COLUMBIA LIBRARIES OFFSITE HEALTH SCIENCES STANDARD 1 " ' ' " ' '~*~ '•^ : HX64098583 QP41 .Sm6 Syllabus of a course RECAP \':V: : yt ' ■ JKB».?'Stw:::-: ■ JBBBg '•'■''■' ''■••'-■'■■•••• ' ■':'■'■ ^-i ; '.::, ■'■'■"■ '■"'■ Sffl§raff$j^SS!n \ ' SYLLABUS OF A COURSE OF LECTURES ON PHYSIOLOGY DELIVERED AT GUY'S HOSPITAL. BY P. H. PYE-SMITH, B.A., M.D., F.R.C.P., Physician to the Hospital. WITH DIAGRAMS AND AN APPENDIX OF NOTES AND TABLES. LONDON: J. & A. CHURCHILL, ii NEW BURLINGTON STREET 1885. PREFACE. The following pages are the outlines of lectures given at Guy's Hospital during the last ten years, with additions which each year has made necessary. The Diagrams and the Tables in the Appendix are also part of what have been used in the same Course. In following the example of the late Dr. Alfred Swayne Taylor — one of the best lecturers I ever heard — at Guy's, and of Dr. Burdon Sanderson at University College, I have endeavoured to make the syllabus useful to students, as a help in their systematic reading and self-examination ; and also to those who have passed the earlier stages of studentship, in recalling the more important outlines of the " Institutes of Medicine." I have also, I trust successfully, endeavoured to make it useless to any one who may try, "for the purpose of examination," to substitute hasty and ill-digested reading for slowly and practically acquired knowledge. In case any fellow-lecturer on Physiology should glance at these pages, I may perhaps add that increasing experience in teaching has led me to diminish every year the number of facts taught, and to spend more and more time in the full explana- tion and repeated statement of those which are most essential. Results of analysis, and other numerical statements, are best given in tables hung up to be copied. Most experiments are best performed by, or in presence of, a limited number of students in laboratory classes, such as I have held every summer session. But in every course of lectures on physiology there should find place some few fundamental experiments — such as demonstration of digestive processes, of Blood-pressure and the action of the Heart, of the nervous regulation of the Cir- culation and Respiration, and of the simpler functions of Muscle and Nerve. Easily seen demonstrations of a few of the most important physical and chemical properties of the organs are IV PREFACE. also extremely useful. But these all need to be carefully led up to and fully explained. Lastly, I would urge the value of rough, and if possible, home-made models or "tangible dia- grams " of the structure of muscle and nerve fibres, of blood- disks, of the ovum and embryo, of the eye and internal ear, of the course of fibres in the brain and cord, of the mechanism of the thorax, and of the circulation — from a leaden tube to an elaborate " schema." On the principle of fulness rather than multiplicity, I have been in the habit of prefacing the account of each group of organs by a brief notice of their development and compara- tive anatomy, and also of admitting some historical details into the exposition of such fundamental doctrines as the Conserva- tion of Energy, the Coagulation of the Blood, the Circulation, Oxydation and Bespiration, Secretion, Animal Temperature, and Embryology. By exhibiting the works and, when possible, the portraits of eminent physiologists, and by reading original passages from such authors as Harvey, Mayow, Hales, Bichat, Magendie, Marshall Hall, Johannes Muller, Bernard, Lndwig, or Helmholtz, personal interest may be given to dry discus- sions ; and the results of science will be all the better under- stood if the process by which they were reached is, however imperfectly, followed. I have been reminded of intelligent and responsive audiences and of valued laboratory assistants, while writing out these pages. They may perhaps serve to recall not unwelcome memories to some of those who have now become my fellow- students in the still wider and more engrossing field of Medicine. HARLEi' STHKET, December, 1884. CONTENTS. SYLLABUS OF LBOTUEES. Introductory: Definitions — Kelations of Physiology to other Sciences and to Medicine — Methods General Construction of the Body Its Chemical Constituents Its Physiological Elements and their Functions . A. Nutrition — Food — Digestion Absorption and Bloodmaking .... Circulation of the Blood ..... Inspiration — the Voice ..... Excretion and Secretion ..... Eeview of Nutritive Changes — Balance of Material B. The Work of the Body— Balance of Energy— Temperatur The Nervous System ...... The Special Senses ...... C. .Reproduction and Development .... i 5 7 12 19 22 25 29 33 3* 4i 43 4 S 55 APPENDIX. The term " Physiology " Classification of the Sciences . Characters of the Organic Kingdom Distinctive Characters of Animals and Plants Anatomical Characters Peculiar to Man . 6. Definitions of Disease .... 7. Observations and Experiments upon Oneself 8. The Conservation of Energy . The Branchial Arches, Clefts and Nerves . Table of the Bones with their Homologues Table of the Chemical Elements of the Body Table of the Proximate Principles of the Body 9- 10. 11. 12. 61 62 64 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 73 74 VI CONTENTS. 13. Table of the Reactions of the Principal Carbohydrates 14. Pfliiger's Table 15. Physical Laws affecting Absorption 16. Comparison of Lymph, Chyle and Blood . 17. Physical Laws affecting the Circulation . 18. Table of Events in a Cardiac Cycle 19. Statistics of the Circulation .... 20. Physical Laws affecting Eespiration 21. Statistics of Respiration .... 22. Table of the English Vowels .... 23. Table of the Consonants .... 24. Comparative Wasting of the Organs in Starvation 25. The Material Balance of the Body in Health . 26. Table of the Relative Energy available from various Foodstuffs 27. The Balance of Energy ..... 28. Outgoings of Energy in the Form ot Heat 29. Table of Temperatures ..... 30. The Centres and Commissures of the Nervous Syste 31. Physical Properties of Light .... 32. Physical Properties of Sound .... 33. Varieties of Segmentation .... 34. Chronology of the Chick in the Egg . ' . 35. Chronology of the Foetus in Utero . 36. General Statistics of the Human Body. Total weight — Propor tions of Water, of Salts, of Fat — Weight of Organs 37. Table of British Weights and Measures . 38. Table of Centigrade Weights and Measures 39. Relations of British and Centigrade Tables 40. Relations of Fahrenheit and Centigrade Scales 41. Lists of Important Names and Dates in the History of Physio logy : viz. I. Of Anatomy ....... II. Of Histology III. Of Plrysiological Chemistry .... IV. Of the Progress in Knowledge of the Nutritive Func tions ........ V. Of the Functions of the Nervous System . VI. Of Development PAGE 76 77 78 78 79 80 81 82 82 83 84 86 86 87 87 88 89 90 9i 9i 92 93 95 96 99 100 100 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 LIST OF DIAGBAMS. I. The Digestive Apparatus. II. Incomings and Outgoings during Digestion. III. Absorption. IV. The Systemic Circulation. V. The Nerve-Centres which regulate tho Circulation. VI. The Principal Nerves which regulate the Circulation. VII. The Apparatus of Respiration. VIII. The Respiratory Mechanism of the Thorax. IX. The Respiratory System of Nerves. X. The Vocal Apparatus. XI. The Mechanism of Secretion. XII. Nervous Regulation of Secretion. XIII. The Balance of Material. XIV. The Balance of Energy. XV. The Elementary Nervous Combinations, XVI. The Projection System, SYLLABUS OF LECTURES ON PHYSIOLOGY. INTKODUCTOKY. Physiology : "The Science of the Functions of Living Creatures " (see Note i in Appendix for the origin and use of the word). Science : Knowledge ; exact knowledge • measurable knowledge. Natural Science. Natural History and Civil History. Natural History and Natural Philosophy. " De- scriptive " and " Rational " Sciences. Observation and experiment. Facts and events. Sequence of events. Causal relation of events. Classification of the Natural Sciences (see Note 2 in Appendix). Comte's ; Spencer's; relation of Physiology to Anatomy (structure and function), to Chemistry and Physics (physical and vital actions). Function : action ; movement ; duty : use. The utility of " organs " or instruments ; what each does ; how it does it ; how organs and functions have been reciprocally developed. Living beings : Life, a popular, not a scientific term ; ambiguous; "the condition of organized creatures," or, "the supposed cause of this condition." Living things B 2 LECTUEES ON PHYSIOLOGY. organized ; organisms ; distinctive characters of organic and inorganic bodies (see Table in Appendix, No. 3). Hitman Physiology : its relation to general Biology, to Vegetable and " Comparative " Animal Physiology ; distinc- tive characters of animal and vegetable organisms (see Table 4). Distinctions between man and lower animals {Note 5). Normal Physiology : its relation to pathology or morbid physiology ; Health and Disease, popular, not scientific, terms. {Note 6). General Human Physiology : its relation to the actual physiology (and pathology) of each individual ; to the phy- siology of sex ; of infancy, youth and age ; of race and occupation. The ideal physiological man. Material Physiology : its relation to Psychology. Con- sciousness ; body and mind ; limitation of physiology as a natural science. The study of the bodily functions of healthy human BEINGS. Relation of Physiology to Medicine : the Institutes of Medicine. Pathology, or the study of the bodily functions under injury or disturbance. A corresponding knowledge of the functions under the action of drugs and other remedies would make a complete scientific basis for the practice of medicine. Methods of Physiology : Observation and experiment — i.e., observation under purposely varied conditions. Direct observation — e.g., of movements of glottis in speech by laryngoscope ; of stomach during digestion, by a fistula ; of mammalian heart exposed during artificial respiration \ of muscle of frog after removal from body. Experiments upon man or animals by varying food, exercise, temperature, &c. — e.g., excretion of urea. Accidental experiments made on man by injury or by disease. Designed experiments on the lower animals involving injury. Im- portance of direct experiments on man when practicable and harmless {Note 7). Difficulties of interpreting the experi- INTRODUCTORY. 3 ments made by disease. So-called vivisection ; its necessity and justification • its safeguards and limits. Life and Vital Force: Mutual dependence of structure and function. .E.g., movement performed by a muscle ; muscular tissue produced by growth, nutrition, differentiation. Power of growth and movement dependent on the properties of protoplasm ; this derived from preceding living parent. Omne vivum ex ovo ; seeds and eggs ; equivocal generation ; Redi ; modern experiments. Origin of living protoplasm and of vital functions as unknown (and probably unknowable) as the origin (or mode of creation) of matter and of force. " Explaining" phenomena means referring them to already known causes. In this sense vital force is now explained. It is the chemical force of attraction which keeps together the elements of food. This latent energy becomes kinetic under suitable stimuli, in the forms of mechanical movement (of muscles, cilia, &c.) and of heat (vital warmth) ; with less important transformations into electro-motive energy (e.g., Gymnotus) or radiant light (e.g., JSfoctiluca). Correlation of forces ; conservation of energy (Note 8) . Animals derive their " vital force " from plants : plants theirs from the rays of the sun ; chlorophyll ; fixation of carbon. Animals expend the stored energy of food in move- ment. Plants also expend energy in growth, reproduction, and, to a limited extent, in heat and in motion, e.g., cilia, Mimosa puclica, slow geotropic movements ; but their chief function is storing food and energy, making starch from carbonic dioxide and water, and converting kinetic solar energy into latent chemical energy. Hence the chemical differences between animals and plants ; the leaves and roots of the one kingdom, the stomachs of the other; and the presence of special instru- ments of movement in animals alone. (See Table 4.) In both kingdoms the living functions may be grouped as follows : — B 2 4 LECTUEES ON PHYSIOLOGY. i. Nutritive, including growth, assimilation, decay, and death. 2. Reproductive : formation of buds, ova, sperm-cell; fer- tilization, and detachment of the new organism. . Functions of relation by which the organism is acted on by surrounding objects and reacts upon them. Irritability; manifested in sensation and in movement. The two former kinds of activity are as much developed in plants as in animals, and may therefore be called " vegeta- tive f the last is distinctively (though not exclusively) " animal." The first and last are for the maintenance of the individual ; the second is for the maintenance of the race. The first is storing of matter and of energy ; the latter two are the ex- pending functions. THE GENERAL CONSTRUCTION OF THE BODY. All animal and vegetable structures made of cells and their products. Cell (corpuscle, plastid) — original meaning ; the vegetable vesicle of Grew, the cell of Schleiden, the animal cell of Schwann: "cell-wall, cell- contents, nucleus;" solid cells, naked cells. Protoplasm (Von Mohl, Reichert, Max Schultze), structureless, granular, reticulated ; albuminous, with water and salts, particularly phosphates : power of growth, nutrition, irritability, movement, reproduction. Def. Cell : a minute mass of nucleated living protoplasm. Origin of all the tissues from the germ-cell or ovum ; the morula or mass of segmentation cells ; the hollow blastoderm ; its three layers, upper, lower, and mid-most, called epi-, hypo-, and meso-blast, or ecto-, endo-, and meso-derm. Comparison of this development of the organism from the ovum (Ontogeny) with the evolution of the more complex from the simplest organisms (Phylogeny). The uni-cellular Protozoa. Colonies ; mouth ; Gastrcea ; blastopore ; differentiation from one into two layers (endo- and ecto-derm) by dilaminatioii, by invagination ; formation of body cavity (coelom) and mesoderm in Coelenterata ; forma- tion of anus. Elongated form ; sense organs; head; move- ment ; bilateral symmetry. Segmentation ; somites ; serial symmetry, in worms, insects, vertebrates. Limbs in sym- metrical pairs, limited to two pairs in Yertebrata ; tail, a swimming organ; legs, wings, and hands. Dorsal position of nervous system in Vertebrata. Fore, mid, and hind gut ; primitive symmetry of stomach, liver, heart ; vascular arches with branchial clefts, and aorta {Note 9). Nephridia, Wolffian bodies and kidneys. 6 LEOTUEES ON PHYSIOLOGY. Homology of the vertebrate skeleton. Centra • neural arches ; visceral or body-arches ; central axis ; neural and oral arches of skull ; splint bones ; hyoid and branchial skeleton. Limbs : shoulder-girdle and pelvis ; distal segments. (See Table of Bones with their Homologues. Note 10.) ■' 7 ^ THE CHEMICAL CONSTITUTION OF THE BODY. Elements. — Organic Chemistry, the chemistry of Carbon compounds ; combining powers of carbon. All food which supplies energy consists of carbon-compounds ; all living stuif or protoplasm of nitrogenous carbon-compounds ; hence the four most abundant and important elements of the animal body are Carbon and Nitrogen, with Oxygen and Hydrogen. Sulphur and Phosphorus : partly associated with them in living tissues, partly forming metallic sulphates and phos- phates. Chlorine and Fluorine, forming salts with metals. These metals all alkaline — viz., Sodium and Potassium, Calcium and Magnesium. Lastly, Iron, found only in haemoglobin and its derivatives. (SeeTrt&^n.) Proximate Principles. — A. Inorganic, mineral : water and salts. B. Organic, non-nitrogenous : carbohydrates and fatty compounds. C. Organic, nitrogenous : proteids and crystalline bodies {Table 12). I. Water. — More than two-thirds of the whole weight, about three-fourths o£ the soft tissues, four-fifths and upwards of the liquids, and only about one-tenth of the skeleton. Un- changed chemically in its passage through the body. Its solvent and diffusive power; relation to heat ; necessity to the colloid condition. II. Salts. — Soda salts characteristic of animal, as potash of vegetable, tissues ; NaCl more abundant in the liquids, K and phosphates more abundant in the tissues than the liquids, earthy salts more abundant in the hard parts. NaCl; Na 3 P0 4 ; Na 2 HP0 4 ; NaH 2 P0 4 ; Na 2 So 4 ; Na 2 C0 3 ; with corresponding salts of K. Ca 3 2P0 4 ; CaC0 3 ; CaF 2 , with corresponding salts of Mg. 8 LECTUEES ON PHYSIOLOGY. None changed in passage through body except from acid to neutral or alkaline or the reverse. Mechanical function in the bones and teeth ; solvent and diffusive power of crystalline salts and of alkalies in the liquids ; constant and probably essential presence cf salts, especially phosphates, in protoplasm. III. Carbohydrates : C m (H 2 0) n . — Connection through mannite with the group of polyatomic alcohols, aldehydes and ethers. Gum, lignin and cellulose, starch (granulose), and sugars (Table 13). Importance in food; scanty and transitional presence in products of digestion and in the tissues : cellulose in Tunicata ; starch granules in green Hydra ; diabetic sugar (Willis, 1660); animal starch or glycogen (Claude Bernard, i860). Glycogen, C 6 H 10 (X: properties, mode of preparation, pre- sence in liver, muscles, blood, leucocytes, placenta, and foetal tissues generally. Glycose, C 6 H 12 6 , and maltose, C 12 H 22 O n , products of digestion of starchy food ; present in traces in normal blood and probably in urine. Lactose, C 12 H 02 O u , presence in milk. Inosit, C 6 H 12 O c (Scherer), in muscles of heart and elsewhere. IV. Hydrocarbons. — Less oxidized than starches; inflam- mable; high degree of latent energy. Fats solid, and oils liquid, at ordinary temperatures. Animal and vegetable oils. All glycerides of fatty acids ; one, two, or three of the movable H-atoms in the triatomic alcohol, propyl- glycerine CgH,/" (OH) 3 being replaced by the radical of a fatty acid (Chevreuil, Berthelot). The fats of the human body (beside traces of glycerides of other fatty acids, as butyric and caproic in milk and sebum) : tripalmitin, tristearin, triolein; compounds of glycerine with the 16th and 1 8th of the acetic or " fatty " acid series (C 10 H 3O O 2 and C 18 H 3C 2 ), and with the 18th of the acrylic acid series (° .H,,0 2 ). Kefracting power ; colour ; relation to water, alcohol, ether ; fusibility, saponification. Occur, in the proportion palmi- THE CHEMICAL CONSTRUCTION OF THE BODY. 9 tin, stearin, olein, in the cells of adipose tissue and yellow marrow, and of the liver ; in chyle, in blood, in the secretions of the mammary and sebaceous glands ; and, in combination with phosphoric acid and neurin, as lecithin in the brain, nerves, bile, and blood corpuscles. V. Proteids, or albuminous group : Comp. C above half by weight, H about 7 per cent, O about 21, S -5 to 1*5, N the remainder ; constantly associated with water and with salts, some portion of which (especially of the phosphates) is inseparable ; colloid (crystalline forms ; of vegetable proteids, as aleurone-granules, of albumen (?) in minute hexagonal crystals, of hsemoglobin), non-diffusible (except peptones) ; soluble in water, or saline, or alkaline solutions ; insoluble in alcohol and ether. The three proteid colour tests : xanthoproteic with HN0 3 and a caustic alkali, violet with copper, mulberry pink with Milfoil's mercurial reagent. Decomposition into C0 2 and H o 0, and ammoniacal com- pounds as leucin, tyrosin, aspartic and glutamic acids; existence in a soluble and a coagulable form ; la^vogyrate ; insoluble compounds with tannic acid and salts of mercury and other heavy metals. Albumins. Soluble in distilled water : coagulable at 70 C. : also by strong mineral acids and by picric, tannic, and nascent ferrocyanic acid. Varieties in serum, il serum-albumins," coagulating at two or three points; in bird's eggs, "ovalbumin," and in vegetable tissues. Globulins. Soluble in saline solutions; coagulable at various temperatures ; precipitated by weak acids, as acetic, and by C0 2 , and also by saturation with neutral salts. The nearest approach to the chemical composition of living protoplasm in cells. Varieties: crystalling from the lens ; paraglobulin from serum ; fibrinogen from plasma ; fibrin ; myosin from muscle; vitellin from yelk. Alkali-albumin. Derived from all albumins or globulins; native in milk (casein) and in pulse (legumin); absent from blood. Acid-albumin a corresponding product with acids. 10 LECTURES ON PHYSIOLOGY. Peptones. Digested albumins, globulins, acid or alkali albumins ; most soluble, least readily precipitated, and least indiffusible of the proteid group. VI. Other colloid nitrogenous compounds differing more OR LESS FROM TRUE PR0TEIDS. Mucin. Soluble in alkaline solutions ; imperfect proteid reactions ; yields leucin and tyrosin. Gelatin. Soluble in warm water ; insoluble compounds with tannic acid and perchloride of mercury ; larger per- centage of N ; yields leucin and glycin. Chondrin. Soluble in warm water, precipitated by acetic acid; intermediate between mucin and gelatin. Elastin. Its great power of resisting solvent and decom- posing agents. Keratin. Its large percentage of sulphur. Lardacein, pyin, and other pathological products. Haemoglobin. Crystalline though non- diffusible ; its spec- trum ; its condition as oxidized and reduced ; its natural products, hcematoidin, bilirubin and the yellow pigments; its artificial products, hcematin and globin, hcemin, &c. Crystalline nitrogenous compounds. — Chemical com- position ascertained ; simpler derivatives of the albuminous group ; excreta. Taurin (amido-isethicnic acid) and glycin (amido-acetic acid) combined with cholic acid and sodium in bile. Leucin (amido-caproic acid) and tyrosin (oxyphenyl-amido- propionic acid) found in the urine in disease. Urea (carbamide) the chief solid constituent of the urine. Creatin (rational formula unknown, hydrated creatinin) in muscle-extract, and creatinin (C 4 H 7 N 3 0) in urine. Uric Acid (C.H 4 N 4 0,) in urine, free in disease, normally as a soda salt. Xanthin (C 5 H 4 N 4 2 ), occasionally present in urine. Hypoxanthin (C 5 H 4 N 4 0) in muscle extract. Cystin (amido-sulpholactic acid), occasionally present as urinary calculus. Hippuric acid (benzoyl-glycin ; constantly present in THE CHEMICAL CONSTRUCTION OF THE BODY. 1 1 combination with K and Na in the urine of men, and more abundant in that of purely vegetable feeders. Indol (C g H 7 N) occurs in the intestine, and indican occasion- ally, blue indigo very rarely, in the urine. & hit 'pho cyanide of jwtassium (KCNS) is always present in the saliva. ( 12 ) THE PHYSIOLOGICAL ELEMENTS OF THE BODY AND THEIR FUNCTIONS. Elementary tissues : Classification by Bichat, by Virchow. Free Cells, like uni- cellular protozoa, in animal liquids : Leucocytes, Blood-disks, Ova, Spermatozoa. Comparison of leucocytes to amoebae, of ova to encysted, and of sperm-cells to flagellate, Infusoria. Cells conjoined in Colonies — Epithelia. Classification : a. In one layer or several. h. The component cells : Size. Shape : spheroidal (poly- hedral), long (prismatic, cylindrical or columnar, conical, &c), flat (squamous, tessellated, or pavement epithelium). Edges : hexagonal, wavy, serrated or cogwheel, or " prickle- cells." Nucleus : shape, size, situation ; absent in old epi- thelium. Protoplasmic network and rods. Vacuoles : granules, oil-drops ; " signet-cells." Cilia. c. Chemical characters : Globulin, crystallirj, keratin, mucin, earthy salts, pigment. d. Origin : From epi-, hypo-, or meso-blast. e. Functions : Protective, diminishing friction, absorbent, motor, refractive, secreting. f. Pathology. Practical recognition of three principal orders of epithe- lium : — (i) Epithelium (sensu restricto). (2) Epidermis. (3) Endothelium ; intercellular {i cement." Ptesemblance between (1) and (2); relation of (3) to the following group. THE PHYSIOLOGICAL ELEMENTS OF THE BODY. 1 3 Connective Tissues : Cells with an intercellular matrix or ground-substance ; all meso-blastic. a. Fibrous tissues : Cells fusiform, stellate, flat and ob- long, winged, globular and vacuolated ; matrix of white or yellow fibres. Varieties : White fibrous and yellow elastic tissue mingled in different proportions and arranged in wavy bundles, parallel lines, and laminae, felted or reticular. Eelation to lymphatic spaces and to endothelium. Areolar, or connective tissue proper. Adipose tissue, with large signet-cells filled with oil : fat and yellow marrow. Corneal tissue. Neuroglia. Gelatinous (myxomatous or cedematous foetal) connective tissue. Retiform (lymphatic or cytogenic) tissue. b. Cartilage : Cells oval, in alveoli, loculi, lacunae or cap- sules of the matrix ; matrix various ; yields chondrin. Varieties : Embryonic or cellular ; scanty matrix. Hyaline or alveolar ; granular or glassy matrix. White fibro-cartilage ; few cells. Yellow elastic or reticular fibro-cartilage ; felted matrix. c. Calcified : Varieties : Bone : cells oval, stellate ; matrix fibrous, petrified. Peculiar arrangement in Haversian systems; where nutrition is from periosteum, this arrangement absent and why. Dentine or ivory : cells in pulp cavity with processes in dentine tubules ; intercellular matrix. Note. — Connection of these apparently dissimilar tissues ; in essential structure, in chemical products (gelatin, chondrin, and mucin), in derivation from mesoblast, in functions (chiefly mechanical with important exceptions in adipose and cytogenic tissues), in pathology ; substituted one for the other in de- velopment, in comparative anatomy, and in disease and repair. 14 LECTURES ON PHYSIOLOGY. Higher tissues : more differentiated ; the constituent cells no longer obvious ; muscle and nerve. Muscle : consists of fibres, with nuclei representing cells ; yields myosin ; has the power of contraction carried to per- fection. Varieties : Unstriated or "smooth," or "involuntary" muscular fibre ; narrow, flattened, pale nucleated fibres, and constituent fusiform muscle-cells ; slow contraction. /3. Cardiac fibres : Imperfectly striated, anastomosing, broad fibres, resolvable into short, oblong, nucleated muscle-cells. y. Striated, striped or "voluntary" fibres. Size J by _i._ inch. Transverse, alternate dim and bright stria?, sarco- lemma, nuclei, sarcous elements (or muscle prisms, or muscle rods), united by interstitial cement into fibrillae (elements in file) and disks (elements in rank) ; Goodfellow's and Dobie's dark line (Krause's so-called membrane) dividing bright striae ; its interpretation. Appearance with polarized light, singly (aniso-tropic), and doubly (iso-tropic) refracting parts ; effect of reagents ; appearances during contraction and stretch- ing ; cause of the striation. Fibres bound together by connective tissue (endomysium) into bundles (fasciculi), these surrounded by more connective (perimysium), which separates the fasciculi (septa), and invests the whole muscle (fibrous sheath or fascia propria). Blood- vessels, with oblong meshes, and saccular dilatations ; lym- phatics, nerves, interstitial fat, form, with the white and yellow connective fibres, the stroma of a muscle. Tendons : Structure ; connection with muscular fibres and with bone. Physical properties of living muscle at rest : transparent ; red with a pigment identical with, or closely allied to, haemo- globin ; elastic (very distensible, and recovers almost per- fectly; curve of elasticity); alkaline; "natural" electrical current. Chemical constituents : water ; salts, especially K & P ; pigment (haemoglobin), glycogen, myosin ; muscle-plasma. THE PHYSIOLOGICAL ELEMENTS OF THE BODY. 1 5 Muscular contraction : not coagulation of myosin or " ino- gen ; " comparable to amoeboid, ciliary and flagellate motion. Phenomena of contraction : the blood-vessels dilate • each fibre becomes shorter and broader ; bulk not changed ; more distensible ; small amount of heat evolved ; negative varia- tion of current of rest ; chemical changes ; C0 2 produced (even in N) ; reaction becomes acid, C 3 H 6 3 ; alcoholic extractives increased ; bruit musculaire. Method of registering a muscular contraction ; the muscle- curve ; time of each part ; latent period ; double stimula- tion. Tetanus ; its curve. Effects of resistance, as raising a weight, on contraction. The source of muscular energy ; means of measuring the work done ; degree of contraction in frog's muscle, in human. Length, the measure of possible range ; cross-section or number of fibres, of possible strength. Effect of contraction on hollow cavities (bladder, heart), or cylinders (intestine, bronchus, artery), or openings (iris, pylorus); effect where both ends are movable (arytamoideus); when either is movable (hamstrings) ; when one only is movable (facial muscles, masseter) ; change of direction of pull in trochlear muscles (superior oblique, obturator in- terims) ; composition of forces in penniform and bipenni- form muscles, and in muscles with a common insertion (quadriceps, iliaco-psoas). Muscles always on the stretch, not only from elasticity, but also from slight reflex contraction (" tonus"); use of muscles as elastic ligaments, capable of tightening when required. Contraction of unstriated muscle ; of red and pale striated muscles in the rabbit. Death of muscle : Coagulation of myosin ; rigor mortis j its rapidity and duration ; how distinguished from a true contraction. Nerve. — Consists of ultimate fibres of protoplasm with or without sheaths ; function, to conduct stimuli. Varieties : a. Fibres with double contour ; medullated or 1 6 LECTURES ON PHYSIOLOGY. white fibres. Continuous axis (or axis-cylinder) of fibrillated protoplasm, surrounded by white sheath of myelin yielding ordinary fats, lecithin, cholesterin, &c, and by an external structureless " primitive sheath," the neurilemma ; nodes of Ranvier, how demonstrated; nuclei; comparison of each node with a muscle-fibre -cell. /3. Non-medullated grey fibres of Remak ; axis cylinder with nuclei and neurilemma, but no myelin investment ; pro- portion to white fibres in olfactory nerves, in sympathetic branches, in optic, and in spinal nerves. Fibres bound together by connective tissue (endoneurium) into bundles (funiculi), these united together in large nerve-trunks by perineurium, which invests the whole as a remarkably strong fibrous sheath (formerly called 11 neurilemma"). Scanty blood-vessels. Chemical constituents : Water, salts (especially phosphates), fatty matter, protagon, lecithin, cholesterin, and globulin. Physical properties of living nerve : Transparent, single contoured (the myelin being uncoagulated) with a "natural nerve current." When active — i.e., conducting — the current suffers negative variation ; with slight thermal and chemical changes (?). Effect on conductivity and irritability of moderate and gradual heat and cold, of moisture and dryness, of exhaustion, and of the passage of a weak continuous galvanic current (electrotonus ; an- and cat-electrotonus, neutral point). Stimuli to nerve (beside the physiological stimuli): mechanical from end-organs or ganglia ; thermal ; chemical (not identical with those of muscle) ; electrical (especially the induced current ; different effects of a descending or ascend- ing current, of making or breaking the current, of strength of the current ; Pfiliger's table and his law thence deduced {Table 14). Greater effect of the momentary induced (or faradic) current over the make or break of a primary (or galvanic) current. Rate of nerve conduction in motor nerves ; in afferent ; in frog, mammalia, man ; influence of fatigue, &c. THE PHYSIOLOGICAL ELEMENTS OF THE BODY. IJ Nature of nerve-current unknown ; physical or chemical. Proof that it is not an electric current. Afferent or centripetal ; efferent or centrifugal ; and com- missural or intercentral nerve fibres. Direction of current probably determined by terminal connection (comparison with telegraph wires). Peripheral terminations of nerve fibres : (i) In free ex- tremities or anastomosing loops or plexuses, after the axis cylinder has lost its medullary sheath and neurilemma, and has broken up into its constituent fibrilla — cornea, skin, between the epithelial cells. (2) In motor end-plates in striated muscle ; Doyere's de- scription in Tardigrade Crustacea, Kuhne's in lizards ; also in mammals. (3) In Pacinian bodies (Vater, Pacini, Herbet) : in the digital nerves, mesentery, corpora cavernosa, &c, and in tendons, tongue, &c. (4) In corpuscula tactus (Meissner), in end-bulbs (Krause) and their modifications : in the cutaneous papilla?, the con- junctiva, the mucosa of the genital organs, in joints, and in the tongue and beak of birds. (5) In end-organs of modified epithelium, as the rods and cones of the retina, the hair-cells of the cornea, &c. (6) In the secreting epithelium of glands. (7) In the electrical organs of the torpedo and gymnotus. Ganglia consist of a group of large nucleated cells with processes, connected with each other and with nerve-fibres, and imbedded in a ground substance of neuroglia. Ganglion cells or nerve corpuscles — size, shape, stellate, pyriform, oval, &c. ; peculiarities in the anterior cornua of the cord, the cerebellar cortex, the ganglia of the posterior nerve-roots, the several regions of the cerebral cortex, &c. Always with two processes at least. Nucleus, nucleolus, granules, sheath. Connection with nerve-fibres by an (unbranched) axis- cylinder process. 1 8 LEOTUEES ON PHYSIOLOGY. Function : reception of stimuli from afferent and origination of stimuli to efferent nerves. Power of storing stimuli. Spon- taneous or automatic and reflected or reflex u explosions " of ganglion cells. Stimuli to ganglia, probably the same physical excitants as those of muscle and nerve, but during life either an afferent nerve-current (reflex) or chemical change in the afferent blood (automatic), or (by an inscrutable connection) the mental condition called Will (conscious automatic activity). Irritability of ganglia increased by heat, lowered by cold, increased by strychnia and diminished by morphia. Combination of afferent and efferent nerve and ganglion into a reflex system. (Diagr. XV. A.) Combination of ganglion with ganglion to check its action — Inhibition. (Diagr. XV. F.) ( 19 ) FUNCTIONS OF NUTKITION. These include : the Prehension, Digestion, and Absorption of food ; its conversion into Blood ; the distribution of this liquid food to the tissues by the mechanism of the Circula- tion ; the Growth of the tissues ; their Oxydation, with the Excretion of the resultant products : the subsidiary processes of Secretion by which solvent juices and waste products are separated from the lymph ; and lastly the Nervous mechan- isms which regulate and control the above processes. The study of the processes of decay and death of the tissues, and of* the organism, is part of the physiology of Nutrition ; but is for convenience relegated to the department of Morbid Physiology (Pathology) or the science of the functions in disease. Food. Inorganic food of plants absorbed from outside by the leaves or roots — Carbon from the air, Water from the soil, and Nitrogen, with Salts in solution, from the soil. Power of decomposing C0 o under sunlight by the parts contain- ing chlorophyll or leaf-green. Food of Animals. Organic compounds, with water and salts. Uses : (i) to provide and maintain the elements of the tissues, i.e., water and salts (Na, K, Ca, Mg and Fe, with Chlorides, Phosphates, Sulphates, and a trace of fluorides), the Carbon characteristic of all organic compounds, and the Nitro- gen characteristic of active and especially of animal tissues. (2) to provide energy in the form of oxydisable (i.e., com- bustible) compounds of C and H with or without N. (3) to stimulate nerves and glands. c 2 20 LECTURES ON PHYSIOLOGY. Groups of Foodstuffs. Inorganic, j I.-Water Hncombus- H-Mineral Salts {?°Xbie. j tiMe - * W n ■ |™-^ b0hydratM {*£? ] Comb „ s . Non-Nitro Organic. 1 1V.— Fats L t ^i e ^ V. — Nitrogenous : (1) Proteids. > (2) Gelatin, &c. J The first of the above objects is fulfilled by I., II., and V., which are therefore called tissue-forming ; the second by III., IV., or V., which are mutually replaceable ; the third by minute quantities of food, chiefly nitrogenous, which appear to act as drugs, by stimulating to sensation and secretion. These may be called " Adjuvants," and include : (i) Relishes — e.g., the savoury constituents of meat. (2) Condiments — e.g., salt, spices, &c. (3) Stimulants — e.g., wine, tea, &c. Result of deprivation of water — of salts — of all non-nitro- genous organic matter — of either oily or starchy food — of osmazome and other " extractives " of meat. Effects of cooking — i.e., either dry heat, or heat and moisture, or starch : on fats : on albumin, myosin, globulin, haemoglobin : on connective tissue and gelatin. Prehension : of solids ; of liquids, drinking. Digestion. The chemical process of rendering food soluble and more and less diffusible. No digestion of water and salts, which pass through the body unchanged, except in the case of salts of vegetable acids, which are excreted as carbonates. Comminution, preparatory to solution. Gizzards. Stomach-teeth : splanchno-skeleton : tooth-like structures in epiderm of certain vertebrates. Teeth. — Calcification of mucous membrane covering the jaws (pra3maxillary — maxillary — mandibular, palatal, ptery- goid, and pharyngeal teeth) : enamel or calcified epithelium ; dentine (ivory) or calcified corium ; pulp or uncalcified I. DIAGRAM OF THE DIGESTIVE APPARATUS. Upper teeth Saliva Gastric juice Bile Pancreatic juice Orbicularis oris Food O. oris Lower teeth Isthmus faucium Cardia - Pylorus Ilio-colic valve Sphincter ani Pseces To face page 20. 22 LECTURES ON PHYSIOLOGY. Passage of food through pylorus. Regurgitation. Rumina- tion. Vomiting. Post-mortem digestion of the stomach itself. Pancreatic digestion. Pancreatic secretion. Reaction, ferments. Stages of digestion. Proteids, alkali-albumin. Peptone. Part of this unchanged ("Anti-peptone "), the rest ("Henri- peptone") converted into Leucin and Tyrosin. Formation of indol and appearance of bacteria, not essential. Pancreatic digestion of starch into dextrin and maltose. Pancreatic digestion of fatty compounds by a ferment (" steapsin ") which splits them into the fatty acid and glycer- ine. Subsequent formation of soap. Small extent of this change during life : its probable significance. Formation of Emulsion by pancreatic juice, independent of a ferment. Result of digestive processes. — Chyme. Water., salts, peptones, and partially digested albuminous compounds, sugar, and fatty emulsion. The residue, dregs, or Fceces : water, insoluble salts, indi- gestible parts of food, as cellulose and elastin, undigested excess of food as starch-grains and muscle-fibres, residue of ferments, mucus, and constituents of bile. Large amount of water poured into alimentary canal during digestion and re-absorbed : the vehicle for solution and absorption. Contents less and less liquid in passage through intestine. Reaction of contents of mouth and oesophagus, alkaline; of stomach acid ; of duodenum alkaline ; then neutral and fasces usually acid. Absorption. Digested food in alimentary canal not " in the body." Two channels for its conveyance: (i) by the veins of stomach and intestines to the portal vein and liver and thence to the heart ; (2) by the lymphatics or absorbents to the thoracic duct and so to the heart. II. DIAGRAM OF THE INCOMINGS AND OUTGOINGS TO AND FROM THE ALIMENTARY CANAL. Water and salts, carbohydrates and rats, proteids "Water, salts] ferment, >. mucus J 1 ,\i Water acid '- _^ ferment ) Water, salts ferments Water, salts \ • pigment, | bile-saltB, j" &c. ) Water, ") Mucus, I Salts, Ferment /SS. ■/■? p'i&zffi'' " Mi •::."---*" ^ ft y/i !'■' ~V^nu,4su:p. y' / i ■// it /^ / /U'ST ilT J> Undigested food Water-insol. salts Remains of bile Mucus Vena porta* Ductus thoracis Recept. chyli Mes. V. m.inf. To face page 22. 24 LECTUEES ON PHYSIOLOGY. (c) Elaborated into " lymph-glands " or lympharia. Lymph corpuscles, young leucocytes : white blood- corpuscles, adult leucocytes : inflammatory or granulation corpuscles, out-wandered or emigrated leucocytes : pus- corpuscles, dead leucocytes, undergoing fatty degeneration. Red corpuscles or blood-disks. Varieties of size and shape among Vertebrata. Absence of nucleus in Mammalia. Origin from leucocytes, in embryo, in adult ; not nuclei. Transition-forms in red marrow : qu. also formed in spleen 1 Change of size and shape, loss of nucleus, loss of contractility. Stroma (cecoid) and haemoglobin (zooid). Assumption of haemoglobin. Blood. — Colour. Sp. gr. Eeaction. Microscopic characters. Gases. Water. Salines : iron. Aqueous, alcoholic, and etherial " extractives." Proteids. Coagulation. Not dependent on cooling, rest, or evapora- tion; nor on exposure to oxygen, or "vitality," or presence of red disks ; but on the assumption of the coagulated form by one of the globulin group of proteids. Observations of Hewson, Buchanan, Alex. Schmidt, Hammarsten, and Wool- dridge c Action of serum-globulin (paraglobulin or fibrino- plastin) of fibrinogen, of a ferment, of the white corpuscles. Small amount of fibrin formed. Stages of coagulation : viscid condition, solid blood : contracting clot, serum. * In- fluence of temperature, movement, contact with foreign bodies, dilution. Effect of neutral saline solutions. Coagula- tion under the microscope. Blood kept liquid by cold ; by preservation in the heart, or in a vein, or in a smooth glass vessel. Coagulation of chyle, lymph, inflammatory exudations, colourless blood of invertebrates. Practical bearing of the theory of coagulation on ligature of arteries, aneurysm, thrombosis, embolism. IY. DIAGRAM OF THE SYSTEMIC CIRCULATION. I. Represents the intrinsic cardiac ganglia II. The inhibitory ganglia III. The accelerator ganglia IV. The vaso-motor centres *nr To face page 25. ( 2 5 ) CIRCULATION. Functions. Transportation of blood (i.e., of liquid food, water, salts, proteids, sugar and fat) to the living cells of the tissues. Also conveyance of oxygen to tissues, and of waste products thence to excretory organs. Also equalization of temperature. Apparatus : a closed system of elastic tubes returning into itself. Formed of differentiated mesoblast : endothelial lining, unstriped muscle and white and yellow fibres. Inter- rupted by a strong contractile chamber, provided with valves of ingress and egress. (Pulmonary circulation postponed.) Capillaries, permeable, inelastic (contractile). Arteries impermeable, elastic, contractile, Veins less impermeable, less elastic, contractile only in largest trunks and in the great terminal sinus or " atrium " or " auricle." Heart (ventricle) impermeable, elastic, strongly and rapidly con- tractile. Hydraulic laws involved {Table 17). Blood pressure : how demonstrated. Hales, Poisseuille, Ludwig, Fick, Landois, Roy. Greatest in ventricle in systole, next in aorta, less in arteries, less in capillaries, still less in veins, lower still in auricle, lowest in ventricle in diastole. Velocity of blood : how measured. Volkmann, Vierordt, Ludwig, Chauveau. Greatest in aorta, somewhat less in smaller arteries, least in capillaries, more and more rapid as aggregate calibre of veins diminishes. Pulse : relation to intermittent beat of heart, resistance of small arteries and capillaries, elasticity of aorta and larger arteries. 26 LECTURES ON PHYSIOLOGY. Blood 'pressure tracings, sphj'gmographic tracings. Clini- cal varieties of pulse. The efficient forces which carry on the circulation : (i) Ventricular systole (strength and frequency). (2) Auxiliary ; pressure of muscles during contraction upon the valvular veins ; pressure of air in aspiration of thorax ; negative pressure in ventricle during systole, owing to its own elasticity. Function of muscular coat of arteries to regulate blood- pressure, to regulate supply of blood to particular organs. Function of elastic arteries to store part of the energy of the ventricular systole and pay it back during diastole. Action of the Heart. — Contraction of auricle : its strength, frequency, duration, relation to ventricular systole. Auricular dilatation and rest. Contraction of ventricle ; not a tetanus; its energy ; work done by it, how measured ; its frequency pulsus frequens aut varus) duration (p. celer aut tardus) and regularity. It includes (1) preliminary tension or hardening, (2) movement, (3) sustained immobility in systole. Diastole : includes dilatation (by elasticity of muscular tissue) and rest or " pause" in dilated state. Mechanism of valves of egress : obey pressure passively ; adaptation of edges ; function of sinuses of Valsalva ; sudden tension, second sound. Aortic obstructive or direct, and leaking or regurgitant murmurs (production of murmurs, " fluid veins " ). Mechanism of valve of ingress (mitral) : obey pressure passively; mode of shutting; function of chordae tendinea? and musculi papillares. First sound : ten- sion of mitral (and tricuspid) curtains and ventricular walls, with the added bruit musculaire of contraction. Murmurs from narrowing of orifice (direct or obstructive) ; from leak- ing of valve (regurgitant), owing to puckering of its curtains, shortening of the chordae, or want of constriction of the muscular fibres surrounding the orifice. Pulmonary Circulation. — Essentially like the Systemic. Resistance less ; energy less ; [orifices rather larger ; length V. DIAGRAM OF THE PRINCIPAL NERVE-CENTRES REGULATING THE CIRCULATION. Auricular ganglia Auriculo-ventricular ganglia Cerebral centres Cardiac centre in bulb Principal vasomotor centre in bulb Other vaso-motor centres in cord To face page 27. CIRCULATION. 2/ shorter; friction less;] walls thinner. Blood-pressure lower. Velocity slightly less (?). No auxiliary forces. Systole, diastole, movements of valves, sounds, all syn- chronous on both sides of heart. Valve of ingress tri- not bicuspid; consequent safety-valve action ; King's "moderator- band ; " physiological tricuspid regurgitation. Change of form of Heart as a whole in systole; apparent elongation 5 no real locomotion ; Cardiac Impulse. Rota- tion, tilting and hardening of heart. Lengthening and un- twisting of aorta and pulmonary artery when distended. " Eecoil " from unopposed exit of blood as in a gun or a turbine. Sequence of events in a complete cycle of the heart's action. {Table 18.) Regulation of the Circulation by the nervous system. Acts only on muscular fibre, (a) of heart, (b) of arteries. (a) Cardiac innervation: in frog : immarnmals. Intra- cardiac ganglia. Rhythmical action : automatic, not reflex. (Exceptional rhythmical contraction of non-ganglionic part of ventricle.) Pulsation of excised heart. Effects of heat, cold, galvanic and faradaic stimulation. Regula- tion by cerebro-spinal centres. Vagus : inhibitory branches. Stimulation of R. vagus, of L., of both ; mechanical, chemical, electrical, reflex : latent period : effect of section of vagi : subsequent effect on beat of vagus-stimulation. Accelerator nerves of heart ; section and stimulation of; relation to temperature, (b) Vaso-motor nerves. — Cervical sympathetic, splanchnic, brachial, sciatic. Effect on bloodvessels, on the parts supplied, on the blood pressure in front and behind con- striction, on B.P. elsewhere, on the pulsation of the heart. Mutual relation between heart-beat and arterial B.P. and between B.P. and heart. Depressor nerves : other sensory nerves. " Vaso-dilator " nerves. Capillary contraction and dilatation (?). Effects, on heart-beat and on blood pressure: of dividing Vagi, of stimulating them ; dividing accelerator nerves, and 28 LECTUEES ON PHYSIOLOGY. stimulating them ; dividing cervical sympathetics, dividing splanchnics, and stimulating them ; stimulating sensory nerves ; destruction of vasomotor centres. Analysis of tracings obtained from cardiograph (Sanderson), mercurial manometer in carotid (Ludwig), bags in cavities of heart (Chauveau), sphygmograph (Marey). Statistics of the circulation. {Table 19.) VI. DIAGRAM OF THE PRINCIPAL NERVES WHICH REGULATE THE CIRCULATION. Cerebral centres ©. Cardiac inhibitory centre Cardiac accelerating centre Cardiac ganglia Principal vaso-niotor centre Secondary vaso-motor centres 9. 10. 10' 11. Afferent nerves affecting heart by mental emotions. „ „ arteries „ „ „ ,, inhibitory centre from skin of face (5th). „ ,, do. from intestines and solar plexus. Inhibitory cardiac fibres of vagus. Accelerator cardiac nerves. Afferent nerves affecting blood pressure through vaso-motor centre in bulb. Depressor branch of vagus from heart. Vaso-motor branches to cerebral, facial, and glandular vessels. Vaso-motor nerves from cord by anterior roots. 10". Separate vaso-motor nerves to vessels of muscles. Splanchnic vaso-motor branches. To face page 28. VII. DIAGRAM OF THE APPARATUS OP RESPIRATION. Bronchial tube. Air-sac E. Heart Air V rf= Cartilage and fibrous tissues Muscular fibres Ciliated epithelium Endothelium External respiration L. Heart Internal respiration Tissues To face i>age 29. ( 2 9 ) KESPIRATION. Use made of the liquid food brought to the tissues by the circulation. Need of Oxygen. Chief products C0 2 and H 2 0. Admission of to the blood from the air, extrusion of C0 o from the blood to the air, external respiration. Absorption of O from the blood by the living cells, formation o£ C0 3 and transference to the blood, internal or tissue- respiration. Organs of respiration. General surface: shin. Increased surface by external processes suitable for breathing air dissolved in water : gills. Increased surface by internal hollow spaces suitable for breathing air as gas : trachea bringing air directly to the tissues, lungs bringing air to the blood as an intermediary. Outgrowth from gullet : air-bladder and duct in fishes. Lungs of frog, snake, lizard, turtle, birds, and mammals. Nares (not mouth), trachea, bronchi, intra-lobular air- passages, air-sacs (or vesicles or alveoli). Epithelium, cilia. Endothelium, stomata, lymphatics. Elasticity. Vascularity. Muscular fibres of Bronchi. Interlobular connective tissue. Functions. Passage of gases (0 and C0 2 ) between air of alveoli and pulmonary capillaries. Eenewal of air of alveoli from exterior. Physical laws of diffusion and of movement of gases. Passage of gases between pulmonary vessels and tissues. Solubility in water and serum of C0 2 , of O and of N. Haemo- globin. Oxyhemoglobin, reduced haemoglobin. Methaamo- globin. Composition, crystals, colour, spectra. CO a conveyed partly in chemical combination. 30 LECTURES ON PHYSIOLOGY. Renewal of air in lun^s. Pneumatic laws involved. (Note 20.) Thorax impermeable, resistant and elastic. Ex- panded in all three directions by muscular effort : inspiration. Diaphragm. Movements of sternum, and of ribs. Con- traction by elasticity and by muscular effort : expiration. Action of intercostal muscles. Intra-thoracic pressure. Don- ders' model. Changes in air by respiration : O, C0 2 , water, nitrogenous putrescible matters : temperature. Changes in blood : colour, O, Co , water, temperature in pulmonary capillaries : in systemia. Statistics of respiration (see Table 21). "Tidal" air of tranquil breathing: " complemental " admitted by extreme inspiration: "reserve" or "supple- mental " expelled by extreme expiration : " residual " after such expiration : " post-mortem " air ; " tissue " aii^ of the collapsed lung after opening the thorax. Physical and his- tological state of a collapsed (airless, carnified) lung, or lobule or lobe. Frequency and rhythm of respiration. Resp. trace. In- spiratory and expiratory murmur : pulmonary, bronchial, and tracheal sounds. Their conduction to the ear applied to the chest. Regulation by Nervous System. Respiration automatic, not reflex. Respiration with divided vagi. Stimulation of vagi, of superior laryngeal nerve, of fifth and other cutaneous nerves, of gastric branches of vagus. Expiratory and in- spiratory centre in bulb, nceud vital : connection with cardiac and vaso-motor centres. Dyspnoea : from deficient movements of chest : from ob- stacle to air reaching blood : from obstacle to blood reaching air : from want of hamoglobin (ana3mia): from deficient O in air. Phenomena of dyspnoea and asphyxia. Apnoea, from excess of oxygen in the blood. Effect of poisoning by C0 2 in the air : by nitrous oxide, chloroform, ether. Effect of CI, NH and other irritating gases. Effect of SH 2 and other reducing gases. Effect of CO by VIII. DIAGRAM OF THE FORCES CONCERNED IN EXPANSION AND CONTRACTION OF THE THORAX. *— 1 1. Atmospheric pressure on chest, abdomen, and down air passages constant. 2. Upward pressure of abdominal viscera : increased by flatus, ascites, &c. 3- Elastic contractile power of lungs : constant. 4. Expanding power of diaphragm and other inspiratory muscles. 5. Contracting power of expiratory muscles. The elasticity of the thorax itself comes into action after deep inspiration, and still more after deep expiration. The double dotted line represents the pleura. To face page 30 IX. DIAGRAM ILLUSTRATING THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM OF NERVES. \ \ A w 2 ..--' — "ST !i/\\ 1 / / i \ h I 8 f / ! 4 ' l\\ /; / i \ / I 9' ! U 1/ fli l i /i / / I s / / / y 1. & II. Inspiratory and expiratory associated centres in the bulb. 1 1. Nervous channels for voluntary inspiration and expiration. 1' 1'. Do. for voluntary inhibition of respiration. 2. Afferent nerves from retina and skin of face for reflex respiration. 3. Afferent nerve from larynx. 4. Afferent fibres of vagus from lungs, stimulant and inhibitory. 5. Afferent nerves for reflex respiration from skin of trunk. 6*. Motor nerve to dilator of nostrils. 7. Motor nerves to diaphragm and other inspiratory muscles. 8. Motor nerves to intrinsic muscles of larynx. 9. Motor nerves to muscles of expiration. To face page 31. RESPIRATION. 3 1 its superior affinity to ' haemoglobin. Effects of air under high and low pressure, suddenly or gradually increased. Ventilation. Modifications of the respiratory act : sighing, wheezing, and snoring respiration. Gaping. Of inspiration : sniffing, gasping, sobbing, hiccough. Of expiration : sneezing, coughing, blowing, and whist- ling; gargling; crying and laughing. Vocal expiration. The Voice. Its nature. Its qualities : i. Loudness or amplitude of sonorous vibrations dependent on volume and velocity of expired air. 2. Pitch or rapidity of vibrations, dependent on tension of glottis. 3. " Quality " ("timbre ") the presence of overtones or harmonics in addition to the fundamental tone, dependent on the individual struc- ture of the larynx and the " after-pipe." The mechanism of the voice. Comparable to a reed. Lungs, (bellows) trachea (wind-pipe), glottis ( u tongue "), mouth (after-pipe), nose (resonator). Form of glottis in tranquil and forced inspiration and expiration — respiratory glottis. Form for vocalization — vocal glottis. Muscles opening and closing glottis. Muscles tightening and relaxing cords. Function of ventricle of larynx. Vowels: dependent (i) on length of after-pipe; raising glottis and protruding lips; (2)on size of openings of ditto : open or narrow glottis and mouth ; (3) on diameter of ditto : raising tongue or depressing floor of mouth ; (4) closing resonator : nasal vowels. Principal and transitional vowels ; short and long. Diph- thongs. (See Table 22.) Consonants. Expired air stopped more or less completely in after-pipe (1) by lips or incisors, labials (2) by tip of tongue and incisors or hard palate, dentals (3) by back of tongue and palate, gutturals* 32 LECTUKES ON PHYSIOLOGY. Expired air with glottis in vibration, vocal consonants; without, mutes. Stoppage incomplete : continuous consonants, aspirate, sibilant or trilled. Stoppage complete, explosives. Oral stoppage complete with open resonator, nasals. Combined consonants. (See Table 23.) Arrangement of alphabet a physiological one. {Table 23.) X. DIAGRAM TO ILLUSTRATE THE VOCAL APPARATUS. JL I. Wind-box and bellows. II. Wind-pipe. III. Body-pipe. IV. Resonator. V. Reed; composed of two vibrating "tongues." 1. Anterior consonantal point. 2. Middle do. 3. Posterior do. 4. Anterior opening of resonator. 5. Valve opening or closing resonator. To face page 32. XI. DIAGRAM ILLUSTRATING THE MECHANISM OF SECRETION. t & Duct Acinus Lymph spaces / t' / 4 / \ \\ \\\ Z Y i \ M 5 *' 1. Vaso-dilator nerves. 2. Secretory nerves from spinal centre. 3. Secretory nerves from sympathetic. 4. Vaso-constrictor nerves. 5. Afferent, reflex-excitor nerves. To face page 33. ( 33 ) EXCRETION AND SECEETION. Excretion of waste products. Of C as C0 2 , of H as H 2 0, of N as urea, of S, P, &c, as salts. Methods of excretion : by diffusion of gases, by osmosis of liquids, by true secretion. Secretion a 2^'ocess of cell-growth. Unicellular secreting- glands : goblet-cells. Extension of surface : sacs and pits. Simple saccular depressions — pocketed — more subdivided — racemose — lobulated. Simple deep pits — tubules — branched tubes. Acini and ducts : lobules. Characters of duct-epi- thelium : of secreting epithelium : transitional forms. Base- ment membrane. Connective tissue and lymph - spaces. Capillaries. (Diagram XL) Regulation by Nervous System. Vaso-motor nerves. Secret- ing nerves to epithelium of acini. (Diagram XII.) Secretion as a mere selection of materials ready formed in the blood : as a manufacture of new compounds from those materials. Process, by transformation of protoplasm of secreting cells ; or by vacuolaticn — " signet- cells/' Gradual oozing out of secretion into lumen of acinus ; or expulsion by contraction of eel] ; or liberation by rupture of cell. Comparison of this com- plete process with storing of secretion, as of starch in roots, and oil in adipose tissue ; with ordinary nutrition (every tissue an excretion to every other) ; with endogenous proliferation. Histological difference between glands at rest and secreting. " Serous " and " mucous " glands. Development of glands. i. Glands opening onto skin, ii. Glands opening onto mucous membranes, iii. Genito- urinary glands. D 34 LECTURES ON PHYSIOLOGY. The Skin. Structure. Epithelium and vascular corium. Anatomical division. i. Epidermis : horny layer or cuticle, Stratum lucidum, S. granulosum, Malpighian layer. ii. Cutis vera : papillary layer, deep layer. iii. Subcutaneous (adipose) tissue or superficial fascia. Physiological (and pathological) division. i. Dead epidermis, cuticle or scarf-skin. ii. Living epidermis and papillary layer. iii. Deep layer of cutis and subcutaneous tissue. Local differences, in the thickness of cuticle, of corium, of integument altogether ; in number and size of papillee ; in thickness of subcutaneous layer and in presence of fat-cells ; in vascularity ; in nervous supply. Sweat-glands. Structure, number and distribution. Secretion : its composition and reaction. Sensible and insensible perspiration. Effects of temperature, moisture, and movement of the air. Regulation by nervous system. Sweat-nerves, vaso-motor and secreting : warm and cold sweat. Hairs : structure, distribution and local varieties. Nails. Structure and use. Formation of nails. Rate of growth. Notches indicative of acute disorders. Sebaceous glands. Connection with hairs : structure and secretion : function. Modified as Meibomian glands. Mamma. Collection of highly developed sebaceous glands. Structure in lowest mammalia. Acini, epithelium, ducts, lobules: vessels, lymphatics and nerves. Secretion regulated by N.S. Periodical evolution and involution. Milk : physical and chemical characters and composition. Functions of Skin, i . Protective : nails (hoofs, horny covering of armadillo). 2. Non-conducting : hair (fur), sub- cutaneous fat (blubber). 3. Excretory : of ceratin by abrasion of cuticle and by hair and nails ; of water by XII. DIAGRAM OF THE NERVOUS REGULATION OF SUBMAXILLARY SECRETION. Ch. T. Acinus Lingual of v. Subm. gangl. Arteriole oup. cerv. g. .-Cerv. ay rap. Jo face 'page 35. EXCEETION AND SECRETION. 35 sweat; of sebum. 4. Regulation of temperature (v. infra, p. 42). 5. Absorption: not of water, only by inunction. Mucous Membranes and their Glands. Structure. Epithelium and vascular corium. i. One or more layers of epithelium, ii. Basement membrane. iii. Vascular corium or " mucosa," often cytogenic. iv. Submucosa. Varieties in alimentary canal and in respiratory tract. Mucous glands. Mucus. Succus entericus. Salivary glands. Gastric glands. Pancreas, (v. supra, p. 21). Liver. Development. Structure. Not racemose nor tubular, nor even properly acinous. So-called lobules unlike those of pancreas or mamma. Secreting epithelial cells : their structure and arrange- ment. Variations during digestion : pigment granules, oil-drops, glycogen. Blood-vessels : Portal interlobular veins and intralobular capillaries ending in intralobular Hepatic vein. Sublobular hepatic veins. Hepatic artery : interlobular and intralobular branches ; their termination. Perivascular connective (" portal canals," Glisson's et cap- sule " ) only interlobular and in man very scanty : subserous connective or fibrous tunic. Ducts : interlobular branches, with mucous membrane ; intralobular, an endless network of anastomosing biliary capillaries between the secreting cells : peculiar to the liver. Lymphatics. Nerves scanty, regulation of secretion by N.S. unascertained. Bile. Origin of its mucus. Pigments : Bilirubin and Biliverdin. Cholesterin, Lecithin, fats and soaps. Mineral salts. Biie-salts ("bilin"or "bile-resin"): Glyco-cholate •and Tauro-cholate of soda (p. 10). Functions : not digestive. D 2 36 LECTUEES ON PHYSIOLOGY. Helps to neutralize gastric juice; promotes absorption of a fatty emulsion ; antiseptic ; stimulates peristalsis and contrac- tion of villi. Water and greater part of conjugated acids reabsorbed. The rest excreted. Peculiarity of secretion : from venous blood, and from blood at low pressure. Other functions of Liver. Storage of glycogen. Storage of fat. Leuco-cytogenic function in foetus. Formation of Urea. Kidneys. Origin from mesoblast of genito-urinary tract, but in histology and normal and morbid physiology, true epithelium. Structure of kidneys. Malpighian capsules and tubules. Endothelium and epithelium. Arteries, glomeruli, venules and venae rectae. Connective tissue and lymphatics scanty. Nerves. Rhythmical contractions as in spleen : relation to general blood pressure. Seat of secretion of water, salts, urea, &c, respectively. Urine. — An aqueous solution of Urea and NaCl with allied nitrogenous and saline compounds. Colour. Concentration ; relation of pigment to haemoglobin. Sp.gr. Limits. Relation to food, drink, sweat. Prof. Christison's formula for solids, Dr. Golding Bird's. Reaction. Relation to digestion ; to vegetable food. Dogs' and rabbits' urine. Dependent on phosphates being acid, or neutral, or basic, with carbonates. Deposit. Mucus : whence derived. Epithelium. Water : amount of urine. Salts : chlorides, sulphates and phosphates. Occasional presence of carbonates, oxalates, ammoniacal salts, and organic acids, as lactic, succinic. Urea : composition, solubility and diffusibility. Compounds with Nitric and Oxalic Acids. Mercurial salts. Decomposi- tion into Carbonate of Ammonia by fermentation, into N, C0 2 and H 2 with alkaline hypochlorites or hypobromites. Quantitative tests ; Liebig's, the hypobromite,* and complete * Modifications of this process have been brought forward by Leconte, by E. W. Davy (Phil. Mag., June 1854), by Apjohn, Hufner, Russell and West, and Dupre. EXCRETION AND SECRETION. 37 combustion. Relation of urea to muscular exercise : experiments of Fick and Wislicenus, Parkes, Edward Smith, Flint, and Pavy. Relation of urea to nitrogenous food. Urates of soda and potash. Their solubility dependent on the quantity, alkalinity and temp, of the urine. Their colour. Free uric acid always abnormal. Its physical and chemical properties. Hippurates constantly present : more abundant in the urine of Herbivora. Preparation, properties and composition of Hippuric Acid. Relation to Benzoic Acid. Creatinin a nitrogenous crystalline base : its relation to Creatin. Occasional presence of cystin, xanthin, liypoxanthin or creatin (?) in urine. Allantoin in foetal urine. Indican : method of testing for. Gases. C0 2 and N. Changes in urine after being passed. Variations by food, temperature, exercise: TJrina somni v el sanguinis, TJ.cihi, JJ.potus. Urine of infant, child, adult. Morbid urine. Mechanism of renal secretion. Arguments from structure and experiments, for the dependence of the watery and saline exosmosis on relative blood pressure in the glomeruli, and of nitrogenous excretion upon the tubular epithelium. Function of looped tubes. The Bladder : its structure. Mucous, muscular and nervous. Mechanism of micturition. Excretion from the genital organs. Semen : proteids and salts of liquor seminis, mucus. Cowper's glands, prostatic glands, vesiculse seminales. Ovulation : menstrual discharge. ( 38 ) EEVIEW OF THE FUNCTIONS OF NUTRITION. Changes of the chemical components of the body, followed from their in-come as food to their excretion. Metabolism. Water, in food, chyme, blood, tissues (see Table 36) and excretions. Salts : slight chemical change from acid to alkali and back, and from citrates, malates, tartrates or acetates to car- bonates. Combustible or oxydizable food stuffs. Starch and sugars : conversion into maltose, dextrose, lasvulose ; reconversion of diffusible crystallines into glycogen ; places of origin and storage of glycogen ; its further transformation ; traces of sugar in the blood ; final excretion of carbohydrates as car- bonic anhydride and water. Escape of some portion as glycose by the urine in minute traces in health and in quan- tity in diabetes. Fats. Absorbed unchanged, in the chyle. Fats in the blood ; absence of soaps. Deposit of fat in the liver, and in adipose tissue. Origin of the fat of the body not directly from fatty food ; but by indirect process from fat, from car- bohydrates (?) and from proteids. Final excretion of fat as carbonic anhydride and water. Proteids. Absorption as peptones and as particulate albumin. Leucin and tyrosin : relation of both to the fatty acids and of latter to the aromatic series. Serum-albumin and globulin • absence of alkali-albumin in blood. Tissue- proteids : globulin, myosin, gelatin, mucin. Excess of C and H in albumin compared with urea ; their detachment in fatty compounds. Lecithin. Conversion of N-residue into crystalline amides and amido-acids. Creatin in muscle and REVIEW OF THE FUNCTIONS OF KUTE1TION. 39 blood j creatinin in urine. Hypoxanthin, xanthin and uric acid. Glycocholic acid, glycin, tyrosin, benzoyl-glycin or hippuric acid. Taurocholic acid, cystin, sulphates. Ante- cedents of urea (?), origin in liver (?), absence in muscles, presence in blood, excretion by renal epithelium. Further progress of urea into ammonium carbonate out of the body, or in the inflamed bladder. Haemoglobin : relation to haemat- oidin, bilirubin and urinary pigment; excretion of Fe. Excretion of proteids as such • casein, in milk ; ceratin from surface ; mucin in faeces and urine. Channels of exit of the excreta. Of water, salts, carbon in gaseous and in solid forms. Of urea and of other nitrogenous compounds, by the faeces, the urine, the skin and the lungs. (Diagram XIII.) Quantitative relation between income and outgoings of material. The corporeal balance sheet. {Table 25.) Income ; by food and water through alimentary canal. Deduct faeces as strictly dregs, omitting the true excreta of the bowels as in quantity insignificant. Add oxygen by the lungs. Outgoings by the three great excretory channels : C by lungs, N and minerals by urine, Water by urine, skin and lungs. Increased income by food : C and H stored as fat and glycogen, N excreted as increased urea. Weight increased. Diminished outgoing by less work and less active respiration : increased weight as before from fat. Diminished outgoing from disease of excretory organs; poisoning from accumu- lation of carbonic acid, from u uraemia," or from li cholaemia." Increased outgoing by active work; diminished weight, call for increased food. Diminishtd income : call upon stored fat and glycogen, emaciation : outgoings husbanded by diminished movement, less frequent respirations, slower and weaker circulation, dry skin. 40 LECTUEES ON PHYSIOLOGY. Starvation. Effect on fatty tissue, on liver, on heart (Table 24) : symptoms in muscular weakness, and sleep : hybernation : condition of respiration, pulse and temperature, in starvation. State after death of intestines, liver, gall- bladder, &c. The balance of health (Table 25). Power of readjustment after disturbance. XIII. DIAGRAM ILLUSTRATING THE BALANCE BETWEEN MATERIAL INCOME AND OUTGOINGS OF THE BODY. I. Income by mouth of food — proteids, carbohydrates, fats, salts, and water. II. Income by lungs of air — N and 0. 1. Outgoing by rectum of faeces— undigested food, remains of bile, salts, mucus, water, &c. 2. „ lungs of air— N, 0, CO a , H 2 0, &c. 3. „ kidneys of urine — urea, &c. , salts, water. 4. ,, skin of sweat — water, &c. A. Store of nutriment as fafc. B. glycogen. To face page 40. ( 41 ) THE WOP.K OF THE BODY AS A MACHINE. Source of its energy. Eadiant solar heat. Storage of energy in vegetable tissues. Appropriation of latent chemical energy of vegetable proteids, carbohydrates and fats by herbivorous animals : of energy in vegetable and animal compounds by man. This energy rendered kinetic by oxy- dation, i.e. by slow combustion. {Table 26.) Transformation into two forces of energy, mechanical work and heat. Both dependent (1) on integrity of machine, (2) on supplies of combustible food, (3) on supplies of oxygen ; and both regulated by the nervous system. i. Mechanical Work done by striated and unstriated muscles. Constant work of heart and diaphragm. Produc- tion of heat with each contraction. Internal work : me- chanical energy transformed into heat by friction. Relation of outcome of energy as external mechanical work {e.g. raising weights) to outcome as external heat, derived partly from internal muscular work as above, and partly from oxydation, which probably accompanies all ac- tivity of tissues ; pre-eminently muscles, but also glands, nervous centres, and all living protoplasm. Modes of measuring the income and outgoings of energy. Experimental determination of possible energy in foodstuffs by complete combustion into C0 2 , H 2 0, and NH 3 . Deduc- tion of the energy contained in the excreted urea {Table 27). Approximate estimation of mechanical ivork done in a day's labour, e.g. treadmill, or ascending a mountain. Estimate of work done by the heart. Measurement of heat given off from an animal placed in a water chamber — calorimetry. Units of mechanical energy : the British foot-pound (or 42 LECTUEES ON PHYSIOLOGY. ton) and the Centigrade grammeter (or kilogramme ter). Units of thermal energy : the British pound degree, F° ? and the cubic-centimeter degree, C°. Determination of their exact relation, " the mechanical equivalent of heat," by Joule. {Table 26.) ii. Heat. Bodily temperature approximately constant in health. Eesult of balance of production and dissipation of heat. Heat produced by oxydation ; not in lungs, nor in blood, but in active tissues. Most in liver, next in muscles,, least in passive organs, as bones. Heat carried throughout the body by the blood. Heat dissipated on the surface. 1. Loss of heat from the skin (a) by radiation, [b) by conduction, (c) by evaporation of sweat rendering heat *' latent." 2. Loss of heat from the lungs (a) by evaporation, (b) by expiration of warmed air. 3. Loss of heat which has warmed urine, fasces and other excreta. Or, otherwise put, i. Heat expended by conduction and radiation from uncovered surface ; ii. by evaporation from skin and lungs ; iii. by warming inspired air and ingested food and water. {Table 28.) Adjusting Mechanism. Comparison to a greenhouse. Clinical thermometry. Mode of measuring mean tem- perature of the body. History : Sanctorius, De Haen> Hunter, John Davy, Currie, Brodie, Roger, Liebermeister, Wunderlich. Thermometer in axilla (or groin), mouth, rectum : or held in stream of urine. Diurnal variations of temperature. Pyrexia ; febrile temperature ; highest compatible with life ; paradoxical temperatures; subnormal temperatures. {Table 29.) Balance of income and outgoings of energy (Diagram XIV.). XIV. DIAGRAM ILLUSTRATING THE BALANCE OF INCOMING AND OUTGOING ENERGY. A. Income of energy latent in food. B. Oxygen admitted by respiration to set free this energy. C. Outgoing of energy as mechanical movement. D. ,, „ heat. E. Represents the internal movements of the body of which the energy is manifested externally as heat. To face page 42. XV. DIAGEAMS ILLUSTEATING THE ELEMENTAEY COMBINATIONS OF THE NEEVOUS SYSTEM. A. Reflex Action. B, Automatic action. C. Sensation. D. Voluntary movement. E. Perception. F. Inhibition. To face page 43. G. Eradiation. ( 43 ) THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. Functions of relation with the external world by sensa- tion and movement. Functions associated with mind : con- sciousness, perception, and will. Regulating mechanism for secretion, circulation, respira- tion, and especially for expenditure of energy in muscular movement and heat. Sensitive surface originally external. Origin of central nervous system in lowest animals by invagination of epiderm, and in the human embryo by invagination of epiblast and subsequent outgrowth from this neural sense-layer. Functions of the constituent elements of N.S. Conduction by Fibres — afferent or centripetal, efferent or centrifugal, and commissural or intercentral. " Explosion " or " discharge " of Ganglion-cells following or preceding conduction : " storage " by ganglion-cells. Functions of simple combinations of nervous elements. End-organ of a sensitive surface, afferent nerve and gan- glion-cell. Sensation (conscious or no). (Diagram XV.. Fig. C.) Ganglion- cell, efferent nerve and muscle : automatic move- ment (voluntary or no). (Fig. B.) Afferent nerve, sensory cell, commissure, motor cell, efferent nerve : Reflex movement (or secretion). (Fig. A.) Action of ganglia regulated by excitant and inhibitory nerves. (Fig. F.) Stimulus, if overstrong, spreads from one to another system : Eradiation. (Fig. G.) Coordination of ganglia of reflex and automatic systems so as to act together in orderly sequence. Theory of co-ordina- tion compared with the mental law of habit. Formation of 44 LECTURES ON PHYSIOLOGY. lines of co-ordination ; maintenance, neglect and reinstate- ment of such lines, compared with learning, practising, for- getting, and recovering a manual art. Inherited habits and manoeuvres : the co-ordination of the race. Custom, second nature,* the co-ordination of the individual. Physiological problem of the Nervous System : the localiza- tion of functions in the several ganglia, and the determina- tion of the afferent and efferent (motor, glandular, inhibi- tory, &c.) tracts between centres and periphery. {Table 30.) Present results of both investigations in order of the anatomical grouping of centres, viz. : — i. The scattered, so-called " sympathetic/' ganglia : — (a) cranial, cervical, thoracic, lumbar ; (b) the visceral ganglia of the heart, of the solar plexus, of the intestines (Auerbach's plexus), of the bladder, and of the genital organs ; (c) the ganglia on the sensory roots of " spinal" (cranial and verte- bral) nerves, including trifacial, glosso-pharyngeal and vagus j (d) the microscopic ganglia of the internal ear and other parts. ii. The continuous ganglionic sheath which surrounds the "neural tube," including the central canal of the cord, the third and fourth ventricles " and the " aqueduct : " viz. (a) grey matter of Cord, or " medulla spinalis," (b) do. of Bulb or " medulla spinalis oblongata," (c) of Midbrain behind pons, including C. quadrigemina, (d) Thalami and C. striata, iii. Cerebellum, iv. Cerebral hemispheres. Methods of determining functions of localized ganglia and paths of conduction, a. Anatomy : relations by nerve-fibres to other organs and commissural connection with other ganglia. Histological characters. /3. Comparative anatomy : degree of development in lower animals in comparison with development of function, y. Embryology : early or later * " By treading the same steps over and over again, they (the animal spirits) presently make a road of it, as plain and smooth as a garden walk, which when they are once used to, the devil himselt sometimes shall not be able to drive them off it." — /Sterne. NERVOUS SYSTEM. 45 appearance : discrimination of nerve tracts afterwards uni- form, by absence or presence of myelin (Fleehsig). d. Experi- ment. Ablation or destruction of centres ; division of nerves (Magendie, Bell and Joh. Miiller, Flourens, Goltz). Stimula- tion of nerves or centres (E. Weber, Bernard : Fritsch and Hitzig, Ferrier). Degeneration subsequent to ablation or division : (Waller's method ; observation of cord and brain after amputations, or excision of eyeball, or olfactory bulb). e. Experiments of disease. Tumours or other destructive affections of centres ; secondary ascending and descending degenerations. i. Functions of the Scattered Ganglia of the " Sympa- thetic." Their intimate connection with and apparent depend- ence on the central grey matter by cranial and spinal nerves. Evidence as to the independent functions of the submaxillary and of the lenticular ganglia. Proof of the functions of the several groups of cardiac ganglia. The intestinal ganglia. Absence of ganglia in ureter. Proof of the trophic function of the ganglia of the posterior nerve-roots. Nerves of the sympathetic or ganglionic "system." De- ficient in white fibres. Afferent from viscera or mucous membranes, not subserving conscious sensations under ordi- nary conditions. Efferent to un&triped muscular fibres in hollow viscera, or in blood-vessels — vaso-motor nerves. Evidence as to function of cervical sympathetic, of splan- chnic, &c. ii. Localization of centres in the grey matter surrounding the neural canal : — (a) Cord. Motor cells in anterior cornua. Trophic centres. Vasomotor centres. Genital centres, &c. (b) Bulb : floor of fourth ventricle. Centres of hearing, taste, deglutition ; of cardiac inhibition, blood pressure (vaso-motor and depressor), respiration, &c. (c) Midbrain. Centres of nerves iii., iv. and vi. and of v. Centres of vision in C. quadrigemina. (d) Thalami (?). Connection with tegmentum, C. quadri- gemina, and Corona radiata. 46 LECTURES ON PHYSIOLOGY. Caudate and lenticular nuclei, and claustrum. Connection with crusta and C. radiata. Conduction in " spinal system " : — Motor tract : R. corpus striatum, R. crus (crusta), under pons, R. ant. pyramid, decussation, L. deep lateral column, L. ant. cornu, L. ant. nerve root. Sensory tract : R. post, nerve root, L. lateral column and L. grey matter, L. restiform body (?), L. tegmentum, L. thal- amus (?). R. ant. med. column (Tiirck) direct to R. crus. Superficial lateral column direct to cerebellum. Antero-lateral columns commissural between segments of cord (?). Posterior columns (Burdach), restiform bodies, cerebel- lum and thalamus (?). Post. med. column (Goll), post, pyramids. iii. Cerebellum. Functions unknown. Pons or transverse commissure. Pr. e cerebello ad testes, or sup. commissure to midbrain. Pr. e cerebello ad med. spin. obl. ; or inf. commissure to post, columns of cord. iv. Olfactory lobes. Outgrowth from forebrain with prolongation of ventricle. Nerves from organ of smell. Commissure to C. striatum and cerebrum. v. Cerebrum. Outgrowth from sides and front of fore- brain, enclosing ventricles continuous with neural canal. Commissural fibres with C. striatum and thalamus, called corona radiata and ext. and int. capsules. C. callosum or transverse commissure. Fornix or longitudinal arched com- missure. Development and comparative anatomy of hemispheres. Fissure of Sylvius. Sulci of Rolando, parieto-occipital, intraparietal, parallel, calcarine, collateral and calloso-mar- ginal. Principal and secondary gyri. Vascular distribution. Histological differences. u Motor region " of volitional centres. Centres of vision and of other perceptions. Centre of articulation. Discrepancies of observation and interpretation. XVI. THE PROJECTION SYSTEM. A A. Perceptive sensory, and voluntary motor, centres in hemispheres. B B. Sensory and motor centres in spinal system. C C. Sensory peripheral points. D D. Muscles and other efferent end organs. To face page 47. NERVOUS SYSTEM. 47 Instances of the practical value of a knowledge of cerebral localization in diagnosis and treatment. Relation of automatic movement to voluntary movement, to the Will, and the sense of Space : of sensation to Percep- tion : of reflex action to Emotion: of repeated discharge of ganglia to Memory. Boundary of consciousness not fixed. Some reflex actions perceived. u Unconscious cerebration." " The Projection System." Necessity for each unit of the sensitive periphery, and for each unit of the muscular peri- phery, being separately represented in the Hemispheres. Probably also in the grey substance around neural canal (Diagram XVI.). ( 48 ) SPECIAL SENSES. Efferent end-organs of N.S. motor, electrical (in fishes) or secretory. Afferent end-organs : all modified ectoderm. Origin and gradually increasing complexity. Eelation of sensations to perceptions, emotions, and intellect. Essential parts of a sense-organ: i. Epithelial element, modified so as to be sensitive to only one kind of stimulus or " physical object." 2. Afferent nerve-fibre. 3. Ganglion- cell in spinal system for sensation. 4. Commissural fibre in corona radiata. 5. Ganglion-cell in cerebral cortex for per- ception. VISION. Properties of the physical object. (See Note 31.) Development of the eye from the midbrain (or forebrain) Primitive optic vesicle with ependyma, ganglion-cells and fibres, and mesoblast, pia mater (choroidea) and dura (sclerotic). Ingrowth of epiderm to form lens, of embryonic corium to form vitreous. Optic cup. Ingrowth of mesoblast : colo- boma. Af event nerve : chiasma. Sensory ganglion, C. quadrige- mina and geniculata, with pulvinar of Thalamus. Percipient centre : angular gyrus (?). Orbits, direction of axes. Eyebrows, lids and lashes. Lacrymal apparatus. Sense-capsule : Sclerotic and Cornea. Anterior chamber, with aqueous humour : a lymph-sinus. Vascular tissue : Choroid and iris : pupil. Refractive media : cornea and aqueous, lens, vitreous. Accommodation : circular " suspen- sory" ligament or zonule of Zinn, ciliary muscle. Comparison with a camera obscura. SPECIAL SENSES. 49 Formation of images on retina : distinct central and in- distinct peripheral vision. Defects of vision : Muscat volitantes ; Spherical and Chromatic aberration ; Astigmatism ; Hypermetropia and Myopia; Presbyopia. Bacillary layer of rods and cones. Proof that they are the true endorgans of vision. Purkinje's figures. The yellow spot and fovea. The ora serrata. Retinal red or "vision- purple." Perceptions of vision — i. Amount of light. Comparison of sunlight and artificial light. 2. Colour. Nature of physical object. Ultra violet and ultra red rays. Qualities of colour ; a. " Tone " or hue, primary, secondary, tertiary. Eed ? green, violet ; yellow ex- cluded ; claims of blue. Colour-blindness or Daltonism, its degrees and varieties, b. " Saturation," intensity or depth. c. " Illumination ; " amount of white light mingled with colours. "Lustre" or colour seen through a transparent medium which reflects light regularly. Theories of colour perceptions : Young's, adopted by Helmholtz ; Hering's. 3. Form. Image on retina. No corresponding image in space in brain. System of " signs " between each physical impression and each cerebral excitement. Theory of such " local signs" first propounded by Berkeley.* Combination of sight with touch. Vision with two eyes. Identical points of the E. and L. retinae. 4. Solidity and distance. — Obtained by double vision. Proved by the reflecting stereoscope of Wheatstone, or the * An empirical theory of Vision was taught by Dr. Juria (a former physician of this Hospital 1684-1750), but the merit of its full exposition is due to Bp. Berkeley, who writes: "That is to say, we perceive Distance not immediately, but by the mediation of a Sign, which hath no likeness to it, or necessary connexion with it, but only suggests it from repeated experience, as words do things." (" Alciphron," vol. i. p. 223.) See also Sect. 88-102 "on erect vision" in his "Essay toward a new Theory of Vision" (1709). The theory of local signs has since been worked out by Lotze. 50 LECTUEES ON PHYSIOLOGY. ordinary refracting one of Brewster. Pseudoscope. Rivalry of the two retinal pictures. " Stereoscopic brilliance." Visual Judgments. Believing what one sees — its fallacy. Illusions : of form, distance, solidity, illumination, colour, movement. Explanations : by the duration of a visual im- pression, by comparison or " simultaneous contrast," by retinal fatigue leading to " successive contrast," by experience of diminished size and illumination and colour-tones from dis- tance, by experience of double vision and of perspective effects, by following outlines with the eye, by expectation. Application to the representation of objects by art. Hearing. Properties of the physical object or stimulus (See Note 32). Development of the ear. JEndorgan, the modified epider- mis lining the auditory capsule, with vibratile bristles (not motor cilia) floating in endolymph. (Edematous connective tissue (perilymph) or modified corium. Afferent nerve, portio mollis of seventh. Sensory ganglion in floor of fourth ventricle. Percipient ganglion in posterior part of superior sphenoidal gyrus (?) Media. Formation of middle ear from- first visceral cleft: Eustachian tube, tympanic cavity and external orifice. Sub- sequent formation of diaphragm (inembrana tympani) and tym- panic ring bone. Chain of tympanic ossicles : Stapes, de- tached from cartilaginous auditory capsule (ossified into pe- trous or periotic bone), Malleus with pr. gracilis from proxi- mal end of first visceral arch or mandible. Incus with os orbiculare, stapedius and pyramid from summit of second arch. Formation of external ear, auricle, cartilaginous meatus and (after birth) external osseous meatus. Comparison with organ of vision. Course of sonoivus vibrations (a) by solids directly through the skull (mastoid pr. or teeth) ; (b) by air through Eustachian tube; (c) by membrana tympani, and ossicles vibrating en masse. Conduction by external meatus : vibrations of mem- brane : mechanism of malleo-incudal joints, of the combined SPECIAL SENSES. 5 I lever and its fulcra : probable function of tensor membranes tympani and of stapedius. Sonorous vibrations in the peri- lymph and endolymph. Structure of labyrinth. Division of primitive auditory sac into two : ucriculus and saceulus. Outgrowth of semicircular canals from former, of cochlea from latter. Labyrinth in fishes, and amphibia. Cochlea in birds, monotremes, cetacea, man, rodents. Osseous cochlea, lined with endothelium and filled with perilymph : its two scalae : use of fenestra rotunda and its membrane to allow vibration in an incompressible liquid. Membranous cochlea ( = scala media = canalis cochlece), supported on lamina spiralis ossea ; formed by basilar mem- brane y = la?n. sji. membranacea) and Eeissner's membrane; lined with modified epithelium from ectoderm ; and filled with endolymph. Organ of Corti. Function of Deiter's hair- cells. Hensen's observations. No special endorgan for musical notes. Semicircular canals probably not auditory (v. infra p. 53). Auditoby perceptions. i Loudness from amplitude, 2 Pitch from length of waves, 3 Timbre or "quality" from overtones or harmonics. Noises and musical sounds : " consonating rales." Dura- tion of impressions : cog-wheels. Auditory judgments. i Distance only from loudness : " ventriloquy." 2 Direction only from movement of head or (in animals) of ears. Memory or recoverability of Auditory compared with that of Visual perceptions. Intellectual importance of the two senses. Emotional power of each. Smell. Physiccd object : certain substances in state of gas ; vapour or suspension in air. Media absent. Endorgan modified epithelium of olfactory capsule ( = nasal fossa? in man). Afferent nerves ', the branches of the first pair. Sensory ganglion, the so-called bulbs of the e 2 52 LECTUEES ON PHYSIOLOGY. first pair : their structure and development. Commissure, the olfactory tract. Percipient ganglion, in the unciform gyrus (?). Relation of odours to oxydation, to chemical composition, to volatility. Smelling by the posterior nares from the mouth, stomach and lungs. Empirical classification of odours. Their intensity and qualities. Weak memory of odours, and their insignificant intellectual importance. Smell teaches us less of external world than any other senses. Diagnosis of certain diseases by smell : variola, typhus, favus, nutmeg-liver, gangrene of lung, rheumatism. Emotional, and especially sexual, effect of odours in beasts, compared with that of colours and song in birds. The sense almost rudimentary in man. Taste. Stimulus : sapid substances in solution. Classification of tastes: sweet, bitter, sour, salt. Many supposed tastes really perceptions of touch, temperature or smell. Re- lation of taste to chemical composition. Media absent. Endorgans the modified epithelium of the fungiform and circum vallate papilla? and also of fauces and palate. The grooved patches on the rabbit's tongue (papillae foliatae). The taste-goblets. Distribution : tip, sides, back of tongue, palate. Afferent nerve. The glossopharyngeal, its lingual branches : probably not the lingual branch of the fifth, but the chorda tympani of the portio dura (itself perhaps connected at its origin with the glosso-pharyngeal), and the descending palatine branches of the fifth, possibly connected by the great petrosal nerve with the same origin. Sensory and percipient ganglia not certainly ascertained. Perceptions of taste : little recoverable, less intellectual than even those of smell : productive of reflex secretion (salivation) and movement (vomiting) : easily fatigued. Other Senses. Touch. — Stimulus ; mechanical pressure. Medium; the horny cuticle : raw surfaces without true touch. Endorgans ; SPECIAL SENSES. 53 Corpuscula tactus and their modifications. Afferent nerves; all the fibres which enter by the posterior gangliated roots of the " spinal " nerves, whether cranial or vertebral — fifth, vagus and first cervical onwards. Sensory and percipient ganglia less accurately determined for the various sensory surfaces than for any other sense. Sensations of touch only quantitative. Distribution. Weber's method. Tongue, fingers, flexor surfaces, face, limbs, trunk. Perceptions recoverable and intellectual, giving the notion of locality. Combination with sight, and with muscular sense. Ill-defined perceptions, which have their origin in the skin : as Itching (especially in healing ulcers), Tickling (local dis- tribution), Formication or u creeping," Numbness (limb " asleep " with blunted touch, from pressure on nerve-trunk ; also in Tabes dorsalis), Tingling (" pins and needles ;" the limb ' ; awaking " after pressure is removed) — all distinguishable from touch, but all more or less pathological or perverted perceptions. Sense of Temperature. Also with its seat in the skin and mucous membranes : absent in ulcers, lost below pharynx and above rectum. Putting elbow in ice causes cold at the spot and pain in distribution of ulnar nerve. Path of sensory- fibres and seat of centre imperfectly known. No quality, only degree appreciated, and extent (hand in basin and body in hot bath). Distribution, different from that of touch : tongue, cheeks, lips, palms and soles. Warmth, acute or massive perception. Cold, in extreme approaches heat as a percep- tion : with exercise, stimulating; without, depressing; reflex effect in rigors. General, unlocalized, but conscious sensations of hunger and thirst, repletion : want of breath, want of sleep : fatigue : want of muscular movement after rest : uneasiness from retained secretions. Uneasiness (malaise) of approaching illness. Sense of position in space. Evidence of its existence. Probably connected with the semicircular canals. Vertigo. Meniere's disease. 54 LECTURES ON PHYSIOLOGY. Constant influx of unconscious and half-conscious sen- sations upon the central nervous system both awake and asleep, forming a background for all the more acute and definite perceptions. Muscular Sense. Proof of its reality by judging of weights by pressure only and by poising. Its distribution and development independent of touch. Larynx (singing), tongue and lips (articulation), fingers (violin-playing, &c), arms, ocular muscles, legs, trunk. Pleasures of the muscular sense : pains, as fruitless effort (nightmare) and missed blow or step; the former related to the emotion of despair, the latter to that of disgust. Seat doubtful : organs unknown. Probably a central perception of activity of motor ganglion- cells : absent in reflex and other involuntary movements. Intellectual value of the muscular sense : origin of notions of space : Volition. Combinations of Senses. Sight with touch : sight with muscular sense (of recti) : sight with touch and muscular sense. Smell with taste. Taste with touch, smell and tem- perature. Touch with muscular sense (" vernier " action). Pain. Not a special perception like the above. A mental condition dependent on over-stimulation of any sensory nerve, i.e. excessive stimulation upon a healthy sensorium or ordinary stimulation on a weak and irritable sensorium (" objective" and " subjective" neuralgia). Usual stimula- tion, pressure ; as by inflammatory exudation, vascular ful- ness (throbbing), or tumour • or by muscular squeezing (colic and cramp). Kinds of pain — stabbing, aching, dull, shooting, &c. De- gree of pain : estimation by the reflex effect on pupils, on the heart, on blood-pressure, or on the sweat-glands. Pain antagonistic to perceptions of touch, temperature, and other senses. Kelief of pain by removing pressure or tension, by local or central anodynes, by counter-irritation, i.e. inhibition, by mental and muscular effort, by vocal expiration. DD REPRODUCTION AND DEVELOPMENT. These functions connected with those of nutrition, as vegetative or organic, opposed to animal or relative. Connected with the '' animal" function of movement, as also expenditure of matter and of energy. Distinct from both nutritive and animal functions, as concerned not with the life of the individual organism but with the maintenance of the race. Methods of Reproduction. Abiogenesis or generatio tequivoca. Its disproof by Redi and subsequent experimenters. Omne vivum et ovo* (i) Non-sexual fission, division, segmentation or cleavage. (2) Non-sexual gemmation or budding, either external or internal. Both universal in plants and common in Pro- tozoa, Ccelenterata and Vermes. Absent in Vertebrata and the higher Mollusca and Arthropoda. Non-sexual ovulation or parthenogenesis in insects and other invertebrata. Its in- terpretation. So-called " alternation of generations " or alter- nation of true generation with non-sexual gemmation or fission. (3) Sexual reproduction or true Generation : fertilization of an ovum or germ-cell (ovule in plants) by a spermatozoon or sperm-cell (pollen-grain in plants.) Probably essentially a checked and modified form of reproduction by fission. In man, as in other vertebrata, there is no non-sexual reproduction of the entire organism ; but reproduction by fission occurs as multiplication of cells in yelk-cleavage, in the embryo, in the growing body, and in disease ("pro- * Nos autem asserinras (tit ea dicendis constabit) omnia omnino animalia, etiaro vivipara, atque horninem adeo ipsum, ex ovo pro- gigni. — Harvey : De generatione Animaliuui. Exercit. I. p. 182 in the College ed. of 1766. 56 LECTURES OX PHYSIOLOGY. liferation "). Gemmation seen in occasional reproduction of supernumerary fingers after removal : also in development of foetal structures in a virgin ovary. Ovulation. Structure of ovary in man and higlier animals (including all vertebrata but osseous fishes) not glandular ? but peculiar' to itself. Origin and early develop- ment of ovary. Its germ-epithelium : its stroma and bloodvessels. Ingrowth of germ-cells in columns. Forma- tion of ova. The ovary and ova at birth. Changes at pubert}'. Periodical ripening of ova. The Ovisac or Graafian vesicle (" ovum " of de Graaf) : its development and structure when fully formed. Description of the ripe mammalian Ovum. Vascular phenomena of menstruation. Application to the ovary of the Fallopian trumpet or oviduct. Eupture of ovisac and escape of ripe ovum. Subsequent changes in ovary: "true" and u false " Corpus luteum. Menstruation. The Sperm-cell. Origin, structure, descent, and functional development of testis. Peculiarity of secretion in chemical products being combined with morphological — liquor seminis with spermatozoa. The latter formed by endogenous pro- liferation in a vacuolated mother-cell (cf. Protomyxia ? flagellated infusoria with large nucleus and scanty protoplasm). Impregnation or fertilization by conjunction of sperm- and germ-cells. Hermaphrodite animals, dioecious and mon- oecious plants, unisexual flowers. Mutual fertilization even in bisexual organisms. Sexual congress in fishes, amphibia, mammalia. Place of impregnation normally in upper part of oviduct : extra-uterine pregnancy. Formation of female pronucleus : extrusion of hyaline polar vesicles or directive corpuscles : radiate appearance of sur- rounding protoplasm (" aster "). Penetration of zona pellucida by spermatozoa: loss of flagellum and formation of male pronucleus. Conjugation of pronuclei. Description of im- pregnated ovum. Segmentation or germ-cleavage. Fission of nucleus : REPRODUCTION AND DEVELOPMENT. 57 dumb-bell form : double radiate form (" amphiaster ") : cleavage-disk. " Caryoly tic figures." Fission of protoplasm. Two equal cells. Eepetition of the process. Morula or mulberry-mass of segmentation cells. Cleavage cavity. Growth of morula and aggregation of cells towards surface. Hollow blastosjihere (blastodermic vesicle) with single layer of cells (blastoderm) inclosing segmentation-cavity filled with food-yelk. Other modes of segmentation according to proportion of living protoplasmic germ and food-yelk or " deutoplasm " in ovum. Ova of osseous fishes, of sharks and skates, of frogs, snakes, and lizards, alligators and tortoises, birds, mammals. Size of ovum dependent on food-yelk. Envelopes albuminous (rabbit, bird, &c), membranous, calcareous. Complete and incomplete cleavage (Jioloblastic and mesoblastic ova) : Am- phioxys, frog, mammal : osseous fish, reptile and bird {Table 33). Structure of hen's ovum. Mode of segmentation : flat disc-like germ, blastodisc or germinal -disc. Its subsequent growth. Blastoderm or segmented germ. One layer (epiblast) : size, shape and transparency of constituent cells. Under- cells, large, ovoid, granular : formation of hypoblast : two- layered blastoderm. Formation of mesoblast : three-layered blastoderm. Further development of blastoderm. Area germinativa. A. pellucida. A. opaca. Primitive streak and groove ; relic of blastopore (?). Medullary or neural groove and canal : larninse dorsales : incomplete roofing in : hind, mid, and fore neural (cerebral) vesicles : central neural canal and ventricles. Area vasculosa. Punctum saliens. Primitive tubular heart : primitive or vitelline or omphalo-mesenteric circulation ; its partial persistence as vena portaa and affluents. Head and tail folds : lateral folds. Pinching off of embryo from yelk. Formation of primitive alimentary canal. Fore, mid, and hind gut. Vitelline duct. Yelk sac or umbilical vesicle. 53 LECTURES ON PHYSIOLOGY. Formation ofccelom or body cavity. Splitting of mesoblast : limits, cephalad and caudad. Closed pleuro-peritoneal space : a great lymph-sac. Endothelium. Somatopleure and Splanchnopleure. Notoclwrd. Protovertebrce. Limbs. Development of the several organs from the three layers of the blastoderm (Table 35). Formation of Amnion from Epiblast. Internal layer or amnion proper with subamniotic liquor amnii. External layer or " Chorion." Formation of allantois from hindgut. Bladder, urachus and external allantois. Allantoic vessels. Incorporation with " chorion." Evolution of uterus after impregnation. Muscular fibres : arteries, sinuses. Mucous membrane : decidua : muciparous glands : uterine lt milk : " uterine crypts. Formation of villi over ovum [Chorion frondosum). Im- plantation in uterine crypts. Foetal and maternal placenta. Allantoic (umbilical or " foetal-placental ") arteries and vein. Degree of union of foetal and maternal elements of placenta. Caducous or non-caducous mucous membrane. Deciduate or non-deciduate placenta. Form of placenta. Diffuse, i.e., chorion frondosum scarcely differentiated. Zonular and zonary. Cotyledonous. Bell- shaped. Discoid. Placenta and chorion leve. Fcetal physiology. — Nutrition : from mucus — uterine milk ? — albumen — food-yelk, directly through vitelline duct and in- directly through vitelline veins. From maternal blood. No digestive ferments secreted. Storage of fat and of glycogen. Circulation — Fcetal heart: ductus arteriosus and foramen ovale, liver, ductus venosus and umbilical vein. Respiration. Diffusion of gases in placenta \ distribution of aerated, un- aerated and mixed blood. Expansion of lungs at birth. Secretion. Meconium : smegma : urine. Balance of nutri- tion and of energy. Foetal movements. Chronology of the chick in the egg and of the human foetus in utero (Tables 34 and 35.) APPENDIX OF NOTES AND TABLES. NOTES AND TABLES 1. THE TERM PHYSIOLOGY, Tins word occurs in classical Greek in its original meaning of the science, discipline or reasoned discourse, concerning nature — natural philosophy in the widest sense. So (fivo-ioXoyla and (j)vo-io\6yos and their derivations were used by Aristotle and Plutarch, and also by Cicero : "natures ratio quam physiologiam Grceci vocant" (de Nat. Deorum, i. 8). " Physiologus " was the title of one of the most popular books of the middle ages (8th-i4th cent.) in the sense of " The natural historian ; " but already natural history was chiefly concerned with animals, and the French translation was named "Le bestiaire." The author is unknown. Beside Greek, Latin and Oriental versions, it was twice translated into English. 17 beasts are enumerated, including mermaids, 14 birds, 8 rep- tiles, and 2 insects, beside a few trees and minerals. See Cams : Geschichte der Zoologie, pp. 108-145. " Physiology " was used in the general sense of Natural Philo- sophy by Boyle about 1670, and even a hundred years later Johnson defines it as " The doctrine of the constitution of the works of nature." But I find the word in its modern acceptation of an account of the uses of the parts of the body, in Browne's "Institutions in Physick," London, 1714 : and Haller in the middle of the 18th century applies it as we now do. 62 APPENDIX OF NOTES AND TABLES. 2. CLASSIFICATION OP THE SCIENCES. A. Ideal or Abstract Sciences : subject matter, forms of thought. I. Mathematics. Conceptions of space — Geometry. Conceptions of nnmber — Arithmetic. The science of nnmber applied to forms in space — Algebra, &c. II. Logic — the science of the laws of reasoning. III. Metaphysics — the science of real existence. B. Real or Material Sciences : subject-matter, sensible objects. i. Descriptive Sciences: "Natural History." I. Astronomy, as a science of observation. II. Geology and physical geography (Erdhunde). III. Mineralogy and metallography. IY. Descriptive Biology. Botany. Zoology. Anthropology. Anatomy — Histology — Embryology. ii. Exact Sciences : " Natural Philosophy. ," I. Physics : dealing with masses of matter at rest or motion : statics : dynamics. II. Molecular Physics. Dynamics of radiant energy — Electricity — Mag- netism. III. Chemistry : dealing with atoms. APPENDIX OF NOTES AND TABLES. 63 iii. Applied Sciences, I. Astronomy : applied mathematics and physics. II. Theory of the earth : applied physics, and chemistry. III. Inorganic Chemistry. IV. Physiology : application of physics and chemistry to organic functions. Vegetable — Animal — Human physiology. Comte's " hierarchy of the sciences " is as follows : Mathematics. Astronomy. Physics. Chemistry. Biology. Sociology. This classification (founded on the earlier attempt of Des- cartes) is, as Mr. Herbert Spencer has shown, unsatisfactory in that it compares " Sciences " of different kinds — abstract and concrete. Spencer's own classification is into : (1) Abstract Sciences : Logic and Mathematics ; (2) Abstract Concrete Sciences: Mechanics ; Molar (including Statics and Dynamics) and Molecular (including Chemistry and the Dynamics of Light, Heat and Magnetism) ; (3) Concrete Sciences : Astronomy, Geology, and Biology. 64 APPENDIX OF NOTES AND TABLES. 3. CHARACTERS OF THE ORGANIC KINGDOM. i. Chemical Few elements : complex combinations. Carbon compounds. Colloid condition : abundant water : rounded forms. 2. Structural Cells and their derivatives : differentiated tissues, neither amorphous nor crystalline. Symmetry : spiral, radial, bilateral, serial. 3. Functional Cycle of changes. Origin from a parent organism : growth : assimilation : decay: death. Irritability : movement : heat. Reproduction. 4. DISTINCTIVE CHARACTERS OF ANIMALS AND PLANTS. 1. Chemical A. predominance of IN compounds. P. „ starchy do. Cellulose tunic to each cell. A. Presence of Hemoglobin. P. „ Chlorophyll. 2. Structural A. Digestive cavity. Nervous and muscular tissues. 3. Functional P. Nutrition from inorganic food. Fixation of C. A. „ ,, organic food only. A. Functions of relation predominant. Note.— The group of Fungi form exceptions to many of the above characters : (1) in being without chlorophyll and feeding on organic food ; (2) in having a large amount of N and deficient carbohydrates. Carnivorous plants live partly on organic food. A few animals contain chlorophyll — e.g., Hydra viridis. APPENDIX OF NOTES AND TABLES. 65 5. ANATOMICAL CHARACTERS PECULIAR TO MAN. The distinctions between Man and the lower animals, so far as structure goes, are not of ordinal value, as Cuvier held (Bimana), still less of subregnal importance (Owen : Arch- eticephala). Excluding the Lemurs and their allies, as a separate order (Prosimice), the order Primates includes the varieties of the human race — which form a single species, genus and family — along with the families of apes. The group of catarrhine apes which approaches nearest in structure to man consists of the gorilla and chimpanzee (Troglodytes), the orang (Simia or Plthecus), and the gibbons (Hylobates). The characters of the hair, skull, teeth, vertebrae, pelvis and tarsus, of the muscles, the brain and the genital organs, which distinguish man, are given in Huxley's " Anatomy of Verte- brate Animals," pp. 488-492, also by Mivart ("Lessons in Anatomy," p. 494) and Macalister (" Morphology of Vertebrate Animals," p. 334). The comparative shortness of the forearm, the non-opposable great toe and truly plantigrade foot, the large and completely convoluted brain, the smooth adult skull and large facial angle — are the most striking external human characters. The permanently erect attitude, and the possession of articu- late speech are more important functional peculiarities. But the deep and broad distinction between man and brutes is intellectual and moral, not corporeal ; for, as Bacon remarked long ago : " Man is of kin to the beasts by his body, and if he be not of kin to God by his spirit, he is a base and ignoble creature ' 66 APPENDIX OF NOTES AND TABLES. 6. DEFINITIONS OF DISEASE. Many and futile have "been the attempts to define Health or its opposite, Disease. Both are subjective terms, and therefore not definable by precise predicates, but applied in accordance with individual feeling. " Disease " is " discomfort." Whatever causes bodily uneasi- ness or whatever by experience will sooner or later cause it, whatever interferes with our bodily functions, whatever tends to death, is disease. Health is the opposite condition, of comfort, ease, and ability to eat, sleep, move and perform the other functions of life. Diseases have only this in common, that they all interfere with comfort or shorten life. There is no common cause for the pains of inflammation, of colic and of mechanical injury. No line can be drawn between health and disease. Pathology is only physiology under various disturbing causes. Decay and death are as much physiological events as birth and life. All diseases imply two things — an existing cause, quidguid irritans, mechanical, thermal, chemical, parasitic, infective, or of unknown nature ; and a reacting, living organism, quidguid irritabile. Stone in the bladder is not the disease ; the disease is the reaction of the body. The severest injuries, the most virulent poisons, produce no disease in a corpse. There is a tendency after disturbance to return to the pre- vious condition, if the equilibrium has not been too violently upset. This tendency has been called Vis medicatrix Naturce ; but there is no such force, and the so-called " efforts of Nature " often aggravate instead of curing the mischief. Our mortal bodies are not made to last for ever. It is clear that if disease is not a single state nor the result of a single cause, it cannot be removed by any single method, or on any universal principle. Hence all " Systems " of Medicine, like all " Universal reme- dies," are of necessity false. Iatro-mechanical and iatro- chemical schools, Brunonian and Antiphlogistic theories, Allo- pathy and Homoeopathy, are all equally unreasonable; not APPENDIX OF NOTES AND TABLES. 67 wrong solutions of a scientific problem, but ignorant answers to an absurd question. The rational physician investigates each case of disease to ascertain its seat, its nature, and, if possible, its cause, and treats it accordingly— larpevei yap one various parts of skin ) another. Movements of pupil to light, to accommodation. Purkinje's figures. Optical illusions as to form, light, colour. * The most convenient way of rapidly taking the body temperature is to place the bulb of a thermometer in the stream of urine during micturition. F 2 6S APPENDIX OF NOTES AND TABLES. 8. CONSERVATION OP ENERGY. Force is defined as whatever causes or alters movement; Energy, as the power of doing work. Forces are numerically estimated by the amount of motion they can produce or destroy in a unit of time — i.e., by the rate at which they can alter motion. "Work is measured by the product of the force acting into the distance moved through. The several kinds of energy, mechanical, chemical, thermal,, electrical, are co-related — i.e., each is capable of conversion into another. Energy is supposed to be, like matter, indestructible. Machines only use existing energy by transforming or applying it — e.g., steam-engine, heat to motion : match, chemical energy to heat and light : battery, chemical to electro-motive energy. Benj. Thompson (Count Rumford) first showed that the heat produced by friction is proportioned to the mechanical energy employed. Oersted discovered how magnetism may be got out of an electrical current. Faraday how an induced electrical current may be got from a magnet. Dr. Mayer, a medical prac- titioner of Heilbronn, expounded the theory of conservation of energy. Joule, of Manchester, determined the mechanical equivalent of heat. There is every reason to believe that vital energy is trans- formed chemical energy, taken in with food in a latent state and made kinetic in the two correlated forms of energy, heat and motion. And the chemical energy of food is the radiant energy of the sun's rays, rendered latent by the leaves of plants. So that the human body may be regarded as a machine for rendering latent energy kinetic : i.e., for setting free the energy locked up in the complex molecules of starch, oil and albumen,, by breaking them down into the simpler and more stable mole- cules of water, carbonic acid and urea. Energy is thus liberated, and appears as heat and movement. APPENDIX OF NOTES AND TABLES. 69 9. THE VISCERAL OR BRANCHIAL ARCHES, CLEFTS AND NERVES. I. Lacrymal cleft Between frontal and nasal arches. Supplied by first div. of trigeminal nerve. II. Nasal cleft Between nasal and maxillary arches. Supplied by bifurcation of oculo-motor or "third" nerve. III. Oral Cleft Between maxillary (including pras-maxilla, maxilla, pala- tine, and pterygoid) and mandibular arches. Supplied by bifurcation of trigeminal nerve or " second and third division of fifth." IV. Tympanic {or spiracular) cleft with Eustachian tube Between mandibular and hyoid arches. Supplied by bifurcation of portio dura. V. First Branchial or second post-oral cleft Between hyoid and thyro-hyoid arches. Supplied by bifurcation of glosso-pharyngeal. VI. — VIII. Second, third and fourth branchial clefts Supplied by successive branches of vagus. yo APPENDIX OF NOTES AND TABLES. 10. TABLE OF THE BONES, WITH THEIR HOMOLOGTTES. VEBTEBEAL" AXIS (columna spinalis). Cervical vertebrae : without ribs reaching the sternum. Thoracic or dorsal : with ribs attached. Lumbar : thoracic vertebras without ribs. Sacral or pelvic : vertebrae united with ilia, with any others anchylosed with them (as in human sacrum). Caudal: free post, pelvic vertebrae, called coccygeal in man and anthropoid apes.* SKULL. Consisting of (i) the central axis, formed by the prolongation of the notochord and its sheath ; an investing cartilaginous mass, prolonged beyond the end of the notochord in the post, clinoid prs. and iucorporating with it the trabeculas cranii ; (2) a series of neural (dorsal) arches forming the vault ; (3) a series of visceral (ventral) arches forming the jaws, andhyoid and branchial car- tilages ; (4) external splint-bones ; (5) three sense-capsules wedged m between the segments. * The Parts of a Vertebra are Named as follows :— Centrum or body : the ossified notochord, or rather its sheath. Invertebral substance : the unossified notochord. Neural or dorsal arch: pedicles, laminae and spine. Hcbmal arch : chevron or V-bones (absent in man). Superior transverse 2)rocesses, or Diapophyses : post, tubercles of cervical tr. prs. and tr. prs. of dorsal vertebrae. Inferior do. or Parapophyses : ant. tubercles of cervical tr. prs. and tr. prs. of lumbar vert. = cervical and lumbar anchylosed ribs. Anterior zygapophyses — sup. articular prs. Metapophyses, or mamruillary prs. Posterior zygapophyses — inf. articular prs, Anapophyses, or post-zygapophyses. APPENDIX OF NOTES AND TABLES. 7 1 i. Posterior Segment Basioccipital basilar process. Exoccipitals condyles. Supra-occipital squama. Auditory capsules Periotic or petrosal ... petrous part of temporal. Tympanic ring for membrana tympani. Squamosal squamous part. Malleus proximal end of mandibular arch. Incus proximal end ofhyoid arch. Stapes or columella . . . segment of capsule. ii. Middle Segment Basisphenoid posterior part of body. Alisplienoids greater wings. Parietals parietal bones. Optic Capsules Fibrous Sclerotic, with osseous plates in birds. iii. Anterior Segment Prcesphenoid anterior part of body. Orbito sphenoids lesser wings. Frontals frontal bone. Olfactory capsules Ethmo-turbinals lateral masses of ethmoid. iv. Fourth Segment (?) Mesethmoid perpendicular plate and vomer. Nasals nasals. Series oe inferior or ventral arches i. First or prce-maxillary ventral arch incisor nucleus. 2. Maxillary arch with Jugal superior maxilla and zygoma. 3. Palatine arch palate bones. 4. Pterygoid arch internal pterygoid processes. 5. Mandibular arch inferior maxilla and malleus (os quadratum). 6. Hyoid&rch. hyoid, lesser process, stylo-hyoid ligaments, styloid pr., incus. 72 APPENDIX OF NOTES AND TABLES. THORAX. Vertebral ribs bony ribs. Sternal ribs costal cartilages. Presternum or rostrum . . . manubrium. Episternum or inter-cla- part of clavicle (?) with inter- vicle clavicular ligament. Mesosternum gladiolus. Xiphisternum eusiform cartilage. LIMBS. Upper. Lower. i. Shoulder- girdle answers to Pelvis. Scapula „ Ilium. Supra-scapula (epiphysis) „ Supra-ilium (ej^iphysis). Coracoid bone (anchylosed) „ Ischium. Clavicle „ Poupart's ligament. ' 2. Upper arm: humerus ,, Thigh : Femur. 3. Forearm : ulna „ Leg : Fibula. radius „ Tibia. 4. Manus „ Pes. Radiale or scaphoid „ Tibiale ) a , 1 Intermedium or lunar „ Intermedium 3 Ulnare or pyramidale or cuneiform „ Calcaneum. Centrale (absent in man) „ Navicular or scaphoid. Carpale i. or Trapezium „ Tarsale i. or Entocunei- form. ii. or Trapezoides „ ii. or Mesocunei- form. iii. or Magnum „ iii. or Ectocunei- form. iv. & v. or Unci- iv. & v. or Cuboi- form „ dis. Metacarpals and phalanges „ Metatarsals and phalanges. APPENDIX OF NOTES AND TABLES. 73 11. TABLE OF THE ELEMENTS IN THE HUMAN BODY. C 12 tetrad N 14 triad H 1 monad O 16 cliad S 32 diad P 31 pentad CI 35*5 monad F 19 monad Na 23 monad K 39 monad Ca 40 diad Mg 24 diad in proteids, fats and carbohydrates, as carbonic anhydride and as carbonates, in proteids, in crystalline compounds and as a gas. in proteids, fats and carbohydrates and as water, in proteids, fats and carbohydrates as oxy- hasmoglobin, as a free gas and as water. in proteids, in a few crystalline compounds and as sulphates. in lecithin and as phosphates. as chlorides. as calcic fluoride, probably in form of apatite. as salts, chiefly in liquids, as salts, chiefly in solids, as salts, as salts. Fe 56 tetrad — in haemoglobin and its derivative pigments. Also a minute but constant amount of Silica in epidermis. Traces of Manganese with iron, of Lithium with potassium, of Aluminium and of Copper have been detected. 74 APPENDIX OF NOTES AND TABLES. 12. TABLE OF PROXIMATE ANIMAL PRINCIPLES. A. Nitrogenous i. Proteids or albuminous compounds. Albumins Serum (or blood) albumin. Egg (or ov-) albumin. Vegetable albumin. Globulins Serum (or para-) globulin. Fibrinogen — Fibrin. Crystallin. Myosin or muscle-globulin. Vitellin or yelk-globulin. Alkali-albumins — Casein — Legumin, &c. Acid-albumins — in digestive cavities alone. Peptones — digested albumins. ii. Colloid nitrogenous compounds, more or less resembling proteids. ( Mucin. \ Chondrin (?). \ Gelatine. Elastin, Nuclein, Keratin and other uncertain com- pounds. iii. Crystalline proteid body containing iron. Hemoglobin. iv. Crystalline compounds mostly resembling amides. Urea, uric acid, glycin, leucin, tyrosin, &c. APPENDIX OF NOTES AND TABLES. 7$ B. Non-nitrogenous i. Fatty compounds (glycerin ethers). Palmitin, Stearin, Olein, with traces of Caproin, &c. £eci£7im (di-stearyl-glycerophosphate of neurin). Cholesterin (a monatomic alcohol). ii. Carbohydrates Amyloses (ethers) — Glycogen or animal starch. Glycoses (alcohols) — Dextrose and Icevulose, Maltose. Sucroses (alcohols) — Lactose. 76 APPENDIX OF NOTES AND TABLES. 13. CONSPECTUS OF THE MOST IMPORTANT CHARACTERS OP THE PRINCIPAL CARBOHYDRATES. Polar- Name. C H Water. Alcohol. Diff. ised ray. Gum (Arabic Acid K & Ca) 6 io 5 sol. insol. colloid — Cellulose (Lignin). 6 io 5 insol. insol Starch (Granulose) 6 10 5 "sol." ... colloid + Animal Starch(G\y- cogen) (610 5) 3 "sol." insol. colloid + Dextrin (" British gum") (6 10 5)2 sol. insol. ... + Dextrose (Glycose) 6 12 6 sol. sol. cryst. + Lsevulose (Fruc- tose) 6 12 6 sol. sol. cr. — Galactose (artificial product) 6 12 6 sol. sol. cr. — Inosit 6 12 6 sol. ... cr. Maltose 12 22 11 sol. sol. cr. + Lactose (milk sugar) 12 12 11 sol. ... cr. + Sucrose (cane sugar) 12 22 11 sol. ... cr. + Iodine Cop - Ch ; an g ed loctme. per> intQ blue (at 8o°) glycose. cherry (at 6o°) maltose & glycose. claret (at 65 ) ... do. ... re- duces alcohol. re- duces do. re- duces do. re- duces do'. ... re- duces lactic acid APPENDIX OF NOTES AND TABLES. 77 14. PFLXJGER'S TABLE Of the effects of making and breaking a constant Galvanic Circuit, ascending or descending (i.e., centripetal or cen- trifugal) through a muscle-nerve preparation. Electro-motive force of battery or number of cell? alternately coupled. Descending Current Ascending Current Make Break (closing contr.) (opening do.) Make (closing contr.) Break (opening do.) Very weak... Weak Stronger Contraction Contr ... None , None or tetanus Contraction Contr Contr Moderate Contr. Strong None (recoil 1 Contr Very strong )lock) Contr. Deductions. A descending current is more efficient than an ascending one. The stimulus of making is more efficient than that of breaking the circuit. Efficiency increases with electro- motive force up to a certain point ; then blocks interfere. Conductivity of nerve is increased by catelectrotonus and di- minished by anelectrotonus. General Laiv. Electrical stimulus consists in the passage of nerve or muscle from a lower to a higher state of irritability, i.e., either (i) rise of catelectrotonus or (2) fall of anelectrotonus. Of the two, the former is the more efficient stimulus. Notation. — The results set forth in the above table are con- veniently stated thus : CCC (or KCC) means cathodal (kathodal) closing contraction — i.e. on making a descending current, a con- traction follows; ACC = anodal closing contraction — i.e. on making an ascending current, a contraction follows; COc = on breaking a descending current, a weak contraction; AO0 = on breaking an ascending current, no contraction; COT = on breaking a descending current, tetanus. ?S APPENDIX OF NOTES AND TABLES. 15. LAWS OP DIFFUSION OF LIQUIDS THROUGH MEMBRANES. Crystalline solutions diffuse better than colloid. Acid solutions better than neutral. Aqueous solutions better than oily liquids. With two diffusible solutions the greater current is from that of less to that of greater specific gravity. The membrane mnst be " wetted " by the liquid. Hence soaps facilitate the passage of oils. Difference of pressure on the two sides of the membrane modifies the above rules. 16. COMPARISON OF LYMPH, CHYLE AND BLOOD. Lymph [interstitial Lymph {between Chyle (in in connective tissue). ly myth glands Receptacle). Blood, and veins) . Reaction neutral or alkaline ... alkaline alkaline alkaline Sp. gr little above iooo 1015-1020 ... 1015 1055 Wa ter n early the whole 950 900 800 (pro mille) Salts -5 7 7 8 Globulin] - trace 35 40 70 Fibrin absent -5 2 2*5 Falt l I trace 5 35 1 . matter \ d oo . Leucocytes ... few or absent abundant more so... less abundant Red disks absent absent absent ... about 4 millions to each square millimetre APPENDIX OF NOTES AND TABLES. 79 17. PHYSICAL LAWS AFFECTING THE CIRCULATION. 1. Gravity — Weight of the blood. Inertia of the blood; of the vessels. Weight of air — atmospheric pressure. 2. Blood (like water) almost absolutely incompressible and inelastic. 3. Blood (like water) transmits pressure equally in every direction, — i.e., the molecules of a liquid move freely among each other. 4. Blood, under pressure, moves in the direction of the least resistance. 5. Friction of liquid moving in closed tubes : external be- tween wall and liquid, internal between layers of liquid (the latter may be neglected). Effect in causing a slow current ex- ternally and the most rapid in axis of tube. (Current of a river slowest near banks, swiftest in mid-stream.) 6. Quantity of a given liquid discharged in a given time from tubes depends ( 1 ) on the average velocity of the whole stream, (2) on the calibre of the tube — i.e., the square of the radius multiplied by w ( 2 T 2 or 3*1 4.15927), (3) on the length of the tube. 7. The Velocity varies (neglecting friction) as the moving energy (vis viva). It may be measured by the difference of pressure at the two ends of the tube, if the latter is less than o'5 mm. in diameter. Where the moving force, like the con- traction of the heart, is intermittent, the velocity varies with its energy and frequency — i.e. as the mean pressure at the proximal end of the tube varies. 8. Friction for the same liquid (blood) and same surface (healthy endothelium) depends on the length of tube traversed, and (for a capillary tube) on the square of its cross-section. 9. Elasticity of the tubes probably makes little difference in the mean velocity, or in the friction, and none in the total amount of liquid discharged in a given time. Its effect is only to equalize the mean pressure and so to convert an intermittent into a more or less constant flow. So APPENDIX OF NOTES AND TABLES. O i* o o < M fl -_, 60 ci a © ^ ^H o Pi © eg p< © 4-1 M c3 +3 Pi o O © © g 1 "o *© «fl 1*1 pq B-T?H © © era © 9 '> o p^ *.► *G O © -H c3 © o g © C3 on fcB "SB - be .a .a © "2 03 rt CC =1 •3.2 ■sAh .gO, 3w © ,_, s _ pi © o cc a; ,g a > M 00 CO o o ft o < oo Ph P^ M : W CL © ttT CO P * © | O ^i /; 30 3 oa 3 Bh 3 - a o o — i o ■i. o in r. o r. a p a fc J H W > 5 «(j 'f M O h H '. ^ PS « § w O P o > <5 <1 32 oa APPENDIX OF NOTES AND TABLES. 8 1 19. STATISTICS OP THE CIRCULATION. The Amount of blood in the body is about one 12th or 13th of the entire weight, i.e., for an average man, about 12 or 13 lbs. Of this about 10 or 12 lbs. are said to escape after decapita- tion ; or 7 or 8 by opening the heart and veins after death. The rest remains in the tissues. Of the whole quantity, more than a fourth is in the heart and great vessels, nearly as much in the yortal system, including the liver and mesenteric vessels, and most of the rest in the muscles, glands and brain. The heart contains in each of its cavities approximately the same amount; which has been calculated at 4, 5 or 6 oz. Lud wig gives 150 c.c, Yierordt 180, Sanderson 195, i.e., 5^-6 oz. Blood-pressure in left ventricle of the horse — during systole — estimated at 200 mm. (8 in.) of mercury; in its aorta not much less : 15-20 cm. or 7"5 inches. In its right ventricle only 25 mm. (1 in.), and in its B. auricle 2-3 mm. In L. ventr. of dog 140 mm. (Marey). Blood pressure in dog's carotid artery 4-7 in. » rabbit's „ 2-4 „ „ „ sheep's brachial vein i „ 55 a 53 crural ,, -3 „ Estimated pressure in human carotid 6-8 „ Mean velocity in carotid of horse 1 2 in. per sec. „ ,, metatarsal of horse 2 „ „ „ „ carotid of dog 10 „ „ „ „ rabbit 5 „ According to Chauveau's observations, the rate varies ex- tremely, from 8 to 20 in. per sec. in the horse, and from 8 to 1 5 in the dog. Yelocity of pulse-wave, 9 metres per sec. Time for complete circulation — from jugular vein to carotid — in horse reckoned at 30 sec. (Hering : 28 Poiseuille), and in man about the same : in dog 1 5 sec, in rabbit 7 or 8 sec, in cat the same, fowl 5, squirrel 4 (Vierordt). G 82 APPENDIX OF NOTES AND TABLES. Pulse per minute : in the foetus 150 „ infant 130-150 „ child 80-100 ,, adult 70 but varying from 65 to 80 or more within physiological limits. In tall persons it is usually rather slow : in old age somewhat quickened. 20. PHYSICAL LAWS AFFECTING RESPIRATION. Pressure of air (at sea-level), 15 lbs. to square inch. This pressure acts equally in all directions. Air, like liquids, follows direction of least resistance. Air compressible and elastic. The volume varies inversely as pressure (Boyle's law) at constant temperatures. Diffusion of gases — freely. Transfusion — through animal membranes. Solubility of gases — varies with barometric pressure. „ inversely with temperature. Specific solubility of in serum, at 760 mm. mercury and o° C. . '04 C0 2 179 N '02I Atmospheric air '025 21. STATISTICS OF RESPIRATION. Total capacity of both lungs, about 400 c.c. of air. Of this about 100 c.c. is only inspired by effort (" complemental " air) ; about 25 or 30 are changed in tranquil phrenic respiration (" tidal " air) ; about 100 are only expired by muscular effort (" reserve " air). Of the remaining 150 (" residual " air), some escapes on opening the thorax after death and so equalizing pressure outside and inside the lung ; while the larger part can only be expelled by long-continued pressure overcoming the elasticity of the pulmonary tissue. Quantity of oxygen inspired per diem, with moderate exer- cise, about 10,000 grains, or nearly i| lbs. (745 grammes or nearly 520 litres). APPENDIX OF NOTES AND TABLES. 83 Quantity of carbonic acid gas expired per diem varies greatly with muscular work. For a day of moderate exercise it has been estimated at 12,000 grains, or from if to 2 lbs. (800-867 grammes) : on a day of rest in Pentonville Prison, 911 grammes ; on one of enforced labour, 1284. Quantity of water expired per diem estimated at 1 1 fl. oz. Frequency of respirations (while at rest, as in sleep) : at birth, 40 per minute ; during childhood, 25 per minute ; during adult life, 16 or 17 per minute. Expired. Venous Blood. Arterial Blood. .. 79 O (at 30 in.) 9-10 ... 20 16 C0 2 46-49 ... 39 . 4-5 N 2 ... 2 Inspired Air. N (by vol.) 79 21 C0 2 trace 22. TABLE OP VOWELS. Pure voivels (1.) I long : as in ravine, usually in English written e as in Eve, or ee as in eel, or ea as in deal. Short : as in if, also cr?/pt. (2.) A long : as in father, pass ; rare in English and written as all, or alms, or star. Short : scarcely occurs in English. (3.) U long : as in blwe : usually written 00 in English as in too soon, also in two, to, rule, blew. Short : as in sitgar, iull, also written 00 as in look and wolf. Intermediate voivels : i. between I and A. (1.) E long : as in convey, usually in English written a as ale, mate. Short : as in then, bell. (2.) M long : as in there, pear ; perhaps only e modified by the following r. Short (German a) as in mat, Alfred (old English Alfred). G 2 8 4 APPENDIX OF NOTES AND TABLES. ii. Between A and.U. (3.) CE long : in German o, in French eu ; as in turn, worm, herb, first. Short : as in tun, %p. (4.) A-broad, long : as in aive, cwght, pall, sport. Short : written in English as in poll, spot. iii. Between U and I. (5.) U long and short in German and u in French : only provincial in English. Diphthongs (all long) : (1.) AI usually written i, as in Hnd, d^e : also buj, by, eye. (2.) AU usually written ou, as in hough, noun, also how, now. (3.) OU usually written 0, as in omega, woe, sole; also owe, soul, loiv, boat. (4.) 01 as in boil ; also hoy. Semi-vowels : (1.) I short, preceding and coalescing with any other vowel or diphthong: written y as in ye, yard, you, yea, yearn, yawn, yacht. (2.) U short, precedent : written w as in wet, worm. 23. TABLE OF CONSONANTS. Labials (lips and incisors). mute vocal Dentals an (tongue au or hard mute vocal T D N L TH TH (thin) (the) d Sibilants d incisors palate). mute vocal S Z R SH ZH Gutturals (root of tongue and soft palate). mute vocal K G Continuous : resonator open... M trilled {liquids)... aspirated F V NG CH GH (loch) (lough) H Y Examples. Mutes and vocals are interchanged by Welshmen and by Germans in speaking English. When the nares are obstructed, M becomes B ; N, D ; and NG, G, APPENDIX OF NOTES AND TABLES. 85 That L is related to D is shown by 'Obvaaevs becoming Ulysses, and baKpvov lacryma. That E is related to S is shown by dialectic forms like 6. Y is a weakened GH, as in Berlin pronunciation. The old English y as a prefix of a past participle is the German ge. So yawn is gahnen, yesterday Gestern, yellow gelb. The English alphabet is both defective and redundant. We have lost the old English signs for the vocal and mute aspi- rated dentals; > (th as in thick)' and ft (th as in then absurdly printed and still more absurdly pronounced y in the word the. We have no single S3^mbols for the two aspirated sibilants Sh (= German sch) and Zh (^French, j) as in azure. The aspirated gutturals are not English sounds. CH is the Greek x an( i the German ch, and the north English dialect retains the sound : e.g., loch. GH is the German g-final and appears in the Irish form of the word lake or loch, lough. ' Eedundant letters are C =K or S, J=D Zh, Q=K, X-K S. The vowels and diphthongs are extremely irregular ; A has been generally softened into E, and E into I, while I long has acquired the sound of the diphthong AI. One reason for these anomalies is that, while Southern pronunciation has predomi- nated in polite English, many of the written forms are Northern. The alphabet (English, Eoman, Greek, Phoenician, and He- brew) is not a haphazard arrangement of signs, but a series of quaternions, containing each a vowel, labial, guttural and dental, thus : — Yowels A E I O U Labials B F(digamma) M P V (phi) Gutturals C (gamma) G K Q(koppa)X (chi) Dentals D (theta) L N EST Z 86 APPENDIX OF NOTES AND TABLES. 24. EFFECTS OF STARVATION. Results of observations by Chossat and by Voit. The heart loses least weight, only . . 2-2*5 P er cent. The brain also after death has lost only . 2-3 per cent. The bones 15 The blood the same as the whole body . . 17-25 Lungs, 17 ; skin, 20 ; kidneys, 25-30 Muscles (diaphragm least) .... 30-40 per cent. Liver about half its weight .... 50-55 Spleen . . 65-70 Adipose tissue turned into connective tissue by losing all its fat, or . . . . 95-97 per cent. 25. BALANCE OF HEALTH. Income. Food, i|-2 lbs. "Water, Oiv, or 5 lbs. Oxygen gas, if lbs, or about 10,000 grains. Deduct the undigested matter passed as faeces, about Byj. Outgoings. By the lungs : C (as CO a ) 250 grammes, or 7| oz. Water as vapour . . .330 c.c, or 9 „ By the skin : Water as sweat and vapour . 660 c.c, or 20 „ Besides trace of salts and N. By the kidneys : Water 1700 c.c, or 50 „ Salts 20 gr., or 5 dr. Urea 30-33 gr., or 8 „ APPENDIX OF NOTES AND TABLES. $7 26. TABLE OF AVAILABLE ENERGY IN ONE GRAMME OF VARIOUS ARTICLES OF DIET. One gramme (15 432 1 grains) of potatoes yields about 1000 (997-1013) gramme degrees C. or Centigrade heat units or " caloris," i.e., it would raise about 1000 c.c. or 1 litre of water from freezing point to i° C. Or, multiplying by Joule's " me- chanical equivalent " of heat 424 we have 424,000, i.e, the same energy would lift that number of grammes (or 424 kilograms) one metre. One gramme Dried potatoes yields ... 3700-3752 thermal units Flour 3850-3950 „ [meters. Dried white of egg 4998 „ or about 2000 kilogram- Dried beef muscle 53*3 » ji 22 5° ji Gelatin 45 2 ° jj »j 1614 „ Urea 2205 „ „ 934 „ Starch 3813 „ » 1600 „ Sugar (dextrose) 3277 „ „ 1388 „ Alcohol 7076 „ „ 2975 n Palmitin 8888 „ „ 3768-5 „ 27. BALANCE OF ENERGY. Income. Supposing a man to eat 100 grammes of proteids in the shape of lean meat, the same weight of fatty matter as bacon or butter, and 250 grammes of starch as potatoes and arrowroot cooked in various ways, beside the non-oxydisable water and salts, he will be taking in as available energy, on "Prankland's reckoning (which differs slightly from the figures given in Table 26), the following. By meat, 5103 x 100 heat units. But the animal body cannot oxydise proteid food down to C0 2 H 2 and JSTH 3 . The nitrogen is excreted as urea, in bulk about a third of the proteids eaten. Urea has an (unused) energy of about 2206 thermal units. So deduct •§ of this, to allow for the unexhausted energy of the proteids, represented by the urea they are reduced to. Then the 100 grammes of meat will yield — (5103— ^11) X 100 or 436,800 heat units 100 grammes of fat will yield 9069 X 100 or 906,900 heat units And 250 grammes of amyloids 3912 X 250 or 978,000 heat units 2,32 1,700 thermal units 88 APPENDIX OF NOTES AND TABLES. So that the amount of daily energy taken in, thus estimated, comes to, say 2322 kilogram degrees (= 984,528 kilogram- meters in terms of work). Similar calculations by Fick yielded 2600-2700 kilogram degrees, by Ranke 2200, by Barral 2706, and by Helmholtz 2700. Outgoings. These cannot be estimated so exactly even in theory. A " day's work'' has been reckoned at 450 foot tons, or 150,000 kilogrammeters. But this is only external work. The internal work of the heart, diaphragm, &c, only appears as heat, and we cannot separate this heat of friction from that directly produced by oxydation. The total heat evolved in 24 hours with a fair day's work has been estimated at more than two million heat units — 2,061,320 or 2,732,472. See next Table. 28. OUTGOINGS OF HEAT. 1. By warming the air taken in — otherwise put as " by loss of the warm air expired." 2. By warming the food and drink taken in — otherwise put as " by loss of heat in the urine and fasces discharged. 3. By heat becoming latent in evaporation in the lungs and skin. 4. By radiation and conduction from the exposed parts of the body. The proportionate amounts have been estimated as follows by Barral, Dulong and Helmholtz in (centigrade) thermal units : Barral. Dulong. Helmholtz. Per Per Per cent. cent. cent. By warming food ... 52,500 or 2-3 47,50001- r8 70,00001- 2-5 By warming air in- spired 100,800 or 3-7 84,500 or 3-5 70,00001- 2-5 By Evaporation froin"\ f lungs f \ iQ2.oooor 7-2 308,000 or 14-8 -o ,.* 11 1 ?- 700.000 or 2 c 3 < y ' oy ^ By Lvaporation from I ) skin ) C. 384,000 or 14-5 "i By Conduction and > 2,000,000 or 80. Badiation 1,820,000 or 67-5 1,791,000 or 72 J 2,673,300 2,499,000 2,538,000 APPENDIX OF NOTES AND TABLES. 8 9 Fahr. 230 225 212 194 I?3 I70 l6o I58-I50 137 131 122-115 115 II2'5 III 110-3 1 10-100 105 104 103-5 io- 101-5 29. TEMPERATURES. Cent. Hot dry air has been borne without clothing . no Chamber used by Drs. Blagdon andFordyce . io7'2 Waters boils at 30 in. (760 mm.) pressure . 100 Sodium melts 90 (Lead at 334 , Iron at i,ooo° or upwards) The highest point of coagulation of serum- albumin ....... 84 Coagulation of serum-globulin jy Coagulation of ordinary serum-albumin . jt, to 70 Hot air bath 70-65 '5 Potassium melts . . , . . . 58 Stearin melts 55 Warm-blooded animals die .... 50-46 Observed in scarlatina by Woodman . . .46*1 Observed in tetanus by Wunderlich . . . 4475 Normal temperature of the swallow . . 44 Highest temperature certainly recovered from . 43-5 Hot bath 43-38 Normal temperature of squirrel . . . 40-5 High febrile temperature in man ; normal in sheep Blood of hepatic vein (Bernard) Normal temperature of rabbit Blood of right auricle .... 1 00*5-99 "5 Normal temperature of dog 99 Normal temperature in human rectum 97-5-98-6 „ „ „ mouth 98*6 „ „ „ axilla 95-98 Subnormal temperatures . 95-86 Tepid bath 90 Ether boils 60-59 Warm air: cold water : " temperate " 60-50 Cold bath . . . ' * 32 Cold air. Ice melts. Water freezes 40 397 39*5 386 38-37-5 37-2 37 35-367 35-3o 32-2 15 15-10 o Note. — To turn Fahr. ° to C. ° subtract 32, multiply by 5, and divide by 9. To turn C. ° into Fahr. ° multiply by 9, divide by 5, and add 32. 90 APPENDIX OF NOTES AND TABLES. 30. TABLE OF CENTRES AND COMMISSURES. I. Continuous axial tract of grey matter surrounding the neural caual : viz., grey matter of cord, of bulb, of mesencephalon around aqueduct, and of third ventricle. Transverse commissures : white between anterior cornua of cord . Longitudinal : antero -lateral white columns. II. Thalami Transverse commissure : posterior of third ventricle. III. Corpora striata Transverse commissure : anterior of third ventricle in part. Radiating commissure with cortex of hemisphere : corona radiata. IV. Olfactory Bulbs Longitudinal commissure to I. and III. [n&rvus olfac- torius.) V . Cortex of Hemispheres Transverse commissure : Corpus Callosum. Longitudinal arched commissure : Fornh-. YI. Cerebellum Transverse commissure : Pons Varolii. Longitudinal to grey matter of cord : C. resttformia. Longitudinal to grey matter of mesencephalon : Pr- e cerebello ad testes. APPENDIX OF NOTES AND TABLES. 9 1 31. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF LIGHT. Quantity : or extent of illuminated surface in the field of vision, intensity of illumination. Intensity : depends on amplitude of vibrations of ether. Colour : depends on number per second of vibrations of ether. Perceptions of colour depend upon (1) Tone, tint, or hue — i.e. the actual length of the vibrations ; (2) Saturation or depth or purity of hue ; (3) Illumination or brightness, or intensity. Rays of light move in straight lines, and are reflected or absorbed or transmitted by every object on which they fall. Partial and total reflexion : regular and irregular reflexion. Angle of reflexion equal to angle of incidence. Angle of refraction, different for different transparent media. Index of refraction /x, is the ratio of sine of angle of incidence to sine of angle of refraction. Value of ju for air to water 133 : 100 ; to vitreous humour 136 : 100; to aqueous humour 133*8 : 100 ; for water to lens 145 : 100. 32. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OP SOUND. Loudness depends on amplitude of vibrations. Pitch depends on frequency of vibrations (or number per second). Timbre (" quality ") 'depends on the overtones or harmonics which accompany the ground-tone or fundamental note. Range of audible sounds from 32 to 73,000 per second. Conduction of sound best by uniform elastic solids, next by uniform liquids, next by air. Most interrupted by heterogenous combination of solids and liquids, or by layers of solids with air or water between. 92 APPENDIX OF NOTES AND TABLES. 33. SEGMENTATION OP OVUM. i. Holoblastic : complete, with no separate vitellus or yelksac. (i.) Regularly symmetrical throughout ovum : Most sponges and polyps. Ascaris and some other worms. Most Echinodermi. Some lower Crustacea. Podura among Insects. Chiton among Mollusks. Amphioxys among Vertebrates. (2.) More or less unsymmetrical : Rabbit and probably other placental Mammals (very nearly regular). Frog and other Amphibia and Ganoid fishes. Most Mollusca, &c. ii. Meeoelastic : incomplete : with separate vitellus and yelk- sac : Birds and reptiles.* Sharks and rays. Osseous fishes. Cephalopoda } yelk differentiated from germ Most arthropoda ; only after impregnation. iii. Centeolecithal : with vitellus in centre of blastoderm separate but not inclosed in an external yelksac. (1.) With regular complete segmentation : Certain Crustacea, as Pagurus. (2.) with unequal segmentation : Certain Crustacea, as Gammarus. (3.) With surface segmentation and very large yelk : Many insects, as Aphis. * Mr. Caldwell reports, Sept. 1884, that the Monotremata alone among mammals lay a meroblastic ovum. APPENDIX OF NOTES AND TABLES, 93 34. CHRONOLOGY OF THE EMBRYO CHICK. The First clay of Incubation. 1 — 12 Hypoblast formed completely, hours. Mesoblast. Primitive streak and groove. 12 — 24 Head-fold. hours. Medullary or neural groove. Notochord and protovertebrce. Mesoblast splits to form the ccelom. Amnion begins to form. Area vasculosa. Second clay. 1 — 12 Medullary or neural canal, hours. Cerebral vesicle, I. Head-fold. Tubular heart. Wolfian duct begins to appear. 12 — 24 Cerebral vesicles, II. and III. Eye and ear sacs. hours. First circulation. Tail-fold. Amnion completed. Third day. Embryo turns on to left side. Cranial flexure. Visceral clefts and arches. Lens and eye-cup. Eore and hind gut. Lungs and liver. Fourth day. The invaginated mouth or stomodceum opens into the fore-gut. The allantois is formed. The septum of the ventricles appears. The limbs begin to appear. The Wolffian body. Muller's duct. Ova can be distinguished in the ovary. 94 APPENDIX OF NOTES AND TABLES. Fifth day. Allantois rapidly increases in size, becomes vascu- lar, and filled with fluid. First and second circulations together ; yelk-sac and allantois both aerating. Limbs distinguishable into segments. Cartilaginous endoskeleton. Anus opened. Auricular septum. Liquor amnii appears. Sixth day. The visceral clefts closing except the first. Movements of the chick first observed. Albumen diminishing ; vitellus increasing. Seventh day. Amniotic contractions observed. Primitive circulation replaced by second or allan- toic. Chest walls consolidating. Eighth to Fourteenth days. First points of ossification. Horny beak begins to appear. Yelk-sac diminishes. Abdominal wall completed by the eleventh day. Allantois invests the whole embryo ; and its (um- bilical) arteries rapidly increase in size. Feathers growing in their sacs (ioth — 18th days). Fifteenth to Twentieth days. Chick moves from lying crossways to a length- wise position (14th day). Umbilical vesicle or yelk-sac withdrawn into the abdomen, and umbilicus closed. Air chamber at broad end of shell increases. Chick hatched at end of three weeks' incubation. APPENDIX OF NOTES AND TABLES. 95 35. CHRONOLOGY OF THE HUMAN FCETUS. I. month, 1st arid 2nd week — Neural groove and notochord. Splitting of mesoblast. Formation of amnion. Appearance of tubular heart. Primitive or vitelline circulation. 3rd week — Protovertebrae. Visceral clefts and arches. Allantois appears. Cerebral vesicles. Wolffian body. 4th week — Limbs show as buds. Septum ventriculorum begins. Lungs appear as diverticula from the fore-gut. II. month, 5th week — Aorta formed. Duct of Miiller. Vascular allantois. Clavicle and mandible begin to ossify. 6th week — Visceral clefts disappear. Umbilical sac attains its full growth. Muscles distinguishable. 7th week — Germs of teeth appear. Ossification of bones of face and limbs. 8th week — Septum auriculorum begins. Lens formed from epiblast. Adrenals appear. Elbow and knee distinguishable. III. month — Foetal placenta begins to form. Sex of foetus distinguishable. Fissure of Sylvius appears. IV. „ Adipose tissue takes the place of embryonic connective. V. „ Hair covers the scalp. VI. „ Nails appear. Cerebrum grows backwards over cerebellum. VII. ,, Cerebral convolutions begin to form. VIII. „ Ossific points rapidly laid down. IX. ,, Descent of the testes into the scrotum. 9 6 APPENDIX OF NOTES AND TABLES. 36. GENERAL STATISTICS OF THE HUMAN BODY. Of its Principal Constituents and of the Viscera. Average weight of an adult man, standing 5ft. 8in. and 35 years old, may be taken at 150 pounds, or at 69*5 kilogrammes (nearly 11 stone or 154 lbs.) A man standing 5ft. 6in. should weigh about 10 stone or 140 lbs.; one of 5ft. 7m. 145 lbs.; a short man of 5ft. iin. should weigh 120 lbs., and a tall one of 6ft., 170 lbs. Weight of a woman of 30, standing 5ft. 2in., should be about 120 lbs., or 55 kilos. Weight of new-born child — male. 6 — 7 lbs., or about 3000 grammes ; female, somewhat less. (Note. — The average weight of the still-born foetus at full time is greater than that of children born alive.) Weight of child one year old, about 20 lbs., or above 10 kilos. „ 4 years old, 33-5 — 35 lbs. 10 „ 50 — 55 „ » 16 „ 95 — 100 „ A man of ten stone, and 5ft. 8in. high, should have a chest girth of somewhat over a yard, 37 or 38 inches. A short man of 5ft. iin. should have 34m. girth ; and a tall one of 6ft., 40 or 4 1 in., i.e., somewhat over a metre. Water. Water makes up nearly 9olbs. of the total weight of the body, i.e. — about two-thirds altogether : or three-fourths, excluding the bones. In the new-born child it constitutes about 65 per cent. In the several parts of the body there is present of water : — In the Yitreous humour . 98 per cent 5, Serum ... • 95 j» „ Blood, about . 80 j> „ Brain and Muscles, about • 7 $-77 ■a ,, Spinal cord . 70 it „ Liver ■ 7o jj „ Cartilage and elastic tissue . . 50 jj „ Bone . 15-20 >> „ Enamel ... >> APPENDIX OF NOTES AND TABLES. 97 Salts. The mineral Salts pervade all the liquids and tissues, but in small quantities, except in the bones. In serum, urine and the other liquids, sodic chloride is by far the most abundant salt ; next, sodic carbonates and phosphates ; then, earthy phosphates and alkaline sulphates. In the muscles, blood corpuscles and soft parts generally, potash salts and phosphates are more abundant. In the hones, after removing water and fatty matter, a third by weight consists of animal matter, chiefly collagen, which yields gelatin on boiling : 34 per cent. More than half is bone-earth, Ca 3 2P0 4 : 51 per cent. About a tenth is chalk, CaC0 3 : 11 per cent. Calcic Fluoride makes up nearly two per cent. Magnesium phosphate rather more than one per cent., and there are only traces of chlorides and sulphates. Fatty Constituents. The amount of Fat varies greatly within the limits of health. More abundant in infancy than in adult life, in women than in men. Usually least so between 10 and 20 in males, between 10 and 16 in females. Most abundant under 5 and over 50. For a man of 35, weighing i5olbs., about 281bs. has been given as a normal amount of adipose tissue, i.e. about 18 per cent. ; for a woman, 25 per cent. ; and for a growing lad, about 12 per cent. In Adipose tissue itself there is 82*5 per cent, of fat. Yellow marrow ... ... 95 Brain ..* ... ... 20 Yelk of egg ... ... 12 Milk 4-5 Hair (from the sebum) ... 4 Muscle ... ... ... 3 — 4 Liver ... ... as much or more Bone 1 or less Blood -5 H 98 APPENDIX OF NOTES AND TABLES. The several Organs. Of the 1 5olbs. weight of the body — The Skeleton weighs 25IDS., or about 16 p. c. Muscles (with tendons and fascia?) 65 — 7olbs. or nearly half. Adipose tissue 25 — 3olbs. or 15 — 20 p. c. Skin, hair, &c iolbs. The Blood which runs off during an autopsy is not more than five or six pints ; but probably nearly as much remains in the tissues. The total amount of blood in the body has been reckoned at I2lbs., or nearly a twelfth. The entire Brain in men most often weighs between 46 and 52 oz. The average weight has been found in 560 male brains to be 48 oz., in another set of 62 to be 49*5 oz., and in a third of 700 to be 477 oz. An adult woman's brain usually weighs between 42 and 46 oz. Among 347, the average was found to be 43 oz., and in 760 other examples it was also 43. The above figures apply to European brains. The average weight of the brain is less in the Negro, and somewhat greater among the Chinese. The brain of a new-born child weighs as much as 10 oz. in a girl, and 11 oz. or more in a boy. At seven years old it has attained very nearly its full size. The Liver weighs from 55 to 60 oz. in an adult man; from 45 to 50 in a woman. The male Heart weighs 10 or 10*5 oz., the female heart 9 to 10 oz. The two Kidneys weigh from 9 to 10 oz. The Pancreas weighs about 3 oz., but varies much without being atrophied or diseased. The Spleen varies still more in weight: 6 — 10 oz. include the most common weights between the age of 20 and 40. After 45, like other lymphatic organs, it wastes. APPENDIX OF NOTES AND TABLES. 99 37. BRITISH WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 20 grains = one Scruple. 30 „ = half-a-drachm. 60 „ = one Drachm. 219 „ = half- an- ounce. 437*5 » = one Ounce (Avoirdupois) of the British Pharmacopoeia. 875 » = two ounces. i75o „ = four ounces or a quarter pound. 35oo „ = eight ounces or half-a-pound. 7000 „ = sixteen ounces or one Pound. 10,500 „ = one Pound-and-a-half. 8,75o » == one Pint of water. 70,000 „ = one Gallon of water. 14 pounds = 1 Stone. 112 „ =8 stone = 1 Cwt. 2240 „ = 20 cwt. = 1 Ton. 12 lines ... 1 Inch, i.e., 39.139 of a beating seconds 12 inches ... • • • = 1 Foot. 36 » ... = 3 feet = = one Yard. I760 yards or 5280 feet == 1 Mile. f minim 1 i'5 » 60 = a drop of proof spirit or tincture. = *9 grain of water. = 1 drop of water. = 1 drop of castor-oil. = 1 fluid drachm or small teaspoonful. 3 fluid drachms = 1 small dessertspoonful. = 1 small tablespoonful or half-an-ounce = 1 fluid ounce or 437*5 grains of water. h 2 IOO io 16 20 40 160 APPENDIX OF NOTES AND TABLES fluid ounces = half a pint. „ =1 pound of water. „ =1 pint = 34*5 cubic in. „ =2 pints = 1 quart. „ = 8 pints = 4 quarts = 1 gallon lbs. or 70,000 gr. of water. 1 '2 51b. water. 10 4 cubic inches of water weigh nearly 1000 grains. 100 „ „ „ 25,000 „ 100 „ of C0 2 weigh 47, of air 31, and of H only 2 grs. 38. CENTIGRADE WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. I gramme or gram 10 grams IOO ,, ... IOOO „ 1 10 of a gram ... 1 100 „ 1 1000 j» I metre or meter IOOO meters 1 10 of a meter . . . 1 ] 00 ,, 1 1000 » ■•■ 1 1000 of a millimeter one c. c. of water at 4 C. (39*2° F.) 1 decagramme. 1 hectogramme. 1 kilogramme. 1 decigramme. 1 centigramme. 1 milligramme. ¥0060000 °^ a great meridian (as was supposed in 1790). 1 kilometre. 1 decimetre =10 centimetres. 1 centimetre or o*oi m. 1 millimetre or o*ooi m. 1 micromillinieter (/a.) 1 cubic centimeter or millilitre of water weighs 1 gram. 1000 c. c = 1 litre = 1 kilosrram of water. 39. COMPARISON OF BRITISH AND CENTI- GRADE WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 0*0154 gram 1 1 - 54 grains 5 = 1 milligramme. = 0*0648 gramme or nearly -^ = 1 decigramme. = '324 of a gramme. APPENDIX OF NOTES AND TABLES. IOI 10 grains ... ... = -648 of a gramme. I5'432 „ ... = 1 gramme ( = nearly I5igr.) 3i ... = 2 grammes (nearly). 60 or 1 drachm = 377 v 120 or 2 drachms = 7*5 j> 180 „ or 3 „ = 11 jj 240 gr. or 4 dr . or j$ oz... = 14* j» 8 dr. or 1 oz. ... = 28-3495,, 2 oz. ... ... = 567 j> 3 „ ... ... = 85- j> 1 550 grains or ; 3|oz. ... = ioogms.ori hectogm. (nearly) . 4 oz. or ^ lb. ... = 113*4 r. 1 7 ,, .- ... ... = 200 or 2 hectogrammes. 8 „ or^lb ■ ... ... = 227 grammes (nearly). JO „ ... ... = 283-5 »5 12 „ ... = 34o >) 14 „ ... ... = 400 3J 16 „ or 1 lb, , or 7000 gr. = 453'59 J> i±lb. ... ... ... = 680 )» 2 lbs. . . . ... = 907 53 2*2 „ or 15,500 grs. ... = 1000 i) or 1 kilogramme. 3 » ••• ... = 1360 >» 4 >, ... ... = 1814 »> 6 „ ... ... = 2721 JJ 8 „ ... ... = 3628 J> 11 „ ... ... = 5000 JJ or 5 kilograms. 15 » - ... ... = 6800 3) 18 „ ... ... = 8163 3) 22 „ ... ... = 10 kilogri ims. 44 „ ». ... = 20 » 66 „ ... ... = 30 >l 88 „ ... ... = 40 JJ 110 „ ... ... = 5o JJ 112 „ or 1 cwt. = 5i 3> (nearly). 154 „ or 11 stone = 70 J> j> 20 cwt. or 1 1 ton = 1000 J> j> 102 APPENDIX OF NOTES AND TABLES. 1 millimeter 2 millimeters 5 i centimeter 2*54 centimeters 5 i decimeter 30* 5 centimeters 61 9i'5 » 1 meter if 1 decameter 1 kilometer 1*609 kilometer 8 kilometers 40 ioo, 160 2^ inch or '039 in. 1 line (nearly) *o8 in. i inch. 2. 5 » 1 » 2 inches. 3'937 (nearly 4) inches. 1 foot. 2 feet. 1 yard. 39*37079 inches or -§-§. 1*1 yard nearly. 11 yards. io 93 »» = '62138 mile. 1 mile. 5 miles. = 25 = 62 = 100 B.C. 320-260. Alexandria. Erasistratus. ) J Cl. Galenus. a.d. 130-200. Rome. Wrote in Greek. Mondini dissected at Bologna, 131 5. Vesalitjs. 1 5 14-1564. Fleming. Physician to Charles Y. The restorer of Anatomy. Prof, at Padua. Servetus (burned 1553). Spaniard. Discovered the pulmonary circulation. Columbus. Ob. 1559. Rome. Fallopius. Ob. 1562. Padua. Eustachius. Ob. 1574. Rome. Tahtdce anatomicce. Ingrassias. Ob. 1580. Naples. Discovered the stapes. Arantius. Ob. 1589. Bologna. C^salpinus. Ob. 1603. Padua. Fabricius ab Aquapendente. 1 537-1619. Padua. Discovered valves in veins. Varolius. 1588. Described the brain. Spigelius. 1582. Padua. Be hum. corp. fabr. Riolanus. 1580-1657. College de France. Harvey. 1 578-1657. Proved the muscular structure and active contraction of the heart. Asellius. Ob. 1626. Pavia. Discovered the lacteals, 1622. Bartholinus (Thomas). 161 5-1680. Dane. Discovered the thoracic duct, 1652, in a man. Pecquet. Dieppe. Discovered the thoracic duct indepen- dently, 165 1, in a dog. Glisson. 1 596-1677. Anatomia Hepatis, 16 59. Borelli. 1608 -1679. Naples. Muscles and their action. APPENDIX OF NOTES AND TABLES. 105 Willis. 1622-75. Cerebri Anatome, 1664. Steno. 1638-87. Dane. Be Musculis et Glandulis. 1664. Peyer. SchafThausen. De glandulis intestinorum, 1665. Havers. Osteologia nova, 1691. Bellini. 1 643-1 703. Pisa. De structura et usu renum, 1677. Valsalva. 1 666-1 723. Bologna. Albinus. 1697-1770. Leyden. Historia Musculorum, 17 34. Winslow. Exposition anat. du corps humain, 1733. Wm. Hunter. 17 18-1783. John Hunter, i 733-1 793. Scarpa. 1747-1832. Pavia. Anat. Annot. 1779. Cruikshank. 1745-1800. Anatomy of absorbing vessels. 1786. Sommering. 1755-1830. Munich. De corporis humani fabrica. 1794. Astley Cooper. 1769-1841. Anatomy of Thymus, of Mamma, of Testis, of Hernia. Goodsir. 1814-67. Edinburgh. Cruveilhier. 1789-74. Traite d' Anatomie descriptive, 1862. Henle. Gottingen. Handbtich der syst. Anat. 1855-71. Textbooks. — Quain's "Anatomy," 9th ed., 2 vols. Ward's " Osteology." Ellis's " Demonstrations of Anatomy." Hux- ley's "Anatomy of Yertebrated Animals." Flower's "Osteo- logy of Mammalia." II. Histology. Malpighi. 1628-94. Bologna. Leuuwenhoeck. 1633-1723. Holland. F.R.S. Swammerdam. 1 637-8 5. Holland. Hooke. 1635-1703. Sec. R.S. Micrographia, 1667. Grew. 1628-1711. Curator E.S. Anatomy of Plants. Euysch. 1 638-1 73 1. Holland. Anatomical Museum of in- jected preparations. Bichat. 1 770-1 802. Paris. Anatomie Generate. Schwann. 1810-82. Liege. Microscopical Researches, 1839. Bowman. On muscle, 1840. On the kidney, 1842. Yirchow. Berlin. Cellular Pathology, 1858. 106 APPENDIX OF NOTES AND TABLES. Max Schultze. Ob. 1873. Bonn. Sharpey. Ob. 1880, set. 78. University College. Beale. King's College. Ranvler. College de France. Textboohs. — Sharpey, by Schafer, in Quain's "Anatomy." Klein's " Elements of Histology." Articles by Max Schultze, Pfliiger, Hering, Ludwig, Waldeyer, and Engelmann, in Strieker's "Textbook of Histology" (Sydenham Soc. Transl. 2 vols.) III. Physiological Chemistry. Boyle. 1627-1691. Mayow. 1 64 5- 1 679. Be spiritu nitro-aereo (oxygen.) Black. 1728-99. Edinburgh. Cavendish. 1 731-18 10. Scheele. 1742-86. Sweden. Priestley. 1733- 1804. Birmingham. Lavoisier. 1743- 1794. Guillotined in the Eeign of Terror. Dalton. 1 767-1 844. Manchester. Author of the atomic theory. Wollaston. 1 766-1 828. Davy. 1778-1829. Berzelius. 1 779-1 848. Sweden. Marcet. 1770-1822. Gay-Lussac. 1778-1850. Prout. 1 786-1 850. Chevreuil. Nat, 1786. Wohler. 1 802-1 882. Gottingen. Made Urea, 1828. Liebig. 1803-73. Giessen, Munich. Dumas. 1800-83. Paris. Mulder. 1803-77. Utrecht. Graham. 1805-69. Golding Bird. 18 14-1854. Berthelot. Nat. 1827. College de France. Gerhardt 1816-56 and Laurent. 1807-53. J. F. Simon. Berlin. Textbook. 1842. Gmelin. Gottingen. Textbook. 1852. Lehmann. Leipzig. Textbook. 1859. Gorup-Besanez. 1817-78. Erlangen. Textbook. APPENDIX OF NOTES AND TABLES. 10/ Wurtz. Ob. 1884. Paris. Hoppe Seyler. Strassburg. -Textbook. 1877. Kuhne. Heidelberg. Textbook. 1868. Parkes. Ob. 1876. Netley. Liebreich. Berlin. Pavy. Gilbert and Lawes. Rothampstead. Textbooks. — Gamgee's "Physiological Chemistry of the Animal Body." Lea's Appendix to " Foster's Textbook of Physiology." Charles's " Physiological and Pathological Chemistry." IV. General Physiology. The Physical Apparatus of Digestion, Circulation, Respiration, and Secretion. Harvey. 157 8- 1557. De Motu Cordis et Sanguinis. 1628. Malpighi. 1628-94. Bologna. Demonstrated the capillary circulation. Lower. 1 631 -91. Be corde. 1669. Mayow. 1645-79. De respiratione. 1673. Hales. 1 677-1 761. Rector of Farringdon. Haimastatics. 1733. Haller. 1708-1777. Gottingen. Elementa Physiologice. 1757. Reaumur. 1683-1757. Paris. Experiments on Digestion. John Hunter. 1 728-1 793. Treatise on the Blood. Hewson. 1 739-1 774. Experimental inquiry into the proper- ties of the Blood. 1771. Spallanzani. 1 729-1 799. Naples. Experiments on digestion and respiration. Magendie. 1783- 1855. College de France. Beaumont. 1825-83. U.S.A. Observations on St. Martin. Johannes Muller. 1 801-1858. Berlin. Treatise on Glands. E. H. Weber. Ob. 1878. Leipzig. Volkmann. 1801-1877. Monograph on the Circulation. Schwann. 18 10-1882. Lilge. Digestion, arteries, &c. 108 APPENDIX OF NOTES AND TABLES. Bernard. 1813-1878. College de France. Glycogen, Vaso- motor nerves, Pancreas. Ludwig. Leipzig. Kymograph, Chorda Tympani, &c. Brucke. Vienna. Digestion. Traube. Ob. 1878. Berlin. Circnlation. Czermak. Ob. 1873. Brag. Laryngoscope. Pfluger. Bonn. Secretion. Fick. Wiirzburg. Circulation. Chauveatj. Lyons. Circulation. Marey. College de France. Spring sphygmograph. Iteldenhain. Breslau. Secretion. Textbooks.— Foster's "Textbook of Physiology," 4th ed. Hermann's " Textbook of Human Physiology," translated by Gamgee. Yeo's " Manual of Physiology." V. The Nervous System and the Senses. "Willis. 1622-75. Brain. Reflex action. Prochasea.. 1 749-1 820. Prague. Keflex action. Young. 1773-1829. Senses. Bell. 1774-1842. Nerves. Magendle. 178 3- 1855. College de France. Nerves. Flourens. 1 794-1 867. Brain. Marshall Hall. 1790-18 5 7. Reflex action. Johannes Muller. 1801-58. Berlin. Nerves, senses. Du Bois-Reymond. Berlin. Nerves. Bernard. College de France. Nerves. "Waller. Ob. 1870. Nerves. Brown Seqttard. Paris. Nerves. Donders. Utrecht. Nerves. Helmholtz. Berlin. Eye and Ear. Ophthalmoscope. Peluger, Bonn. Nerves. Hermann. Zurich. Nerves. Ferrier. King's College. Brain. Goltz. Strassburg. Brain. Beside the account of the Nervous System and Senses in Foster's and Hermann's Textbooks, may be mentioned Bern- APPENDIX OF NOTES AND TABLES. 109 stein's" Five Senses of Man," Bain's " Senses and Intellect/* Hemholtz's " Tonempfindungen," and the articles in Her- mann's "Handbuch," vols. ii. and iii. VI. Beprodtiction and Development. Aristotle, b.c. 333. Fabricitjs ab Aqnapendente. De formatione Ovi et Pulli. 1 62 1. Padua. Harvey. Exercitationes de Generations Animalium. 165 1. Need ham. De formato fcetu. 1668. Malpighi. De formatione pulli. Bologna. 1672. E/EDi. Esperienze intorno alia Generazione degV Insetti ; re- fating spontaneous generation. Florence. 1674. De G-raaf. Ovaries and ovisacs. Delft. 1677. Swammerdam. 1605-1685. Yelk cleavage. Leutjwenhoeck. Discovered spermatozoa. Vallisneri. 1661-1730. De generationehominis et animalium. Venice. 1739. Wolep. I735-94- Konigsberg. Theoria Generationis, 1759, a hundred years before the publication of the " Origin of Species," by Darwin. Haller. Gottingen. Development of the heart of the chick. Opposed Wolff's views. D ollin ger. Wiirzburg. 1 8 1 6. Pander. Wiirzburg. 1 791-1865. Discovered the three layers of the blastoderm. 1 8 1 7. Von Baer. 1 792-1 876. " Development of man and animals." 1828. Discovered the mammalian ovum in 1827. Konigs- berg. St. Petersburg. Prevost and Dtjmas (afterwards the chemist). 1824-5. Geneva. Development of Frog. Purklnje. 1825. Discovered the germinal vesicle. Eusconi. 1826. Milan. Development of Frog and of Fishes. 110 APPENDIX OF NOTES AND TABLES. Rathke. 1793-1861. Konigsberg. Described the visceral arches. Development of viper, tortoise, and other reptiles. 1839-48. Johannes Muller. 1830. Bonn. M tiller's duct, &c. Rddolp Wagner. Leipzig. 1835. Discovered the germinal spot. Wharton Jones. 1837. Early changes in mammalian embryo. Barry. 1840. Early human ovum. Coste. 1834-47. Paris. B-emak. 1820-1865. Berlin. Histology of embryo. BiscHOPP. Munich. 1 807-1 882. Development of rabbit, dog, guinea-pig and roebuck. 1840- 18 54. Kolliker. Systematic treatise on development. 1801-80. Wiirzburg. His. Leipzig. Ed. van Beneden. Liege. Foster and Baleotjr. Development of Chick. 1874. Balfour. Comparative Embryology. 1881. 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By JAMES STOCKEN, L.D.S.R.C.S. , late Lecturer on Dental Materia Medica and Therapeutics and Dental Surgeon to the National Dental Hospital; assisted by Thomas Gaddes, L.D.S. Eng. and Edin. Third Edition. Fcap. 8vo, 7s. 6d. TAFT. — A Practical Treatise on Operative Dentistry. By Jonathan Taft, D.D.S., Professor of Operative Surgery in the Ohio College of Dental Surgery. Third Edition. With 134 Engravings. 8vo, 18s. TOMES (C. S.).— Manual of Dental Anatomy, Human and Comparative. By Charles S. Tomes, M.A., F.R.S. Second Edition. With 191 Engravings. Crown 8vo, 12s. 6d. TOMES (J. and C. S.).—A Manual of Dental Surgery. By John Tomes, M.R.C.S., F.R.S., and Charles S. Tomes, M.A., M.R.C.S., F.R.S. ; Lecturer on Anatomy and Physiology at the Dental Hospital of London. Third Edition. With many Engravings, Crown 8vo. [In the press. EAR,, DISEASES OE. BURNETT.— The Ear: its Anatomy, Physio- logy, and Diseases. A Practical Treatise for the Use of Medical Students and Practitioners. By Charles H. Burnett, M.D., Aural Surgeon to the Presbyterian Hospital, Philadelphia. With 87 Engrav- ings. 8vo, 18s. DALBY. — On Diseases and Injuries of the Ear. By William B. Dalbt, F.R.C.S., Aural Surgeon to, and Lecturer on Aural Surgery at, St. George's Hospital. Second Edition. With Engravings. Fcap. 8vo, 6s. 6d. 11, NEW BURLINGTON STREET. \» J. 8f A. Chur chill's Medical Class Books. EAR, DISEASES OP— continued. JONES.— A Practical Treatise on Aural Sur- gery. By H. Macnaughton Jones, M.D., Professor of the Queen's University in Ireland, late Surgeon to the Cork Ophthalmic and Aural Hospital. Second Edition. With 63 Engravings. Crown 8vo, 8s. 6d. By the same Author. Atlas of the Diseases of the Membrana Tympani. In Coloured Plates, containing 59 Figures. With Ex- planatory Text. Crown 4to, 21s. FORENSIC MEDICINE. OGSTON. — lectures on Medical Jurisprudence. By Francis Ogston, II. D., late Professor of Medical Jurisprudence and Medical Logic in the University of Aberdeen. Edited by FRANCIS Ogston, Jun., M.D., late Lecturer on Practical Toxicology in the University of Aberdeen. With 12 Plates. 8vo, 18s. TAYLOR.— The Principles and Practice of Medical Jurisprudence. By Alfred S. TAYLOR, M.D., F.B.S. Third Edition, revised by Thomas Stevenson, M.D., F.R.C.P., Lec- turer on Chemistry and Medical Jurisprudence at Guy's Hospital ; Examiner in Chemistry at the Royal College of Physicians ; Official Analyst to the Home Office. With 188 Engravings. 2 Vols. 8vo, 31s. 6d. By the same Author. A Manual of Medical Jurisprudence. Tenth Edition. With 55 Engravings. Crown 8vo, 14s. ALSO, On Poisons, in relation to Medical Juris- prudence and Medicine. Third Edition. With 104 Engravings. Crown 8vo, 16s. TIDY AND WOODMAN— A Handy-Book of Forensic Medicine and Toxicology. By C. MEYMOTT Tidy, M.B. ; and W. Bathurst WOODMAN, M.D., F.R.C.P. With 8 Lithographic Plates and 116 Wood Engravings. 8vo, 31s. 6d. 11, NEW BURLINGTON STREET. J. 8f A. Churchill's Medical Class Books. HYGIENE. PARKES. — A Manual of Practical Hygiene. By Edmund A. Park.es, M.D., F.B.S. SixthEdition byF. DeChaumont, M.D., F.R.S., Professor of Military Hygiene in the Army Medical School. With 9 Plates and 103 Engravings. 8vo, 18s. WILSON.— A Handbook of Hygiene and Sani- tary Science. By George Wilson, M.A., M.D., F.B.S.E., Medical Officer of Health for Mid Warwickshire. Fifth Edition. With En- gravings. Crown 8vo, 10s. 6d. MATERIA MEDICA AND THERAPEUTICS. BINZ AND SPARKS.— The Elements of Thera- peutics; a Clinical Guide to the Action of Medicines. By C. Binz, M.D., Professor of Pharmacology in the University of Bonn. Translated and Edited with Additions, in conformity with the British and American Pharmacopoeias, by Edward I. Sparks, M.A., M.B., F.Pv.C.P. Lond. Crown 8vo, 8s. 6d. OWEN.— A Manual of Materia Medica ; in- corporating the Author's " Tables of Materia Medica." By Isambard Owen, M.D., Lecturer on Materia Medica and Therapeutics to St. George's Hospital. Crown 8vo, 6s. ROYLE AND HARLEY.—A Manual of Materia Medica and Therapeutics. By J. Forbes Boyle, M.D., F.R.S., and John Harley, M.D., F.E,.C.P., Physician to, and Joint Lecturer on Clinical Medicine at, St. Thomas's Hospital. Sixth Edition. With 139 Engravings. Crown 8vo, 15s. THOROWGOOD. — The Student's Guide to Materia Medica and Therapeutics. By John C. Thorowgood, M.D., F.R.C.P., Lecturer on Materia Medica at the Middlesex Hospital. Second Edition. With Engravings. Fcap. 8vo, 7s. WARING.— A Manual of Practical Therapeu- tics. By EDWARD J. WARING, CLE., M.D., F.B.C.P. Third Edition. Fcap. 8vo, 12s. 6d. 11, NEW BURLINGTON STREET. J. Sf A. Churchill's Medical Class Books. MEDICINE. BARCLAY.— A Manual of Medical Diagnosis. By A. WHYTE Barclay, M.D., F.R.C.P., late Physician to, and Lecturer on Medicine at, St. George's Hospital. Third Edition. Fcap. 8vo, 10s. (3d. CHARTERIS.— The Student's Guide to the Practice of Medicine. By MATTHEW CHARTERIS, M.D., Professor of Materia Medica, University of Glasgow ; Physician to the Royal In- firmary. With Engravings on Copper and Wood. Third Edition. Fcap. 8vo, 7s. FENWICK.— The Student's Guide to Medical Diagnosis. By Samuel Fenwick, M.D., F.R.C.P., Physician to the London Hospital. Fifth Edition. With 111 Engravings. Fcap. 8vo, 7s. By the same Author. The Student's Outlines of Medical Treat- ment. Second Edition. Fcap. 8vo, 7s. FLINT.— Clinical Medicine : a Systematic Trea- tise on the Diagnosis and Treatment of Disease. By Austin Flint, M.D., Professor of the Principles and Practice of Medicine, &c, in Bellevue Hospital Medical College. 8vo, 20s. HALL. — Synopsis of the Diseases of the Larynx, Lungs, and Heart : comprising Dr. Edwards' Tables on the Examination of the Chest. With Alterations and Additions. By F. De Havilland Hall, M.D., F.R.C.P., Assistant-Physician to the Westminster Hos- pital. Royal 8vo, 2s. 6d. SANSOM.— Manual of the Physical Diagnosis of Diseases of the Heart, including the use of the Sphygmograph and Cardiograph. By A. E. SANSOM, M.D., F.R.C.P., Assistant- Physician to the London Hospital. Third Edition. With 47 Woodcuts. Fcap. 8vo, 7s. 6d. WARNER.— Student's Guide to Clinical Medi- cine and Case-Taking. By Francis Warner, M.D., F.R.C.P., As- sistant-Physician to the London Hospital. Second Edition. Fcap. 8vo, 5s. WEST.— How to Examine the Chest : being a Practical Guide for the Use of Students. By Samuel West, M.D., M.R.C.P., Physician to the City of London Hospital for Diseases of the Chest, &c. With 42 Engravings. Fcap. 8vo, 5s. 11, NEW BURLINGTON STREET. J. 8f A. Churchill 9 s Medical Class Books. MEDICINE— continued. WHITTAKER.— Student's Primer on the Urine. By J. Travis Whittaker, M.D., Clinical Demonstrator at the Royal Infirmary, Glasgow. With Illustrations, and 16 Plates etched on Copper. Post 8vo, 4s. 6d. MIDWIFERY. BARNES. — Lectures on Obstetric Operations, including the Treatment of Hsemorrhage, and forming a Guide to the Management of Difficult Labour. By Robert BARNES, M.D., F.R.C.P., Obstetric Physician to, and Lecturer on Diseases of Women, &c, at, St. George's Hospital. Third Edition. With 124 Engravings. 8vo, 18s. CLAY.— The Complete Handbook of Obstetric Surgery ; or, Short Rules of Practice in every Emergency, from the Simplest to the most formidable Operations connected with the Science of Obstetricy. By Charles Clay, M.D., late Senior Surgeon to, and Lecturer on Midwifery at, St. Mary's Hospital, Manchester. Third Edition. With 91 Engravings. Fcap. 8vo, 6s. 6d. RAMSBOTH AM.— The Principles and Practice of Obstetric Medicine and Surgery. By Francis H. Ramsbotham, M.D. , formerly Obstetric Physician to the London Hospital. Fifth Edition. With 120 Plates, forming one thick handsome volume. 8vo, 22s. REYNOLDS. — Notes on Midwifery: specially designed to assist the Student in preparing for Examination. By J. J. Reynolds, L.R.C.P., M.R.C.S. Fcap. 8vo, 4s. ROBERTS.— The Student's Guide to the Practice of Midwifery. By D. LLOYD Roberts, M.D., F.R.C.P., Physician to St. Mary's Hospital, Manchester. Third Edition. With 2 Coloured Plates and 127 Engravings. Fcap. 8vo, 7s. 6d. SCHROEDER—A Manual of Midwifery; includ- ing the Pathology of Pregnancy and the Puerperal State. By Karl SCHROEDER, M.D., Professor of Midwifery in the University of Erlan- gen. Translated by Charles H. Carter, M.D. With Engravings. 8vo, 12s. 6d. SWA YNE.— Obstetric Aphorisms for the Use of Students commencing Midwifery Practice. By Joseph G. Swayne, M.D., Lecturer on Midwifery at the Bristol School of Medicine. Eighth Edition. With Engravings. Fcap. 8vo, 3s. 6d. 11, NEW BURLINGTON STREET. 10 J. Sf A. Churchill's Medical Class Books. MICROSCOPY. CARPENTER.— The Microscope and its Revela- tions. By William B. Carpenter, C.B., M.D., F.R.S. Sixth Edition. With 26 Plates, a Coloured Frontispiece, and more than 500 Engravings. Crown 8vo, 16s. MARSH. — Microscopical Section-Cutting : a Practical Guide to the Preparation and Mounting of Sections for the Microscope, special prominence being given to the subject of Animal Sections. By Dr. Sylvester Marsh. Second Edition. With 17 Engravings. Fcap. 8vo, 3s. 6d. MARTIN. — A Manual of Microscopic Mounting. By John H. Martin, Member of the Society of Public Analysis, &c. Second Edition. With several Plates and 144 Engravings. 8vo, 7s. 6d. OPHTHALMOLOGY. HIGGENS.— Hints on Ophthalmic Out- Patient Practice. By Charles Higgens, F.R.C.S., Ophthalmic Surgeon to, and Lecturer on Ophthalmology at, Guy's Hospital. Second Edition. Fcap. 8vo, 3s. JONES. — A Manual of the Principles and Practice of Ophthalmic Medicine and Surgery. By T. Wharton Jones, F.R.C.S., F.R.S., late Ophthalmic Surgeon and Professor of Ophthalmo- logy to University College Hospital. Third Edition. With 9 Coloured Plates and 173 Engravings. Fcap. 8vo, 12s. 6d. NETTLESHIP.— The Student's Guide to Diseases of the Eye. By Edward Nettleship, F.R.C.S., Ophthalmic Surgeon to, and Lecturer on Ophthalmic Surgery at, St. Thomas's Hospital. Third Edition. With 157 Engravings, and a Set of Coloured Papers illustrating Colour-blindness. Fcap. Svo, 7s. 6d. TOSSWILL. — Diseases and Injuries of the Eye and Eyelids. By Louis H. Tosswill, B.A., M.B. Cantab., M.R.C.S., Surgeon to the West of England Eye Infirmary, Exeter. Fcap. 8vo, 2s. 6d. WOLFE. — On Diseases and Injuries of the Eye : a Course of Systematic and Clinical Lectures to Students and Medical Practitioners. By J. R. Wolfe, M.D., F.R.C.S.E., Senior Surgeon to the Glasgow Ophthalmic Institution, Lecturer on Ophthalmic Medicine and Surgery in Anderson's College. With 10 Coloured Plates, and 120 Wood Engravings, 8vo, 21s. 1 1 , NE W B URL IN G TON STREET. n J. 8f A. Church ill's Medical Class Boohs. PATHOLOGY. JONES AND SIEVEKING.—A Manual of Patho- logical Anatomy. By C. Handfield Jones, M.B., F.R.S., and EDWARD H. Sieveking, M.D., F.R.C.P. Second Edition. Edited, with consider- able enlargement, by J. F. Payne, M.B., Assistant-Physician and Lecturer on General Pathology at St. Thomas's Hospital. With 195 Engravings. Crown 8vo, 16s. LAN CERE AUX.— Atlas of Pathological Ana- tomy. By Dr. Lan cere aux. Translated by W. S. Greenfield, M.D., Professor of Pathology in the University of Edinburgh. With 70 Coloured Plates. Imperial 8vo, £5 5s. VIRCHOW. — Post-Mortem Examinations: a Description and Explanation of the Method of Performing them, with especial reference to Medico-Legal Practice. By Professor Rudolph Virchow, Berlin Charite Hospital. Translated by Dr. T. B. Smith. Second Edition, with 4 Plates. Fcap. 8vo, 3s. 6d. WILKS AND MOXON— Lectures on Pathologi- cal Anatomy. By Samuel Wiles, M.D., F.R.S., Physician to, and late Lecturer on Medicine at, Guy's Hospital ; and Walter Moxon, M.D., F.R.C.P., Physician to, and Lecturer on the Practice of Medicine at, Guy's Hospital. Second Edition. With 7 Steel Plates. 8vo, 18s. PSYCHOLOGY. BUCKNILL AND TUKE.—A Manual of Psycho- logical Medicine : containing the Lunacy Laws, Nosology, ^Etiology, Statistics, Description, Diagnosis, Pathology, and Treatment of Insanity, with an Appendix of Cases. By John C. Bucknill, M.D., F.R.S., and D. HACK Tuke, M.D., F.R.C.P. Fourth Edition, with 12 Plates (30 Figures). 8vo, 25s. CLOUSTON — Clinical Lectures on Mental Diseases. By Thomas S. Clouston, M.D., and F.R.C.P. Edin.; Lec- turer on Mental Diseases in the University of Edinburgh. With 8 Plates (6 Coloured). Crown 8vo, 12s. Gd. MANN. — A Manual of Psychological Medicine and Allied Nervous Disorders. By Edward C. Mann, M.D., Member of the New York Medico-Legal Society. With Plates. 8vo, 24s. 11, NEW BURLINGTON STREET. 12 J. 8f A. Churchill 9 8 Medical Class Books. PHYSIOLOGY. CARPENTER.— Principles of Human Physio- logy. By William B. Carpenter, C.B., M.D., F.R.S. Ninth Edition. Edited by Henry Power, M.B., F.R.C.S. With 3 Steel Plates and 377 Wood Engravings. 8vo, 31s. 6d. DALTON. — A Treatise on Human Physiology : designed for the use of Students and Practitioners of Medicine. By John C. D Alton, M.D., Professor of Physiology and Hygiene in the College of Physicians and Surgeons, New York. Seventh Edition. With 252 Engravings. Royal 8vo, 20s. FREY.— The Histology and Histo-Chemistry of Man. A Treatise on the Elements of Composition and Structure of the Human Body. By Heinrich Frey, Professor of Medicine in Zurich. Translated by Arthur E. Barker, Assistant-Surgeon to the University College Hospital. With 608 Engravings. 8vo, 21s. SANDERSON.— Handbook for the Physiological Laboratory : containing an Exposition of the fundamental facts of the Science, with explicit Directions for their demonstration. By J. BURDON SANDERSON, M.D., F.R.S.; E. KLEIN, M.D., F.R.S.; MICHAEL Foster, M.D., F.R.S.; and T. Lauder Brunton, M.D., F.R.S. 2 Vols., with 123 Plates. 8vo, 24s. YEO. — A Manual of Physiology for the Use of Junior Students of Medicine. By Gerald F. YEO, M.D., F.R.C.S., Professor of Physiology in King's College, London. With 301 Engrav- ings. Crown 8vo, 14s. SURGERY. BELLAMY.— The Student's Guide to Surgical Anatomy ; a Description of the more important Surgical Regions o the Human Body, and an Introduction to Operative Surgery. By Edward Bellamy, F.R.C.S., and Member of the Board of Examiners ; Surgeon to, and Lecturer on Anatomy at, Charing Cross Hospital. Second Edition. With 76 Engravings. Fcap. 8vo, 7s. BRYANT.— A Manual for the Practice of Surgery. By THOMAS BRYANT, F.R.C.S., Surgeon to, and Lecturer on Surgery at, Guy's Hospital. Fourth Edition. With about 750 Illus- trations (many being coloured), and including 6 Chromo-Lithographic Plates. 2 Vols. Crown 8vo, 32s. 11, NEW BURLINGTON STREET. 13 J. fy A. Churchill's Medical Class Books. SURGERY— continued. CLARK AND WAGSTAFFE. — Outlines of Surgery and Surgical Pathology. By F. Le Gros Clark, F.R.C.S., F.R.S., Consulting Surgeon to St. Thomas's Hospital. Second Edition. Revised and expanded by the Author, assisted by W. W. Wagstaffk, F.R.C.S., Assistant Surgeon to St. Thomas's Hospital. 8vo, 10s. 6d. DRUITT.— The Surgeon's Vade-Mecum ; a Manual of Modern Surgery. By ROBERT DRUITT, F.R.C.S. Eleventh Edition. With 369 Engravings. Fcap. 8vo, 14s. FERGUSSON. — A System of Practical Surgery. By Sir William Fergusson, Bart., F.R.C.S., F.R.S., late Surgeon and Professor of Clinical Surgery to King's College Hospital. With 463 Engravings. Fifth Edition. 8vo, 21s. HEATH. — A Manual of Minor Surgery and Bandaging, for the use of House-Surgeons, Dressers, and Junior Practi- tioners. By Christopher Heath, F.R.C.S., Holme Professor of Clinical Surgery in University College and Surgeon to the Hospital. Seventh Edition. With 129 Engravings. Fcap. 8vo, 6s. By the same Author. A Course of Operative Surgery : with Twenty Plates (containing many figures) drawn from Nature by M. Leveille, and Coloured. Second Edition. Large 8vo, 30s. ALSO, The Student's Guide to Surgical Diag- nosis. Second Edition. Fcap. 8vo, 6s. 6d. MAUNDER.— Operative Surgery. By Charles F: Maunder, F.R.C.S., late Surgeon to, and Lecturer on Surgery at, the London Hospital. Second Edition. With 164 Engravings. Post Svo, 6s. SOUTH AM. — Regional Surgery : including Sur- gical Diagnosis. A Manual for the use of Students. By FREDERICK A. Southam, M.A., M.B. Oxon, F.R.C.S., Assistant-Surgeon to the R,oyal Infirmary, and Assistant-Lecturer on Surgery in the Owen's College School of Medicine, Manchester. Part I. The Head and Neck. Crown 8vo, 6s. 6d. ,, II. The Upper Extremity and Thorax. Crown 8vo, 7s. 6d. 11, NEW BURLINGTON STREET. 14 J. Sf A. Churchill's Medical Class Books. TERMINOLOGY. DUNGLISON— Medical Lexicon : a Dictionary of Medical Science, containing a concise Explanation of its various Subjects and Terms, with Accentuation, Etymology, Synonyms, &c. By Robert Dunglison, M.D. New Edition, thoroughly revised by Richard J. Dunglison, M.D. Royal 8vo, 28s. MAYNE. — A Medical Vocabulary : being an Explanation of all Terms and Phrases used in the various Departments of Medical Science and Practice, giving their Derivation, Meaning, Application, and Pronunciation. By Robert G. Mayne, M.D., LL.D., and JOHN Mayne, M.D., L.R.C.S.E. Fifth Edition. Crown 8vo, 10s. 6d. WOMEN, DISEASES OF. BARNES.— A Clinical History of the Medical and Surgical Diseases of Women. By Robert Barnes, M.D., F.R.C.P., Obstetric Physician to, and Lecturer on Diseases of Women, &c, at, St. George's Hospital. Second Edition. With 181 Engravings. Svo, 28s. COURTY. — Practical Treatise on Diseases of the Uterus, Ovaries, and Fallopian Tubes. By Professor Courty, Montpellier. Translated from the Third Edition by his Pupil, Agnes M'Laren, M.D., M.K.Q.C.P. With Preface by Dr. Matthews Duncan. With 424 Engravings. 8vo, 24s. DUNCAN. — Clinical Lectures on the Diseases of Women. By J. MATTHEWS DUNCAN, M.D., F.R.C.P., F.R.S.E., Obstetric Physician to St. Bartholomew's Hospital. Second Edition, with Appendices. 8vo, 14s. EMMET. — The Principles and Practice of Gynaecology. By Thomas Addis Emmet, M.D., Surgeon to the Woman's Hospital of the State of New York. With 130 Engravings. Royal Svo, 24s. GALABIN— The Student's Guide to the Dis- eases of women. By Alfred L. Galabin, M.D., F.R.C.P., Obstetric Physician to, and Lecturer on Obstetric Medicine at, Guy's Hospital. Third Edition. With 78 Engravings. Fcap. 8vo, 7s. 6d. 11, NEW BURLINGTON STREET. 15 J. & A. Churchill's Medical Class Boohs. WOMEN, DISEASES OF— continued. REYNOLDS. — Notes on Diseases of Women. Specially designed to assist the Student in preparing for Examination. By J. J. Reynolds, L.R.C.P., M.R.C.S. Second Edition. Fcap. 8vo, 2s. 6d. SAVAGE.— The Surgery of the Female Pelvic Organs. By Henry Savage, M.D., Lond., F.R.C.S., one of the Con- sulting Medical Officers of the Samaritan Hospital for Women. Fifth Edition, with 17 Lithographic Plates (15 Coloured), and 52 Woodcuts. Royal 4to, 35s. SMITH. — Practical Gynaecology : a Handbook of the Diseases of Women. By Heywood Smith, M.D., Physician to the Hospital for Women and to the British Lying-in Hospital. With Engravings. Second Edition. Crown 8vo. [In preparation. WEST AND DUNCAN— Lectures on the Dis- eases of Women. By CHARLES West, M.D., F.R.C.P.* Fourth Edition. Revised and in part re- written by the Author, with numerous additions by J. MATTHEWS Duncan, M.D., F.R.C.P., F.R.S.E., Obstetric Physician to St. Bartholomew's Hospital. 8vo, 16s. ZOOLOGY. CHAUVEAU AND FLEMING.— The Compara- tive Anatomy of the Domesticated Animals. By A. CHAUVEAU, Professor at the Lyons Veterinary School ; and George Fleming Veterinary Surgeon, Royal Engineers. With 450 Engravings. 8vo, 31s. 6d. HUXLEY. — Manual of the Anatomy of Inverte- brated Animals. By Thomas H. Huxley, LL.D., F.R.S. With 156 Engravings. Post 8vo, 16s. o(A By the same Author. Manual of the Anatomy of Vertebrated Animals. With 110 Engravings. Post 8vo, 12s. WILSON.— The Student's Guide to Zoology : a Manual of the Principles of Zoological Science. By Andrew Wilson, Lecturer on Natural History, Edinburgh. With Engravings. Fcap. 8vo, 6s. 6d. 11, NEW BURLINGTON STREET. 16 ^ QP41 Sm6 Pye- Smith M : &£i*i ■