MASTER NEGATIVE NO. 92-80497-19 MICROFILMED 1992 COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY LIBRARIES/NEW YORK as part of the "Foundations of Western Civilization Preservation Project" Funded by the NATIONAL ENDOWMENT FOR THE HUMANITIES Reproductions may not be made without permission from Columbia University Library v^v«-/x X J\.JLxJJlX X O A x\ X .E/iVlJC/i/N 1. The copyright law of the United States — Title 17, United States Code - concerns the making of photocopies or other reproductions of copyrighted material... Columbia University Library reserves the right to refuse to accept a copy order if, in its judgement, fulfillment of the order would involve violation of the copyright law. AUTHOR: COON, RAYMOND H. TITLE: FOREIGNER IN HELLE NISTIC COMEDY PLACE: CHICAGO, ILL. 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INC. alhp InliTprfiitif itf tthtrapjp THE FOREIGNER IN HELLENISTIC COMEDY A 1)ISS!-:KT.\1,1C)X ^^B\l!TT!■:i^ Tn filK FAi'l'LTY nr r!!!: c.R.\l>r.\ ri-: >riii)OL rsr arts and LlTKRATrRE IX (AWDIDAC^V FOR JUK DF.GREK OF DncTCR OF PIHLOSCn'lTY BY RA\Mi)\\) HrNTiNirroN voos J T1!K ! XIVKRSITY OF (MilC AlH) LIBRARIKS CIIKWCiO, ILLINOIS Wfft liiuitfrflttg ill ffiljfrago if- w -■* niL OREiC^XKR IN A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED TO THE FACULTY OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL OF ARTS AND LITERATURE IN CANDIDACY FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY DEPARTMENT OF LATIN BY RAYMOND HUNTINGTON COON Private Edition, Distributed By THE T'XTVrpcTTY OF CHICAGO T TBRARIES CiiiCAGO, ILLINOIS 1920 To MY PATHER REUNE RUNYON COON TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter Preface I : Introduction II : The Foreigner in Aristophanes and the Fragments of Old Comedy 20 III: The Mental and Moral Characteristics of the Foreigner in Hellenistic Comedy ^^ IV: The Costume of the Foreigner in Hellenistic Comedy 54 V: The Dialect of the Foreigner in Aristophanes and in Hellenistic Comedy ^^ VI: The Foreigner in the Technique of Hellenistic Comedy 69 I I GEORGE BANTA PUBLISHING COMPANY MENASHA, WISCONSIN 1920 PREFACE In the following discussion I have attempted to treat the character of the foreigner in Hellenistic comedy, with a brief consideration of the same character in Aristophanes and Old Comedy by way of introduction. There are two distinct aspects of the subject, the content of the character, and his function in the technique of the plays. Citations from Aristophanes are taken from the Oxford Classical Text (Hall and Geldart, 1900); those from Plautus are taken from the Oxford Classical Text (Lindsay, 1903); and those from Terence are from Dziatzko's edition (1884). The fragments of Greek comedy are quoted from Kock Com. Attic. Frag., and those of Latin comedy from Ribbeck Com. Rom. Frag. 3d ed. I desire here to express my obligation to the several instructors in the departments of Greek and Latin in the University of Chicago. My gratitude is especially due to Professor H. W. Prescott, who suggested the subject of this thesis, and who has very generously assisted me at every stage of the work. Raymond H. Coon. William Jewell College, Liberty, Mo. August 4, 1920. CHAPTER I Introduction The foreigner is a frequent object of satirical attack in ancient and modern comedy. English plays of the seventeenth and eigh- teenth centuries abound in unfavorable characterizations. The French fop, whose vanity alone can be appealed to, appears in Van- brugh The Relapse I ii: ''Say nothing to him, . . . speak to his cravat, his feather, his snuff box, and when you are well with them desire him to lend you £1000." Dryden's Epilog to Sir Fopling by Etheridge calls the French fop 'God Almighty's fool.' The affectation of the French lady is described in The Provoked Wife by the same author II i: ''There is not a feature in your face but you have found the way to teach it some affected convulsion; your feet, your hands, your very fingers' ends, are directed never to move without some ridiculous air or other; and your language is a suitable trumpet to draw people's eyes upon the rare-show." In Foote's Englishman Returned from Paris the Englishman is ridiculed for talking half French, half English, for employing three French valets to help him make his toilet, etc. Throat-cutting is Italian humor in Behn's Town Fop V i. The German language is the object of contempt in Baillie's Enthusiasm I iii: "Did he pray in the German tongue?"— Answer, *'No, heaven forbid, madam, that he should speak to his creator in such a jargon as that." The longwinded German philoso- pher and his manner of talking are taken off in Baillie's The Alienated Manor I ii, where the German speaks: "0 you talk of de vertues cardinalls, de great, de grand, de sublime vertues; dat be de ting, de one only ting . . . Hear you me. De sublime vertue is de grand, de only vertue. I prove you dis. Now we shall say, here is de good- tempered man; he not quarrel, he not fret, he disturb nobody. Very well; let him, let him live de next door to me. But what all dat mean? O dat he is de good-tempered man." The Jew has a keen eye for business and is not over scrupulous, Dibdin School for Prejudice IV i; in II i Ephraim says: "I began mit little but I took care of it— 'Tis'de great secret in ma trade; dere's many of ma tribe keeps a coach, vat was first set a running upon rollers." In Lessing's Minna 8 THE FOREIGNER IN HELLENISTIC COMEDY von Barnhelm the character of Riccaut de la Marliniere is a dismissed French officer, a braggart and a coward. He is a gambler, and to cheat with him is to correct fortune. He represents the foreign adventurer in the Prussian army for the sake of dishonest gain. Not only the foreigner from another land but the stranger from another part of the same country or from another city provides an object of ridicule or fun for an audience. The Bostonian with his broad a, the southerner with his difficulty in pronouncing r, the somnolent Philadelphian, and the porcine Chicagoan, are examples. The word foreigner in this paper is intended to cover not only non-Greeks but all Greeks who were not citizens of Athens. There is a justification for this point of view, which does not exist in the case of modern states, in that the ttoXis was the political unit — at least for a part of the period which is covered; and the traditions of the Greeks, especially of the Athenians, would tend to make them regard even Greek outsiders with local prejudice well down into the monarchical period. Unthinking persons of all times and all places have regarded the foreigner with something less than fairmindedness. The Athen- ians were no exception to this rule, and in fact carried the attitude farther than other countries and other city-states of Greece,^ owing perhaps to their great superiority to all peoples with whom they came in contact, and their full consciousness of it. Naturally Greek cities arrived at a stronger feeling of their racial unity during the monarchy than during the period of the city-state. Yet nationalism was none too strong, and conservative Athens kept many features of a city- state for a long time. This is indicated in no other way better than by the inferior social, political, and legal status at Athens, even down to late Hellenistic times,^ of the person who was not an Athenian * There was, of course, a large distinction between their attitude toward a non-Athenian Greek and that toward a non-Greek. Wilamowitz Staat und Gesellschaft p. 3S says: Der "draussen," kxOpos, ist dem Griechen der Feind geworden: der "fremde," ^kvo^, dagegen der Gast und Gastfreund. Cf. ibid. 52. 2 See Ferguson Hellenistic Athens pp. 245, 246, 262. On p. 308 he points out that as late as 205 B.C. foreign residents of x\thens could be designated slaves, so inferior was their status to that of foreigners elsewhere. He says that the social and religious changes elsewhere met counter movements in Athens to preserve the old usages of the city-state, its deities and cults. Ethnic organizations were formed, p. 316; there were foreign guilds of ship owners and commission merchants, p. 375; foreigners were permitted to associate in clubs for religious purposes, known as thiasoiae, pp. 217-19. Not until the second century b.c. was the prejudice to any THE FOREIGNER IN HELLENISTIC COMEDY 9 citizen. The term alien is employed in the sense *non- Athenian Greek.' This use is suggested by the meaning of alien in Attic law, in which it is confined to the Greek foreigner. The term barbarian naturally is used only of the non-Greek; and outlander, which occurs infrequently, is also so limited. Inasmuch as a number of words are applied to the foreigner in Greek and Roman comedy it will be necessary to determine the meanings and uses of each. Bdp/3apos is a word of much interest outside of comedy as well as within it.^ No Greek writer employs it more often or with more varied significations than Euripides.* They are largely unfavorable and show Euripides' innate contempt for barbarians. Aristophanes uses the word at times in its original sense of language unintelligible to the Greeks, as in Birds 199; he uses it likewise of people born in a foreign land, as in Birds 1700; of vulgar manners, and of lack of intelligence.^ It is used in the sense of brutal in Menander's Epitrepontes 477. Bap^apos is used in the fragments with about the same range of meanings.* In Eubulus 109 it refers to language, in Pherecrates 68 and anonymous 1427, 28 it is applied to non-Greeks. In anonymous 634 the feeling of Greek superiority is strong: tyo) ere TrpoaKwrjacjo, jSapjSape. The word €kt6tlos is not found in extant comedy. It occurs in relation to comedy in Athenaeus 659a and is applied to the cook 'from outside' in contrast with ttoXltlkos, which is used of the native cook. large extent overcome, when citizenship was conferred and inter-marriage fol- lowed, p. 423. On the legal position of the alien at Athens see Gilbert Constitw tutional Antiquities pp. 176 ff. On clubs of foreigners at Athens see Poland Vereinswesen pp. 303 fif., index s.v. Fremde. For the general condition of foreigners of all kinds at Athens see Zimmern The Greek Commonwealth 2nd ed. p. 370 n. and pp. 378 ff.; Francotte Dela Condition des Strangers dans les Cites grecques. ' A dissertation /3ap/3apos quid significaverit by A. Eichhorn discusses the use of the word in Gk. literature from Homer to Demosthenes. In the summary of the results of his study pp. 60-64 he gives an excellent resume of the original and acquired meanings of barbaros. Freeman History of Sicily I pp. 306, 307 dis- cusses the meaning of the word 'barbarian' to the Greeks. Cf. Pauly-Wissowa Realenc. s.v. barbaroi; Dar. et. Sag. Diet, des Ant. s.v. barbari. * Eichhorn op. cit. pp. 30-38 discusses Eurip, at length. ^ See Eichhorn's treatment of Aristoph. op. cit. pp. 38-40. ' All the instances of the use of the word in the collection of Meineke Frag. Com. Graec. are given in the lexicon of Jacoby s. v. ^dp/3apos 10 THE FOREIGNER IN HELLENISTIC COMEDY Eustathius 1751, 53 ff. uses the word in the same connection. He is, however, without doubt merely following AthenaeusJ ^evos is varied in its meanings. Its original sense of guest-friend (or host) is rather frequent.^ More often it has the sense of stranger (either neutral or slightly friendly, usually with some condescension), especially in Aristophanes.^ It occurs occasionally with the meaning allies,i° with the meaning mercenaries,^^ and once in the sense of a resident alien.i^ Finally ^evos with the meaning of foreigner in a more or less unfavorable sense is common in Aristophanes and the frag- ments.^^ The repeated statements of scholiasts and other critics that a certain man is satirized as a ^kvos in a certain comic passage show how general the use of the word in that sense must have been. The word barbarus (and its derivatives) is used in Plautus^^ from the Greek point of view and signifies Roman or Italian. This is not strange in view of the fact that Roman comedy is an adaptation of Greek.i^ The word appears occasionally in the fragments of Roman comedy in the sense of rude or unschooled. ^^ The word hospes in Roman comedy overlaps to a considerable extent the Greek ^evos. It is used for guest-friend (or host),^^ for stranger in no disparaging sense,^^ once merely for a newly-arrived ' The word Utotos occurs in Aristoph. Birds 1474 in the sense of outlandish. 8 Instances are found in Wasps 1197; Frogs 109, 147; Alexis 145. 9 Ach. 867, 884, 892, 930; Thesm. 882, 892; Birds 97, 409, 666; Wasps 1221; Lys. 580; etc. 10 Ach. 326, 505; Knights 1408; Birds 1431, 1454, 1458. " Plut. 173; Menander Periceiromene 171, 280. 12 Knights 347. 13 Birds 1652; Peace 297, 644; Frogs 458, 730; Lys. 1058; Knights 1198; Ach. 503. In Wasps 718 ^evia is the charge brought against one as a foreigner. See also among the fragments Menander 439; Eriphus 6; Eupolis 71. 1* It does not occur in Terence. " Cf. Lorenz Miles Gloriosus, Einleitung pp. 65, 66. The word occurs in Plant, in the following places: Asin. 11; Trin. 19; Capt. 492, 884; Most. 828; Bacch. 121, 123; Miles 211; Stichus 193; Cure. 150; Rud. 583; Cas. 748; Faeneratrix. i« Caecilius Statins Harpazomene 59, 60; Incert. 250. " Plaut. Miles 635, 738; Most. 479; Poen. 120, 1050; Rud. 49; Bacch. 231, 275, 686; Merc. 102; etc. Terence Ad. 529; Ph. 67; Hec. 432, 801. 18 Plaut. Asin. 361, 431; Persa 527; Poen. 685; Epid. 662; Terence Andr. 810, 8l7;£Mn. 119;£rec. 195. THE FOREIGNER IN HELLENISTIC COMEDY 11 member of the family,^^ and at least once for a foreigner as opposed to a citizen.^^ Peregrinus is more consistent in its meaning. It covers some of the ground of ^cws, being regularly used in the sense of foreigner.^i The praetor peregrinus handled cases between citizens and foreigners. ^hos, hospes, peregrinus, do not necessarily imply distance or different nationality as do ^dpjSapos and barbarus. Another Greek city, however near, fills the requirement. Thus ^ap^apos (and barbarus viewed from the Greek standpoint) stands for the non-Greek outlander, while ^evos, hospes, peregrinus, apply to outlander or to Greek alien. At this point it is in order to say a few words on the political background of comedy in the various periods. With the political changes in the history of Athens, due to a large extent to her relations with various foreign powers, there came changes in her attitude both toward the foreigner as such and toward the various foreign nation- alities. The period of the Persian wars was one of large awakening to the outside world. Besides giving Athens a fuller acquaintance with the people of Persia it brought her into closer touch with the peoples north of Greece— Macedonia and Thrace. Athens was in alliance with Thrace for many years preceding and during the Peloponnesian war. The long war between the Greek states decidedly influenced her feelings toward various cities of the Greek world.22 Finally the Macedonian conquest introduced an altogether new political regime, which would be bound to have its effect. Comedy, as a realistic type, may reflect, in its different stages, the changing attitude toward both the non-Greek barbarian and the Greek alien. In the Old Comedy of Aristophanes and his contemporaries the broad episodic treatment of foreigners is made possible through the incoherent character of the literary type; while New Comedy, with its closely organized plot of intrigue, does not afford scope for such broad treatment except in 19 Ter. Ph. 605. 20 Ter. Ph. 328. 21 Plaut. Men. 340, 634; Pseud. 964, 1261; Stichus 669; Merc. 635; Persa 136, 157, 158; Bacch. 1009; Cist. 143; Poen. 656, 675; Trin. 767; Terence Eun. 759. 22 The reproach of foreign birth is so common a thing in the orators that it becomes a rhetorical tottos. Phormio is a barbarian and perpetrates barbarisms in speech. The father of Euxitheos is reviled because he talks like a foreigner. Demosthenes' mother is a Scythian, while Demosthenes himself talks Greek like a barbarian. The exact references are given by Suss Ethos p. 248. Cf. also p. 255. 12 THE FOREIGNER IN HELLENISTIC COMEDY THE FOREIGNER IN HELLENISTIC COMEDY 13 rare instances. In the latter the employment of foreigners is due largely to the needs of the plot. There is some evidence of a distinction between the foreigner and the native in the earliest Greek comedy. The following statement occurs in Athenaeus 659 a : kKoXow oi TraKatol t6v /jtev ttoXltlkov iiayeipov fialacova, rbv d' kKTOiriov reTTLya. Though TraXatoi is not specific it refers, in all probability, to early Doric comedy, since these characters are not mentioned by name in Old Comedy at Athens.^ Furthermore, Athenaeus says in the same passage, on the strong authority of Aristophanes of Byzantium: Mato-coi/ ykyovev KojfjLcpSlas vTroKpLT-qs Meyapevs TO ykvos, OS Kal t6 TrpoauiTreiov evpe to cltt' avTov Kokov^ievov Malaoov. This would establish the fact that the mask iialaoiv belonged to Megarian and hence to Dorian comedy. The passages in Eustathius 1751, 53 ff., and in Hesychius s.v. Matcw;/, TtrrtJ, are understood by Rankin, The Role of the Ma7€tpot, p. 14, clearly to have been based upon the statement of Athenaeus. In the case of Eustathius it is better assured, since he uses the same two pairs of words tvoKitikov fxayeipov and eKTo-mov jiayeipov, and at the same time quotes Chrysip- pus. Hesychius' explanation of ^ialao^v might well be derived from Athenaeus; but if he derived his information on Terrt^ from Athenaeus he either failed to read the latter correctly or the text is corrupt. For Hesychius represents the native ^aicruives as the main cooks, while the foreign TeTnyes are the assistant cooks.^* As evidence for Hellenistic comedy there is a passage in Pollux Onomasticon 148-50 which contrasts Maiawi/ and Tcrrtf as the native 23 As Rankin points out in The Role of the Uayeipoi. in Ancient Greece p. 16. 24 The difficulty is met by Schneidewin Coniectanea Critica p. 122 by emend- ing fxayeipusp to fiay eLpeiuu. The meaning of the passage in Hesych. then would be: TeTTL^ was the term applied to foreign kitchen servants, while the natives were called fxaiao}V€S. Cf. Hesych. s.v. Movauper oi Kopvipaioi rdv nayeipiav Kal oi rexi'trai. Schneidewin Coniect. Crit. p. 122 emends Mouacom to Matcrojm. He does not, however, eliminate the difficulty in KopvipaXoi. The passage in Festus s.v. Maeson, which represents Maeson as a mask worn by the sailor and other such roles, in addition to that of the cook, is probably corrupt, for neither Athen. nor Pollux Onom. 148-50 makes mention of other roles, and they are both using the work of Aristoph. of Byz.,as Festus apparently does. Ribbeck, however, Alazon p. 26, accepts the passage in Festus; and Robert Die Mas ken der neueren aitisch. Kom. p. 72 n. 3 quotes Festus without calling him into question. and the foreign cook respectively. Pollux is writing of the masks of New Comedy.^^ It is impossible to determine whether the distinction between Maison and Tettix is original.^^ The evidence on the early distinction between native and foreign types, found in the reference to the ^evLKos larpos in Athenaeus 621 d, points in that direction.^^ The Spartan 5t/cr;Xto-T77s, according to this passage, mimicked the foreign physician. The significance of the name 'Malacov has already been given above (n. 26). How Tem^ came to be applied to the foreign cook is a matter which still requires solution. Dieterich^^ follows Hesychius, who makes the native Maison the chief cook, attended by foreign tettiges, the assistant cooks, who, true to their name, jump here and there on the stage to please the audience. But assistant cooks are nowhere else mentioned by those who refer to Maison and Tettix. Neither the passage in Athenaeus nor that in Pollux hints at such a distinction. Rankin^^ regards it as probable that the word was applied to a foreign cook by the Megarians in ridicule of the early Athenian custom of wearing representations of grasshoppers in some form of ornaments.^^ This explanation, while possible, does not appear to me to be highly probable. Another possibility, perhaps equally improbable, might be suggested: the word became proverbial for garrulity. The term 25 Robert Die Masken der neueren attisch. Kom. p. 60 and notes 1 and 2 shows that Aristophanes of Byzantium in his work inpi TrpoawTruv was almost certainly the source of Pollux's work, a fact which gives assurance that Pollux is writing of New Comedy. , 26 Dieterich Pulcinella pp. 38, 39 apparently accepts the explanation of Chrysippus quoted by Athen., that the word originally signified a glutton (from fxaaaadaL) , and only later developed the significance of cook. Regarding the early distinction he says: Ihm (Maison) nahe stehend muss der Tettix (Terrt^) gedacht werden, wenn auch die Unterscheidung als des fremden gegeniiber dem Maison als dem heimischen Diener nichtgerade etwas Urspriingliches sein wird. " Nauck Aristoph. Byz. Fragmenta p. 276 makes the very plausible conjecture (which to him approaches certainty) that Aristoph. discussed rkTri^ in close connection with Ma£ Pauly-Wissowa Realencyc. s.v. Atellana. " The plays are called Osci ludi in Cic. ad Fam. 7, 1; and Tacitus Ann. IV 14 uses the term Oscum ludicrum to apply to them. Their chief characters are called Oscae personae in Diomed., p. 490, 1. 20 in Keil's Grammatici Latini vol. I. *2 Most critics have adopted the view of Marx. Nettleship Lectures and Essays pp. 64-65 is inclined to that view. Schanz Gesch. der rbm. Lit. 3rd edition, erster Teil zweiter Halfte pp. 2-4; TeufiFel and Schabe History of Rom. Lit. Eng- lish translation of the fifth German edition by Warr, I pp. 11, 12; Ribbeck Gesch. der rom. Dichtung I 208 fif.; Pichon Histoire de la Lit. lat. 86; all consider that it was of Oscan origin. Wilamowitz Hermes IX 331 gives both views without com- mittmg himself. He adds however: "die megarische Komodie ist die athenische Atellana." The analogy would imply that he favored the view of Oscan origin. Michaut Sur les TrSteaux latins pp. 232 ff. goes to considerable length to refute Mommsen's theory. The Spartans suffer a severe arraignment from Andromache in the Andromache 446 ff. They are authors of treacherous counsel, kings among liars, murderers, thirsty for gain, etc. The character of Menelaus in the Orestes is fairly true to the above description. Sup- pliants 187, 88 calls Sparta oi/jLTj Kal TrcTroUtXrat Tpo-rrovs. These pas- sages clearly indicate the Athenian attitude of the period of the Peloponnesian war, and would serve to delight greatly an Athenian audience. In Heraclidae 353 ff. the chorus talks of the boasting, cruelty, and treachery of Argos.*^ The actions of Copreus, who says in 134 that he is an Argive, are said in 131 to be those of a ^ap^apos. Orestes in the Choephoroe 558 ff. plans to pass himself off in the dress and with the accent of a Phocian. This plan he proceeds to carry out, 649 ff. Asiatics are more numerous than Greek aliens in tragedy. To be a slave to a Lydian, and that, too, a woman, would be sinking as low as one could sink, Sophocles Trachiniae 70, 71. No doubt the effeminacy of Lydia is in the poet's mind when he introduces the god Dionysus as a sorcerer from Lydia, Bacchae 234; and as a foreigner in female form who brings new diseases and corrupts the women, 353 ff. See also 482 ff. The proverb irbrepa kvbov r) ^pvya in Alcestis 61 S is a contemptuous thrust at both nationalities, as furnishing the chief varieties of slaves in Athens. The dirgelike character of the Mysian music is alluded to in the Persians 1054, and the effeminate Ionian melodies in Aeschylus Suppliants 69. The best case of the foreigner in tragedy is that of the Phrygian slave in the Orestes.^"^ His role is conspicuous from 1369 to 1526. In 1483 ff. he admits the great inferiority of the Phrygians to the Hellenes in warlike courage. His chief characteristic is cringing cowardice. This trait, which is so vividly portrayed in lines 1506-26, is often associated with the Phry- gians, Orestes 1111; Alcestis 675; Rhesus 814,15. In Andromache 192 ff. Andromache admits in effect the inferiority of Phrygia to Sparta. The Phrygian love of luxury is intimated in Orestes 1113. Egyptian men are satirized for effeminacy; they stay at home and do the house-work while the women earn a livelihood, Oedipus Coloneus 337 ff. In the Suppliants of Aeschylus 234-40 the Danaides are a *' Mahaffy Greek. Class. Lit. "Dramatic Poets" p. 115 says that this play was intended as a political document against the Argive party in Athens during the Peloponnesian war. ** See Decharme Euripide et V Esprit de son Thiatre pp. 367 ff. 18 THE FOREIGNER IN HELLENISTIC COMEDY Strange company, un-Greek in garb, uncouth. In 279 ff. they are like Africans from the Nile. The Nile fosters a race different from that of Inachus, 497,98. The herald is reviled as a man reared on the Nile, 875-77. The nationality of the large majority of foreigners in tragedy is not specified. Bdp/3apos is the term applied to them in most instances. A highly unfavorable signification*^ is usually attached to the word. The contrast between Greek and non-Greek is clearly drawn, and the feeling of scorn for the latter runs throughout tragedy. It is especially prominent in Euripides and shows well in his treatment of Medea. Her own intense hatred and the intense hatred toward her, as well as the extreme injustice done her, would not have been appropriate if she were a Greek. It must be kept in mind in the discussion which follows that the foreigner is not a clearly defined type such as the professional char- acters, miles, lenOj meretrix, parasitus, etc. Each of the latter is possessed of one or more fundamental moral traits, which recur with uniform regularity. The foreigner is likewise distinct from the domestic characters, e.g. senex, adulescens, matrona, ancilla. While their qualities are not so rigidly stereotyped, and more elasticity is observable in their treatment than in the case of the professional class, yet the dramatist is limited to a narrow range, once he has selected an individual of one of these types. The servus displays a wider variety and is more nearly analogous to the foreigner perhaps than any other character in comedy. He is now a town slave, now a country slave or a foreigner, now a clever slave, now a stupid one, now a loyal follower of his master, now a plotting rascal. The playwright permits himself still greater flexibility in his treatment of the foreigner. There are numerous instances where the miles, the parasitus, the meretrix, the leno, the servus, the se^tex, and the adulsecens, are at the same time foreigners. The foreigners assume even minor roles, such as the sycophanta, the nutrix, the vilicus. ^ The following is a partial list of passages: Androm. 173 ff., 243, 261, 665, 66; Orestes 485; Iphig. in Taur. 31, 1174; Phoenissae 138; Medea 536-38; Helena 276; Iphig. in Aul. 1401, 74; Troades, 991, 92. The last two passages refer to the showy character of barbarian dress. The Helena alone uses the word /Sdp/Sapos at least 19 times. Eichhorn /3dp/3apos quid significaverit pp. 30-38 quotes the uses of pap^apos in Euripides and shows its various meanings. THE FOREIGNER IN HELLENISTIC COMEDY 19 It is the purpose of the following chapters to examine the frag- ments of Hellenistic comedy and the Roman adaptations, in order to determine the extent and character of allusions to foreigners, and the use made of them by the comic poets of the Hellenistic period. The place of the foreigner in Aristophanes and the fragments of Old Comedy will first be considered, but only to afford a basis for compari- son with the later period. We shall try to observe on the one hand how far the foreigner as such is given conventional features, whether of costume, dialect, physical, mental, or moral characteristics, whether the attitude of the comic poets is indifferent, playful, or satirical, and on the other hand what part the foreigner fills in the economy of the dramatic plot. The two points should stand out distinctly: (1) the content of the treatment of foreigners, which is discussed in chapters II to V; (2) the form of the treatment, to which chapter VI is devoted.^^ *^ A short dissertation by Carl Boettcher entitled "Die Darstellung fremder Nationalitaten im Drama der Griechen" in Programm des koniglichen Realgym- nasiums zu Konigsberg in Pr. (1892) has little but the title in common with this dissertation. CHAPTER II The Foreigner in Aristophanes and the Fragments OF Old Comedy It has been intimated in Chapter I that political and military causes widely extended Athenian foreign relations during the fifth century B.C. The development of Athens into a leading commercial power of the Eastern Mediterranean during the same period further brought her into touch with various foreign countries and many Greek states. The three great corn-producing regions of the time were Pont us, Sicily, and Egypt; and Athenian vessels established trade routes in the Northeast, to the West, and to the Southeast. The intense commercial rivalry with Corinth, Megara, and other cities of the Greek world, which was a primary cause of the Peloponnesian war, contributedlargely to the familiarity of Athens with Greek aliens. The plays of Aristophanes freely reflect these historical relations; and it is to be noted that those countries and states with which Athens had most to do, and which were most profoundly impressed upon her consciousness, are, as a rule, most commonly introduced, whether by way of incidental allusion or through the medium of an active role. Boeotia, Megara, and Sparta, which were historically in very close connection with Athens, are represented on the stage by Aristophanes; so also Persia, w^hich to the Greeks stood for the Orient; and the Scythian, who from his police service was a familiar character in Athens. We must discriminate, of course, between the large bulk of purely historical material, which merely reflects contemporary events and conditions, and the material which — sometimes in connec- tion with the preceding, sometimes apart from it — depicts specific local characteristics. In the nature of Old Comedy we do not expect a strictly realistic portrayal of the foreigner. Grotesque exaggeration of qualities known or imagined to exist in the particular country is a common thing. the foreigner in HELLENISTIC COMEDY 21 GREEK STATES Sparta figures most largely among Greek states. Lysistrata 628,29 charges her with bad faith : KaKoiviKols, / olcn iriaTov ov8ev, el iirj Tep XuKOJ KexwoTL. In Acharnians 308 the Laconians are people olcn ovre ^cofios ovT€ irlaTLs oW opKos iJL€V€L.^ lu Pcacc 623 they are alaxpoKepdeis.^ They are inhospitable in Birds 1012-14.^ Their frugality is the object of attack.** They are satirized for wearing long beards and long hair,^ for the rare use of the bath and the wearing of dirty clothes, i.e., playing the part of Socrates,® and for the walking stick. ^ The term Anglomaniac has a close ancient analogy in the Aristophanic eXaKoovojjLCivovv Birds 1281. The comic poets heap frequent ridicule upon those who affect Spartan ways of living.^ There are numerous allusions which reflect contemporary historical relations between Athens and Sparta.^ ^ Peace 623 dLeipicvo^evoi is a further hit at Spartan treachery. Cf. also ibid, 1065-68. 2 So also in Eurip. Andromache 451. ' The ^€vr)\aaia of Sparta may be considered from the Spartan point of view also as showing the attitude toward aliens of ?. Greek state other than Athens. Cf. Thuc. I 144; II 39. * Birds 1282 tTreivwv] Aristoph. fragm. 705; Eupolis fragm. 351 jxiaCj AaK(ji}vi^€Lv — though the sense of AaKwi/i^et;/ is not certain. Kock thinks that per- haps it refers ad epularum simplicitatem, while Meineke inclines to the view that it refers to TratSepaarta, quoting Photius and Suidas, whose explanation of AaKCJvL^eLv is TratSt/coTs xpv(^^olI" The word occurs in Aristoph. Thesm. B. 338. The former interpretation appears preferable, Lys. 78-83 may be a mild thrust at Spartan devotion to rigorous gymnastic training even for women. s Lys. 1072, 73; Wasps 476. Cf. anonym, fragm. 796. " Birds 1282; Lys. 279, 80; Plutus 85, which mentions a certain Patrocles who had not washed since he was born. The scholiast says of him that he was a rich Athenian who lived in the Spartan manner for economy. T Birds 1283; EccL 74. ' Wasps 475, on which see V. Leeuwen's comment; Eupolis 208; Plato 124; Aristoph. 431, 95. Other thrusts at the Spartans are found in Lys. 276, 620-22; Theopompus 65; Aristoph. 108; Hermippus 32; Wasps 1157-65, Birds 813-16 contain word plays. ^ Peace 242-46, 478; Lys. 995, 96, 998-1001, 1138-41, 1150-56; Eccl. 356; Ach. 647, 652; Knights 55, 464-66, 468, 69, 743, 1008, 1052, 53; Clouds 186, 87. 22 THE FOREIGNER IN HELLENISTIC COMEDY The Boetians are called avoponiiTolj and a Kpovirt^oipbpov ykvo^ avbpC^v in Cratinus 310, in ridicule of their boorish propensities. ^° The gour- mandizing characteristic is brought out by the epithet KoWiKOipdyo^ applied to the Boeotian in Acharnians 872. The diminutive in connection with it indicates a patronizing superiority. In Pherecrates 160 the advice is given to avoid Boeotia.^^ The Corinthians are repeatedly assailed with the charge of wan- tonness in Old Comedy, either explicit or implied. ^^ The Ar gives are accused of being thieves in Aristophanes fragment 57." Their neutrality is the object of attack in Peace MS-11, 493.^^ The Megarians are satirized for their vulgar and pointless wit, Eupolis 244: aKooiJLjj.' do-€X7es Kal MeyapLKov Kal Oipbbpa / yj/vxpov ; Wasps 57: 7eXa;ra Islty apbSev KeKKeiipikvov}^ The bitter feeling existing between Athens and Megara, chiefly over the Megarian decrees, is repeatedly reflected in Aristophanes.^^ The Thessalian women were magicians. Clouds 749 yvvaiKa. ipap^xaKiba}'' Thessaly is characterized as a land of kidnappers in Plutus 521.^^ Its love of high living is the object of the thrust in Crates 19 and Aristophanes 492.^^ ^° Cf. schol. on Pindar Olymp. VI 152: Botcoriaj' vV. tn bia rrfv kypoLKlav koI Trjv avayccyiav to TraXaLOv ol Botwroi ves iKoXovvro. There is a play entitled 'Ts by Cephisodorus which may have had reference to the Boeotians. ^^ For other satirical allusions see Lys. 88, 89; Cratinus 12; Strattis 47. Historical allusions occur Birds 188, 89; Frogs 1023, 24^; Ach. 1023; Peace ^65, 66. 12 Plui. 149-52; Lys. 90-92; Thesm. 647, 48; Aristoph. 902, 348; Cratinus 273; Eupolis 83, on which see Lobeck Aglaoph. pp. 1007 ff. On Thesm. 404 YiopLvBli^ ^epq} see the long note of Fritzschius. Other allusions to Corinth, chiefly historical, occur in Eccl. 199-201; Birds 968, 69; Clouds 710; PluL 303, 304. " On which Suidas says: iiri tuv irpodijXus irovqpuv' oi yap 'Apyetoi itrl k\ow^ K(t)fj.(^5ovvT at. 1* On Argos see also Aristoph. 298; Plut. 601; Eccl. 201. " Cf. M€7apiKd Tis juaxai'd in the Megarian scene Ach. 738. See Starkie's note on Wasps 57. On Meg. comedy see Meineke Hist. Crit. pp. 18 flf. Other allusions satirizing the Megarians are found in Philonides 5; Callias 23; Strattis 26; Theopompus 2. 16 Ach. 523-39; Peace 246-49; 481-83; 500-502. 1' They are frequently so referred to in literature. Starkie on Clouds 749 enumerates the passages. 1^ If the reading airlcrTijov in that line is correct, as the scholiast understands it: biafiaWovTo ol GcrroXoi ws LvbpairobtaTai Kai ainaToif the Thessalians are also faith- less. 1' See Athenaeus 418 c, d. There is a comic thrust at the Macedonian love of high-living in Frogs 85. Other references to Thessaly occur in Eupolis 201; Hermippus 41. THE FOREIGNER IN HELLENISTIC COMEDY 23 Byzantium is ridiculed for its use of iron money in Clouds 249; Plato 96. Syracuse is notorious for its splendid table, XvpaKoalav rpinre^av Aristophanes frag. 216.2° In the same fragment Syharis is given a similar reputation SujSaptrtSas eucoxtas. The interpretation of (Tv0apl^€iv in Peace 344 is provided by the scholiast: avTi tov TpVipaVy airo rrjs SujSaptTtKr)? TpViprjs.^^ The lonians are branded as luxurious and effeminate, Callias 5: Tpvipepa Kal KaXXtrpciTre^os 'Icoj/ta ; Ecclesiazusae 918, 19: tov (xtt' Tcoj^tas / TpoTTov raKaiva Kprjaiq^s f^ and as fond of sensual melodies.^^ The Lesbians, particularly the women, were charged with wanton- ness and unnatural vice.^'^ The Carystians are ironically described in Lysistrata 1057-59 as &.vbpcLS KoKovs r€ Kayadovs.^^ 20 See Athen. 527 c. For other references to Sicily see Peace 250; Archippus 15. 21 Cf. Phrynichus 64. The QovpioTepaai. of Metagenes is thought by Meineke Hist. Crit. p. 220 to have branded the people of Thurii— a town situated near the former site of Sybaris— as given to effeminacy and luxury, after the fashion of the Persians. See further on Sybaris Wasps 1259, 1427-40. 22 Cf. Lys. 108; Aristoph. 543, with the comment of Athen. 525 a; anonym. 76; Hermippus 58; Eupolis 233;Peace ll76/3d)UMa KvtucrjvLKSv, on which the schol. says: els Kivatdiav Sta/SdXXcrat (hare tiT]8e tup dvay Kaluv 6td ttjv eijpvrrjTa KpaTelv SvvaadaL. The reference is to Cyzicus. Hesych. s.v. /3d)u/xa Kv^tKTjvtKov says that the Cyzicenes as lonians were satirized for effeminacy. Under the heading lonians have been included the towns of Abydus, Miletus, Clazomenae, Cyzicus. Cf. further on Abydus Aristoph. 733. ^ Eccl. 883, 918, 19; Thesm. 163. Historical allusions to Miletus occur in Knights 361, 932. 2* Frogs 1308, on which see scholiast; Pherecrates 149; Strattis 40, 41; Theo- pompus 35; Wasps 346, on which see scholiast; Eccl. 920. " The schol. on Lys. 1058 says: Sia/SaXXo^rac 5^ cbs noixol ol Kapuornoi; and on 1181 in connection with another reference to the Carystians says: tovs KapucTtoi/s w$ noLxovs KoiiJi(i>5ovc7et. '* Cf. Hdt. IV 46; Aesch. Prom. Bound 709, 10. On the foreign names of the policeman in Frogs 608 the schol. says bvb^xara to^otQjv ^ap^apwv. They were probably Scythian names. Another Scythian allusion occurs in Ach. 704. ^^ Birds 1244, 45, 762, 63; Wasps 1309. There is frequent reference to the Phrygian Sabazius, a deity that corresponds to the Greek Dionysus. Birds 876; Lys. 388; Aristoph. 566. " Birds 1244, 45. *^ \vbl^iov Knights 533 is a reference to a play of Magnes entitled AuSot. See Phot. s.v. \vbi.a^oiv. Other allusions occur in Aristoph. 492; Aristocrates 1; Plato 170. ^'^ Birds 11, on which see scholiast; 5Jr5 687); Eupolis 357 (see Meineke ^u/. Cn7. pp. Ill, 12); Cratinus 324 (see Bergk Reliq. Com. A U. p. 1 16) ; Aristoph. 26 (see Suidas s.v. ^pvvojv das); Eupolis 39, 53; Metagenes 10; Polyzelus 5; Frogs 790 (Plutarch Nicias 2 says that Theramenes was ridiculed as an alien from Ceos); Ach. 712 (see Bergk Reliq. Com. Att. pp. 97, 98); Wasps 718; Birds 1652. The figure of the base or coun- terfeit coin is employed to slander pretended citizens Frogs 717-37; Ach. 515-22. THE FOREIGNER IN HELLENISTIC COMEDY 27 were extremely jealous of their privileges as citizens.^^ The deme of the Potamii is ridiculed for the ease with which illegally registered citizens were accepted by it.^° In a brief summary of the mental and moral characteristics for which foreigners are ridiculed in Aristophanes we note the bad-faith, frugality, and lack of attention to the bath of the Spartans, the gourmandizing of the Boeotians, the wantonness of the Lesbians and the Corinthians, the vulgar wit of the Megarians, the effeminacy and love of luxury of the Syracusans and of the lonians, the idle staring of the Scythians, the savagery of the Triballians, the cowardice and general worthlessness of the Phrygians, Lydians, and Carians, etc. All this will prove of interest when, in the next chapter, we come to compare with it the treatment of the foreigner in Hellenistic comedy. Allusions to costume are rare as compared with allusions to mores. A Persian is attired in a gaudy peacock fashion, a Triballian is awkward in wearing his clothes, an Oriental cap {TrCKihov Isivaiov), doubtless taken over from the tragic background of the travesty, belongs to the Mysian Telephus. Such distinctive references to dress serve to enhance the comic effect. The employment of foreign language and dialect in Aristophanes is sufficiently significant to be discussed in a separate chapter devoted to dialect (see chapter V). In one regard the handling of the foreigner in Aristophanes differs entirely from that in New Comedy, as seen in the Roman adaptations and to some extent in the fragmentary plays of Menander. Never in Aristophanes does the foreigner play an essential part in the plot. At most he assumes an active role for a single episode, as the Megarian or the Boeotian in the Acharnians, or the mock-Persian in the same play. While each of these three characters adds to the comic effect and thus enriches the play, the elimination of none of them would affect the dramatic structure. It will be found in the study of Plautus and Terence, on the other hand, that the foreigner frequently is a leading, or at least an essential, role in the technique of the plot. " Aristotle in the 'Ad. toX. 26, 4 says that a law was passed, on the proposal of Pericles, that no one should have the rights of citizenship whose parents were not both citizens. " Phot. s.v. HoTA/uiot. Reference is made in Aristoph. 225 and Cratinus 233 to the vavTodUatf before whom cases of doubtful citizenship were brought. Hesych. s.v. vavrodUai,. 28 THE FOREIGNER IN HELLENISTIC COMEDY Hanno in the Poenulus and the mock-Persian in the Persa are striking examples. The foreigner in Old Comedy is introduced more for comic purposes than in Hellenistic comedy, in which the structure of the plot demands him. Attacks are made upon foreigners in Old Comedy both as racial groups and as individuals. The latter would be expected in view of the tendency of Old Comedy to attack individuals of all kinds; and it is seen especially in the ridicule made of supposed individual citizens for foreign birth. Frequently the nationality is specified. More common, however, as the foregoing exposition of Old Comedy shows, is the attack upon peoples or states as a whole. This may afford a basis for comparison with the handling of the foreigner in later comedy. CHAPTER III The Mental and Moral Characteristics of the Foreigner IN Hellenistic Comedy In a discussion of any phase of the foreigner in Hellenistic comedy it must be borne carefully in mind that there is a wide distinction between the Greek material and the Latin. The former is altogether fragmentary, a fact which precludes the possibility of following the foreigner as an active role in the plot of a play. It can only furnish allusions to foreigners in racial or political groups. The evidence of Plautus and Terence, on the other hand, while containing allusions to various nationalities, also reveals some individual foreigners in action. Again, the foreigner in the nature of the Greek evidence is essen- tially the non-Athenian; for, generally speaking, we do not know the scene of the Greek plays, and cannot regard the possibility that in a given play an Athenian himself may have been a foreigner so far as the scene of the play was laid in a town outside Athens. Roughly speaking, so far as the evidence is Greek, the point of view from which the foreigner is treated is Athenian ; while in the Roman plays w^e can distinguish both the foreigner as non-Athenian, and the foreigner who is an outsider with reference to the scene of the play. Moreover in the Latin evidence we can discriminate a few references obviously from the Roman standpoint. In this chapter I shall discuss the mores of the foreigner in the Hellenistic period. So far as possible I shall endeavor, by reference to other sources of information, to test the truth of attacks made by the comic poets on foreign political or racial groups. The assumption of course is that these sources are independent of comedy. Otherwise they are worthless for the purpose. Steinhausen, in a dissertation Kco/xcoSoL^/iewt (1910), undertakes to show that attacks on individuals and races in comedy formed the subjects of treatises, and that these treatises had considerable influence over later literature. One must be cautious then in accepting as proof of the veracity of charges made in comedy the statements of later writers, who may themselves ultimately have derived their information from comedy itself. 30 THE FOREIGNER IN HELLENISTIC COMEDY GREEK STATES The reputation of Boeotia was not enhanced, whether in history or in literary tradition, by her propinquity to Athens. With regard to Boeotian excesses, as Rhys Roberts shows,^ it would be hardly fair to accept the statements of the comic poets as sober history, just as a City Feast might not be judged solely from the pages of Punch, This warning applies to all nationalities foreign to Athens. Gour- mandizing is the most conspicuous vice charged against the Boeotians. Mnesimachus 2 reads:et)ut 7dp Botcbrtos . . . TroWoi b' kaBloiv} Diphilus 22 is from a play entitled Botcbrtos, according to Athenaeus 417 e: olos kaSUiv irpb 17/Liepas dp^a/xei/os r\ ttclKlv wpos rjfiepav. As it is in harmony with other evidence it is highly probable that it applies to a Boeotian. Eubulus 66: av fikv T& Gij/St/s, cos Xeyeis, irkSov Xittw*', LvbpQiv aplaroiv kadieiv 8i' "fj/jikpas 6X77S rpax'h^ovs Kal Koirpujpos irT^rjaLov. Eubulus 34: BoLO)TV TToKlV iivbpCiv aplcTiJiv kadUiv 8l' 17/xepas. It is a matter not of the entire day alone but of the entire night as well in -Eubulus 53: ju€ra raOra G^/Sas ^\dop, ov ttjv vvx^', oXt/j/ Trjv 6' i]p.tpav denrvovcn Kal Koirpuv^ 2x" iirl Tttis dvpais cxacrros, ov ir\r]pei. ^port^ ovK eari p.el^ov ayadov. ws x^tv^^-^^ fxaKpav ^adi^oov, xoXXa 5' ISicov h.vi]p, ba.Kvv 6\r]P kwivoiJiei' Tiiv viiKTa 5id ak Kal a8, 4 quotes it as an instance of rd Ku/xcKd. Cf. Strabo I, 36. Plut. Lye. 19, 20 discusses the Spartan custom of using as few words as possible, and its virtue. *3 Cf. Plato Protag. 342 b and Demosth. against Canon 34 where XaKoivi^ia is used in an unfavorable sense from the point of view of Athens. See Mein. Hist. Crit. pp. 485, 86. *4 0n the decadence of Sparta cf. Aesch. c. Ctesiph. 133; Diod. XVII 73; Quint. Curtius VI I 16; Harpocration s.v. d^rjP^vovTas. Kock comments: quid Trop t^kv, 3s 8' ov' / iravTes, irXrjv UpoKXkovs Kal TlpoKXkrjs XkpLos. "A Latin translation of which is given by Kock: "quam valde hi omnes Aegyptiam origincm redolent: Sochares, Paamyles" Other references to the Egyptians occur in anonym. 181, Philemon 59. Information about animal worship in Egypt and its attendant superstitions is abundant outside of comedy. See Wiedemann Herodots Zweites Buck pp. 271 ff. Also see index s.v. Thiercult. M See Zenobius II 58; Macarius II 37; Apostol. Ill 70, 71; VI 36 a; Greg. Cypr. I 32. Cf. the Theban flute-players Ach. 862 S. THE FOREIGNER IN HELLENISTIC COMEDY 45 is a comic description of the well known prominence of the Phoenicians as traders.®^ The lexicographers interpret the proper adjective in anonymous 1293 ^oLVLKeXlKTrjv Kal \6yo)v aXa^ova as meaning tricky .^^ Persia: in Antiphanes 172 the splendor of the Persian table is compared with the frugality of the Greeks: tL 8* Siv "EXXrjves piKpoTpcnre^oL <^i;XXoTpa»7es Spdaeiav ] orrov TtTTapa Xijxf/et Kpka pUp' 6/3oXoO. Trapd 5' rfperkpois irpoybvoLCTLV 6Xovs oirTuxTLV /3o0s, eXoK^ous, apvas" t6 TtXevralov 5* 6 payei.pos 6Xov repas oirT-qaas peyaXc^ jSactXet dtppi]V TrapkdrjKe KaprjXov .^"^ In Persa 707, 708 we read: Ita sunt Persarum mores: longa nomina contortiplicata hob emus. This refers to the four lines 702-705, which is a collection of fictitious compounds given as the names of the fake-Persian. Syria: Menander satirizes the Syrians (fragment 544) for super- stitions regarding the eating of fish: 'jrapa8eLypa Tom livpovs Xa0k. brav (payijio' Ix^vv kKtivoi, 6td TLva avToJv OLKpaalav tovs ir68as Kal yaarkpa ol8ovom^ fiXdev &vr]p iiiraT-qXia elSws. Anonym. 423 refers to the IlaraiKot, Phoenician dieties of dwarfish shape whose images were used on the prows of Phoenician ships, Hdt. Ill 37. Cf. Hesych. s.v. ndrauoi. *' Athen. 130 e 'AvTKpavrjs 6 KcoMV^toTrotos . . . SLairai^uv. Cf. Eustath. 245, 24. Hdt. I 133 says that at a certain religious festival the wealthy Persians roasted whole animals in their ovens, the ox, the horse, the camel, and the ass. Cf. Ar. Ach. 85-87. Hieron. Adversus Jov. II 7 says that the Arabians, the Sara- cens, and all barbarians who dwell in deserts, live on the milk and flesh of camels. Menander 24 and 503 refer to elegant wearing apparel, drinking goblets, etc. among the Persians. •8 Cf. Meineke Menandri et Philemonis Reliquiae p. 44, who quotes Xen. Anah. I 4, 9: the Syrians regard fish as gods and do not permit any harm to come to them. 46 THE FOREIGNER IN HELLENISTIC COMEDY Timocles 4 corroborates the evidence of Menander. The lari, who are piscium avidissimi, according to Meineke III 592, are Syrians as compared with Hyperides, in the matter of eating fish, so much more f avenous is Hyperides. OTHER BARBARIANS Thrace: according to Menander 1127 the Thracians have no regard for an oath: 9p$Kcs opKi,' ovK kirlcTavTat.^* They are satirized for aKpaala in respect to marriage in Menander 547, 48, where a man in Thrace who has but four or five wives is regarded as unmarried: ir6.vT€s fx^ ol Qpq.K€S, iioKicTTa 5' ol Vkrai iltieU diravT03V Ual yap avros ^vxcfxaL kKiWev elvai t6 ykvo^) oh av Tr\TjpodvT€s rd iappobiaia. See the proverb collections of Apost. X 82; Greg. Cypr. L. II 63; Diogen. II 18; Plut. II 3; also Hesych. s.v. Av86^ kv p.earip&plq. Tratfet. A play entitled Au56s was written by Antiph., a Au5ot by Magnes. The degeneracy of the Lydians is spoken of in Hdt. I 155 ff. and in Athen. 515 d ff. Athen. 690 b says: 6tai36r?rot kirl -nbvTraOdq. ol \v8oi. Cf. Eurip. Alcestis 675. 75 Antiph. 113, in a play entitled Kapes, makes fun of some celebrated philo- sopher for moving his hands in pantomimic gesture when expounding his philoso- phy. It is probably an attack upon him as a philosopher rather than as a foreigner if indeed he is a foreigner. Philemon 18 and anonym. 548 refer to the Carian as slave and not as foreigner. Anonym. 556 is not pertinent. 78 The relations between Athens and Pontus had for a long time been intimate : cf. Ferguson Hellenistic Athens pp. 437 ff .; Reinach Mithridatc Eupator p. 138. " One fragment of each: Antiph. 192, Alexis 193, Epigenes 7, Timocles 28. As a context is lacking in each case, it is impossible to make inferences. THE FOREIGNER IN HELLENISTIC COMEDY 49 48 THE FOREIGNER IN HELLENISTIC COMEDY and the statements of other writers^^ that ridicule was made of the people from the Pontic coast, make it highly probable that the comedians had a part in it.^^ ROMAN MATERIAL Praeneste: Bacchides 12 makes fun of the boastfulness of the Praenestini: Praenestinum opino esse, ita erat gloriosus. Naevius Ariolus II makes fun of the food which the people of Praeneste and of Lanuvium eat: Quis heri apud te?— Praenestini et Lanuvini hospites^ Suopte utrosque decuit acceptos cibo, Altris inanem volvulam madidam dari, Altris nuces in proclivi profundier.^^ In 881-83 of the Captivi the parasite Ergasilus swears by five Italian cities, Praeneste, Cora, Signia, Frusino, Alatrium, all of them in Latium. Quid tu per barbaricas^' urbes iuras? says Hegio. To which the parasite replies: quia enim item asperae sunt ut tuom victim autumabas esse.^^ 78Athen 351 c: tous 5^ UovTLKobs 4< rod ttoWov ^k€iv ttSvtov, chairep €K tov 6\kdpov. Diog. Laert. VI. I 3 writes to this effect: when a youth from Pontus asked what he would need in order to attend lectures (presumably at Athens) he was told that he would need, among other things, a new mind. 79 A large number of ethnic titles of Greek comedies such as noj;Tu6shas been handed down. For a list of them consult the index of plays Kock III pp.689 ff. Of Latin plays which take their titles from Greek plays the Andria is certamly from Menander's 'A.5pca, cf. Andria 9 ff.; the Poenulus t^kts its name from the Kapxv56vLo^> Poen. 53. Whether the latter is a play of Menander or not is uncer- tain, cf. Leo PL Porsche pp.170 ff.,Schanz Gesch.der rom. Litter atur 3rd ed. I p. 87. Among the fragments of Roman comedy also there is a number of ethnic titles, e g Imbrii, Lemniae, Galli Transalpini. For a full Ust see index of plays, Rib- beck Comic. Rom. Frag.' pp. 388 ff . The numerous plays with such titles would at least afford ample opportunity for making fun of the foreigner. 80 Macrobius Sat. Ill 18, 5 says: nux haec Abellana sen Praenestina . . • inde scilicet Praenestinae nuces, after which he quotes this passage. On Praenes- tine nuts see Pliny N.H. XVII 13, 96; Cato de Re Rustica 51; Festus 172: nuculas Praenestinos. " For Plautus' use of barbaricus, barbarus see supra p. 10. « These thrusts, as well as those against the dialect of Praeneste, Trin- 609, True. 690, 91, would be popular at Rome in view of the refusal of the citizens of Praeneste, in 216 B.C., to exchange their own citizenship for that of Rome when the Romans made the offer, Livy XXIII 20, 2. Campania: In Trinummus 545, 46 the Campanians far surpass the Syrians in patience, ^^ though the latter are called in 542 the most patient of men. Poenulus 266 contains the word alicarias, on which word Festus p. 7 says: meretrices appellabantur in Campania solitae ante pistrina alicarioriim versari quaestus gratia, sicut hae, quae ante stabula sedebant, dlcebantur prostibula. Apulia: Casina 71-77 is obviously from the Roman point of view, for Apulia and Carthage are there associated with Greece. The custom of having slave marriages on a more elaborate scale than those of citizens and propensity to drink are the objects of the attack. Apulia had become to a considerable extent Hellenized,^ owing to the fact that there were Greek cities within its borders. This fact assists in the understanding of Miles 648: post Ephesi sum natus, non enim in A pulls; non sum Animula. Plautus uses Animula because it was urbs parvarum opum in Apulia, Festus p. 25. The point of the thrust appears from Ussing's note: Ephesi se natmn dicit, inter Graecos omni humanitate excultos, non inter Apulos rusticos. While the sarcasm is, on the face of it, Greek, the indirect thrust from the Roman point of view is more significant. Etruria: Cistellaria 562, 63 charges the Etruscans with an evil practice: non enim hie ubi ex Tusco modo tute tibi indigne dotem quaeras cor par e.^^ 83 The Syrians were noted for their endurance as litter carriers at Rome, Juv VI 351; Martial IX 2, 11; 22, 9. The Campanians had thrown in their lot with Hannibal after Cannae, but in 211 Capua was recovered, Livy XXVI 11. The severe punishment inflicted upon its people, Livy XXVI 13 ff., broke their spirits so that twenty years later when the Trinummus was exhibited (see Schanz Gesch. der rom. Lit. 3rd ed. I p. 92) they might be called a race of surpassing patience. Cf. Brix-Niemeyer on 545, 46. 84 Cf. Mommsen Rom. Hist. II 89 ff.. Ill 109; Brix-Niemeyer on Miles 648. 85 Athenaeus 517 d ff. speaks at some length of the base customs of the Etruscans in this regard. Cur. 482: in Tusco vico ibi sunt homines qui ipsi sese venditani is merely a realistic Roman touch of the playwright, though it is an interesting coincidence that the street in Rome called Tuscus was known for the practices for which the Etruscans were notorious. Other hits at Italian towns are found in Most. 770 on Sarsina in Umbria, which was Plautus' birthplace; and Capt. 160 ff. on Pistoria, Placentum, the Turdetani (in southern Spain). All of them are word plays. 50 THE FOREIGNER IN HELLENISTIC COMEDY THE FOREIGNER IN HELLENISTIC COMEDY 51 Massilia: Casina 963: ubi tu es, qui colere mores Masstlienses postulas, must, from the context, be an attack upon the wantonness of the people of Massilia.«« Carthage: naturally the Carthaginians occupy the most prominent place among those who are foreigners from the Roman standpomt. Yet there is little which ascribes to them definite charactertistics Thev are the well hated enemy of the Romans, whom the latter would like io see defeated and punished, in Cistellaria 202 : ut vobts vrcH Poem poenas suferant}^ Poenus plane est, Poenulus 113, has the same implication as Punica fides, the characteristic trait of the Cartha- ginians in Roman eyes.- Bisulci lingua in 1034 is a thrust at the treachery of the Carthaginians. Hanno's character as drawn by Plautus.in the Poenulus does not appear in an unfavorable light, though he is treated with scorn by the soldier and with impudence by the slave before his identity is known.*' » In agreement with this are .\then. 523 c: Ma/e romische Privatalter turner p. 223. ^ Saglio in Darem. et Sag. ^. v. machaera. 8 Pauly's Real-Encyclopddie s.v. zona, p. 2883. ^ Becker Charicles III 263. Hesych. says: Treraaos, to t^v e Xe^ts rg BoL03TO)v StaXe/crw. Anonymous 667 reads /^otwrtdfeti/ c/xa^es. It is likely, from the meaning of the main verb, that the infinitive means 'to speak Boeotian' rather than 'to play the Boeotian.'^ Megarian: The Megarian dialect is used only in Acharnians 729-835. Ionic: in Peace 46-48 an Ionian is represented as speaking m his own dialect. In 930 of the same play the form 61 is made fun of as being Ionic. It is generally admitted that the lonism consists in^the word's being dissyllabic.'* Regarding barbarians there is no clear case of the use of their native tongues in Greek comedy. The verse pronounced by Pseud- artabas, Acharnians 100, lapranav e^ap^ avaTnaaovai car pa, which is intended to be taken as Persian, comes the nearest to it. Commenta- tors in general consider it nonsense;^ yet the first two words contribute 2 Von Salis De Doriensiiim Ludorum in Comoedia Attica Vestlgiis p. 22 says of the passage: poeta medicis alludit qui alieno utuntur scrmone ideoque aegris credtdioribus admirationem sui ac profundae scientiae suae inicere solent. He adds immediately: iam vero Cratetem videmus comoediae antiquae poctam medicum inducere, qui artificia sua invalido cuidam commendare videtur dorice loquens: frag. 41 dXXd aiKvav Trori^aXw tol, KavaraXi]^ Awoaxaao}. Thus Meineke and Keck think. The fact that Aristotle Poetics 1449 b brings Crates into connection with Epicharmus and Doric comedy would favor the opinion of von Salis. But the point has not been proved. Laconian and other Doric forms are found among the fragm. as follows: anonym. 1372; Hermippus 80, 96; Eupolis 138, 444; Telecleides 57; Aristoph. 769; Epicrates 9. 3 Aristoph. fr. 726 is 6 wiTTonaL, on which Photius says tovto BoiUiTiov. 4 For other Ionic forms see Aristoph. 450, 934; Ameipsias 18; Eupolis 426. 6 V. Leeuwen ad loc. says: verba vere persica inde efficere inque integrant senten- tiam coniungere velle, id cum ratione insanire est profecto. Starkie, however, dissents from the common opinion: "elsewhere (^^j. 1678 sq., Thesm. 1082 sq.) in the case of barbarians, Aristoph. supplies them with vulgar and ungrammatical Greek, which is easily intelligible, and indeed probably differed little from the the parts of 'Apra^ep^Tjs, and the last is near to aaTpairrjs, which would make it sound to the average hearer like Persian. Starkie says (on Ach. 100) that Persian was as familiar to the Athenian at this time as French was to the Englishman in the time of Elizabeth. The sham-Persian resorts, however, to vulgar Greek^ in 104. In many instances foreigners are not differentiated as members of a particular race, but are merely marked as ^kvoL or ^ap^apot, or as talking like barbarians. Birds 199, 200 says: tyo) yap avTovs, fiap- ^apovs ouras Tpo rod / kdida^a rr]P (poovqv, ^vvoiv iroKvv xP^vov. The natural inference is that Greeks did not think of barbarians as possessing the use of human language.'' Frogs 679 x^tXfo-tv ap.ipi\a\ois refers to talk that is half Greek, half barbarian. Frogs 682, 83 6p27Kta x^^tScbj/ k-KL ^ap^apov e^opikvr] irkraKov / ^v^€l 5' eTrlKKavTOu aribovLov vofjLov, compares by implication the speech of barbarians to the sounds of a swallow.^ ol de ^ap^apoi Oeol / ireivCiVTes ojawep 'IWvpLol KeKpiyoTes, Birds 1520, 21, assigns another inarticulate sound to barbarian speech.^ Hyperbolus is ridiculed as a barbarian on account of his pronunciation, Plato 168. He did not talk Attic Greek, ov yap dialect heard in Athenian streets, in the mouths of slaves and uneducated people; but nowhere with mere gibberish, as commentatorf: believe the present line to be." Cf. Starkie Ach. excursus III, where he maintains that the line is perfect Old Persian. V. Leeuwen regards the first word of the Triballian god, va^aKTarptv, Birds 1615, as inanis vox, rather than in the Triballian tongue, since there would be no one at Athens who would understand Triballian. Cf. Suidas s.v. ^a^aKarped. A third possibility would be vulgar Greek, and it is so understood by some scholars. « The Triballian god, Birds 1628, 1678 ff., and the Scythian ro^orTys, Thesm. 1001-1228 (end), obviously talk vulgar Greek, with no suggestion of their native tongues. There is a difference between them in that the Triballian is strictly a foreigner, while the Scythian policeman was a recognized feature of Athenian life and was not thought of as so clearly a foreigner. A fairly close analogy would be our Irish policeman, with his brogue, who passes as one type of American. ^ Cf. Soph. Antigone 1001, 1002: ayvQ)T' olkovw ^oq. is used; in 819 ^ap^apov yXccaaav, also in Soph. Ajax. 1262. ^Cf. Birds 1681, 1293; Frogs 93 (with V. Leeuwen's note) and 681; Aesch. Agam. 1050. ' V. Leeuwen ad loc. understands KeKptyores to be used of such a sound as that of birds or bats. 64 THE FOREIGNER IN HELLENISTIC COMEDY THE FOREIGNER IN HELLENISTIC COMEDY 65 ilTTLKitev; for bLr)T(!ciJLr]v and oMyov he said d'pTcc^'nv and oXlov}^ Plato the comic poet says that he is a Lydian, according to the scholiast on Lucian Timon 30 Rabe's edition, p. US-i^On the wordM^a, Euphron 3 line 1, Athenaeus 503 a comments: tovs 5' 'Attlkovs Kai Koin^hdv tov \pvyea cos ^eviKov 6vo/xa.^^ In Roman comedy the most important passage is that in Poenidus 930-49. It continues at intervals up to 1027. It is generally regarded as belonging to the Punic tongue, one of the slight bits to survive the destruction of Punic civilization. It possesses no Latin elements.i^ Two hits against the vernacular of Praeneste are found in Roman comedy, one in Trucidentus 690, 91, where it is said that conea is the 10 Herodianus II 926, 5: nXdrcji' tikvToi 6 Ko^ntKds h 'Tttcp/SoX^ duwai^e riju 8.vev TOV y xp^o-ii' ws ^ap^apov. Cf. Etym. Magnum 621, 51. " Hermippus 11 Kal rdptxos ivlova and 12 Sokuco are considered by Meineke and Kock to have been spoken by the mother of Hyperbolus, both indicating her foreign origin. Cf . Mein. Hist. Crit. p. 94. 12 In Aristoph. 79 KeKpa^ovrai ri ^ap^apLarl there is no intimation who is referred to. Other fragments of Uttle or no value, because it is impossible to deter- mine by whom they were spoken, are as follows: Antiph. 32 Xeii/^as ; Hermippus 66 dTreSTjMTjKores ; EupoUs 441 crd^as ; Euphron 3 line 2; Eupolis 287 Kara/cXieT ; Philip- pides 36 Kopaa^op (on which see Photius 369, 26 s.v. TraibiaKkpiop.) Meineke and Kock speculate both on these and on most of the fragments previously mentioned, but their speculations appear to have little foundation. In the Oxyrhyn. Pap. Ill pp. 44 ff . there is an interesting fragment of some length, of a farce, the scene of which is laid on the Indian coast. A barbarian kmg and several others talk in an unknown tongue, which Grenfell and Hunt op. cit. p 43 regard as to a large extent imaginary, though they think it may include some non-Hellenic elements. Cf . their note on 1. 83. The one first-hand critical study of this papyrus on the Unguistic side is by Hultzsch ''Zum Papyros 413 aus Oxyrhynchos" in Hermes 39 (1904) pp. 307-11. He thinks there is no doubt that the author of the piece was familiar with and employed the specific Indian dialect of Kanara. This passage would appear to be similar to the mock-Persian passage in Ach. 100. Crusius considers that the date of composition of the farce was somewhat earUer than the Roman period, though he does not regard it as a product of the better Hellenistic age. 13 G. Hennen De Hannonis in Poenulo Plautina Precationis quaeferhir Recen- sione Altera Punica (1882) names 69 titles of works running through the period of two and a half centuries up to 1873, which treat the Punic passage in the Poenulus. Cf. also Soltau "Zur Erklarung der in punischer Sprache gehaltenen Reden des Hanno" Berl. Stud. Band X (1889); J. Gildemeister in Goetz-Loewe's ed. of the Poen. pp. XV to XX; Ussing ed. of Poen. (in vol. IV part 2 pp. 336-41); Lindsay Class. Review (1898) p. 361 ff. on the matter of text. word used in Praeneste for ciconia a stock; the other in Trinummus 609 where tarn modo is used for modo}^ The extent of the use of foreign dialect may be inferred from the preceding statement of facts. It is considerable in Aristophanes, though the bulk of it appears in two plays, the Lysistrata and the Acharnians. The fragments of the Old Comedians, especially Her- mippus, Eupolis, and Aristophanes, frequently contain dialect forms, whereas there are relatively few among the fragments of New Com- edy. In Terence there are none; in Plautusthe two hits at an Italian town are of pure Roman invention. The Punic passage will be dis- cussed later. In general, we may say, the use of strange dialect was common in Old Comedy; in Hellenistic comedy it does not appear to be very common, though here the nature of the evidence is such that it is Unsafe to generalize. The question how far the poets strove for realism in the employ- ment of foreign dialect is one which admits of only approximate solution. Not only must the manuscripts (in the case of Aristo- phanes) be taken into account, and the evidence of Athenaeus, Hesy- chius, Suidas. Photius, and the other writers who quote Aristophanes, but also the extant inscriptions of the specific localities represented. As yet no study has appeared which has thoroughly established, on scientific principles, whether Aristophanes aimed at exact reproduc- tion of the dialects of Sparta, Megara, and Boeotia when he mtroduced characters from those places in the Lysistrata and the Acharnians}''* It is highly probable, on a priori grounds, that Aristo- " Festus (Lindsay p. 492) says: tammodo antiqui ponebant pro modo. In Ribbeck Com. Rom. Fragm.^ Titinius 1. 104 is found the following verse: Qui Obsce et Volsce fabulantur: nam Latine nesciunt. But the context is lacking and the subject of fabulantur cannot be known. " Elliott Ach. excursus III pp. 216-40 takes up in detail the three non- Attic dialects. He concludes that in the case of the Megarian Aristoph. was as a rule correct, but that he has used not a few incorrect forms, chiefly for metrical pur- poses, but partly apparently through ignorance; and that when he had to choose between a Meg. form and a joke he chose the latter, without allowing it to trouble him, even though he knew better. Elliott considers the Boeotian dialect to be used with less accuracy than the Meg., partly due perhaps to the greater contempt he felt for the Boetian rustics, which led him to take less pains with their dialect. The Laconian is treated with more care, in Elliott's opinion, than either of the others, for the reason that it formed a larger element in the Lysistrata than did Meg. or Boeotian in the Ach. Cf. on this dialect problem V. Leeuwen's notes on Thesm. 1001, on the Hngo of the Scythian. 66 THE FOREIGNER IN HELLENISTIC COMEDY THE FOREIGNER IN HELLENISTIC COMEDY 67 phanes did not write the pure dialects of Sparta, Megara, and Boeotia, when he introduced characters from those places in the Lyststrata and the Achamians}' He doubtless could have obtained accurate information regarding the details of a given dialect had he taken the trouble to do so. Though the textual question will not be taken up, it is in order to sav that the manuscripts are in harmony with the above general notion of what we should expect Aristophanes to write; and an extensive amount of emendation, even where the readings conform to metrical rules, would be necessary in order to make the dialects pure. We have seen that in Hellenistic comedy dialect does not appear to have been used frequently in the case of a foreigner It may be said, on the other hand, that Aristophanes put mto the mouths of the foreigners in his plays a lingo which sounded non- Attic to his audience, and which was intended to convey to the Athen- ians the impression that the foreigners spoke their own languages or dialects. . i j • What was the purpose of the dramatists in employmg the device of strange dialect? There is no trace of downright animosity. Con- tempt, ridicule, and a sense of the superiority of the Attic dialect appear. The condescending attitude is plain in the Boeotian and Megarian scenes in the Acharnians. The Athenian feelmg of super- iority over the Thessalian in the language he speaks is shown m Posidippus 28, where a Thessalian resents the presumption of an i« Elliott Ach. excursus III pp. 213-16 gives an excellent discussion suc- cessfully refuting the fundamental assumption of some editors that Anstopti must have written the pure dialects. Blaydes works on that ^^^^J^f^^^^^ Schneider, De dialecto Megarica p. 18, states the general prmciple that Anstoph. could not have palmed off a mixture as Megarian upon the Athemans as the latter had continuous association with the Megarians. Elliott /^caf. illustrates at length from modern writers the fact that dialect is not faitW^Uy reproduced. He quotes from George Eliot: 'It must be borne in mind that my inclination to be as close as I could to the rendering of dialect both in words and spelling was constantly checked by the artistic duty of being generally intelligible." Cf. Rogers Introd. to Ach. pp. xlvi, xlvu; Commentary 115; Commentary on Lys. 12, 13. ^■> Legrand Daos p. 327 says that there is more realism in the language of New Comedy than in that of the preceding age. But, so far as our evidence goes, this is untrue of the language of the foreigner, since the playwright in the latter period rarely has a foreigner talk his own language or dialect. Athenian that his Greek is the standard. ^^ Hesychius remarks on ^wcr/xara, Aristonymus 9, that the Boeotian dialect was made fun of. Hyperbolus was satirized as a barbarian for his pronunciation in Plato 168. There is contempt in the use of such a word as KeKpLyoresj Birds 1521, referring to human speech among the lUyrians; in teach- ing the barbarians language. Birds 199, 200; and in comparing their talk to the sounds of birds. Frogs 682, 83. The nonsense va^aLcarpev in Birds 1615 makes the Triballian god ridiculous. The same thing may be said of the mock-Persian in the Acharnians when he speaks in line 100. The most frequent and obvious purpose is to get a humorous take-off on the foreigner, Greek or barbarian, to raise a laugh at his expense. In some cases, however, the attitude of the poet seems to be even favorable and sympathetic, as in the Spartan passages in the Lysistrata. Aristophanes, who strongly favored peace, could not be otherwise minded toward Lampito, who speaks in 81 ff., the Spartan herald 980 ff., the Spartan ambassador 1076 ff., and the Laconian who sings 1242 ff. For they were all on the side of peace. Yet their talk was no doubt intended to be amusing to the audience. The lines spoken by a chance Ionian at the theatre in Athens, Peace 47, 48, are primarily for humorous effect. The two references to Praeneste in Truculentus 690, 91 and Trinummiis 609 serve the purpose of delighting the audience with satirical thrusts at the dialect usage of a town of which Rome held no high opinion. ^^ It is more difficult to account for a passage like the talk of Hanno in the Poenulus. It is highly improbable that at Rome there was sufficient knowledge of the Punic language^^ to make it possible for the hearers to understand a passage, even to a small extent, when there was no admixture of Latin words. The only thing in any way similar to it is the speech of the mock-Persian in Achar- ^* 'EXXds txkv iari fxia, 7r6Xeis 5^ T\eiov€S' cv fikv drrt/ctfas, ^vW Slv ipojvfiv \kyri^ axnov TLvks, ol 5' "'S.W'nve^ eXXrjvL^onev. tL Tpoadiarpi^oip T)e, 18; the object of ridicule, 8, 15, 16, 17, 21, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 38, 41, 43, 45, 46, 48, 51, 60, 63, 66, 67; treated differently in Old and New Comedy, 27, 28, 69, 85 Greek tragedy and the foreigner, 16 ff. Historical background of the foreigner in comedy, 20, 29, 51, 53 Impostor or mock-foreigner theme, 69, 70 ff. Ionia, 23, 27, 62 Kidnapping theme, 70, 78 ff., 84 Lampsacus, 52 Law, disadvantage of a foreigner before the. 80 ff. • Legality of marriage between a foreigner and a citizen, 76, 81, 82 Lerians, 52 Lesbos, 23, 27 Lost-relative theme, 70, 78 ff., 82, 83 Lydia, 25, 27, 47, 52, 64 Macedonia, 43 Maison and tettix, their significance, 13, 14 Mantinea, 32 Massilia, 50, 52 Megara, 22, 27, 40, 62, 65, 66 Modern comedy, the foreigner an object of satire in, 7, 8 Mores of the foreigner in Hellenistic comedy, chap, iii Myconus, 42, 51 Mysia, 52 86 INDEX 87 Odomanti, 24 Persia, 24, 45, 62, 63 Persian passage in the Acharnians, 62, 63 Pharsalians, 32 Phoenicia, 44, 45 Phrygia, 25, 27, 47, 52 Political background of comedy in the various periods, 11, 12 Political, social, and legal status of the foreigner at Athens, 8, 9 Pontus, 47 Praeneste, 48, 64, 65, 67 Punic passage in the Poenulus, 64, 67, 68 Recognition theme, 69, 70, 72, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84 Rhegium, 52 Sardis, 47 Scythia, 37 Seduction theme, 70, 75 ff. Sicily, 37 Sparta, 21, 27, 38, 39, 51, 61, 65, 66, 67 Sunium, 44 Sybaris, 34, 51 Syracuse, 23, 27 Syria, 45, 46, 49 Terms for foreigner defined: ^ap^apos, 9; eKTOTTtos, 9, 10; ^evos, 10; barbarus, 10; hospes, 10, 11; peregrinus, 11 Thasos, 52 Thessaly, 22, 33, 34, 66 Thrace, 46, 52 Triballians, 25, 27, 63, 67 Tunica manuleata, 54, 55, 56, 57