they traded, as 
 well as from Egypt, with which they had a distinct 
 
 political relation. 
 
 But now is the time to make an observation of 
 vital importance with regard to the comprehensive 
 meaning that attaches in Homer to the Phamician 
 name. Whether the Achaian Greeks themselves 
 devised that name to describe a set of strangers who 
 frequented their coasts, we have no means of know- 
 
iiig. It derives, however, no support or illustration 
 from the Pentateuch, or (as I believe) from the 
 monuments. But for Homer it seems to cover every- 
 thing found in the Achaian Peninsula that was of 
 foreign origin. Not that the poet is fond of tracing 
 the particulars of arts and manners to their Eastern 
 sources. The intense sentiment of nationality, which 
 led some Greek states of later davs to covet the title 
 of Antoehthons, was most of all intense in liim ; and 
 it is, for the most part, by undesigned coincidences 
 alone, and l)y the careful co-ordination of particulars 
 sometimes brought together from afiir, that we are 
 able to make out the large catalogue of Achaian 
 obligations to the East. But w^hether the question 
 be of persons settling in the peninsula, or of things 
 brought by or learned through maritime visitors who 
 came from the south-eastern corner of the Mediter- 
 ranean, all of these apparently had but one vehicle, 
 and that vehicle was the Phoenician ship. Con- 
 sequently all came to carry the Phoenician name, 
 or to run up into Phoenician association, for the 
 contemporary Achaian. Much as to the Turk of 
 later days every European was a Frank, so to the 
 Achaians of Homer all persons and things reaching 
 them over sea were bound up with this Phoenician 
 name. The designation accordingly covers not only 
 the bold mariners of the time, but everything for 
 which they w^ere the purveyors, or supplied the 
 vehicle ; in a word, all .Syrian, Assyrian, Egyptian, 
 
 and generally all Eastern meanings. What it indi- 
 cates'^is a channel ; and all that came through that 
 channel is eml)raced by it. This extended use 
 of the term would appear then to have a more 
 consistent basis than that which I have quoted as 
 a parallel usage. Europeans were all Franks in 
 Turkey by a metonymy which gave the designation 
 of the majority to the whole. Egyptians or Egyptian 
 subjects were reckoned as Phoenicians (</>oti/tfcc9), 
 because, all reaching the Achaians in Phoenician ships 
 and Phoenician company, they presented in this 
 particular a real unity of aspect. 
 
 Taken in this pervading sense, the first Phoenician 
 gift to the Greek Peninsula would appear to have 
 been one connected with civil institutions. We obtain 
 a view of it through the remarkable phrase Ajioj: 
 andron. Nothing can be simpler than the meaning 
 of the two words. They signify not king of men, 
 but lord of men ; the word ancuv designating a class 
 
 and not an office. 
 
 The phrase is most commonly applied by Homer 
 to Agamemnon. But it is also used for five other 
 persons, and with indications which, though far 
 from complete, are abundantly sufficient to show 
 that it is not a merely ornamental invention of 
 the poet, but a note attaching strictly to particular 
 persons in virtue of some common quality or attri- 
 bute. It is not royal, and does not indicate 
 supremacy, for the word anax is wholly distinct 
 
8 
 
 from basUeus (a king), and only indicates in 
 Homer, as applied to men, the higher class of men, 
 or some notable member of that class. It is 
 heritable, for it is given both to Aineias and his 
 father Anchises. It does not go with powerful and 
 marked individualities ; for Agamemnon is only, as a 
 cJiaracter, one of the second class among the oreat 
 chieftains, and all the others are lower in Homeric 
 rank It is not national, for it is enjoyed by Trojan 
 princes. It is ancient ; we find it borne by Augeias 
 two full generations at least before the Trojan War. 
 ^ Agamemnon was the fourth ' ruler in his family 
 since, apparently under Pelops, it first became 
 connected with Greece; while the Dardanian line, 
 in which we find it, was tlie senior of the two royal 
 branches in Troas, and is carried upwards from the 
 time of the War through six generations. Shall we 
 suppose the Anax andron to have been the Governor 
 or Satrap, sent over sea from Egypt at the climax of 
 its power when it ruled the Greek Peninsula and the 
 neighbouring regions at a period preceding, by an 
 interval we cannot yet define, the age of the Trojan 
 War ? We should thus find an explanation consistent 
 with all the facts for a phrase whicli certainly 
 requires an explanation, and which otherwise cries 
 out for it in vain. 
 
 This phrase supplies us with the oldest his- 
 toric note of settled and regular government in 
 
 ' II. ii. 104-8. 
 
 
 
 Greece. Not only because we find it associated with 
 kingship, but because we find organised, under 
 Augeias who had borne it, the peaceful institution 
 of the Games,' which we know to have attracted 
 bards as well as horses from neighbouring districts. 
 As we have no trace of any struggle connected 
 with the Egyptian invasion, it may be that the 
 foreif^n rule, loose in its character, after the manner 
 of Asiatic rule, was easily established over a popula- 
 tion living by agriculture, and dwelling village-wise 
 {komedon) ; and that, under the larger organizations 
 thus created l)y degrees, may first have grown that 
 consciousness of strength, and that capacity of pro- 
 gress, which led, after a time, even to national 
 reaction against the foreigner. 
 
 This reaction took the various forms of the 
 Theban and the Trojan wars, of the Colchian 
 expedition, and probal)ly also of an Achaian share 
 in tlie now historically known eoml)ination of eman- 
 cipated or struggling neighbour States against 
 Egypt in the time of Merephthah. This remark, 
 however, requires something of detailed exposi- 
 tion. It is not from Homer himself that we 
 are to expect any willing indication of the pre- 
 valence at a former time in his already glorious 
 country of a foreign rule. Yet we are not wholly 
 without evidence from extraneous sources of a con- 
 nexion between the title of Anax andron and the 
 
 ^ II. xi. 698, sqq. 
 
10 
 
 great Egyptian Empire. For example, we learn 
 from the Egyptian monuments that in the fourth 
 year of Eameses II., at the close of the 15th 
 century B.C., the Dardanians of Troas fought as 
 allies in the armies of Egypt under Maurnout, King 
 of the Hittites, and that after a series of years they 
 returned to tlieir own country. Nothing could be 
 more natural than that, in virtue of this political 
 connexion, the ruling Dardanian line, which pre- 
 served its separate existence down to the period of 
 the Trojan War, should be invested with an Egyptian 
 title. 
 
 In the case of the Pelopids, we find ourselves pro- 
 vided, by the discoveries of Schliemann at Mycense, 
 with evidence of a different class, but tendinir with 
 the highest degree of likelihood to the same result. 
 In the Agora at Mycenae, Dr. Schliemann discovered 
 four tombs \ of which Mr. New^ton said that we must 
 rest content with the " reasonable presumption " that 
 they contained Royal personages ; and as to which I 
 believe that no one now disputes their belonging to 
 the heroic and prehistoric age. If so, they surely 
 also belonged to the house which durincr that ac^e 
 ruled in Mycenas— namely, the house of Pelops. 
 In a preface to Dr. Schliemann's ' volume on his 
 discoveries there, I have set forth a numl)er of con- 
 siderations connected with the Poems, which there is 
 
 1 Mycenae, Preface, p. xxvii. 
 ^ pp. xxiv. xxviii. seq. 
 
 11 
 
 not time to notice here, but which tend towards the 
 conclusion that one of these tombs may contain the 
 remains of an historical Agamemnon himself. But 
 it is enough for my present purpose to observe that 
 the title of Anax andron w^as descendilile from father 
 to son, and that it is accorded in the poems to 
 personages altogether secondary — viz., Eumelos, II. 
 xxiii. 288, 354, and Euphetes, xv. 352; who is 
 nowhere else mentioned by Homer— in all likelihood 
 on this especial ground. 
 
 We must, therefore, suppose it probably to have 
 been inherited by Agamemnon ; and there is no 
 counter evidence to impair the reasonable conclusion 
 that the sovereigns buried in these tombs belonged 
 to a line having the title of Anax andron. 
 
 But, on the other hand, these sepulchres offer us 
 numerous and clear notes of connexion with the 
 usages of the Egyptian Empire. Among these are 
 the presence in one of the sepulchres of the scales for 
 weijxhinor the actions of the deceased, which recall 
 the Book of the Dead ; the use of gold leaf, which 
 was found as it had been laid over the countenances 
 now long decayed ; the position of five bodies 
 stretched in a long but narrow tomb, not along 
 but across it, with inconvenient compression from 
 lack of space, but in the direction of east and w^est,^ 
 and facing w^estwards according to the usage of 
 Egyptian burial. Such, in fact, is the strength of 
 
 ^ Mycelial p. 295. 
 
12 
 
 Egyptian association as to these tombs, and other- 
 wise established by the Mycenian remains, as to 
 leave little room for reasonal)le doubt on its existence. 
 And thus we have tlie title of A72ax andron once 
 more placed in relation with Egypt, since it clearly 
 subsisted in tlic Pelopid line, and since individuals 
 of that line were in all likelihood the occupants of 
 Mycenian sepulchres. The title itself is of so marked 
 a character that we are led to connect the assumption 
 of it with some great event, and such an event would 
 undoubtedly be the first mission of Pelops, or the 
 first head of the Pelopid house, to bear rule on 
 behalf of Egypt in tlie Greek Peninsula. 
 
 If these conjectures be correct, and if an Eastern 
 Empire imparted in various quarters of the North 
 and AVcst the first germ of a civil society extending 
 beyond the scale of the village community, it is 
 matter of extreme interest to note tlie differences of 
 mode and of result with which the gift was received 
 l)y diflbrent races and regions. If we judge by the 
 length of the genealogies in Homer, Troas was the 
 seat of States older than any in the Achaian Penin- 
 sula, those, namely, of Ilion and Dardania. It is in 
 Dardania only, the older of the two, that we find the 
 Ana,x andron. And it is true tliat we have no de- 
 taded account of Dardanian manners and institutions. 
 We have, however, this detail in the case of 
 Troy, and we liave no reason to assume a sul)stantial 
 difference between them. But as between Trojan and 
 
 13 
 
 Achaian, in the political department, we find marked 
 differences all along the line. The Trojan State has 
 indeed a King and an Asseml)ly, but they do not 
 present so much as the beginnings of free speech, of 
 real deliberation, or of national life. The bribes of 
 Paris appear to supply the main motive power. All 
 is coloured with an Asiatic hue. And so among the 
 Phaiahes, where the colour of the description is not 
 Hellenic but Phoenician. A recent American com- 
 mentator^ remarks on the al)soluteness of Alcinous 
 in his kingship, there being assemblies, but no 
 debate ; only immediate acquiescence in the views 
 of the King. But in the Achaian communities, 
 whether at peace, as in Ithaca, or in the camp before 
 Troy, we recognize the elements of the grand con- 
 ceptions I have named. They may not indeed be 
 fully and consistently developed, but they are visible 
 everywhere in their outline, and they reach even up 
 to the point where we find that the will of the 
 supreme chieftain is liable to be checked in a regular 
 manner by other judgments ; liable, we may almost 
 say, to be out-voted. So that when, at nearly the 
 lowest point in the fluctuating fortunes of the army, 
 Agamemnon lias proposed to abandon the expedition, 
 he is resolutely resisted in debate by Diomed, and the 
 general feeling of the soldiery compels him to give 
 way. ^ 
 
 1 Merriam, Phoonician Episode, on Od. vii. 2. 
 
 - II. ix. 40, 8cq. 
 
14 
 
 Here we have exhibited in a particular case the 
 essential character of the Achaian receptivity. What 
 the East had the foculty of conceiving, but not of 
 developing, the more elastic and vigorous nature of 
 the Achaian Greek took over as an imparted gift, 
 and then by its own formative genius opened out, 
 enlarged, and consolidated in the form and with 
 the effect of an original endowment. I shall pre- 
 sently endeavour to unfold this proposition in a 
 diversity of particulars. 
 
 It will naturally be asked if the Egyptian Empire 
 left upon once subject lands a trace of departed 
 authority in the title Anax andrdn, did it not impress 
 on the traditions of the Achaian race any note of its 
 own conception of kingship, and of the remarkable 
 connection which it had established between royalty 
 and divinity ? The oldest dynasty given by Manetho 
 is said to have been of the gods and demigods. The 
 list of Egyptian kings on the Turin papyrus begins 
 with a line of deities, the last of whom is Horus.* 
 
 The divine name Ra, incorporated in the names of 
 kings, carries downward into historic time the 
 memory of this belief ; and it is not surprsing that 
 we should find a pretty distinct trace of the same 
 belief in the Homeric Poems. I refer to his use 
 of the two phrases Diotrephes, Zeus-nurtured, and 
 Diogenes, Zeus-born. The first of these is applied 
 to the race of the Phaiahes, with the distinct 
 
 ^ Rawlinson, Herod, ii. 337 . 
 
 15 
 
 intention of representing them as of the kin- 
 dred of the gods ; ^ and in the Iliad we have it 
 used to signify the kings of cities as a class.^ It is 
 nowhere otherwise employed except in a line ^ where 
 it has been allowed to supplant an old and I 
 believe legitimate reading, and where it is little 
 better than senseless. Once, in the singular, it is 
 applied caressingly by Achilles to his instructor, 
 Phoinix.* But it may be stated generally that both 
 words are confined in Homer to Royal personages 
 with a remarkable strictness ; and, as if further to 
 impress on them the characters of titles, the favourite 
 usage of them is in the vocative. Conformably with 
 the sense of these remarkable epithets, the ances- 
 tries of the Homeric Kings often run up to Zeus ; 
 sometimes to Poseidon, and this probably in his 
 character as a god supreme in his own proper regions 
 and mythologies. It seems easy here to perceive a 
 real connexion with the Egyptian idea and practice. 
 
 But again, we have to notice that the transplanta- 
 tion into Achaian Greece of the Asiatic or Egyptian 
 notion did not imply continuing confinement within 
 its bounds. The poet availed himself of the vener- 
 able character thus accorded to the bearers of civil 
 authority, the basis of which he always regards as 
 divine ; but this did not lead him into the region of 
 despotic ideas. Nothing can be less like the Eastern 
 despot than an Achaian King, who has to rely upon 
 1 Od. V. 278. 2 II. ii. 60. 3 II, iv. 480. * II. ix. 603. 
 
16 
 
 reason, upon free speech, upon the assembly, as prin- 
 cipal governing forces ; and who seems to supply an 
 historic basis for the succinct but very remarkable 
 description given by Thucydides of the early Greek 
 rulers as kings upon stipulated conditions/ 
 
 But before proceeding to details, I will describe 
 certain impressions, strictly relevant to the present 
 subject, wliich have resulted from my long study of 
 the poems, and which, if they be correct, would prove 
 that Homer himself had an enerojetic and also a 
 methodical conception of the obligations of his 
 country to the East. It is, I believe, generally 
 admitted that in Achilles, the protagonist of the 
 Iliad, we have a superb projection of the strictly 
 Hellenic character, mag^nified in its dimensions to the 
 utmost point consistent with the laws of poetical 
 probability. In the epithet Hellenic is conveyed 
 that wonderful receptivity which first accejDted and 
 then transmuted the Eastern rudiments of civilization. 
 But, by the side of this Hellenic form of character, 
 there is another at once its sister, its rival, and its 
 complement ; and, as the Iliad is the triumphal 
 procession of the one, so the Odyssey is the deathless 
 monument of the other. It is remarkable that the 
 poet has placed these two, different as they are, 
 in relations of close sympathy and attachment, so 
 that they never clash ; while, of the two next Achaian 
 heroes, Diomed has no point of personal contact with 
 
 1 Thuc. i. 13. 
 
 Acliilles (offering, indeed, to carry on tlie war witli- 
 out him), and Ajax l)ecomes involved in a deadly 
 feud with Odysseus. The distinctness of the two 
 ixreat dominatino: characters enables them to fit 
 into, to integrate one another, and jointly to ex- 
 press the entire mental and moral aggregate of 
 the race. There was indeed a third ethnical in- 
 gredient, the Pelasgian, which perhaiDS had to bide 
 its time for its own proper development. For the 
 Homeric and heroic picture, Achilles and Odysseus 
 between them expressed all that was great, signal, 
 and formative in Achaianism. We may perhaps sum 
 up the greatness of Achilles in this, that he ex- 
 pressed a colossal humanity. What was it that he 
 did not express ? He did not express, and Odysseus 
 did, the many-sided, the all-accomplished, the all- 
 enduring man : the jiolutropos, the polumetis^ the 
 tlemon, the poluttls, the 2)olumekano>^y the poikilo- 
 meth, the poluphron^ the ddiphron, the talasiphron — 
 in whom this is perhaps above all remarkal)le, that 
 the completeness of his structure, the firmness of his 
 tissue, raised his passive even up to the level of his 
 active qualities. 
 
 Let us look a little round the circumference of 
 the man. In battle he is never foiled. In counsel 
 he is supreme. His oratory is like the snow flakes 
 of the winter storm. Victor in the severe strength- 
 contests of the Twenty-third Iliad, he conquers also 
 among the Phaiakes in their game of skill. This is 
 
 e 
 
18 
 
 a specimen only ; iuid he tells them he is no bad 
 hand at any of the athletics practised among men.^ 
 He is the incomparal)le bowman, who performs a 
 feat otherwise l)eyond human strength. His is the 
 spirit of boundless patience which enforces sihiicc 
 in the eavit\' of the horse. But tlie ranj^e of his 
 accomplishments also includes every manual art. In 
 the island of Oalfipso lie appears as tlie sln'p carpenter. 
 As the ploughman he can cliallenge a hauglity suitor 
 to compete witli him in harvesting corn all day till 
 nightfall without a meal, or in drivini]^ the straio-ht 
 and even furrow with a team of powerful oxen.^ In 
 his own palace, lie l»uilt liis chaml)er after the Phoe- 
 nician manner, tliat is, with great hewn stones.^ It 
 was reared over a full-grown olive tree, which he 
 cut at a proper height, and then shaped the stump 
 into his nuptial bed. Into this he wrought inlaying 
 of gold, of silver, and of ivory, and this opera- 
 tion supplies the sole instance in which not merely 
 any Achaian chieftain, l)ut any Acliaian whatever is 
 found in the Poems to execute a work of art. That 
 it is such is undenialjle, for lie applies to it the very 
 term dmrJalkm^ from Daidalos, whose name may be 
 said to give the summit level of art for those days. 
 Even tlie bed-covering expresses the same idea of 
 foreign art, for it is dyed witli purple (phoiniki) which 
 carries the Phoenician name.* Alone amono- the 
 
 1 Od. viii. 190, 214. 
 3 01. xxiii. 192. 
 
 2 Od. xviii. 365-75. 
 * Od. xxiii. 188-201. 
 
 19 
 
 Achaian Greeks, he elevates his manual labour into 
 the region of genuine art ; as he was idso alone 
 among them in presenting to us the character of a 
 daring navigator prepared to face distant voyages 
 with the extremes of climate and adventure. 
 
 I have endeavoured elsewhere to show how 
 Ithaca, as well as its head, abounds in the signs 
 of Phoenician association.^ Here I will only observe 
 that if the character of Odysseus has been based by 
 Homer upon Phoenician elements, trained by Hellenic 
 contact and experience into a superior development, 
 and set out in the Poems by the side of the purely 
 Hellenic Achilles, there cannot be a more decisive ex- 
 hiljition of a belief in the mind of Homer that the 
 institutions and arts of life viewed as an aggregate 
 w^ere imported from the East. 
 
 But, over and above this universality of Odysseus 
 in the arts of life, he bears the Phoenician stamp in 
 what may l)e termed his craft. In the Thirteenth 
 Odyssey, Athene signifies to him pretty plainly * that 
 there can be no use in their endeavouring to impose 
 upon one another, as he is first of all mortals in 
 counsel and in figments, while she has a corresponding 
 precedence among the Immortals. In general, a high 
 prudence is the characteristic of each, sometimes 
 def^eneratine: into cunning. This combination of 
 prudence with cunning is everywhere in the Poems a 
 
 1 See Phoeiiician Affinities of Ithaca, Nineteenth Century, Aug., 
 1889. ' Od. xiii. 296-9. 
 
 (• 
 
 o 
 
20 
 
 leadini]^ Phoenieian eliaracteristie, and it supplies a 
 fresh note of affinity between the Phcenician idea 
 at larire and the wonderful and coiLsiimmate character 
 of Odysseus. 
 
 Let nie now endeavour to show in some important 
 details how this general idea receives its veritication 
 from the Poems. I have spoken of government. 
 In the great chapter of religion the case is different. 
 There is l)ut little in Homer to associate the loftier 
 elements of the Olympian religion with Egypt or 
 Assyria or tlie race of Phcenician navigators ; and the 
 same may l)e said as to the Nature worship whicli 
 w^as prol)al)ly the previous religion <>f the mass of pre- 
 Hellenic iidiabitants. The principal contriliution from 
 Phcenician sources to the mixe<l scheme of tliis Achaian 
 thearchy was the great god Poseidon. But of all the 
 chief deities of the system, Poseidon is the lowest in 
 type. Powerful as an exhibition of force, he is nowhere 
 in touch with such ethical elements as sul)sist in the 
 Olympian religion, or with its least materialistic 
 elements. But wdien we turn from the relio;ion to the 
 ethnography of the poems, tlie god Poseidon l)ecomes 
 to us a great fountain head of instruction. First we 
 identify him as at every point associated with the 
 Phoenician name and character. Of the Phaiakes, 
 who are so deeply coloured witli their attributes, 
 he is the supreme local deity, and they are 
 indeed his kin. In the conventional triad of Homer 
 he rules the sea, of which they are the earthly 
 
 21 
 
 masters. Nestor is, next to Odysseus, the chieftain, 
 who exhibits the Phcenician (juality of prudence 
 borderuig upon craft; but Nestor is his descendant, 
 and there were others of his lineage in the Western 
 Peleponnesos, where we find the Anax amlron in the 
 person of Angelas, who may have been of the same 
 race. Next we note conclusive evidence that Poseidon 
 is a southern deity. His descendants, the race of 
 Kuklopes, have l)een shown' to be on the Libyan coast. 
 He frecpients the Aithiopes of the south to enjoy their 
 sacrifices, even at a time when the Olympian gods are 
 holding a solenni asseml)ly ; and he seems to be 
 specially associated with the Solyman mountains. 
 He also carries the sure note of dark colour, and has 
 the word Kvavoxo-f'Trj^^ n^t only for an epithet, but for 
 
 a title. 
 
 Such being his ethnical and such his local asso- 
 ciations, let us next incpiire what are the special attri- 
 butions of this Deity, and we shall find that they at 
 once supply us with three of the most essential con- 
 stitutive elements of social existence— the instrument 
 of sea passage, the instrument of land passage, and 
 the means of solid and permanent habitation. In 
 relation to ships, it was his to grant the good voyage 
 or to refuse it. Achilles had no special connexion 
 with Poseidon, l)ut when, in the Ninth Iliad, he 
 threatens to sail home, he says it will be accomplished 
 if Poseidon^- favours him. And so conversely the 
 
 1 Sec Mr. R. Browu's Foseidou. - H- ix. 302, 
 
oo 
 
 voyage of Odysseus from Ogugie, though fuvoured 
 by the gods at large, is doomed to fail because 
 Poseidon has determined that he sliall be wrecked. 
 On the other hand the Phaiakes, who are special 
 worshippers of Poseidon, excel all men in naviiration 
 as rowers, with a speed equalling that of theliawk 
 in the air, or of the four-horse chariot on the plain.' 
 
 The main instrument of agriculture was tlie ox, but 
 the main instrument of locomotion, and the grand 
 auxiliary in war, was the horse. The connexion 
 of Poseidon with the horse is even more intimate 
 than witli the ship. He unyokes and puts up the 
 horses of Zeus on their arriving in Olympos," which 
 cannot be a simple note of inferiority, since llorh 
 performed the same office for Athene. Tlie signi- 
 fication here of the horse atti-ibute is made^'all 
 the more pointed, liecause this is the only act 
 performed by Poseidon in Olympos. Peleus was 
 of the lineage of Zeus ; yet the deathless horses of 
 Achilles were presented to his father not by Zeus 
 but by Poseidon. Neleus had the distinction of 
 a four-horse team; but Neleus was the child of 
 Poseidon. When Antilochos was to be instructed 
 in horse-craft, Poseidon united with Zeus in im- 
 parting it. Wlien Menelaos challenges Antilochos 
 to purge himself in the horse-race, of a suspected 
 fraud, he requires him to lay his hand upon the 
 hors3s and to swear by Poseidon that he is inno- 
 
 ' Od. xiii. 81-6. 2 II ^iii 44(^^ 
 
 23 
 
 cent of this incident. I know but one probable 
 construction.^ It is that Poseidon was the god of 
 the particular region, Africa, without doubt, which 
 principally supplied the Achaian Peninsula with its 
 horses. There are still very curious traces of the 
 ancient importation of horses from Airmi on the 
 tract of Mediterranean Coast lying between Frejus 
 and Hyeres, and bearing the designation of Paj/s 
 de.<i mail res. 
 
 Not less remarkable is the relation between 
 Poseidon, with the Phcenicians, and the construction 
 of houses with hewn or wrought stone. We trace 
 tills connexion in the legend of the perjury of 
 Laomedon, who is said to have withheld the pay 
 stipulated to l)e paid to that divinity for having con- 
 structed the walls of Troy. This legend probably 
 had its l)asis in some transaction with the Phoinikes, 
 his worshippers. For it may be laid down as a 
 <reneral rule that, wherever throughout the Poems 
 we meet a mention of skilled building or ornamenta- 
 tion, or of the use of hewn stone, it is among men 
 who stand in association with the Phoenicians. 
 Thus we have an imposing description of the palace 
 of Alhinoos, and of the buildings of his city ; but 
 through Phaiakes, Homer signified Phoinikes.^ We 
 have a case of inferior but similar magnificence in 
 the palace of Menelaos; but then Menelaos had 
 spent eight years in Eastern travel, and had ac- 
 
 1 11. xxiii. 5J2-J. - Od. vii. 44-0, F 1 Seq, 
 
l!4 
 
 •25 
 
 quired much .sulistance in the course of it, which 
 would naturally imply knowledge of its arts.'' Even 
 Poluphemos. brutal as he was, had the courtyard for 
 his sheep and goats built of quarried stone ; but 
 Poluphemos was the son of Poseidon, and thus allied 
 with the great building race. I have assumed all 
 along that the inhabitants of the Peninsula were 
 acquainted with agriculture before the advent of the 
 Phoenicians, or of those whose nationality was covered 
 by their name. This, I think, is sufficiently shown 
 by the etymology of a portion of the names given 
 to Achaian soldiery, which is indicative of pursuit, 
 and is markedly different from those of tlie chiefs.' 
 I know but one place in Homer which associates 
 the East specially with the art of tillage. It is 
 where the cultivation of the Egyptian" fields is 
 specially commended. But, speaking generally, it 
 is for advances beyond this stage of civil progress 
 that we have to look to the Phwnician vehicle. And 
 I think that already the debt of the Acliaian Penin- 
 sula to the East has been shown to he consideraljle. 
 Let us carry the pro. , .. somewhat further. In truth 
 the difficulty would be to point to any of the arts of 
 life, as exhibited in the Poems, which was not derived, 
 at least in germ, from Eastern and South-Eastern' 
 sources. Nothing has been said of hunting. It may 
 probably have been known in some shape as a de- 
 fensive incident of rural pursuits before it had grown 
 into a recognised princely pursuit. 
 
 ' Od. iv. b'^-wj. 
 
 t 
 
 I' 
 
 
 I come next to art. And here it has to 1)C observed 
 that, although the use of the potter's wheel is known 
 in Homer, yet there is nowhere an association of this art 
 with the effort to produce beauty ; nowhere, therefore, 
 an indication of the fine arts, except in connexion 
 either v/ith metals or wdth embroidery. To begin 
 with embroidery, which is the smaller of the two 
 subjects. When, in the Sixth Iliad, Hecuba has to 
 select the most precious robe she possesses for a pro- 
 pitiatory offering to Athene, she chooses the largest 
 and the best adorned with patterns, which glittered, 
 too, like a star.' Now it is probable that Troy may 
 have been more advanced in art than Greece, for it 
 was an older settled country, if we judge by the 
 number of generations allowed by Homer from the 
 first ancestors. But this choice robe and the collection 
 from which it was taken were not the work of Trojan 
 w^omen. They w^ere wrought by the damsels whom 
 Paris l)rought with him over sea from Sidon. In this 
 case the word poikilmata, which describes the patterns, 
 does not seem to include representations of the human 
 form, which Homer, with his intense sense of form, 
 would hardly have allowed to pass as mere decoration. 
 When Penelope resorts to her ftimous device in the 
 Odyssey,'* we are told only of its size and fineness. 
 It was meant professedly for a shroud to enwrap the 
 body of Laertes ; and the mere incident that it was 
 unwoven at night shows that it was not a work of 
 art. The apparatus employed by Helen in the Fourth 
 
 1 11. vi. l.'8'J, 8tq. 
 
 ' Od. iii. 104, 8C(p do. 
 
2i\ 
 
 Odyssey was one for spiiminor only; ana even this 
 was a gift made to her in Egypt/ In the Third 
 Iliad, however, we find her employed in lier chamber 
 upon a wel) upon whicli she embroidered {emjxissen 
 is the word, used upon this occasion only) many 
 com1)ats of the Trojan and Acliaian warriors.' Here, 
 and here only in Homer (as we must except works 
 wholly ideal), we have that higlier form of art 
 which consists in the representation of the human 
 form. But the foreign derivation is here obvious, 
 for w^e must su[)pose Helen to have learned the 
 art either at Sidon, wliich' he had visited in lier 
 company, or from the Sidonian attendants of whom 
 mention has been made. 
 
 JMetallic art holds a more important place in the 
 poems tlian embroidery, and it assumes more forms 
 than one. Most commonly it is exhibited in portal)le 
 articles of war or otlier use; but it is also an 
 auxiliary of architecture, Avhicli nowhere, except in 
 connexion wdth met«illic workmanshij), approaches to 
 an ornamental cliaracter. This art is so entirely 
 Eastern in its associations, that the possession of it 
 by Odysseus supplies one of the substantive pre- 
 sumptions that he was modcHcd upon lines originally 
 Ph^nician. Ilephaistos and Athene* are the two 
 standing instructors in arts, she for women in textile 
 work, and he for metals. His name appears to fall 
 
 1 0(1. iv. 125-35. 2 n, iif 125. 3 ji^ Yi^ 202. 
 
 * Od. vi. 233; xxiti. IGO. 
 
 27 
 
 within the statement of Herodotus as to gods w^hosc 
 designations were derived from Egypt. His divinity 
 was probably established on the coasts of the iEgean 
 as that of a nature pijwer, for the name is more than 
 once used as synonymous witli the element of fire.^ 
 But this character is in him wholly subordinate to 
 that of the worker in art, and he fights against Troy, 
 wdiich is befriended by tlie nature powers. His true 
 cliaracter is that of the art-worker. He builds the 
 Olympian pahices. He fashions the shield of Achilles. 
 He made the most precious of all the valuables in the 
 palace of Menelaos, a silver l)owl, with edges of gold, 
 and this bowl was presented to the Achaiaii Prince 
 by Phaidimos, the King of Sidon. ' The silver bowl 
 given l)y Achilles as a prize in the foot race w^as of 
 h>idonian manufiicture, and was brought to Greece by 
 Phoenician traffickers. The signs of his handiwork 
 abound in the palace of Alkinoos, where he made 
 the golden and the silver dogs,' Throughout the 
 poems nothing can be clearer than the association 
 of metallic art with the Phaniician coast. Even a 
 superficial view of the Homeric text cannot fail to 
 recognise in this particular respect the debt of the 
 Greek Peninsula to the East. 
 
 But, as it was the general rule of the Greek race to 
 improve upon the benefactions they thus acquired, we 
 have a very signal example of such improvement in 
 
 1 II. ii. 22G ; Od. xxiv. 71. = Od. iv. Ci7 ; xv. 117. 
 
 3 Od. vii. 92. 
 
Lio 
 
 the case of works in metallic art. With an extra- 
 ordinary daring, the Achaian poet endows these 
 works with automatic motion, and even with the 
 gift of understanding. The lame Hephaistos, as he 
 proceeded to his anvil and his forge, was propped 
 by female figures in gold, which lie had wrought, 
 and which were educated in accomplishments by the 
 Immortals.' So likewise in the palace of Alkinoos, 
 besides the golden youths who hold torches to lioht 
 the l)anquet, and who are named without any other 
 express specification, the golden and silver watch 
 dogs, which have already been named, are endowed 
 with the life which was needful for the performance 
 of their office, and are exempt both from death and 
 from old age." In the marvellous details of the 
 Shield, the poet seems always to be imparting life 
 to the metallic product. Thus wonderfully was he 
 made at once the recorder of what the East had 
 invented, and the propliet by anticipation of those 
 more splendid triumphs which in the aftertime his 
 countryiiieii were to acliicve. 
 
 I miglit show if time permitted the connexion 
 between the Phoenician idea and the establishment 
 of the Games, the knowledge of drugs, the use of 
 pork as an article of food, and the supply of slaves 
 to the Achaian rec^ion. 
 
 But it is time to say a few words on the case 
 of Assyria, to which thus far I have made little 
 ' II. xviii. 376, 417-20. ^ Od. vii. 91-4, 100-2. 
 
 on 
 
 or no specific reference. The Assyrians were too 
 distant to be even within the range of the poet's 
 knowledge, as exhil)ited in his sketch^ of the travels 
 of ]\Ieiielaus in the south-east. We are therefore 
 led to the supposition that what the Achaians 
 had obtained from Assyiia they had obtained witli- 
 out definite acquaintance witli tlie source whence it 
 came, and that the name and marine of the Phoenicians 
 stood as an opaque curtain between them and the 
 great soutli-eastern empire. ]\Iuch, nevertheless, may 
 have come, especially if in a fragmentary form. I 
 have elsewhere" made a collection of particulars from 
 the Homeric text which appear to betray an Assyrian 
 origin. I say advisedly to betray, for we are wholly 
 without direct information, and have only internal 
 evidences to guide us. A portion of these I will 
 briefly set forth : — 
 
 1. Homer gives us the great encircling river 
 Okeanos as the origin not only of rivers and fountains, 
 but of gods and men. Compare a citation made 
 l)y Dr. Driver from the tablets concerning Heaven 
 
 and earth : — 
 
 *' Tlio august ocean was their generator, 
 The singing deep was she that bare them all.*' 
 
 2. Thalassa, the Greek name for the sea, is of 
 Chaldean origin. 
 
 3. Poseidon has a marked correspondence with 
 
 1 Od. iv. 83-5. 
 
 2 " Landmarks of Homeric Study," pp. 127, sqq., with the 
 authorities are there cited. 
 
30 
 
 the Ilea of the Assyrian Triad or Trinity, in certain 
 rcsperts. :jSeither of them was an elemental crod, l)ut 
 eaeh was ruler of the sea. Poseidon was dark in 
 line ; and Ilea was the rrc^itor of the hlaek race. 
 
 4. Deification is found on tlie tablets in the case 
 of Izduhar. The oidy instance of absolute and pure 
 deification priven by Homer is tliat of Leucothea, and 
 slie l)el()ngs to the Phoenician or Eastern circle. 
 
 5. Bal^ylonia records tlie i^io^antic size and stren<4h 
 of primitive man, and so Posei(h)n has rehitions with 
 the giants in various forms. 
 
 f). The Ishtar of the tal»lets appears to correspond 
 with the Aphrodite of Homer, the passage of whose 
 worship into Greece we can trace by her associa- 
 tion chiefly with Paphos, and next with Cythera or 
 Cerioro. 
 
 7. Aidoneus, tlie Greek Pluto, has among his other 
 epithets in Homer that oi jndartes, the gate-fastener. 
 The term receives little or no illustration from the 
 Homeric text. But the Assyrian Underworld lias no 
 less than seven gates ; and its leading idea is not that 
 of receiving the dead, but of shutting in the dead. 
 
 8. The relation of sonship, and of a conformity of 
 will attending it, l)etween the god ^(M'odach and his 
 father is represented in a peculiar and most striking 
 manner l)y the conformity of will between the Apollo 
 of the Iliad and his father Zeus. 
 
 9. The Bfd_)ylonian Triad of Anu, Bel, an<l Hea is 
 the possil)le or prol)able source of the Homeric Triad 
 of Zeus, Poseidon, and ATdoncus. 
 
 31 
 
 10. Wherever there is any particular notice of stars 
 in Homer it is always in Phoenician association, as if 
 based upon accounts of the Chaldean astrology. 
 
 11. Heptaism, or the systemati(' and significant 
 use of the number seven, is peculiarly Chaldean. 
 The only marked use of this number in Homer is for 
 the seven orates of Thebes. Now Thebes was the 
 only one of the Achaian cities distinctly traceable in 
 Homer to an Eastern origin. 
 
 12. C^anon Rawlinson gives reasons for supposing 
 the Assyrian gods to have been about 19 in number ; 
 and Homer seems to use 20 as an approximate 
 numl)er for the Olympian gods. 
 
 13. The descent of Ishtar to Hades caused great 
 disorders in the Upper World. We may, perhaps, 
 compare the threat of Helios to Zeus, that if his 
 demand W'as refused he w^ould cease to travel the sky 
 and shine onlv in the Underworhl.^ 
 
 14. On the tablet the Flood is the consequence 
 of sin, and the allusion to a flood in an Homeric 
 simile associates it with, the sins of rulers. 
 
 15. In the Babylonian system the Moongod is 
 the father of the Sunii^od. In Homer the moon is 
 nowhere perscmified, but thrice w^e find the sun 
 invested with the patronymic Hyperion ; and in 
 each case the passage is one of strictly Oriental 
 association. 
 
 It wall l)e ol)served that in this enumeration I have 
 not yet alluded to the great gift of the alphabet 
 
 1 Oa. xii. ;]74-83. 
 
wliicli has l)ecn commonly recognised as a gift of the 
 Phoeniciuns to Greece.* To this c^ift and to its source 
 Iloiner bears witness in a single passage of the Sixtli 
 Iliad. It records the legend of Belleroplion, who is 
 himself a descendant of Cloeus or Aiolas, and this 
 name wlien found in Homer is, I venture to assort, 
 a sure sign of Phoenician association. The other 
 chief actor, who transmits the written or symbolic 
 message, is Proitos, and Proitos is the king of Argplis, 
 an undoubted seat of immigration from the south-east. 
 
 Yet one other remark, whatever tlie East gave to 
 the West, it did not supply Europe with the l)asis of 
 its social morality in the great article of marriage. 
 Sexual license is, according to the Poems of Homer, 
 traceably wider in the East than in Western regions ; 
 and it is remarkal)le that at that early date we should 
 find the line between polygamy and monogamy 
 already drawn where it may be said generally to 
 have lain ever since, namely, at the Bosphorus and 
 the Dardanelles. 
 
 I now, with renewed apologies, bring to a close 
 this very humble contribution to a great cause. 
 To have offered it will give me sincere pleasure, 
 if it prove to be in any degree a source of interest 
 or profit to any among the members of the Oriental 
 Congress of 1892. 
 
 W. E. GLADSTONE. 
 
 July-August, 1892. 
 
 * Kawlinson's Herodotus, ii. 717, 9. 
 
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