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The Columbia University Libraries reserve the right to refuse to accept a copying order if, in its judgement, fulfillment of the order would involve violation of the copyright law. Author: Hunt, Robert Title A supplement to Ure's Dictionary of arts... Place: New York Date: 1864 MASTER NEGATIVE # COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY LIBRARIES PRESERVATION DIVISION BIBLIOGRAPHIC MICROFORM TARGET ORIGINAL MATERIAL AS FILMED - EXISTING BIBLIOGRAPHIC RECORD lUSINICS 140 Ur2 4Lce. Andrew, 1778-1867. A dic^ianary of arts, mcinufa^tiires^, and mines; containing a ""cl-eaxrexpo^itl^n of their principles and practice, by^.Ajra?ew-II|^ • . • Reprinted entire from the^Jrarjrf^rrected anagre«LtJ^ enlarged Eng- edition ••• New York, Appleton, 2 V. illus., diagrs. 24^. I (Continued on next card) M U 8 I rg e s 140 Ur2 Andrew, 1778-1857. _A_dis^ionar-y-e#-ttrt57— ~~ J54. ( Card 2 ) - — — - A supplement to Ure's Dictionary of arts, manufactures and mines, containing a clear exposition of their principles and practice. From the last edition, ed. by Robert Hunt ••• assisted by numerous contributors ••• New York, Appleton, 1864, 1096 p. illus., diagrs. 26^. J RESTRICTIONS ON USE: TECHNICAL MICROFORM DATA FILM SIZE: 35 nmrs REDUCTION RATIO: U : / IMAGE PLACEMENT: lA VdIA IB ilB DATE FILMED: Tx-to-X-L. \C\f^ INITIALS: CJ\ TRACKING # : Ayj// MIO^ FILMED BY PRESERVATION RESOURCES. BETHLEHEM. PA. '^.' J^A A:* ^^^ ^^,- ^>^ ^ ^^. 00 3 3 or o > foDD o[Q a ii 00 (ji ^-< COM <£> O ■^^ CJI 3 3 > 0,0 o m ^ o o CO X < N X M a -3 '^^ :^ .*^ A^ .'V^ ^%^. «. 'V? ^. -".■^ ^^.7# ^v o: ^P:' a "?-: "^ :^ -y- ^'^ .»'' ^1 8 O 3 3 > o 3 3 ^A - ^^V ^ s 3 3 O ri^i^i^Pi^RlsiT n - iiiii^ m ro bo o c» ro b 10 Ko N3 1.0 mm 1.5 mm 2.0 mm ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz 1234667890 ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyzl234567890 ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz 1234567890 2.5 mm ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz 1234567890 « ■T ,^:^-^ w V iTo ^^ fp ^f^ ^ '^. '^. '^. #.J^#. •^ '^6- /► f? ^^ C ^c. 'frf. ■^^ ^^ m o ■0 m Tj > C <*> I TO ^ 0. ■*;^. C^ 4^ 4^> J 1— • fO U1 3 3 ^ f? is /-.. 'V 4: * Bc — lilt: i aiga;ia.i.i!HiMii« ; in i t:i.!>M,'a:M.i.daf.;Ai. ..^'.ii, .-.j^ 1» Columbia ®nitiettttp mtlieCttpofjartngork THE LIBRARIES GRADUATE SCIiOOL OF BUSINESS LIBRARY 1 Given by Queens Univ. Library F |l i r » •*''^**m V, y* A SUPPLE3IENT TO URE'S DICTIONARY OF ARTS, MAKUFACTCRES, AND MINES, coyrAisisG A CLEAR EXPOSITION OF THEIR PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE. • « FEOM THE LAST EDITIOij; * ' - *. ' .\ '.'..• I I • • •• • • • EDITED BY ROBEET HUNT; F.:fe.S.; TJS.S:,- Keeper of Mining Eecords, Formerly Professor of Physics, Government School of Mines, &c^ *«., ASSISTED BY XTMEBOUS COlSTEIBrTORS EMDCEXT IN SCIKKCK AITD rAMUJAB ITITH MAXCFACTUEES. ILLU8TEATED WITH SEVEN HUNDEED ENGEAVINGS ON WOOD. NEW YORK: APPLETON AND COMPANY, 443 AND 445 BROADWAY. 1664. *f I ^^Ll>^. I' H^ 1'. ', , A^i ^ ^-^'^^1^^" ' 2 This Yoluiue of lire's Dictionary of Arts, Manufactures, and Mines, contains the additional knowledge which has accumulated within the past ten years. Not a year has passed but that some important improvements in the Arts and Sciences have taken place, all of which form an in iportant increase to knowledge, which cannot well be dispensed with by those who are engaged in the various pursuits in which they are employed. The following are a few, among the many, who are specially interested, viz. : . Artisans, Gunsmiths, Assayers, Gas Light Companies, Brewers, Glass Makers, Bakers, Hat Makers, Boile;* Makers, Iron Mongers, Brass. Founders, .♦. .*. India Kubber Manufacturers, * '. Blfsacjiere,'. .- . . '. - . •' ■ . -' Ink Manufacturers, Bi-jQk ]\fakerB, Leather Dealers, ". Bflt-ton'-Ma'iiufactm'ere, • Miners, Chemists, Manufacturers, ..Cwll Dealers, '.i : : Plumbers, Cfalico Printers, Paper Manufacturers, Candle Makers, Photographers, Confectioners, Painters, Coppersmiths, Perfumei*s, Cotton Factories, Pyrotechnists, Carriage Makers, Kope Makers, Distillers, Shipping Merchants, Dyere, Sugar Kefiners, Druggists, Silversmiths, Engineers, Soap Makers, Farmers, Tanners, Furriers, Tobacconists, Founders, Weavers, Gold Beaters, Wine Growers, &c., &C., &C. • p4 4 s" PKEFACE. •>• Ure's Dictionary of Arts, Manufectures, and Mmes has long had the reputation of a standard authority upon the subjects of which it treats. But such is the inventive activity of the age, and the rapid improvement m art processes, that a work of this kmd can only maintain its chai^ter by frequent and extensive additions. While the distinguished author was in the vigor of his inteUect, the revisions of the work kept pace with the progress of improvement, but at his demise it was found necessary to organize a plan for bringing up the Dictionary to the present state of knowledspitaI, and Lecturer on Chemistry at the Koyal Indian Military College, Addiscombe. ALFRED FRYER, Esq. Sugar Refiner, Man- Chester. (The late) T. H. HENRY, Esq., F.R.S. and C.S. R. HERRING, Esq. Author of ffistorT/ of Paper Manufacture. JAMES HIGGINS, Esq. Calico Printer, Ac, Manchester. W. HERAPATH, Esq., M.D., Ac. SAMUEL HOCKING, Esq., C.E., Seville. RICHARD W. HUNT, Esq. Brewer, Leeds. T. B. JORDAN, Esq. Engineer, Inventor of Wood Carving Machinery. WILLIAM LINTON, Esq. Artist, Author of Anient and Modem Colors. JAMES McADAM, Jun., Esq. Secretarv of the Royal Society for the Cultivation of Flax in Ireland (The late) HERBERT MACKWORTH, Esq., C E., F.G.S. One of H. M. Inspectors of Coal Miners. HENRY MARLES, Esq., L.R.C.P. Author of English Grammar, Currying and Leather. DAVID MORRIS, Esq., of Manchester. Au- thor of Cottonopolis, &c JAMES NAPIER, Esq.. F.C.S. Author of Manual of Dyeing. Electro-Metallurgy, An- cient Works in Metal, &c. NAPIER, Esq., C.E., Ac. NORMANDY, Esq., M.D , F C.S. Author of Handbook of Commercial Chemistry. HENRY M. NOAD, Esq., Ph.D., F.R.S. Au- thor of ^ Manual of Electricity, &c AUGST. B. NORTHCOTE, Esq. F.C.S. As- sistant Chemist, University of Oxford. D. A. ROBERT OXLAND, Esq., F.C.S. One of the Authors of Metals and their Alloys. THOMAS JOHN PEARSALL, Esq., F.C.S. Secretary to London Mechanics' Institution. SEPTIMUS PIESSE, Esq. Author of Treaim on Art of Perfumery, Ac JOHN ARTHUR PHILLIPS, Esq. Graduate of the Imperial School of Mines, Paris, Author of Manual of Metallurgy. ANDREW CROMBIE RAMSAY, Esq.. F.R.S. and G.8., Professor of Geology, Government School of Mines, Local Director of the Geologi- cal Survey of Great Britain. EBENEZER ROGERS, C.E., F.G.S. Late President of the South Wales Institute of En- gineers. CHARLES SANDERSON, Esq., Sheffield. Author of Papers on ^ — luo obtained fn.. Other varieties of the spruce fir- » ^ randole^ The Silver fir, producing ABIES PICEA of Linnaeus (^6ic«;)ec„ r, A.A a noint.'i The acacia is a very extensive ACACIA. {L. «^«««'**^°.™',^,^- ^^L^r^^iWg^^^^^ genus of trees or shrubby plants, inhabiting f^ ^P^^^^^f^r example in Australia, and fome few instances into the tempera^ Tcauint^^w^ nearly 3 J^^ies of the acacia ; the neighboring islands. Botanists ^^J^^""^^;!i„ ^f SmmerceV^ the bark of some of these yield the gum arabtc and *^^^^£^f,^f/J^?ety S ^ ^^ ^^"°^'^'' others yields a large quantity of tanntn, especially a variety wmca g Land, or Tasmania. See Arabic Gum ; Catechu Abyssinia. One ACACIA ARABICA. An ^"^^'^^^2^, "^^^^^^^^^ the bark of the tree, «f tliP nlants vielding the gum arabic, which is procured by wounuiug °jt r wtt^sap io.s oTand hardens -.'^^^"Vj.Pt of Linmeus) is a tree with a ACACIA CATECHU. The catechu '^^^^'^Zt^.^^Zl Li Coromandel, "■^IcK^"^ 'sulSTces which have a Undena, to pass into an acid state ; .3 «. inTu- mon of malt, &c t li II •i 1 6 ACETAL. ACETAL. (C" H" 0\) One of the products of the oxidation of alcohol under tho in- fluence of the oxygen condensed in platina black. It is a colorless, mobile, ethereal liljuid boiling at 221° F. Its density in the fluid state is 0*821 at 72°. The specific gravity of its vapor 4-138 Sias. (mean of three experiments) : calculation gives 4-083 for four volumes of vagor. — For the description of the modes of determining vapor volume, consult some standard chemical work. — The recent researches of Wurtz render it evident that the con- stitution of acetal is quite different to what has generally been supposed, and that it is in fact glycodiethyline ; that is to say, glycole in which two equivalents of hydrogen are re- placed by two equivalents of ethyle. — C. G. W. ACETATE. {Acetate^ Fr. ; Esngsaure^ Germ.) Any salient compound in which the acid constituent is acetic acid. All acetates are soluble in water : the least soluble being the acetates of tungsten, molybdenum, silver, and mercury. The acetates, especially those of lead and alumina, are of gi-eat importance to the arts. The acetates are all described un- der their respective bases ; — a rule which will be adopted with all the acids. ACETIC ACID. {Acide acHi^ue^ Fr. ; Easigsaure^ Germ. ; Acidum aceticum^ Lat. ; Eisel, Sax.) The word "acetic" is derived from the Latin acetutn, applied to vinegar; probably the earliest known body possessing the sour taste and other properties which characterize acids ; hence the term Acid, now become generic ; both the Latin word, and also the Saxon acid being from the root acies (Greek i*c^), an edge or point, in reference to the sharpnesx of the taste. Acetic acid is produced either by the oxidation, or the destructive distillation, of organic bodies containing its elements — carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. The oridation of organic bodies, in order to convert them into acetic acid, may be effected either :-— 1, by exposing them in a finely divided state to the action of air or oxygen ga.s ; 2, by submitting them to the action of ferments, in the presence of a free supply of atmospheric air ; or, 3, by the action of chemical oxidizing agents. When acetic acid is procured by the oxidation of organic bodies, it is generally alcohol that is employed ; but by whatever process alcohol is transformed into acetic acid, it is always first converted into an intermediate compound, aldehyde ; and this being a very vola- tile body, it is desirable always to effect the oxidation as completely and rapidly as possible, to avoid the loss of alcohol by the evaporation of this aldehyde. Alcohol contains AUehyde " Acetic acid " C< H« 0' C* H* 0' C« H* 0* The process, therefore, consists first in the removal of two equivalents of hydrogen from alcohol, which are converted into water, — aldehyde being produced, — and then the further union of this aldehyde with two equivalents of oxygen to convert it into acetic acid. See Aldehyde. By the oxidation of alcohol, pure acetic acid is obtained : but the vinegars of commerce are mixtures of the pure acetic acid with water ; withisaccharine, gummy, and coloring mat- ters ; with certain ethers (especially the acetic ether), upon which their agreeable aromatic flavor depends ; with empyreumatic oils, &c. The pure acetic acid (free from water and other impurities) may be obtained most ad- vantageously, according to Melsens*, by distilling pure acetate of potash with an excess of acetic acid (which has been obtained by the redistillation of ordinary acetic acid, procured cither by oxidizing alcohol, or by the destructive distillation of wood) : the acid which first passes over contains water ; but finally it is obtained free. Properties of pure Acetic Acid. — When absolutely pure, acetic acid is a colorless liquid of specific gravity 1-064, which at temperatures below 62° F. (17° C.) solidifies into a color- less crystalline mass. It has strongly acid properties, being as powerfully corrosive as many mineral acids, causing vesication when applied to the skin ; and it possesses a peculiarly pungent, though not a disagreeable smell. The vapor of the boiling acid is highly combustible, and bums with a blue flame. Hy- drated acetic acid dissolves camphor, gliadine, resins, the fibrine of blood, and several or- ganic compounds. When its vapor is conducted through a slightly ignited porcelain tube, it is converted entirely into carbonic acid and acetone, an atom of the acid being resolved into an atom of each of the resultants. At a white heat the acid vapor is converted into carbonic acid, carburetted hydrogen, and water. It attracts water with great avidity, mixing with it in all proportions. Its solution in water increases in density with the increase of acetic acid up to a certain point ; but beyond this point its density again diminishes. Its maximum density being 1*073, and correspond- ing to an acid containing C* H* 0^ -f- 2Aq., which may be extemporaneouslv produced by mixing 77*2 parts of crytallized acetic acid with 22-8 parts of water. This hydrate boils at 104° C. (219° F.), whilst the crystallized acid boils only at 120° C. (248° r.)f ♦ Comptes rendus, xix. 611. t Qcrhardt, Chimie Organique, i. 718. ACETIC ACID. 7 The proportion of acetic acid in aqueous mixtures may therefore be ascertained, wktiia certain limits, by determination of the specific gravity. See Acetimetry. The following table, by Mohr, indicates the percentage of acetic acid in mixtures of different specific gravities ; but of course this is only applicable in cases where no sugar or other bodies are present, which increase the specific gravity. Abstract of Mohr'' s Table of the Specific Gravity of Mixtures of Acetic Acid and Water.* Percentage of Acetic Add, C* II* 0«. Density. Perccntafre of Acetic Acid, C« H« 0«. Density. 100 1*0635 46 1-055 95 1-070 40 1-051 90 1-073 86 1-046 86 1-073 80 1-040 80 1-0735 86 1-034 76 1-072 80 1-027 70 1-070 16 1022 •6 1-068 10 1-015 60 1-067 5 1-0067 66 1-064 1 1*001 60 1-060 • Which numbers closely agree with those obtained by Dr. Ure. See vol. i, p. 5. Acetic acid was formerly (and is still by some chemists) viewed as the hydrated teroxide of a radical acetyl, now called vinyl. See Chemical Fosmula (C* H') 0', HO Acetyl. And therefore an anhydrous acetic acid, C* H* 0', is supposed to exist Many attempts have been made to isolate this anhydrous acetic acid C* H' 0' ; and a body which has re- ceived this name has been quite recently obtained by Gerhardtf , by the double decomposi- tion of chloride of acetyl and an alkaline acetate, thus : — C*H'(0«C1) + KO,C*H'0' = C"H«0« + KG Chloride of acetyl. Acetate of (So-called) Chloride of potash. Anhydrous potassium, acetic acid. This body (Jerhardt describes as a colorless liquid having a strong smell of acetic acid, but associated with the flavor of hawthorne blossom, having a specific gravity of 1-073, and boiling at 137° C. (278° F.) ; falling in water in the form of oily drops, only dissolving on gently heating that fluid. It is, however, not anhydrous acetic acid, but a compound iso- meric with the hypothetical anhydrous acetic acid C* H' 0', containing, in fact, double the amount of matter, its formula being C H* 0*. The impure varieties of acetic acid known as vinegar, pyroligneous acid, &c., are the products met with in commerce, and therefore those require more minute description in this work. Before describing the manufacture of these commercial articles, it may be interesting to allude to a method of oxidizing alcohol by means of spongy platinum ; which may yet meet with extensive practical application. It is a well-known fact that spongy platinum {e. g. platinum black), from its minute state of division, condenses the oxygen of the air within its pores ; consequently, when the vapor of alcohol comes in contact with this body, a supply of oxygen in a concentrated state is presented to it, and the platinum, without losing any of its properties, effects the combination between the oxygen and the alcohol, converting the latter into acetic acid. This may be illustrated by a very simple experiment. Place recently ignited spongy platinum, loosely distributed on a platinum-gauze, at a short distance over a saucer contain- ing warm alcohol, the whole standing under a bell-glass supported by wedges on a glass dish, so that, on removing the stopper from the bell-glass, a slow current of air circidates through the apparatus ; the spongy platinum soon begins to glow, in consequence of the combustion going on upon its surface, and acetic acid vapors are abundantly produced, which * Mohr, Ann. der Chem. und Phar. xxxi. 227. t Comptes rendus, xxxir. 755k i \: 8 ACETIC ACID. condense and run down the sidca of the glass. The simultaneous formation of aldehyde is, at the same time, abundantly proved by its peculiar odor. In Germany this method has been actually carried out on the large scale, and, if it were not for the liigh price of platinum, and the heavy duty on alcohol, it might be extensively employed in this country, on account of its elegance and extreme simplicity. Manufacture of Vinegar bif Acetous Fermentation. — All liquids which are susceptible of the vinous fennentation are capable of yielding vinegar. A solution of sugar is the essential ingredient, which is converted first into alcohol, and subsequently into acetic acid. The liquids employed vary according to circumstances. In this country the vine- gar of commerce is obtained from an infusion of malt, and in wine countries from inferior The oxidation of alcohol is remarkably facilitated by the presence of nitrogenized oiganie bodies in a state of change, called ferments, hence the process is frequently termed acetous fermentation. Now, although in most cases the presence of these ferments curi- ously promotes the process, yet they have no specific action of this kind ; for we have alreadv seen that, by exposure to air in a condensed state, alocohol, even when pure, is converted into acetic acid ; and, moreover, the action of oxidizing agents, such as chromic and nitric acid, &c., is capable of effecting this change. However, in the presence of a ferment, with a free supply of air, and at a temperature of from 60° to 90° F., alcohol is abundantly converted into acetic acid. At the same time that the alcohol is converted into acetic acid, the nitrogenized and other organic matters undergo peculiar changes, and often a white gelatinous mass is de- posited,-^which contains Vibrioncs and other of the lower forms of organized beings, — and which has received the name of mother of vinegar* from the supposition that the for- mation and development of this body, instead of being a secondary result of the process, was really its exciting cause. Wine vinegar is of two kinds, white and red, according as it is prepared from white or red wine, ^\%ite vnne vinegar is usually preferred, and that made at Orleans is regarded as the best. Dr. Ure found its average specific gravity to be 1019, and to contain from 6^ to 7 per cent, of real acid ; according to the Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia, its specific gravity varies from 1014 to 1-022. * 1. Malt Vinegar. (British Vinegar; in Germany called Mah-Getreide or Bier- essig.) In England vinegar is chiefly made from an infusion of malt, by first exciting in it the alcoholic fermentation, and subsequently inducing the oxidation of the alcohol into acetic acid. The transformation of the fermented wort into vmegar was formerly eflFected in two ways, which were entirely opposite in their manner of operation. In one case the casks containing the fermented malt infusion (or gyle) were placed in close rooms, maintained at a uniform temperature ; in the other, they were arranged in rows in an open field, where they remained many months. As regards the convenience and interests of the manufac- turer, it appears that each method had its respective advantages, but both are now almost entirely abandoned for the more modern processes to be described — a short notice of the fielding process is, however, retained. When lieldinq is resorted to, it must be commenced in the spring months, and then left to complete itself during the warm season. The fielding method requires a much larger extent of space and utensils than the stoving process. The casks are placed in several parallel tiers, with their bung side upwards and left open. Beneath some of the paths which separate the rows of casks are pipes communicating with the " hack " at the top of the brewhouse ; and in the centre of each is a valve, opening into a concealed pipe. When the casks are about to be filled, a flexible hose is screwed on to this opening, the other end being inserted into the bung-hole of the cask, and the liquor in the ''gyle back'' at the brewhouse, by its hydrostatic pressure, flows through the underiying pipe and hose mto the cask. The hose is so long as to admit of reachmg all the casks in the same row, and is guided by a workman. «. , i. /. « • *• After some months the vinegar is made, and is drawn off by the following operation :— A long trough or sluice is laid by the side of one of the rows of casks, into which the vine«-ar is transferred by means of a syphon, whose shorter limb is inserted into the bung- hole'of the cask. The trough inclines a little from one end to the other, and its lower end rests on a kind of travelling tank or cistern, wherein the vmegar from several casks is col- lected. A hose descends from the tank to the open valve of an underground pipe, which terminates in one of the buildings or stores, and, by the agency of a steam boiler and machinerv, the pipe is exhausted of its air, and this causes the vinegar to flow through the hose into" the valve of the pipe, and thence into the factory buildings. By this arrange- ment the whole of the vinegar is speedily drawn off. From the storehouse, where the vinegar is received, it is pumped mto the refining or rape vessels. ♦ This substance has been supposed by some to be a fungus, and has been described by Mulder under the name of Mycoaederm AcetL \l P AOETIO ACID. 9 ii_ «ii».i with the stalks and skiiu of grapes or raiaps. These rape vessels are generally 6"*^ with '"« J^, ^ , ^„a "the liquor being (the refuse of the British «'f ,"^"ff '"!!' ^hr!u°h tern after passing through, it is Llmitted at the top U f '<>"'=<'/ »«y,,^^t .liawd unt^the ^^^^ Stlrr rS st'J;:r-w.r s^L': ^substituted for the grape refuse, tut the nVZ-^^^u-^" is the o^l^Sln^ltlre^'l^na'^reTf:^:' "l^^ genoi and mucilaginous >»f '«' "^Pf^^it unUI ^ut intl^ks for sale, finally pumped into store vats, where it '^ ^ept unUl ^t inw ^^ ^^^ ^^ i ScoAE, CiBEE, Fecit, asd Bkt V«tOAM. ^^f^^ ^ ^ ^„ of sugar domestic purposes by adding, to a ^T P ^"^f "^^^ ^t ^The liquor teing mainuuned for every gallon of water, ^quarter of » P'°' »■ 6"*i/X; weU that in 2 or 8 days it may at a heat of from W to 80' ^\'^'^^''2^J^2^l. is to be mixed with 1 oz. be racked off from the sediment mto the ni«nmg ^»' ""^^Xt^, f^^ed from the street of cream of tartar and 1 oz. of "-^shed «ff ; J^.°^, ~"^'^^^^ The juices of cur- taste, it should be drawn off clear ^^^ ^^jfJ^X^Z^ti, either alone or in rants, gooseberries, and many other '»*g«»»^ ^^^''^^f^^m sugar should have fully comWnV.onwiths^p. .y-^^^^^u'tS thCISt vineg^, on account of the lt!^T|lutT-d atVe"USn^Tow price of sugar wiU not cost more, when fined "^^u^gi^olir tJ^y^ie&e ^placed b^^^^^^^ saccharineliquid. An endless numto of prescr.pUonsc^^^^ -'•y:r ■^T.lT^tSrr^^^ ^pS^^\" P^ in 1S41. for the manufacture "^ ThfsLrinrlur is pressed out of the ^^t. V^^IS^ ^y't£ ifthi ^Z t^ r^s^ ^^'^Zl^^-^T^^^^^X-C,^ O^e Uquid, which U ^^dl^i U'noal veaserwith^e hows at *^^^^^^ ^^^ ^^ ^„^, ^.^ In some factories large quantities of sour aie a^u^« fermentation, it is usuallv of an inferior quality, m consequence ^I'^^^^^^ZT^^ at a tempera- Dr. Stenhouse has shown tbat when sea W ^^ ^^Jf ^'^f^*^*^?^^ ^^hich acetic'acid -;btl^a^edVt=1^^^^^^ S: WrbruS^iz^d^n-L^wJ^"^^^^^^^ w^ ^tm be, to a^crtain exten^ iSatras'manure after^a^ng bee^^^^^^^^^ %ST.i,6.re.un,.)-In the m«in- 3. The German or QF^ck-Vinegar Process. i.oc y ^^ ^ admitted to facture of vinegar it i«. ^ig^y ^P^'^^'L^^k^ S^ace bTs owVy, a considerable loss may the liquid as possible, since if the «^;,f f^^^Vb'i^^^^^^ oxidized to acetic acid, be sustained, from much of the alcohol, ^^^^ ^^^"^^^^ ^Jgg volatility, pass^ oflf in tiie • being only converted into aldehyde, whicl^ on acc^toM^ ,^ ^^^ ^^^^ state°of vapor. This is secured m the ^^^.^^^ .P^f ^^ ni^entl the fo°rmttion of aide- exposed to the air ^/^^^ .^X time L^^^ wL'le pn>cess. In fact, when this hyde, but also greatiy curtails the ^'"f °ff ^Jf ^, ^eW insufficient, very great loss was rred't^:hn»rw»^cr:'e^.-edled by increasing the number ^r^^^^Tk^eSl^o^rSUV thKu^- a^^^^ ^ "^'^^^ «^''^'^- tor iesswhildery See Graduator, vol. i. „,.^p««k, of decay and even combustion, Win^ogy between acetification and ^^J^^^^beTem^ratiire of the liquid is well seen in this process ; for as the oxidat^n proce^ F- ^^^ .^^^^^ ^^ Z:^^J\::Z^^:ZiiT^'^^^^T^^-^ ^ pU ^sho^d be artlS. ^y^^Uod 1 50 gallons of vlne^ can be manufa*^ ^y m^^^^^^^^ man ian superintend; and *« J"^' '° Cn^^'^'^jiTs^pended mucdaginous matter, .hiltSgrX%M;.;^qS^er£rp^.lSapparatrs.and not only impedes the process, but contaminates the Product. renlaced by charcoal in fragments, which, y t^^ol^'c^^ISf cSrS i»^np»accelerates th'^process. The nrli^i^SST ^tfX^^^^^^ .e^eral natm. of the I . ♦ I 10 ACETIO AOID. process of destructive distillation will be found detailed under the head of Distillation, Destructive ; as well as a list of products of the rearrangement of the molecules of organic bodies under the influence of heat in closed vessels. We shall, therefore, at once proceed to the details of the process as specially applied in the manufacture of acetic acid from wood. The forms of apparatus very generally employed on the continent for obtaining at the same time crude acetic acid, charcoal, and tar, are those of Schwartz and Rcichenbach ; but in France the process is carried out with special reference to the production of acetic acid alone. Since the carbonizers of Reichenbach and Schwartz are employed with special reference to the manufacture of wood charcoal, the condensation of the volatile products being only a secoivlary consideration, they will be more appropriately described under the head of Charcoal. In England the distillation is generally carried out in large iron retorts, placed horizon- tally in the furnace, the process, in fact, closely resembling the distillation of coal in the manufacture of coal gas, * excepting that the rctorta are generally larger, be- ing sometimes 4 feet in diameter, and 6 or 8 feet long. Generally two, or even three, are placed in each furnace, as shown in Jiff. 1, so that the fire of the single furnace, a, plays all round them. The doors for charging the retorts are at one end, 6, {fff. 2), and the pipe for carrying off the vola- tile products at the other, c, by which they are con- ducted, first to the tar- condenser, line solution, showing that it contains 50 grains of real acetic acid in 1,000, or 5 per cent Although the bicarbonate of potash of the shops is not absolutely constant in compo- sition, yet the method is no doubt accurate enough for all practical purposes. The acetimetrical method employed by the Excise is that recommended by Messrs. J. and P. Taylor,* and consists in estimating the strength of the acid by the specific gravity which it acquires when sattirated by hydrate of lime. Acid which contains 5 per cent, of real acid is equal in strength to the best malt vinegar, called by the makers No. 24, and is assumed as the standard of vinegar strength, under the denomination of '* proof vin^ar."f Acid which contains 40 per cent, of real acetic acid is, therefore, in the language of the Revenue, 35 per cent, over proof; it is the strongest acid on which duty is charged by the acetimeter. In the case of vinegars which have not been distilled, an ^allowance is made for the increase of weight due to the mucilage present ; hence, in the^ acetimeter sold by Bate, a weight, marked m, is provided, and is used in trying such vinegiil'S. As the hydrate of lime employed causes the precipitation of part of the mucilaginous matter in the vine- gar, it serves to remove this diflSculty to a certain extent. {Pereira.)— B.. M. W. ACETONE, syn. pyroacetie spirit^ tneaitie alcohol^ pyroacetic ether. C* H* 0*. A volatile fluid usually obtained by the distillation of the acetates of the alkaline earths. It is also obtained in a variety of operations where organic matters are exposed to high tem- perature. Tartaric and citric acids yield it when distilled. Sugar, gum, or starch, when mixed with lime and distilled, afford acetone. If crude acetate of lime be distilled, the acetone is accompanied by a small quantity of ammonia and traces of methylamine. The latter is due to the nitrogen contained in the wood ; the distillate from which was used in the preparation of the acetate of lime. Crude acetone may be purified by redistilling it in a water-bath. A small quantity of slaked lime should be added previous to distillation, to combine with any acid that may be present. When pure, it forms a colorless mobile fluid, boiling at 133° F. Its density at 18° is 0*7921, at 32° it is 0*8140. The density of its vapor was found by experiment to be 2*00; theory requires 2.01, supposing six volumes of carbon vapor, twelve volumes of hydrogen, and two volumes of oxygen to be condensed to four volumes. When acetone is procured from acetate of lime, two equivalents of the latter are decomposed, yielding one equivalent pf acetone, and two equivalents of car- bonate of lime. It has been found that a great number of organic acids, when distilled under similar circumstances, yield bodies bearing the same relation to the parent acid that acetone does to acetic acid : this fact has caused the word acetone to be used of late in a more extended sense than formerly. The word ketone is now generally used to express a neutral substance derived by destructive distillation from an acid, the latter losing the elements of an equivalent of carbonic acid during the decomposition. Theoretical chemists are somewhat divided with regard to the rational formulae of the ketones. An overwhelm- ing weight of evidence has been brought by Gerhardt and his followers, to prove that they should be regarded as aldehydes in which an equivalent of hydn^n is replaced by the radical of an alcohol. Thus common acetone (C H" 0"^) is aldehyde (C* H* 0'), in which one equivalent of hydrogen is replaced by methyle, C H*. Acetone dissolves several gums and resins, amongst others sandarach. Wood spuit, which sometimes, owing to the presence of impurities, refuses to dissolve sandarach, may be made to do so by the addition of a small quantity of acetone. When treated with sulphuric acid and distilled, acetone yields a hydrocarbon called mesitylene or mesitylole, C" H**. — C. G. W. ACETYL. Two radicals are known by this name, namely, C* H' and C* H' 0'. Their nomenclature has not, as yet, been definitely settled. Dr. Williamson proposes to call it othyl. The hydrocarbon C* H' is now assumed to exist in aldehyde, which can be regarded as formed on the type two atoms of water, thus : — In the above formula we have two atoms of water, in which 1 equivalent of hydrogen is • Quarterly Journal of Science, vl, 255. 1 68 Geo. III., c 6& Hie 111] 16 ACID. replaced by the non-oxidized radical C* H», which may very conveniently be named aldyle, to recallits existence in aldehyde. — C. G. W. ACID. (Acidus, sour, L.) The term acid was formerly applied to bodies which were Bour to the taste, and in popular language the word is still so used. It is to be regretted that the necessities of science have led to the extension of this word to any bodies com- bining with bases to form salts, whether such combining body is sour or otherwise. Had not the term acid been established in language as expressing a sour body, there would have been no objection to its use ; but chemists now apply the term to substances which are not four, and which do not change blue vegetable colors ; and consequently they fail to convey a correct idea to the pojndar mind. Hobbes, in his " Computation or Logic," says, " A name is a word taken at pleasure to serve for a mark which may raise in our mind a thought like to some thought we had before, and which, being pronounced to others, may be to them a sign of what thought the speaker had, or had not, before in his mind." This philosopher thus truly expresses the purpose of a name ; and this purpose is not fulfilled by the term acid^ as now employed. Mr. John Stuart Mill, in his " System of Logic," thus, as it appears not very happily, endeavors to show that the term acid, as a scientific term, is not inappropriate or mcorrect. " Scientific definitions, whether they are definitions of scientific terms, or of common terms used in a scientific sense, are almost always of the kind last spoken of: their mam purpose is to serve as the landmarks of scientific classification. And, since the classifica- tions in any science are continually modified as scientific knowledge advances, the defini- tions in the sciences are also constantly varying. A striking instance is afforded by the words acid and alkali, especially the former. As experimental discovery advanced, the substances classed with acids have been constantly multiplying ; and, by a natural conse- quence, the attributes connoted by the word have receded and become fewer. At first it connoted the attributes of combining with an alkali to form a neutral substance (called a salt), being compounded of a base and oxygen, causticity to the taste and touch, fluidity, &c. ' The true analysis of muriatic acid into chlorine and hydrogen caused the second property, composition from a base and oxygen, to be excluded from the connotation. The same discovery fixed the attention of chemists upon hydrogen as an important element m acids ; and more recent discoveries having led to the recognition of its presence m sul- phuric nitric, and many other acids, where its existence was not previously suspected, there is now a tendency to include the presence of this element in the connotation of the word. But carbonic acid, sUica, sulphurous acid, have no hydrogen in their composition; that property cannot, therefore, be connoted by the teran, unless those substances are no longer to be considered acids. Causticity and fluidity have long since been excluded from the characteristics of the class by the inclusion of silica and many other substances m it ; and the formation of neutral bodies by combination with alkalis, together with such electro- chemical peculiarities as this is supposed to imply, are now the only differentia which form the fixed connotation of the word acid as a term of chemical science." ., . , . The term Alkali, though It is included by Mr. J. S. Mill in connection with acid in his remarks does not stand, even as a scientific term, in the objectional position m which we find acid. Alkali is not, strictly speaking, a common name to which any definite idea is attached. Acid, on the contrary, is a word commonly employed to signify sour W ith the immense increase which organic chemistry has given to the number of acids it does appear necessary, to avoid confusion, that some new arrangement, based on a strictly logical plan should be adopted. This is, however, a task for a master mind ; and possibly we must wait for another generation before such a mind appears among us. ,. , , In this Dictionary all the acids named will be found under their respective heads; as Acetic, Nitric, Sulphuric Acids, &c. . ACIDIFIER. Any simple or compound body whose presence is necessary for the pro- duction of an acid ; as oxygen, chlorine, bromine, iodine, fluorine, sulphur &c., &c. ACIDIMETER. An instrument for measuring the strength or quantity ot real acid contained in a free state in liquids. The construction of that instrument is founded on the principle that the quantity of real acid present in any sample is proportional to the quan- tity of alkali which a given weight of it can neutralize. The instrument, like the alkalim- eter (see Alkalimeter), is made to contain 1,000 grains in weight of pure distdled water, and is divided accurately into 100 divisions, each of which therefore represents 10 grams of pure distilled water ; but as the specific gravity of the liquids which it serves to measure may be heavier or lighter than pure water, 100 divisions of such liqmds are often caUed 1 000 erams' measure, irrespectively of their weight (specific gravity), and accordingly 10-20 &c. divisions of the acidimeter are spoken of as 100-200, &c. grains' measure ; ttiat is to siy, as a quantity or measure which, if filled with pure water, would have weighed that number of grains. i • v ACIDIMETRY. Acidimetry is the name of a chemical process of analysis by means of which the strength of acids-that is to say, the quantity of pure free acid eontamed in a liquid— can be ascertained or estimated. The principle of the method is based upon Dal- AOIDDIETRY. IT u Saturate or neutralize 1 eqv. = 49 parts in weight of pure oil of vitriol (sp. gr. 1-8485), or 1 equiv. of any other acid. ton's law of chemical combinations ; or, in other words, upon the fact that, in order to pro- duce a complete reaction, a certain definite weight of reagent is required. If, for example, we take 1 equivalent, or 49 parts in weight, of pure oil of vitnol of specific gravity 1'8485, dilute it (of course within limits) with no matter what quantity of water, and add thereto either soda, potash, magnesia, ammonia, or their carbonates, or in fact any other base, until the acid is neutralized— that is to say, until blue litmus-paper la no longer, or only very faintly, reddened when moistened with a drop of the acid liquid under examfcation,— it will be found that the respective weights of each base required to produce that effect will greatly differ, and that with respect to the bases just mentioned these weights will be as follows : — Soda (caustic) 1 equiv. = 31 parts. in weight" Potash (caustic) " = 47 Ammonia " =17 Carbonate of soda " = 53 Carbonate of potash " = 69 ■ This being the case, it is evident that if we wish to ascertain by such a method the quantity of sulphuric acid or of any other acid contdned in a liquid, it will be necessary, on the one hand, to weigh or measure accurately a given quantity of that liquid to be examined, and, on the other hand, to dissolve in a known volume of water the weight above mentioned of any one of the bases just alluded to, and to pour that solution gradually into that of the acid until neutralization is obtained ; the number of volumes of the basic solution which will have been required for the purpose will evidently indicate the amount in weight of acid which existed in the liquid under examination. Acidunetry is therefore exactly the reverse of alkalimetry, since in principle it depends on the number of volumes of a solu- tion of a base diluted with water to a definite strength, which are required to neutralize a known weight or measure of the different samples of acids. The solution containing the knowii vxight of base, and capable therefore of saturating a known weight of acid, is called a " test-liquor;" and an aqueous solution of ammonia, of a standard strength, as first proposed by Dr. Ure, affords a most exact and convenient means of effecting the purpose, when gradually poured from a graduated dropping-tube or acidimeter into the sample of acid to be examined. The strength of the water of anMnonia used for the experiment should be so adjusted that 1,000 grains' measure of it (that is, 100 divisions of the alkalimeter) really contain one equivalent (17 grains) of ammonia, and consequently neutralize one equivalent of any one real acid. The specific gravity of the pure water of ammonia employed as a test for that purpose should be exactly 0-992, and when so adjusted, 1,000 grains' measure (100 divisions of tiie acidimeter) will then neutralize exactly 40 grains, or one equivalent, of sulphuric acid (dry). 49 37.5 54 60 45 150 (1 u (( u (I (( (( (I ({ tl (t M M oil of vitriol, sp. gr. 1.8485. hydrochloric acid (gas, dry), nitric acid (dry), crystallized acetic acid, oxalic acid, tartaric acid, acetic acid. 51 And so forth with the other acids. A standard liquor of ammonia of that strength becomes, therefore, a universal acid- imeter, since the number of measures or divisions used to effect the neutralization of 10 or of 100 grains of any one acid, being multiplied by the atomic weight or equivalent number of the acid under examination, the product, divided by 10 or by 100, will indicate the per- centage of real acid contained in the sample; the proportion of free acid being thus determined with precision, even to y'j of a grain, in the course of five minutes, as will be shown presently. The most convenient method of preparing the standard liquor of ammonia of that specific gravity is by means of a glass bead, not but that specific gravity bottles and hydrometers may, of course, be employed ; but Dr. Ure remarics, with reason, that they furnish incomparably more tedious and less delicate means of adjustment. The glass bead, of the gravity which the test-liquor of ammonia should have, floats, of course, in the middle of such a liquor, at the temperature of 60° F. ; but if the strength of the liquor becomes attenuated by evaporation, or its temperature increased, the attention of the operator is immediately called to the fact, since the difference of a single degree of heat, or the loss of a single hundredth part of a grain of ammonia per cent., will cause the bead to sink to the bottom — a degree of precision which no hydrometer can rival, and which could not otherwise be obtained, except by the troublesome operation of accurate weighing. Whether the solution remains uniform in strength is best ascertained by introducing into the bottle containing the ammonia test-liquor two glass beads, so adjusted that one, being Vol. in.— 2 18 AOIDIMETRY. Tery slightly heavier than the liquid, may remun at the bottom ; whilst the other, being very slightly lighter, reaches the top, and remains just under the surface as long as the liquor is in the normal state ; but when, by the evaporation of some ammonia, the liquor becomes weaker, and consequently its specific gravity greater, the bead at the bottom rises towards the surface, in which case a few drops of strong ammonia should be added to restore the balance. An aqueous solution of ammonia, of the above strength and gravity, being prepared, the acidimetrical process is in every way similar to that practised in alkalimetry ; tffat is to say, a known weight, for example, 10 or 100 grains of the sample of acid to be examined are poured into a sufficiently lai^e glass vessel, and diluted, if need be, with water, and a little tincture of litmus is poured into it, in order to impart a distinct red color to it ; 100 divisions, or 1,000 grains' measure, of the standard ammonia test-liquor above alluded tOj are then poured into an alkalimeter (which, in the present case, is used as an acidimeter), and the operator proceeds to pour the ammonia test-liquor from the alkalimeter into the vessel containing the acid under examination, in the same manner, and with the same precautions used in alkalimetry (see Alkalimetry), until the change of color, from red to blue, of the acid liquor in the vessel indicates that the neutralization is complete, and the operation finished. Let us suppose that 100 grains in weight of a sample of sulphuric acid, for example, have required 61 divisions (610 water-grains' measure) of the acidimeter for their complete neutralization, since 100 divisions (that is to say, a whole acidimeter full) of the test-liquor of ammonia are capable of neutralizing exactly 49 grains — one equivalent — of oil of vitriol, of specific gravity, 1*8485, it is clear that the 61 divisions employed will have neutralized 29*89 of that acid, and, consequently, the sample of sulphuric acid examined contained that quantity per cent, of pure oil of vitriol, representing 24*4 per cent, of pure anhydrous sulphuric acid : thus — Divisions. Oil of Vitriol. 100 : 49 :: 61 : a; = 29*89. Anhydrous Acid. 100 : 40 :: 61 : 2 = 24*4. The specific gravity of an acid of that strength is 1*21 78. In the same manner, suppose that 100 grains in weight of hydrochloric acid have required 90 divisions (900 grains' measure) of the acidimeter for their complete neutraliza- tion, the equivalent of dry hydrochloric acid gas being 36*5, it is clear that since 90 divisions only of the ammonia test-liquor have been employed, the sample operated upon must have contained per cent, a quantity of acid equal to 33-30 of dry hydrochloric acid gas in solution, as shown by the proportion : — Divis. Hydrochloric acid. 100 : 36*5 :*. 90 : a? = 32*85. The specific gravity of such a sample would be 1*1646. Instead of the ammonia test-liquor just alluded to, it is clear that a solution containing one equivalent of any other base — such as, for example, carbonate of soda, or carbonate of potash, caustic lime, &c. — may be used for the purpose of neutralizing the acid under examination. The quantity of these salts required for saturation will of course indicate the quantity of real acid, and, by calculation, the percentage thereof in the sample, thus : — The equivalent of pure carbonate of soda 58, and that of carbonate of potash 69, either of these, weights will represent one equivalent, and consequently 49 grains of pure oil of vitriol, 86-5 of dry hydrochloric acid, 60 of crystallized, or 51 of ai^ydrous acetic acid, and so on. The acidimetrical assay is performed as follows : — If with carbonate of soda, take 530 grains of pure and dry carbonate of soda, obtained by igniting the bicarbonate of that base (see Alkalimetry), and dissolve them in 10,000 water grains' measure (1,000 acidimetrical divisions) of distilled water. It is evident that each acidimeter full (100 divisions) of such a solution will then correspond to one equivalent of any acid ; and accordingly, if the test-liquor of carbonate of soda be poured from the acidimeter into a weighed quantity of any acid, with the same precautions as before, until the neutralization is complete, the number of divisions employed in the operation will, by simple rule of proportion, indicate the quantity of acid present in the sample as before. Pure carbonate of soda is easily obtained by recrystallizing once or twice the crystals of carbonate of soda of commerce, and carefully washing them. By heating them gradually they melt, and at a very low red heat entirely lose their water of crystallization and become converted into pulvenilent anhydrous neutral carbonate of soda, which should be kept in well closed bottles. When carbonate of potash is used, then, since the equivalent of carbonate of potash is 69, the operator should dissolve 690 grains of it in the 10,000 grains of pure distilled water, and the acidimeter being now filled with this test-liquor, the assay is carried on again precisely in the same manner as before. Neutral carbonate of potash for acidimetrical use AOIDIMETRY. It is prepared by heating the bicarbonate of that base to redness, in order to expel one equivsJent of its carbonic acid ; the residue left is pure neutral carbonate of potash ; and in order to prevent its absorbing moisture, it should be put, whilst still hot, on a slab placed over concentrated sulphuric acid, or chloride of calcium, under a glass bell, and, when sufficiently cool to be handled, transferred to bottles carefully closed. To adapt the above methods to the French weights and measures, now used also gener- ally by the German chemist, we need only substitute 100 decigrammes for 100 grains, and proceed with the graduation as already described. A solution of caustic lime in cane sugar has likewise been proposed by M. Peligot for acidimetrical purposes. To prepare such a solution, take pure caustic lime, obtained by heating Carara marble among charcoal in a furnace ; when sufficiently roasted to convert it into quicklime, slake it with water, and pour upon the slaked lime as much water as is necessary to produce a milky liquor ; put this milky liquor in a bottle, and add thereto, t» the cold, a certain quantity of pulverized sugar-candy ; close the bottle with a good coric, and shake the whole mass well. After a certain time it will be observed that the milky liquid has become very much clearer, and perhaps quite limpid ; filter it, and the filtrate will be found to contain about 50 parts of lime for every 100 of sugar employed. The liquor should not be heated, because saccharate of lime is much more soluble in cold than in hot water, and if heat were applied it would become turbid or thick, though on cooling it would become clear again.* A concentrated solution of lime in sugar being thus obtained, it should now be diluted to such a degree that 1,000 water grains' measure of it may be capable of saturating exactly one equivalent of any acid, which is done as follows : — Take 100 grains of hydrochloric acid of specific gravity 1*1812, that weight of acid contains exactly one equivalent = 36*5 of pure hydrochloric acid gas ; on the other hand, fill the acidimeter up to (zero) with the solution of caustic lime in sugar prepared as abovesaid, and pour the contents into the acid until exact neutralization is obtained, which is known by testing with litmus paper in the usual manner already described. If the whole of the 100 divisions of the acidimeter had been required exactly to neutralize the 100 grains' weight of hydrochloric acid of the specific gravity mentioned, it would have been a proof that it was of the right strength ; but suppose, on the contrary, that only 50 divisions of the lime solution in the acidimeter have been sufficient for the purpose, it is evident that it is half too strong, or, in other words, one equivalent of lime (=28) is contained in those 50 divisions instead of in 100. Pour, there- fore, at once, 50 divisions or measures of that lime-liquor into a glass cylinder accurately divided into 100 divisions, and fill up the reraaim'ng 50 divisions with water ; stir the whole well, and 100 divisions of the lime-liquor will, of course, now contain ajs much lime as was contained before in the 50 ; or, in other words, 100 acidimetrical divisions will now contain 1 equivalent of lime, and therefore will be capable of exactly neutrali^ng 1 equivalent of any acid. When, however, saccharate of lime is used for the determination of sulphuric acid, it is necessary to dilute it considerably, for otherwise a precipitate of sulphate of lime would be produced. This reagent, moreover, is evidently applicable only to the determination of such acids the lime salts of which are soluble in water. Instead of a solution of caustic lime in sugar, a clean dry piece of white Carara marble may be used. Suppose, for example, that the acid to be assayed is acetic acid, the instruc- tions given by Brande are as follows : — A clean dry piece of marble is selected and accu- rately weighed ; it is then suspended by a silk thread into a known quantity of the vin^ar or acetic acid to be examined, and which is cautiously stirred with a glass rod, so as to mix its parts, but without detaching any splinters from the weighed marble, till the whole of the acid is saturated, and no further action on the marble is observed. The marble is then taken out, washed with distilled water, and weighed; the loss in weight which it has sustained may be considered as equal to the quantity of acetic acid present, since the atomic weight of carbonate of lime (=50) is very nearly the same as that of acetic acid (=51\ Such a process, however, is obviously less exact than those already described. But whichever base is employed to prepare the test-liquor, it is clear that the acid tested with it must be so far pure as not to contain any other free acid than that for which it is tested, for in that case the results arrived at would be perfectly fallacious. Unless, therefore, the operator has reason to know that the acid, the strength of which has to be examined by that process, is genuine of its kind, he must make a qualitative analysis to satisfy himself that it is so ; for in the contrary case the acid would not be in a fit state to be submitted to an acidimetrical assay. We shall terminate this article by a description of Liebig's acidimetrical method of determining the amount of prussic acid contained in solutions ; for example, in medicinal prussic acid, in laurel and bitter almond water, essence of bitter almonds, and cyanide of potassium. The process is based upon the following reaction : — ^When an excess of caustic * The directions given by M. Violette for tte preparation of Saccharate of Lime are as follows: — Digest ia the cold 50 grammes of slaked caustic lime in 1 litre of water containing 100 grammes of sugar. I : 20 ACIPEITSER. potash is poured in a solution which contains prussic acid, cyanide of potassium is, of course, formed ; and if nitrate of silver be then poured in such a liquor, a precipitate of cyanide of silver is produced, but it is immediately redissolved by shaking, because a double cyanide of silver and of potassium (Ag Cy -f" K Cy) is formed, which dissolves, without alteration, in the excess of potash employed. The addition of a fresh quantity of nitrate of silver produces again a precipitate which agitation causes to disappear as before ; and this reaction goes on until half the amount of prussic acid present in the liquor has been taken up to produce cyanide of silver, the other half being engaged with the potassium in the formation of a double cyanide of silver and of potassium, as just said. As soon, however, as this point is reached, any new quantity of nitrate of silver poured in the liquor causes the cyanide of potassium to react upon the silver of the nitrate, to produce a permanent precipitate of cyanide of silver, which indicates that the reaction is complete, and that the assay is terminated. The presence of chlorides, far from interfering, is desirable, and a certain quantity of common salt is accordingly added, the reaction of chloride of silver being analogous to that of the cyanide of the same metal. To determine the strength of prussic acid according to the above process, a test or normal solution should be first prepared, which is as follows : — Since 1 equivalent of nitrate of silver (=170) represents, as we have seen, 2 equivalents of prussic acid (=54), dissolve, therefore, 170 grains of pure fused nitrate of silver in 10,000 water-grains' measure of pure water; 1,000 water-grains' measure (1 acidimeter full) of such solution will therefore represent 5*4 grains of prussic acid ; and consequently each acidimetrical division 0*054 grain of pure prussic acid. Take now a given weight or measure of the sample of prussic acid, or cyanide of potas- sium, or laurel, or bitter-almond water, or essence of bitter almonds ; dilute it with three or four times its volume of water, add caustic potash until the whole is rendered alkaline, and carefully pour into it a certain quantity of the normal silver solution from the acidimeter, until a slight precipitate begins to appear which cannot be redissolved by agitation ; observe the number of acidimetrical divisions of the test silver solution employed, and that number multiplied by 0'054 will, of course, indicate the proportion of prussic acid present in the quantity of the sample operated upon. For such liquids which, like laurel water, contain very little prussic acid, it is advisable to dilute the test silver liquor with nine times its bulk of water ; a decimal solution is thus obtained, each acidimetrical division of which will only represent 0*0054 of prussic acid, by which figure the number of divisions employed should then be multiplied. As the essence of bitter almonds mixed with water is turbid, it is absolutely necessary to add and shake it with a sufficient quantity of water to dissolve the particles of oil to which the milkiness is due, and render it quite clear. Instead of an acidimeter, an ordinary balance may be used, as follows : — Take 63 grains of fused nitrate of silver, and dissolve them in 5,937 grains' weight of pure distilled water, making altogether 6,000 grains' weight of test silver solution. Weigh off now in a beaker any quantity, say 100, or, if very weak, 1,000 grains' weight of the sample of prussic acid to be examined, dilute it with three or four times its bulk of water, mix with it a certain quantity of a solution of common salt, and a few drops of caustic potash over and above the quantity necessary to make it alkaline. Pour now carefully into the liquid so prepared a portion of the test solution of silver alluded to, until a turbidness or milkiness begins to be formed, which does not disappear by agitation, and which indicates that the reaction is complete. Every 300 grains of the test silver solution employed represent 1 grain's weight of pure anhydrous prussic acid. The rationale of these numbers is evident: since 1 equiv. = 170 of nitrate of silver corresponds to 2 equiv. =: 54 of prussic acid ; 63 of nitrate of silver correspond to 20 of prussic acid, and consequently 300 of a solution containing 63 of nitrate of silver in 6,000 correspond to 1 of prussic acid, thus : — 170 : 54 :: 63 : 20 6,000 : 20 :: 300 : 1 Lastly, the strength of prussic acid may also be determined with an ordinary balance by a method proposed by Dr. lire, which method, however, is much less convenient than that of Liebig ; it consists in adding peroxide of mercury, in fine powder, to the liquor which contains prussic acid, until it ceases to be dissolved. As the equivalent of peroxide of mercury = 108, is exactly four times that of prussic acid = 27, the weight of peroxide of mercury employed divided by four will give the quantity of prussic acid present. — A. N. ACIPENSER. See Isinglass. ACONITINE. C*" H" NO". A poisonous alkaloid constituting the active prmciple of the Aconite, Aconitum Napellus. — C. G. W. ACORNS. The seed of the oak {quercus). These possess some of the properties of the bark ; but in a very diluted degree. Acorns are now rarely used. Pigs are sometimes fed upon them. 808 bushels were imported in 1855. ADHESIOiT. 21 ACORUS CALAMUS. The common sweet flag. This plant is a native of England, growino" abundantly in the rivers of Norfolk ; from which county the London market is chiefly "supplied. The radix calami aromatici of the shops occurs in flattened pieces about one inch wide, and four or five inches long. It is employed medicinally as an aromatic, and it is said to be used by some distillers to flavor gin. The essential oil {oleum acori calar.ii) of the sweet flao- is used by snuff-makers for scenting snuff*, and it sometimes enters as one of the aromatic ingredients of aromatic vinegar. — Pereira. ACROSPIRE. {Plumule^ Fr. ; BLattkeim^ Germ.) The sprout at the end of seeds when they begin to germinate. The name is derived from two Greek words, signifying highest and spire^ and has been adopted on account of its spiral form. It is the plume or plumule of modern botanists. Malsters use the name to express the growing of the barley. " The first leaves that appear when com sprouts." — LiruUey. ACRYLAMINE or ALLYLAMINE. (C H' N.) A new alkaloid obtamed by Hoff"- mann and Cahorns, by boiling cyanate of allyle with a strong solution of potash- It boils at about 365°.— C. G. W. ACTINISM. (From iucrlv^ a ray ; signifying merely the pomr of a ray, without de fining what character of ray is intended.) As early as 1812, M. Berard (in a communication to the Academy of Sciences, on some observations made by him of the phenomena of solar action) drew attention to the fact that three very distinct sets of physical powers were manifested. Luminous power, Heat-produc- ing power, and Chemical power. The abtual conditions of the sun-beam will be understood by reference to the annexed woodcut, and attention to the following description, fiff. 4 : a 6 represents the prismatic spectrum — as obtained by the decomposition of white light by the prism— or Newtonian luminous spectrum, 4 5 consisting of certain bands of color. Newton deter- mined those rays to be seven in number ; red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, and violet; recent re- searches, by Sir John Herschel and others, have proved the existence of two other rays ; one, the extreme red or crimson ray c, found at the least refrangible end of the spectrum, the other occurring at the most frangible end, or beyond the violet rays, which is a lavender or gray ray. Beyond this point up to/. Professor Stokes has discovered a new set of rays, which are only brought into view when the light is received upon the surfaces of bodies which possess the property of altering the refrangibility of the rays. Those rays have been called the fluorescent rays^ from the circumstance that some of the varieties of Fluor Spar exhibit this phenomenon in a remarkable msmuer. In the engraving {fig. 4,) the curved line l from a to c indicates the full extent of the luminous spectrum, the point marked l showing the maximum of illuminating power, which exists in the yellow ray. Sir William Herschel and Sir Henry Englefield de- termined, in the first instance, the maximum point for the calorific rays, and Sir John Herschel subsequently confirmed their results, proving that the greatest heat was found below the red ray, and that it gradually diminished in power with the increase of refrangibility in the rays, ceasing entirely in the violet ray. Heat rays have been detected down to the point rf, and the curved line h indicates the extent of their action. Now, if any substance capable of undergoing chemical change be exposed to this spec- trum, the result will be found to be such as is represented in the accompanying figure and fig. 5. Over the space upon which the greatest amount of light falls, t. e. the region of the yellow and orange rays l, no chemicd change is effected : by prolonged action a slight change is brought about where the red ray falls, r, but from the mean green ray g up to the point /, a certain amount of chemical action is maintained ; the maximum of action being in the blue and violet rays a. Thtis the curve line {fig. 4) from e to f represents the extent and degree of chemical power as manifested in the solar spectrum. Two maxima are marked a a, differing widely however in their degree. ADHESION {sticking together). The union of two surfaces. With the phenomena which are dependent upon bringing two surfaces so closely together that the influence of cohesion is exerted, we have not to deal. In arts and manufactures, adhesion is effected by interposing between the surfaces to be united, some body possessing peciiliar properties. f 22 ADIPOSE SUBSTANCE ob ADIPOSE TISSUE. such as gum, plaster, resin, marine or ordinary glue, and various kinds of cement. {See those articles.} In many treatises, there has been a sad confusion between tlie terms adhesion and cohesion. It is to be regretted that our Uterature shows a growing careless- ness in this respect. Adhesion should be restricted to mean, sticking together by means of some interposed substance ; cohesion, the state of union effected by natural attraction. Not only is adhesion exhibited in works of art or manufacture, we find it very strikingly exhibited in nature. Fragments of rocks which have been shattered by convulsion are found to be cemented together by silica, lime, oxide of iron, and the h'ke. We sometimes find portions of stone cemented together by the ores of tlie metals ; and, again, broken parts of mineral lodes are frequently reunited by the earthy minerals. ADIPOSE SUBSTANCE or ADIPOSE TISSUE, {Tissu graisseux, Fr.) An anunal oil, resembling in its essential properties the vegetable oils. During life, it appears to exist in a fluid or semi-fluid state- ; but in the dead animal, it is frequently found in a solid form, constituting suet, which, when divested of the membrane in which it is contained, is called tallow. See Tallow, Oils, &c. ADIT or ADIT LEVEL. The horizontal entrance to a mine; a passage or level driven into the hill-side. The accompanying section gives, for the purpose of distinctness, an exaggerated section of a portion of the subterranean workings of a metal- liferous mine. It should be understood that d represents a mineral lode, upon which the shaft, a, has been Sunk. At a certain depth from the surface of the hill the miners would be inconvenienced by water, consequently a level is driven in from the side of the hill, 6, through which the water flows off, and through which also the miner can bring out the broken rock, or any ores which he may obtain. Proceeding still deeper, sup- posing the workings to have com- menced, as is commonly the case, at a certain elevation above the sea-level, similar conditions to those described again arising, another level is driven so as to intersect the shaft or shafts, as shown at c. In this case, 6 would be called the shallow, and c the deep adit. The economy of such works as these is great, saving the cost of expensive pumping machinery, and, in many cases, saving also considerable labor in the removal of ores or other matter from the mine. ADZE. A cutting instrument ; differing from the axe by the edge being placed at nearly right angles to the handle, and being slightly curved up or inflected towards it. The instrument is held in both hands, whilst the operator stands upon his work in a stooping position ; the handle being from twenty-four to thirty inches long, and the weight of the blade from two to four pounds. The adze is swung in a circular path almost of the same curvature as the blade, the shoulder-joint being the centre of motion, and the entire arm and tool forming, as it were, one inflexible radius ; the tool, therefore, makes a succession of small arcs, and in each blow the arm of the workman is brought in contact with the thigh, which serves as a stop to prevent accident. In coarse preparatory works, the work- man directi his adze through the space between his two feet ; he thus surprises us by the quantity of wood removed ; in .fine works he frequently places his toes over the spot to be wrought, and the adze penetrates two or three inches beneath the sole of the shoe ; and he thus surprises us by the apparent danger, yet perfect working of the instrument, which, in the hands of a shipwright in particular, almost rivals the joiner's plane ; it is with him the nearly universal paring instrument, and is used upon works in all positions. — Holtzapffel. AfiRATED WATER. The common commercial name of water artificially impregnated with carbonic acid. AEROLITES. Meteoric stones. It cannot be denied that masses of solid matter have fallen from the atmosphere upon the earth. It is evident that meteoric stones are of cosmical origin ; and the composition, there- fore, of such as have been examined, shows us the composition of masses of matter exist- ing beyond the earth. A few analyses of meteoric stones will exhibit the chemical charac- ter of these extraordinary masses. (2) (3) (4) 90-88 . . • 88-98 . . 86-64 8-45 . . 10-85 . . 13-04 0-65 . . . . 0-02 . . 0-21 . . 0-27 Iron, (1) - 89-'78 . . Nickel, - 8-88 Cobalt, - 0-66 . . Copper, Tin, Phosphorus, 0-34 0-10 . . 0-05 -Brook and Miller. AIB. as A meteorite fell at Dharwar, in the East Indies, on the 15th of February, 1848, which gave 58-3 per cent, of silicates insoluble in aqua regia; 2-6 of sulphur, 6-76 of nickel, and 22.18 of iron. Another stone from Singhur, near Ponna, in the Deccan, gave earthly sili- cate, 19-5 ; iron, 69-16 ; and nickel, 4-24. Ehrenberg exammed a black inky ram-water which fell in Ireland on the 15th of April, 1849, and found the black color to consist of minute particles of decayed plants, which had probably been brought by the trade winds, and, floating in clouds of aqueous vapor, had decayed. AEROSTATION; AERONAUTICS. The ascent into the atmosphere by means of balloons. See Balloons. AGARIC of the oak ; called also surgeon^ s agaric, spunk, touchwood. A fimgus found growing on the oak, birch, willow, and other trees. See Amadou. AGATE. An instrument used by gold-wire drawers, so called from the agate fixed in the middle of it. AGATE. {Agate, Fr. ; Achat, Gr, ; Achates, Lat.) A siliceous mmcral ; a varie- gated variety of chalcedony. This stone is the 'Axirijs of the Greeks, by whom it was so called after the river in Sicily of that name, whence, according to Theophrastus, agates were first procured. Bo- chart, with much probability, deduces the name from ^^e Punic and Hebrew, naJcad. spotted. The colors of agate are either arranged in parallel or concentric bands, or assume the form of clouds or spots, or arborescent and moss-Uke stains. These colors are due to the presence of metallic oxides, and when indistinct, they are frequently artificially developed or produced. By boiling the coloriess stone in oil, and afterwards in sulphuric acid, the oil is absorbed by the more porous layers of the stone ; it subsequently becomes carbonized, and thus the contrast of the various colors is heightened. The red varieties, also, are arti- ficially produced by boiling them in a solution of proto-sulphate of iron ; after which, upon exposing the stones to heat, peroxide of iron is formed, and thus red bands, or rings, of varying intensities, are produced. Cornelians are thus very conunonly formed ; the color- ing matter of the true stone being a peroxide of iron. Agates never occur in a crystalline foi-m, but in the form of rounded pebbles ; they ar« translucent by transmitted Ught, but are not transparent, have a wax-like fracture, and they are susceptible of a brilliant polish. Agates are used in the arts for inlaying, and for bur- nishing gold and silver : they are also made into mortars for chemical l^irposes ; and when cut and polished, they are converted, in considerable quantities, into brooches, bracelets, and other ornamental articles. Agates are brought to this country from Arabia, India, and Oberstein, in Saxony : they are also found in Perthshire, and other parts of Scotland. The Scotch Pebble is a variety of the agate, known by its zig-zag pattern as the FoHificatwn Agate. Agates are found frequently in the amygdaloid rocks of Galgenburg, near Ober- stein. They are usually ground into form, cut, and polished, at water-mills in the neigh- borhood, where a considerable trade in them is carried on. Moss. Agate, or Mocha Stone, is a chalcedony, containing within it dendritic or moss-like delineations, of an opaque brownish-yellow color, which are due to oxide of manganese, or of iron. — H. W. B. Agates are found in the Canton markets, as articles of commerce, in abundance, and of the following varieties :— The white-veined agate, called also Mocha Stone, varies from 1 to 8 inches in diameter. The dull, milky agate, not so valuable, occurs in sizes of 1 to 10 inches. Lead-colored agate, sometimes uniform, and sometimes spotted, occurs of largo size, and is used for cups and boxes. Flesh-colored. Blood-colored. This is sometimes variegated with pale blue and brown ; the blue always surrounds the red ; the brown has the tmt of horn. Clouded and spotted flesh-colored agate is found subject to many flaws. Red agate, with yellow, is of 1 to 4 inches in diameter. The yellow has various tints. Sometimes the pebbles are 7 inches in length. The yellow agate is used for knife-handles. The pale yellow agate is very scarce ; it is called also Leonina, being variegated with white, black, and green, and bearing some resemblance to a lion's skin. Blackish-veined brown agate, in pieces from 2 to 7 inches in diameter, is very hard, and is cut into seals, buttons, and heads of canes, &c., with natural veins, or fictitious colors, sunk into the stone. It appears to be of much value. — Oriental Commerce. Agate is found sufficiently large to be formed into mortars for chemical purposes. " The royal collection at Dresden contains a table-service of German agate ; and at Vienna, in the Imperial cabinet, there is an oval dish, twenty-two mches in length, formed of a single stone." — Dana. Agates may be stained artificially by soaking in a solution of nitrate of silver, and after- wards exposing them to the sun. These artificial colors disappear on laying the stone for a night in aquafortis. A knowledge of the practicability of thus staining agates naturally leads to the suspicion of many of the colors being the work, not of nature, but of art. AIR. The gaseous envelope which surrounds this Earth is emphatically so called ; it consists of the gases nitrogen and oxygen. About 79 measures of nitrogen, or azote, and 21 of oxygen, with ^J ^th of carbonic acid. 24 AIR-ENGINK constitute the air we breathe. The terra air is applied to any permanently gaseous body. And we express different conditions of the air, as good air, bad air, foul air, &c. AIR-ENGINE. The considerable expansibility of air by heat naturally suggested its use as a motive power long before theoretical investigation demonstrated its actual value. The great advance made during the few last years in our knowledge of the mechanical action of heat, has enabled us to determine with certainty the practical result which may be obtained by the use of any contrivance for employing heat as a prime mover of machinery. We are indebted to Professor Wni. Thomson for the fundamental theorem which decides the economy of any thermo-dynamic engine. It is — that in any perfectly constructed engine the fraction of heat converted into work is equal to the range of temperature from the highest to the lowest point, divided by the highest temperature reckoned from the zero of absolute temperature. Thus, if we have a perfect engine in which the highest temperature 280^—80 is 280" and the lowest 80' F., the fraction of heat converted into force will be L • 2bU-f-460, or rather more than one quarter. So that, if we use a coal of which one pound in combus- tion gives out heat equival*nt to 10,380,000 foot pounds, such an engine as we have just described would produce work equal to 2,805,405 foot pounds for each pound of coal consumed in the furnace. From the above formula of Professor Thomson, it will appear that the economy of any perfect thermo-dynamic engine depends upon the range of tem- perature we can obtain in it. And as the lowest temperature is generally nearly constant, being ruled by the temperature of the surface of the earth, it follows that the higher we can raise the highest temperature, the more economical will be the engine. The question is thus reduced to this : — In what class of engine can we practically use the highest tempera- ture? In the steam-engine worked with saturated vapor, the limit is obviously deter- mined by the amount of pressure which can be safely employed. In the steam-engine worked with super-heated vapor — i. e. in which the vapor, after passing from the boiler, receives an additional charge of heat without being allowed to take up more water — and also in the air-engine, the limit will depend upon the temperature at which steam or air acts chemically upon the metals employed, as well as upon the power of the metals themselves to resist the destructive action of heat. It thus appears that the steam-engine worked with superheated steam possesses most of the economical advantages of the air-engine. But when we consider that an air-engine may be made available where a plentiful supply of water cannot be reaffily obtained, the importance of this kind of thermo-dynamic engine is incontestable. The merit of first constructing a practical air-engine belongs to Mr. Stirling. Mr. Ericsson has subsequently introduced various refinements, such as the respirator — a reticulated mass of metal, which, by its extensive conducting surface, is able, almost instan- taneously, to give its own temperature to the air which passes through it. But various practical difficulties attend these refinements, which, at best, only apply to engines worked between particular temperatures. The least complex engine, and that which would probably prove most effectual in. practice, is that described in the "Philosophical Transactions," 1852, Part I. It consists of a pump, which compresses air into a receiver, in which it receives an additional charge of heat ; and a cylinder, the piston of which is worked by the heated air as it escapes. The difference between the work produced by the cylinder and that absorbed by the pump constitutes the force of the engine ; which, being compared with the heat communicated to the receiver, gives results exactly conformable with the law of Professor Thomson above described. — J. P. J. Dr. Joule has proposed various engines to be worked at temperatures below redness, which, if no loss occurred by friction or radiation, would realize about one-half the work due to the heat of combustion ; or about four times the economical duty which has, as yet, been attained by the most perfect steam-engine. A detailed account of Ericsson s Calorific Engine may be useful, especially as a certain amount of success has attended his efforts in applying the expansive power of heat to move machinery. It is stated in Hunt's " Merchant's Magazine" that Ericsson's engines are at work in the foundry of Messrs. Hogg and Delamater, in New York ; one engine being of five and another of sixty-horse power. The latter has four cylinders. Two, of seventy-two inches in diameter, stand side by side. Over each of these is placed one much smaller. Within these are pistons exactly fitting- their respective cylinders, and so connected, that those within the lower and upper cylinders move together. Under the bottom of each of the lower cylinders a fire is applied, no other furnaces being employed. Neither boilers nor water are used. The lower is called the working cylinder ; the upper, the supply cylinder. As the piston in the supply cylinder moves down, v.nlves placed in its top, open, and it becomes filled with cold air. As the piston rises within it, these valves close, and the air within, imable to escape as it came, passes through another set of valves into a receiver, from whence it has to pass into the working cylinder to force up the working piston within it. As it leaves the receiver to perform this duty, it passes through what is called the regenerator, where it becomes heated to about 450° ; and upon entering the working cylin- der, it is further heated by the supply underneath. For the sake of illustration, merely, let ALABASTER. S5 us suppose that the working cylinder contains double the area of the supply cylinder : the cold air which entered the upper cylinder will, therefore, but only half fill the lower one. Iti the course of its passage to the latter, however, it passes thrpugh the regenerator ; and as it enters the working cylinder, we will suppose that it has become heated to about 480", by which it is expanded to double its volume, and with this increased capacity it enters the working cylinder. We will further suppose the area of the piston within this cylinder to contain 1,000 square inches, and the area of the piston in the supply cyUnder above to contain but 500. The air presses upon this with a mean force, we will suppose, of about eleven pounds to each square inch ; or, in other words, with a weight of 5,500 pounds. Upon the surface of the lower piston the heated air is, however, pressing upwards with a like force upon each of its 1,000 square inches ; or, in other words, with a force which, after overcoming the weight above, leaves a surplus of 5,500 pounds, if we make no allow- ance for friction. This surplus furnishes the working power of the engine. It will be seen that after one stroke of its piston is made, it will continue to work with this force so long as sufiScient heat is supplied to expand the air in the working cylinder to the extent stated ; for, so long as the area of the lower piston is greater than that of the upper and a like pressure is upon every square inch of each, so long will the greater piston pu^ forward the smaller, as a two-pound weight upon one end of a balance will be sure to bear down a one- pound weight placed on the other. We need hardly say, that after the air in the working cylinder has forced up the piston within it, a valve opens ; and as it passes out, the pistons, by the force of gravity, descend, and cold air again rushes into and fills the supply cylinder. In this manner the two cylinders are alternately supplied and discharged, causing the pistons in each to play up and down substantially as they do in the steam-engine. The regenerator must now be described. It has been stated that atmospheric air is first drawn into the supply cyUnder, and that it passes through the regenerator into the woricing cylinder. The regenerator is composed of wire net, like that used in the manufacture of sieves, placed side by side, until the series attains^a thickness of about 12 inches. Through the almost innumerable cells formed by the intersections of the wire, the air must pass on its way to the working cylinder. In passing through these it is so minutely divided that all parts are brought into contact with the wires. Supposing the side of the regenerator nearest the working cylinder is heated to a high temperature, the air, in passing through it, takes up, as we have said, about 450" of the 480° of heat required to double the volume of the air ; the additional 30° are communicated by the fire beneath the cylinder. The air has thus become expanded, it forces the piston upwards ; it has done its work — valves open, and the imprisoned air, heated to 480°, passes from the cylinder and again enters the regenerator, through which it must pass before leaving the machine. It has been said that the side of this instrument nearest the cylinder is kept hot ; the other side is kept cool by the action upon it of the air entering in the opposite direction at each up-stroke of the pistons ; consequently, as the air from the working cylinder passes out, the wires absorb the heat so effectually, that when it leaves the regenerator it lias been robbed of it all, except about 30°. The regenerator in the 60-horse engine measures 26 inches in height and width, inter- nally. Each disk of wire composing it contains 676 superficial inches, and the net has 10 meshes to the inch. Each superficial inch, therefore, contains 100 meshes, which, multiplied. by 676, gives 67,600 meshes in each disk ; and, as 200 disks are employed, it follows that the regenerator contains 13,520,000 meshes; and consequently, as there are as many spaces between the disks as there are meshes, we find that the air within it is distributed in about 27,000,000 minute cells. Thence every particle of air, in passing through the regen- erator, is brought into very close contact with a surface of metal which heats and cools it alternately. Upon this action of the regenerator, Ericsson's Calorific Engine depends. In its application on the large scale, contemplated in the great Atlantic steamer called the '* Ericsson," the result was not satisfactory. We may, however, notwithstanding this result safely predicate, from the investigation of Messrs. Thomson and Joule, that the expansion of air by heat will eventually, in some conditions, take the place of steam as a motive power. AIR-GUN. This is a weapon in which the elastic force of air is made use of to project the ball. It is so arranged, that in a cavity in the stock of the gun, dr can be, by means of a piston, powerfully condensed. Here is a reserved force, which, upon its being relieved from pressure, is at once exerted. When air has been condensed to about j*g of its bulk, it exerts a force which is still very inferior to that of gunpowder. In many other respects the air-gun is but an imperfect weapon, consequently it is rarely employed. AIRO-HYDROGEN BLOWPIPE. A blowpipe in which air is used in the place of oxygen, to combine with and give intensity of heat to a hydrogen flame for the purposes of soldering. See Autogenous Soldering. ALABASTER, Gypsum, Plaster of Paris (Albdtre, Fr. ; Alahaster, Germ.), a sulphate of lime. (See Alabaster, Oriental.) When massive, it is called indifferently alabaster or gypsum ; and when in distinct and separate crystals, it is termed selenite. Massive alabas- ALABASTER, ORIENTAL. ter occurs in Britain in the new red or keuper marl : in Glamorganshire, on the Bristol Channel ; in Leicestershire, at Syston ; at Tutbury and near Burton-on-Trent, in Stafford- shire ; at Chellaston, in Derbyshire ; near Droitwich it is associated in the marl with rock salt, in strata respectively 40 and 75 feet in thickness ; and at Northwich and elsewhere the red marl is intersected with frequent veins of gypsum. At Tutbury it is quarried in the open air, and at Chellasston in caverns, where it is blasted by gunpowder ; at both places it is burned in kilns, and otherwise prepared for the market. It lies in irregular beds in the marl, that at Chellaston being about 80 feet thick. There is, however, reason to suppose that it was not originally deposited along with the mai4 as sulphate of lime, but rather that calcareous strata, by the access of sulphuric acid and water, have been converted into sul- phate of lime, — a circumstance quite consistent with the bulging of the beds of marl with which the gypsum is associated, the lime, as a sulphate, occupying more space than it did in its original state as a carbonate. At Tutbury and elsewhere, though it lies on a given general horizon, yet it can scarcely be said to be truly bedded, but ramifies among the beds and joints of the marl in numerous films, veins, and layers of fibrous gypsum. A snow-white alabaster occurs at Volterra, in Tuscany, much used in works of art in Florence and Leghorn. In the Paris basin it occurs as a granular crystalline rock, in the Lower Tertiary rocks, known to geologists as the upper part of the Middle Eocene fresh- water strata. It is associated with beds of white and green maris ; but in the Thuringewald there is a great mass of sulphate of lime in the Permian strata. It has been sunk through to a depth of 70 feet, and is believed to be metamorphosed raagnesian limestone or Zech- stein. In the United States this calcareous salt occurs in numerous lenticular masses in marly and sand strata, of that part of the Upper Silurian strata known as the Onondaga salt group. It is excavated for agricultural purposes. For mineralogical character, &c., sec Gypsum. — A. C. R. The gvpsum of our own country is found, in apparently inexhaustible quantities, in the red marl formation in the neighborhood of Derby, and has been worked for many centuries. The great bulk of it is used for making plaster of Paris, and as a manure ; and it is the basis of many kinds of cements, patented — as Keene's, Martin's, and others. To get it for these purposes, it is worked by mining underground, and the stone is blasted by gunpowder ; but this shakes it so much as to be unfit for working into orna- ments, &c. ; to procure blocks for which it is necessary to have an open quarry. By removing the superincumbent marl, and laying bare a large surface of the rock, the alabaster being very irregular in form, and jutting out in several parts, allows of its being sairn out in blocks of considerable size, and comparatively sound, (as is illustrated by the large tazza in the Museum of Practical Geology.) This stone, when protected from the action of water, is extremely durable, as may be seen in churches all over the country, where monumental effigies, many centuries old, are now as perfect as the day they were' made, excepting, of course, wilful injuries ; but exposure to rain soon decomposes the stone, and it must be borne in mind that it is perfectly unsuited for garden vases or other out-door work in this country. In working, it can be sawn up into slabs with toothed saws, and for working mouldings and sculptures, fine chisels, rasps, and files are the implements used ; the polishing is per- formed by rubbing it with pieces of sandstone, of various degrees of fineness, and water, until it is quite free from scratches, and then giving a gloss by means of polishing powder (oxide of tin) applied on a piece of cloth, and rubbed with a considerable degree of friction on the stone. This materijJ gives employment in Derby to a good many hands in forming it into useful and ornamental articles, and is commonly called Derbyshire Spar ; most of the articles are turned in the lathe, and it works something like very hard wood. Another kind of gypsum also found in Derbyshire is the fibrous or silky kind ; it occurs in thin beds, from one to six inches in depth, and is crystallized in long needle-like fibres ; being easily worked, susceptible of a high polish, and quite lustrous, it is used for making necklaces, bracelets, brooches, and such like small articles. — S. H. ALABASTER, ORIENTAL. Oriental alabaster is a form of stalagmitic or stalactitic carbonate of lime, an Egyptian variety of which is highly esteemed. It is also procured from the Pyrenees, from Chili, and from parts of the United States of America. Ancient quarries are still in existence in the province of Oran, in Algeria. ALBATA PLATE, a name given to one of the varieties of white metal now so com- monly employed. See Copper, and Allots. ALBUM GR^CUM. The white faeces of dogs. After the hair has been removed from skins, this is used to preserve the softness of them, and prepare them for the tan-pit. Fowls' dung is considered by practical tanners as superior to the dung of dogs, and this is obtained as largely as possible. These excreta may be said to be essentially phosphate of lime and mucus. We are informed that various artificial compounds which represent, chemically, the conditions of those natural ones, have been tried without producing the Bame good results. It is a reflection on our science, if this is really the case. ALBUMEN. (Album Ovi.) Albumen is a substance which forms a constituent part ALCOHOL. of the animal fluids and solids, and which is also found in the vegetable kingdom, exists nearly pure in the white of egQ. Albumen consists of— 27 It Carbon, Hydrogen, Nitrogen, . Sulphur, Oxygen, . 63-32 7-29 15-7 1-3 22-39 Its Formula being S» N^' C"" H'« 0««. Albumen coagulates by heat, as is illustrated in the boihng of an egg. The salts of tin, bismuth, lead, silver, and mercury form with albumen white msoluble precipitates ; therefore, in cases of poisonmg by corrosive sub- limate, nitrate of silver, or sugar of lead, the white of egg is the best antidote which can be administered. Albumen is employed in Photography, wliich see. We imported the following quantities of albumen :— in 1855, 275 cwts. ; in 1856 382 cwts. ' * ALCOHOL, (^/coo;, Fr. ; Alkokol, or Weingeist, Germ.) The word alcohol is de- rived from the Hebrew word '' kohol» Jjns to paint. The oriental females were and are still m the habit of painting the eyebrows witii various pigments; the one generally em- ployed was a preparation of antimony, and to this the term was generally applied. It became, however, gradually extended to all substances used for tiie purpose, and ultunately to strong spirits, which were employed, probably as solvents for certain colormg principled The term was subsequently exclusively used to designate ardent spuits, and ultimately the radical or pnnciple upon which their strength depends. As chemistry advanced, alcohol was found to be a member only of a class of bodies agreeing with it m general characters ; and hence the term is now generic, and we speak of the various a/coAo^5 Of these, common or vmous alcohol is the best known; andT in common life, by "alcoholic liquors," we invariably mean those contaming the origin^ or vmous alcohol. ^ *&"«" «* nuJ^^^ !?-® charactere of ordinary alcohol have been stated, aUusion will be made to he class of bodies of which this is the type. sis ixTTaf ^ftpr^fllTu ^'"''k ^^1 *^^ most remote ages of antiquity. We read (Gene- drunken. Homer, who certainly lived 900 years before the Christian era, also frequentiy mentions wine, and notices its efiects on the body and mmd (Odyssey IX iid XXL^ ^d Herodotus tells us that the Egyptians drank a liquor fermented ftZ btl^y Sl'e^ When fermented hquors were submitted to distiUation, so as to obtain " ardent^iH^^X shrouded in much obscurity Raymond Lully* was acqliainted with " spirits of Wi^'^hitS SL'^^ff .7"t "^'^r- The separation of absolute" alcohol would Tppear t^h^Ve^ first effected about this period 1300), by Amauld de Villeneuve, a celebrated nhvsS Stu^ufct" ^°'^ ((^erhardtl and its analysis was first ' perfonuSby'^^^^^^^ The preparation of alcohol may be divided into three stages •— 1. The production of a fermented vinous liquor— the Fenneitation. 2. The preparation from this of an ardent spirit— tiie Distillation 3. The separation from this ardent spirit of the last traces of water-the Rectification 1. Fermentalton The term "fermentation" is now appUed to Aose mvsteiTiis changes which vegetable (and animal) substances midei^o when exposed TaceSTcT perature to contact with organic or even organized bodils in a stateTcha^ge. There are severa bodies which suffer these metamorphoses, and under the influence of a great number of different exciting substances, which are tenied the "feme^ " mo^ over, .he resulting products depend greatly upon the temperature at which the chm^e^^ o« t?o ^ -^""^'' ''TT ,^"^>'' '*"^^^ ^^ *^^^^ processes is the one commonly reco-nized as the vinous or alcoholic fci-mentation. ^wmmuui;^ rixogmzea In this process solutions containing ^w^rar— either the juice of the erape fsee Winf^ or an infusion of germinated barley, malt, (see BEER)-are Lxed witiia^iSbirqukititv of '^t:^^^^^:^^ Tpt t^ir'^ -' *^^ whJreSreS yJ^X^^n^^TX^^^T^^^^ '''^' the same .suit as the ,ih, Jili^^f'^ swells up, a considerable quantity of froth collects on the surface and an abundance of gas is disengaged, which is ordinary carbonic acid (CO') The cSp^sition of (pure) alcohol is expressed by the formula C* W 0^ and it is produced in Sp^^ • Thomson's History of Chemistry, i 41. (1880.) t Annales de Chimie, xliL 223L 28 ALCOHOL. by the breaking up of an equivalent of grape sugar^ C* H" 0", into 4 equiyalents of alco- hol, 8 of carbonic acid, and 4 of water — C-* H^" 0" CH^^O" = 4 (C* H» C) Q80 0« c« =4 HO 0" = 8 CO' It is invariably the grape sugar which undergoes this change ; if the solution contains cane sugar, the cane sugar is first converted into grape sugar under the influence of the ferment. See Sugar. Much diversity of opinion exists with respect to the oflSce which the ferment performs in this process, since it does not itself yield any of the products. See Fermentation. The liquid obtained by the vinous fermentation has received different names, according to the source whence the saccharine solution was derived. When procured from the ex- pressed juice of fruits — such as grapes, currants, gooseberries, &c. — the product is denomi- nated wine ; from a decoction of malt, ale or beer ; from a mixture of honey and water, mead ; from apples, cider ; from the leaves and small branches of the spruce-fir {ahies ezceUtty &c.), together with sugar or treacle, spruce ; from rice, rice beer (which yields the spirit arrack); from cocoa-nut juice, palm voine. It is an interesting fact that alcohol is produced in very considerable quantities (in the aggregate) during the raising of bread. The carbonic acid which is generated in the dough, and which during its expulsion raises the bread, is one of the products of the fermentation of the sugar in the flour, under the influence of the yeast added ; and of course at the same time the complementary product, alcohol, is generated. As Messrs. Ronalds and Richardson remark:* ** The enormous amount of bread that is baked in large towns — in London, for instance, 8.8 millions of cwts. yearly — would render the small amount of alcohol contained in it of sufficient importance to be worth collecting, provided this could be done sufficiently cheaply." In London it has been estimated that in this way about 300,000 gallons of spirits arc annually lost ; but the cost of collecting it would far exceed its value. 2. Distillation. By the process of distillation ^ ardent spirits are obtained, which have likewise received different names according to the sources whence the fermented liquor has been derived : viz. that produced by the distillation of wine being called brandy, and in France cognac, or eau de vie ; that produced by the distillation of the fermented liquor from sugar and molasses, rum. There are several varieties of spirits made from the fer- mented liquor procured from the cereals (and especially barley), known according to their peculiar methods of manufacture, flavor, &c. — as whiskey, gin, Hollands — the various compounds and liqueurs. In India, the spirit obtained from a fermented infusion of rice is called arrack. 3. Rectification ; preparation of absolute alcohol. It is impossible by distillation alone to deprive spirit of the whole of the water and other impurities — to obtain, in fact, pure or absolute alcohol. This is effected by mixing with the liquid obtained after one or two distillations, certain bodies which have a powerful attraction for water. The agents commonly employed for this purpose are quicklime, carbonate of potash, anhydrous sulphate of copper, or chloride of calcium. Perhaps the best adapted for the purpose, especially where large quantities are required, is quicklime ; it is powdered, mixed in the retort with the spirit (previously twice distilled), and the neck of the retort being securely closed, the whole left for 24 hours, occasionally shaking ; during this period the lime combines with the water, and then on carefully distilling, avoiding to continue the process until the last portions come over, an alcohol is obtained which is free from water. If not quite free, the same process may be again repeated. In experiments on a small scale, an ordinary glass retort may be employed, heated by a water-bath, and fitted to a Liebig's condenser cooled by ice-water, which passes lastly into a glass receiver, similarly cooled. Although alcohol of sufficient purity for most practical purposes can be readily ob- tained, yet the task of procuring absolute alcohol entirely free from a trace of water, is by no means an easy one. Mr. Drinkwaterf effected this by digestmg ordinary alcohol of specific gravity .850 at eO'' F. for 24 hours with carbonate of potash previously exposed to a red heat ; the alcohol was then carefully poured off and mixed in a retort with as much fresh-burnt quicklime as was sufficient to absorb the whole of the alcohol ; after digesting for 48 hours, it was slowly * Chemical Technology, hv Dr. F. Knapp : edited by Messrs. Konalds and Eichardson. Vol. iii. 198. t On the Preparation of Absolute Alcohol, and the Composition of Proof Spirit. See Memoirs of the Chemical Society, vol. iiL p. 447. ALCOHOL. 29 distilled in a water-bath at a temperature of about 180" F. This alcohol was carefully re- distilled, and its specific gravity at 60° F. found to be "7947, which closely agrees with that given by Gay-Lussac as tlie specific gravity of absolute alcohol. He found, moreover, that recently ignited anhydrous sulphate of copper was a less efficient dehydrating agent than quicklime. Graham recommends that the quantity of lime employed should never exceed three times the weight of the alcohol. Chloride of calcium is not so well adapted for the purification of alcohol, since the alcohol forms a compound with this salt. Many other processes have been suggested for depriving alcohol of its water. A curious process was proposed many years ago by Soemmering,* which is dependent upon the peculiar fact, that whilst water moistens animal tissues, alcohol does not, but tends rather to abstract water from them. If a mixture of alcohol and water be enclosed in an ox bladder, the water gradually traverses the membrane and evaporates, whilst the alcohol does not, and consequently by the loss of water the spirituous solution becomes con- centrated. This process, though an interesting illustration of exosmose, is not practically applicable to the production of anhydrous alcohol ; it is, however, an economical method, and well suited for obtaining alcohol for the preparation of varnishes. Smugglers, who bring spirits into France in bladders hid about their persons, have long known, that although the liquor decreased in bulk, yet it increased in strength ; hence the people preferred the article con- veyed clandestinely. Prof. Graham has ingeniously proposed to concentrate alcohol as follows : " A large shallow basin is covered, to a small depth, with recently burnt quicklime, in coarse powder, and a smaller basin, containing three or four ounces of commercial alcohol, is made to rest upon the lime ; the whole is placed under the low receiver of an air-pump, and the exhaustion continued till the alcohol evinces signs of ebullition. Of the mingled vapors of alcohol and water which now fill the receiver, the quicklime is capable of uniting with the aqueous only, which is therefore rapidly withdrawn, while the alcohol vapor is un- affected ; and as water cannot remain in the alcohol as long as the superincumbent atmos- phere is devoid of moisture, more aqueous vapor rises, which is likewise abstracted by the limo, and thus the process goes on till the whole of the water in the alcohol is removed. Several days are always required for this purpose. Properties of Alcohol. — Absolute. In the state of purity, alcohol is a colorless liquid, highly inflammable, burning with a pale blue flame, very volatile, and having a density of 0-792 at 15'6° C. (60° F.) (Drink- water.) It boils at 78-4° C. (173° F.) It has never yet beeu solidified, and the density of its. vapor is 1*6133. Anhydrous alcohol is composed by weight of 52-18 carbon, 13*04 hydrogen, and 34*78 of oxygen. It has for its symbol C* fl° 0^ = C* H" -f- HO, or hydrated oxide of ethyle. It has a powerful affinity for water, removing the water from moist substances with which it is brought in contact. In consequence of this property, it attracts water from the air, and rapidly becomes weaker, imless kept in very well-stopped vessels. In virtue of its attraction for water, alcohol i^ery valuable for the preservation of organic substances, and especially of anatomical preparations, in consequence of its causing the coagulation of albuminous substances ; and for the same reason it causes death when injected into the veins. When mixed with water a considerable amount of heat is evolved, and a remarkable contraction of volume is observed ; these effects being greatest with 54 per cent, of alco- hol and 46 of water, and thence decreasing with a greater proportion of water. For alco- hol yfhich contains 90 per cent, of water, this condensation amounts to 1 *94 per cent, of the volume ; for 80 per cent, 2*87 ; for 70 per cent., 3*44 ; for 60 per cent., 3*73 ; for 40 per cent., 3*44 ; for 30 per cent., 2*72 ; for 20 per cent., 1*72 ; for 10 per cent., 0*72. Alcohol is prepared absolute for certain purposes, but the mixtures of alcohol and water commonly met with in commerce are of an inferior strength. Those commonly sold are "Rectified Spirit," and "Proof Spirit." "Proof Spirit" is defined by Act of Parliament, 58 Geo. HI. c. 28, to be "such as shall, at the temperature of fifty-one degrees of Fahrenheit's thermometer, weigh exactly twelve-thirteenth parts of an equal measure of distilled water." And by very careful experi- ment, Mr. Drinkwater has determined that this proof spirit has the following composition : — Alcohol and Water. Specific Gravity at CO* F. Bnlk of the mixture of 100 measures of Alcohol, and 81 52 of Water. - By weight By measure. Alcohol Water, 100 + 103*09 49-100 4- 50*76 1 Alcohol. Water. 100 + 81-82 •919. 175-25 * Soemmering. "Dentschriftcn d. K. Akad. d. TVlssenchaften za Munschen," 1711 to 1S24. 1); 80 ALCOHOL. Spirit which is weaker is called "under proof;" and that stronger, "above proof." The origin of these terms is as follows : — Formerly a very rude mode of ascertaining the strength of spirits was practised, called the "proof; the spirit was poured upon gunpowder and inflamed. If, at the end of the combustion, the gunpowder took fire, the spirit was said to be above or over proof. But if the spirit contained much water, the powder was rendered so moist that it did not take fire : in which case the spirit was said to be under or below proof. Rectified spirit contains from 54 to 64 per cent, of absolute alcohol ; and its specific gravity is fixed by the London and Edinburgh Colleges of Physicians at 0-838, whilst the DubUn College fixes it at 0.840. In commerce the strength of mixtures of alcohol and water is stated at so many degrees, according to Sykes's hydrometer, above or below proof. This instrument will be explained under the head of Alcoholometrt. As will have been understood by the preceding remarks, the specific gravity or density of mixtures of alcohol and water rises with the diminution of the quantity of alcohol present ; or, in other words, with the amount of water. And since the strength of spirits is deter- mined by ascertaining their density, it becomes highly important to determine the precise ratio of this increase. This increase in density, with the amount of water, or diminution with the quantity of alcohol, is, however, not directly proportional, in consequence of the contraction of volume which mixtures of alcohol and water suflTer. It therefore became necessary to determine the density of mixtures of known composi- tion, prepared artificially. This has been done recently with great care by Mr. Drink- water ;* and the following table by him is recommended as one of the most accurate : Table of the Quantity of Alcohol, by weight, contained in Mixtures of Ahohol and Water of the following Specific Gravities : — * ^lemoirs of the Chemical Society, vol. iiL p. 454. Specific Gravity at 60* F. Alcohol, per cent by weight Specific Gravity at 60* F. Alcohol, per cent by weight Specific Gravity at 60' F. Alcohol, a per i f cent by , weight. ^^ pecific irravity ,60'F. Alcohol, per cent, by weight Specific Gravity at 60* F. Alcohol, per cent by 1 weight 1-0000 0^00 •9967 1^78 •9934 3-67 9901 5-70 •9869 7-85 •9999 0^05 •9966 1^83 •9933 3-73 9900 5^77 •9868 7^92 •9998 Oil •9965 1-89 •9932 3-78 9899 6^83 •9867 7-99 •9997 0-16 •9964 1^94 •9931 3-84 9898 5-89 •9866 8-06 •9996 0-21 •9963 1-99 •9930 3^90. • 9897 5-96 •9865 8^13 •9995 0-26 •9962 2^05 •9929 3^96 9896 6-02 •9864 8^20 •9994 0-32 •9961 211 •9928 4-02 •9895 6-09 •9863 8-27 •9993 0^37 •9960 2^17 •9927 4-08- •9894 6-15 •9662 8^34 •9992 0-42 •9959 2-22 •9926 4^14 •9893 6-22 •9861 8-41 •9991 0^47 •9958 2-28 •9925 4-20 •9892 6-29 •9860 8-48 •9990 0-53 •9957 2-34 •9924 4^27 ■9891 6-35 •9859 8-55 •9989 0^58 •9956 2^39 •9923 4-33 •98» 6-42 •9858 8-62 •9988 0-G4 •9955 2-45 •9922 4-39 •9889 6^49 •9857 8^70 •9987 009 •9954 2^51 •9921 4-45 •9888 6*55 •9856 8^77 •9986 0-74 •9953 2-57 •9920 4^51 •9887 6-62 •9855 8-84 •9985 0^80 •9952 2-62 •9919 4^57 9886 6-69 •9854 8^91 •9984 0^85 •9951 2-68 •9918 4-64 9885 6-75 •9853 8^98 •9983 0^91 •9950 2-74 •9917 4-70 •9884 6-82 •9852 9-05 •9982 0-96 •9949 2^79 •9916 4^76 •9883 6^89 •9851 9-12 •9981 1-02 -9948 2-85 •9915 4-82 •9882 6-95 •9850 9-20 •9980 1-07 •9947 2-91 •9914 4-88 •9881 7-02 •9849 9-27 •9979 112 •9946 2-97 •9913 4^94 •9880 7-09 •9848 9-34 •9978 1^18 •9945 3-02 •9912 5-01 •9879 716 •9847 9-41 •9977 1-23 •9944 3^08 •9911 5-07 •9878 7^23 •9846 9-49 •9976 1^29 •9943 3-14 •9910 5-13 •9877 7-30 •9845 9^56 •9975 1-34 •9942 3-20 •9909 5-20 •9876 7-37 •9844 9^63 •9974 1^40 •9941 3-26 •9908 5-26 •9875 7-43 •9843 9^70 •9973 1^45 •9940 3-32 •9907 6-32 •9874 7^50 •9842 9-78 •9972 rsi •9939 3-37 •9906 5-39 •9873 7-57 •9841 9^85 •9971 1^56 •9938 3-43 •9905 5^45 •9872 7-64 •9840 9^92 •9970 1-61 •9937 3-49 •9904 5^51 9871 7-71 •9839 9-99 •9909 1-C)7 •9936 3-55 •9903 6-58 9870 7^78 •9838 10^07 •?9C8 1 ..> 1 i -9935 3-61 i •9902 5-64 • 1 I ALCOHOL. ai The preceding table, though very accurate so far as it goes, is not sufficiently extensive for practical purposes, only going, in fact, from 6 to 10 per cent, of alcohol ; the table of Tralle's (below) extends to 50 per cent of absolute alcohol. Moreover, Drinkwater's table has the (practical) disadvantage (though scientifically more correct and useful) of stating the percentage by weight ; whereas, in Tralle's table, it is given by volume. And since liquors are vended by measure, and not by weight, the centesimal amount by volume is usually preferred. But as the bulk of liquids generally, and par- ticularly that of alcohol, is increased by heat, it is necessary that the statement of the den- sity in a certain volume should have reference to some normal temperature. In the construction of Tralle's table the temperature of the liquids was 60° F. ; and, of course, in using it, it is necessary that the density should be observed at that temperature. In order to convert the statement of the composition by volume into the content by weight, it is only necessary to multiply the percentage of alcohol by volume by the specific gravity of absolute alcohol, and then divide by the specific gravity of the liquid. Tralle's Table of the Composition, by volume, of Mixtures of Alcohol and Water of different Densities. Per- centage of Specific Differ- ence of Per- centage Specific Differ- ence of Per-' centage of Alcohol by volume. Specific Differ- ence of Alcohol by Gravitv at 00' P. the spe- cific gra- Alcohol by volamo. Gravity at 60' F. the spe- cific gra- Gravity at 60' F. the spe- cific prar volume. vities. vities. vities. 0-9991 34 0^9596 13 68 0-8941 24 1 . 0-9976 15 35 0^9583 13 69 0-8917 24 2 0-9961 15 86 ©•9570 13 70 0-8892 25 8 0-9947 14 37 0-9556 14 71 0-8867 25 4 0-9933 14 88 ©•9541 15 72 0-8842 ! 25 6 0-9919 14 89 0-9526 15 73 0-8817 25 6 0-9906 • 13 40 0-9510 16 74 0-8791 26 7 0-9893 13 41 0-9494 16 75 0-8765 26 8 0-9881 12 42 0^9478 16 76 0-8739 26 9 0-9869 12 43 0^9461 17 77 0-8712 27 10 ©•9857 12 44 0-9444 17 78 0-8685 27 11 0-9845 12 45 0-9427 17 79 0-8658 27 12 0-9834 11 46 0-9409 18 80 0-8631 27 13 0-9823 11 47 0-9391 18 81 0-8603 23 14 0-9812 11 48 0*9373 18 82 . 0-8575 23 15 0-9802 10 49 0-9354 19 83 0-8547 23 16 0-9791 11 50 0-9335 19 84 0-8518 29 17 0-9781 10 51 0^9315 20 85 0-8488 80 18 0-9771 10 52 0-9295 20 86 0-8458 30 19 0-9761 10 53 0^9275 20 87 0-8428 30 20 0-9751 10 54 0-9254 21 88 0-8397 31 21 0^9741 10 55 0-9234 20 89 0-8365 32 22 0-9731 10 56 0-9213 21 90 0-8332 33 23 0-9720 11 57 ©•9192 21 91 0-8299 33 24 0-9710 10 58 0-9170 22 92 0-8265 34 25 0-9700 10 69 0^9148 22 93 0-8230 35 26 0-9689 11 60 0-9126 22 94 0-8194 86 27 0^9679 10 61 0-9104 22 95 0-8157 37 28 0^9668 11 62 0-9082 22 96 0-8118 89 29 0^9657 11 63 0^9059 23 97 0-8077 41 30 0^9646 11 64 0^9036 23 98 0-8034 43 31 0^9634 12 65 0-9013 23 99 0-7988 46 32 0^9622 12 66 0-8989 24 100 0-7989 49 83 0^9609 13 67 0-8965 24 1 1 In order, however, to employ .this table for ascertaining the strength of mixtures of alcohol and water of different densities (which is the practical use of sUch tables), it is absolutely necessary that the determination of the density should be performed at an inva- riable temperature,— viz. 60° F. The methods of determining the density will be hereafter described ; but it is obvious that practically the experiment cannot be conveniently made at any fixed temperature, but must be performed at that of the atmosphere. f i 32 ALCOHOL. The boiling point of mixtures of alcohol and water likewise differs with the stength of ^'''' A^coJding to Gay-Lussac, absolute alcohol boils at '78-4° C (ITSj F.) under a pressure of •760 millimetres {the millimetre being 0-03937 English inches) When mixed with water, of course its boiling point rises in proportion to the quantity of water present as is the case in general with mixtures of two fluids of greater and less volatihty. A mixture of alcohol and water, however, presents this anomaly, according to Soemmering: when the mixture contains less than six per cent, of alcohol, those portions which first pass off are saturated with water, and the alcohoUc solution in the retort becomes richer, till absolute alcohol passes over ; but when the mixture contains more than six per cent, of water, the boi ing point rises, and the quantity of alcohol in the distiUate steadily diminishes as the distillation ^"^ According' to Groning's researches, the following temperatures of the alcoholic vapors correspond to the accompanying contents of alcohol in percentage of volume which are disengaged in the boiling of the spirituous liquid. Alcoholic con- Alcoholic con- Alcoholic con- Alcoholic con- Temperature. tent of the vapor. tent of the boiling liquid. Temperature. tent of the vapor. tent of the boiling liquid. Fahr. 170-0 93 92 Fahr. 189-8 71 20 171-8 92 90 192-0 68 18 172 91 85 164 66 15 172-8 90i 80 196-4 61 12 174 90 70 198-6 55 10 174-6 89 70 201 50 n 176 87 65 203 42 5 178-3 85 50 205-4 86 3 180-8 82 40 207-7 28 2 183 80 35 210 18 1 185 78 80 212 . 187-4 76 25 - Grunin'' undertook this investigation in order to employ the thermometer as an alcoho- lometer inlhe distillation of spirits ; for which purpose he thrust the bulb of the thermom- etS- thriucJh a cork inserted into a tube fixed in the capital of the sUll. The state of the barometer °oucht also to be considered in making comparative experiments of this kind. Since bv this method, the alcoholic content may be compared with the temperature ot the vLpor that passes over at any time, so, also, the contents of the whole distillation may be found approximately; and the method serves as a convement means of making continual oh<5prvationa on the proeress of the distillation. . „,«« DeSofthe r««or.-One volume of alcohol yields 488-3 volumes of vapor at 212° F The specific gravity of the vapor, taking air as unity, was found by Gay-Lussac to be 1-6133 Fits vapor-density, referred to hydrogen, as unity, is 13-3605?] Spirituous vapor passed through an ignited tube of glass or porcelain is converted into carbonic oxide, water, hydrogen, carburetted hydrogen, olefiant gas, naphthaline, empyreu- SaSc oil an^^^^ carboi ; according to the degree of heat and nature of the tube, these nroducts varv Anhydrous alcohol is a non-conductor of electricity, but is decomposed by a^werful voltaic battery. Alcohol burns in the air with a blue flame into carbomc acid and^waler • the water being heavier than the spirit, because 46 parts of alcohol contain 6 of hydro-en, which form 54 of water. In oxygen the combustion is accompanied with ^at heat! a^id this flame, directed through a smaU tube, powerfully ignites bodies exposed ^ ^Platinum in a finely divided state has the property of determining the combination of alcohol with the oxygen of the air in a remarkable manner. A ball of spongy platinum, placed slightly above the wick of a lamp, fed by spirit, and communicating with the wick by a platinum wire, when once heated, keeps at a red heat, gradually burning the spirit. This h.4 been applied in the construction of the so-called "philosophical pastilles; eau-de- colo"-ne or other perfumed spirit being thus made to diffuse itself in a room. Mr. GUI has also practically applied this in the construction of an alcohol lamp without ^^"a* coil of platinum wire, of about the one-hundreth part of an inch in thickness is coiled partly round the cotton wick of a spirit lamp, and partly above it, and the lamp lighted to heat the wire to redness ; on the flame being extinguished, the alcohol vapor keeps the wire red hot for any length of time, so as to be in constant readiness to igmte a match, for example. This lamp affords sufficient light to show the hour by a watch m the night, with a very small consumption of spirit. ALCOHOL. 33 This property of condensing oxygen, and thus causing the union of it with combustible bodies, is not confined to platinum, but is possessed, though in a less degree, by other porous bodies. If we moisten sand in a capsule with absolute alcohol, and cover it with previously heated nickel powder, protoxide of nickle, cobalt powder, protoxide of cobalt, protoxide of uranium, or oxide of tin (these six bodies being procured by ignition of their oxalates in a crucible), or finely powdered peroxide of manganese, combustion takes place, and continues so long as the spirituous vapor lasts. Solvent Potoer.— -One of the properties of alcohol most valuable in the arts b its solvent power. It dissolves gases to a very considerable extent, which gases, if they do not enter into com- binations with the alcohol, or act chemically upon it, are expelled again on boiling the alcohoL Several salts, especially the deliquescent, are dissolved by it, and some of them give a color to its flame ; thus the solutions of the salts of strontia in alcohol bum with a crimson flame^ those of copper and borax with a greeti one, lime a reddish^ and baryta with a yellow flame. This solvent power is, however, most remark^le in its action upon resins, ethers, essen- tial oils, fatty bodies, dlkaloids, as well as many organic acids. In a similar way it dissolves iodine, bromine, and in small quantities sulphur and phosphorus. In general it may be said to be an excellent solvent for most hydrogenized organic substances. In consequence of this property it is most extensively used in the chemical arts ; e. g. for the solution of gum-resins, &c., in the manufacture of varnishes ; in pharmacy, for the separating of the active principles of plants, in the preparation of tinctures. It is also em- ployed in the formation of chloroform, ether, spirits of nitre, &c. Methylated Spirit. — It was, therefore, for a long time a great desideratum for the manufacturer to obtain spirit free from duty. The Government, feeling the necessity for this, have sanctioned the sale of spirit which has been flavored with methyl-alcohol, so as to render it unpalatable, free of duty under the name of " methylated spirit:' This methylated spirit can now be obtained, in large quantities only, and by giving suitable security to the Board of Inland Revenue of its employment for manufacturing purposes only, and must prove of great value to those manufacturers who are large consumers. Professors Graham, Hoffmann, and Redwood, in their " Report on the Supply of Spirit of Wine, free of duty, for use in the Arts and Manufactures," addressed to the Chamnan of the Board of Inland Revenue, came to the following conclusions : — " From the results of this inquiry, it has appeared that means exist by which spirit of wine, produced in the usual way, may be rendered unfit for human consumption, as a beverage, without materially impairing it for the greater number of the more valuable pur- poses in the arts to which spirit is usually applied. To spirit of wine, of not less strength than corresponds to density 0-830, it is proposed to make an addition of 10 per cent of purified wood naphtha {wood or methylic spirit\ and to issue this mixed spirit for consump- tion, duty free, under the name of Methylated Spirit. It has been shown that methylated spirit resists any process for its purification ; the removal of the substance added to the spirit of wine being not only difficult, bat, to all appearance, impossible ; and further, that no danger is to be apprehended of the methylated spirit being ever compounded so as to make it palatable. . . It may be found safe to reduce eventually the proportion of the mixing ingredient to 5 per cent., or even a smaller proportion, although it has been recommended to begin with the larger proportion of 10 per cent." And further, the authors justly remark : — " The command of alcohol at a low price is sure to suggest a multitude of improved processes, and of novel applications, which can scarcely be anticipated at the present moment. It will be felt far beyond the limited range of the trades now more immediately concerned in the consumption of spirits ; like the repeal of the duty on salt, it will at once most vitally affect the chemical arts, and cannot fail, ultimately, to exert a beneficial influence upon many branches of industry." And in additional observations, added subsequently to their original report, the chem- ists above named recommend the following restriction upon the sale of the methylated spirit : — " That the methylated spirit should be issued by agents duly authorized by the Board of Inland Revenue, to none but manufacturers, who should themselves consume it ; and that application should always be made for it according to a recognized form, in which^ besides the quantity wanted, the applicant should state the use to which it is to be applied^ and undertake that it should be applied for that purpose only. The manufacturer might be permitted to retail varnishes and other products containing the methylated spirit, but not the methylated spirit itself, in an unaltered state." They recommend that the methylated spirit should not be made with the ordinary crude, very impure wood naphtha, sinc^ this could not be advantageously used as a solvent for resins by hatters and varnish-makers, as the less volatile parts of the naphtha would be retained by the resins after the spirit had evaporated, and the quality of the resin would be thus impaired. If, however, the methy- lated spirit be* originally prepared with the crude wood naphtha, it may be purified by a shnple distillation from 10 per cent, of potash. Vol. III.— 3 I* 84 ALOOHOLOMETRY. It appears that the boon thus aflforded to the manufacturing community of obtaining spirit duty free has been acknowledged and appreciated ; and now for most purposes, where the small quantity of wood-spirit does not interfere, the methylated spirit is generally used. It appears that even ether and chloroform, which one would expect to derive an un- pleasant flavor from the wood-spirit, are now made of a quality quite unobjectionable from the methylated spirit ; but care should be taken, especially in the preparation of medicinal compounds, not to extend the employment of the methylated spirit beyond its justifiable limits, lest so useful an article shoijd get into disrepute.* Methylated spirit can be pro- cured abo in small quantities from the wholesale deajers, containing in solution 1 oz. to the gallon of shellac, under the name of " finish." Aleoholates. — Graham has shown that alcohol forms crystallizablc compounds with several salts. These bodies, which he calls " Aleoholates^''^ are in general rather unstable combinations, and almost always decomposed by water. Among the best known are the following : — Alcobolate of chloride of calciumf " " of zinc " bichloride of tin ** nitrate of magnesia 2 C«H«0«, Ca Gl C*H«0», Za CI C*H«0«, Tn CI 3 C*H«0», Mg 0, NO. ALOOHOLOMETRY, or ALC05METRY. Determination of the Strength of Mixtures of Alcohol and Water. Since the commercial value of the alcoholic liquors, commonly called " spirits," is determined by the amount of pure or absolute alcohol present in them, it is evident that a ready and accurate means of determining this point is of the highest importance to all persons engaged in trade in such articles. If the mixture contain nothing but alcohol and water, it is only necessary to determine the density or specific gravity of such a mixture ; if, however, it contain saccharine matters, coloring principles, &c., as is the case with wine, beer, &c., other processes become neces- sary, which will be fully discussed hereafter. The determination of the specific gravity of spirit, as of most other liquids, may be eflFected, with perhaps greater accuracy than by any other process, by means of a stoppered specific gravity bottle. If the bottle be of such a size as exactly to hold 1,000 grains of distilled water at 60° F., it is only necessary to weigh it full of the spirit at the same tem- perature, when (the weight of the bottle being known) the specific gravity is obtained by a very simple calculation. See Specific Gravity. This process, though very accurate, is somewhat troublesome, especially to persons unaccustomed to accurate chemical experiments, and it involves the possession of a delicate balance. The necessity for this is however obviated bv the employment of one of the many modifications of the common hydrometer. This is a floating instnunent, the use of which depends upon the principle, that a solid body immersed into a fluid is buoyed upwards with a force equal to the weight of the fluid which it displaces, «. e. to its own bulk of the fluid ; consequently, the denser the spirituous mixture, or the less alcohol it contains, the higher will the instrument stand in the liquid ; and the less dense, or the more spirit it contains, the lower will the apparatus sink into it. There are two classes of hydrometers : 1st. Those which are always immersed in the fluid to the same depth, and to which weights are added to adjust the instrument to the density of any particular fluid. Of this kind are Fahrenheit's, Nicholson's, and Guyton de Morveau's hydrometers. 2d. Those which are always used with the same weight, but which sink into the liquids to be tried, to different depths, according to the density of the fluid. Of this class are most of the common glass hydrometers, such as Beaume's, Curteis's, Gay-Lussac's, Twaddle's, &c. Sykes's and Dicas's combine both principles. See Hydrometers. Sykes's hydrometer, or alcoholometer, is the one employed by the Board of Excise, and therefore the one most extensively used in this country. This instrument does not immediately indicate the density or the percentage of absolute alcohol, hut the degree above or below proof— the meaning of which has been before detailed ; (p. 30.) It consists of a spherical ball or float, rt, with an upper and lower stem of brass, b and c. The upper stem is graduated into ten principal divisions, which are each subdivided into five parts. The lower stem, average 6*87 < 6*20 Malaga - - * - • 18-94 Ale, Dorchester ) (5-65 Bucellas . 18-49 Brown Stout 6-80 Cape Madeira average 5 20-51 London Porter - average 4*20 Roussillon li 19.00 London Small Beer - " 1-28 Claret - ti 1510 Sauterne i( 14-22 Brandy - " 53-39 Burgundy i( 14-57 Rum - " 53-68" Hock - t( 12 08 Gin - • . - - '* 57-60 Tent - t( 13-30 Scotch Whiskey - " 54-32 Champagne - i( 12-61 Irish Whiskey - - " 53-90 Gooseberry - t( 11-84 The following results were obtained by the writer more recently by this process, (1854.) Percentage of Alcohol by Volume. Port (1834) - Sherry (Montilla) Madeira Claret (Haut Brion) Chambertin Sherry (low quality) Sherry (brown) Anioutillado - Mansanilla 22-46 19-96 22-40 100 11-7 20-7 23-1 20-6 14.4 Port (best) Marcobrunner Champagne (1st) Champagne (2d) Home Ale Export Ale Strong Ale Stout Porter 20-2 8-3 12-12 10-85 6-4 6-4 90 5-7 4-18 M. TAbbe Brossard-Yidal, of Toulonf , has proposed to estimate the strength of alcoholic liquors by determining their boiling point. Since water boils at 100° C. (212° F.), and absolute alcohol at 78-4° (173° F.), it is evident that a mixture of water and alcohol will have a higher boiling point the larger the quantity of water present in it. This method is even applicable to mixtures containing other bodies in solution besides spirit and water, since it has been shown that sugar and salts, when present, (in moderate quantities,) have only a very trifling effect in raising the boiling point ; and the process has the great advan- tage of facility and rapidity of execution, though, of course, not comparable to the method by distillation, for accuracy. Mr. Field's patent (1847) alcoholometer is likewise founded upon the same principle. The instrument was subsequently improved by Dr. Ure. The apparatus consists simply of a spirit-lamp placed under a little boiler containing the alcoholic liquor, into which fits a thermometer of very fine bore. When the liquor is stronger than proof-spirit, the variation in the boiling point is so small that an accurate result cannot possibly be obtained ; and, in fact, spirit approaching this strength should be diluted with an equal volume of water before submitting it to ebulli- tion, and then the result doubled. Another source of error is the elevation of the boiling point, when the liquor is kept heated for any length of time ; it is, however, nearly obviated by the addition of common salt to the solution in the boiler of the apparatus, in the proportion of 35 or 40 grains. In order to correct the difference arising from higher or lower pressure of the atmosphere, the scale on which the thermometric and other divisions are marked is made movable up and * Brande'a Manual of Chemistry ; also Philosophical Trans., 1811. t Comptes Bondus, xzviL 874 ALCOHOLOMETRY. m n»r M._ 70 fin a SU i down the thermometer tube ; and every time, before commencing a set of experiments, a preliminary experiment is made of boiling some pure distilled water in the apparatus, and the zero point on the scale (which indicates the boiling point of water)* is adjusted at the level of the surface of the mercury. But even when performed with the utmost care, this process is still liable to very considerable errors, for it is extremely diflScult to observe the boiling point to within a degree ; and after all, the fixed ingredients present undoubtedly do seriously raise the boil- • ing point of the mixture — ^in fact, to the extent of from half to a whole degree, according to the amount present. Silbermann's Method. — M. Silbermann* has proposed another method of estimating the strength of alcoholic liquors, based upon their expansion by heat It is well known that, between zero and 100° C. (212° F.), the dilatation of alcohol is triple that of water, and this difference of expansion is even greater between 25° C. ft (77° F.) and 50° 0. (122° F.) ; it is evident, therefore, that the expansion between these two temperatures becomes a measure of the amount of al- cohol present in any mixture. The presence of salts and organic sub- stances, such as sugar, coloring, and extractive matters, in solution or suspension in the liquid, is said not materially to affect the accuracy of the result ; and M. Silbermann has devised an apparatus for applying this principle, in a ready and expeditious manner, to the estimation of the strength of alcoholic liquors. The instrument may be obtained of the philosophical instrument-makers of London and of Liverpool It consists of a brass plate, on which are fixed — 1st, An ordinary mer- 'curial thermometer graduated from 22° to 50° C. (77° to 122° F.), these being the working temperatures of the dilatatometer ; and 2dly, the dilatatometer itself, which consists of a glass pipette, open at both ends, and of the shape shown in the figure. A valve of cork or india-rubber closes the tapering end, a, which valve is attached to a rod, b 6, fastened to the supporting plate, and connected with a spring, w, by which the lower orifice of the pipette can be opened or closed at will. The pipette is filled, exactly up to the zero point, with the mixture to be examined — this being accomplished by the aid of a piston working tightly in the long and wide limb of the pipette ; the action of which serves also another valuable purpose, viz., that of drawing any bubbles of air out of the liquid. By now observing the dilatation of the colunm of liquid when the temperature of the whole apparatus is rabed, by immersion in a water-bath, from 25° to 50°, the coefficient of expansion of the liquid is obtained, and hence the proportion of alcohol — ^the instrument being, in fact, so graduated, by experiments previously made upon mixtures of known composition, as to give at once the percentage of alcohol. Another alcoholometer, which, like the former, is more remarkable for the great facility and expedition with which approximative results can be obtained than for a high degree of accuracy, was invented by M. Geisler, of Bonn, and depends upon the measurement of the tension of the vapor of the liquid, as indicated by the height to which it raises a column of mercury. Geisler' a Alcoholometer. — ^It consists of a closed vessel in which the alco- holic mixture is raised to the boiling point, and the tension of the vapor ob- served by the depression of a column of mercury in one limb of a tube, the indication being rendered more manifest by the elevation of the other end of the column. The wine or other liquor of which it is desired to ascertain the strength, is put into the little flask, f, which, when completely filled, is screwed on to the glass which contains mercury, and is closed by a stopcock at s. The entire apparatus, which at present is an inverted position, is now stood erect, the flask and lower extremity of the tube being immersed in a water-bath. The vinous liquid is thus heated to a boiling point, and its vapor forces the mercury up into the long limb of the tube. The instrument having been graduated, once for all, by actual ex- periment, the percentage of alcohol is read off at once on the stem by the height to which the mercurial column rises. ^ To show how neariy the results obtained by this instrument agree with those obtained by the distillation process, comparative experiments were made on the s same wines by Dr. Bence Jones, f * Comptes Rendos, xxvii. 418. t On the Acidity, Sweetness, and Strength of different Wines, by H. Bence Jones, M. D^ F. E. S.. Proceedings of the Boyal Institution, February, 1854. ~-, < -^ 9 88 ALOOHOLOMETRY. Port, 1834, Sherry, Montilla, . Madeira, • Haut Brion claret^ . Chambertln, Low-quality sherry, Brown sherry, . Amontillado, Manganilla, Port, best, . . Marcobrunner, . Home ale, . Export ale. Strong ale, . By DiBtillatlon (Mr. Witt) By Alcoholometer per cent, by measure. j>er cent, by meaaure. . 22-46 . ^^^'^ 19-96 22-40 10-0 11-7 20-7 23-1 20-5 14-4 20-2 8-8 6-4 6-4 20 TahariPa Method. — ^There is another method of determining the alcoholic contents of mixtures, which especially recommends itself on account of its simplicity. The specific gravity of the liquor is first determined, half its volume is next evaporated in the open air, sufficient water is then added to the remainder to restore its original volume, and the spe- cific gravity again ascertained. By deducting the specific gravity before the expulsion of the alcohol from that obtained afterwards, the difference gives a specific gravity indicating the percentage of alcohol, which may be found by referring to Gay-Lussac's or one of the other Tables. Tabarie has constructed a peculiar instrument for determining these specific gravities, which he calls an oenometer ; but they may be performed either by a specific- gravity bottle or by a hydrometer in the usual way. Of course this method cannot be absolutely accurate ; nevertheless, Prof. Mulder's ex- perience with it has led him to prefer it to any of the methods before described, especially where a large number of samples have to be examined. He states that the results are almost as accurate as those obtained by distillation. The evaporation of the solution may be accelerated by conducting hot steam through it. Adulterations. — Absolute alcohol should be entirely free from water. This may be recognized by digesting the spirit with pure anhydrous sulphate of copper. If the spirit c<)ntain any water, the white salt becomes tinged blue, from the formation of the blue hydrated sulphate of copper. Rectified spirit, proof spirit, and the other mixtures of pure alcohol and water, should be colorless, free from odor and taste. If containing methylic or amylic alcohols, they are immediately recognized by one or other of these simple tests. Dr. Ure states, that if wood spirit be contained in alcohol, it may be detected to the greatest minuteness by the test of caustic potash, a little of which, in powder, causing wood spirit to become speedily yellow and brown, while it gives no tint to alcohol. Thus 1 per cent, of wood spirit may be discovered in any sample of spirits of wine. The admixture with a larger proportion than the due amount of water is of course de- termined by estimating the percentage of absolute alcohol by one or other of the several methods just described in detail. The adulterations and sophistications to which the various spirits known as rum, brandy whiskey, gin, &c., are subjected, will be best described under these resp>ective heads, since these liquors are themselves mixtures of alcohol and water with sugar, coloring matters, flavoring ethers, &e. ALDEHYDE. By this word is understood the fluid obtained from alcohol by the removal of two equivalents of hydrogen. Thus, alcohol being represented by the formula C* H* 0", aldehyde becomes C* H* 0*. ALDER. 39 Preparation. — Aldehyde is prepared by various processes of oxidation. Liebig has published several methods, of which the following is perhaps the best : Three parts of peroxide of manganese, three of sulphuric acid, two of water, and two of alcohol of 80 per cent., are well mixed and carefully distilled in a spacious retort. The extreme volatility of aldehyde renders good condensation absolutely necessary. The contents of the retort are to be distilled over a gentle and manageable fire until frothing commences, or the distillate becomes acid. This generally takes place when about one-third has passed over. The fluid in the receiver is to have about its own weight of chloride of calcium added, and, after slight digestion, is to be carefully distilled on the water-bath. The distillate is agmn to be treated in the same way. By these processes a fluid will be obtained entirely free from water, but conUuning several impurities. To obtain the aldehyde in a state of purity, it is necessary, in the first place, to obtain aldehyde-ammonia ; this may be accomplished in the following manner : — ^The last distillate is to be mixed in a flask with twice its volume of ether, and, the flask being placed in a vessel surrounded by a freezing mixture, dry ammo- niacal gas is passed in until the fluid is saturated. In a short time crystals of the com- pounds sought separate in considerable quantity. The aldehyde-ammonia, being collected oa a filter, or in the neck of a funnel, is to be washed with ether, and dried by pressure between folds of filtering paper, followed by exposure to the air. It now becomes neces- sary to obtain the pure aldehyde from the compoimd with ammonia. For this purpose two parts are to be dissolved in an equal quantity of water, and three parts of sulphuric acid, mixed with four of water, are to be added. The whole is to be distilled on the water-bath, the temperature, at first, being very low, and the operation being s jpped as soon as the water boils. The distillate is to be placed in a retort connected with a good condensing apparatus, and, as soon as all the joints are known to be tight, chloride of calcium, in frag- ments, is to be added. The heat arising from the hydration of the chloride causes the dis- tillation to commence, but it is carried on by a water-bath. The distillate, after one more rectification over chloride of calcium, at a temperature not exceeding 80° F., will consist of pure aldehyde. Aldehyde is a colorless, very volatile, and mobile fluid, having the den- sity 0*800 at 32'*. It boils, under ordinary atmospheric pressure, at W F. Its vapor density is 1-532. Its formula corresponds to four volumes of vapor; we consequently obtain the theoretical vapor density by multiplying its atomic weight = 44 by half the density of hydrogen, or .0346. The number thus found is 1-5224, corresponding as nearly as could be desired to the experimental result. Aldehyde is produced in a great number of processes, particularly during the destructive distillation of various organic matters, and in processes of oxidation. From alcohol, alde- hyde may be procured by oxidation with platinum black, nitric acid, chromic acid, chlorine (in presence of water), or, as we have seen, a mixture of peroxide of manganese and sul- phuric acid. Certain oils, by destructive distillation, yield it. Wood vinegar in the crude state contains aldehyde as well as wood spirit Lactic acid, when in a combination with weak bases, yields it on destructive distillation. Various animal and vegetable products afford aldehyde by distillation with oxidizing agents, such as sulphuric acid and peroxide of manganese, or bichromate of potash. The word aldehyde, like that of alcohol, is gradually becoming used in a much more extended sense than it was formerly. By the term is now understood any organic sub- stance which, by assimilating two equivalents of hydrogen, yields a substance having the properties of an alcohol, or, by taking up two equivalents of oxygen, yields an acid. It is this latter property which has induced certain chemists to say that there is the same relation between an aldehyde and its acid as between inorganic acids ending in otis and tc. Several very interesting and important substances are now known to belong to the class of alde- hydes. The essential oils are, in several instances, composed principally of bodies having the properties of aldehydes. Among the most prominent may be mentioned the oils of bitter almonds, cumin, cinnamon, rue, &c. An exceedingly important character of the aldehydes is their strong tendency to combine with the bisulphites of ammonia, potash, and soda. By availing ourselves of this property, it becomes easy to separate bodies of this class from complex mixtures, and, consequently, enable a proximate analysis to be made. Now that the character of the aldehydes is becoming better understood, the chances of arti- ficially producing the essential oils above alluded to in the commercial scale become greatly increased. Several have already been formed, and, although in very small quantities, the success has been sufficient to warrant sanguine hopes of success. A substitute for one of them has been for some years known under the very incorrect name of artificial oil of bitter almonds. See Nitrobknzole. — C. G. W. ALDER. (Aune^ Fr. ; jFrZe, Germ. ; Alnux glvUnoia^ Ian.) A tree, different species of which are indigenous to Europe, Asia, and America. The common ^der seldom grows to a height of more than 40 feet. The wood is stated to be very durable under water. The piles at Venice, and those of Old London Bridge, are stated to have been of alder ; and it is much used for pipes, pumps, and sluices. The charcoal of this wood is used for gunpowder. 40 ALEMBIC. 10 ALEMBIC, a still {tohieh see). The term is, however, applied to a still of peculiar con- struction, in which the head, or capital, is a separate piece, fitted and ground to the neck of the boiler, or cucurbit, or otherwise carefully united with a lute. The alembic has this advantage over the common retort, that the residue of distilla- tion may be easily cleared out of the body. It is likewise capable, when skilfully managed, of distilling a much larger quantity of liquor in a given time than a retort of equal capa- city. In France the term alembic, or rather alamhic, is used to designate a glass still. ALGAROTH, PO\yDER OF. P(ywder of Algarotti,— Enffliah Powder. This salt was discovered by Algarotti, a physician of Verona. Chloride of antimony is formed by boiling black sulphide of antimony with hydrochloric acid : on pouring the solution into water, a white flocky precipitate falls, which is an oxichloride of antimony. If the water be hot, the precipitate is distinctly crystalline ; this is the powder ef algaroth. This oxichloride is used to furnish oxide of antimony in the preparation of tartar emetic. ALG^. {Varech, Fr. ; Seegras, or Alge, Germ.) A tribe of subaqueous plants, in- cluding the seaweeds ( funis) and the lavers (vJva) growing in salt water, and the fresh water confervas. We have only to deal with those seaweeds which are of any commercial value. These belong to the great division of the Jointless altfce, of which 160 species are known as natives of the British Isles. In the manufacture of Kelp, (see Kelp,) all the varie- ties of this division may be used. The edible sorts, such as the birds' nests of the Eastern Archipelago, those which we consume in this country, as lavers, carrageen, or Irish moss, &c., belong to the snme group, as do also those which the agriculturalists employ for manure. Dr. Pereira gives the i'oUowing list of esculent seaweeds : — Phodomenia pahnaia (or Dulse). Phodomenia ciliafa. Laminaria saccharina. Iridcea cduUs. Alaria escxdenta. Ulva latissima. Phodomenia palmata passes under a variety of names, dulse, dylish, or dellish, and amongst the Highlanders it is called diUling, or waterleaf. It is employed as food by the poor of many nations ; when well washed, it is chewed by the peasantry of Ireland withotit being dressed. It is nutritious, but sudorific, has the smell of violets, imparts a mucila- ginous feel to the mouth, leaving a slightly acrid taste. In Iceland the dulse is thoroughly washed in fresh water and dried in the air. When thus treated it becomes covered with a white powdery substance, which is sweet and palatable ; this is mannite, (see MANNA,)r which Dr. Stenhouse proposes to obtain from seaweeds. " In the dried state it is used in Iceland with fish and butter, or else, by the higher classes : boiled in milk with the addition of rye flour. It is preserved packed in close casks ; a fermented liquor is produced in Kam- schatka from this seaweed, and in the north of Europe and in the Grecian Archipelago cattle are fed upon it." — Stenhouse. Laminaria saccharina yields 12'15 per cent, of mannite, while the Phodomenia pal- mata contains not more than 2 or 3 per cent. Iridcea edidis. — The fronds of this weed are of a dull purple color, flat, and succulent. It is employed as food by fishermen, either raw or pinched between hot irons, and its taste is then said to resemble roasted oysters. Alaria escidenta. — Mr. Drummond informs us that, on the coast of Antrim, " itis often gathered for eating, but the part used is the leaflets, and not the midrib, as is commonly stated. These have a very pleasant taste and flavor, but soon cover the mouth with a tena- cious greenish crust, which causes a sensation somewhat like that of the fat of a heart or kidney." Ulva latissifna, (Broad green laver.) — This is rarely used, being considered inferior to the Porphyra laciniata, (Laciniated purple laver.) This alga is abundant on all our shores. It is pickled with salt, and sold in England as laver, in Ireland as sloke, and in Scotland as slaak. The London shops are mostly supplied with laver from the coasts of Devonshire. When stewed, it is brought to the table and eaten with pepper, butter or oil, and lemon- juice or vinegar. Some persons stew it with leeks and onions. The pepper dulse, {Lau- rencia pinnatifida,) distinguished for its pungent taste, is often used as a condiment when other seaweeds are eaten. " Tangle," (^Laminaria digitata,) so called in Scotland, is termed " red-war»" in the Orkneys, " sea-wand " in the Highlands, and " sea-girdles " in England. The flat leathery fronds of this weed, when young, are employed as food. Mr. Simmonds tells us, " There was a time when the cry of * Buy dulse and tangle ' was as com- mon in the streets of Edinburgh and Glasgow, as is that of ' water-cresses' now in our me- tropolis." — Society of Arts^ Journal. ALKALL 41 Laminaria potatorum. — The large sea tangle is used abundantly by the inhabitants of the Straits of Magellan and by the Fuegians. Under the name of " Bull Kelp " it is used as food in New Zealand and Van Diemen's Land. It is stated to be exceedingly nutritive and fattening. Chondrus crispus, (chondrus, from x^^^poSy cartilage.) — Carrageen, Irish, or pearl moss. For purposes of diet and for medicinal uses, this alga is collected on the west coast of Ire- land, washed, bleached by exposure to the sun, and dried. It is not unfrequently used in Ireland by painters and plasterers as a substitute for size. It has also been successfully applied, instead of isinglass, in making of blanc-mange and jellies ; and m addition to its use in medicine, for which purpose it was introduced by Dr. Todhunter, of Dublin, about 1831, a thick mucilage of carrageen, scented with some prepared spirit, is sold as bando- line, fixature, or ciynphitique, and it is employed for stiflening silks. Accordmg to Dr. Davy, carrageen consists of Gummy matter, Gelatinous matter, Insoluble matter, 28-5 490 22-6 100-0 Plocaria Candida. — Ceylon moss ; edible moss. This moss is exported frona the islands of the Indian Archipelago, forming a portion of the cargoes of nearly all the junks. It is stated by Mr. Crawford, in his " History of the Indian Archipelago," that on the spots where it is collected, the prices seldom exceed from 5«. M. to 7s. 6d per cwt The Chinese use it in the form of a jelly with sugar, as a sweetmeat, and apply it in the arts as an excel- lent paste. The gummy matter which they employ for covering lanterns, varnishing paper, &c., is. made chiefly from this moss. This moss, as ordinarily sold, appears to consist of several varieties of marine produc- tions, with the Plocaria intermixed. The Agar- Agar of Malacca belongs to this variety ; and probably seaweeds of this character are used by the Salangana or esculent swallow in constructing their nests, which are esteemed so great a delicacy by the Chinese. The plant is found on the rocks of Pulo Ticoos and on the shores of the neighboring islands. It is blanched in the sun for two days, or until it is quite white. It is obtained on submerged banks in the neighborhood of Macassar, Celebes, by the Bajow-laut, or sea-gipsies, who send it to China. It is also col- lected on the reefs and rocky submerged ledges in the neighborhood of Singapore. Mr. Montgomery Martin informs us that this weed is the chief staple of Singapore, and that it produces in China from six to eight dollars per pecul in its dry and bulky state. The har- vest of this seaweed is from 6,000 to 12,000 peculs annually, the pecul being equal to 100 catties of 1"333 lbs. each. Similar to this, perhaps the same in character, is the Agal-Agal, a species of seaweed. It dissolves into a glutinous substance. Its principal use is for gumming silks and paper, as nothing equals it for paste, and it is not liable to be eaten by insects. The Chinese make a beautiful kind of lantern, formed of netted thread washed over with this gum, and which is extremely light and transparent. It is brought by coasting vessels to Prince of Wales Island, and calculated for the Chinese market. — Oriental Commerce. ALIMENT. {Alimentum, from alo, to feed.) The food necessary for the human body, and capable of maintaining it in a state of health. 1. Nitrogenous substances are required to deposit, from the blood, the organized tissue and solid muscle ; 2. And carbonaceous, non-nitro2:enous bodies, to aid in the processes of respiration, and in the supply of carbonaceous elements, as fat, &c., for the due support of animal heat. For information on these substances, consult Liebig's " Animal Chemistry," the investi- gations of Dr. Lyon Playfair, and Dr. Robert Dundas Thompson's "Experimental Researches on Food," 1846. ALKALI. A term derived from the Arabians, and introduced into Europe when the Mahometan conquerors pushed their conquests westward. Al, el, or ul, as an Arabic noun, denotes " God, Heaven, Divine." As an Arabic particle, it is prefixed to words to give them a more emphatic signification, much the same as our particle the ; as in Alcoran^ the Koran ; alchymist, the chemist. Kali was the old name for the plant producing potash, (the glasswort, so called from its use in the manufacture of glass,) and alkali signified no more than the kali plant. Potash and soda were for some time confounded together, and were hence called alkalis. Ammonia, which much resembles them when dissolved in water, was also called an alkali. Ammonia was subsequently distinguished as the volatile cdkaii, potash and soda being fixed aJkalis. Ammonia was also called the animal alkali. Soda was the mineral alkali, being derived from rock salt, or from the ocean ; and potash received the name of vegetable alkali, from its source being the ashes of plants growing upon the land. Alkalis are characterized by i 42 ALKAHS, ORGAiaO. being very soluble in water, by neutralizing the strongest adds, by turning brown vegetable yellows, and to green the vegetable reds and blues. Some chemists classify all salifiable bases under this name. In conunercial language, the term is applied* to an impure soda, the imports of which were — Imports. Alkali and Barilla. Portugal Spain Canary Islands Greece - Two Sicilies - Egypt - Peru Other parts - Total 1858. 1S54. 1S55. 185«. Cwts. 2,540 Cwts. Cwts. Cwts. 15,220 9,240 5,480 7,840 3,160 2,400 4,800 1,900 160 1,000 2,520 8,660 3,480 7,920 • • 2,040 20 10,640 • • 600 9,320 4,760 80 36,980 25,740 14,660 21,200 Otfr Exports during the same periods being as follows : — AlkaU and Barilla. Russia — ^Northern Ports " Southern Ports Sweden - - - Denmark Prussia - - - Hanover Hanse Towns Holland - - - Belgium France - - - Spain and the Canaries Sardinia Austrian Territories Turkey - - - Australia British North America United States Brazil - - - Chili, - Other Countries Total 1853. Cwts. 13,845 7,079 7,804 39,366 82,735 13,989 97,939 112,370 10,069 28,957 49,377 12,271 550,735 12,281 29,771 1,070,624 1854 Cwts. 4,208 200 13,478 40,329 96,839 9,715 93,774 112,023 16,837 0,921 21,023 52,390 14,344 659,942 20,153 10,392 33,747 1,100,315 1855. 1856. Cwts. 14,908 52,721 104,111 18,871 77,648 114,068 21,293 4,090 22,587 13,010 19,882 16,102 494,254 23,805 5,185 42,469 Cwts. 82,667 14,924 39,417 85,364 25,029 83,385 121,645 89,650 9,972 11,042 7,326 27,124 9,142 87,790 25,520 723,089 26,149 89,666 1,045,004 1,405,901 ALKALIS, ORGANIC. During the last few years the number of organic alkaloids has so greatly increased, that a considerable volume might be devoted to their history. There are, however, only a few which have become articles of commerce. The modes of prepa- ration will be given under the heads of the alkalis themselves. The principal sources from whence they ai-e obtained are the following : — 1. The animal kingdom. 2. The vegetable kingdom. 3. Destructive distillation. 4. The action of potash on the cyanic and cyanuric ethers. 5. The action of ammonia on the iodides, &c., of the alcohol radicals. 6. The action of reducing agents on nitro-compounds. The principal bases existing in the animal kingdom are creatine and sarcosine. The vegetable kingdom is much richer in them, and yields a great number of organic alkalis, of which several are of extreme value in medi- cine. Modem chemists regard all organic alkalis as derived from the types ammonia or oxide of ammonium. Their study has led to results of the most startling character. It has been found that not only may the hydrogen in ammonia and oxide of ammonium be replaced by metals and compound radicals without destruction of the alkaline character, but even the nitrogen may be replaced by phosphorus or arsenic, and yet the resulting com- pounds remain powerfully basic. In studying the organic bases, chemists have constantly ALKALIMETRY. it had in view the artificial production of the bases of cinchona bark. It is true that this result has not as yet been attained ; but, on the other hand, bodies have been formed hav- ing so many analogies, both in constitution and properties, with the substances sought, that it cannot be doubted the question is merely one of time. The part perlormed by the bases existing in the juice of flesh has not been ascertained, and no special remedial virtues have been detected in them ; but this is not the case with those found in vegetables ; it is, in fact, among them that the most potent of all medicines are found — such, for example, as quinine and morphia. It is, moreover, among vegetable alkaloids that we find the sub- stances most inimical to life, for aconitine, atropine, brucine, coniine, curarine, nicotine, solanine, strychnine, &c., &c., are among their number. It must not be forgotten, how- ever, that, used with proper precaution, even the most virulent are valuable medicines. The fearfully poisonous nature of some of the organic bases, together with an idea that they are difficult to detect, has unhappily led to their use by the poisoner ; strychnine, especially, has acquired a painful notoriety, in consequence of its employment by a medical man to destroy persons whose lives he had insured. Fortunately for society, the skill of the analyst has more than kept pace with that of the poisoner ; and without regarding the extravagant assertions made by some chemists as to the minute quantities of v^etable poisons they are able to detect, it may safely be asserted that it would be very difficult to administer a fatal dose of any ordinary vegetable poison without its being discovered. Another check upon the poisoner is found in the fact that those most difficult of isolation from complex mixtures are those which cause such distinct symptoms of poisoning in the victim, that the medical attendant, if moderately observant, can scarcely fail to have his suspicions aroused. Under the heads Of the various alkaloids will be found (where deemed of sufficient importance) not merely the mode of preparation, but also the easiest method of detection. — C. G. W. ALEALIMETER. There are various kinds of alkalimeters, but it will be more conven- ient to explain their construction and use in the article on Alkalimetbt, to which the reader is referred. ALKALIMETRY. 1. The object of alkalimetry is to determine the quantity of caustic alkali or of carbonate of alkali contdned in the potash or soda of commerce. The {Hin- ciple of the method is, as in acidimetry, based upon Dalton's law of chemical combining ratios — ^that is, on the fact that in order to produce a complete reaction^ a certain definite weight of reagent is required, or, in other words, in order to saturate or completely neu- tralize, for example, one equivalent of a base,. exactly one equivalent of acid must be em- ployed, and vice versd. This having been thoroughly explained in the article on Acidim- etry, the reader is referred thereto. 2. The composition of the potash and of the soda met with in commerce presents very great variations ; and the value of these substances being, of course, in propor- tion to the quantity of real alkali which they contain, an easy and rapid method of determining that quantity is obviously of the greatest importance both to the manufacturer and to the buyer. The process by which this object is attained, though originally contrived exclusively for the determination of the intrinsic value of these two alkalis, (whence its name. Alkalimetry,) has since been ex- tended to that of ammonia and of earthy bases and their carbonates, as will be shown presently. 3. Before, however, entering into a description of the process itself, we will give that of the instrument employed in this method of analysis, which instru- ment is called an alkaliweter. 4. The common alkalimeter is a tube closed at one end, (see figure in mar- gin,) of about f of an inch internal diameter, about 9^ inches long, and is thus capable of containing 1,000 grains of pure distilled water. The space occupied by the water is divided accurately into 100 divisions, numbering from above downwards, each of which, therefore, represents 10 gnuns of distilled water. 5. When this alkalimeter is used, the operator must carefully pour the acid from it by closing the tube with his thumb, so as to allow the acid to trickle in drops as occasion may require ; and it is well also to smear the edge of the tube with tallow, in order to prevent any portion of the test acid from being wasted by running over the outside after pouring, which accident would, of course, render the analysis altogether inaccurate and worthless ; an^, for the same rea- son, after having once begun to pour the acid from the alkalimeter by allowing it to trickle befween the thumb and the edge of the tube, as above mentioned, the thumb must not be removed from the tube till the end of the experiment, for otherwise the portion of acid which adheres to it would, of course, be wasted and vitiate the result. This uncomfortable precaution is obviated in the other forms of alkalimeter now to be described. £ 4S n 75 80 K^ifmi ^1 44 ALKALIMETRY. 13 12 1 SC~: 30- 5C- 60-1 w4 BO- 3a- f -10 to so •40 ,50 §--60 r-70 I- -80 £0 6. That represented in /^r. 12 is Gay-Lussac»s alkalimeter; it is a class tube about 14 inches high, and i an inch in diameter, capable of holding iore tban^^OO grdnfof di^ tilled water; it is accurately graduated from the top down- wards into 100 divisions, in such a way that each division may contain exactly 10 grains of water. It has a small tube ' communicating with a larger one, which small tube is bent and bevelled at the top, c. This very ingenious instrument, known also under the name of " burette " and ''pouret " was contrived by Gay-Lussac, and is by far more convenient than the common alkalimeter, as by it the test acid can be unerringly poured, drop by drop, as wanted. The only drawback is the Iragihty of the small side-tube, 6, on which account the com- mon alkalimeter, represented in Jig, U is now generally used, especial y by workmen, because, as it has no side-tube, it is less hable to be broken ; but it gives less accurate results, a portion of the acid being wasted in various ways, and it is besides, less manageable. Gay-Lussac's " burette " is there- fore preferable ; and if melted wax be run between the space of the large and of the smaU tube, the instrument is rendered much less liable to injury ; it is generally sold with a separate wooden foot or socket, in which it may stand vertically. 7. The following form of alkalimeter, (fg. 13,) which I contnved several years ago, will, I think, be found equally delicate but more convenient still than that of Gay-Lussac. It consists of a glass tube, a, of the same dimensions, and grad- uated m the same manner as that of Gay-Lussac ; but it is i;t. *y.^ „««!. f A- provided with a glass foot, and the upper part, b, is shaped whU^ A r^Tfr"^ f^"'^ ^?"l^ 5 c is a bulb blown from a glass tube, one end of which IS ground to fit the neck b, of the alkalimeter, like an ordinary glass stopper. This bulb IS drawn to a capillary point at d, and has a somewhat large opening at e. With this irrinlhl?.-^ ? perfectly under the control of the operator, for thf globular joint a the top enables him to see the liquor before it actually begins to drop out, and he cin then n-ulate the pounng to the greatest^nicety, whilst its more^ubstantiaJ forri renders it much ess liable to accidents than that of Gay-Lussac ; the glass foot is extremely convenient, and further on^^ * ^ additional security. The manner of using it will be described it U^;inrnnf l^l^^'^Ti,''^*^'' same form as that which I have just described, except that It IS all m one piece, and has no globular enlargement, is represented in fig. 14. Its con- struction is otherwise the same, and the results obtained are equally delicate ; but it is less under perfect control, and the test acid is very liable to run down the tube outside: this defect might be easily remedied by drawing the tube into a finer and more delicate point instead of in a thick, blunted projection, from which the last drop cannot be detached, or only with difficulty, and imperfectly. A class foot would, moreover, be an improvement. 9 With Schuster'salkalimeter,(representedin/^. 15,) the strength of a kahs is determined by the weight, not by the measure, of the acid employed to neutralize the alkali ; it is, as may be seen, a small bottle of thm glass, havmg the form of the head of the alkalimeter repre- sented mjig. 13. We shall describe further on the process of analysis with this alkalimeter. 10. There are several other forms of alkalimeter, but those which have been alluded to are almost exclusively used, and whichever of them is employed, the process is the same— namely, pouring carefully an acid of a known strength into a known weight of the alkali under examination, until the neutralizing point is obtained, as will be fully explained presently. 11. Blue litmus-paper being immediately red- dened by acids is the reagent used for ascertaining the exact point of the neutralization of the alkali to be tested. It is prepared by pulverizing one part of commercial litmus, and digesting it in six parts of cold water, filtering, and dividmg the blue liquid into two equal portions, adding carefully to one of the portions, and one drov at a time as much very dilute sulphuric acid as is sufficient to impart to it a slight red cS, anS iTurin ' the portion so treated into the second portion, which is intensely blue, and stirring JS? 15 ALKALIMETRY. 45 whole together. The mixture so obtained is neutral, and by immersing slips of white blot- ting-paper into it, and carefully drying them by hanging them on a stretched piece of thread, an exceedingly sensitive test paper of a light blue color is obt^uned, which should be kept in a wide-mouth glass-stoppered bottle, and sheltered from the air and light 12. Since the principle on which alkalimetry is based consists in determining the amount of acid which a known weight of alkali can saturate or neutralize, it is clear that any acid having this power can be employed. 13. The test acid, however, generally preferred for the purpose is sulphuric acid, because the normal solution of that acid is more easily prepared, is less liable to change its stren^-iii by keeping, and has a stronger reaction on litmus-paper than any other acid. It is true that other acids — tartaric acid, for example — can be procured of greater purity, and that, as it is dry and not caustic, the quantities required can be more comfortably and accurately weighed off; and on this account some chemists, after Buchner, recommended its use, but the facility with which its aqueous solution becomes mouldy is so serious a drawback, that it is hardly ever resorted to for that object. 14. When sulphuric acid is employed, the pure acid in the maximum state of concen- tration, or, as it is called by chemists, the pure hydrate of sulphuric acid, specific gravity * 1*8485, is preferable. Such an acid, however, is never met with in commerce, for the ordinary English oil of vitriol is seldom pure, and never to the maximum state of concen- tration ; the operator, however, may prepare it by distilling ordinary oil of vitriol, but as . the specific caloric of the vapor of sulphuric acid is very small, the distillation is a some- what hazardous operation, unless peculiar precaution be taken. The following apparatus, however, allows of the acid being distilled in a perfectly safe and convenient manner ; it consists of a plain glass retort, charged with oil of vitriol, a little protosulphate of iron is added, for the purpose of destroying any nitrous products which the acid may evolve, and it is then placed into a cylinder of iron, the bottom of which is perforated with holes about three-quarters of an inch in diameter, except in the middle, where a large hole is cut of a suitable size for the retort to rest upon ; the sides of the cylinder are likewise perforated, aa represented in fg. 16. Ignited charcoal is then placed all round the retort, the bottom'uf which protruding, out of the influence of the heat, allows the ebullition to ^^ — ^ 16 proceed from the sides only. It is well to put into the retort a few frag- ments of quartz or a few lengths of platinum wire, the effect of which is to render the ebullition more regular. 15. In order to prevent the acid fumes from condensing in the neck of the retort, it should be covered with a cover of sheet iron, as repre- sented in fg. 16. 16. The first fourth part which dis- tils over should be rejected, because it is too weak ; the next two-fourths are kept, and the operation is then stopped, leaving the last fourth part of the acid in the retort. The neck of the retort should be about four feet long, and about one and a half inches in the bore, and be connected with a large re- ceiver ; and as the necks of retorts qre generally much too short for the purpose, an adapter tube should be adjusted to it and to the receiver, but very loosely ; this precaution is ab- solutely necessary, for otherwise the hot acid falling on the sides of the receiver would crack it ; things, in fact, should be so arranged that the hot drops of the distilling acid may fall into the acid which has already distilled over. Do not surround the receiver with cold water, for the hot acid dropping on the refrigerated surface would also certainly crack it. The acid so obtained is pure oil of vitriol, or monohydrated sulphuric acid, SO', HO, and it should be kept in a well-stoppered and dry flask. 17. For commercial assays, however, and, indeed, for every purpose, the ordinary con- centrated sulphuric acid answers very well : when used for the determination of the value of potashes, it is made of such a strength that each division (or 10 water-grains' measure) of the alkalimeter saturates exactly one grain of pure potash : an acid of that particular strength is prepared as follows : — 18. Take 112*76 grains of pure neutral and anhydrous carbonate of soda, and dissolve them in about 5 fluid ounces of hot water.* This quantity, namely, 112-76 grains, of neutral carbonate of soda will exactly saturate the same quantity of pure sulphuric acid (SO*) that 100 grains of pure potash would. It is advisable, however, to prepare at once a larger quantity of test solution of carbonate of soda, which is of course easily done, as will be shown presently. ♦ Anhydrous, or dry, neutral carbonate of soda may be obtained by keeping a certain quantity of pure bicarbonate of soda for a short time, at a dull red heat, in a platinum crucible: the bicarbonate is converted into its neutral carbonate, of course free from water. 46 ALKALIMETRY. 19. Mix, now, 1 part, by measure, of concentrated sulphuric acid with 10 parts of water, or rather — as it is advisable, where alkalimetrical assays have frequently to be made, to keep a stock of test acid — ^mix 1,000 water-grains' measure of concentrated sulphuric acid with 10,000 grains of water, or any other lai^r proportions of concentrated sulphuric acid and water, in the above respective proportions ; stir the whole well, and allow it to cool. ^ The mixture of the acid with the water should be made by first putting a certain quantity of the water into a glass beaker or matrass of a suitable size, then pouring the concentrated acid slowly therein, while a gyratory motion is imparted to the liquid. The vessel containing the acid is then rinsed with the water, and both the rinsing and the rest of the water are then added to the whole mass. When quite cold, fill the graduated alku- limeter with a portion of it up to the point marked 0°, taking the under Ime of the liquid as the true level ; and, whilst stirring briskly with a glass rod the aqueous solution of the 112.76 grains of neutral carbonate of soda above alluded to, drop the test acid from the alkalimeter into the vortex produced by stirring, until, by testing the alkaline solution with a strip of reddened litmus-paper after every addition of acid, it is found that it no longer shows an alkaline reaction, (which is known bj the Blip of reddened litmus-paper not being rendered blue,) but, on the contrary, indicates that a very slight excess of acid is present, (which is known by testmg with a slip of blue litmus-paper, which will then turn slightly 20. If, after having exhausted the whole of the 100 divisions (1,000 water-grains' measure) of the diluted acid in the alkalimeter, the neutralization is found to be exactly attained, it is a proof that the test acid is right. 21. But suppose, on the contrary, (and this is a much more probable case,) suppose that only 80 divisions of the acid in the alkalimeter have been required to neutralize the alka- line solution, it is then a proof that the test acid is too strong, and accordingly it must be further diluted with water, to bring it to the standard strength ; and this may at once be done, in the present instance, by adding 20 measures of water to every 80 measures of the acid. This is best accomplished by pouring the whole. of the .acid into a large glass cylin- der, divided into 100 equal parts, until it j-eaches the mark or scratch corresponding to 80 measures ; the rest of the glass, up to 100, is then filled up with water, so that the same quantity of real acid will now be in the 100 measures as was contained before in 80 measures. 22. The acid adjusted as just mentioned should be labelled " Tese Stdphuric Acid for Potash," and kept in well-stoppered bottles, otherwise evaporation takmg place would ren- der the remaining bulk more concentrated, consequently richer in acid than it should be, and it would thus, of course, become valueless as a test acid until readjusted. Each degree or division of the alkalimeter of such an acid represents 1 grain of pure potash. 23. The alkalimetrical assar/ of soda is also made with sulphuric acid, in preference to other acids, but it must be so adjusted that 100 alkalimetrical divisions (1,000 water-grains' measure) of acid will exactly neutralize 170-98 of pure .anhydrous carbonate of soda, that quantity containing 100 grains of pure.soda. 24. Dissolve, therefore, 171 grains of pure anhydrous neutral carbonate of soda, ob- tained as indicated before, in five or six ounces of hot water, and prepare in the meantime the test sulphuric acid, by mixing 1 part, by measure, of ordinary concentrated sulphuric acid, with about 9 parts, by measure, of water, exactly as described before ; stir the whole thoroughly, let the mixture stand until it has become quite cold, then pour 1,000 water- grains' measure of the dilute acid so prepared into an alkalimeter— that is to say, fill that instrument up to 0°, taking the under line as the true level, and then, whilst stirring briskly the aqueous solution of the 171 grains of carbonate of soda with a glass rod, pour the acid, with increased precaution as the saturating point is approaching, into the vortex produced, until by testing the liquor alternately with reddened and with blue litmus-paper, or with gray litmus-paper, as before mentioned, the exactly neutralized point is hit. 25. If the whole of the 100 alkalimetrical ^livisions (1,000 water-grains' measure) have been required to efiTect the neutralization, it is a proof that the acid is of the right strength ; but if this be not the case, it must be adjusted as described before — that is to say : — 26. Suppose, for example, that only 75 alkalimetrical divisions or measures of the acid in the alkalimeter have been required to neutralize the 171 grains of neutral carbonate of soda operated upon, then 75 measures of the acid should be poured at once into a glass cylinder accurately divided into 100 parts ; the remaining 25 divisions should then be filled with water, and the whole being now stirred up, 100 parts of the liquor will of course con- tain as much real acid as 75 parts contained before, and accordingly the acid may now be used as a test acid for the alkalimetrical assay of soda, each degree or division of the alka- limeter representing one grain of pure soda. 27. The stock of test acid should be kept in well-stoppered flasks, that it may not vary in strength by evaporation, and be labelled " Test Sidpkuric Acid for Soda.'' 28. Instead, however, of keeping two kinds of " test sulphuric acid," of different satu- rating powers as described, the one for potash, the other for soda, one kmd only may be ALKALIMETRY. 47 17 n — -0 =-5 Sana- =' POTASM- fOTMH E-45 ?-£5 prepared so as to serve for both alkalis, by constructmg, as is very often done, an alkalime- ter adjusted so as to indicate the quantities of the acid of a given strength required for the saturation or neutralization of both potash or soda, or of their respective carbonates ; and this, in fact, is the alkalimeter most in use in the factory. |tahould be in shape similar to that of Gay-Lussac's, (see Jig. 12,) or that described in figs.iZ and 14 ; but, like that represented by Jig. 11, it generally consists of a tube closed at one end, about three-fourths of an inch internal diameter and about 9^ inches in length ; It 13 graduated into 100 equal parts, and every division is numbered from above downwards {see Jig. 17). The following directions for their construction are given by Professor Faraday : " Let the tube represented in the margin have 100=" grains of water weighed into it ; then let the space it occupies be graduated into 100 equal parts, and every ten divisions numbered from above downwards. At 22 1 parts, or 77-99 parts from the bottom, make an extra line, a little on one side or eVen on the opposite side of the graduation, and write at it with a scratching dia- mond, soda; lower down, at 4862 parts, make another line, and write potash; still lower, at 54-43 parts, a third line marked carb. soda; and at 65 part, a fourth, marked carb. potash. It will be observed that portions are measured off beneath these marks in the inverse order of the equivalent number of these substances, and consequently directly proportionate to the quantities of any particular acid which wiH neutralize equal weights of the ' alkalis and their carbonates. As these points are of great importance, it will be proper to verify them by weighing into the tubes firet 350, then 513-8, and lastly 7799 grains of water, which wUl correspond with the markg if they are correct, or the graduation may be laid down from^he surface of the four portions of fluid when weighed in, without reference to -where they fall upon the general scale. The tube is now completed, except that it should be observed whether the aperture can be perfectly and securely cov- ered by the thumb of the left hand, and if not ; or, if there be reason to think It not ultimately secure, then it should be heated and contracted until suffi- ciently small." 29. The test acid for this alkalimeter should have -a specific gravity of 1.1268 ; and such an acid may be prepared by mixing one part, by weight, of sulphuric acid, specific gravity 1-82, with four parts of water, and allow- mg the mixture to cool. In the meantime, 100 grains of pure anhydrous carbonate of soda, obtained as indicated before, should be dissolved in water and the test sulphuric acid, of specific gravity 1-1268, prepared as abovesaid' having become quite cool, is poured into the alkalimeter up to the point marked carbonate of soda, the remaining .divisions arc filled mu with water and the whole should be well mixed by shaking. ' 30 If the whole c^ the sulphuric acid, adjusted as was said, being poured carefullr into the solution of the 100 grains of the neutral carbonate of soda, neutralize them exactly— which IS ascertained, as usual, by testing the solution with litmus-paper which should not be either reddened or rendered bluer by it— it is of course a sign that the test IS as It should be— that is to say, is of the proper strength ; in the contrary case, it must be S5 n? adjusted m the manner already mdicated, and which need not be repeated. See §§ 20, 21. 31. The best and most convenient process for the analyst, however, consists in prepar- ing a test acid of such a strength that it may serve not only for all alkalis, but indeed for wrnnf ^ ' *? '® ®*y' **y adjusting the test acid so that 100 alkalimetrical divisions of it (1,000 water-grains' measute) may exactly saturate or neutrahze one equivalent of every base. This method, which was first proposed by Dr. Ure, is exceedingly convenient and the possession of two reciprocal test liquids, -namely the ammonia test liquor of a standard strength, of which we gave a description in the article on Acidimetrv, and the standard test acid of which we are now speaking, affords, as Dr. Ure observes, ready and rigid means of verification. For microscopic analysis of alkaUne and of acid matter, a gradSted tube of a small bore mounted in a frame, with a valve apparatus at top, so as to let fall drops of any size and at any interval, is desirable ; and such an mstrument Dr. Ure emploved for many years; but instead of a tube with a valve apparatus at top, the operator may use a graduated tube of a small bore, terminated by a small length of vulcani^ india-rubber tube pinched m a clamp, which may be relaxed in such a way as to permit also the escape comma^nV ^^ ^^^ ^ *°^ interval of tune, the litUe apparatus being under perfect 32 The test sulphuric acid, of «uch a strength that 100 alkalimetrical divisions of it prep?i^'^as%ollow?- ^""^""^ ^^' ^"^^ ^""^ * ^^^"^ ^^^^ ""^ ^'^^^ *°^ ^ Take 53 grains (one equivalent) of pure anhydrous neutral carbonate of soda, obtained -fiS 1-75 =_M LS5 ±1 i I 48 ALKALIMETRY. in the manner indicated l>ofore, (see § 18,) and dissolve them in about one fluid ounce of water. Prejiare, in the menntinic, the test sulphuric acid by mixing one part, by measure, of concentrated sulphuric acid with about 11 or 12 parts of water, and stir the whole well. The mixture having become quite cold, fill the alkalinietcr with the cold diluted acid up to the point marked 0^, taking the under line of the liquid as the true level, and, yv\i\M stir- ring briskly the aqueous solution of the 53 grains of carbonate of soda above alluacd to, pour the acid carefully from the alkalimeter into the vortex produced by stirring, until, by testing the liquor alteniately with reddened and with blue litmus-paper, or, more conve- niently still, with gray litmus-paper, the neutralizing point is exactly hit. 33. If the whole of the 100 divisions of the alkalinietcr had been required to neutralize exactly the 53 grains of pure anhydrous carbonate of soda, it would be a proof that the acid is of the right strength ; but if this is not the case, it must be adjusted iu the manner described before, that is to say : — 34. Let us supiKxse, for example, that only 50 measures in the alkalimeter have been required to saturate or neutralize the 53 grains of carbonate of soda, then 50 measures should be poured at once into a glass cylinder accurately divided into 100 parts, the remain- inc 50 divisions should be filled up with water, and the whole being well stirred, 100 parts of the acid liquor will now contain as much real acid as was contained before in the 50 parts. 35. The acid may now be labelled simply, " Test or Normal Sulphuric Acid.^'' Each one hundred alkalimetrical divisions, or 1,000 water-grains' measure of it, contain one equivalent, or 40 grains of real sulphuric acid ; . and, consequently, each 100 alkalimetrical divisions of it will neutralize one equivalent, or 31 grains of soda, 47 of potash, 17 of ammonia, 28 of lime, and so forth, with respect to any other base. 36. The stock of test or normal sulphuric acid should, as usual, be kept in well-stop- pered bottles, in order to prevent concentration by evaporation. By keeping in the flask containing it a glass bead, exactly adjusted to the specific gravity of 1 032, the operator may always ascertain, at a glance, whether the acid requires readjusting. 37. With a Schiister's alkalimeter, it is convenient to prepare the test acid of such a strength that, according as it has been adjusted for potash or for soda, 10 grains of it will exactly saturate one grain of one or the other of these bases in a pure state. It is consid- ereii that the alkalimeter may be chai-ged with a known weight of any of the other sul- phuric test acids of a known strength. Suppose, for example, that the test sulphuric acid taken have a specific gravity of 1032, we know, as we have just shown, that 1-032 grains' weight of that acid contams exactly one equivalent of pure sul- phuric acid = 40, and is capable, therefore, of neutralizing one equivalent of any base; and, consequently, by taking a certain weight of this acid before beginning the assay, and weighing what is left of it after the assay, it is very easy to calculate, from the quantity of acid consumed iu the experiment, what quantity of base has been neutralized. Thus a loss of 2196 — 6070 — 33-29 grains' weight of this test acid represents one grain of potash, of ammonia, of soda respectively, and so on with the other bases. 38. The operator being thus provided with an appropriate test acid, we shall now describe how he should proceed with each of them in making an alkalimetrical assay with potash. In order to obtain a reliable result, a fair average sample must be operated upon. To secure this the sample should be taken from various parts of the mass, and at once put in a wide-mouth bottle, and well corked up until wanted ; when the assay has to be made, the contents of the bottle must be, reduced to powder, so as to obtain a fair mixture of the whole ; of this weigh out 1,000 grains exactly — or less, if that quantity cannot be spared — and dissolve them in a porcelain capsule in about 8 fluid ounces of distilled hot water, or in that proportion ; and if there be left any thing like an insoluble residue, filter, in order to separate it, and wash it on the filter with small quantities of distilled water, and pour the whole solution, with the washings and rinsings, into a measure divided into 10,000 water-drains' measure. If the water used for washing the insoluble residue on the filter has increased the bulk of the solution beyond 10,000 water-grains' measure, it must be reduced by evaporation to that quantity ; if, on the contrary, the solution poured in the measure stands below the mark 10,000 water-grains' measrn^, then as much water must be added thereto as will bring the whole ma?s exactly to that point. In order to do this cor- rectly, the cylindrical measure should stand well on a table, and the under or lower Ime formed by the liquid, as it reaches the scratch 10,000, is taken as the true level. 39. This being done, 1,000 grains' measure of the filtrate, that is to say, one-tenth part of the whole solution, is transferred to a glass beaker, in which the saturation or neutraliza- tion is to be effected, which is best done by means of a pipette capable of containing 18 lUU sea4 J. ISBI LUQ .4 %and 3000 zaao 1001 ALKALIMETRY. 40 exactly that quantity when filled up to the scratch, a. In order to fill such a pipette it is sufficient to dip it into the alkaline solution and to suck up the liquor a little above the scratch, a ; the upper orifice should then be stopped with the first finger, and by momentarily lifting it up, the liquor is allowed slowly to fall from the pipette back again into the 10,000 grains' measure until its level reaches exactly the scratch, a. The last drop which remains lianging from the point of the pipette may be readily detached by touching the sides of the glass measure with it The 1,000 grains being thus rigorously measured in the pipette should then be transferred to the glass beaker, in which the neutralization is to take place, by removing the finger alto- gether, blowing into it to detach the last drop, and rinsing it with a little water. 40. Or, instead of the pipette just described, the operator naay measiu*e 1,000 grains by taking an alkalimeter full of the alkaline solution, and emptying it into tlie glass beaker in which the neutralization is to take place, rinsing it with a little water, and of course adding the rinsing to the mass in the said glass beaker. 41. Whichever way is adopted, a slight blue color sliould be imparted^ to the 1,000 grains' measure of the alkaline solution, by pouring into it a small quantity of tincture of litmus. The glass beaker should then be placed upon a sheet of white paper, or a slab of white porcelain, in order that the change of color product by the gradual addition of the test acid may be better obser\'ed. 42. This being done, if the operator have decided upon using the test tidphuric^ for potash (§§ 17-22), he should take one of the alkalimeters, represented in Jigs, 11, 12, 13, or 14, and fill it up to 0°, (taking the under line of the liquid as the true level ;) then taking the alkalimeter thus charged in his right hand, and in bis left the glass beaker containing the alkaline solution colored blue by tincture of litmus, he should gradually and carefully pour the acid liquor into the alkaUne solution in the glass beaker, to which a circular motioa should be given whilst pouring the acid, or which should be briskly stured, in order to insure the rapid and thorough mixing of the two liquors, and therefore their complete reac- tion ; moreover, in order at once to detect any change of color from blue to red, the glass beaker should be kept over the white sheet of paper or the white porcelain slab, as before stated. 43. At first no effervescence is produced, because the carbonic acid expelled, instead of escapmg, combines with the portion of the alkaline carbonate as yet undecomposed, which it converts into bicarbonate of potash, and accordingly no sensible change of color is per- ceived ; but as soon as a little more than half the quantity of the potash present is satu- rated, the liquor begins to effervesce, and the blue color of the solution is changed into one of a vinous, that is, of a purple or bluish-red hue, which is due to the action of the car- bonic acid upon the blue color of the Utmus. More acid should be still added, but from this moment with very great care and with increased caution, gradually as the point of neu- tralization is approached, which is ascertained by drawing the glass rod used for stirring the liquor across a slip of blue litmus-paper. If the paper remains blue, or if a red or reddish streak is thereby produced which disappears on drying the paper and leaves the latter blue, it is a proof that the neutralization is not yet complete, and that the reddish streak was due only to the action of the carbonic acid ; more acid must accordingly be poured from the alkalimeter, but one drop only at a tune, stirring after each addition, until at last the liquor assumes a distinct red or pinJc color, which happens as soon as it contains an extremely slight excess of acid ; the streaks made now upon the litmus-paper will remain permanently red, even after drying, and this indicates that the reaction is complete, and that the assay is finished. 44. If the potash under examination were perfectly caustic, the solution would suddenly change from blue to pink, because there would be no evolution of carbonic acid at all, and consequently no vinous or purple color produced ; if, on the other hand, the potash was altogether in the state of bicarbonate, the first drops of te.«?t acid would at once decompose part of it and liberate carbonic acid, and impart a vinous color to the solution at the very outset, which vinous color would persist as long as any portion of the bicarbonate would remain undecomposed. 45. The neutralizing point being attained, the operator allows the sides of the alkalim- eter to drain, and he then reads off" the number of divisions which have been employed. If, for example, 50 divisions have been used, then the potash examined contained 50 per cent, of real potash. See observ., §48-49. 46. Yet it is advisable to repeat the assay a second time, and to look upon this first de- termination only as an approximation which enables the operator, now that he knows about where the point of neutralization lies, to arrive, if need be, by increased caution as he reaches that point, at a much greater degree of precision. He should accordingly take again an alkalimeter full (1,000 water-grains' measure) — ^that is to say, another tenth part of the liquor left in the 10,000 grains' measure — ^and add thereto at once 48 or 49 alka- limetrical divisions of the test acid, and aft«r having thoroughly agitated the mixture, pro- ceed to pour the acid carefully, two drops only at a tune, stirring after suob addition, and \ou III. — I I 50 ALKALIMETRY. touching a strip of litmus-paper with the end of the glass rod used for stirring • and so he should go on adding two drops, stirring, and making a streak on the litmus-paper until the liquor assumes suddenly a pink or onion-red color, and the streak made on the litmus-paper IS red also. The alkalimeter is then allowed to drain as before, and the operator reads off the number of divisions employed, from which number two drops (or ^ of a division) should be deducted ; Gay-Lussac having shown that, in alkalimetrical assiys, the sulphates of alkalis produced retard the manifestation of the red color in that proportion One alka- hmetncal division generally consists of 10 drops, but as this is not always the case the operator should determme for himself how many drops are necessary to make up' one division, and take account of them m the assay according to the ratio thus found In the example given before, and supposing 10 drops to form one alkalimetrical division 'then tho percentage value of the sample of potash under exammation would probably be as Number of divisions of acid employed, — 2 drops acid in excess, 60-0 0-2 Real percentage of potash, 4 9 8 4Y. When the alkalimeter described in fg. 13 is employed, the test acid may, at the begmmng of the experiment, be poured from the larger opening, e ; but towards the end- that IS when the neutralizing point is approaching— the acid should be carefully poured from the point, p, in single drops, or only two drops at a time, until the saturating point is hit, as we have just said. If the operator wishes to pour only one drop, he should close the larger opening e of the bulb with the thumb, and then fiU the bulb with the test acid bv inclining the alkalimeter ; putting now the alkalimeter in an upright position, and removing the thumb, a certain quantity of acid will be retamed in the capiUary point d • and if the thumb be now pressed somewhat forcibly against the opening, e, the acid contained in the capillary point wiU be forced out and form one drop, which will then fall into the alkaline solution if It be held over it. If the saturation be complete, the operator, without remove mg the bulb stopper, may, by applying his lips to the large opening, e, suck the acid en, gaged in the capillary point back into the alkaUmeter. 48. If there should be in the mind of the operator any doubt as to what is meant by the onion-red color which the liquor tinged blue with tincture of litmus acquires when sliehtly supersaturated, he may pour into a glass beaker a quantity of pure water equal to or even arger than, the alkaline solution operated upon, and tinge it blue with a little tincture of litmus, to about the same degree of intensity as the alkaline Uquor under examination K he now pour into the pure water colored blue with litmus, one single drop of the test acid it will acqmre at once, by stirring, the onion-red color alluded to, and which he mav now use as a standard of comparison. 49. Considering the rapidity with which these alkalimetrical operations can be per- formed, the operator, unless he has acquired sufficient practice, or unless a great decree of accuracy be not required, should repeat the assay two or three times, looking upon the first determmation only as an approximation, and as a sort of guide as to the quantity of acid which will be required in the subsequent experiments, whereby he will now be enabled to proceed with increased caution as he approaches the point of saturation • but at any rate, if he will not take the little extra trouble of. a repetition, he should, before he begins to pour the acid, take a Uttle of the filtered alkaline solution out of the glass beaker as a corps de reserve, which he adds to the rest after the saturating point has been approximated and from that moment he may proceed, but with great care, to complete the neutralization of the whole. 60. Do not forget that, as the test sulphuric acid must always he added in slight excess to obtain a distinct red streak on the litmus-paper, a correction is absolutely necessary • that is to say, the excess of sulphuric acid employed must be deducted if a strictly accurate result IS sought. 51. If, instead of the special alkalimeter for potash above described, the operator pre- fers using that prepared of such a strength that 100 divisions of the alkalimeter (100 water- grmns measure) contain exactly one equivalent of each alkali or base, which test sulphuric acid as we have seen, has a specific gravity of 1.032, {see §§ 31-36,) he should proceed exactly as indicated m § 38, and foUowing; and the alkalimeter being filled with that test acid, of specific gravity 1.032 up to 0°, it (the acid) should be poured carefully into the aqueous solution of the alkaU tinged blue with litmus, until exact neutralization is attained precisely in the same manner as in § 38, and following. *i, ^n V^^ neutralizing point being hit, let us suppose that the whole of the contents of the alkahmeter have been employed, that the aqueous solution tinged blue with litmus is not yet saturated, and that, after having refilled the alkalimeter, the 4 divisions more (alto- gether 104 divisions) have been required to neutralize the alkali in the aqueous solution • then, smce 100 divisions (1,000 water-grams' measure) of the test acid now employed satu- ALKALIMETRY. 100 : 47 :: 104 : a: = 48-88. The sample of potash examined contained, therefore nearly 49 ner rpnt «#• ,. 63. If instead of the special test sulphuric ac?d for^teshTs??^ or^S-^ ^^ . phuric acidrfor potash, and other hasf^^ (^ 9« wk^ !Irl . ' ^? ^'^ ^^ ^^ ^® 'est sul- into the alkalimeter untiUt reaches the point maS^T^^ ^^^^AlhlS^."" ^ ^T^ divisions of the alkalimeter,) taking the under lin^nffK. P^a' }u ^ ^ ^^^ ^^*«2 remaining divisions up to 0^ ^i^MWm^^^^^ %u ^ ^^ *™^ ^"^^^' ^^ ^he aperture of the alkalimeter wkh ^ thn-LK ^? I^ i rf 'f " 7^^ operator then closes the shaken so as to obt^nTperflc^^^^^^^ "^ ^ ^'^ ^^^' "^^ *^^ ^^^'^ ^ violently ' line'st Jorof th: ^IrdlrelJ^S'f L?STe^'^^^ thealkaHmeter into the alka- described in § 42, and followilig ^''^'^^*^^ ^^ neutralization is attained, precisely as drai^n^d^rtrn^t^^^^^^^ the alkalimeter to "t^HadTh" ^'^ r"^"^^^ «^ real p'o^shrSri^^L^^^^^ ^^^^""^^^'' ^^^ he sL^t^rSir^fJl^ ti^Te^^TT' ^^ P«^- -^nate of potash, of potash;^ filled thTreLw dfySL^ o^^^^^^ "? '^ '^' ^^' "^^^^^ ^caZ^ ceedTng exactly as just SoLd ThnumW nf nf ^^-^^^ 7 *?.^ ""''^ ^^^er, and pro- acid'^ be' :4J;ertLtwtK^^ tLri^o''gSi?"p^r^^ ^^^^'^^ *^* *« 1 grain in weight of potash, pro 'eeTStllows --fT^ average of the sample, previously reduced to nnwHo. ^^T i ^"?, &™»?3 »» weight of a fair precautions which W alre^dX; d^^^^^^^ "?^^'^ ^T ^^ ^« solution into a glass cylinder graduat^ into IMno;:.!^ ^ following,) and pour this water-grains • fill it im w.>h L* ^ mto 100 parts, and capable of containing 10 000 limetriSdiWslon ZrL n;^T'/- Y^.'^J Sethis takerwTo^'^ beaker. On the otLr ^Veha^^K ^hi^st^^^^^^^ P^" ^' ^-to a glass test acid, and weigh it, along witK ^iKumpflr S^^'^^ "^"^^'^y o^ the ceed with the neutraliktion^oT tL soSTn tV^^^^^^ ' Y ^^^ ^^^^- '^^ ^^^e, pro- the alkalimeter m the usual waraTdw^th thn , ^ ^ ^""^^^^ ^^ P^"""g ^« acid from completed. Replace theXlmet^ wi^f the oul"^ ^? "^^ ««'^^tion is of the balance, weigh accurately, aSd dnce e ve?y S of ^llf^^"^^ f\ ^ ^^ «^« of potash, the number of grains of acid used In^fTnerimPn. -TT'' ' ^ ^^ * ^^ centage of real potash pre^nt in the sample experiment indicates at once the per- ash oLrrel^t'S Seni^llf 0^'^^^^^^^ ^ '' '"^^"^°«^ *»^« ^ -^h the pot- amount of the cheaperXfcoSd not untiultn * 'l- "^""^ *^" determination of the except by the expensive and t^^i^ nroPPWoTP. '^^'^^'^^ P«"«^» ^ esthnated, ever, M. Edmund Pes^er/S^ryCh1mf.?^^S'v^'^'^ ^"^^''^ ^ ^^^ ^^- commercial method for the TstSon nf fhT«^ A^^l^^^ published an ea^y and sulphate of soda present •; an increaleTd^m?.^!^ i^.i" f^P<"^><><' to the quantity of the solubility of the sulphate of Mte!h i, ^,w "^ 'h"""* '^""'^ obsenrable, that soda. It had at fi«t be^n ftougffi Kef S^^"*^ ^^^^' ^"^'"^ of sulphate of be necessary to combine all &? poS'mA S^e Li^^^d T f'"!, "''«,»?=«"<=y. » would consequently, that as the notash ^^Tm™^ ^ ' P^ef^ra^ly sulphuric acid ; and, « rather comiderable qiLtU^of chSTnlfj^S' ""??''? " "*"*• ""^ «'»«'!»S decomposed. Further exDerimenLw.,t, P.«>e latter salt should firet be ride of^otassium in a s^SS sS'u&'^u^^S^f''' '^h*S """ '-2 *^'^'°S <^'"«- liquor is not materially increased «;n^r .L ■ . ? .- P*"™"' *« specific gravity of the chloride of potassium lJStoerer.h*f A^^^^t"'" °l "^ »"'"' " »«>' "-t. of do when exgnined by thenrromTtS°!^deL,rf 1 *'".' P*!""*" "^ «"'« "»»'<» purpose. WhensoJa ''^ -^^7^^: s^^'^:^^':^'sS^,TT^tX^rS^, 52 ALKALIMETRY. 21 addition of chlonde of potassium thereto renders the specific gravity of the liquor less than It would have been without that addition-an appaVent ^omaly due to the fact th^ to rr' M P7^7«5«"lpl^"ric acid, of potash, and of soda, combines with Te latter baS tojom chlonde of sodium ; and it is this salt which increases the solubility of sulphate of potash, though ma somewhat less degree than sulphate of soda. Thus, if to a 4tumted solution of sulphate of potash 014 of soda be added along with 020 of 'chloride of p?tas smm, the natrometer indicates only 0-125 of soda. Seeing, therefore, that in such an exceptional case the error does not amount to more than 0-015 of error, t wmirobably be found unnecessary m most cases to decompose the chloride contained in The Cashed of commerce that quantity being too small to materially affect the resuU Yet as the aS^rate detemimation of soda in potash was a great desideratum, M. Pesier contrived ?wo proceres than thl^'n'X*^-1 ^"^^'rfi '^ ^T''""^ "^^™^^*' '« «« P^^f^^* ^^ but much mC S tluul T 2r?'°r^y ^^««rt«/ *o ; tbe other, which is a simplification of the first Ss results of sufficient accuracy for all commercial purposes ^ 60. First process— T^e 500 grains of a fair average sample of the potash to be examined, dissolve them in as little water as possible, filtlr, and wash the fifter tmtil the washings are Ho longer alkaUne. This filtering, however, may be dispensed with ^en he ^^^S^& -^ ^^-^^ '^' ^ -^^ -^^-' - -^- Textr d^^eV^^ *\.. l\' '^^ • ^''^'^' ^^'"^ *?"^ dissolved, a slight excess of sulphuric acid is added thereto - the exce^ is necessary to decompose the chlorides and expel the muriatic acid The S; whe^ft t- case Tp'u:^^,-; to M.L.'Jte y„^^ fiu°^""?' "'■ f ' ^^ <^<^d, it is necessary te^l^ „w' hfAT""- h"'/' l-y """lent, too much ^iZ . 54 ALKALIMETRY. hold- ' the natrometer, which should be perfectly clean, by its upper extremity, slowly iiimi.i.e It in the solution. If the potash under examination be pure, the pink siale will indicate the degree of temperature at which the experiment has been made, taking the under line as the true level of the liquid ; but if, on the contrary, it contains soda the pink scale of temperatures will indicate a few degrees more than the real temperature and this surplus number of degrees, being compared with thase of the soda scale contiguous to it on the opposite side, wUl express the percentage of soda present in the sample. ' 74. For example :_Suppose the experiment to have been made at 4- 12" centigrade and to have given a solution marking 25° on the pink scale of temperatures of the natrometer tnat IS, 13 more than the real temperature ;— looking therefore at number 13 on the pink scale of temperature, it will be seen that the number exactly opposite on the soda scale, and corresponding to it, is 4, which indicates that the sample of potash examined contains 4 per cent of soda. ^ It is important to bear in mind that all commercial potashes contain naturally a small quantity of soda, which quantity, in certain varieties, may even be considerable ; it is only when the proportion of soda is more considerable than that which is naturally contained %n the species of potash submitted to analyisis, that it should be considered as fraudulently added. The following table, published by M. Pesier, shows the average composition of the principal varieties of potash found in commerce, when in an unadulterated state. Average Composition of Potashes. ' 1 • 1 & a i e i X 1 < ^ Potathea obUin. ed in tbo Labo- ratory by cal- « > 18S1. 18S5. •S si p i 1 > • ■s 1 cining. •> ri a • 11 0. •sir 115 Sulphate of potash Chloride of potassium - Carboiiate of potash Carbonate of soda (dry) Insoluble residue - Moi5tu;-e .... Phosphoric acid, lime, silica, &c. Alkalimetric degrees 13-47 0-95 7410 8-01 0-65 T-28 0-54 14-11 15-32 2-09 8-15 69-61 68-07* 8-09 5-85 1-21 8-85 8-82 unde- ter- mined 1-07, ditto 14.88 8-64 71-38 2-31 0-44 4-56 8-29 88-84 916 88-68 417 2.66 5.84 1-20 4-27 iai7 51-83 24-17 1-56 2-98 19-69 63-90 2817 0-26 1619 88-89 26-64 19-60 • • 8-6S 1-60 1-60 89-95 612 0-50 1-83 0-70 1-70 9524 2-12 0-24 100-00 100-00 100-00 100-00 100-00 100.00 69-7 100-00 100 00 100-00 56 531 55 54-4 81-6 60 1 86.5 685 69-5 75. The alkaltmetricnl assay of soda is performed exactly in the same manner as that of potash—that is to say : From, a fair average sample of the soda to be examined take 1,000 grains' weight, (or less, if that quantity cannot be spared) and boil it five or six minutes in about eight fluid ounces of water ; filter, in order to separate the insoluble por- tion, and wash the residue on the filter with boiling water until it no longer drops from the filter with an alkaline reaction, and the bulk of the filtered liquid and the washings received in a graduated glass cylinder form 10,000 grains' measure. Should the water which may have been required to wash the residue have increased the bulk of the solution beyond that quantity, it should be evaporated to reduce it to the bulk mentioned. 76. This bemg done, 1,000 water-grains' measure— that is to say, -L part of the aqueous solution of the soda ash above mentioned (§ 75)— is transferred to the glass beaker or vessel in which the saturation is intended to take place, it is tinged distinctly blue With tincture of litmus, and the operation is performed in the same manner and with the same precautions as for potash ; the glass beaker containing the blue alkaline solution being placed upon a sheet of white paper, or a slab of white porcelain, the better to observe the change of color which takes place when the saturating point is approaching. 77. Having put into a glass beaker the 1,000 grains' measure of the aqueous solution of soda ash to be examined, (§ 75,) and of the test sulphuric acid for soda, described before, (§§ 23-27,) the alkalimeter, fffs. 12, 13, 14, should be filled with that test acid up t ihe point marked 0°, (taking the under line of the liquid as the true level,) and poured ther f cm with the precaution already indicated, stirring briskly, at the same time, the liquid i :he beaker. As is the case with the alkalimetrical assay of potash, the carbonic acid expelled * In the impossibility of estimating exactly the loss by calcination, and the quantity of oxide <4 potassium in the caustic state, (hvdrate of potash,) we have reduced the potash to the state of carbon- ite, to make comparison more ea'y. ALKALIMETRY. by the test acid reacting upon the as yet undecomposed portion of the soda ash Pnnv«rf« ;* into bicarbonate of soda, so that at first no efferveLnce is prXed but i s^ Zf^lf the quantity of the soda in the solution is saturated,* brisk eff^es^ic^ t^es^i^^ At te"t\ M^mrt^^^^^^^^^^ rj PT '' '""''^ ^''^'^' fear,T™l^etSn^ty"of tt dtlvThi /^'T'^i ''' ? *^'''^' precisely as already detailed for the^a^y of S^tXo^ cisely the same kind and amount of rarp is rpnnJaltQ o«^ *u .«»«/ ^t poiasn, pre- equivalent of U bS^, i^.1iLZ^,:^aJTisttZ'^^ZZ^l tf^V^^J'Z now employed are capable of saturating only that quantity of3a! it L clS^ ^ft w^th tK^ alkalimete'r, (§§ 28-lKTthe' method ^Ef^slh'i '^I'c^U ^ ' tL^^t *"' "^ aqueous solution of the soda ash is poured intS threlS^iktr th^ dfer^ \1^ ^^' ^ that instead of the alkaUmeter being q^te filled .mt^thfJofl * d/fferepce being merely the present instance, has a specific fr2vky of l-afiS^^S 9q/*k ^^*/"'Ph"'?5 ^^i^' ^^ich, in hand and the whole violently shaken until perfeX mixed tekin^^^t^Z^^ *^^* not to squ rt any of the acid ont nF fi,o t,.^ «!• u "****'"» ^''^ng great care, of course, em,r proVrtiona'te to the quantUy of the ^^Lli"whiSwS Z'"^\'"^ " T^' "^ .old ^ould then be pou^d'from (he aSu^to tTr wUh he To^ ^Zt^uZT,^^, TJ' glass beaker conta n ng the aaueous solution nf *h^ o!J„ •J&uai precaution (§ 76) into the plete neutralization is atteined sti^rin^S^^^ ^^ f^,^^ under examination, until con- test acid. The neutralSVc^rb^'^^^^^^^^ ^t sWes TfVJ "l^^ ""f*^ "^^*\^" ^^ ^»^« drain, and the operator then reads off thf nlhl ip^- • *^ alkalimeter are allowed to indicates the percentage of^aTit'l.Lt^neX'Sel^^^^^ ^^"^^ operated upon be the same as that allnH^^H ♦« uHf ^C^ assayed, ihus, if the sample b^g.52 would indicateTpS cent. rfllS sol ' *" ''"°"^' "' '"™"'°' "'^^"^'^ to the point marked carlnmaSrifl^J^AK^hT '".I."*";?"'. ^^^^ ^^e carbonic acid is thereby thoroughly expelled ♦hot.^ ^""^'T- ?>^ ^'"^ ^" P^"^* ^^^^ served as a stopper is now removed from S.pio^''' ^'lif'^'^r fPP^^"^ ^^^^«°^^ *^°^^' i^ ««ler to sweep the flasks^th atiTo? ^^mra^t^M.t'P^X'^} *^^ ^^"T ^^^^ ^^ *^« ^PP^^t^S' which isTowd to ^^t Td thP l^H """'^^if-^ ag«;n, together with the wax pellet, the difference between rff^trtlL^Xry^^^^^^^^ ^^- xnaybeLcmated. Supp^^s^i S! Equivalent of soda - - - do garbonic acid - - - . = 31 = 22 1 equivalent of carbonate of soda = 63, it is clear that the ^ 9 grains of carbonic acid which have been expelled represent A^H' S t.^'^ t^'ir^'Ll-^ 100 g^ins Of sod. L ope^L upon^^! 22 NaO» CO' : 63 ;: C0« 19 NaO» C0» = 45-77 95. As the soda ash of commerce always contains earthy carbonates, and very frequentlv sulphurets sulphites, and occasionally hyposulphites, instead of putting the 100 grains to be operated upon directly mto the flask a, it is absolutely necessary first to dissolve them in boiling water to filter the solution, and to wash the precipitate which may be left on the filter with boding water. The solution and the washings being mixed together, should then be reduced by evaporation to a proper volume for introduction into the flask a and the process is then <»rried on as described. If sulphuret, sulphites, or hyposulphites are present, the ash should be treated exactly as mentioned in §§ 83-91, previous to pouring the solution into the flask a since otherwise the sulphuretted hydrogen and sulphurous acid which would be disengaged along with the carbonic acid, would apparently augment the proportion of the latter, and render the result quite erroneous. ^^ J ^ 96 The balance used for this mode of analysis should be capable of indicating small weights when heavily laden. — A. N. *- 6 °*"»'* ALKALINE EARTHS— Barytes, Lime, and Strontta. These earths are so called to distinguish them from the earths Magnesia and Alumina. They are soluble in water but to a much less extent than the alkalies. Their solutions unpart a brown color to tunieric paper, and neutralize acids. They are, however, distinguished from the alkalies bv their combination with carbonic acid, being neariy insoluble in water wr,-;^\^^^^' ""f ^L-HENNA is the name of the root and leaves oi Law»onia inermis, which have been long employed m the East to dye the nails, teeth, hair, garments, &c The leaves, ground, and mixed with a little limewater, serve for dyeing the tails of hirses in rersia and Turkey. It is the same as the herb Jlenna frequently referred to by the Oriental poets. The powder of the leaves, being wet, forms a paste, which is bound on the nails for a night, and the color thus given will last for several weeks. This plant is sometimes called the true alkanet root, the alkanet of the shops bemg termed the spurious alkanet root, (radix alkannce apurite.) ■ c Jt^^^^}^\ .?°® J?f *i® hy^l'-ocarbons which can be obtained from naphtha. It is one »f the most volatile of bodies. Alliok is obtained by distilling crude naphtha, and coUect- ALLOY 59 ing all that leaves the still in the first distillation before the boiling temperature reaches 194° F ; and on the second distillation, all below 176° F. This substance combines with, or is altered by, oil of vitriol, and hence it is better obtained from the crude naphtha, and afterwards purified by agitation with dilute sulphuric or hydrochloric acid, and redistillation. It boils, when nearly free from benzole, at a temperature of from 140° to 158° F., and possesses an alliaceous odor somewhat resembling sulphide of carbon. — Richardson. ALLOTROPY. Allotropic Condition. A name introduced by Berzelius to signify another form of the same substance, derived from JBlKKos, another, and rpAwos, habit Car- bon, for example, exists a§ the diamond, a brilliant gem, with difficulty combustible ; as graphite, a dark, heavy, opaque mass, often crystalline, also of great infusibility ; and as charcoal, a dark porous body, which burns with facility. An extensive series of bodies appears to assume similar allotropic modifications. The probability is that, with the advance of physical and chemical science, many of the substances now supposed to be elementary will be proved to be but allotropic states of some one form of matter. Deville has already shown that silicon and boron exist, like the dia- . mond, in three allotropic states— one of the conditions of boron being much harder than the diamond. ■A-IiLOY. The experiments of Crookewitt upon amalgams appear to prove that the combination of metals in alloys obeys some laws of a similar character to those which prevail between combining bodies in solution; a. e. that a true combining proportion existed. By amalgamation and straining through chamois leather, he obtained crystalline metallic compounds of gold, bismuth, lead, and cadmium, with mercury, which appeared to exist in true definite proportions. With potassium he obtained two amalgams, KHg^ and KHg*. With silver, by bringing mercury in contact with a solution of nitrate of silver, according to the quantity of mercury employed, he obtained such amalgams as Ae 'He" Ae He* AgHg\AgHg*. ^ 5 S , S g, Beyond those there are many experiments which appear to prove that alloys are true • chemical compounds ; but, at the same time, it is highly probable that the true chemical alloy is very often dissolved (mechanically disseminated) in that metal which is largely in excess. Some years since, the editor carried out an extensive series of experiments in the labo- ratory of the Museum of Practical Geology, with the view of obtaining a good alloy for soldiers' medals, and the results confirmed his views respecting the laws of definite, propor- tional combination among the metals. Many of those alloys were struck at the Mint, and yielded beautiful impressions ; but there were many objections urged against the use of any alloy for a medal of honor. The alloys of the following metals have been examined by Crookewitt, and he has given their specific gravities as in the following table ; the specific gravity of the unalloyed metala being — Copper - - - 8-794 j Zinc - - ' - 6-860 Tin ... 7-305 Lead - - - 11-364 That of the alloys was — Cu'Sn* • • 7-652 Cu Pb 10-376 Cu Sn - 8-072 Sn Zn' - 7-096 Cu»Sn • • 8-512 Su Zn 7-116 Cu'Zn' • '*• 7-939 Sn» Zn 7-235 • Cu»Zn' • m 8-224 Sn Pb« - 9-965 Cu« Zn m m 8-392 Sn Pfe^ - Sn» Pb* - •_ 9-394 Cu'Pb' » m 10-753 9-025 There are many points of great physical as well as chemical interest m connection with alloys, which require a closer study than they have yet received. There are some striking facts, brought forward by M. Wertheim, deduced from experiments carried on upon fiftv- four binary alloys and nine ternary alloys of simple and known composition, which will be found m the " Journal of the French Institute," to which we would refer the reader. • On the Melting Point of Certain Alloys. Centigrade Thermometer. Lead 334° Tin 230° Tin, 5 atoms ; lead, 1 atom - 194° " 4 « " 1 " . 189° u 3 « u 2 « , jggo Centigrade Thermometer. Tin, 2 atoms ; lead, 1 atom - 196° .c 1 u " 1 *i . 241° " 1 '* " 3 " - 289° " 2 vols. ; " 1 vol - 194° la these experiments of M. Kupffer, the temperatures were determined with thermom- ii I f 1 ■ 60 ALLOY. eters of great delicacy, and the weighings were carefully carried out. — Ann. de Chimie. xl. 285-302 ; Brewster's Edin. Jour. Sci. i. N.S. p. 299. It may prove convenient to give a general statement of the more striking peculiarities of the important alloys. More detailed information will be found under the heads of the respective metals. Gold and Silver Alloys. — The British standard for gold coin is 22 parts pure gold and 2 parts alloy ; and for silver, 222 parts pure silver to 18 parts of alloy. The alloy for the gold is an indefinite proportion of silver and copper : some coin has a d:\rk red color, from the alloy being chiefly copper ; the lighter t|ie color a larger proportion of silver is indicated, sometimes even (when no copper is present) it approaches to a greenish tinge, but the proportion of pure gold is the same in either case. The alloy for silver coinage is always copper ; and a very pure quality of this metal is used for alloying, both for the gold and silver coinage, as almost any other metal being present, even in very small quantities, would make the metals unfit for coinage, from ren- dering the gold, silver, and copper brittle. Or not sufficiently malleable. The standard for plate (silver) is the same as the coin, and requires the same quan- tity of copper, and carefully melting with two or three bits of charcoal on the surface while in fusion, to prevent the oxidation of the copper by heat and exposure to the atmos- phere. The gold standard for plate and jewellery varies, by a late act of Parliament, from the 22 carats pure, to 18, 12, and 9 : the alloys are gold and silver, in various proportions, according to the taste of the workmen ; the color of the articles manufactured depending, as with the coin, on the proportions ; if no copper is used in qualities under 22 carats fine gold, the color varies from a soft green to a greenish white, but a proportion of copper may be used so as to bring the color to nearly that of 22 fine, 1 silver, and 1 copper. Wire of either gold or silver may be drawn of any quality, but the ordinary wire, for fine purposes, such as lace, contains from 5 to 9 pennyweights of copper in the pound of 240 pennyweights, to render it not so soft as it would be with pure silver. Gold, silver, and copper, may be mixed in any proportions without injury to the ductil- ity, but no reliable scale of tenacity appears to have been constructed, although gold and silver in almost any proportions may be drawn to the very finest wire. The alloys of silver and palladium may be made in any proportions ; it has been found that even 3 per cent, of palladium prevents silver tarnishing so soon as without it ; 10 per cent, very considerably protects the silver, and 30 per cent, of palladium will prevent the silver being affected by fumes of sulphuretted hydrogen unless very long exposed : the latter alloy has been found useful for dental purposes, and the alloy with less proportions — say 10 to 15 per cent. — ^has been used for graduated scales of mathematical instruments. The alloy of platinum and silver is made for the same purposes as those of palladium, and, by proper care in fusion, are nearly equally useful, but the platinum does not seem to so perfectly combine with the silver as the palladium. Any proportion of palladium with gold injures the color, and even 1 per cent, may be detected by sight, and 5 per cent, ren- ders it a silver color, while about 10 per cent, destroys it ; but the ductility of the alloy is not much injured. Gold leaf for gilding contains from 3 to 12 grains of alloy to the ounce. Sixteen- carat gold, which is f fine gold and ^ alloy, the alloy being nearly always equal portions of silver and copper, is not in the slightest degree injurious for dentists' purposes. Antimony in the proportion of j^Vif quite destroys the ductility of gold. Gold and platinum alloy forms a' somewhat elastic metal. Hermstadt's imitation of gold consists of 16 parts of platinum, 7 parts of copper, and 1 of zinc, put in a crucible, covered with charcoal powder, andpnelted into a mass. — P. J. Dentists' amalgam is prepared by rubbing together, in a mortar, or even in the hollow of the hand, finely divided silver and mercury, and then pressing out all the uncombined mercury. This alloy, when put into the hollow of a decayed tooth, very soon becomes exceedingly hard. Some dentists add a little copper, or gold, or platinum leaf, under the impression that the amalgam becomes harder. Copper Alloys. — Copper alloyed with zinc forms Brass, and with tin, we have Bronze. (See those articles.) The alloys of the ancients were usually either brasses or bronzes. The following analyses of ancient coins, &c., by Mr John Arthur Phillips, are of great value. It is not a little curious to find that some of the coins of high antiquity contain zinc, which does not appear to have been known as a metal before 1280 a.d., when Albertus Magnus speaks of zinc as a semi-metal^ and calls the alloy of copper and zinc golden marca- site ; or rather, perhaps, he means to apply that name to zinc, from its power of imparting a golden color to copper. The probability is that calamine was known from the earliest times as a peculiar earth, although it was not thought to be an ore of zinc or of any other metal. — See Wcuson's Chemical Essays, ALLOY. ^ft/ ^8 .... Semis - . . . Quadrans • . . Hiero I. - - - Alexander the Great - Philippus III. Philippus V. - - Copper coin of Athens Egyptian, Ptolemy IX. Pompey, First Brass - Coin of the Atilia Family Julius and Augustus - Augustus and Agrippa Large Bra^s of the Cas- } sia Family - j" Sword-blado Broken sword-blade - Fragment of sword-blade Broken spear-head Celt - - . - Celt - - - - Celt .... Celt - - . - Large Brass of Nero Titus - - - . Hadrian • . . Faustina, Jun. Greek Imperial Samosata Victorinus, Sen. (No. 1) VIctorinus, Sen. (No. 2) Tetrius, Sen. (No. 1) - Tetrius, Sen, (No. 2) - Claudius Gothicus(No. 1) Claudius Gothicus (No. 2) Tacitus (No. 1) - Tacitus (No. 2) - - Probus (No. 1) - Probus (No, 2) - DM*. B. C. 500 500 500 470 835 823 200 f 70 53 45 42 SO 20 A. D. I 69-69 62,04 72-22 9415 86-77 90 27 8515 88-34 84-21 7417 68-69 7913 — I 78-45 — ' 82-26 89-69 85-62 91-79 99-71 90-68 90-18 89-83 88-61 81-07 83-04 85-67 7914 70.91 96-37 9713 ^ 98-50 93-00 81-60 84-70 8608 91-46 90-63 94-65 .S 60 79 1-20 165 212 262 262 267 263 ■268 275 ■275 7-16 7-66 7-17 5-49 12-99 9-48 11-12 9-95 15-64 8-47 4-86 8-00 12-96 9-58 10-02 8-17 7-48 9-81 9-19 10-79 1-05 1-14 497 6-75 •99 -10 -87 •51 7-41 801 8-63 2^ •45 21-82 29-32 19-56 2-85 •68 16-15 25-43 12-81 8-62 1-28 8-20 1-78 9-18 21-96 trace trace trace 811 2 67 4-87 288 •45 I •47 •18 •40 •82 •42 •26 trace •29 -11 trace trace •85 •88 •44 trace trace trace •88 •58 •50 •74 •23 trace trace 101 •46 •05 •81 £•81 •61 •80 J5 00 a trace 'trace 17-81 17-81 15-84 10,85 6-27 trace trace •06 trace trace •19 •20 trace trace 1-89 — 1 trace trace trace trace trace trace •28 trace •24 trace I "67 ■28 •as trace trace trace 1^60 1-76 -76 1-15 1-86 7-98 4-42 6^ 2-24 8-22 -SI Copper, when united with half its weight of lead, forms an inferior alloy, resemblin*' gun-metal in color, but is softer and cheaper. This alloy is called pot-metal and cock-metcU, because it is used for large measures and in the manufacture of tap-cocks of all de- scriptions. Sometimes a small quantity of zinc is added to pot-metal ; but when this is considerable, the copper seizes the zinc to form brass, and leaves the lead at liberty, a large portion of which separates on cooling. Zinc and lead are not disposed to unite ; but a little arsenic occasions them to combine. Of the alloys of copper and lead, Mr. Holtzapffel gives the following description :— Lead Alloys. — Two ounces lead to one pound copper produce a red-colored and duc- tile alloy. Foup ounces lead to one pound copper give an alloy less red and ductile. Neither of these is so much used as the following, as the object is to employ as much lead as possible. Six ounces lead to one pound copper is the ordinary pot-metal, called dry pot-metal, as this quantity of lead will be taken up without separating on cooling ; this alloy is brittle when warmed. .o » » .^ Seven ounces lead to one pound copper form an alloy which is rather short, or disposed to break. Eight ounces lead to one pound copper is an inferior pot-metal, called tcet pot-metal, as the lead partly oozes out in cooling, especially when the new metals are mixed ; it is there- fore always usual to fiU the crucible in pari; with old metal, and to add new for the remain- der. This alloy is very brittle when slightly warmed. More lead can scarcely be used, as It separates on cooling. Antimony twenty parts and lead eighty parts form the printing-type of France ; and lead and antimony are united in various proportions to form the type-metal of our printers. See Ttpe, Mr. ^ames Nasmyth, in a letter to the " Athenaeum," (No. 1176, p. 511,) directed atten- tion to the employment of lead, and its fitness as a substitute for all works of art hitherto executed m bronze or marble. He says the addition of about 5 per cent of antimonv to the lead will give it, not only great hardness, but enhance its capability to run into the most delicate details of the work. Baron Wetterstedt's patent sheathing for ships consists of lead, with 2 to 8 per cent, of antimony ; about 3 per cent, is the usual quantity. The alloy is rolled out into sheets.— Holtzapffel. We are not aware that this alloy has ever been employed. 62 ALLOY. 1 sJ^^^^ "^^Geh and grinding tools for the lapidary are formed of an alloy of antimony and Organ pipes are sometimes made of lead and tin, the latter metal bemg employed to harden the lead. The pipes, however, of the great organ in the Town HaU of Birmingham are principally made of sheet zinc. ^ Lead and arsenic form shot-metal. The usual proportions are said to be 40 lbs of metalhc arsenic to one ton of lead. Tabular Statement of the Physical Peculiarities of the Principal Alloys, adopted, with some alterations, from the ''Encyclopedic Techndogiquey BRITTLE METALS. Abskkio. With Zinc, rendering it brittle. With Iron and Steel, hard- ending, whitening, and ren9ering those metals susceptible of a fine pol- ish : muoh used for steel chains and other orna- ments. With Gold, a gray metal, very brittle. With Copper. Composed of 62 parts of copper and 32 arsenic, a gray, brilliant, brittle metal. Increasing the quantity of copper, the alloy be- comes white and slightly ductile : used in the man- ufacture qf buttons un- der the name of white copper, or Tombac. With Silver. 23 of silver and 14 of arsenic form a grayish-white brittle metaL « With Lead. Arsenic ren- ders lead brittle. The combination is very inti- mate ; not decomposed by heat. AuTuioirr. This alloy is very brittle. 30 of iron and 70 of anti- mony are fusible ; very hard, and white. An alloy of two of iron and one of antimony is very hard and brilliant. Forms readily a pale-yellow alloy, breaking with a fracture like porcelain. Alloys readily: the alloys are brittle. Those form- ed with equal parts of the two metals are of a fine violet color. BlSHTTTH. Unknown, Doubtful Similar to antimony; of a yellow-green color. Pale-red brittle metal. With Tin. Brittle, gray, lamellated; less fusible than tin. With Mercury. interest. Without These have a strong aflSni- ty ; their alloys are al- ways brittle. Antimony gives hardness to lead. 24 parts of an- timony and 76 of lead, corresponding to Pb'Sb, appear the point of satu- ration of the two metals. The alloys of antimony and tin are very white. They become brittle when the arsenic is in large quan- tity. A gritty white alloy. Alloys brittle lated. and lamel- ALLOY. DUCTILE METALS. iBOir. With Zinc. See Galvanized Iron. With Iron or Steel. The alloys of bismuth and lead are less brittle and more ductile than those with antimony; but the alloy of 3 parts of lead and 2 of bismuth is harder than lead. These alloys are very fusihk. Tin and bismuth unite in all proportions by fusion. All the alloys are more fusible than tin. Mercury dissolves a large quantity of bismuth with- out losing its fluidity; but drops of the alloy elongate, and form a tail. With Gold With Copper With Lead, does not * appear to form any alloy. With Tin. A very little iron dimin- ishes the mallea- biUty of tin, and gives it hardness. With Mercury. Mercury has no action on iron. Gold. A greenish-yellow alloy, which will take a fine polish. Gold and iron alloy with ease, and form yellowish al- loys, varying in color with the proportions of the metals. Three or four parts of iron united with one of gold is very hard, and is used in the manufacture of cutting instru- ments. COPPKB. See Brass. Iron and copper do not form true al- loys. When fused together, the iron, however, retains a little copper. — Several methods for coating iron with copper and brass will be de- scribed. BlLTEB. Silver and zinc com- bine easily, form- ing a somewhat brittle allov. When 1 of silver and 500 of steel are fused, a very perfect button is formed. — Stodart and Faraday. Copper and gold al- loy in all propor- tions, the copper giving hardness to the gold. Thisal- 1^ is much used in coin and in the metal employed in the manufacture of jewellery. A very brittle alloy. A thousandth pt. ofleadissuflScient to .alter the duc- tility of gold. The alloys of gold and tin are brit- tle ; they preserve, however, some ductility when the proportion of tin does not exceed |L, Mercury has a most powerful action on gold. See Amal- gam. Do not appear to form a true alloy. Of great importance. See Bronze. An amalgam which is formed with dif- ficulty, and with- out interest. Gold and silver mix easily together ; but they do not appear to form a true combination. Jewellers often employ Tor vert, which is composed of 70 parts of gold and 30 of silver, which corresponds very nearly to the alloy possessing the maximum .hardness. Silver and copper alloy in all pro- portions. These al- loys are much used in the arts. The maximum hard- ness appears to be produced when the alloy contains a fifth of copper. Unite in ail propor- tions ; but a very small quantity of lead will greatly diminish the duc- tility of silver. Alloys readily. A very small quan- tity of tin destroys the ductility of ailver. The amalgamation of these two metals is a little less ener- getic than between mercury and gold. See Amalgama- tion. i ' ' 64 ALLOY. In addition to these, the alloys of iron appear of suflScient importance to require some further notice. Iron and Manganese. — Mr. Mushet concludes, from his experiments, that the maximum combination of manganese and iron is 40 of the former to 100 of the latter. The alloy 71 "4 of tin and 28-6 of manganese is indifferent to the magnet. Iron and Silver ; Steel and Silter. — Various experiments have been made upon alloys of iron and steel with other metals. The only alloys to which sufficient importance has been given are those of iron and silver and steel and silver. M. Guyton states, in the " Annales de Chimie," that he found iron to alloy with silver in greater quantity than the silver with the iron. " Iron can," he says, " therefore no longer be said to refuse to mix with silver ; it must, on the contrary, be acknowledged that those two metals, brought into perfect fusion, contract an actual chemical union ; that whilst cooling, the heaviest metal separates for the greatest part ; that, notwithstanding each of the two metals retains a portion of the other, as is the case in every liquidation, the part that remains is not simply mixed or inter- laid, but chemically united; lastly, the alloy in these proportions possesses peculiar properties, particularly a degree of hardness that may render it extremely useful for various purposes." The experiments of Faraday and Stodart on the alloys of iron and steel are of great value ; the most interesting being the alloy with silver. The words of these experimen- talists are quoted : — " In making the silver alloys, the proportion first tried was 1 silver to 160 steel ; the re- sulting buttons were uniformly steel and silver in fibres, the silver being likewise given out in globules during solidifying, and adhering to the surface of the fused buttons ; some of these, when forged, gave out more globules of silver. In this state of mechanical mixture the little bars, when exposed to a damp atmosphere, evidently produced voltaic action ; and to this we are disposed to attribute the rapid destruction of the metal by oxidation, no such destructive action taking place when the two metals are chemically combined. These results indicated the necessity of dimini^ng the quantity of silver, and 1 silver to 200 steel was tried. Here, again, were fibres and globules in abundance ; with 1 to 300 the fibres diminished, but still were present ; they were detected even when 1 to 400 was used. Tlie successful experiment remains to be named. When 1 of silver to 500 steel were properly fused, a very perfect button was produced ; no silver appeared on its surface ; when forged and dissected by an acid, no fibres were seen, although examined by a high magnifying power. The specimen forged remarkably well, although very hard ; it had in every respect the most favorable appearance. Fy a delicate test every part of the bar gave silver. This alloy is decidedly superior to the very best steel ; and this excellence is unquestionably owing to a combination with a minute quantity of silver. It has been repeatedly made, and always with equal success. Various cutting tools have been made from it of the best qual- ity. This alloy is, perhaps, only inferior to that of steel and rhodium, and it may be procured at small expense ; the value of silver, where the proportion is so small, is not worth naming ; it will probably be applied to many important purposes in the arts." Messrs. Faraday and Stodart show from their researches that not only silver, but plati- num, rhodium, gold, nickel, copper, and even tin, have an affinity for steel sufficiently strong to make them combine chemically. Iron and Niokel unite in all proportions, producing soft and tenacious alloys. Some few years since, Mr. Xasmyth drew attention to the combination of silicon with steel. Fresh interest has been excited in this direction by the investigations of a French chemist, M. St. Claire Deville, who has examined many of the alloys of silicon. Silicon and Iron combine to form an alloy which is a sort of fusible steel in which car- bon is replaced by silicon. The siliciurets are all of them quite homogeneous, and are not capable of being separated by liquidation. Copper and Silicon unite in various proportions, according to the same chemist. A very hard, brittle, and white alloy, containing 12 per cent, of silicon, is obtained by melting together three parts silico-fluoride of potassium, one part sodium, and one part of copper, at such a temperature that the fused mass remains covered with a very liquid scoria. The copper takes up the whole of the silicon, and remains as a white substance less fusible than silicon, which may serve as a base for other alloys. An alloy with 5 per cent, silicon has a beautiful bronze color, and will probably receive important applications. Mr. Oxland and Mr. Truran have "given, in " Metals and. their Alloys," the following use- ful tabular view of the composition of the alloys of copper. The principal alloys of copper with other metals are as follows : — ALOE. 65 ! Antique bronze sword I " springs • ! Bronze for statues " for medals it it for cannon for cymbals for gilding (( Speculum metal Brass for sheet Gilding metal Pinchbeck Prince's metal i( It Dutch metal English wire Mosaic gold Gun metal for bearings, stocks, &c. Muntz's metal - . . Good yellow brass Babbitt's metal for bushing Bell metal for large bells Britannia metal Nickel silver, English " Parisian German silver - - - Copper. Zinc Tin. Nickel. Antimony. Lead. 87-000 . 13-000 97-000 - > 3-000 91-400 6*630 1-700 - . « • 1-370 90-000 • 10-000 90-000 • 10-000 78-000 * « 22-000 • 82-257 17-481 0-238 a • « • 0-024 80-000 16-500 2-500 • • 1-000 66-000 - - 33-000 84-700 15-300 • 73-730 27.270 , 80-200 20-000 75-000 25-000 50-000 50-000 84-700 15-300 70-290 29-260 0-17 " . 0-28 66-000 33-000 90-300 9-670 0-03 60-000 40-000 66-000 33-000 8-300 . - 83-00 . 8-3 80-000 - - 20-00 1-000 2-00 81-00 . 16-00 60-000 17-8 • - 22-2 50-000 13-6 • • 19-3 50-000 25-0 • • 25-0 ALLOY, NATIVE. Osmium and Iridium, in the proportions of 729 of the former and 24*6 of the latter. See Osmium, Iridium. ALLSPICE. Pimento, or Jamaica pepper, so called because its flavor is thought to comprehend the flavor of cinnamon, cloves, and nutmegs. The tree producing this spice {Eugenia pimenta) is cultivated in Jamaica in what are called Pimento walks. It is im- ported in bags, almost entirely from Jamaica. ALMOND. (Atnande, Fr. ; Mandeltis, Germ. ; Amygdal communis.) De CandoUe admits five varieties of this species. A. amara, bitter almond ; A. dulcis^ sweet almond ; A. fragilis^ tender-shelled almond ; A. iiuicrocarpa, large-fruited almond ; A. persicoides^ peach almond. Three varieties are known in commerce : 1. Jordan Almonds^ which are the finest, come from Malaga. Of these there are two kinds : the one above an inch in length, flat, with a clear brown cuticle, sweet, mucilagi- nous, and rather tough ; the other more plump and pointed at one end, brittle, but equally sweet with the former. 2. Valentia Almonds are about three-eighths of an inch broad, not quite an inch long, round at one end, and obtusely pointed at the other, flat, of a dingy brown color, and dusty cuticle. 3. Barbary and Italian almonds resemble the latter, but are generally smaller and less flattened. — Brande, Dictionary of Pharmacy. ALMOND OIL. A bland fixed oil, obtained by expression from either bitter or sweet almonds ; usually from the former, on account of their cheapness as well as the greater value of the residual cake. The average produce is from 48 to 52 lbs. from 1 cwt of almonds. — Pereira. ALMOND POWDER (farina amygdala) is the ground almond cake, and is employed as a cake for washing the hands, and as a lute. ALOE. (Aloes, Fr. ; Glauindes aloe, Germ.) In botany a genus of the class Hexan- dria monogynia. There are many species, all natives of warm climates. In Africa the leaves of the Guinea aloe are made into durable ropes. Of one species are made lines, bow-etrjngs, stockings, and hammocks ; the leaves of another species are used to hold rain water. A patent has been taken (January 27th, 1847) for certain applications of aloes to dyeing. Although it has not been employed, the coloring matter so obtained promising to be very permanent and intense, it is thought advisable to describe the process by which it is pro- posed to prepare the dye. It is as follows : Into a boiler or vessel capable of holding about 100 gallons, the patentee puts 10 gallons of water, and 132 lbs. of aloes, and heats the same until the aloes are dissolved ; he then adds 80 lbs. of nitric or nitrous acid in small proportions at a time, to prevent the disen- VoL. m.— 5 m\. V 66 ALPACA. b^l!r Whin fh IT^'%^^ ""^K^ f ^'.'"''^.^ ^^'^'^ P^ «f *b« c<>^tents out of the ^a^d 7oZ nf 7 *S «f thf.«"d has been introduced, and the disengagement of gas has ceased 10 lbs. of hquid caustic soda, or potash of commerce, of about 30°, are added to neutrahze aoy undecomposed acid remaining in the mixture, and to facilitate the use of the mixture m dyeing and printmg. If the coloring matter is required to be in a dry state the mixture may be mcoiporated with 100 lbs. of china clay and dried in stones, or by means of a current of air The coloring matter is used in dyeing by dissolving a sufficient quan- tity m water, accj^rding to the shade required, and adding as much hydrochloric acid or tar- tar of commerce as wiU neutralize the alkali contained in the mixture and leave the dve bath shghtly acidulated. The articles to be dyed are introduced into the bath, which is kept boiling until the desired shade is obtained. ' «niv!^^^'' '*"! coloring matter is to be used in printing, a sufficient quantity is to be dis- solved in water, accordmg to the shade required to be produced ; this solution is to be thickened with gum or other common thickening agent, and hydrochloric acid, or tartar of commerce or any other suitable supersalt, is to be added thereto. After the fabrics have been printed with the colonng matter, they should be subjected to the ordinary process of steaming, to fix the color.— JVopier. ^ i/ v «. u* Aloetic acid, on which the coloring matter of the aloes depends, has been examined by Schunck and Mulder. Aloetic acid is deposited, from nitric acid which has been heated with aloes, as a yellow powder ; it dissolves in ammonia with a violet color ; when treated with protoch oride of tm, it forms a dark-violet heavy powder; and this, again, when treated with potash, evolves ammoma, and assumes a violet-blue color. The solution of aloetic acid m ammonia is violet. ALPACA. (Alpaga, Ft.) An ammal of Peru, of the Llama species ; also the name given to a woollen fabric woven from the wool of this animal. *»,„ ^^^?' ^d^**; ^'' ' ^?'''?' ^^™'-) ^ ^h'°® ^^y or salt,- consisting of alumina, or the pecuhar earth of clay umted with sulphuric acid, and these again united with sulphate of potash or ammonia. In other words, it is a double salt, consisting of sulphate of alumina and sulphate of potash, or sulphate of alumina and sulphate of ammonia. The common alum crystallizes m octahedrons, but there is a kind which takes the form of cubes. It has a sour or rather subacid taste, and is peculiariy astringent. It reddens the blue color of litmus or red cabbage, and acts like an acid on many substances. Other alkalies may take the place of the ammonia or potash, and other metals that of the aluminium. vrJnf S^S??^'^mu.^^^''?. '^ ^^P^ssed by chemists m the following manner : A1«0' 3S0^ KOSO 24HO. This peculiar combmation is that of the original substance as far as it appeared to the chemists of last century, and the form is now held as a type, after which many other alums are composed. Ammonia-alum was occasionally made, even as early as Agncolas time, 16th century. Its composition is APO^* 3S0^ NH* 0S0» + 24HO The same thing occurs with soda ; soda alum is Al'O^" 8S0» NaOSO" -f 24HO. Every s^lt hav- ing this form is called an alum. Sometimes, instead of the alkali being changed, the earth is changed. Thus we have chrome-alum, Cr'0''3S0'» KOSO' + 24HO -or we have an iron- alum. Ye] 0' 3S0; KOSOJ + 24HO. These may be varied to a great ^xte't! but all ha?ea characteristic of alum. The twenty-four atoms of water are one of the pecuUar characteristics. Composition of pure Potash Alum. t * .H > Percent 1 atom 41 ) / CI 1 f X * , , 1 " 62 f I Sulphate of potash - 18-32 or Per Cent. Potash - - 9-89 or Alumina - 10*94 " Sulphuric acid 83*68 Water 45*49 "24 " 216 (Water - 45*48 ti 1 1 1 atom 27 " 172 " 216 Its specific gravity is 1*724. 100 parts of water dissolve, at 32 degrees Fahrenheit, 8*29 alum. 60 " « 9*52 " " 86 " " 22*01 " 122 " • « 80*92 " 168 " " 90*67 • " 212 " " 857-48 " for ^lifcoln^l-^^ ^^ Poggiale should be re-examined, and gradations made more useful Solubility.— 1 part of crystallized potash alum is soluble— At 54 degrees Fahrenheit in 13*3 water. it u u It (I tt It M It tl It {( " 70 " 77 "100 "122 "145 "167 " 189*5 It t( (t ft (( u It It M tt tt 8*2 4-5 2*2 2-0 0-4 0-1 0-06 it (( u n i( (( ALUM. 67 oLo ." T™* ^^. ; ' "^ys* it melts at a low temperature in its water of crvstallizatinn xt of bad flour, forS toe eZLee of mIStTjj Zt'-nTT"."? *" ^^ '"^'i«' unfortunatel}, it is also used to S eiLS/ ^f •.?/'' "?' >ti3 a valuable remedy j action .Hau^hTd^tS-^^^^^^^ Ij^has a stronger acid^:^s:^i^X/„xriS??"^TV^ by dissolving ^^^^inov^r^^^Z^'^l^^.^'f'!^'''^'^ ""«>> '^r '^^ be made alum, and Ay be of ^^ice iSTme^ Jf nriS ' p"^'" l" '»"'7>.'^''dily than ordinary is the neutraf salt. of pnnUng. Properly speaking, the common almi secnt^^fs^d'tole^tr^a^SiifJ"^^,^^'^^^ instep of the suIpLS of akS InpS'^P ?"' Tli'"^ °f f'^'"- "^ ^"^stancj purpose for which ahm is iis1da,?^^^Kr^^" '*? bulky and fitted forneariy every U form has determined ite St to the'^tnf i^* ane.ent accidental discovery of the po7 to a dilute solution fert^S ^f ^tS orVSl^eT^^^h":^'? T A'' "^ "^."^ Prussian blue. A very delicate test iq^,lrS„^*\!? • P®* , ' ^^'^^ *^^"^s down the alumina and m>n, Lt tS bSn^ of ^S^^w ^^"^^7^^^ *^^ ^^^^ ^^ The total amount of iron ^^0 bv add W^^^ ^?T^ °" *^^ *°^°"^* «^ i«>«- strongly alkaline, was^Sg L^ filterinf ol tC^^^^^ alumina and iron by ammonia, boil ^d filter thpfm; n!S ^''- ^^"^^'.P^^ipitate the hfa^^r^?a,ihTnis;ifr;ir^^^^^^ Llisvisr^r-£Sl-"^^^^ By.'oti/gXlr^e^me'^th''et^;al"saft''"'" ''""'• ^^ SO- + SCAI-O^O-) + 9H0. foUowing com^Uo™ - Proportions m alum stone. The pure mineral has the 1 atom of alumina - . 15-42 per cent. 3 atoms of sulphuric acid - 85-99 " 18 atoms of vater - . 48-59 " tit #1 1^^ I* 68 ALUM. There are many analyses of natural specimens clo*ly approaching this. It is found crys- tallized in a close mass of fine, white, flexible needles, of a feather or hair form, and has been, like a few other substances, called hair-salt. It is also found with various degrees of impurity, sometimes with a smaller amount of water. Knapp has collected the following list of analyses : — Analyses of Natural Sulphate of Alumina or Feather Alum. BrauingAult. Hart- well. M'lll. H. Rom. GdbeL Ber- tliitr. ^ i If II 12.9 41-5 Th. Thomp«OD. Hera- path. . w • s. 85-68 17-09 004 li It 0-60 46-70 Snldnnho Faato. u e J9 §1 « 3. •1- Is 4 .2 I \ < 1 • 't E • 70 ALUM. Whitby. Top Bock. Sulphur - - - Iron - - - - Sulphuret of iron Silica - - - - Protoxide of iron Alumina . - - Lime - - - - Magnesia - Oxide of manganese • Sulphuric acid Potash Soda - - - - Chlorine - - - Carbon and loss • Carbon ... Coal - - - - Loss - - - - Water - . - 4-20 52-25 8-49 18-76 1-26 0-91 traces 1-37 013 0-20 traces Bottom Kock. Campsie. Top Bock. 4-97 2-88 95.40 8-50 61-16 6-11 18-30 216 0-90 traces 2-50 traces traces traces 8-29 2-00 91-91 22-36 18-16 16-40 11-36 1-40 0-50 0-16 0-90 Top Rock. 29-78 100-00 23-44) 16-04i 16-40 11-64 2-22 0-32 Bottom Bock. 28-80 3-13 99-99 9-63 0-47 2-18 18-91 0-40 2-17 0-66 0-06 1-26 0-21 8-61 0-59 8-54 100-00 As the Top one contains a larger excess of iron pyrites than the Bottom, they are mixed 80 as to diflfuse the sulphuric acid equally. Erdmann has thus analyzed his German specimens : — Soluble in acid. Insoluble in acid. 'Sulphuret of iron Silica - Peroxide of iron I Alumina I Lime - I Magnesia ^SiUca - Alumina Peroxide of iron Magnesia Lime • Coal - Water Garnsdorff. 7-633 0-060 0-966 1-833 0-400 trace 60-066 8-900 1-300 1-000 trace 22-833 2-208 Wezelsteln. 10-166 0-100 2-466 8-166 1-000 1022 62-200 17-900 3-666 1133 trace 0-806 5-080 Other shales will be found of interest ; the following are by G. Kerstcn : — Carbonaceous matter Silica Peroxide of iron Alumina - - - Magnesia Sulphur - - - Oxide of manganese Sulphate of lime Hennann* schachte. Gluckaof* gUDg. 41-10 44-02 6-23 6-60 0-32 1-26 0-12 traces 98-64 27-92 5132 8-40 7-62 0-26 2-89 traces traces 98-41 Blucber- Rchachte. 34-20 60-21 0-42 5-21 0-53 1-72 traces traces 98-39 ALUM. 71 SkcUea from Freienwalde, Shales from Puzberg, by Klaproth. by Bergemann. Alumina - - - 16-000 - - -. - - 10-80 SiUca - - - 40-00 45-30 Magnesia - - - 0-25 - - -, - Sulphur . - - 2-86 3-94 Carbon - - • 19-66 6*95 Protoxide of iron - 6-40 . - - - - 6'50 Oxide of manganese - .... - 0*60 Sulphateofprotoxide of iron 1-80 5*'' 3 " " alumina 1'20 • «» « lime 1-50 . - - - - 1-71 " « potash 1-50 - - - - - 1*75 Chloride of potassium 0-50 • 0-35 Sulphuric acid - - ----- 0*47 Water - - - 10-76 16-50 101-20 99*'?0 Here the sulphur has evidently existed in combination with iron, which has been united to oxygen by the analysts. The amount of sulphate shows a partial disintegration and other changes. ^ Lampadius gives anoAer with much more sulphur : — • Alum Shale from Siehda. Sulphate of alumina, 2-68 Potash-alum, - - 0-47 Sulphate of iron, - - - - • -.- - - 0-95 Sulphate of lime, - 1*'?0 Sili^ . I 10-32 Alumina, ----------- 9'21 Magnesia, ----------- traces Oxide of iron, "• 2'30 Oxide of manganese, -- 0-31 Sulphur, 7-13 Water, - - - - * - 3390 Carbon, - - - - 81-03 100-00 When alum is made of such shale, the object is first of all to oxidize the sulphur, form- ing sulphuric acid. This acid then dissolves the alumina. The result may be accomplished by allowing the shale to disintegrate spontaneously in the air, the sulphur oxidizing and dis- solving the alumina. But in general, as at Whitby and Campsie, combustion must be resorted to. This can be accomplished without the use of coal, ftirther than is needful sim- ply to set fire to that portion which exists in the shale itself. Indeed, the Campsie one, having more coal than is desirable for slow combustion, is mixed with some spent material, in order to diminish the force of the heat. The sulphur is united with the iron, forming a bisulphuret, each atom of which must therefore take up seven atoms of oxygen, FeS''+'70=FeO SO'-fSO*. When combustion takes place, the sulphur oxidizes ; if rapid combustion is used, then sulphurous acid gas escapes ; if slow combustion, the sulphurous acid penetrates the mass slowly, receives another atom of oxygen, unites to a base, and a sulphate is the consequence. Sulphate of iron is formed and pure sulphuric acid. In the process it is probable that the oxidation is completed by means of the iron. Protoxide of iron readily becomes peroxide ; the sul- phurous acid readily decomposes peroxide, forming sulphuric acid and protoxide of iron. This protoxide of iron is again converted into peroxide, and if not dissolved is rendered, to a great extent, difficult to dissolve, by reason of the heat of the mass. For this reason, partly, there is less sulphate of iron in the alum than might be expected. To effect these changes it is desirable to bum very slowly, so as to allow no loss of sulphurous acid, and, in washing, to allow the water to stand a long time on the burnt ore. Another method, by which the sulphuric acid is transferred to the alumina, is the peroxidation of the protoxide in the sulphate of iron ; acid is by this means set free and begins to act on the alumina. The protosulphate of iron being formed, it is removed by boiling down the liquor until the protosulphate of iron crystallizes out, at the same time the solution becoming saturated with the aluminous salt. The sulphate of iron is soluble in 03 of hot water, the alum in 0-06. The liquid around the crystals on the remaining mother liquor contains iron also ; this is washed off by adding pure liquors. t \ T2 ALUM. The presence of lime or magnesia in the ores is, of course, a means of abstracting acid, preventing the alumina being dissolved, and even precipitating it when dissolved. Knapp says that at Salzweiler, near Duttweiler, in Rhenish Prussia, the roasting of the ore takes place in the pit or mine. The stratum of brown coal which lies under it, having been accidentally set fire to in 1660, has smouldered till the present' time without inter- knission. When the ores are roasted, one-half of the sulphur is freed and sent into the mass or escapes as sulphurous acid ; and the remaining, protosulphuret of iron, is afterwards con- verted into green vitriol. After calcining and washing the Campsie ores, the residue had the following compo- Bition : — Silica, - ' 38-40 Alumina, ----- 12'70 Peroxide of iron, - - - - 20*80 Oxide of manganese, --------- traces. Lime, ----- 2*07 Magnesia, ----------- 2*00 Potash, 100 Sulphuric acid, - - -- - 10''76 Water, 12-27 10000 It is, therefore, very far from being a complete process ; but it is not considered profitable to remove the whole of the alumina. In some places the exhausted ore ?s burnt a second time with fresh ore, as at Campsie, but we are not told the estimated exhaustion. In preparing alum from clay or shale, it is of infinite importance that so much and no more heat be applied to the clay or shale, in the first instance, as will expel the water of combination without inducing contraction. A temperature of 600° F. is well adapted to effect this object, provided it be maintained for a suflBcient period. When this has been carefully done, the silicate of alumina remaining is easily enough acted upon by sulphuric acid, either slightly diluted or of the ordinary commercial strength. The best form of apparatus is a leaden boiler, divided into two parts by a perforated septum or partition, also in lead ; though on a very large scale, brickwork set in clay might be employed. Into one of the compartments, the roasted clay or shale should be put, and diluted sulphuric acid being added, the bottom of the other compartment may be exposed to the action of a well- regulated fire, or, what is better, heated by means of steam through the agency of a coil of leaden w>^- In this way a circulation of the fluid takes place throughout^ the mass of shale ; smd, as the alumina dissolves, the dense fluid it produces, falling continually towards the bottom of the boiler, is replaced by dilute acid, which, becoming in its turn saturated, falls like the first ; and so on in succession, until either the whole of the alumina is taken up, or the acid in great part neutralized. The solution of sulphate of alumina thus ob- tained is sometimes evaporated to dryness, and sold under the name " concentrated alum ;" but more generally it is boiled down until of the specific gravity of about 1-35 ; then one or other of the carbonates or sulphates of potash or ammonia, or chloride of either base, or a mixture of these, is added to the boiling fluid, and as soon as the solution is complete, the whole is run out into a cooler to crystallize. The rough alum thus made is sometimes puri- fied by a subsequent recrystallization, after which it is " roched " for the market — a process intended merely to give it the ordinary commercial aspect, but of no real value in a chemi- cal point of view. The manufacture of alum is now taking an entirely new shape, and the two processes of Mr. Spence and Mr. Pochin threaten to absorb the whole of the manufacture in the northwest. Mr. Spence, who has a manufactory of ammonia-alum at Manchester, called the Pendle- ton Alum Works, and another at Goole, in Yorkshire, has now become the largest maker of this substance in the world, as his regular production amounts to upwards of 100 tons per week. In this process, which he has patented, he uses for the production of his sul- phate-of-alumina solution the carbonaceous shale of the coal measure. This substance con- talns from 5 to 10 per cent, of carbonaceous matter, and, when ignited by a small quantity of burning coal, the combustion continues of itself. To insure this the shale is spread into long heaps not exceeding 18 inches in height, and having a brick drain running along each to supply air ; in this manner it slowly calcines : this process must be so conducted as not to vitrify the shale. After calcination it is boiled and digested in large leaden pans, heated by fii-e, with sulphuric acid of 1-4 specific gravity. After 30 to 40 hours of digestion the sulphate of alumina formed is run into another leaden pan, and the boiling vapor from the ammonia liquor of the gas works is passed into it, until so much alimiina is combined with the solution as to form ammonia-alum. The solution is then run into shallow leaden cool- ALUMINA, ACETATE OF. n ers, and the alum crystallizes. It is then purified and washed much m the usual way, only that the process is conducted so as to cause much less labor th^i at other alum works.' Alum Cake.--'Thi3 substance owes its value to the amount of sulphate of alumina it contains, and is in fact another means of making soluble alumina accessible. We have already seen the many attempts to obtain alumina from clay, and the tedious nature of the operation of solution in acid, as well as the long after-processes of lixiviation and conver- sion into sulphate of alumina, or into alum, by reboiling or crystallizing. Mr. Pochin of Manchester, has found a method of removing all the difficulties, both of the first and after- processes. He uses very fine China clay, free ^m iron, heats it in a furnace, mixes it thoroughly with acid, and finds that, when the process is managed carefully, the 'combina- tion of the alumina and sulphuric acid is not only complete, but so violent that he is obliged to dilute his acid considerably, in order to calm the action. When mixed, it is passed into cisterns with movable sides, where, in a few minutes, it heats violently and boils. The thick liquid gradually becomes thicker, until it is converted into a solid porous mass— the pores being made by the bubbles of steam which rise in the mass, which is not fluid enough to contract to its original volume. The porous mass is perfectly dry, although retaining a large amount of combined water. It retains, of course, all the silica of the original clay but this IS in such fine division that every particle appears homogeneous. The silica gives It a dryness to the touch not easily gained by the sulphate only. When pure sulphate of alumina is wanted in solution, the silica is allowed to precipitate before using it, but, in many cases, the fine siUca is no hindrance ; then the solution is made use of at once.— R. A. S. ALUMINA. (A1»0', 514.) This is the only oxide which the metal aluminium forms, and It IS assumed to be a sesquioxide on account of its isomorphism with sesquioxide of iron. The occurrence of alumina in the native state has been before mentioned, and the sev- eral minerals will be found described ♦Isewhere. o>i JA ^ ®**^'°®^ »^ t^e state of hydrate from common alum (KO, SO'; Al'O* 3S0'-f- 24HO) by adding a solution of ammonia (or better, carbonate of ammonia) to the ktter salt, and boiling. The precipitate is white, and gelatinous in a high degree, and retains the salts, in the presence of which it has been formed, with remarkable pertinacity, so that it is very difficult to wash. ^ jy By drying and igniting this hydrate, the anhydrous alumina is produced ; but it mav be obtained more readily by heating ammonia-alum, (NH*0, S0»; Al^O' 3S0» -f 24HO ) All the constituents of this salt are volatile, with the exception of the alumina. It is insoluble in water, but soluble both m acids and alkalies. Towards the former it plays the part of a base, producing the ordinary alumina salts; whilst, with the latter, it also enters into combination, but m this case it is an acid, forming a series of compounds which mav be called aluminates. "^ The important application of alumina and its compounds in the arts of dyeing and caUco- pnntmg, depends upon a peculiar attraction which it possesses for organic bodies This attmity is so strong, that when digested in solutions of vegetable coloring matters the alumina combines with and can-ies down the coloring matter, removing it entirely from the solution. Pigments thus obtained, which arc combmations of alumma with the vegetable coloring matters, are called " lakes.^^ ^ Alumina has not only an affinity for the coloring matters, but at the same time also for the vegetable fibres, cotton, silk, wool, &c. ; and hence, if alumina be precipitated upon cloth in the presence of a coloring matter, a most intimate union is effected between the cloth and the color. Alumina, when employed in this way, is called a " mordant" Other bodies have a similar attraction for coloring matters, e. a. binoxide of tin and sesquioxide of iron: each of these gives its peculiar shade to the color or combinauon. alumina changing it least. ^ Soluble Modification of Alumina— Mr. Walter Crura* has discovered a pecuUar soluble modification of alumina. The biacetate of alumina has been found by Mr. Crum to possess the very curious property of parting with its acetic acid until the whole is expelled bv the long-continued application of heat to a solution of this salt; the alumma remain^ in the solution ma soluble allotropic condition. Its coagulum with dyewoods is translucent and entirely different from the opaque cakes formed by ordinarv alumina ; hence this solition cannot act as a mordant. But this solution of alumina, which is perfectly colorless and transparent, has the alumina separated from it by the slightest caus^ A minute quantity of either an acid, an alkali, even of a neutral salt, or of a vegetable coloring matter, effects the change The precipitated alumina is insolublo in acids, even boiUng sulphuric - this shows another allotropic condition. But it is dissolved by caustic alkaUes bv which it is restored to its common state.— H. M. W. **»*«ie», oy wmcn u is nn .l^^^^'^A,'^^^^^™ ?F\ V"^ ^""^^^ ^^ »^"°^"* a^ extensively used in the arts on account of the property which they possess of being readily decomposed with deposition of their alumina on the fibre of cloth ; hence they are'used as mordan^in the iSer dT * Chemical Society's Quarterly Journal, vL 21d. / III; 1 74 ALUMIKA, SILICATES OF. Bcnbed under Calico Printino ; and sometimes in dyeing they are mixed with the solution of a coloring matter ; in this the textile fabric is immersed, whilst, on heating, the alumina IS precipitated upon the fabric, which, m consequence of its affinities before alluded to car- ries down the coloring matter with it, and fixes it on the cloth. ' The acetate of alumina thus employed is obtained by treating sulphate of alumina with neutral acetate of lead, and filtering off the solution from the precipitate of sulphate of lead. Acetate of lime is also used ; but the sulphate in this case does not leave the solu- tion so clear or so rapidly. According to Mr. Walter Crum,* the solution resulting from the decomposition of eul- phate of alumina (A1'*0^ 3S0') by monobasic acetate of lead contains the salt A120^ 2C^H'0', (biacetate of alumina,) together with one equivalent of free acetic acid, the com- pound A1»0', 3C*H»0» not appearing to exist By evaporating this solution at low tem- peratures, e. g. in a very thin layer of fluid below 38° C, (100'^ F.,) Crum obtained a fixed residue completely soluble in water, the composition of which, in the dry state, approached ALUMINA, SILICATES OF. Silicate of alumina is the chief constituent of common clay, {which see ;) it occurs also associated with the silicates of iron, magnesia, lime, and the alkalies in a great variety of minerals, which will be found described elsewhere. The most interesting of these are the felspars and the zeolites. See Clay. Of course, being present in clay, silicate of alumina is the essential constituent of por- celain and earthenware. See Porcelain. — H. M. W. ALUMINA, SULPHATE OF. The neutral sulphate of alumina, Al'O', 3SO'-f-18HO, which is obtained by dissolving alumina in sulphuric acid, crystallizes in needles and plates ; but sulphuric acid and alumina combme in other proportions, e. g. a salt of the formula AFO', 3S0'4-A1'0' was obtained by Mons, and the solution of this salt, when largely diluted with water, splits into the neutral sulphate'and an insoluble powder contamine AlH)', 3SO'-|-2Al«0'-f9HO. This subsalt forms the mineral aluminite, found ne^ Newhaven, and was found by Humboldt in the schists of the Andes. The sulphate of alumina is now extensively used in the arts instead of alum, under the name of " concentrated alum." For most of the purposes for which alum is employed, the sulphate of potash is an unnecessary constituent, being only added in order to facilitate the purification of the compound from iron ; for in consequence of the ready crystullizability of alum, this salt is easily purified. Nevertheless, Wiesmann has succeeded in removing the iron from the crude solution of sulphate of alumina obtained by treating clay with sul- phuric acid, by adding ferrocyanide of potassium, which throws down the iron as Prussian blue ; the solution, when evaporated to dryness, is found to consist of sulphate of alumina, containing about Y per cent, of potash-alunu 1,500 tons of this article were produced at Newcastle-on-Tyne alone in the year 1854. See also Alum.— H. M. W. ALUMINIUM. {Sym. Al, equiv. 13-7.) The name Aluminium is derived from the Latin alumen, for alum, of which salt this metal is the notable constituent. The following is the method described by M. Deville for the preparation of this interest- ing metal : — Having obtained the chloride of aluminium, he introduces into a wide glass (or porce- lain) tube 200 or 300 grammes of this salt between two plugs of asbestos, (or in a boat of porcelain or even copper,) allows a current of hydrogen to pass from the generator through a desiccatmg bottle containing sulphuric acid and tubes containing chloride of calcium, and finally through the tube containmg the chloride ; at the same time applying a gentle heat to the chloride, to drive off any free hydrochloric acid which might be formed by the action of the air upon it. He now introduces at the other extremity of the tube a porcelain boat containing sodium ; and when the sodium is fused the chloride of aluminium is heated until its vapor comes in contact with the fused sodium. A powerful reaction ensues, con- siderable heat is evolved, and by continuing to pass the vapor of the chloride over the sodium until the latter is all consumed, a mass is obtamed in the boat of the double chloride of aluminium and sodium, (NaCl, Al'Cl',) in which globules of the newly reduced metal are suspended. It is allowed to cool in the hydrogen, and then the mass is treated with water, in wlrich the double chloride is soluble, the globules of metal being unacted upon. These small globules are finally fused together in a porcelain crucible, by heating them ' strongly under the fused double chloride of aluminium and sodium, or even under com- mon salt. This process, which succeeds without much difficulty on a small scale, is performed far more successfully as a manufacturing operation. Two cast-iron cylinders are now employed instead of the glass or porcelain tube, the anterior one of which contains the chloride of aluminium, whilst in the posterior one is placed the sodium in a tray, about 10 lbs. being employed in a single operation. A smaller iron cylinder intermediate between the two for- mer is filled with scraps of iron, which serve to separate iron from the vapor of chloride of • Chemical Society's Quarterly Journal, vL 216. ALUMINIUM. 75 aluminium, by converting the perchloride of iron into the much less volatile protochloride They also separate free hydrochloric acid and chloride of sulphur. u ^.TiS t*»e progress of the operation the connecting tube is kept at a temperature of about 400; to 600° F. ; but both the cylinders are but very gently heated, sincTthl clTride ot aiumimum is volatUe at a comparafively low temperature, and the reaction between it and the sodium when once commenced generates so much heat that frequently no external aid 13 required. / ^ j **.«;* um Preparation of Aluminium by Electrolysis.— ^t. Gore has succeeded in obtlminc plates ot copper coated with aluminium by the electrolysis of solutions of chloride of aiumimum acetate of alumina, and even common alum;* but the unalloyed metal cannot be obtained by the electrolysis of solutions. Deville, however, oroduced it in considerable quantities by the method originally suggested by Bunsen, viz.; by the electrolysis of the fused double chloride of aluminium and sodium, (NaF, Al^F' ;) but smce this process is su^ °^°^ *«>ubleaome and expensive than its reduction by sodium, it has been ^together Preparation of Aluminium from Kryome.--So early as March 80, 1855, a specimen of alunainium was exhibited at one of the Friday evening meetings of the Royal Institu- tion, which had been obtamed in Dr. Percy's laboratory by Mr. Allan Dick bv a nrocess entirely different from that of Deville, which promised, on account of its gr^t'sunpUc^ to supersede a 1 others f It consisted in heating small pieces of sodimn, placed in aJter^ nate layers with powdered kryolite a mineral now found in considerable abundance in Greenland which is a double fluoride of aluminium and sodimn, analogous to the dZhTe chloride of alummmm and sodium, its formula being NaF, Al'F*. The'process has the advantage that one of the materials is furnished roady formed by nature The experiment was only performed on a small scale by Mr. Dick in a platinum crucible med with magnesia; the small globules of metal, which were obtained it theT)3of commoTsaU. ' ° subsequently fused together under chloride of ^^u^ or i;o>,Sf ^o''® *^® description of these experiments was published, M. Rose, of Berim, pub- lished a paper m September, 1855, on the same subject.! In Rose's exierimants he em «S 111 1 "^^^"?^^«^ potassium with 2 parts of sodium. The aluminium was obtZed in experilen^^^^^^^^ which were fused together under chloride of potassium, as in Mr. Dkk's fnnJST ^^P^"f ^^? « s"S>^ ^033 of aluminium by fusion under chloride of potassium and found It more advantageous to perform this fusion mider a stratum of the doublTZoride of aluminium and sodium, as Deville had done «"uuiv- cmonae Htp??,) instead of the simple chloTde of aluminium, so as to obtain the metal by means of sodium He ikp? 40ft r^rla «f ♦!?• double ^t, 200 of common salt, 200 of fluor spar?anT75 io fooT^Z ^e aLt^ Z^'^^cefS Zer^^Z^^ "f fr-' *^^^^^' *^- -ithZTtkelS^i^,! f KaSioT^^pll^^^^ prot^^tsr^^^roft tt^rbrutStrThe^^^^^^^ '' -- ^-^^' '~"^- k^r^xr^M^! „.f*^-;ff?r""'°'"'/'°?'°^""^''';"yP'*P*™^ flttoride of duminium ; but this method can- * Phil. Map. vii. 207. t PhiL Mag. x. 864 S Ann. de China, et Phys. xlvL 4157^ t Po«^ndorC Annalen, and Pha Mac. x. 28a. I Chemical Oazette, 1856, 838. ^^ n ',1 I ■ 76 ALUMINIUM. Specific gravity, 2-56, and, when hammered, 2-67. Conducts electricity eight times better than iron, and is feebly magnetic Its lusmg pomt is between the melting pomts of zinc and silver By electrolysis it is obtained in forms which Deville believes to be regular octahedra- but Rose, who has also occasionally obtamed aluminium in a crystallmeSMfrorkr^ol lite,) denies that they belong to the regular 'system. ' ^ ^ ^nn.^K?"/"'"^'- '* '^ V'?»*'^i^ed even in moist air; but most of the commercial specimens (probably fronj impunties present in the metal) become covered with a bluisLgraT^mrsh It^is^unaffected by cold or boiling water ; even steam at a rod heat is but slowlySm^sed It is not acted upon by cold nitric acid, and only very slowly dissolved even bv the boil- ^^:^i '^z!LZt;',Zr''' '""''-'^ ^^^^' ^- -^^^ dissoived^rb&r bv fSltemtld li'«S ^P ^"^P^^^^Ljf^^ ^^ ^<^«on upon it ; and it is not even attacked Dy lused bydrated alkalies. Professor Wheatstone* has shown that in the voltaic series aluminium, although having so small an atomic number, and so low a sp^ific cSvkv ^ platTn^m? '"'^'"' ''"^ ""' ' ^'^^ '' ^ ^''^'' '' ^^^i^' '^^ lead, fr^? coE-d as obS^'tv!;;f^i"nfr*''"*-~^f"y ^^ ^^f discrepancies in the properties of aluminium, Tf^iL « \^K K * ^^P«""ienters, are due to the impurities which are present in it. contain LJS^ction ^f §^ °'Tk T .iHt^»mX'"^rtr^^S^f;^'Zf=""?"''r/"^ iti^sono^nsness and due belb ; but Mr DeSi h>, n^t^,, ,i.- ''f? imagmed that it might be used in making ofhUalumtu^tTwiragSthS depends upon the factZt^h^^Xi^' tt'aSlo'^S ^te^dtTe f^^i^ •'' On the laiTge scale the chlorine is passed over a previouslTigSted m;Ti^;r. .f i coal tar, contamed in retorts lik^ thn«A ,,a^A i^ " P^'^viousiy igmtea mixture of clay and heated in a furnace" SfSJl;XwrchTn\?col\onu™M!t5-"'^ ^."'j't "- .e sulKtZf othrbr.Xli:r^:s«e"U-^^^ iBI ;i t.» it 78 ALUM SHALE. nese, &c. They occur generally as efflorescences, or in fibrous masses ; when crystallized, they assume octahedral forms. Native alum is soluble in water, and has an astringent taste, like that of the alum of commerce. — H. W. B. ALUM SHALE. The chief natural source from which the alum of commerce is de- rived in this country. It occurs in a remarkable manner near Whitby, in Yorkshire, and at Hurlet and Campsie, near Glasgow. A full description of the alum shale, and of the processes by which the crystallizable alum is separated, will be found under Alum. AMALGAM. When mercury is alloyed with any metal, the compound is called an amalgam of that metal ; as for example, an amalgam of tin, bismuth, &c. Some amalgams are solids and others fluids ; the former are often crystalline, and the latter may be probably regarded as the solid amalgam dissolved in mercury. Silver Amalgam may be formed by mixing finely-divided silver with mercury. The best process is to precipitate silver from its solution by copper, when we obtain it in a state of fine powder, and then to mix it with the mercury. A native amalgam of mercury and silver occurs in fine crystals in the mines of the Palatinate of Moschellandsberg : it is said to be found where the veins of copper and silver intersect each other. Dana reports its existence in Hungary and Sweden, at AUemont, in Dauphine ; Almaden, in Spain, and in Chili ; and he quotes the following analyses : — Silver. Mercury. Moschellandsberg, - 36-0 - 64-0 by Klaproft Ditto, - 25-0 - 73.3 " Heyer. AUemont, - - - - 27-5 - 72-5 " Cordier. If six parts of a saturated solution of nitrate of silver with two parts of a saturated solution of the protonitrate of mercury are mixed with an amalgam of silver one part and mercury seven, the solution is speedily filled with beautiful arborescent crystals— the Arbor Biance, the tree of Diana,— or the silver tree. Gold Amalgam is made by heating together mercury with grains of gold, or gold-foil ; when* the amalgam of gold is heated, the mercury is volatilized and the gold left. This amalgam is employed in the process known as that of fire-gilding, although, since electro- gilding has been introduced, it is not so frequently employed. A gold amalgam is obtained from the platinum region of Columbia ; and it has been reported from California, especially from near Mariposa. Schneider give its composition, mercury, 57*40 ; gold, 38"89 ; sil- ver, 5 0. T%Ti Amalgam. — By bringing tin-foil and mercury together, this amalgam is formed, and is used for silvering looking-glasses. (See Silvering Glass.) If melted tin and mer- cury are brought together in the proportion of three parts mercury and one part tin, the tin amalgam is obtained in cubic crystals. Electric Machine Amalgam. — Melt equal parts of tin and zinc together, and combine these with three parts of mercury : the mass must be shaken until it is cold ; the whole is then rubbed down with a small quantity of lard, to give it the proper consistence. Amalgam Copper, for stopping teeth. The French dentists have long made use of this for stopping teeth. It is sold in small rolls of about a drachm and a half in weight ; it is covered with a grayish tarnish, has a hardness much greater than that of bone, and its cohesion and solidity are considerable. When heated nearly to the point of boiling water this amalgam swells up, drops of mercury exuding, which disappear again on the cooling of the substance. If a piece, thus heated, be rubbed up in a mortar, a plastic mouldable mass, like poor clay, is obtained, the consistence of which may, by continued kneading, be increased to that of fat clay. If the moulded mass be left for ten or twelve hours, it hardens, acquiring again its former properties, without "altering its specific gravity. Hence, the stopping, after it has hardened, remains tightly fixed in the hollow of the tooth. The softening and hardening may be repeated many times with the same sample. Pettenkofer ascribes these phenomena to a state of amorphism, with which the amalgam passes from the crystalline condition in the process of softening. All copper amalgams containing be- tween 0-25 to 0-30 of copper exhibit the same behavior. The above chemist recommends as the best mode of preparing this amalgam, that a crystalline paste of sulphate of sub- oxide of mercury (prepared by dissolving mercury in hydrated sulphuric acid at a gentle heat) be saturated under water at a temperature of from 60° to 70°, with finely divided reguline copper, (prepared by precipitation from sulphate of copper with iron.) One por- tion of the copper precipitates the mercury, with formation of sulphate of copper; the other portion yields with mercury ^an amalgam : 100 parts of dissolved mercury require the copper precipitated, by iron, from' 232*5 parts of sulphate of copper. As in dissolving the mercury the protoxide is easily formed instead of the suboxide, particularly if too high a temperature be maintained, it is advisable, Ui order to avoid an excess of mercury in the amalgam, to take 223 parts of sulphate of copper, and to add to the washed amalgam, which is kept stirred, a quantity of mercury in minute portions, corresponding to the AMMONIA. tt amount of suboxide contained in the mercury salt, until the whole has become sufficiently plastic. This amalgam may be obtained by moistening finely-divided copper with a few drops of a solution of nitrate of suboxide of mercm-y, and then trituratmg the metal with mercury in a warmed mortar. The rubbing may be continued for some time and may be carried on under hot water, mercury being added until the required consistence is attained* A remarkable depression of temperature during the combination of amalgams has been observed by several chemists. Dobereiner states that when 816 grains of am*algam of lead (404 mercury and 412 lead) were mixed at a temperature of 68^ with 688 grains of the amalgam of bismuth (404 mercury and 284 bismuth,) the temperature suddenly fell to 30°, and by the addition If 808 grains of mercury (also at 68^) it became as low as 17= ; the total depression amounting In certain proportions of mixture of the constituents of fusible metal Ctin, lead and bismuth) with mercury, Dobereiner formed surprising depressions of temperature • the tem- perature, he records of one experiment, sank instantly from 65° to 14°. ' AMBER VARNISH. Amber is composed of a mixture of two resins, which are soluble in alcohol and ether, and in some of the recently-discovered hydro-cariwn compoimds. Varnishes are therefore prepared with them, and sold under the name of amber spirit var- nishes ; but these are frequently composed of either copal or mastic. They have been much used for varnishing collodion pictures. AMBERGRIS. It is found on various parts of the east coast of Africa, as well as in the eastern seas. The best is ash-colored, with yellow or blackish veins or spots, scarcely any taste, and very ittle smell unless heated or much handled, when it yields an aieeable 'odor i^xposed in a silver spoon it melts without bubble or scum, and on the heated point of a knife It vaporizes completely away. i~ v* « P33|Srt ^^^mical composition of ambergris is represented by the foUowing foraula, wh; K • M ^ ambergris IS very rarely met with, by far the largest proportion of that which IS sold as ambergris being a preparation scented with «W or mwjfi- In France the duty upon ambergris is 62 francs per kUogramme when imported m French vessels, and 67 francs when imported in foreign vessels. pv cu m Ambergris is at this time (1858) worth 16«. an ounce in England. Mr. Temple of iielize, British Honduras, speaks of an odorous substance thrown off by the alli<^tor which appears to resemble ambergris. ^ ^i&ywr, wmca AMETHYST. {Amethyste occidentale, Fr. ; Eisenkeisel, Germ.) One of the vitreous varieties of quartz, composed of pure silica in the msoluble state— that is, it will not dis- solve in a potash solution. It belongs to the rhombohedral system, and is found either in groups of crystals or lining the interior of geodes and pebbles. It is infusible before the blowpipe and is not affected by acids. It is of a clear purple or bluish-violet tint • but the color is frequently irregularly diffiised, and gradually fades into white. The colo'r is suiv posed to be due to the presence of a small percentage of manganese, but Heintz attributes It to a compound of iron and soda. The amethyst, from the beauty of its color, has alwavs been esteemed and used in jewellery. It was one of the stones called by the ancients «uc£?.^-- fr.;,**?"^ T*^""^ tU conferred on it from its supposed power of preserving the wea^r from intoxication. The most beautiful specimens are procured from India, C^vbr^d -H: W. B ^^'*"^*^ ' '"^ Transylvania ; near Cork, and m the Island of May, in Ireland. t.rnf i^^'^^-^f T' ORIENTAL. (Amethyste orientale, Fr. ; Demanthspath, Germ ) This term is^apphed to those vaneties of conmdum which are of a violet colo?. See C^BrxnuiL wi^d^^"^"^^^^..'^ S^ °,^^ given to the whiter and more delicate varieties' of asbestus. wh ch possess a satin-like lustre, in consequence of the greater separation of the SS which they are composed. A variety of amianthus (the amianthoide of Hatty) h fo^d at ffr^V"} ^''""^^'i^^^, fi^^« o^ ^hi^h "•« in some degree elastic. Thf worf li^amh^ (from i^lauTo, undemed) is expressive of the easy manner by which, when soile7Tt ma^ Lts'^ifl w" '' '^ "^^"^ P^*^' 'y ^^^^ ^^^*^ to redneriTa ^ ^ giv^rt^^^^^^^^^ ?n s^dT^o'uTd ^^ ' ""^^ ''^'^ '^^^ ^''' ^^^"^^^ '' ^^ ^'-^^ ^^ as^ttrfS BlaJk t I7?ff^i^.*^-^*w"^°^..™ ^^"'^^nted ^th the pungent smeU of ammonia. Dr wK',-l\^ k' ^''' isolated It, proving the distinction between it and its carbonate with il rl ' -^If It 80 AMMONIA. Ammonia being a product, not only of the destructive distillation of organic bodies con- taining nitrogen, but also of their decay, it exists in the atmosphere, in a large amount, if considered in the aggregate, although, by examining any particular specimen of air, the quantity appears small. Nevertheless, this small quantity of ammonia would seem to be cxceedint'ly important in developing the nitrogenized constituents of plants. Liebig be- lieves that the nitrogen of plants is exclusively derived from the ammonia present in the air ; but the opinions of chemists are divided on this pomt. Boussingault * supports Lie- big's view, but it is opposed by Mulder and Ville. From the air, ammonia and its salts are carried down by .the rain. This fact has been placed beyond all doubt by Ldebig ; and even the variations in the quantity have been de- termined by Boussingault, and more recently by Mr. Way. By the rain water it is carried into rivers, and ultimately into the sea, in which chloride of ammonium has been detected by Dr. Marcet. It has likewise been detected in mineral springs, especially brine springs, and even in common salt. — Vogel. Ammonia is present in the exhalations from volcanoes. During the eruption of Vesu- vius in 1794, the quantity of sal ammoniac discharged by the mountain was so great, that the peasants collected it by hundredweights, (Bischof;) and in the last eruption of Hecla, in Sept., 1845, a similar phenomenon was observed ; and, according to Ferrara, it is some- times found in such quantity at Etna, that a very profitable trade has been carried on in it. Dr. Daubeny thinks that the volcanic ammonia is produced by the action of water upon mineral nitrides, (perhaps the nitrides of silicon,) similar in properties to the nitrides of Titanium and Boron, which have been recently more carefully examined by M. St. Claire Deville. Ammoniacal salts have likewise been found as a sublimate arising from the com- bustion of coal strata. The great supply of ammonia and its salts is derived from the destructive distillation of organic bodies, animal and vegetable, containmg nitrogen ; but its salts exist m plants, and to a much larger extent in the liquid and solid excrements of animals. As a urate, it forms the chief constituent of the excrement of the boa, as well as that of many birds, hence the large quantity of ammoniacal salts in guano. See Guano. Formation of Ammonia.— So process has yet been devised for inducing the direct com- bination of nitrogen and hydrogen to produce ammonia ; but under the disposing influence of the production of other compounds, in the presence of these elements, as well as when these gases are presented to each other in the nascent state, their union is effected. Thus, when electric sparks are passed through a mixture of nitrogen and oxygen in the presence of hydrogen and aqueous vapor, nitrate of ammonia is generated. If, while zinc is being dissolved in sulphuric acid, nitric acid be added, much ammonia is formed, {Nes- hit ;) so again, if hydrogen and binoxide of nitrogen be passed over spongy platinum, tor- rents of ammonia are produced, the hydrogen converting the oxygen of the binoxide into water, when the nitrogen, at the moment of its liberation, combines with the hydrogen to form ammonia. It has even been proposed to carry out this last method on a manufacturing scale. Messrs. Crane and Jullien, in their patent of January 18, 1848, describe a method of manufacturing ammonia in the state of carbonate, hydrocyanate, or free ammonia, by pass- ing any of the oxygen compounds of nitrogen, together with any compound of hydrogen and carbon, or any mixture of hydrogen with a compound of carbon or even free hydrogen, through a tube or pipe containing any catalytic or contact substance, as follows :—- Oxides of nitrogen, (such, for instance, as the gases liberated in the manufacture of oxalic acid,) however procured, are to be mixed in such proportion with any compound of carbon and hydrogen, or such mixture of hydrogen and carbonic oxide or acid as results from the con- tact of the v^r of water with ignited carbonaceous matters, and the hydrogen compound or mixture containing hydrogen may be in slight excess, so as to ensure the conversion of the whole of the nitrogen contained in the oxide so employed into either ammonia or hydro- cyanic acid, which may be known by the absence of the characteristic red fumes on allowing some of the gaseous matter to come in contact with atmospheric air. The catalytic sub- stance which Messrs. Crane and Jullien prefer is platinum, which may be in the state of sponge, or it may be asbestos coated with platinum. This catalytic substance is to be placed in a tube, and heated to about 600° F., so as to increase the temperature of the product, and at the same time prevent the deposition of carbonate of ammonia, which passes onwards into a vessel of the description well known and employed for the purpose of condensing carbonate of anmionia. The condenser for this purpose must be furnished with a safety pipe, to allow of the escape of uncondensed matter, and made to dip into a solution of any substance capable of combining with hydrocyanic acid or ammonia where they would be condensed. A solution of salt of iron is preferable for this purpose, f Chemical Characters. — The gaseous ammonia liberated from its salts by lime (in a man- ner to be afterwards described) is a coloriess gas of a peculiar pungent odor. It is com- posed, by weight, of 1 equivalent of nitrogen and 3 of hydrogen; or, by volume, of 2 * Annales de Chlmie et do Physique, zliii. 149. t Pharm. Jonm xlli. 114. AMMONIA. 81 measures of nitrogen and 6 of hydrogen, condensed to four ; and may be resolved into these constituent gases by passing over spongy platinum heated to redness. By a pressure of 6 5 atmospheres at 50° F., it is condensed into a colorless liquid. It is combustible, but less so than hydrogen, on account of the incombustible nitrogen which it contains ; but its inflammability may be readily seen by passing it into an argand gas flame reduced to a minimum. Upon this variation in density of solutions of ammonia in proportion to their strength, Mr. J. J. GriflSn has constructed a useful instrument called an Ammonia-metre. It is founded upon the following facts : — That mixtures of liquid ammonia with water possess a specific gravity which is the mean of the specific gravities of their components ; that in all solutions of ammonia, a quantity of anhydrous ammonia, weighing 212^ grains, which he calls a test-atom^ displaces 300 grains of water, and reduces the specific gravity of the solu- tion to the extent of .00125 ; and, finally, that the strongest solution of ammonia which it is possible to prepare at the temperature of 62° F., contains in an imperial gallon of solu- tion 100 test-atoms of ammonia. We extract the following paragraph from Mr. Griffin's paper in the Transactions of the Chemical Society, explanatory of the accompanying Table : — " The first column shows the specific gravity of the solutions ; the second column the iceight of an imperial gallon in pounds and ounces ; the third column the percentage of ammonia by weight ; the fourth column the degree of the solution, as indicated by the instrument, corresponding with the number of test-atoms of ammonia present in a gallon of the liquor ; the fifth column shows the number of grains of ammonia contained in a bal- lon ; and the sixth column the atomic volume of the solution, or that measure of it which contains one test-atom of ammonia. For instance, one gallon of liquid ammonia, specific gravity 880, weighs 8 lbs. 128 oz. avirdupois; its percentage of ammonia, by weight, is 33-117 ; it contains 96 test-atoms of ammonia in one gallon, and 20400.0 grains of ammo- nia in one gallon; and, lastly, 104* 16 septems containing one test-atom of ammonia. Although no hydrometer, however accurately constructed, is at all equal to the Centigrade mode of chemical testing, yet the Ammonia-meter, and the Table accompanying it, will be found very useful to the manufacturer, enabling him not only to determine, the actual strength of any given liquor, but the precise amount of dilution necessary to convert it into a liquor of any other desired strength, whilst the direct quotation of the number of grains of real ammonia contained in a gallon of solution of any specific gravity will enable hiJb to judge at a glance of the money-value of any given sample of ammonia. Table of Liquid Ammonia^ (GnfRn.) One Test- Atom of Anhydrous Ammonia = NH' weighs 212-5 grsdns. Specific Gravity of Water = 1 00000. One Gallon of Water weighs 10 lbs. and contains 10,000 Septems. Temperature 62° F. Specific Gravity', ^'l^t^'^A,/'* • of the Llniiid^ Imperial Gallon in Weight of an of the Liqaid Ammonia. Avoirdupois lbs. and ozs. •87600 •87626 •87760 •87875 •88000 •88125 •88250 •88375 •88500 •88625 •88760 •88875 •89000 •89125 •89260 •89376 •89600 •89625 •89750 •89876 •90000 •90126 Percentage of Ammonia by Weight lb. oz. 8 12-0 34-694 8 12-2 34-298 8 12-4 33^903 8 12-6 33-509 8 12-8 83-117 8 13^0 32-725 8 132 32-335 8 13-4 31-946 8 13-6 31-658 8 13-8 81-172 8 140 80-785 8 14^2 30-400 8 144 80-016 8 146 29-633 8 14-8 29-252 8 15-0 28^871 8 15-2 28-492 8 16^4 28-113 8 15-6 27-736 8 15-8 27-359 9 0-0 26-984 9 0-2 26-610 Test-atoms of Ammonia in one Gallon. Vol. III.— 6 100 99 98 97 96 96 94 93 92 91 90 89 88 87 86 86 84 83 82 81 80 79 Grains of Ammonia in one GaUon. 21250-9 21037-6 20825-0 20612-6 20400-0 20187-5 19976-0 19762-6 19550-0 19337-6 19126^0 18912-6 18700-0 18487-6 18276-0 18062-5 17850-0 17637 -6 17426-0 17212-5 17000-0 16787^6 Beptems containing one Test-atom of Ammonia. 100-00 10101 102-04 103-09 104-16 105-26 106-38 107-53 108-70 109-89 111-11 112-36 113-64 114-94 116-28 117-66 119-06 120-48 121-95 123-46 126-00 126-58 ni m '■ I " - _ ^ 1 82 AMMONIA. Table of Liquid Ammonia^ (continued.) s . :« n ^*^ Weight of an Specific Gravity imperial Gallon in of the Liquid ^^oirdapois Iba. Ammonia. ^^j ^ • Percentage of Ammonia by Weight. Test-atoms Grains of of Ammonia ^^mmonia in one GalZ. ^^'^-^ Septems containing one Te8t-atx>m of Ammonia. -90250 lb. oz. 9 0-4 26-237 78 16575-0 128-21 •90376 9 0-6 25-865 77 16362-5 129-87 •90500 9 0.8 25-493 76 161500 131-58 •90625 9 10 25-123 75 15937-6 138-33 •90750 9 1-2 24^754 74 16726^0 136-13 •90876 9 1-4 24-386 73 16512-5 136-98 •91000 9 1-6 24^019 72 15300-0 138-99 •91125 9 1-8 23^653 71 15087-5 140-85 •91250 9 2^0 28-288 70 14875-0 142-86 •91376 9 2-2 22-924 69 14662-5 144-93 •91500 9 2^4 22-561 68 14460-0 147 06 •91625 "9 2-6 22-198 67 14237-5 149-25 •91750 9 2^8 21-837 66 14025-0 151^51 •91876 9 8.0 21-477 65 18812-5 163-85 •92000 9 3-2 2M18 64 13600-0 156-25 •92125 9 3-4 20^760 63 18387-6 168-78 •92250 9 8^6 20-403 62 13175-0 161-29 •92875 9 8-8 20-046 61 12962-5 163-93 •92600 9 40 19-691 60 12750-0 166-67 •92626 9 4-2 19-337 69 12537-5 169-49 •92760 9 4^4 18^983 68 12325-0 172-41 •92875 9 4^6 18^631 57 12112-5 175-44 •93000 9 4*8 18-280 56 11900-0 178-67 •93125 9 60 17^929 65 11687-5 181-82 •93250 9 6-2 17^579 " 54 11475-0 185-18 * •93376 9 6-4 17^231 63 11262-5 188-68 •93500 9 6-6 16-883 52 11050-0 192-31 . •93625 9 6^8 16-686 51 10837.5 196-08 •93750 9 6-0 16-190 60 10625-0 200-00 •93875 9 6-2 15-846 49 10412-5 204-08 •94000 9 6-4 15-502 48 10200-0 208-83 •94125 9 6^6 . 15-168 47 9987-5 212-77 •94250 9 6-8 14-816 46 9776-0 217-39 -94375 9 7-0 14-475 45 9562-5 222*22 •94500 9 7-2 14136 44 93500 227-27 •94625 9 7-4 13-796 43 9137-6 232-56 •94750 9 7^6 13-456 42 8925-0 238-09 •94875 9 7^8 13-119 41 8712-5 243-90 •95000 9 8-0 12-782 40 8500-0 260-00 •95125 9 8*2 12-446 89 8287-5 256^41 •95250 9 8-4 12-111 88 8075-0 263^16 •95375 9 8^6 11-777 87 7862-5 27027 •95500 9 8-8 11-444 86 7650-0 277-78 > •95625 9 9*0 11-111 86 7437-6 285-71 •95750 9 9-2 10-780 84 7226-0 294^12 •95875 9 9^4 10-4490 83 7012-5 303-03 •96000 9 9-6 10-1190 82 68000 81 2^50 •96125 9 9*8 9-7901 81 6587-5 822-68 •96260 9 10-0 9-4620 80 6876-0 338.33 •96375 9 10-2 9-1347 29 6162-6 844-83 •96500 9 10-4 8-8088 28 5960-0 867-14 . •96625 9 10^6 8-4827 27 6737-5 870-37 •96750 9 10-8 8-1580 26 6526-0 884-62 •96875 9 11-0 7-8341 26 6312-6 400-00 •97000 9 11-2 7-6111 24 5100-0 416-67 •97125 9 11^4 7-1888 23 4887-5 434-78 •97250 9 11-6 6-8674 22 4675-0 464-54 •97375 9 11-8 6-5469 21 4462-6 476-19 •97500 9 12-0 6-2271 20 4250-0 500-00 •97625 1 9 12-2 5-9082 1 19 4037-5 626^32 AMMONIA. Table of Liquid Ammonia^ (continued.) Specific Gravity of the Liqaid Ammoiua. •97750 •97875 •98000 •98125 •98250 •98375 •98500 -98625 •98760 •98875 •99000 •99125 •99250 •99376 •99500 •99625 •99760 •99875 1-0000 Weight of an Imperial Gallon in Avoirdupois lbs. and 0Z8. lb. 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 oz. 12-4 12-6 12-8 13-0 13-2 13-4 13-6 13^8 14-0 14^2 14-4 14-6 14-8 16^0 15^ 15-4 15-6 15-8 Percentage of Ammonia by Weight. 10 lbs. Water. 5-5901 5-2728 4-9563 4^6406 4-3255 4-0111 3-6983 8-3858 8 0741 2-7632 2^4531 21438 1-8352 1-5274 r2204 0^9141 0^6087 0-3040 Test-atoms of Ammonia in one Gallon. 18 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Grains of Ammonia in one GaUon. 8825-0 8612-5 8400-0 8187-6 2976-0 2762-5 2650-0 2337-6 2125-0 1912-5 1700-0 1487-6 1275-0 1062-5 860-0 687-6 426-0 212-6 Septems containing one Test-atom of Ammonia. 655-56 588-24 625-00 666-67 714-29 769-23 833-33 909 •(J9 1000 00 1111-10 125000 1428-60 1666-70 2000-00 2600-00 8888-80 6000-00 1000000 onJ:uT''''''f ??l 9«™^'°f.« <^»^ectly with hydrated acids, forming a series of salts, the X™ r ^ ^^^'^ »s pecuhar, and must be here briefly discussed, that the formula he,^ after employed m descnbmg them may be understood. «"» uere- These compounds may"be viewed as hydrated acids ; thus, the compound with Hydrochloric acid as the Hydrosulphuric acid Sulphuric acid Nitric acid Carbonic acid ** (I it direct combinations of the anunonia with the Hydrochlorate, (NH", HCl.) Hydrosulphate, (NH», HS.) Hydrated sulphate, (NH» ; HO, S0».) Hydrated nitrate, (NH» ; HO, NO*.) Hydrated carbonate, (NH* ; HO, CO'). . uo ^f ! f ^ ^^^^u'^^ these compounds, in all their properties, to the correspondine salts of potash and soda has led chemists to the assumption of the eiistence of ^Xud^ e^ments possessmg the characters of a metal, of a basyl or hypothetical metallic radicj called ammomum, (NH^) m these salts; which theory of thei/ institution brings SrtS^ resemblance to the potash and soda salts more clearly, thus^— " i"gs um vne contains « The chloride of potassium — sulphide — s-jiphate of potassa " — nitrate — carbonate it (t KS. KO, KO, KO, S0». N0». C0«. And the chloride of ammonium contains — sulphide " — sulphate of ammonia — nitrate " — carbonate " NH*a NH*S. NH*0, S0». NH*0, NO*. NH*0, C0». Although it may be objected to this view that the metal ammonium is not known vet a curious metallic compound of this metal with mercurv has been obtained • and, after ^ it is by no means necessary that the metal should be 'isolated, for already the eiistence of Sted"^ ^ ^^ ^ ^^^ assumed in oiganic chemistry which have never been It is true, ^so, that the oxide of ammonium is unknown, but substitution-products of it have been produced which are solid bodies, soluble in water, exhibiting all the characters of potash solution, being as powerfully caustic and alkaline. In fact, ammonia is in realitv but the type of a vast number of compounds. It is capable of having its hydro^^n replaced by metals (as copper, naercury, calcium, &c.,) as well as by metallic or basic com- pound radicals, producing the endless number of artificial oi^nic bases, which are primarv secondary, or tertiary nitrides, according as one, two, or three equivalents of the Lmonii are replaced. When the substitution of the hydrogen in ammonia is eflected by acid radi- cals, the compounds are called amides. ^ Preparaiion of Ammonia.- AmoiOTm is obtained by tiie decomposition of one of tho I :i • 84 AMMONIA, CARBONATE OF. salts of ammonia, either the chloride of ammoniimi, NH^Cl, (sal ammoniab,) or the sul- phate, by a metallic oxide, e. g. lime. NH*C1 + CaO, HO =± C«a -t- NH» -j- 2H0. On the small scale in the laboratory the powdered ammoniacal salt is mixed with slaked lime in a Florence flask or a small iron retort, and gently heated ; the ammoniacal gas bein^ dried by passing it through a bottle containing lime. Chloride of calcium must not be employed in the desiccation of ammonia, since the ammonia is absorbed by this salt, producing a curious compound, the chloride of caliammonium, ^ | Ca [ ^^' being, in fact, one of those substitution-compounds before alluded to. ^ • i w* • The gaseous ammonia must be collected over mercury, on account of its solubihty m water This operation is carried out on the large scale for the purpose of making the aqueous solution of ammonia, {liquor wnmonia^ or spirits of hartshorn.) Solution of Ammonia. Preparation.— In preparing the aqueous solution, the gas is passed into water contained in Woolfe's bottles, which on the small scale are of glass, whilst on the large scale they are made of earthenware. ,,,,' , •.t.-u* -a a A sufficiently capacious retort of iron or lead should be employed, which is provided with a movable neck ; and it is desirable to pass the gas through a worm, to cool it, before it enters the first Woolfe's bottle. Each of the series of Woolfe's bottles should be fur- nished with a safety-funnel in the third neck, to avoid accidents by absorption. The whole of the condensing arrangements should be kept cool by ice or cold water. Properties —In the London and in the Edinburgh " Pharmacopojia two solutions of ammonia are directed to be prepared, the stronger havin- the specific gravity 0-882, and containing about 30 per cent, of ammonia ; the weaker ot specific gravity 0-960, contain- ing, therefore, about 10 per cent, of the gas. ^ • i Sometimes the commercial solution of ammonia is made by treatmg impure ammoniacal salts with lime, and it then contains empyreumatic oils ; in fact, the various volatile prod- ucts of the distillation of coal which are soluble in or miscible with water. Pvrrol mav be detected in ammonia by the purple color which it strikes with an excess of nitric or sulphuric acid. If the residue of its distillation be mixed with potash, Picoline is detected by its peculiar odor. Naphthaline is discovered not only by its odor, but may also be separated by sublimation or heating, after converting the ammoma m the solution into a salt by sulphuric or hydrochloric acid. — Dr. Maclogan. We imported into England of sulphate and liquor of ammonia as follows :— Ammonia, sulphate of, .... 1856, = - lbs. 23,904 n ^ u . , . . 1855, - - 343,609 Ammonia, liquor, ... - 1855, - 22,400 Since, for the purpose of purification on the large scale, ammonia is invariably con- verted into chloride or sulphate, the details of the manufacture of the ammoniacal salts will be given under those heads. For the determination of ammonia, see Nitrogen.— U. M W AMMONIA CARBONATE OF. {The sesquicarhonate of commerce, 2NH', SCO', 2H0=NH*0 CO'- HO, CO'-|-NH^CO', eqv. 118.) This salt was probably known to Raymond Lillly and Basil Valentine, as the chief constituent of putrid urme. The real distinction between ammonia and ij* carbonate was pointed out by Dr. Black. 25 AMMONIA, CARBONATE OF. ' 35 ih,?rts^^^e^mZl" ^,T"^ ^""^^ *^"- P«^«f«^ti«^ Of animal substances, and by meir aestructive distillation. Its presence m ram water has been before aUuded^ The carbonate of ammonia of commerce 'is obtained bv submitd^a t n ^nK?^* « mixture either of sal ammoniac or sulphate of ammo^ with ch^ ^ '^ subhmation a Ihis IS generally carried out in cast-iron retorts, similar in sizP «nH cT^orw. ♦ *u m the manufacture of coal gas. The retorts are ehaP^?>,i^. k a ^^^^ ^ ^^ "^ the other they communicatf ^ith l^e I^Tl^^^ frame, in which the sublimed salt is condeLd! X 25 ^^PP^^ed by a wooden m>n pot. surmounted by movable leaden caps. " ThrS^s't^^^er ^^^b;Xtrind 26 ine chai-ge of a retort consists usually of about 65 Jhq nf flnir>T,o*o ^e • / and made to form an important feature in the operations of IheBrTuVaSTri*^,,^'^ as fuel or XS- ^d Te t«i/«n^ the condensing apparatus, may be coUerted for use KanT wK^ I ^ f V*^^ ®^ sulphate of ammonia from a ton of neat- Sir Robprt »» II t 86 AMMONIA, NITRATE OF. It will thus be seen that the peat is a source of ammonia, but that this source is a profitable or economical one, in a commercial point of view, is a problem in process of solution. Ammonia from Schist— Another source'of ammonia is bitummous schist, which, when submitted to destructive distillation, gives oflf an ammoniacal liquor which may be employed in the manufacture of ammoniacal salts by any of the usual processes. The obtaimng of ammonia from schist forms part of a patent granted to Count de Hompesch, September 4, Chemical Composition and Constitution.— The true neutral carbonate of ammonia (NH*0 C0») does not appear to exist. The sesquicarbonate of ammonia of the shops was found by Rose to have the composition assigned to it by Mr. Phillips, ». e. it contains 2NH' 300' 2H0 ; and it may therefore be viewed as a compound of the true bicar- bonate, li. e.\he double carbonate of ammonia and water,) NH*0, C0« ; HO, CO', with a peculiar compound of anhydrous carbonic acid with ammonia itself, (NU , CU .; The equation representing its method of preparation will then be, 3NH*0 SO»+3CaO, CO»=CNH*0, CO' ; HO, CO'-f NH», CO')4-HN*0+3CaO, S0», or 3NH*Cl-h3C;0, CO'=(NH*0, CO', HO, CO'+NH», C0'+NH*0)-f-3CaCl ; for it is invariably found that a certain quantity of water and ammonia is liberated during the distillation, and hence the anomalous character of the compound. In fact, m operating upon 3 equivalents of the sulphate or chloride of the 3 equivalents of the true carbonate of ammonia (NH*0, CO') which may be supposed to be generated, two are decomposed, one losing an equivalent of ammonia, the other an equivalent of ^a^er; of course the ammonia thus liberated is not lost ; it is passed into water to be saturated with acid, and thus again converted into sulphate or chloride. , . . , n j\ • ♦ „uu ;„ Prop«-^te».— Sesquicarbonate of ammonia- (as it is commonly called) is met with m commerce in the form of fibrous white translucent cakes, about two inches thick When exposed to the air the constituents of the less stable compound ^H , CO are volatilized, and a white opaque mass of the true bicarbonate remains. Hence the odor of ammonia Always emitted by the commercial carbonate. Mr. Scanlan has sho shown that, by treatment with a small quantity of water, the carbonate is dissolved, leavmg the bicar- bonate. It is soluble in four times its weight of cold water, but boihng water decom- ^^Immrities.^The commercial salt is sometimes contaminated with empyreumatic oil, which 13 recognized by its yielding a brownish-colored solution on treatment with water. It may contain sulphate and chloride of ammonium. For the recognition of the pres- ence of these acids, see Sulphuric Acid. . ^ j n • i«„^ <■,/.«. Sulphide and hyposulphite of ammonia are sometimes present, and likewise lead, from the chambers into which the salt has been sublimed. , ^ e ^„:„ Other Carbonates of Ammonia.— Besides the neutral or monocarbonate of ammonia before alluded to, the thxe bicarbonate (NH*0, CO' ; HO, CO') and the sesquicarbonate of the shop^i Rose has described about a dozen other definite compounds ; but, lor their de- scription,'we must refer to Ure's " Dictionary of Chemistry." AMMONIA, NITRATE OF. This salt crystallizes m six-sided pnsms, being isomor- nhous with nitrate of potash. . . , r Its composition is NH*0, N0». It is incapable of existing without the presence of an equivalent of water, in addition to NH» and N0». If heat be appUed, the salt is entirely decomposed into protoxide of nitrogen and water ; thus— NH*0, NO' = 2N0 H- 4H0. Besides its use in the laboratory for making protoxide of nitrogen, it is a constituent of frigorific mixtures, on account of the cold which it produces on dissolving »» ^a^er. Lastly, it is very convenient for promotmg the deflagration of orgamc bodies, both its constituents being volatile on heating. . . « , . . i? AMMONIA SULPHATE OF. (NH'O, SO'.) This salt is found native m fissures near volcanoes under the name of mossagnine, associated with sal ammoniac. It also forms in ignited coal-beds— as at Bradley, in Staffordshire— with chloride of ammonium. This salt is prepared by saturating the solution of ammonia, obtained by Miy ot tde processes before described, (either from animal refuse, from coal, in the manufacture ot coal-gas, from guano, or from any other source,) with sulphuric acid, and then evaporatmg the solution till the salt crystallizes out. , , • i Frequently, instead of adding the acid to the ammoniacal liquor, the crude ammoniac^ liquor is distilled in a boiler, either alone or with lime, and the evolved ammonia is passed into the sulphuric acid, contained in a large tun or in a series of Woolfes bottles ; or a modification of Coffey's still may be used with advantage, as in the case of the saturation of hydrochloric acid by ammonia. . - ., i. - w ^*«.^ If Coffey's still be employed, a considerable concentration of the liquor is efiected during the process of saturation, which is subsequently completed generally m iron pans ; AMMONIA, SULPHATE OF. 87 but great care has to be taken not to carry the evaporation too far, to avoid decomposition of the sulphate by the oi^anic matter invariably present, which reduces it to the sute of sulphite, hyposulphite, and even to sulphide, of'ammonium. The salt obtained by this first crystallization is much purer than the chloride produced under similar circumstances, and one or two recrystallizations effect ks purification suffi- ciently for all commercial purposes. It is on account of the greater facility of purification which the sulphate affords by crys- tallization than the chloride of ammonium, that the former is often produced as a prelimi- nary stage in the manufacture of the latter compound, the purified sulphate being then con- verted into sal ammoniac by sublimation with common salt The acid mother-liquor left in the first crystallization is returned to be again treated, together with some additional acid, with a fresh quantity of ammonia. Preparation. Modifications in details and patents. — Since it is in the production of the sulphate of ammonia that the modification of Coffey's still, called the ammonia stilly is generally employed, it may be well to introduce here a detailed account of its arrangement This apparatus \^ an upright vessel, divided by horizontal diaphragms or partitions into a number of chambers. It is proposed to construct the vessel of wood, lined with lead, and the diaphragms of sheet iron. Each diaphragm is perforated with many small holes, so regulated, both with regard to number and size, as to afford, under some pressure, passage for the elastic vapors which ascend, during the use of the apparatus, to make their exit by a pipe opening from the upper chamber. Fitted to each diaphragm are several small valves, so weighted as to rise whenever elastic vapors accumulate under them m such quan- tity as to exert more than a certain amount of pressure on the diaphragm. A pipe also is attached to each diaphragm, passing from about an inch above its upper surface to near the bottom of a cup or small reservoir, fixed to the upper surface of the diaphragms next underneath. This pipe is sufficiently large to transmit freely downwards the whole of the liquid, which enters for distillation at the upper part of the upright vessel ; and the cup or reservoir, into which the pipe dips, forms, when full of liquid, a trap by which the upward passage of elastic vapors by the pipe is prevented. The vessel may rest on a close cistern contrived to receive the descending liquid as it leaves the lowest chamber, and from this cistern it may be run off, by a valve or cock, whenever expedient The cistern, or in its absence the lowest chamber, contains the orifice of a pipe which supplies the steam for working the apparatus. The exact number of chambers into which the upright vessel is divided is not of essential importance ; but the quantity of liquid and the surface of each diaphragm bemg given, the distillation, within certam limits, will be more complete the greater the number of chambers used in the process. The liquid undergoing distillation in this apparatus necessarily covers the upper surface of each diaphragm to the depth of about an inch, being prevented from passing downward through the small perforations by the up- ward pressure of the rising steam and other elastic vapors ; and, on the other hand, the steam being prevented, by the traps, from passing upwards by the pipes, is forced to ascend by the perforations in the diaphragms ; so that the liquid lying on them becomes heated, and in consequence gives off its volatile matters. When the ammoniacal liquor accumu- lates on one of the diaphragms to the depth of an inch, it flows over one of the short pipes into the trap below, and overflows into the next diaphragm, and so on. See Distillation. The management of the apparatus varies in some measure with the form in which it is desirable to obtain the ammonia. When the ammonia is required to leave the upper cham- ber in the form of gas, either pure or impure, it is necessary that the steam which ascends and the current of ammoniacal liquid which descends, should be in such relative propor- tions that the latter remain at or near the atmospheric temperature during its passage through some of the upper chambers, becoming progressively hotter as it descends, until it reaches the boiling temperature ; in which state it passes through the lower chambers, either to make its escape, or to enter a cistern provided to receive it, and in which it may for some time be maintained at a boiling heat On the contrary, if the ammonia, either pure or impure, be required to leave the upper chamber in combination with the vapor of water the supply of steam entering below must bear such proportion to that of the ammoniacal liquid supplied above, that the latter may be at a boiling temperature in the upper part of the apparatus.* The use of this apparatus has been patented m the name of Mr. W. K Newton, Not. 9, 1841. Mr. Hill's process, patented Oct. 19, 1848, for concentrating ammoniacal solutions, by causing them to descend through a tower of coke through which steam is ascending, is, in fact, nothing more than a rough mode of carrying out the same principle which is more effectually and elegantly performed by the modification of Coffey's still above described. The concentrated ammonia liquor is then treated with acid and evaporated in the usual way. Mr. Wilson has patented, Dec. 7, 1850, another method of saturating the ammonia with • Phann. Journal, xili. 64. I i i- 88 AMMONIUM. the acid by passing the crude ammonia vapor, obtained by heating the ammoniacal liquor of the gas-works, in at the bottom of a high tower filled with coke, whilst the sulphuric acid descends in a continuous current from the top ; in this manner the acid and ammonia are exposed to each other over a greatly extended surface. Dr. Richardson j(patent, Jan. 26, 1850) mixes the crude ammonia liquors with sulphate of magnesia, then evaporates the solution, and submits the double sulphate of magnesia and ammonia, which separates, to sublimation ; but it would not appear that any great advantage is derived from proceeding in this way, either pecuniary or otherwise. Mr. Laming passes sulphurous acid through the gas liquor, and finally oxidizes the sul- phite thus obtained to the state of sulphate, by exposure to the air. (Patent, Aug. 12, 1852.) Michiel's mode of obtaining sulphate of ammonia, patented April 30, 1850, is as fol- .lows : — The ammoniacal liquors of the gas-works are combined with sulphate and oxide of lead, which is obtained and prepared in the following way : — Sulphuret of lead in its natu- ral state is taken and reduced to small fragments by any convenient crushing apparatus. It is then submitted to a roasting process, in a suitably arranged reverberatory furnace of the following construction : — The furnace is formed of two shelves, or rather the bottom of the furnace and one shelf, and there is a communication from the lower to the upper. The galena or sulphuret of lead, previously ground, is then spread over the surface of the upper shelf, to a thickness of about 2 or 2^ inches, and there it is submitted to the heat of the furnace. It remains thus for about two hours, at which time it is drawn off the upper shelf and spread over the lower shelf or bottom of the furnace, where it is exposed to a greater heat for a certain time, during which it is well stirred, for the purpose of exposing all the parts equally to the action of the heat, and at the same time the fusion of any portion of it is prevented. By this process the sulphuret of lead becomes converted partly into sulphate and partly into oxide of lead. This product of sulphate and oxide of lead is to be crushed by any ordinary means, and reduced to about the same degree of fineness as coarse sand. It is now to be combined with the ammoniacal liquors, when sulphate of ammonia and sul- phuret and carbonate of lead will be produced. The sulphate of ammonia is separated by treatment with water, and the residuary mix- ture of sulphide and carbonate of lead is used for the manufacture of lead compounds. Properties. — The 'Sulphate of ammonia obtained by either of the methods above de- scribed is a colorless salt, containing, according to Mitscherlich, one equivalent of water of crystallization. It is isomorphous with sulphate of potash. It deliquesces by exposure to the air ; 1 part dissolves in 2 parts of cold water, and 1 of boiling water. It fuses at 140° C, (284° F.,) but at 280° C. (536° F.) it is decomposed, being volatilized in the form of free ammonia, sulphite, water, and nitrogen. For the other sulphates — the sulphites and those salts which are but little used in the arts and manufactures — we refer to the " Dictionary of Chemistry." . Ijgen, — ^The chief consumption of ammoniacal salts in the arts is in the form of sal ammoniac, the sulphate of ammonia being principally used as a material for the manufac- ture of the chloride of ammonium. It may, however, be employed directly in making ammonia-alum, or in the production of free ammonia by treatment with lime. AMMONIUM. (NH*.) The radical supposed to exist in the various salts of ammonia. Thus NH*0 is the oxide, NH*C1 the chloride, of ammonium. Ammonium constitutes one of the best established chemical types. See Formula, Chemical. — C. G. W. AMMONIUM, CHLORIDE OF. This salt is formed in the solid state by bringing in contact its two gaseous constituents, hydrochloric acid and ammonia. The gases combine with such force as to generate, not only heat, but sometimes even light. It may also be prepared by mixing the aqueous solutions of these gases, and evaporating till crystallization takes place. When ammoniacal gas is brought into contact with dry chlorme, a violent reaction ensues, attended by the evolution of heat and even light. The chlorine combines with the hydrogen to produce hydrochloric acid, which unites with the remainder of the ammonia, forming chloride of ammonium, the nitrogen being liberated. The same reaction takes place on passing chlorine gas into the saturated aqueous solution of ammonia. Manufacture of Sal Ammoniac from Gas Liquor.^By far the largest quantity of the ammoniacal salts now met with in commerce is prepared from " gas liquor," the quantity of which annually produced in the metropolis alone is quite extraordinary— owe of the London gas works producing in one year 224,800 gallons of gas liquor, by the distillation of 61,100 tons of coal ; and the total consumption of coal in London for gas making is estimated at about 840,000 tons. . . The principle of the conversion of the nitrogen of coal into ammonia by destructive distillation, as in the manufacture of coal gas, will be found described in connection with the processes of gas manufacture and the products produced by the destructive distillation of coal. In the purification of the coal gas, the bodies soluble in water are all contained in the y. J AMMONIUM, CHLORIDE OF. 89 " gas liquor," (see Coal Gas,) together with a certain quantity of tarry matter. The am- monia is chiefly present in the form of carbonate, together with certain quantities of chlo- ride, sulphide, cyanide, and sulphocyanide of ammonium, as well as the salts of the com- pound ammonias. For the purpose of preparing the chloride, if hydrochloric acid be not too costly, the liquor is saturated with hydrochloric acid — the solution evaporated to cause the salt to crystallize, and then, finally, the crude sal ammoniac is purified by sublimation. Before treatment with the acid, the liquor is frequently distilled. This is generally effected in a wrought-iron boiler, the liquors passing into a modification of the Coffey's still, by which the solution of ammonia is obtained freer from tar and more concentrated. The Saturation of the Ammoniacal Liquor with the acid is generally effected by allow- ing the acid to flow, from a large leaden vessel in which it is held, into an underground 27 tank (Jig. 21) containing the liquor, which is furnished with an exit tube passing into a chimney, to carry off the sulphuretted hydrogen and other offensive gases which are disen- gaged. ^ Or, in other works, the gas liquor is put into large tuns, and the acid lifted in gutta- percha carboys by cranes, thrown into the liquor and stirred with it by means of an agi- tator ; the offensive gases being in this case made to traverse the fire of the steam-engine. Sometimes the vapors produced in the distillation of the crude gas liquor are passed in at the lower extremity of a column filled with coke, down which the acid trickles. The Evaporation of the crude Saline Solution is generally performed in square or rec- tangular cast-iron vats, capable of holding from 800 to 1,500 gallons. They are encased in brickwork, the heat being applied by a fire, the flue of which takes a sinuous course beneath the lining of brickwork on which the pan rests, as shown infg. 28. When the liquor is evaporated to a specific gravity of 1-25, it is transferred to the crys- tallizing pans ; but during the processes of concentration a considerable quantity of tar separates on the surface, which must be removed, from time to time, by skimming, since it seriously impedes evaporation. The crystallization, which takes place on cooling, is performed in circular tubs, from 7 to 8 feet wide, and 2 to 3 deep, which are generally imbedded entirely or partially in the ground. To prevent the formation of large crystals, which would be inconvenient in the subsequent process of sublimation, the liquor is agitated from time to time. The crude mass obtained, which is contaminated with tarry matter, free acid and water, is next dried, by gently heating it on a cast-iron plate under a dome. The grayish-white mass remaining is now ready to be transferred to the sublimers. The method of suhlimation generally adopted in this country consists in beating down into the metal pots, shown in fig. 29, the charge of dry coarsely crystallized sal am- moniac. These pots are heated from below and by flues round the sides. The body of the subliming vessel is of cast-iron, and the lid usually of lead, or, less frequently, iron. There is a small hole at the top, to permit the escape of steam ; and great attention is requisite in the management of the heat, for if it be applied too rapidly a large quantity of sal ammoniac ,/ !• m 90 AMMONIUM, CHLORIDE OF. is carried off with the steam, or even the whole apparatus may be blown up ; whilst, if the temperature be too low, the cake of sal ammoniac is apt to be soft and yellow. 28 n The sublimation is never continued until the whole of the salt has been volatilized, since the heat required would decompose the cabbonaceous impurities, and they, emitting volatile oily hydrocarbons, diminish the purity of the product. In consequence of this incomplete sublimation, a conical mass (shown in Jig. 29) is left behmd, called the " yolk." After 29 cooling, the dome of the pot is taken off, and the attached cake carefully removed. This cake, which is from 3 to 5 inches thick, is nearly pure, only requiring a little scraping, where it was in contact with the dome, to fit it for the market. Modifications of the Procesm. — If, as is often the case, sulphuric acid is cheaper or more accessible than hydrochloric, the gas liquor is neutralized with sulphuric acid, and then the sulphate of ammonia thus obtained is sublimed with common salt, {chloride of sodium^) and thus converted into sal ammoniac. NH«0 SO' -f NaCl = NH^Cl+NaOSO'. Mr. CroU has taken out a patent for converting crude ammonia into the chloride, by passing the vapors evolved in the first distillation through the crude chloride of manganese, obtained, as a bye product in the preparation of chlorine, for the manufacture of chloride of lime : crude chloride of iron may be used in the same way. AMMONIUM, CHLORIDE OF. 91 Mr. Lammg patented in July, 1843, the substitution of a solution of chloride of calcium for treating the crude gas liquor, instead of the mineral acids. Mr. Hills, August, 1846 proposed chloride of magnesium for use in the same way ; and several other patents have been taken out by both these gentlemen, for the use of various salts in this way. Manufacture of Sal Ammoniac from Guano. — Mr. Young took out a patent, November 11th, 1841, in which he describes his method of obtaming ammonia and its salts from guano. He fills a retort, placed vertically, with a mixture of two parts by weight of guano, and one part by weight of hydrate of lime. These substances are thoroughly mixed by giving a reciprocating motion to the agitator placed in the retort ; a moderate degree of heat is then applied, which is gradually increased until the bottom of the retort becomes red-hot The ammoniacal gas thus given off is absorbed by water in a condenser, whilst other gases, which are given off at the same time, being insoluble in water, pass off. Solutions of carbonate bicarbonate, or sesquicarbonate of ammonia are produced, by filling the condenser with a solution of ammonia, and passing carbonic acid through it. A solution of chloride of am- monium or sulphate of ammonia, is obtained by filling the condenser with diluted hydro- chloric or sulphuric acid, and passing the ammonia through it as it issues from the retort. Dr. Wilton Turner obtained a patent, March 11th, 1844, for obtaining salts of ammonia from guano. The foUowing is his method of obtaining chloride of ammonium in conjunction with cyanogen compounds :— The guano is subjected to destructive distilUition in close ves- sels, at a low red heat during the greater part of the operation ; but this temperature is in- creased towards the end. The products of distillation are collected in a series of Woolfe's bottles, by means of which the gases evolved during the operation may be made to pass two or three times through water, before escaping into the air. These products consist of car- bonate of ammonia, Jiydrocyanic acid, and carburetted hydrogen, the first two of which are rapidly absorbed by the water, with the formation of a strong solution of cyanide of am- monium and carbonate of ammonia. After the ammoniacal solution has been removed from the Woolfe's apparatus, a solution of protochloride of iron is added to it, in such quantities as will yield sufficient iron to convert the latter into Prussian blue, which is formed on the addition of hydrochloric acid in sufficient quantity to neutralize the free ammonia- the precipitate thus formed is now allowed to subside, and is carefully separated from the solu- tion, and by being boiled with a solution of potash or soda, will yield the ferrocyanide of the alkali which is obtained by crystallizing in the usual way. The solution (after the removal of the precipitate) should be freed from any excess of iron it may contain bv the careful addition of a fresh portion of the ammoniacal liquor, by which means the J!ude of iron will be precipitated, and a neutral solution of ammonia obtained. When the precipi- tated oxide and cyanide of iron have subsided, the solution of chloride of ammonium is drawn off by a syphon, and the sal ammoniac obtained from it by the usual processes • the oxide of iron is added to the ammoniacal solution next operated upon * If sulphate of iron and sulphuric acid are used, sulphate of ammoiia is the ammoniacal salt produced, the chemical changes and operations being similar to the above Since the greater part; of the nitrogen present in guano exists in the state of ammoniacal salts, which are decomposed at a red heat, nearly the whole of the ammonia which it is capable of yielding is obtained by this method ; stiU there cannot be a doubt that the con- version of the urea, uric acid and other nitrogenized oi^anic bodies into ammonia, is greatly facilitated by mixing the guano with lime before heating it, as m Mr. Young's Manufacture of Sal Ammoniac from f/Wn-?.— The urea in the urine of man and other animals is extremely liable to undergo a fermentative decomposition in the presence of the putrefiable nitrogenous matters always present in this excrement, by which it is converted into carbonate of ammonia. By treating stale urine with hyhrochlorie acid, sal ammoniac separates on evaporation. ^ro;>«r^*e«.-.Chloride of ammonium (or sal ammoniac) usually occura in commerce in fibrous ma^s of the form of large hemispherical cakes with a round hole in the centre having, m fact, the shape of the domes in which it has been sublimed. By slowly evapoiS ing its aqueous solution, the salt may occasionally be obtained in cakes neariy an inch in height ; but It generally forms feathery crystals, which are composed of rows of minute c^ tahedra, atteched by their extremities. Its specific gravity ^1-45, and by heaSn A sublimes without undergoing fusion. It has a sharp and acrid taste, aid one ^rt Sv^ in 2-72 parts of hot, or in an equal weight of cold water. *^ aissoives «t J! '^„'^«P^]2ed by its being completely volatile on heating, giving a white curdy preci- pitate of chloride of silver on the addition of nitrate of silver to its aqteous solution a?rby the copious evolution of ammonia on mixing it with lime, as well ^ the producKf the yellow precipitate of the double chloride of ammonium and patmum (NH^C Pam on the addition of bicUoride of platinum. ^ ^ ' ' ®^ Impurities,— In the manufacture of chloride of ammonium, if the purification of the Zorviw T ^'^T'^^^r «^^"'""g *^^ «-lt, some traces of protochloriS Tiron ^ generally present, and frequently a considerable proportion. Even when the3t is 92 AMMONIUM, SULPHIDES OF. sublimed, the chloride of iron is volatilized together with the chloride of ammonium, and appears to exist in the salt in the form of a double compound (probably of Fe, CI KH^Cl analogous to the compounds which chloride of ammonium forms with zinc and tin) 140 ' and this not only in the brown seams of the cake, but likewise in the coloriess portion.' This accounts for the observation so often made in the laboratory, that a solution of sal ammoniac, which, when recently prepared, was perfectly transparent and coloriess, becomes gradually red from the peroxidation of the iron and its precipitation in the form of sesqui- oxide. ^ It is in consequence of the existence of the iron in the state of this double salt, that vV urtz found that chloride of ammonium containing iron in this form gave no indications of its presence by the usual re-agents until after the addition of nitric acid ; and it is curious that there likewise exists a red compound of this class in which the iron exists in the sUte of perchloride similarly marked, in fact as NH^ CI Fe^'CP. A very simple method of removing the iron, suggested by Mr. Brewer, consists in pass- ing a lew bubbles of chlorine gas through the hot concentrated solution of the salt, by which the protochloridc of iron is converted into the perchloride. 2Fe CI + CI = Fe'Cl». ^ The free ammonia always present in the solution decomposes this perchloride with pre- cipitation of sesquioxide, and formation of an additional quantity of sal ammoniac. Fe'^Cl' + 3NH*0 = Fe'O' + 3NH*C1. The sesquioxide of iron, which is of course- present in the form of a brown hydrate is filtered oflf or separated by decantation, and a perfectly pure solution i» obtained. ' The only precaution necessary is to avoid passing more chlorine than is requisite to pcroxidjze the iron, since the ammonia salt itself will be decomposed with evolution of nitrogen, and the dangerously explosive body, chloride of nitrogen, may result from the union of the liberated nitrogen with chlorine. Uaes.—The most important use of sal ammoniac in the arts is in joining iron and other metals, in tinning, &c. It is also extensively used in the manufacture of ammonia- alum, which is now largely employed in the manufacture of mordants instead of potash- alum. A considerable quantity is also consumed in pharmacv. Sal ammoniac is one of those salts which possess, in a* high degree, the property of producing cold whilst dissolving in water ; it is, therefore, a common constituent of frigorific mixtures. See Freezing. ^ AMMONIUM, SULPHIDES OF When sulphuretted hydrogen gas is passed into a solu- tion of ammonia in excess, it is converted into the double sulphide of ammonium and hy- drogen—or, as it is frequently called, the hydrosulphate of sulphide of ammonium— !NH S, HS This solution is extensively employed as a re-agent in the chemical laboratorv for the separation of those metals the sulphides of which are soluble in acids viz., nickel', cobalt manganese, zinc, and iron, which are precipitated by this re-agent in alkaline solutions. ' By exposure to the air, the hydrosulphuric acid which it contains is decomposed, the hydrogen being oxidized and converted into water, whilst the liberated sulphur is dissolved by the sulphide of ammonium, forming the bisulphide, or even higher sulphide. This solution of the polysulphide of ammonium is a valuable re-agent for dissolving the sulphides of certain metals, such as tin, antimony, and arsenic, the sulphides of which play the part of acids and form salts with the sulphide of ammonium. By this deportment with sulphide of ammonium, these metals are separated both on the small scale in the laboratory and also on the large scale, from the sulphides of those metals — such as lead, copper, mercury, &c. — the sulphides of which are insoluble in sulphide of ammonium. The higher sulphides, viz., the tersulphide, NH*S', and the pentasulphide, NH*S*,— are bodies of purely scientific interest. They are obtained by distilling the corresponding sulphides of potassium with sal ammoniac. All the sulphides of ammonium are soluble in water without decomposition. Ammonia combines with all the other inorganic and organic acids, the name of which is *' legion ; " but for an account of these bodies we must refer to the " Dictionary of Chemistry," as they have but few applications in the arts and manufactures. AMORPHOUS. This term may be regarded as the opposite of crystalline. Some elements exist in both the crystalline and the amorphous states, as carbon, which is amor- phous in charcoal, but crystalline in the diamond. The peculiarities which give rise to these conditions— evidently depending upon mole- cular forces which have not yet been defined— present one of the most fertile fields for study in the range of modem science. AMYGDALINE. (C*" H" N0« 4- 6H0.) A peculiar substance, existing ready formed in bitter almonds, the leaves of the cherry laurel, the kernels of the plum, cherry, peach. ANCHOR. it and the leaves and bark of Prunus padus, and in the young sprouts of the F. domestica. It IS also found m the sprouts of -several species of Sorbus, such as S. aucuparia, 8. iomii- nahs, and others of the same order. To prepare it, the bitter ahnonds are subjected to strong pressure between hot plates of metal. This has the effect of removing the bland oU known in commerce as almond oil. The residue, when powdered, forms almond meaL To obtain amygdalme from the meal, the latter is extracted with boiling alcohol of 90 or 9a per cent. The tincture is to be passed through a cloth, and the residue pressed, to obtain the fluid mechanically adherent to it. The liquids will be milky, owing to the p^ence of some of the oil On keeping the fluid for a few hours, it may be separated by pourin- off or by means of a funnel, and so obtained clear. The alcohol is now to be removed by dis^ tiUation, the latter being continued until five-sixths have come over. The fluid in the retort, when cold, is to have the amygdaline precipitated from it by the addition of half its volume of ether. The crystals are to be pressed between folds of filtering paper, and re- crystalhzed from concentrated boiling alcohol. As thus prepared it forms pSiriy scales very soluble in hot alcohol, but sparingly when cold ; it is insoluble m ether, but water dissolved it readily and m large quantity. The crystals contain six atoms of water of crystallization Most persons engaged in chemical operations have noticed, when using almond meal for the purpose of luting that, before being moistened with water, it has Uttle odor, and what it has IS of an oily kind ; but, after moistening, it soon acquu^s the powerful and pleasant perfume of bitter almond oil. This arises from a singular reaction taking place between the amygdahne and the vegetable albumen or emulsine. The latter merely acts as a ferment and its elements m no way enter into the products formed. The decomposition, in fact! takes place between one equivalent of amygdaline and four equivalents of water, the prod- uct being one equivalent of bitter almond oil, two equivalents of grape sugar, ind one of prussicacid. Or, represented in symbols:— & f ^ , uvu^ui Q*o ^ j^Q„ _^ 4gQ ^ ^H H« 0' -f 0=* HN -I- 2C" H" 0". Amygdaline. Bitter-almond oiL Prussia acid. Grape sugar. In preparing amygdaline, some chemists add water to the residue of the distiUation of the tincture and then yeast, in order to remove the sugar present, by fermentation, -previous to precipitating with ether; the process thus becomes much more complex because it is necessary to filter the fermented liquid, and concentrate it agam by e^ration^fore precipitating out the amygdaline. «iw™uuii, oeiore rH^JI'^i^T/ *^f *^? decomposition which is experienced by the bitter almond cake, when digested with water, IS owing to the presence of the two principles mentioned, rest^ upon tioIJ '^Ik^k'^T'^^^'^^'^''': ^^ *^^ °'^''*^' ""^ P^^^^ '•esid»« of the bitter almond be treated with boiling water, the emulsine-or vegetable albumen-wUl become coagulai^ and incapable of inducing the decomposition of the amygdalme. Moreover if thektter be removed, from the marc with hot alcohol previous to o'plrating in the i^iS ma^er for th^ extraction of the essent al oil not a trace will be obt^ned. It is only the bXr^mond which con ains amygdalme ; the sweet variety is, therefore, incapable of Vieldmg he ^nce by ferrnentation. But sweet almonds resemble the bitter 'in coining emulsine a^ti^ exceedingly mteresting-aj illustrating the truth of the explanation given abov^that if a little amygdaline be added to an emulsion of sweet almonds, the bitter almond^S^nce is immediately formed. The lai^st proportion of essential oil is obtained wISentheTa^ ^ digested previous to distillation, with twenty times its weight of water, for a d^y a^ a ° AkrioR^^Th "'' ' 1^^ ''. *^^™f * ^^^^^^'^ ^«^ *^« digestion.-c'. G W.^ irnn » «nJ?r*», K^ /°^*^u ^™P^T^ ^""^ ^"^^0*^ «f wrought-iron is known as "scrap \ it n.? t-^'l' ^'''!'r' ''^"^ ^ ^^°«^'«' ^^^y ^J«« »^g««d " Welsh mine iron?*^ ^of -1 X practicable, without occupying more space than can be afforded, to describe in detail the manufacture f an anchor. It does not, indeed, appear desirable thrw^shou d forTheTkVof'r '"-''''I " 'T "^ T'^"^'"^' iidustry,'that few will coLu ^ vorme for the sake of learning to make anchors. The following will therefore suffice • The mT chor smith s foi^e consists of a hearth of brickwork, raised Ibout 9 inches above the mTuS and generally about 7 feet square. In the centre 'of this is a cavity frconSning t1^ fire A vertica brick wall is built onone side of the hearth, which supports the dome Ld a low chimney to carry off the smoke. Behind this wall ar'e placed the bellows wTth S the viTandT^ ' the bellows being so placed that they blow^o the centi^ of the fin^ The ^. vil and the crane by which the heavy masses of metal are moved from and to the fire ^ adjusted near the hearth. The Hercules, a kind of stamping machi^? or the ^eam kT mer, need not be described in this place. "^ume, or ine steam nam- To make the anchor, bars of good iron are brought together to be facoted • the num ^Z whT^- "^'^ '^^ '''' ^^*^' ^°'^^^- The fagot is keptlogether by h^ps of ronTd whil '.i' P'"""^ "P^^'^^ properiy arranged hearth, and^covered uX smaUcoaK which are thrown upon a kind of oven made of cinders. Great care and jrood mrLment are required to keep this temporary oven sound during the combiLSon f^ smSricUy •J) 94 ANCHOR. attends to this. When all is arranged, the bellows are flet to work, and a blast urged on the fire ; this is continued for about an hour, when a good welding heat is obtained. The mass Ls now brought from the fire to the anvil, and the iron welded by the hammers. One por- tion having been welded, the iron is returned to fire, and the operation is repeated until th« whole is welded into one mass. This will be understood by referring to the annexed figures, {jig. 80,) in which the bars for the shanks, a a, and the arms, b b, are shown, in plan and sections, as bound together, and their shapes after being welded before union ; and c c represents the palm. The different parts of the anchor being made, the arms are united to the end of the shank. This must be done with great care, as the goodness of the anchor depends entirely upon this process being effectively performed. The arms being welded on, the ring has to be, formed and welded. The ring consists of several bars welded together, drawn out into a found rod, passed through a hole in the shank, bent into a circle, and the ends welded together. When all the parts are adjusted, the whole anchor is brought to a red heat, and hammered with lighter hammers than those used for welding, the object being to give a finish and evenness to the surface. The toughest iron which can be procured should be used in the manufacture of an anchor, upon the strength of which both the security of valuable lives and much property depend. The following drawings {fig. 31) show an anchor on the old plan, and the dissected parts of which it is composed : — SI la E ]• ANCHOR. 95 and the annexed, {fi^. 82,) the patent anchor as invented by Mr. Perring, with its several parts dissected as before : — Previously to the introduction of Lieutenant Rodger's small-palmed anchor, ships were supplied with heavy, cumbersome contrivances with long shanks, and broad palms extending half way up the flukes. So badly were they proportioned, that it was no uncommon thing for them to break in falling on the bottom, particularly if the ground was rocky. But, if once firmly imbedded in stiff holding ground, there was considerable difl&culty in breaking them out. The introduction of the small palm, therefore, forms an important era in the history of anchors. The next important introduction was Porter's anchor, with movable flukes or arms. One grand object sought to be attained here, was the prevention of fouling by the cable. It was considered, also, that as great injury was frequently occasioned by a ship grounding on her anchor, the closed upper arm would remedy the evil. It was found, however, that the anchor would not take the ground properly as at first constructed, and hence the " shark's fins " upon the outside of each fluke. Rodger's invention was for some time viewed with distrust ; but, from time to time, im- provements were introduced, until the patent, which gamed the Exhibition prize, was brought out. On this the jurors reported as follows : — " Many remarkable improvements have been recently made by Lieutenant Rodger, R.N., insuring a better distribution of the metal in the direction of the greatest strains. The palm of the anchor, instead of being flat, presents two inclined planes, calculated for cutting the sand or mud instead of resisting perpendicularly ; and the consequence is, that these new anchors hold much better in the ground. The committee of Lloyd's — so compe- tent to judge of every contrivance likely to preserve ships — have resolved to allow for the anchors of the ships they insure a sixth less weight if made according to the plan of Lieu- tenant Rodger." The original Porter's anchor has also undergone considerable modification ; and, imdo: the name of " Trotman's anchor," has now a conspicuous place. Another invention is that of Mitcheson's, which, in form and proportions, strongly re- sembles Rodger's ; but the palm is that adopted in Trotman's, or Porter's anchor. It is a trifle longer in the shank than Rodger's, and has a peculiar stock, which — although original in its form — Slacks originality in its design, since Rodger had previously introduced a plan for an iron stock to obviate the weakness caused b^ making a hole for the stock to pass through. Mr. Lenox was the inventor of an anchor which differed somewhat from the Admiralty's anchor— a modification of Rodger's, — in being shorter in the shank and thicker in the flukes, the palms being spade-shaped. Mr. J. Aylen, the Master- Attendant of Sheer- ness Dockyard, modified the Admiralty's anchor. Instead of the inner part of the fluke, from the crown to the pea, being rounded, as in the Admiralty plan, or squared, as in Rodger's and Mitcheson's, it is hollowed. An American anchor known as Isaac's, has a flat bar of iron from palm to palm, passing the shank elliptically on both sides ; and from the end of the stock to the centre of the shank two other bars are fixed to prevent its fouling. With the anchors thus briefly described the Admiralty ordered trials to be made at Wool- wich, and at the Nore. The results of those trials— the particulars of which need not be given here — were, that Mitcheson's, Trotman's, Lenox's, and Rodger's, were selected as the best 96 ANCHOR. A competent authority, writing in the United Service Gazette, says : — " The general opinion deduced from the series of experiments is, that although Mitcheson's has been so successful, the stock is not at present seaworthy. Trotman's has come out of the trial very successfully, but the construction is too complicated to render it a good working anchor. When once in the ground, its holding properties are very superior ; in fact, a glance at its grasp will show that it has the capabilities of an anchor of another construction one-fifth larger. There are, however, drawbacks not easily to be overcome. Its taking the ground is more precarious than with other anchors ; and if a ship should part her cable, it would scarcely be possible to sweep the anchor. It is also an awkward anchor to fish and to stow. Yet there are other merits which render it, upon the whole, a most valuable invention, and no ship should go to sea without one. Of Lenoxes, it is sufficient to say that it has been found equal to, and that it has gained an advantage over, Rodger'' s; but so strong is the professional feeling in favor of the latter, that it will ever remain a favorite. Our recom- mendation would be thus : — Lenox and Rodger for bower anchors, Mitcheson for a sheet, and Trotman for a spare anchor." The following table gives at one view the results of the experiments made by the Ad- miralty upon breaking the trial anchors, and the time occupied upon each experiment : — Anchors. "Weight. Lieut. Rodger's Brown and Lenox's Isaac's Trotman's Honiball's Admiralty's Aylen's - Cwts. qrs. lbs. 19 8 20 3 14 21 14 21 1 10 20 3 7 20 2 G 21 1 Proof- First Broke. Time in strain. Crack. Breaking. Tons. Tons. Tons. Minutes. 19| 45 73i 21 2H 44i 47 7 21| 58 63 10 211 51 53i J 18 21i 54 75i 42 21i 40 66^ 2G 21f 44 47i C (S) \J 83 The history of the introduction of Lenox's anchors to the British navy was as follows : — After sundry attempts to induce the Admiralty to give up entirely the use of hempen cable anchors, in consequence of their breaking when applied to chain cables, Mr. Lenox, in 1832, was permitted to alter some of the old anchors to such proportions and shape as would enable them to stand a proof-strain upon the machine in Woolwich Dockyard. It was found, as previously apprehended and asserted, that, from the inequality of material in the old anchors, not above one in three was successfully altered, and Mr. Lenox was ordered to supply new anchors, which were proved, and then approved of. This state of things continued until 1838, when Mr. Lenox was requested to reconsider and complete the shape and proportions of anchors for the navy, with a view to a contract being given out for the supply of such anchors to the service. Then was constructed the shape called the * " Admiralty," or " Sir William Parker's Anchor," (Sir William being then Store Lord.) Mr. Lenox suggested to Sir William the doing away with every sharp edge and line in an anchor, and adopting the smooth long- oval (in the section) for the general shape of shank and arm. This was approved of by Sir William, and he brought it out as his anchor. An entire table of pro- portions was furnished ; but that it might meet with no opposition from the influence of dockyard authority, it was sent to the officers of Portsmouth Yard for their approval. They returned it, after a few months, with some slight alterations in the proportions of some of the sizes, and recommended the construction to be on "Perring's principle" of the cushioned, or made-up crown. It was so adopted, and continued to be made by Brown and Lenox for about a year or two, when the great and unnecessary expense incurred by the plan was pointed out. It was contended it was without any good ; because, if the crown of the anchor, or any shut or weld, was made sound and perfect, the amalgamation of the grain of the iron would be complete, and assume its full power or strength, whatever way it might be put together ; and the strongest form was that which exposed the least surface of iron to the welding heat, and consequently to injury. About the latter end of 1839, the subject was again opened. Mr. Lenox renewed his objections, by letter, to Sir William Parker, to " Perring's plan " of shutting-up, and the consequence was — a contract with specification, &c. &c., appeared, and an improved or modified plan of shutting-up (as it ANCHOR. 97 is called) was proposed by Mr. Tyler, master-smith of Portsmouth Yard, which was adopted ; and Mr. Lenox's shape and proportions, (slightly altered, as before said,) came out as " ^ William Parker's," or the " Admiralty Anchor," and contmued, until after the trials in 1852, with every success in actual service thai a good anchor could maintain^ and they were made and sold in quantities to all the worid. In Uie navy of England, and in neariy all foreign navies, this anchor, of which fig. 33 represents the form, was adopted. They are also largely employed in the merchant service • but these are not so nicely proportioned as the anchors made for the Government, nor are they 80 highly finished. Many merchant captains, however, take Rodger's anchor, and our steamers almost invariably take Porter's or Trotman's anchor. Vol. in.--7 98 ANCHOR. TrotmarCs Anchor is represented in jig. 34, under its various positions. Although for convenience Trotman's anchor is, as we have already stated, largely used by the merchant steamers, we cannot but feel that the separation of the fluke from the shaft, although it may be in many cases unobjectionable, is attended with the risk that when, in an emergency, the anchor is required, the means of connection may be at fault. Captain Hall's anchor is a very valuable one, from the circumstance that it is capable of division, as shown mjig. 35, so that it can be taken out in boats. There are various other shapes of anchors ; but attention has been confined to those generally employed. We are not in a position to offer any opinion upon the value of the several anchors which have been named. Having described their peculiarities, there remains but little to be said. The solidity of Lenox's anchors— as shown in jig. 86, and again in their more recent modifications, in plan and section, with the new form of iron stock, jig. 87 — has recommended them strongly, and hence their general use. The weight of anchors for different vessels is proportioned to the tonnage. The follow- mg table shows the number of anchors now carried, and the weights of each anchor, by merchant vessels by the regulation of Lloyd's. Lloyd's Regulation jor the Number and Weights of Anchc-rsfor Merchant Vessels. Ship's Tonnag*. Ton*. 50 75 100 150 200 250 800 850 400 500 600 700 800 900 1,000 1,100 1,200 1,400 1,600 1,800 2,000 Bower. 2 2 2 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 4 Straun. Kedg«. Bower, Wood Stock. Bower, Iron Stock. Stream. Kedge. Second Kedge. Cwt. Cwt. Cwt. Cwt. Cwt. 8 4 U 4 5 H 5 7 2* U 8 10 H li 10 12 4i 2i 2 18 15 5 2* 2 15 17 6 8 2 17 20 6* tt 2 19 22 7* 8* 2 23 26 9 4i 2 26 80 10 5 *♦ 2 29 84 11 6i S* 2 81 86 12 6 8 2 88 89 12 6* 8i 2 85 41 12 6f 2* 2 87 44 12 7 5* 2 89 46 12 Ik 8* 2 41 43 12 T* 4 2 43 50 14 8J 4 2 45 52 14 8i 4* 2 47 54 14 9 4* ANGORA WOOL. ^ •anchovy. {Anchois, Fr. ; Acciughe, It. ; Anschove, Germ.) The Cluoea encra*i cclus of Lmn^us a small fish, resembling the sprat, comiion in he Me(iS^^ ?ut:dt?rcrvTes."' " """'"'' '"' ""' ^^^^ (^^*^^ -) ^ somiresTuSr. ../i^^^?^^^' '*'* ?^ND-IRONS, also called Firedogs. Before the introduction of raised and close fireplaces these articles were in general use. Strutt, m im ivs " Th^ ^^ irons are used at this day, and are caUed ^cob-irons ' ; they s^d on theTartb w^reTct burn wood, to lay it upon ; their fronts are usually carved, with a rovmd S'a7 th? tOD^ meaiu^^h^^3\}i'^'^f' ^'^i Atfrp/«, to measure.) An instrument or machine to ^it t:dinlh:%^''^^f St^ oftu Academy '" Transactions of the British Association," and of the " Royal Irish Uf.t^f^^^^? BAROMETER. This instrument was invented by M. Vidi of Paris. In its latest form It consists of a cylindrical case, about 4 or 6 inches in diameter ^d ti inched tiy^:^'^i:^,^^,':i^^^^^ ^-^'^^ -^^' ^^ curved\or4 oft: mch from each other. From this box the air 38 has been partially exhausted, and the pressure of the external atmosphere on it causes it to alter its form. The accompanying figure (38) shows a section of this box. It is made of Ks=.^N^^s^^^b^?J^ thm corrugated plates of metal, so that its elas- ff?=a^^S^^^i^^as ticily is great. By means of the tube f, the Aa ^^..^^- , ' ;^, ',,; _■„ - i>J>J/WMM^J^MMJJJ^iJA ttuiij. IS greac uy means ot the tube f, the Bas ^gggsssga; air is partially exhausted, when the box takes ^>^^'>^>'>^^^^''^^^^^^^'^^^^^^''' the form shown by the dotted lines. A small T^l^^lT'T ^^^r^^"^^? after exhaustion, the object of which is to compensate for the varymg elasticity of the metal at different temperatuis. The pressure of the ah^ i the b^ V JI? ""^^ tnf.truments is between 40 and 60 Iba, and it will be easily underst^ that a^v variation m this pressure will occasion the distances between the two olaS to v«r^ ^^H consequently the stalk will have a free motion in or out. This is? bV^ in^?ni^J^nt^v ance, changed from a vertical motion to a motion parallel to the face Tf the diTrd^T: druT^Th^ T'^ rotatory one by the application "^f a wat^h^cL'n to a malll^i^^^^ drum. The original very slight motion is augmented by the aid of levers. ThLlk^pff^ tually done, that when the corrugated surf^s move through only ^7*250^ ia^ of^ - !?v of ^h- "f:^ ^"^^ ^^ *^' ^"^" ^""^ «^^^ ^ «P«^« of *t^«e inches The ex2^emet>,?Ib^ ity of this little instrument, and its comparative freedom from risk of injurv re^de^^nr ceedmgly useful to the traveller. Its accuracy is proved by the experrenls^? pL^^ Lloyd, who placed one under the receiver of an dr-pump and founr^hTrl.^ '^ corresponded with those of the mercurial gauge trieiTinToi of nnJn!h '"'^'^^J?^ ^-™tions of atmospheric pressure^hf^eci^irn^Sr^^^^^ drieilXtoot^ifiX&V^^^ \:Z'St^^^Zf^' .^^ " The country where it is found was thus described to i,« « ToU« * then Kizzil Ermak (or Haly's) Chomffere and ft^^V * , aT "^^ ^"^^ ^ * "^^^^ beyond; Beybazar, and the same Ennfi^ I **" ^^ hours' march (say 30 miles) YoorrooVTosiah,CosLUoolXedeWndr^^^^^^^^ ^^^^' H^^»- common bristly giat is excludCTthe whit^^^^^^^^^^^ 7"^^. ST."'? the white Angora goat is called tiftik, (the Turkish for foate' hT \\IT3' .• ! ^^ ""^ yapak, sheep's wool. After the-^goJts have Spleted Lr^^^^^^ *« ^Jf**' «^ annually, in April or May, and yield prog^s^iX until ttvnn? TS'' *^^y,"l ««PM drachms to H oke oUifiik, (from 1 lb t?^4 bs EnTll V»^ T^^ "" growth, from 150 exported from its native disrcte^w in y^ Zk woven In th Jd r 'Z' ""! ^^/'^''^ ^^^' ^ gora has been long celebrated. The liTr^^^TyirutVl^^^^^^^^ l»' V \ 100 ANILINE. and raw material are sent to France and England. It appears that the first parcels of Jbi- gora wool were shipped from Constantinople for England in 1820, and was so little appre- ciated that it fetched only lOd. the pound. The exports from Constantinople then increased as follows : — 1836 . - _ 3 841 bales 1837 2,261 " 1838 - - 6,628 »' " Within the last two or three years, a new texture made of goats' wool has, however, been introduced both into France and this country, which calls for particular attention! This texture consists of stripes and checks expressly manufactured for ladies' dresses, and having a soft feel and silky appearance. The wool of which this article «s made is chiefly the wool of the Angora goat. This wool reaches us through the Mediterranean, and is chiefly shipped at Smyrna and Constantinople. In color it is the whitest known in the trade, and now more generally used in the manufacture of fine goods than any other. There are, however, other parts of Asiatic Turkey from which limited supplies are received ; but in quality not so good as that produced in Angora. After the manufacture of shawls with goats' wool declined in France, this raw material remained neglected for a long while. About two or three years ago (1862) however, the French made another attempt, and brought out a texture for ladies' dresses in checks and stripes, which they call * poil de cheyre.'' The warp is a fine spun silk, colored, and the weft Angora or Syrian white wool, which was thus thrown on the surface. This article has a soft feel, and looks pretty, but in wearing is apt to cut. The price of a dress of French manufacture has been from 21. 10«. to 3/. ; but by adopting a cotton warp, the same article is now made in England and sold for 15*. ; and it is found that the cotton warp, as a mixture, suits the goats' hair best." — Southei/ on Colonial Sheep and Wool, London, 1852. Angora goats' wool is used for the manufacture of plush, and for coach and decorative laces. It is also used extensively for buttons, button-holes, and the braidings of gentle- men's coats. It is equally made up into a light and fashionable cloth, suited for paletots and overcoats, possessing the advantage of repelling wet. In France this article is now applied to the manufacture of a new kind of lace which in a great measure supersedes the costly fabrics of Valenciennes and Chantilly. Tlie Angora wool lace is more brilliant than that made from silk, and costing only half the price, it has come into very general wear among the middle classes. The same material is also manufactured into shawls, which sell from 41. to 16/. each. There is much difficulty in ascertaining the quantity of Angora wool used in France, as in the returns it is mixed up with the wool of goats of Thibet, all being entered as poil de Cachemire. See Mohair. ANILINE. (C" H' N. Syn. Phenylamine, Cyanol, Benzidam, Crystalline.) This organic base having recently met with an important application in the arts in the production of a beautiful dye-color, by Mr. William H. Perkin, a short description of the methods of preparing it, and of some of its characters, becomes necessary ; though for details of its most interesting relations in scientific chemistry, we must refer to the " Dictionary of Chemistry." Preparation. — There are few bodies which admit of being prepared in a greater variety of ways — all of them interesting in tracing the chemical history of this most curious body ; but we will only here describe that one which might be most advantageously carried out on a manufacturing scale. Probably the most abundant source of aniline is the basic oil of coal tar. The oil is agitated with hydrochloric acid, which seizes upon the basic oils ; after decant- ing the clear liquor, which contains the hydrochlorates of these oils, it is evaporated over an open fire until it begins to disengage acrid fumes, which indicate a commencement of de- composition, and then filtered to separate any adhering neutral compounds. The clear liquor is then decomposed with potash or milk of lime, which liberates the bases themselves in the form of a brown oil, consisting chiefly of a mixture of aniline (C" H' N) and leucol or quinoleine, (C" H" N.) This mixture is submitted to distillation, and the aniline is chiefly found in that portion which passes over at or about 360° F., (182° C. :) repeated rectification and collection of the product distilling at this temperature purify the aniline ; but to complete the purification, it is well to treat the partially purified aniline once more with hydrochloric acid, to separate the bases again by an alkali, and then to rectify carefully. The violet reaction of aniline with solution of bleaching powder enables the operator to test the distillate from time to time, to ascertain when aniline ceases to pass over, since leucol does not possess this property. — Hofmann, Aniline may also be obtained in quantity from indigo. When indigo-blue (see Indigo) is dissolved by the aid of heat in a strong solution of potash, and the mass, after evaporation to dryness, submitted to destructive distillation, it intumesces considerably, and aniline is liberated, which condenses in the receiver in the form of a brown oil, together with a little water and ammonia disengaged with it. The ANILINE. 101 anihne is purified by rectification, as in the method before described. By this process the quantity of anilme obtamed is about 18 to 20 per cent, of the indigo useZ-lXK ' floid a^r«tr°'M^"^S^!^u'i^\.l!??S^-^^"^ ^^" H» NO«)is converted into chrysanilio ac d and an hranihc acid, (C" H' NO* ;) and it is this latter body which, by destructive di* tillation, yields carbonic acid and aniline. '^ u«,irucuve ais. C" H' NO* = C'= H' N -f- 2C0'. T^i^^h^^^g^n^^''^'' *''^ """^ ^^ converted iuto a^ilinc, either by the action of sulphu- C'« n^ NO* -f GHS = C" H' N -f 4H0 -f OS • Nitrobenzole. Aniline. * a^tTt^fTror'"''*^^' ^ ^"^ ^""'^ recently shown by M. Bechamp, by the action of a basic mix^fn fretoIiTm^nl- •''"''^i-^ Proportions have been found convenient by the writer: mix m a retort i lb. of iron filings, with about 2 ounces of acetic acid then add about an equal volume of nitrobenzole. Alter a few minutes a brisk efierve^ice Sts in ^d tS anihne distils over together with water. The reaction may requh^tT S aided by Se SvlX^Jn? ^'"l ^' • ''" ^'*' ' ^"' '' ''^'' P^^^^ ^'''"^ theVatS? ^ and a ve^^ tol! TJ^^IJ^^ f T'^T'^S arrangement should be employed. The anUine having soTeariv dr^Ds of ly/Z^i^^'^r r 'f*^"j««P^te on the surface, but the aST^few dZll^ 3 a' • S"? ^1"^}^^^ i" *^^ *""»°^' '^""g^ it to the surf-ace. It may then ^ PropertK,.— Anilme is one of the organic basic derivatives of ammonia. In fact it m.T ( C" H» N ] H ( H Just as phenyl is one of a series of homologous radicals, so aniline is the firat of a aeriM «v:&XT' " ""^^^ *'^ ^"^ ^^^^^^^' «^^^^-^- - repIa^dXI^L^'ric?^ nomologoDs Bases.' — Aniline - - - N Homologous Badlcals. Phenyl - - - C" H' Toluyl Xylyl Cumyl Cymyl - C"H' — Toluidine - C"H» — . C"H" — - C«" H" — Xylidine Cumidine Cymidine - N - N - N Its basic characters are well developed thus;-it precipitates the oxides from thp R«lf« of iron, zmc, and alumina, just like ammonia, and vields with biohlnriH? J^7*- ^ double salt similar to ammonia, the platino-chloride of Se (C^^^^^ ? on Ignition is entirely decomposed, leaving onlv a residue of nlatinnm' tk ' I '^ ^^''^ together with the beautiful blue color whifh i^strikTs wiTh solS^^^^^^ characters, the alkaUne hypochlorites generally, are sufficietl^oTtrre^^JS a^^^^^^^ Sulphate of Aniline. CC" H' N • HO SrP ^ tv,L o„u • i ^*^JT' , of Mr.iPerkin's anilme colors TMa'n^l!' a k^: .^ ^* is employed in the manufacture The crystals redden by exposure to the air ; they can be bested to the boiling pdnt of 102 ANISEED. water without change, but when ignited they are charred with disengagement of aniline and sulphurous acid. Oxalate of Aniline. (C" H' N ; HO, C 0'.)--This is one of the best-defined salts of aniline : it separates as a crystalline mass on treating an alcoholic solution of oxalic acid with aniline. It is very soluble in hot water, much less so in cold, only slightly soluble in alcohol, and insoluble in ether. A large number of other salts are known. The hydrochlorate, hydrobromate, hydrio- date, nitrate, several phosphates, citrate, tartrate, &e. &c. ; but they are of purely scientific interest. The same remark applies to the various products of the decomposition of aniline, which have been so ably investigated by Fritzche, Zinin, Hofmann, Gerhardt, and other chemists. Application. — Several most beautiful colors for dyeing silk have been prepared by Mr. William H. Perkin, of Greenford Green, near Harrow, from certain salts of aniline, which are of different shades of violet, some more approaching purple, others more pink. They are now being extensively employed in dyeing silk, and are found to be far finer in tint, and more permanent, than any other known dyes of a similar color. The processes for their manufacture have been patented by Mr. Perkin. For the following short description of the method of preparing them, we are indebted to that gentleman : — " Take equivalent proportions of sulphate of aniline and bichromate of potash, dissolve them in water, mix, and allow the mixture to stand for several hours. The whole is then thrown upon a filter, and a black precipitate which has formed is washed and dried. It is then digested with coal-tar naphtha, to extract a brown resinous substance, and finally digested with alcohol to dissolve out the coloring matter, which is left behind on distilling oft* the spirit, as a coppery friable mass." — H. M. W. ANISEED. (Anis, Fr. ; Anis, Germ.) The fruit or seed of the pimpinella anisum^ largely cultivated in Malta, Spain, and Germany ; used in the preparation of the oil of anise, (oleum anisi,) the spirit of anise, (spiritus anisic) and anise water, (aqua anisi.) It is also used in cordials. In 1855, 963 cwts. were imported. The olenm badiani^ or the oil of star anise, (illicium anisatiim,) has the color and taste of the oil of anise ; but it preserves its fluidity at 35*6° F. It is sometimes fraudulently substituted for oleum anisi. — Pereira. ANTHRACITE, {hvdpa^, coal.) A variety of coal containing a larger proportion of carbon and less bituminous matter than common coal. — Be la Beche. Anthracite coal is obtained in this country, at Bideford, in Devonshire, in the Western divisions of the South Wales coal-field, and in Ireland. It is found abundantly in America. Professor H. D. Roger's " Transactions of American Geologists " states that in the great Appalachian coal-field, extending 720 miles, with a chief breadth of 180 miles, the coal is bituminous towards the western limit, where it is level and unbroken, becoming anthracitic towards the south-west, where it is disturbed. Anthracitic coal is also found in the coal- fields of France, especially in the departments of Is^re, the High Alps, Gard, Mayenne, and of Sarth ; about 42,271,000 kilogrammes (of 2'2046 avoirdupois poimds each) are produced annually. Anthracite is also raised in Belgium. Anthracite is not an original variety of coal, but a modification of the same beds which remain bituminous in other parts of the region. Anthracite beds, therefore, are not sepa- rate deposits in another sea, nor coal measures in another area, nor interpolations among bituminous coals, but the bituminous beds themselves, altered into a natural coke, from which the volatile bituminous oils and gases have been driven off. — /. P. Lesley, on Coal. Anthracite — now extensively used for iron-making, steam-engines, and for domestic pur- poses, in the United States — was, some 50 years since, regarded as incombustible refuse, and thrown away. This peculiar and valuable fossil fuel is found in various parts of the old and new con- tinent, as shown by the following lists, for which we are mainly indebted to the American publication, Statistics of Coal, by Taylor. Localities of Anthracite and Anthracitous Coal, EUROPE. South Wales : — Swansea Cyfarthfa Yniscedwin Average Ireland, mean France : — Allier - Tantal - Brassac Belgium : — Mons - Westphalia - - - Prussian Saxony - Saxony . . - Average of Europe - Specific Gravity. . 1-263 1-337 1.354 1-446 1-445 1-380 1-390 1-430 1-307 1.305 1-466 1-300 Weight of a cubic yard in lbs. - 2,131 - 2,256 - 2,284 - 2,278 - 2,376 - 2,207 - 2,283 - 2,413 - 2,105 - 2,278 - 2,474 - 2,193 - 2,281 ANTHRACITE. 103 Localities of Anthracite and Anthracitous Coal^ (continued.) AMERICA. Pennsylvania ;— Lykens Valley - . - Lebanon co., gray vein Schuylkill co., Lorberry Creek Pottsville, Sharp Mountain - " Peach - " Salem Vein - Tamaqua, north vein - Mauch Chunk ... Nesquehoning - - . Wilkesbarre, best West Mahoney ... Beaver Meadow ... Girardville - - . . Hazelton .... Broad Mountain ... Lackawanna ... Massachusetts: — Mansfield - . - . Rhode Island : — Portsmouth ... Average in United States Weight ot a cable yard in Ibt. - 2,240 - 2,327 - 2,484 - 2,382 - 2,440 - 2,649 - 2,700 - 2,616 - 2,646 - 2,884 - 2,313 - 2,700 - 2,700 - 2,615 - 2,869 - 2,716 - 2,882 - 3,054 - - 2,601 The calorific value of anthracite coal is well shown by the followme results from Dr L^rd tnT'"^"^*" to compare Scotch and EngUsh bituminous coals with ^J^V^ ^th « 1 K ! ^^T"!*'^? P«r'. i^ * high-pressure boiler of a 4-hor8e engine, having k^te stLVlV^eTgr^Sllr'""^ ^ ^ a wagon-shaped copper boilefo^n Tthe^ Sppcific Gravity. 1-327 1-379 1-472 1-412 1-446 1-574 1-600 1-550 1-558 1-472 1-371 1-600 1-600 1-550 1-700 1-609 1-710 1-810 If Z T • 3 U g-s :« •a -a 1 s- Kind of Fuel employed. Ponndi burnt Hoar 00 the O Daration of t Trial in Hon Temperature oi Water. 5li^ III J o go lb Coal per Hour 1 Square Foot Grate. to B O c 3 S f Ponnde evapora per Hour from e Square Foot c Surfaee. Ramarka. Middlerlg Scotch coaL Scotch coal, dif- 81-83 9 45* 666 7-74 10-00 44-27 . Pressure 17 lb& per sq. Inch. ferent variety from preceding. ANTHBACrrB - Scotch coal, from 108 4T94 5 > 8* 170 45 6 62 8-78 6-89 1010 lS-25 6-88 83-38 76 09 - Ditta Ditto. near Edinburgh English bitumi- 824 8i 60 5-38 6-90 6-81 486-89 8-15 Low pressure, open nous coal. Qno/kA Will vh^ 6-or 1. _J ; 8-4 50 T-84 9-07 8 91 503-08 8-06 copper boiler. Ditto. anthracitP • h,,T ;f« XVJ -"tcxiug luuy mio ine question of the evaporative power of antnracite , but its advantages under certain conditions are fully estabUshed *~ *^ «' ^In this country anthracite coal is used in the manufacture llt^^tL foUowing fur- -g^flw^ Furnaces making Iron from Anthracite. No. 2 8 4 6 1 2 8 Namea of Worka. G1.AHOBOANSHIKS. Aberdare, Abemant, and Llwydcoed Banwen ... Onllwyn or Brin - Venalt ... Ystalyfera ... Bbbcxkockbhisie. Abercrave ... Yniscedwin ... Caxbhasthekbhibk. Bryn Ammon * . Qwendraeth Trim Saren ... PffllBBOKXSHIBS. Sandersfoot ... Ownen. Fumaeee built. Aberdare Iron ComDanr Out of blast - . - L. Llewell/n ... Aberdare Iron Company - Ystalyfera Iron Company T. Walters Yniscedwin Iron Company L. Llewellyn ... T. Watney & Cot . E. H. Thomas ... Pembroke Iron and Coal Co. 8 2 10 1 7 3 S 8 Fumacee in blaat. 8 1 T 1 4 9 1 Fumaeee in blaat in Dia> trieU. 11 Total fbmaces in blast in anthracite districts in 1857 8 19 104 ANTELOPE HORN. Professor W. R. Johnson, of Pennsylvania College, informs us that fourteen furnaces using anthracite for the production of iron were in use in the United States. In the anthracite districts of South Wales, the produce was, in — 1855 1856 1857 997,500 tons. 965,500 " 1,485,000 ct The following table shows the progress of production in America of anthracite from 1840 to 1857, inclusive, from Schuylkill, Lehigh, and Wyoming : — Yew. Tons. Increase per Tear. Tons. 1840 864,384 45,982 1841 950,973 86,589 1842 1,108,418 157,445 1843 1,263,598 155,180 1844 1,630,850 367,252 1846 2,013,013 382,168 1846 2,344,005 330,992 1847 2,882,300 638,595 1848 8,089,238 206,938 1849 8,217,641 128,408 1850 8,321,136 103,495 1851 4,329,530 1,008,894 1852 4,899,975 570,445 1853 5,097,144 197,169 1854 5,831,834 734,690 ' 1855 6,486,097 654,263 1856 6,751,542 265,446 1857 6,431,379 .820,163 decrease. Pottsoille Miners^ Journal, A steady increase is thus shown in the production of American anthracite, excepting during the last year. This decrease may be readily accounted for by the general depression of the iron and other manufactures. The annual consumption of anthracite in the United States was thus stated in the Science of New York Exhibition : — 1820 about 330 tons. 1825 ------- 85,000 " 1830 - - - ■ - - - " 176,000 " 1835 " 661,000 **^ 1840 " 865,000 " 1845 " 2,023,000 " 1850 .----." 8,357,000 " 1853 " 5,195,000 " The quantity consumed in 1856 is stated to have been 7,900,000 tons. ANTELOPE HORN is used occasionally for ornamental knife handles. See Hork. ANTICHLORE A term employed by bleachers to the means of obviating the pemi- ciolis after-effects of chlorine upon the pidp of paper, or stuffs, which have been bleached therewith. Manufacturers have been in the habit of using sulphite of soda, whose action upon the adhering bleaching salt, which cannot be removed by washing, gives rise to the formation of sulphate and hydrosulphate of soda and chloride of sodium. Chloride of tin has been recommended by some chemists for this purpose. ANTI-ATTRITION, or, ANTI-FRICTION COMPOSITION. Various preparations have been, from time to time, introduced for the purpose of removing, as much as possible, the friction of machinery. Black lead, or plumbago, mixed with a tenacious grease, has been much employed. Peroxide of iron, finely divided haematite, &C., have also been used. A composition employed at Munich is reported to have been used with success and economy to diminish friction of machinery. It consists of ten and a half parts of pure hogs' lard, fused with two parts of finely pulverized and sifted plumbago. The lard is first to be melted over a moderate fire, then a handful of the plumbago thrown in, and the materials stirred with a wooden spoon until the mixture is perfect ; the rest of the plumbago is then to be added, and again to be stirred until the substance is of uniform composition ; the ves- lel is then to be removed from the fire, the motion being continued until the mixture is ANTIMONY. 106 quite cold. The composition, m its cold state, was applied to the pivots, the teeth of wheels, &c., by a brush, and seldom more than once in 24 hours.* It was- found that this composition replaced the oil, taUow, and tar, in certain iron works with economy, saving about 7^ of the cost of these articles. ANTI-FRICTION METAL. Tin and pewter are commonly employed as anti-friction metals for the bearings of locomotive engines. Rabbet's metal is prepared by taking about fifty parts of tin, five of antimonv and one of copper. . I ^ Tin or pewter, used alone, owing to its softness, spreads out and escapes under the superincumbent weight of the locomotive, or other heavy machinery. It is usual there- fore, to add antimony, for the purpose of giving these metals hardness. ' Fenton's Anti-friction metal, which is much Employed, is a mixture of tin, copper and spelter. Its advantages are stated to be cheapness in first cost, low specific gravity bein«' 20 per cent, hghter than gun metal ; and being of a more unctuous or soapy character than gun metal, less grease or oil is required. The softer metal is often supported by brasses cast of the required form, the tin alloy being caM upon them. The brasses, or bearings, being property tinned, and an exact model ot the axle having been turned, the parts are heated, put together in their relative positions, luted with plastic clay, and the fluid anti-friction metal poured in, which then becomes of the required form, and effectually solders the brass. The following compositions are recommended to railway engineers as havme been em- ployed for several years in Belgium :-In those cases where the objects are much exposed to friction, 20 parts of copper, 4 of tin, 0-6 of antimony, and 025 of lead. For objects which are intended to resist violent shocks, 20 parts of copper, 6 of zinc, and 1 of tin *or those which are exposed to heat, 17 parts of copper, 1 of zinc,. 0-5 of tm, and 025 of A xri ^^^P^^ IS added to the fused mass containing the other metals. ^ ANTIMONY occurs with numerous ores of lead and silver, of nickel, &c., but the most important ore of antimony is the sulphuret, (Stibnite, or Gray Antimony,) which forms the chief and most common source of the antimony of commerce, and of the greater number of the pharmaceirtical preparations of that metal. Antimony is not at present produced in this country, but m the last century it was mined extensively. The most celebrated localities of this ore are Falsobanya, Schemnitz, and Kremnitz, in Hungary, where it occurs in diverging prisms several inches long. It is also found iiTthe in Borneo ^^'^' "" Hungary, in ComwaU, at the old Trewetha mine, and abundantly This ore was called by the ancients ^XarvifeaXfiov-^Karhs, broad, 6^> ^^ ^^^^^'^ - ^ns t From the Tario/aria Robiquet obtained Orcine, by digesting the lichen in alcohol evaporating to dryness, dissolving the extract in water, confentratinTthe^kron^t^^^^^^ ess n"rhL of '^'"P' "^'^ ''""°^ '' ^^^^ *^ ''y''^^^^'- I' f«™«. when qu^e pure color- ItlfrrZl^'Ic^mW^^^ fuse easily, and may' be subUmed'^SS. UcSsSAq. "^ ^* when sublimed; when crystallized from its aqueous solut^ If orcine be exposed to the combined action of air and ammonia, it is converted into ,. crimson powder orceifte, which is the most important mS<"^ '^ iodigo does, and forms leu<>orceinrc VnO' + H do not contain orcine ready formed, bnt ankhe/ bodrS^^S S,^X inflif ?W^. ^ "fu^'^f ^''^/*^^ "P«" *^^ manufacture of archil, or its use Sdveki^^V ther space cannot be devoted to their consideration "« use m ayemg, fur- Kane found archil and litmus of commerce to contain two classes of colorin^r Tn«ffn~ as already stated, orcine and oreeine, derived from it. Beyond theS th^re wer^ two 1^^^ one containing nitrogen, azoerjthrine, and the other destitute of Ttro^^e^th^cl^t^ which t dissolves abundantly, forming a rich crimson solution. It civeTwkh alklljia purple liquors and with earthy and metoUic salts colored lakes ^ "^^ added, and the small vessel is corked Tf fhn J k r *^ ""^ ammoma (sal ammoniac) is • threp or fnuVA^ Z ?, ^^^^^- " *ne plant be of a nature to afford a red dve after ^dd^"ro™ c^lJr* &rS'e 7^','^" '^',"'»^' V'"'" '^""'^ h?m'a yellow » which comZnSlSd ^"d^ ^^^ITatuS^ShS X?" """'*' " "^"" "' " '^ "< ■ u 108 AREOMETEK. To prepare archil, the lichens employed arc ground up with water to a uniform pulp, and this is then mixed with as much water as will make the whole fluid ; ammoniacal liquors from gas or from ivory-black works, or stale urine, are from time to time added, and the mass frequently stirred so as to promote the action of the air. The orcme or erythrine which exists in the lichen absorbs oxygen and nitrogen, and forms orceine. The roccelline absorbs oxvgen and forms erythroleic add ; these being kept in solution by the ammoma, the whole liquid becomes of an intense purple, and constitutes ordinary archil. — Kane. The herb archil, just named, called especially orciille de ierre, is found upon the vol- canic rocks of the Auvergne, on the Alps, and the Pyrenees. These lichens are gathered by men whose whole time is thus occupied ; they scrape them from the rocks with a peculiarly shaped knife. They prefer collecting the orceille in rainy weather when they are more easily detached from the rocks. They gather about 2 kilo- grammes a day, or about 4^ pounds. When they take their lichens to the makers of archil or litmus for the purpose of selling them, they submit a sample to a test, for the purpose of estimating* their quality. To this end they put a little in a glass containing some urine, with a small quantity of Ihne. As the lichens very rapidly pass into fermentation if kept m a damp state, and thus lose much of their tinctorial power, great care is taken m drying them ; when dry they may be preserved without injury for some time. AREOMETER. An instrument to measure the densities of liquids. (See Alcoholom- ETRT.) The principle will be well understood by remembering that any solid body will sink further in a light liquid than in a heavy one. The areometer is usually a glass tube, having a small glass bulb loaded with either shot or quicksilver, so as to set the tube upright in any fluid in which it will swim. Within the tube is placed a graduated scale : we will suppose the tube placed in distilled water, and the line cut by the surface of the fluid to be marked ; that it is then removed and placed in strong alcohol— the tube will sink much lower in this, and consequently we shall have two extremities of an arbitrary scale, on which we can mark any intermediate degrees. ARNATTO, or ARNOTTO. See Annotto, vol. i. Amatto was considered to contain two distinct coloring matters, a yellow and red, till it was shown by M. Pressier that one is the oxide of the other, and that they may be obtained by adding a salt of lead to a solution of amatto, which precipitates the coloring matter. The lead is separated by sulphuretted hydrogen • and the substance being filtered and evaporated, the coloring matter is deposited in small crystals of a yellow-white color. These crystals consist of bixine ; they become yellow by exposure to the air, but if they are dissolved in water they undergo no change. When ammonia is added to bixine, with free contact of air, there is formed a fine deep red color like amatto, and a new substance, called hixeine, is produced, which does not crys- tallize but may be obtained as a red powder ; this is colored blue by sulphuric acid, and combines with alkalies, and is bixine with addition of oxygen. When amatto, in the form of paste is mixed from time to time with stale urine, it appears probable that the improve- ment consists in the formation of bixeine from the bixine by the ammonia of the unne. It has hence been suggested that, to improve the color of amatto, it might be mixed jnth a little ammonia, and subsequently exposed to the air, previously to its being used for dyeing. A solution of amatto and potash in water is sold under the name of Scott s Nankeen ARROBA(ofwine). A Spanish measure, equal to 3 -65 17 gallons. ARROW ROOT. In commerce, the term arr^is stances, it is possible that portions of the arsenic may escape as dust from the wall of a tio AR8ENIOU8 ACID. Were it true that such eva|>oratlon or dissemination went on, it would indeente hundn'd n\illion.s of siiuare yuitls of paper, most of wliieh eumeB on it» surface a por- tion of arsenical oolorinj; nuilter ; our books are bound with paper and cloth bo colored, cottons and silks, woollen fabrics and leather, are alike loaded with it. Now, it is stated tliat in a medical work an instance is noted in which injury has been received by those liv- ing in nH>n»s deci)ruted with thcvse colors : surely, were the proximity of such materials inju- rious, it would not Ik* neivsMiry to search in recondite books for the registry of isolated cases. The fact of the large extent to which such materials have always been employed is a sufficient pn>of that there is no daiiger attending their use ; moreover, workmen who have U'cn daily employed for many years in manufacturing large quantities of those colors, under the neivssity of constantly handling them, are in the regtdar enjoyment of perfect health, though ex{H)seil also to the general influences of a chemical factory. Let blame be laid at the right tUmr, and let the public be assured that it is not the looking at cheerful walls, the tingering of brightly onuimcnted books, nor the wearing of tastei'ully colored clothing, that will hurt them, but the dwelling in ill-ventilated rooms." Arsknio, Poisoning by. — This poisoning is so conmmnly the cause of death, by acci- dent and by design, that it is important to nanie an antidote which has been employed with very great success. This is the hi/iirateil peroxide of iron. This preparation has no action on the system, and it may therefore be administered as largely and as quickly as possible. The following statement will render the action of this hydrated salt intelligible. When hydratod peroxide of irv»n is mixed in a thin paste with the solution of arsenious acid, this disappears, being change*! into arsenic acid, (a far less active oxide,) and the iron into protoxide 2 Fe'O' and AsO', protlucing 4 FeO -f- A'O*. The hydrated peroxide of iron may be made in a few min- utes by adding carbonate of soda to any salt of the red oxide of iron, (pcrmuriate, muriate, acetate, &e.) It need not be washed, as the liquor contains only a salt of soda, which would be, if not beneficial, certainly not injurious. — Kant. Dftection of Arsenic in Cases of Poisoning. Arscnious acid, which is almost always the form in which the arsenic ha8 entered the system, possesses the power of preventing the putrefaction of animal substances ; and hence the bodies of persons that have been poisoned by it do not readily putrefy. The arsenious acid combines with the fatty and albuminous tissues to form solid compounds, which are not susceptible of alt<^ration under ordinary circumstances. It hence has fre- quently occurred that the bodies of persons poisoned by arsenic have been found, long after death, scarcely at all decomposed ; and even where the general mass of the body had com- pletely dis;\ppeared, the stomach and intestines had remained preserved by the arsenious acid which had combined with them, and by its detection the crimes committed many years before have been brought to light and punished. — Kane. The presence of arsenic may be determined by one of the following methods : — 1. Portions of the contents of the stomach or bowels being gently heated in a glass tube, open at both ends, the arsenic, if in any quantity, will be sublimed, and collected as minute brilliant octahedrons. 2- Or bv the presence of organic matter ; if the ignition is effected in a tube closed at one end, metallic arsenic subliriies, forming a steel-gray coat, and emitting a strong smell of garlic. 3. Ammonia Nitrate of Silver produces a canary-yellow precipitate from a solution of arsenious acid, {arxenite of silver.) The phosphate of soda produces a yellow precipitate of trr>asic phosphate of silver, which exactly resembles the arsenite. The phosphate is, however, the more soluble in ammonia, and when heated gives no volatile product ; while the arsenite is decomposed with white arsenic and oxygen, leaving metallic silver behind. 4. Ammonia StUphate of Copper produces a fine apple-green precipitate, which is dis- solved in an excess of either acid or ammonia. It is, however, uncertain, unh'ss the pre- cipitate be dried and reduced. 5. The Reduction Test. — Any portion of the suspected matter, being dried, is mixed with equal parts of cyanide of potassium and carbonate of potash, both dry. This mixture is to be introduced into a tube terminating in a bulb, to which heat is applied, when metallic arsenic sublimes. 6. Marsh's Text. — This is one of the most delicate and useful of tests for this poison, and when performed with due care there is little liability to error. The liquid contents of the stomach, or any solution obtained by boiling the contents, is freed as much as possible from animal matter by any of the well-known methods for doing so. This fluid is then ren- dered moderately acid by sulphuric acid, and introduced into a bottle properly arranged. T^g. 40 is the best form for Marsh's apparatus : — a is a bottle capable of holding half, or, at most, a pint. Both necks are fitted with new perforated corks, which must be per- fectly tight Through one of these the funnel tube, 6, is passed air-tight, and through the 40 ARSENIOUS ACID. j,j t^^^^'^tT^^:'^:^^^^^ ^ ^-'!> ^ - -h in diameter. W. bottle, and which drop i^Elit ^ ^"^^ "'' '^'^"^" "^ ^~°» ^ «'°'^««- ^f Z the latu;r from the end of the tube. The other end of the tul>o IS connected, by means of a cork with tube d, about six inches Jong' which is filled with fused chloride of calcium, free from priwder destined to retain the moisture! In the opposite end of the tul>e d is fixed, air-tight, another tuf>e, e made of glaiw free from JeaiJ,'l2 inches long, and, at most, '/,, of an inch in internal diameter. It must be observed that the funnel tube b is indi«pensal>ly necessary to introduce the fluid to the pieces of perfectly pure metallic zinc already placed in the lx>ttle. Hy- drogen fras is at once fonned, and If arsenic Ls present, in even the smallest quantity it combinea with tKo h.A^ .^ {ganeous arseniurelted hudroaen \ escanPH UihlZl ^pm^nes with the hydrogen, aai no product but water is generat^Tf^L hL^ ^- '' """"^ ^"P"^ '*** J^ ^ «^* *>»» ^^^ ^^^^^<^\d^h\t^v^r^^jr^ollo.If T"" " ^r""^' "^^ by holding against thi a dew is fonned up^^hT ^id^urfaS ^ K .1& ^^ ^^ """^'^ ^^^ '« f"-*>^"«^' •^ according to the part of the TmeTn whlJT k f"^"'' * ^^P^' ^ *^^^^' ^^^^ either a brown stain of mct^ll^ "Aenic or ^ '^1^^'^''? "^ "^^'^^ »' *« ?»*<«<». ^'^ be of arsenic is too small to be detoci^^n VhT, t ^ ""m? k^ "^""""^ '^'^' ^^ "^^ ^"^^'^7 of the tube. All the ^h\u^t^ Zl^ ^^'-n ^'" ^ '"'" '« '^^^ ^be horizontal poij posed, and deport its ^nr^P^lT^'n I'' '° f"^]"^ '^' f«'«'' ^^^^ ^^^ heated portion'mljuc a^n c wi^.^. condeilL tv'e::/r"^'"' * ""^^ ^^^^ ^»»« observed; but-forthe details of those we 3^ consideration of this subiect OnTJ^Zl ? to works especially directed to the pound of antilnranrCroeen is fZ.S .fnT "^^^ ^"^'^''^ ^ *""^«^ '^' ^ ««»- many respects re Jmblesthe3piundTfi^^^^^^^^ and this gas in the flame is arsenic it will d3^o Ik ^^"^f"^ hydrogen. If the stain formed by ammonia, a^dTlemon-veT 1^^^ '" * ^~P ^'^ ^'^^ ^^ sulpho-hvdride of - Woh^. ^^ ^^^ "^ ^^^ ♦ '^ antunony ,s present, it leaves a yeUow stain. ^olrrriiT::.^:,!:'^^^ r "^ ^ -^-^ with a la,^ «,«« or retted hydrogen is evoIved^ST'm^v J^lwi ^'•^^^"^ of granulated zinc, arseniu- piece of filter paper spS ^ver^fh tiS ^II^^^ ^^. ^'^^'^Sg i* ^o pai on to a pmpl^h-blackX, e'verwhrarairq^titt o7^^^ tlrj^,^"^ ^« * may be performed in a small flai*Ir fumJoK^ J-^^l *"^*^ ^ present. This experiment glass tub^ of about J tocKune?^ r^le^S/rv^tT^- 7* "^^-^ " Pi^ "f arsenic from antimony "'*™"=«"- """"» ooswred that this test serves to distinguish certainly discovered ; bJi^^^^^^ llT^^l"^ "' "^ "">^' "^'r ««« ences: if due care L tal.en S^^Tte fo J^L^^"',"" *" ^r*" "^^"^ i»f«- the mMt complete Putrefactiin?fte^t^^%ri^S^f.'""\" 't" «« '^ been discovered by myself is eieht venZ^irffTith^ , ^ 'i"* "^^ "'"«'' •' has bones of the skeleton rcmainTthe1Jffin™fZo?lSlf °^"1 ""^' ' ""'^ ""« *« grown through it. The metal was obSinrfT,m li,^ if^ "^ Urge roots of a tree had below where the stomach had eS^ M„!^" u ^^^ »'"' '" *« ««h immediatelr one two, three, four, and re ye^ve"S^l'^:: "'"^ "i "-^ «l«ri»ce, wheij the body of a boy had been sitii in a MfflTfili^f^f^ a^t fourteen months, where of three states, white araenious afid, ye^ow sSohlT^r- ^ P^f"" "" P™" '» <»» sulphuretof araenic: and it is wortkv „f !!»? sulphuret ("orpiment") or "realgar- red ;^ into yeUow, but'wS? n vfrr™ ^eUowtS Slr^S^"!:?'' V"" ''^Khite^ hydrosulphuret of ammonia disen^*Zi ""Se^^'^ or red ; this is owing to the en^ as arseniuretted hyd^":! ; ^'^"X^rTriT^S^.^TL^^^t SS^^S na ARSENIOUS AOID. have always acted upon it, I shall confine my description to the processes founded upon It The principle is this : arsenic mixed or combined with any orgunic matter will, if boiktl with pure hydrochloric acid and metallic copper, be deposited upon the copper ; but as thin depositing property is also possessed by mercury, antimony, bismuth, lead, and tellurium, subsequent operations are required to discriminate between the deposits. I take pieces of copper wire, about No. 13 size, and 2i inches long; these I hammer on a polished plane with a polished hammer, for half their length, {Jig. 41,) and having brought the suspected matters to a state of dryness, and boiled ^ *^ the copper blade in the pure hydrochloric ( ^ acid, to prove that it contains no metal ca- pable of depositing, I introduce a portion of the suspected matter and continue the boiling ; if the copper becomes now either steel- gray, blue, or black, I remove it, and wash it free of grease in another vessel in which there is hot diluted hydrochloric acid ; I now dry it, and, with a scraper with a fine edge, take off the deposit with some of the adhering copper, and repeat the boiling, washing, and scraping, so as to have four or five specimens on copper ; one of these is sealed up her- metically in a tube for future production. I now take a piece of glass tube, and having heated it in the middle, draw it out, as in fg. 42, dividing it at 42 A, each section being about 2 inches long, the wide orifices being A about '/lo of an inch in diameter, and i an inch long, the capil- lary part Ye of an inch in diameter, and 1| inch long ; now, by putting one portion of the scrapings into one of the tubes at b, and holding it upwards over a very small flame, so that the vola- tile products may slowly ascend into the narrow portion of the tube, we prove the nature of the deposit : if mercury, it condenses in minute white shining globules ; if lead or bis- muth, it does not rise, but melts into a yellowish glass, which adheres to the copper ; if tellurium, it would fall as a white amorphous powder ; if antimony, it would not rise at that low temperature ; but arsenious acid condenses as minute octahedral crystals, looking with the microscope like very transparent grains of sand. I make three such sublimates, one of which is sealed up like the arseni^ for future production. I now cut the cjipillary part of another of the tubes in«pieces, and boil it in a few drops (say 10) of distilled water, and when cold drop three or four drops on a plate of white porcelain, and with a glass rod drop one drop of ammoniacal sulphate of copper in it : and now to make the colors from this and the next test more conspicuous, I keep a chalk stone, planed and cleaned, in readi- ness, and placing on it a bit of clean white filtering paper, I conduct the drops of copper test upon the paper, which permits the excess of copper solution to pass through into the chalk, but retains the smallest proportion of Scheele's green ; the other few drops of the solution are treated the same way with the ammoniacal nitrate of silver. "When I get the yellow precipitate of arsenite of silver, the papers, with these two spots, are now dried and sealed up in a tube as before, and that with the silver must be kept in the dark, or it will become black. I have still one of the tubes with the arsenical sublimate remaining ; through this I direct a stream of hydrosulphuric acid gas for a few seconds, which converts the sublimate into yeUow orpunent. I have now all five tests : the metal, the acid, arsenite of copper, arsenite of silver, and yellow sulphuret ; and the Viooooo of a grain of arsenic is suflScient in adroit hands to produce the whole ; but all five must be present, or there is no positive proof, for many matters will cause a darkness of the copper in the absence of arsenic,— sulphurets even from putrefaction ;— but there is no sublimate in the second operation, because the sulphur bums into sulphurous acid and passes off upwards. Corn, grasses, and earth slightly darken it from some unknown cause, but produce no sublimate ; so, if the solution of suspected arsenious acid is tested with the copper test while hot, it wiil produce a greenish deposit of oxide of copper, through the heat dissipating a little ammonia, or if the copper blade has not been deprived of grease by the diluted hydro- chloric acid, the sublimed acid from the grease will precipitate copper from that test ; but as much orthe sulphuric acid of commerce, and nearly all such hydrochloric acid and some commercial zinc contain arsenic, nothmg can excuse a toxicologist who attempts to try for arsenic if he has not previously experimented with all his reagents before he introduces the suspected matters. I should also mention that this metal is to be found in all parts of the body, but longest, and in greatest quantity, in the liver, where it is frequentiy found many days after it has disappeared from the intestines — W. Herapatk. ^ Arsenious acid of commerce is frequentiy adulterated with chalk or plaster of Paris. These impurities are very easily detected, and their proportions estimated. Arsenious acid is entirely volatilized by heat, consequentiy it is sufficient to expose a weighed quantity of the substance to a temperature of about 400° F. in a capsule or crucible. The whole of the arsenic wiU pass off m fumes, while tiie impurities will be left behind as a fixed residuum, which can, upon cooling, be weighed. It is scarcely necessary to state that, the fumes of arsenic being very poisonous, the voktilization should be carried on under a chhnney havmg a good draught ARTESIAN WELLS. uj Our Imports of Arsenic were as follows : — iQKfl *'***"••• 73 cwts. 'OOe |gg a f h« tnf'^l^f i^^\}^' '^.^*' J"^.'' remarkable example of an Artesian well is that at the abattoir oi Grenelle, a suburb of the southwest of Paris, where there was a great want t.v y. ' ^^ v*,^'^^'' Tr? ^^ ^*"^""'' '^^«' *° P^'^^'^^^- The geological stSu roi^d spects, to that upon which London stands. The surface at Grenelle consist of gravel LtnS r ^'^"f °^ f ^'^'j ^Wch have been deposited by the waters at some period anterior to any his or.cal record. Below this layer of detritu^ it was known to the enS- rnZ h«H tn^'^if *"^ '^*^ ''''"^^ be found. Underneath the mari and the clay, the boriSg rods had perforate pure gravel, plastic clay, and finally chalk. No calculatiok from ge<^ logical data could determine the thickness of this stratum of chalk, which, from itsTwm hL^f Sf ^' 7^i l!;!'^!J'^" "'"''''* insuperable obstacle. The experience acquired in bonng the wells of Elbeuf, Rouen, and Tours, was in this respect but a very imperfert guide. But, supposing this obstacle to be overcome, was the engineer sur^^fSng^ supply of water below this mass of chalk ? In the fim place, the^strata below the cS CTnf f" '^H ^'''T''y '^r^'^'^"^ ^^^ P^«^««^°g Artesian' springs, namely, su«^ layers of clay and gravel, or of peryious and impervious beds. M. Mulot, howeyer^ ed on his former experience of the borings of the wells at Rouen, Elbeuf, md Tours,' where abundant supplies of water had been found below the chalk, be^een sii^^ s^^oJ^j and gravel, and he was not disappointed. B*umar oiraia ox ciay The strata traversed in forming this celebrated wefl were as foUows :— Drift-sand and gravel, ---.-.. ^^ft^t Lower tertiary strata, ' ii? u Chalk with flints, "i i/a i Ditto, lower, 'gjg [ 1,394 " Calcareous sandstone, clays, and sands ending m a bed of ffreen- colored sand, ^ , gos " 1,798 (( The surface of the ground at the well is 102 feet above the level of the sea, and the water 13 capable of being carried above this to a height of 120 feet ^ nuJ K !S- F'i^'f^^. consider that the sands from which the supply is obtained are e her subordinate beds of the gault, or as belonging to the lower grZIand^^^ c^r, T^l'r f«°V^^?""*J:y .about 100 miles eastward of Paris, and range along the s^^ent of a circle, of which Pans is the centre, from between Sancerre and Auxenf nSs^^fS^^r to Troyes, thence by St Dizier to St Menehould. The outcrop of TWs fomS i! c^ mued some distance further north; it is also prolonged beyond Sanceie^uthwe^a^ towards Bourses, Chatel^rault, and then northwest to Saumur, Le Mans, Td Sencol B^ the superficial area which t occupies in these latter districts does not appearlo contribute to the water supply of Paris, for the axis of elevation of Mellerault musUntercept^e sS^ terranean passage of the water from the district south of tiiat line whikt oTtS tlni^ w Pans, the anticlinal line of the " Pays de Bray," and some smJ ler'f^n t^^^^ duce probably a similar stoppage with respect to the northern district Thel^erfciS area, therefore, from which the strata at the well of GreneUe draw thersuppliiT^Sr okJ* 11^^ surface of the water-bearing beds which supply the well of Grenelle is about 117 square miles; the subterranean area in comiection\rith these lines orouteron may possibly be about 20,000 square miles, and the average thickness o1 the la^ds of^Se gres verts serving m their undei^und range as a reservofr for the water doeTSot nro^ bly exceed 30 oviOfeet^Prestwich on the'Water-bearing Strata of L^ndoT ^ the^^^l^SLlXltf 'i::,^^"^^'^";:^!^^^ ^^^^^^ -ement from " M Degoussee has recently informed me of his having contracted in hnm «« Ar*^;,« ttfi^.^si:n^eriS'r£^^^^^ 3^, ?ol3^t?^^^F'^ pense, including tubes and all excuses, ofZm^ ll^^' II^' ^^ci:S'i.%'^f^e^ fhlT f f,^?°0 feet, and so on in prt>portion. (Sec Sir Charles Lyell's "Principles of Geology," where the geological question is fully treated.) ARTILLERY. One of the first inquiries of importance in connection with the con- struction of pietvs of artillery is that of the liability to fracture in the metal. Upon this point the resean-hos of Mr. Mallet furnish much iniportant matter. He tells us, as the result of his investigation, that it is a law of the molccrdar aggreaation of crystalline toiith, that rAcn their particles consolidate wider the infuence of heat in motion^ their crystids arrange and group themselves wth their principal axes in lines perpendicular to the cooling or heating surfaces of the solid : that ts, in the lines of the direction of the kfat-vHxr€ in motion, Khich is the direction of least pressure within the tnass. And this is true, whether in the case of heat passing from a previously fused solid in the act of cool- ing and crystallizing in consolidation, or of a solid not having a crystalline structure, but callable of assuming one upon its temperature being sufficiently raised, by heat applied to its external surfaces, and so passing ittto it Cast-iron is one of those crystalliring bodies which, in consolidating, obeys, more or less perfectly according to conditions, the above law. In castings of iron the planes of ergstalli::ation group themselves perpcndicularlif to the surfaces of external contour. Mr. Mallet, after examimng the experiments of Mr. Fairbaim— who states (" Trans. Brit. Ass.," 1853) that the grain of the metal and the physical qualities of the casting improve by some function of the niumber of meltings ; and he fixes on the thirteenth melting as that of greatest strength— shows that the size of crj-stals, or coarseness of grain in castings of iron, depends, for any given " make " of iron and given mass of casting, upon the high tempei-a- ture of the fluid iron above that just necessary to its fusion, which influences the time that the molten mass takes to cool dottn and assutne the solid state. The very lowest temperature at which iron remains liquid enough fully to fill every cav- ity of the mould without risk of defect is that at which a large casting, such as a heavy gun, ought to be " poured." Since the cooling of any mass depends upon the thickness of the casting, it is important that sudden changes of form or of dimensions in the parts of cast- iron guns should be avoided. In the sea and land service 13-inch mortars, where, at the chamber, the thickness of metal suddenly approaches twice that of the chase, is a malcon- struction full of evils. The following statements of experiments made to determine the effect produced on the quality of the iron in guns, by slow or rapid cooling of the casting, are from the report of Major W. Wade, of the South Boston Foundry, to Colonel George Bomford, of the Ord- nance Department of the United States. Three six-pounder cannon were cast at the same time from the same melting of iron. The moulds were similar, and prepared in the usual manner. That in which No. 1 was cast was heated before casting, and kept heated after- wards by a fire which surrounded it, so that the flask and mould were nearly red-hot at the time of casting ; and it was kept up for three days. Xos. 2 and 3 were cast and cooled in the usual way. At the end of the fourth day, the gun No. 1 and flask were withdrawn from the heating cylinder while all parts were yet hot. Nos. 1 and 2 were bored for 6-pounder8 in the usual way ; No. 3 for a 12-pounder howitzer, with a 6-pounder chamber. The firing of the guns was in every respect the same. Nos. 1 and 2 were fired the same number of times with similar chaises. No. 1 burst at the 27th fire, and No. 2 at the 25th. It appears, from these results, that no material effect is produced on the quality of the iron by these differ- ent modes of cooling the castings. A very extensive series of experiments were made by the order of the United States Government, on the strength of guns cast solid or hollow. In these it was confirmed that the guns cast hollow endured a much more severe strain than those cast solid. Consider- able differences were also observed, whether the casting was cooled from within or without ; and Lieutenant Rodman's method of cooling from the interior is regarded as tending to prevent injurious strains in cooling. Major Wade informs us that time and rep)08e have a surprising effect in removing strains caused by the unequal coolings of iron castings. Great improvements have been made in improving the quality of iron guns. Guns cast ARTILLERY. 115 Metals. Cast-iron :— Least - Greatest Wrought iron Least • Greatest Bronze : — Least - Greatest Cast-steel : — Least - Greatest "Density. Tenacity. Transverse Torsion. Strength, j At Half P Degree, i Ultimate, at 6-900 7-400 7-704 7-858 7-978 8-953 7-729 7-862 9,000 45,970 38,027 74,692 17,698 56,786 128,000 6,000 11,500 6,500 Com- >res8ive TTsrinwi strength. 3,861 I 6,605 I 84,692 7,812 10,467 174,120 23,000 8,197 4,298 2,021 7,700 5,611 40,000 127,720 198,944 391,985 4-67 38-51 10-45 1214 4-57 6-94 The following Classes. analyses of the metal of iron guns of three qualities are important. Influence of Single Ingredients. Mechanical Tests. Specific Gravity. 1 2 3 7-204 7-140 7-088 Tensile Strength. 28,865 24,767 20,176 Combined I Carbon. Chemical Constituents. Graphite. -0977 •0819 •0726 •0507 •0576 •0660 SUiciura. Slag. •0417 •0638 -0531 -0215 -0200 •0219 Phos- phoros. .0239 •0300 •0321 SoI|diar. •0017 •0021 •0021 Earthy Metals. •0117 •0094 •0144 Classes. 1 2 8 Influence of tvoo or more Ingredient*. Mechanical Tests. Specific Gravity. 7^204 7^140 7-088 Tensile Strength. 28,865 54,767 20,176 Chemical ConstitaentsL Siliciam and Carbon. •1394 •1357 •1257 Silicinm and Slag. Graphite and Slag. Graphite, Silicium, and Slag. •0632 -0738 •0760 -0722 •0776 80 •1139 •1314 •1311 Gn4>hite, Slag, SUi- eiuni, and Phoephoma. •1378 •1614 •1632 difference in t& proportioS^of ft^ toSenSl L^h o^S^fh' *»" » "^■^'■''*"*'« guns are divided. It will be obaerTeA^h.! twiL .k "■«.">«» "lasses into which diminishes from the 1st to fte M S ^LT siL*' P~P?"'°» »f combined carbon united amouuts are nearly the same S other woi^^T "'»''"'?«'«■:««««, so that their the carbon to a certam eitent • hAt «?.?.;!! T" " !PP**" ">»» siricinm can replace amount of the silicTurTpp^h^ ttot rf Jhell!^'^^^ ** "^ "^ '"'i^ "hereThl in detenninlug the limitsT^^l*^?^*!^^, b^S" T** f- ^^ <"^"'"'''° that substitution. T»i-irou ana steel, but did not notice the influence of ,J^,^it:i^, oTz^'Ss^7es^7.*"r« *" '^'^'^■"^ -""-'-^ «>- '^^^^^^'^T^Z^^^'t:^^^!' ^Tuncombhied,) siliciun. 116 ARTILLERY. The following analyses, (rejecting those substances of which only a mere trace has been discovered,) from the same chemists, are selected as showing striking peculiarities :— ClM. 1. 82-pdr.,whlch endured ttoe extreme proof 8. S2>pdr.,which endured the extrt'me proof. Hot blast iron - 24-pdr.,whieh endured the extreme proof Hot blast iron 8. 42-pounder 82-poander 82-pounder d o 21 1"" • a a .^ i f i a a 1 — (9 o CO w b 3 s •93520 •02000 •02200 •00776 •00250 •00086 •02100 - - •SS480 ■02S00 •00200 •02000 •00400 •00666 •06212 •00072 92400 •08000 •01200 •01790 •00200 •00626 "02244 •00080 92155 ■08200 •00700 •01180 •00100 •00800 •01448 •00074 92540 •02800 •00160 •007;^ •00200 •00788 •02817 •00061 93450 •02900 •00900 •00900 •00200 •01290 •01810 i i ■2 a 00028 -00106 •00043 . •00084 •00028 -00284 00086 00816 •00220 •00067 -001701 ? ,-00158 •00026 Comparisori, of Weight, Strength, Extensibility, and Stiffness ; Cast-iron being unity vnthin practical limits to static forces only. Material Weight for = Volume. Strength. Extensibility. Stiflbess. Torsion. Cast-iron - - - Gun-metal Wrought iron - Steel 1-00 118 1-07 1-07 1-00 0-66 8-00 4-76 100 1-27 0-46 0-32 100 0-63 2-20 316 1-00 0-55 Ml 2-11 We find that wrought-iron guns are more than five-fold as durable as those of gun- meta^ and twenty-two times as durable as those of cast-iron. And taking first cost and durabihty together, gun-metal cannon are about seventy-seven times, and cast-iron guns about thirty times, as dear as wrought-iron artiUery. Again : the cost of horse-labor, or other means of transport for equal strength, (and, of course, therefore, for equal effective artillery power,) IS about five times as great for gun-metal, and nearly three times as ereat lor cast-iron as for wrought-iron guns. In every respect in which we have submitted them to a comparison, searching and rigid, and that seems to have omitted no important point of inquiiy, wrought iron stands pre-eminently superior to every other material for the fabrica- tion of OTdnance.— United States Report. The advantages possessed by rolled bars for the construction of artillery are thus summed up by Mr. Mallet, in his " Memoir on Artillery » :— 1. The iron instituting the integrant parts is all in moderate-sized, straight, prismatic pieces formed of rolled bars only ; hence, with its fibre all longitudmal, perfectly uniform and Its extensibility the greatest possible, and in the same direction in which it is to be strained— It la, therefore, a better material than any forged iron can, by possibility, be 2. The limitation of manufacture of the iron, thus, to rolling, and the dispensing with all massive forgings, insure absolute soundness and uniformity of properties in the material. «- r- 3. pe limited size of each integrant part, and the mode of preparation and combina- tion, afford unavoidable tests of soundness and of perfect workmanship, step by step for every portion of the whole : unknown or wilfully concealed defects are impossible. 4. FaciUty of execution by ordinary tools, and under easily obtained conditions and without the necessity of either for peculiarly skiUed labor on the part of " heavy forge- men, or for steam and other hammers, &c., of unusual power, and very doubtful utility • and haice very considerable reduction m cost as compared with wrought-iron artillery forged in mass. ° ^ 5. Facility of transport by reduction of weight, as compared with soUd guns of the flame or of any other known material. 6 " ^^c 6. A better material than massive forged iron, rolled bars are much more scientifically and advantageously apphed; the same section of iron doing much more resisting work, as *^^l' rrl? *^® ^ budt-up m compressed and extended pUes, than in any solid gun. 7. Ihe mtroduction thus into cannon of a principle of elasticity, or rather of elastic range, (as ma carnage-spring divided into a number of superimposed leaves,) greater than that due to the mc^ulus of elasticity of the material itself; and so acting, by distribution of the maximum eflTort of the explosion, upon the rings successively recipient of the stram durmg the time of the ball's traject through the chase, as materially to relieve its eflfecta upon the gun. ^ ^^-^vw ARTILLERY. jj^ ful ^^^^^^^^^''''^Z ?r° ^"'°' "^ ^*" y^r' *^ *^« construction of very power- 8^ .und. without brpn^ut^lSe, t^^ tdTo7 ;^^^^^ a great improvement. At St. Sebastian, 2,700 rounds were fired from X f^k^» Tabh •^''^'^ l^I'^^/ J>'n.ity in Casing, of large Si^ due to tUir SolUMauion under a Head of Metal, varying fro,n two to fourteen Feet .— "^ "1 Calder Cast-iron, No. Hot Blast 6-9551 6-9633 7-0145 7-0506 7-0642 7-0776 7-0907 7-1035 S2 •0082 •0512 •0361 -0136 •0134 •0131 •0128 Blaenavon, No. 1. Cold Blast g"bD fi5 24 48 72 96 120 144 168 7-0479 7-0576 7-0777 7-0890 7-1012 7-1148 7-1288 7-1430 8 •0097 •0201 •0113 •0122 •0136 •0140 -0142 Apedale, No. 2L Hot Blast 32 *M a Ot-i Ji a §•«• Q5 24 48 72 96 120 144 168 at*. 7-0328 7-0417 •0558 ■0669 •0780 •0915 1046 1183 I ..„ P* eiperimcnte were made upon cylindrical shafts of cast-iron cast verticallT in Hr» About the latter end of 1854, the attention of Mr Robert MaJlPt P F wo. a-.^ a * their mSral effect,-in eve^?^ viewin Jth^iT" .^ ""'""'^^ P^""^'' ^' ^^ '^^*^-^' , lu every case viewmg the shell, not as a weapon against troops, but as 118 ARTILLERY. »n instrwmont of destruction to an enemy's works. The result so convinced Mr. Mallet of the r»pui rate at which the destructive powers of a shell increase with increase of size, that bo was inducetl to propose to Government the employment of shells of a magnitude never Wfotv iniajjined by any one, namely, of a yard in diameter, and weighing, when in flight, alH>ut a ton and a quarter each ; ami to pr»«pai-e when broken, is found in manv parts of Egypt. A thm piece appears of a reddish color when held to the light ; when cold it has no odor ; by a moderate heat or by friction, the odor is slight ; fully heated, it lique- fies, swells, and bums with a thick smoke ; the odor given is acrid, strong and dis- agreeable. -> o> Spirits of wine dissolves pitch, but only takes a pale color with asphaltum. It is readily procured at Mocha. In the arts, asphaltum is used as a component of japan varnish. It is likewise em- ployed as a cement for lining cisterns, and for pavements, as a substitute for flag-stones.— H. W. B. The following quantities of Asphaltum, or Bitumen Judaicum, were imported into Great Britain :— in 1855, 1,674 tons; in 1856, 2,707 tons, of which 2,573 tons were from i ranee. ji 122 ASSAY AND ASSAYING. ASSAY and ASSAYING. The process employed in assaying gold bullion, by the pros- ent assayers to the Mint and Bank of England, is similar to that practised at the Paris Mint The quantity operated on is half a gramme. This quantity, having been accurately weighed" 18 wrapped m paper with a portion of pure silver, about equal to three tunes that of the gold tlie alloy is supposed to contam, and submitted to cupellation with lead in the manner described m vol. i. The button is then hammered into a flattened dish, about the size of a sixpence, and afterwards annealed and passed through laminating rolls until it is reduced to a riband from 2^ to 3 inches in length ; after which it is again ^nealed, and coiled into a spiral by rolling between the finger and thumb. The cornet is next placed in a small flask containing about an ounce of pure nitric acid of 22 B., ( = M80 specific gravity \ and boiled for 10 minutes. The acid is carefully poured off, and the comet again boiled with mtnc acid of 32 B. (1-280 specific gravity) for 20 minutes ; and this second boiling with the stronger acid is repeated and continued about 10 minutes. In the second and third boilings a small piece of charcoal should be introduced into the flask, as recommended by Gay.Lussac, in order to prevent the ebullition taking place irregularly and with sudden burets, which would be liable to break the comet, and eject a portion of the liquid from the flask. The comet is then washed and annealed as above. The retum is made to the Mint in decimals or thousandths, and the assayer's weights are so subdivided as to rive him the value m thousandths of the original -J gramme taken. m, '^''*/^?r^!°^ *?® J^ «™ '^ "^***® *^ ^^® * <^^ * <^*^* g^» better or worse than standard. The late Master of the Mint caused Tables to be prepared for the convereion of the reports of assays expressed m carats into decimals, and conversely, which are in general use for this purpose. In order to ascertain the amount of error due to the surcharge a number of proofs are passed through the process simultaneously with the alloys. These proofs con- sist of weighed portions of absolutely pure gold, to which is added a proportion of cop- per equal to that estimated to exist in the alloy to be assayed. The excess of weight in these proofs gives the amount to be deducted. It generaUy varies from 02 to 05 parts m 1,000. ^ The last traces of silver may be removed from the comet by treating it before the final annealing with fusing bisulphate of potash in a porcelain crucible. When suflBciently cool the whole is heated with hot water containing a little sulphuric acid, and the comet dried and ignited. By this means gold may be obtained of almost absolute purity, or '"<«/, «„„ as It IS termed. /*«««» The following examples will, show the difference in the results, and the degree of accu- racy attainable, by the various methods described : — Ten grains of pure gold, alloyed with three times its weight of silver, cupelled and boiled with acid at 22° B., and 32^ B., once weighed 10016. Ten grains of a half-sovereign, with silver, &c., and acid at 22°, and twice at 32° B., gave 915-4 again, 915*6 With acid, as before, and bisulphate of potash, 91 52 «• again, 915-2 Pure gold alloyed with copper, to bring it to standard, cupelled with silver and lead and treated with acids and bisulphate, gave m one case precisely the same as was taken originally, or »'^/,ooo, and in another 999-98. In accurate assaying of gold bullion, it is of course absolutely necessary that 47 the acids should be pure, and that the silver used should be most carefully freed Rsl^ from the traces of gold which it usually contains. ^"^'^ Instead of charcoal or coke, which are generally used for cupellation, much advantage has been found in employing the best anthracite : reduced to the prop- er size, it contains very little ash, is free from slag or clinker, and allows the heat to be maintained at one steady temperature for many hours, which is a matter of \ great importance to the assayer.* * ASTRAGAL. An omamental moulding, generally used to conceal a junction in either wood or stone. ASTRAGAL PLANES. Planes fitted with cuttere for forming astragal mould- ings. They are commonly known as moulding planes. ASTRAGAL TOOL, for tuming. By using a tiK)l shaped as in fg. 41, the process of forming a moulding or ring is greatly facilitated, as one member of the moulding is completed at one sweep, and we are enabled to repeat it any number of times with exact uniformity. * The most u^ful works on this subject are r-Chandet, "L' Art de TEssayeur ; " the work of Gay- Lossac mentioned in the text ; "Mannel complet de I'Essayeur," par Vauquelin and D'Arcet, edited by Verenaud. Pans. 1836, (a most u«eful little work;) Bodemann, "Anleitung zur Berjr- und Huttenman- nischen Probierkunst, Claustbal, 1845; and (perhaps the best of them all) the "Scheikundig Handbook roor Essaijeurs Goud und Zilversmeden " by Stratingh, Groningen, 1821. ATOMIC THEORY. 123 ATOMIC THEORY. Dr. Dalton suggested the happy idea, which has been most fruit- lui m Its results, of accountmg for the constancy of chemical combinations by assuming that they were composed of one or more atoms of the several elements, the weight of which atoms IS represented by the combining proportions ; that carbonic oxide, for instance con- tains single atoms of carbon and oxygen, whilst carbonic acid is composed of one atom of carbon and two of oxygen. It must always be remembered that the combining proportions are purely the results ot experiment, and, therefore, incontestable, whatever may be the fate of this theory which, however, has now stood its ground for many years, and done excellent service to science. This theory offers a most satisfactory explanation of the different laws of chemical com- 01 nation. The fact of bodies uniting on^y in certain proportions, or multiples of those proportions is a necessary consequence of the assumption that the weight of the elementary atoms is represented by the combining proportions ; for, if they united in any other ratio, it would involve the splitting up of these atoms, which are assumed to be indivisible. And, of course, the combining proportion of a compound must be the sum of the com- bmmg proportions of the constituents, since it contams withm itself one or more atoms of the several constituents. 1 J^^^^erm jitom is, therefore, very often used instead of combimng proportion or equiva- lent, a body being said to contain so many atoms of its elements. All that is assumed in this theory is, that the atoms are of constant value bu vxiaht • the same atoms may be arranged in a different way, and hence, although any particulai compound contains always the same elements in the atomic ratios, yet the same atoms may by difference m arrangement, give rise to bodies agreeing m composition by weight, but differing essentially in properties. ° ^ ^ / 5 , uui. K ^I'.^T^.^^^^ suggested the subdivision of the combining numbers of certain elements, but this Idea 13 quite subversive of the atomic theory, as it is at present underetood. Ihe atomic theory is further confirmed by the observation, that if the specific heat of the elements be compared, it is found that in a lai-e number of cases the specific heat of rcmarSe^ represented by the atomic weights coincides with each other in a The Atomic Theory of Dalton is thus set forth by the author :— Po.T, .^ * *°^ ^""P ""^'^^ 'P. *^^ ^"^^''^ ^'^'^' '^^ ultimate particles are separated from each other to a much greater distance than in any other state ; each particle^occupiesX f^nn. ' (vK '' ^^ll^' ""^ otherwise, are disposed to encroach on it-at a respectful dis- !fK f 1-1, ^r "^f- ^"^™P* ^"^ conceive the number of particles in an atmosphere, it is some- Sh I .1*^™?? V^ 'r '^? *^^ ^^°^^^ «f «^^^^ *tie universe-we are cinfo^dS with the thought. But If we limit the subject, by taking a given volume of ^v S^^ seem persuaded that, be the divisions ever so minute, the n^umber ofTrSclSS ^ fnfinitie."' ^ '"^ "" ^"'^'' '^^'^ ^^ *^^ ^'^^^''^' *^^ °^^^" «^ ^^^ ^^ planets c^Sot b^ from a^n^othlr^andf Jth •''^ ^^^^^^^^ ^o further than to the separation of particles one rSSi of PhLTii ''' '' w^°- . ?^ '^"^ *^'^^'^^^ «^ destruction of matter Twithin the reach of chemical agency. We might as weU attempt to introduce a new planet into Ucl'otL'drtTA''i'l,T'^";*' '"' ^^"•^"^^^^ ^^^'^'^^' ^ ^ «^^« or desS^I pa^ Iri In « J5 °r u^^' *^^ ''^^"^^^ ""^ ^^ P^**^"*'^ <^<>°8»s<^ in separating particles Ihat a^^in a state of cohesion or combination, and joining those that were prefio.isly afaX „=« "/^ ^li *^^®f *?*^ investigations it has justly been considered an important object to StThi^' "^'^'T ""^^^'^ «^ *^" ^'°^P^^« ^^"^^ ^«"«*'tute a compound^ But, unfortu Thf I'l ^^"''^"''^ui'^.*^!:"*'"**^ *^^^^> ^^^^^' f">°» t»»e relative weights in the iX n?pr^H f ' ^^"t^ V>^ "'""^^'^ P^'^'*^^^^ o^ «*«™« «f the bodies might hTveS n n^. '/"""' -'l^'*'^. their number and weights in various other compounds would anZr m order to assist and to guide future investigations, and to correct thdr resuC Now^tl^ one great object of this work (' A New Systim of Chemical Philorphy ^to show 2i^ L portance and advantage of ascertaining tU relative weights of thrSLLTparHck^ Z ofnmpfe and compound bodies, the number of simple eLentary partiTsXIhconi^ti^e TrZi^Zf/T'^'^ ""'^ ''' r^^^rofiss compound pZLs McTllTiTthe jormation of each more compound particle^ ^ r bv Chlrtl" n^n^'^^'ii? n""^ *^^/ u*4f '' ''°°^''^* " ^° Introduction to the Atomic Theory," TLor^," by^R^ll^^A^^^^^ ^h'^r" ^' '^"^ ^^^- -^ Histoid of the AtoSc froJ^tL^^'aZ'Zlt^^-r'? ^^V-?"^ quantity of precipitate that may be expected to result p'i^poS^nlf^r^^^^^^^ ^ ^' «^ -dium, ac^rding to the iir |t| ■i ! r 124 ATOMIC WEIGHTS. Quantity of Salt Quantity of Precipitate. Quantity of Salt Quantity of Precipitate. Amount of Precipi- tate from the two Salts. Br. Sodium. Br. Silver. Ch. Sodium. Ch. Silver. luo 184-5 184-5 90 166-0 10 24-3 190-8 80 148-0 20 48-3 196-3 70 129-5 30 73-0 202-0 60 111-0 40 95-5 208-6 60 92-5 50 121-5 ' 214-0 40 740 60 146-0 220-0 30 56-0 70 . 170-0 226-0 20 37-0 80 1950 2320 10 18-5 90 2190 237-5 00-0 100 2430 • 243 ATOMIC WEIGHTS, EQUIVALENT, CHEMICAL EQUIVALENT, COMBINING WEIGHT, or PROPORTION. The following propositions may be regarded as the laws regulating atomic combination : — 1. ITie equivalents of elementary bodies represent the S7naUest proportions in tihich they enter into combination with each other. 2. The equivalent of a compound body is the sum of the equivalents of its elements. 3. Combination takes place, whether between elements or compounds, either Ih the pro- portions of their equivalents, or in mtdiiples of these proportions^ and never in sub- multiples. 4. The law of definite and multiple proportion is, individual compounds always contain exactly the same proportions of their elements. See Equivalents, Chemical. ATOMIC VOLUMES. Recently it has been assumed that the elements unite invariably in equal volumes— when in the gaseous state ;— or, in other words, that the atoms of bodies have always the same volume. If this doctrine be maintained, it becomes necessary to alter the atomic weights or combining numbers of certain elements. For example, water con- tains two volumes of hydrogen to one of oxygen ; but, according to the generally received idea, it consists of single atoms of each element ; it is clear, therefore, that if we are to assume that the atoms of hydrogen and oxygen have the same volume, we must either halve the atomic weight of hydrogen or double that of oxygen. Berzelius suggested that all the atomic weights should remain the same, except those of hydrogen, nitrogen, phosphorus, chlorine, bromine, and iodine, which should halve their present value. Gerhardt, on the other hand, adopts the more convenient practice of allow- ing hydrogen and its congeners to retam their present atomic weights, doubling those of oxygen, sulphur, tellurium, and carbon. ATROPINE. (C"H"NO".) An exceedingly poisonous alkaloid, found m deadly night- shade (Atropa Belladona) and in stramonium (Z^a^a/ra Stramonium.) ATTAR OF ROSES, more commonly, OTTO OF ROSES. An essential oil, obtained in India, Turkey, and Persia, from some of the finest varieties of roses. It is procured by distilling rose leaves with water, at as low a temperature as possible. It is said that this perfume is prepared also by exposing the rose leaves in water to the sun ; but, from the fact that under the circumstances fermentation would be speedily established, it is not probable that th:s is a method often resorted to. By dry distillation from salt-water baths, no doubt the finest attar is obtained. This essential oil is only used as a perfume. Attar of roses is adulterated with spermaceti and with castor oil dissolved in strong alco- hol. This adulteration may be detected by putting a small drop of the otto of roses on a piece of clean writing paper ; by agitation in the air, the volatile oil soon evaporates, leav- ing no stain if pure ; if any fixed oil is present, a greasy spot is left on the paper. ATTENUATION. Brewers and distillers employ this term to signify the weakening of saccharine worts during fermentation, by the conversion of the sugar into alcohol and car- bonic acid. AURUM MtJSrVUM or MOSAICUM. Mosaic Gold.— For the preparation of Mosaic gold, the following process is recommended by Woulfe. An amalgam of 2 parts of tin and 1 part of mercury is prepared in a hot crucible, and triturated with 1 part of sal-ammoniac, and 1 part of flower of sulphur ; the mixture is sublimed in a glass flask upon the sand bath. In breaking the flask after the operation, the sublimate is found to consist, superficially, of sal-ammoniac, then of a layer of cinnabar, and then of a layer of Mosaic gold. There are several other processes given for the preparation of this bisulphide of tin but the above probably gives the best results. AVOCADO PEAR OLL. 125 Bergman naentions a native aurum musivum from Siberia, containing tin, sulphur and a small proportion of copper. Dr. John Davy gave the com|k)sition as * * Tin 100 I Sulphur .... 56-26 Berzelius as — Tin 100 I Sulphur - - - . 52-3 Mosaic gold is employed as a bronzing powder for plaster figures, and it is said to enter sometimes into the composition of aventurine. AUTOGENOUS SOLDERING. A process of soldering by which metals are united either by the ordinary solders or by lead, under the influence of a flame of hydro- 48 gen or of a mixture of hydrogen and common air. The process of using air and hydro- gen was invented in France, by the Count de Richemont. Hydrogen gas is con- tained in a gasometer, to which a flexible tube is connected, and air is urged from a bellows worked by the foot, through another tube, and on to the blowpipe, where the hydrogen is ignited. By means of the flexible tubes the flame can be moved up and down the line of any joint, and the connecting medium melted. Fig. 48. This process has been a good deal employed for plumbers' work, especially in our naval arsenals. AUTOMATIC ARTS. Such arts or manufactures as are carried on by self-acting ma- chinery. ° AVENTURINE. {Aventurine, Fr.) A variety of quartz which is minutely spano^led throughout with yellow scales of mica ; is known as Aventurine quartz. It is usually translucent, and of a gray, brown, or reddish-brown color. There is also an AveiUurine felspar (Feldspath aventurine, Fr.) Commercially, in France and some other parts of Europe, the name of Pien-e de soleil is given to the finest varieties of the felspar aventu- rine, some lapidaries, however, calling this stone by the name of Aventurine orientate. This aventurine occurs at Capa de Gata, in Spain ; it has reddish and yellow intemai reflections. An artificial aventurine has been manufactured on a large scale for a long period, at the glass-works of Murano, near Venice. According to Wohler's examination, aventurine glass owes its golden iridescence to a crystalline separation of metallic copper from the mass colored brown by the peroxide of iron. C. Karsten analyzed the artificial aventurine from the glass maniufactory of Bigaglia. in Venice, and found it to contain — -o-b—j Silicic acid -... 67-3 Lime . .. -9-0 Protoxide of iron 3-4 Binoxide of tin . . - 2*3 Protoxide of lead - - -1-0 Metallic copper - - - - - . . _ -4-0 Potash -----5-3 Soda ---«---_... tj.^ These numbers agree in a remarkable manner with the results formerly obtained by Pelieot and may therefore be regarded as truly representing the composition of the glass. AVERRUNCATOR. A pair of pruning shears,, which, on being mounted on a pole some ten feet long, and actuated by a string of catgut, can be used for pruning at a consid- erable distance above the head. v*«»m AVOCADO PIjAR OIL. An oil obtained from the oleaginous fruit the Avocado pear- tree, {I^Hrus Persea^ a native of Trinidad. A portion of this oil having been submitted to Dr. Hofmann by the Governor of Trinidad, he reported on its character and composition. Ine following is an extract from his report : '; According to my present experience, the oil of the Avocado pear is less valuable as a lubricating matenaJ. To make it fit for the higher classes of machinery, its mucilaginous constituents must be removed by the same refining process requisite for its adaptation in illuinmating purposes. This will slightly increase its price. Even when purified it retains an attraction for oxygen, by which it becomes rapidly colored, viscid, and actually acid. It cannot, either in price or in applicability, compete with that remarkable substance ' Paraf- ^^1 f •I 126 AZIMUTH COMPASS. fine oil,* which has "been discovered within the last year by Mr. James Young, and which is now manufactured by him on a large scale, by the distillation, at a low temperature, of sev- eral varieties of <;oa]. " On the other hand, the oil of the Avocado pear is very applicable for the production of good soap. I have the honor of transmitting to your Excellency specimens prepared with the oil : the smaller one, which possesses & yellow color, is prepared with the oil in its original condition ; the larger one is made with a portion of oil which had previously been bleached by chlorine. From this specimen it is obvious that the oil, although poor in stcarine, nevertheless furnishes a soap which is tolerably hard and solid. It ought to be remembered that it is diflScult to obtain a hard soap by working on the small scale pre- scribed by the limited amount of material at my disposal. For the perfect elaboration of this investigation also, a large supply of material will be of great advantage ; but I have even now no hesitation in stating, that, for the purposes of the soap-maker, the oil of the Avocado pear will have, at least, the same value as palm oil." AZIMUTH COMPASS. The azimuth compass is used -chiefly to note the actual mag- netic azimuth, or that arch of the horizon intercepted between the azimuth, or vertical circle passing through the centre of any heavenly body, and the magnetic meiidian. The card of the azimuth compass is subdivided into «xact degrees, minutes, and seconds. To the box is fixed two " sights," through which the sun or a star may be viewed. The position int» which the index of the sights must be turned to see it, will mdicate on the card the azimuth of the star. When the observations are intended to be exact, telescopes take the place of the sights. By this instrument we note the actual magnetic azimuth ; and, as we know the azimuth calculated from the N. and S. line, the variation of the needle is readily found. AYR STONE, called also Scotch stone and snake stone, is much in request as a polish- ing stone for marble and for copper plates. These stones are always kept damp, or even wet, to prevent their becoming hard. The harder varieties of Ayr stone are now employed as whetstones. AZURITE. This term has been applied to several blue minerals, which have little in common. Beudant and Dana use it to signify the blue carbonate of copper — now termed Chessylite by Brook and Miller, from its occurring in fine crystalline forms at Chessy, near Lyons ; hence commonly called Chessy copper. Azurite is also applied to the Lazulite of Dana ; which is again called Azure stone and blue spar by others. The same terra is also given to the Lapis lazuli, from which ultramaruae is obtained. This want of agreement between mineralogists — leading them to adopt names inde- pendent one of the other (names frequently taken from some locality in which the writer knows the mineral to be found) — produces great confusion, iind retards the progress of knowledge. B BACK. A mining term. The back of a mineral lode is that part which is nearest the surface. The back of a level is the ground between it and the level above it. BACK. A brewer's utensil. BAIN-MARIE. A vessel of water in which saucepans, &c., are placed to warm food. BAIZE. A coarse woollen stuff with a long nap, sometimes frized on one side. BAKERS' SALT. The sesquicarbonate of ammonia, so called because it is often used as a substitute for yeast in bread and pastry. BAL. An ancient Cornish miner's term for a mine. Bal-maidens is a name given to girls working at a mine. BALACHONG. An article of food much used in the Eastern Archipelago, consisting of fish and shrimps pounded together. BALANCE FOR WEIGHING COIN introduced at the Bank of England in the year 1841. ^ Mr. William Cotton, then Deputy-Governor, and during the two succeeding years Gov- ernor of the Bank, had long regarded the mode of weighing by common hand-balances with dissatisfaction on account of its injurious effect upon the " teller," or weigher, owmg to the straining of the optic nerve by constant watching of the beam indicator, and the necessity of reducing the functions of the mind to the narrow office of influencing a few constantly repeated actions. Such monotonous labor could not be endured for hours together without moments of forgetfulness resulting in errors. Errors more constant, although less in amount, were found to be due to the rapid wearing of the knife-edges of the beam ; cur- rents of air also acting upon the pans produced undesired results ; and even the breath of the " teller " sometimes turned the scale ; so that, in hand- weighing, the errora not unfre- quently amounted to ^, and even \ grain. At the very best, the hand-scale working at the rate of 3,000 per six hours could not indicate nearer than Vas grain. BALANCE FOR WEIGHING COIN. 127 Fpon taking into consideration the inconveniences and defects of the hand-wei^hin.. system, Mr. Cotton conceived the idea that it might be supei^eded bv a^cS defended from external mfluences and contrived so as to weigh coins as fast ^ byT^TLd Sn the fourth of a gram He subsequently communicated his plan to Mr. Da^d Napirr of York Road, Lambeth, engineer, who undertook the construction of an expSunen^ ml T^T;.. i ' ''''^'^'^T' ^f' ''''^^ ""^ '^P^''*^^ "P«° by Mr. WiUiam MillerroTthe B^k" The resut was most satisfactory; more -automaton biances" were ordered wid l^m time to time further additions have been made, so that at present there ^e te^in ^Z ^s^^T^^:t:Zf''''^' ^^i '' ™ "^ '^^^^^"^ ^ st?:sTe\£uL"Liv^ioa m:,titution ot tellers passed away. There were interests opposed to the introduction of improved more ready, and less expensive methods ; and it required all Mr CottTn^ener^y of character, the influence of his intelligence in mechanics, as well as thaLrS^^^rom h^ position m the Direction, to obtain the adoption of an invention by which a °veJ? ki^ annual saving has been effected. ^ ^^ ^*^ trivp^d^'hv W^^'"^ adaptation of the principles involved in the Automaton Balance, as con- trived by Mr. Napier, may be shortly explained : -The weighing beam of steel^ fork^ pLln'H! '' ^"t 'T'T'J ^''"^^'^S ^ ^^ifee^^e ; and m th? ceftr^h^Vlrum kSfe^ extends on each side of the plate of the beam, and rests in hollows cut in a b^w^^^ bar fixed to the under side of a rectangular brass plate, about 12 inches square whkTS a stand of the same metal. To form a complete enclosing ease, plates of metal or S^ slid into grooves down the columns. When the* beam is°resting with ite S^« kntf^Z m the hollows of the cross-bar just referred to, its upper part is ne^l/orri?vel ^th^ under side of the brass plate, in which a long 'slot is made so thatX\^m In be tken out when the feeding slide-box and its plate,°which covers this slot, are X^ On t^e top of the covering plate of the feeding slide a tube hopper is placed and Vhnl^ Vn ♦?! plate communicates with the slide ; another hole is pie3[nthe^'e plate exttlv oter one end of the beam, upon the knife-edges of which a long rod is^plTedbT hollows formed in a cross-bar close to its upper end, where the weighing platfoZL fitted A r^ TLv^^^::^Tj^:va r.r»r ^SM^^: SSiv" « the change of the coin. A dipping-finger is also attTeheel t« f^ r'^ ^^u^^ ?"""^ machine where the counterpoise hangs, Md toother two shaft, nn^h.L T^ f^^" cams for working the gripping apparafus, the di;p^g!L^?, t!"Ci^X^'^i^ "^ filled, and a hollow inclined plane about two Sonf S ias Z^,^'rfS "I' ^ l"^^' finger is also at its lowest position, and resting upon the knife^nf^h J Wt^^ slot in the pendant rod, thus keeping the beam horizontal a'ndthf knob 1^^^^ f'^ po.se pendant, in contact with the'lgfte point already mentioned When the ^^ iT'T placed on the weighing-plate, the gripped let go their hold of the p^nd^t^ «nd thi dipping.finger is raised by its cam ; if then the coin i«i ixyf^ h«h\ \u ^?^^\ rwl, and the tt'bef '• T """• "'^- JpP'-e-fi-W, an'd" t ru„Ci^^'e'nd*wm7e::'nd' f h^*" the beam will remain without motion the aaatp nninf T»^.r««*- •! aescena , it heavy, ping.flnger attains the proper heigM thThTaC^JISnt Um^olT "' 'Kf'^ the coin to be decided, the griDDera close and hnW .k. „™i . j ™* "" ""' **'«■" "f receptacle for the light coin. During these^;SS,stffe:5rn^Xt, Z^t'?o^' .M. I I I I I 128 BALE. another coin, and the process just described is repeated. The attendant is only required to replenish the incUned plane at intervals, and remove the assorted coin from the boxes. The perfection of the workmanship, and the harmony of the various actions of the machme, will be best appreciated from the fact, that 26 pieces are weighed per minute to the fineness of Vioo of a grain. This combination of great speed and accuracy would not have been possible with a beam made in the ordinary way, having the centre of gravity below the centre of action ; and it was pronounced to be so by the late Mr. Clement, the constructor of Mr. Babbage's Calculating Machine. But Mr. Napier overcame the difficulty by raising the centre of gravity so as to coincide with the centre of action, which gave it much greater sensibility ; and he provided the dipping-finger, to bring the beam to a horizontal position after each weighing, instead of an influencing weight in the beam itself. The wear and tear of these machines are found to be very small indeed ; those supplied in 1842 and 1843, and in daily use ever since, weigh with the same accuracy as at firet, although they may be said to have cost nothing for repairs. The principal cause of this long-continue*d perfection is that the beam does not oscillate, unless the coin is light, and even then the space passed through does not exceed the thickness of the coin. In 1851, when the Moneyers were no longer masters of the Royal Mint, and the new authorities began to regard the process of weighing the coin in detail by hand as a laborious, expensive, and inaccurate method, the firm of Napier & Son, at an interview with Sir John Herschel, the Master, and Captain Harness, the Deputy-Master, received an order for five machines, to be designed to suit the requirements of the Mint, which involved a complete change in the mechanical arrangement of the machine as used at the Bank, it being neces- sary to divide the " blanks," or pieces before they are struck, into three classes : * too light," " too heavy," and *' medium," or those varying between certain given limits. It would occupy too much space to attempt a description of the mechanical disposition ot this machine, and it could not be satisfactorily accomplished without the aid of drawings ; let it suffice, then, to say that the displacing-slides are removed, and a long vibrating conducting- tube receives the blanks as they are in turn pushed off the weighing-plate by the on-coming blanks ; but, according to the weight of the blank, so the lower end of the tube is found to be opposite to one of three openings leading into three boxes The tube is sustamed in its proper position, during the descent of the blank last weighed through it, by a stop-finger, the height of which is regulated by a dipping-finger, which comes down upon a kmfe-edge at the lower end of a slot in the pendant-rod just when the grippers have laid hold of the rod after the weighing is finished ; this finger thus ascertains the level which the kmfe-edge has attained, and as it brings down the stop-finger with it, the guide-tube, which is furnished with three rests, as steps in a stair, vibrates against the stop-finger, one of the three steps coming in contact with it, according to the level of the stop-finger ; and the end of the guide-tube takes its place opposite the channel leading to the box m which the blank should be found. The counterpoise employed is less than the true standard weight, by the quan- tity which may be allowed as the limit in that direction ; and in case a blank is too heavy, not only is the counterpoise raised, but a small weight, ^qual to the range allowed between the " too light " and " too heavy," is raised also ; this small weight comes to rest on sup- ports provided for it when the beam is horizontal, and is only disturbed by a too heavy nl ATI K These machines have proved even more accurate and rapid than those made for the Bank ; and Professor Graham, the present master, amongst the improvements introduced by him into ihe system of the Mint, has added to the number, and dispensed entirely with the hand-weighing. It is said that the saving accruing from this change alone amounts to nearly £2,000 per annum. BALE. A package of silk, linen, or woollen, is so called. BALLISTIC PENDULUM. An instrument for measuring the force ot cannon-balls. The ballista was an instrument used by the ancients to throw darts, &c. The ballistic pen- dulum derives its name from this : it consists of an iron cylinder, closed at one end, sus- pended as a pendulum. A ball being fired into the open end, deflects the pendulum accord- ing to the force of the blow received from the ball, thus measuring its power. BALLOON. In France, a quantity of glass. Of white glass, 25 bundles of six plates each ; of col _ BAMBOO. (Bambon, Fr. ; Indianiseher Rohr, Germ.) A species of cane, the Bam- bos arundinacea of botanists. A most important vegetable product in the East, where it is used in the construction of houses, boats, bridges, &c. Its gram is used for bread ; its fibre is manufactured into paper. BARLEY. 129 Walking sticks are frequently said to be of bamboo ; they are the ratan, a different plant. BANDOLINE, called also clysphitique and fixature, a mucilage of Carrageen moss ; used for stiffening the hair and keeping it in order. BARBARY GUM. Sometimes called Morocco gum. The product of the Acacia gummifera. Imported from Tripoli, Barbary, and Morocco. BARBERRY. {Berberris, Lat. ; Bpine-vinette, Fr.) It is probable that this name has been given to this plant from its spines, or barbs. The name Oxycanthus, also given to it, indicates a like origin. BARILLA {Sonde, Barille, Fr. ; Barilta, Germ.) A crude soda, procured by the incineration of the salsola soda, a plant cultivated for this purpose in Spain, Sicily, Sar- dinia, and the Canary Islands. In Alicante the plants ai*e raised from seed, which is sown at the close of the year, and they are usually fit to be gathered in September following. In October the plants are usually burned. For this purpose holes are made in the earth, capa- ble of containing a ton or-« ton and a half of soda. Iron bars are laid across these cavi- ties, and the dried plants, stratified with dry seeds, are placed upon them. The whole is set on fire. The alkali contained in the plants is fused, and it flows into the cavity beneath, a red-hot fluid. By constantly heaping on plants, the burning is continued until the pits are full of barilla ; they are then covered up with earth, and allowed to cool gradually. The spongy mass of alkali, when sufficiently cold, is broken out, and, without any further pre- paration, it is ready for shipment. Good barilla usually contains, according to Dr. Ure's analysis, 20 per cent, of real alkali, associated with muriates and sulphates, chiefly of soda, some lime, and alumina, with very little sulphur. Caustic leys made from it were formerly used in the finishing process of-the hard soap manufacture. The manufacture of barilla has greatly declined since the introduction of Le Blanc's process for artificially manufacturing soda from common salt. The quantity of barilla and alkaJi imported in 1850 amounted to 34,880 cwts., and in 1851 to 45,740 cwts. ; in 1856 the importation, was 54,608 cwts. BARK. The outer rind of plants. Many varieties of barks are known to commerce, but the term is especially used to express either Peruvian or Jesuits* bark, a pharmaceutical remedy, or Oak bark, which is very extensively used by tanners and dyers. The varieties known in commerce are — Cork Bare. (Fr. Liege ; KorTc, Germ.) Oak Bark. {Tan brut, Fr. ; Eichenrinde, Germ.) Peruvian Bark. ( Quinquina, Fr. ; Chinarinde, Germ.) Quercitron Bark. Wattle Bark. BARLEY. (Orge, Fr. ; Oerstengraupe, Cterm. ; Hordeum, Linn.) This term is sup- posed to be derived from hordus, heavy, because the bread made from it is very heavy. Barley belongs to the class Endogens, or Monocotyledons ; Glumel Alliance, of Linley : natural order, Oraminacece. Tl^re are four species of barley cultivated in this country : — 1. Hordeum kexastichon. Six-rowed barley. 2. Hordeum vulgare. The Scotch here or bigg ; the four-rowed barley. 3. Hordeum zeocriton. Putney, fan, sprat, or battledore barley. 4. Hordeum distichon. Two-rowed or long-eared barley. Barley and oats are the cereals whose cultivation extends farthest north in Europe. The specific gravity of English barley varies from 1*25 to 1*33 ; of bigg from 1*227 to 1"265 ; the weight of the husk of barley is Ve, that of bigg %. Specific gravity of barley is 1-235, by Dr. Ure's trials. 1,000 parts of barley flour contain, accordmg to Einhof, 720 of starch, 56 sugar, 50 mucilage, 36"6 gluten, 12*3 vegetable albumen, 100 water, 2'5 phos- phate of lime, 68 fibrous or ligneous matter. From the examination instituted by the Royal Agricultural Society of England, and car- ried out under the directions of Messrs. Way and Ogston, the following results have been arrived at : — Kind of Barley employed. Unknown - - - Chevalier barley Ditto - - - - Ditto, from Moldavia ^ Ditto - - - - Grains of Chevalier barley Moisture in 100 Parts of Grain. Specific Gravity of Grains. 12-00 10-00 16-00 11-00 16-00 16-00 1-260 1-234 1-268 Ash in 100 Parts of dried Grain. 2-43 2-50 2-82 2-38 2-75 14-23 Vol. IIL— 9 II! 130 BAEREGE. The analyses of several varieties gave as the composition of the ashes of the grains of barley :— Potash Soda - • - Lime - - - Magnesia - Sesquisxide of iron Sulphuric acid Silica - - - Phosphoric acid • Chloride of sodium TJnknowB. 2114 1-65 7-26 2-13 1-91 30-68 28-53 1-01 Chevalier Barley. 20-77 4-56 1-48 7-45 0-61 0-79 32-73 81-69 From Moldavia. 37-55 1-06 1-21 10-17 1-02 0-27 24-56 28-64 1-47 Chevalier Barley. 7-70 0-36 10-36 1-26 1-46 2-99 70-77 1-99 110 In the " Synopsis of the Vegetable Products of Scotiand," by Peter Lawson and Son, will be found the best description of all the different varieties of barley ; and, smce the Lawsonian collection is in the museum of the Royal Botanic Gardens at Kew, the grains can be examined readily by all -who take any mterest in the subject. A few only of the varieties will be noticed. The true six-romd Barley, known also as Pomeranian and as six-rowed white winter barley. — ^This is a coarse barley, but hardy and prolific. It is occasionally sown in France, and also in this country, sometimes as a winter and sometimes as a spring bariey, and is found to answer pretty well as either. Naked ttoo-rowed.— Ear long, containing twenty-eight or thirty very large grains, which separate from the paleae, or chaflF, in the manner of wheat. This variety has been intro- duced to the notice of agriculturalists at various times, and under dififerent names, but its cultivation has never been carried to any great extent. Common Bere, Bigg, or rmgh Barley.— This variety is chiefly cultivated in the High- lands of Scotland, and in the Lowlands on exposed inferior soils. Victoria. — A superior variety of the old bigg, compared with which it produces longer straw, and is long-eared, often containing 70 or 100 grains in each. Instances have been known of its yielding 13 quarters per acre, and weighing as much as 96 lbs. per bushel. Beyond these there are, the winter black; the winter white; old Scottish four-rowed; naked, golden, ov Italian; Suffolk or Norfolk, and Short-necked; cultivated in various dis- tricts, and with varying qualities. BARRilGE. A woollen fabric, m both warp and woof, which takes its name from the district in which it was first manufactured— the especial locality being a littie village named Arosons, in the beautiful valley of Barreges. It was first employed as an ornament for the head, especially for sacred ceremonies, as baptism and marriage. Paris subsequently be- came' celebrated for its barrages, but these were generally woven with a warp of silk. Enormous quantities of cheap barreges are now made with a warp of cotton. BARREL. (Baril, Fr.) A round vessel, or cask, of greater length than breadth, made of staves, and hooped. The English barrel — ^wine measure contains 31| gallons. (old) beer" " 36 " (old) ale " " 82 beer vinegar " 84 contains 126 Paris pints. The ale and beer barrels were equalized to 34 gallons by a statute of William and Mary. The wine gallon, by a statute of Anne, was declared to be 231 cubic inches ; tiie beer gallon being usually reckoned as 282 cubic inches. The imperial gallon is 277 274 cubic inches. The old barrels now in use are as follows :— Wine barrel . - - - - Ale " (London) . - - - Beer " i' . - . . Ale and beer, for England • - - The baril de Florence is eqmvalent to 20 bottles, . . The Connecticut barrel for liquors is 31^ gallons, each gallon to contain 231 cubic inches. The statute barrel of America must be from 28 to 31 gallons. The barrel of flour. New York, must contain either 195 lbs. or 228 lbs. net weight. The barrel of beef or pork in New York and Connecticut is 200 lbs. A barrel of Ess6x butter is 106 lbs. A barrel of Suflfolk butter is 256 lbs. A barrel of herrings should hold 1,000 fish. A barrel of salmon should measure 42 gallons. ii t( CI 26^ imperial galloDfl. 83*'/6, 36»V6» 34''V„ it BARWOOD. 131 1 ^^^^^ETER. A name given to one of the most important instruments of meteo- rology. Ihis name signifies a measurer of weight— the column of mercury in the tube of the barometer being exactly balanced against the weight of a column of air of the same T^TM^^ftu^ ^'T th^«"^^ac« «f t^^e ^^ to the extreme limits of the atmosph^ ine length ot this column of mercury is never more than thirty-one inches- below that point It may vary, according to conditions, through several inches. ' There have been many useful applications of the barometer, but the only one with which this dictionary has to deal appears to be the following :— j u wmcu Barovieter, MackworthU Underground.— In the goafs, or old workings, of some mines. I!-?i ?vk '®*'.*? "l^'^^ explosive or noxious gases tend to accumulate in considerable quan- tity. VVhen the barometer falls, these gases expand and approach or enter the working places ot the mine, producing disastrous results to life or health. To enable the manacS nLvr^'V^ . ?u^^ these contingencies, he has but to construct a smaU model of such a cavity, ana let the expansion or contraction of the gas measure itself. In fg. 49, a is a 49 lli'^tJdTL^nli^f^^^^^^ x°^ If? !,* ^°'^'' in diameter, closed at each end. In one end is inserted a copper tube, ^ inch m diameter and 12 feet lonff, b. A hole 2 inches in diam eter, being bored 12 feet deep into the solid coal or rock, the brass v^l is pid to Te tut' 4 ?Im' "^^ *^' small tube is closely packed round with c^d T^aj. ^^s a gl^^ tube, 4 feet long and i inch in diameter, in which is placed water or oil As tiie extS atmosphere presses, the surf-ace of the liquid rises or falls, and the s^e is gradu^Sd b^ comparison with a standard barometer. The air contained in the b^^l T^T^pr^r t^^Jll- T«^^^^^>.«r »e^ly 80. by temperature, and no correction hasTbe iiSe Ke l^nf tS! "^ tje ?ympiesomet«r. a and b may be convenientiy filled with X^en to p^ vent the oxidation of the metal ; and the surface of the liquid in the el^ S'n^v l!^ T^i:%Z'^'o^:^' ^^'^^ --^- -^ -^-^ -'V the ad'^tgro/^ctkTor^ wnn^^^^K ^^* /^Jough distinctious are made between sandal or saunders wood cam wood, and barwood, they appear to be very nearly allied to each other^t l^t Jhe 'c^' ation lT)0 'n'Jf, '7*^'^. ""'^ this powder, only acquires a fawn tint after five days' macer- matter anTofT^fi ilinf '' ^"^^ t"^^^^ ^-'^^ «^ substances consisting of 0-85^oToTng matter and of 1 36 saline compounds. Boiling water becomes more stron^lv colored of a The alcoholic solution behaves in the followin| manner L^^TZ - Distilled water added m great quantity - Produces a considerable yellow opalescence. The precipitate is re-dissolved bv the fixed alkalies, and the liquor acquires a dark vinous color. Turn it dark crimson, or dark violet Ditto. Darkens the color to a cochineal red. Fixed alkalies Lime water - Sulphuric acid II 'li 132 BARYTA, CARBONATE OF. • Sulphuretted hydrogen - - - - Acts like water. Salt of tin Blood-red precipitate. Chloride of tin Brick-red precipitate. Acetate of lead Bark violet gelatinous precipitate. Salts of the protoxide of iron - - Very abundant violet precipitates. Copper salts Violet-brown gelatinous precipitates. Chloride of mercury - - - - An abundant precipitate of a brick-red color. Nitrate of bismuth . . - - Gives a light and brilliant crimson red. Sulphate of zinc Bright-red flocculent precipitate. Tartar emetic ----- An abundant precipitate of a dark cherry color. Neutral salts of potash . - - - Acts like pure water. Water of barytes Bark violet-brown precipitate. Gelatine - Brownish-yellow ochrous precipitate. Chlorine Brings back the liquor to a light yellow, with a slight yellowish-brown precipitate, resembling hydrated peroxide of iron. Pyroxylic spirit acts on barwood like alcohol, and the strongly colored solution behaves similariy towards re-agents. Hydrated ether almost immediately acquires an orange-red tint rather paler than that with alcohol. It dissolves 19-^1 per cent, coloring principle. Ammonia, potash, and soda, in contact with powdered barwood, assume an extremely dark violet-red color. These solutions, neutralized with hydrochloric acid, deposit the coloring matter in the form of a dark reddish-brown powder. Acetic acid becomes of a dark-red color, as with saunders wood. . . ^ .. i- .. i vr* • Barwood is but slightly soluble ; but the difficulty arising from its slight solubihty is, according to Mr. Napier, overcome by the following very ingenious arrangement :— The coloring matter while hot combines easily with the proto-compounds of tin, formmg an insolubte rich red color. The goods to be dyed are impregnated with proto-chloride ol tm combined with sumach. The proper proportion of barwood for the color wanted is put into a boiler with water, and brought to boil. The goods thus impregnated are put into this boilin^' water containing the rasped wood, and the small portion of coloring matter dissolved in the°water is immediately taken up by the goods. The water, thus exhausted, dissolves a new portion of coloring matter, which is again taken up by the goods, and so on till the tin upon the cloth has become (if we may so term it) saturated. The color is then at its bright- est and richest phase. « hi/v x In 1855, the quantity of barwood imported, duty free, was 2,710 tons. - , . , Of the barwood imported, 227 tons were re-exported; the computed real value of which was £1,241. ^ , ,, , X i? u i BARYTA CARBONATE OF. The composition of the native carbonate ot baryta may be regarded as baryta 77-59 and carbonic acid 2241. It is found in Shropshire, Cum- berland, Westmoreland, and Northumberiand. The carbonate of baryta is employed m our color manufactories as a base for some of the more delicate colors ; it is also used in the manufacture of plate-glass ; and, in France, it is much used in the preparation of beet-root ^"8^* Tons. cwts. Alston Moor produced, in 1856 , 11k Jo Fallowfield (Northumberiand) ditto l.^^o A» BARYTA SULPHATE OF. The baryte of Brooke and Miller, barytes of Dana and Phillips, Bolo^ian spar; called also " cawk " and " heavy spar." It is composed of baryta 65-63, sulphuric acid 34-37, with sometimes a little iron, lime, or silica. This salt of baryta is very extensively spread over various parts of the islands. It is worked largely in Derbyshire, Yorkshire, Shropshire, and the Isle of Arran. In 1856 the production was as follows : — From ^^^^ Derbyshire -. - - - ' '8,000 Shropshire ^'^VX Bantry (Ireland) J"? Isle of Arran ^^" Kirkcudbright *---- It might be obtained in very large quantities in Devonshire, Cornwall, and other places, if the demand for it sufficiently increased the price so as to render the working ol it pront- able. A laree quantity of the ground sulphate of baryta is employed m the adulteration of white lead Paint containing much barytes very soon washes off the surface upon which it is spread. Lead combines with the oil, and forms, indeed, a plaster. No such combma- tion ties place between the oil and the baryta, hence they soon separate by the action of water. Baryta is employed to some extent in the pyrotechmc art, in the production ot flames of a greenish character. BATHS. 188 Tons. - 494 Declared Value. £12,145 In 1856 we imported — Baryta, sulphate (ground) And in the same year we exp(yrted — Barytes (sulphate and carbonate) - - - 67 751 . ^ ,„ BASALT. One of the most common varieties of trap rock. It is a dark green or black stone composed of augite and felspar, very compact in texture, and of considerable R^^f f 'k? ^""T*^ 'r ^t?""^^' ?"^*'' ^^ *^^ °' °*«^ "<^e«' ca"ed " basaltic columns." Remarkable exan^les of this kind are seen at the Giant's Causeway, in Ireland, and at Fin- frn^ A } "" ^^^ "^"^ ""^ *5^ Hebrides. The term is used by Pliny, and is said to come ipm basal, an Ethiopian word si^fying iron. The rock sometimes contams much iron.- J.ijeus rrinciplea of Geology. Experiments have been made on a large scale to apply basaltic rock, after it has undergone fusion, to decorative and ornamental purposes. M^ Chance (brothers) of Birmingham, have adopted the process of melting the Rowley rag a basaltic rock fornamg the plateau of the Rowley hills, near Dudley, South Staffordshire, Ind then casting it into moulds for architectural ornaments, tiles for pavements, &c. Not only the Rowley rag, but basalt, greenstone, whinstone, or any similar mineral, may be usei The naaterial is incited in a reverberatory furnace, and when in a sufficiently fluid state is poured into moulds of sand encased in iron boxes, these moulds having been previously raised to a red heat m ovens suitable for the purpose. The object to be attained by heatine the moulds previous to their reception of the Uquid material, is to retard the rate of cool? Jhf L^^il^f =r «l.f r^^^^l^'^g i«/ ^^r^> strong, and stony substance, closely resembling the natural stone, while the result of rapid cooling is a dark brittle glasi ^ BAMLICON. The name given by the old apothecaries to a mixture of oil wax, and resm, which is represented by the Cerat. resime of the present day , a^ «xiu ^nro^^???^"^ ^^^« ^.g"°» obtained from the Acacia leticophla^, brought from Bas- j, A ^J^S 'P?^'^^ ^^""'^^ ^^ ^'^^^^' ^^ ^ yellowish white 'm color. ™°» ^^ JiAbKhTb. Weaving of rods mto baskets is one of the most ancient of the arts cZS oT^aVage ricll'"'''''' " ''"''' '"'^ ^^ ^' *^^ ^^^^> "^^«^^^ "^^^ ^J Basket-making requires no description here. Importations : — In 1856 we imported of rods peeled for baske^making, 123,103 bundles, value £12 309 ^^^^ 'J^Peeled " 167,146 " " 7,'858 Of these, 152,777 cubic feet were from Fran'ce. " ' ^^^'^^O cubic feet, " 37,580 BATH METAL consists of 3 oz. of zinc to 1 lb. of copper f l,o,^t J^^* ^""a^'^ ""^^^ ^^- wash-houses have now become common amongst us, and with TH. f ^'^^^.''^^^''''''i' ^PP^'^°*' "^^ ^P^oved health throughout ^ ^pXtioa^ ^ The following is a return of the bathing and washing at the pubUc Lhs and SSho^ m London conducted under or in accordance with the Acts 9^d 10 Vict ^p Jf ^^ and 11 Vict., cap. 61, and of a few out of the similar establishments in the cZ'Jy-.!^ Name of Establishment Metropolis. 1. The Model, Whitechapel - 2. St. Martin's-in-the-Fielda - 3. St. Marylebone - - - . . 4. St. Margaret and St. John, Westminster 6. Greenwich - - - . . 6. St. James, Westminster - - - 7. Poplar 8. St. Giles's and Bloomsbury Totals - Number of Bathers. Country. Liverpool : — Cornwallis Street Paul Street George's Pier-head Hull - . . . Bristol • • . . Preston - - - . Birmingham - - . Maidstone - . . 156,110 155,418 155,827 111,392 61,782 111,870 41,490 83,810 Number of Washers. Total Beceipts. 877,699 42,589 46,337 37,061 66,644 8,815 35,829 10,714 21,051 269,040. £ 2,976 3,007 2,498 2,204 995 2,038 845 1,546 «. d. 7 8 5 10 2 3 12 5 11 4 10 11 15 10 3 98,460 44,747 45,243 62,142 40,262 29,296 98,396 31,221 11,480 7,679 11,068 10,376 6,547 6,773 16,112 9 8 1,561 8 2 797 4 4 1,684 5 6 612 8 7 699 11 2 405 10 6 1,854 14 6 348 8 10 H' 134 BAY SALT. The return does not inchide the George Street (Hampstead Road) and Lambeth estab- lishments, which are not regulated by the public acts. The steady increase of the revenue derived from the baths and wash-houses in London, from the commencement of the undertalcing in 1846, shows the practical utility of these institutions, and their efi'ect on the physical and social condition of the indiistrious classes ; viz, : — The aggregate receipts of nine establishments, inclusive of the £ s. d. George Street establishment, during 1853, amount to - 18,213 5 8 1852. Eight establishments 15,629 5 8 1851. Six establishments 12,906 12 5 1850. Four establishments 9,823 10 6 1849. Three establishments 6,379 17 2 1848. Two establishments 2,896 5 1 1846! [ ^^"° ^'222 ^ ^ Showing an increase, in 1853 over 1846, of £15,317 0«. Id, Those conveniences — now, indeed, become absolute necessities — are extending in every part of the country. Baths, as curative agents, are of very different kinds. Vapor Baths are stimulant and sudorific ; they may be either to be breathed, or not to be breathed. Dr. Pereira has given the following Table, as a comparative view of the heating powers of vapor and of water : — Kind of Bath. Water. Vapor. Not breathed. Brei^thed. Tepid bath - - - - Warm bath - - - - Hot bath 85° to 92° 92 " 98 98 " 106 96° to 106° 106 " 120 120 " 160 90° to 100° 100 " 110 110 " 130 Local vapor baths are applied in affections of the joints, and the like. Vapor douche is a jet of aqueous vapor directed on some part of the body. Medicated vapor baths are prepared by impregnating vapor with the odors of medicinal plants. Sulphur, chlorine, sulphurous acid, iodine, and camphor, are occasionally employed in conjunction with aqueous vapor. Warm^ tepid^ and hot baths are suflSciently described above. BAY SALT. The larger crystalline salt of commerce. BAY, THE SWEET. {Launta nobilis.) Bay leaves have a bitter aromatic taste, and an aromatic odor, which leads to their use in cookery. BAYS, OIL OF. This oil is imported in barrels from Trieste. It is obtained from the fresh and ripe berries of the bay tree by bruising them in a mortar, boiling them for three hours in water, and then pressing them. When cold, the expressed oil is found floating on the top of the decoction. Its principal use is in the preparation of veterinary embroca- tions. BEADS. (Grain, Fr. ; Bethe^ Germ.) Perforated balls of glass, porcelain, or gems, strung and worn for ornaments ; or, amongst some of the uncivilized races, employed instead of money. Glass beads have long been made in very lai^e quantities in the glass-houses of Murano, at Venice. Glass tubes, previously ornamented by color and reticulation, are drawn out in proper sizes, from 100 to 200 feet in length, and of all possible colors. Not less than 200 shades are manufactured at Venice. These tubes are cut into lengths of about two feet, and then, with a knife, they are cut into fragments, having about the same length as their diameter. The edges of these beads are, of course, sharp ; and they are subjected to a process for removing this. Sand and wood-ashes are stirred with the beads, so that the perforations may be filled by the sand ; this prevents the pieces of glass from adhering in the subse- quent process, which consists in putting them into a revolving cylinder and heating them. The finished beads are sifted, sorted in various sizes, and strung by women for the market. In the Jurors' Report of the Great Exhibition of 1851 are the following remarks on this manufacture : — , • " The old Venetian manufactures of glass and glass wares fully sustain their importance ; and those of paper, jewellery, wax-lights, velvets, and laces, rather exceed their ordinary production. The one article of beads employs upwards of 5,000 people at the principal fabric on the island of Murano ; and the annual value is :it least £200,000. They are ei- BEN OIL. 135 ported to London, Marseilles, Hamburg, and thence to Africa and Asia, and the great East- em Archipelago." The perles d la lune are a finer, and, consequently, more expensive bead, which are prepared by twisting a small rod of glass, softened by a blowpipe, about an iron wire. The preparation and cutting of gems into beads belong especially to the lapidary. The production of beads of Paste, and of artificial Pearls, will be noticed under those heads respectively. In India beads of rock crystal are often very beautifully cut. Dr. Gilchrist states: — Coral beads are in high estimation throughout Hindostan for necklaces and bracelets for women. These beads are manufactured from the red coral fished up in various parts of Asia ; they are very costly, especially when they run to any size ; and they are generally sold by their weight of silver. Coral beads were always favorite articles for ornament even in this country ; and in the " Illustrations of Manners and Expences of antient Times in England," by Nicholls, 1798, we find the following entries from " the churchwardens' accompts of St. Mary Hill, London/ containing " the inventory of John Port, layt the king's servant, as after followeth :" " Item of other old gear found in the house : — - - - • £ «. dL " Item one oz. and ^ of corall - - - - - - -026 " Jewels for her body. " Item, a pair of coral beds, gaudyed with gaudys of silver and gilt, 10 oz. at 3». 4c{. • - - - 1 18 4 " (John Port died in 1524.) We imported, in 1856, of coral beads, 2,279 lbs., and of jet beads, 9 lbs. ; while of other kinds unenumerated, 14,281 lbs. were brought into the United Kingdom. In addition to those, the following were our Imports of glass beads and bugles : — . Computed real value. lbs. £ Denmark 8,889 ... i^m Hanse Towns • . - '- - - 641,580 Holland - - * - - - . 87,446 Belgium 25,704 France --.-.-. 6^335 Sardim*a 18,949 Tuscany 10,432 Austrian Italy .... 1,498,452 Other parts 14,806 67,697 4,681 8,213 854 947 522 74,673 1,664 £155,262 2,167,593 We exported, in 1856, ornamental beads to the value of £21,504. BEAVER, THE. (Castor Fiber.) This ammal is captured for its skin, and for the castor, (castoreum,) which is employed medicinally. See Furs. BEBIRINE, or BEBEERINE. (C'^H^'NO'.) An alkali discovered by Dr. Rodie, of Demerara, in the bark of the bebeem tree. It was examined more minutely by Madagan and Tilley, and still more recently by Von Planta, who has determined its true formula. It is very bitter, and highly febrifuge. BEECH. (Metre commun, Fr. ; Gemeine Buche, Germ.) The beech tree (the Faaus silvatica of Lhmaeus) is one of the most magnificent of the English trees, attaining, in about sixty or seventy years in favorable situations, a height of from 70 to 100 feet, and its trunk a diameter of five feet. The wood, when green, is the hardest of British timbers, and its durability is increased by steeping in water ; it is chiefly used by cabinet-makers, coopers coach-builders, and turners. A substitute for olive oil has been extracted from beech nuts.' BELLADONNA. (Belledame, Fr.) The Atropa Belladonna, or deadly nightshade BELL-METAL ORE. Sulphide of Tin. (Etain sulphure, Hauy; Zinnkies eLus- mann.) ' The composition of the ordinary variety of this ore is, J^oPPCf 80-0 ^IP"" 120 Sulphur 30-5 I 99-0 It is found in many of the Cornish mines, and especially at those of Cam Brea. BEN NUTS. (Ben noiz, Fr. ; Salbnusse, Germ.) The tree which furnishes these nuts IS the Gmtandma moringa of LinnsBus, a native of India, Ceylon, Arabia, and Egypt. BEN OIL. The oil of ben, which may be obtained from the decorticated nuts, is said to be far less liable than other oils to become rancid, and hence it ia much used by watch- •Mai 136 BENZOIC ACID. makers. At a low temperature, the oil of ben separates into two parts — one solid and one fluid ; the latter only is used for watch-work. On account of its freedom from rancidity, oil of ben is used by Parisian perfumers to form the basis of the huiles antiques of tube- rose, jasmin, &c. See Oils. BENZOIC ACID. (C"H'0'.) This acid may be obtained by placing benzoin powdered with sand in an evaporating basin, and above it a paper cap ; on applying heat carefully to the sand, acid vapors arise from the resin, and they are deposited in the form of fine light crystals with the paper cap. Stolze recommends the following process for extracting the acid : — The resin is to be dissolved in three parts of alcohol, the solution is to be introduced into a retort, and a solution of carbonate of soda dissolved in dilute alcohol is to be gradu- ally added to it, till the fiee acid be neutralized ; and then a bulk of water equal to double the weight of the benzoin is to be poured in. The alcohol being drawn off by distillation, the remaining liquor contains the acid, and the resin floating upon it may be skimmed off and washed, when its weight will be found to amount to about 80 per cent, of the raw ma- terial. The benzoin contains traces of a volatile oil, and a substance soluble in water, at least through the agency of carbonate of potash. There are several other methods for obtainmg benzoic acid, described in Ure's " Dictionary of Chemistry." Benzoic acid has no special use in the arts. BENZOLE. Syn. Benzine, benzene, benzol, hydruret of phenyle, (C"H'.) The more volatile portion of coal naphtha has been shown by Mansfield to consist chiefly of this sub- stance. It is produced in a great number of reactions in which organic bodies are exposed to high temperatures. It may at once be obtained in a state of purity by distilling benzoic acid with excess of quicklime. The lime acts by removing two equivalents of carbonic acid from the benzoic acid. The method of obtaining benzole from coal naphtha will be found fully described under the head of Naphtha Coal. Benzole is also contained ''n consider^ able quantity in bone oil ; but it is accompanied by peculiar nitrogenized volatile fluids, which are diflScult of removal. The latter, owing to their powerful and fetid odor, greatly injure the quality of the bone-oil benzole. Benzole is an exceedingly volatile fluid, boiling at ordinary pressures at 187° F. Its density is 0-850. Owing to the levity of benzole being regarded by manufacturers as a proof of its purity, it is not uncommon to find it adulterated with the naphtha from the Torbanehill mineral, or Boghead coal, which has a density as low as 0-750. Any benzole having a lower density than 0850 is impure. Ben- zole is excessively inflammable, and its vapor mixed with air is explosive. Numerous lives have been lost owing to these properties, among them that of Mr. Mansfield, to whom we are indebted for an excellent investigation on coal naphtha. Benzole is greatly used in commerce, owing to its valuable solvent properties. It dissolves caoutchouc and gutta percha readily, and, on evaporation, leaves them in a state well adapted for water-proofing and many other purposes. Its power of dissolving fatty, oily, and other greasy matters, has caused it to become an article of commerce under the name of benzoline. It readily extracts grease even from the most delicate fabrics, and, as it soon, on exposure to the air, evaporates totally away, no odor remains to betray the fact of its having been used. It dissolves readily in very strong nitric acid, and, on the addition of water, it is precipitated as a heavy oil, having the composition C"H'NO\ The latter compound is nitrobenzole ; it is regarded as benzole in which one equivalent of hydrogen is replaced by hyponitric acid. Nitroben- zole, in a state of tolerable purity, is a pale-yellow oil, having a sweetish taste, and an odor greatly resembling bitter almonds. Owing to its comparative cheapness, it is employed in perfumery. Nitrobenzole can be prepared with nitric acid of moderate strength, such as is ordinarily obtained in commerce ; but it then becomes necessary to distil the acid and the hydrocarbon together several times. The product so obtained is darker in color, and m other respects inferior to that obtained with highly concentrated acid. By treatment with acetate of protoxide of iron, nitrobenzole becomes transformed into aniline. This change may be eflected, but far less conveniently, by means of sulphide of ammonium. Benzoic is extremely valuable in many operations of manufacturing chemistry. It dissolves several alkaloids, and, on evaporation, leaves them in a state of purity. It dissolves quinine, but not cinchonine, and may therefore be employed as a means of separation. Morphia and strychnine are also dissolved by it, but not in great quantity. To obtain many natural alka- loids existing in plants, it is. merely necessary to digest the dry extract with caustic potash and then with benzole. The latter is to be decanted, and then distilled off" on a water-bath. The alkaloid will be left behind in a state well adapted for crystallization or other means of purification. Benzole is becoming much used as a solvent in researches in organic chemis- try. Many substances, such as chrysene and bichloride of naphthaline, crystalhze better from benzole than from any other solvent. . Benzole may be employed in many ways for illuminating purposes. It is so easily in- flamed that great care is necessary in using it. It does not require a wick to enable it to bum If poured even on an uninflammable surface and a light be applied, it takes fire like a train of gunpowder, and bums with a brilliant flame, emitting dense clouds of smoke, which, soon condensing into soot, presently fall in a shower of blacks. Even on the sur- B^RTHOLLETIA. 137 face of water it bums as freely as anywhere else. If a drachm or two be poured on water contained in a pan, and a pellet of potassium be thrown in, the benzole inflames, and rises in a column of flame of considerable height. A method of destroying enemies' shipping has been founded on this principle. In consequence of the smoky nature of the flame of ben- zole, (caused by the comparatively larger percentage of carbon,) it is often convenient to burn a mixture of one volume of benzole and two volumes of alcohol. A stream of air driven through benzole becomes so inflammable as to serve for the purposes of illumination. For this mode of using the hydrocarbon, it should be kept slightly warm to assist its vapor- ization. A machine on this principle, of American invention,«has been employed to illumi- nate houses. The air is driven through the benzole by a very simple contrivance, the motive power being a descending weight. When quite pure, benzole freezes at 32° to a beautiful snow-white substance, resembling camphor. The mass retains a solid form until a temperature of 40° or 41° is reached. This property of solidifying under the influence of cold may be made use of to produce pure benzole from the more volatile portion of coal naphtha. To obtain it perfectly pure, it should be frozen at least three times, the portion not solidifying being removed by filtra- tion through calico. The unfrozen portion contains hydrocarbons, homologous with olefiant gas. Benzole dissolves free iodine and bromine, and has even been used in analysis to sepa- rate them from kelp and other substances containing them. They must of course be set free before acting with the hydrocarbon. The presence of benzole in mixtures may easily be demonstrated, even when present in very small quantity, by converting it into aniline, and obtaining the characteristic reaction with chloride of lime. For this purpose the mix- ture is to be dissolved in concentrated nitric acid and the nitrobenzole precipitated by water. The fluid is then agitated with ether, which dissolves the nitrocompound. The ethereal solution is mixed with an equal bulk of alcohol and hydrochloric acid : a little granulated zinc being added, hydrogen is evolved, and, by acting in a nascent state on the nitrocompound, reduces it to the state of aniline. The base is then to be separated by an excess of potash, and the alkaline fluid is shaken with ether to dissolve the base. The ethereal fluid being evaporated, leaves the aniline. On adding water and then ^ few drops of solution of chloride of lime, the purple color indicative of aniline is immediately pro- duced. {Hofmann.) The writer of this article has by this process detected minute traces of benzole in mixtures consisting almost entirely of homologues of olefiant gas. — C. G. W. BERGAMOT. {Bergamote, Fr.) The Citrus bergamia^ a citron cultivated in the centre and south of Europe. By distillation from the rind of the fruit is obtained the well4cnown essence of bergamot. This essential oil and the fruit are principally obtained from Flor- ence and Portugal. See Oils, Essential. BERGAMOT. A coarse tapestry, said to have been invented at Bergamo, in Italy, made of ox and goats' hair, with cotton or hemp. BERRY. The term is commonly applied, not only to small fruit, but in some cases to seeds. The following is Professor Lindley's definition of a berry : — " A succulent or pulpy fruit containing naked seeds, or, in more technical language, a succulent or pulpy pericarp, or seed-vessel without valves, containing several seeds, which are naked, that is, which have no covering but the pulp and rind. It is commonly round or oval. But in popular lan- guage, berry extends only to smaller fruits, as strawberry, gooseberry, &c., containing seeds or granules. An indehiscent pulpy pericarp, many-celled and many-seeded ; the attach- ment of the seeds lost at maturity, and the seeds remaining scattered in the pulp." Berries are used in some of the processes of manufacture, but they are not of much importance. Bay Berries. — ^The fruit of the Laurus nobilis^ or the sweet bay. Both the leaves and the fruit are employed as flavorings. A volatile oil, the oil of sweet bay, is obtained by dis- tillation with water ; and a fixed oil, by bruising the berries, and boiHng them for some hours in water ; this oil, called also Laurel fat, is imported from Italy. Turkey Yellow Berries. — The unripe fruit of the Rhamnus infectorius. They are usad in calico-printing, producing a lively but fugitive yellow color. Persian Yellow Berries. — These are said to be produced by the same species of plant ; but the color is considered more permanent, and they fetch higher prices. Berries of Avignon. — Another name given to the Turkey and Persian berries. Juniper Berries. — The fruit of the Juniperus communis. They are chiefly used for ' flavoring gin and some spirituous cordials, and in the preparation of some pharmaceutical articles, as the oil of juniper and the compound spirits of juniper. Bear Berry. — ^The fmit of the Uva ursi. The leaves only are used medicinally. Myrobolans. — The fruit i)f a tree which grows in India. It has a pale-yellow color when new, but becomes darker by age, and then resembles dried plums. It contains tannin, and has hence been used in dyeing. BERTHOLLETIA. A plant of the natural order Lecythidece, the Bertholletia excelsa. It is a tree of large dimensions, formmg extensive forests on the banks of the Orinoco. hH ( i 138 BERYL. The Portuguese of Para have for a long time driven a great trade with the nuts of this tree, which the natives call Juvia^ tod the Spaniards Almendron. They send cargoes to French Guiana, whence they are shipped for England and Lisbon. The kernels yield a large quan- tity of oil well suited for lamps. — Humboldt and Bonpland, BERYL. (5m7, Fr. ; Beryl, Germ. ; Smaragd, Ital.) A beautiful mineral or gem, usually of a green color of various shades, passing into honey yellow and sky blue. Beryl and emerald are varieties of the same species, the latter including the rich green transparent specimens which owe their color to oxide of chrome ; the former those of other colors produced by oxide of iron. Gmelin gives the composition of beryl as : — SUica 69-70 Alumina I'^'GO Glucine 13-39 Red oxide of iron 024 *' Beryls of gigantic size have been found in the United States, at Acworth and Grafton, New Hampshire, and Royalston, Mass. One beryl from Grafton weighs 2,900 lbs. ; it is 32 inches through in one direction, and 22 in another transverse, and is 4 feet 3 inches long. Another crystal from this locality, according to Professor Hubbard, measures 45 inches by 24 in its (Mameters, and a single foot in length, by calculation, weighs 1,076 lbs., making it, in all, nearly 2^ tons. At Royalston, one crystal exceeded a foot in length." — Dana. False Beryls of Cominerce.---^me of the natural crystals of phosphate of lime are introduced as beryls. The Apatite is sometimes called the Saxony beryl. The Chrysolite^ known by the Germans as the Pierre d'Asperge, is also sold as the beryl. Fluor spars of different colors are sold as false beryls, false emeralds, false amethysts, and false topazes. These are fluate of lime. BETEL. A compound, in universal use in the East, consisting of the leaf of the betel- pepper, with the betel-nut, a little catechu, and some chunam, (lime obtained by calcining shells.) This is almost universally used throughout central and tropical Asia ; the people are unceasingly masticating the betel. BETEL-LEAF. The leaf of the pepper vine, {Piper betel.) This plant is extensively cultivated throughout tropical Asia, and forms a large and important article of Eastern traffic. , . . BETEL-NUT, or ARECA. The fruit of the Areca catechu, which is eaten both m its ripe and its unripe state. BEUHEYL. A mining term, signifying a living stream. It is applied by the tin- miners to any portion of a lode or of the rock which is impregnated with tin. BEZOAR. (The most probable etymology of the word is from the Pei-sian PddzaJrr, i. e. expelling poison. — Penny Cyclopcedia.) A concretion found in the stomach of ani- mals of the goat kind ; it is said to be especially produced by the Capra gazella. The finest bezoar is brought to India from Borneo and the shores of the Persian Gulf. The Capra uEgagrus, or wild goat of Persia producing this concretion, which, by way of emi- nence, was called the Lapis bezoar r. Royle, Lecture on the Great Exhibition. 1 ^^•JJEjy^^^" (^*>"'^^i'«» Fr-) Jewellery ;— the man^facture of and dealing in jewel- lery. This work is not the place in which to describe the almost endless variety of articles which come under this denomination. The principal places for the manufacture in Eng- land, are Birmingham and London. The trade in jewellery forms one of the most impor- tant branches of French commerce ; on which a French writer says :— " La bijouterie est une des branches les plus importantes du commerce frangais, et c'est elle qui constate de la maniere la plus evidente, notre superiority dans les arts du dessin et les progres toujiura croissans de 1 Industrie Parisienne. Dans cette partie essentielle, elle n'a pas de rivaux et elle rend tributaire de notre pays presque toute I'Europe, et une grande partie de I'Asie et de lAmerique." . Jtieordmary practice has been to divide articles of this character into two principal kinds— fine jewellery, and false jewellery, {bijoutier en fin and bijoutier en faux.) Another division, among the French jewellers especially, has been to adopt four classes : 1 fine jew- ellery, which is all gold; 2, silver jewellery; 3, false jewellery ; and, 4, jeweUery of steel or iron. ' » .» j BISCUITS. The manufacture of fancy biscuits, which in former times was confined to the pastry-cook and confectioner, has of late years assumed considerable importance and several firms are now exclusively engaged in tliis branch of industry, the products of which are sold under an extraordinary variety of names. Some of these, namely, the " plain bis- cuit, arrow-root, captain, brown meal, cinnamon, caraway, vanilla biscuits," &c., are inteUi- gible enough ; but, if we except " Abemethy biscuit, maccaroons, and cracknels," with tho names of which the public, from long usage, are familiar, the rest of the products of tho modem biscuit maker, " Africans, Jamaica, Queen's routs, ratafias, Bath and other sorts of Olivers exhibition, rings and fingers, pic-nics, cuddy," &c., &c., forma a list of upwards of eighty fanciful names, all expressive of articles of different form, appearance, and taste made of newly the same materials, with but little variation in the proportion in which thev are used,— the principal ingredients in all being flour and water, butter, milk, eggs and caraway, nutmeg, cinnamon, or mace, or giiger, or essence of lemon, neroli, or orange- I K f t 140 BISCUITS. flower water, called, in technical language, " flavorings." The kneading of these materials is always performed by a kneadmg or mixing machine. The dough or paste produced is passed 'several times between two revolving cylinders adjusted at a proper distance, so as to obtain a flat, perfectly homogeneous mass, slab, or sheet. This is transferred to a stamping or cutting machine, consisting of two cylinders, through which the sheet of homogeneous paste has to pass, and by which it is laminated to the proper thickness, and at the same time pushed under a stamping and docking frame, which cuts it into discs, or into oval or other- wise shaped pieces, as occasion may require. The stamps or cutters in the frame being internally provided with prongs, push the cut pieces of dough, or raw cakes, out of the cut- tin*' frame, and at the same time dock the cakes, or cut pieces, with a series of holes, for the°subseq'uent escape of the moisture, which, but for these vents, would distort and spoil the cake or biscuit when put in the oven. The temperature of the oven should be so regu- lated as to be perfectly uniform, neither too high nor too low, but just at such a heat as is sufficient to give the biscuits a light brown color. For such a purpose the hot water oven of Mr. Perkins, or that of Mr. Roland, is the best that can possibly be used. (See Bread.) Roland's oven offers the peculiar advantage that, by turning the screw, the sole of the oven can be brought nearer to the top, and a temperature is thus obtained suitable for baking thoroughly, without burning, the thinnest cakes. One of the most curious branches of the baker's craft is the manufacture of ginger- bread, which contains such a proportion of molasses that it cannot be fermented by means of yeast. Its ingredients are flour, molasses or treacle, butter, common potashes, and alum. After the butter is melted, and the potashes and alum are dissolved in a little hot water, these three ingredients, along with the treacle, are poured among the flour which is to form the body of the bread. The whole is then incorporated by mixture, and kneading into a stiff dough. Of these five constituents the alum is the least essential, although it makes the bread lighter and crisper, and renders the process more rapid ; for gingerbread, dough requires to stand over for several days, some 8 or 10, before it acquires the state of porosity which qualifies it for the oven ; the action of the treacle and alum on the potashes, m evolving carbonic acid, seems to be the gassifying principle of gingerbread ; for if carbon- ate of potash is withheld from the mixture, the bread, when baked, resembles, m hardness, A niA/^o Oi wood Treacle is always aciduloua Carbonate of magnesia and soda may be used as substitutes for the potashes. Dr. Colquhoun has found that carbonate of magnesia and tartaric acid may replace the potashes and the alum with great advantage, affording a gingerbread fully more agreeable to the taste, and much more wholesome than the common kind, which con- tains a notable quantity of potashes. His proportions are : 1 lb. of flour, ^ of an ounce of carbonate of magnesia, and i of an ounce of tartaric acid, in addition to the treacle, but- ter and aromatics, as at present used. The acid and alkaline earth must be well diffused throut^h the whole dough ; the magnesia should, in fact, be first of all mixed with the flour. The melted butter, the treacle, and the acid dissolved in a little water, are poured all at once amoncrst the flour, and kneaded into a consistent dough, which being set aside for half an hour or'an hour, will be ready for the oven, and should never be kept unbaked for more than 2 or 3 hours. The following more complete recipe is given by Dr. Colquhoun for makin*' thin gingerbread cakes :— Flour 1 lb., treacle i lb., raw sugar ^ lb., butter 2 ounces" carbonate of magnesia i ounce, tartaric acid i ounce, ginger i ounce, cinnamon i ounce nutmeg 1 ounce. This compound has rather more butter than common thm ginger- bread' In addition to these, yellow ochre is frequently added by cheap gingerbread- makers, and altogether this preparation, more generally consumed by children, is very ^ "^^" Puff'-paste " is a preparation of flour and butter, which is in great demand, not only at the pastry-cooks', but in almost every private family. Take a certain quantity of flour, say half a pound, put it upon a wooden board, make a hole or depression in the centre, and mix it with somewhat less than half a pint of cold water, so as to make a softish paste ; dry it off" from the board by shaking a little flour over and under, as is well known, but do not " work it " more than you can help. Take now a quarter of a pound of fresh butter, which should be as hard as possible, (and therefore it should be kept in as cold a place as practi- cable, the ice closet, if procurable, being the best place,) and squeeze out all the water, or buttermilk which it contains, by kneading it with one hand on the board. This operation is called in French " manier le beiirrey Roll now the paste prepared as above into a flat, thick, square slab, extending about 6 or 7 inches; lay the pat of butter, treated as above in the middle of the slab of paste, and so wrap the butter up into it by folding the sides ot the paste all round over it ; roll the whole mass gently with the rolling-pm, so as to lorm a thick sheet, put it upon a tin plate, or tray, cover it with a linen cloth wetted with water as cold as possible, and leave the whole at rest for about a quarter of an hour m a cold place At the end of that time, roll the mass with the rolling-pin into a sheet about 15 or 16 inches long and fold it into three, one over the other ; roll it out again into a sheet as before and agam fold it into three, one over the other, as before, and repeat this operation BISMUTH. • 1^1 once more, making three times in all. Put the square mass, with a wet doth upon itj in a cold Zee for another quarter of an hour, as before, and at the end of that tune roU it out with ?he rolUng-pin, and fold it into three, one over the other, as above ; and do this once TovtmlZl^L\x^^s in all, after which the p^e i^ ready for us^ Care mus be Sken during the rolling, continually to dust the board and the paste with a little flour, to Dreven^st cSn-, The paste may now be placed in the dish, or tms, in which it is to be Sed t^kin^ ?are to cSt the protruding edges with a pointed and sharp kmfe, so as to Se the ^a^te aU round with a clean cut edge, for otherwise ij mil not ^ X„V^'i Thlthick edges of pies and tarts are made by cutting strips of the Paste wi^^e Imife, a^ carefullv lavfne them on all round, taking care to leave the edges quite sharp The pre^ mrfd artictrL Xn put in an oVen, previously brought to a good heat and the elasUc Cor di enl4^^^ butter and water will at once cause the pasto to sweU into Tai ia'rsYf great tenacity, and apparently light, but really very ^^l^^^^.^^^^^ these thin laminae is compact and distinct. Puff'-paste is indigesUble. It is essential to the success of the operation, that the floor of the oven should be hot.— A.^. mSMUTH ^(fitm^A, Fr. ; Bismuth, Germ.) The following are the principal ores of bismuth • the first is the source of the metal used m the arts :— • , „. , ^ , . , . B^lJ^NaU is whitish, with a faint reddish tinge and a metallic lustre which « liabS to tarnish. Streak, silver-white. Hardness, 2 to 25 ; specific gravity, 9727. It is SL whenTld, but slightly malleable when heated. It generally occurs in a dendritic form It fuses readily at 476" F. Beautiful crystals can be formed artificially by fusion '"'xatsm^^^^^^^^ found associated with other --erals: in Cornwall, at Huel SDarnon near Redruth, when that mine was worked ; at Trugoe Mine, near St. Colomb, (GrSand at tLe Coilsolidated Mines, St. Ives, Caldbeck Fells, in Cmnberland, with ores ""^ "^B^nuthine or sulphuret of bismuth, occurs either in acicular crystals, or with a foU- atedXoiS structure It is isomorphous with stibnite. Hardness, 2 to 2;6 ; speafic gravW, 6 Tt^^^^^^ composed of bismuth, 81-6 ; sulphur, 18-4. It fuse^ in the flame ""^ BS'muthine occurs in Cornwall, at Botallack, and associated with tin at St. Just, and with ronnpr at the mines near Redruth and Camborne. , ., „. j BuZVoZ-\ dull earthy mineral, found in the Royal Re^orme t™n Mme^d in small quantities in the parish of Roach, in ComwalL Its composiuon is stated by Lam- padius to be : — Oxide of bismuth [ ''J* Oxide of iron II 4-1 Carbonic acid *'""'"**Il8«l . Water -------•"**' TelluHc 5imw ^^^ ^^ Carbonic acid Protoxide of iron Lime - > . Magnesia Silica - . . Alumina Peroxide of iron - Bituminous matter Water and loss - 35-17 53 03 3-33 1-77 1-40 0-63 0-23 3 03 1-41 • 100-00 BLACK FLUX. An intimate mixture of clwrcoal and carbonate of Dotaah oht»in"S g««^. he sometimes iLes n. iii' desired occasionally to bleach goods which have colored threads woven into them or colors printed on them. In these cases great caution must be used. It is need^u? to iJe weak solutions, but more especially not to allow any one process to be continued very W but rather to repeat it often than to lengthen it. This may be stated as a geneS rule fn the b leaching of goods It would indeed be possible to do the whol? ShSi in one Zn^r'K^\-^^ r^*''-^^ ""^"^^ ^^ '•^"'""- T^^^ ^^^« ^^^ the fact that at a°4rt«^n strength bleaching liquid or soda is able to destroy the fibre ; but another and less stren^h does not act on he fibre, but only on such substances as coloring matter. S^^b needed when prmted goods which have a white ground are treated. The whU^ ^nd takes up color enough to destroy its brilliancy, and loaping does not always reiTveit^Jbe bleaching then is effected by using bleaching liquor at i Twad. Some pe^^ns^^ula Turkey red thread into the ends of the pieces. The original use of this seems to be iS^ly ^oZ .rn^ilT''"K'''''T- JV^"" "^^^ ^ * *^^* «^ th« °^ode of bleachingSToyed K strong solutions be used which are apt to spoil the cloth, the color of the dyed threads will be discharged. When the separate system is employed, this is evaded easily ut The rSrsid^ ortL"' "''""°° *'^ "^ ^^^^^^ ^^^ ^^*^^ «^-^' allowin^Yhem to ^^ powder The colo'^^^'ml^^^^th^^^^^ ^"' '\ same purpose, souring as with the bleaching powaer. ine colors may, m this manner, be made much morp hn'lUanf ♦k™^ K^r ° SriVt""?' T^.""' discharge them. ' A gooTdeaT^f th^Lt^; t oZX'^e better white given to the ground. Besides these processes for bleaching, ^o^ef was at one time introduced, which consisted batches of goods aje placed l^n rollers ?h„™ in^™ ; „^e„ the? '^T^e^ j"^* '^'' rolIereBl^'r Hntnf -r '' ^^T^""^^^ bypassing one end of the cord through tS ^rd"^„%"h^:^x»er^^-?.r'4rai^tr^^^^^^ i[t^^r^/^^^?1T^?t1s ?^s>^ff^c 1 s I \iimiiii (i n ||i[ iiii i i U K iiii n il IIM jlll IITTkTT XUUin it) i\n MH rlM qH (jii HH HM Hi rlh Er ^::t ..iin * '' ^ ^."'^"^ *'?,'*'^^ ' "' ^' ""' ^^^ ^^^^^» washing rollers ; c, c, c, are speed rollers ; E, EE, are twelve rollers immersed in -twelve divisions of the cistei g. The eleven staple-formed irons which pass through the frame rails on each side of the centres of nw/Ttho "" V' "' n""^.'^^ u^^^?^ '^^^^ ^' ^' ^' ^^^^ *« s^y these roUers in their fllt^\u ^^ time allowing the eleven washing rollera b. b, b, to rise and faU accord- ing to the pressure by which they are held down, by the eleven weights attached to these irons at H, and upon the bottom rail may be placed such staves, brushes, or rollers, as may !^^ JT. /^^'^T^i?^ holding ^d brushing the goods in the best manner to ke^p them straight during the different washings in water and bleaching liquors. The goods are pre- pared by steeping, as before described, and placed in batches at f, and passing under the immereing rollers e and the twelve divisions of cistern g, between the ele>en speed roUers c and the eleven washing rollers b, as seen at k, are taken down straight and open into one of the vessels and a^e then boiled by steam, which is succeeded by repeated washings alter- scribed'"^ bleaching liquors, until they are sufficiently bleached, as before de- The elevation and ground plan of a bleach-house and machinery capable of bleachin- fSrJT^' ""^^l^'- ".^^''^ S"' ^7^ ^^""^ ^^'' °^^*^^'- ^«^k,) with the labir of one man and three boys, working from 6 until 4 o'clock, exclusive of singeing and drying are represented in jj^, 63 and 64, (p. 156 ) The letter d represents two length! of clothSf 4^ J^^Teac^ (end of pieces being stitched together by patent sewing machine made by Mather and Piatt ) making together 800 pieces, passing through washing Siachine g, and from thence delivered Zl\ZT' ^•' T ^^«J^/^.-tl^i« operation occupi^one hour,-where they ar^ boMfor twelve houre in hme. They are then withdrawn by the same washing machine a w^hed t'welvTht r- ""''f ^^'A *' ^".P^^^^^^ ^^^'^Py^"? ^^« ^°-') -^^^ ^^^ boned S !m^irJ ?«!'? ^^.'' and resm; again withdrawn by the 'same machine, ^, washed, ZZ^r T? ° ^' '':l *°^ P^^^d, o^er winch ., and piled at A, (this operation occupied one hour.) They are then taken from pile, A, and threaded through soui^machine e soured, passed over winch, e^, and piled at k, (operation, one hour,) w^re it remaiShr'the pile for three hours It is then squeezed at u, and washed through machine, a, (an hour's hS n"'^ delivered into third kier, a, boiled for six hours, wash^ at g, squeef^Tt u (L^ hours operation,) and passed through chemick machim, (an hour's operation,) and piled fS one hour ; after which it is soured again, (an hour's operation,) squeezed, a^d washed at ^ (//eSO ^P''"''""'^ '^"''"'^ ^S^^ ^*/' (^ ^«^'« operatioi;) iid dried by macWne 7i% hl^^^T ' u- u^' ^ ^"^^J^ ^[ *^® cashing machine are not so much damaged by the" heavy pressure which is required to be appUed, if no squeezers are used, in order to prepare the pieces for the sour and chemick machines : Secondly, A drier state of the cloth tha7^ possibly be produced by the washing machine a/on., thus fitting it to become bettfrsa^ mfohir^ l*^l•^'°'^'^ "' ''''''■ '^^^^^ '^^^ P^«^^ P^^'»g ^^^'^^ sou^ngTo the wLhiL. i\.J:\TJ ^^ °^?^'^^^' *^?* tbe velocity of the above-mentioned machines is much higher than usual, experience having shown that the various operations are thus better perfoS >i { 156 BLEACHING. 68 i II t i I i BLEAGHING. 157 than when running slower. The reason of this appears to be, firstly, that the piece, runmnff at such velocity, carries with it, hy reason of capillary attraction, a greater quantity of liquid to the nip of the bowls ; secondly, the great velocity of the bowls, together with the greater quantity of water carried up, produces a more powerful current at the nip and down the ascending piece, thus penetrating to every fibre of it. It may also be remarked, that the above-mentioned machines are not adapted to the bleaching of linen ; for the latter cloth, not having the same elasticity as cotton if it should become tight, would either be pulled narrow or torn. ' In illustration of the continuous process as at present used, the plan of proceedine at Messrs. McNaughten, Barton, and Thom's, at Choriey, may be described : 1. In order that there may be no interruption in the process, the pieces are united in one continuous piece— each piece being about 30 yards, the whole varying with the weight ot cloth— about 300 yards long. Each piece is marked with the name of the printer. This IS sometimes done in marking ink of silver, and sometimes in coal tar, at the extremity of tlie piece. The pieces are rapidly tacked together by giris, who use m some establishments a very simple sewing machine. (See Sewing Machine.) The whole amount to be bleached at a time is united in one piece, and is drawn from place to place like a rope. To give tnem this rope form, the goods are drawn through an aperture whose surface is exceedingly smooth, being generally of glass or earthenware. Of these many are used in transfemng the cloth from place to place. They serve instead of pulleys. The cloth when laid in a vessel is not thrown in at random, but laid down in a carefully made coU. The rope form enables the water to penetrate it more easily. 2. The pieces are singed. o^A^iK^H^ ^® ?°i!^^ ^"^ *^® ^"^^ ^'^''' ^° this, 3,500 lbs. of cloth have added to them 250 lbs. of caustic lime, 1 lb. of lime to 14 of cloth. The kier is cyUndrical, 7 feet deep and 8 leet in diameter ; as much water is added as will cover the cloth, about 600 gaUona This boihng lasts thirteen hours. ^ 4. They are washed in the washing machine. Robinson and Young's machme is used. " or ^° Tt^ ^soured in a shnilar machine with hydrochloric acid of specific gravity 1010', 6. The same amount of cloth being supposed to be used, it is bucked in a solution of soda-ash and resm, 170 lbs. of soda-ash to 30 lbs. of resin. The boiling lasts sixteen hours, the same amount of water being used. 7. "Washed as before. 8. Passed through chloride of lime, or chemicked. The cloth is laid in a stone or wooden cistern, and a solution of bleaching powder is passed through it, by bemg poured over It and allowed to run into a vessel below ; this is managed by continued pumping. This solution 13 about half a degree Twaddle, or specific gravity 1002-5. The cloth lies hi It from one to two hours. o .» u» 9. Washed. !?' w^^t*^^^^"^ "* * ^'^^ ^^^ ^^® ^^"^^ ^''^ ^^^ ^^^- ^^ carbonate of soda crystals. 12. Put in chloride of lime as before. 13. Soured, in hydrochloric acid of 1012-5 specific gravity, or 2^ Twaddle clothlrom the floor""^ '''' 8tillages.-A stiUage is a kind of low stool used to protect the 15. Washed till clean. 16. Squeezed in rollers. 17. Dried over tin cylinders heated by steam. This is the process for caUco generally ; some light goods must be more carefully handled. Ihe usual time occupied by all these procesges is five days. They are sometimes dried in a hydro-extractor; after singeing, laid twenty-four hours to steep, then washed before being put into the lime kier. "^tuic High-pressure Steam Kier.-This is designed stiU further to hasten the process of bleaching, and at the same time to improve it. process oi rtg. 65 is an elevation showing the arrangement of these kiers, (which are recommended ■ to be made of strong boiler-plate iron.) One of these is shown in'section. a3^e the kiers ; e is a perforated platform, on which the goods to be bowked are laid ; ib ifc is tirpiw connecting the bottom of the kier b with the top of the adjoinin- kier a and / / th! corresponding pipe connecting the opposite ends of the kiei^-'a and 6 TA m ^ dlw-Sf watS' ir'nlr^ *^' ^T * "?*" '' ""' ^^^^^ '^^ ^^^^ ^^ *>« ^P^»^^ of spent hquo!: ??« o Ki?'- « "'J^ '^^ bowkmg liquor as it becomes expelled from the adjoining kier • ?h^ Mr Tl^"^? r^^r, ^^ ^V '•' *^" P^P^ '^~"g^ ""^'^'^^ bowking liquoi entefs intcl the kier ; ,, manhole, (closed by two cross bars, secured by bolts and nu^) through whi^ 1 \> J j i j 158 BLEACHING. 65 the goods are introduced and removed ; 1 1 are gauges, by which it is ascertdned when the liquor has passed from one kier and has entered the other. The process adopted for bleaching is as follows ; it is the shortest and simplest in use : 1. The box or water trough of the washing machine is then half filled with milk of lime of considerable consistence, and the goods are i"un through it, being carried forward by the winches and deposited in the kiers. The whole of the cloth in a kier is in one length, and a boy enters the vessel to lay it in regular folds until the kier is filled. All the cloth before entering the kier must pass through the lime. 2. When the kiers are filled, a grid of movable bars is laid on the top of the cloth, and the manhole of the kiers is closed. High-pressure steam is then admitted at the top ; this presses down the goods and removes the lime water, which is drawn oflf at the bottom. At the same time the air is also removed from the goods and replaced by steam. When this is driven off, and nothing but steam issues from the tap at the bottom, 40 lbs. of lime, which have been previously mixed with 600 gallons of water, are introduced into the first kier in a boiling state. High-pressure steam is again admitted, which forces the lime liquor through the goods to the bottom of the vessel, then up the tube /, and on to the goods in the second kier. The tap is then closed which admits steam into the first kier, and the steam is now sent into the second. The same process occurs, only in this case the liquid is sent again on to the top of the goods in the first kier. This process is continued about eight hours. In this method each 7,000 lbs. of cloth take into the kiers 2 cwts. of lime, which is equally distributed. The clear lime-water which is blown out of the steam at the com- mencement contains only 3 to 4 lbs. of lime in solution. At the close of the operation the liquor has a specific gravity of 3^ to 4° Twaddle, (1017-5 to 1020,) instead of half that amount, or IJ to 2° Twad., (1007-5 to 1010,) as is usual. 3. When the liming is completed the steam pressure in the kiers is removed, the man- way opened, the grid lying above the cloth removed, and the cloth in the kier attached to the' washing machine, which draws the goods out of the kiers and washes them. 4. The pieces are then passed by the winches through the souring machine, or soured BLEACHING. 159 lit^u""" Tf'^^''' ^?'^ ""^ ^° "^^^^^^^ P"™Ped upon them, (1010.) They must remam wincttrbefotil%tter ''' ""'"^^^ "^"'^^^' ^^^ ^^^ ^'-"' ^"^'^^ ^ ^^ 6. Introduce steam and drive off the air and the cold water • th<»sp «rp }m nnf Kv *^.^ tap at the bottom: add then 224 lbs. of soda-a.h Ld 150 bs' of ^.i? bo led iS^So fi^Tv, '^ ^^r/' ^"^ ^^^^ '^^ ^^ ^-^^'h- W«^k the kiers by driving thTTq^id^^^^ beVarie" "'lit: 111''' "^'' .'''^" " ? ?"^^^*^°' '•"^- ^^^^^ prop^Ss of ^^^I; printeTunon in !hi ?7 T^'^'u ^'"^^ "'""^ "^^^ ^« "««^. (^^ ^^ ^^ cloth has been prlnUngrchine.) ^"'^ ''"''' ^'""^ ^^^"^ ^'"^ "^"^ "^ ^^^«' '^' ^^^^' «f 'he caUco- chloridtof hL^' *Thfi''*^ \^T^^ *>u°"^^ *?^ ^^^^°^ '°^^^'°^' a°d then submitted to ff » o« ? ? ^^'^ ™*^ ^^ ^^""^ ^'^^^^ ^y the machine or by pimping In either case It 3 an advantage to warm the bleaching liquid up to 80° or 90^° F T^ str^n^th ofT sdu, on when the machine is used may be about ^ Twaddle, ^r 1002 5 sS^vitv wh te ^ik^T? '' -''il'r''^' ?"^^ ^^^^^- When the bleaching bfor Sng White milk of hme is added to the chloride, in order to retard the operation the ^o^ are also w^hed from the bleaching liquor' before souring them. ThbcLv^s a sF^ cloth which IS also less apt to be attacked by the chlorme. preserves also the kior LI. •''• *u^ ^^^"^ ""^^i managed, it will be almost white when it leaves the second kier contaming the resmate of soda; it will therefore require very lUt le Sorizfnr^If 1. Singeing. 2. Bowking with lime. 3. Washing, souring, and washing. 4. Bowking with resinate of soda. 5. Washing and chlorinating. 6. Souring, washing, and drying. Thi. proce^ has beea tried with success on linen, although not yet m active operation. Bleaching op Linen. ^\^^7 ^^^^ rot-steeped in a weak solution of potash at about 130° F fnr- ♦»« a "" 2. W^hed"^ manufacturing the cloth wL rmoved ' *^° ^^ 8. Boiled or bowked in potash lye, at ^ Twaddle, for ten houre 7. Exposed on the grass for three days, and watered. I: S:" H Zi w^^h^";*,"'"""™ ■«'"'• " '° T-- <•»' fo" hours, or sift- r '^"so'Th^'ta^r S ^^i^'^^"''' *» ''"* ^ «-> ^'^^^ -lack I llt< 1^ T I 160 BLEACBING. 12. Crofted, or exposed on the grass, as before. 13. Treated with chloride of lime at 1^° Tw., for four hours. 14. Washed. 15. Soured in sulphuric acid, at 2° Tw., for four hours. 16. Washed. 17. Boiled for six or seven hours with soap and lye, using in this case more soap and one-third less lye than in the former bowkings. 18. Drawn out and put through rub-boards. This is a kind of washing machine, made of blocks of wood, with hard-wood teeth. The goods are washed by it in a soapy liquid. The teeth, moving rapidly, drive the soap into the cloth. 19. Boiled in the lye alone for six hours. 20. Washed. 21. Crofted, keeping them very clean, as this is the last exposure. 22. Treated with chloride of lime. 23. They are then starched, blued, and beetled, to finish them for the market. These operations last six weeks. New System^ as practised in Scotland and Ireland. — Directions given by an extensive Bleacher. 1. Wash. 2. Boil in lime-water ten or twelve hours. 3. Sour in muriatic acid, of 2° Tw., for three, four, or five hours. 4. Wash well. 5. Boil with resin and soda-ash twelve hours. 6. Turn the goods, so that those at the top shall be at the botom, and boil again as at No. 5. 7. Wash well. 8. Chemick, at \° Tw., or 10025, four hours. 9. Sour, at 2° Tw., or 1010' specific gravity. 10. Wash. 11. Boil in soda-ash ten hours. 12. Chemick again. 13. Wash and dry. This is the system chiefly adopted when the goods are to be printed. The following is the system practised in the neighborhood of Perth, where the chief trade is in plain sheetings : — 1. Before putting them into operation, they are put up into parcels of about 35 cwts. 2. They are then steeped in lye for twenty-four hours. 3. Then washed and spread on the grass for about two days. 4. Boiled in lime-water. 5. Turned, and boiled again in lime-water, those at the top being put at the bottom. 60 lbs. of lime are used at a time, and about 600 gallons of water. 6. Washed, then soured in sulphuric acid of 2° Tw., or 1010' sp. gr., for four hours, then washed again. 7. Boiled with soda-ash for ten hours ; 110 lbs. used. 8. Washed and spread out on the green, or crofted. 9. Boiled again in soda as before. 10. Crofted for three days. 11. They are then examined : the white ones are taken out ; those that are not finished are boiled and crofted again. 12. Next, they are scalded in water containing 80 lbs of soda-ash, and washed. 13. The chloride of lime is then used at \° Tw., or 1002-5 specific gravity. 14. Washed and scalded. 15. Washed and treated with chloride of lime. 16. Soured, for four hours, with sulphuric acid, at 2° Tw., or 1010' specific gravity. 17. Washed. If cloths lighter than sheetings are used, the washing liquids are used weaker. The great point is to observe them carefully during the process, in order to see what treatment will suit them best. It will be seen that the process of bleaching linen is still very tedious ; and although it may be managed in a fortnight, it is seldom that ihis occurs regularly for a great length of time. The action of the light introduces at once an uncertain element, as this varies so much in our climate. If, again, linen be long exposed to the air in a moist condition, it is apt to become injured in strength. To shorten the process, therefore, is important ; and if no injurious agents are introduced, a shortening promises also to give increased strength to the fibre. It has not been found possible to introduce chlorine into linen bleaching at an early stage, as in the case of cotton ; and the processes for purifying it without any chlorine render it so white that unskilled persons would call it as white as snow. """-- -^'--— •- The chlorine is BLEACHING. 161 introduced nearly at the end of the operation, after a series of boilings with alkalies sour- ings and exposures on the grass. If introduced at an eariier stage! the color of the raw cloh becomes fixed, and cannot be removed. The technical teSn' for this condition I *u Jo. , • ^' •'®^^»»gs, of Cork, has just patented a method which promises to obviate the difficulty. The peculiarity consists in using the alkali and the chlorinf alkili aUhe same moment thus giving the alkali opportunity to seize on the coloring malrT„ He nri?;^^h^''hf''M ' "^^ thereby preventing the formation of an insoluble ^mp^^d He prefers the chlorides of potash or soda. His plan is as follows •— nit J;* 3lT^^ *^!. 11° ^"^ in,^ater for about twelve hours, or boils it in lime or alkali, or dka 1 with lune, and then soaks it in acid, as he uses soaps of resin in other mixture^the alkahes being from 3° to 5° Tw., 1015--1025- specific gravity. mixtures-tne 2. Boils in a similar alkaline solution. 3. Washes. 4. Puts it into a solution of soda, of 5° Tw., 1025- specific gravitv addmir chloride of hou'rs^and uTh 7 %'T '""I" ^T* ^' '' ^"^"^^ *' rern^ inll^Si^n^^^Zl ing machfne s^^^Jected to heating or squeezing between roUers, as in the wash- 5. He then soaks, sours, and washes. 6. He then puts it a second time into the solution of alkali and chloride „«*•!•*»: TI"?^^^' ^*^ I"*""^ ^^^^'^ ^'^^^ ^^^^ These operations, 6 and 7, may be repeated until the cloth becomes almost white. > J "<- repeaiea nnr.I«?f*JlJT'f ^ ''^^?T? '''' *he gfass by this process is said to be not more than from ontj-half to one-fourth that required by the usual method, or it may be managed so as e^ tirely to supersede crofting. ^ »"«o*^ »« as en- P^rSnnT'-^'" K^wJ ^f ""^^"^^ "^ ^^^ filamcuts of flax by the evolution of gas from a carbonate m which the plant is steeped, and at the same time bleached by chloridTof m^. Bleachinq op Materials for Paper. P,n!??=^'^^^^'°^.''^- PT*" i? ^«°^"«*e ^ut having lai^er, stronger teeth, which tear it up into smaU phlJmtflTi^'^ Tu^f according to quality, woollen carefully removed, and all the unavaU- fein^of ^hrvv^^^^^ ? ^^ ^"-^''- ?"^ ."^ '^"° ^^ wed up by a knife, on the circum- ference of a heavy wheel, into pieces of an inch wide, devilled, and dusted. kie^of'lEuTi^llT^V'^^^ *'^ ?^^f?''^ ^° ^ ''"'•'^ "^^°°«''- The cotton is put into 11^^ tSI^ ^^V^f'"" diameter, of a kind sinular to those described, and boiled with hme The amount of hme used is about 6 lbs. to a cwt of cotton or ra^ but tfiis varies IZ'l^'l l"! *^^^°^P'^"*y• Th? «°^e removes a great amount of L^'oZ^m^^r Spfl in tL .'^""^^^^^^ .'^^*^ ^^^' ^^'^ «^ **^« ^atty matter, of which th^ s T^li pearance is not much altered ; it appears as impure as ever. chine i^d fiUpr^fhr*^-'' *h\.™g-«J^°« «^d ™hed clean. This is a combined washing ma- ^d a "rl^, "'''°*^"° "^ ^'' ^"^^^y' "^^ ^"^- The washmg may last an hour whi Jh rim?ved''hrAtH^^^^^ ^^ ""t'^ ""^ ^^^^' moderately clean. It is full of water, pSteSL /t llt^^^ ^r^'^>^ cotton being put into an iron cylindrical box with pertorated sides. It is then boiled m kiers or puffing boUers, where soda-ash is used, at the Vol. m.— 11 ^ 162 BLEAK. I rate of 4 to 6 lbs. a cwt. Only as much water is used as will moisten the goods thoroughly. Much water would weaken the solution and render more soda necessary. It is then washed again in the rag-engine ; afterwards put into chloride of lime, acidified as in cotton bleach- ing, and washed again in the rag-engine. The cotton rags are treated in a similar manner. The colored rags are treated sepa- rately, requiring a different treatment according to the amount of color ; this consists chiefly in a greater use of chloride of lime. Some points relating to bleaching are necessarily treated of under Calico Printing. BLEAK. {Cyprinus Albumus.) The scales of this fish are used for making the essence of pearl, or essence (Torient, with which artificial pearls are manufactured. In the scales of the fish the optical effect is produced in the same manner as in the real peari, the grooves of the latter being represented by the mequalities formed by the margins of the concentric lamina of which the scales are composed. These fish are caught in the Seine, the Loire, the Saone, the Rhine, and several other rivers. They are about four inches in length, and are sold very cheap after the scales are washed off. It is said that 4,000 fish are necessary for the production of a pound of scales, for which the fishermen of the Cha- lonnois get from 18 to 25 livres. The pearl essence is obtained merely by well washing the scales which have been scraped from the fish in water, so as to free them from the blood and mucilaginous matter of the fish. BLENDE (sulphide or sulphuret of zinc, " Black Jack ") is a common ore of zinc, com- posed of zinc 6Y, sulphur 33 ; but it usually contains a certain proportion of the sulphide of iron, which imparts to it a dark color, whence the name of ** Black Jack," applied to it by the Cornish miner. The ore of this country generally consists of zinc 61-5, iron 4-0, sulphur 33-0. Blende occurs either in a botryoidal form or in crystals, (often of very com- plex forms,) belonging to the tetrahedal division of the monometric system. H = 3-5 to 4. Specific gravity = 3-9 to 4.— H. W. B. , In some districts the presence of the sulphide of zinc is regarded by the miners as a favorable indication, hence we have the phrase, ''Black Jack rides a good horse.'' In other localities it is thought to be equally unfavorable, and the miners say, " Black Jack cuts out the w* wic 166 BLUE VITRIOL. BLUE VITRIOL. Sulphate of copper. When found in nature, it is due entirely to the decomposition of the sulphides of copper, especially of the yellow copper pyrites, which are liable to this change when placed under the influence of moist air, or of water contain- ing air. BOGHEAD COAL, and other Brovm Cannel Coals. The brown cannels are chiefly confined to Scotland, and have been wrought, with the exception of the celebrated Bog- head, for the last thirty years. They are found at Boghead, near Bathgate ; Rocksoles, near Airdrie ; Pimie, or Methill ; Capeldrea, Kirkness, and Wemyss, in Fife. The first- named coal, about which there has been so much dispute as to its nature, has only been in the market eight years. It is considered the most valuable coal hitherto discovered for gas and oil-making purposes ; but, strange to say, the middle portion of the Pimie, or Met- hill seam, which has been unnoticed for thirty years, is nearly as valuable for both pur- poses. Boghead. Amorphous ; fracture subconchoidal, compact, containing impressions of the stems of Sigillaria^ and its roots, {Stigmanoe^) with rootlets traversing the mass. Color, clove brown, streak yellow, without lustre ; a non-electric ; takes fire easily, splits, but does not fuse, and bums with an empyreumatic odor, giving out much smoke, and leaving a considerable amount of white ash. H. 25. Specific gravity, 1*200. According to Dr. Stenhouse, F. R. S., its composition is : — Carbon 65*72 Hydrogen 9-03 Nitrogen 0-72 Oxygen- ----------- 4'78 Ash - 1'»'75 100-00 Dr. Stenhouse's analysis of the ash of Boghead coal, from three analyses, was as fol- lows : — Silica 58-31 Alumina ------ 33-65 Sesquioxide of iron - • - - V'OO Potash 0-84 Soda 0-41 Lime and sulphuric acid - - - - • - -- - traces. Dr. Andrew Fyfe, F. R. S. E., on analysis, found that the coal yielded, from a picked specimen, VO per cent, of volatile matter, and 30 per cent, of coke and ash. From a ton he obtained 14-880 cubic feet of gas, the illuminating power of which was determined by the use of the Bunsen photometer, the gas being consumed by argands burning from 2| to 3^ feet per hour, according to circumstances. The candle referred to was a spermaceti candle, burning 140 grains per hour. Cubic Feet of Gas per Ton of Coal. Specific Gravity. Condensation by Chlorine in 100 Parts. Durability 1 foot burns. Illuminating Power 1 foot:= Light of Candles. Pounds of Coke per Ton of CoaL 14-880 •802 27 Min. Sec. 88 25 • 7-72 760 The Pimie or Methill brown cannel, on analysis, gives the following results :— Specific gravity ^^^^ - Gas per ton 13,500 feet. Illuminating power 28 candles. Coke and ash 36 per cent Hydro-carbons condensed by bromine - - - - 20 " Sulphuretted hydrogen i " Carbonic acid ^ « Carbonic oxide '^^ u Volatile matter in coal ^^ !t Specific gravity of gas '700 The Boghead coal occurs in the higher part of the Scotch coal field ; in about the posi- tion of the" ' slaty band " of ironstone, its range is not more than 3 or 4 miles in the lands of Torbane, Inchcross, Boghead, Capper's, and Bathvale, near Bathgate, in the county of Linlithgow. In thickness it varies from 1 to 30 inches, and at the present consumption, say from 80,000 to 100,000 tons per annum, it cannot last many years. BOG IRON ORE. 107 The following section of a pit at Torbane shows that the cannel occurs in ordinarv coal measures, and under circumstances common to beds of coal : Boghead house coal . ,2 7' Arenaceous shale ""-------6 Slaty sandstone ----07 Shale and ironstone, containing remains of plants and shells - 10 Cement stone (impure ironstone) 04 Boghead cannel --------,.19 Fire clay, full of Stigmarioi - - -• - . - , q k Coal (common) --- 6 Black shale ' n f\% Coal .".0 1 Shale 0* Krecray \ :''''' ^ ••' ^ Jire Clay 14 Hard shale --•--•--. -.a 3 Thin laminae of coal and shale -•-•--. OSI Common coal - - - -. - . , . _q ** Fire clay One of the chief characters of this cannel is its indestructibility under atmospheric agencies ; for whether it is taken from the mine at a depth of fifty fathoms, or at the ou^ nn?Ap tl^"^ and oil-yieldmg properties are the same; Even a piece of the mmeral taken out of the drift deposits, where it had most probably lain for thousands of yeare. appears to be just the same m quality as if it had been but lately raised from the mine In the earth the seam lies parallel to its roof and floor, like other beds of coal • and it ia traversed by the usual vertical joints, dividing it into the irregular cubes which so generally characterise beds of cannel. The roof lying above the cement stone contams remams of Ca.amites; and the ironstone nodules, fossil shells of the genus Unio. The floor of the mine contains bhgmaricej and the coal itself affords more upright stems oi Siqillaria: and lancrtLftr'""^-r^*''^'; ^^^^^^^^r^^^^ through theleam to a coJdeS S^ i. u 'i-.f ^ "'l!,^"'^ ""^ ^^^^ '^°^- ^^ t^««^ ^•espects it entirely resembles the Pimie or Methill seam Most cannels afford remains of fish ; but in Boghead no tiuces of thSe fossds have yet been met with, although they have been diligently sought after ♦u wv "^ot3/°; t^° floors, and the upright stems of trees in the seam itself. api)ear to show that the vegetable matter now forming the coal grew on the spot where it is S If thi mangroves and o her aquatic plants, at the present day found growing in the black vegetable mud of the marine swamps of Brass town, on the west coalt of Africa, were ouiet^v sub tion of a bed of carbonaceous matter showing no structure, mingled with stems and roots fJ?^- ^^'''""^ f "?"'^ ^^^?.^ '' *^" ^^^ of Boghead coal, the structure being onlHe^ fro^e'fSslls":^^^^^^^^^ ^"'^^" °' ^'^°^ ^^^ ^"^^^ -^ -* - *^^ -t"l - which npl ?ni w"k ^V^'^'^f ?/ ''^^^w ^«g?t^We matter has been converted into Boghead can- nel will not be here dwelt on; but the chief peculiarity about the seam is its close Td compact roof composed of cement stone and shale. This is perfectly water and air^i^ht so much so that, although the mine is troubled with a great qu^tity of ^ter,Ta5 c^S^^ through the floor, and not the roof. This tight covering of the coal has doubt eas SeXd T'cifr*" : •^"^''ir 7 *^' fecojnposing vegeteble Siatter after the latter had been ub merged It is worthy of remark, that, above the Pimie or Methill 6eam,-the coal nearest approaching Boghead,— a similar bed of impure ironstone occurs Away froni whin dykes which traverse the coal field, there are no appearances of the action of an elevated temperature, either upon the coal oV its adjoining st^^to ive ^y sane .on to the hypothesis that the cannel has resulted from the partial decompositTonoTJ n wwZ n Til ^,1^' ^'l* i^^^f^y^^S trap, the volatile matters having bC^^ned ^'eveS^rn't^^^^^ ^^ -^-tood that Boghead^^:' sec( heat of a brown color," resembling burnt Indian-mbb7r.""^B7S th^sTflc^XTe'a^sTco'l tTon nfT/rrr"^'?S ^'"^"^ ^*^ *^^^« ^d ^^ow the cannel, show no si^Hf the ac usual wafA^ 'f^"^' ^^^f^ ^^^'^^^ ^'^^-S been de& in ^'e BOaRF?n vIpctTA"*^ r'^*''^* undergoing any particular alteration.-E. W. B. ♦Kn5?« ^^^.? ^^^ '^ fn example of the recent formation of an ore of iron arisine from the decomposition of rocks, containing iron, by the action of water ch^S^nT^S Hi 1' 168 BOILER. acid. The production of this ore of iron in the present epoch, explains to us many of the conditions under which some of the more ancient beds of iron ore have been produced. Bog iron ore is common in the peat bogs of Ireland and other places. The iron manufactured from bog iron ore is what is called " cold short," from the pres- ence of phosphorus ; it cannot, therefore, be employed in the manufacture of wire, or of sheet iron ; but, from the fluidity of the metal, it is valuable for casting. It varies much in composition, some specimens giving 20 and others 70 per cent, of the peroxide of iron. Protoxide of iron and oxide of manganese are often present ; and as much as 10 per cent, of phosphorus and organic matter have been detected. See Iron. BOILER. See Boilers, vol. i. „ . ^ .,. , BOLE. A kind of clay, often highly colored by iron. It usually consists of silica, alu- mina, iron, lime, and magnesia. It is not a well-defined mineral, and, consequently, many substances are described by mineralogists as bole. Armenian bole is of a bright red color. This is frequently employed as a dentifrice, and in some cases it is administered medicinally. JSole of Blois is yellow, contains carbonate of lime, and effervesces with acids. Bohemian hole is a yellowish red. French bole is of a pale red, with frequent streaks of yellow. Tjcmnian bole and Silisean bole are, in most respects, similar to the above-named va- rieties. The following analysis are by C. Van Hauer: — Capo di Bove— Silica, 46-64 ; alumina, 29'33 ; peroxide of iron, 8*88 ; lime, 0*60 ; magnesia, a trace ; water, 14-27 = 98-72. New Holland— Silica, 38-22; alumina, Sl'OO; peroxide of iron, ll'OO; Imie, a trace; magnesia, a trace; water, 18-81 = 99-03. BOLOGNIAN STONE. A sulphate of barytes, found in roundish masses, which phos- phoresces when, after calcination, it is exposed to the solar rays. BOMBAZINE. A worsted stuff mixed with silk ; it is a twilled fabric, of which the warp is silk and the weft worsted. . . . ,, BOMBYX MORI. The moth to which the silkworm turns. This species was originally brought from China. In this country the eggs of this moth are hatched early in May. The caterpillar (silkworm) is at first of a dark color ; but gradually, as with all other caterpillars, it becomes lighter colored. This worm is about eight weeks in arriving at maturity, during which time it frequently changes its color. When full grown, the silkworm commences spinning its web in some convenient place. The silkworm continues drawing its thread from various points, and attaching it to others ; it follows, therefore, that, after a time, the body becomes, in a great measure, enclosed in the thread. The work is then continued from one thread to another, the silkworm moving its head and spinning in a zigzag way, bending the fore part of the body back to spin in all directions within reach, and shifting the body only to cover with silk the part which was beneath it. As the silkworm spins its web by thus bending the fore part of the body back, and moves the hinder part of the body in such a way only as to enable it to reach the farther back with the fore part, it follows that it encloses itself in a cocoon much shorter than its own body ; for soon after the begin- ning, the whole is continued with the body in a bent'position. During the time of spinning the cocoon, the silkworm decreases in length very considerably ; and after it is completed it is not half its original length ; at this time it becomes quite torpid, soon changes its skin, and appears in the form of a chrysalis. The time required to complete the cocoon is five days. In the chrysalis state the animal remains frojn a fortnight to three weeks ; it then bursts its case, and comes forth in the imago state, the moth having previously dissolved a portion of the cocoon by means of a fluid which it ejects.— Pewny Magazine. BON-BONS. Comfits and other sweetmeats of various descriptions pass under this name. A large quantity is regularly imported from France into this country, and, from its usually superior quality, it is much in request. The manufacture of sweetmeats, confectionary, &c., does not enter so far into the plan of this work as to warrant our giving any special detail of the various processes employed. Liqueur Bon-bons are made in the following manner :— A syrup evaporated to the proper consistence is made, and some alcoholic liqueur is added to it. Plaster of Paris models of the required form are made ; and these are employed, several being fastened to a rod, for the purpose of making moulds in powdered starch, filling shallow trays. The syrup is then, by means of a funnel, poured into these moulds, and there being a powerful repulsion be- tween the starch and the alcoholic syrup, the upper portion of the fluid assumes a spherical form ; then some starch is sifted over the surface, and the mould is placed in a warm closet. Crystallization commences on the outside of the bon-bon, forming a crust inclosing the syrup which constantly gives up sugar to the crystallizing crust until it becomes sufficiently firm to admit of being removed. A man and two boys will make three hundredweights of bon-bons in a day. 4> BONES. 169 Crystallized Bon-bons are prepared by putting them with a strong syrup contained in shallow dishes, placed on shelves in the drying chamber, pieces of linen being stretched over the surface, to prevent the formation of a crust upon the surface of the fluid. In two or three days the bon-bons are covered with crystals of sugar ; the syrup is then drained off, and the comfits dried. Painted Bon-bons. — Bon-bons are painted by being first covered with a layer of glazing ; they are then painted in body colors, mixed with mucilage and sugar. The French have some excellent regulations, carried out under the " Prefet de Police," as to the colors which may be employed in confectionary. These are to the following euoct !~~~ "Considering that the coloring matter given to sweets, bon-bons, liqueurs, lozenges, &c., is generally imparted by mineral substances of a poisonous nature, which imprudence has been the cause of serious accidents ; and, that the same character of accidents have been produced by chewing or sucking the wrapping paper of such sweets, it being glazed and colored with substances which are poisonous ; it is expressly forbidden to make use of any mineral substance for coloring liqueurs, bon-bons, sugar-plums, lozenges, or any kind of sweetmeats or pastry. No other coloring matter than such as is of a vegetable character shall be employed for such a purpose. It is forbidden to wrap sweetmeats in paper glazed or colored with mineral substances. It is ordered that all confectioners, grocers, dealers in liqueurs, bon-bons, sweetmeats, lozenges, &c., shall have their name, address, and trade printed upon the paper in which the above articles shall be enclosed. All manufacturers and dealers are personally responsible for the accidents which shall be traced to the liqueurs, bon-bons, and other sweetmeats manufactured or sold by them." If similar provisions were in force in this country, it would prevent the use, to an alarm- ing extent, in our cheap confectionary, of such poisonous substances as Arsenite of copper, Acetate of copper, Chromate of lead. Sulphide of arsenic, Oxide of lead. Sulphide of mercury, &e. The coloring matters allowed to be used in France are indigo, Prussian blue saffron, Turkey yellow, quercitron, cochineal, Brazil wood, madder, &c. ' BONES. Heintz found that the fixed bases in the bones were sufficient to saturate completely the acids contained in them, so that the phosphate of lime, as well as the phos- phate of magnesia, which the bones contain, is composed, according to the formula 3R0, PO*. Bone phosphate of lime was considered by Berzelius to be 8CaO, 3P0*. True bony struc- ture is perfectly free from chlorides, from sulphates, and from iron, these salts being only found when the liquid pervading the bones has not been completely removed. The bones in youth contain less earthy constituents than those of adults ; and, in advanced age the proportion of mineral matters increases. Von Biria found more bone earth in the bones of birds than in those of mammals ; he found also the ratio of the carbonate of lime to the phosphate to be generally greater. In the bones of amphibia, he found less inorganic mat- ter than in those of mammals and birds; and, in the bones oi fishes, the earthy matters vary from 21 to 57 per cent. The scales of fishes have a composition somewhat similar to that of bone, but they contain phosphate of lime in small quantity only. In certain diseases, (the craniotabes in children,) the earthy salts fjUl in the spongy por- tion of the bone as low as 28-16 per cent, of the dry bone ; and in several cases the propor- tion of earthy matter was found by Schlossberger as low as 50 per cent. At the age of 21 years, the weight of the skeleton is to that of the whole body in the ratio of 10-5 : 100 in man, and in that of 8-5 : 100 in woman, the weight of the body being about 125 or 130 lbs. The quantity of organic matter in fossil bones varies very considerably : in some cases It IS found in as large a quantity as in fresh bones, while in others it is altogether wanting. Carbonate of lime generally occurs in far larger quantity in fossil than in recent bones, which may arise from infiltration of that salt from without, or from a decomposition of a portion of the phosphate of lime by carbonic acid or carbonates. Magnesia often occurs in larger quantities in the fossil remains of vertebrated animals than in the fresh bones of the present animal worid. 'Liebig found in the cranial bones excavated at Pompeii a larger proportion of fluoride of calcium than in repent bones; while, on the other hand, Girar- dm and Preisser found that this salt had grea^Jy diminished in bones which had lain long in the earth, and, in some cases, had even wholly disappeared. The gelatinous tissue of bones was found by Von Biria to consist of Carbon Hydrogen Nitrogen Oxygen Sulphur Ox bones. 60-401 - 7-111 - 18-154 - 24-119 - 0-216 Fossil bones. - 50-130 - 7-073 - 18-449 - 24-348 This is the same composition as that of the gelatinous tissues. 170 BONES. In the arts, bones are employed by turners, cutlers, manufacturers of animal charcoal, and, when calcined, by assayers, for making cupels. In agriculture, they are employed as a manure. Laid on in the form of dust, at the rate of 80 to 35 cwts. per acre, they have been known to increase the value of old pastures from 10«. or 16s. to SOs. or 40«. per acre ; and after the lapse of 20 years, though sensibly becoming less valuable, land has remained still worth two or three times the rent it paid before the bones were laid on. In the large dyeing establishments in Manchester, the bones are boiled in open pans for 24 hours, the fat skimmed off and sold to the candle makers, and the size afterwards boiled down in an- other vessel till it is of su£5cient strength for stiffening the thick goods for which it is in- tended. The size liquor, when exhausted or no longer of suflScient strength, is applied with much benefit a.^ a manure to the adjacent pasture and artificial grass lands, and the ex- hausted bones are readily bought up by the Lancashire and Cheshire farmers. When burned bones are digested in sulphuric acid diluted with twice its weight of water, a mixture of gypsum and acid phosphate of lime is obtained, which, when largely diluted with water, forms a most valuable Uquid manure for grass land and for crops of rising com ; or, to the acid solution, pearl ashes may be added, and the whole then dried up, by the addition of charcoal powder or vegetable mould, till it is sufficiently dry to be scattered with the hand as a top dressing, or buried in the land by means of a drill. In France, soup is extensively made by dissolving bones in a steam heat of two or three days' continuance. Respecting the nutritive property of such soup, Liebig has expressed the following strong opinion : — " Gelatine, even when accompanied by the savory constitu- ents of flesh, is not capable of supporting the vital process ; on the contrary, it diminishes the nutritive value of food, which it renders insufficient in quantity and inferior in quality, and it overloads the blood with nitrogenous products, the presence of which disturbs and impedes the organic processes." The erroneous notion that gelatine is the active principle of soup, arose from the observation that soup made, by boiling, fro^n meat, when concen- trated to a certain point, gelatinizes. The jelly was taken to be the true soup until it was found that the best meats did not yield the finest gelatine tablets, which were obtained most beautiful and transparent from tendons, feet, cartilage, bones, &c. This led to an investiga- tion on nutrition generally, the results of which proved that gelatine, which by itself is tasteless, and when eaten excites nausea, possesses no nutritive value whatever. The following table exhibits the relation between the combustible animal matter and the mineral substances of bones, as found by different observers : — Organic Portion. Inorganic Portion. Observers. Ox bones - - • . Human bones - - • Bird bones ^ 2-0 2-1 2-0 1-8 to 2-3 ) 2'0 in mean 1-6 to 2-2 \ 1-9 in mean >■ 2-3 to 2-6 ) Berzelius. Marchand. Berzeliua. Frerichs. Von Biria. Prior to the use of bones by the turner or carver, they require the oil with which they are largely impregnated, to be extracted, by boiling them in water, and bleaching them in the sun or otherwise. This process of boiling, in place of softening, robs them of part of their gelatine, and therefore of part of their elasticity and contractibility likewise, and they become more brittle. The forms of the bones are altogether unfavorable to their extensive or ornamental employment : most of them are very thin and curved, contain large cellular cavities for marrow, and are interspersed with vessels that are visible after they are worked up into spoons, brushes, and articles of common turnery. The buttock and shin bones of the ox and calf are almost the only kinds used. To whiten the finished works, they are soaked in turpentine for a day, boiled in water for about an hour, and then polished with whitening and water. Holtzapffcl also informs us, that after the fuming tool, or scraper, has been used, bone is polished, 1st, with glass paper ; 2d, with Trent sand, or Flanders brick, with water on flan- nel ; 3d, with whiting and water on a woollen rag ; 4th, a small quantity of white wax is rubbed on the work with a quick motion ; the wax fills the minute pores, but only a very minute portion should be allowed to remain on the work. Common bone articles, such as nail and tooth brushes, are frequently polished with slaked lime used wet on flannel or woollen cloth. See " On Bone and its Uses," by Arthur Aitkin, Trans, of Society of Arts^ 1832 and 1839. The importance of the trade in bones will be seen from the following statement of Im- ports^ in 1856, of the bones of animals and fish — not whalebone. BONE BLACK. 171 Tons. Russia Norway Denmark Prussia Hanover Hanse Towns Holland France Spain - Tuscany Two Sicilies Austrian Italy Turkey Proper United States Brazil - Uruguay Buenos Ayres Australia Other parts CJompated real Yalae. 13,383 £68,588 878 4,500 2,636 13,509 826 4,233 551 2,824 4,073 20,874 4,463 22,822 881 4,515 777 3,982 787 4,033 901 4,618 1,968 10,086 857 4,392 589 3,019 7,812 40,036 15.457 79,217 9,936 50,922 837 4,289 3,347 17,154 70,949 £363,613 In 1857, of bones, whether burnt or not, or as animal charcoal, 63,951 tons. — H. M. N. BONE BLACK. The composition of perfectly dry bone black of average quality is as follows : — Phosphate of lime, with carbonate of lime, and a little sulphuret of iron, or oxide of iron, 88 parts ; iron in the state of silicated carburet, 2 parts ; charcoal containing about Vi5 of nitrogen, 10 parts. None of the substances present, except the charcoal, possess separately any decolorizing power. It was formerly supposed that the peculiar absorbing and decoloring power of animal charcoal was only exerted towards bodies of organic origin ; but it was found, by Graham, that inorganic substances are equally subject to this action ; and later experiments have denonstrated that there are few, if any, chemical compounds which altogether resist the absorbing power of charcoal. The action is of a mechanical nature, and in some cases it is sufficiently powerful to overcome chemical affinities of considerable power. It is not con- fined to charcoal, though pre-eminent in this substance, in consequence of the immense ex- tent of surface which its porous stmcture presents. The action of charcoal in sugar refining has been particularly studied by Liidersdorf. When the defecated saccharine juice is allowed to flow upon a moist and firmly compressed charcoal filter, pure water is the first product that passes through ; but a considerably larger quantity is obtained than was em- ployed for moistening the charcoal. Water is then obtained of a decidedly saline character, which increases in strength, and after this has passed through for some time, a sweet taste becomes perceptible, which gradually increases, and at last entirely masks the saline. This purely sweet fluid continues to flow for some time ; after which, the liquid acquires an alkaline reaction from the presence of caustic lime ; it then becomes colored, the liquor getting gradually darker, till the action of the charcoal ceases. Lime is completely abstracted from lime water by bone charcoal ; and, according to the experiments of Cheval- lier, lead salts are likewise entirely absorbed, the acetate the most readily. It has also been shown by Graham, that iodine even is separated from iodine of potassium. The commercial value of animal charcoal has usually been estimated by its decoloring power on sulphate of indigo ; its absorbent power, which is a property of equal, perhaps of greater importarce, may, according to M. Coreuwinder, be determined, approximatively, by the quantity of lime which a given weight will absorb. For this purpose he employs a solution of saccharate of lime of known strength. An acid liquor is first prepared, composed of 20 grammes of pure oil of vitriol diluted with water to exactly 1 litre. A solution of saccharate of lime Is then prepared, by dissolving 125 to 130 grammes of white sugar in water, adding thereto 15 to 20 grammes of quick-lime, boiling the liquid, and then filtering to separate the undissolved lime. This solution is prepared of such a nature, that it will be exactly saturated by the same volume of the dilute sulphuric acid. By adding the latter to 50 cubic centimetres of the liquid filtered from the animal charcoal, it is easy to see how many degrees of the burette are required to complete the saturation of the lime. Suppose 35 are required for this purpose, 100 — 35 = 65, which represent the proportion of lime absorbed by the char- coal : this is, therefore, the number representing the standai-d. By operating with a burette graduated from the bottom, the degree of the charcoal experimented upon may be read directly. I 172 BOOKBINDING. BOOKBINDING. The process of sewing together the sheets of a book, and securing them with a back and side boards. Books are said to be either stitched^ or in hoards^ or half-bound, or bound. The first consists simply of stitching the sheets together. The second, of placing the sheets, after they have been stitched, between millboard sides, which are covered with paper or cloth, and with the backs lettered and ornamented. The third is a process of more perfectly se- curing the leaves, and of placing them between boards with a back of leather, the side-boards being covered with marble paper. Books arc whole bound when the sides as well as the back are covered with leather. Bookbinding is performed in the following manner : — The sheets are first folded into a certain number of leaves, according to the form in which the book is to appear, as follows : — The folio consists of- - - - - -2 leaves " quarto of- - - - - - -4" " octavo of 8 " " duodecimo of - - - - - -12" When the leaves are thus folded and arranged in proper order, they are, if the books have been long printed, usually beaten upon a stone with a heavy hammer, to make them solid and smooth, and are then subjected to severe pressure in a powerful press ; but in the case of newly-printed books, pressure alone is considered sufficient. Beating, or severe pressure, would spoil the book ; because the ink, not being well dried, would " set off" on the opposite pages. The emplojnnent in bookbinding of a rolliifg-press for smoothing and condensing the leaves, instead of the hammering which books have usually received, is an improvement introduced several years ago in the trade by Mr. W. Burn. His press consists of two iron cylinders about a foot in diameter, adjustable in the usual way by means of a screw, and put in motion by the power of one man, or of two if need be, applied to one or two winch- handles. In front of the press sits a boy who gathers the sheets into packets, by placing two, three, or four upon a piece of tin plate of the same size, and covering them with an- other piece of tin plate, and thus proceeding by alternating tin plates and bundles of sheets till a sufficient quantity has been put together, which will depend on the stiflftiess and thickness of the paper. The packet is then passed between the rollers and received by the man who turns the winch, and who has time to lay the sheets on one, side and to hand over the tin plates by the time that the boy has prepared a second packet. A minion Bible may be passed through the press in one minute, whereas the time necessary to beat it would 4)e twenty minutes. It is not, however, merely a 6a\irg of time that is gained by the use of the rolling-press ; the paper is made smoother than it would have been by beating ; and the compression is so much greater, that a rolled book will be reduced to about five-sixths of the thickness of the same book if beaten. A shelf, therefore, that will hold fifty books bound in the usual way, would hold nearly sixty of those bound in this manner — a circum- stance of no small importance, when it is considered how large a space even a moderate library occupies, and that book-cases are expensive articles of furniture. The rolling-press is now substituted for the hammer by our principal bookbinders. After the sheets have been thus prepared, they are sewed ; for which purpose the sew- ing press is employed. See Bookbindery, Vol. I. BORACIC ACID. {Acide Borique, Fr. BO' ; chemical equivalent, 34*9 ; specific grav- ity, 1 83.) Supposed to be the chrifsocolla of Pliny. In the seventh century, Geber mentions borax ; and it was described by Geoffroy and by Baron in the early part of the eighteenth century. Boracic acid was formerly called Homberg's tfedative mlt. This acid occurs in several minerals, particularly as tincal, or crude biborate of soda, which is found in the form of incrustations in the beds of small lakes in Thibet, where it is dug up during the hot season. Sassolin, so called from its having been first obtained from one of the localities in Tuscany named Sasso, is native boracic acid. It is found abundantly in the crater of Vulcano, one of the Lipari Islands, forming a layer on the sulphur and around the fumaroles, or exits, of the sulphurous exhalations. The native stalactitic salt, according to Klaproth, contains mechanically mixed sulphate of magnesia and iron, sulphate of lime, silica, carbonate of lime, and alumina. Erdmann has stated that sassolin contains 3'18 per cent by weight of ammonia, and, instead of being pure boracic acid, that it is a bo- rate of ammonia. Native boracic acid is composed of boracic acid, 56 '4 ; water, 43 'd.-* Dana. ... Professor Graham, in his " Report on the Chemical Products of the Great Exhibition of 1851," thus speaks of Larderel's discovery : — " The preparation of boracic acid by Count F. de Larderel, of Tuscany, was rewarded by a Council medal. Although this well-known manufacture is not recent, having attained its full development at least ten years, still the bold originality of its first conception, the per- severance and extraordinary resources displayed in the successful establishment, and the value of the product which it supplies, will always place the operations of Count de Larderel BORACIO ACID. 173 among the highest achievements of the useful arts, and demand the most honorable mention at this epoch. The vapor issuing from a volcanic soil is condensed, and the minute pro- portion of boracic acid which it contains (not exceeding 0-3 per cent.) is recovered by evaporation, in a district without fuel, by the application of volcanic vapor itself as a source of heat. The boracic acid thus obtained greatly exceeds in quantity the old and limited supply of borax from the upper districts of India, and has greatly extended the use of that salt m the glazes of porcelam, and recently m the making of the most brilliant crystal when combined with the oxide of zinc instead of oxide of lead."— i?<>nort» of the Jurors of the Great Exhibition 0/ 1851. r j j ^ The violence with which the scalding vapors escape from the mffioni gives rise to muddy explosions when a lake has been drained by turning its waters into another lake. The mud IS then thrown out, as solid matters are ejected from volcanoes, and there is formed in the bottom of the lake a crowd of little cones of eruption, whose temperatures when in activity and play are generally from 120° to 145° C, and the clouds which they form in the lagoons constitute true natural barometers, whose greater or less density rarely disappoints the predictions that they announce to the inhabitants of those lagoona The boracic acid of the Tuscan lagoons is obtained from nine different works belonrine to Count Larderel, the produce of which is on the average as follows : ^^^^ - 36,000 lbs. per month. Liarderello ...... 32 700 ** Lervazano -•-*-. 20 270 *' Monte Cerboli • - . - -191 25 *• Gastel Nuovo - - - . . lels?© " ^ Monte Rotondo -•-.*. 16*850 " San Frederigo - - - . . 9*000 " Lustignano ---,.. 7*640 ** I^go - - 5,400 " 163,855 aroirdupois pounds. ,««?*.^*^®" ^^^ ^^^^ *^® following as the composition of this crude boracic acid for 100 Kilogrammes : — Pure crystallized boracic acid - - - - • 74 to 84 Sulphate of ammonia " of magnesia pm"-^ ""J."™^ ^ 1**0 8 Ghlonde of iron - Alumina Sand, &c. ) Sulphur \ 2-5 to 1-25 Hygroscopic water disengaged at 35° 0. - - - 7 to 6*'75 Azotic organic matter - . 'k Hydrochlorate of ammonia - C - . - 2*5 to 1 Hydrochloric and hydrosulphuric acid j The processes of chemical alteration taking place beneath the crater of Vulcano already spoken of, may, according to the statement of Hoffmann, depend upon condition^ very similar to those existing in Tuscany. There, likewise, sulphuretted hydroeen is associated with the boracic acid, and, it would appear, in much greater quantity, since the fissures through which the vapor issues are thickly lined with sulphur, which is in sufficient quantity to be collected for sale. A profitable factory is established at the place, which yields daily, besides boracic acid and chloride of ammonium, about 1 700 Iba. of refined sulphur, and about 600 lbs. of pure alum.— .BwcAo/. ' In 1855 our Imports were : — Boracic acid from Sardinia - - %1 . ^^^V^^^^^^^ « jT*ry • 26,777 -• - . 121,163 Gibraltar - - 947 - - . 4I286 ^ And in 1856:- ^^ ^^^5.831 Boracic acid from Satdmia - • %Tz . . Comput^^r^ Vdue. M !! Tuscany - 25,063 - - - 1101264 ^1™ • • 1.463 - - . 6,394 " other parts - i - - . 4 26,830 £118,039 174 BORAX. BORAX. {Borax, Fr. ; Barar, Germ.) Anhydrous Borax is composed of- 1 equivalent of boracic acid - - - 872 or 69*0 it soda 890 or 81-0 Octahedral Borax — 1 equivalent of boracic acid 1 '* soda - 5 •* water 1262 for 100-0 872 or 47-7 390 " 21-3 662-5 " 81-0 Prismatic Borax — 1 equivalent of boracic acid 1 ** soda - 10 " water 1824-6 for 100*0 872 or 86-55 890 i( 16-85 1-125 it m 47-1 2-387 for 100*00 Tincal was originally brought from a salt lake in Thibet ; the borax was dug in masses from the edges and shallow parts of the lake ; and in the course of a short time the holes thus made were again filled. The borate of soda has been found at Potosi, in Peru ; and it has been discovered by Mr. T. Sterry Hunt, of the Geological Survey, in Canada, from whose report the following extract is made : — " In the township of Joly there occurs a very interesting spring on the banks of the Ruisseau Magnenat, a branch of the Riviere Souci, about five miles from the mills of Methot at Saint Croix. The spring furnishes three or four gallons a minute of a water which is sulphurous to the taste and smell, and deposits a white matter along its channel, which exhibits the purple vegetation generally met with in sulphur springs. The tem- perature of this spring in the evening of one 7th of July was 46° F., the air being 62° F. The water is not strongly saline, but when concentrated is very alkaline and salt to the taste. It contains, besides chlorides, sulphates, and carbonates, a considerable propor- tion of boracic acid, which is made evident by its power of reddening paper colored by turmeric, after being supersaturated with hydrochloric acid. . "'*"" '"""' 1,000 parts of the water gave as follows: — Chloride of sodium - - - . - ^ ■ " potassium - - .- .^ j« - Sulphate of soda . - ^ - - ^ ■ Carbonate and borate of do. - , - - . " of lime ------ '* magnesia .-<---- Silica --------- Alumina --*--•-- The analysis of 0*8818 0*0067 00216 ,0.2301 0-0620 0-0257 00245 a trace 0*7523 " The amount of boracic acid estimated was fo jnd to be equal to 0*0279." Professor Bechi has analyzed a borate occrrring as an incrustation at the Tuscan lagoons, which afforded boracic acid 43-66, soda 19*25, and water 87*19. Lagonite is a mineral'of an earthy yellow color, which appears to be boracic acid and iron ; while Lar- derellite, also from Tuscany, is a compound of boiicic acid and soda. See Dana^ and " American Journal of Science." BORING. The importance of boring, as a means of .-arching for coal and for water, renders it necessary that some special attention should be gi •'en to the subject in a work devoted to manufactures and mining. • j • i? Boring for water appears to have been in use from the e?;.ie8t periods, m Egypt and in Asia. In many of the deser* tracts there are remains of borings, which served, evi- dentlv, at one period, to supply the wants of extensive populations which once inhabited those' now deserted regions. In the "Guide du Sondeur," by M. J. Degousee, we find it stated, with reference to China, "There exists in the canton of Ou-Tong-Kiao many thousand wells in a space of ten leagues long by five broad. These wells cost a thousand and some hundred taels, (the tael being of the value of 6«. 6d,) and are from 1,600 to 1 800 feet deep, and about 6 inches in diameter. To bore these wells, the Chinese com- mence by placing in the earth a wooden tube of 3 or 4 inches diameter, surmounted by a stone edge, pierced by an orifice of 5 or 6 inches; in the tube a trepan is allowed to play weighing 300 or 400 lbs. A man, mounted on a scaffold, swings a block, which raise's the trepan 2 feet high, and lets it fall by its own weight. The trepan is secured to the swing-lever by a cord made of reeds, to which is attached a triangle of wood ; a man BORING. 175 sits close to the cord, and at each rise of the swing seizes the triangle and gives it a half turn, so that the trepan may take in falling anothfr direction. A "chan^eT workmen goes on day and night, and with this continuous labor they are sometlmel three yeaS in boring wells to the requisite depth." ^^^^ ^^ vPr^&H^f'V'^A^''^ u^^° practised in England during the last centurv, but to a very hmited extent; it has, however, for a considerable periSd been emploved in seekin* for coal, and in the formation of wells. empioyea m seeking The ordinary practice of boring is usually carried out, by first sinking a well of such a depth that the boring apparatus can be fixed in it; and thus a stage, ?a?sed from the surface of the ground, is dispensed with. A stout plank floor, well briced to4thTr bv planks nailed transversely and resting on putlocks, forms the stage. In the cemre of the diZ-^nf /^"""^ ^w' *^''°"-^ "^^"^^ '^^ boring-rods pass. The boring-rods a^e of Lny different forms. A few are represented in the following figure, OO.) 1, 2, 3 are an elevation, plan, and section of an auger- the'tannid snoWpt •'<. f«.. ♦i,^ purpose of allowing the rods to be screwed into it. ^^ ^^"^ '^® 4, 5 are two views of a small auger, with a longitudinal slit, and no valve which Ls used for boring through clay and loam. In very Itiff clay the sUt Z generany made larger ; in moist ground the slit is objectionable generally maae m.f!Vj!i ^ tT "^'^f '^"' ""'^""^ ^// '^^"- « "" ^^^ ^^^^es opening upwards, to admit the qL.^h'n!.! f^"^ *" ? cWsel, for cutting through rocks, flints, and the Kke. leverage Ttwo hSeTlv.th'^P'"^"'^- ?^ boring-rods 'are turned round by the leverage ot two handles moved by man, or, where the work is heavy by horse or somp npT;=r'" ' "^"^ P.^r'* ^' ^PP""^- ^^«'^^« *he circular motion of' the toT a ^ert^a FnZT f '''''''" Z^ the same is required in certain cases, such as rock or hard sand indeed, always, where the position of the auger or chisel requires a fresh nlaop tTt\ upon during its revolution This motion is most readi y got^ by susperd t h^^^ rods to a windlass, throng the intervention of a rope coiled t Jo ^three times rouTd the latter, and adjusting ITso that if the workman holds one end o^the ^U tTght, S no « ^(5) d 10 /\ u Ill 176 BORING. cient will be the friction to raise the rods on putting the windlass in motion. Should the end of the rope the workman holds now be slackened, the coil becomes loose, and the rods descend with a force equivalent to their weight and the distance through which they have fallen A regular percussive action is thus gained by keeping the windlass contin- ually in motion in one direction, the attendiint workman alternately allowmg the rods to be drawn up a certain distance, and then, by relaxing his hold, allowing them to fall.— — Sttindfll^ on Boring, The following list of the prices of boring, in different localities, may prore useful :— In the North of England, the prices for boring, in the ordinary strata of the district or of that coal field, are as follows : — 8. d. First 5 fathoms 5 6 per fathom. Seconds " HO " Third 5 " 16 6 " Fourths " 22 " and so increasing 5«. 6rf. per fathom on each succeeding depth of 5 fathoms. When any unusually hard strata are met with, the borer is paid by special arrangement, unless a binding contract has been previously made. It is sometimes usual for the borer to take all risk of hard strata, when the prices are as follows, the borer finding the tools:— «. d. First 5 fathoms 1 6 per fathom. Seconds " 15 Third 5 " 22 6 Fourths " 30 and so increasing 7«. &d. per fathom on each succeeding depth of 6 fathoms. In the Midland Counties, where the strata are more inclined than in the north ot iiiUg- land, the prices for ordinary strata are as follows : — s. md. First 20 yards 8 6 per yard. Next 10 " 5 2 « tt jQ « 6 6" .i 10 " ^0 " • «« 10 " ^6 " and so advancing Is. &d. per yard upon each 10 yards. In some locaUties, where the boring is still more favorable, the prices are as follows, —the bore hole being 2^ to 2i inches diameter :— «. a. First 20 yards - 8 6 per yard. Next 10 " t 5 it « 10 " S 6 " t4 10 " ^ ^ " « 10 «« 7 6** In boring strata of unusual hardness, a special arrangement is made, as before stated, and the borer is allowed some payment for filling up and for removing tackling. In Scotland the general prices for boring are as follows :— 8. d. First 5 fathoms ^ per fathom Seconds " J? ? «c Third 5 " • - • • " ii ? « Fourths " 20 " and so advancing 5s. per fathom for each succeeding S fathoms. In boring through very hard strata, the work is done either by shaft-work, or at the following rates, the bore hole being 2i inches diameter:— 9. d. First 5 fathoms 10 per fathom. Seconds ^n S " Third 5 " ^0 The borer usuaUy specifies to have his tackle laid down ready for erecting at the cost ""^ ^^ thl^boring proceeds, it is often necessary to lower pipes into the hole made, to pre- ventlhe famn" ^f^ragmeits from the sides of the cylinder There are many ingenious lonm'vance^^^^^ efi"ecting this, which need not be described m this place. See Pit Coal, vol. i. BRASS. 177 acidl'anTil'bo^x! ^nc'af, r""'"""' '^'"'"'^ ' '' '^'''' ^" "^^"^^ '"^ *^^ ^«™ '' ^-"- fn ^.T\^'^ i« said to have obtained boron from borax in 1702 ; if so, his discovery appears to have been forgotten since it was unknown, except hypothetically, to the morT modem chemists until, m 1808, it was obtained by Gay-Lussac and Thenard, ^nd bv Davy in 180? who decomposed boracic acid into boron and oxygen ' ^ ' r3KF''2RF»\'Kvl\''^'?-''''^K^T P/^P^^^g.ihe double fluoride of boron and potassium, n^IJ^f '^ ♦^ saturating hydrofluoric acid with boracic acid, and then gradudly adding fluoride of potassium. The difficultly soluble double compound thus prodSced is JSi and fXi ""''.T^^'^^ nearly approaching to redness. This compound is then iSwdTr^d and introduced into an iron tube closed at one end, together with an equal weight of oot^ Slum whereupon heat is applied sufficient to melt the latter, and ihe mixture of he two sub tances is effected by stirring with an iron wire. Upon the mass being ex,^ to a r^ Jom^lH K^^'L^';""' ?'*"""*' ^^" ^"«""^- '^^^ fl»«"de of potassium mayX^ari^ removed by heating the mas.s with a solution of chloride of ammonium, which co^e^th^ tUT"^ -"'^if ^'^"'^^ ^^ P«^^'"°^ ^"^ *^"« P^^^^°^ *h<^ oxidation'of t^e born wh ch takes place in the presence of fixed alkali; the chloride of ammonium adhenw'to the boron may be afterwards removed by treatment with alcohol. Boron is a daS |rini«h! Wenrn o'' ''' ^"^ inodorous; its chemical equivalent is 10-9, or, accorcS^ to BOTTLE Manufacture. See Glass and PoTTERT nphS?, ^K^^K.^u^I^^"^'^- ^ ""™^ g'^^° by *h« Sheffield cutlers to the smooth flint pebbles with which they smooth down the faces of buflf and wooden wheeirTtheL ^.gal,&c ; and the Turkey box wood frL Const^tiLple, Si^^I^rthe bS S^' l^h^M, T?- ^? for common turnery, and is preferred by brass finishers for their s?nw '^'^k' ^ '• '^,^^"Sher than the foreign box, and bears rougher usage. It w of vei^J A, ^ZVrlf'l^ "'^?- ^? T^'¥ ^'^"onets and flutes, carpenters' rules, and drawing scales. Rnx IT y'^^^'fy ^'^f fro™ gritty matter, its sawdust is used for clean^rjeieUeW' A slilar'^'lT''^^-'"P'?^.'^r^y '^' ^^^ ^^g^^^^' ^^ Engraving on ^C ^* A similar wood was imported from America by the name of Tuamutton which was used for making ladies' fans ; but we cannot learn that it is now employ^. ' ™ "^ to Mr Roh;rt M^i . n^'S'^^ ^^"^'^^"p P^°^' ^^"^ *^« compilation of which we are indebted It Jnf oTthf^i;ioS k'ndrorb:i3"i^^'^ ^'^^"^^'^^ ^^-^^ ^^ ^^^-^-^ ^' ^^^^^^ bras^ UDon^tHe^Tn^?^^^^^^^ ^^'^' \- ^'^^T^ ^^ ^^«^g ^^^ ««^e^ ^^J^ thm plates of brass upon tiles m the leer or annealmg arch of the glass house, till they are oxidized into a black powder, aggregated in lumps. This being pulverized and sifted l^ ^ aS weU calcined for several days more, till no particles remain in the mSstete whef k ^H X^f ^Tr "r^t"'^ ^u^'W^ ^''^"'y b^^"g *^«^ ^^^ time to time by fusi^n^wUh^me glass If It makes the glass swell and intumesce, it is property prepar^- Hot 7t m,^ b^ S tq'u'oiS'"'^''* '"^' ' P^"'^^ communica'tes to'glai gJ^L'^^Taril" tii^ "^Sin"! at ^^^^rth^X^^ J^ - a 5-ble and ^ined These alloys-from about 8 to 16 ounces to the pound of copper-are extensiTely used VOL. HI. — 12 ] i "i. 178 BRASS. w a 3 1 H i' o •s k aa 3 O 2 ■** •? k" 1 o 1 8 i « o a 1 ■ 1 o '(0 3 3 ;^ •r i ca I « * t Commercial Titles, cbaracteristle Properties in Working, &c 'Several of these are malleable at high tempera- tures. rass. sheathing. watchmakers*. Too hard to file or turn ; lustre nearly equal to speculum metal. .le. Copper. • Similoi, kc. ■• Bath metal. Dutch brass. Rolled sheet hi Normal brass. British brass. Muntz's patent German brass. German brass, Verv brittle Ditto Ditto Brittle Ditto Very brittle Barely malleal Brittle. White button i Brittle. Brittle zinc. Inverse Order of FuBibility, «-* 1-^ l-H l-H f— 1 I-^ Inverse Order of Hardness, « .-< O 04 00 t- «C « -^tt « « (M O K5 «C i- CC O QO i-H ©I rj« .-1 CO C^(NC^i-ii-ii->t-i,-(.-t 1-1,-ti-Hi-i t-t C4 Order of Mal- leability at 60*. i-ieci-iOo>ooot-eiccF-io»oo©>o«oH*C^r-»oi-it-o eorHffii-tooooooooooec Ultimate Cohesion per Square Inch. g <© f-» lO 00 CI f-H t- ^ tH W C> C50eOOO(MCCi-HC»OQOTj*^t~00» o«o«ooooTt<•^w»-<^^Qoc«ooo■*">!*j>«©aD Atomic Weight H = l. ocor— 1— •■^oseot»i-H«o»ocos©Oi»-trHi-i Composition by Weight per Ceut ©00OOOO00«(Ml^(MO«>»O00©«00O«j-Me«^O (^le^■5O«C© ©t-00«O«'«*©«OlO'1<»-«© '^00 IOCOi-'»-'«-H(MC9>p«pCp ©©0S00r-iO«»'»i<»-i«0O04 ri f-l (M CI CI iM 1 1 1 I 1 III 11-11- 1 -1 1 1-4-4 _j — — f- i ■ ■ II I ! 1 1 1 1 _ 1 ©osoor-oo-^eoJOCJO qoqooooiooqooo rH(Ncc^>o«ot-ooa>©-^c2ec^Jo«t^«2Sc5c5c5^S BRAZIL WOOD. j-^y 1^' t PPL°^' ^ P'°^^«\^^.«P^mTw.rt;An » «^n *u 16 oz. soft spelter solder, suitable for ordinary brass work 16ioz. Hamilton and Parker's patent mosaic gold. ing the be«1„g, aSd br««,, ofLchTcryS^^^^ <^ tha„7„r^eS!'r rde::r^^ l z%-z'T;.^ ^j:; " te'n,^«i^^'^ quently, the consumption of oil or grease isleasen^ ^^ ' ^ ''^''^ *^°^ Many of the patentees of bearing-metals assure ue iron, u,d !^r-=r3mrd:n-.^^^^^^ tions to be used a^a^out uf KT^o'.S^.SSTaS^rof'f^t' »' I'^i, ""^ ^""'- smooth work, and from 90° to 120°^thT^J^ 'J^k'"'" ^ V* ^ "^ ^' ^^^' ^- ^^r Electro-Metallurgy ' '^ * «>°^POund battery of from 3 to 12 cella See raiZfg u'eerwTodOon^^^^^ - r^--buco, p^ ^ seen within many leagues of the coa^t owi^l If Government monopoly, is now rarely to be been cut down by thi Government^lntT^v^ .^ improvident manner in which it has tree or its cultivation! It isTot a loftv /JT'^"? '"l '^ '^^^^ P^^ *« '^^ «*« o^ the merable branches spring forth L extendin evtl'dt^r '^^'" ^"^V"' ^""^ '^^'»- unpleasing manner. The leav^ ar^ smafl InH «^ ^*-''° "" » straggling, irregular, and heavy, takes a high polish and^nk^ fnl. T^ luxuriant ; the wood is very hard and as the outwalk c^Xwi^^hS^'^^^^^^ P^^^" ^^ ^^ ^^ ^^ ^^^^^^ from brasas, a gSwi^ fi^ or ^^ fts wfn" l'*"''^- • ^n' "1"" ^^ '^' '^^ '« ^^^'^^ are pinnated, th^e flo^r^wlii^ ^, Papi Wets^^^^^^^^^ 180 BREAD. cies has flowers variegated with red. The branches are slender and full of small prickles. There are nine species. See Bell's " Geography." The species Brasihto^ which is inferior to the crista^ grows in great abundance in the West Indies. The demand for the Brasileto, a few years ago, was so great, owing to its being a little cheaper than the crista^ that nearly the whole trees in the British possessions were cut down and sent home, which Mr. Bell very justly terms improvidence. It is not now so much used, and is consequently scarcer in the English market. The wood known in commerce as Pernambuco is most esteemed, and has the greatest quantity of coloring matter. It is hard, has a yellow color when newly cut, but turns red by exposure to the air. That kind termed Lima wood is the same in quality. Sapan wood grows in Japan, and in quality is next the two named above. It is not plentiml, but is much valued in the dyehouse for red of a certain tint ; it gives a very clear and superior color. The quantity of ash that these two qualities of wood contain is worthy of remark. Lima wood, as imported, gives the average of 2'7 per cent., while Sapan wood gives 1'5 per cent. ; in both, the prevailing earth is lime. The quantity of moisture in the wood averages about 10 per cent. ; that in the ground wood in the market about 20 per cent. Feach wood, or Nicaragua, and sometimes termed Santa Martha wood^ is inferior to the other two nam^d, but is much used in the dyehouse, and, for many shades of red, is pre- ferred, although the coloring matter is not so great. It gives a bright dye. The means of testing the quality of these woods by the dyer is similar to that describey for logwood, with the same recommendations and precautions. — Napier on Dyeing. BREAD. One of the most important, if not altogether the most important, article of food, unquestionably, is bread ; and although rye, barley, oats, and other cereals are some- times used by the baker, wheat is the grain which is best fitted for the manufacture of that article, not only on account of the larger amount of gluten, or nitrogenous matter, which it contains, and than can be found in other edible grains, but also on account of the almost exact balance in which the nitrogenous and non-nitrogenous constituents exist in that cereal, and owing to which it is capable of ministering to all the requirements of the human frame, and of being assimilated at once and without effort by our organs, whence the name of " staff of life," which is often given to it, wheat being, like milk, a perfect food. Although gluten is one of the most important constituents of wheat, the imtritive power of its flour, and its value as a bread-making material, should not be altogether considered as dependent upon the quantity of gluten it may contain, even though it be of the best quality. Doubtless a high percentage of this material is desirable, but there are other considerations which must be taken into account ; for, in order to become available for making good bread, flour, in addition to being sound and genuine, must possess other qualities beyond containing merely a large amount of gluten. Thus, for example, the hU rouge glace d^AuvergnCy which contains hardly 45 per cent, of starch, and as much as 36 per cent, of gluten, though admirably adapted for the manufacture of macaroni, vermicelli, semolina, and other pates d'ltalie^ is totally unfit for making good bread ; the flour used for making best white loaves containing only from 10 to 18 per cent, of gluten, and from 60 to 70 per cent, of starch. Bread is obtained by baking a dough, previously fermented either by an admixture of yeast or leaven, or it is artificially rendered spongy by causing an acid, muriatic or tartaric, ' to react upon carbonate or bicarbonate of soda, or of ammonia, mixed in the doughy mass ; or, as in Dr. Dauglish's process, which will be described further on, by mixing the flour which has to be converted into dough, not with ordinary water, but with water strongly im- pregnated with carbonic acid. The conversion of flour into bread includes two distinct operations — namely, the prepa- ration of the dough, and the baking. The preparation of the dough, however, though reckoned as one, consists, in fact, of three operations — ^namely, hydrating^ kneading^ and fermenting. When the baker intends to make a batch of bread, his first care is, in technical lan- guage, to stir a ferment. This is done, in London, by boiling a few potatoes, in the pro- portion of 5 lbs. or 6 lbs. of potatoes per sack of flour, (which is the quantity we shall assume it is desired to convert into bread,) peeling them, mashing and straining them through a cullender,, and adding thereto about three-quarters of a pailful of water, 2 or 3 lbs. of flour, and one quart of yeast. The water employed need not be warmed beforehand, for the heat of the potatoes is sufficient to impart a proper temperature (from 70" to 90° F.) to the liquid mass, which should be well stirred up with the hand into a smooth, thin, and homo- geneous paste, and then left at rest. In the course of an hour or two, the mass is seen to rise and fall, which swelling and heaving up is due to carbonic acid, generated by the fermentation induced in the mass, which may be thus left until wanted. In about three hours, this fermenting action will appear to be at an end, and when it has arrived at that stage, it is fit to be used. The fer- menf, however, may be left for six or seven hours and be still very good at the end of that time, but the common practice is to use it within four or five hours after its preparation. BREAD. 181 The next operation consists in " setting the sponge.'" This consists in stirring the fer- ment well, adding thereto about two gallons of lukewarm water, and as much flour as will make, with the ferment, a rather stiff dough. This constitutes " the sponge.'' It is kept in a warm situation, and in the course of about an hour, fermentation again begins to make its appearance, the mass becomes distended or is heaved up by the carbonic acid produced, the escape of which is impeded by the toughness of the mass. This carbonic acid is the result of the fermentation induced under the influence of water, by the action of the gluten upon the starch, a portion of which is converted thereby into sugar, and then into alcohol. A time, however, soon comes when the quantity of carbonic acid thus pent up becomes so great that it bursts through, and the sponge collapses or drops down. This is called the jirst sponge ; but as the fermentation is still going on, the carbonic acid soon causes the sponge to rise again as before to neariy twice its volume, when the carbonic acid, bursting through the mass, causes it to fall a second time ; and this constitutes what the bakers call the second sponge. The rising and falling might then go on for twenty-four hours ; but as the alco- holic would pass into the acetous fermentation soon after the second rising, the baker always interferes after the second, and very frequently after the first sponge. The bread made from the first sponge is generally sweeter ; but, unless the best flour is used, and even then, the loaf that is made from it is smaller in size and more compact than that which is made with the second sponge. In hot weather, however, as there would be much danger of the bread turning sour, if the sponge were allowed to " take a second faU;' the first sponge is frequently used. The next process consists in breaking the sponge, which is done by adding to It the necessary quantity of water and of salt,— the quantity of the latter substance var^ mg from i lb. to f of a pound per bushel of flour ; that is, from 2^ lbs. to 3| lbs. per sack of flour, (new flour, or flour of inferior quality, always requires, at the very least, 3^ Ibsw per sack, to bind it, that is to say, to render the dough 'sufficiently firm to support 'itself while fermenting.) Salt acts, to a great extent, like alum, though not so powerfully. As to the quantity of water to be used, it depends also a great deal on the quality of the flour the'* best quality absorbing most ; though, as we shall have occasion to remark, the baker too often contrives to force and keep into bread made from mferior flour, by a process called under-baktng, the same amount of water as is normally taken up by that of the best qualitv (i-enerally speaking, and with flour of good average quality, the amount of water is such thii the diluted sponge forms about 14 gallons of liquid. The whole mass is then torn to pieces by the hand, so as to break any lumps that there maybe, and mix it up thoroughlv with the water. This being done, the rest of the sack of flour is gradually added and kneaded into a dough of the proper consistency. This kneading of the dough- may be said to be one of the most important processes of the manufacture, since it not only produces a more com- plete hydration of the flour, but, by imprisoning a certain quantity of air within the dough, *"- and forcibly bringing into closer contact the molecules of the yeast or leaven with the sugar of the flour, and also with a portion of the starch, the fermentation or rising of the wSle mass on which the sponginess of the loaf and its digestibility su"bsequenUy depend, is se- cured. When, by forcing the hand into the dough, the baker sees that, on withdrawing it. none of the dough adheres to it, he knows that the kneading is completed. The doSi il then allowed to remain in the trough for about an hour and a half or two houre, if br^i or German yeast have been employed m making the sponge ; if, on 4he contrary patent ' yeast or hop yeast have been used, three or even four hours may be required for the dough to rise up or, as in technical language, to give proof When the dough is sufficiently proofed, It is weighed off into lumps, shaped into the proper forms, of 4 lbs. 4 oz. eack and exposed for about one hour in an oven to a temperature of about 570° F. the heat gradually falhng to 430 or 420° F. The yield after baking is 94 quartern (not 4-lb.) loaves, or from 90 to 92 really 4-lb. loaves, as large agam as they were when put into the oven in the shape of dough. The manner in which yeast acts upon the flour is, as jet, an unsolved mystery or at any rate an, as yet, unsatisfactorily explained action ; for the term "catalysis" which has sometimes been applied to it, explains absolutely nothing. A yeast, or fermenting material, may be prepared in°various ways ; but onlAhrec kinds of yeast are used by bakers : namely, brewers' yeast, or barm,— German yeast, and patent, or hop yeast , ' .? > f« ^ The most active of these ferments is the first, or brewers' yeast ; it is, as is well known, ^ u!^i*^^^'^^ "^»*erial, of a brownish or drab color, which, when recent, is in a state of slight effervescence, exhales a sour characteristic odor, and has an acid reaction. When viewed through the microscope, it is seen to consist of small globules of various size generally egg-shaped. They were first described by M. Desmavieres. Ihe best, and m fact the only brewers' yeast used in bread-making, is that from the ale breweries ; porter yeast is unavailable for the purpose, because it imparts to the bread a dis- agreeable bitter taste. r r , t^ «»u « uia- German yeast is very extensively used by bakers. It is a pasty but easUy crumbled mass, of an agreeable fruity odor, and of a dingy white color. German yeast will remain m It 182 BREAD. cood for a few weeks, if kept in a cool place. When in good condition, it is an excellent article : but samples of it are occasionally seized on bakers' premises, of a darker cclm-, vis- cid, and emitting an offensive cheesy odor : such German yeast, being m a putrclied state, is, of course, objectionable. .. xi. i i. r xv The so-called " patent yeast'' is the cheapest and at the same time the weakest of these ferments ; very good bread, however, is made with it, and it is most extensively used by bakers It is made either with or without hops : when with hops, it is called hop yeast, and is nothing more than a decoction of hops to which malt is added while in a scalding hot state • when the liquor has fallen to a blood heat, a certain quantity of brewers' or German yeast 'is thoroughly mixed with it, and the whole is left at rest. The use of the hops is in- tended to diminish the tendency of this solution to become acid. Potato yeast is a kind of ''patent yeast " in general use. ^ « „ ^^ tt The theory of panification is not difficult of comprehension. " The flour," says Dr. Ure, " owes this valuable quality to the gluten, which it contains in greater abundance than any of the other cerealia, (kinds of com.) This substance does not constitute, as has been here- tofore imagined, the membranes of the tissue of the perisperm of the wheat ; but is inclosed in cells of that tissue under the epidermic coats, even to the centre of the gram. In this respect the gluten lies in a situation analogous to that of the starch, and of most of the im- mediate principles of the vegetables. The other immediate principles which play a part in panification are particularly the starch and the sugar ; and they all operate as follows :— "The diffusion of the flour through the water hydrates the starch, and dissolves the sugar the albumen, and some other soluble matters. The kneading of the dough, by com- pleting these reactions through a more intimate union, favors also the fermentation of the sugar bv brin'^ing its particles into close contact with those of the leaven or yeast; and the drSwing'out and laminating the dough softens and stratifies it, introducing at the same time oxvcen to aid the fermentation. The dough, when distributed and formed into loaves, is kept some time in a gentle warmth, in the folds of the cloth, pans &c a circumstance pro- pitious to the development of their volume by fermentation. The dimensions of all the lumps of dough now gradually enlai^e, from the disengagement of carbonic acid in the de- composition of the sugar, which gas is imprisoned by the glutinous paste. Were these phe- nomena to continue too long, the dough would become too vesicular ; they must, therefore, be stopped at the proper point of sponginess, by placing the loaf lumps m the oven. Though this causes a sudden expansion of the enclosed gaseous globules, it puts an end to the fermentation, and to their growth ; as also evaporates a portion of the water. " The fermentation of a small dose of sugar is, therefore, essential to true bread-making ; but the quantity actually fermented is so small as to be almost inappreciable. It seems probable that in well-made dough the whole carbonic acid that is generated remains m it amounting to one-half the volume of the loaf itself at its baking temperature, or 212 F. It thence results that less than one-hundredth part of the weight of the flour is all the sugar requisite to produce well-raised bread. . , , , ^ . .. u- r ^«, " Although the rising of the dough is determined by the carbonic acid resulting from the decomposition of the sugar, produced by the reaction of the gluten on hydrated or moist flour, considering that the quantity of sugar necessary to produce fennentetion does not • amotlnt, probablv, to more than one-hundredth part of the weight of the flour employed, and perhaps to even considerably less than that,-the saving and economy which is said to accrue to the consumer from the use of unfermented bread (which is bread m which the ac- tion of yeast is replaced by an artificial evolution of carbomc acid, by decomposing bicar- bonate of soda with muriatic acid, as we said before) is therefore much below -what it has been estimated (25 per cent. !) by some writers ; and it is certamly very far from compen- sating for the various and serious drawbacks which are peculiar to that kind of bread, one Tf wbich-and it is not the least-is its indigestibUity, notwithstandmg all that may have been said to the contrary. _ ^ ^ , •, t» j i. t>i,.,.«:«:«« » " In a pamphlet entitled, ' Instructions for making Unfermented Bread, by a Physician, published in 1846, the formula recommended for bread made of wheat meal is as loUows : "V^eat meal Bicarbonate of soda Hydrochloric acid - Water - Salt 3 lbs. avoirdupois. 4^ drachms troy. 5 fluid drachms and 25 minims, or drops. 30 fluid ounces. f of an ounce troy. "Bread made in this manner," says the author, " contains nothing but flour, common salt and water. It has an agreeable, natural taste, keeps much longer than common bread, is much more digestible, and much less disposed to turn acid," &c. ., ^, , ^, . ,. .^ Uebi- m Ws " Letters on Chemistry," very judiciously rem^ks, " that the mtimate mixture Sf the saliva with the bread, whilst masticating it, is a condition which is/avorable r thTrapid digestion of the starch ; wherefore the porous state of the flour m fermented bread accelerates its digestion." , , . x j l j Now, it is a fact, which can readily be ascertained by any one, that unfermented bread BREAD. 189 is permeated by fluids with difficulty. It will not absorb water, hence its heavy and clammy feel ; nor saliva, hence its indigestibleness ; nor milk, nor butter. Unfermented bread will neither make soup, nor toast, nor poultice. When a slice of ordinary bread is held before a bright fire, a portion of the moisture of the bread, as the latter becomes scorched, is con- verted into steam, which penetrates the interior of the mass, and imparts to it the' spongi- ness so well known in a toast properly made ; but if a piece of unfermented bread be treated in the same manner, the steam produced by the moisture, not being able to penetrate the unabsorbent mass, evaporates, and the result is an uninviting slice, toasted, but hard inside and out, and into which butter penetrates about to the same extent as it would a wooden slab of the same dimensions. " Fermentation," says Liebig, " is not only the best and simplest, but likewise the most economical way of imparting porosity to bread ; and besides, vhemistx, generally speaking^ should never recommend tJte use of chemicals for culinary preparations, for chemicals are seldom met with in commerce in a state of purity. Thus, for example, the muriatic acid which it has been proposed to mix with carbonate of soda in bread is always very impure^ and very often contains arsenic. Chemists never employ such an acid in operations which are certainly less important than the one just mentioned, without having first purified it." la order to remove this ground of objection, tartaric acid has been recommended instead of muriatic acid for the purpose of decomposing the carbonate of soda ; but in that way an- other unsafe compound is introduced, since the result of the reaction is tartrate of soda, a diuretic aperient, and consequently very objectionable salt, for it is impossible to say what mischief the continuous ingestion of such a substance may eventually produce ; and what- ever may be the divergence of opinion,— if there be such a divergence,— as to whether or not the constant use of an aperient, however mild, may be detrimental to health, it surely rnust be admitted that, at any rate, it is better to eschew such, to say the least of it, suspi- cious materials ; and that, at any rate, if deprecating their use be an error, it is an error on the safe side ; — ^after all, a bakehouse is not a chemical laboratory. Before leaving this question of unfermented bread, we must not omit to speak of a re- markable process invented by Dr. Dauglish, and which has lately excited some attention. Without discussing the value of the idea which is said to have led Dr. Dauglish to invent the process in question, we shall simply describe Dr. Dauglish's method of making bread, and give his own versioi of its benefits : — " Taking advantage of the well-known capacity of water for absorbing carbonic acid, whatever its density, in quantities equal to its own bulk, I first prepare the water which is to be used in forming the dough, by placing it in a strong vessel capable of bearing a high pressure, and forcing carbonic acid into it to the extent of say ten or twelve atmospheres," (about 150 to 180 lbs. per square inch ;) " this the water absorbs without any appreciable increase in its bulk. The water so prepared will of course retjun the carbonic acid in solu- tion so long as it is retained in a close vessel under the same pressure. I therefore place the /our and salt, of which the dough is to be formed, also in a close vessel capable of bear- ing a high pressure. Within this vessel, which is of a spheroidal form, a simply-constructed kneading apparatus is fitted, worked from without through a closely-packed stuffing box. Into this vessel I force an equal pressure to that which is maintained in the aiirated water- vessel ; and then, by means of a pipe connecting the two vessels, I draw the water into the . flour, and set the kneading apparatus to work at the same time. By this arrangement the water acts simply as limpid water among the flour, the flour and water are mixed and kneaded together into paste, and to such an extent as shall give it the necessary tenacity. After this is accomplished the pressiire is released, the gas escapes from the water, and in doing so raises the dough in the most beautiful and expeditious manner. It will be quite unnecessary for me to point out how perfect must be the mechanical structure that results from this method of raising dough. In the first place, the mixing and kneading of the flour and water together, before any vesicular property is imparted to the mass, render the most complete incorporation of the flour and water a matter of very easy accomplishment ; and this being secured, it is evident that the gas which forms the vesicle, or sponge, when it i? released, must be dispersed through the mass in a manner which no other method fermen- tation not excepted — could accomplish. But besides the advantages of kneading the dou'^h before the vesicle is formed, in the manner above mentioned, there is another, and perhaps a more important one, from what it is likely to effect by givmg scope to the introduction of new materials into bread-making,- and that is, I find that powerful machme-kneading, continued for several minutes^as the effect of imparting to the dough tenacity or tough- ness. In Messrs. Carr and CoS machine, at Carlisle, we have kneaded some wheaten doi^h for half an hour, and the result has been that the dough has been so tough that it resembled birdlime, and it was with difficulty pulled to pieces with the hand. Other materials, such as rye, barley, &c., are affected in the same manner. So that bv thus knea'ding, I am able to impart to dough made from materials which otherwise would not make light bread, from their wanting that quality in their gluten which is capable of holding or retaimng, the same degree of lightness which no other method is capable of effecting. And I am sanguine of I- I 184 BREAD. being able to make from rye, barley, oatmeal, and other wholesome and nutritious sub- stances, bread as light and sweet as tlie finest wheaten bread. One reason why my process makes a bread so different from all other processes where fermentation is not followed, is, that I am enabled to knead the bread to any extent without spoiling its vesicular property ; whilst all other unfermented breads are merely mixed^ not kneaded. The property thus imparted to my bread by kneading, renders it less dependent on being placed immediately in the oven. It certjuntly cannot gain by being allowed to stand after the dough is formtd, but it bears well the necessary standing and waiting required for preparing the loaves lor baking. " There is one point which requires care in my process, and that is, the baking^ — as tlic dough is excessively cold ; first, because cold water is used in the process ; and next, t'c- cause of its sudden expansion on rising. It is thus placed in the oven some 40° Fahr. in temperature lower than the ordinary fermented bread. This, together with its slow spring- ing until it reaches the boiling point, renders it essential that the top crust shall not be formed until the very last moment. Thus, I have been obliged to have ovens constructed which are heated through the bottom, and are furnished with the means of regulating the heat of the top, so that the bread is cooked through the bottom ; and, just at the last, the top heat is put on and the top crust formed. " With regard to the gain effected by saving the loss by fermentation, I may state what must be evident, that the weight of the dough is always exactly the sum of the weight of flour, water, and salt put into the mixing vessel ; and that, in all our experiments at Carlisle, we invariably made 118 loaves from the same weight of flour which by fermentation made only 105 and 106. Our advantage in gain over fermentation can only be equal to the loss by fermentation. As there has been considerable difference of opinion among men of science with respect to the amount of this loss, — some stating it to be as high as 17^ per cent, and others so low as 1 per cent., — I will here say a few words on the subjeci. Those who have stated the loss to be as high as 17^ per cent, have, in support of their position, pointed to the extra yield from the same flour of bread when made by non-fermentation, compared with that made by fermentation. Whilst those who have opposed this assertion, and stated the loss to be but 1 per cent, or little more, have declared the gain in weight to be simply a gain of extra water, and have based their calculations of loss on the destruction of material caused by the generation of the necessary quantity of carbonic acid to render the bread light. Starting then with the assumption that light bread contains in bulk half solid matter and half aeriform, they have calculated that this quantity of aeriform matter is ob- tained by a destruction of but one per cent, of solid material. In this calculation the loss of carbonic acid, by its escape through the mass of dough during the process of fermenta- tion and manufacture, does not appear to have been taken into account. All who have been in any way practically connected with bakeries, well know how large this lose is, and how important it is that it should be taken into account, that our cdculations may be correct. " One of the strongest proofs that the -escape of gas through ordinary soft bread dough is very lai^e, arises from the fact that when biscuit dough, in which there is a mixture of fatty matter, is prepared by my process, about half the quantity of gas only is needed to obtain an equal amount of lightness with dough that is made of flour and water only, the fatty matter acting to prevent the escape of gas from the dough. Other matters will ope- rate in a similar manner — boiled flour, for instance, added in small quantities. But the as- sumption that light bread is only half aeriform matter is altogether erroneous. Never before has there been so complete a method of testing what proportion the aeriform bears to the solid in light bread as that which my process aftbrds. The mixing vessel at Messrs. Can- and Co.'s works, Cariisle, has an internal capacity of 10 bushels. When 3^ bushels of flour are put into this vessel, and formed into spongy bread dough, by my process, it is quite full. And when flour is mixed with water into paste, the paste measures rather less than half the bulk of the original dry flour. This will therefore represent about If bushels of solid mat- ter expanded into 10 bushels of spongy dough, showing in the dough nearly 5 parts airi- form to 1 solid ; and in all instances, if the baking of this dough has not been accomplished so as to secure the loaves to ' spring ' to at least double their size in the oven, they have always come out heavy bread when compared with the ordinary fermented loaves. This gives the relative proportion of aeriform to solid in light bread at least as 10 to 1, and at once raises the loss by fermentation from 1 to 10 per cent., without taking into account the loss of gas by its passage through the mass of dough. *' Of the quality and properties of the bread manufactiSted by my process, there will shortly be ample means of judging. I may be allowed, however, here to state, what will be evident to all, that the absence of every thing but flour, water, and salt, must render it absolutely pure'; — that its sweetness cannot be equalled except by bread to which sweet materials are superadded ; — that, unlike all other unfermented bread, it makes excellent toast ; and, on account of its high absorbent power, it makes the most delicious sop pud- dings, &c., and also excellent poultice. Sop pudding and poultice made from this bread, BREAD. 185 however, differ somewhat from those made from fermented bread, in being somewhat richer or more glutmous. This arises from the fact of the gluten not havhig been changed or rendered soluble, in the manner caused by fermentation ; but that this is a good quaiitv rather than a bad one, is evident from the fact, that the richer and purer fermented bread is the more glutmous are the sop, &c., made from it ; and the poorer and more adulterated with alum it is, the freer the sop, &c., are of this quality." , Such, then, is Dr. Dauglish's plan, and it is impossible to deny that it possesses great l«l^"ilUlvV« ^ From the fact that, in all his experiments at Carlisle, Dr. Dauglish invariably made 118 loaves from the same weight of flour which, by fermentation, made only 1(j5 or 106 to argue that the gain over fermentation can only be equal to the loss by fermentation i^ to nr^Zrlf?""^- *f ^asty conclusion ; for the gain may be, and is probably due, not to the preservation in the bread of what is generally lost by fermentation, but simply to a reten- lion ot water. • '^ "^ fV,n «' ^K ^^.^^"^"^f ^^^}^^^ *^at the production of the porosity required in bread produced by t«h,fhl^?'' r/"* ^"^^ alcohol evolved by fermentation, entails the loss of a portion of the valuable constituents of the flour, but the amount of that loss should not be estimated I islaklT'^ proportions which the aeriform bear to the solid matter of the loaf afta^ it in^/mn.K^o!' ^^V^^^ej^^^ioii iuduccd in bread differs from that produced at the distillery phere of carbonic acid, the dough is on the contrary thoroughly permeated by an^d retains* consideraWe quantity of atmospheric air introduced into it by the knead^^g^roc^and exTnVw thlnTT t ^^^'^ '^ ^""''^ the acetous fermentation is carried o^nra^'rSn ?o n,l\7 P • •/ '^''"^^' s^'^uJtaneously with the alcoholic fermentations, so that even the 10 parts of aeriform matter to 1 of solid matter in a quartern loaf, are not altogether car t^th'thTatZt"^ ^'-"^ .'t' f«.™entation, but are carbonic acid from that soSe ^^ form matw Z/"' ' •' ""''^ ^^"'.^ *^" ^T^^^ " permeated. On the other hand, the aeri? DosPd to th. ? ^»P"««"%^ "1 the dough, expands to at least twice its volume when ex- bu kv ^ain !, ?h7f T/^ *^^^^^J *"^ accordingly the bread after baking becomes as due toX Pr^^nl f*/'"^™ ""^'"'^i' ""^ ™"^"' ""^ '^^' ^«"^»°g «f theTolume being PrPr^n !ln^ 'f^r^'u*^^ S^^'' ^"^ ^«' *« *^^ fermentation, beaw no proportion what carbonic aoldTnf ^/*^^«"Sar of the flour employed in the production of the^lcohol a^d bv 6 5 n.hP« hi i^'^^'i, ^^'•^r^^' ^ ^ q'^rtem loaf, for example, measures about 9 inches OF fhl Tr^t ^ ?r'°'^''' "'^^'''^ ^ ^^^^^ «f ^^«"' 292 cubic inches, if we take nine-tenths quartern ?o^' "^ "^^'"^'^ "^^ ^"^' ^^^'^ ^°^^^« ^ '^^ ^"*"^^ oubic^ontents of the f..f?Jfi ^°^'"*^^°^f ^eyo?d doubt by numerous .experiments, /that genuine, properiv manu- factured new bread contains, on an average, 425 peVcent. of water, and 57^ Tflourrd rXlVliro" '-'' T°^-'2^ "^'^ ''""^ P^""^^' --^^ consist o/i7,9cS^^ns matter tholi'i?fi^'7T • 'k^-^ ""^^^^ ^^^'^ ^'""^ ^^ ^^^^^ *^ ^^ «°d ''^o^\c Sioi^ 9 X fi-^v I'^l ^^'"'' ^^'"? '?''^ ^'^^ gluten. Now a quartern loaf measuring le-entL of tL to h.'^'^r' "'"!?' ^^ ^'l'"*^'^ ^°'^^«- ^'^"^^^^ "^'^'^ »-• Dauglish^ Jlnf^ ?/ . to be aeriform matter, we have 262-8 .inches as the aeriform cubic con dur n. L V -''T^ Y^ ^"' r '^" Sases expanded in the dough to doubleTheTr vol^e wh cKes la! .4^^^^^^^^ a loaf we n.ust divide by 2 the 262-8 inches above d uded T Sre? went nto th^ ov^^' a'^ '^^'' '°'^'' of aeriform matter contained in the dough inlll 1^ . u u ^^o"^- ^^'"' assuming with Dr. Dauglish that these 131-4 cubic would IZrlT-^''^''^ '''!''''''' "^'^ ^^^'^^^•"S from the fermentation pfX flour they Zll.^^/ •* ? "^^'"^^ '"'^^y ^2 grains of that gas, and as 1 equivalent = 198 of sS sCaror«olT'?/'"''r/l"^^"''^«^^^ ^^'^^ '' ^«"«^« '^^'^ ^' "««*. ^bout 140 g^i3 Which loss s less than 1 per cent., from which, however, it is necessary to make a eoimiZ^' Sd manufacturei by 0^1)1^-^''' '' ""^ ^' satisfactorily proved that the unferTent^ Jlf;Xl7but a^trL'^^^^^^^^^ ^'^^ ^^^ pun^hasersof the'unfermented that^whth tlKu^^^^^ .*^', manufacture of bread, the most laborioas, and on in sorn^ dirwf p^ for reform, is that of kneading. The process is usually cairied frequently more h?r "" ' 'f-"'' Z^''^. '^ temperatui? is seldom less than 60^^^ ScaSZ fin!^r f ^ ''"?P^^ "*^^^ ^«^° ^ *^^ ^^i^^ and painfully engag^i in Shed fists hP^fi k"^^^ gluey mass into which he furiously plunges alteS^hi^ clenched fists, heavily breathmg as he, strugghng, repeatedly lif^ up thi bulky a^d ten^ f I I 186 BREAD. cious mass in his powerful arms, and with eflfort flings it down again with a groan fetched from the innermost recesses of his chest, and which almost sounds like an imprecation. We know, on very good and unexceptionable authority, that a certain large bakery on the borders of a canal, actually pumped the water necessary for making the dough directly and at once from the canal, and this from a point exactly contiguous to the dischargings of the cesspool of that bakery ! And let us not imagine that this is a sohtary instance of hor- rible filth. The following memoranda, recorded by Dr. Wm. A. Guy, in his admirable lec- ture on " The Evils of Night-work and Long Hours of Labor," delivered on Thursday, July 6, 1848, at the Mechanics' Institution, Southampton Buildings, will serve to illustrate the condition of the bakehouses : — 1. Underground, two ovens, no daylight, no ventilation, very hot and sulphurous. 2. Underground, no daylight, two ovens, very hot and sulphurous, low ceiling, no ven- tilation bu* what comes from the doors. Very large business. 3. Underground, no daylight, often Hooded, very bad smells, overnm with rats, no ven- tilation. After mentioning several other establishments in the same, or even in a worse condition, than those just enumerated. Dr. Guy adds : — " The statements comprised in the foregoing memoranda are in conformity with my own observations. Many of the basements in which the business of baking is carried on are cer- tainly in a state to require the assistance of the Commissioners of Sewers, and to invite the attention of the promoters of sanitary reform." If we reflect that bread, like all porous substances, readily absorbs the air that surrounds it, and that, even under the best conditions, it should never, on that account, be kept in confined places, what must bo the state of the bread manufactured in such a villanous man- ner, and with a slovenliness greater than it is possible for our imagination to conceive ? What can prove better the necessity of Government supervision than such a fact ? The heart sickens at the revolting thought, but, after all, there is really but little difference be- tween the particular case of the bakery on the border of a canal above alluded to, and the mode of kneading generally pursued, and to which we daily submit. In the sitting of the Institute of France, on the 23d of January, 1850, the late M. Arago presented and recommended to the Academic the kneading and baking apparatus of M. RoUand, then a humble baker of the 12th Arrondissement, which, it would appear, fulfils all the conditions of perfect kneading and baking. " The kneading machine {petrin mecanique) of M. RoUand," says Arago, " is extremely simple, and can be easily worked, when under a full charge, by a young man from 15 to 20 years old : the necessity for horse labor or steam power may thus be obviated. The machine Xfig^' *}^ to 74) consists of a horizontal axis traversing a trough containing all the dough requisite for one baking batch, and upon which axis a system of curvilinear blades, alter- nately long and short, are placed in such a manner that, while revolving, they describe two quarters of cylindrical surfaces with contrary curves, so that the convexity of one of these surfaces, and the concavity of the other, is turned towards the bottom of the trough. The axis has a fly-wheel, and is set in motion by two small cog-wheels connected with the han- dle, as represented in the following figures : — VI 72 BREAD. 187 73 74 ..J^^ J?'"*" ""^ the kneading machine is both easy and efficacious. In 20 and if neces- sary, m lo, or even 10 minutes, a sack of flour may be converted \niol r^kl^tul^^ TZ tW ""''l^t 'r^.'' T?^"' ^^^^^^ '"-P« or^lods anTaU<^^lther^^^^^^^^^ Ipn^H- t ''^.;!^'* ^^ ^^'^^^ ^y ™^°"^' kneading. The time required in knSL vaS ?acTured\1hat^^^^^^^^ ^''' ' •"'^'' '^"^' 7^"^"^ ' ^"^ the'quantity o?dougf ^a^?- ro!, Jh f *^^* »Pace of time vanes, of course, also with the dimensions of the kneadin?- trough for mstance, in the trough provided with 16 blades one sack and a h«lf nr fl«^ can^b^ k^neaded at once ; in that ti l\ blades, one sack, a^d ii tKn2tad\s,'^^^^^^^^^^ M. Rolland gives the following instructions for the use of the machine in orrlpr ♦« i,« part to the dough the qualities produced by the operations knowrfnF^nceinSerl^^^ offrasage, contrefra^age, and .oufflage, which we shall presently deS and to whichThf bread manufactured in that country mainly owes, in the words of DrUre "a Lor color and texture, never yet equalled in London." ' ' ^^^®^' wo.?"® necessary quantity of leaven or yeast is fii-st diluted with the proper auantitv of water, as described before ; and in order to effect the mixture, the crank sK Kade to perform 50 revolutions alternately from ri^^ht to left — ;^r,,»««r;«VKf « ? • ^ made to igmmmmmm oLt^Z T'^^^T ^ accomplished in twenty or twenty-five minutes. ' intoi:,^t^J^^,':^^^-'^lt'>^, i^ "Jf 'o 7' for «>»e time, and then divided each hanS, 'roUs tK^" dS^ theSt ^,h?ii.Tre't "^Z' T "^ ">r J-^P' '" rate in its ;.„«,„„; he' p^ceerwim*^ VZ^h n-'r^e-'jT.IS Mi 188 BREAD. leaves all the lumps to swell, which, if the flour have been of good quality, wUl take place at a uniform rate. They are then fit for baking, which operation will be described presently The Hot-water Oven Biscuit-baking Company possesses also a good machine with which 1 cwt. of biscuit dough, or 2 cwts. of bread dough, can be perfectly kneaded in 10 minutes The machine is an American invention, and of extraordinary simplicity, for it is in reality nothing more than a large corkscrew, working in a cylinder, by means of which the dough is triturated squeezed, pressed, torn, hacked, and finally agglomerated as it is pushed along The dough, as it issues from that machine, can at once be shaped into loaves of suitable size and dimensions. A machine capable of doing the amount of work alluded to does not come to more than from £6 to £7 ; the other forms of kneading machines are likewise inexpen- sive, so that, in addition to the economy of time which they realize, there does not seem to be any excuse for retaining the abomination of manual kneading. Among superior and very desirable apparatus for bread-making, there are at any rate three which fulfil the desiderata above alluded to, in the most complete and economical manner. One of them is M. Mouchot's aerothermal bakery ; the second is A M Perkins' hot-water oven ; the tliird is Rolland's hot-air oven, with revolving floors : allthree are ex- cellent. Perkins' hot-water oven is an adaptation of that distinguished engineers^ stove which as IS well known, is a mode of heating by means of pipes full of water, and hemJeticallv closed ; but with a sufficient space for the expansion of the water in the pipes. As a means of warming buildings, the invention has already produced the very beneficial effects which have gamed for it an extensive patronage. There is no doubt but that this novel applica- tion entitles the inventor to the warmest thanks of the public. The following figure (75) represents one of these ovens, a, stove; b, coil of iron pipe placed in the stove- c c flowpipe ; D, expansive tube ; e, oven charged with loaves, and surrounded with the hot- water pipes ; F, return hot-water pipe ; o, door of the oven ; h, flue for the escape of the vapors m the oven ; i, rigid bar of iron supporting the regulating box ; j, j, regulating box containing three small levers; k, nut adjusted so that if temperature of the hot-water pipe IS increased beyond the adjusted point, its elongation causes the nut to bear upon the levers in the box, j, which levers, lifting the straight rod l, shut the damper m of the stove • n is an index indicating the temperature of the hot wuter pipes. ' The oven is first built in the ordinary manner of sound brickwork, made very thick in order to retain the heat. Then the top and bottom of the internal surfaces are lined with wrought-iron pipes of one inch external diameter, and five-eighths of an inch internal diam- eter, and their surface amounts, in the aggregate, to the whole surface of the oven. These pipes are then connected to a coil in a furnace outside the oven. The coil having such a relative proportion of surface to that which is in the oven, that the pipes may be raised to a temperature of 550° F., and no more. This fixed and uniform temperature is maintained by a self-regulating adjustment peculiar to this furnace, which works with great precision, and which cannot get out of order, since it depends upon the expansion of the upper as- cending pipe close to the furnace acting upon three levers connected with the damper which regulates the draught. The movable nut at the bottom of that expanding pipe being adjusted to the requisite temperature, that precise temperature is uniformly retained. The BREAD. ^ j3^ the damper. f u i oi one muty-sixth part of an inch is sufficient to close It will be observed, that if the pipe be heated to 'i^O' P' tK« k • i i •,. the same temperature, or nearly so and accor(«n.!rv fho ' *^<^.,b"ckwork will soon attain amount of the'heating surface of o%inary ove^ th, sitenrpj^v^s "^^ '' ^^^' '■^^^^^%l^^^::rs^ report t^SLfoK^^^ ^«y-. and Poncelet, in their Committee of Chemical Arts ?o the sLcie^te ^T^^^^^^^^^ * "^^^"^ °^^" ^° '^^ °^^ ^^ ^be represented that oven as surcessfullvmp^tnl ,*J f "^^^"'^ement ; and the late M. Arago hygiene. Wood, coals and Ses^rffi Snir^T' "^ '"^"^"*^' eleanUnessTd the heated air of 'the fu'mace Sn fin Wsrto U^ p T '*' ^f r'^'' «°^«^« "«' a distance from the mouth of throven but inl»^ f ^'"'''^ ' *?^ ^'"'^^ '^ P'^^^d at the hot-water oven, it is the smoke and hot 2ofthI r'^'^'^'V^^ ^^at by pipes, as in fan-shaped flues, ramifyin- under the floor .In « a-^ furnace which, circulating through to it th^ requisite temperature The floo^' of the'r^n°LTh'h^r[ "' '^^ «^^"' '^^^ consists of glazed tiles, and it can thus be kent LSi ''",''^*<^^ Sl^ loaves are deposited, of M. Rolland's oven, however i^ thTthe^&il^i^ ^^.'^^^'^- ^^^ distinctive charade^ platform, which the Wkman ^adtj v or^'S^t !^^^^ T.' '^^'" "^ '''' "P«° * ^^«»^g small handle, and without effort * ' ^^ ^ *'°'^> "'^^^^^^ ^"^^ by means of ! redu^eTs?alI' '' '' "^"""^ '^^ ^^^^^^^-^ -^ Wearance of M. Rolland's oven on a 76. Front elevation. 77. Vertical section through the axis of the fire-grate. 78. Ditto, ditto. 79. Elevation of one of the vertical flues. 80. Suspension of the floors. 81. Plan ofthe first floor. 82. Plan of the sole. 83. Plan of the second floor. 84. Plan of the fire-grate and flues 85. Plan of the portion under ground. H ^^ol^^lZnZttJ^o^^^^^^^ ^ fi-t loaves, by means of a and when that portion is filled, he .^^^^ loaves in the fresh space thus presented before WrTlnHcn ^'^' -f? P'^^^^^ *« P"' the The door Ls then clo^d through an openii^ co^^^^^^^ wi?h i"""' "°'i^ '^^ "^""^^ ^ ^"^ "P- the oven, which is Ughted up with a^et o^^r or hi ^ •'"'' f ^.^^erved in the waU of the progress of the^aking may be watched WT. ^ "^"""^ *^^ ^**«" ^"^°^ ^^^ '» time, slow on another, the journey^jS^can bf me.;/^^.^^^^^''^^^ ""P*^ ^" «°« P<>i«t. or to<^ to the hottest pirt ofthe oJSr2^vice,^^^^^ •^°^^' ^""^ '^^ loaves succksively Tided with a thermometer ^d in an ZT'- ''.^''''' "^^ ^^- The oven is pel 210^0. =410^F.,thel^ingofrfuUcS?:e"^^^^^ the tempei^ture indicated ^dSted^f^^- ±r- - --^ -^t^^^^^^^^ sary^;^: fh^e ^taTon X't^tt^Z!':/^^^^^^ *^^ ^^^ "eees- ehot's excepted) is los. The workiaklo^Jr^kl '"^T^^t^^f^^^^^^ iii 190 BREAD. pan, for otherwise the leaden pipe would melt and occasion dangerous leaks. For this and other reasons, the safest plan, however, would be to replace this leaden pipe by an iron one. Tlie said pan should be frequently scoured, for, if neglected, the water will become 11 81 rusty, and spoil the color of the bread. Bread-baking may be considered as consisting of four operations— namely, heating the oven, putting the dough into the oven, baking, and li" > 11: 192 BREAD. taking the loaves out of the oven. The general directions given by M. Rolland for each of these operations are as follows : — In order to obtain a proper heat, and one that may be easily managed, it is necessary to charge the furnace moderately and often, and to keep it in a uniform state. When the fire is kindled, the door should be kept perfectly closed, in order to compel the current of air necessary to the combustion to pass through the grate, and thence through the flues under and the dome over the oven. If, on the contrary, the furnace door were left ajar, the cold air from without would rapidly pass over the coals, without becoming 86 properly heated, and, passing in that condition into the flues, would fml in raising it to the proper temperature. In order that the flame and heated products of the combustion may pass through all the flues, it is, of course, necessary to keep them clear by introducing into them once a month a brush made of wire, or whalebone, or those which are now generally used for sweeping the tubes of maiine tubular boilers, and the best of which are those patented and manufactured by Messrs. Moriarty, of Greenwich, or How, of London. The vertical flues which are built in the masonry are cleared from without or from the pit, ac- cording to the nature of the plan adopted in building the oven. These flues need not be cleaned more often than about once in three months. Sweeping between the floors should be performed about every fortnight. In case of accident or injury to the thermometers, the following directions, which, in- deed, apply to all ovens, may enable the baker to judge of the temperature of his oven : — If, on throwing a few pinches of flour on the tiles of the oven, it remains white after the lapse of a few seconds, the temperature is too low ; if, on the contrary, the flour assumes a deep brown color, the temperature is too high ; if the flour txums yellowish, or looks slightly scorched; the temperature is right. The baking in Holland's oven takes place at a temperature varying from 410° to 432° F., according to the nature and size of the articles intended to be baked. During the baking, the revolving floor is turned every ten or twelve minutes, so that, the loaves not remaining in the same place, the baking becomes equal throughout. BREAD. 193 coot? tU' ut'^frotsxnt^^^^ tsf " '"^"^r' = known in thia country, otherwise, than b;harirt?n^uded t^ fnT^'"' " "" "»' ''""' logical publications or dictionaries. ^ ^ '" °°*= *"■ '*» t^lmo- Tiie quantity of bread wliich can be made from o a«r.v nt o™. j j upon the quantity of gluten that the flo "tJ„S ft Stl ^1^^^'^. '? " ^^' "'«'" contains a la.^e proportion of nitrogenous matter, d-^nofjlTrwht //'''''' 'I?'"' which are poorer. From a great nuSber of deteriiMUontiUsfo^n^H ..,?"" "^ "'"''* .b.juSrthffrys>:tL-ra=\fel^^^^^^^ that amount of businei mTbe^mnuttd at 1^07;^- ^ f ?'^" "'P"^ "' » ^^' ^"m his rent may be estimatS at atout £5? Lf^l^\ P«"'='"-gi™s£15 intercstt about £26, in all £9™ or very Sv £^' Vf, ^L ' ^^' ^'t- '^^ ""«=' "P«°^s »^ would give 8,. OK peJ S^ct ^ ^ ^' "'*''• ""<='' "™. <""d«d by 12, weigh" i?28at7 S-m mK^r^ai"! •ih'^r""" Y"" ^"''°" "-» ^ ^^ <>( such a flour, although" a sack of sS flot may J^eld him MTelTpf"^™* »f P"«' S^-'-^ "read." . From this account it may te e£uHr.ined Z,Tf !f ^^T"" ^"^ *■">•) '»«'''=** ing at once of all the loaves of U,Zv^,iS-.k '? "^^ ""^^ ™«=«'d in dispoa- delivery at his custome J^r^id^ot/ su^a^.!!*" ''^ '*'?/'• *? *°P' "»■• ^"" >«"«'. "J commercially speaking, f^r rthaflyTe ^ourstu ft^m as-toliTh " T"^"^ T' price of bread, not to speak of thp dpfinJ^nf 1^- w 1! 1 , ^ ^* ^^^ ^^ ^'^ter at the provokingly require to have 1 rWrwelref a\^ '^""^ ^^'.^« ^^y P^^P^^ about having their short weight m7eTp S 1 the oIT'iT h T '? ''^"^ilj particular first, second, and third dav do so obstinkt!?. V • . • ^^^*^*!' *^^ ^^^"'^ between the the loss of weight thus sSned neurit h^^^^^^^ ^T'^ '"i ^^"'"^ ^^^'' ^^*^^ evaporate, that the first day atVZntr To th^^^^^^^^^ '^t ^7^' ^^?'?^"^ "P«° '^' ^^^^^' «*>'d on own door, to those who%?e baker knownror^^^ ^^^"^ their bread delivered at their trouble to verify the weight of his loavl^ fnTJ i''''' "^^ ^^<>^'»«'»«. ^'^^ never take the about it. ^ ^ *"* ^'' ^''''' ^'' ^^ ^^«' he says, are gentlefolH, and no mistake alum^aid tferb^tlnllU' Totb^"^^^^ "^^ ^' ,tT' ^^ ^^ ''^^ ^ «^ ^^ from inferior flour, or material their nmSf ? U ' I ' aI * f ^^ ^^^"^ ^^^er of loaves they are compelled to sell S sophiSed bread'^Jw^^ * • ' T^'^ ^?^^^ P"^ ^* ^^^^ ' little ; their emphatically hard labo^S ttm bn/ f^ ^^^l^^^tampenngs avail them but be so extensive that the small profitsTwell ud int^ « f ^"^^^^ ^^^'^^ *^"^ ^^^^^^ jeopardize their name as fair anHoLt ttdesmen "^^ ""^^ "" ''^'^ '"^ "^'^ «°^^ by their use^appeaJto b^well ™^^^ considemtions, the^profits /ealized ovens the economy LrauDorthPwJii^ .^"^f ', ^ 'e°*»«°- ■«"' as with the improved able in a small concern tZ in a Ta4e oZ tI"'^' t advantages are much less coSsider- flour per week, would scarSvexoptFont-n-^"'' ^^^ f ^"^^^^ ^^^^ "P^^ ^2 sacks of assume considerSe prSi^ns^ K? H ^^^^"' ^^'^^^^ ^^ ^^^ <^«'»'«rS We ffive herp thp fni w establishments bakmg from 60 to 100 sacks ner week rate oMoZ^l^Lf^^^^ of ^converting flour in^ bre^d at^e flour manufacSrfd inTo g'enS bread Tn X^ ''5.-^'^ ^' ^^^ ''^"^ "P^"' ^^ ^^^^s of loaves, and the account w3 !f«.T ' ^n*^^ '''?\'^''y ^^^^ ^^^^^ y^^ld 6,300 real 4-lb. OS the ultimate Sd of T^klJ IS f'''''^' f '."^ ^^ ^«^^^^' ^^'g^^S really 4 Ib^ alluded to :- ^ ^^ ^^ ^^^^ household flour, of the quality and price above £;/ the Ordinary Process. RETURNS. £ *. d. 183 15 6,300 loaves (4 lbs.) Sitld. • ^^f^nL'l^^^^^ hav'¥hatV'S;Sl'""H" Sf-*"ri^ ^onr-ponnds and quartern loaves majority ore from'S'to d" oSncS SS ^'^'*'"^ '^'^^^^ ^^^^^ ^^^<^"^ ^^^ Po^^^ but the inuneDse Vol. III.— 13 ; 194 BREAD. IXPENSES. £ $. d, 70 sacks of household flour at 8*7 1. - • - - - 129 10 Coals, gas, potatoes, yeast, salt, wages, and other baking ex- penses, at b». per sack 17 10 Rent, taxes, interest of capital, and general expenses - - 24 10 Net profit on 1 week's baking ^12 £j/ Perkinses Process. RETURNS. 10 6 6,300 loaves (4 lbs.) at 7rf. • EXPENSES. £ 9. d. 70 sacks of flour at 37«. 129 10 Yeast, potatoes, and salt, at Ls. per sack - - - - 8 10 Coals at 6- Such flour is still mixed wSiT^Lnts Vbrn^ ^nS i« f ""y^^ 5^ ^T ^^^ ^P^'^ted. ture of so-called white flour and i^l oft ' "^ '^ employed m trade to the manufac- stead of that, I on7y separate, Tnd 'Xut^bS iUo Itesh^^^t'^ '' r^*"'"^" ^^ in two parts, about 70 parts if white flZr and 15 tn^i « ^f ^^u *^'"«^'"g' '^e rough flour latter the yeast is made ; this I dilute w^th a «„jlh ^ I ^r"?.^ *"'" ^''^'^^ ^^'^^^ «*" ^^ch the whole flour into a dough, say 50 ^r cent Tthp^Tl*^ ^^. Z^"^'^ '"®^^^'^* *« ^°^on yield either white or middle bread ' whilst hv?hp • ^"""'^^ extracted, which are fit to wheat, 85 to 88 parts will be ob^iJed 3^^^ process out of 100 parts of neatness, and nutritious riclmel ' ^ ^ ^"^^^ ""^ '"P^"^"* ^^^i'^' of the best taste, ^^^'orZTsyF-^^^^^^ be.dried at a temper- vious to being made use of, it should be S5lnto^l(?^n.f ""V^™^ '^^^ ^"^^^' ^^ P^ for 8 to 10 hours, a fit time'for the liquid Sfbrouc^M LT ^ ^7T'' ^^^''^ sweetened, time the yeast has recovered its former S)wei'' Thp^° "" ^"" fermentation, at which facturing rye bread, only 25 perTnt ^bont l^ '^^ t"^'^ ^'" ^«*^ ^^^^ fer manu- manufacturing biscuits, fuse a^ o thTsimt nrec^ 'orth,7 "^ "^ ''. ^"*^^^- ^^^^ immediately taken into the oven, and the Sr^^^ thn, nL ?''!? *' "^^^ ^'^^^ »^^ *nd common biscuits, both for their rrood tlltf^T obtained are far superior tathe practice exclude kll manner rfermentat on thp ^^^^1:^^!^' ^^«"'^' ^^^^^^e^, an old n I*' '■I 19S BREAD. efltHHivoW remove all causes of alteration, which generally impair the biscuits made of in- ferior Hour. " The apparatus required for this process is very plain, and consists of a kneading- trough, in which tlie foul parts are mixed mechanically, or by manual labor, with the li(|uid alH>ve ujentioned. From this trough, and through an opening made therein, the liquid mixture drops into the fermenting tub, deeper than wide, which must be kept tightly closed during the fermenting work. At the lower part of this tub a cock is fitted, which lets the liquid mixture down ujwn an inclined plane, on which the liquid spreads, so as to be equally distributed over the whole surface of the sieve. This sieve, of an oblong rectangular form, is laid just beneath, and its tissue ought to be so close as to prevent the least fiagments of bran from passing through ; it is actuated by the hand, or rather by a crank. In all cases, that i^art of the sieve which is opposite to the cock must strike upon an unyielding body, for the purpose of shaking the pellicles remaining on the tissue, and driving them down towards an outlet on the lower part of the sieve, and thence into a trough purposely con- trived for receiving the waters issuing from the sieve, and discharging them into a tank. " The next operation consists in diluting those pellicles, or rougher parts, which could not pass through the sieve, sifting them again, and using the white water resulting there- from to dilute the foul parts intended for subsequent operations. The sieve or sieves may sometimes happen to be obstructed by some parts of gluten adhering therejto, which I wash off with acidulated water for silk tissues, and with an alkali for metallic ones. This washing method I deem very important, as its non-npplication may hinder a rather large Operation, and therefore I wish to secure it. This apparatus may be liable to some Tariations, and ad- mit of several sieves superposed, and with different tissues, the broadest, however, to be placed uppermost. " Among the various descriptions and combinations of sieves that may be employed, the annexed figures show one that will give satisfactory results : " Fig. 87 is a longitudinal section, and/gr. 88 an end view, of the machine from which the bran is ejected. The apparatus rests upon a cast-iron framing, a, consisting of two cheeks, kept suitably apart by tie pieces, b ; a strong cross-bar on the upper part admits a wood cylinder c, circled round with iron, and provided with a wooden cock, d. The cylin- der, c, receives through its centre an arbor*/, provided with four arms, e, which arbor is sup- ported by two cross-bars, p and h, secured by means of bolts to the uprights, ». Motion is imparted to the arbor, /, by a crank, j, by pulleys driven by the endless straps, k, and bv the toothed wheel, /, gearing into the wheel, m, which is keyed on the upper end of the ar- bor, f. Beneath the cylinder, c, two sieves, n and o, are borne into a frame, />, suspended on one end to two chains, g, and on the other resting on two guides or bearings, r, beneath which, and on the crank shaft, are cams, .perty of liquefying gelatinous starch, and weighs 38 paits, (the remainder of the water is retained in tlu; bran, whicli has swelled up in consequence, and remains on tlie sieve.) The leaven is then diluted with that water, which is loaded with best flour, and is used for converting into dough the 38 parts of white groats above alluded to ; the dough is then divided into suitable portions, and, alter allowing it to stand for one hour, it is finally put in the oven to be baked. As the operations just described take place at a temperature of 25' C, (= 77° F.,) the one hour during which the dough is left to itself, is not sufficient for the cerealin to pass into the state of ferment, and the consequence is the pnKiuction of white bread. Should, however, the temperature be higher than that, or were the ilough allowed to be kept for a longer time before baking, the bread produced, instead of being white, would be so much darker, as the contact would have lasted longer. By this process, 100 parts in weight of wheat yield 136 parts of dough, and finally, 115 parts in weight of bread," instead of 100, which the same quantity of wheat would have yielded in the usual way. This is supposing that the grinding of the wheat has been effected with close-set millstones ; if ground in the usual way, the average yield does not exceed 112 parts in weight of bread. The substances which are now almost exclusively employed for adulterating bread, are wntevy alone or incorporated with rice, or voter and alum : other substances, however, are or have been occasionally used for the same purpose ; they are, ^dphate of copper, carbo- nate of magnesia, sulphate of zinc, carbonate of ammonia, carbonate and bicarbonate of pot- axh, carbonate and bicarbonate of soda^ chalk, plaster, litne, clay, starch, potatoes, and other fectda. This retention of water into bread is secured by underbaking, by the introduction of rice and feculas, and of alum. Underbaking is an operation which consists of keeping in the loaf the water which otherwise would escape while baking ; it is, therefore, a process for selling water at the price of bread. It is done by introducing the dough into an oven unduly heated, whereby the gases contained in the dough at once expand, and swell it up to the ordinary dimen- sions, whilst a deep-burnt crust is immediately afterwards formed ; which, inasmuch as it is a bad conductor of heat, prevents the interior of the loaf from being thoroughly baked, and at the same time opposes the free exit of the water contained in the dough, and which the heat of the oven partly converts into steam ; while the crust becomes thicker and darker than it otherwise should be, a sensible loss of nutritive elements being sustained, at the same time, in the shape of pyrogenous products which are dissipated. The proportion of water retained in bread by underbaking is sometimes so large, that a baker may thus obtain as much as 106 loaves from a sack of flour. The addition of boiled rice to the dough is also pretty frequently used to increase the yield of loaves ; this substance, in fact, absorbs so much water, that as many as 116 quartern loaves have thus been obtained from one sack of flour. From a great number of experiments, made with a view to determine the normal quan- tity of water contained in the crumb of genuine bread, it is ascertained that it amounts, in new bread, from 38 at least to at most 47 per cent The quantity of water contained in bread is easily determined by cutting a slice of it, weighing 600 grains, for example, placing it in a small oven heated by a gas-burner or a lamp to a temperature of about 220° F., until it no longer loses weight ; the difference between the first and last weighing (that is to say, the loss) indicating, of course, the amount of water. Alum, however, is the principal adulterating substance used by bakers, almost without exception, in this metropolis ; as was proved by Dr. Normanby, in his evidence before the Select Committee of the House of Commons, appointed in 1 855, under the presidence of Mr. W. Scholefield, to inquire into the adulteration of food, drinks, and drugs, which as- sertion was corroborated and established beyond doubt by the other chemists who were examined also on the subject. The introduction of alum into bread not only enables the baker to give to bread made of flour of inferior quality the whiteness of the best bread, but to force and keep in it a larger quantity of water than could otherwise be done. We shall see presently that this fact has been denied, and on what grounds. The quantity of alum used varies exceedingly ; but no appreciable effect is produced when the proportion of alum introduced is less than 1 in 900 or 1,000, which is at the rate of 27 or 28 grains in a quartern loaf. The use of alum, however, has become so universal, and the Act of Parliament which regulates the matter has so long been considered as a dead letter from the trouble, and chance of pecimiary loss which it entails on the prosecutor should his accusation prove unsuccessful, that but few, and until quite lately none, of the public oflBcers would undertake the discharge of a duty most disagreeable in itself, and at the same time full of risk. BREAD. 201 When alum is used in making bread, one of the two following things may happen : either the alum will be decomposed, as just said, in which case the alumina will,' of neces- sity, be set free as soon as digestion will have decomposed the organic matter with which it wa-s combined ; and thus it is presumable that either alum will be re-formed in the stomach, or that, according to Liebig, the phosphoric acid of the phosphates of the bread, uniting with the alumina of the alum, will form an insoluble phosphate of alumina, and the benefi- cial action of the phosphates will, consequently, be lost to the system ; and since phosphoric acid forms with alumina a compound hardly decomposable by alkalis or acids, this may, per- haps, explain the indigestibility of the London bakers' bread, which strikes all foreigners. Le'Jcrs on Chemistry. Tiie last defence set up in behalf of alumed bread to be noticed, is, that, with certain descriptions of flour, bread cannot be made without it ; that, by means of alum, a lar*^ quantity of flour is made available for human food, which, without it, must be withdrawn, and turned to some other less important uses, to the great detriment of the population, and particularly of the poor, who would be the first to suffer from the increase of the price of bread which such a withdrawal must fatally produce. The process usually adopted for the detection of alum, is that known as Kuhlman*3 pro- cess, which consists in incinerating about 3,000 grains of bread, poif>h>iizing the ashes so obtained, treating them by nitric acid, evaporating the mixture to dryness, and diluting the residue with about 300 grains of water, with the help of a gentle heat ; without filterin«' a solution of caustic potash is then added, the whole is boiled a little, filtered, the filtrate' is tasted with a solution of sal ammoniac, and boiled for a few minutes. If a precipitate is formed, it is not alumina, as hitherto thought, and stated by Kuhlman and all other chem- i.4s, but phosphate of alumina,— x circumstance of great importance, not in testing for the presence of alumina, but for the determination of its amount, as will be shown further on, wlien entering into the details of the modifications which it is necessary to make to Kuhl- mau's process. In a paper read in April, 1858, at the Society of Arts, Dr. Odling stated that out of 46 exammations of ashes furnished him by Dr. Gilbert, and treating them by the above process, he (Dr. Odling) obtained, to use his own words, " in 21 instances, the celebrated white pre^ cipitate said to be indicative of alumina and alum, so that, had these samples been in the manufactured instead of the natural state— had the wheat, for example, been made into flour— I should have been justified, according to the authority quoted, in pronouncing it to be adulterated with alum. But a subsequent examination of the precipitates I obtained showed that in reality they were not due to alumina at all. Mr. Kuhlman's process, as above described, is possessed of rare merits : it will never fail in detecting alumina when present, and will often succeed in detecting it when absent also. The idea of weighing this oUa podrida of a precipitate, and from its weight calculating the amount of alum present, as IS gravely recommended by great anti-adulteration adepts, is too preposterous to require a moment's refutation." Having stated the question in dispute as it at present stands, we must leave it to be dis- cussed in another place. In order, however, to render the process for the detection of alum in bread free from objections, the following method is recommended. It requires only ordinary care and it is perfectly accurate : — ' CuUthe loaf in half; take a thick slice of crumb from the middle, carefully trimming the edges so as to remove the crust, or hardened outside, and weigh off 1,600 or 3 000 grains of it ; crumble it to powder, or cut it into slices, and expose them, on a sheet of platinum tray turned up at th6 edges, to a low red heat, until fumes are no longer evolved, and the whole is reduced to charcoal, which will require from twenty to forty minutes, ac^ cording to the quantity ; transfer the charcoal to a mortar, and reduce it to fine powder ; put now this finely-pulverized charcoal back again on the platinum foil trav, and leave it ex- posed thereon to a dark cherry-red heat until reduced to gray ashes, for which purpose gas- luruace lamps will be found very convenient Only a cherry-red heat should be applied, bscause at a higher temperature the ashes might fuse, and the incineration be thus retarded. Kemove the source of heat, drench the gray ashes with a concentrated solution of nitrate of aramoma, and carefully reapply the heat; the last portions of charcoal will thereby be burnt, and the ashes will then have a white or drab color. Drench them on the trav with naoderately strong and pure hydrochloric acid, and after one or two minutes' standmg' wash the contend of the platinum foil tray with distilled water, into a porcelain dish ; evalwrate to perfect dryness, in order to render the silica insoluble ; drench the perfectly dry residue with strong and pure muriatic acid, and, after standing for five or six minutes, dilute the whole with water, and boil ; while boiling, add carefully as much carbonate of soda as is necessary nearly, but not quite, to saturate the acid, so that the liquor may still be acid • add as much pure alcohol-potash as is necessary to render it strongly alkaUne • boil the " whole for about three or four minutes, and filter. If now, after slightly supersaturating the strongly alkalme filtrate with pure muriatic acid, the further addition of a solution of car- >! 202 BREAD. i II 4 IxMiato of ammonia produces, either at once or after heating it for a few minutes, a light, white ilocculent precipitate, it is a sign of the presence of alumina, the identity of which is con tinned by collecting it on a filter, putting a small portion of it on a platinum hook, or on cliaivoal, heating it thereon, moistening the little mass with nitrate of cobalt, and again strongly heating it before the blowpipe ; when if, vnthout fusing , it assumes a beautiful blue color, the presence of alumina is corroborated. If the opcmtor possesses a silver capsule, he will do well to use it instead of a porcelain one for boiling the mass with pure caustic alcohol-potash, in onler to avoid all chance of any silica (from the glaze) becoming dissolved by the potash, and arterwartls simulating the ])resence of alumina, though, if the boiling be not protracted, a porcelain capsule is quite available. It is, however, absolutely necessary that lie should use potassc ii ralcohol^ for ordinary caustic potash always contains some, and owasionally considerable, quantities of alumina, and is totally unsuited for such an investi- gation. Even potasse i\ Valcohol retains traces of silica, either alone, or combined with alumina ; so that for this, and other reasons which will be explained presently, an extrava- gant quantity of it should not be used. Lastly, carbonate of ammonia is preferable to caustic ammonia for precipitating the alumina, since that earth is far from being insoluble in caustic ammonia. The liquor from wkich the alumina has been separated should now be acidified with hy- drochloric acid, and tested with chloride of barium, which should then yield a copious pre- cipitate of sulphate of barytes. The only precipitate which can, under the circumstances of the experiment, simulate alumina, is the phosphate of that earth, which behaves with all reagents as pure alumina. Such a precipitate, therefore, if taken account of as pure alumina, would altogether vitiate a quantitative analysis if the amount of alum were calculated from it ; but the proof that a certain quantity of alum had been used in the bread from which it had been obtained would remain unshaken ; since alumina, whether in that state or in that of its phosphate, could not have been found except a salt of alumina — to wit, alum — had been used by the baker. When, therefore, the exact amount of alumina has to be determined, the precipitate in question should be submitted to further treatment in order to separate the alumina ; and this can be done easily and rapidly by dissolving the precipitate in nitric acid, adding a little metallic tin to the liquor, and boiling. The tin becomes rapidly oxidized, and remains in the state of an insoluble white powder, which is a mixture of peroxide of tin and of phos- phate of tin, at the expense of all the phosphoric acid of any earthy phosphate which may have been present The whole mass is evaporated to dryness, and the dry residue is then treated by water and filtered, in order to separate the insoluble white powder, and the fil- trate which contains the alumina should now be supersaturated with carbonate of ammonia. If a precipitate is formed, it is pure alumina. The white insoluble powder, after wash- ing, may be dissolved in hydrochloric acid, and after diluting the solution with water, the tin may be precipitated therefrom by passing through it a stream of sulphuretted hydrogen to supersaturation, leaving at rest for ten or twelve hours, filtering, boiling the filtrate until all odor of sulphuretted hydrogen has disappeared ; an excess of nitrate of silver is then added, and the liquor filtered, to separate the chloride of silver produced, and exactly neu- tralizing the filtrate with ammonia ; and if a lemon-yellow precipitate is produced, immedi- ately soluble in the slightest excess of either ammonia or nitric acid, it is basic phosphate of silver, (3AgO,) PhO*, the precipitate obtained in the first instance being thus proved to be phosphate of alumina. The pure alumina obtained may now be collected on « filter, washed with boiling water, thoroughly dried, and then ignited and weighed. One grain of alumina represents 9*027 grains of crystallized alum. In testing bread for alum, it should be borne in mind, hoover, that the water used for making the dough generally contains a certain quantity of sulphates, and that a precipitate of sulphate of barytes will therefore be very frequently obtained, though much less consid- erable than when alum has been used. Some waters called " selenitous " contain so much sulphate of lime in solution, that if they were used in making the dough, chloride of barium would afford, of course, a considerable precipitate. For these reasons, therefore, the sepa- ration and identification of alumina are the only reliable proofs ; because, as that earth does not exist normally in any shape in wheat or common salt otherwise than in traces, the proof that alum has been used becomes irresistible when we find, on the one hand, alumina, and, on the other, a more considerable amount of sulphate of barytes than, except under the most extraordinary circumstances, genuine bread would yield. Sulphate of copper, like alum, possesses the property of hardening gluten, and thus, with a flour of inferior quality, bread can be made of good appearance, as if a superior flour had Ijeen used. Lime water has been recommended by Liebig as a means of improving the bread made from inferior flour, or of flour slightly damaged, by keeping, by warehousing, or during transport in ships ; and this method, at the meeting of the British Association at Glasgow, in 1855, was reported as having been tried to a somewhat considerable extent by the bakers of that town, and with success, the bread kneaded with lime water, instead of pure water, BREWING. 293 mty ; however small the dose of additional matter mavS^nd^Twh™ ^en ^iL"^:" replace a ceSaJaTtit; of flonfi.^?'" '°'" ^i'°T' ^l^ '" "'''''' *«« ingredient of'it oontainf lTnt'^sh"it"'^KrA trKtS:^' H''fon\iJ*t"^T ^^Kt^\ dimiluMr?ri"r:^d'irL''ifo?,° "T"'''^ *2"^ ™'>^'""« forflour,a„d.hu, wood/X 'wtlKfth^t thel'T"'"^ *« P"-" "'""' "»^°- '"■'•b of coals, of these'materi^Tabout p4„rt onato t'th^ n^'T "%" f"' " '^"^'' ^"^""^ <" "^Sh. of . in burning. . . ThrieT^ri^^ 1? ^1,"^' ''^ ''^^'^ "^ ^'^* ''^''^ ^^<^r '^''^''^ of its nSitive value. 'S-nsido-^dlr," ''7?..<='«'""-J' •' ordinarily the criterion wheat ; such is the ckse also with X. ^ . nutnt.ve agent, rye is quite as dear as wheat n this r^speetTn tlmes^f L.!L k '"'""^u' '" '^'*- "» »"•" ^<><" <^ repl«» potatoes and rSfaequir^ tS a hi'heTvalue" h^L"""' '" ■'" ?.""•' """""'^ n,odification"«.d respiratory food, another vie is superldded wS i„'°,^'''"? V° "!f' ' '^'""^' ''^"^ ^ into account. "uperaaaed, which, in times of abundance, is not taken a mixJiJ^Mt^tlm P'^IP of turnips, give. is evident that one cannot consirr 7, LT ^^' ""^ potatoes, or perhaps less ; a^d it into a fopd having o^t Tme valu/- ZTZllo^'r '^l^'^'^'Z'' "'^^* ^'^ communicating to rice and to potatoes^ ^ter equdT^^^ problem consL^ in doing the reverse. At all events it is alwarrhp^fpr L u / ^^^* ^''"'■' ^^^ °«' ^^ eat them, than with bread ; the i^^L/a^^irtw? *° cook pototoes by themselves, and account of the fraud whieh^he^tfrntir^^^^^^ -«^'- '^ ^^ea^ on ^^"^I'^^yli:^^^^^^ Hce, and other fecula. not impossible, ii bread. BreTwhlch hL^^^^^^^ is exceedingly difficult, 7f harsher to the touch, and has frequin fv a sli Jhf v.^ ^'^ ^"' '"'^^^ ""''^ I"^'*" «>™ « • solution of potash of ordinary streS a vellown ^ """^.'"u "^^^ ^"^' ^'^^^ moistened with BREWLVG. (^m. J^Fr X'^f n°JJ,^ tinge is developed.-A. X. liquor, from a fermented inVusbn of sle Seohi-n J ^^ of making beer, or an alcoholic For a description and analysis of wWoh^ .^h r ?k ^""u ^™.^'^<^eo«« substance with water. mentation, s^e the article Beer ' ^^ ""^ '^' substances usually employed in its fer- and'^reKe^^Stl'"'^"^ "^^ '^ ^^^^ ""'^^ ^^« ^-<^« -tbe mashing, the boiling refef to t Sr^Lt^tJett^^^^^ Zn'ZrCl' T^"" ^^ these ope.tions, we depends greatly on the regulation of thf temDemt^ rl !h r^"*^ '"^^*''' ^^ ^^« *^°tire series ment of the initial process of mashing ^^"'P^^*"^' the duration, and the proper manage- for tKrZXlhTX^^^^ t-V ^n^^*^ ^^^ ^-^ of the water but he should also mark the tei^e^Tf he ^fn..!T "^ "'^''^.'' P^^^' *^^^' ^' ^rown, and the absorption of the heat by tS utei^l emnS^ "" mfluencmg that of the malt brown malt will bear a higher mashiuTS tZ ' ? ' '^™^^^,>^S, that well-mellowed and resu,.^are .odnced whenShe ^^^^^^^l^^l^ t^l^::^ ,^2 ' i «. i« 204 BREWING. n«lative proi^rtions of dextrine and sugar. The following table, by Levesque, will exem- plUy the tuivgoing remarks. The first column gives the temperature of the air at the time of mashing The second column shows the heat of the water, the quantity used, and the resulting heat ot tlio mass— noting, that if the water has been let into the mash-tun, at the boilinc pomt, and allowed to cool down, or the vessel has been thoroughly warmed before the com- menct>raent of the process, the heat may be taken several degrees lower The third column shows the time for the standing of the mash : but this will bo modi- fied, as befort> stated, by the (,uality of the extract required. The bulk ot the materials used nmst also enter into the consideration of the temperature as a large body ot malt wdl attain the required temperature with a mashing heat loVer th^i wUhlcrir^ of ;o{u^^^ ""''* "'''^" ""^ condensation of heat being increased Donovan, speaking of the temperature to be employed in mashing, lays down the fol- tTl ^ ? T'ri^ r«le:_For well-dried pale malt, the heat of the first mashing hquor may be but should never exceed, 170^ ; the heat of the second may be 180° ; and for a third, the heat may be, but need never exceed, 186\ The quantity of ^-ater, termed liquor, to be employed for mashing, depends upon the greater or less strength to be given to the beer, but, in all cases, from one barrel and a halt Z f^ t^ ""1 ^''T*". ^""^"^ '^ sufficient for the first stilf mashing, but more liquor may be addetl after the malt is thoroughly wetted. h j The grains of the crushed malt, after the wort is drawn off", retain from 82 to 40 callons of water for every quarter of malt. A further amount must be allowed for the loss l,v evaporation in the boiling and cooling, and the waste in fermentation, so that the amount ot liquor required for the mashing will, in some instances, be double that of the fi.Mshcd beer, but m general the total amount will be reduced about one-third durinc the various , processes. • Table of J fashing TcmperatureH. o i I I E I* lF:.h i 10' ' 15 I 20 25 80 35 40 45 5;> 55 £0 65 70 Brow?i Malt. 1 £ e c Heat of AlMh, 14«° to 1-W'. FirkiM HtCn-DRIBD. P*' Qr. H S S s. Heat of Mub, 144° to ur. 1 FirkiM S Firkins per Qr. per Qr. 60 a 197-00 19517 193 -at 191-51 189^ is:-85 186^2 1S4-19 1S2-36 1^^153 17S-70 1T6S7 175-04 R. M. 4-00 4-00 4.00 4-00 4-00 400 4-00 400 4-00 4-00 8 40, 3-20 s-oo: F«h. 10" 15 20 25 80 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 1S9-00 1S7-42 lS5-a4 1S4-26 1S2-6S lSO-10 179-52 177-94 176-36 174-78 173-20 171-62 17004 Heat of the Tml 144° to 146% 184-00 182 69 181-18 179-77 178 36 176-95 175-54 174-13 172-72 171-81 169-90 16^-49 16707 H. M. 800i 8-00 1 800: 800 8-00' 300 800 ; 8 00; 3-00' 8 001 2-45! 2-80 2-16 Ambm. E Heat of Maih, 144° to 146°. 9 Firkini per Qr. Hest of the Tap, 143° to 145 \ Fab. 10° 15 20 25 80 85 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 17S-00 176 84 175-68 174-52 173-86 172-20 171-04 169-88 168-72 167-66 166-40 165-24 164-08 10 Firkini per Qr 17500 178 92 172-84 171-76 170-68 1G9 60 lCS-62 16744 16686 165-28 164^0 16312 162-04 .a e S Vi H. M. 2-00 2-00 2-00 200 2-00 200 2-00 200 200 2-00 1-50 1-40 1-80 I £ E « Pals Malt. Heat of Matb, 143° to 145°. II Firkin* per Qr, Hoat of the Tap, 142° to 144.° Fab, 10° 15 20 25 80 85 40 45 60 65 60 65 70 172-00 17100 170-00 16900 16800 167-00 166 00 165-00 164-00 168-00 16200 161-00 160-00 IS Firkini per Qr. 170-00 16919 168-28 16787 166-46 16565 164-64 168-78 162-82 16191 16100 160-19 169-28 Q "5 C C n «.- o c E H H. M 1-00 1-00 100 1-00 100 1-00 1-00 1-00 100 1-00 0-65 0-50 045 Hoat of the Tap, 141° to 148°. The following example will give an idea of the proportions for an ordinary qualitv of beer: — Suppose 13 imperial quarters of the best pale malt be taken to make 1,500 gallons of beer, the waste may be calculated at near 900 gallons, or 2,400 gallons of water will be re- quired in mashing. As soon as the water in the copper has attained the heat of 145° in summer, or 167" in winter, 600 gallons of it are to be mn off into the mash-tub, (which has previously been well cleansed or scalded out with boiling water,) and the malt gradually but rapidly thrown in and well intermixed, so that it may be uniformly moistened, and that no lumps remai!i. After continuing the agitation for about half an hour, more liquor, to the amount of 450 gallons, at a temperature of 190", may be carefully and gradually introduced, (it is an ad- vantage if this can be done by a pipe inserted under the false bottom of the mash-tub,) the agitation being continued till the whole assumes an equally fluid state, taking care also to allow as small a loss of temperature as possible during the operation, the resulting temner- •ture of the mass being not less than 143% or more than 148°. BREZILIN AND BREZILEIN. j^j^ The mash is then covered close, and allowed to rpmnin of ^.* r_ u and a half, after which the tan of the rna-hTih • '^"^^^^,^' ^""^ ^"^ an hour, or an hour first flows is turbid, i should be c^reX r^dTnf^'J^.^^^^ '^^^^-f^' ""^ "" *^ '^^'^ ^' and clear. The amount of this fi^worl ^m belbot oS g^C '' ^' ^^"^^^ ^^'^ Seven hundred and fifty gallons of water, at a temperatuTe frr^ 180' to Iftn' ™ be mtroducc.d and the mashing operation repeated and contLueTnnti\ th. l! ' T^ "^^ umformly fluid as before, the temperature being ^116^^ iT^^ the ma^ becomes covered and allowed to rest for an hour and the wart^^th^aJ^ u i ■ ^ ^^^ ^^ain Of water, about GOO gallorts, at a temperature ofl 85= or Tqo' l!: m \ ^"'"'^ ^"^"^'J the goods in the m^h ttm i.v " ^P^™.'"^ ^^ ^«o or 190 , should now be run throu«h liquor to percolate tWh the l^^inf?"? ^'^''"''^ ^' ^^ "^^"^ '^' ^^^^^ ^^ow tbe^ valuable products of the'=fir^twr^W^^^^^^^ T'"'''^ ^^^ '^' ^^''^'' ^^ ^^^ one to two hours. mashmgs. The wort is now boiled with the hops from tion^coagEiot ""AX^oJ^Ia^^^^^^ ^"' concentration, but extrac- plished in a deep conCd eopp^^ P^^^P^^^ ^^ich are better accom- quick fire. Thi copper, h^n^enZed^J^^J^t-'i^^V'' ^" ^^""^ '^^«^ P^' '^"^ a ture much longer tZ Ih^'^SnZm^t'^h^V^^^ j*^ ^Pt^ "^"^^^ can be economically employed in communir.«t!n! hffw ^ ^^ ^^^ ^^^ ^«"^^ moreover, exhalations from an^peVprn wouirprve a nu^^^^^^^ 7^" ?J ^'^ ^^"^ ' '^^^^^^ ^^ a hood. The boiling^has TfZ foireffeet T^^^^^ 7^^'^ T^ '^ ^ "^'^ ^^ ^J eariier stages of heaSng, it coverts the K^lh ]nfl ^^^^^"5™^ ^^^ ^oH ; 2, during th^ the diastas^e ; 3, it extrfcts' the" luSatVoTt^^^ ST^ ^^ -^ of a.ulat^^^^^^^^^ b J^;st^^^^ We^f^l^Crrre^;^^^^^^^^^ ^^ ^^^'^ ^^ ^« ' . table-beer, brewed for immediate use Th). nri^^t- r *u ""^ ^^^ ordinary porter or tion is usually from a seventhTo H^xth of fheToTumV' Th.T' ''"'^' "^. by^vapora- commencement of the process. They scTve to ^vf th. I ^f ^ introduced at the taste, but also a keeping quality or thev (^iLtera^t L n . T .°^'. **^^ * ^'^^ *«>°^« an effect partly due tothe prec bUatlon S^^^^k "^ tendency to become sour- tanning constituents, and part'yTo thrant^feJ^ '°^ ''^'^^V^^ '^^'^ '^^^^"^ ^^ principle, ethereous ill, and^es^ In these resnec^^^^^^^^^ ?^^^'^ ^"P"l»«^> fitter can be substituted for hops with advant/cl ''^T''^: ^^^"V^ »one of the bitter plants which be selected ; for weakerrer'^n ot^S^elkr SlTlI'sXf ^ '"^ ^^^^ ^^^^^ for s^tthoX^n'hot^i:^^ of their virtues; eries, it is the practice to iSl ?he h(S^ w tH mrt Vf"^^^^^ '\^ ^'' ^ ^"^^ l'^'^' through a drainer, called the i^l^Cl^^ ^^h. n ""J^""' ^^ ^ ^'^' '^^ ^^^^^n various; but, in general, from iribstrm^^^^ of thi^i;^^'''^'' ^^*^T '^ '"^'^ « ^^^ latter in making good table beer For L^!' a •™^'; ^ ^^° ^"t 100 lbs. of the even more ; for i Jtanc^ from I lbs. To 2^2 «? hnn'T^ "^W^. ^^ ^^P^ ^ ^^d, or destined for the consumptioHf India! ^ ^^ '"* ^ ^^^^^ ^^ °^'^ '^ ^« ^eer be state'^sTfomwS^^ maL'^sTt: I^pf^^^ce' 1^'^^"^' ^^""^--^^ ^^^ - --us breaking or eurdlinn of thTwort^^h^^ ^^'"'*» constituting what is called the The resinous, bitt^rf and ollySere^^ pSTnf^^^ ^''^' ^ ^^ ^^^^ ^^ ^^ gum, or dextrine of the wc^Jt hZ^^thi^JitTfS ^ ^•''P' ^^'"^^"^ ^'^ ^^ ^^ ^nd the boil is not a process of mo^iv^nn^t-K ?^^ ""^""f^ ^"^^ ^^ ^^at; showing tliat green pellicle of hop-^fand reTn a3^^^^^^^ '^T^ '^''^^ ^ r^^^- what frothy form : ^hen tWs STpp^a^r^lieCilL' StrL' '^ ?! "^^^^ ^^^' ^ ^ "^mo- beer is strained off into the cooler The re.idn.T^K P'^'^^^ ^« ^^ completed, and the ferior quality of beer ; or they may be bdTed wL T T^ ^ ^'^ ^^ ^^ ^^' ^ in- brewing charge. ^ ^ ^^'^^^ "^"^ ^"^^ ^^rt, and be added to the next jaekt^rd 'l^^eSr^l t'thfcooS a ^Tn? t^'"'?^ ^'^ -^^ ^"^ ^' ^^^ ^^P" the flocks separated in the hnilJr,^ tlT. sufficient time to deposit the gre^ite^t portion of of the Jt^dera^or. S^e E^rKrikltro'^^Srir S"""^ ™'"''''''' '^^ ^'^ ferme,rj;;":p'L*e2; '^l':i^pUZi^^i'tl'^'^\'"' -»-»«n.en. of U.e MESTATiox.— R. W. H. ™™P'«'«3 the finished beer. See the articles Beeb anj Fbk- i I i : l! 206 BKICK. BRICK. (Brique, Fr. ; Backateine^ ZiegehteitUy Germ.) A solid rectangular mass of baked clay, employed for building purposes. The natural mixture of clay and sand, called loam, sa well as marl, which consists of lime and clay with little or no sand, are the materials usually employed in the manufacture of bricks. There arc few places in this country which do not possess alumina in combination with silica and other earthy matters, forming a clay from which bricks can be manufactured. That roost generally worked is found on or near the surface in a plastic state. Others are hard marls on the coal measure, new red sandstone, and blue lias formations. It is from these marls that the blue bricks of Staftbitlshire and the fire-bricks of Stourbridge are made. Marl has a greater resemblance to stone and rock, and varies much in color ; blue, red, yellow, &c. From the greatly different and varying character of the raw material, there is an equal difference in the principle of preparation for making it into brick ; while one merely requires to be turned over by hand, and to have sufficient water worked in to make it subservient to manual labor, the fire-clays and marls must be ground down to dust, and worked by powerful machinery, before they can be brought into even a plastic state. Now these various clays also shrink in drying and burning from 1 to 15 per cent., or more. This contraction varies in proportion to the excess of alumina over silica, but by adding sand, loam, or chalk, or (as is done by the London brick -makers) by using ashes or breeze — as it is technically called — this can be corrected. All clays burning red contain oxides of iron, and those having from 8 to 10 per cent., bum of a blue, or almost a black color. The bricks are exposed in the kilns to great heat, and when the body is a fire-clay, the iron, melting at a lower temperature than is sufficient to destroy the bricks, gives the outer sur- face of them a complete metallic coating. Bricks of this description are common in Staf- fordshire, and when made with good machinery, (that is, the clay being very finely ground,) are superior to any in the kingdom, particularly for docks, canal or river locks, railway- bridges, and viaducts. In Wolverhampton, Dudley, and many other towns, these blue bricks are commonly employed for paving purposes. Other clays contain lime, and no iron ; these burn white, and take less heat than any other to bum hard enough for the use of the builder, the lime acting as a flux on the silica. Many clays contain iron and lime, with the lime in excess, when the bricks are of a light dun color, or white, in proportion to the quantity of that earth present ; if magnesia, they have a brown color. If iron is in excess, they bum from a pale red to the color of cast-iron, in proportion to the quantity of metal. There are three classes of brick earths : — 1st. Plastic clay, composed of alumina and silica, in different proportions, and contain- ing a small percentage of other salts, as of iron, lime, soda, and magnesia. 2d. Loams, or sandy clays. 3d. Marls, of which there are also three kinds ; clayey, sandy, and calcareous, according to the proportions of the earth of which they are composed, viz., alumina, silica, and lime. Alumina is the oxide of the metal aluminiuni, and it is this substance which gives tenac- ity or plasticity to the clay-earth, having a strong affinity for water. It is owing to excess of alumina that many clays contract too much in drying, and often crack on exposure to wind or sun. By the addition of sand, this clay would make a better article than we of^en see produced from it. Clays contain magnesia and other earthy matters, but these vary with the stratum or rock from which they are composed. It would be impossible to give the composition of these earths correctly, for none are exactly similar ; but the follow- ing will give an idea of the proportions of the ingredients of a good brick earth : silica, three-fifths ; alumina, one-fifth ; iron, lime, magnesia, manganese, soda, and potash forming the other one-fifth. The clay, when first raised from the mine or bed, is, in very rare instances, in a state to allow of its being at once tempered and moulded. The material from which fire-bricks are manufactured has the appearance of ironstone and blue lias limestone, and some of it is re- markably hard, so that in this and many other instances, in order to manufacture a good article, it is necessary to grind this material down into particles as fine as possible. Large quantities of bricks are made from the surface marls of the new red sandstone and blue lias formations. These also require thorough grinding, but from their softer nature it can be effected by less powerful machinery. — Chamberlain. Recently, some very valuable fire-bricks have been made from the refuse of the China Clay Works, of Devonshire. The quartz and mica left after the Kaolin has been washed out, are united with a small portion of inferior clay, and made into bricks. These are found to resist heat well, and are largely employed in the construction of metallurgical works. See Clay. The principal machines which have been worked in brick-making are three — 1st, the pug-mill ; 2d, the wash-mill ; 3d, the rolling-mill. The pug-mill is a cylinder, sometimes conical, generally worked in a vertical position, with the large end up. Down the centre of this is a strong revolving vertical shaft, on which are hung horizontal knives, inclined at such an angle as to form portions of a screw, of working the claf , in LSa ion wiTh roTll T fT^T «>°^"^««<* for the purpo^. generally Adopted, L, aSX teCers t^xe^ aJJ^l'^i^ ^" • f^ ^ '^«'^^^' ^^^^^ crush up hard substances or free tho pI«^' f^ 'ii *^"&*^?^. '^ ^o^s not extract stones, ware when ready for market tL i^;i ^ T.^" T'^^"^ '"J""«"« ^ ^^e qualitv of t^ power; but it taVes'nTueh roweM^p^o" ^^^ ^^^^^ '!f^^ -'ter. or borj If a brick is made with clayTat hL S tL^, ^rn^ir'7 ""^ ""^^ ^*^^*» '' ^"^^"^ acted on by weather or lime shp"^ f^^^- ' i P''°"°''''' ^"^ contains stones, or marl not neous matter injurious to the bS t is ^o^en?7nTr ^ '^ '^T'> «' ^-^ ^'^'^ '^'^■ removed or reduced. The result t thf« To k • J'V^^ ^'l^^ ^^ ^^ "^^^ ^hat it is not state of tempered materLtoTmud co^iie^.,^;^^^^^ ^Z"^' T^."" "^^^^^ '» * ^^'^ ^o^ substances not contracting caJ^rthe Xv S^L'^k^^'^^ '" "^'^P^' ^"^ ^^« ^^^^^ or hard ciently large to do this in^dr^ durini the fir^ nWT^'T V^'^ ^^^^^^ ^^' "^ «««- traction of the clay, and an exoLnZn of tL!^^ r "" ^r'^H' '^^'^ ^ » ^^^ ^"rtbcr con- and the result is generally a fauUy or brok^ hriT' ^ '^u .^'^* '^ ^^'^*^ »* ^^ subjected, bricks are found to be imperfect ' ^^' '''' ^'°^ ^^"^ ^'•«°» ^^ ^^. the woJ^thH^^^t!^ or built up in long dwarf w?l s thatehe^^^^^^^^ tT^ ""'f \^^' ^^ ^^-'^ make, by hand, 5,000 bricks in a day ' '"* '^'■^- ^ *^^« woricman will common walling. The maris are made in tL t.LuK u ^""^^ r^'''^ ^'^^ ^^^ ^^^ ^ outside of buildings; they a^e very beau ifulbrirk^^^^^^^^ of London, and used in the burnt, and, in eve?y respect, supe7or tothe L^S'^Vho finr.'. (f^f^^^^^ ^ard, and weU called cutting bricks are used in th^n^l ^ he finest kmd of marl and red brick.* centre, and gauged to a height '''''" '''°^'^' ^^ ^^'^' ^'"^S rubbed to a is tbTpreUlfmS^^^ ^ elamp or in a kiln. The latter burnt. The kiln is usua ly ifflef loS bVl^/fl" 'T*^^' T^ '^^ ^"^'^ ^^ ^"^^ The walls are one foot two incherthick^AnJi - ^^^* J»*^e> ^? about 12 feet in height towards each other at the^op T^n?^^^^ of the peipendicular, incUned them resembling lattice-work • the kiln^.^Pn Ji^ ^J^- ^'''^^^^' ^^^^°g ^oles lefl m some wood put in, to dry thei with a gentle 1^''*^''^ "^^^ ^^^^ ^^ ^^^^ ^^ bricks, and thelmrS^frorat^^^^^^^^^^^^^ ^«™ng, which is known by kiln are now dammed nnwlS^TshZZJ^'T^^^^^'^''^- ^^^ "^^^^^ «•• "souths of the another, and closed witTwe fbrick e/nh Tet^nr^S!'' "^^'"^^ ^^ ^"^'^ P"^^^ ^ue-X fagot. The fagots are made ofTrze hea^h S ^ ^'^' "^T '"*"^°* ^ ^i^e a these until its arches look whitrind thl'fi ' ^^^^ ^^ ^^ ^^e kUn is supplied with slackened for an hour, and'the^^ ^^lowed ^X'to If T^?' T" "^'"^^ '^^ «- ^^ repeated until the bricks are thomn^^hi; k^^ * l^ ^°'- ^^is heatmg and coolincr ig One of these kilns wiirhdd"bou'2ri]l)'brier'^' "'^'•' " ^'""'^^ ^"^'^ '- ^^ hoSr^ of ^-^LTr:!^. '""TTTZr^oJ^VT^^ ^-f es, and genendlv made, and then the bricks to be burnt are buiir,m ^J '^^'-''^ ^^^ ^"^^^ ^^ ^^ose juit meant to be, with two or three inchl^ ^1"^' tier upon tier, as high as the clamp is bricks, and the whole covereT^th a thlkT l'"' ''?!"'' '^^^ ^^'^^^ ^ach laver of dicular, about three feet h^h Tnd teSlfT^^^^^!"'"' '^^^ ^ V^^ '^ P^Z^l foiled by gathering orarchifgVebr^k^^^^^^^^^^ '^' ''''' ^°d' ^d the C?Z a bnck wide. The flues run straight thmu!^h ?h^ i ^^^^ ^'^^^ **^*^^«° ^^^h of neari v and breeze, pressed closely togeS If Sr ck,'«tT ^1 "^ ^"'^ "^'^ '^^^ ^o^Ls be done in 20 or 30 days, acSordL^ as the we^^r^ be burnt off quickly, which mav about six feet distance ; bit if there bTno inTm.^' ^ u^ ^"^K^^ ^"^^ '^^^^ be onlv at asunder, and the clamp left to btn off slowlT ' "^' '^'^ "'^^ ^ ^^^^ ^^^^ ^^et valu?f:om"ZliSreteS o^f thatt^i^^' ^^ ^^ ?^-^°^^ ^^^^^^ ^^ an especial conditions uponlhich thr;rprt[on':k'g^rbKe^^ ^'^^^^^^ ^' ^^ i: t. s « ,t < \ [ 208 BRICK. " The drying of bricks ready for burning is a matter of great importance, and require i: more attention than it generally receives. From hand-made bricks we have to evaporate some 25 per cent, of water before it is safe to bum them. In a work requiring the make of 20,000 bricks per day, we have to evaporate more than 20 tons of water every 24 hours. Hand-made bricks lose, in drying, about one-fourth of their weight, and in drying and burning about one-third. The average of machine bricks — those made of the stiflF plastic clay — do not lose more than half the above amount from evaporation, and are, therefore, of much greater specific gravity than hand-made ones. " The artificial drying of bricks is carried on throughout the year uninterruptedly in sheds havino- the floor heated by fires ; but this can only be effected in districts where coal is cheap. The floors of these sheds are a series of tunnels or flues running through the shed lono-itudinally. At the lower end is a pit, in which are the furnaces ; the fire travels up the flues under the floor of the shed, giving ofi' its heat by the way, and the smoke escapes at the upper end, through a series of (generally three or four) smaller chimneys or stacks. The furnace end of these flues would naturally be much more highly heated than the upper end near the chimneys. To remedy this, the floor is constructed of a greater thickness at the fire end, and gradually diminishes to within a short distance of the top. By this means, and by the assistance of dampers in the chimneys, it is kept at nearly an equal temperature throughout. Bricks that will bear rapid drying, such as are made from marly clays or very loamy or siliceous earths, will be fit for the kiln in from 12 to 24 hours. Before the duty was taken off bricks, much dishonesty was practised by unprincipled makers, where this drying could be carried on economically. Strong clays cannot be dried so rapidly. These sheds are generally walled round with loose bricks, stacked in between each post or pillar that supports the roof. The vapor given off from the wet bricks, rising to the roof, escapes. This system of drying is greatly in advance of that in the open air, for it produces the ware, as made, without any deterioration from bad weather ; but the expense of fuel to heat these flues has restricted its use to the neighborhood of collieries. In 1845 attention was turned to the drying of bricks, and experiments carried out in drying the ware with the waste heat of the burning kilns. The caloric, after having passed the ware in burning, was carried up a flue raised above the floor of the shed, and gave off its spent heat for drying the ware. Although this kiln was most useful in proving that the waste heat of a burning kiln is more than sufficient to dry ware enough to fill it again, it was abandoned on account of the con- struction of the kiln not being good. " Another system of drying is in close chambers, by means of steam, hot water, or by flues heated by fire under the chambers. I will, therefore, briefly describe the steam chamber, as used by Mr. Beart. This is a square construction or series of tunnels or cham- bers, built on an incline of any desired length ; and at some convenient spot near the lower end,' is fixed a large steam boiler, at a lower level than the drying chamber. From the boiler the main steam pipe is taken along the bottom or lower end of the chamber, and from this main, at right angles, run branch pipes of four inches diameter up the chamber, two feet apart, and at about three feet from the top or arch. From there being so close and shallow a chamber between the heating surface of the pipes and the top, and so large an amount of heating surface in the pipes, the temperature is soon considerably raised. At the top and bottom ends are shutters or lids, which open for the admission of the green ware at the upper end, and for the exit of the dry ware at the lower end of the chamber. Over the steam pipes are fixed* iron rollers, on which the trays of bricks, as brought from the machine, are placed, the insertion of one tray forcing the tray previously put in further on, assisted in its descent by the inclination of the construction. The steam being raised m the boiler flows through the main into those branch pipes in the chamber, and from the laro>e amount of exposed surface becomes condensed, giving off its latent heat. From the incUne given to the pipes in the chamber, and from the main pipe also having a fall towards the boiler, the whole of the warm water from the condensed steani flows to the boiler to be again raised to steam, sent up the pipes, and condensed intermittently. The steam entering at the lower end of the chamber, it is, of course, warmer than the upper end. Along the top end or highest part of the chamber is a series of chimneys and wind- guards, through which the damp vapor escapes. The bricks from the machine enter at this cooler end charged with warm vapor, and as the make proceeds are forced down the cham- ber as each tray is put in. Thus, those which were first inserted reach a drier and warmer atmosphere, and, on their arrival at the lower end, come out dry bricks, in about 24 hours, with the strongest clavs. In some cases the waste steam of the working engine is sent through these pipes and condensed. Bricks will dry soundly without cracking, &c., m these close chambers, when exposed to much greater heat than they would bear on the open flue first described, or the open air, from the circumstance of the atmosphere, although very hot being so highly chai-ged with vapor. In practice, these steam chambers have proved many principles, but they are not likely to become universal, for they are very expensive in erection on account of the quantity of steam pipes, and involve constant expense m fuel, and require attention in the management of the steam boiler ; but their greatest defect is BRICK. 209 the want of a current of hot air through the chamber to carry off the excess of vapor faster than is now done. The attaining a high degree of temperature in these chambers is useless, unless there is a current to carry off the vapor. Why should this piping be used, or steam at all, when we have a large mass of heat bemg constantly wasted, night and day, durinc the time the kilns are burning ? and after the process of burning the kihi is completed we have pure hot air flowing, from 48 to 60 hours, from the mass of cooling bricks in the kilns, free fVom carbon or any impurities; this could be directed through the drvine chamber? entering m one constant flow of hot dry air, and escaping in warm vapor. The waste heat during the process of burning can be taken up flues under the chamber, and thereby aU the neat ot our burning kilns may be economized, and a great outlay saved in steam pipes, boilers, and attention. It must not be forgotten, also, that so large an atmospheric con^ denser as the steam chamber is not heated without a considerable expenditure in fuel This IT!!? -^ ^'^*°* ? * ?''^** ^'""^^ '"^ advance of the old flued shed, but practical men must utin! T^Tt """^ "'''""'^'^ constantly from this source of the spent heat of the buminff kilns and that by economizing it, an immense saving will be effected in the manufacture liie kilns are constructed as near the lower end of these chambers as convenient " Mr. Chamberijin must be again quoted on the burning of bricks :—" I will now more fully describe a principle of burning which I have had m practice for the last six years, and which I can therefore recommend with great confidence. The great object in brick-burnmg IS to attain a sufficient heat to thoroughly bum the ware with as small a consumption^ coal as possible ; and with nearly an equal distribution of the heat over all parts, so that the whole of the ware being subjected to the same temperature, may contractTquaUy in bulk and be of one um form color throughout. The advantage is also gained of burning in much ess time than m the old kilns, which, on an average, took a week ; and the man^emrnt is so simplified that any man, even though not at all conversant with the manufacl^e after floor n^fhi^-l "^K ^^^^T."'^ "? ^^^ the waste heat at the ground level, or mider^ " Hittrfo ?h.?'.''r* K ^■'Wf.^^ g^e^^ ^are, or in partitlly burningW next kila ronnH thol- K^^^ ^as been applied by a series of fire-places, or flue? and openings ^uJr^^m' i?f\'''PT.^ l^ '^' ^?""°"" ""^'^^ atmospheJ^; a^d in boisterous £eS bu,^rn7wl^S *"* ^^%u^^- ^^^ ** '" ""S^^"' *^^ consequence of which is the unequal wTf f^"" '^n- ^^! ""Provements sought by experimentalists have been the W Sf ^ITx.^ '^"'^•^^' ^"^'.*1 '^Z ^™" *^°^^' "^^^ economically. These are obtaineSTy terief Th^ nT.'n'^.rr'^'^ ?^ ^^- ^^^^^ ^"^""^^' ^^ ^^^^"^^^ ^^ th« Staffordshire Pot^ ter es. The plan is both simple and effective, and is as follows :— A furnace is constructed in the centre of the kiln, much below the flior level, and so built tha Te hit <^ be S^ rected to any part of the kiln at the pleasure of the fii4man. First, the heat ?di^ted up a tube m the centre to the top of the oven or kiln, and, as there is no Scape Xwed tS a chimney. Thus all the calonc generated in the furnace is made use of, and, being cen- fl^?i; tK "^^ ^ "^'^f/^ throughout the mass; but, towards the bottom, or^ver t^eTt- orl; if ""^"f r"'^ °^* ^' sufficiently burnt without reversing the o;der of firint l^ order to meet this requirement, there is a series of flues under the bottom u^n wfeh th^ & T P.f 1' T^ ''^*" regulators at the end of each ; these regSLtoTwhln drawS back, allow the fire to pass under the bottom, and to rise up among thf g3?which a^S sufficiently fired, and thus the burning is completed. By means of these^Wn,^t/^w may be obtained exactly the same thrLghout^ there is,^tSi^, a greaTde^^^^^^^ Z2 tL T^' '''^/ considenible saving of fuel, with the entire ciiiSpt^n o^^e ^ok^ From the fire or draught being under command, so as to be allowed e ther to a^d o^ descend through the ware during the time of burliing or cooling, the w^tf ^oriHTn Z economized and directed through the adjoining kiln i^ order to partialljbum U "r l?^ hpJ'i?? ""^ *^' T ''^''' ^° ^""^^ ^'^ ^° chambers. I have fomid the ^4 of fueUn vhTI ^^' ""^V^" ""TT^ ^"°' ^^ P^^ ^«°<^- ; «°d to give an idea ofTe^acilitv wiA { hZ' .'^ Pract'cally acquainted with these matters, in o.5er tTremedv the difflc«fu« of small tongues or cores, so as to form hollow or Depforated hriot. R, .ki. ^ ?k clay was forced in ite passage through the dieTnto tret,™et, h"^g ftJ^S-To^t chir ,L t ' termed a jagged edge. The water die w2 afterwards"ppli«iTtte S chme and tlie perforated briclis, now so commonly used in London are thrr^nk h mI Bearfsmaohm^whidiisa pug-mill, the cUy is taken after passing uru^htir«Ui4^ ; 210 BRICK. anil, being fed in at the top, is worked down by the knives. At the bottom arc two horizon- tid clay-lK)xe8, in which a phmger works backwards and forwards. As soon as it has reached the extremity of its stroke, or forced the chiy of one box through the die, tlie other box re- ceiving during this time its charge of clay fwm the pug-n>ill, the pUuigcr returns and emp- ties this box of clay through a die on the opposite side of the machine. Tlic result is, that while a stream* of clay is being forced out on one side of the machine, the clay on the oppo- site side is stationary, and can, therefoiv, be divided into a scries of five or six bricks with the greatest correctness by hand. Some of these machines have both boxes on one side, and the plungers worked by cranks. This machitic cannot make bricks unless the clay has previously passed through rollers, if coarse ; for any thing at all rough, as stone or other hai-d substance, would hang in tlie tongues of the die. But the clay being afterwards puggeti in the machine, is so thoroughly tempered and mixed, that the bricks, when made, cannot be otherwise than good, provided they are sufficiently fired. As to the utility of hollow or perforated bricks, that is a matter more for the consideration of the architect or builder than for the brick-maker. Peribrated bricks are a fifth less in weight than solid ones, which is a matter of some importance in transit ; but it takes considerably more power to force the clay through those dies than for solid brick -making. In the manufacture of perforated bricks, there is also a royalty or patent right to be paid to Mr. Beart." Sla Mr. Chamberldn's own machine is in principle as follows (fg. Sla) : — The clay is fed into a pug-mill, placed horizontally, which works and amalgamates it, and then forces it off through a mouth-piece or die of about 65 square inches, or about hdf an inch deeper, and half an inch longer than is required for the brick, of a form similar to a brick on edge, but with comers well rounded off, each corner forming a quarter of a 3-mch circle, for clay will pass smoothly through an aperture thus formed, but not through a keen angle. After the clay has escaped from the mill, it is seized by four rollers, covered with a porous fabric, (moleskin,) driven at a like surface speed from connection with the pug-mill. These rollers are two horizontal and two vertical ones, having a space of 45 inches between them ; they take this larger stream of rough clay, and press or roll it into a squared block, of the exact size and shape of a brick edgeways, with boautiful sharp edges, for the clay has no friction, being drawn through by the rollers instead of forcing itself through, and is delivered in one unbroken stream. The rollers in this machine perform the functions of the die in one class of machinery, and of the mould in the other. They are, in fact, a die with rotating sur- faces. By hanging a series of mandrels or cores between these rollers, or by merely chang- ing the mouth-piece, we make hollow and perforated bricks, without any alteration in the machine. . i i • Messrs. Bradley and Craven, of Wakefield, have invented a very ingenious bnck-making machine : — It consists of a vertical pug-mill of a peculiar form, and greatly improved construction, into the upper part of which the clay is fed. In this part of the apparatus the clay under- goes a most perfect tempering and mixing, and, on reaching the bottom of the mill, thor- oughly amalgamated, is forcibly pressed into the moulds of the form and size of brick re- quired, which are arranged in the form of a circular revolving table. n BRICK. •11 18,000. ^ ^ ' ^'» ^^'^ eight-horse power, from 15,000 to In consequence of the perfect amalgamation of the clay, and the ereat nressure tn w>,;.i, series of r^^uld. A .f ?nf ; ^fV"" '^'.^'^^- « '^ » ^^""^^^ ^^^^ on which are fixed seJ^LlL^lfhTf-^r^ moulds and apparatus used therewith is shown, and the several motion from a steam-en^ne oT other p^weX'mea^^ Z'T "if '^' ^T"' -^^ ""^'^ ^*^^ circular-toothed rack fifed on T^f^e fThTlJ l^^' ^' ^\^ 9^^^!^ ^ and moulds, and the roller . r^ZJeTthT^d' \Jn,i.f^' i!,**""^^ ^*^ ^ ^^^ ^°^ ^^^ DleL^ hP nt'J S^' P'^^^''' P^^" «^^^ ^^^ P'^sses down the plate k whi^ c^m .M^uJ ^^^^V ' *^^^ P^^' °° «^^ P^^s-^es down the lever d bv XihklT t^^n^ 219 For the analyses of the clays of which these and others are constructed, see Clay. Stone Bricks. — These are manufactured at Neath, in Glamorganshire, and are very much used in the construction of copper furnaces at Swansea. The materials of which the bricks are made are brought from a quarry in the neighbor- hood. They are very coarse, being subjected to a very rude crushing operation under an edge stone, and, from the size of the pieces, it is impossible to mould by hand. There are three qualities, which are mixed together with a little water, so as to give the mass co- herence, and in this state it is compressed by the machine into a mould. The brick which results is treated in the ordinary way, but it resists a much greater heat than the Stour- bridge clay brick, expands more by heat, and does not contract to its original dimensions. The composition of the three materials is as follows : — From Pendreyn. From Dinns. Silica 94-05 - - lOO' 91-95 Alumina, with a trace of ox. iron 4*55 - - traces 8-05 liimc and magnesia traces traces 98-60 100- 100-00 — Dr. Richardson : Knapp's Technology. In immediate connection with this subject, it appears that the following machine for raising bricks, mortar, &c., by M. Pierre Joumet, described to the London Institution of Civil Engineers, merits attention. It is a machine for raising bricks and materials to pro- BRONZE. 218 gresive heights m the building of chimneys and other works. A strong frame on th,» IXm r'^^K^ *^.' ''^?'!^ ^heel and on the second motion a notcVed^wlTl on Ae f r«lli T %^r V ? '^"^'^ "^^^"^ ^^^"'' ^^ «>"°d ^^ ^^o wheels an endl^ Sili^ travels, made of flat hnks and cross pins, which are held by the notches in th^ whe^ Th? S?l^'»,°'^':'"'e ^°^ ^^^'^^^ ^'''^'^ ^ b^ked upon these tr^veiS pins LaS^ raised, by the winch motion below, to the landing above ; the bricks are r^o?ed b^kbr e^,^and empty bucketB and hods hung to the deLnding chain, to b^ de^hed a^'d^'eS venilnt^SnVtt* * """"'^n^ '^'' ^^ ^^ /"""* ^° * '^'^^^^ ^«^ '^^ «^ ^ ^^el was a con- vement rate for the men. One man tummg the winch wiU raise— 10 feet high 90 bricks per minute, or = 6400 bricks per hour. 20 80 40 60 60 it it it 45 30 22 18 15 ti it it it if it = 2700 = 1800 = 1350 = 1080 = 900 (i i( tt tt it it it (t tt VMM Th^Jtl?'^'^ ""^ ^^"l^ '" *'«™'<^' »""> *e chain lengthened, addinR more hodaL' .„/^ t^f advantages are that the men are relieved from tSe labor of climbSnaddS and rsk of accidents, that the building is carried on quicker, and thereforeat fe^l^L t'hc'n^THrsi'rptnrnt"^ "' "'•' '"^^ """'"■'«'*' ^"^" ««*«- H^-« ^-^^^ 0692,5 53b.) One of the most active of the elements. It was discovered if 1826 h? Balard, of Mon tpellier, in the bittern produced from the water of Se Stemn^ B^ mme is a very interesting substance, and its discovery has had great inflienToTthe n^ Ss in ST-r r^'PPj?^^ ^*^^°^^'^- ^' ^ '^^ «°1J element ave mere^ S distSon wHW^^'lH. f ™°° ""^ *" V'OCMKd from the bromide of potassium by t:^:^'''"^- -»- '"^^ -i^^'^ rhc\Vmy-rc"s"2'if:+ptenS''ln'X sideraSf q«antitiesT?°sr''f'l!r ^"°S "k"!"" """"'""^ '^ P"^'""'- <^^P'^^ by con- a(?ertp?4tSed or s^rSn d"^^^^^ acid added, in order to precipitate Zt of the Hme Thrmtered'flil^'l.^b'"^' ""P'"'"J ZltlZ\':ZlZ'^fi^ '^5?™'"^''' eveSTprelc^f h^I^'Zif or hyX and^^.T^,hic^=J-a^V» ,^ r^dl"^t4Tlfml tS^ V 214 BRONZE. amongst contindntal writers about this alloy ; they translate their bronze into the Englit-h ^Neo, for an example of this, " Dictionnaire des Arts ct Manufactures." This bus arisen from the carelessness of our own writers. Dr. Watson, " Chemical Essays," reniarlv.s : " It has been said that Queen Elizabeth left more brass ordnance at her death than she found iron on her accession to the throne. This must not be understood as if gun metal was made in her time of brass, for the term brass was sometimes used to denote copper ; and some- times a composition of iron, copper, and calamine was called brass ; and we, at this day, commonly speak of brass cannon^ though brass docs not enter into the composition used for casting cannon," Bronze is an alloy of copper and tin. Brass is an alloy of copper and zinc. In many instances, we have zinc, lead, &c., entering into the composition of alloys of copper and tin. However this may be, the alloy is cadled a bronze, if tin and copper are the chief constituents. This alloy is much harder than copper, and was employed by the ancients to make swords, hatchets, &c., before the method of working iron was generally understood. The art of casting bronze statues may be traced to the most remote antiquity,* but it was first brought to a certain degree of refinement by Theodoros and Roecus of Samos, about 700 years before tl\e Christian era, to whom the invention of modelling is ascribed by Pliny. The ancients were well aware that by alloying copper with tin, a more fusible metal was obtained, that the process of casting was therefore rendered easier, and that the statue was harder and more durable. It was during the reign of Alexander that bronze statuary re- ceived its greatest extension, when the celebrated artist Lysippus succeeded, by new pro- cesses of moulding and melting, in multiplying groups of statues to such a degree that Pliny called them the mob of Alexander. Soon afterwards enormous bronze colosauses were made, to the height of towers, of which the isle of Rhodes possessed no less than one hundred. The Roman consul Mutianus found 3,000 bronze statues at Athens, 3,000 at Rhodes, as many at Olympia and at Delphi, although a great number had been previously carried off from the last town. From the analyses of Mr. J. A. Phillips, we learn that most of the ancient coins were bronzes, the quantity of tin relatively to the copper varying slightly. The proportions of copi^er and tin in many of those coins are given below, the other ingredients being omitted :— A coin of Alexander the Great, 335 b. c. it it u (t (( Phillipus V. - 200 B. c. Athens - ... Ptolemy IX. - - 10 B. C. Pompey - 53 B. c. the Atilia family - 45 B. c. Augustus and Agrippa, 30 b. c. Copper. 86-72 85-15 88-41 84-21 74-11 68-72 78-58 Tin. 18-14 11-10 9-95 15-59 8-56 4-77 12-91 The arms and cutting instruments of the ancients were composed of similar bronzes, as the following proportions, also selected from Mr. J. A. Phillips's analyses, will show : — Copper. Tin. Roman sword blade, found in the Thames - - 86*70 • • 10*02 " " " Ireland - - 91-39 - - 8-38 Celtic " " Ireland - - 90-23 - - 7-50 Layard brought from Assyria a considerable variety of bronze articles, many of them objects of ornament, but many evidently intended for use. Amongst others was a bronze foot, which was constructed for the purpose of support of some kind. This was submitted to the examination of Dr. Percy. It was then found that the bronze had been cast round a support of iron. By this means the appearance of considerable lightness was attained, while great strength was insured. This discovery proves, in a very satisfactory manner, that the metallurgists of Assyria were perfectly conversant with the use of iron, and that they em- ployed it for the purpose of imparting strength to the less tenaceous metals which they em- ployed in their art manufactures. This bronze, as analysed in the Metallurgical Laboratory of the Museum of Practical Geology, consists of copper 88*37, tin 11-33. Examination has shown that all the bronze weapons of the Greeks and Romans were not only of the true composition for ensuring the greatest density in the alloy itself, but that these, by a process of hammering the cutting edges, were brought up to the gi-eatest degree of hardness and tenacity. Before 1542 "brass ordnance" {bronze) was founded by foreigners. Stow says that John Owen began to found brass ordnance, and that he was the first Englishman who ever made that kind of artillery in England. Bell founding followed. Bell metal and other broken metal were allowed to be ex- BRONZING. 2^5 ported hitherto ; but it being discovered that it was aoDhVH to fr...r.^ u ^ .. copj.r>Ueo, bell »etal, p^ »etal. gun .cal, Zr^^'Z^'^.^^^^i:^ capable of flowiog n^adily il all the parta of tbiTuirwl "Snute U^^::?d t hard, m order to resist accidental blows, be oroof against th« ;r,« ""'^"'e, it should be be of such a nature as to acquire that ^een^^LS 1^ ur^n X « ?' "^"I^f' "^^ much admired in the antique bronzesf called pJnaLul^^T^l^^^^^^ '^^""^ ^ «^ of the pedestal of tKolumXm t^^^^^^^^^ '^^"^ ^'^ ^^^ '^^ h^llieiB first contained only 6 per cTn^ of Un anH qI of ^"".u ^^ "^^'^^^ '' ""^ ^^^^ ^' ^^ only 0-21. It waJ therefrre obVioS tSl fhf f^^^r' '^^ ^-T.^- '"""^ ^^^' ^^ '^^ ^^ had gone on progressfvelTre^n^rhis^ ol^l^^^^^^^ V^"" °^"^^^°g ^^ ^~^«' hausted the copper, and that he h?d STph wJ;i.^ the oxidizement of the tin, tiU he had ex- the column. The iTnon which the oLl . ? '^\ '^T "^^"^ ^° ^« "PP^*" ^ of consisted of:- ^ Government furnished him for casting the momunent Copper .... Tin - . - 89-360 Lead • - - r I " * ■ • ^^'^^ « Silver, zinc, iron, and loss - ." Ill] q.^ For the following table we are indebted to Mr Robert Mallrt r v ^^. ■ ..ons.nth.sd .rection have been most extensive, "d S^at«^"::'.hey^i:^S^;:^ Chemical Cotutitation. Composition by Weight per cent. 1 Cu+Sn 2ilOCu + Sa 3 9Cii + Sn 4 8 Cu + Sn *I »; ja » t • g is w o 1 s 5 h 6 7 8 » 10 11 12 18 14 15 16 7Ca+Sn 6Ca+8n 5Ca+Sn 4Ca+Sa 3Ca+Sn 2Ca+Sn Cu+8n Ca+2Sn 100-00+ 81-6 S66T e 84*29+ 15*71 374-9 8 501 1 Fc 82-81 + 17-19 .343*3 8-462| fc 8110+ 13-90 811-7 8-459 fc 73-97+ 21-03 280*1 8-728 vc 76-29+ 23-71248*5 8-750 r Bluish red. 1 72;80+ 27-20 216^8-575 c BlS red! 2 - 68-21+ 81-79.185-3 8-400' Ash CTav 61*6?+ 88-31 158-7 8-539! to loirk^y ". '. 512+ 48*25,1221 8*4161 vcJGrayLS^hite 1 ^1J5+ 78-85149-4 7 367| cc Ditto 8 Cu+89n| 1517+ 84-83 208 3 7-447 cc p''''^l° ^Yt^^ 8b-lS 267-2 7-4721 CO Cu+5Sn 9-68+ 90 32 3261 7-44-2 e +Sn Ditto Ditto Ditto O-00 + lOO-Oo! 58^ 7*291 1 f | White. 7 Color of Fraetnra Tile red - - i24-6 Reddish yellow, 1 16-1 Reddish yellow, 2 15-2 Yellowish red, 2 17-7 Yellowish red, O £ ehaiaeterktM in workbi^ Ae. Copper. Gun metal Jbc Ditto. Gun metal, tempers best Hard mill b Ac ;B^itUe.•^ Brittlct Crumbleswt Crumbles.t Brittle.t Small bells, brlttle.f Ditto brittle.t, Speculum : — | Metal of authors. Files, tough. Files, soft and or oa\™^Srfi=^:f^"^' -t"^"'. " '='«- > '-^ of manufactureT^;;;;;^ bronSSrL.'"'' ^''^ '" '^^^ '» °'^'^' P""^'. ^'^ or any other body, . Vmous processes have been adopted for producincr this effect by bomngVa strong M^^^n^'tt^foe'^^T^f^at'"' " ''^^-'^'' « , u oiien tne munate of ammonia, (tal ammoniac.) This latter salt and i AU the*. .Uo^. .„ r.„„4<„e«,o.,^y a. WU „d .p«„l. with ■au.ore, of Zn „d Pb. t i I I 216 BRONZE POWDERS. vinegar are frequently combined, and often a little common table salt is added to the bronz- ing fluid. The best and most rapid bronzing liquid, which may be applied to copper, brass, iron, or to new bronze, with equal advantage, is a solution of the chloride of platinum {nitro- muricUe of platinum) called chemical bronze ; but it is expensive. With the chloride of platinum, almost any color can be produced, according to the degree of dilution, and the number of applications. Some beautiful effects are produced upon bronze, and also upon iron castings, by treat- ing them with dilute acids. The action here is scarcely to be described as bronzing ; it is, in fact, merely developing the true color of the metal or alloy. With the view of rendering the action of the bronzing liquid as uniform as possible, small articles are dipped ; for larger articles, the bronzing liquid is dabbed on plentifully with a linen rag. The dabbing process is to prevent the occurrence of streaks, which might arise if the liquid was applied in straight strokes. When properly bronzed and washed, the work is usualy black-leaded, to give it a polished appearance. BRONZE POWDERS have been much used of late in the decorative painting of houses, &c. They are prepared of every shade, from that of bright gold to orange, dark copper, emerald green, &c. Pale gold is produced from an alloy of 13^ of copper, and 2f of zinc ; crimson metallic lustre — from copper : ditto, paler, copper and a very little zinc ; green bronze, with a proportion of verdigris ; another fine orange by 14^ copper and If zinc ; another ditto, 13f copper and 2^ zinc : a beautiful pale gold from an alloy of the two metals in atomic proportions. The alloy is laminated intb very fine leaves with careful annealing, and these are levi- gated into impalpable powders along with a film of fine oil to prevent oxidizement, and to favor the levigation. On the subject of bronze powders and metallic leaves, Mr. Brandeis furnished ;o the New York Exhibition an account of his articles of manufacture : — Bronzes, or, more correctly, metallic powders resembling gold dust, were invented, ac- cording to my researches, in 1648, by a monk, at Furth, in Bavaria, named Theophrastus Allis Bombergensis. He took the scraps or cuttings of the metallic leaves then known as " Dutch leaf," and ground them with honey. This roughly made bronze powder was used for ornamenting parchments, capital letters in Bibles, choral books, &c. As the consumption of metallic leaf increased, and the properties of alloys became bet- ter known, leaves of different colors were produced, and from the scraps a variety of pow- ders or bronzes. At Furth, bronze powders are largely made for Europe, and with little change or im- provement. There are four sorts of Dutch leaf : Common leaf, soft, and of a reddish cast, composed of 25 or 30 per cent, of zinc to tS or 70 per cent, of copper. French leaf contains more zinc, is harder, less ductile, and has a purer yellow color. Florence leaf has a larger proportion of zinc, and is of a greenish gold color ; and lastly — White leaf, composed of tin. The more zinc these alloys contain, the harder, the more brittle, and more difficult are they to work into perfect leaves. The manner of beating is similar to the mode for producing gold leaves. The scraps, cuttings, and fragments of these leaves are the materials for the German bronze powders. First brushed through a sieve and ground with gum water on marble slabs for six hours, the gum washed out, the powders sorted, dried, and a coating of grease given to make them appear more brilliant, and to protect them from oxidation. Varieties of color, such as orange, &c., are produced by a film of suboxide upon the surface of the particles. The price of bronze powders depends upon the demand, and the supply of the waste material of the metal leaves, and prices change accordingly. Messrs. Brandeis patent their process, and in place of being dependent upon uncertain supplies of metal and unknown composition, they take the metals at once in a state of pu- rity, (say copper by voltaic precipitation :) it is alloyed with zinc, cast into ingots, rolled into ribands, cut, annealed, and rolled until the metal is thin and leaf-like ; then it is taken to a steam-mill, and ground. The bronze powder is washed out and dried, then introduced into an air-tight room, with an arrangement of boxes ; the air of the chamber is set in violent motion by bellows, and the powder diffused throughout ; the bronze powders are deposited, the finest in the upner boxes, and the coarser powders below. When settled, mineral var- nish is introduced +ihe boxes, fitted with tight Uds, are made to revolve, and the particles are thus rapidly coated, and the highest metallic brilliancy imparted. Different shades of color, pink, crimson, &c., are produced by submitting the powder to heat and oxidation before the rapid revolutions of the varnishing boxes. The quantity thus produced by one firm, with three steam-engines at work, enables the finished bronze powders to be produced at a rate about equal to the price the German manufacturer has to pay for his materials — the cuttings and scraps of leaves. Hence, for BROWN IRON ORE. 217 of public buadmVhaVreffMtiye rn^L n^ h^^^^ . s-gj-boards and the decoration the effect X^ttcTSr'-''^"^ "^ '-' ^^'^"^'^ ^^ *"« ™w of a^enaining pies of KpL'^;15Tel^f(t?r5^,^"^^^ '^'"' °' "■" "^ ^""^ ^- Copper. Zinc. Iron. Tin. 1. Light yellow ... 2. Gold yellow -..."' 3. Messing yellow, or brass copper red-yel- low color - . . . _ 4. Copper bronze orange - — 6. Copper red, high shade of purple color" 6. Purple violet - ... 1. Light green • - . . [ [ 8. Tin white or leaden gray - - I Per cent 82-38 84-50 90- 98*93 99-90 98-22 84-32 0-00 Per cent 16-09 15-30 9-61 0-00 0-6 15*02 2-39 Per cent 0-16 0-07 0-20 0-08 trace. 0-30 0-03 0-66 Per cent trace, trace. 97-46 of ZZlnftlll^A'lZf^^^^^ TJ r-^«. - -me cases, the textu. carboniferous strata, belonging TthrKlrrpL'^^^^^^^ ""' "^ '"^ *^' '"^^ boners Zlir'^'t^zit::' ror ""^'^r ^'^- ^ - ^^- «^ tme «.. pyrites than ordinary coal empyreumatic odor, and generally contains more ^eenl,^:lT^tto^l^^^^^ the form of a basin ; and has thick, is of good qualify, irc^n^ns 9^14^. f^^' ^^ ^"'' ^'^"^ » to 16 feet per cent, of Isb afler combustion ^ *^ ^* P^ ^«^*- ^^ ^^ter, and leaves from 5 to 12 ^or:!'^^'^!^:^^^:^^ ^-- O-g- : volatile matter, 49 5 ; fixed car- Rhi^;fe,rntU^^^^^^^^ Bonn, and of Erpel on the Pal^ophr^gnos grandipes. The a^Ls of tWs eotl S ^^'^X^^r^ i "^^ "^ ^"^ For an account of the brown coals nf thZl^^l f ' also rich m mfusonal remains. H. W. B. ° ^^ ^^ *^'^ country, see Lignitk and Boghead Coal.— the™L™nL?^heSL^L'S2]t '^* ''''' ^°^P«^* ^^ ^r iron, and at crystallized, bit usualirL sTa IcSTotTJlS 1 ^ T' ""'^'^^ ^^«'"^^- I* never ^u^ " structure, a silky lustre^nd otn f se^S^ annea^Zf -f ^ '^"^' "^*^ ^ fi^-- sometimes earthy. In iolor it is nf^«,S^, c t i appearance ; it also occurs massive and It affords a brownish-yellow ^^^^^^^^^ ?,^,^' g^P^^'j dark, never bSght It dissolves in warm nitro-muriaUc Lid and nT f '' ^'^"^ ^'^^'^ ^^ ^^ **»« «^e metol. pipe it blackens and fuses XfirtWuspinte^'^^^^ ""'.^"'.'^- ^^^^^^ '^' t>»«^" H = 5 to 5-5 ; specific graiity - 3 6 to 4 Rmr„'- ^."^V'' ^""^ ^° '^''^ reaction, composed of peroxide of iron, ?5-6, and water U-l- lOO^O ' K^fT.^ ^'"^^'^^ ^^ ^'^"^ small percentages of silica, alumina, &c. ^4 4 _ 100 ; but it frequently contains mammillary'^W aL^oc^ryVown^?^^^^ comprising the compact and posed earthy varieties, which are oft Jn sofTlilTchdk^ ^ ""'^"^ ^instituting the decom- are sometimes classed under this head but Itl^a I ^ '"*'' ""^ "^^ ^^^^^ i«>n stone ter, improperly. The hydrated oxTdes of Nor^Ctl'' "If-' ''^"^ri^ ^' '' ''^'^^ '^ '^t- propriety be called browi iron ore Northamptonshire and Bedfonishire may with i« I I 218 BRUOINE. of excellent quality. According to the calculations of Professor Oldham, it takes 2^ turns of chaK'oal to produce 1 ton of iron. — H. W. B. See Iuon. BKUCINE. (C*"H'*N''0'' ; it^n. Canimarine, Voniicine.) A very bitter and poisonous alkiiloid accompanying strychnine in nux vomica and in the false angustura bark, {Jirucia atUidt^setUerica. ) BRYLE or BROIL. A mining tertn. The loose matters found in a lode near the surface of the earth ; probably a coiTuption of Bkliikvl, (which see.) BRUSH WHEELS. In light machinery, wheels are sometimes made to turn each other by means of bristles lixed in their circumference ; these are called brush wheels. The term is sometimes applied to wheels which move by their friction only. BUCKING. A mining tenn. Bruising of the ore. A bucking iron is a flat iron fixed on a handle, with which the ore is crushed ; and a bucking plate is an iron plate on which the ore is placed to be crushed. BUCKTHORN. {Rhamma catharticun.) This plant is a native of England ; it grows to the height of from 16 to 20 feet; ita flowers are greenish colored, and its berries four- seeded. It is the fruit of this plant which is sold under the name of French berries. The juice of these, when in an unripe state, has the color of safiron ; when ripe, and mixed with alum, it forma the sap-green of the painters ; and in a very ripe state, the berries afford a purple color. The bark also yields a tine yellow dye. • BUCKWHEAT. {Ble Sarrasin, Fr. ; Buchwcizen, Germ.) The common buckwheat {Polygonum fagopi/i-um, from po/y, many, and gonu, a knee, in reference to its nunaerous joints) is cultivated for feeding pheasants and other game ; and is now being largely used in France and in this country in distilleries. " In France, besides being used for feeding fowls, pigs, &c., it is given to horses ; and it is said that a bushel of its grains goes further than two bushels of oats, and, if mixed with four times its bulk of bran, will be full feeding for any horse for a week. Its hnulm, or straw, is said to be more nourishing than that of clover, and its beautiful pink or reddish blossoms form a rich repast for bees." — Laicson. It has been stated that the leaves of the common buckwheat {Polygonnm fagopyrum) yield, by fermentation. Indigo blue. On examining this plant, for the purpose of ascertain- ing whether this statement was correct, Schunck was unable to obtain a trace of that coloring matter, but he discovered that the plant contains a considerable quantity of a yellow coloring matter, which may very easily be obtained from it. This coloring matter crystallizes in small primrose-yellow needles. It is very little soluble in cold water, but soluble in boiling water, and still more soluble in alcohol. Muriatic and sulphuric acid change its color to a deep orange, the color disappearing on the addition of a large quantity of water. It dis- solves easily in caustic alkalies, forming solutions of a beautiful deep yellow color, from which it is again deposited in crystalline needles on adding an excess of acid. It is, how- ever, decomposed when its solution in alkali is exposed for some time to the air, being thereby converted into a yellowish-brown amorphous substance, resembling gum. Its com- pound'with oxide of lead has a bright yellow color, similar to that of chromate of lead. The compounds with the oxides of tin are of a pale but bright yellow color. On adding proto- sulphate of iron to the watery solution, the latter becomes greenish, and, on exposure to the air, acquires a dark green color, and appears almost opaque. The watery solution imparts to printed calico, colors, some of which exhibit considerable liveliness. Silk and wool do not, however, acquire any color when immersed in the boiling watery solution, unless they have previously been prepared with some mordant. The composition of this substance in 100 parts is as follows :— carbon, 50-00, hydrogen, 6'55, oxygen, 44-45. Its formula is probably C*'H*'0=°. It appears to be identical with Rutine, the yellow coloring matter contamed in the Ruta graviolens, or common rue, and in capers ; and with Rixanthim, a substance derived from the leaves of the common holly. From 1,000 parts of fresh buc-k- wheat leaves, a httle more than 1 part of the coloring matter may be obtained. As the seed of the plant is the only part at present employed, it might be of advantage to collect and dry the leaves, to be used as a dyeing material. — E. S. . i • i. The Tartarian Buckwheat {Polygonum Tartanum) differs from the former m havmg the edges of its seeds twisted. It is not considered bo productive, but it is more hardy, and better adapted for growing in mountainous situations. The Dyera' Buckwheat. {Polygonum tinctoriwn.) This plant was introduced to the Roval Gardens at Kew by Mr. John Blake, in 1776. Authentic information as to its properties as a dye-yielding plant was only received at a comparatively recent period, from missionaries resident in China, where it has always been cultivated for its coloring matter. In Europe, attention was first directed to its growth by M. Delile, of the Jardin du Roi at Montpellier, who, in 1835, obtained seeds from the Baron Fischer, Director of the Imperial Gardens at St. Petersburg. It has since that time become sufficiently valuable to render its cultivation as a dye drug of sufficient importance. The Japanese are said to extract blue dyes from Polygonum Chinensis^ P. barbatum, un'l the common roadside weed, P. avicu- lore. — Lawwn. CABLE. 219 ja.,p"Jy"vtSof tT.^.^l'fW" ' r"t^ ^'-i^ "'^ "^^' «»»titutu.g one of the other pa™ or^he conthien f^r ^^ \r^'"'.^'^ ^K'^'"' ■»"* "««d » France -te-soas.Jon«Te (Seine et occasion^ly covered S toh w!L%Tm'„jr"%T"™"^ on alluvial aoila which ar^ staves of barrels, and by eWr makere M^^S„r>'' ''/ Ti^"- ^" P^^'-S '«"''« ">« ployed for economical pulses euch as fo™in°^2 ' bc'o-P-g '» this order are em- ally sold as Burgundy pitch is howpvpr nnrJrr.^^ • • ^^ substance usu- colored With pa,r„U. L son.^ c^ ^eSTr^Ze TT^^l "Z "rTcl, ^t BCTTLAMIvT?r.H"v1''*l *°V T'*'-''"S « hogsheads, or 126 gallons, is found in thl'^orivoln^' niltSV"^""^ T' homologous ^ »e,hvlamine. I. cesses analo^usTo th^e emrioved tZ^^' ■" "'^ f ^'^P'"'' "''^<*^'y ''7 P">- butyliceyanlte, urea. or'^TctfrthS; r^^l^h^e^kuTlTlc^^d w'^"''"'° '"* c ^.bleouf in c^ne'Sr^JJMolTo'll '^l.^":l^Fr' T""'T "' ^"^ Co.'8 chain works at Millwall we must InmU tCi^ U ^^^ ^'''''^ ^*^'^' ^no^» a^^ in the improvement of thTsmanSreT^ P^f* performed by this house effected by hand labor. ^ ' welding of the hnks, m aU cases, being ^l^}^e practice with the new bencling machine Sit New bridge Works Pont-v PrJH n separately on' the beSo-mrdieUrl 91 U^JX'"' '"^'•''''*°-''**'^' "^ P"*^ tion forms a link which il Srf oVZ' 1»;h^!iT "^.f ' "' ™"™' ""'^ «»« '«™1"- coug:gr«-:^r^^^^^^ -£- an or^nary iron^oTe t-ntrfi^'ed^t :2:^5^? '^:^-^:,''^'^^:^^\^^!^^^^ p'- "^ pres^in/fi^f; oV l^ttt^d:^! ""S.^sl'dl'"'* 1°' ,"?'""• ' '• *« «"- f- pinion or main spindlcVcSSk^iLm; ^^^' ''"''*'' ^"^ "^^^ ^i^dle, j, For Short lengths Of ch.iUltn'^f—^^—t;-^- ^^^^^ 'i i ^ I 220 CABLE. 91 cess is simple : — A sufficient length of the best iron is cut off, and, while hot, is partially bent by the workman over an iron ring, one end of the bar resting on the ground ; the bend is finished upon the anvil ; one entire length of the link is thus formed. The two slanting cut ends are made to approach each other ; heated up to a high temperature, the expert workman, by a peculiar blow, detaches the scale of oxide, and instantly presses both surfaces together ; two men then, by repeated blows, eflFect the welding junction, and thus the link is formed. The shape of the link, after due consideration of the advantages of particular patterns, seems to resolve itself into the decided preference for a link of parallel sides, unchanged in form from the round of the iron employed, while the ends may be reduced somewhat flattened, and increased in breadth. The links thus in contact have the pressure sustained by a greater breadth of surface, and compression can scarcely alter the form. The length of a good link may be of round iron 6 diameters in length of link. (See jig. 92.) A a and from b to 6 3-7 to 4 diameters of the iron rod employed, and I'T to 2 diameters inside. The stud, staple, or cross-bit is of cast-iron, and is placed across ; its use is to prevent the sides from collapsing by extension of the chain ; in fact, to keep up a succession of joints, and prevent the chain from becoming a rigid bar of metal. The stud or cross-piece shown at c is of cast-iron, with dates and marks upon the sur- face. It is cast with a hollow bearing, having a curve to receive the round iron of the link ; its :?houlder3, or feathering, enables the workman to insert it readily, and a few blows upon the yielding iron give the requisite grip, and all proper service only tends more firmly to keep it in position. In all cases, this cross-piece has been of cast-iron. Wrought iron was tried, but found to be too expensive. Malleable iron has been patented, but it is a question whether it can supersede common foundry iron, from the cheapness and facility'of the latter. The cables are proved and tested by regulated strains brought to bear continuously up to the proof strain^ and then even up to the ultimate destruction of some of the links, if the final strength or opposition to resistance is required to be known. The proof of cable should be 600 lbs. for each circle of iron \ of an inch in diameter. The chain is attached at one end horizontally to a hydraulic press, the other end to the enormous head of a bent iron lever, whose power is multiplied by second and third iron levers, all working upon knife edges, and to the last lever a scale-pan is attached ; 1 lb. being here placed as equivalent to a strain of 2,240 lbs. upon the bar or chain that is being tested. This machine of Brown, Lenox, and Co., Millwall, is more powerful than that used in the Royal Dockyard. The proving machine, invented by Captain Brown in 1813, was a great step towards the production of confidence. In practice, length after length is tried up to the proof required ; when the tension is to be exerted to the utmost, a few links are taken : in such experiments, it is usual for one '^^TJX "'• "" "^ ""'*"' """* ""* "«'f " "-i"-' b7 testing U. find it. » of .e.3U„..e. that the e™..pieoe /pSt rKat t 'iSX?^"^:^^ snap, the chain lashes a Jut ShrKente 2v t^^l^'lr "**• " '"^ "^ suddenly for the merchant seTviXetnl Si ^'tt' ""* «»7'?"'^'" 'enph i« 12} fathom, ■ by shackles. In the mer^h^nt J^ti^ ^l^^Zlf^ t""*'''f ' '^"^ ''"P^s 'are unUed the anchor shackle to pass Vtxro^X U^^^A^T . v ' "^ &^^ " ^<^ extremity for Tided with We links -thus S.', .• ""^ ^^*' "^"^ '^^'^ «»«'' ''nglh is alike otJ «.chor stock. ^sllfy^Xn ' "' "■"*• "■' *'"' »f ""^ ''^"S't mayX plafed to'SS 92 To obviate evils from the twisting of the chain paHIo «•; i emment cables, a swivel is inserted in the midHU ^e ' ^^1^^ "* '"^'^ •' »° the Got- service there does not appear to ^any p4Tse ^l'*'^ T^^^^^^ '^^S^h ; for the merchant may be m 100 fathoms ; and in cheap^cE b^ulht «^H T^ ?°^' ^^^'^ ""' '"^^ ^^^^Is swivel whatever exists in the cable. ' ° ^ and judged by weight and figures, no The effect of such twistino- or torqinn ia t« a, i • , pressure upon the link; the stud or cro^^n^^^e , foJ^^ * ^'^'.*\^ ^^^ P^^^^^^^ lateral at the moment at any flaw or imperfectbn^r^dd.nl^ '"'' ^^ ^^^ "°^ '^^^ ^^J Jield ^:^^::^^^t^V^::^ ^ ^Zi: -"'' rr ^-^^ <^o- - ^he same the two cables, is over the bow, and enables th^S!. '^^\ ^'°^ ^^"*' ''' ^''^^h to fouling hawse; in any direction^he sh^cS sv^nl ^^^ "^"".^ ^'' ^^hor. ^^hout anchors undisturbed, whereas, by two cablS^oriiEM-*" T^""^ ^^ P«^°*' ^^^^"^ ^er rverh^mr ^- from fouling; aJd event^lk:^'^^^- L^'^ ^rn^aS^ds tachIS%rr^efa.f ^^^^^^^^^ to be u«^ on boani ship, at- Iightly at her anchor, while the iVoncL^np.ht^ '''' ^V'^"'' "^ ^*^^ the vessel rides stroyed by the rocky' bottom, and the ^fo h^strrr'hf .*^' ^"°^P"° ^^^^ f«>°» ^'^^ the water, which lifts portions of the chafn nZ I !.^' ^^""P ^^'^ ^"^^^ed buova^t by the ship is relieved fZ weigLltthe'Tcror^L^^^ ^^ the vessel; and t^^' hnks without stay-pins, c n, leading to ^ieZZ^^^:^ ^T.^ <^t}^ ^^^ sfcint tapping and vibrations of the chairjable oi th^ ^^"^ ?^''° ^''' ^^^ ^y the con- at some stations suffered severely in tWs wa v aSd th.^ '"^ ""' '^'""-^^ ^"«°^- ^en-of-war represent it as a very serious maLr. Mr L^^J^',rr'^^^^'*t ^^Ita had reason to ""sr^^rasTttirroie^p^^^^'^^^^^^^ be surmounted. This ^.^'^e^ ^^^'^^.Zo^^^^Zl'tt't^rt 222 CABLE. shackle with links, {fg. 94 :) at e is seen the aperture at right angles to the bolt, r, (of oval iron ;) through this channel, cut through the shackle and the bolt, a tapering but not quit cylindrical steel pin fits exactly, but does not quite proceed through the iron ; it is shown at a g. Various plans used to be resorted tc before this final preference ; for the steel pins, of whatever fomi, got loose by repeated tap- ping on the rocky bottom, or the links upon each other. Mr. Lenox succeeded in cutting the cavity at e of the form of a hollow cone, and to complete the fastening, a pellet or cyl- inder of lead that will just allow insertion .at e is driven, and then, by repeated blows, the lead is made to fill up the cavity, the superfluous quantity of lead being cut oft" by the hammer at E. To release the bolt, it is only necessary to find the small space at the small end of the steel pin, to insert a punch, and then, with a few blows, the steel pin g g is driven out of its conical bearing, and its flat top and cutting edges enable it to emerge again at E. Being forced out, the bolt f is taken out, and the chain severed, if required ; the aperture at e can be cleared of its lead by a proper cutting-out tool, and the steel pin feplaced to make all fast. This operation can be effected on the darkest night ; the sailor can sever the chain cable, and thus, when one vessel is driving down upon another, more chain may be attached, or the cable severed, and no harm done ; while with hempen cable it might be found more than difficult, and even impossible, to cut them in time. All the principles involved, and perfection of practice, in making chains and chain cables, have recently been deeply considered and fully verified by the firm of Brown, Le.iox, and Co., Millwall, who, for the purpose of obtaining comparative results up to the greatest links required for the *' Leviathan," selected iron of the same identical quality and worked it into rods, links, and chains. The progression of resistance to increased strains, by increase of mass of iron, with all the influences of variation of make, flaws in the material, and other circumstances inseparable from practice, were thus matters of critical experiment. Commencing with ^-inch chain, and trying 4 links of small chains up to 2|, being the largest diameter of round iron for the greatest cable links ever hitherto made, being those for the sheet anchor of the '* Leviathan," taking the breaking strains, and reducing all the links to the proportion borne upon a circle \ of an iijch in diameter, the minimum breaking force was 796*25 lbs., and the maximum 1052-8 lbs. Sometimes the fracture was found to be dependent upon flaws, sometimes from over- heating, or unequal heating, and other practical causes ; but the whole series of experiments was important and interesting. The iron lengthens to the intense strains employed, long before fracture. The com- parison of actual extension, while under enormou^ force at ordinary temperatures, was as- certained by the following impressive experiments : — The " Leviathan " second-size cable of 2f diameter of iron employed in the links. Three links measured 35;^ inches by stnuu of 10 tons, (of course, it requires power to extend them fairly.) At 50 " 86 " 110 (Proof) " 124 " 140 " 150 " 160 " 170 And broke " 180 i( t( Stretched ^ of an inch. (( . A few links of the best bower anchor cable of the destroyed. Three links measured at 15 tons 39 inches. At -4 " 125 11 Tir H n- 27V H H H " Leviathan it taken, proved, and 75 tons (Proof) It bore And broke 148f 160 170 180 190 200 217 218 t( u t( stretched | of an inch. u i( It il (( <( ti H 2i 3 H ti it it (i li CALICO PRINTING. 223 CACAO. The Theobroma Cacao (or Food of the Gods, as Linnseus named the tree) is a native of the West Indies and of continental America. Its seeds, (nuclei Cacao,) when torrefied, and with various additions (sugar, and usually either cinnamon or vanilla) made into a paste constitute Chocolate, (chrjcolata,) which furnishes a very nourishing bev- erage, devoid of the injurious properties ascriJjed to both tea and coffee : but which on ac- count of the contained oil, is apt to disagree with dyspeptics. Cocoa is another prei^aration of these seeds. It 13 said to be made from the fragments of the seed-coats, mixed with portions of the kernels.— PemVa. See Chocolate. CAIRNGORUM, or CAIRNGORM is the name generally applied to the more pellucid and paler-colored varieties of smoky quartz, with a tint resembling that of sherry orVmber It 13 so called from the district Cairngorum, or the " Blue Mountain," in the south-west of Kanff, Where these crystals are frequently found. When of a good color, this crvsul la wIM "t^n ^T"7?' f,""* r,^ for jewellery ; indeed, so great a favorite is the Cairngorum with the people of Scotland, that brooches, pins, bracelet, and a variety of ornament, are made with thi3 stone, for use by all classes. ' n^f'^w^v^cP^^' ^ "^^^^^ '^^ produce of Ceylon. See Coromandel. CALAMINE. A native carbonate of zinc. (See Zinc.) The term Calamine, or Lapis caiammarts ha3 been applied to this ore of zinc since the days of the Arabian alchemists. It IS so used now by Brook and Miller, by Greg and Lettsom, and others ; yet we find Dana defining calamine to be the h.fdrom silicate o/^mc,— another example of the sad want of system, and indeed of agreement, among mineralogists. CALCAREOUS EARTH {lerre ca'caire, YrJ, Kalkerde, Germ.) commonlv denotes hme, m any form ; but, property speaking, it is pure lime. This term is freqijentlv applied to marl, and to earths containing a considerable quantity of lime. ' CALCAREOUS SPAR. Crystallized native carbonate of lime, of which there are many varieties. ^ •»'^- umuj Carbonic acid 44'0, lime 560, may be regarded as the usual composition of calc spar • it often contains impurities, upon which depend the colors assumed by the crystal The <^- minerals^ ^""^ extensively distributed in nature, as marbles, chalk, and" crystalline CALCAREOUS TUFA. This term is applied to varieties of carbonate of lime, formed by ttie evaporation of water containing that mineral in solution. It is formed in fissures and caves in limestone rocks, about the borders of lakes and near springs, the waters of which are impregnated with lime. In the latter cases it il fre- quently deposited upon shells, moss, and other plants, which it covers with a calcareous -H ^^''b"''*''° ^'■^^''^"^^y * P^*"^^*^' representation in stone of the substance so enveloped. CAl'ce'dONY. See Chalcedony. y.. ?^^2^^^\^^^' (from Ca.'c.m;.) The operation of expelling from a substance by heat, 61 her water, or volatile matter combined with it. Thus, the process of bumin<^ lime to expel the carbonic acid, is one of calcination. The result of exposing the carbonate of magnesia to heat, and the removal of its carbonic acid, is the production of calcined maa- nena. This term was, by the eariier chemists, applied only when the substance exposed to heat was reduced to ^ calx, or to a friable powder, this being frequently the oxi^f a calcium'''"; ^""""'T' "^^ ^^Si *°^ ^?^ '' '"^J^^^ ^^^" ^ * P-^x^ of roasting. Tf wi fi J. k; • ^^^^1'"^"^ 2').) The metal contained in the oxide weU known as liml It was first obtained by Davy, in 1808, by the electrolysis of the hvdrate, carbonate cS^ ride, or nitrate of lime. Matthiessen obtains it by heatin- in a porcelain m^blt; InlT ture of two equivalents of chloride of calcium, with one e^^y^LroT^U^drS'^^^nt^^ .^"nlT?r •^r°''°^"'r''V^\^""^'-^^"«^^^^^^^ The current LmsTx^U^S sen s battery is tlien sent through the mixture by a charcoal pole of as lai^e size as n^LiWe and a piece of iron piano-forte wire (No. 6) not more than two llnesTn le^ ^htch S united with the negative pole of the battery by means of a stronger wire^S clo^^ the surface A small crust is to be formed round the wire at the suri^ace To S>»erth^ small globules deposited on the wire, the latter must be taken out every t^ or thr^ml^m^ together with the crust. The globules are crushed in a mortar, and the flatte^ied S^nX S -C. G W '" ' ^""^' P^' -^""'^ "^'"^^ "^^^^ ^°d ductile^^S^ n.i.^'^^^^^ printing is the art of producing a pattern on cotton cloth, bv nrintin- in colors or mordants, which become colors, when subs^uently dyed. Cali^ denv4™< ^e from Cahcut, a town in India, formerly celebrated foT^ts manufactures Jc^tton^-lo^kTS where calico was also extensively printed. Other fabrics than ^S ^^ow printed^v similar means, viz. : linen, silk, wool, and mixtures of wool and cott^ LL^n w^for meriythe prmcipal fabric prmted, but since modem improvements ha^^pro^^^tton cloth at a comparatively cheap rate, Unen fabrics ^ now sparingly used fSHSnTa^d ST^tlm^I^StTotL^^^^ ^'^J,' ^^^ pn>ducing^ch'lL^uK^ei:^ quence 01 tne small affimty of flax for mordants, or coloring matters. Silk printing, also. { :VI ii 224 CALICO PRINTING. is chiefly confined to handkerchiefs, but the printing of woollen fabrics or mousseline do laines is an important branch of the art. The first step in calico printing is to remove the fibrous down from the surface of the cloth, which is done by passing the piece rapidly through a flame of gas, or over a red-hot semicircular plate. The latter method will be found described under the head of Bleach- ing ; the former is performed as follows : — Fiff. 95 is a vertical section of the gas-singeing 95 apparatus. Its diameter is such as to admit of pieces of the greatest width. The pipe a runs along from end to end under the machine, and is supplied with ordinary gas ; the pipes B B are branched into this, being five in number on each side. Connected with these branches are the pipes, c c, which are perforated with fine holes, at distances of about -J of an inch ; the pipes b b are furnished with taps, a a. Above the tubes c c are the pipes, d d, which are cut open at the bottom along the length, and communicate by the branch pipes, F F, with the large pipe, e, which is exhausted by a fan. Two pairs of cylinders, g g, of wood, covered with fustian, turn on their axes in the direction of the arrows, and draw through them the pieces d d with a velocity of about 4 feet per second. The pair of rollers, o G, to the right, are moved by a belt and pulley ; the other pair is moved by belts which embrace the under roller of each pair, h h are brushes, in pairs, which remove the loose down. The rubber, i i, of wood, covered with fustian, serves to extinguish any sparks that might be drawn on with the cloth. In using this machine, the two rows of gas are lighted, and the size of flame regulated by the taps till it bums blue, and in one continuous line of fire ; the drawing rollers are then made to revolve, and the end of the first piece being laid between the left rollers, is drawn through by means of a narrow piece of list fastened to it ; the end of the piece once through the right rollers, the operation proceeds rapidly, the pieces, of course, being stitched end to end. This gas-singeing apparatus has the effect of making cloth appear thinner than it really is, in consequence of the flame passing through the fibres, and not merely on the surface. It is, therefore, not so much used as the hot plate. In France and Germany a machine called the tondeuse is used, and which is very similar to the shearing machine used in the manufacture of woollen cloth. (See Woollen Manufacture.) A series of knives, running spirally round a roller, shave ofl' the down by the roller revolving on its axis as the cloth passes underneath. This machine makes the cloth smoother and more free from flaws or lumps than either of the other machines, but is not yet used in England. The bleaching requisite for printing cloths is of much superior nature to that suflBcient for calico intended to be sold in the white state. It is sufficient for the latter to be white enough to please the eye, a result easily obtained by chlorine treatment after a compara- tively mild alkaline boiling ; but the former must be so well boiled with lime and alkali, as to remove every particle of resinous and glutinous matter previous to the chlorine steep. This, if not attended to, becomes a source of great annoyance to the printer in his subse- quent operations, from the difficulty of obtaining suflBciently good whites without injuring the colors. The high-pressure kiers patented by Barlow, and which are fully described in the article Bleaching, have been found to facilitate the thorough scouring of the cloth very much at a less cost than the old kiers. CALICO PRINTING. 225 gle colo^, where deU^y oto^Z^J^^^'^ P^ ." h ""'""' f ^'^^ <"■'>• g^nerallTsS: • duced. The printing b/blorkanJl?r,7^n J ' ^u** ".^'-PP'^d "ort being also intro- house of Oberfcamof of Tnnt i„ p ' ^ . ^ "^ Livesey, Haigreaves, and Co The ha™ beea fre,u:Xolid":Sd"n'^Si''aU:l"Xlri:f'^"''"P'?K'''^ ""™"»"- «^ 13 now pretty certaio that the honJ T?^. • .'• • ""g'""'"" of the machine ; but it duction of thi cylinder maohine t^Lf . ^ 7T''J? *'"' "^ ^"^"^ ^ritaia Th^ intn> printers continuing to uTe^hem l^o^ a£ th, r » ^' ^^"^-"^ '"^ «»' P"^^ *« ^^^ first cylinder machine Z iSd a L^o„ in ^r m^r''" "Af FT "'^'" "P '• *« descripUon of prints such a... wnilLn „. ,• j . "*'" *"* *'•" 'reely used for some colorsrafter prUnl by th^ T^'i™ fnd dT^'i-L'" 'T ^T^.' ^"^ "'^ '"^ int^Kiu^l^l fitting in colors, afte° th'e p.eJiL once leffthTrnt^^^^ T^l""' '^i,"^ "''*""» •>' Perrotme, was introduced in France in 1834 h? M p!;_„. ■''^c^'ng-machine, called the there, but though tried in this ZZt^, it ntver "ml S ^n "l '"" "^ ^'^'^ »«^'"- ourface printing, or printing copper cylinder, b°at appa'ntly tt fn g^n ralu se KTsoo °a'/ ' '7 ^'"^''^ '^^^^ patented somewhat the same sort of thing and in isn\ ?' ^'^^"^^ "^°"^^ ^^^'^g^' Peel, at Church, invented the mule machinf ' ththV ? A "^^T" ^"'^^°' «^ ^^^ ^o^^^e of par cylinders, aid one or two wooden rolers Z^vr^ • '"* ,^'f Z^- ^"^ ''^^ ^"^^^^^ ^op- used now, the impression produced by?t not hS fh^'"'''''^: ^^^ ?^^^'°^ ^ ^^^y ""I^ ers, and improvemants in engravL copDer rolZ° StiP""''?'^" ""i ^^^' ^"'"^ ^<^PP^r roll- ad vantap possessed by the surfac^roir QdtTatelv SL^''''' v^' f "°*'^ "^^ ^^ '^^ patented a species of surface roller whicrDromilVt,! k however Mr. James Chadwick has typed patterns described hereafLr^r^adaS hv """"T ^5"^' '^^^ "^^'^^J st^reo- which is then fitted on the mnd el Sed tlS^ the LZ^ *^ ^ ^"^ ""' ^'^'' "^^^ roller, and solidity thus given which w^Lver no^essed hv ^^^^^^ '"^ ^''"'''' ^°^ * ^"^"^ In block printing everv color itZ^^S f ,^^ "^^^^^^ «"'^a<^e roller. . piece with one block ; the rest of the^colo^ ^ '^' printer going all through the the appropriate blocks and th ^ e e is £ reXfor Z? h '^ '"'^ ^^^ *^^^^ P^^ ^y ing the colors. Calico intended for nrintinthvhlLt- t ^^^^^equent operations for rai/ the object being to leave the clo?h S so a^Cf^ni/ft. ^^^ by the calender, b ock impressions. When pieces that Le Men Sed bt ' S" '"' "'"'"^"^ '^' '^''''''^^ other colors inserted by block a.^ fnr inJlL^r *u^ ,7 machine are requ red to have &c., after printing and dyeino'' i^ madd/r^^^^^^^ the grounding-in of blues, yellows. L^^^^^ pieces bein^ dried and calendered Td thentrfld h^^^^ f 't f ^'''^' '' adoptfS^ the these grounds are cut from sket£ or t^P^°'/^^^^^^^^ technically termed ^cn^^rf, ; dered and, consequently, fit accurately thosTTaS whth 1T- f^'/f^ P^^ ^^^^ ^alen- ground.ng-in of colors, after the opeit oS of dvein. t« ^ ""^^^^^^ ^ ^ ^^^^^ed. The were merely small thin pieces of w'o o^Xh were finnS i^^f^ 1"°" ^^ ^""'^ ^^ch portions of the patterns, such as leaves &c\7n^^^^^ '^ *?® '^'''«^' ^^ ^^^ necessary soon gave way to blocks ; but The ,^e cJf t&se nP^^ill'' ^^ ^^^■' ^^ ^«"'^' '^ °^eth(S ively recent period for certain colorTsuch a-Hi / a ^^,?«?^°»ed down to a compara- mdigo was too speedily oxid^erwhensprld^r^^^^^^^^^ tjon^of the pencU. Even this color waT et^X^ l^;^-^^:^^^^:^^ S^f dJd brstSyp'n.*'^^^^^^ '''^'''-S or coppering blocks has been much re- type-metkl being a%fTL%a\tn'lTast^^^^^^^ ^^. ^^^ ^»«^k, a" 'S block and securely nailed down. TtVobvLTSll ^"^ '^^"''^^" ^^^^^ «n ^ plain ber of castings can be easily produced • tblskilled Ihn ™1k "^ T^ °'^^^' ^° ^^^^ num- tion of what was formeriy reSte THp nS;i '''" 'I therefore reduced to a small Z- trace on a small block ofVeaftreffsa^ acrert'?/"^-"^ °^"^J°° '^' "^^^^^ ^^ ^o di^Hr end of the grain,) the pattern o be tyM Zfo^^^^^^^ ^^ '^.' P^"«™ ''« Put on the form width, are then driven down to a Wain ^rhf Th''^ ^^J^^^ '^"^°^' ^^' ^^• way of coppering blocks. When the natt^?a tl the wood, just as in the ordinary course leaving the pattern inden^M ZS tSe bZf •''^' *'" f^^' P""^^ ««^^ .ae Of the block easily^tl^^^^^^^ Wtle^t^S^^ t ^^ i» 1 1 i » tm CALICO PRINTING. Ibr prtlllK on the block ; when a number of these nn^ nrranped on n block, the surfaco Is fihM ami proumi on a Btone till pertVH'tly level. The Introduction of Hurch'H i)atent typing nmchinc, still further simplified the stereotyping pnuTSs. In this iM'uutilul Invention the matrix is fonned by steel putuhes ol viirying shapes, which nre moved up nnd down by a slirnip and lever, wui whiih are kept heateti, by a gns llame ingeniously applied, to the tenjpenUure sufficient to char wood, and by nM)ving the block about uiuler these punches ' and depressing them, the patt<'rn is btirnt into the wcxmI to a uniform depth, and the labor of cutting and bending slips of copper, &e., ilone away with. The Tobying sieve is a mode of applying with one block several colors at once, whereby the cost of several blocks is saved, and, what is of more consequene*', the cost of labor is very much reduced, as one printer pnuhiees the same restdt as the combined eftbrts of several. Whenever designs are composed of colored parts, where each color lies separate, and where the outlines of the tx>lored parts are not too close together, a sieve of the fol- lowing construction is made use of, {ffl. 96 :) — A block of wood is scooped out in hollow con)partments,.K, which vary in size and number, according to the number and extent of the shades to be printed ; these compartments communicate by tubes, b, at the Iwttom, with reservoirs, a, at the sides of the sieves ; wer the compartments is then stretched tightly a woollen sieve ; the surface of this cloth is cemented with melted resin string about ^ of an inch thick, following the configurations of the compartments ; the use of this is to prevent the colors mixing and becoming blended at the edges. Colors are now put in the reservoirs, which are kept filled up above the height of the cloth, so that a gentle pres- sure is exerted against the under side of the sieve. The colors are made of such a thickness as to pass through the cloth, and keep the upper surface moist, but still not too thin, or they would spread when ])rinted. The sieve being thus prepared, the block is furnished with guides, which, working against the sides of the sieve frame, constrain the block to be always dipped in one place, and thus each part of the pattern finds itself furnished with its proper color. Sometimes the compartments for the colors are made of metal when required to be durable, so as to serve for a large number of pieces of the same pattern. ^ Where colors are required to melt into one another, technically called rainbowed, [/onduSy Fr.,) the following apparatus is used : — a a (/V7. 97) is a rectangular frame of CALICO PRINTING. 227 P^p^^^:^l^!^^ th. frame is stretched, ho usuaU«,,W«en^ tuf., the cloth downwa?i'and ^^d o^if' '°.'*^' ''^'^' ™^«*^ of the tub. At one end is now put the color reserCr a n f "^"'''^ ^ *^^ ^'J-'^'" cover rnetal »>ox, divided into water-tight com^artm?^]!' w^ ^^ * '^^^en or th.8 box iH of such a width as U^ tit easily S one JdrfftJr*"^ ^'^ """^ ^^ '*^'« ^^^ i of the same size, fixed aero.*? the frame • th^dZth r 1 v^ ^'^^' ^^ ''esting on a board the width about 8 inches ; but thLirrJgiktedC In' 'T "^7 ^^ ^"^ i iru:h^ ramhomA. A semicircular pioce of woS .^ n/^i 1""'"'^''^" ^^ ^'^'^« ^ "^ blend;d or ered with printer's blankets, aid a LTA^^dT ^.k^' "^^ '''^'^ ^ ^^^ frame ilcov- ba..kwards and forwards. The color 'fL^Tcjs"^^^^^^^^^ "^ 'Y ^^^ ^^"^^ ^° "^ove"^" color box ; on the under side of this arf^^s^r^ j w Jf ^'"^"'^ ""^ ""^ J"^^' ^o^^ring the ermmed by the width of the stripe of ^Z^^^x^Z ?hf ' "^ t ^^"'^" P^^ ^ 't. These pegs are of turned wood, alx,ut i of a^ nr hTh^ I "?"^' ^^ **^^^ composing of an ,nch at the thick end, this end SA?i ?. ""^ *' '^'^ «"^' «"d. «»d about f nearij as long as the color box is deep 5S ?i?fi 'Z^ "^ ^ ^ "^^ "^^^ ^oior ; t^^ indT;; 'r f "P^-^' ^^ '' ^^ ^-k ^een in c^ntfe UTw^^^ ^'f "^^ ^ producl^ and F of chocolate in centre, purple next ami ?r.v' * ^ ""^^^^ "^^ «^en at each side thus :--m No. 1 compartm;n^t U put thVdarke^' "!^^^^ "' ""^^ ^^"' the^color-box is S No 3, the palest green ; in Ho^ the chJ^^.fT ^ v° ' '°.^^^- ^^ the medium green !n drab The color lifter is so stuTded'^iK^^^^^^^^^ ^^'^\ -<* - IT^'th" 2, 3, 4, 6, and 6 respectively, dip into theiVl^;.. • T ^ .P°' *"* ^^^ color-box, the pe^ 1 roller o, is then moved up o The ton -' tfP'''P"^ ^o^^"- The brnsh, orsemic^li th:"oe^'' "P T «^*^^ -"oX'x'is'Sd" •m^ent^m^^^^^^^^ T^ ^^^ color'^rril^ the pegf, and then lifted over and thp 11» n V " ^°^ ^'**^^'' ^ ceased dropninff from «hown by the black spots 1, 2 '3 4 .5 aS^g ^^'vr"^ ^'^'' '^^ ^^^ on the^s"fve 2 fresh portion of coloriifted knd denaftt ^^^'^^'^ ^« then returned to the box. I^'d^ «pots of eolor being of neoiSty alH ^^iSlt^^'''' *l * ^'^^'^"^ ?«« of the^^ve the wards and forwards by the teerer tin theSs Ire^^fi, '^l^^^ «' ^ '^'^ ^^red back at the edges. It is necessary to obsen^e Th^thl r^*''^'^'^/"^^**^^ '•gather or blend^ uniform, and sufficiently thi^to allow ^em.!^ • '^^^"«« ^f the eol^ must be prettr -made to -It insensib'ly in^an'oKd at^if^^^^ ^^ ^^^ -^-« -e'^foJ and consequently on the piece, when printed fmm»w ^^^"^ ^^f"^ produced on the sieve The annexed cuts are takei from the"' tJ^h m'^'' ^'PP^ «° '^^ ^y. 98 is a vertical section, Z}^,%9^Tie:^^'^'''' ^^ ^^" of K. Persoz. 98 A, cast-iron framework a h n n ♦ • bUaket, the Wkcloth, „i the pi^^Zt^::^ P'"^ I?" '• ?^*' ''""' '''"-^ '"e V miea , c c c, aliduig pieces, to which the block i ■i A ( J X •l I .1 228 CALICO PRINTING. holders, 3, are screwed, and causing the engraved blocks, 2, to move alternately against the woollen surface, from which they receive the colors and the stuflf to be printed, by the action of the arms, 4 and 6, the supports of which, 6, rest on the frame, a, and which act, through the medium of connecting rods, on the beams, 7, keyed to the slides, c. The lower of these slides, being in a vertical position, takes by its own weight a retrograde movement, regulated by a counterweight, e e e are movable color-sieves, keyed to connecting rods, and receiv- ing from the power applied to the machine the kind of movement which they require. These sieves, which are flat, and covered with cloth on the surface opposite to the blocks, slide in grooves on the sides of the tables, and receive from the furnished rollers the colors which they afterwards transmit to the blocks, f f f are the color troughs filled with color, and furnished each with two rollers, 8 and 10, the last of which, dipping into the troughs, are charged with color, which they communicate to the roller, 8, the latter being covered with woollen cloth ; and these, in their turn, transmit their color to the sieves, e, on which it is spread by the fixed brushes, 9. As it is important to be able to vary at pleasure the quantity of color supplied to the sieves, and consequently to the blocks, the rollers, 10, are in connection with levers, 11, which, by means of adjusting screws, bring them into more or less intimate contact with the rollers, 8, and consequently vary the charge of color at pleasure. The blanket, backcloth, and fabric are circulated as follows : — At the four angles formed by the three tables, b, are rollers, 1, armed on their surfacs with needle points, which pre- vent the cloths from slipping as they pass round, and thus secure the regular movement of the stuff to be printed, a movement determined by the toothed wheels, 21, {fg. 99,) fixed at the extremities of the axes of these rollers, g is a roller for stretching the endless web, resting with the two ends of its axes on two cushions forming the extremities of the screws, 12, by which the roller can be pushed further out when required, to give the cloth the neces- sary tension, h is another tension roller, supporting the blanket and backcloth. k is a roller which serves similar purposes for the blanket, the backcloth, and the fabric in course of being prmted. t, the blanket, which in its course embraces the semicircumference of the roller, g, passes over the roller, h, and behind k, to circulate round the cylinders, 1, and over the surfaces of the tables, b. l is a cylinder from which the backcloth is unwound, being first stretched by the roller, h, and then smoothed by the scrimping bars, 13, from which it proceeds to join the blanket on arriving at the roller, k. m, a roller, from which the fabric to be printed is unrolled by the movement of the machine, first passing over the scrimping bars, 14, and joining at k the blanket and backcloth, which it accompanies in their course till it arrives at the roller, g, when it separates and passes off m the direction of the line, n, to the hanging rollers, where it is dried. The machine is put in movement, either by a man with a winch-handle, or by power communicated by a strap which passes over the pulley, 18. This pulley has several diameters, so as to give several speeds ; it is loose on the driving shaft, and carries catches CALICO PRIKTEN^G. which lock into those of a sliding catch-box on the shaft w»,o« ♦». movement The movement of the ma^h^eVt^^lJn^V^ °^J^°^ i^ to be put in mittent; moreover, it must be so regulated thirthTf^hi f "'^ '^^ P"^*^"^ ^ i^^^^" equai to the breadth of the blocks, anftha^Tt movef fom^ ^Zf^ "• ^^^ ««<^tly with color from the rollers 8 8. This result is oht^InLK ^? ^^® ^'^""^ ^ chained wheel 20. The wheels 21, fixed at the extr^^^^^ or di^ng having each the same number of teeth, receTveT^^^ ^^ *^^ '^^^^^ 1. and m the same manner, and placed behikS^X wte, "^rThl^T * ''?'^ ''^''^ ^'^^^ motion from a rack, 24, fixed in a copner nie^fJnl;^ ^- u*^' "^^'^^^ "^ alternating bemg keyed at its lower end to one oTSie sS J\S k'^^I'L"'^^ ^^ ^"^ alternately, of the point at which the end of the ^fc^fs ^n/ec^^^^^ f/ ^V-'-J'^g the position range of its movement is proportionallv^anrfpr«n^ with the ^ke 26, the length or 20, are made to pass, which reZTZnortion^W T^ ""' ^"^ ^^ ^^^ ^^ «^ the^^eel at each movement ; ind this is further rS^n/.f^' ^'^^*^!: ""^ ^^^' *^^ «^^a°ce of the cloth half turn of this list, thetvL 2TSs^f tt t . { * '"'"?."* ^^^"^ P^^^^ ^' ^' At e^h wheels 21 during the otherS turn but llT ''" P^"^V!^ ^^^o^^ o.rt of gearlSe inevitobly a backward movement this t ^rlv f '^''^''^S ofthese wheels there would b^ mounted on the shaft of the a^L Jf the whLfZ ^^^ t ^"^^-^ <^ouBistmg of a puUej^ turn and a half, or two turns, on thi^ shaft lA/ ?k % ^J^V"'^^^ which, Wr mLng a sufficient resistence to any reioi? The s^ ofbT^^^^^^^ ''''^^' '^' ^^^^^ ^^^^ a wheels 27 and 28, gearing with the larger whrel 29 aL/*^"'" "l^"' ^ '"^"^^ ^y the both for causing the blocks to bear mofe or 1^^ stron.lfnn V"^ '^''' ^^^° ^' P^^'^» ess charged with color, and likewise for attai^nt th.^I °. ^^ ''^''^'' so as to be more ©; the color to be laid on, it is sufficient to move thf no^n.f J- ^T"'^' ""^''^ ^'^^ ^'^ ^or or less distance from the point marked 1? IhlnV. ^ .^ of junction, 16 and 17, to a greater beams that work the slides. Th^ movemenrof^^^^^^^ '^^ ""°'^ ^^ oscillation^Tthe 11, 30, which works them all th^e by pittU fnTn? '' '^°1~I^"^ ^^ "^^ ^^ '^e cam respectively keyed. The furnishing rXlcTrefeiv. ^h.-'''' ^ "^ ^^'^ ''^^^ ^^ey are pmions on the axes of the rollers 8 g '^uf^®""® i^^'*" movement from gearing with remains to be described, Wh^en put into rel^lf °'?^ ""^'^'"^ ^^ *^^« ^«"»Plex mihine ered their impression exactly at the same inliT T'"''''- *^^ '^^ *^^^ ^^^^^ have del^v! °»ence. ^ '""^ ^"^^ '^^^^ant, three simultaneous movements then cam- It tii) jn^^^^^^^^^ f^^!o7u:sfzveXi:':ft^ n ^^-^t.^' *^^ ^^-^^ -d with tht''i-V'^""^P"'^'^^5 that which wL under the ^^^^^^^ 1^*'^ ^^^^""'^^ ^^ml block that which was under the first, moves alon- to thP IpJnS f''^^^^^ opposite the third : imprinted fabric arrives opposite the firs? 2d WW? L'^^^ l"^'^ ^^^^^'^ of white o; stated, the sieves take the place wh c^ thev o JL^ A^ the cloth is advancing as above fii^t on the right hand rises^, the leeond m J^/^^^^^^^^ ??' ^^at ie^o say, the this movement all three press slightly on the fnr^^hf/ ^ n^^'' *^^ ^^'^ descends, ^d in the color, which has beenVead Srmly L^^^^^^^^^^^ ?'/^"» '^hich they receiv^ elides, or blockholders, by a forward movPmpnJ I i, i ^*1? ®- ^^' ^» ^^e mean time the them with color, and ihe' bSat X sS^?£\t' '^^^^ ^^^^^ *^^ ^'^'^^ ^o eh'a ge ward movement, during which the sieves SteZ'Jr-''^ ^"^^ the slides a gentle back- upon them, and are drawn back i^in afS l^^iS^^n.r/?''"^" ' *^" blocks then return face. When these simultaneous rSvements Cv^ tP^'^^*^ ^ ".^^ P^^ «^ ^^e color sur- proceeding without intermission the sieves ^orph ^/° P^^' ^^^ *^''«« «f 'he machine ?hU h^-"P T""'' '^^ ^^"^^' P"»S^^^^^^^^^ ^'«^'^«' ^*i these a^e This brings the machine to thkt position at Xhtbl 1 ^T '''*' '' '^"^tched upon them. cession of movements is renewed and r/n J.^^ f ^^^"P'^on commenced ; andthis suc- having it always in his power trsusnenrfh?!? "^ '^°? f "^^ ^P^™*'^" last^ ; the printed blocks and sieves continueTso thSrli ^^""T^ ""^^^^ ^^^^ whilst the working of the as often a. -ay be-requirelVorfg^o^fd^^^rn'^ "^^P"^' '' ^^^ ^^ P^^ <^'^'-^^^o which ^e SL" oT^f CT^ch rat^^^^ '' ^^^^^ - ^^is country amongst another, none of them have ev1?come to ge^^^^^^^^^ ' ^"' '^^ «^ -^ - particulanze them. general use, and it is unnecessary, therefore to give some insight into the modern method of pr^-^Tu^^"" ""^ '■«"^"> '*' '^ advisable to formerly engraved altogether by ha^d in the IS"^"^ '^' '""T' ^y""^^'^- Th^ w. re f^'^ary copper-plate engravings^iU the halv^^^ tools, as the for transferring engravings from on« «nrf.?/T ''''^^°tj«» of Mr. Jacob Perkins, of Americn with g^at judimerapplfed STm^^^^^^^ .^^ ^'^ '' «*^^^ roller ^^t^S before the first inventor came to Europeltitrth. n^^^^^ '^"^ '^^ ^ '^' -^^^ 180? increased m size to such a scale that it tm 1 *P^', ^^ P^^^^™ '^ first r^uced or and as rollers are of varying dial^l^^jt^^^^^^^^^ '^. ">»- ^o.^e eng^ved , uwmg 10 oia patterns being turned off, &c., this 230 CALICO PRINTING. 11 ; I I < i I drawing to scale has to be adopted for every roller, the exact circumference of the roller being taken and the pattern arranged in accordance with this. This pattern is next engraved in intaglio on a roller of softened steel, which is of such a size that one repeat of the pattern exactly covers its surface ; generally these rollers are about 8 inches long, and from i an inch to 2 or 3 inches in diameter. The engraver aids his eye with a lens when employed at this delicate work. This roller is hardened by heating it to a cherry-red in an iron case containing pounded bone-ash, and then plunging it into cold water : its surface being pro- tected from oxidizement by a chalky paste. This hardened roller is put into a press of a peculiar construction, called the clamming machine, where, by a rotatory pressure, it trans- fers its designs to a similar roller in the soft state ; and as the former was in intaglio, the latter must be in relievo. This second roller being hardened, and placed in the engraving machine, is employed to engrave by indentation upon the full-sized copper cylinder the whole of its intended pattern. The first roller engraved by hand is called the die ; the sec- ond, obtained from it by a process like that of a milling tool, is called the mill. By this indentation and multiplication system, an engraved cylinder may be had for £1, which en- graved by hand would cost £6. The restoration of a worn-out cylinder becomes extremely easy in this way ; the mill being preserved, need merely be properly rolled over the copper surface again. The die roller is made of such a size that its circumference- is exactly a Irac- tional part of that of the mills, say one-half, one-third, one-fourth ; then in the clamming machine the die revolving in contact with the mill repeats its surface so many times on the surface of the mill. By this means as little skilled labor as possible is used. When a pattern having more than one color is to be engraved, the drawing is reduced to scale as before, each roller being made of the same diameter ; then a tracing is made of each color, which is en- graved on a separate die and mill — a mill being required for each color — which engraves its separate copper color ; when these rollers come to be worked in the printing machine, each roller fits its part of the pattern into place, and the original pattern is re- produced. The annexed drawings of engraving machinery are from those made by Messrs. Gadd and Hill, of Manchester, to whose courtesy are due also the drawings of the printing machines and their drying apparatus hereafter described. Fig. 100 is a front view of the clamming machine, ODdfff. 101 is a side view of the same. A A cast-iron framework ; b a head- stock screwed on the framework a ; c a sliding piece, capable of movement from back to front on the headstock B ; the position being determined, it is secured by the screw shown under c ; the roller d revolves in bearing attached to the sliding piece c ; the supporting piece E has a motion backwards and forwards on the supporting piece o, which moves up or down ; c is a small steel roller, which again supports the die roller seen in the centre of the drawing. The roller f is of softened steel, called the mill, which revolves in bearings attached to the headstock, which has a sliding movement on the slide block h, which is moved from right to left by the screw, i, worked by the lever k. l is a pinion gearing into the toothed wheel n, and turned by the winch handle m ; the shaft p has a sliding movement through the wheel n, and carries the boss o, which has a square aperture to CALICO PRINTING. 231 receive the centre of the mill, which is squared to fit into it. y is a screw used to tighten and keep in the desired position the saddle pieces b o, which together are pushed up or down to meet the varying size of the die. The die d having been hardened, is inserted in the machine resting on the auxiliary hard steel roller e, which again rests on the supporting piece e ; the die being in contact with the hard steel roller d, the soft steel roller or mill e is next forcibly screwed up in contact with the die, rotatory motion being given to the roller d by the toothed wheels ; those por- tions which are in intaglio in the die become in relief on the mill. It is then ready for the machine engraver to transfer its pattern to the copper roller. F^g. 102 is an elevation of the engraving machine, a a is a mandrel which carries the copper roller e ; the mandrel is fitted in the universal joint c, which is secured on the shaft of the wheels d d, which are a double pair of wheels for the purpose of altering the speed fix)m fast to slow, and are moved by the* winch handle or pulley. The lever e is fitted, works loosely on the shaft, on which is keyed the wheel f. By means of the screw o, the lever e can be secured to the wheel F. By this contrivance the motion termed rocking is effected, that kind of motion being required when the pattern repeats at great intervals. The mill works in bearings at- tached to the pillar and carriage h h, which is moved from right to left by the screw i i ; the mill is forcibly pressed against the copper roller by a weighted lever, which forces down the bearings of the mill in the pillar h ; this lever cannot be shown in the figure, but is at right angles to the roller. The mill being in contact with the copper roller, revolves with it simultaneously on the roller being moved by the wheels d d or the lever e, and consequently impresses or engraves its pattern on the copper roller ; when the mill has traversed the cir- cumference, it is then moved to its next relative position by the screw i, which moves the pillar and carrit^ h ; the exact distance the mill moves is determined by an index on the wheel K, which is divided into segments, corresponding with the number of repeats laterally on the roller. The apparatus shown at l is used occasionally when the machine is employed for turning off an engraved pattern, which, however, is generally performed in a slide lathe, and is unnecessary further to describe here. Etching by nitric acid is largely employed in engraving for calico printing, the following being the process : — The copper roller is first coated all over with a thin coating of bitumi- nous varnish, and when dry put in a machine which rules lines about the ' ja of an indi apart all over the surface, the lines all running in one direction and diagonally to the axis, the varnish bemg cut through by the ruling pomt The pattern is then traced on in the usual manner. All t^e parts that are intended to be blank, are then pmnted in with the bituminous varnish by hand ; generally the outlines are put in by skilled operatives, the fiUing-in being done by gitls or boys; when dry, the roller is immersed horizontal! v in a bath of diluted nitric acid, and kept there for a few minutes, during which time the acid at- tacks and deepens the lines which are unprotected by varnish ; the roller is then removed, well washed with water, and the varnish removed by oil of turpentine ; the pattern is found etched with diagonal bars, which in a good engraving should be nearly level with the blank parts of the roller, the interstices being sufficient to supply the color. The outlines of the pattern are generally completed with the graver. This mode is well adapted for giving a deep engraving, which is necessary for printing coarse fabrics. When a pattern is worn down it is easy to renew it, by simply painting up the blank parts and etching deeper by nitric acid. 889 CALICO PlilNTlNG. In 1854, Wniiam Ripby patented a mode of transforrinp patterns to copper rollera hy a moditieation of the pentagraph. The i)attern to J>e engnived being dniwii on an cnhirged Slide, Hiul put on a bed eurvi-d to an are ot a einle, a trattr being then moved over all the lines of the pattern by a bt>autiful, but sin»pU*, urrangeineiit of niaeliiuery, n tracer executed, on a varnished roller, a reduced copy of the pattern on the eireidar lu d. In a patent, dated 1st Januarv, 1857, Rigby intmduee«i an improvement whenby any number of tracers could be simultaneously worked on the roller, by the simple movement of the tracer on the pat- tern ; Uuis all the rt»peat.s of the pattern could be executed at once. The method is becom- ing very extensively adopted, and, independent of several large printers having Ix-gun en- graving on this system, a very large establishment, " The liurlington Engraving Company," has l»eei\ conuneneed with a view to engrave on this principle. All descriptions of engrav- ing cannot, however, be done on this plan. The ])n>cet^s is the following : — The pattern is first enlarged to five times its size : this is conveniently done by the eaujera. The paper pattern being put in the camera, an enlarged copy is thrown on a talde in a darkened roiMu, and is there easily traced on paper. It is then transferred to a thin zinc plate, and this plate is then engraved with a coarse graver, the lines of the engraving being adapted for the tracing point to work easily in. The zinc pattern, if of a two- or more colored pattern, is colored for the guidance of the operative. It is thtn laid on the curved boil of the pentagraph machine, and a varnished roller being mounted in the machine, a number of tools, corresponding in number to the repeats laterally, and carrying diamond points, are placed in con^ct with the roller. The operative then carries the tracer suc- cessively into all the lines of the pattern, a lever allowing the points to touch the roller only when necessary. The pattern is thus traced by the etching points on the roller one- fifth of the size of that on the zinc plate, or the same size as the paper drawing. The roller is then paintt»d and etched with nitric acid, as before described. A reference to the annexed engnivings will more clearly illustrate this system. In /?(7». 103 and 104, a represents the cylinder to be operated upon ; and 6, the bed or table for the reception of the enlarged pattern or original device ; o, the tracer, which is made to traverse in the direction of the arc of the bed or table, and by means of its connec- tion with the carriage k, the rail «?, and the connecting arms e e, communicates part of a revolution to the bar or axis /, and thence to the cylinder through the dies g g, on which the cylinder rests. The cylinder being thus moved in a rotary direction, will receive from the tools in contact with it diminished copies of the transverse lines which may have been gone over by the tracer on the enlarged pattern or device?. The tracer c being connected with the carriage, h, which travels along the rail i '. 234 CALICO PRINTING. 105 lOY \rr\ ^Ti^vn;n^ In figs. 106 and 10 Y the tool holders are adapted for employing two or more rows of tools, the members of the two rows being placed in alternate holders, or otherwise, accord- ing to the pattern. It is evident that by slight modifications in the form of the tool holders the tools may be made to occupy any position on the surface of the cylinder, thus affording great facility for placing the tools and making them applicable for step patterns or other suitable sketches. Figs. 106 and 107%how two such modifications, in which/' is the copper roller ; g' the line of fulcrums or centres upon which the tool holders h' and k' vibrate, the said tool holders with their tools being lifted off by the cam l\ and advanced to their work by the weights m\ which can be adjusted with any required nicety. In^^r*. 108 and 109 is shown another arrangement of tools with swivel bars, the swivel bars being shown at />', and placed and held in the desired position by the screws q'. To the bar is attached the carriage r', to one end of which is connected the tool holder «', in which is a projection t\ acted upon by a beam or lever v! working on a fulcrum in the car- riage r'. The tool is lifted off the roller v' by means of the cam w\ and returned to its work by means of a spring or Indian-rubber band x\ attached to the slide /. It will be perceived that, independently of the slot or slide in the tool holder, great change of position is obtained by simply shifting the carriages longitudinally. The " eccentric engraving," or etching, of Mr. Lockett, of Manchester, produces on a varnished roller the most curious variety of configurations, by means of diamond points, moved by very elaborate machinery, the patterns being the result of eccentric movements given to the tracer by a combination of machinery. In this case the exact effect that will be produced by any given modification of the machine cannot be determined, though an approximation can be made ; but when a pattern is produced, and notes taken of the rela- tive positions of the wheels, &c., the same pattern can at any time be reproduced. This system is applicable principally to groundworks, or, as they are termed, " covers." It is impossible in the scope of this article, to give a clear idea of this machine, as a very elabo- rate set of drawings would be required. With regard to the 2 and 3-colored machines, we must observe, that as the calico in passing between the cylinders is stretched laterally from the central line of the web, the figures engraved upon the cylinders must be proportionally shortened, in their lateral di- mensions, especially for the first and second cylinder. OAUCO PRINTING. 235 Cylmder pnntmg, although a Scotch invention, has received its wonderful development m England, and does the greatest honor to this country. The economy of labor introduced by these machmes is truly marvellous ; one of them, under the guidance of a man, to regu- late the rollers, and the service of two boys, to supply the color troughs, &c., being capable ot printing as many pieces as nearly 200 men and boys could do with blocks In mounting two or more cylinders in one frame, several adjustments become necessarv A, fl . T®* important is that which insures the correspondence between the parts of tne figures m the successive printing rollers, for unless those of the second and subsequent engraved cylindere be accurately inserted into their respective places, a confused pattern would be produced upon the cloth as it advances round the pressure cylinder ±.ach cylinder must have a forward adjustment in the direction of rotation round its axis so as to bring the patterns into correspondence with each other in the length of the piece • Sthf fi.ni?«? ''' !r'^^ adjustment in the line of its axis, to effect the correspondence woJkV'SSy iitl^^^^^^^^^ *'"^' '^ '^*^ ^^^^'^^^' -^^ ^^"°^- -^ ^ --^« ^ T^^^v— ^ Fig.Ua is an end elevation of a 4-color printing machine, audita 111 is a secHon of same : the same letters of reference refer to both. \ is the cksuZ^framewort mSJ to a corresponding framework by the bolts b, with a space of from sTo 4 fJ^t bet^ee^ c i^ the pressure cylinder, about 2 feet diameter, of iron, but hollow Jd between 3 Id 4 LI long according to the sort of cloth the machine is intended t(^^JinT n are the co^^r ,S^ Tfb t'7h^'^ "^ " P'""" "^ e'"*^ ' " ^'^ nought-iron mandreTon Uich the co3 Jr « forced by a screw press, the mandrel being about 4 inches dikmeter where the rolleTfitI 2ut /^n ••'Tk'' ^J '"f T ^r"^'^'' The roller is made with a preTecU^p^^^ lao as It 13 called, fits in a slot cut m the mandrel, which causes it to turn without sHnnm^ h^,hi' Tf'^' *^ f*!^"^ cylinder or bowl c, rest^ with L gudgeL in ^^^^^^^^ s-llllJi"? """^ ^' '5^^^ "P "^^ *^«^" ^•^ «>ots'of the side chef ks a theL b^ief a^ sliding piece, moving in l^lTt^^ri^:^:,''^^ZL'trs^^,T'''^''y,^ aZ: ""Thrtlt- h" f\^ '""'''"' '» de-rib^nf Jde'""v:UtrXbeirpSf ends. .', by movable weights .'ade to fit eT^ ^ "ihe iw^tw^roStV^ /" 286 CALICO PRINTtN^G. °1 l«Ft- j£ against the cylinder by the system of compound levers k", which have attachments to the framework at it and m" as fulcnims ; the screws h" h" working in female screws i" i", as in the other set of levers. For convenience of removing the rollers, color boxes, &c., these levers are provided with a hinged piece n, in a socket o, on the top of which work the screws / /, which, by means of the female screw in the lever A: k", serve still further to regulate the pressure ; the lever k" k is shown as when the machine is printing ; But when the rollers, &c., are to be removed, the lever is lifted by the handle, and the hinged piece N pulled over, the lever with its burden being then lowered down ; the weighting of these levers, which are partly outside the machine, is best seen in Jigs. 110 and 111, where l are the weights, q are color boxes, the sides and bottom of which are made of sheet copper, and the ends of gun-metal : in each end is a slot, which receives the brass journals of the wooden furnishing rollers p, which are wrapped with a few folds of coarse calico, and, by revolving in the color and against the engraved rollers d, supply it equally all over with the color; the superfluous color is next wiped off by the color doctors t. These doctors are thin plates of steel or brass, which are mounted in doctor shears, or plates of metal screwed together with bolts ; the shears have journals which rest in bearings movable backwards and forwards by the screws s ; the doctors are kept in close contact with the engraved roller by levers and weights, for the way of arranging which, see fg. 112, where a, b, c, are the levers attached to the doctor shears. On the ends of these levers weights are hung, and by this means the doctors are pressed forcibly against the roller. After printing the pattern on the piece, the roller d is cleaned from threads or dust by the lint doctors u, pressed against the roller by the screws s. Jiff. Ill ; any loose threads from the piece are prevented by the lint doctors from going into the color, and consequently under the cleaning doctors, where, by preventing them from perfectly wiping the blank parts of the roller, smears on the piece would ensue. The color boxes are mounted on wooden boards, to give them greater strength, and are tightened up against the roller, by the screws r r and w w ; the lower pair of color boxes are removed from the copper roller when not in use by the handles v, after detaching the screws w w. There is a toothed wheel slipped on to each mandrel, working into a toothed wheel on the axis of the furnish- ing roller, which ensures the copper roller and furnishing roller always turning together. By means of an eccentric, fixed on the axis of the pressure bowl, and connected with each cleaning doctor, a regular vibratory movement is given to them, which prevents the doctor being worn down unequally. Sometimes for the highest rollers, and especially in macliines of more than four colors, the cumbrous color box is dispensed with, and a doctor inserted in a curved frame is applied to the roller instead. In this arrangement the doctor forms the bottom of the color reservoir, and is pressed strongly against the "coWer ; the curved frame stopped oflf at the sides with a piece of copper curved to fit both roller and frame, and which CALICO PRINTING. 287 IS padded with a piece of folded cotton cloth, forms the color box. This doctor box takes nV^I f^u"^' ^""^ ""^'^^ ^"' ""'^ ^^'^'' "^"^ ^ ^"^^ "sed for the uppermost rollei? wo nnd'nn /k ""^ ^™°T,'°V' T ''^ ^^''7'' ^^ /^r. 1 1 1. The roll of pie^is shown at «, wound on the wooden roller b, the axis of which rests in bearings at the end of the armZ Lain^«rrt.f «^^- ''"'^k""^"'' l'™^" ""^^^"^ ^""'•' "^^' «^^^ ^ ^q"^'-^ i">° bar, and next l^l^iJZr T.u^ ^"J' *^^°^^ ^'^^^ ^^"^ ^«^e^ "^"er a-, round which a\m pass the gray piece d, and the woollen blanket e. The scrimping bar is a bar of iron or br^with mrtnf'^'^T' ^""^''^'^ ^^ ^?^^^'' ^"^ "°^* ^"*^ left fro°» the centre. See Calico Print INO, vol. 1. In passmg over this bar. the cloth is ^tr^t^h.^ o«„„n„ tC^l .^^.^A"^® ^*^'^^- the cloth is stretched equaUy from the centre, and any 113 238 CALICO PRINTING. folds or creases removed. In order that the piece may be constantly stretched, the roller 6 is provided with a wooden pulley, round which passes a leather strap, one end of which is made fast to the framework, and to the other is attached a weight ; the friction of the strap against the pulley causes a retarding action of the piece, and consequently keeps it stretched. Fig. 113 is an elevation of a 12-color machine, which is inserted to show the way in which all machines are driven. The large spur wheel is keyed on the axis of the pressure bowl, and works into pinions staked on the mandrels ; there is a peculiarity aboui: these pinions, or box wheels, as they are called, which may be observed in Jig. 113, but is shown on an enlarged scale in Jig. 114, which is a box wheel detached. This wheel may be com- pared to the fine adjustment of a micro- 114 scope, as by means of it the rollers receive the final and delicate adjustment. so as to reg- ister accurately with one another. It consists essentially of two parts: the disk a, carrying the cogs ; and the hollow axis b, carrying a disk at one side, and the connecting piece and screw c D at the other. The part a "a, or shell of the wheel, is about 10 inches diameter and 3 inches broad across the cogs ; one side of the shell is cut out to receive the plate shown by dotted lines. This plate is provided with the hollow axis b, which comes through the shell, and projects about 3 inches, the part pro- jecting being cut through at f f ; fastened to it also is the connecting piece c, in .vhich works the screw d ; this screw just fits in two projecting lugs G g, cast on the shell a. The screw nut e forms part of the axle piece, and works in the sUde h. When this wheel is used, it is slipped on the mandrel which carries the copper roller, and a cotter is driven through the cleft axle and through a co -^sponding cotter hole in the mandrel, thus firmly connecting the mandrel and whe^ ; the mandrel and roller being put in their place in the machine, the cogs of the mandrel wheel work into the main driving wheel, as shown in Jig. 113. The coarse adjustment of the rollers being made when putting them in their places, the fine adjustment is made by turning the screw d. It is obvious that the screw d, by pressing against the lugs g of the shell a, which is geared into the driving wheel, will turn the mandrel and roller without moving the cogs. By this arrangement, any roller may be moved round about 2 inches at any time after being fixed in its place. All machines of more than one color are fitted with these wheels, which, indeed, are indispensable. Infg. 113 is also shown a piece of apparatus attached to the framework for the purpose of cleaning the cloth from dust and threads before printing. This apparatus, patented by John Coates, of Manchester, is shown on an enlarged scale in fg. 115. It consists essen- 115 tially of a brush and a roller, covered with card or the wire material used in cotton-carding engines ; these, with the gearing, are attached by the straps of iron b b to the ends of the rods A A, care being taken that the roller g is placed parallel to the printing machine, and the apparatus sufficiently high to be over the head of the person engaged at work behind the machine, and convenient for him to reach out the roller and brush, when they require CALICO PRINTING. 23» cleaning The piece passes over the small roller c, whether delivered from the " roll « ^ Jour, five, and six-color machines, similar to the above are now at work in mo«^ ^* k mMmmmm4M ftirly colder ? Zt^Z.Zf ''"?"'»'^g«."'^ *»1 «« evolved in thil process, we ^y Th„ 1 ° greatest achievement of chem ca and mechanical science ■ on aTertnd rro^aH'^ " 'T r^'"""^" ■-^'"' P"-» *<> blpnS'^^e wound pumose td; S ?L ' • ?"/»? f <"'°>°'<>n «»rae cotton op calico, kept for thU STeingtnt ntpLTeCd ttem^Lrr ''?v'»,^™.eoo» hollow axes, through which /^. 116, in which the swTtal^sh^^^^^^^^ "'" ^f^ - r^l^renc^to course of the printed pieces, anTThl midX ^Ld oTe 1^^^ the longest arrow the pieces leave the roll b nas^ino. ovpt « w^!f/ n f ?^ '^^ ^^^ P^^^es. The white with the gray and the wS %^I,^/^«^.^'} «>",f » a°d thence round the cylinder along small roller at the SL orthe^ impression, the piece passes over f the roller being so rf'utS ^T w^^^ fhence along the top of the steam chesty them. It passes along'' tesL^h^eS and K tt'- *? *^' '^^f ^ ^"* »«^ *«"-hLl passes round the cyUnders Nos. 6 6 ^d 4 hpfrTl /I'u''^ V^'^ ^^^^'^S '^« «»»^ts, it neariy the whole of the eylinde^; it C parses unde^^ ^^ T""!? ^ *« '^^^<^^ other narrow aperture in the wall bein^ ?^^!w h I framework and up through an- whichhasdrawingrollersattheendofal^^^^^^ ^^^if^ * ;>ton^-t.n apparatus, and so fold the piece backwa^a^dforCds in? '^^^^ on leaving the cylinder, proceed to^thpr Z^ „ '^^^P'^^. The gray and the blanket along whfch they travelTf^ al & u? ! t,^""^f *^« '^"^^^ ^^^^ of the steam chests,' ing down over the cylind^Tand 2 t^Pnl ^' where they part company, the blankets pas?- rollers./ rf, returning aCg under th^ steam "^^^^^^^^^ "^^^^^ «°der^he machine. The gray ^ieces,^afteXtgr ^^.TaL^^^^^ 240 CALICO PRINTING. to the roller/, thence round the cylinder 3, the rollers g ff, being finally wound on a beam at h. When the roll of gray pieces t is exhausted, the roll h is put in its place, the gray pieces being run through the machine two or three times, according as they arc more or less stained, and then sent to the bleach house. Searcely any print works are without several 5 and B-color printing machines, and the printers of goods intended for hangings, which are generally of elaborate Horul designs, em- ploy machines capable of printing from 10 to 20 colore at once. These machines are neces- sarily of very large dimensions. Fig. 117 is an end view of a 20-color machine, made by in Messrs. Gadd and Hill, of Manchester, for Mr. Kay, of Castleton Print Works, and is em- ployed in printing very beautiful floral patterns on woollen fabrics, in imitation of those produced bv hand labor in France. The system of turning cylinder machines, patented by Mr. Joseph Leese, possesses several advantages. In this plan a small high-pressure oscillating engine is attached directly to the axis of the large cylinder, thereby dispensing with the heavy gearing and shaftin'o- required when machines are turned by a large stationary engine ; the machine print- er alsolias perfect command over the speed of the machine, and can fit the pattern, when it is turning very slowly, with more convenience than on the usual system. On this system also machines can be put down in any portion of the works, and are independent of the sta- tionary engine. In surface printing, the cylinder or roller is in relief, just as the wooden blocks used by hand, and the manner of working them is shown in fg. 118, which is the section of an 8- color surface machine of Gadd's. a a is the framework ; b b the bowl or cylinder, which is hollow, and made with arms inside ; c c are the surface rollers, supplied with color by the endless web or sieve //, revolving round the wooden tension rollers d d e ; the roller E is screwed down so as to press the sieve on the furnishing roller f, which revolves in the copper color box g ; the two tension rollers next to the surface roller move in slides, so that, by means of the screw h, the sieve can be pressed against the surface roller ; on leav- ing the furnishing roller f, the sieve is wiped by the doctor i, screwed lightly against the sieve by the screw k. The printing roller being in relief, there is-no necessity for the complicated arrangement of levers as in the ordinary machine, and consequently the surface machine is much more simple. It is only adapted for patterns of little delicacy, as the outlines are apt to be not well defined ; the colors, however, from being laid on the top of the cloth, are very rich, hence for woollen fabrics the surface machine is well adapted. CALICO PRLNTING. 241 118 '^p^^^^t'll^r^^Tr^fZ -«>« are fi«ed are mounted in suitable bearing fixed t^,.^°°? f""" "''« wg-'heels. ThewwE of a winch-handle. The cent^of the 4eth ^ ho^f\"? ^^"^ «««7 motionTy mS cular groove between the two tee h whi^h h ° * ^^""^ "^ <^'« «»»S «> as to fom a^ and attached to the frame, ft^ is a brafch^^ "^"'^'- 0P^«"« to tbt^ve spn^g wrapped around it. In the end of t^esUdil^'t'^? l'"'"°S piece, with f^iS there a a receptacle for the eve end nf . „ j ^ E'**'''' "*"* Passes through the braekS^ fomed by the wheel; theWJIel^h1e:d Jt;,*« •?ift "' T"^* ^t^ in the ^t^ f^rZ • t' •" 7"«'' """y motion is ^min?i,iS f "\'" ^ *"'^''«d Pl^^d behind folded mto undulations, which as thl „^~T ^'^' ^^^^J the fabric is successivdv needle , when the needl'e is fS', t^dX S°" ^^' »^ forced on the p^S^rf S VoL.ni._l6 ^P'*°**"^«<»^"«'»e of the wheels, the needle is 242 CALICO PRINTING. pushed back on the spring, removed from the machine, and the thread drawn through the pieces, which are then baited or stitched together. This is a very rapid mode of stitching ends of pieces together ; but where a number of pieces ai-e stitched end to end for the pur- pose of being put through several operations without unstitching, a firmer description of Sng is Squired, and a machine, known as the American machine, and patented by Newton in 1853, is frequently used. This machine cons.ste of an arrangement whereby a bearded needle is employed for throwing a line of looped stitches into the fabric The Pieces are hung double on pins projecting from two circular racks, which move in grooves Formed in the foce of a ci^ular fiLe. These racks are driven by pinions taking into their teeth and thus the piece ends are passed under the action of the needle, which, hav- inc a quick reciprocating motion similar to that of the needles of stocking frames, and being in like manner supplied with thread, is passed backwards and forwards through the fabric, and thereby leaves a chain of loops on the inner face thereof. Carried by the same aira m a stiletto, which pierces holes in the fabric to allow of the needle passing freely through the same. The machme being rather elaborate, will be described in the article bEWiNO Pieces'arc also frequently gummed together at the ends, which is done by pasting the ends for about U inches with paste or gum, and, after laying one on the other, drying them S^medTately on I steam pipe in front of the operator. This mode is advantageous for some purposes, ^ when the pieces come, in the subsequent operations, into hot water, they are easilv detached one from the other. , . By whichever of these modes the pieces are joined together, they are then wound m rolls of about 40 pieces bv a machine called a candroy, which winds them on the wooden beam which fits in at the. back of the printing machhie ; the cloth during the operation of windin- becomes stretched laterally quite smooth, by the aid of one or two grooved stretch- h^rbaS, a due degree of strain being kept on the piece by it passing under and over several p"Sin wooden barsfand to the axis of the wooden beam which receives the P'ecesbemg sus- pended weights which keep it forcibly in contact with the wooden drum which turns it by friction In this machine, the ends of the axis of the beam pass through slots, which allow it to rise as the pieces become wound on, and the diameter consequently increases. If fewer Pieces than 40 are to be printed in one pattern or coloring, it is usual to stitch a tew yards of old cloth between two pieces where the change is intended to be made ; by this means the printer, on coming to the waste piece, stops his machine, and fits another pattern or changes the colors without damaging good cloth „o^^r«llr The doctors used in cleaning off the superfluous color from the rollers, are generally thin blades of steel, of a thickness varying from Vs. of an inch to Vi« of an inch, according to the sort of engraving on the roller; but some colors, such as those contaming salts of copper, would be too corrosive on a steel doctor, and in this case doctors of a composition like b^ss are used. They are filed to a bevelled edge, and reqmre to be re ouched with the file after printing from 10 to 30 pieces. The cylinder or drum m contact with which revolve the copper rollers, is wrapped round with a cloth called " lapping," which is gcn- erllly a coarse strong woollen cloth of peculiar make, and is folded tight on the cylinder about 4 an inch thick. The blanket is next put on and drawn tight : this blanket is a very important part of the machine ; it is a thick woollen web, about 40 yards long, and requires to be made with great care, so as to be uniform in texture, thickness, and elasticity. If the blanket is uneven, it has the effect of throwing the blanket into confusion at the un- ^^'^^A^gooT blanket will serve to print 10,000 pieces, being washed whenever loaded with color, and then is suitable for covering the tables of the block printer. li the year 1835 Messrs. Macintosh and Co. patented an Indian-rubber blanket, which con- sists of several thick cotton webs, cemented together with dissolved Indian-rubber. This blan- ket is very useful and economical for some purposes ; the surface being very smooth, great deUcacy of impression is obtained, and, when soiled, it is not necessary to remove it from the ' machine, as it is easily washed with a brush whilst revolving on the machine. An Indmn- • rubber blanket will print 20,000 pieces, which is twice as much as a woollen one will do, the price per yard being also lower. Several descriptions of these blankets are made by Messrs. Macintosh, some of them having a coating of vulcanized Indian-rubber on the face that is printed frim, thereby giving a still more elastic surface. A great improvement has been recently made in these Indian-rubber blankets by shrinking or preparing the cotton pre- vious to cementing, according to the patent process of Mr. John Mercer, viz. by soaking m ItronValkaH and afterwards in dilute sulphuric acid ; this process contracts the fibre to a ceS extent, and the cloth is found to possess a great increase of strength. When made StVblankets, they are found to be more capable of resisting the severe strains of the print- inl pr^^i knd consequently many more pieces can be printed from them than from the oW £rt They are made by Mr. Richard Kay, of Accrington and are coming into genera^ Se. The woollen blanket, however, seems to be preferred for several styles. Several patents have been taken iut for printing wiOiout blankets, but have never come mto • OAUOO PRINTING. behind the machine that the SbrircTn be condlSn fi""*^ ? "^^ ""[ ^^ ^^^'^ ''« ^ dL.posed finally going away to be woVnd onTbeL f^^^^^^^^ ''?^! through the machine &ore cloth under the white calico when prindn? which Svli" Jm-'^T' /K^^^^^^' ^ layers of from ; and very delicate shapes can be lAf A nf ^ sufficiently elastic bed for printing uppermost on the pressure c^r and coLotltflTJ'^ f '^' ^^ ^'«^ '« ^ ^imef 5 pieces of white. Gutta percha preSure cS^ ^n ?'Z^ f,??^ ^'"'^ is used to print Dalton, an English printer -burtCh 7h I' ?,?' '''' J ^'^'^' *'»^^ ^^^ suggested by to be much usf d. ^ ' ' ^^"""^^ theoretically preferable to iron, they do ^t appeal <^^^^o'^o::Z^^^ printing should be attended to; verydiy of hygrometric moistSe PracT^fv this I L • ""h K^.^^t? ^««^*"i°g a certain amo^ These "ageing i^ooms," Tthey aS'd are f^^ ^"' ventilation being al^i provided. sions, and are%enerally separai buS Tho.^ Jl ^"''"' ZT^' ^^ "°«""«"« ^i^^^^- Messrs. Thomas Hoyle & Co in r «nolaT through a mixture of air and aqueous^Xr Rec/, !wl , ^^'"^ u"^"^ ^^^^ g^od^ they are dried after printing, aWZ over rolto aS.f^^ "^^ ^^* "^"^ '" ^^^<^^ below. A very small quant! y of steam fsaUnw^^r^^^ '° * "*^^ ^™' above and slightly warm by the steam-p pes The pieces on il^rT '""^u*^^ "^"^^ ^^^^^ ^^ kept soft but not moist ; they are loosely foldKl?hp.H^ Z"''? ^^^ apparatus, should feel are taken to the d^ehoie next day^ It^ey^n^atj'fZ '^ '^''- '^'' «°« "^^^^ "^^ ^^'y^^^Z^t^:!^ -Po-c. to the degree of inspissation is then essentia?' ^n th. ^ k^? ^^^^^^^^'^^ ^ the result. A proper by engraved plates or rolleS^ under everenret,rr.^^^^ '^'''^ ^«'«^ ^>°g P^n^i characteristic of goods producS^ bv th!I! mZ" wf ^ the superior smartness of outline of the cloth, so J to penetrate aantle''^ Xble to the'ntf ' T ""' ''''' «" ^^^ ^^^^^^ are produced. In order to obtain the mStSfantXL ifL'^^''-r'^ ^"^^^^ '^^^^ cloth act as a sort of mirror behind the color Xchc^nnrhT^^^^ *' is necessary that the fectly saturated with color. Independent of thilo . ^ *^® ""^ '^ ^« fibre is per- ows from the proper application oTthec^^^^^^ or moXnt tXT^ "' T^"."? -^^'^^^^ol- ly noticeable in madder goods, where the mordn^ ?f • ? ?^ ^^^'^ ^"'•^- ^^'^ "^ especial- po.l„„^™. the Co* ^ ehe U^Ki:X^l^i::i-^"^^f-£:2^.^ venS>idio°-*r ^r^rLvitr sr^fl^i""^?" «-• ^<^^ -f down one side, ia fiied a ranse of colorZnf ^ • ^^ * 'P**''^ «»'; »' »■>« end, or cold water. Color-pan, S^LJLlJy I^L'S '„"„"'•"' T" 1"^^"*" '"'' '"^ i" J ^. ' ' '«M \ gritty particles, which would speedily scratch and destroy the delicate engraving of the machine rollers. A spacious drug room is attached to the color-house where all the drugs used are kept away from the steam of the color-house. Near the color-house should be a well-appointed laboratory, where drugs can be tested and experiments made. Formerly, all the decoctions and mordants used in print-works were made on the spot, but the trade having very much extended, the manufacture of the various mordants and decoctions of dyewood is now a separate business, and printers can be supplied with these articles at the same or in some cases a lower rate than they could be produced for on the works, the quahty also being uniform and good. The printer now only makes for himself a few unimportant articles. The province of the foreman color maker, who is generally a well-paid and responsible servant, is to combine these primary materials so as to form the different colors required for the different styles of work ; as the taste of customers varies, he is required to be able to make any given variation of shade at will, and be able to judge of the quality of the various materials submitted to him. The ordinary decoctions that are kept in stock in the color department are : — Logwood liquor. Peachwood liquor. Sapan liquor. Quercitron bark liquor. Gall liquor. Persian berry liquor. Cochineal liquor. - Fustic liquor Catechu liquor. Ammoniacal cochineal liquor. Extract of indigo. CALICO PRINTING. And the various mordants and solutions are :— Red liquor, or acetate of alumina. Iron liquor, or acetate of iron. Buff liquor, or pyrolig- nite of iron. Pernitrate of iron. Permuriate of iron. Protomuriate of iron. Protochloride of tin in so- lution. Oxyinuriate of tin in solu- tion. Nitrate of copper in solu- tion. Acetate of copper in solu- tion. Lime juice. Ammonia liquor. Acetic acid. Pyroligneous acid. Nitric acid. Muriatic acid. Sulphuric acid. Caustic soda liquor. Caustic potash liquor. Many other dry acids and salts are also kept in stock. For the constitution of the vari- ous mordants and their preparation see Mordants. It would be impossible to particularize all the styles of calico printing. The variety is infinite ; but they may be broadly classed as follows : — I. Madder stylen^ varieties of which are — a. The simplest form is a pattern printed in mordants on white ground, such as black and red ; black, red, and purple ; black and two reds, &c., chocolate being sometimes sub- stituted for black, and brown from catechu being also introduced ; these are dyed with mad- der, the ground remaining white. b. Any or all of the above mordants, together with lime juice, technically termed acid^ printed, and a fine pattern printed all over or covered in purple or Ught chocolate, then dyed madder. In this style the red is a peculiar one, termed resist red ; and the result when dyed is, that the acid and red have prevented the purple or chocolate fixing on those parts, the red remaining pure and the acid having formed a white, the rest of the ground being covered with the fine pattern or cover ; of this style large quantities are printed in black, purple, and acid, and covered in paler purple, the cover roller being any small full pattern, and this not being required ^ fit to the other pattern, a great variety of effects may be pro- duced by varying the cover : often a still weaker purple is padded or blotched in a plain shade all over the piece, and in this case the only white in the pattern is that reserved by the acid. c. The French pink style, which is wholly various shades of reds or pinks, and is printed in one or more shades of red and acid^ then covered or blotched in pale red, then dyed madder and subjected to a peculiar clearing with soap, whereby pink shades of very great deUcacy are obtained. All these are what are termed fa-it colors, and having, after dyeing, undergone severe soaping, cannot be altered by the usual domestic washing process. II. The same styles are dyed with garancin instead of madder ; heavier and darker col- ors being employed. These goods are not soaped, garancin producing bright colors at once, but the shades, though stil classed as fast colors, do not possess the permanence of those dyed with madder. III. The first style is frequently relieved by lively colors, such as green, blue, yellow, &c., blocked in after dyeing and clearing ; these colors are generally what are termed steam- colors, being fixed by steaming the cloth, and afterwards washing in water only, or the printed or dyed pattern is covered with a resist paste blocked on, and various shades of drab, slate, buff*, &c., printed with a small pattern all over; sometimes these colors are mordants, to be subsequently dyed with cochineal, quercitron bark, &c., or they may be colors composed of dyewood decoctions, mixed with mordants, and are fixed by passing through soda or other solutions. The result in either case being that the original pattern, generally a group of flowers, being protected by the paste which prevented the subsequent color fixing there, stand out pure, the rest of the ground being covered by the small pat- tern or cover. White may be also reserved by the paste, and frequently these white parts are blocked with blue, yellow, green, &c., as before. IV. Padded styles. — In these the cloth is first padded (as will be hereafter explained) all over with a liquid mordant, dried and printed in spots or figures with strong acid, or (2i»- charge as it is called, then put through the dyeing operations necessary for the shade re- quired ; the printed spots remaining white, and the rest of the piece one plain shade. The white portions are frequently relieved by steam-colors blocked in. V. Indigo-blue ; a style of considerable importance. In this, a resist paste, either alone or accompanied by resist yellow, or orange mordant, is printed on white calico, which is then dipped in the indigo vat, till the shade of blue wanted is obtained. If yellow or orange is present, these colors are ndsed with bichromate of potash liquor. The peculiar colors printed in this style have the property of preventing the indigo fixing on the printed parts, and the result is dark blue ground, with white, orange, or yellow spots, steam-colors being sometimes blocked in the whites. VI. China-blues, a modification of the indigo-blue style, but in this case the pattern is produced by indigo-colors, printed on white cloth : the pieces are next put through a pecu- 250 CALICO PRINTING. liar process fixing the indigo in the cloth, the result being blue figures on white ground. All indigo styles are fast or permanent. VII. Turkey-red and discharge. — On dyed Turkey-red cloth is printed an acid, or acid solutions mixed with pigments or salt of lead ; the printed pieces are passed through chlo- ride of lime solution, when chlorine is eliminated by the acid colors, and discharges the red. The pigments or lead-salt being fixed in the cloth at the same time, after washing and chroming where yellow has to be obtained, the piece presents a pattern, bitten as it were in the Turkey-red ground. Black is also printed along with the other colors. A modification of this style is the well-known Bandanna style used for handkerchiefs. Turkey-red cloth is folded in a hydraulic press on a lead plate perforated with a pattern. When a suflScient number of folds are made on this plate, a precisely similar plate is put on the top, so as to register accurately with the bottom one ; pressure being now applied, the cloth is squeezed tightly between the two plates, a top being opened above the upper plate, solution of chlo- rine is forced through the perforations, and in its passage through the cloth, discharges the dye ; the chlorine liquor is followed by water, and the operation is finished : the pieces when removed from the press being discharged, according to the pattern of the lead plates. VIII. Steam-colors. — In this style colors are formed from mixtures of dyewood extracts and mordants, together with various acids and salts, and being printed on calico which has been mordanted with peroxide of tin, the pieces are exposed to steam at 212° in close ves- sels, which causes an intimate union of the calico with the dyewood extract and mordant, so that subsequent washing with water removes only the thickening substance, and leaves the cloth dyed according to the pattern in various colors. Woollen fabrics and de-laines are always printed in this manner, and also often silk ; animal fabrics not being well adapted for mordanting and dyeing in the same manner as cotton fabrics, owing to tb*^ peculiar property of wool to absorb coloring matters, which renders the obtaining of whites an im- possibility where the wool is steeped in a dye decoction. These steam-colors are very brilliant and tolerably permanent to light, but do not withstand hot-soap solution which alters their shades. • IX. Spirit colors are made in somewhat the same manner as the steam-colors, but con- tain larger quantities of mordant and acid, and will not bear steaming, because the calico would be too much tendered by the acid, and are therefore only dried and hung up a day or two, and then washed in water. They are the most brilliant colors, but generally fugitive and are not much used. X. BronzeSy formerly a style in large demand, but now almost obsolete ; done by pad- ding the cloth in solution of protochloride of manganese, precipitating the oxide by means of alkali, peroxidizing this by chloride of lime, and then printing on colors composed of protochloride of tin and pigments- or decoctions ; the protochloride of tin immediately de- oxidizes, bleaching the brown oxide of manganese, and, where mixed with decoctions or pig- ment, leaving a dyed pattern cutting through the ground. XI. Pigment-printing. — The colors in this class are the same pigments as used by painters, such as Scheele's green, ultramarine blue, chrome yellow, &c., and, being quite insoluble in water, are, so to speak, cemented to the fibre. The vehicle used for fixing these is generally albumen, which coagulates when the cloth is steamed, and imprisons both cloth and fibre with the coagulum ; of course these colors, though not altered in shade by soap, are detached in part by severe treatment, such as rubbing, &c. First Style : Madders. Madder styles being the most important, demand the most detailed descriptions. The colors used are of the class termed mordants, which, not coloring matters themselves, act by combining with both cloth and coloring matter. They are generally the acetates or pyrolig- nites of iron and alumina. Red Liquor is the technical name of the pyrolignite of alumina used as mordant for red, &c. Iron Liqnor is the pyrolignite of iron used as mordant for black, purple, &c. The preparation of these liquors on a large scale forms a separate business, and will be found described under the head Mordants. Fixing Liquor. — ^For a long time it has been customary to add to black and purple colors, or mordants, some substance which has a tendency to prevent the oxide of iron from passing to the state of peroxide. The oxide of iron necessary to produce the best results with madder is a mixture of protoxide and peroxide of iron, probably the black or magnetic oxide, though this point is not precisely determined. If the oxide should pass to the red oxide state, inferior shades are produced ; and the object of the printer introducing fixing liquor into his color is to prevent this injurious tendency. The earliest fixing liquor used was a solution of arsenious acid ; and though other fixers have from time to time been introduced, the preparations of arsenic still hold their ground. A very good fixing liquor, that has been much used in France and England, is made as follows :^ CALICO PRINimO. 851 No. 1. Purple fixing Liquor, — 7^ gallons water, 1^ gallons acetic acid, 9 lbs. sal ammo- niac, 9 lbs. arsenious acid ; boil till the arsenic is dissolved, and let stand till quite clear. In 1844, Mr. John Mercer patented an assistant mordant liquor for the same purpose, which was made as follows : — No. 2. To 100 lbs. potato starch, add 37^ gallons water, 123 gallons nitric acid, specific gravity 1*3, and 4 oz. oxide of manganese. The chemical action which takes place amongst these ingredients is allowed to proceed till the nitric acid is destroyed. To the residuum thus produced are added 50 gallons of pyroligneous acid, and the compound is the assistant mordant liquor in a fit state to add to the various mordants used in printing and dyeing. The intention in making this liquor is to carry on the decomposition of the nitric acid and starch as far as possible without forming oxalic acid, and as little as possible of carbonic acid, which is gently aided by the catalytic action of the oxide of manganese, preventing the formation of oxalic acid. Apparently there is formed by this process saccbJaric acid, or an acid in a low state of oxidation, which is the active agent in preventing the peroxidize- ment of the iron when added to purple mordants. This liquor has been largely used, and is still preferred by. some printers. Of late, various fixing liquors have been made and sold by manufacturing chemists, pyroligneous acid and arsenious acid, or arsenite of soda, form- ing the staple of them ; some of these have chlorate of potash added, the object being the formation of arseniate of iron when the cloth is dried, whereby the acetic acid is more speedily driven off; and since arseniate of iron does not pass beyond a certain degree of oxidizement in the air, the mordant is kept in a proper state for dyeing good colors. The following is also a good purple fixing liquor : — No. 3. Purple fixing Liquor. — Boil together till dissolved 2 gallons water, 25 lbs. soda crystals, 22 J^ lbs. arsenious acid. When dissolved, add to 50 gallons wood acid, previously heated to 120° F. ; let stand for a day or two till the tar of the acid is settled, and add 3 quarts muriatic acid. The following madder colors are from some in practical use, and though almost every color-maker has different receipts for his colors, they may be taken to represent the genend principles on which these colors are composed. In all these colors the thickening substance is first beaten up with a little of the liquid till quite fine and free from lumps, then the remainder of the liquid added, and the whole boiled and stirred in one of the double-cased steam-pans till quite smooth ; cooled, and . strained. No. 4. Black for Machine^ {Madder.) — 4 gallons iron liquor at 24° T., 4 gallons pyrolig- neous acid, 4 gallons water, 24 lbs. flour ; boil, and add 1 pint oil. No. 5. Black for Garancin, (Machine.) — 7 J gallons water, 3 gallons iron liquor .at 24" T., 1| gallons purple fixing liquor, (No. 3,) 24 lbs. flour, 1 pint oil. No. 6. Dark-red for Madder^ {Machine.) — 12 gallons red liquor at 18° T., 24 lbs. flour. No. 7. Pale-reds for Madder {Machine) are made by reducing the standard liquor. No. 8, with gum water to the shade wanted : for instance. No. 3 pale-red is 1 of No. 8 and 3 of gum water, No. 9. No. 8. Standard red Liquor. — 10 gallons hot water, 40 lbs. alum, 25 lbs. white acetate of lead ; rake up till dissolved, let settle, and decant the clear. No. 9. 3 Ibs.-Gum-substitute Water. — 10 gallons water, 30 lbs. gum substitute. No. 5 in the list of thickeners. No. 10. Dark resist-red Madder^ {Machine,) see Mordants. — 12 gallons resist-red liquor, 18° T., 24 lbs. flour; boil, and when nearly cold add 12 lbs. of muriate of tin crystals. No. 11. Dark resist-red Machine. — Same as No. 10, but 6 lbs. of tin crystals only. Of these two last. No. 10 is used when it has to resist a chocolate cover, and No. 11 when it has to resist a purple cover. No. 12. Pale resist-reds Madder, {Machine.) — Made by reducing resist-red liquor with water, and thickening it. For instance. No. 5, pale-red: 12 gallons resist-red liquor at 5° T., 9 lbs. flour ; boil, and add, when cool, 2 lbs. tin crystals. No. 13. Chocolates are made from iron liquor and red liquor mixed, and the red liquor is a multiple of the iron ; as, for instance, 3 chocolate {madder) {machine) : — 3 gallons iron liquor at 24° T., 9 gallons red liquor at 18° T., 24 lbs. flour, 1 pint oil. No. 6 Choco- late : — 1 gallon iron liquor at 24° T., 6 gallons red liquor at 18° T., 14 lbs. flour, ^ pint oiL No. 14. Strong red for Garancin, {Machine.) — 10 gallons red liquor at 18° T., 2 gallons water, 24 lbs. flour. No. 1 5. Resist-red for Garancin, {Machine.) — 1 2 gallons resist-red liquor at 14° T., 24 lbs. flour; boil, cool, and add 9 lbs. tin crystals. This for resisting chocolate. No. 16. Resist-redfor Garancin, {Machine.) — 12 gallons resist-red liquor at 14° T., 24 lbs. flour ; boil, cool, and add 4| lbs. tin crystals. This for resisting purple. No. 17. Brown Standard for Madder. — 50 gallons water, 200 lbs. catechu; boil 6 hours, then add 4^ gallons acetic acid, and add water to make up to 50 gallons ; take out, and let stand 36 hours, and decant the clear; heat it to 130° F., and add 96 lbs. sal ammoniac, dis- solve, and leave to settle 48 hours ; decant the clear, and thicken it with 4 lbs. of gum Senegal per gallon. 252 CALICO PRINTmG. No. 18. Broum Color for Madder^ {Machine.)— A gallons No. 17, 1 gallon acetate of copper, (No. 19,) 2 quarts acetic acid, 2 quarts gum Senegal, water 4 lbs. per gallon. No. 19. Acetate of Copper. — 1 gallon hot water, 4 lbs. sulphate of copper, 4 lbs. white acetate of lead; dissolve, let settle, decant the clear, and set at 16° T. No. 20. Brown for Madder^ {Machine.) — 7 gallons of No. 17, H gallons of No. 19, 1^ gallons gum-red, (No. 21.) No. 21. Gum red. — 3 gallons red liquor at 18° T., 12 lbs. gum substitute; boil. No. 22. Brown for Garancin^ (ifacAinc.)— 2 gallons No. 18, 1 gallon 4 lbs. -gum-substi- tute water. No. 23. Brovmfor Garancin^ {Machine.) — 2 gallons No. 17, 3^ gallons 4 lbs. -gum-sub- stitute water, 3 quarts acetic acid, 3 quarts No. 19. No. 24. Drah for Madder^ {Machine.) — 4 gallons No. 17, 1 gallon protomuriate of iron at 9° T., 3 gallons No. 19, 1 gallon 4 lbs. -gum-substitute water. For garancin, add 4 gal- lons gum water instead of 1 ^lon. No. 25. Drab for Madder, {Machine.) — 5 gallons No. 24, 1 quart muriate of iron at 9° T., 5 gallons 4 lbs. -gum-substitute water, 3 quarts No. 19. No. 26. Madder Favms are made by adding to madder drab '/i2> or so, of red liquor, according to the shade wanted. No. 27. Madder Purples. — Iron liquor, mixed with purple fixing liquor, is diluted with gum water according to the shade wanted. For instance, iVb. 4 purple for madder {machine): — 1 gallon of iron liquor at 24° T., 2 gallons No. 3, 4 gallons farina gum water No. 28. Ifo. 12 purple : — 1 gallon iron liquor at 24° T.,'2 gallons No. 3, 12 gallons No. 28. No. 28. Dark Farina Gum Water. — 10 gallons water, 60 lbs. dark calcined farina ; boil. No. 29. Garancin Purples are reduced from iron liquor to the shade wanted with the following gum : — 20 lbs. light British gum, 8 gallons water, 1 gallon purple fixing liquor No. 3 ; boil well, then take out, and let stand 3 or 4 days before using. Coltyr : 1 meas- ure iron liquor, 8, 10, 20, 30, &c., of the above gum, according to shade wanted. No. 30. Padding Purples. — Reduce to shade with the following giun: — 6f gallons water, 1 gallon No. 3, 1 quart logwood liquor at 8° T., 9 lbs. flour ; boil, and add 5 quarts farina gum No. 28. For instance, ^0-padding purple for machine : — 1 gallon iron liquor at 24° T., 70 gallons of the above gum. Block colors are made from any of the preceding receipts, by making them a little thinner. No. 31. Alkaline red Jfordant. — In a vessel capable of holding 12 gallons, put 10 lbs. alum, and dissolve with 5 gallons boiling water, then add gradually 3 quarts caustic soda at 70° T., mixed with 1 gallon cold water, fill up with cold water; let settle, decant and repeat the washing till the clear liquor is tasteless ; filter to a pulp, take off, and add to it 5 pints caustic acid at 70° T., boil down to 3 gallons, add 9 lbs. dark gum substitute, and boil again a short time. No. 32. Pale-red Alkaline Mordant. — 1 measure of the above color and 2 or 3 meas- ures of dark gum-substitute water. No. 33. 10 Acid.— I gallon lime juice at 10° T., 1 lb. starch; boil. No. 34. 20 Acid.—1 gallon lime juice at 20° T., 1 lb. starch ; boil. No. 35. 30 Acid.— I gallon lime juice at 30° T., 1 lb. starch; boil. No. 36. Acid Discharge. — 1 gallon lime juice at 22° T., 1 lb. bisulphate of potash; filter, and thicken the clear with 1 lb. starch. No. 87. Acid Discharge. — 1 gallon lime juice at 28° T., 2 lbs. bisulphate of potash; filter, and thicken the clear with 5 lbs. dark British gum. • In the last two colors, the bisulphate throws down a quantity of flocculent matter, which has to be filtered out No. 38. Reserve Paste. — 3^ gallons lime juice at 50° T., 2J gallons caustic soda at 70° T., heat to boil, then, in a separate vessel, beat up 56 lbs. pipe-clay with 3f gallons boiling water, and add 3 J gallons 6 lbs. -gum-Senegal water ; add to the other solution, and boil 20 minutes. No. 39. Reserve Paste. — i gallons lime juice at 60° T., 3 gallons caustic soda at 70° T., boil, and add 48 lbs, pipe-clay beat up with 2 quarts boiling water, and 4 gallons 6 lbs. -gum- Senegal water ; boil 20 minutes. The above two pastes arc used for blocking on madder-work, to protect the pattern from the following covering shades, which are raised with quercitron bark, &c., &c. No. 38 is a paste used where there are only black and reds to preserve, and No. 39 is used where there is also purple. Covering Shades. No. 40. 5 Drab. — 1 quart iron liquor at 24° T., 5 quarts water, 2^ lbs. light British gum. No. 41. 10 Drab. — 1 quart iron liquor at 24° T., 10 quarts water, 4^ lbs. light British gum. CALICO PRINTING. 253 No. 42. 5 Drab.— I quart iron liquor at 24° T., 1 quart red liquor at 20° T., 5 quarts water, 2^ lbs. light British gum. No. 43. 10 Drab. — 1 quart iron liquor at 24° T., 1 quart red liquor at 20° T., 10 quarts water, 5 lbs. light British gum. No. 44. Olive.— 2 gallons red liquor at 12° T., 1 gallon iron liquor at 14" T., 6 lbs. light British gum. No. 45. 0~ive.—Z gallons red liquor at 18° T., 2 gallons iron liquor at 8° T., 10 lbs. light British gum. No. 46. Sage. — 9 quarts red liquor at 9° T., 1 quart iron liquor at 12° T., 4 lbs. light British gum. No. 47. Sage. — 14 quarts red liquor at 3° T., 1 pint iron liquor at 12° T., 5^ lbs. light British gum. No. 48. Chocolate Brown. — 6 gallons red liquor at 15° T., 1 gallon iron liquor at 24° T., 10^ lbs. light British gum, 3^ lbs. flour. No 49. Slate. — 3 quarts logwood liquor at 8° T., 2 quarts iron liquor at 24° T., 1 quart red liquor at 18' T., 1 quart No. 50, 7 gallons water, 18 lbs. light British gum ; boU. No. 50. Gall Liquor. — 28 lbs. ground galls, 2 gallons acetic acid, 12 gallons water ; stir occasionally for two days, and filter. No. 51. Hazel. — i quarts brown No. 18, 2 quarts bark liquor at 10° T., 1 pint logwood liquor at 12° T., 1 quart cochmeal liquor at 8° T., 16-oz. measure No. 62, 4^ quarts 6 Ibs.- gum-Senegal water. No. 52.— 1 quart nitrate of iron at 80° T., 1 pint nitrate of copper at 100° T. No. 53. Standard for Buffs. — 10 gallons water, 40 lbs. copperas, 20 lbs. brown acetate of lead ; stir till dissolved, settle, and use the clear ; reduced to shade wanted with gum- Senegal water. No. 64. Chrome-oxide Standard. — 3 gallons water, 12 lbs. bichromate potash ; dissolve with heat, put in a mug of 12 gallons' capacity, add Z\ pints oil of vitriol diluted with 6 quarts cold water, add gradually 3 lbs. sugar ; when the effervescence has ceased, boil down to 3 gallons. No. 55. Drab. — 5 quarts gum-tragacanth water, (8 oz. per gallon,) 2^ quarts No. 55, f pint cochineal liquor at 4° T., f pint bark liquor at 8° T. No. 56. Faum. — 1 gallon No. 55, 2 gallons 8 oz. -gum-tragacanth water, \ gallon brown No. 17. No. 57. Slate. — 1 gallon No. 55, 1 gallon 8 oz. -gum-tragacanth water. No. 58. Gum-tragacanth Water. — 10 gallons water, 5 lbs. gum tragacanth in powder ; stir occasionally for 3 days. No. 59. Fast Blue Standard. — 150 gallons water, 18 lbs. indigo in pulp, 24 lbs, cop- peras, 28 lbs. lime previously slaked ; stir occasionally for 2 days, let settle, and draw off the clear liquor, and to every 10 gallons add 1 pint muriate-of-tin liquor at 120° T. ; filter on flannel to a thick paste. No. 60, Fast BIua for Machine. — 1 quart No. 60, 6 oz. muriate-of-tin crystals, 3 quarts of water. No. 61. Fast BluA Standard. — i lbs. indigo ground to pulp, 8 quarts caustic soda at 70° T., 3 quarts water, and granulated tin in excess ; boil in an iron pot till perfectly yel- low, when put on a piece of glass. No. 62. Fast Blue^ {Block.) — 1 quart No. 62, 12 oz. muriate-of-tin crystals, 12 oz. lime juice at 60* T., 3 quarts 6 lbs.-gum-Senegal water. No. 63. Fast Green. — 1^ quarts No. 60, 2 quarts lead gum No. 64, | lb. muriate-of-tin crystals. No. 64. Lead Gum.—l gallon hot water, 8 lbs. white acetate lead, 4 lbs. nitrate lead ; dissolve, and add 1 gallon 6 lbs. -gum-Senegal water. The course of operation for the styles 1, 2, and 3 above, is to print in one or n^ore of the madder colors ; after dyeing, the goods are hung in the ageing room for a day or two, then brought to the dye-house. The first operation is that termed dunging^ which is the same in principle for all varieties of madder or garancin goods, and as it is an operation the careful performance of which is of vital importance to the success of the subsequent opera- tions, a somewhat detailed description of it will not be out of place. The process of dun*'- ing has for its object : — ° 1. PreciRitating on the fibre, by double decomposition, that portion of the mordant which has escaped decomposition in the ageing room. 2. Rendering insoluble and inert those portions of the mordant which are not in direct contact with the fibre, and which, if allowed to diffuse in water only, would fix on and stain the white or unprinted parts of the cloth. 3. Softening and removal of the staining substances. 4. Neutralizing the acids which may have been added to the mordants, and which otherwise would dissolve in the water and weaken the colors. 5. The formation, in the case of iron mordants, of a compound of oxide of iron, and 254 CALICO PRINTING. certain organic or inoi^nic acids which will not become peroxidized beyond a certain point. The use of cow's dung, derived from India, has been continued down to the present time, though for several years printers have largely introduced various substitutes. No very exact analysis has been made of cow dung. Morin's, which is the most recent and elaborate, is as follows : Water ----• ... TO'OO Vegetable fibre - - 24*08 Green resin and fat acids ------ 1.62 TJndecomposed biliary matter --..-_ 0"60 Peculiar extractive matter {bubulinc) - - « 1-60 Albumen 0*40 Biliary resin -------. 8'80 According to M. Koechlin^s practical knowledge on the great scale, it consists of a moist fibrous vegetable substance, which is animalized, and forms about one-tenth of its weight ; 2, of albumen ; 3, of animrJ mucus ; 4, of a substance similar to bile ; 5, of muriate of soda, miuriate and acetate of ammonia, phosphate of lime, and other salts ; 6, of benzoin or musk. Probably the hot water in which the calico-printer diffuses the dung exerts a powerful solvent action, and in proportion as the uncombined mordant floats in the bath it is precip- itated by the albumen, the animal mucus, and the ammoniacal salts ; but there is reason to think that the fibrous matter in part animalized or covered with animal matter, plays here the principal part ; for the great affinity of this substance for the aluminous salts is well known. It would appear that the principal function of dunging is to hinder the "incombined mordant diffused in the dung bath from attaching itself to the unmordanted portion of the cloth, as already observed ; for if we merely wished to abstract the thickening stuffs, or to complete by the removal of acetic acid the combination of the aluminous base with the goods, dung would not be required, for hot water would suffice. In fact, we may observe, that in such cases the first pieces passed through the boiler are fit for dyeing ; but when a certain number have been passed through, the mordant now dissolved in the water is at- tracted to the white portions of the cloth, while the free acid impoverishes the mordanted parts, so that they cannot afford good dyes, and the blank spaces are tarnished. It seems to be ascertained that the mordant applied to the cloth does not combine entirely with it during the drying ; that this combination is more or less perfect according to the strength of the mordants, and the circumstances of the drying ; that the operation of dunging, or passing through hot water, completes the combination of the cloth with the aluminous base now insoluble in water ; that this base may still contain a very minute quantity of acetic acid or sulphate of alumina ; that a long ebullition in water impoverishes the mordant but a little ; and that even then the liquid does not contain any perceptible quantity of acetate or sulphate of alumina. A very able and learned memoir upon this subject, by M. Penot, Professor of Chem- istry, appeared in the Bulletin of the Society of Mulhausen, in October, 1834, with an inge- nious commentary upon it, under the title of a Report by M. Camille Koechlin, in March, 1835. Experience has proved that dunging is one of the most important steps in the process of calico printing, and that if it be not well performed the dyeing is good for nothing. Before we can assign its peculiar function to the f ung in this case, we must know its com- position. Fresh cow's dung is commonly neutral when tested by litmus paper ; but some- times it is slightly alkaline, owing, probably, to some peculiarity in the food of the animal. The total constituents of 100 parts of cow dung are as follows : Water, 69'58 ; bitter matter, 0-14 ; sweet substance, 0*93 ; chlorophylle, 0-28 ; albuminc, 0-63 ; muriate of soda, 0*08 ; sulphate of potash, 0*05 ; sulphate of lime, 0-25 ; carbonate of lime, 0*24 ; phosphate of lime, 0-46 ; carbonate of iron, 0-09 ; woody fibre, 2639 ; silica, 0*14 ; loss, 014. In dunging calicoes, the excess of uncombined mordant is in part attracted by the solu- ble matters of the cow's dung, and forms an insoluble precipitate, which has no affinity for the cloth, especially in presence of the insoluble part of the dung, which strongly attracts alumina. The most important part which that insoluble matter plays, is to seize the excess of the mordants, in proportion as they are dissolved by the water of the bath, and thus to render their reaction upon the cloth impossible. It is only in the deposit, therefore, that the matters carried off from the cloth by the dung are to be found. M. Camille Koechlin ascribes the action of cow dung chiefly to its albuminous constituent c<5mbining with the alumina and iron, of the acetates of these bases dissolved by the hot water of the bath. The acids consequently set free soon become evident by the test of litmus paper, after a few pieces are passed through, and require to be got rid of either by a fresh bath or by adding chalk to the old one. The dung thus serves also to fix the bases on the cloth, when used in moderation. It exercises likewise a deoxidating power on the iron mordant, and restores it to a state more fit to combine with coloring matter. See DUNQINQ. CALICO PRINTING. 255 The use of cow dung is open to some objections, amongst which are its giving a certain amount of greenish coloring matter to the white mordants, and its being apt to vary in ita constituents from differences in the food of the animals, their health, &c. ; the method of using substitutes for it being now well known, and better colors and whites being more easily obtained from them than with dung, it is probable that cow dung will in a short time cease to be used in calico printing processes. The dunging operation ought to be a definite chemical decomposition, which cannot be the case with a variable substance like dun". The substitutions for dung in use are : — 1. Phosphate of soda and lime. 2. Arseniate of soda. 3. Arsenite of soda. 4. Silicate of soda. 5. Silicate of lime. Each of these has its peculiar virtues, and the printer determines for himself wliich is best adapted for his styles. The first was patented by John Mercer, about 1842, and is made by calcming bones, then decomposing them with sulphuric acid, filtering out the sul- phate of lime, and, to the clear superphosphate of lime, adding carbonate of soda till slightly alkaline ; the resulting mixture of phosphate of soda and phosphate of lime is dried down to a powder ; the use of arseniates formed part of the same patent. Arsenite of soda followed as a matter of course, though not so safe in use as phosphates and arseniates. Silicate of soda was suggested by Adolph Schlieper, of Elberfeld, and patented by Jager in 1852. It is the ordinary soluble glass dissolved in water. It is open to the objection of being too alkaline, and requires care in the use. The silicate of lime was suggested by Higgin with a view to remove this objection. The silicate of lime is formed in*the dung cistern, by mixing silicate of soda and muriate of lime, when sparingly soluble silicate of lime is formed ; the quantity in solution at one time being never so much as to be dan'»«r- ous, and fresh portions being dissolved as wanted. Bunging salts, or liquors, are now jmde by the manufacturing chemist, containing various mixtures, arseniates, phosphates, arsen- ites, &c., which are adapted for every variety of dunging. Great economy of time and material result from the use of these dung substitutes. In some of the largest print works, instead of, as with dung, runnmg off" the spent-dung cistern after passing through from 100 to 200 pieces, and having to fill again, and heat to the proper temperature, it is found pos- sible to run pieces through the same cistern charged with substitute, at the rate of a piece per minute half a day, and with light goods a whole day— before letting off", of course occa- sionally adding some of the substitute, to make up for that saturated by the mordants. The dunging process is always performed twice: the first time in a cistern with rollers ; and the second, in a beck similar to a dye beck, washing well between. The first is caHed flu-dung- hig ; the other, second dunging. The manner of immersing the goods, or passing them through the dung bath, is an im- portant circumstance. They should be properly extended and free from folds, which is secured by a series of cylinders. The fly-dung cistern is from 10 to 12 feet long, 4^ feet wide, and 6 or 8 feet deep. The piece passes alternately over the upper rollers and under rollers near the bottom. There are two main squeezing rollers at one end, which draw the cloth through between them. The immersion should take place as fast as possible ; for the moment the hot water penetrates the mordanted cloth, the acetic acid quits it, and, therefore, if the immersion was made slowly, or one ply after another, the acid, as well as the uncombined mordant become free, would spread their influence, and would have time to dissolve the aluminous subsalts now combined with the cloth, whence inequalities and impoverishment of the colors would ensue. The fly-dung cistern should be set with about 30 gallons of dung to 1,000 gallons of water ; or, to the same quantity, 3 or 4 gallons of dung-substitute liquor ; a little chalk is added, to make the cistern slightly milky. The heat varies for different styles— from 150' F. to boil. Where there is acid discharge or resist, and the colors are heavy, fly-dunging at boil is necessary, to enable the acid to cut properly through the color ; the nearer tolso^ F that the bath will give good whites at, the better wiU be the subsequent dyed color. With cow dung, an excess of it is injurious, both to white and color; but with a tolerably neutral substitute, excess does no harm. The pieces should run at the rate of 50 to 60 p'er hour On leaving the cistern, they are well winced in water, and washed, and are then second dunged, which is generally performed in a beck similar to a dye beck, which will be found des'jiibed further on. This beck is set with about 1 quart of dung-substitute liquor or 12 gallons of dung to 250 gaUons. From 12 to 24 pieces are put in together, and made to revolve over a reel for about 20 minutes or half an hour, the heat being about 150= F. They are then well washed, and are ready for dyeing. This second dunging is principallv for the purpose of removing the thickening substance from the cloth, and it should feel quite soft when well done. An improved method of dunging adopted by some extensive firms consists in arranging a fly-dung cistern, a wince pit, a machine shnilar to the bleacher's washing machine, and containing the second dunging solution and one of the dye-house 256 CALICO PRINTING. washing machines aU m a line ; the pieces, bemg then stitched end to end, are drawn through the series; first, extended and free from folds, through the fly-dung cistern ; thence drop- ping into water in the pit ; from that being worked spirally from end to end of the second dunging vessel, which runs at such a speed that one piece is about 15 minutes in traversing It; from that into a water pit again, and finaUy, spirally, through the washing machine, when they are ready for dyeing. By this arrangement the process is a contmuoSs one, and httle labor IS reijmred. The drawing rollers on the fly-dung cistern are worked by a strap trona a shatt On the thorough cleansing from loosely attached mordant, and especially thickening, depends a good deal of the success of the dyemg, and this process is one that requires to be carefully attended to. The washing processes in the dye house have undergone great modifications within the last lew years. Formerly, in washing, the old dash wheels were exclusively employed, but now are considered far too slow, and expensive m labor, and are nearly abolished being substituted by various washing machines. A great number of machines have been invented which all have their admirers. Three, which have been found very efficacious are here given. "^ ' Ilg. 129 is a perspective view, andfg. 130 a section of the machine patented by Mather and Piatt The pieces, fastened end to end, are run spirally through the machine being subjected to the action of the beams or beaters d d, whilst lying in loose folds on the large wooden roller c. ° b 129 130 — V OALIOO PRINTING. 257 Mg. 131 is a machine patented by Whitaker, and possesses the merit of great sim- plicity with comparatively small first cost, together with great efficiency. The invention consists of a peculiar arrangement of the material to be washed, by which, instead of it moving in one continuous direction, it is made to cross in its traverse ; and by one part being in constant contact with another part, a powerful rubbing action is continuaUy kept up, thereby washing or cleansing the cloth or material more effectually than can be done bj the usual method of merely passing it between presser rollers. 181 • Fig. 131 is an end view of this washing machine, and Jig. 132 an end view with the frame side removed, to show the improved arrangement, a and b represent two stonesi upon which the machine is fixed ; c is the frame, which forms sides for the water cistern. Vol. III.— .17 il 258 CALICO PRINTING. and also the ioumals, or bearings, of the bowls d, «,/, which pass from one side to the Xr^ in oi^nary 'washing mShines; g is a peg rad, with the pegs A piling ajjross the mSn?; ^ I the outlet for spent water;;, a wooden frame surrounding the whole of the w^er or liquor in the cistern k, which is open at the top end, and communicates wiOi the ^ for over water. The machine is put in motion by spur wheels, represented by the Ed circles I m, and n, vajig. 131 ; the wheel m is put upon the mam shaft or shafts ^nnectTng^^^^^ tte moving p^er. The piece o is intr<>duced into the machine at that end where the outlet for water is placed, and threads through the peg rail progressively to the Tther end of the machifle, where the fresh water is introduced just upon the cloth or materia ^ it leaves When the machine is in motion, the cloth moves on progressively, and is SusedTo vibrate by the varying dimensions of the square bowl, which motion rubs one Trt of the mTteriaUgainst'^^^^^^ part, by being crossed once on each fe of the square bowl and washes in the same manner as a woman would do m ordinary domestic washmg. 5Sd it will be observed that when a comer of the square bowl is at the bottom, the matenal ^then below the surface of the water, and when the side of the square bowl »8 at the bot- tom the cloth is above the surface; thus, for each revolution of the square bowl the cloth s plingeTfou'tLes, which acti^i encloses air withm the folded ^terial -d^o^^^^^^^^ out between the peg rail and square bowls, sometimes as large as a mans hat The water ?s~ercleaSatthat end of the mShine where the material leaves it, bjite being brS^n there, and allowed to escape where the dirty material entere, and by the shallow- ness of the water cistern the water is constantly being renewed. Ti„,.,n,^fipid Fta 133 represents the machine patented by Mr. David Crawford of the Barrowfield Prinlw^orks It^ sT^d to answer well for all sorts of fabrics, the finest muslins not being torn by tWs as is the case with most washing machines. This machine ccnsists of a rec- tTgidL fSme, fitted up with rollers, dashb^ds, a dashing frame and driving geanng^ T^e frame is divided mto a series of stories or flats, one above another, like the floors of a houseTach flat having a dashboard or a fixed platform divided down the centre, towards . wS dtvision line each half inclines downwards. The goods in a continuous len^h-like fom are p^sed first of all round a taking-in roller, which directs the cloth round a long ESSr of considerable diameter, which runs in bearings at one side or end of the loweT^the series- the fabric passes round this roller, and there proceeds horizontally aZg^d throu^^^^^^^^ flat at thiTt level, passing in its way through a vertical traversing fmme which works between the contiguous edges of the platforms or d^hboards of ^1 the fl^ whlre the boards are divided as before explained. In the centre, at he opposite end "flat Ihere is a corresponding horizontal roller, round -^„^^, f . ^^^^^^^^ in- throuA the flat and through the vertical traversmg frame to the first roller , the fabric p^esS round this roller Ind again through the flat, and so on until the required num- K ^-^^ings and re-crossings hS been completed. The rollers are geared together so as to be drTven simultaneously to carry the fabric along back and forward over these rol^rs Tnd though the flats, whilst jets of water or other fluids are allowed to fall upon the fabric in its p7^-c and whilst the vertical traversing frame dashes the cloths with rapidity and severity ^Sn the dashboards beneath; the traversing frame being worked by an overhead crJk or by any other reciprocator. As the cleansing liquid falls down it »s received upon trd^hboa^rds beneath, and until it pours off at the centre : the «t"kmg a^^io^^^^^^^^ liquid to be well forced into the fabric. When the water falls away at the centre it is re- ccTed by a bottom duct and conveyed away to a bottom side-chainber, into ^b}cli ch^ber the fabric as primarily washed in the bottom flat, is first of all delivered from its rollers to the nexTflaTon the series where it is treated in a precisely similar manner ; and this routine s continued STroughrt^^^^ whole of the flats until the fabric finally emerges from the top of one of the^L its completely cleansed condition Each A^^^lf f JP^f/^^^^f ^^^^^^^ water and it is obvious that as the fabric passes through and beneath these jets, and is mo • Tently struck ipon the dashboards, a most powerf-ul washing and cleansing action is secured : proS is mL for varying the'lengt^ of traverse of the vertical dashing frame and the ""'^7. IsfonXrwings is a sectional elevation, and fig 1 34 is an end -iew con^spo"^ in o J /. Bark dyeing. — ^Dye 10 pieces with 25 lbs. bark, and 3 quarts bone size; heat to 190° in 1| hours, and keep at 190° 10 minutes, wash and bran at 160° 10 minutes; wash and dry. m. Bark and Logwood dyeing. — ^Dye 10 pieces with 20 lbs. bark, and 80 oz. prepared logwood, with 3 quarts bone size ; heat as in bark dyemg. Fi/ik Style : Indigo. The indigo dye-house is always on the ground floor of a building, and is fitted up with a number of stone vats let into the ground. There are generally several rows of these vats, about 3 feet apart. They are about 8 feet long by 4 feet wide, and 8 to 10 feet deep. Some of them have steam pipes inserted, which go to near the bottom, so that they can be heated when necessary. There are about 10 vats in a row. A. Blue and white. — The simplest form of blue styles is blue and white ; dark blue ground with white figures. The cloth is printed in one of the following reserve pastes : — No 65. Reserve paste for Block. — 3 lbs. sulphate of copper, dissolved in 1 gallon of water, 15 lbs pipe-clay, heat up with some of the liquor ; 1 gallon of thick gum Senegal so- lution, and 1 quart of nitrate of copper at 80°. T. iL 1 266 CALICO PRINTING. No. 66. Reserve paste for Machine.— U lbs. sulphate of copper, 1 gallon of water, ttiickened with 9 Iba flour, and 2 lbs. dark British gum. « , . No 67 Reserve paste for Machine.—^ lbs. sulphate of copper, 2 lbs. white acetate of lead 2 ffalions water, dissolve and thicken the clear with 3 lbs. flour and 2 lbs. pale British gum'; when cold, add half a pint of nitrate of copper at 80° T., to every 2 gallons of color. No. 68. Reserve paste for Machine. — 4 gallons boiling water, 16 lbs. of sulphate of copper 8 lbs. white acetate of lead, let settle and pour off the clear liquor ; thicken 3 gal- lons of this with 8 lbs. of flour, and 4 lbs. pale British gum. When boiled, add 4 lbs. sul- phate of zinc, and dissolve. The foregoing are all to resist deep shades of blue, for light shades of blue dipping any of the following :— , ., ^^ No. 69. Mild paate for Block.— 2^ lbs. dark British gum, 15 quarts of water, boil 10 minutes, and add 7i lbs. soft soap ; stir well in, and, when mixed, add 20 lbs. sulphate of zinc, stir well in, and add 10 lbs. pipe-clay, beaten up into 7^ quarts of water, and 7i gills of nitrate of copper at 80^ T. Mix all well together. No. 70. Mild paste for Machine.— % lbs. daik British gum ; 3| quarts water; boil and add 2 lbs. soft soap, cool, and add 6 lbs. sulphate of zmc dissolved in 2 quarts of boiling water and 1 quart of nitrate of copper at 80° T. After printing in one of these reserves, hang in a rather humid atmosphere for 2 days, and then dip blue. • « ^ • Indigo for use in the dve-house is ground with water to a fine pulp ; a series of cast-iron mills with curved bottoms," are arranged in a line : one or two iron rollers are moved back- wards and forwards on the curved bottom in each mill by an upright rod, which is furnished with a roller at the bottom, and is connected with a horizontal rod worked by an eccentric. Indigo and a certain quantity of water are left in these mills several days, tdl the pulp is perfectly smooth. The method of blue dipping is as follows : — In a line of ten vats, the first one is set with lime ; as — (No. 1.) 1,000 gallons water, 250 lbs. of hydrate of lime, or Ume slaked to a dry pow- der ; when used, it is well raked up. :, , , i.. n The indigo vats vary according to the style of work ; for deep blue and white, or blue and yellow, or orange, the following is a good one : — (No. 2.) 1,000 ^lons water, 50 lbs. indigo previously pulped, 140 lbs. copperas, and 170 lbs. lime ; dissolve the copperas in the water, then add the indigo, stir well up, and add the lime, previously riddled to separate small stones. Rake up every two hours for two days and let settle clear. The clear liquor, when taken up in a glass, must have a deep yellow color, be perfectly transparent, and be immediately covered with a pellicle of regen- erated indigo when exposed to the air. Eight or nine vats are all set alike. The pieces to be dipped are hooked backwards and forwards on a rectangular frame which just fits the vats, so that the cloth can be immersed, but still not so deep as to touch the sediment of the vats. The process is thus performed :— The lime vat No. 1 being stirred up, the frame which contains two pieces, is lowered down mto it, so as to completely immerse the pieces ; a gentle up and down movement is given by hand. The frame is allowed to stay 10 minutes in, is then lifted out, and supported over the vat by rods put across. After draining here a few minutes, it is then removed and immersed in vat No. 2, or the first indigo vat. It stays here seven minutes, is lifted out, and drained as before over the vat 8 minutes, then removed to No. 3 vat, and so on, till it has gone through the whole series or till the shade of blue is considered strong enough. After the last dip, the pieces are unhooked and winced in a pit of water, then winced about 10 minutes in a pit contain- ing sulphuric acid at 6° T., washed well in the wheel, squeezed, and dried. In large dye- houses there is an arrangement for collecting all the waste indigo which is washed off" the pieces 'by running all the wpter used into a vaulted chamber under the dye-house, where it passes' from one compartment to another, gradually depositing the suspended mdigo, which is periodically removed. . , ., • In heavy bodies of color, the paste sometimes slips, or the shapes become irregular ; this is counteracted by using the first indigo vat raked up instead of clear. The vats are used till nearly exhausted, and then the clear liquor pumped off, to be used instead of water for setting fresh vats with. B. Blue and Yelloio, or Orange.— Vrmt in one of the reserve pastes, and yellow or orange color made as follows : — No. 71. Chrome yellow for Machine.— 2, gallons water, 20 lbs. sulphate copper, 20 lbs. nitrate of lead ; dissolve, and beat up with 12 lbs. flour, and 2 gallons sulphate of lead bot- toms ; boil all together. vt « a - a ' a The sulphate of lead here is the by-product in making red mordant No. 8, and is drained to a thick paste. r i j • No. 72. Orange.— ^2ke a standard liquor by dissolving 24 lbs. white acetate of lead m 6 gallons water, and stirring 12 lbs. litharge in it till perfectly white, then let settle, and use the clear. . , - , ., r For the orange color take two gallons of this standard liquor, instead of the gaUons ol water in the above yellow color. CALICO PRINTING. 267 Follow the same routine in dipping, &c., as for blue and white. After wincing in sul- phuric acid sours, wash well, and wince 10 minutes in bichromate of potash solution, 2 oz. per gallon at 100" F. Wash well, and wince in dilute muriatic acid at ^° T. containing 1 oz. oxalic acid per gallon, till the yellow is quite bright. The small quantity of chromic acid set free oxidizes and destroys the indigo that may be attached to the yellow color. After this souring, wash and dry. If orange was printed instead of yellow, treat as for yellow ; and aft«r the murio-oxalic sour, wash, and raise orange in the following : — 10 lbs. bichromate of potash, 300 gallons water, and sufficient slaked lime to make slightly milky ; heat to 180° F., and wince the pieces in till the orange is full and bright ; then take out, and wash well, and dry. Other varieties of blue dyeing are : — c. Two blues. D. Two blues and white. ^ E. Two blues, white, and yellow or orange. F. Dark blue and green. 0. Two blues and yellow. For c and E a pale shade of blue is first given the cloth. The light blue vat is thus composed : — (No. 3.) Light Bltie Vat. — 1,000 gallons water, 40 lbs. indigo, 70 lbs. copperas, 80 lbs. lime. For c. Dip light blue by three immersions, drawing well between ; unhook, wince in water, then in sulphuric sours at 2° T, ; wash, squeeze, and dry ; then print on a reserve paste, and proceed as for dark blue and white ; when finished, the pale blue having been protected by the reserve, has remained unaltered, all the rest being dark blue. For F. Instead of reserve paste, print on yellow No. 71, and dip dark blue, sour and raise the yellow with bichromate of potash, omit the souring after chroming, and wash and dry. The yellow falling on the pale blue, makes a green. For D. On white cloth print a nobject in muriate of manganese, thickened with dark British gum, raise this as described under the head Bronzes, dry and block in a reserve paste No. 65, then lime and dip in the dark blue vat, letting stay in half an hour, remove, oxidize in the air, wash and sour with dilute muriatic acid, to which some muriate of tin liquor has been added, wash and dry ; where the peroxide of manganese has been is now dark blue, the ground pale blue with white object. For E. Print as n, with yellow or orange in addition, and afl«r the sulphuric sours, raise yellow or orange as before. Dip light blue, print reserve paste and yellow, dip dark blue, wince, sour in sulphuric sours at 6° T, wince in water, chrome at 140° F. 10 minutes at 2 oz. bichromate per gallon, wince, wash, and sour in the following : — 7 lbs. oxalic acid, 3 lbs. strong sulphuric acid ; dilute with water to standard 8° T. ; wince till the yellow is bright, then wash and dry. A style formerly very much in vogue, but now scarcely ever used, is the neutral or Lax- ulite style. It consists in combining mordants with reserves, and dipping blue ; the colors throw off the blue, and are subsequently dyed with madder. Neutrals af e of two sorts : 1. Where reds and chocolate, or black, with resist white are printed, and dipped light blue, the resist white being only required to resist the blue. 2. Where the white is required to cut through the block, reds or chocolate in addition to the blue. The following are examples of lazulite colors for the first variety : No. 73. Black, {Machine.) — 4 quarts logwood liquor at 12° T., 1 quart gall liquor at 9* T., 1 quart red liquor at 20° T, 1 quart iron liquor at 24° T., 1 quart acetic acid, thicken with 3 lbs. flour^ and 8 oz. starch ; when boiled, add 1 pint Gallipoli oil, and 1 pint tui^ pentine. No. 74. Chocolate, (Machine.) — 5 quarts red liquor at 12° T., 1 quart iron liquor at 24° T., IJ lbs. sulphate of copper, 24 oz. measure of nitrate of copper at 100° T., thicken with 2^ lbs. flour, and J lb. dark British gum. No. 75. Chocolate, (Block.)— 6 quarts red liquor 12° T., 1 quart iron liquor 24° T., 2| lbs. sulphate of copper, 36 oz. measure nitrate of copper at 100° T., 9 lbs. pipe-clay beat up well, and add 3 quarts of gum Senegal solution at 5 lbs. per gallon. No. 76. Dark Resist Red, (Block.)— 2 quarts red liquor 22° T., 5f oz. white acetate of lead, 4| oz. sulphate of copper, dissolve, and beat up in it 6} lbs. pipe-clav. Thicken sepa- rately 2 quarts red liquor at 12° T., with 12 oz. flour, and add, when boiling hot, 8 oz. of soft soap melted ; mix well, add the pipe-clay mixture to this, and then 2 quarts red liquor at 2° T., thickened by dissolving gum Senegal in it. Stir the whole well together. No. 77. Dark resist Red, (Mcchine.) — 20 quarts nitrate of zinc at 36 B., 10 quarts water colored with a little peach wood, 12| lbs. alum, 10 lbs. acetate of lead ; dissolve all together with heat, atir till cool, thicken all together with 8 lbs. flour, and H lbs. dark British gum. No. 78. Any shade of pale red is made for block by substituting the red liquor in csAat No. 76 by the mordant No. 8 reduced with water, according to the shade wanted. 268 CALICO PRINTING. No. 79. Any shade of pale red for machine is made by reducing the quantities of alum and acetate of lead in color No. 77. The white reserve for this variety of neutrals is either of the mild pastes. No. 80. Eesist Brown.— 2. gallons water, 24 lbs. catechu, 6 lbs. sal ammoniac, 1 gallon acetic acid ; boil 15 minutes, and add 7^ gallons gum solution, 5 quarts nitrate of coppet at 100° T. Process. — The colors after printing are aged 3 days, then dipped light blue in the fol- lowing blue vat. (No. 4.) Neutral vat. — 1,000 gallons water, 120 lbs. indigo, 135 lbs. copperas, 150 lbs. lime ; rake up for two days, and let settle. A frame with rollers top and bottom is lowered into this, and the pieces are run through ; after leaving the vat, they are made to travel over rollers in the air for a sufficient distance to turn them blue ; then into a pit of water, from that into a beck with cow dung and water, at 160° F., where they run 15 minutes, then washed and dyed madder or garan- cin, &c. &c. In the second variety of neutrals, the white is required to resist both mordants and blue, and is made thus : — No. 81. Neutral Wiite for Blocks.— 1 quarts lime juice at 30° T., 1 quart water, 4^ lbs. sulphate of copper, 24 lbs. pipe-clay, 3^ quarts lime juice at 30° T., previously thickened with gum Senegal. No. 82. Neutral Wfnte f b No. 89. White Discharge, {Block.)— The above color a little thmner. No. 90. Black for Turkey Red.—I gallons logwood liquor at 8° T., 1 gallon pvroligne- ous acid, 10 lbs. starch ; boil and add 2 lbs. 10 oz. copperas ; boil again and cool, then add 3 J pints pernitrate of iron at 80° T., and 1 g^on of blue paste. No. 91. Bltie Paste.— (a) 6 lbs. copperas, 2 quarts water ; dissolve. (6) 4 lbs. prussiate of potash, 1 gallon of water ; dissolve. Mix a and b together, and add 1 quart standard red liquor No. 8, 1 quart nitric acid 60° T. No. 92. Yellow Discharge, {Block.)— 1 gallon lime juice at 50° T., 4 lbs. tartaric acid, 4 lbs. nitrate of lead ; dissolve, thicken with 6 lbs. pipe-clay, and 3 lbs. gum Senegal. No. 93. Yellow Discharge, (ifocAine.)— Thicken the above with 1^ lbs. starch, instead of the pipe-clay and gum. i It 270 CALICO PRmXING. No. 94. Yellow Discharge^ (Mackine.y—l gallon lime juice at 40° T., 4^^ lbs. tartaric acid, 5 lbs. white acetate of lead, 1^ lbs. starch ; boil and cool, then add 1 lb. 14 oz. nitric acid, at 60°. No. 95. Blue Discharge, (Machine.)— (a) 1 lb. Prussian blue, 1 lb. oxalic acid, 1 quart hot water ; grind well together, and leave to react on each other 24 hours ; then (6) 3 quarts of water, 1^ lbs. starch ; boil, and add 2 lbs. tartaric acid, and mix a and b together. No. 96. Green Discharge, {Machine.) — 1| gallons No. 95 blue, 1 gallon No. 94 yellow. Process : — ^Print in any of the above colors, and as soon as dry from the machine, put through the decoloring vat. (No. 9.) Decoloring Vat. — 1,000 gallons water, 1,000 lbs. chloride of lime ; rake well up, till quite smooth and free from lumps, then immerse a frame with rollers top and bot- tom, as in dipping greens, &c. ; keep the vat stirred up so as to be milky, and run the pieces through at the rate of 1 piece of 28 yards in 3 minutes ; on leaving the squeezing rollers, conduct into water and rince, then wince 10 minutes in bichromate of potash at 4° T. ; wash and wince in very dilute muriatic aci(^ wash well and dry. In this style, such is the permaneiffe of the Turkey red dye, that it is not much altered by passing through chloride of lime, whilst in the parts printed in the discharge colors, an instantaneous disengagement of chlorine takes place, which decolorizes the dyed ground, and where a mineral color or mordant formed part of the discharge, it is left in place of the red dye. This style was invented in 1811 by M. D. Koechlin, and patented in England by Mr. James Thompson, of Primrose, who printed immense quantities of it. The Bandanna printing, being a business of itself, is more fitly described in another place. (See Bamdanka.) Eighth Style : Steam Colors. The printing of steam colors may be considered as a mode of dyeing at one operation, for in most cases one or more mordants are mixed with dye-wood decoctions, and printed on the cloth, the subsequent steaming causing the mordant to combine with the coloring matter, and both with the cloth. Steam colors, in some cases, are made so as to produce a fair color when printed on ordinary white calico ; but much superior colors are produced by mordanting the cloth first, so as to fix peroxide of tin in the fibre ; and as this is the almost universal rule, it is this sort of steam printing alone that will be described. Woollen fabrics, indeed, require a good preparation by tin, &c., before lively and substantial colors can be fixed on them by steam. The following is the mode of preparing calicoes for steam colors : — Pad the pieces stitched together, in a padding machine with wooden bowls, through a solution of stannate of soda at 10° T. twice over, letting them lie wet an hour between ; immediately after padding the second time, run through a cistern with rollers, containing dilute sulphuric acid at 1^° to 3° T., thence into a pit of water, wince well, and run through a washing machine. It has been observed by Mr. James Chadwick, that if the cloth, with oxide of tin newly precipitated on it, is subjected to any severe washing, it loses a consider- able quantity of oxide, so that no more washing must be given at this stage than will remove the free sulphuric acid. It appears that the cloth, once dried with the oxide in it, does not part with the oxide again by severe washing. After washing, the pieces are unstitched, and put in the hydro-extractor, then dried gently over the steam cylinders, and are then ready for printing. The following list of steam colors comprises the usual variety of shades printed on calico : — No. 97. Steam Black, (Machine.) — 1 gallon logwood liquor at 12° T., 1 quart gall liquor at 9° T., 1 quart mordant, 2 lbs. flour, 6 oz. starch ; boil 10 minutes, and add | pint nitrate of iron. Steam Black Mordant. — 1 quart acetic acid, 1^ quarts acetate of copper at 3° T., 1^ quarts iron liquor at 24° T., 1 quart red liquor at 20° T. No. 98. Chocolate, (Machine.) — 3 gallons logwood liquor at 12° T., 2 gallons Sapan liquor at 12° T., 1 gallon nitrate of alumina, ^ gallon bark liquor at 12° T., 4 gallons water, 17 lbs. starch ; boil, and add 8 oz. chlorate of potash, 2^ lbs. red prussiate. No. 99. Dark Blue, (Machine.) — 7 gallons water, 14 lbs. starch, 2f lbs. sal ammoniac ; boil, and add whilst hot 12 lbs. yellow prussiate of potash in powder, 6 lbs. red prussiate of potash, 6 lbs. tartaric acid, and when nearly cold, 1 lb. sulphuric acid, (specific gravity 1-85,) 1 lb. oxalic acid dissolved in 2 quarts hot water, and 6 gallons prussiate of tin pulp. No. 100. Dark Blue. — 8 quarts water, 4 Ibe. yellow prussiate of potash, 3 lbs. pale British gum ; boil, and add 1 lb. bisulphate of potash, 2 lbs. muriate of ammonia, 8 oz. alum, 4 oz. oxalic acid, 4 oz. sulphuric acid at 170° T., 4 quarts tin pulp No. 103. No. 101. Cinnamon. — 1 quart cochineal liquor at 8° T., 1 quart logwood liquor at 8° T., 1 quart berry liquor at 10° T., 6 oz. alum, 4 oz. cream of tartar, 8 oz. starch ; boil, and whilst warm add 3 oz. muriate-of-tin crystals. No. 102. Orange. — 12 lbs. annatto, 1 gallon caustic soda at 70° T., 6 gallons water ; CALICO PRINTING. 271 boil 20 minutes, strain, and add 3 quarts red mordant No, 146, 6 lbs, alum ; heat till dear and add 4 gallons thick gum-substitute water. ' No. 103. 2ln Pulp. — To protochloride of tin solution add as much yellow prussiate of potash in solution as will precipitate all the tin as ferroprussiate ; this is washed by decan- tation, and filtered to a stiff paste. No. 104. Light Blue for Machine.— 1 gallon dark blue No, 99, 3 gallons 4-lb. ffum- substitute water, ° No. 105. Green, (Machine.)— 1 gallons Persian-berry liquor at 12° T., 15 lbs, yellow prussiate of potash, 8 lbs. alum, 28 lbs. gum-substitute ; boil, and add 2 lbs. muriate-of-tin crystals, 2 lbs. oxalic acid. No. 106. Pink, (Machine.)— i gallons cochineal liquor at 6° T., 2 lbs, alum, 2 lbs. bitar- trate of potash, 8 oz. oxalic acid, 4 gallons thick gum-Senegal water. No. 107, Purple, (Machine.)— 2 gallons logwood hquor at 12° T,, 12 oz. alum, 8 oz. red prussiate of potash, 4 oz, oxalic acid, 8 gallons gum-substitute water. If for block, add 12 gallons gum water instead of 8 gallons. * o?m ^^^' ^^^^ ^^^' (^«c^*'^«-)— 8 quarts Sapan liquor at 12° T., 2 qnarts bark liquor at 8 r., 2 quarts nitrate of alumina No. 109, 6^ lbs. starch, 1 lb. gum-substitute 4 quarts water, 4 oz. chlorate of potash, 12 oz. alum. - No. 109. Nitrate of Alumina.— % gallons boiling water, 24 lbs. nitrate-of-lead crystals, 24 lbs. alum, 5 lbs. carbonate-of-soda crystals ; let settle, and use the clear. No. 110. Blue Standard.— \ gallon water, 12 oz. alum, 4^ oz. oxalic acid, 1* lbs. yellow prussiate of potash, 1 gallon gum-substitute water. No. 111. Lavender Liquor— 2 gallons red liquor at 18° T., 6 lbs. ground logwood ; let steep for 48 hours, then strain off the liquor. ,,^^^• 112.^«««^e^-— 4 gallons lavender liquor No. Ill, 4 gallons blue standard No. XT ^^*° *^ ^^ gallons gum water, according to shade wanted. I Q?m ^l^' ^^.^'~^ ^*"®°® lavender liquor, 4 gallons blue standard, 1 gallon baric liquor at 8 1,, trom 40 to 70 gallons gum water, according to shade wanted. No, \\\. Stone.— ^^ gallons lavender liquor No. Ill, 6 gallons blue standard No. 110 1 gallon bark liquor at 12° T., reduced same as drab, ' . ^A^'}]^' ^y^ J^reen for Blotch GrouHd%.—2 gallons yellow No, 48, 2 gallons blue standard No. 110, from 28 to 56 gallons gum water, according to shade wantedf ^o. 116. Yellow.— A: gallons beiry liquor at 12° T., 1^ lb, alum. 10° T 11 ^'^''^ ^'«'*^«";^— 14 quarts bark liquor at 12° T,, 3^ quarts Sapan liquor at 12 T H quarts logwood liquor at 12° T., 12 quarts 8-lb gum-substitute water, U lbs. alum, 2 oz. chlorate of potash, 5 oz, red prussiate. All shades of light browns ie 'made from this by reducing with gum-substitute water, according to shade wanted No 118, Yellow.-^ gallons bark at 8° T., 2 quarts red liquor at 18° T,, 2 quarts ni- trate of alumina No. 109, 12 oz. tin crystals, 5 lbs. starch. No. 119. Green for Block.— 2% lbs. yellow prussiate of potash, 6 gallons hot water- io LTioo^T' ' • \f "^°' ?t' gr:^""Sal water, 2 gallons water, 1 gallon mmnat<; of tmat 120 T.; ni.x the prussiate solution with the tin and gum by jlouring one into the other and violently agitating ; when quite fine and free from flocculent matter, add 12 ^. Ions berry liquor at 10° T., then add 12 lbs. and 2\ lbs, oxalic acid, dissolved in 5 gallons water, then 3 quarts acetic acid, and 2\ gills extract of indigo q Ih^"";]!,^^* ^^^•<>«'«.-;6 quarts berry liquor at 20° T., 6 quarts Brazil wood liquor at 8° T.. copperlt ToO° T ^''''' ^ "^"""^ ^'^'^' ^"^'^''^^ ^^^^^ 24 oz. nitrate of are then'st^eamed" *^^ ^'^'^' "^ ^""^ ^'"* "^""^ ^^"" ^ ^*^"^^^^ *^^'' temperature, and There are two methods of steaming now commonly employed :- the column and the K ; aI^^S^T"" '^ a>"«^ cylinder of copper, from 3 to 6 inches in diameter and about 44 inches long, perforated over its whole surface with holes of about Vi. of an Inch placed about \ of an inch asunder. A circular plate, about 9 inches diameter, is Sldered the ower end of the column, destined to prevent the coil of cloth from sliding domi off the cylinder. The lower end of the column terminates in a pipe, mounted wlh^as^Tcock for regulating the admission of steam from the main steam boile; of the factorv IS^s^ie cases, the pipe fixed to the lower surfa.^ of the disk is made tapering, and fir^ito a c^nT- fntn ol ^/h""/?^^^^^ pedestal; the steam ^peemei waL n^hf ? * 1 ,^^' *"^- '^ ^T'^^^^ «f cou^e, with a 8toi;cock. The condensed r^ onfl T "T ^^i' ^^^\^l^ that chest, and maybe let off bfa descending tube and a stopcock. In other forms of the column, the conical jmiction pipe is at its top, and fits im.n /'^^"' 'TJ^^ T^^^ connected with a steam chest, while the bottom his a very small tubular outlet, so that the steam may be exposed to a certain pressure in the column wiien It 18 encased with cloth. The pieces are lapped round this column, but not in immediate contact with it • for the copper cylmder is first enveloped in a few coils of blanket stuff, then with s^verlj ' t ^^^^^^^^ ^ ^25, by reducing with gum-sub- J^^ ''^^^:tZr^^t:^^<'^^^^^^'' "-^r -l.ues. a„d I of dark blue and 14 of gam water for blotch »' ^""^"'^J^-ja. ^ g ,bs. ,i„„, 6 lbs. starch ; ^t^^L f^S:-^wd&. W- of« r.b. ^uHate of tin crista,, 1 .b. oxalic acid, and 2f pints extract of mdigo. ^. »o m , . lUg ^gllow prussiate of potash, tin liquor at 12° T., \ pint extract of "^digo. logwood liquor at 12° T ?VaHs.frrfi<;^r:ti;;«*TriToraZ.:T^l^^^^^ ,bs. g.n>..bsti. *rit..on'addr^ r:rfo:'t?ir:fr^r,"Ls. . o.^^^ acid, and 1 gallon 6-lb. gum-Senegal water. ot 12° T 4 lbs. starch; boil, and add 4 o. €,f acitT':^:^ltr "^f po"^^^^^^^ Pin^ -Vcaouble perinrlate of tin and ammonia,) and 8 oz. muriate-of-tm crystals ^^^o rp 4| ^^g, .ta^;-; III ss'^of sxx»' oVrrs. ii ib. pim. .a,.. * pi. acid, 4 gallons water, 4 gallons 6-lb. gum water. prussiate of pot- ""1?nMrii^^1— t- No. Ill, 6 oz. oxalic acid, 2 o. mea^ ex- *^No"m X<.«nArZ.-j«or.-2 gallon, red liquor, 10 lbs. ground logwood; steep 12 hours, and strain off. CALICO PRINTING. 275 No. 140. Dowc— 6 quarts blue for doves No. 141, 4 quarts lavender liquor No 111 8 quarts 6-lb. gum-Senegal \fater. ' No. 141. Blue for Boves.—S quarts water, 2 lbs. yellow prussiate of potash, 2 lbs. alum 5 quarts 6-lb. gum water, 1 pint extract of indigo. ' No. 142. Orariffe.—S gallons berry Uquor at 10° T., 9 lbs. gum-Senegal, 3 pints red mordant No. 146, 12 oz. muriate-of-tin crystals; boU 15 minutes. . No. 143. Drab Standard,— 6 quarts purple liquor No. 144, 1 quart bark liquor at 10° T., i pmt red Uquor at 20° T., i pint extract of indigo. Drabs are made from this by reducing with gum water about 1 to 3. No. 144. Purple Liquor.— I gallon lavender liquor No. Ill, 3 oz. oxalic acid. XT .n'^i^' ^*^^f''-^'*«* Standards quarts gall liquor at 12° T., 2 quarts standard blue No. 136, 1 quart lavender liquor No. 111. Colors reduced with gum water from this, 1 to 2 or 3. *-ii ?.''• ]^h f«<=^^^^<^^^-— 1 gallon water, 6 lbs. alum, 3 lbs. white acetate of lead; stir till dissolved, let settle, and use the clear. - lAO m®* l^"^' ^^ff ^Si<^^^rd.—\ quart cochineal liquor at 8° T., 34 quarts berry Uquor at 10 T., 1 quart red mordant No. 146, 20 oz. oxalic acid. Colors reduced from this with gum water. No. 148. Olive.— \ quart lavender liquor No. Ill, 2 quarts berry liquor at 10° T 2 quarts 8-lb. gum-Senegal water. *' In mousseUne-de-laine printing success depends more on the bleaching and preparing of the cloth than in any other style. To Mr. John Mercer is due the merit of having eflfected an improvement m the preparation of woollen fabrics, the unportance of which cSi hardly be oven^ted. Before his discovery of the power of prepared wool to absorb chlorine mousseline de lames could only be effectively printed by block, which aUows a large body AA^^ *S ^® ^^'^ ®°' *°^ *^^ ^^""^ supersaturated with it. Machme colors were meagre and dull. But mousseline de laines prepared with tin, and then subjected to the action of chlorine gas, (as in the process given above, where the acid salt of tm remaining m the cloth, disengages chlorme from the chloride of lime,) have their power of absorbing and retaimng color considerably enhanced. The exact part the chlorine plays is not well known, probably a compound similar to the chloro-protein of Mulder is formed. The effect produced is not one as might be supposed, of oxidation ; but apparently a merely heightened power of the wool to assimilate coloring matter. Wool subjected to chlorme without tin is much im- proved in Its capacity for color, but nothing like the same when prepared with tin also. The Whole of the chlorme may be removed from the cloth by passing through an alkali, which renders it necessary to give the stannate-of-soda padding previously to the chlorinating. It may fairiy be assumed that the development of mousseline-de-laine printing by cylinder to the present perfection is due in a great measure to this chlorinating process. It ought also to be stated that, with rare UberaUty, Mr. Mercer gave the discovery to the trade, r^rving for himself no right whatever. » "^ Ninth Style : Spirit Colors. ^1, y^P/^V''^''^ f ^'1,^* brilliancy, but posse.«?sed of very little solidity, are made some- what like steam colors, but with much larger proportions of "spirits," by which term is meant the metallic salts and a<;ids, which, combining with the dyestuff decoctions, give the peculiar tone and vivacity to these colors. These colors, from the large admixturi of these salts, are necessarily very acid, and cannot be steamed without the destruction of the cloth thP^^nlT-"^ ^ f"*^ ^u^^ after printing, and hung in the agemg room for several houre! then rmsed in water, washed, and dried. ' The following are examples of spirit colors :— - lh« ?L3h^*K?M'^^T^lf ""^ ^^^''^P^ *^^"'*' ""^ ®° '''•' ^ g«"°° ^a*er, 10 oz. copperas, 3 lbs. starch ; boil, and add i pint pemitrate of iron at 80° T. ]h« .L}^\'^f''^'T^ gallon Sapan liquor at 8° T., 1 gallon water, 2 lbs. common salt, U copper at^O°'T. ' '''^^ ^ P^"' oxymuriate of tin at 120° T., 3 oz. measure nitrate of .f.r^^' Ilk ^^!^-7:\g'!"<>«.^a*er, 1 lb. yellow prussiate of potash, 6 oz. alum U lbs. No' ?52' '^i!;f * P'^'„"^*T ""^'r ^' ^""^h '^ g^"« oxUriate of tin at 12?° T ,,i/i IK -T VT^ gallon berry liquor at 8° T., 2 lbs. light British gum; boil and No 153 °^'^"^''-^^-*^'^ ^"-y^'^^' 2 quarts spirit pink No. 150, 2 quarlTpirirXle lb. ?wh^*h^5''^^!i""i/i'^^-''J^^'I^''^ ".^"'*'' ^* ^^ T-' ^ g«"«° ^«*er, 10 oz. copperas, 2 120° tT^^ ' ' ^^ ^^ ^ pint protomuriate of iron at 80° T., 1 pint oxymuriate of Sa at o^H^V^*' ^r'y^'—^^ e«"ons berry liquor at 8° T., 12 lbs. light BritUh gum • boil and add 6 lbs. muriate-of-tin crystals, 4 gallons spirit pink No. 150 "*" g«°a , ooii, and No III' fT^t"~f^ gallons spirit pink No. 150, 1 gallon spirit blue No. 151. lh» cf u K ., ~~^. ^^"^"^ ^P*" ^'<1"^'' ^^ ^ T., 1 lb. sal ammoniac, 1 lb verdigris. 44- lbs. starch ; boil, cool, and add 6 lbs. pink salts, 1 lb. oxalic acid. verdigns, 4i I»«l 1 276 CALICO PEINTING. No 157 IWo».-l gallon berry liquor at 10" T, i lb. alum, 1 lb. Btarch; boil, and '^''L''T^r^:-lsZ:pi^tZ-^o. Ul, l ganon spint yellow No. 157 Ko 59 s7rii Pink for BtwUng Madder W<>rk.-ik gallons Brazil wood liquor at ,0' T 9 lbs Tnk ^ts, sV sal anfmoniac, 2 lbs. sulphate of copper 5i oz. oxal.c «,,d "s Jve^ in!j pint ««»«>•' ** gaU«»« «? «-!>>• g™a-Senegal water, H quarts oxymunate of tm at 120° T. j,^^^^ g^^j^ . £,„^„,_ Tbp nloth is nadJed in solution of sulphate «f manganese, the strength of which detc^ min^y' IdeTbrown produced ; for*: medium shade of brown, suitable for discharge '"'°S'te'r*n^£'"and''dryin^'pad the pieces through caustic soda at 2/°T., and again throt'h ea^sSfat l^T^'^incc well in water, aSd then in solution of chloride of hme .,( 9.»T till Derfeetlv brown; wash well in water, and dry. ^,™ ._j The coloKr printing oi this dyed ground are so made as to disehw-ge the brown and ^'^o'^B^'^rZlt'-l^To 'Una water, 3i lbs. yeUow prussiate of pot^, 10 ,u ?■ ^ A 1^ li.ht British Clin • boil and add 12 lbs. tartaric acid, 6 lbs. oxalic acid, U%r:f i^^rnU^at'tf'irtr^e^^o' 6^"^^^ of this standard, 3 quarts muriate of tm "' ^K^° ?B1 Biicharm YelhmM Chroming.-{a\ 1 gallon water, 6 Ibi nitrate of lead, 4 lb, "^igk BritiSlumTboil, anLdd 4 lbs. t^artaric acid ; then take (6) 8 quarts this stand- "'•No'S T^fa;?Grt!-2 quarts yellow standard Ko. 161 «.), 1 quart blue stand- "'' Vo" Z ^12Z'Xt^a)tg;illns°Brazil-wood liquor at 12' T., 4 oz. sulphate of Iper 4 orAZSZC^li. sSch; boil, and add 8 oz. measure o.ymunatc of tm ;. 1?0» T then take {lA 2 qiarts of this standard, 1 quart muriate of tin at 120 . No \li WhTmllia^g'-^ gallons water, 8 fts. Ught British gum ; boU, and add 8 lbs.tartaricacid, and 1 gallon muriate of tin at 120 T. ^^■7^^l hafg for atw hou«, «.d wince in a pit with water f-ly flo™g into it . tt™ wince in^ihalkf water, agam in water, then wmce in bichromate of potash at 4 T., *^'lh"e '^SrL'n"" Lreolt fs^ihe protomuriate of tin, which, by ite superior away, the pigment Prussian blue and chromate of lead, also the Brazil laKe, oemg leit u^e in the dischai^ed place. Eleventh Style : Pigment Printing. Tn this stvle the ordinary pigments, such as used In oil-pamting, are mechamcally at- tached tthfclJthVas^^ cementing. The first fixing vehicle used was a solution ?f caoutchouc in n^^^^^ was mixed with the pigment so as to m^e colors of suffi- ^fpnt vi^oskv to prhit The naphtha was then driven off by steammg, and the pigment was ^fpnVpmeTted to^I^^^^ by a film of caoutchouc. This method makes very fast colors, SSS»n»- tirs^^nct^^ ""'T^e'tS^' irthe'Suc of starch making from wheat flour by the simple wasWng pro- "^^T^^tn^ttrtlirr ".tuire a smaU quantity of a-kali to bring them in ^uUdr. they then resemble albumen in their power of coagulating by heat. There are lew coiors well and aid 2^02. measure liquid ammonia, specific gravity -880, 5 oz n^^asyre caustic Toda a^32" T ; then kiving beaten up 3 lbs. ultramarine with li pints water, mix with the lact^^jie solutimi Albnmen.--4 lbs. ultramarine, 3i quarts water ; mix well ^d add slowly 3 lbs. albumen in powder ; let it stand a few hours, stirring occasionally , when dissolved, add 1 pint gum-tragacanth water at 12 oz. per gallon. CALICO PRINTING. 277 No. 167. Ultramarine Blue with Gluten. — 6 lbs. ultramarine, 5 quarts water ; mix, and add gradually 3^ lbs. ground gluten ; let it stand a few minutes, then add 1 quart caustic soda at 16° T. ; mix well, and let it stand a few hours before using. Other shades of blue are made by altering the quantity of ultramarine. No. 168. Drab. — 3 lbs. lampblack, 3 pints acetic acid at 8° T. ; mix well together, and add a solution of 3 lbs. albumen in 3 pints water ; then add 3 pints 12-oz. gum-tragacanth water. After printing these colors, steam half an hour, wince in water, and dry. Colors fixed in this manner are not intended to resist severe treatment. No. 169. Pencil Blue. — 10 gallons of pulp of indigo, containing 40 lbs. indigo, 40 lbs. yellow orpiment, 11^ gallons of caustic soda at 70° T., 18^ gallons of water, 4 lbs. lime; boil till quite yellow, when spread on glass ; let settle, and thicken the clear with 120 lbs. gum-Senegal. Pieces printed in pencil blue are washed in water immediately after drying and some- times soaped a little. Mr. Bennet Woodcroft, struck with the waste of indigo attending the printing of either China blue or pencil blue, some few years ago invented and patented a method of printing pencil blue by the cylinder machine. His plan was to attach to an or- dinary single-color machine an Indian-rubber apparatus, which enveloped the color-box and piece after printing ; this apparatus was filled with coal gas : a glass plate formed part of the long bag through which the piece travelled after printing, so as to enable the printer to see the progress of his work. By this means the deoxidized indigo was fairly applied to the cloth, and oxidation only ensued when the piece left the apparatus. The saving of in- digo was said to be considerable, but the plan was not generally adopted. Safflower Dyeing. — The beautiful but fugitive coloring matter of safflower is applied m the printing for dyeing a self color, generally after the goods have been printed in black and red mordant, or black alone, and dyed madder or garancin. It is commonly used for cotton velvets, the color given to velvet appearing very brilliant, from the nature of the cloth. The process is as follows : — Saflflower contains two distinct coloring matters : one yellow, being soluble in water, and the other pink, insoluble in water, the latter only beino- valuable. The yellow matter is therefore carefully washed away. To effect this, the safflower is put into canvas bags, 4 lbs. in a bag, and these bags put into running water and occasionally trodden upon till the water runs off perfectly colorless from them. 12 of these bags are then emptied into a cask with 90 gallons of water and 10 quarts of pearlash liquor at 24 T., stirred up for two hours: after standing all night, drain off the liquor, add 90 gallons more water and 3 pints of pearlash liquor ; stir up well, and after standing for three hours, drain off again ; this weak liquor is saved for putting on fresh safflower : about 30 gallons of the safflower solution is put in a tub mounted with a wince over it, and a mixture ot vinegar and lime juice is added to it till it is feebly acid to test paper. The carthamic acid, a red coloring matter of safflower, is thus precipitated, and remains as an exceedingly fine powder in suspension in the liquid ; 2 pieces of 30 yards of velvet are put in and winwjd backwards and forwards 5 times, then wound upon the reel, and allowed to stay there half an hour, then wince 5 times more, wind up again, and let stay half an hour; wince again 5 times, and wind up again ; run off the liquor and put in 30 ^ons of fresh liquor and acid aa before ; repeat the process, wincing 3 times of 5 ends each, and letting lie wound on the reel half an hour each time ; then take out and wmce in very dilute acetic acid, hydro-exr tract, and dry. The pieces, when wound on the reel, should be opened out flat, or they naight be uneven. Carthamic acid, being of a resinous nature has the property of attaching itself to cloth, and dyeing in a beautiful pink like the petals of a rose ; this dye is very £ucond dung at 160» F -»^Mye, »^d eleau a^ 1 «. _^^ ^^^^^ dung with I c^^v^^^-^^PSf^V Ja t^has esc^ed deco^^^^^ by the carbonic acid BhadO 14 and ^^e 3 or 4 night, ; fly-dung at 160' F., second dung at 160 F., and •"^^r Btteh«S:f^r^Tu^e.' ^Si - ^" V Oot ^7* wHh purple ga^nein, (.eo '■ ^a! Forchintz.o.U treat a, 1 «, th- in the/-^ "{XrJTn.lZk'Z Sl^^ tnirt2i.'^;;r^:;;."t^i.'rrn.n^^^^^^^^^ cover b, "--!>»«>» ""^"f^twrb^'u^'iXrlld^^^^^^ in W 48, «.d second dung at 150 F., and «5,^„"'* X'^^^^^^ . or cover in color 49 or 61, and after dye madder and ^''\'^2^\^ih^yiZT oTTmol colors 66, 56, or 57, rinsing in drying and ageing, wincing in ^'Jky "ater, «J^ '° ^^ . ^^ ^„„a ^y^^^ by any of S^prL^d K l^J^X^oc^^^o.. 1.8, fl9. an^ 135, steam, wash, and Tq^r sSd be heated to 110' F ; out of this wa«h and d^. t:etiot:;t*:rS'rh:-rSrr^y^&:^^ and raised as follows :-5 stone cisterns, each mounted with a hand reel, ana coma « ^^A ^'g^nning wUh Ni. 1, and ending «* No^» j^ "■- ^^^ ^^etdigot JJ:. change that takes place here is similar to that L" ™^"£,„rt ' in w has fiied itself in the Uiined in a deo.idi.ed state by thepro^ox^e »f^ '»^"^;";^^t 'a, the pietes arc winced cloth by reoxidation in he air ^here to.^en 1^ then washed and dried, in bichromate-of-potash liquor at 4 T- &' ^ mmut^^^^«™ ^^^ sides of the design ; it has had the effect of producing an anachronism. The upper group reprelt^ a^p^^^^ seated upon the wall of a well, blowing a flute ; near h»m stands - Xan with Tdistaff; a groujof sheep, cow, and a dog, in '\^<^''JZn^'J\^,':''t ground shows a landscape, and on each side this group are ruins, columns, and trees, re^ Kd in the stream below. On a broken bank, midway between the two groups, are two does chiing a stag. The lower group, although there is no defined line of separation Seen the^^uS, represents a peacock, fowls, and chickens, upon a bank and ruins; landscape and^ver scenery beyond!^ Over, a hawk carrying a chicken, the sides occupied S a ruined ^rtico tomb, and pedestal and vase, trees, and broken ground ; and below rd^ucrswi^nrandwiter-A stone- Old ?o'^' irsratTi: Bow: ;re;;^hrESt''ro;7in mie7Works now are, and where lliere w^a print w^rk at the time specified. This design was no doubt printed for fum. ure h^4Ss or Tapestry, for which it is exceedingly well adapted, the work bemg altogether ^"kloSErtr^^^^^^^^ to prepare calomel in the humid way by de- romnosine a «)lution of corrosive sublimate by sulphuric acid. The commercial salt is Snin wTter at 122° to saturation. Sulphurous acid gas, evolved by heatmg coarse SJaf ^wder with concentrated sulphuric acid, is passed into the hot solution : he seSoJ^f the calomel commences immediately. When the solution is saturated with the JTL dige^^^^^^^ some time, then left to get cold, and filtered from the calomel which fs^fterward^washed. The filtrate usually contains some unchangeable corrosive snblmiate, whlcrm^be con^^^^ into calomel^ either by heating to boiling, or by a fres^i mtroduc- tbn of^Si)hurous acid and heating. Calomel obtained in this mamier is a crystalbne pow- uDont SSng the decanted alcohol with a drop of caustic potash, when the character- ^U^c bricScolwed precim will fall, if any of that salt be present. To detect subnitrate of mSJur^^ca^^^^^^^ digest dilute nitric acid on it, and test the acid with potash when a frecSI will fTk else of that contamination. As it is a medicme so extensively SmlSSer^ children at a very tender age, its purity ought to be scrupulously watched. 117-75 parts of calomel contain 100 of qmcksUver. U. M. JN. cillo'^^fca^e Fr^'c^mmeo, It.) Correctly a precious stone engraved in relief, as oppo^^ io in^a^/o '^Mch is cut in(o the stoned The earliest cameos appear to have ?^en cuttnon ttie onyx, Lnd, subsequently, on the agate. The true cameo is formed upon ^stone hXng troJmore layei^, differing in color ; and the art of f ^ <^meo^"^^^'^ cons^te fn^o cutting as to appropriate those differently colored layers to disUnct parts or elevations of the work. .jj^^dony present m section transparent and opaque layers; .n/lZuM wo^ hive beercut u^S such specimens of this material. The calcedony and S^ To^ver^t unf^queS^ly colored artificially. The layei^ yary very much ?n the? st^ure ^me being absorbent and others not so. Such stones are taken, and if ^, Sid Jo htVrWack and white layers, they are boiled in a solution of sugar or honey, and theTin sulSic acid. T^^ sugar or honey is, in the first place, absorbed by the more «TayerS^^^ the acid. Red or brownish-red layers are produced bv oc^Sg^e stone to absorb a solution of sulphate of iron, and then, by exposure to hLrXSnlthe oxidation of the metal. This being done, layers very strongly contrasted in color a^e the result, and very fine cameos have been cut upon stones so prepared. In tX and^n Fi^ce the art of producing the cameo dur has been, to some extent, revived; Wthe ?mLn^^^^^^^ sSch hard' materials require, renders them so expensive, that • ^"poSS^rg^LVrvVtefer^^^^^^^ for the natural stones, but the res^rwersTfufS, thit these maLi'als have of late been entirely neglected for this ^""'The 'shells of several molluscous anhnals are now commonly used Many of these shells afford the ™^^^^ of color, are soft enough to be worked with facihty, yet hard enOu«'h to wear for a considerable time without injury. CAMPHENK 283 The natural history of the moUusca producing the shells, and the best account of the manufacture of cameos, was given by J. E. Gray, of the British Museum, in a paper read before the Society of Arts in 1847, to which, and to his paper in the Philosophical Transac- tions, we are indebted for much of the information contained in this article. It was the custom in Holland to use the pearly nautilus as a cameo shell, and several kinds of turbines or wreath shells, which have an opaque white external coat over an inter- nal pearly one. These are now rarely employed. The shells now used are those of the flesh-eating univalve, {Gasteropoda ptenobranchiata zoophaga,) which are peculiar for being all formed of three layers of calcareous matter, each layer being composed of three perpen- dicular laminae placed side by side ; the laminae comprising the central layer, being placed at right angles with one of the inner and outer ones ; the inner and outer being placed longitudinally with regard to the axis of the line of the shells, while the inner laminae are placed across the axis, and concentrically with the edge of the mouth of the cone of the • shell. {Gray, Phil. Trans.) This structure furnishes the cameo cutter with the means of giving a particular surface to his work, a good workman always putting his work on the shell in such a manner, -that the direction of the laminas of the central coat is longitudinal to the axis of his figure. The central layer forms the body of the bas-relief, the inner lamina being the ground, and the outer one, the third or superficial color, which is sometimes used to give a varied ap- pearance to the surface of the figure. The cameo cutter, therefore, selects for his purpose those shells which have three layers of different colors, as these afford him the means of relieving his work ; and secondly, those which have the three layers strongly adherent to- gether, for, if they separated, his labor would be lost. The following are the kinds of shells now employed: 1. The bull's mouth, {Cassis nifum,) which has a red inner coat, or what is called a sardonyx ground. 2, The black helmet, {Cassis Madagascar iensis,) which has a blackish inner coat, or what is called an onyx ground. 3. The horned helmet, {Cassis corniUum,) with a yellow ground. 4. The queen's conch, {Stromhus gigas,) with a pink ground. The bull's mouth and the black helmet are the best shells. The homed helmet is apt to separate from the ground, or double, and the last, the queen's conch, has but seldom the two colors marked with suflScient distinctness, and the finish of the ground color flies on exposure to light. The red color of the bull's mouth extends only a slight distance into the mouth of the shell, becoming paler as it proceeds backwards. The dark color extends further in the black and yellow varieties. Hence, the bull's mouth only aftbrds a single cameo large enough to make brooches of, and several small pieces for shirt-studs. The black hel- met yields on an average about five brooches, and several pieces for studs, while the queen's conch affords only one good piece. Forty years since, very few cameos were made from any shells but the black helmet, and the number of shells then used amounted to about 300 annually, nearly all of which were sent from England, being all that were then imported. The black helmet is imported into England from Jamaica, Nassau, and New Providence. They are not found in Mada- gascar, though naturalists have for a long period called them Madagascar helmets. {Gray.) Of the bull's mouth, half are received direct from the Island of Bourbon, to which place they are brought from Madagascar, and the other half are obtained from the Island of Ceylon, being received by the way of Calcutta ; hence they are often called " Calcutta sheUs." So rapidly has the trade in those shells increased, that Mr. Gray informs us, that in Paris 100,500 shells are used for cameos annually. These are divided as follows: Bull's mouth - - 80,000 Black helmet - 8,000 Horned helmet 600 Queen's conch - 12,000 Price. Value. Is. Sd. . - £6,400 5 - - 1,920 2 6 - 60 1 2i - 725 Sterling £9,105 The manufacture of shell cameos was for some time confined to Italy ; about twenty years since, an Italian commenced making them in Paris, and now the trade is confined principally to the French capital, where not less than 300 persons are engaged in the manu- facture. Nearly all the cameos made in France are sent to England. In Birmingham, many of them are mounted as brooches, and exported to America and the British colonies. In 1856 we imported, of shell cameos not set, to the value of £6,683. CAMPHENE. Rectified oil of turpentine is sold in the shops under this name for burning in lamps. Crude oil of turpentine is redistilled with potash, and then with water, and lastly, to secure its perfect purity, with chloride of calcium. The oil thus prepared r 284 CAMPHOLE. forms a limpid, colorless liquid; its specific gravity ^ about OSW but it is su^ect to some sli-ht variations ; C^H* appears fairly to represent this and several other similar oils It is ve?y mflammabi;, burning with a bright white flame, and without a proper supply of air it - evolves much deiise smoke, hence peculiar lamps {Camphene lamps) are veqmved Where it has from exposure to air, absorbed oxygen, and become resimjied, \t is unht lor pur- poses of illumination. Such camphene very rapidly clogs the wick with a dense carbon and is liable to the thick black smoke, which is so objectionable m the camphene lamps if thev are not properly attended to. . « , , •_• To purify old oa/n;)/i.ne, it must be redistilled from carbonate of potash, or some suni- larly active substance to deprive it of its resm. See Lamps. . . . . .,. ^„_^ .„ CAMPHOLE One of the oils obtained from coal tar. Mansfield gives this name to the oils cumole and apnole, which boil at 284° and 338° Fahrenheit, when collected to- gether S specific gravity of crude camphole ranges from '88 to ^98, and the less vola- tile portions frequently contain naphthaline, which raises their specific gravity This sub- st^ce, either alone or mixed with pyroxylic spirit, is applicable for burnmg m lamps or for dissolvinn- resins, as a substitute for oil of turpentine. CAMPHOR. There are two kinds of camphor imported:— ,.v *u t% . i, ♦« Japan Camphor, called Dutch Camphor, because it is always brought by the Dytch to En-land It comes by the way of Batavia, and is imported m tubs (hence it is called tub tamphor) covered with matting, and each surrounded by a second tub, secured on the out- side bv hoops of twisted cane. , „ r,. j n v-„ :« China Camphor, or Formosa Camphor, is imported from Singapore ard Bombay m rhesta lined with lead-foil containing about H c^^s. c. *u It has been suggested to introduce the camphor trees into other countries. South Georgia and Florida'are named as suitable localities. j „^i^ „* k The Laura campkora is commonly found in all the nurseries around Paris and sold at 5 francs for a plant 30 inches high. At full growth the tree attains an altitude of from 40 ^"^ ^The wood of the camphor tree is in favor for carpenter's work ; it is light, easily worked, durable and not liable to be attacked by insects. . /. j * It is sdd that in Sumatra numbers of trees are cut down before one is found to repay. Not a tenth part of the trees attacked yield either camphor or camphor oil. The camphor is distinguished by the names of head, belly, and foot, when m bulk. The head camff 's in k^^^^ flakes; the belly camphor, small brown flakes, transparent, like resrcoarsely pondered ; the foot, like dark-colored resin. A mitive " catty may be divided into : — 1. Capello, or large head Z. %k 2. Capello cachell, or small head - - - - Z lo 3. Baddan, or belly — %i 4. Cakee, or foot — ^ = 1 Catty 1^ The inquiries of Roylc and Roxburgh agree with the records of Sir G. Staunton, Dr. Abel and Mr C. Grove, of the estimation placed upon the camphor of Borneo by the Chi- nese who fctudly give a grea^^ price for the coarser article than they afterwards sell it ?or when Si a purified state for commerce. Hence it is inferred that the Borneo camphor, bdn^ so st^ono-^ communicates its odor and virtues to other matters, and thus an adultei- ate^d uf Sd by the Chinese ; or it may be mixed with the camphor obt^ned by cut ing and maceratinc th^ wood of the Laura camphora, that grows in China. Sir G. Staunton hotever, &^^ Chmese sell the campW at a lower price than they give for it at Borneo. Our importations in 1856 were : — Camphor, unrefined " ^'^^^ ^T^ " refined ^^^ r\MPnOR ARTIFICIAL. WTien hydrochloric acid (muriatic) is passed into oil of turpenuLe sun^ounded by ice, two compounds are obtained, one solid and the other flmd ThTfiit soXrtificial camphor, C-R-HCl, is white, transparent, lighter than wa er, and hS^a camphoraceous taste. The fluid is termed liquid artificial camphor, or terebme. CAMPHOR OIL OF LAUREL. When the branches of Camphoraofficinarumave mstmtd with water a mixture of camphor and a liquid essential oil is ob^ined. Tins is Se oil of campho^; it has a density of 0910, and its composition is C H 0. By ex- posure ioo^^T^^^, or to the action of nitric acid, it absorbs oxygen, and becomes solid ^^ThrJ^'is^r^eemed article in the eastern market; it undergoes no preparation, and tl Jgh nlTd on i^^^ ^ther a liquid and volatile resin. The natives of Sumatra make [L CANDLES. 286 a transverse incision in the tree to the depth of some inches, the cut sloping downwards, so as to form a cavity of the capacity of a quart ; a lighted reed is placed in it for about ^ 10 minutes, and in the space of a night the cavity is filled with this fluid. The natives consider this oil of great use as a domestic remedy for strains, swellings, and inflamma- tions. Dr. Royle states the trees are of large dimensions, from 2J to Y feet in diameter. The same tree that produces the oil, would have produced the camphor if unmolested, the oil being supposed to be the first stage of the camphor's forming, and is consequently found in younger trees. CAMPHOR STORM GLASSES. Glasses called usually storm glasses, and sold as indi- cators of atmospheric changes. " Storm glasses" are made by dissolving :-^ Camphor .---.-..2| drachms Nitre 38 grains Sal ammoniac ------.38 grains Water 9 fluid drachms Rectified spirit of wine - - - - . - 11 fluid drachms. Plumose crystals form in the glass, and are said to condense and collect at the bottom of the bottle on the approach of a storm, and to rise up and diffuse themselves through the liquid on the approach of fine weather ; but Dr. Parrion thinks that their weather-predict- ing qualities are false, and that light is the agent which, together with temperature, influ- ences the condition. CAM- WOOD. An African dye-wood, shipped principally from Sierra Leone in shori logs. Mr. G. Loddiges, in his botanical cabinet, figures the plant, producing it under the name of Baphia nitida ; .it is a leguminous plant, and has been introduced into, and has flowered in, this country. CAN ADIAN BALSAM. A product of the Abies halsamca, or balm of Gilead fir. The finer varieties of this balsam are used for mounting objects for the microscope. See Balsams. CANARY WOOD. A wood is imported ;nto this country under the name of Madeira mahogany, which appears to be this canary wood. It is the produce of the Royal Baj, Laurus indica, a native of the Canary Islands. It is rather a light wood, and of a yellow color. CANDLES. In a lecture delivered at the Society of Arts by Mr. Wilson, and published in their journal, he described the progress of the more recent improvements. In this he says : " Candles, beautiful in appearance, were made by distilling the cocoa-nut acids ; but, on putting them out, they gave off a choking vapor, which produced violent coughing." This prevented those candles from being brought into the market. " By distilling cocoa- nut lime soap, we made beautiful candles, resembling those made from parafline, burning perfectly ; but the loss of material in the process was so great, that the subsequent improv^ ments superseded its use. Under one part of this patent, the distillation was carried on sometimes with the air partially excluded from the apparatus, by means of the vapor of water, sometimes without, the low evaporating point of the cocoa-nut acids rendering the exclusion of air a matter of much less importance than when distilling other fat acids." At this time, in conjunction with Mr. Jones, Mr. Wilson appears to have first tried using the vapor of water to exclude the air from the apparatus during distillation. This led, in 1842, E. Price and Co. to patent, in the names of Wilson and Jones, which involved the treat- ment of fats, previously to distillation, -with sulphuric acid, or nitrous gases. M. Fremy, in his valuable paper in the " Annales de Chimie," describes treating oils with half their weight of concentrated sulphuric acid, by which their melting point was greatly raised. He gave, however, particular directions that the matter under process should be kept cool. Instead of doing this, Mr. Wilson found it advantageous to expose the mixture of fat acid and fat to a high temperature, and this is still done at Price's works. " Our process of sulphuric acid saponification was as follows : — Six tons of the material employed— usually palm oil, though occasionally we work cheap animal fat, vegetable oils, and butter, and Japan wax— were exposed to fhe combined action of 6 J cwts. of concen- trated sulphuric acid, at a temperature of 350^ F. In this process the glycerine is decom- posed, large volumes of sulphurous acid are given off, and the fat is changed into a mixture of fat acids, with a very high melting point. This is washed, to free it from charred matter and adhering sulphuric acid, and is then transferred into a still, from which the air is ex- cluded by means of steam. The steam used by us is heated in a series of pipes similar to those used in the hot-blast apparatus in the manufacture of iron, the object of heating the steam being only to save the still, and reduce to a small extent gaseous loss in distillation." " We still," says the patentee, " employ this process^ and in some cases reduce the quantity of acid employed to 4 lbs. and even 3 lbs. to a cwt. of the fat" In 1854, Mr. Tighlman obtained a patent for the exposure of fats and oils to the action 286 OAKDLES. of water at a high temperature, and under great pressure, in order to cause ^^^ combmation of rhe waterSdfh the elements' of the neutral fats; so as to produce at the same time free '''' '^\rl::^T^e^i&^^^^ of fat and water, by means of a force- " bv S ZJSs hundreds of tons of palm <>" ^^ "»" "^'■^'^- ^^ ^'fT" ^^litn n a imn iei^r The hot oUy matter is then run into another vessel made of bnck lined with i^H ITlnnk in the CTOund for the purpose of supporting the briek work under or against he interaarnreLre oT^hrfluVi It hJ a wooden ^ver lined with lead, directly beneath whicS iSd eSZg ae OSS the vessel, is a leaden pipe, 1 inch in diameter, haying a small h^leinCch side at every 6 inches of iU length ; and through this pipe is introduced a hole in each side at e^^^ » » .^ f .g '^j ,te ^^^ weight of water. The m- r^^^f ifrt,emLure SfSndiv^^ into the heated fat, produces violent Iwnur Id by Sel^"^^^ fat a^e perfectly incorporated before the action ^f the add becomes apparent by any considerable discoloration of the fat. As the ebuUmon «^°he atlSSy blacken';; Li the matter is allowed to '''""■° f« «•>»"" ;f"*« ceases, "J*' fe /pospd The offensive fumes produced are carried oflf by a large pipe, ;tTnwZ ft^to^he vessel S^^^ >1««=»^- -'^ "f"""^! rises again into a high ThimneT ITThrdowSward part of this pipe a small jet of water is kept playing, to con- and ''^h'd, by being W^ wLKrated «cept that in the second washing the water water IS drained oir, and the wasm^^^^ The ultimate product is allowed to settle for 2? ht« alSr with i -fa^TsSrin an atmosphere of st'eam-once, or oftener -until well purified and the product of distillation is again washed, and after being pressed m the -'tr.^i.iisfdtfi^iitJiTt:'™^^^^^^ . Belmont SpS-m.-Uade of hot pressed, distilled palm acid. R^/rnow/ WiMT —The same material tinged with gamboge. . * • ^ «* l«7a.mp«S<, Cam«e..-Made of a mixture of the hard palm acid, and stearme of "^oZ^riie, No, 1 2 aW S, are made of palm acids, and palm acids and cocoa-nut stearine^ tiative proportions wying according to the relative market pnces of palm oJ ^d^C^ nut oil at the particular time when the candles are manufactured. C«»^™ Ao 4 A description of candle introduced at a price a very little above .1,. „ri^f tAllowdio candles They are somewhat dark in color, but give a good light. ?he hth1^,^price^dTn«i are mually in the ordinary mould ; but at Pnee and Co-fLScLTti^v have a machine for moulding the ordinary stearine candl^, and ^thc^oratiS niur^^^m^^^^^^^^^^ sixty yards of J"*, enclo^d in a box^ J„^JdT?„ ' .he fresh wick into it. The moulded S"es".:?e 'bT a% ng^n ~tri^^^^ a horizontal position while a knife candles are, oy a, very mgcu , ^ candles are secured, by passes across and -ve-^h^^^^^^^^^ ^^^^^ Moulds "^^^^^^^ are carried into a vertical position, Sd u^l^ r^lway t^^^^^^ th^y become sufficiently warm to receive the f"t wWchTpt^ TbJ melting point 'by *team pipes, is held in a cistern above the rails ; frlthTs cistern the moulds are filled by as many cocks, which are turned by one impulse Ifwe ima^ neTn extensive series of these sets of moulds travelling from the nj^^T^over a r^lw^v^n reeular order, and that, when the fat has become solid, these return, the can- SlS are^di chS, ^nd the process'is renewed,-the machine will be tolerably well under- wood Each machine holds^bout 200 frames of moulds, and each contains 18 bobbins, '""^'•^rT-'vi? ^The^e Irf st^thM^^ of fat, with a very thin wick, so propor- Mght-Ltghts— These ^r^jT;„Zmk^^ required number of hours. The moulds in tioned one to the other ^^^^1 ?4mene2ra7ed^^^^^^ a number of cylindrical holes, and CAOUTCHOUC. 287 filled with melted fat, and, when cold, the bottoms are forced up, and all the cylinders of fat ejected, each having a small hole through which the wick, a cotton previously impregnated with wax, is inserted. This being done, the night-Ught, being pressed on a warm porcelain slab, is melted sufficiently to cement the wick. These night-lights are burned in glass cylinders, into which they fit. Child's Night-Lights are melted fat poured into card-board boxes, which have a hole iu the bottom, through which the wick and its metallic support are placed. CANES. Canes of various kinds are employed in manufactures, as the Sugar cane, Bamboo canes, and Rattan canes, &c. The bamboo is a plant of the reed kind, growing in the East Indies, and other warm climates, and sometimes attaining the height of 60 feet. Old stalks grow to five or six inches diameter, and are so hard and durable as to be used for building, and for all sorts of furniture, for water-pipes, and for poles to support palanquins. The smaller kinds are used for walkingrsticks, flutes, &c. In 1856, we imported 309,000 Bamboo canes into England. Rattan canes are often confounded with the Bamboo. They are, however, the produce of various species of the genus Calamus. They are cylindrical, jointed, very tough and strong, from the size of a goosequill to that of the human wrist, and from fifty to a hundred feet in length. They are used for wicker-work, seats of chairs, walking-sticks, &c. In 1856, we imported of Rattan canes, 7,840,702, the computed value of which was £15,681. CANGICA WOOD, called also in England Angiga. It is of a rose- wood color, is im- ported from the Brazils in trimmed logs from eight to ten inches diameter. As a variety in cabinet work, small quantities of this wood are employed. CANNABIC COMPOSITION. This material, for architectural decoration, is described by Mr. B. Albano to have a basis of hemp, amalgamated with resinous substances, carefully prepared and worked into sheets of large dimensions. Ornaments in high relief, and with great sharpness of detail, are obtained by pressure of metal disks, and they are of less than half the weight of papier mache ornaments, suffi- ciently thin and elastic to be adapted to wall surfaces, bearing blows of the hammer, and resisting all ordinary actions of heat and cold without change of form. Its weather qualities had been severely tried on the continent, as for coverings of roofs, &c., remaining exposed without injury. This composition is of Italian origin, and in Italy it has been employed for panels, frames, and centres. It is well fitted to receive bronze, paint, or varnish, the material is so hard as to allow gold to be burnished, aft«r gilding the ornaments made of it. CANNEL COAL. Cannel coal is obtained in Lancashire, in Derbyshire, in Warwick- shire, and in Scotland, in considerable quantities ; there are some other localities in which it is procured, but not so extensively. Its use as a fuel and for gas making will be found in the articles devoted respectively to these subjects. This coal has a dark grayish black color, the lustre is glistening and resinous, it takes a good polish, and is hence ipade into a variety of ornaments. It is not equal to jet, (see Jkt,) being more brittle, heavier, and harder; but cheap ornaments made of cannel coal are not unfrequently sold for jet : cannel coal is made up of horizontal layers, and has a grain something resembling wood. The coal, when worked for ornaments, is cut with a saw, and the pieces are rough- shaped with a chopper. For making a snuff-box, whether plain, screwed, or eccentric turned, the plank way, or the surface parallel with the seam, is most suitable ; it is also proper for vases, the caps and bases of columns, &c. Cylindrical pieces, as for the shafts of columns, should be cut from either edge of the slab, as the laminae then run lengthways, and the objects are much stronger : cylindrical pieces thus prepared, say 3 inches long ajad f of an inch diameter, are so strong, they cannot be broken between the fingers. Similar pieces have been long since used for the construction of flutes, and in the British Museum may be seen a snuff-box of cannel coal, said to have been turned in the reign of Charles I., and also two busts of Henry VIIL and his daughter Lady Mary, car\-ed in the same mate^ rial. The plankway surfaces turn the most freely, and with shavings much like those of wood ; the edges yield small chips, and at last a fine dust, but which does not stick to the hands in the manner of common coal. Flat objecte, such as inkstands, are worked with the joiner's ordinary tools and planes. The edges of canqel coal are harder and polish better than flat surfaces.— /To/^zop^c/. See Coal and Boghead Coal. CANNON. See Artillery CAOUTCHOUC, GUM-ELASTIC, or INDIAN-RUBBER {CaotUchone, Fr., Kautschuk Federharz, Germ.) occurs as a milky juice in several plants, such as the siphonia, cahuca^ called also hevea guianensis, cautschuc, jairopha elastiea^ castUleja elastica, cecropia pd- leta, fieus religiosa and undica, nrceolaria elastica^ &c. The juice itself has been of late years imported. It is of a pale yellow color, and has the consistence of cream. It becomes covered in the bottles containing it with a pellicle of concrete caoutchouc. Its specific gravity is 1-012. When it is dried it loses 65 per cent. l_ 288 CAOUTCHOUC. of its weight ; the residuary 45 is elastic gum. When the juice is heated it immediately coagulates, in virtue of its albumen, and the elastic gum rises to the surface. It mixes with wa^r m any proportion; and, when thus diluted, it coagulates with heat and alcohol as before. I. Caoutchouc Manufactures. But before entering upon their special divisions we may advert to some of the steps that have created this new employment for capital, commerce, and skill, especially as Mr. Han- cock conceives it but just to the memory of the late Mr. Macintosh, to record the circum- stances which led to his invention of the '' Waterproof double textures," that have been so long celebrated through the world by the name of " Macintoshes." It will be recollected that, on the introduction of coal gas, the difficulties were very great to purify it from matters that gave a most disagreeable odor to the gas and gas apparatus ; the nuiince of these products led to many inconveniences. Mr. Macintosh, then employed in the manufacture of cudbear, in 1819 entered into arrangements with the Glasgow Gas Works to receive the tar and ammoniacal products. After the separation of water, ammo- nia and pitch, the essential oil termed naphtha was produced, and it occurred to him that it mi-ht be made of use as a solvent for Indian-rubber, and by the quality and quantities of the volatile naphtha, he could soften and dissolve the Indian-rubber; ^-ter repeated ex- periments to obtain the mixtures of due consistency, Mr. Macintosh, in 1823, obtained a patent for water-proof processes, and established a manufactory of articles at Glasgow, and eventually, with partners, entered upon the extended scale of business at Manchester, now so well known as the firm of Cbaries Macintosh and Co. , .^ ^ r ^ The action of many solvents of Indian-rubber is first to soften and then to form a sort of gelatinous compound with Indian-rubber, requiring mechanical action to break the bulk so as to get complete solution, when the original bulk is increased twenty or thirty times to form a mass: it may be imagined that in the eariy trials jnuch time was occupied, and m^ual labor, to break up the sSft coherent mass, &c., while hand-labor, sieves, the painter s slab and muller, and other simple means were resorted to. „ Macintosh, Hancock, and Goodyear alike record the simple manipulations they first em- ployed, and the impression produced at the last, when they compare their personal eflbrts with the ffif'antic machinery to effect the same results. . ., ,. Mr /Sock's first patent was in April, 1820 : " For an improvemen in the applica- tion of a certain material to various articles of dress and other articles that the same may be rendered elastic." Thus, to wrists of gloves, to pockets, to prevent their being picked, to waistcoats, riding belts, boots and shoes without tying and lacmg, the pubhc had their attest on directed. To get the proper turpentine to facilitate solutmn, and remedy defects of these smJ^^^^ and to meet the difficulties of practice and failures^^Mr. Hancock gave consSit^al and pukued the subject until, united with the firm of C. Macintosh and Co, he h^been io^taStly before the world, and produced one of the most important manufac *"' To^geHwo clean pieces to unite together at their recently'cut surf-aces, to obtain facile adhesion by the use of hot water, to cut the Indian-rubber by the use of a Tv^t blade, to col- lect the refuse pieces, to make them up into blocks, and then cut the blocks into slices were stages of the trade which required patience, years of time, and machinery to eflfect with satisfaction to the manufacturer. - , , ^ •*„ r^« «««««,«?« To operate upon the impure rubber was a matter of absolute necessity for economic reasons : the bottles made by the natives were the purest form, but l^/g^^X J^*„'^?^^^^ ber could be cheaply obtained, full of dirt, stones, wood, leaves, and earth. To facilitate the Sr of cuttfnVor dividing, Mr. Hancock resorted to a tearing action and constructed asimpl^mthrnef^rthep ( See ;^ 140.) r^Z' '''' Tr^S^ZFZr kn^^^^^ ber • B, interior of fixed cylinder, with teeth ; c, cylmder to revolve, with teeth or knives , "' 'Thi'mthTne'hadlh^^^^^^^^^^ of tearing the Indian-rubber into shreds and small fragments by the reToSion of a toothed roller ; thi caoutchouc yielded, became hot, and ulnmately a pLty mass or ball resulted ; when cooled and cut it appeared homogeneous. J^jste cut- tings put, in the first instance, on the roller, were dragged in, and there ^a%evidence of ac- t of of some kind taking place ; the machine was stopped, the pieces were found cohering ogether Sto a mass, this bemg cut showed a mottled grain, but being replaced and sub- jected to the revolving teeth of the rollers, it became very hot ; and was found to be uni- fnrmlv smooth in texture when cooled and cut open. . tL fi«t cha^e was about 2 ounces of rubber, and required about the power of a man to work if Th? next machine soon formed a soft solid, with speed and power, from all kinlsof craps of Indian-rubber, cuttings of bottles, lumps, shoes, &c^; a charge of one pound gave a smooth uniform cylindrical lump of about 7 inches in length and 1 inch m SumPtfr This process including the use of heated iron rollers, was long kept secret ; it ?s kTown as Sie mSCg procL now, and the machines are called " Masticator.." In CAOUTCHOUC. 140 289 the works at Manchester the charges now are 180 lbs. to 200 lbs. of Indian-rubber each, and they produce single blocks 6 feet long, 12 or 13 inches wide, and 1 inches thick bv steam- power. The Mammoth machine of Mr. Chauffee, in the United States, weighs about 30 tons, and appears to have been invented about 1837, and is a valuable machine, diflfering in con^ struction from Hancock's masticators, but answers well in many respects • it may be con- sidered as the foundation of the Americ^i trade. ' In 1820 the blocks were cut into forms of square pieces, sold by the stationers to rub out pencil^marks, and then thhi sheets for a variety of purposes. A cubical block cut bv a keen sharp blade constantly wet, gave a sheet of Indian-rubber, the block raised by scre'ws and the knife guided, enabled sheets of any thickness to be cut, sometimes so even and thin, as to be semi-transparent ; when warm, the sheets could be joined edge to edge and thus large sheets be produced : from these blocks, rollers of solid rubber could be made cylinders were covered for machinery, billiard tables had evenly cut pieces adjusted, tubes and vessels for chemical use were employed, and constantly mcreasing trials were made of the masticated rubber. These remarks upon the eariy and successful manufacturers wiU better enable the outline of improvements to be followed : it can readily be imagined that when capital and interest combine with the changing requirements of the public, that it would de- mand more space than a volume would afford to give the insights into trade applications, still guarded with secret means to produce success. But the foregoing lemarka may lead to the appreciation of many of tions are being whatever part of the buildrng it ">{ »f .■*^"'^i;2t bSTof Indian-rubber and can- effected, is a great desideratum , B»''«^\^»g^JXS a-^^oming into use as the most vas, capable of holdmg from 1 to 5 or 10 tons « w'^*^^ | ^, y^ f„, convenient form of ballast thus saving ™^^"'J^^Jt',S d„'^„ ,„d rolled up, they can These bags may be emptied »?""?''»«,• f^^^jfj^^'*;^^^^^^ » fe„ cases been made use ^ r^lyTnt%'vtSsr?rhiS- ^r&'£as been experimental only, and such floating machines are not as y^* generally in use considered im- Thl vulcanizing Indian-rubber <>^^^«^f ?f J°.^^^^^^^^^ texture of the two practicable, ^ee-se ^e pro^^^^^^^^ ,^ ^ ^,„„,r which deprives substances ; and it is stated that now ""» P gtreneth By this improvement, coni- neither silk nor wool of their ^^^^^^^XSne the un^^^^ smell which all Indian- bined with Silver's patent process of ann^^^^^^^^^^ ^^^ ^^^ ^^ ,^^, 3,b- rubber goods used to acquire »^ *|^« P^^^'^'^^J ^^est and the warmest of our textures stance for clothing purposes ^re ex ended to ^^^^^'f '^f/^eterioration of the strength and ^L^!luS?y^of JhTstuT^^^^^ ^--^- ^^-^■^^^^- ''-' '-'' '''' III Mechanical Applications of Caoutchouc. Numerous important applications of eaoutcW ^^^^^^^^ among which we may mention fP"XsirSs towing ropes and cables, rigging of carriages, lifting springs for "^'"^^^g^^PXte^r^ h^^^^^^ ^b^«^«> *« ^^^^ ^°^ Z^SZ^^ ^"peXnS ^dri^vi!^ rSn^^. Valves^ for pumps, tubes for S'g^'-'r, .Zr, and other fluids packing for p,stons. ^^ .hiJfitea&'= X-"e *L»^^^-^- -- "^ »^-' - - lates to the use of caoutchouc. No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 OAOUTCHOUO. List of Patents. 295 Name. Lacey Melville - Walker and Mills W. C. Fuller - Adams and Richardson 0. De Bergue - Wrighton C. De Bergue - Normanville C. De Bergue • P. R. Hodge - G. Spencer P. R. Hodge W. Scott J. E. Coleman Fuller and Enivett C. De Bergue G. Spencer R. E. Hodges G. De Bergue W. C. Fuller K Lund • W. C. Fuller E. Miles ■ G. Richardson W. Scott - G. Spencer R. Eaton • R. Eaton - H. Bridges J. Williams W. E. Nethersole Date. 29th Mar., 1825 13th April, 1844 3d July, 1845 23d Oct., 1845 24th May, 1847 26th July, 1847 22d Dec, 1847 5th Jan., 1848 2d May, 1848 15th April, 1850 8th Mar., 1852 2d Feb., 1852 8th Mar., 1852 8th Mar., 1852 2d June, 1852 6th Oct., 1852 26th Mar., 1853 2d July, 1853 2d Nor., 1854 4i;h Mar., 1854 10th May, 1854 18th Aug., 1854 10th Jan., 1855 12th Jan., 1855 28th Nov., 1855 14th May, 1856 25th July, 1856 20th Nov., 1856 8th Dec, 1856 14th Mar., 1867 11th Nov., 1867 Object ot Patents. Indian-rubber springs for carriages en- closed in cases with dividing plates. Springs for buffers and bearing, sphere, of Indian-rubber and air, with divid- ing plates, and enclosed in iron cases. Buffers, Indian-rubber bags, enclosing air, in iron cases. Buffer and bearing springs of Indian- rubber, cylindrical rings with divid- ing plates of iron. Elastic packing for axles. Indian-rubber buffer, bearing and draw springs. Indian-rubber shield for axle box. Anti-recoil buffers of Indian-rubber, and improvements in dividing plates. Indian-rubber shield for axle box. Station buffers of Indian-rubber, and carriage buffers. Packing for steam joints. Indian-rubber cones as buffer, bearing, and draw springs. Indian-rubber compound springs, In- dian-rubber to wheel naves, and to axle box shields. Indian-rubber as check springs, wheel nave, suspensor springs. Indian-rubber applied to buffer, bear- ing, and draw springs, rails, chairs and sleepers, wheel tires, windows, axle bearings, plummer blocks, con- necting rods, steam hammer beds. Common road springs of Indian-rub- ber. Indian-rubber bearing springs. (Pat- ent refused.) Improved cones for buffer, bearing and draw springs. Improvements in fastening Indian-rub- ber springs. Buffers for railways. Indian-rubber springs applied to an- chors, cables, towing ropes, deck ropes. Indian rubber to feed-pipe, coupling and water joints. Indian-rubber springs to common roads. Indian-rubber to water-pipe couplings. Indian-rubber buffers with Spencer^s cones. Indian-rubber to axles and tires of wheels. Indian-rubber to feed-pipe, couplings for locomotives and tenders. Indian-rubber springs for railways. Indian-rubber springs in thin lamins for buffer, bearing, and draw springs, and lifting-purposes. Spencer's cones applied to wood blocks in buffers, bearing springs, &c. Indian-rubber springs applied to the side or safety chains of trucks, &c. Do. do. do. ;i ti 1^ ,1i .i" r I ! 296 OAOUTOHOUO. We have been at some pains to ascertain the progress that has been made in the prac- tical application of these inventions, and notice them below, under the several heads °*^"i»wL«*— The first proposal to use caoutchouc for springs that we are aware of, oc- curs hi Lac'ey's patent, (see list,) in 1825, when blocks of caoutchouc were proposed to be used having dividing plates of iron between each series; but little seems to have been Tne towards any practical application at that time : later in 1844 (see list ) 3/.W^^ Pro- posed to use spheres of caoutchouc, enclosing air, and separated by disks of wood or metal the whole being enclosed in iron cases, and used for buffers and bearing sprmgs Sr railway carriages. In 1845, (see list,) Walker and JfiZ/. proposed to use bags of caoutchouc enclosing air, and contained in cases of iron, for use as buffer springs. The next improvement is contained in Fuller^s patent of 1845, which consists m the use of cyUndrical rings of vulcanized Indian-rubber, in thicknesses varying from i to 6 inches, and with diameter of ring suitable to the power of spring reqmred ; between each of these cylindrical rings he places a thin iron plate, through a hole in the centre of which passes a guide rod. Fig. 141 shows Fuller's spring in section and plan. These 141 feDrinffS have been exfensively used as buffer, bearing, and draw springs for railway uses afone and in combination with De Bergue^s improvements : some defects have been found ^nTactice ?n thTs form, to obviate which, the ingenuity of later inventors has been ex- ercS the defects alluded to are, the tendency to swell out at the central unsupported S of ^he ring, thus from the undue tension rendering it liable to break under sudden concuLion and occasioning complete disintegration of the material where not breaking To obviate these defect!, Ge^e Spencer (see list, Nos. 12, 18) proposed to mould the caoutchouTa^once in the firm UassuWs under pressure, and then to place a confimng Sig of iron on the larger diameter. {See Jig. 142.) By this ingenious plan, the caout- 142 chouc loses its power of stretching laterally being held by ^\fj^\l^^'''^;i^ j^,^ f ^er moulded in the cone to receive it; when the pressure is applied to the «°^«'."^f^7^^^^ 5 sQueezed nto the cup-like spaces c, and thus the action of the spring « »»™'tfd- .^y fhisS rubber of a cheaper and denser kind can be used than on the old cyhndncal Sin and [he patentee states that many thousands of carriages and trucks are fitted with 6 springs rhichSve entire satbfaction; among which, are those on the Brighton Wh-Western Norfh London, South Wales, Vale of Neath, Bristol and Exeter, Taflf South- western, ^o"" ^^chiro ^t Helen'^ Bombav and Baroda, Theiss Railways, and ^'''' ot'he^ Th'e'e Jonts ae'usek as b^ and draw Springs for railway car- SaX-daVemaiin'L^^^^^^^ To show the power that such CAOUTCHOUO. 297 springs are equal to, we append the result of an experiment on a No. 1 cone, (for inside buffers,) 3 Inches in length, 3| inches diameter at ring, 5 inches diameter of ring. 1st Experiment., without the confining ring, weight of cone 1^ lbs. Without any pressure the cone measured With pressure — 280 lbs. " —448 lbs. " —672 lbs. it Inches. 8 2i 2 Giving a stroke of ■J inch. 1 " 2d Experiment. With the confining ring 6, on the same double cone ; the following were the results:— Without any pressure the cone measured - - - 3 inches, as before. With— 448 lbs. << " j_h^ . ^^ u With— 1,680 lbs. " " - ■"'—— . 2 " With— 2,912 lbs. '* " - . . ij " With— 15,680 lbs. « " - - . l| " The advantages are stated to be, less first cost than steel ; less weight, 6 cwt. being saved in each carriage by their use ; and great durability. Cole^nan's improvement (see list. No. 15) consists in the use of iron rings to confine the lateral swelling of Indian-rubber cylinders. {See Jig. 148.) They are used as bearing 143 springs for engines and tenders on the North- Western railway, by J. E. M'Connell, Esq., who prefers them to steel, as.being easy in action, durable, |afe, and easy of repair; they are used also as buffers and draw-springs, but not to the extent of Fuller's and Spencer's form. To give an idea of the power of such a spring, we append the result of an experi- ment of one that we witnessed at Messrs. Spencer and Co.'s. Experiments with one of Coleman's cylinders with and without the rings. Cylinder 6 inches long, 6 inches diameter, 1 inch hole, weight 9 lbs. Withont the confining rings. With the 2 confining rings. Tons pressure. 1 H 2" 2i Inches Length. 6 57i. 5 4i H The next form of these springs is R. Eaton's, {see Jig. 144 ; Inches Length 6 5"/,. H H H and list, Nos. 28, 29.) This 144 ¥ 'H w I- 298 OAOUTOHOUO. to be peculiarly adapted to use where a powerful spring, acting through a erful draw-springs. ^ , , , t^ „ > u- v ^' i mum thickness of i an inch, with dividing plates, as m Lacey's and Fuler s, which avoids the objections stated above, by supporting the Indian-rubber at smaller intervals; lor foUowing dimensions: the spring ^ „'.,•,. r *u -a square with a thin iron plate between each, and a bole of one inch diameter lor the guiae rod through all ; this, and several of the other experiments were made in a press of great delicacy and power, constructed for Messrs. Geo. Spencer and Co., for the purpose ol testing such springs, at their office, in Cannon Street West, London, (see Proving Machines.) JExperiment, Length inclading plates. Tom. Area of spring, 19 square inches. fA« li> 11 2-0 ^7»« 8*0 "^Via 4-0 ^i ' 5*0 ^ 6-0 H 8-0 Jl 90 3 10-0 ** Hodae's compound spring (No. 13) is designed to obviate the frequent breakage of the steel springs on locomotive engines. JTig. 145 shows one of these springs ; a block of 145 M Indian-rubber is placed on each end of the steel spring, or is suspended under the engine frame ; they are in use on several of the English railways, and are said to answer the ^""'ffis patlnt Tsee^. 146 ; and list, No. 14) consists in the use of blocks of Indian- rubber, or cones, placed over the centre of spring; they are to obviate the danger ot overioading carriages and trucks, a frequent source of danger to the springs, and are made to take the whole load in case of a spring breaking : they are in use on the Brighton and Crystal Palace Railway, Eastern Counties, Bombay and Baroda, and others. J ne same patentee has several ingenious applications of Indian-rubber to carriages to wheel tires, to the bosses of wheels, to shackle pins, and to the axle. BHdges' Patent.-(^ee list. No. ZO, Jig. 147.) This inventor proposes to use Spencers cones in blocks of wood, instead of iron confining rings. A series of them are enclosed in a case formed in the side timbers of the underframe of the railway truck or carnage ; the cup space is formed in the block of wood, as our figure shows, and no guide rods are OAOUTOHOUO. 146 299 required : the same principle is applied to draw and bearing springs. The advantages proposed by this arrangement are, the dispensing with guide rods and the taking the ulti- mate blow on blocks of wood, which deadens its eflfect ; they are said to answer very well, and are used almost exclusively on the South Western and Bristol and Exeter Rail- ways. 14T V \ N\\y .-. ^^v.A>\\\\v^^>x\\^^^^ r^ >^^^A\v\\\^^\^v:\m\\'^\W^^^^w^^ TF? ■^ In 1847, Mr. De Bergue patented some improvements in the application of Fuller^s spring to buffer, bearing, and draw springs for railway uses. Mr. Fuller's Patent. — The applications for common road carriages, patented by Mr. Fuller of Bucklersbury in 1852 and 1855, have been extensively used, both in the form of cylindrical rings acting by compression and also of suspension springs for lighter kinds of vehicles. Respecting these springs, /«7*. 148, 149, we have been furnished by the patentee with the following particulars : — The form generally used for heavy purposes, such as drays, vans, wagons, Ac, con- sists of a series of rings of cylindrical or circular form, working on a perpendicular rod or spindle, on each side the axle, with the usual separating plates or washers ; the depth and diameter of the rings being regulated by the weight to be sustained and the speed required. During the late war, these springs were introduced by Mr. Fuller to the notice of the Government authorities at the Royal Arsenal, Woolwich, and were in consequence ex- tensively adopted for all kinds of military carriages, store wagons, ammunition wagons, &c. They are also applied in the suspensory form for the medical cars and ambulance wagons for the wounded, for which purposes the use of Indian-rubber on the principle of extejUsion is found to produce the easiest and most satisfactory spring hitherto dis- ■covered. When the material is used as a suspension spring, the most advantageous form for the purpose is found to be round cord of the best and purest quality, prepared by solvents, and about J or f inch diameter. A continuous length of such cord is wound at a considerable tension over the ends of two metal sockets or rollers, in shape something resembling a cotton reel, and whilst in a 800 OAOUTCHOUO. state of tension, bound at each end with strong tape or other suitable binding ; the num- ber of cords composing the spring, varying from 10 to 20, 30, or 40. accordmg to tlie strength required. 148 149 Another important adaptation of Indian-rubber by Mr. Fuller, is that of anchor SDrines towing ropes, arid springs for the recoil of guns and mortars. ,„„y,. Dfrin-The Rus-iun war, aboSt 120 mortar boats were constructed of light draught, eacSing a 13:i^h mortar on a revolving pivot and platform in the centre of dk It was considered desirable, if possible, to diminish the shock produced by the tremen- dorrecdl of such heavy Artillery on the deck of small vessels, and after a series of trials at Shoeburvness, which proved perfectly satisfactory, the plan was adopted of ^orni^. W Lch nlatform upon twenty powerful rings of Indian-rubber, the united torce of which, JlSdeSn" would resist about 400 fons. . The performance of these "jortar ves- ^el at Sw" the Black Sea, and also subsequently in ^^l-^^^^- ^^^^^^ tory ; the intervention of this elastic material being found effectually to preserve ttie ^^""Th'^ appt'atTonto towing ropes and anchor cables, has not yet been tried to an ex- tent sufficient to test its merits ; but it is universally admitted by engineers and practical men that a powerful spring adapted to the chain cables of vessels when ridmg at anchor TacSng on tLTw of^he buffer and draw-springs) would often prove of invaluable RPrvice in oreventing the parting of the cable and its disastrous results. '"7a the fist of patients, ^e hafe indicated the nature of seven.! other improvements, which, being merely variations of the more important ones, we do °o dwell onJ»ere Sutmort%' railway eAair«.-Several proposals have been devised to this end, and a nunSS^oTptns are gfven in ColanarC. patent, 1852 He places the Indmn-bbe^-^^ the chair, between the chair and rail, between the rail and sleeper J,'^^ P^?" ^„^^^^^ onlv nart ally tried, but the proposer is very sanguine that the plan will P'^p^e usetul. only partially ine , u v ^^ p- \^q g^ows an important application to the 150 tires^fwheXfor riilway purposes. A thin band of Indian-rubber ^r.^ is7n.erted between the tire and spoke ring, by first covering it with nr^nTl a thhi pLte of iron, to protect the Indian-rubber while the hot tire L::^ ?s pu? on when the wheel is instantly thrown into ..'uter and cooled. Vrf^^ Thlhas been severely tested for some time, and found to answer • very well; the advantage gained, is the saving in the breaking and "">:r^'Ji::t-Small ropes of Indian-rubber are inserted in grooves at each side of the window, and so stop out draught and P"Z* "^-hammer Beds.^X plate of I"<^-n-rubber f ^^^^^^^^ s^r^m^riroTtKidS^-^h^^ insertion of blocks of vulcanized rubber under the anvil, almost entirely obviated these ''^'^^oints between engines and tenders.^-Uessrs. Lund, Spencer, and Fenton have also 151 a B 8 j;;:::r....j ^mmm^g^ s^^s^p OAOUTCHOUO. 301 introduced the use of rings of this material to form a joint between the locomotive and tender, (Jig. 151.) They are extensively used, and entirely prevent the leakage common to the old ball and socket joints, and are much cheaper in first cost. Rings of Indian- rubber were proposed by Mr. Wickstead, for closing the socket joint of water pipes, and they are used in a variety of forms for that purpose. Messrs. W. B. Adams, Nortnanville, Wrighton, and Hodge have also introduced the use of shields and rings of Indian-rubber for keeping the backs of axle boxes tight, so as to prevent the escape of the grease or oil, or the entry of dust and dirt. A large trade has been established in the supply of bands of Indian-rubber for driving machinery ; for many purposes they answer better than leather, water having no effect on them and there being little or no slip and fewer joints, they are made in all widths, and belts costing £150 each have been used in some cases. They are made with two or more layers of thread cloth between, and outside of which the rubber is placed. As valves for steam and water pumps, Indian-rubber prepared to suit the use is also mudi used by all our large engine-makers. As tubes for conveying beer, water, and acid, Indian-rubber is also found to answer well, and is used largely. The tubes are made in all sizes and strengths, and the best are made by alternate layers of cloth and Indian-rubber. Very good tubes are also imported from America. Another useful application of this material, is for the joints of steam and hot-water pipes ; for this and similar purposes, a peculiar compound, known as Hodge's compound, is used, (patent No. 11.) This consists in the mixture of cotton fibre with the rubber used for springs, known as the triple compound. The success of these applications depends, of course, entirely on the composition being suitable to the various purposes to which they are applied ; some being made to resist the effect of heat, others of acids, grease, and oils, the study of which has become an important element in the commercial adaptations of the various inventions enumerated. rV. SOLABIZATION OF CAOUTCHOUC. Singular as caoutchouc is in its properties and in its application, it is probable that, besides the mechanical and electrical qualities and general resistance to chemical action, it may yet be found to have other modifications peculiar and valuable. The practical men most conversant with this substance, and deeply involved with patents and successful manufac- tures, record their conviction of the influence of solar light, and the marked distinctions supposed to exist between the influence of solar and terrestrial heat upon this substance. Mr. Hancock says, " In my early progress, I found that some of the rubber I employed was very quickly decomposed when exposed to the sun : as the heat was never more than 90", and rubber exposed to a much higher temperature was not injured by it, I suspected that light had some effect in producing this mischief. To ascertain this, I cut two square pieces from a piece of white rubber ; one of these I colored black, and exposed it to the sun's rays ; in a short time, the piece which had been left white wasted away, and the sharp angles disappeared ; it seemed like the shape of a thin piece of soap after use ; the blackened piece was not at all altered or affected. The lesson taught me by this experiment was of great value ever after." Speaking of the annoyances and failures in the early Macintosh goods by heat, grease, &c., Mr. Hancock says, " The injurious effect of the sun^s rays upon thin films of rubber we discovered and provided against before much damage accrued." Mr. Goodyear says, " In anticipation of the future, as relates to a mode of treatment in manufacture, which, though lightly esteemed and little thought of now, I believe will be extensively practised hereafter, I feel bound to make a strong though qualified claim to the process of solarization. This process consists in exposing caoutchouc, when combined with sulphur, to the sun's rays." Again, " When exposed to the sun's rays for several hours, a change is produced, which may be called natural vulcanization, in all thin fabrics or thin sheets of caoutchouc." " Solarization is an effectual and cheap process of curing Indian- rubber." He further says, " It is well established that Indian-rubber melted at about 200% and in the sun's rays at 100° or less. Another effect yet more remarkable in the treatment of gum elastic, is that of the sun's rays upon it : when combined with sulphur and exposed to the sun, either in hot weather or cold, it becomes solarized, or divested of its adhesive qual- ity ; whereas, no other kind of light or heat has any similar effect, until the high degree of heat is applied to it, about 270°, which is used in vulcanizing." — Goodyear, p. 114, vol. I. New Haven, U. S, V. Trade Applications op Vulcanized Indian-Rubber. Macintosh and Hancock give the following descriptions of their trade quality, to guide practical men ; other manufacturers may also have similar scales of rubber. A, quality is the most elastic, it weighs about 60 lbs. per cubic foot, or Vj, of a lb. per I 802 CAPILLAIEE. cubic inch, (this is understood to mean pure sulphur and caoutchouc, aU other quaUties ^e ™'Twity weighs 82 lbs. per cubic foot, or 'At of a lb. to 1 cubic inch. ., ,^ , E quality, more elastic than d, weighs about 92 lbs. to the cubic foot, or /„ of a lb. to 1 ^"^ F. 'c. Fibrous compouj^d, used for flange washers, valves, and pump-buckets, weight Va* ""^ ^iLfappSons of caoutchouc can only be named. Surgical apparatus and remedial adaptations for hospital purposes, would alone occupy great space ; to call attention to the various ingenious contrivances, other information and specialities may be referred o the heads of Indian-rubber and vulcanite, or hard rubber, vulcanization, hose-pipes pontoons life-preserving apparatus, shoes, water-proof fabrics, washers for joints, valves for engin^ and^pum^s, flasfic, endles3, and driving bands. For hot and cold water valves this sub- stance ha^ been one of the most valuable applications to ocean steamers for maiiy jeare. The old mode of thread-making is now entirely obsolete, having given way to a new one rendered necessary by the introduction of vulcanized Indian-rubber, which now, for the Turpo^e of thread-cutting, is always produced in the sheet by the spreading process before Sbed%d of a thickness exactly agreeing with the widths of the thread to be cut ; that is if No 28 be required, which means, if 28 of the threads were spread side by side they would measure one inch then the sheet is spread V» of an inch in thickness, and conse- qSrwhen 28 are cu out of the inch, square threads, i. e. threads with a rectangular sSn ^e produced. The sheets are wound upon rollers, which are then fixed on centres fn tSaSe and by means of a slide rest and a suitable knife, slices of the sheet are cut ofl", varyingt tCknes^^ from '/i. of an inch to V.o of an inch ; and one of the greatest advan- tages of the vulcanized thread is the great length that can be cut ; from a sheet of rubber wSund upon a roller, hundreds of feet or yards may be cut at once mto one continuous Thread, whereas from the bottles the lengths were short, had to be joined, and differed m "^"^Vul^^eTuirtaris covered with silk and cotton ; both are wound round it ; the vul- canized thread is considerablv more elastic than the native thread cut from bottles or sheet^ BeC^d bandages made from the vulcanized thread are very superior to the old sort, now "^Tif^tod^^^^^ thread has lately been introduced into the Jacquard loom, by Messre. Bonnet and Co., Manchester; the thread used is, by its elastic force, to supersede fh^e of Te weights commonly employed, the number of which sometimes amounts to from two to three thousand in one loom. , ^ , i . ♦:^„«^ ^^t In precedin- editions, the names of Hancock and Goodyear were scarcely mentioned, yet for thirtTsS ye^ Mr. Hancock has labored to make a manufacture. For many years MesIr^H^cocHid Macintosh were alone in the trade, indeed until Macintosh's pa ent ceaseT wS the^rade widened. His first patent was dated 1820 and the masticating machine was the foundation of the manufacture. Mr. Goodyear had his attention drawn o TeSerby the manufacture of gum elastic in the United States, about 831-2. Both have contributed to the literature of the art, (mingled with persona narratives and trade afflirsranTt is presumed that, had the late Dr. Ure had their practical works before him, S?tic IntTorXuTd have been offered for past neglect.* Both gent men's patents ^ebSng worked by other men, and of the value of their processes and the trade some Mea ma/brentertained when " The Scientific American " recently while opposing the re- newarof the terms for certain patents about to expire, gives the f ^^^^^^ o^ .^Z*^..^^ 2 000 WO dollars for Chauffee's patents, and Goodyear's severd patents are set at 20,000,- WK) Srs It is pr^^^^^ that the trade was not ii really profitable one m America until about 1850' Of the value of the works in England and France of caoutchouc applications no adequa?; date ap^^^^^^^ Of the facts involved in some of these patents, we may quote M^ Hancock's w^^^^ p. 106: "I think I might venture to state, not boastfully, but as a mattfr of fac? That Yere is not to this day, 1856, any document extant, (including those referred to in it,) which contains so much information upon the manufacture and vulcaniza. lion of rubber, t is contdned in this specification If any of my ^^aderS'^of^U '' Th\s say, " can point out such a document, I shall feel obliged if they will inform me of it. Ihis ^^ ^ r APILLAIRE Oriffiiially a kind of syrup, extracted from maiden-hair. The term is now appliedio a finely darified simple s:^up"' which is made chiefly with orange-flower ^^*CAPNOMORE. (C*"H"0*[?].) One of the substances discovered by Reichenbach in . „ , -Mo^r-tivi^ of the Oriffin and Procress of Caoutchouc or Indian-Eubber rnanufectnred In vols. 8vo. pp. 246, 879, (plates.) CARBOLIO ACID. 303 wood-tar. It appears to be a product of the metamorphosis of creosote under the influence of heat, or of the alkalies or alkaline earths. It has not been sufficiently examined to allow of its formula being considered as established. The above formula is founded on the anal- ysis of M. Voelckel. When those oils from wood-tar which are heavier than water are treated with a strong potash lye, creosote and capnomore dissolve. Pure capnomore is not soluble in potash, but it appears to dissolve owing to the presence of creosote. When the alkaline solution is distilled, the capnomore comes over. (Voelckel.) It is more probable that the capnomore, instead of dissolving under the influence of the creosote, and subse- quently distilling over with the water, is, in fact, produced by a decomposition of the creo- sote, for I have found that if the latter be long boiled with potash lye, it gradually diminishes in quantity, and finally almost disappears. The density of capnomore is 0995. It boils between 360" and 400°. This variation of the boiling point is indicative of a mixture. — C. G. W. CAPRYLAMINE. (C^^H"N.) A volatile base obtained by Squire, and also by Cahours, by acting on ammonia with iodide of capryle. It is homologous with methylamine, &c. — C. G. W. CAPUT MORTUUM, literally, dead matter ; a term employed by the alchemists to ex- press the residuum of distillation or sublimation, the volatile portions having been driven off. CARAMEL. Burnt or dried sugar, used for coloring spirits and gravies. It is a black, porous, shining substance, soluble in water, to which it imparts a fine dark-brown color! The French are in the habit of dissolving the sugar, after it has been exposed for some time to a temperature sufficiently high to produce the proper color, in lime-water ; this is sold under the name of " coloring." CARAT. The term carat is said to be derived from the name of a bean, the produce of a species of erythina, a native of the district of Shangallas in Africa, a famous gold dust mart. The tree is called kuaray a word signifying sun in the language of the country, be- cause it bears flowers and fruits of a flame color. As the dry seeds of this pod are always of neariy uniform weight, the savages have used them from time immemorial to weigh gold. The beans were transported into India at an ancient period, and have been long employed there for weighing diamonds. The carat of the civilized worid is, however, an unaginary weight, consisting of four nominal grains, a little lighter than four grains troy, {voids de marc.)^ It requires 74 carat grains and %« to equipoise 12 of the other. It is stated that the karat^ a weight used in Mecca, was borrowed from the Greeks, and was equal to the 24th of a denarius or denier. The Encyclopedists thus explain the carat ;— " The weight that expresses the fineness of gold. The whole mass of gold is divided into 24 parts, and as many 24th parts as it con- tains of pure gold it is called gold of so many caraU. Thus, gold of twenty-two parts of pure metal is gold of twenty-two carats. The carat of Great Britam is divided into four grains; among the Germans into 12 parts; and ^mong the French into 32." Among as- sayers, even in this country, the German division of the carat is becoming common CARBOLIC ACID. (C"H«0^ Syn. Phenic Acid, Phenole, Phenylic Alcohol, Hy^ dmte of Phenyle.) The less volatile portion of the fluids produced by distillation of coal tar contain considerable quantities of this substance. It may be extracted by agitation of the coal oils (boiling between 300° and 400°) with an alkaline solution. The latter, separated from the undissolved portion, contains the carbolic acid in the state of carbolate of the al- kali. On addition of a mineral acid, the phenole is liberated, and rises to the surface in the form of an oil. To obtain it dry, recourse must be had to digestion with chloride of cal- cium followed by a new rectification. If required pure, only that portion must be received which boils at 370". If, instead of extracting the carbolic acid from coal products boiling between 300° and 400°, a portion be selected distilling between 400° and 428°, and the same treatment as before be adopted, the acid which passes over between 347° and 349' will consist, not of carbolic acid, but of its homologue, cresylic acid, C"H*0'. Commercial carbolic acid is generally very impure. Some specimens do not contain more than 50 per cent, of acids soluble in strong solution of potash. The insoluble portion contains naph- thaline, fluid hydrocarbons, and small portions of chinolme and lepidine. Carbolic acid when very pure and dry, is quite solid and coloriess. The crystals often remain solid up to 95 , but a trace of water renders them fluid. Its specific gravity is 1-065. Carbolic acid when mixed with lime and exposed to the air, yields rosolic acid. The lime acquires a rich red color, during the formation of the acid. No means of dyeing reds permanently with this substance "have yet been made known. Unfortunately, the red tint appears to require an excess of base to enable it to exist, consequently the carbolic acid of the air destrovs the color. {Dr. Angus Smith.) . I find that homologues of carbolic acid exist, which boil at a temperature beyond the range of the mercurial thermometer, and that all the acids above carbolic acid afford rosolic acid, or homologues of it, when treated with lime. Creosote of commerce appears to consist of a mixture of carbolic and cresylic acids. If only that por- tion be received which distils at the temperature given by Reichenbach as the boiling point 304 CARBON. !;:S:r jA™o?:Lt?i'r;tt\^.ue .in.. J» a caparison of the propenie. of ""SRBS'/^S'We^et S^oSSI d;Si.7of vapor, 08290 ; combining measure , ^ X ■ ri^^^n PxUta in a considerable variety of forms, most of which are so unlike ''^ WW kS it^s not su^rislnrt^^^^^^^^ chemists should have believed them to be each other *^S^ j^^^^^^^f^ '''X^ ;^ the diamond. The latter crystallizes in octo- Tn^r ik dl^ vKms ThVdiamond ^ not owe its hardness and brilliancy solely to uf n'^tv L Zf speXenfof ^ consist of carbon as free from admixture as the btrdTaLnds tLT^^^^^^^^ and diamond, however, is very different ; for while ^hpfoZr^Lm excels 2-45rand is often much lower, the diamond is very constant, generaTy ^^^^^^^^^ -d 3-55. Diamonds, if perfectly fnsparent leave scarc^l^ Sv residue Ihen burnt in oxygen gas. If not clear, they yield from 05 t^^ 20 of ash ■*"■ ^'"' J,v. ThU kind of carbon is found in many parts of the world, and !n different derieTXu"^^ it U alfo folcd'^artifieially. sJJ: native varieties a^" e^«f "S'j; ift^f a bfack or erayish tint, metallic lustre, and, in consequence of mak ng a streak on ™per of vSu^ df?^es of blackness, according to .he mode of P«P;™»"»'. f^^ «"'" elements of t^ttenes ^^^ distillation of pit-coal. TTie largest SSEV^SrUe'^Soefb-r^^^^^^^ J^o^ matters as grapldte, -;"'« »'XnT7^V4T's:; ™S o^f^^L^^^^^^^^ tlT^'^^cZ'^tr^X^^^-'^'>.-.^-''^-^U.. have high •■^^t There --^^^^^^^^ those from wood, bones, and the Peculiar suo^id ^ contains many sub- ^S^ar^'Sr^^-'rngtrhtayr Sr^^^^^^ M«.gen, traces of nitro- ^^"b^et'oal contains a la,^e Q-tity of earthy phospha^^^^^^^^^ other matters. The mineral charcoaMs r'^'y » '"^"'■^^Skcdoring Z^^ for able for its power of absorbmg and o^jdmng an.md ^^ jcgetable co o g ,^^^ ^^ ^nShi^rnras :tf T^:^ ''5™ it r s-y; 1^= dfgestion.with hydrochloric -^ I' « XClem^tete Std ^rs^ts formed by washed with a great quantity of "f «'•"»»%" stenhouse of the absorbent power of char- JJ 17 OARBOITATES. 305 he has contrived a charcoal respirator, which fulfils its intended office with remarkable suc- cess. See Charcoal. For a description of the method of preparing the variety of carbon known as Lamp- Black, see Lamp-Black. The description of the charcoal best adapted for pyrotechnic purposes will be found un- der the head Gunpowder. Carbon combines with several elements, forming in general well marked and highly hn- portant substances. Several of these compounds will be found under the head of Cakboxic Acid. The quantities of charcoal yielded by various kinds of wood have been given by more than one experimenter ; but the results are so widely different that no great value can be attached to them. It is evident that the most extreme care would be required in selecting' the various woods and preparing them for anaylsis, if results were desired capable of being employed as standards for reference. Charcot is extremely indestructible under ordinary circumstances ; it is, therefore, usual to char stakes or piles of wood which are to be em- ployed for supporting buildings, or other erections, in damp situations. It will be seen, from what has already been said, that absolutely pure carbon is scarcely to be met with, even is the diamond. In determining the atomic weight of carbon by com- bustion of the diamond in oxygen, according to the method employed by MM. Dumas and Stas, it was always necessary to determine and allow for the ashes remaining after the com- bustion. The purest charcoal that can be obtained by the calcination of sugar for several hours at the highest temperature of a powerful blast furnace, contains oxygen and hydro- gen, the former to the extent of about i per cent., and the latter 0-2. Carbon, on uniting with sulphur, forms the curious foetid volatile fluid known as bisul- phide or sulphuret of carbon. In constitution it resembles carbonic acid, and it may, in fact, be considered as that gas in which the oxygen is replaced by sulphur. A new gas has been recently described by M. Baudrimont, bearing the same relation to carbonic oxide that bisulphide of carbon does to carbonic acid: its formula, therefore, is C S. When certain hydrocarbons are treated alternately with chlorine and alkalies, substitu- tion compounds are formed, in which the hydrogen in the original substance is replaced by chlorine ; thus olefiant gas (C*H*), by this mode of operating, yields C^Cl*. It is true that this formula might be written, for simplicity's sake, CCl, but such an expression would be incorrect ; because, in the first place, it would not indicate its relation to the parent sub- stance, and m the next, it would not correspond to the, at present, almost universally re- ceived axiom, that an equivalent of an organic body is that quantity which is represented by four volumes of vapor. A bromine of carbon exists ; its mode of formation appears to be of a somewhat similar character to the chlorine, for it is sometimes found in commercial bromine, which has been prepared with the agency of ether. See Bromine. It is doubtless formed by the gradual replacement, by bromine, of the hydrogen in the ethyle.— C. G. W. CARBON, BISULPHIDE OF, (formeriy Carburet of Sulphur or Sulphuret of Carbon ) also called by the elder chemists the Alcohol of Sulphur ; a Umpid volatile liquid possessing a penetrating foetid smell and an acrid burning taste. Bisulphide of carbon is prepared by distilling, in a porcelain retort, from pyrites, the bi- sulphide (bisulphuret) of iron,«rith a fourth of its weight of well-dried charcoal, both in a state of fine powder, and intimately mixed. The vapor from the retort is conducted to the bottom of a bottle filled with cold water to condense it. The equivalent of the bisulnhide of carbon is 38 ; its formula CS\ ^ The bisulphide of carbon is insoluble in water, but it is soluble in alcohol. It dissolves sulphur, phosphorus, and iodine. The solution of phosphorus in this liquid has been em- ployed for electrotyping very delicate objects, such as grasses, flowers, feathers, &e. Any of these are dipped into the solution : by a short exposure in the air, the bisulphide of car- bon evaporates, and leaves a film of phosphorus on the surfaces ; they are then dipped into nitrate of silver, by which sUver is precipitated in an exceedingly minute film, upon wliich by the electrotype process, any thickness of silver, gold, or copper can be deposited. If i tew drops of the bisulphide of carbon are put into a solution of the cyanide of sUver from which the metal is being deposited by the electrotyping process, it covers the article quite brightly, whereas, without the bisulphide, the precipitated metal would be dull See Elec- tro-Metallurgy. . CARBONATES. By this term is understood the salts formed by the union of carbonic acid with bases. The carbonates are among the most valuable of the gaits, whether we regard their physi- cal, geological, chemical, or technical interest. Were limestone and marble the only car- bonates famihariy known, they would be sufficient to stamp this class of salts as amono^ the most important. The carbonates of lime, potash, soda, ammonia, and lead are articles of immense importance to the technologist, and are prepared on a vast scale for various pur- poses in the arts. The carbonates of iron and copper are the most valued ones of those metals. Numerous processes of separation in analysis are fbunded on the various de^rrees Vol. HL— 20 ° 806 OAKBUNOLE. 152 of solubility in water and certain reagents of the different carbonates. By taking advantage of this fact baryta, strontia, and lime may be separated from magnesia and the alkalies. There are few analytical problems which have attracted more attention than the accurate determination of the carbonic acid in the carbonates. This has partly arisen from the fre- fluency with which the potashes, soda ashes, limestone, and other carbonates of commerce, are sent to chemists for analysis. The number of instruments contrived for the purpose is something extraordinary, especially when the simplicity and ease of the operation are con- sidered. Among them all, there is none more convenient or easy to use than that ot 1 ar- nell " It consists of a glass flask {Jig. 152) of about two ounces' capacity, fitted with a ^ sound cork, through which two tubes pass, one serving to connect a chloride-of-calcium tube a, while the other, 6, will be described presently. A email test-tube, VIZ., hydrogen. Assuming hydrogen in the free state to be a double molecule HH the hydrocarbons are formed by the substitution of one or two equivalents of a positive or negative radical for one or two of the equivalents of hydrogen ; thus methyle, the formula of which (for four volumes) is ^,^3 or C*H", is hydrogen in which both equiva- lents are reflected by methyle. Olefiant gas is hydrogen in which one equivalent is re- placed by the negative radical acetyle, or vinyle, and so on. There is one large class of hydrocarbons the rational formulae for which are not known, and which will probably remain in this condition for some time. We allude to the numerous essential oils isomeric with oU of turpentine. Many of these have almost 308 CARMINE. tho same boilinc^ point and precisely the same vapor density as their type ; but m odor, ?uidUrdenrv°in the liquid state, and various other minor pomts, are essentially diflfer- cut. The following Table exhibits some of their physical properties :— Table of the Physical Properties of ^(me homers of OU of Turpentine. Name. Formula. Oil of turpentine - " athanianta • " berganiot " birch tar Caoutcbine - - - Oil of carui, or caruene - " lemon - - - *' copaiva " cubebs " clemi - - - " juniper Terebric oil accompanying oil of gaultheria Terebric oil in clove oil - " " pepper »« " balsam of tolu »' " oil of valerian (.20JJ16 /-J20JJ1C9 (.20JJ16 (.5..JJ16 C20J116 Q20JJW Boiling roint 322 325-4 361-4 3130 338-0 343-4 343-4 413-0 490.0 345-2 320-0 320-0 483-8 332-0 320-0 320-0 Specific Gravity. Specific Gravity of Vapor. 0-864 0-843 0-869 0-847 0-842 0-8514 0-878 0-929 0-849 0-9016 0-864 0-837 Experiment. 4-764 5-28 4-46 4-87 4-92 4-73 4-60 Theory. 4-706 do. do. do. do. do. do. do. do. do. do. do. do. do. do. do. An inspection of the above Table will show that while, beyond doubt, a g^^eat fumber ''"fd It acUutrof'srl onhette prominent hydrocarbons is necessamy brief "''"iretv^rSds of preparing carmine, the following being the most ap- •""Dr^'p^reira speaks highly of this process. A decoction of the black co*''»«»l '' offTSSd^tWs' precipitate is carmine. The liquid, when concentrated, .s called liquid rouge p.ii.,i-r and Caventou, a triple compound of the coloring Carmine .s, according «» relletief ana >^a™n'°^ , ^„^bined with an acid added to substance and an animal 7«" «7^'*if43^^,r,S i"'" 'he coloring matter of the cifect the precipitation. The '"°^' ^""^f'"™^ demist had the opportunity of submit- cochineal has b«en Mr. Warren de la Rue. . ^"'^ '^''™"„V' ,„^ ;. ,l\„ corered with a ting the living insect '«.™ieroscopica, examination H^^ ^^ :sr;:Sf:e^!%t^dtt:Thich%eto|&.Sbe^^^^^^^^^^^ f^r^iXredfliiUUxudes, w'hich cLtains red '"'o-g matter in miimte granules a^em- "^'There are some remarkable peculiarities about the production of carmine : the shade and?f:t'^Tt^e)^^^^^^^^^^^^ r, a^tt'5s dSTe^d'in t"tr' ^ir H. Davy reUtes the foliowing anecdote in illustration of this :— OARNELIAN. 809 "A manufacturer of carmine, who was aware of the superiority of the French color, went to Lyons for the purpose of improving his process, and bargained with a celebrated manufacturer in that city for the acquisition of his secret, for which he was to pay £1,000. He saw all the process, and a beautiful color was produced, but he found not the least difference in the French method and that which had been adopted by himself. He ap- pealed to his instructor, and insisted that he must have kept something concealed. The man assured him that he had not, and invited him to inspect the process a second time. He very minutely examined the water and the materials, which were in every respect similar to his own, and then, very much surprised, he said : — ' I have lost both my money and my hibor ; for the air of England does not admit of our making good carmine.' 'Stay,] said the Frenchman, ' don't deceive yourself; what kind of weather is it now ?' •A bright sunny day,' replied the Englishman. * And such are the days,' replied the Frenchman, ' upon which I make my colors ; were I to attempt to manufacture it on a • dark and cloudy day, my results would be the same as yours. Let me advise you to make your carmine on sunny days.' " Experiments on this subject have proved that colored precipitates which are brilliant and beautiful when they are precipitated in bright sunshine, are dull, and suffer in their general character, if precipitated in an obscure apartment, or in the dark. CARMINIC ACID. The following is the best method of obtaining, in a state of purity, the coloring principle of cochineal, or carminic acid: The ground cochineal is boiled for about twenty minutes with fifty times its weight of water ; the strained decoc- tion, after being allowed to subside for a quarter of an hour, is decanted off and precipi- tated with a solution of the acetate of protoxide of lead, acidulated with acetic acid,(l acid to 6 of the salt.) The washed precipitate is decomposed by hydrosulphuric acid, {sulphuretted hydrogen,) the coloring matter precipitated a second time with acidulated acetate of protoxide of lead, and decomposed as before. The solution of carminic acid thus obtained is evaporated to dryness, dissolved in boiling absolute alcohol, dissolved with a portion of carminate of protoxide of lead, which has been reserved, (for the separ- ation of the phosphoric acid,) and then mixed with ether, to precipitate a small portion of nitrogenous matter. This filtrate yields, upon evaporation in vacuo, pure carminic acid. When thus prepared, it is a purple-brown friable mass, transparent when viewed by the microscope, and pulverizable to a fine red powder, soluble in water and in alcohol in all proportions, and very shghtly soluble in ether, which does not however precipitate It from its alcoholic solution. It decomposes at temperatures above 136°. The aqueous soktion has a feebly acid reaction, and does not absorb oxygen from the air; alkalies change its color to purple ; in the alcoholic tincture, they produce purple precipitates ; the alkaline earths also produce purple precipitates. Alum gives with the acid a beautiful crimson lake, but only upon the addition of a little ammonia. The acetates of the pro- toxides of lead, copper, zinc, and silver give purple precipitates ; the latter is immediately decomposed and silver deposited. Protochloride and bichloride of tin give no precipi- tates, but change the color to a deep crimson. The analyses of carminic acid led to the formula C'«H"0". The compound of pro- toxide of copper appeared to be the only salt that could be employed with any certainty for the determination of the atomic weight, as the other salts furnished no satisfactory results. The salt of copper was prepared by adding cautiously to an aqueous solution of carmmic acid, acidulated with acetic acid, acetate of protoxide of copper, so as to leave an excess of carminic acid in the liquid. When dried it is a brown-colored hard mass. — Liebig and Kopp's Report. * <^^^?PLIAN, or CORNELIAN. (Corna/^n«, Fr.; ^orn«o/. Germ.; Corna/«7ia,ItaL) A reddish variety of chalcedony, generally of a clear bright tint; it is someUmes of a jxillow or brown color, and it passes into common chalcedony through gravish red. Herntz, by his analyses, shows that the color is due to oxide of iron. He found Per Cent 0-050 0-081 0-028 0-0043 0-075 Peroxide of iron - - - - - - Alumina - - -. . - . ., Magnesia -----..., Potash - - - ... Soda - - - - . .. the remainder being Silica. — Dana. Carnelians are the stones usually employed when engraved for seals. The French give to those carnelians which have the utmost transparency and parity, the name of Comaline d/ancienne roche. See Agate. The late James Forbes, Esq., long a resident in India, and with ample means of refer- ence to the province of Guzerat, thus describes the locality of the carnelian mines:— Carnelians, agates, and the beautifully variegated stones improperiy called Mocha btones, form a valuable part of the trade at Cambay. The best agates and carnelians are found in peculiar strata, thirty feet under the surface of the earth, in a small tract 310 CARRAGEEN. longer they remain in- that situation the brigh er and deeper ^^ ^^^ ^^^^^ stone. Fire is sometimes substituted Jo^ f^f f^ 7/' ^fter having undergone this pro- '^U^^^7^;:r^^rQ^:o ^iStl'r .h.e „,nes eas,. are.some inhabitants are found nearer than Rattumpoor, wh.ch « seven miles off. The mmers '"^h^ta^^^mrntstr^irt^d^n thT^tidest parts of the jungle, and consist of yr^iS-irttrtorra^rl:^^^^^^^^^^^^ Of these pUsbeTng such as to prevent their being worked a second year, o^/^f o""^^^«/ 9E3b".teirtfe^c^»«i^^^^ "%"i r s^t't-^e' SSanrarrS; gr:*bteHr:SVe color. liUe con,.non dark ^^Comla^TZ Researches ; Hamilton's Bcscnption of Hmdostan, 4to. iSf; X s oneVfVom Cambay, are offered in commerce, cut and uncut, as roundish pebbles Ihe stones irom ^^1""*^' ^ , , ^ carnelian of Cambay vanes from the May, 1856, to 30th April, 1857 :— ' \^. ^ . 20,583 African Coast - - .^ Arabian bull • * o ^Q^k Ceylon - - • g^Q ^"ff*- K,g;sT„gapo;e, a.;d Strllts o'f Mal'aeca; \ 8.635 Persian Gulf ' ^ ' " I I I . 4*755 Suez - - *„„*,.•" " ' ' . . 400 East Indian ports of Malabar - ' ! , vn- ^ Total value in rupees, 69,046 ; the rupee being valued at two shillings. PARRAGEEN (Chondrus crismis.) Irish Moss. See Alg^. nTRRtrFFKTV The mucilaAnous constituent of carrageen moss. It is called by L;.n'« It is soluble in boiling water, and its solution forms a precipitate with dacetate of fpR^ and silLte of potash, and, if sufficiently concentrated, ge atmizes, on cooling. Car- r!gei S fiom 'ordinary gum by its aqueous solution - F^^^^^^^^^ rSe on the addition of alcohol, from starch by its not assuming a blue color ^ith tinc- 3 of Mne- from animal jell^, by tincture of nutgalls causing no precipitate; from t^tin by acetite of ead not throwing down any thing, as well as ^7 no mucic acid being ft^lrA hv the action of nitric acid." The composition of carrageemn dned at 212 F inedtf™;^"t,wboha; found much difference in carthamus of reputed good quahty ; a few of his results will suffice : — CARVING BY MACHINERY. 811 U Water . . . - Albumen • - . - Yellow coloring matter a - a it " 6 - Extinctive matter - ; Waxy matter ... Carthamine ... Woody fibre - - - Silica .... Sesquioxide of Iron and Alumina t( t( Manganese 1. 6-0 3-8 27-0 3-0 6-0 1-0 0-6 50-4 2-0 0-6 01 2. 11-5 4-0 30-0 4-0 4-0 0-8 0-4 41-77 1-5 0-1 01 4. 4-6 80 30-0 60 6-0 1-2 0-4 38-4 3-5 1-6 0-3 4-8 1-7 261 21 41 1-5 0-6 56-0 1-0 0-6 Salvetat has found it advantageous to mix the red of safflower with the pigments used in porcelain painting for purple, carmine, and violet, colors which, in consequence of the difference of their shade before and after firing, are very liable to mislead. To avoid this, he imparts to the pigment, (consisting of flux, gold, purple, and chloride of silver,) by means of the red of carthamus suspended in water, the same shade which he desires to obtain after firing. CARVING BY MACHINERY is an art of comparatively modern date, nearly, if not the whole of the originators and improvers of it, being men of the present day. It is true that the Medallion Lathe and many other appliances for ornamental turning and drilling can claim a much earlier origin, but these can scarcely be called carving machines, and are alto- gether incapable of aiding the economy of producing architectural decorations of any kind. We are not aware of any practical scheme for accomplishing this object prior to. the patent of Mr. Jo^ph Gibbs, in 1829, which we believe was used by Mr. Nash in ornamenting some of the floors of Buckingham Palace, and on many other works of inlaying and tracery. The cutting of ornamental forms in low relief seems to have been the principal object of the inventor ; and this he accomplished satisfactorily by a series of ingenious mechanical arrangements, which greatly reduced the cost, while securing unusual accuracy in this kind of work. Some modifications of machinery for copying busts, bosses, and other works in bold relief are also described in Mr. Gibbs's patents, but these were never carried into suc- cessful practice. The tracery and inlaying machine is illustrated by/^. 153, which is a plan of the machine, a is a shaft capable of vertical motion in its bearings, which are in the fixed framing of the machine ; b, c, and d, e, are swing frames jointed together by a 312 CARVING BY MACHINERY. short vertical shaft «, and securely keyed to the shaft a. The point 6 is the axis of a revolving tool, which is driven by the belts c, d, e, and the compound pulleys/ (7, K wl"ch increase'the speed at each step ; k, g, h, is the table on which the work is fixed ; i, k the work • and it L a templet of brass pierced with the horizontal form of the pattern to be produced in the wood ; this templet is securely fixed on the top of the work, or over it, and the machine is adjusted for action. v, *, 1 ♦ i-r, ^„ a^ There is a treadle, not shown in the figure, which enables the workman to lift or de- press the shaft A, and the swing frames and tool attached to it ; he can thus command the vertical position of the tool with his foot, and its horizontal position with his hand by the handles w, n, which turn freely on a collar of the swing frame surrounding the mandril or tool-holder. The tool, having been brought over one of the apertures of the templet when in rapid action, is allowed to sink to a proper depth in the wood underneath, and the smooth part of its shaft is then kept in contact with the guiding edges of the templet and passed round and over the entire surface of the figure, until a recess of the exact size and lorm of that opening in the templet is produced ; this process is repeated for every other open- incr and thus a series of recesses are formed in the oak flooring planks which correspond wilh the design of the templets used. To complete the work; it is requisite to cut out of some darker or differently colored material a number of thin pieces which will fit these recesses and these are produced in the same way from templets which will fit the various aperture's of that first used ; these pieces are next glued into the recesses, and the surface when planed and polished exhibits the pattern in the various colors used. lor inlaying it is important that the cutting edge of the tool should travel m the same radius as the cylm- dricTshaft, which is kept°against the edge of the templet; but if the too is a moulded one a counterpart of its mouldings will be produced m the work, while the pattern, m pki es parallel to that of the panel, will have the form of the apertures m the templet used In this way, by great care in the preparation of the templets and the tools, much of the gothic traced usid in church architecture may be produced, but the process is more appli- cable to Bath stone than to wood when moulded tools are requisite. .;_,:^«i :„ Mr Irvine's patents for cutting ornamental forms m wood and stone are identical in principles of action and in all important points of construction with the arrangements pre- viously described. In that of 1843 he particularly claims all combinations for accomplish- ng tl e P W " provided the swing frame which carries the cutter, and also the table on which the article to be wrought is placed, have both the means-of circular motion The Merced templet is the guidirfg power, and the work and templet are fixed on a circular iron K, wSis at liberty to revolve on its axis. The s^ng frame which cames the cut er is single, as in Mr. Gibbs's curved moulding machine, and its radius so adjusted, that an arc drawn by the tool would pass over the centre of the circular table. The mode of operating with this machine was to keep the shaft of the tool against the guiding edge «/ the templet by the joint movements of the table on its centre, and of the swing franie about its shaft and it iill be obvious that by this means any point of the table could be reached by tl.e ?ool and therefore anv pattein of moulded work within its range produced, in the ^a) already described in speaking of Mr. Gibbs's machinery. But as these modifications of the original idea are not, strictly speaking, carving machines, seeing that they only produced curved mouldings, we need not further describe them. Perhaps the most perfect carding machine which has been made for strictly artistic works is that used by Mr. Cheverton for obtaining his admirable miniature reductions of Ufe'sized statuary ; but we can only judge of the perfection of this machine by its work, seeinfthat the inventor has more faith in secrecy than Tp<^tents and has not made it public. The carving machinery which is best known, and has been most extensively used, is that invenTed by Mr. Jordii and patented in 1845, since which date it has been m constant operron in p^ucing the carved decorations of the interior of the Houses of Parliament. ^ Cpriici^rof action and its construction is widely different from that above descnbed, and Jt is capable of copying any carved design which can be produced so far as that is pos- Se by Sna tJJ; the smoothness of surface and sharpness of finish are neither pos- s ble nor des rabfe, because a keen edge guided by a practised hand will not only produce a better finish, but i will accomplish this part of the work at less cost ; the only object of u^ nJmachinery is to lessen the cost of production, or to save time ; and m appproaching r^s the fini'sh of a piece of carving, there is a tmie-h- further V^o^^^^^^^^-^^^ nn the machine would be more expensive than to finish it by hand. Ihis anses irom me neces^itTofusinT smaller tools towards the finish of the work to penetrate into its sharp rPPP<^p/^d the necessarily slow rate at which these cut away the material; it is conse- auenX a matter o calculation, how far it is desirable to finish on the machine, Sn^Xn to deUver it into the hands of the artist, so as to secure the greatest economy. nSii depends rrag^^ measure an the hardness of the material ; rosewood, ebony box ivory and sLJ^^^^^ should be wrought very nearly to a finish ; but lime, deal, and '^''''i^'n^tl pS oft^ '^"ht^rit/ a front elevation, and /,. 156 a side eleva- CARVING BY MACHINERY. 313 tion. The same letters indicate the same part in all the figures. The carving machine con- sists of two distinct parts, each having its own peculiar motions quite independent of the other, but each capable of acting simultaneously and in unison with the other. The first or horizontal part, is the bed plate "floating-table," &c., on which the pattern and work are fixed; all the motions of this part are horizontal. The second, or vertical part, is that which carries the cutters and tracer, the only motion of which, except the revolution of the tools, is vertical. * 154 tm "^ T The horizontal part consists of three castings : The bed plate a, b, c, d, which is a rail- way supported on piers from the floor and fixed strictly level. The carrying frame r, j, k, L, mounted on wheels and travelling on the bed plate, (the long sides of this frame are planed into (v) rails,) and the " floating-table " m, n, o, p, which is also mounted on wheels to travel on the rails of the carrying frame. It is called the " floating-table," because it can be moved in any horizontal direction with almost as much facility as if it were a floating body. Primarily this table has two straight-lined motions at right angles to each other but by combination of these it may move over any figure in an horizontal plane ; and because this IS accomplished without angular motion about a centre, every point in the surface of the table moves through the same figure at the same time ; hence the power of producin"- many copies of a pattern simultaneously. ° The second, or vertical part of the machine, is a cast-iron bridge supported on columns across the centre of the bed plate ; on the centre of this bridge piece is a wide vertical slide, 5, 6, with a (t) slotted bar on its lower edge ; to this bar the mandril heads or tool- holders, 9, 10, 11, are bolted, at such distances apart as suits the width of the work in hand, and in such numbers as it is convenient to work at one time. If the framing of the ma- chine is massive and well fixed, six or eight narrow pieces may be carved at once ; but if the width of the work is equal to half that of the table, only one can be done, as in that case half the tabl6^s required for the pattern. The motion of the vertical slide is governed by the workman's foot on the treadle b, q, s ; at s balance weights are placed, so as to I 314 OAHymG BY MACHINERY. 155 t> A x'-Sjr^lz: <^a:""----"--''- 156 ^g^-^^^ :3^ irR . OASE-HARDENma 315 adjust the force with which the tools will descend on the work ; any pressure on the foot- board R lifts the slide, and with it the tools and tracing point. Returning to the horizontal part of the machine, d, «, /, ^, is the pattern or original carving which is to be copied, and A, i,j, k, two copies in progress. The movements of the floating-table are managed by the workman with the hand-wheels u, v ; the left hand, on u, directs the lateral motion on the frame, and the right, on v, directs the longitudinal motion on the bed plate ; the left-hand movement is communicated by the cord x, x, which is fixed to brackets w, w, underneath the table, and makes one turn round a small pulley on the axis of the wheel u. The right-hand movement is communicated by the cord z, which is fastened to each end of the bed plate, and makes one or two turns round the pulley k. When at work the man stands inside the frame of the bed plate, with his right foot on the board r and his hands on the steering wheels ; on releasing the pressure of the foot, the vertical slide descends by its unbalanced weight until the tracer h comes in contact with the pattern ; the cutters m, m, are made to revolve by steam power at the rate of seven thou- sand times per minute, and are so shaped as to cut like a revolving gouge, so that they instantly cut away all the superfiuous material they come in contact with ; and, by the time the tracer has been brought over every part of the pattern, the pieces /*, t, »*, k will have become exact copies of it. So Jar as panel carving is concerned, the whole machine has been described ; but it is requisite to elaborate its construction a little more for the purpose of carving on the round, and copying subjects which require the blocks to be cut into in all possible du-ections. Various modifications have been used, but we shall only explain that which we think best adapted to ornamental carving. It is not requisite that we should go into the various applications of this machine, to the manufacture of printing blocks, ship's blocks, gunstocks, letter cutting, tool handling, cabinet shaping, &c., &c., all of which have been shown from time to time to be within its power ; nor is it requisite to describe more recent inventions founded on it, as they will more properly come under other heads. When the machine is intended to copy any form which can be carved by hand, the floating-table is differently constructed, but all other parts remain as before. In the float- ing-table used for this purpose, there is an opening in the centre of the table, and a turning plate, which is mounted a few inches above the level of the table, to turn in bearings in standards. Underneath the turning plate, and forming a part of it, there is an arc of rather more than half a circle, having its centre in the axis on which the plate turns, and this arc IS cogged on its edge to fit the threads of the tangent screw on the axis of the wheel, so that by turning this wheel, and dropping its detent into any cog, the workman can fix the plate at any angle with the horizon. There are three chucks fitted into sockets of the turn plate, and these are similarly divided on their edges by holes or cogs, into which detents fall, so as to secure them steadily in any required position. When in use one chuck carries the pattern, and two other chucks the work. The pro- cess of carving is precisely the same as before ; but in consequence of the work and pat- tern being so mounted that it can be turned into every possible position with respect to the cutters, any amount of undercutting which is possible in hand carving is also possible in machine carving. In going through the process the workman will, of course, attack the work when it is placed in a favorable position for the tools to reach a large portion of its surface ; and hav- mg completed as much as possible on that face, he will turn all the chucks through the same number of divisions ; the pattern and work will still have the same relative position to each other as before, but an entirely new face of both will be presented to the tools; this will be carved in like manner, and then another similar change made, and so on until all has been completed which can be reached without changing the angular position of the tumino- plate. This can be done by the wheel, and when a sufficient number of these changes have been gone through, the work will be complete on every face, although the block may have re- quired to be pierced through in fifty different directions.— f. B. J. CASE-HARDENING. When case-hardening is required to terminate at any particular part, as a shoulder, the object is left with a band or projection ; the work is allowed to cool without being immersed in water ; the band is turned off, and the work, when hardened in t.ie open fire, is only effected as far as the original cemented surface remains. This inge- nious method was introduced by Mr. Roberts, of Manchester, who considers the success of the case-hardening process to depend on the gentle application of the heat ; and that, by proper management not to overheat the work, it may be made to penetrate three-eiehths of an inch in four or five hours. — Holtzapffel. The recent application of prussiate (ferrocyanate) of potash to this purpose is a very interesting chemical problem. The piece of iron, after being polished, is to be made brightly red-hot, and then rubbed or sprinkled over with the above salt in fine powder upon the part intended to be hardened. The prussiate being decomposed, and apparently dissi- pated, the iron is to be quenched in cold water. If the process has been well managed the surface of the metal will have become so hard as to resist the file. Others propose to smear 316 CASK. over the surface of the iron with loam made into a thin paste with a strong solution of the prussiate, to dry it slowly, then expose the whole to a nearly white heat, and finally plunge the iron into cold water, when the heat has fallen to dull redness. See Steel. CASK rfoniuau, Fr. ; Fass, Germ.) Much ingenuity has been displayed m cutting the curvilinear and bevelled edges of the staves of casks by circular saws. Sir John Robinson proposed many years back that the stave should be bent to its true curve against a curved bed, and that while thus restrained its edges should be cut by two saws « s, placed in radii to the circle, the true direction of the joint as shown by the dotted circle fg. 157, representing the head of the cask. Mr. Smart cuts the edges of thin staves for small casks on the ordinary saw-bench, by fixing the thin wood by two staples or hooks to a curved block, the lower face of which is bevelled to give the proper chamfer to the edges, fg. 158. One edge having been cut, the stave is released, changed end for end, and refixed again%t two pins which determine the nosition for cutting the second edge, and make the staves of one common width. J he curved and bevelled block is guided by two pins pp, which enter a straight groove in the bench narallel with the saws. This mode of bending is from various reasons lound inappli- cable to large staves, and these are cut, as shown in three views, fg. 159, whilst attached 158 159 .^ V\ to a straight bed, the bottom of which is also bevelled to tilt the stave ^o^. .^^^f^^^g ^^^ ^d^e To cive the curve suitable to the edge, the two pins on the under side of the block runtn two curved gloves nam the saw-bench, which cause the staves to sweep past the sw in the a^of a^ery lafge circle, instead of in a right line, so that the ends are cut «.!rnwlr than the middle Mr. Smart observes {Trans. Soc. of Arts, vol. xlvii.) that in narrower th^ the middle ^r^ ehamfered at the sirae angle throughout, which :Erthti^d:l^lng^S^^^^ near for practice ; the error is avoided when the Sin^^iTr^ali^cSi^^^^^^^^^^ "^ r4"'I^AREEpT CA^mEEPE. The concentrated juice of the roots of the bitter ^^tnuSrhave, of (ate yea«, l>een introduced into the ^^'^fEj^f J^'".*hen,i«try " rA<^SITTS rmrole voioder of. Professor Graham, in his J^lements oi v>nemi.iry, dv^ t^ follo^n^^^^^^^^ the purple of cassius, and of its P^'P^^,*^^" " ,," ^\^!^^ nro^chloride of tin is added to a dilute solution of gold, a purple powder falls. It is TtlS of a fine tint when protochloride of tin is added to a soluUon of t^/. ^^/^'^^'^^ ride of iron till the color of the liquid takes a shade of green, and the liquid m that state ap~e If wJhlr^th ammonia, on the filter, while still moist, it d.ssoIves and a ;S=uid p=^s, which riv^s the l.ype™a^^^^^^^^^ of pot^h -n ^aut,. .^U ,r^ also be formed by fusmg ?f *«'. ^fof L tin ^ the alloy with nitric acid, rd^o^nit^Hw" *%«=;r^°ilf Lth, containin/the tin Jd gold that we« employed." CEDAR. 817 Berzehus proposed the theory that the powder of Cassius may contam the true nrot- oxide of gold combined with sesquioxide of tin, AuOSn'0\ a kind of combination contain- ing an association of three atoms of metal, which is exemplified in black oxide of ux)n spinele, Frankhnite, and other minerals A glance at its formula shows how re^idii; AnO§''m3^' ? i^??'n'»^;5^"? represented, may pass into gold and binoxide of tUL AuOSn'0'=Au-f 2Sn03."— G^raAawi and Watts. ^ CASTORINE. A substance existing in castoreum. Its chemical formula is not known, and Its entire history requires to be freshly mvestigated. It is obtained by treating the secretionof the castora with hot alcohol, and filtering through a Platamour's ebulhtion tunnel. On cooling, the alcohol deposits crystals of a fatty substance. The castorine is retained in the mother liquor, and is procured by evaporation on the water-bath to a small bulk, and then setting aside to allow crystals to form. Castorme crystallizes in needles possessing a slight odor of castoreum.— C. G. W. CASTOR OIL. 'Hie expressed oil of the seeds of the Paltna Chrisii or Hicinus com- mums, a native tree of the West Indies and South America ; but which has been cultivated in i< ranee, Italy, and Spain. In England the castor oil is expressed from the seeds by means of powerful hydraulic presses fixed in rooms artificially heated. It is purified by repose, decantation, and filtra- tion being bleached in pale-colored Winchester quart bottles which are exposed to light on the tops of houses Unbleached castor oil is certainly more acrid and possesses more nur- gative properties than such as has been long exposed to the light; we may therefore infer that the acrid resm of the oil has undergone some chemical change. In America the oil is expressed from the seeds by pressure between heated plates. In the East Indies, women shell the fruit ; the seeds are placed between rollers and crushed ; they are then put into hemp cloths, and pressed m the hydraulic press. The oil thus procured is afterwards heated with water m a tin boiler, until the water boils, by which the mucilage or albumen is sepa- rated as a scum. The East Indian castor oil is sold in England as eld drawn. The foUow- ing 13 the composition of castor oil : — g"i'*'° 74-00 74-178 ^y^^'ose^ 10-29 10-034 *^^3'Sen i^.>ji i4.^jg 100-000 100-000 .=f Kf^T^^^^^l ^ *®™ introduced to denote the very peculiar phenomenon of one body fllr TK^' ^^ •*' ""^r^ P^^'^^^f ' * ^^^ ^''"^•^^^'^ '"^ ^"«the»- body to that which exists in Itself Thus a piece of meat undergoing the putrefactive fermentation, almost immediately sets up a similar action m fresh meat, or produces in a saccharine fluid that motion which is ^,Mhr ^ ^^^o^V*^™entation. The action of the yeast plant,-a living organization,- fhtfST'' ^'*T t^^^f^^'^^^ ? 1^^« quantity of an infusion of m^U^-ferm eniation^ or tha disturbance which leads to the conversion of sugar into alcohol. This catalytic power 18 111 understood, and we are content to hide the imperfection of our knowled4 under I sounding name. ** """^* *» CATECHINE Catechuic Acid. When Gambir catechu is treated with water an |37ljgl^r^^"^ ^^ ^^ft' ^^^^ ^ ^'^ termed by Nees resinous tannin. Its compolition om.fi'^^'^fPK ^. translucent quartz, presenting peculiar internal reflections. This T:::^^::^^\Zr- ^^ '^^-^^'^ «^ -^-^- ^^^- -^ - ^<^^-> it - esteemed CEDAR. {Cedre Fr. ; Ceder, Germ.) The cedar of Lebanon, or great cedar, (PtJius nti"•;^-'^l''''°^"^''^""« '""?• J^'^ ^'^^ ^ b«^" f^r^o^s since the dajs of Solomon, who Afrfci! '"^ construction of the temple. The wood has been obtained from Oret^ and Specimens have also been procured from Morocco, showing the probability that the range of the tree not only extends over the whole group of ^untaiWXch bl^tua^ nr.l'H ?'"'''"? ""^-^^'P^^^^^^^^^^'^^^^i^^ includes the Libanus and Mounts W Zont^Zn^:^IZ^rB'-^''^ "^""""^ others,-but that its distribution on the mo^- tainous regions of North Africa is extensive. th. nnS '^ -r ^'^ f suppose that the cedar and the cedar wood mentioned by many of the ancient writers referred exclusively to the Lebanon species, we must believe thai its r Sf ^iTr^T^ '"^^'f'^ """' ^""^'"^^ ^^^^^ «« *^^« of its having exisU^d now S.fLffpP'f''^*^ ^^ ^^T ^? "mentioned by Pliny and Theophraltus as native fluenHvh 1 r"^^""'; r ""jy thus fairly infer that the cedrus of the ancients as fre- quen ly had reference to the other coniferae as to the Lebanon species. from 6 VTo fn.h!'' *^^ ^^niperics Virginiana. It is imported from America in pieces ironi 6 to 10 inches square. The grain of the wood is remarkably regular and soft, on ±f f'Tw Prr'f "^ V' "?^^ f«^ '^' manufacture of pencils, and from iLa^eable scent for the mside of small- cabinets ; it is also made into matches for the drawin^m gjQ CEDRIRET. The general use of the cedar wood dates from the highest antj^-^^ Jj.^^^^^^^ ^Z tion of Lar wood and the uses to which ^^f^^PP f^^ ^ which, bility and imperishable nature, the timber of a ^^^^^ «^^P^^^^^^^ ^hi famous statue of when nearly 2,000 years old, was found to ^^ P^^f^^^^^Xr ^^^^^ extracted from a cedar, Diana in the temple of Saguntum m SPf;^'^ ^edn^^a^^^^^^^^^^^^^ the papyrus to prevent was also, according to ^^'yms us^^^^^^ SVe Egyptia^^^^^^^ it wi'h other drugs in the attacks of worms; and Pliny states tnaiinex^gyp Fb^ obtained from the Leba- rS^X^ r, X"gSrg\otet-^^Ki- o'. Ju^^ru., wMcU also affo^ Odoriferous resins, it is now impossible to ascertain. is difficult, from belongs to other coniferous species; a" that we can know for ^^^^^^ and for the statues or i'?'^^?/;'',''' ';7^^'^„'lC„ held as a n.eans to preserve articles colleetions ot linen, pape.., and objecte of ^^Z'f^Xr^^bTi^evo^^':^^''"''^^' ""y ^'"CrthroSr fuSr wHen ^-.^-^^y a«.ct .o^e fo^s^^^^^^^^ not disputed, but it is as probable s?"«« ^^ ,^^%^^5^^ ^^^^5^^^ :frebr^ir;::i;'^:rc^e°r:iVr.te^'a^^^^ tion of keeping them going. In a short time tney an caiuc , different parts of the ever, repeated, had the same result: on ^^fV^V^'^^f "; Jj^^^^^te ei^Si^^^^^^^^^^ obser- watcWs was found to be completely changed ^^^^^ l^^^ ^^^ vations, also communicated to the J^^t^^^ut^^^^ ,^ and of the effects extraor;iinary atmosphere produced S^e^.^^^^^^^^^^^ a small collection upon delicate objects. The late Mr. Smith, otuerny navmg ^^ of minerals which had been locked up in closely fitted ^^^^^^^^^^^^^ to be covered the drawers for the first t me f ^^,««™^ ^ ^'.' ^^.'^^^^^^^^ the with a gummy matter having the strong odor ""^.^^^^^^^^^^ The cedar bright surf J of the cr^^^^^^^^ l^VrS^eSJe ^fdte s^me .ffect might be ^fpS^fhe%;Sf ^^^^^ effects, and .ot^s:iiS^ fS-SS^ irui:s£»;^X^f^ cils, the wood as usual ^^ f ^«^' j^^^^^.^^^Vji Tt^cked Te paper and its materials; the the heat of the gas, &c., the cedar ^«P^^[ J ^^^. ^"^^^^^^^ ^xnass with the pencils, and paper seemed thick and ^t/ened ^^ ^i' l^^^^^^^^^ ^^^ ^^^^^.^ highly damaging other paper and ^'-t'^'^fl^^^^/^^^r^j^'^^^^^ before the officers of the So- '^^TtC^:^^:^^^^ n % '-''' ^°^'' ^"' '' ''^"' in" "the evils arising from unsuspected chemical »f «";-'• "'■J,,.. ..i^^^„„ fe „ood-tar. ' "CEDRIEET. A singular er'"™Vidte?racidTs'?£%reosoL^separates. If naphtha. ^ rnfi"ifri^ Cu'O If it be^mtended t^^^^^ J ^^ ^^ ^^^^^^ ^^ tacirad^^c^H^or-Bu^uVtr^^^^^^ ff r:;m A foml muUipUes as f- - ^h^ ^f comm^a^^^^^^ «Jat, if^we wish to multiply a formula contaimng a comma or other ^^^^^^^J^^^ 2iPbO,SO^). If it between'parentheses. Thus f o at^^^^^ l^^S s to beldded'o anoth^ with a^iew to CHEMIOAL FORMULA. 821 of lead, we write, PbO + SO' forms sulphate of lead. But it is more usual and brief to put down the terms connected by the plus sign, foUowed by the sign of equality, and then the formula of the resulting compound, thus .-—PbO -f- S0» = PbO,SO». A coUection of symbols expressing the nature of a reaction or decomposition, the two terms being united by the symbol of equality, is called an equation. Equations are of the highest value to the chemist, as enabling him to express in the simplest possible manner the most complicated reactions. Moreover, these equations enable us to see at a glance the true nature of a de- composition. To take a simple case, namely, that of the decomposition of terchloride of antimony by carbonate of ammom'a, we have SbCl» + 3 (NH*0,CO'') = SbO' -j- 3NH*C1 + SCO'. Or in words, terchloride of antimony plus three equivalents of carbonate of ammonia. yields one equivalent of teroxide of antimony, three equivalents of chloride of ammonium' and three eqmvalents of carbonic acid. ' The above illustrations will suffice to show the principles upon which formula and equations expressive of chemical decompositions are constructed. In writing equaUons showing the metamorphoses of substances with which it may be supposed the reader of them may not be very fully acquainted, it is proper to place beneath them the names of the substances in full; thus, in writing the change supposed to be experienced by amygdaline under the influence of a ferment which does not itself contribute any substance to the reac- tion, we might say : — C«H"XO" + 4H0 = C"H«0» -f C'NH + 2C"H«0" AmygdaHne. Bitter al- Prussic Grape sugar. roond oil. acid. In writing the formulae of substitution compounds, it is convenient to place the replaced and replacing substances in a vertical line, so as at a glance to indicate the substitution which has taken place. As an illustration, we shall place side by side the chemical tvoe ammoma and some bodies derived from it by substitution. Ni H Ammonia. Methylamine. Bimethy- lamine. (C«H» ^ , ' Trimethy- laniine. Aniline. Platina- mine. (C«H» P^C'H' ]^o^^^^ ^ther by hydrogen. Ether, on the one atom of M-gen is re^^^^ ^ J^^ ^^^ i^ced by other hand, is denved from the same type, do ^^^ ^^^ ^^^ ^jplj,,^ ethyle. Hydrate of potash and ^a^^yf.'^XL XstTat^^ons the same vapor volume is pre- theLselves.' It will be seen that »^ ,^ ^ J^^"^^^^^^^^ alcohol being of diflerent '^^^^^^S^^bs:^^^.. su«i,.us. trat2'n/rairt«7-i£Hrtr:?^ l\C^tSder"tiiStafa^"is«??orrn\t sary to raise it to the dignity of a separate type. -."y^o^/ ''IT "^' '^5 B^e. '^ of^e. - -^ -^ CI c^H' CN ch; Th! above will be sufficiently plain after what has been said, it being remembered that C'HMs'^X'e, C'ff ethyle, C-H-phenyle and CN cyanogen ^^ ^^^^^^ ^^ ^^ J^^^fS^^^ll^:^^^^^^^''^-'^^^- Thus, sulphate of potash . For the typical repreKnUUon of the mixed .ad «.mp«ed ether,, ». th. article Ermn. CHEMICAL FORMULA. 328 will, by one, be written SO',KO, and by another SO'K. The reason of this will become <^i«:^ i\..~_ ^1 i>. II . •I .' Alt .. V... .... .. equivalent of hydrogen is replaced by potassium. It is true that the relation between acids and salts may be more completely seen by using a different class of formulae, founded on the theory of types ; but, nevertheless, the above illustrations will serve to explain why one person wUI write acetate of potash ^*^ ^ ' another C*^'^'>0*, ^ ^jji^d C'H»0»,KO, and perhaps a fourth C*H'0',KO*. On the modes of determining the empirical and rational formulce of st^stances from the remits of their analysis. — It now remains to show how the formulae of bodies are deter- mined. There are two kinds of formulae — the empirical and rational. An empirical for- mula merely indicates the simplest ratio existing between the elements present ; a rational formula shows the absolute constitution of an atom or equivalent of any substance. Some- times the expression rational formula is used in a more extended sense, and then signifies the actual manner in which the elements are arranged in a compound molecule, but this happens so seldom, that we shall in this work understand the term in the sense first given. An empirical formula can always be deduced from the mere result of an accurate analy- sis. A rational formula, on the other hand, demands a knowledge of the atomic weight of the substance. The latter datum can be best determined— 1st, by the analysis of a com- pound with a substance the atomic weight of which is well established ; 2d, by determining the density of its vapor. Empirical formula. — The percentage composition of a compound having been accu- rately found, the empirical formula may be deduced from the following rule :— Divide the percentage of each constituent by its atomic weight, and reduce the number so obtained to its lowest terms. Suppose, for example, the empirical formula of nitrie acid to be required, the composition being : — Nitrogen - - 25*9 Oxygen - - ^4-1 100-00 These numbers, divided by their respective atomic weights, gire:— . 25-9 14 ■741 8 To reduce these numbers to their lowest terms, it is merely necessary to divide 9*26 by 1 '86. The simplest terms being : — Nitrogen, 1-00: Oxygen, 5-00. Nitric acid consequently consists of one equivalent of nitrogen and five of oxygen. Rational formula. — In the above illustration we found the Simplest ratio existing be- tween the elements of nitric acid. But it will be seen that, for aught that appears there, it may consist of n times NO*. It becomes necessary, therefore, to find the atomic weight of the acid, and then to find the number of atoms of the elements, (combined in the above ratio,) which will make that atomic weight. In order to do this, it will be proper to deter- mine the atomic weight of the acid from the data procused by V= "%'*'"' T°°lJ?flciccDrthe occasional tendency to have been observed to arise from '" «7 "J^™*- '' TteanX^s of chicory root by John excite diarrhoea, when it has been used '» '"^'f; ^''^^.^SefsV, s«l ammmiac. and ^:^/^r^T.rpro*St:r"&mrbut Ae\" va^^^^^ ^tly in different 1^^ ^^e foKig-'^marUs on the ^ul^^Uon «f c^-^.,- ^JS/^^Tud, pcriiaps, " Roasted chicory is extensively adulterated, lo^oior it, introduced «ddle are used. The former « ™"o''"«^/^™^.r/t *r, cWcor? dSing the process of into the roasting machine; at "her times it « added to the ^^^^^^^ grinding. Roasted pulse, (peas l)eans,md lupines) com w » (logwood and (parsnips, carrots, and mangold wurzel,) barMoak-bark tan ) wooa - V |. ^ ,. mahogany dust,) seeds, (acorns and horse chestnuta,) the m^^^ ■ ^^ ^^_^; (called coffee-aights,) burnt s»g»J; ^akcd bread dog bi«;mts,^naD ^^^^^^^^ ^^^ rmSf:f SaS;^2(;?--l?yW pounds »f *« ™^J"^^- J„Th^f the acid ; afker cooling, the l^'^'^:^:^^T ^%C^^otfJZ6 acid .ere 9 measures of the fo^er to '' f„r yearme. M. Pattinson patented an in,p™ved rno^^^^^^^^^^':^: In this pwicss he made -^'Pj-^'^f'^^^PJ^^^^^I^lo't^^lZ.r, and on a grating The hydrochloric acid, specific gmity 1 lb, is poureu uu^ |i,„ t-mnerature of the Con- or faS bottom is placed the b^.f ""f.^TSf^l^.-J 'r^Se Js of K m^d° to circu- tents of the generating ™s8el's then raised to 180 ^'^^7 "^"'j °Jj,„un„cd for about 18 late between the stone vessel and *« ■"°^'^^J^','Sm„7Se generator, steam, ho«rs,a„dthen,bymca,«ofa mubleppe^^^^^ ^^^ ^^^^ under a pressure of 10 Itw. to tne '?™> " ""Jt , j^ j^i process no mechanical agi- t^ofi'^StsX^-;^*'^^^^^^^^ r^nrsetSraIerg';S:T4ea^^^^^^^^^^^ ^ -'^ "^ the acid. . . , «^^*:nn "Mr Pattinson found that the apparatus In carrying this process mto P^jtical operaUon, fi^-j:^^^^^^^^ ^y the actioi of the « liable to be completely deranged and f^^J^^J^ff [^^^^^^^^ to obviate hydrochloric acid, if the stone gJJ^^^^^S ^^^ji/^^^ a brokei condition, which inconvenience and to enable the genemto^^^^^^^^^ .^^ ^^^^^^ ^^^ the inner iron vessel is Perforated ;^d the ^P^^^^^^f^'^^^^^ ^^h coal t.r. or pitch, between the inner iron vessel and *J^^^^^*^f je^'^tor axe n ^ ^^^^ ^^^^ thickened by boiling to such a f'^.'^'^'l^^}^^^^^^^^ Steam, circulating t«^^^^^^^^^^^^ of the stone gener. lt!Thf Sd^- floTLto'^^^ C'l., and prevents the escape of the hydrochloric acid into the steam vessel. v* • «^ ;« tv^A Trmnnficture of chorine was patented A method of treating tbe residuum oUam^^^^^ iZ^t^^g^eoLnde of manganese, in 1855 by Mr. C. Tennant Dunlop. ^J.'/^^'J'fleVS belt. Whatever impurity the first into carbonate and then into oxide by he aet.on oi _.^ ^^^ ^^p,^, j, chloride of manganese may co«tain--as ^J^f^^.^^iJ p^^^ipitant. Practical working has either by calcination or by the agency of a suitable pr^^^^^ shown that the carbonate of manganese ^^l^ f^^^^^^^^^^^ ,uay be obtained by to that of 80 per cent P"^? P^^^^^^"- J/^^f 'm^^^^^^^ The chloride of ammonium re- precipitatlon from thechlonde ^7 ^arbomte of am^^^^^^ ine ,e-transformed in suiting from this treatment may either ^e emp oyed as^^^^^ of manganese. Hydrate the usual way into carbonate for the Fec.p ta on of ^e ^ ^bk^nae o g^^^^ ^^^ ""% another process, carbonate of --^-^^^^^^1^^^^^^^ thro^u^h the soluU of cj^orid^^^^^ ^^t ^cr^i^intr ct^r r ^arbolt^^^^^^ ^hls latter into oxide, by the pound is obtained by exposing the la ^//^^^J^^X"^^^^^^^ the remainder going to chlorine in 100 parts, of which 39 Pf ^^.^[^^^'^^^^g 'p^^rs to be he maximum absorption form chlorine of calcium f«d ^bl orate oHime. Th.^^^^^^^^ commerce rarely, even of chlorine by dry hydrate of bmc ; but ^^^J^^^^^^^^^^ and after being kept for when fresh prepared, contains more than 30 P^^^^"*' «;^^^^^ ' j, compound containing several months, the proportion often falls as ow as 20 per cent, a c v ^^.^^ Tne^d^ivalent' of chlorine and one eq«^^^^«^*//»^y^^^^f,i^^„™Vcbtoe and two of Srineand51-43hydrateoflime; a compound of one equiv^^^^ ^^^^^ ^^^ hydrate of lime, should contain 32-42 eblorme an^ 67 ^^ Mjf^^^.^ to attempt lut the proportions in good commem^ specnn ns It -ou^^^^^^^^^ ^^ ^^^ ^^ .^ to manufacture a more highly chlorinated^ ^ transmitted through water creased by an excess of lime. Where a stream oi c ^^ ^^^ ^^e full equivalent . holding hydrate of lime ^^^^f ^'j^^^^'f^Vr^^^^^^^^^^ dissolves out the bleaching of chlorine is absorbed. Water poured upon b^e^cmng p ^^^^^ ^^ ^ ^^^ ^^^ ^^ eombination, leaving a large residue of lime, i en pa CHLOROMETRY. 327 of dry chlorine. The solution emits the peculiar odor of hypochlorous acid ; and if we re- gard bleaching powder as hypochlorite of lime, the reaction which occurs in its formation will be thus represented :-^ 2CaO-f-2Cl=CaCl+CaO,C10. But good bleaching powder is not deliquescent, neither does alcohol dissolve anything from it, both which should occur if the compound contained free chloride of calcium. It is possible, however, that the two salts may exist in bleaching powder in the form of a double salt, or that the chlorine is in direct combination with the oxide. If the compound be sup- posed to be pure chloride of lime,, the reaction is simply an absorption of chlorine ; and the same should be the case with the other bleaching compounds — chloride of soda, for instance. But when carbonate of soda, saturated with chlorine (Labarraque's Liquor) is evaporated, no chlorine is evolved, and the residue still possesses bleaching properties. The true nature of bleaching powder is open, therefore, to speculation. The bleaching action of solution of chloride of lime is very slow unless an acid be added to it. When dilute sulphuric acid in insufficient quantity is employed, no chlorine is evolved but hypochlorous acid, which may be distilled oflf and condensed in a suitable re- ceiver ; but with excess of acid, chlorine only is liberated. When calicoes and other woven goods are to be bleached, they are first thoroughly cleansed by boiling successively with lime-water and a weak solution of caustic soda ; they are then digested in a solution of bleaching powder, specific gravity 1 '02, containing about 2| per cent, of chloride of lime ; after which they are immersed in very dilute sulphuric acid, which, by liberating the chlo- rine within the fibres of the cloth, rapidly removes the color. The goods are then washed, a second time steeped in alkali, and again passed through a weaker solution of chloride, and then through dilute acid ; after which they are thoroughly washed in water. The quantity of liquor necessary for 700 lbs. of cloth is 971 gallons, containing 388^ lbs. of chloride. When white figures are required on a colored ground, the pattern is printed on the cloth with tartaric acid, thickened with gum. The color is discharged in those places where the acid was present, but elsewhere untouched. When chloride of lime is heated, it evolves oxygen gas, and sometimes chlorine, and it becomes converted into a mixture of chlorate of lime and chloride of calcium, which has no bleaching properties. Half an ounce of chloride of lime boiled in two ounces of water yields, according to Keller, 165 cubic inches of oxygen contaminated with chlorine. The property of chlorine to destroy offensfve odors and to prevent putrefaction, gives to the chlorides of lime and so(Ja a high value. On this important subject Percfra hsxs tbc following remarks (Mat. Med. vol. I.) with reference to medical police. " If air be blown through putrid blood, and then through a solution of chloride of lime, carbonate of lime is precipitated, and the air is disinfected ; but if the air be first passed through putrid blood, then through caustic potash, or milk of lime, to abstract the carbonic acid, and afterwards through the solution of chloride of lime, it retains its stinking quality. Chloride of lime may be employed to prevent the putrefaction of corpses previous to interment ; — to destroy the odor of exhumed bodies during medico-legal investigations ; — ^to destroy bad smells and prevent putrefaction in dissecting-rooms and workshops in which animal siAstanees are em- ployed (as catgut manufactories ;) — to destroy unpleasant odors from privies, sewers, drains, wells, docks, &c. ; ta disinfect ships, hospitals, prisons, stables, &c. The various modes of applying it will readily suggest themselves. For disinfecting corpses, a sheet should be soaked in a pailful of water containing a pound of cUloride, and then wrapped round the body. For destroying the smell of dissecting-rooms, &c., a solution of the chloride may be applied by means of a gardening pot." Of equal importance is this substance to the medical practitioner. " We apply them," observes Pereira, " to gangrenous parts, to ulcers of all kinds attended with fbul secretions ; to compound fractures accompanied with offensive discharges ; in a word, we apply them in all cases accompanied with offensive and fetid odors. Their efficacy is not confined to an action on dead parts, or on the discharges from wounds and ulcers ; tliey are of the greatest benefit to living parts, in which they in- duce more healthy action, and the consequent secretion of less offensive matters. Further- more, in the sick chamber, many other occasions present themselves on which the power of the hypochlorites tp destroy offensive odors will be found of the highest value : as to coun- teract the unpleasant smell of dressings, or bandages, &c., &c. In typhus fever a handker- chief, or a piece of calico, dipped in a weak solution of an alkaline hypochlorite, and sus- pended in the sick chamber, will be often of considerable service both to the patient and to the attendants." The poisonous exhalations from foul sewers may be counteracted by a slight inhalation of chlorine gas, as obtained from a little chloride of lime placed in the folds of a towel wetted with acetie acid. — H. M. Jf. CHLOROMETRY. The processes or series of processes by which the strength or com- mercial value of substances containing chlorine, or from which chlorine may be rendered available, is ascertained, is called Chlorometry. Chloride (hypochlorite) of lime, of potash, or of soda, and the ores of manganese, are the most important of these substances. Chloride of lime is a mixture of hypochlorite of lime, chloride of calcium, and hydrate Tl 329 CHLOROMETRY. r.f i;«,o ^r«rt nO4-CaC14-Ca0 HO,) and is decomposed by the weakest acids—even by car- of hme (.^*^'^,^^^^^^ to the air, it gradually loses its chlorine, and being coTerTed nt'c^bo^^^^^^^^ become' perlStly valueless. This decomposmon CaO,C10+CaCl+2CO==2CaO,CO''+2Cl ; CaO(Cab,CI ;) in which view of the case the decomposition is explained as follows .- CaO,Cl+CO'=CaO,CO'+Cl. radd"'C.XTc7puto^sr,I.imation' is cxceediogly unportant, and should never be Defected by the bleacher ^^^^^ ^,^^,.^ ^^ ^^^^^^ ^^^^ represented by the followmg equation :— AsO» + 2C1 + 2H0 = AsO^ -f 2HC1. rM^L'e»nTo?tr:^.l:iT=1»^^^^^^^ '"'^- ^ •"" "T" 1 '? ''^ KoSof the^^rSw has been pero.idized the liquid is instantly decolo„.ed, "••(ric idrf, and diluted with three or f"' "J J'^^'f^^ °^„urnow the solution into a boiling heat until all the ?'f°;»"^„7lYn'measurt rinse the flask with water, and pour glass SyUnder graduated into 10,000 grams-me^^^^^^ ^^ ^^^ ^^,^^ Sie rinsings into the graduated K'X '/ h,t ea^fl m Sns-measure of that liquor will marlied 10,000. This *«"«.'' /''^'^^.f/"";;^ to 10 grains weight of chlo- re"'"St>u^b":7aa""=ou:::;d^*Sui^or.^i^ CHLOROMETRY. 329 larger quantity of test liquor, instead of 139'44, the operator may take, for example, ten times that quantity of arsenious acid, namely, 1394 44 grains, (or, more correctly, 1394'36,) and dissolve them in as much liquid as will form 100,000 grains-measures ; but he will have to take care to keep it in one or more well stoppered jars, in order that the strength of the solution may not be altered by evaporation. Having thus prepared a quantity of arsenious acid test liquor, weigh off 100 grains from a fair average sample of the chloride of lime to be examined, and after triturating them first in the dry state, and then with a little water in a glass mortar, and then adding more water, pour the whole into a flask or glass vessel capable of holding 2,000 grains-measure, and marked with a scratch at that point. The hiortar in which the chloride of lime has been triturated must be rinsed with more water, and the rinsings poured into the 2,000 grains- measure glass vessel first mentioned, until the whole of the 2,000 grains-measures are filled up to the scratch. The whole must now be well shaken, in order to obtain a uniformly turbid solution, and half of it (namely, 1,000 grains-measure) is transferred to an alka- limeter, which therefore will thus be filled up to 0", and will contain fifty grains of the clilo- ride of lime under examination ; and as the 1,000 grains- measure of the alkalimeter are divided into 100 degrees, each degree or division will therefore contain 0'5, or hall' a graia of chloride of lime. On the other hand, pour also 1,000 grains-measure of the arsenious acid test liquor into a somewhat large beaker, and add thereto a few drops of a solution of sulphate of indigo, in order to impart a distinct blue color to it ; shake the glass, so as to give a circular motion to the liquid, and while it is whirling round, pour gradually into it the chloride of lime liquor from the alkalimeter, watching attentively the moment when the blue tinge of the arsenious acid test liquor is destroyed. Care must be taken to stir the liquor well during the process, and to stop as soon as the decolorizing is effected, which indicates that the whole of the arsenious acid is converted into arsenic acid, and that the process is finished. The quantity of chlorine contained in the sample is Uien determined in the following manner : — We have seen that the 1,000 grains-measure of the arsenious acid test liquor, into which the chloride of lime liquor was poured from the alkalimeter, contained 13*944 grains weight of arsenious acid, corresponding to 10 grains weight of chlorine. And the 1,000 grains- measure of chloride of lime liquor poured from the alkahmeter contained 50 grains weight of chloride of lime, each degree of the alkalimeter containing, thei-efore, half a grain of chloride of lime. Let us suppose that, in order to destroy the blue color of the 1,000 grains-measure of the arsenious acid test liquor, 80 divisions (800 grains-measure) of the chloride of lime liquor in the alkalimeter have been employed. It is evident that these 80 divisions contained the 10 grains weight of chlorine necessary to destroy the color of the arsenious acid test solution, or rather to peroxidize all the arsenious acid (13*944) contained in that solution tinged blue with indigo. And since each division represents half a grain of chloride of lime, 40 grains weight of chloride of lime, containing 10 grains weight of chlorine, must have been present in the 80 divisions employed. If, now, 40 grains of the chloride of lime under examination contained 10 grains of chlorine, what is the percentage of chlorine in that same chloride ? The answer is 25. 40 : 10 :: 100 : 25. The chloride of lime submitted to the experiment contained, therefore, 25 per cent of chlorine. In the method just described it will be observed that, instead of pouring the arsenious acid test liquor into the solution of the sample, as in alkalimetry, it is, on the contrary, the solution of the sample which is poured into that of the test liquor. It is necessary to ope- rate in this manner, because otherwise, the chlorhydric acid of the arsenious acid test liquor would disengage at once more chlorine than the arsenious acid could absorb, and thus ren- der the result quite incorrect. On the contrary, by pouring the chloride oif lime into the solution of arsenious acid, the chlorine being disengaged in small portions at a time, always maets with an abundance of arsenious acid to react upon. It is better, also, to employ the turbid mixture of chloride of lime, than to allow it to settle and to perform the experiment on the decanted portion. Instead of arsenious acid, protosulphate of iron may very conveniently be employed ; and this method, first proposed, I believe, by Ruuge, yields also exceedingly accurate re- sults. This method is based upon the rapid peroxidization which protosulphate of iron under- goes when in contact with chlorine in the presence of water and of free suphuric acid, two equivalents of the protosulphate being thereby converted into one equivalent of persul- phate, on account of one equivalent of chlorine liberating one equivalent of oxygen from the water, which equivalent of oxygen adds itself to the protoxide of iron which thus be- comes converted into peroxide, and consequently int« persulphate of iron, while the equiva- 330 OHLOROMETRY. I I * I lent of hydrogen, liberated at the same time, forma with the chlorine one equivalent of chlorhydric acid ; tlius : — ^ 2FeO,SO» + 2S0' + HO -i- CI = Fe=0»,3S0' 4- HCl ; by which it is seen that two equivalents of protosulphate of iron con-espond to one equivu ^''" VrotoXhate of iron may be obtained in a state of great purity as a by-product of the action of sulphuric acid upon protosulphuret of iron in the preparation of sulphuretted hy- dro-en, the evolution and reducing action of the latter gas preventing the formation of any Deroxide All the operator has to do is to redissolve in water, with addition of a little su - Dhuric acid the crystals which have formed in the sulphuretted hydrogen apparatus, to til - ter the who'le liquor and to recrystallize it ; or else to pour the hot and very concentrated solution into strong alcohol : by the latter process, instead of obtaining the protosulphate in crvstal, it is in the shape of a fine clear blue precipitate. Or else, as much piano-forte wire may be dissolved in moderately diluted sulphuric acid as will ncariy neutralize it ; the liquor is then filtered and left to crystallize, taking care, however, to leave a few fragments of the wire suspended in it, that no peroxidization may take place ; or else the iron solution may be concentrated by heat, and while hot pour into strong alcohol by which a dear b ue crystalline precipitate of pure protosulphate of iron will be obtained In either case he protosulphate of iron so produced contains 7 equivalents of water, of crystallization ^^^T^kTifco^inglv, 2 equivalents, or 278 gr^ns, of the crystallized protosulphate of iron before alluded to, and previously dried between folds of blotting-paper, or mois.ened with Si aSd left to dry in the air until all odor of alcohol has vanished, and dissolve these 278 ^i^of protosulphate of iron in water strongly acidified with f her sulphuric or cWo^^^ hvdr^acid so that the liquor may occupy the bulk or volume of 3,5o0 grams of M,ater. 1 0(S Ss of such a solution will therefore contain 78-31 grains of crystallized protosul- pC ofh-on, and will accordingly be peroxidized by, or will correspond to, 10 grains of chrorine When only one experiment is contemplated, 78-31 of crystallized protosulphate of iron may be at once dissolved in 1,000 grains (1 alkalimeter full) of water acidified with Rulnhuric acid • and this is the protosulphate of iron test liquor. , ^. , ,i. We"'h n^^^ 100 grains of the chloride of lime under examination, and dissolve them, as before mentioned in a glass mortar, with a sufficient quantity of water, so that it may oc- Sure into an akalimeter, divided, as usual, into 100 divisions or degrees, each degree S- S wiU therefore contain half a grain of chloride of lime. Pour gradually the chlo- ride orLeLmTh alkalimeter into a glass beaker containing 1,000 grains-measure of the Test ^Sn of pretosulphate of iron, above alluded to. stirring all the while, until t is fompTete^^^^^^^^ into persulphate of iren, which may be ascertained by moans of strips onaoer previously dipped into a solution of red prussiate of potash, and dned, more chlo- ridfof lime bX poured from the alkalimeter as long as a blue stain is produced by touch- lit the r™d pmliate of potash test paper with a drop of the solution of protosulphate of iren oSenpon. The quantity of chlorine contained in the chloride of lime^ under examEn is estimated as follows :-Since 1,000 grains-measure of the protosulphate of ToTS Zuor, into which the solution of chloride of lime is poured contams, as we said 7T31^iTof pretosulphate of iron, corresponding to 10 grains of chlorine ; and since, on ?he oth^hrd 1 000 g^ins-measure of the solution of chloride of lime m the alkalimeter contains 507^ins of chloride of lime, tliat is to say. i grain of that substance m each divi- ''' Vet —oletr example, that the quantity of chloride of lime required to perexidize the irlTth^e foOO Lins-measure of protosulphate amounts to 90 divisions, it is evident hat he solutn'conta^ed 45 grain. of>oride of lime, -^.J^^^^^^^, f^f^^^^^^^^^^ of lime contained the 10 grains of chlorine necessary to perexidize the iron of the protosul- Se in thrgk^ beakerfthe 100 grains of the same chloride under examina ion evidently con ain 22 2I '?his calculation is readily effected by dividing 1,000 by half the number of the divisions poured frem the alkalimeter. The half of 90 (number of divisions employed) hpincr 45 dividing 1,000 by 45 is 22'22. ^ , , , ., r r Or Lteld of 100 grahis, the operator may take only 50 grains of the chlonde of hme to be Examined and thS^l prove a more convenient quantity, in that case, the dividing 1 0^ byThe number of divisions employed, will at once give the pereentage. Let us sup- i;Tfnr examnrthat 45 divisions only of the 50 grains of chloride of lime solution, taken L I'inl t^have SereL^ ; then, since these 45 divisions contained the 10 grains ^f cro^ne™^^^^ iron contained in the 1,000 gnuns-measure of the prot^urphate!Tt?^ that 100 grains will contain 22-22 of chlonne, thus:- Divisions. Grains of Chlorine. Divisions. Grains of Chlorine. 45 : 10 :•- 100 : x = 22 iJ OHLOROMETRY. 331 There are other accurate methods of determining the amount of chlorine in chloride of lime, provided a proper care be bestowed on the operation ; but the processes by arsenious acid and by proto-sulphate of iron are by far the less liable to error from the circumstance, among other reasons, that their solutions are less liable to become altered. The other methods also require a longer time, and we shall only mention the rationale of their mode of action. Thus the process by chloride of manganese consists in decomposing a test solution of it by the chloride of lime, to be examined as long as a brown precipitate is produced. The reaction is as follows : — MnCl -f- CaO.Cl + H0= MnO' -f- CaCl + HCl. The process with yellow prussiate of potash depends upon the following reaction : — 2(FeCy + 2KCy) -|- CI = (3KCy -f Fe'Cy') -f KCl. That is to say, 2 equivalents of yellow prussiate (ferrocyanide of potassium) produce 1 equivalent of red prussiate, (ferricyanide of potassium,) 1 equivalent of chloride of potas- sium ; and, therefore, 2 equivalents = 422 grains of the yellow prussiate will correspond to 1 equivalent = 35-5 of chlorine. The chloride of lime is, as usual, poured into the solu- tion of the chloride of manganese, and the operation is completed when a brown color begins to appear. The process by subchloride of mercury^ (Hg'Cl,) which is insoluble in water, is based upon its conversion by chlorine into chloride of mercury. (HgCl,) which is soluble in water, thus: — Hg»Cl -f Cl= 2HgCl. The modus operandi is briefly as follows : — As subnitrate of mercury is difficult to obtain in a perfectly neutral state, and free from basic, or from pemitrate. take a known volume of pernitrate of mercury, precipitate it by an addition of chlorhydric acid, collect the precipitate formed, wash it. dry it at 212" F.. and weigh it. Having thus ascertained the quantity of subchloride of mercury contained in the known bulk of pernitrate, 1,000 grains- measure of it are measured off, and precipitated by an excess of chlorhydric acid, and the whole is then well shaken, so as to agglomerate it ; a given weight of chloride of lime, say 50 grains, are dissolved, as usual, in water, so as to obtain one alkalimeter full, which is then gradually poured into the liquor containing the precipitated subchloride of mercury, until it completely disappears, and the liquor becomes as clear as water, which indicates that the operation is at an end. The number of divisions of the chloride of lime liquor used are then read off, and the quantity of chlorine present in the chloride of lime is easily calculated from the quantity of subchloride of mercury which was known to have existed in the known bulk of pernitrate employed, and which has been converted into perchloride of mercury by the chlorinated liquor poured into it. Testing of Black Oxide of Manganese for its available Oxygen. Manganese is found, in combination with more or less oxygen, in a number of minerals, but the principal ores of that substance are the pyrolusite. (binoxide of manganese,) MnO', braunite, (sesquioxide of manganese,) Mn'O', manganite, (hydrated sesquioxide of man- ganese,) Mn'^O' + HO, hausmannite, (red oxide of mangjinese,) Mn'O*, &c., &c. The first, namely the pyrolusite, is by far the most important of these ores, which are chiefly employed for the preparations of chlorine, and their commercial value depends upon the quantity of this gas which a given weight of them can evolve, which quantity is propor- tionate to that of the oxygen contained in the ore beyond that which constitutes the protoxide of that metal, as will be shown presently. The manufacturer who uses these ores, ought also to take into consideration the amount of impurities which may be present in them, such as earthy carbonates, peroxide of iron, alumina, silica, sulphate of barytes, since these impurities diminish, pro tanto^ the value of the ore. The estimation of the comrfter- cial value of a manganese ore may be accomplished in various ways. One of these methods consists in first reducing into fine powder a sample of the ore, and treating it by moderately diluted nitric acid. If this produces an effervescence, it is owing to the presence of carbonates, and an excess of nitric acid should then be used, so as to dis- solve them entirely. When all effervescence has ceased, even after a fresh addition of acid, the whole should be thrown on a filter and the residue within the filter should be washed and dried. For technical purposes, the weight of these carbonates may be thus easily effected, namely, by weighing a certain quantity of the sample, (for example 100 grains,) digesting it for a few hours in dilute nitric acid, collecting on a filter, washing, and drying until it no longer diminishes in weight. The loss indicates, of course, the quantity per cent, of the carbonates which it contained. This being done, take a weighed quantity 332 €HLOROMETRY. of the samDle dry it well, as just said, introduce it into a small counterpoised retort, at the cxtremH^S ;S a tube containing fragments of fused chloride of calcium, also weighed, should be adj^ted Apply then to Sie ritort the strongest heat that can be produced by ^ nr^d sDirk kmp or by ray gas furnace-lamp, and, alter some time, disconnect the chlo- ^of SuXUInd^wefgh it. The incre^e of weight indicates the quantity of water whLh h^ vdatiUzed, and Shich was yielded principally by the hydrate of sesquioxide Tmatani^, mV + HO,) some portion of which is always found mixed with the peroxide; evervVain of water thus evaporated corresponds to 9-77 of manganite Thfcontents of the small retort should now be emptied into a counterpoised p atmum caosule or crucible and ignited therein, until, after repeated weighings, the weight is ob- served to reTa^rinX^^ this converis the mass completely into manganoso-manganic SerMn^on The crucible is then weighed, and the loss indicates the quantities of oxy- gen evolved from which that of the peroxide is calculated. Each gram of oxygen corre- fp^ds to 2 71 o?^^^^ peroxide. This experiment should evidently be carried on with great c^ since a small quaiitity of oxygen represents a large quantity of peroxide. in order toeffea the complete conversion of the peroxide in the sample mto red ox.de of manea^ese ^above mentioned, the ignition should be continued for a long time, md 1 quairy operated upon should be smSl ; if a larger quantity be treated, a common fire Rhniild be used instead of an argand lamp. • xi The vake of manganese may also be very accurately estimated by measuring the qiian-. tity of chiorLe wWcfa given weight of the ore produces, when treated by chlorhydric "^'^in order to understand the rationale of this method, the reader must bear in i^iind that all the oxides of manganese, when heated in contact with chlorhydric acid, evolve a quantity of chrorine rxactlVproportiinate to that of the oxygen above that which it contained in the protoxTde For eXple, protoxide of manganese being treated by ^^^orhydnc acid pro- duces onW Drotochloride of manganese, but yields no free chlorme as shown by the follow- duces «° y f .^\^^"'^"J^pi_T^ . HO Not so, however, the red oxide of manganese, or the persulphate of that base, ine exptruueut to i (ov^ct ^n^ THO ^ and mix them m-iins r2 eauivalents) of crystallized protosulphate of iron, (2FeO,bU ,/tH^,j ana m»x ^"^™ rri^rflrf th^s-e Us Ae -^--^^^^^^ —uraTerof pSw; ^r^a^teriM^^O^) InrwouM^te^^^^^^^ cLtjy the t„^ ec,uWaJonU t «8 o7Drotosu"phaie of iron. About three ttuid ounces of strong chlorhydnc acid shou d To"^ Ircd upon *e mature in the flask, ^hieh flask murt be '""'^•'/-t^ly ''"^"Ij'* r WnS^cork provided with a tube-funnel drawn to a point; m order that the vapor a P«™'^'«"„^T';. P „v°f° =, then rapidlv boiled. The chlorine disengaged by the man- iEiHf3StS«^=r,r^£.b^Sj;.H"0*. Syn. Eugenic acid, Carophyllic acid.) When cloves are distilled with water, a large quantity of oil passes over. It has been examined by Dumas, Ettlmg, Bockmann, Stenhouse, Calvi, and, more recently, by Greville Williams. Treated with solution of potash, the greater portion dissolves, leaving a small quantUy of a hvdro- carbon isomeric with oil of turpentine. See Carburetted Hydrogen. The potash 'solu- 340 COAL. tioD, on being supersaturated with b mineral acid, allows the eugenic acid to nse to the sur- face in the form of an oil. When freshly distilled it is colorless, and boils at 483 S. Its density at 67° '2 F. is 1-0684. On analysis it gave :— Greville Williams. Calculation. Carbon - Hydrogen Oxygen - - 73-1 - 7-7 - 19-2 731 7-6 19-3 C" H" 0* 120 12 82 73-17 7-32 19-51 100-0 100-0 100-00 Theory requires 6-67. The above The density of its vapor was found to be 5 86. , results were confirmed by a determination of the percentage of baryta m the eugenate. COAL ' The coal fields of the United Kingdom are the most important of any worked in the world Their production has been variously estimated as being between thirty-one and fifty-four millions of tons annually. It has now been determined by inquiries carefully made by the Keeper of Mining Records that these amounts were far exceeded, as is shown by the following returns : — Northumberland and Durham Cumberland . - - • Yorkshire - - - - • Derbyshire - - - - < Nottinghamshire - - - • Warwickshire - - • ■ Leicestershire - - - . ' Staffordshire and Worcestershire Lancashire - - - - • Cheshire - - - - • Shropshire - - - - < Gloucester, Somersett and Devon Wales - - - - Scotland - - - Ireland . - - Tods. 1854. 15,420,615 887,000 7,260,500 2,406,696 813,474 255,000 439,000 7,500,000 9,080,500 786,500 1,080,000 1,492,366 9,643,000 7,448,000 148,750 Tons. 1855. 15,431,400 809,549 7,747,470 2,256,000 809,400 262,000 425,000 7,323,000 8,950,000 755,500 1,105,250 1,430,620 9,677,270 7,325,000 144,620 Tons. Tons. 64,661,401 64,453,070 1856. 15,492,969 913,891 9,083,625 [3,293,325 335,000 632,478 7,305,500 8,950,000 754,327 762,100 1,530,000 9,965,600 7,500,000 136,635 1857. 15,826,525 942,018 8,875,440 3,687,442 398,000 698,750 7,164,625 8,565,500 760,500 750,000 1,225,000 8,178,804 8,211,473 120,630 66,645,450 65,394,707 The total number of collieries in the United Kingdom being- England ^'^^3 Wales ^^^ Scotland ^"? Ireland ]^ 2,654 The distribution of coal in the United Kingdom is one of vast importance to the coun- try. It is spread over large areas, commencing with Devonshire in the south, and extend- ing to the northern divisions of the great Scotch coal-fields. A careful examination of all these deposits cannot but prove useful. •„f«..^o „» Devonshire. Lignite of Bovey-Heathfield.-Ljsons iMagna ^[^'^""^"V^f^^,^^ that this so-called Bovey co^ was worked fbr use early in the last century ; and Dr Maton described those beds in 1797 as being from 4 to 16 feet in thickness, alternating with clay, and he stated that the pits were about 80 feet deep, and worked for the supply of a neigh- boring pottery. A pottery was established at Ideo in 1772, and one at Bovey Tracey in 1812 both of which were supplied with fuel from those lignite beds. Those beds are sup- posed to have been formed towards the latter part of the supercretaceous periods. Ihe wood of which they are formed has been sometimes supposed to be analogous to the oak Sd other existing ti-ees. The offensive smell emitted by this lignite when burnt has always prevented its use for domestic purposes, except among the poorer <^«"J^J «/^^^f ."^^If^^^ hood. The supply from those beds of " Bovey coal " is now falling off, the adjoining pot- tery being compelled to use some coal as fuel.— i)e /a ^ccfte. Bideford Anthracite.^The beds of Anthracite stretch across the country from Barn- staple Bay, by Bideford and Averdiscot, towards Chittlehampton, a distance of about COAL. 841 twelve miles and a half. The anthracite is mixed with the black shales of the carbonaceous deposits. " The anthracite is mixed with those shales in the manner represented beneath, ^^. 160 ; a, sandstones ; by shales ; c, culm 1 RO or anthracite ; so that the culm itself seems the result of irregular accumulations of vegetable mat- ter intermingled with mud and sand. As so frequently happens with carbonaceous deposits of this kind, nodules of argillaceous iron- stone are often found in the same localities with the shales and an- thracite, reminding us of the intermixture of iron ores and vegetables matters in the bogs and morasses of the present day." — Be la Beche. Somersetshire and Gloucestershire. — The Dean Forest coal-field, and the coal meas- ures, extending further south forming the Bristol coal-field, are included in this division. The workable seams of coal in the forest are the following : — (having a thickness of) Dog Delf Smith Coal Little Delf Park End High Delf Stakey Delf Little Coal Rocky Delf Upper Churchway Delf Lower Churchway Delf Braizley Delf Nag's Head, or Weaver's Whittington Delf Coleford High Delf Upper Trenchard Lower Trenchard u M a (( a (t C( fL in. 1 2 2 6 1 8 3 7 2 6 1 1 1 9 4 2 2 1 9 2 9 2 6 5 2 1 4 There is a small coal-field north of the Forest of Dean, which is a long narrow strip, containing two and a half square miles, or 1,600 acres.— J/ac/awcA/an, Geological Tramac- tions yWoX. V. About nine miles and a half to the south of Dean Forest a considerable mass of coal measures has been preserved from destruction, by the denuding causes which have carried off the connecting portion between it and Dean Forest, leaving at least two outlying patches on the north of Chepstow. The Bristol coal-field occupies about fifty square miles, or 32,000 acres. The seams of coal are very thin in comparison with those which are worked in other districts. Buckland and Coneybeare (Geological Transactions, vol. i.) have well described this coal- field. The total thickness of the whole series of strata in this Bristol coal-field has been shown by De la Beche to be as follows : — Upper shales and limestones 1,800 feet, with 10 beds of coal. Middle sandstone 1,725 feet, with 5 beds of coal. Lower shales 1,565 feet, with 36 beds of coaL Farewell Rock 1,200 feet. 6,290 South Wales Coal-field.— The total thickness of the coal strata in this important district is very great. Logan and De la Beche have accumulated evidence which appears to justify the admission of 11,000, or even 12,000 feet thickness from the carboniferous limestone to the highest part of the coal series about Llanelly ; in other parts of the field the series is found to be on proportions only less gigantic. The most general view which can be afforded seems thus, giving the true coal measure about 8,000 feet : — feet. Llanelly series, with several beds of coal ------ i ooo Penllergare series of shales, sandstones, and beds of coal, 110 beds ; 26 beds of coal ..3 000 M 1 » m 1 i. k 342 GOAL. Central series, (Townhill sandstones of Swansea, Pennant grit of the Bristol field ;) 62 beds, and 16 beds of coal 3,246 Lower shales, coaLs, and iron-stones, (Merthyr ;) 266 beds, 34 beds of coal' 812 Abundance of iron-stone beds and unionidce occur. Farewell-Rock and Gower shales above ; the carboniferous limestone below. The coal on the north-eastern side of the basin is of a coking quality, excellent for the iron manufacture ; on the north-western it contains little or no bitumen, being what is called stone-coal or anthracite ; on the south side, from Pontypool to Caermarthen Bay, it is of a bituminous or binding quality r — Phillips. Shropshire, — This district includes the small coal-field of Coalbrook Dale, and that of the plain of Shrewsbury. The Coalbrook Dale field, according to Mr. Prestwick, has some remarkable features. {Geological Transactions.) Perhaps there is no coal track known, which in so small a compass, about twelve miles long, and, at most, three and a half miles wide, exhibits so many curvatures in the outcrops, crossed by so many continuous faults, some varying north by east, others east-north-east; these crossed by many of shorter lenoth, and directed west north-west, and in several other lines. The total thickness is supposed to be 1,000 or 1,100 feet, divided into 80 distinct strata. The coal varies in total thickness from 16 feet to 55, and in the number of its beds from 7 to 22, the increase being to the north. The " cleat " or systems of joints run from west-north-west to east-south- east. The coal is, for the most part, of the variety called slate coal in Scotland, and hard coal in Derbyshire. Cannel coal is rare — sulphureous coal (pyritous) very common. Pe- troleum abounds in the central and upper part of the field. The beds are mostly thin ; the ten uppermost are too sulphureous for other uses than lime-burning, and are cahed stinkers ; twelve beds of good coal, in all 25 feet thick, the thickest being five feet, succeed, and the lowest bed of the whole formation, eight inches thick, is sulphureous. — Phillips^ Staffordshire. — The coal-field of South Staffordshire, which has been described by Mr. J. Beete Jukes, who states its boundary would be roughly described as the space in- cluded within a boundary line drawn from Rugeley through Wolverhampton to Stourbridge ; hence to the southern end of the Bromsgrove Lickey, and returning through Harbome (near Birmingham) and Great Barr back to Rugeley. This geologist classes these coal strata in three divisions, by the well-traced band of thick coal. The total thickness of coal near Dudley being about 57 feet, and between Bilston and Wolverhampton upwards of 70 feet. The thick coal is formed of eight, ten, or thirteen distinguishable parts, the whole seam varying in thickness from three feet to thirty-nine feet five inches ; it is very irregular in parts, divided by sandstone, splitting with wide-shaped offshoots, and cut into " swiles " or " horee backs," which rise up from the floor. Below the thick coal are numerous beds of sandstone-shales, coal, and iron-stone, having on the average a thickness of 320 feet ; and above the thick coal the thickness is 280 feet on the average. — Records of the School of Mines. North Staffordshire Coal-field. — This field is comprised in the space between Congleton, Newcastle-under-Lyne, and Lane End. About 32 beds of coal have been determined, rising eastward between Burslem in the centre of the field and its eastern limit near Norton church. Derbyshirr and Nottinghamshire. — The Derbyshire and Nottinghamshire coals are classed as to structure in two varieties, as " hard'''' coal, in which the divisional structures are chiefly derived from the planes of stratification, crossed by one set of "cleat" or natural joints, (called " slines," " backs," &c. ) so that large prismatic masses result ; " soft " coal, where the cleat fissures are numerous, and broken by cross cleat. In respect of the quality, some of the coal is of a " crozling " or coking nature, easily fusible, and changing its figure by " coking ; " the rest, (and this is specially the case with the " hard " variety,) makes both good furnace coal and excellent coke, which, however, is hardly melted at all, and the masses are not changed in figure by the process. — Phillips's Manual of Geology. The names by which the more important beds of coal worked within this district are known, are as follows : Tupton coal, hard coal, soft coal, black shale or clod coal, low hard . coal and low soft, windmill coal, Dansil coal, Ganister coal, Parkgate coal, Aston coal, Kii- bum coal, furnace coal. Hazel coal. Eureka coal, main and deep coal. Leicestershire and Warwickshire. — The Leicester coal-field is best developed about Ashby de la Zouch, (see Mammatt on " the coal-field of Ashby de la Zouch,") where the coal is much like the hard coal of Derbyshire. Amongst the seams of coal is one variety called cannel ; and another, formed by the concurrence of more than one band, from seven- teen to twenty-one feet in thickness. The beds near Ashby de la Zouch are as follows : — In the Moira district — COAL. Eureka coal Stocking coal Woodfield coal - Slate coal Nether main coal Fourfoot coal The Earl coal In the Coleorton district — Heath End coal Lount coal Main coal • Thickness of bedi^ 4 to 6 feet. 6 to 7 " 5 " 3i to 4 " 14 to 15" 4 to 5 " 4 ft. 6 in. 9 feet. (3 beds.) 10 to 12 feet. The 'Warwickshire CoaUfield is from a point east of Tamworth to a point east of Coven- try, about twenty miles from N. W. to S. E. parallel to the Ashby coal tracts. The strata are most productive of coal near the southern extremity, where by the coming together of two seams, — worked separately at Griff, — the five-yard seam is worked. The beds are known as the seven-feet coal and rider, slate coal, two yards, lower seam, cannel, and Ell coal. Yorkshire. — ^Professor John Phillips gives the following mode of classification as the most natural and convenient for the Yorkshire coal. Magnesian limestone unconformably covers the coal seams. i Shales and Badsworth coal. Upper coals - < Ackworth rock. ( Wragby and Sharlston coals. Red rock of Woolley Hooton-Roberts, &c. Furnace coals Middle coals Intermediate coals Iron-stone coals - Barnsley thick coal. ( Rock of Horbury. \ Middle c I coals. Silkstone and Flockton beds. Low Moor coals. Flagstone rock of Woodhouse, Bradford, Elland, Peniston, &c. f Shales and ganister stone. Coals. Lower coals - \ Shales and ganister stone. I Coals, [shales, &c. Millstone grit lies below the " coal series." The important middle coal series are again divided by Professor Phillips as follows :— Red rock of Woolley Edge. Furnace coals of Barnsley, &c. including the eight or ten feet seam. Rock of Horbury and Wentworth House. i Swift burning coals of Middleton, Dewsbury, &c., with bands of Iron-stone coals < " mussels." ( Bituminous coals of Silkstone and Low Moor. Flagstone rocks beneath. The small coal-field of Ingleton and Black Burton in Lonsdale is thrown down on the south side of the great Craven fault. Lancashire. — The coal-field of Lancashire occupies an area extending from Maccles- field to Colne, 46 miles, and from Torboch, near Liverpool, to Todmorden, about 40 miles. Excluding the millstone grit, its area is about 250 square miles. — Heywood. In a line through Worsley, Bury, and Burnley to the limestone shales of Pendle Hill, we have 36 seams of coal, 10 of them not exceeding 1 foot in thickness, making in all 93 feet of coal. The series is divisible into three parts above the millstone grit : Upper part, containing a bed of limestone at Ardwich near Manchester. Middle part, containing the greater part of the thick and valuable seams, especially the cannel coal of Wigan. Lower part, corresponding to the ganister series of Yorkshire. Cheshire. — The coal-field of Cheshire is not of great importance. North Wales. — Flintshire and Denbighshire. — The Flintshire coal basin extends from north to south, somewhat more than 30 miles from Llanassa to near Oswestry in Shropshire. The coal strata dip generally eastward and form in the northern part a trough beneath the estuary of the Dee. This coal basin in Flintshire commences with beds of shale and sand- stone. The coal is of various thickness, from f to 6 yards^ and consists of the common, cannel, and peacock varieties. — Phillips and Conybeare. i 844 COAL. Cumberland.— This coal-field extends as a narrow crescent from Whitehaven to near Hesket Newmarket :— around Whitehaven and at Workington the coal is worked extensively. At the latter place, a few years since, a very valuable colliery was destroyed by the bursting ^ \here^ we three workable seams in the Cumberland coal-field in the neighborhood of the three undermentioned towns, and these are known in each place by the names given :— Whitehaven. Bannock band. Main band. Six-quarter coal or Low- bottom seam. Workington, Moorbauks. Main seam. Hamilton seam. Mary port. Ten quarters. Cannel and metal scams, (divided with shale from 2 feet to 5 fathoms thick.) Northumberland and Durham.— The total thickness of the coal measures of this dis- trict is about 1,600 feet. The number of distinct layers or beds, as usually noted by the miners about 600. The total thickness of the beds of coal rarely exceeds— does not, on the average equal— 60 feet. No bed of coal is of greater thickness, even for a short dis- tance thsm 6 or 7 feet ; several are so thin as to be of no value at present. The total thickiess of " workable coal," supposing all the beds to be found in a given tract, is not to be estimated at above 20 or 30 feet. The most part of the coal in this gre^ district is of the coking quality, but, in this respect, there is much variation The best coke for locomo- tive engines is now made from the lower coals in the Auckland district of Durham, and the Shotley Bridge district of Northumberiand. The best " steam coal' is obtained from the north side of the Tyne and the Blyth district. The best " house coal still comes from the remains of the " High chain " on the Tyne, and from the " Button seam on the Wear ; but the collieries north of the Tees have acquired a high reputation. As a general view of the groups of strata the foUowing summaries may suffice.— (/-os^cr '''''^Upper OTOups of coal measures, including chiefly thin seams of small value (8 or more) in a vast mass of sandstone and shales, with some iron-stone. At the base is a mussel band ; we estimate this at 900 feet I' !? On the Tyne: — ' Higfi main coal - - - Strata and thin coals - Metal coal - - - - Strata and thin coals - Stone coal - - - - Strata . - - - Yard coal . - - - Strata . . - . Bensham seam - - - Strata with several variable beds and some layers of mussels - Low main coal Strata Hervey*8 seam Strata BrocTctcell seam Strata above millstone grit Ft 6 60 1 30 3 83 3 90 3 160 6 200 3 300 3 200 In. 6 On the Wear and Ttne: — Ft In. Ft In. Unknown Five-quarter coal - 8 9 to 6 9 Main coal Mandlin seam . 5 6 to 6 . 4 6 to 6 Low main seam or Hutton . 4 6 to 6 6 Beaumont seam • Brockwell seam - 3 to 6 . 3 0to6 — Phillips. Th'eTeams which are pnlcipally worked in this district are the high main, five-quarter main Bensham seam, Hutton seam, Beaumont seam, low five-quarter, three-quarter seam, Brockwell and stone coals. These seams are known by other names, each district usually adoptin*' its own peculiar term to designate the workable seams. Thus the Bensham seam of the Tyne is known as the Mandlin seam of the Wear. The Beaumont or Hervey seam is the Townley seam of the Townley colliery and the main coal of Wylam colliery. At Uet- ton the high main seam of the Cramlington district separates into two, and is called the three-quarter seam at Pontoss; where it unites again it is known as the Shieldrow seam. The Cramlington gray seam is the metal-coat seam and stone coal seam ot bherritt Uill where it is diVided ; while it unites at Hetton and forms the five-quarter seam of that and the Auckland district The Cramlington yard seam becomes the main coal seam at Hetton, Haswell, and some other localities, the Brass Thill at Pontoss, and the main coal m Auck- land Aeain the Cramlington five-quarter seam divides and forms the six-quarter, and the five-quarter at Sherriflf Hill the Brass Thill seam at Pittington ; they again unite and form COAL. 845 the Hutton seam at Pontoss colliery, and so with regard to a few others. — Mineral Sta- tistics. Scotland. — " A memoir on the Mid-Lothian and East Lothian coal-fields," by David Milne, gives the most exact account of the carboniferous system of Scotland. There are three principal coal basins in Scotland : 1. that of Ayrshire ; 2. that of Clydesdale ; and 3. that of the valley of the Forth, which runs into the second in the line of the Union canal. If two lines be drawn, one from Saint Andrews on the north-east coast, to Kilpatrick on the Clyde, and another from Aberiady, in Haddingtonshire, to a point a few miles south of Kirkoswald in Ayrshire, they will include between them the whole space where pitcoal has been discovered and worked in Scotland. According to Mr. Farey, there are 337 principal alterations of strata between the surface in the town of Fisherrow, on the banks of the Frith of Forth, (where the highest of these strata occur,) and the commencement of the basaltic rocks, forming the general floor and border of this important coal-field. These strata lie internally in the form of a lengthened basin or trough, and consist of sandstone, shale, coal, limestone, ironstone, &c. Sixty-two seams of coal, counting the double seams as one ; 7 limestone ; 72 assemblages of stone and other strata ; in all 5,000 feet in thickness. Professor Phillips remarks of this district, " On the whole, allowing for waste, unattain- able portions, and other circumstances, this one district may be admitted as likely to yield to the miner for actual use 2,250 millions of tons of coal." The coal is partly " splint " partly " rough " or " cherry," partly of the " cannel " or " parrot " variety ; the first con- taining most oxygen, the last, most hydrogen and nitrogen, and the least carbon. See Boghead Coal. Ireland.— The coal-fields of Ireland, if we include in this term the millstone grit, occu- py large tracts of land in that country, and are upon the whole analogous, in general mineral character and organic contents, to those of England. The same absence of limestone, the same kind of succession of sandstones and shales is remarked in them. Anthracite or stone-coal like that of South Wales abounds in the Leinster and Munster districts ; bitumi- nous coal occurs in Connaught and Ulster. In Ulster the principal collieries are at Coal Island and Dungannon. The Munster coa! district is stated by Mr. Griffith to be of greater extent than any English coal-field, but it is much less productive. At Ballycastle the coal is found in connection with basalt.^ Phillips. Such is a general and rapid sketch of the distribution of fossil fuel over the Islands of the United Kingdom. The importance of a correct knowledge of the distribution of coal in other parts of the worid, especially to a commercial people whose steamers now trav- erse every sea, has led to the compilation, from the most reliable sources, of the following account : ° Between the Arctic Circle and the Tropic of Cancer repose all the principal carboniferous formations of our planet. Some detached coal deposits, it is true, exist above and below these limits, but they appear, so far as we know, to be of limited extent Many of these southern coal-fields are of doubtful geological age ; a few are supposed to approximate to the class of true coals, as they are commonly styled, others are decidedly of the brown coal and tertiary period, while the remainder belong to various intermediate ages, or possess peculiarities which render them of doubtful character. Southward of the Tropic of Cancer the existence of coal corresponding with the European and American hard coal is somewhat uncertain. There seems to be little coal on the South American continent. The discovery said to be made at Ano Paser needs confirmation and of that in the province of Santa Catharina in Brazil we know little. On the African conti- nent we have had vague accounts of coal in Ethiopia, and at Mozambique, also at Madagas- car, and qmte recently we have had intelligence of large quantities of coal in the newly- ceded territory above Port Natal, on the eastern side of Africa, but we believe no geologist has examined these sites. In the Chinese and Burmese empires brown coal only appears to approach the Tropic, but true coal seems to exist in the northern provinces. Southward of the Asiatic continent we are uncertain of the exact character of the coal deposits such as occur at Sumatra, Java, and Borneo, and neighboring islands. Coal, however exists in these islands, and is of a fair workable quality. ' In New South Wales the great coal range on the eastern margin of that continent has sometimes been described as resembUng the Newcastle coal in England, and somethnes it is described as of more ancient date. This coal differs essentiallv from that of any known European formation, but bears a strong resemblance to the Burdwan coal of India. We have not yet arrived at the period when we could pronounce with any approach to certainty on the actual number of coal basins in the worid ; the total number must how- ever, amount at least to from 250 to 300 principal coal-fields, and many of these are subdi- vided by the disturbed position of the strata into subordinate basins. The basins or coal districts are, however, grouped into a comparatively small number of districts, and even many of these are little known and not at all measured. The greater ! 846 COAL. number occur in Western Europe and Eastern North America, while Central and Southern Africa, South America, and a large part of Asia are almost without any trace of true car- boniferous rocks. The remarks, therefore, that will follow chiefly refer to our own and adjacent countries, or of the United States and British North America. The principal coal-fields of Europe, apart from the British Islands, are those of Belgium, France, Spain, (in the Asturias,) Germany, (on the Ruhr and Saare,) Bohemia, Silesia, and Russia, (on the Donetz.) Belgium. — The Belgian coal-field is the most important, and occupies two districts, that of Liege and that of Hainault, the former containing 100,000, and the latter 200,000 acres. In eacli, the number of coal seams is very considerable, but the beds are thin and so much disturbed as to require special modes of working. The quality of coal is very various, in- cluding one peculiar kind, the Flenu coal, unlike any found in Great Britain, except at Swansea. It bums rapidly with much flame and smoke, not giving out an intense heat, and having a somewhat disagreeable smell. There are nearly fifty seams of this coal in the Mons district. No iron has been found with the coal of Belgium. Mr. Dunn, H. M. Inspector of Collieries, has reported on the coal of Belgium : and first quoting a report which announces that the mines would be exhausted in twenty years, says : " This announcement comes with appalling force upon the numerous joint-stock companies. * * * According to the report of M. Briavionne, Belgium is traversing towards a momen- tous crisis ; and I am much inclined to confirm the writer's opinion that, according to the present plan of carrying on the collieries, notwithstanding the high price received for the coals, yet that coal will not be found workable to profit below the depth of 250 or 260 Cathoms, inasmuch as the deeper they go the more destructive and unmanageable will be the eflTects of the pressure." — The Government Mining-Engineer's Report. Belgium is traversed, in a direction from nearly west-south-west to east-»^orth-east, by a large zone of bituminous coal formation. The entire region is generally described under two principal divisions : — 1. The western or Hainault division, comprising a. The two basins known as Levant and Couchant of Mons. That of Charieroi. h. The basin of Namur. 2. The eastern or Liege division. France. — ^The most important coal-fields of France are those of the basin of Loire, and those of St. Etienne, which are the best known and largest, comprising about 50,000 acres. In this basin are eighteen beds of bituminous coal, and in the immediate neighborhood several smaller basins containing anthracite. Other valuable localities are in Alsace, several in Burgundy worked by very deep pits, and of considerable extent ; some in Auvergne with coal of various qualities ; some in Languedoc and Provence with good coal ; others at Ar- veyron ; others at Limosin ; and some in Normandy. Besides these, there are several others of smaller dimensions and less extent, whose resources have not been developed. The total area of coal in France has not been ascertained, but it is probably not less than 2,000 square miles. The annual production now exceeds 4,000,000 tons. But the coal of France is of an inferior description, and, therefore, when good and strong coals are required, the supply is obtained from the English coal-fields. The mineral combustibles of France are divided by the government engineers into Anthracite, not yielding coke. Hard coal, short flame. Forging or gaseous coal. Gaseous coal, long flame. Small coal, long flame. Lignite, Stipite, &c. The total of indigenous fuel extracted, according to the State returns, is 47,222,743 metrical quintals of 10*1465 to the English ton. The geological phenomena attendant upon the coal formations in France are, that in some places we have the coals resting on the granite and schists, and in others on the Silu- rian rocks. Taylor gives the details of eighty-eight coal, anthracite, and lignite basins in France. In 1862 only nine of these produced coal to any extent. The total produce of all the coal- fields being 4,816,355 tons, valued at £1,870,072 sterling. Germany. — The Germanic Union — the ZoUverein — embraces the following principal coal-beds •— C Saxony. German States, -j Bavaria. ( Duchy of Flesse. {La Ruhr, in Westphalia. Silesia. Saarbriick, and provinces of the Bas Rhin. COAL. Ut The true coal of Prussian Silesia stretches for a distance of seventeen leagues. The most recent information we have been able to obtain as to its production, would appear to give above 850,000 English tons. The coal-fields of Westphalia were described by Sedg- wick and Murchison in 1840. The productive coal-beds are on the right bank of the Rhine, and possess many features in common with the English coal-fields. Bituminous wood, and lignite or brown coal, occur extensively in some districts. The coal basin of Saarbriick, a Rhenish province belonging to Prussia, has thus been described by Humboldt, chiefly from a communication received from M. Von Dedien : — *' The depth of the coal measures at Mont St. Gilles, Liege, I have estimated at 3,650 feet below the surface, and 3,250 feet below the sea level. The coal basin at Mons lies fully 1,750 feet deeper. These depressions, however, are trifling when compared with that of the coal strata of the Saar rivers, (Saarbriick.) After repeated trials I have found that the lowest coal strata known in the county of Duttweiler, near Bettingen, north- eastward from Saar-louis, dip 19,406 feet, and 20,656 under the level of the sea." The coal of the vallei/ of tjie Glane is bituminous, and of good quality ; it is procur- able at a depth of 112 feet, and the seam is about two feet in thickness : about 50,000 tons annually are produced from this valley. Coal is found in Wurtemburg, but not much worked. In Saxony are extensive mines of bituminous coal ; at Schonfield, near Zivickau, the coal alternates with porphyry. Near Dresden a bituminous coal is also worked, and the coke manufactured from it is used in the metallurgical works at Freiburg. • The Hessian States produce little beyond lignite. In Hesse Cassel some bituminous coal is worked, but to a very inconsiderable extent. In the Thuringerwald or Thuringian forest some coal is produced. Hungary and other countries in the east of Europe contain true coal measures of the carboniferous period ; but the resources of these districts are not at present developed. On the banks of the Donetz, in Russia, coal is worked to some extent, and is of excellent quality. Austria.— Coal occurs in Styria, Carinthia, Dalmatia, the Tyrol, Moravia, Lombardy, and Venice ; but 700,000 tons appear to be the maximum annual produce of the empire. The basin of Vienna, in Lower Austria, produces several varieties of coal, which belong to the brown coal of the tertiary period. Bohemia. — la this kingdom coals are abundant ; one coal-field occupies a length of 15 leagues, and a breadth of from 4 to 5 leagues. Between 300,000 and 400,000 tons are produced annually. Sweden. — Anthracite is found in small quantities at Dannemora ; and bituminous coal is worked at Helsingborg, at the entrance of the Baltic. Denmark.— -The island of Bomholm and some other islands belonging to Denmark pro- duce coal, but it would appear to belong to the Bovey coal variety. Russia.— The Donetz coal-field is the most important. In that extensive district many good seams, according to Sir R. I. Murchison, of both bituminous and anthracite coal exist. Turkey. — Coal is found bordering on the Carpathian mountains, in Servia, Roumeh'a, and Bulgaria. The coal of Heraclia, on the south coast of the Black Sea, in Anatolia, has been since the Crimean war, exciting much attention. ' Spain.— Spain contains a large quantity of coal, both bitummous and anthracite. The richest beds are in Asturias, and the measures are so broken and altered as to be worked by almost vertical shafts through the beds themselves. In one place upwards of 11 distinct seams have been worked, the thickest of which is nearly 14 feet. The exact area is not known, but it has been estimated by a French engineer that about 12,000,000 of tons might be readily extracted from one property, without touching the portion eaisting at great depths. In several parts of the province the coal is now worked, and the measures seem to resemble those of the coal districts generally. The whole coal area is said to be the largest in Europe, presenting upwards of 100 workable seams, varying from 3 to 12 feet in thickness. The Asturias Mining Company are working many mines in this region, and they are said to produce 400,000 tons annually, or to be capable of doing so. In Catalonia and in the Basque provinces of Biscay there are found anthracite and bitummous coals. In the Balearic islands also coal exists. Portugal.— Beds of lignite and some anthracite are known to exist, but the prtxluc- tion of either is small. Italy.— The principal coal mines of Italy are in Savoy and near Genoa. In the Apen- nines some coal is found, and in the valley of the Po are lai^e deposits of good lignite and a small quantity of good coal is worked in Sardinia. ^ North America.— There are in North America four principal coal areas, compared with which the richest deposits of other countries are comparatively insignificant. These are the great central c«al-fields of the Alleghanies ; the coal-fields of Illinois, and the basin of the 848 COAL. Ohio ; that of the basin of the Missouri ; and those of Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, and Cape Breton. Besides, there are many smaller coal areas which, in other countries, might well take rank as of vast national importance, and which even in North America will one day contribute greatly to the riches of various States. The Alleghany or Appalachian coal-field measures 750 miles in length, with a mean breadth of 85 miles, and traverses eight of the principal States in the American Union. Its whole area is estimated at not less than 65,000 square miles, or upwards of 40,000 square acres. The coal is bituminous, and used for gas. Coal has been found in Louisiana, on the Iberville rivers, and on the shores of Lake Bistineau : it is also reported as having been found at Lake Borgne — but this is probably a lignite. In Kentucky both bituminous and cannel coal are worked in seams about 3 or 4 feet thick, the cannel being sometimes associated with the bituminous coal as a portion of the same seam ; and there are in addition valuable bands of iron ore, {the argillaceous car- bofiate.) The coal-field of Kentucky extends over about 9,000 square miles. In Western Virginia there are several coal-fields of variable thickness: one, 9| feet ; two others of 5, and others of 3 or 4 feet. On the whole there seem to be at least 40 feet of coal dis- tributed in 13 seams. In the Ohio district the whole coal-field affords on an average at least 6 feet of coal. The Maryland district is less extensive, but is remarkable as contain- ing the best and most useful coal, which is worked now to some extent at Frostbury. There appear to be about 30 feet of good coal in 4 seams, besides many others of less importance. The quality is intermediate between bituminous and anthracite, and is considered well adapted for iron-making. Lastly, in Pennsylvania there are generally from two to five workable beds, yielding on an average 10 feet of workable coal, and amongst them is one bed traceable for no less than 450 miles, consisting of bituminous coal, its thickness being from 12 to 14 feet on the south-eastern border, but gradually diminishing to 5 or 6 feet. Besides the bituminous coal there are in Pennsylvania the largest anthracite deposits in the States, occupying as much as 250,000 acres, and divided into three principal districts. The Illinois coal-field, in the plain of the Mississippi, is only second in importance to the vast area already described. There are four principal divisions traceable, of which the first, or Indian district, contains several seams of bituminous coal, distributed over an area of nearly 8,000 square miles. It is of excellent quality for many purposes ; one kind burn- ing with much light and very freely, approaching cannel coal in some of its properties ; other kinds consist of caking or splint coal. In addition to the Indian coal-field there ap- pears to be as much as 48,000 square miles of coal area in other divisions of the Illinois district, although these are less known and not at present much worked. 30,000 are in the State of Illinois, which supplies coal of excellent quality, and with great facility. The coal is generally bituminous. The third great coal area of the United States is that of the Missouri, which is little known at present, although certainly of great importance. Taylor states that at least one-eighth of the State of Missouri is overlaid by coal meas- ures. 6,000 square miles are assigned to the coal-fields of Missouri. Bituminous coal is stated to have been found in the Arkansas valley, and brown coal and lignite in abundance in the Upper Missouri valley. British America contains coal in the provinces of New Brunswick and Nova Scotia. The former presents 3 coal-fields, occupying in all no less than 8,000 square miles ; the latter exhibits several very distinct localities where the coal abounds. The New Brunswick coal measures include not only shales and sandstones, as is usual with such deposits, but bands of lignite impregnated with various copper ores, and coated by green carbonate of copper. The coal is generally in thin seams lying horizontally. It is chiefly or entirely bituminous. Nova Scotia possesses three coal regions, of which the northern presents a total thick- ness of no less than 14,570 feet of measures, having 70 seams, whose aggregate magnitude is only 44 feet, the thickest beds being less than 4 feet. The Pictou or central district has a thickness of 7,590 feet of strata, but the coal is far more abundant, one seam measuring nearly 80 feet ; and part of the coal being of excellent quality and adapted for steam pur- poses. The southern area is of less importance. Besides the Nova Scotia coal-fields there are three others at Cape Breton, yielding different kinds of coal, of which one, the Sydney coal, is admirably adapted for domestic purposes. There are here 14 seams above 3 feet thick, one being 11, and one 9 feet. Newfoundland Coal-field. — This field is estimated at about 5,000 square miles. Ac- cording to Mr. Jukes, now Director of the Geological Survey in Ireland, the entire western side of the island, along a space of 356 miles in breadth, is occupied by secondary and car- boniferous rocks. The coal on the southwestern point of the island has been traced at inter- vals, along a space of 1 50 to 200 miles to the north-east. Greenland. — Captain Scoresby discovered a regular coal formation here. At Hasen Island, Bovey or brown coal has been found, and also at Disco Island on the western coast L[ COAL. 349 Arctic Ocean. — At Byam Martin's Island coal formations exist ; and at Melville Island several varieties of coal have been discovered, much of it being of an anthracitic or of a semi^anthracitic character. We learn that at Prince Regent's Inlet indications of coal have been observed. Russian America. — Beyond the icy cape and at Point Barrow, coal was observed on the beach ; and it has been found by digging but a few feet below the surface at Point Franklin. Oregon Territory. — Coal has been discovered and worked in Wallamette valley, neariy 100 miles above Oregon City ; and anthracite has been observed by Sir Georee Simpson about 30 miles up one of the tributaries of the Columbia River. California. — Colonel Fremont states that a coal formation exists in Upper California, North lat. 41 J°, and West long. 101 f. "The position of this coal formation is in the centre of the Rocky Mountain chain, and its elevation is 6,820 feet above the level of the sea. In some of the coal seams the coal did not appear to be perfectly mineralized, and in others it was compact and remarkably lustrous." — Fremont's Heport, 18iS. In 1847 a coal mine was discovered near San Luis Obisco, North lat. 35°. There are three coal mines within 300 miles of Monterey. Mexico. — On Salado River coal is worked by an American company. A coal formation 50 miles in breadth crosses the Rio Grande from Texas into Mexico at Loredo, and on the Mexican shore, within 200 yards of the Rio Grande, a remarkable fine vein of coal 8 feet thick occurs. Texas.— Coal is known to exist in Texas, though the country has not been geologically examined. The " Trinity Coal and Mining Company" was incorporated by the Texan Con- gress in 1840, who worked both anthracite and a semi-bitummous coal. Kennedy, in his work, " Texas, its Geography, 352 COAL BRASSES. We do not intend to answer any of those difficulties, but to leave the question open fot further examination, merely remarking, in conclusion, that there can be no doubt of the vegetable origin of coal ; the only question is, the conditions of change by which bitu- minous coal has been produced from vegetable fibre ; and, that we have not completed all the links in the chain between brown coal and true coal. In concluding this notice of mineral fuel, it may be worth while to draw attention to the vast and overwhelming importance of the subject, by a reference both to the absolute and relative value of the material, especially in the British Islands. It may be stated as proba- bly within the true limit, if we take the annual produce of the British coal mines at 66 000 000 tons, the value of which is not less than £16,700,000 sterling at the pits' mouth, which may be estimated at the place of consumption, and therefore including a certain amount of transport cost necessary to render available the raw material, at not less than £20,000,000. The capital employed in the coal trade is now estimated at £18,500,000. We have, therefore, the following summary, which will not be without interest : Value of the coal annually raised in Great Britain, estimated at the pit mouth -..----- Mean annual value at the place of consumption - Capital engaged in the coal trade Mean annual value, at the furnace, of iron produced from Brit- ish coal ------•--' £16,700,000 20,000,000 18,500,000 14,545,000 COAL BRASSES. Iron pyrites, sulphide of iron, found in the coal measures. These are employed in Yorkshire and on the Tyne in the manufacture of copperas, the proto- sulphate of iron. For this purpose they are exposed in wide-spread heaps to atmospheric action • the result is the conversion of the sulphur into sulphuric acid, which, combining with the iron, forms the sulphate of the protoxide of iron, which is dissolved out and recrystallized. , -.^r i The iron ores called Brass, occurring in the coal measures of South Wales, were par- ticulariy described by E. Chambers Nicholson and David S. Price, Ph. D., F.C.S., at the meeting of the British Association at Glasgow. Then: remarks and analyses were as follows * ■ " Tliere are three kinds of ores to which the name brass is applied ; they are considered to be an inferior class of ore, and are even rejected by some iron-masters. One is com- pact heavy, and black, from the admixture of coaly matter, and exhibits, when broken, a coarsely pisiform fracture. A second is compact and crystalline, not unlike the darkest- colored mountain limestone of South Wales in appearance. The third is similar in struc- ture to the first-named variety ; the granules, consisting of iron pyrites, are mixed with coaly matter and cemented together by a mineral substance, similar in composition to the foregoing ores. It is from the yellow color of this variety that the name brass has been assigned to the ores by the miners. The ores have respectively the following composition : — ^ Carbonate of iron Carbonate of manganese Carbonate of lime Carbonate of magnesia Iron pyrites _ - Phosphoric acid Coaly matter Clay - - , • 11. 68-71 0-42 9-36 11-80 0-22 0-17 8-87 99-55 59-73 0-37 11-80 15-55 trace 0-23 9-80 2-70 III. 17-74 • * 14-19 12-06 49-72 trace 6-10 100-18 99-81 " It is unnecessary to allude to the third variety ; as an iron-making material, its color admits of its being at all times separated from the others. The pyrites which it contains, we may remark, is bisulphuret of iron. /. xt. • u • " It is to the ores I. and II. that we would direct attention. The reason of their having hitherto been comparatively disregarded may be attributed either to their having been mis- taken for the so-called brass of coal, or to their being difficult to work in the blast-furnace in the ordinary manner, through the beUef that they were similar in construction to the argillaceous ores of the district. It will be seen from the above analyses that they are varieties of spathic iron ore, in which the manganese has been replaced by other bases. If treated judiciously, they would smelt with facility, and afford an iron equal to that produced from the argillaceous ores. From the large amount of lime and magnesia which they con- tain their employment must be advantageous in an economic point of view. OOAL-GAS. 853 " An interesting feature in these ores is their fusibility during calcination on the large scale. When this process is conducted in heaps, the centre portions are invariably melted. This, considering the almost entire absence of silica, is apparently an unexpected result. The fused mass is entirely magnetic and crystalline. Treated with acids, it dissolves with great evolution of heat. '* The following is its composition : — Protoxide of iron 38-28 Sesquioxide of iron ------.. 82-50 Protoxide pf manganese o-38 Lime 12-84 Magnesia - - . . 13-87 Phosphoric acid o-l7 Sulphur - - - . . 0-23 Silicic acid 1-20 Alumina -- • - - > . . .. 0*51 99-98 *' From the above analysis, it is probable that the fusibility of the compound is owing to the magnetic oxide of iron acting the part of an acid. When thoroughly calcined and un- fused, the ores retain their original form ; and if exposed tcf the air for any length of time crumble to powder from the absorption of water by the alkaline earths." * COAL-GAS. Before proceeding to describe the actual processes now employed for the generation of illuminating gas, it will be advisable to consider briefly the general scientific principles involved in those processes, and especially the chemical relations of the materials employed for the generation and purification of illuminating gas, together with the bearings of chemistry upon the operations of generating, purifying, and burning such gas. 27ie Chemistry of Gas-Manufacture.— The chief materials employed in the manufacture of gas for illuminating purposes are, coal, oil, resin, peat, and wood. These materials, although very dissimilar in appearance, do not essentially diffisr from each other in their ehemical constituents, they may all be regarded as consisting chiefly of the elements, car- bon, hydrogen, and oxygen, and their value for the production of illuminating gas mcreases with the increase of the proportion of hydrogen, and with the diminution of the relative . amount of oxygen. Accordingly we find that oil and resin generally produce gas larger in volume and better in quality than coal, whilst peat and wood, owing to the lai^e proportion of oxygen which they contain, are greatly inferior to coal for the purposes of the gas manu- facturer. The relative proportions of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, in the oreanic part of these substances, is seen from the following comparison : — Percentage of Carbon. Percentage of Hydrogen. Cannel (Boghead) Cannel (Wigau) ■ Coal - Oil - . . Resin • - • Peat - Wood - 80-35 85-95 88-15 78-90 79-47 60-41 60-00 11-21 6-76 6-26 10-97 9-93 6-57 5-55 Percent^e of Oxygen. 6-71 8-U 6-41 1013 10-59 34-02 44-45 In addition to the three essential constituents above mentioned, most of these materials contain small and variable proportions of sulphur, nitrogen, and inorganic matter, the latter constituting, when the substance is burnt, what we term ask. When these substances are heated to redness, they undergo decomposition, a considerable quantity of inflammable gases and vapors being evolved, whilst a residue, consisting of carbon, or of carbon and ash, remains behind in the solid form. When atmospheric air has free access durmg this heating operation, the inflammable gases and vapors burn with a more or less brightj^e as in a common fire ; whilst the carbonaceous residue continues afterwards to glow until nearly the whole of the carbon is consumed. If, however, the application of heat be* made without access of air, by inclosing the materials, for instance, in an iron retort provided only with an outlet for the escape of gases, the decomposition goes on in much the same man- ner as before, but the various products formed, bemg no longer exposed to the simultaneous action of atmospheric oxygen, do not undergo combustion ; the inflammable gases and vapors are evolved through the outlet pipe in an unbumt condition, and the carbonaceous residue also remains unconsumed in the retort. Upon cooling the giases and vapors thus evolved the latter condense more or less into liquids which separate into two layers, the lower one torming a dense black oily fluid, commonly known as tar, and containing several solid Vol. III.— 23 854 COAL-GAS. hydrocarbons partly in solution and partly in suspension ; whilst the other one consists chiefly of an aqueous solution of salts of ammonia, if the organic matters operated upon contained nitrogen. Thus the volatUe products of this process of destruchve dutUlatton consist of soUds, liquids, and gases. These constituents may be thus tabulated :— I. Gaseous. „ ITame, Chemical Formula. Hydrogen H Light carburetted hydrogen - - • CH Carbonic oxide - CO defiant gas ^^\ Propylene CJg^ Butylene - - • - • "■*^, Carbonic acid ------ CO Sulphuretted hydrogen - - - - SH Nitrogen N II. Liquid. Uanje Chemical Formula, Aqueous layer :•— Water - ' HO Oily layer: — Bisulphide of carbon a « " Benzol ^"H Toluol C"H» Cumol C"H'» Cymol C^H" ^iiline C«H'N « Picoline CJ'H'N «« Leucoline C'^H N •* Carbolic acid C"H^O' •* Other hydrocarbons CnHn* M «*^« CnHn-l-2 M M »t ■ . . - - - CnHn — 6 m. Solid. jq-Qjne. Chemical Formula. Inaqueouslayer:— Carbonate of ammonia ' " : ' S5!a^^a i* Hydrosulphate of sulphide of ammomum - NH b+ilb «• Sulphite of ammonia - . - • NH^OSO* " Chloride of ammonium - - - - NH^Cl In oUy layer:- P«^°« SS Naphth^me C^„H ^ •* Paranaphthalme ^J^n JP^« SsoSxo •» Chrysene Kj a. ■ In practice there is not such a perfect separation of the products as is represented in the above table: thus a small proportion of the gases dissolves in t,he liquid products whilst most of the liquids, and even some of the solids, diffuse themselves m the form of vapor to a certam extent, into the gases; and the solids are in most cases almost com- pletely dissolved in the liquids. The relative proportions also in which these products occur greatly depend upon the temperature employed in the destructive distillation, and the len«^h of time during which the volatile products are exposed to it ; a low temperature and short exposure favoring the formation of solids and liquids, whilst a higher heat and longer exposure determine the production of a larger proportion of gases at the expense of the solids and liquids. . , . v • v* ^ v^ * The usual process of gas-making consists in exposing coal or cannel to a bnght-red heat, in close vessels of convenient size and shape, until all, or the greater part, of the volatile matter is expelled. Coke is the material left in the retort, and the matters volatilized con- sist of condensible vapors, and of permanent gases more or less saturated with these vapors. By a simple process of refrigeration neariy the whole of the vapors may be readily condensed, thus separating the gases more or less perfectly from the liquid aud solid pro- ducts of the distiUation. But this preliminary process of purification leaves the gases still in a state totally unfitted for use in the production of artificial light. They still retam con- stituents which are either noxious in themselves, or generate noxious compounds when they are'bumt, such as sulphuretted hydrogen, sulphide of ammonium, carbonate of ammo- nia and bisulphide of carbon. They also contain carbonic acid, which greatly dmimishes the amount of light yielded by the illuminating gases with which it is mixed. * Here n means an even number, aa 2, 4, 8, && COAL-GAS. 355 Besides these injurious ingredients, which may be conveniently included in the term vnpurihes, there are others which do not contribute any thing to the Uluminating power of the mixture and which may be denominated diluents. We can thus classify the wnstitu. ents of coal-gas as follows : — Illuminating Ingredients. Olefiant gas. Propylene. Butylene. Hydrocarbon the formulae CnH(n - 6). Vapors of hydrocarbons of the formula CnH(n - 12.) vapors of CnHn and Diluents. Hydrogen. Light carburetted gen. Carbonic oxide. hydro- Impurities. Sulphuretted hydrogen. Hydrosulphate of sulphide of ammonium. Carbonate of ammonia. Carbonic acid. Vapor of bisulphide of car- bon. Nitrogen. Oxygen. Aqueous vapor. As the intelligent manufacture of gas for illuminating purposes requires a knowledge of the leading properties of the compounds included under the three heads just mention^ we will now proceed briefly to describe them. •• '"*="'^«'^^ "^^ I. Illuminating Ingredients. «..k^k/^''/ ^^—'r^'? gas has been proved by Berthelot to exist in coal-gas, and it is probably always a constituent of the illuminating gases from resin, oil, peat, aSd wood. It is occasionally though rarely, met with in nature, as a product of tkraction of volcanic heat upon coal-bearing strata ; it never occurs, however, in coal strata under ordinary cir- PoTlw^"' fj"" *'^l^^ '' ^^ V-^l ^^^ '"^^ ^^'^ ^«°g«' t^« gases issumg from the n?hlr! n. « ?'' ''^''''*!7' ^""^ ^^'""^ ^*^^ ^^^^ investigated by Graham, pSyfair, and T^Jl\ ?T. ^ ?-V'f prepared nearly pure by heating in a glass retort a mixture of 1 part by weight.of alcohol, and 6 parts of oil of vitriol. The gas must be passed through contaSinateT"*^'*^ *^ ^^"^^^^ sulphurous and carbonic acids with which it is generSy Olefiant gas is coloriess, and possesses a peculiar and slightly unpleasant odor. Its spe- cific gravity is, rather less than that of atmospheric air, being -9784 : 100 cubic inches,^ bO J?., and 30 inches barometrical pressure, weigh 30-3418 grains. It consists of twovol- umes of cart)on vapor and four volumes of hydrogen, the six volumes being condensed to nlrhn JLh'^'I IT' '"^ * ^)y,^« ^"^^^ ^"^^^^ '^'^^ ^ "^'^^^^ <^arbon as is contained in light carburetted hydrogen. Olefiant gas is inflammable, but does not support combustion: when inflamed as it issues from ajet into the atmosphere, it bums with a white flame, emit- ting a very brilliant light without smoke. In burning, it consumes three times its volmne t^ll?^\t produces twice its volume of carbonic acid. Exposed to a full red heat, as in passing through a red-hot tube, it is rapidly decomposed, carb^ being deposited, whilst hydrogen and light carburetted hydrogen are produced ; exposure to a ftll i^ heat conse- quently soon entirely destroys its illuminating power ^u ueai conse rr.S^^tf'^ ani^M*'^ ^^ *^"^"gh a red-hot tube, and the seco^ « «i£L 1.1, ^^^««^P°sit.on of valerate of potash. Both these gases are ^«';*«'*« ^/'*« F<»'^ CnHn.~A considerable number of compounds thpT^.Lt hlTff^ r ^""^"^ *^ ^^,' ^ ^*^-'^' ^^^ ^ °»any of them are very vSutUe, Inf L 1 i ? "^^u as japors m coal-gas ; but as they have not yet been succeifully dis^ entangled from each other, no account of their individual properties can be given • they .nnf .fhTf®''* ''''''^'^^ "^S^^ '^?°'' '"^ * g*^^^ ^o^'*"*^ than butylene, and mi^t therefore contribute, proportionally to their volume, a greater iUuminating power than any of the SranTnSl'uroati'n^l^':.''' -""'^^ <'-»P<-d «'« "right-red heat, ohilfly inU, ^..^T™/ ^■f'''^''^"' "/ '*« Formula CiiH(ii-6).-These consist chiefly of benzol, toluol, cumol, and oymol, compounds which, being components of the more Toiilile portioii ii si 856 COAL-GAS. of the tar diffiise themselves into the gaseous products of distillation, contributing m no SconX'abrdegree to the total illuminating effect of the gas. The composition of these subst^ces hi been already given in the Table ; and it is therefore only necessary here to reSthattenzd vapor contains, in a given volume, three times as much carbon as ole- fiantei^ whilst the vapors of toluol, cumol, and cymol, contain respectively 3^ 4^, and 6 fimes^the Imount of ca^rbon contained in olefiant gas. For a further account of these and the following hydrocarbons, see Coal Naphtha, Destructive Distillation. VaZslfffydrocarbons of the Formula CnH(n-12.-The only vapor of this compo- sition Cw£[ to be present in coal-gas is naphthaline, (C«H«,) which, although a solid at oXary ?e^pe^tures, yet emits a considerable quantity of vapor; in fact, its presence nroasions to a ereat extent the peculiar odor of coal-gas. Naphthalini is a frequent source of serious annoyance to the gas manufacturer, by con- densing in the street mains and gradually blocking them up, or so narrowing their bore as toTreVent the passage of the needful supply of gas. This effect can only be produced, when the gas chS with naphthaline vapor is allowed to leave the holder at a tempera- rm^h^L^Tan t^at of the mains through which it subsequently flows ; but as this cannot Swav^be avoided, the prevention of such deposits might perhaps be best effected by pass- 'ig the ga^ over a large^urface of coal oil before it is led into the mams. The od wo^^^ absorb so much of the naphthalme as to prevent any subsequent deposition Jbe vapor of n^nhthaline contains in an equal volume, five times as much carbon as olefiant gas. The aSm^ntSt y^^^^^^^ by these illuminkting constituents is direcUy proportionate to the amount of Son contained in an equal volume of each ; taking, therefore, the illuminat- LTpoler oToleSant gas as unity, the following numbers exhibit the relative illuminating values of equal volumes of the several luminiferous constituents of gas :— Benzol ^'^ Propylene Butylene Amylene Hydride of amyl - Hydride of hexyl - Hexylene 1-5 2-0 2-5 2-5 30 30 Toluol - Heptylene Cumol - Cymol - Naphthaline - 3-6 - 8-5 - 4-0 . 6-0 - 50 II. Diluents. ITydroaen -This element constitutes one-ninth of the total weight of the waters of our dobeCd with one or two unimportant exceptions, enters into the composition of an af^aU^d vegetable substances and of the products derived from them, as peat, coal o rbUmnen &r It is, however, very rarely met with in nature in a free or uncombmed Se S Wtherto only been thus found in the gases em tted from volcanoes. HvdrJgen gi may be obtained in abundance and nearly pure by passing steam over 5ron zinc and^vSi other metals, in a fine state of division, at a full red heat Mixed Z2 caKc ox'de and carbonic kcid gases, it is also generated in large quantity when witn caroomc ux , , ^^^ carbonaceous substances at a red heat. In a^e"e^c^es^^w:teTva^^^^^^^^ '^« ^^y^^-S- being liberated, whilst its all these cases xne > y ^ forming in the first case a solid non-volatile oxide, "^.'^''IZ l^he D^^^^^^ f"^ther action ; in the second case a gaseous Txide 7c"rbon s'geL^^^^^^ and passes o'ff along with the hydrogen thus leaving the ^rbon freefv expos^^^ to the further action of the watery vapor. When carbon is used Sit nnrtion y thrsteam which is converted into hydrogen and carbonic oxide yields ite owi vo ume of each oHh'se gases ; and that portion which forms hydrogen.and carbonic own volume oi eacu u 5 b^dro«'en and half its own volume of carbonic acid. The acid ^«;5VlrTv.Dor^^^^^ undeXs the latter decomposition decreases as the tern- pSSu^e at :SK;eSron iTconfucted increases. At awhite heat scarcely a tr,ce of '" HvLt^^ of all known bodies, its specific gravity being only •0691 ; lOO cubS inche? It 60° Fahr., and 30 inches barometric pressure, weigh only 2-1371 grains, uts a powerful affinity for oxvgen, but develops scarcely any light ^'^""g/onjbustion; when hoCver, solid substances ?uch as lime, magnesia, or platinum, are ^;^d ^"^^^ ^^^ If hydr^en, cinsiderable light is emitted. Burnt in air or oxygen gas, ;t>s entirely con- vprSd inlo waterv vapor, which condenses upon cold surfaces held above the flame. ''%Tc:Z7etJ H,dro,en.-Ty.^s gas Lsists of carbon and hydrogen - the Propor- t?nr, n? fi narts bv weight of the former element combined with 2 parts of the latter Ow^nf to Cbeing lopfously generated in marshy swampy places, it is frequen ly termed I *!/ld f^m cKn considerati^^ relative to its chemical constitution, it has more marsh gas, and trom cenain «^""= , - , , j^ ^ \BTee\y nto the composition recently received the °ame of M^^ 0/ m^^^^^^^ 7 ^^^ J of coal-gas, and is -'^^-f^l^^.f,^:^^^^ the coal strata, and bi^bbles uTf^m"st^rnaS!-porand S^sVhich contain%utrefying oi^anic remains. As thus J OOAL-GAS. 857 generated, it is mixed with small quantities of carbonic acid and nitrogen ; it can, how- ever, be artificially prepared perfectly pure, but the processes need not be described here. Light carburetted hydrogen when pure is colorless, tasteless, and inodorous ; it is neu- . tral to test papers, aid nearly insoluble in water ; its specific gravity is -5594, and 100 cubic inches, at 60" Fahr., and 30 inches barometric pressure, weigh IT -4 166 grains. It does not support combustion or respiration, but is inflammable, burning with a blue, or slightly yellow flame, yielding scarcely any light. Mixed with a due proportion of atmos- pheric air or oxygen, and ignited, it explodes with great violence : the products of its com- bus^on are water and carbonic acid. When light carburetted hydrogen is exposed to a white heat, it is slowly decomposed, depositing carbon, and yielding twice its volume of hydrogen. Carbonic^ Oxide. — This gas consists of 6 parts by weight of carbon, and 8 parts of oxygen. It is formed when carbon is consumed in a limited quantity of air or oxygen, and is also generated, as stated above, when steam is passed over ignited coke or charcoal, or when coal tar and steam meet in a red-hot vessel. It is always a constituent of coal-gas. Carbonic oxide is a colorless and inodorous gas, rather lighter than atmospheric air, and having exactly the specific gravity of olefiant gas, •9'727 ; it is very sparingly soluble in water, but is very soluble in ammoniacal solution of chloride of copper. Carbonic oxide is inflammable, burning with a beautiful blue flame almost devoid of light ; the product of its combustion is carbonic acid. It is said to be very poisonous. III. Impurities. Sulphuretted Hydrogen. — This gas consists of sixteen parts of sulphur and one part of hydrogen : it may be produced by passing hydrogen along with the vapor of sulphur through a red-hot tube, but it is best prepared pure by decomposing proto-sulphuret of iron with dilute sulphuric acid, and collecting the evolved gas at the pneumatic trough or over mercury. It is always an ingredient in crude coal, peat, or wood-gas. Sulphuretted hydrogen is a colorless gas, of a very nauseous odor, resembling that of putrid eggs ; its specific gravity is MV47. It is highly inflammable, burning with a blue flame, destitute of light, and generating a large amount of sulphurous acid : it is chiefly this latter circumstance which renders its presence in coal-gas objectionable. It is readily absorbed by metallic solutions, by hydrated oxide of iron, and by lime both in the wet and dry state, and is easily recognized in coal-gas by exposing a strip of paper impregnated with acetate of lead to a stream of the gas ; if the paper becomes discolored, sulphuretted hydrogen is present. Hi/drosulphate of Sulphide of Ammonium.— This compound is formed by the combina- tion of equal volumes of ammonia and sulphuretted hydrogen. It consists of 14 parts by weight of nitrogen, 15 of hydrogen, and 32 of sulphur. It is always lai-gely produced in the manufacture of coal-gas, but is almost completely condensed and retained in the aque- ous layer of liquid products, contributing principally to the unbearable odor of gas liquor; a mere trace of this body is therefore present in crude coal-gas. When quite pure it is a colorless crystalline solid, very soluble in water, and volatile at ordinary temperatures. Its vapor, when present in coal-gas, is absorbed and decomposed by hydrate of lime both in the wet and dry state, ammonia being liberated. It is also decomposed by acids, but in this case the ammonia is retained by the acid, whilst sulphuretted hydrogen is evolved. Carbonic Acid.— This gas is met with in nature as a constituent of atmospheric air, and is produced in large quantities during the eariier stages of the formation of coal m the earth's strata. Thus, in the lignite districts of Germany, it is copiously evolved, and meet- ing with water in its passage to the surface, it is absorbed, and forms those sparkling mm- eral springs commonly known as seltzer-water. Carbonic acid is also formed during fermentation, by the combustion of carbon in air and in the decomposition of water by carbon at a red heat. At ordinary temperatures carbonic acid is a colorless and invisible gas, but it may be liquefied by very intense cold or pressure. It consists of 6 parts, by weight, of carbon united with 16 parts of oxygen, and thus differs from carbonic oxide by containing twice as much oxygen as the latter gas. By passing carbonic acid over ignited coke, charcoal or other carbonaceous matters, it takes up as much carbon as it already contains, and becomes converted into carbonic oxide ; but it is impossible in this way to convert the whole of the carbonic acid into carbonic oxide unless the process be very frequently repeated. Carbonic acid is pungent, acidulous, and soluble in an equal bulk of water, to which it communicates that briskness which we so much admire in soda-water ; it is considerably heavier than atmospheric air, its specific gravity being 1-524. This gas is uninflammable, and cannot support combustion or animal life. Its acid properties are not strongly developed, but it unites readily with alkaline bases, forming carbonates : it is upon this property that the removal of carbonic acid from coal-gas depends. On passing coal-gas containing this acid through slaked lime in fine powder, or through milk of lime, the whole of the carbonic acid disappears, having united with the lime. Quick-lime, slaked in such a manner as to be neither dust-dry nor very perceptibly moist, is most effective for the absorption of high per- It«: I 358 COAL-GAS. centages of carbonic acid, a layer three inches in thickness not allowing a trace of the acid ^^ThrTri^e'Te^^even of a small percentage of carbonic acid in coal-gas is much to be deprecated, on account of the great loss of light which it occasions^ per cent, of carbonic acid diminishing the illuminating power of coal-gas to the extent of about 6 per cent ; the addition which !t makes to the carbonic acid produced durmg combustion is, however, too minute to be of any importance. _ , „ , -j vi Carbonate of Ammonia.-Dunvia the destructive distiUation of coal, a considerable pro- portion of the nitrogen contained in the coal is converted into carbonate of ammonia^ the CTeater part of which condenses in the aqueous layer of liquid products ; but as carbflnate of ammonia is very volatile, even at ordinary temperatures, crude coal-gas always contams a small quantity of this compound. It is a volatile, white, crystalline solid, very soluble in water, and possessing a pungent smell like ammonia. Its vapor is decomposed by lime, which unites with carbonic acid, liberating ammonia. The presence of this salt, or of am- monia, in coal-gas, is very undesirable, as it t^orrodes brass fittings, and is also partially con- verted into nitrous acid during the combustion of the gas. . , , , a Bisulphide of Car6on.— This compound consists of 6 parts, by weight, of carbon, and 32 parts of sulphur ; it is formed whenever sulphur and carbonaceous matter are brought to-ether at a bright-red heat, and therefore, owing to the presence of sulphur in all varieties of coal, its vapo? is generally, and probably always, present in coal-gas. Bisulphide of car- bon is i colorless liquid, of a most insupportable odor, resembling garlic; it is very volatile, boiling at 108°. It does not mix with water, but dissolves in alcohol and ether ; it is also very soluble in solution of caustic soda or potash in methylic, ethylic, or amylic alcohol. It is verv inflammable, and generates during combustion much sulphurous acid : on this account 'its presence in coal gas is very injurious, and as there is no known means of remov- inbable that bis" Pl»de of carbon is present. As a decisive test, 50 or 60 jirops of the condensed fluid should be col- fecl^in rSl test-tube, and a few drops of pure nitric acid added : on heatmg this mix- ture to boilin- over a spirit-lamp, and then adding a drop or two of a solution of chloride orb^um the liquid will become more or less milky if bisulphide of carbon bas been pres- ent in the gas. It is necessary here to remark, that the absence of sulphuretted hydrogen must be fi^t ascertained by the non-coloration of paper imbued with acetate of lead, and held for some minutes in a stream of the gas. , . • im «„k;« foot nf «;r Nitroaert —This gas is the chief constituent of atmospheric air, 100 cubic feet of air conteining rather mo^ than 79 cubic feet of this gas. It also enters into the composition ofVlai^e number of animal and vegetable substances.^ All descriptions of coal con am small quantities of this element. When nitrogen is ehminated from combination m contact with oxygen, it usually takes the form of nitrous or nitric acid ; whilst m contact w.th an excess of hydrogen it generates ammonia. It is in this latter form that it is ehmmated from coal in the process of gas generation. c a .^ ',r. ftoTA Tt U in- Nitrogen is a coloriess, inodorous, and tasteless gas, of specific gravity 976. it is m combustible under ordinary circumstances, and instantaneously extinguishes burning bodies. Under certain conditions, however, nitrogen does undergo combustion, as when it is exposea to a very intense heat in the presence of oxygen. This occurs, for instance, when a small quantity of nitrogen is added to a mixture of hydrogen, with a somewhat larger Proportion of^xv^n than if requisite to form water, and the mixture then ignited : a loud explos on ti.es place, and a considerable quantity of nitric acid is formed, owing to combustion of the • This instrument can be had on application to Mr. Wright, 55 and 65a, MUlbank Street, Westmln- iter, 8. W. COAL-GAS. 859 nitrogen, or, in other words, its union with oxygen gas. This formation of nitric acid pos- sibly occurs also to a limited extent during the burning of coal-gas ; and as the temperature required to form nitric acid is very high, the greater the volume of gas consumed from one burner in a given time, the greater will be the relative quantity of nitric acid produced. The formation of such a corrosive material as nitric acid under these circumstances shows the importance of preventing the admixture of the products of the combustion of coal-gas with the atmosphere of the apartments in which it is consumed. The nitrogen contained in coal-gas is due entirely to the admission of atmospheric air, and not to the elimination of the nitrogen contained in the coal ; for this latter nitrogen appears to be evolved only in combination with hydrogen as ammonia. As nitrogen is iucombustible, it is not only a use- less ingredient in coal-gas, but, owing to its abstracting heat from the flame of such gas, it causes a diminution of light, and is thus decidedly injurious. The admixture of this ele- ment ought therefore to be avoided as much as possible. Oxygen. — This element is always present in coal-gas, although in very small quantity if the manufacture be properly conducted. It is never evolved from the coal itself, but it makes its way into the gas through leaky joints, and also to a certain extent through the water in which the holders are immersed. Its presence is highly injurious to the illuminat- ing power of the gas ; and sincQ, when once introduced, it cannot be abstracted by any practicable means, its admixture ought to be carefully guarded against. Oxygen is a colorless, invisible, and inodorous gas, very sparingly soluble in water, and which has hitherto resisted all attempts to liquefy it by cold or pressure. It is evolved from the leaves of plants under the influence of light, and constitutes about one-fifth of the bulk of our atmosphere. By far the largest amount of oxygen however exists in combina- tion with other elements ; thus eight out of every nine tons of water are pure oxygen, and it forms at least one-third of the total weight of the mineral crust of our globe. It is there- ■ fore the most abundant of all elements. Oxygen gas is heavier than atmospheric air ; 100 cubic inches, at 60° Fahr. and 30 inches barometric pressure, weighing 34 "193 grains, whilst 100 cubic inches of the latter weigh only 31 "01 17 grains. The specific gravity of oxygen is 1*1026. It eminently supports combustion, all combustible bodies when intro- duced into it burning much more vividly than in common air ; indeed it is owing to the presence of this gas in our atmosphere, that common air possesses the property of support- ing combustion. Aqueoiis vapor. — ^Water is volatile at all natural temperatures, and therefore its vapor always exists to a greater or less extent diffused in coal-gas, even as delivered to the con- sumer. The percentage amount of aqueous vapor thus present in coal-gas is always small, even when the gas is saturated ; nevertheless the presence of even this small proportion of aqueous vapor diminishes to a certfdn extent the light produced by the combustion of gas. This effect is no doubt owing to the action of aqueous vapor upon carbon at a high temper- ature, by which action hydrogen, carbonic oxide, and carbonic acid gases are produced. The presence of aqueous vapor therefore tends to reduce the number of particles of carbon floating in the gas flame, and consequently the light is diminished. The following table shows the maximum percentages of aqueous vapor which can be present in gas at different temperatures. As a general rule the gas will contain the maximum amount at the lowest temperature to which it has been exposed in its passage from the retorts to the burners. Percentage Percentage Percentage Temperature. of aqneous Temperature. of aqneous Temperature. of aqueous vapor. vapor. vapor. 32° F. 0-6 42° F. 0-9 62° F. 1-3 33° 0-6 43° 0-9 63° 1-3 34° 0-7 44° 1-0 64° 1-4 35° 0-7 46° 10 65° 1-4 36° 0-7 46° 1-0 66° 1-6 37° 0-7 47° M 67° 1-5 38° 0-8 48° 1-1 68° 1-6 39° 0-8 49° 1-1 69° 1-7 40° 0-8 60° 1-2 60° 1-8 41- 0-9 61° 1-2 I Aqueous vapor has a specific gravity of *6201, and one cubic foot of it contains one cubic foot of hydrogen and half a cubic foot of oxygen. In contact with ignited carbon, or carbonaceous substances, it is decomposed ; producing a mixture of hydrogen, carbonic oxide, and carbonic acid gases. When passed over ignited iron it yields its own volume of nearly pure hydrogen. Having thus described the more important properties of the constituents of coal-gas, #«^' 360 COAL-GAS. we are now prepared to discuss the conditions involved in the generation, purification, and ''"onlL" fen^ation of illuminating gas.-The production of gas for illuminating pur- pos^rwheth^er derived /rom coal, peaVwood, or oil, depends, as we have seen upon a e- arrangement of the elements composing 4he material employed The nature o th s re- arraniement is dependent upon the temperature employed. The lower the heat f^^^fj can he effected, the less the weight of coke or carbonaceous residue left in the ^etoit and consequently the greater the Amount of carbon remaining combined with the hydrogen ; the^?drSbons^hus formed being chiefly solids and liquids. On the other hand^^ higher the temperature employed, the greater is the weight of carbonaceous residue and therefore the smaller is the amount of carbon contained m the volatilized matters, whiU the nroDortion of gases in these latter becomes larger as the temperature increases. 13y employin- a very low temperature for the destructive distillation, the production of gas m^y be almost entirely prevented, whilst by the employment of a very high temperatm-e the three chief constituents of coal might without doubt be completely converted mto coke, carbonTc oxTde, and hydrogen. Now the results produced by both these extremes of tern- Sure are v'alueless to ?he gas mafiufacturer, and it is therefore necessary to employ a heat sufficiently high to prevent as much as possible the volatile substances from escaping fn the form of condensible vapors, but not high enough to decompose the luminiferous con- sdtucnts of the evolved gas. If coal were a definite and single chemical compound, and could be so exposed to heSt as to suddenly raise the temperature of every particle o a uni- form andlfii^te degree, it is highly probable that the results of the ^^^^^^l^^-^ f^^^^^^^^^ less complex than they are in the present mode of gas manufacture; and it might e^en be poL'ble to find such a degree of temperature as would convert the whole of the hy^drogen into o^or more of the higher gaseous compounds of carbon, thus giving results of maximum vdue toX gas-manufScturer. In the ordinary processes of gas-making where a charge of several cwts. of coal, often in large lumps, is thrown into an ignited retort, f^f.^^^P^^^^^.'^^^^^ attain any such uniform temperature. The heat is conducted very gradually to the mtcnor of the mai of coal, and therefore various portions of the charge are exposed to very unequal emrrSui-es especially in the earlier stages of the distillation. The natural consequence of S conditioL\ th J production, on the one hand, of products ^-l^-g/X^rf' tar tPmnerature viz • hydrogen and light carburetted hydrogen, and on the other, ot tar wS^^y be regarded Ss the consequence of deficient heat. Notwithstanding several Tttempte Lse S^Lvantages have not yet been successfully overcome, but the ""Portance of a oCtS process which would secure a tolerably uniform temperature durmg the whole IrsH? S^Kon, is seen from the remarkable results obtained wth C egg's revolving web litort-a form of apparatus undoubtedly the most ingenious yet invented for the pro- duction of gas and which, although in its present form too complicated for successful prac- S use yefembodies, ihen we^ consider the early date of its invention, m a remarkable iZne^he true scientific principles of gas-making. This retort, of w^J^J^/^f J^^^^^^^^ will be found at p. 381, obviated to a great extent the inequality ^jd^^^ertainty of temper- ature in the ordinary gas retorts, and the result was an increase of from 30 to 40 per cent, f^e qvmitUy of gJ produced, the quality being also improved, whUst scarcely any tar ""^BuTbesides the great influence exercised by the temperature to which coal is exposed in the tocess of gas^^^^ the length of ortion of carbon, forms carbonic acid, whilst the nitrogen unites with hydrogen to form ammonia, which, by combination with sulphuretted hydrogen, produces hydrosulphate of sulphide of ammonium, and, with carbonic acid and water, carbonate of ammoma. With the exception of bisulphide of carbon and the organic sulphur compounds just "mentioned the removal of all these impurities is not difficult. Slaked lime either m the [^J^^.f^^^^^^ powder, or suspended in water as milk of lime, absorbs the whole of them ; whdst it has no Perceptible effect upon the other constituents of the gas. By this process of Purification L sulphuretted hydrogen and caustic lime are converted »^t« «" P^^^.^^^^^^^/^Xw^e water • the former, bein|non-volatile, does not mix with the gas Hydrosulphate of sulphide of ammonium is in Uke manner converted into sulphide of calcium, water, .and ammonia : part of the latter is retmned by the moisture present m the purifying material, but the re- mainder mixes with the gas, from which, however, it can be removed by <^ontact with a large surface of water. Carbonic acid unites with caustic lime with great energy, Arming car- bonate of Ume, a perf"ectly non-volatile material; and thus the acid gas is effectuaUy r^ tained. Carbonate of ammonia is under sunilar circumstances decomposed carbonate of Ume bein- formed and ammonia liberated ; the last, as before, bemg only partially retained brthrmoisture present, and requiring, when "dry-lime" is used, a «f .««^^^«^^g>l^^^;^^ of water for its complete removal. Although in the wet lime purifying process a given weight of Ume can remove a much larger volmne of impurities, yet the dry lime process po^ ^L so many manipulatory advantages that it is now aU but umversally employed where wis used^ the purifying agent The maximum amount of sulphuretted hydrogen or of ca^nic add whFcrcL be absorbed by 1 lb. of quick-lime, m the so-called dry and wet states respectively, is seen from the foUowing table :— Cubic feet of Cubic feet of Sulphuretted hydrogen. Carbonic acid. 1 lb. of quick-lune used as dry Ume absorbs - - 6 78 - - - ^39 1 lb. of quick-Ume used as wet lime absorbs - - 6v8 - - - b 7» In practice, however, the absorption actually effected is, even under the most favorable circumstances, considerably less than here indicated. As a substitute for lime in the pun- SSi oTgas a mixture of hydrated peroxide of iron and sulphate of hne has la ?ly come fnto extensive use. This material is prepared m the first place by mixing BW.ed Imje with hydrated peroxide of iron, the composition being rendered more porous by the addition of a certain proportion of sa'wdust. This mixture is now in a condition to removethose im- purides from coal-gas which are abstracted by lime. The peroxide of iron absorbs sul- phur^d^ydrogen and sulphide of ammonium and becomes converted mto sulphide of iron. COAL-GAS. 863 The slaked lime absorbs carbonic acid and carbonate of ammonia until it is converted mto subcarbonate of Ume. When the absorbing powers of the mixture are nearly exhausted, the covers of the purifiers are removed and the mixture is exposed to the air. The follow- ing change is then said to take place. The sulphide of iron rapidly absorbs oxygen and be- comes converted first into sulphate of protoxide of iron, and finally into sulphate of perox- ide, which latter is decomposed by the carbonate of lime, carbonic acid being evolved as gas, whilst sulphate of lime and peroxide of iron are produced ; the mixture is thus again rendered avaUable for the process of purification ; the peroxide of iron acts as before, but in the place of quick-lime we have now sulphate of lime, which is quite effectual for the removal of carbonate of ammonia, with which it forms carbonate of lime and sulphate of ammonia ; but the mixture is incapable of removing free carbonic acid, and it is therefore necessary to provide a separate dry lime-purifier for the removal of this gas. When the purifying material is again saturated with the noxious gases, another exposure to atmos- pheric oxygen restores it again to its active condition, the only permanent effect upon it being the accumulation of sulphate of ammonia within its pores. If this latter salt be oc- casionally dissolved out with water, the mixture may be used over and over again to an abnost unlimited extent. It has been found that this process can be much simpUfied, and Mr. HiUs, who has brought gas purification to great perfection, recommends that hydrated peroxide of iron should be merely mixed with a considerable bulk of sawdust and placed in the purifiers. After the gas has passed through this mixture for 18 hours, it is shut off and replaced by a current of air forced through by a fanner for 3 hours. The sulphide of iron is thus oxidized, sulphur being separated and hydrated peroxide of iron regenerated : and the purifying material being now revivified, the gas may be passed through it again as be- fore. In this way it is only found necessary to remove the material once a month in order to separate the lowest stratum of about an inch in thickness, which has become clogged up with tar. A proportional quantity of fresh mixture of hydrated peroxide of iron and sawdust having been added, the whole is again returned to the purifier. It is difficult to conceive a more simple and inexpensive process of purification than this. It does not, how- ever, remove carbonic acid. Several other materials have been proposed for the separation of sulphuretted hydrogen from coal-gas, such as sulphate of lead, and chloride of manganese, but they possess no peculiar advantages and have never been extensively adopted. It has been already mentioned that, in addition to sulphuretted hydrogen and carbonic acid, which are readily removed by the processes just described, there also exist in coal-gas, as impurities, variable quantities of bisulphide of carbon and probably sulphuretted hydro- carbons. Now all these sulphur compounds produce sulphurous acid during the combus- tion of the gas, and where the quantities of these impurities are considerable, as is the case with much of the gas now manufactured, the atmosphere of the apartments in which such gas is used becomes so strongly impregnated with sulphurous acid, as to be highly offensive to the senses and very destructive to art decorations, bindmgs of books, &c. It becomes, therefore, a matter of considerable importance to prevent, as far as possible, the occurrence of these injurious constituents ; in fact, until this is effected, gas will never be more than very partially adopted as a means of iUumination in dweUing-houses. When once gener- ated with coal-gas aU attempts to remove these constituents have hitherto proved meffect- ual, and there seems little ground for hope that any practical process wiU be devised for their abstraction. Attention may, therefore, more profitably be directed to the conditions which tend to diminish the amount generated in the retorts, or altogether to prevent their formation. Mr. Wright, who has paid considerable attention to this problem, finds that the employment of a moderate heat for the generation of the gas has the effect of greatly re- ducing the relative quantity of these noxious ingredients, and thus, by simply avoidin*' ex- cessive heat in the retorts, and rejecting the last portions of gas, he has, to a great extent prevented their formation. Unfortunately, however, this remedy is not likely to find favor amongst gas-manufacturers m general, inasmuch as it considerably reduces the yield of gas. A few well-directed chemical experiments could scarcely fail to discover the conditions necessary for the non-production of these sulphuretted compounds. Probably the proper admixture of salt or Ume with the coals before carbonization would have the desired effect. The subject is one of so much unportance to the future of gas iUumination, that it ought not to be suffered to rest in its present unsatisfactory condition. On the consumption of gas.— The proper consumption or bummg of iUuminating gas depends upon certain physical and chemical conditions, the due observance of which is of great importance in the development of a maximum amount of Ught The production of artificial light depends upon the fact that, at certain high temperatures, all matter becomes luminous. The higher the temperature the greater is the intensity of the Ught emitted. The heat required to render matter lummous m its three states of aggregation differs greatly. Thus soUds are sometimes luminous at comparatively low temperatures, aa phosphorus and phosphoric acids. Usually, however, solids require a temperature of 600° or 700° F to render them lummous in the dark, and must be heated to 1000° F. before their lummoa^ I 364 COAL-GAS. ity becomes visible in daylight. Liquids require about the same temperature. But to ren- der gases luminous, they might be exposed to an immensely higher temperature ; even the intense heat generated by the oxyhydrogen blowpipe scarcely suflSces to render the aqueous vapor produced visibly luminous, although solids, such as lime, emit light of the most daz- zling splendor when they are heated in this flame. Hence those gases and vapors only can illuminate which produce, or deposit, solid or Uquid matter during their combustion. This dependence of light upon the production of solid matter is strikingly seen in the case of phosphorus, which when burnt in chlorine produces a light scarcely visible, but when con- sumed in air or oxygen emits light of intense brilliancy. In the former case the vapor of chloride of phosphorus is produced, in the latter, solid phosphoric acid. Several gases and vapors possess this property of depositing solid matter during com- bustion, but a few of the combinations of carbon and hydrogen are the only ones capable of practical application : these latter compounds evolve during combustion only the same products as those generated in the respiratory process of animals, viz. : carbonic acid and water. The solid particles of carbon which they deposit in the interior of the flame, and which are the source of light, are entirely consumed on arriving at its outer boundary ; their use as sources of artificial light, under proper regulations, is therefore quite compat- ible with the most stringent sanitary rules. The constituents of purified coal-gas have already been divided into illuminating and non-illummating gases; amongst the latter will be found light carburetted hydrogen, which, although usually regarded as an illuminating gas, has been proved by the experiments of Frankland to produce, under ordinary circumstances, no more light than hydrogen or car- bonic oxide, and therefore for all practical purposes it must be regarded as entirely desti- tute of illuminating power. This is owing chiefly to the temperature required for the de- position of its carbon being higher than that attained in an ordinary gas-burner ; for Frank- land has proved that, if the temperature of the light carburetted hydrogen flame be increased by previously heating the gas and air nearly to redness, then the flame becomes luminous to a considerable degree. It is not improbable that when gas is consumed in very large burners this necessary temperature is attained, and the light carburetted hydrogen con- tributes considerably to the aggregate illuminating eflcct; a view which is, to a certain ex- tent, confirmed by the fact, that a relatively much larger amount of light is obtamed from coal-gas when the latter is consumed m a large flame than when it is allowed to burn in a small flame. Omitting light carburetted hydrogen and carbonic oxide, the remainmg carboniferous constituents of coal-gas yield, turing combustion from suitable burners, an amount of light directly proportionate to the quantity of carbon which they contain in a given volume. In order to understand the nature of the combustion of a gas flame, it is necessary to remember that the flame is freely permeable to the air, and that, according to the well- known laws of gaseous mixture, the amount of air which mixes with the ignited gases will be increased, first, by an increase of the velocity with which the gas issues from the orifice of the burner; and s'econdly, by the velocity of the current of air immediately surrounding the flame. It is well known that a highly lummiferous gas may be deprived of all illumina- ting power either by being made to issue from the burner with great velocity, or by being bunit in a very rapid current of air produced by a very tall glass chimney. The foregoing considerations indicate the conditions best adapted for obtaining the max- imum illuminating effect from coal-gas. The chief condition is the supply of just such a volume of air to the gas flame as shall prevent any particles of carbon from escaping uncon- sumed. Any excess of air over this quantity must duninish the number of particles of car- bon deposited within the flame, and consequently impair the illuminating effect. Another condition is the attainment of the highest possible temperature within the flame. The first of these conditions has been more or less perfectly obtained in the differ- ent gas-burners now m use. The second has been hitherto almost entirely neglected : tlie means by which it may be attamed will be discussed after the burners at present in general use have been described. The chief burners now in use are the bat's-wing, fish-tail, argand, bude argand, \\ m- field's argand, Guise's argand, and Leslie's argand. The hafs-wing consists of a fine slit in an iron nipple, giving a flat fan-like flame. The fish-tail consists of a similar nipple perforated by two holes, drilled so that the jets of gas are inclined towards each other at an angle of about 60°. A flat film of flame is thus produced, somewhat resembling the tail of a fish. This form of burner is especially adapted for the consumption of cannel and other highly illuminating gases. The argand consists of a hollow annulus, (see/^r. 161,) from the upper surface of which the gas issues through a number of small apertures, which are made to vary in diameter from Vsa of an mch to Vso of an inch, according to the richness of the gas; the most highly illuminating gases requiring the smallest apertures. The distances of the orifices for coal- OOAL-GAS. 365 gas should be 'IB to "18 inch, and for rich cannel gas -13 inch. If the argand ring has ten orifices, the diameter of the central opening should be = Vio of an inch ; if 25 orifices, it should be 1 inch for coal gas ; but for oil gas, with 10 orifices, the central opening should have a diameter of \ an inch, and for 20 orifices, 1 inch. The pin holes should be of equal size, otherwise the larger ones will cause smoke, as in an argand flame with an uneven wick. The hude burner consists of 2 or 3 concentric argand rings perforated in the manner just described. It is well adapted for producing a large body of very intense light with a comparatively moderate consumption of gas. Winfield's argand. — The chief distinction between this and the ordinary argand burner consists in the introduction of a metallic button above the annulus, so as to cause the internal current of air to impinge againsf the flame. A peculiarity in the shape of the glass chimney, as seen in the figure, produces the same effect upon the outer current of air. See/^r. 162. Guise's argand contains 26 holes in a ring, the inner diameter of which is -6 inch, and the outer diameter 1*9 inch. Like the Winfield burner, it has a metal button ^ an inch in diameter, and 1 inch above thd annulus. The glass chimney, which is cylin- drical, is 2 inches in diameter, and 6 inches long. Leslie's argand consists, as is seen in the figure, (^^.164,) of a series of fine tubes arranged 163 162 164 in a circle, by which a more uniform admixture of air with the gas is effected. A sufficient current of air for all these argand burners can only be obtained by the use of a glass chim- ney, the rapidity of the current depending upon the height of the chimney. In the Les- lie's argand the height of the chimney is especially adapted to the amount of light re- quired, and in order to consume gas economically, this point must be attended to in all argand burners. The following experiments made with different burners, by three eminent experiment- ers, upon the gaa from three different kinds of coal, show the relative values of these burners for the gases produced from the chief varieties of coal used for the manufac- ture of gas in this country. Table I. — Results of Experiments on Kciocastle Cannel Gas^ by Mr. A. Wright. 1 Foot l^Foot S Feet H Feet 8 Feet S^Feet 4 Feet HFeet per Hoor. per Hour. per Hoar. per Hour. per Hoor. per Hour. per Hoar. per Hoar. Scotch Fish-tail, No. 1 :— One foot = candles - - 4T5 5-02 ■ " = grains of sperm 5S5-0 6020 Scotch Fish-tail, No. 2 :— One foot = candles - - 505 6-7T 5-95 5-84 5-53 " — grains of sperm 6060 690-0 714-0 700-0 568-0 Guise's Argand : — One foot = candles - - • • 1-08 1-85 812 4 85 4^5 5^ 6-74 " —grains of sperm • • 129-0 222-0 8740 5820 594-0 692-0 808-0 866 • COAL-GAS. 4 » O ■^ CO V3 C4 CO 00 09 00 ft? 4 .1. I 1 H P El o C<1 CO o • • 1-1 o eo a» o o 00 © OS 03 00 CO o eo o I— I U3 • • eo to 00 t- • • 00 i> • • CO •-' o» lo eo • • r-i CO O o eo CO CO (M U3 ©1 Or-I • • to eo 6» CO 00 i-t o» • • CO to CO 7^ 4j< 00 10 (N CO o> CO iO to w o to tJ* • • i-l 00 00 OS eb >b >o Oi;- • • eo to i-l 00 • • OS l-H CO (N to 00 OS O 00 • • t-t 1-H CO o e CO 10 t- C1 OS o 00 o fO l-H eo CO to to o to ^ (M OS OS t- » • I-l 00 CO 04 00 ©I At ir- to t- »o • • O Jr- 00 CO 04 to U3 to o CO to CO • • eo o CO 00 t}« CO ^ 00 CO t- CO « 00 O CO r-* eo CO • • I-t OS CO 00 I— I CO ©1 • • O 00 CO ■kS o o « 00 ©1 1^ l-H CO 00 l-H O ©1 ©I CO ©1 to tp ©» CO 1-H eo • • CO 00 eo 00 t1< to • • eo cs l-H O CO • • CO l-H CO CO eo ©« CO CO t- • O 00 CO :$. - *^ CO ©1 • • O rH 5 to f-H 00 ©1 00 to ©I 00 CO ir- l-H t- CO • • • ■ l-H Tt^ f-l rH ©I ©I CO ©« ©1 • • ©1 ^ ©1 CO 00 o ©1 to ©q lb 1^ o 00 ©< ©I ©I . s so e eS c« © • O . 00 aJ _- a tea o I II II -S II o •^ a fl> o "So a CO fe b -g a a O a 1.^ F<4 rC OQ eS O 8 el « o o ^ C '^ ■ a 08 „' II II -i o .0 00 cu I a. Oi ^1 I („ CO _ a, O • on O S c (^ -a a ^ a C 08 ^^ a eS o be* » to o a eS U) • a u o **- 5 o B IB « a — " £ S " a , c*- -TS O o a « m be-— r— a O 05 a o a el 1^ II II -S II II ! I en £ s a .. bc.2 .a »< ' *i -O II o c2- P^ O © "So a -S a o go a bC«2 . ° 2 So o .0 O-Sv, ra c C3 a"! a «SO O 00 02 "e* ^ "^ O boaj'-a « IIJ:Sll 00 ^ •§ - OB QO*** 0> rH J; ca to .a ©I bC a e3 g bO a.HJl en , *S a ' o S *• eS "-• rH u ^S o" II "o ©I 00 V •^ s o ca u a V 0) Q. 00 C4-1 OQ O 53 a a -3 S& II II o .2- a O ^ ^ COAL-GAS. 367 t„ Jn?piP* %°^ the results of Mr. Barlow's experiments on gas produced from a mix- in Londol ^^' Primrose, all first-class Newcalle ^HJoals, lai^ely used The burners employed in these experiments were the followme-— Ist A No. 3 fish-tail, or union jet ^' 2d. A No. 5 bat's-wing. 3(1. A common argand, with 15 large holes m a ring -85 inch diameter and a cvlin- ducal chimney glass 7 inches high. 5 ^" uiameier, ana a cyim- 4th. A Platow's registered argand, with large holes m a ring, -9 mch, with inside and outside cone, and cylindrical chhnney glass 8-6 inches high. 5th. A Biznner's patent No. 3 argand, with 28 medium-sized holes in a rin^ -75 innh diameter, and cylmdrical chimney glSs 8-65 inches high ^ 5n P«ih ♦^.^'''^^^5^ registered argand, with 68 medium-sized holes in 2 rings of 29 holes h^nin' V °''''^^''^'.^^' ^^^°« ^ *°^^ ^'^ deflectmg button inside and ^Le below beUied chimney glass 8 inches high. ^^ » 3-5 inchet Wgh"''' ^'''''' ^'^'^'^' ""'^ ^^ ^''^ ^ * "^^ '^^ ^'^^ ^^'*''' "^'^ chhnney glass 8th. A Guise's registered shadowless argand, with 26 laree holes in a rin.r -rk ;t,«i» On an average of numerous trials the annexed results wpre obtamed :— Table III. Burner. No. 2 " 3 tt 5 ({ 6 (( 8 u 1 (( 2 t( 3 tt 4 (t 5 tt 6 (t 7 tt 8 Rate of Consamptfon per Hour in Cubic Feet 4.9 6-6 5*5 5*5 6*5 5-5 6*0 5*5 6-6 6-6 6*6 4-1 6-6 Value of Cable Foot in Grains of Sperm. 289-0 3430 874-0 837-0 850-0 276-0 290-0 3410 348-0 380-0 336-0 369.0 364-0 Standard Candles per Cubic Foot It has been stated that one of the conditions necessary for the pro- duction of the maximum iUuminating power from a gas flame, is the attainment of the highest possible temperature, and that this condition has been almost entirely neglected in the burners hitherto in use. Dr Frankland has, however, proved, by some hitherto unpublished experi*- ments, that this condition may be easUy secured by employing the w^te heat radiating from the gas flame, for heating the air previous to its employment for the combustion of the gas ; and that the mcreased tem- perature thus obtained has the effect of greatly increasing the illuminat- ing power of a given volume of the gas. Ktff. 165 shows the burner contrived by Dr. Frankland for this purpose, a is a common areand burner, or better, a Leslie's argand, furnished with the usual gallerv and glass chimney b c; the latter must be 4 to 6 inches longlr than usual, d rf IS a circular disc of plate glass, perforated in the centre, and fixed upon the stem of the burner about H inches below the gaUerv by the collar and screw e ff is a second glass cliimney somewhit conical plate c?c?; and of such a diameter as to leave an annular space i mch broad between the two cylinders at g g. The cyUnder/ should be of such a length as to reach the level of the apex of the flame. The action of this burner wdl now be sufficiently evident. When lighted, atmos- pheric air can only reach the flame by passing downwards throigh the space between the cylinders/ and «; it thus comes into contact with the intensely heated walls of c,and has its temperature raised to about 600 or 600 before it reaches the gas flame. The passage of this heated air over the upper portion of the ai^and Burner,^also>aise3 the temperature of the gas considerably before it issues from the burner 368 COAL-GAS. Thus the cases taking part in the combustion are highly heated before inflammation, and the temperature of the flame is consequently elevated in a corresponding degree. Experi- ments with this burner prove a great increase in light, due chiefly to the higher tempera ure of the radiating particles of carbon ; but, no doubt, partly also to the heat being^sufliue tl> high to cause ? deposition of carbon from the light carburetted hydrogen ; thus rendcung this latter gas a contributor to the total Ulummating effect ; whilst, when burnt m the ordi- nary mamier, it merely performs the functions of a diluent. The following are the results of Dr. Frankland's experiments with this burner : Light in Sperm Candles, each burning 120 grs, per Hour. 13'0 candles. I. Argand burner without J ^.^ external cylinder. Bate of Consumption per Hour, cubic feet II. Same burner with ex- ternal cyUnder. 4-2 2-2 2-6 2-7 3-0 3-3 it u (t 15-5 17-0 13-0 15-5 16-7 19-7 21-7 (t (C fv\4 These results show that the new burner, when compared with the ordinary argand saves on an ave^e 49 per cent, of ga., when yidding an equal amount of light ; and also that it nroduces a cain of 67 per cent, in light for equal consumptions. ^ Ti;r r- ^ Ar^afrJn^iZa^L bnrner.-This admimble contrivance, the mvention of Mr. Fara- day coSetely removes^all the products of combustion, and prevents their admixture with ?Wmosphere of the apartments in which the gas is consumed The burner consists of an orSy argAd,//l66, «, fitted with the usual gallery and chimney 6 b A second an orainary aigau ,yy , , ^.^^^ ^^^ ^^^^^ cylinder, c ,;« »,,;*: or equaUty of light when placed between two luminous bodies • fnr if ihc. rZLV^ V7^ eirect ot both lights at that point may be regarded a^equal ; and all that now remama f^>S, street, Wes.min.ter. It 02,3^ .le Sn^pat'--" ""^ ^ ^ " "' ^"""^ endl At"""'"' "^ '^'""^ '°" '""""^ '»»8 ^S- m from the centres of sockets at its 2. An upright pillar c. 3. A candle holder d. «' f Ki'*^'" T*** f"^™ «' °>«^« *» IioW « prepared paper. wit(a^*t::ir^dsr=wi:£j;jotJstK "- '-- "^^--- ''--" »p- Ihe long r^fa graduated, in accordance with the laws of distribution of light, from its J I I' 370 COAL-GAS. centre each way into squares of distances in divisions numbered respectively 1, 2, 8, &c to 3?- to meLTsmaUer differences than those amounting to 1 candle in value, each maior divisionTo 9 is subdivided into 10 parts, each, of couree, representmg V,o of an in- Sement F^m thence to 20 the subdivisions indicate i Beyond that pomt no subdivi- siTs ^re mad^ because the major divisions become so small that, practically, such divisions """""The^m^'eTof fittmg the apparatus together will be understood by reference to the annexed sketch. 16t The Dillar c is screwed to one end of the shelf, and an experimental meter l placed attwSer Tiis'fatter instrument is for measuring ^^e quantity of g^pa^i^^^^^^ burner and indicating the rate of consumption by observations of one mm.ite, which is major uiviaiuuu «„ that the maior divisions on the inner circle each bear the SSe p±rt on™ a cS^ e C " Jn^ does to an hour. If, the:^fore, the number rf thie Sots and tenths of divisions, which the hand pa^ over in a minute, is ob- ^rieTit wm eTdently only be necessary to read them off as feet and tenths of a foot to "'Ihhup^i *: plirr'^es from the upper figure 6 to tlje fifth minor division be- yondlSfigSn, H w'ould reL off - 4V„ and %« of ajuWc foo^- V.. of ^ hour MultiDlving these quanUties by 60, we have "/,o '/»«. x 60 = /.«. - ■**J"™° ■'? ;,i™" V X 60 = 1 • so that 4i feet and 1 hour are obtained by simply reading off the divi.ions ''"'^^A ^L'l'irr'a'^iuJ^^and two cocks at K. one with a -crometer mo.j A puiar J> ^*;^°n " » f the meter and is intended for receiving burners when experi- Tntlnr "he°^^™.^d7o^trp^^1n an exactly horizontal Won by the piUa« ^ ""tVc ^^^Z^t'^tZ^lT^tlLZ;:^ c, and the mahogany slide c pUced on the rod, w?th itepointer to the scale, carrying the frame 8, contaimng a prepared paper, '"''C'~*parMs''n.ade by coating white blotting-paper with sperm, so as to render it scmUransp^enCtetvmg a small spot in the centre plain, and therefore opaque. See o '° 'aII^Sow remains to render the apparatus ready for experimenting, is to put a piece ^SorttSdy' t 'Z:^^S^^7^^^ of equality of the two lights, is by nomet~e;en\£^ practice; and the --^-^mS". pLTcan' which even the practised operator is liable in such estimations of »"7 "^J^^S Ermetr"c not be' set down at less than 5 per cent. It is scarcely necessary *« f/>*\^ ^ P^^^^^^^ exneriments must be conducted in an apartment from which all light from other sources is excluded and^ the walls of which are rendered as absorbent as possible, by being coated ;'th a mixture of lampblack and size, or by being hung with black l^^treless^lico^ Analytical Method of Estimating the Value of ^^^^'^f:''^^?Zr^^^^ ci,nwn that thp resources of chem cal analysis place in our hands a method lor ine aeiernu naZ of tl^e iSSg ^ of gas considerably more accurate than the photometnc nr^^es iuS described flthough thi execution of the necessary operations requires more KTndruS much morl troublesome. As the determination of the illuminatmg t'Jlf a «amX of^as bv the analytical method necessitates most of the operations re- E^f r^hTp^ 'fol^aL^'^^^^^^^ analysis of coal-gas, we shadl here include in our dStion of the former process the additional details necessary for the latter. COAL-GAS. 871 1. Collection of the Sample of Gas. — In all analytical operations upon gases, it is of the utmost importance that the latter should be preserved from all admixture with atmos- pheric air. This can only be done, either by collecting the samples of gas over mercury, or by enclosing them in hermetically sealed tubes. When the sample of gas is collected at the place where the analysis is to be made, the former plan is usually most convenient ; but when the sample has to be obtained from a locality at some distance from the operator's laboratory, the latter plan is usually adopted. To collect a sample of gas over mercury, attach one end of a piece of vulcanized India-rubber tube to the gas-pipe, and insert into the other extremity a piece of glass tube bent, as shown at a, Jig. 168, allow the gas to stream through these tubes for two or three minutes, and then suddenly plunge the open extremity of the glass tube beneath the surface of the mercury in the trough c. Then fill the small glass jar b completely with mer- cury,-taking Care to remove all air-bubbles from its sides by means of a piece of iron wire, and closing its mouth firmly with the thumb, invert it in the trough c, intro- ducing the end of the bent tube a into its open extrem- ity, in such a way as to bring the mouth of a above the level of the surface of the mercury in c. The gas will then flow into b, until the level of the mercury in b is somewhat lower than that of the metal in the trough. If now, the tube a being removed, a small cup be filled with mercury and brought beneath b, the latter may be removed from the trough, aad will be thus preserved from any appre- ciable atmospheric intermixture for several months. To collect samples of gas in hermetically sealed tubes, proceed as follows : Take a piece of glass tube about | of an inch internal diameter, and 1 foot long ; draw it out at both ends before the blowpipe, as shown in f^. 169 ; attach one extremity a, fig. 170, to a vul- canized India rubber tube, communicating with a source of the gas, an'd the opposite ex- tremity b to a similar flexible tube about three feet long, and which is allowed to hang down perpendicularly from b. After the gas has streamed through this system of tubes for about three minutes, so as to ensure the complete expulsion of atmospheric air, the flame of a mouth blowpipe is directed against the narrow portion of the glass tube at c, so as to fuse It off. With as much expedition as possible the same operation is performed at the opposite extremity of the tube dy which is thus hermeticaUj sealed, and assumes the anoear- ance shown in jgy. 171. ^ j fh 169 171 The gas having been thus carefully collected, the necessary analytical operations must be conducted over mercury m a small wooden pneumatic trough, with plate glass sides, the construction of which is shown in Jig. 172. a is a piece of hard well-sea^ned woS 12 inches long and 3 inches broad, hollowed out, as shown in the figure ; the cavity is 8* inches long. If inches broad, and If inches deep. The bottom of this cavity is rounded with the exception of a portion at one end, where a surface, 1 inch broad, and U inches long IS made perfectly flat, a piece of vulcanized India-rubber, V,o of an inch thick beinc firmly cemented upon it. Two end pieces b b, f of an inch thick, 3^ inches broad,' and 5 inches high, are fixed to the block a; these serve below as supports for a, and above as the ends of a wider trough, which is formed by the pieces of plate glass c c, cemented into a and b b. The glass plates c c are lOJ inches long, and 1| inches high ; they are sllghUy ! 872 COAL-GAS. inclined, so that their lower edges are about 2f inches, and their upper edges 2| inches STart This trough stands upon a wooden slab d d, upon which it is held in its place b?^o strips of wood ee. An upright column f, which is screwed into d, carries the inclined Stand g which serves to support the eudiometer during the transference of gas. h is a cii-cular inclined slot in b, which allows of the convenient inclination of the eudiome- tPr in the stand g. % is an indentation in which the lower end of the eudiometer rests, so as to prevent its falling into the deeper portion of the trough a When in use, the trough is filled with quicksilver to within an inch of the upper edge of the glass plates c c, about 30 to 35 lbs. of the metal being necessary for this purpose. ,.^ ^ , , j . ^ • ♦ The eudiometers, or measuring tubes, should be accurately calibrated and graduated into cubic inches and tenths of a cubic inch, the tenths being subdivided by the eye into hun- dredths when the volume of gas is read off; this latter division is readily attained by a UttlP nractice At each determination of volume, it is necessary that the gas should either hrnerfectlv drv or quite saturated with moisture. The first condition is attained by plac- in-Tn the L fir half an hour, a smaU ball of fused chloride of calcium, attached to a pla- tinum wire-* 'the second condition, by introducing a minute drop of water into the head of the eSiometer before filling it with quicksilver. The determinations of volume mu?t either be made when the mercury is at the same level inside and outside the eudiometer or as is more frequently done, the difference of level must be accurately measured and allowed for in the subsequent reduction to a standard pressure. The height of the barome. ter and the temperature of the surrounding atmosphere must also be observed each time the volume of ga^ is measured, and proper corrections made for pressure, temperature and also the tension of aqueous vapor, if the gas be moist. As tables and rules for these cor- rections are given in most treatises on chemistry, they need not be repeated here. These troublesome corrections and calculations can be avoided, by employing an mstni- ment lately invented by Dr. Frankland and Mr. Ward, and which not only ^oes away with Se nece Jty for a room devoted exclusively to gaseous manipulations, ^u^^eatly shortens and simplifies the whole operation. This instrument, which is represented by/^r. 173, con- StsT the tripod A, furnished with the usual levelling screws, and carrying the vertical pTlfarBB to which Is attached, on the one side, the movable mercury trough c, wuh its S and pinion a a, and on the other, the glass cylinder d d, with its contents. Tins cylm- der is 86 inches long, and 4 inches internal diameter ; its lower extremity is fi^^^J PJ"'^"*^^ into an iron collar c, the under surface of which can be screwed perfectly water-tight upon the bracket-plate d by the interposition of a vulcanized caoutchouc nng. The circuit iron plateTis perforated with three apertures, into which the caps e, ., «, are screwed, and ♦ '^^^ halls Tvliich shoTtld be of the size of a large pea, are required constantly in operations upon %aarter of an hour. COAL-GAS. vn 173 which eommumcate below the plate with the t piece k e. This latter is furnished with a double-way cock /, and a single-way cock g, by means of which the tubes cemented into tAe sockets e, c, e, can be made to communicate with each other, or with the exit pipe A at F, o, H, are three glass tubes, which are firmly cemented into the cans c « «. f and h are each from 15 to 20 millimetres internal diameter, and are seTectedTas n^Sy the^e anTm"! vT'^^';-*" *hT^ " ^^"'"""^ ^^ *^P'"^ ^^^«"- ^he tube G is soSiit ,nTr! atPd wtfh «^^l^ ?"* ^ r^ convenient height above the cylinder, h is accurately gradul wWh 1 1 °''"™^*'*^ T^^^ f^^.ff. furnished at top with a small funnel i, into the n^ of Sp! ^ T '^PP''' ''}''''^- ^ millimetres in diameter, is carefully ground The tube f ter- munates at Its upper extremity m the capillary tube k, which is 4lfully cemented into the small steel stopcock /. f has also - » j c^ «iw mc fused into it at m, two platinum wires, for the passage of the elec- tric spark. After this tube has been firmly cemented into the cap e, its internal volume is accurately divided into 10 perfectly equal parts, which is effected without difficulty by first filling it with mercury from the supply tube o, up to its junc- tion with the capillary attachment, and then allowing the mercury to run off through the nozzle h until the highest point of its convex sur- face stands at the division 10, pre- viously made so as exactly to coin- cide with the zero of the millimetre scale on h ; the weight of the mer- cury thus run off is carefully deter- mined, and the tube is again filled as before, and divided into 10 equal parts, by allowing the mercury to run off in successive tenths of the entire weight, and marking the height of the convexity after each abstraction of metal. By using the proper precautions with regard to temperature, &c., an exceedingly accurate calibration can, in this way, be accomplished. The absorption tube i is sup- ported by the clamp w, and con- nected with the capillary tube A;, by the stopcock and junction piece //', j5, as shown 4n the figure. When the instrument is thus far complete, it is requisite to ascertain the height of each of the nine upper divisions on the tube, above the lowest or tenth division. This is very accurately effected in a few minutes by carefully levelling the instrument, filling the tube G with mercury, opening the cock /, and the stoppered funnel i, and placing the cock / in such a position as to cause the tubes f h to communicate with the supply tube o On now slightly turning the cock g, the mercury will slowly rise in each of the tubes f Mid ii • when Its convex surface exactly coincides with the ninth division on f, the influx of metai is stopped, and its height in ii accurately observed ; as the tenth division on f corresponds with the zero of the scale upon h, it is obvious that the number thus read off is the height of the ninth division above that zero point. A similar observation for each of the other divisions upon f completes the instrument* Before using the apparatus, the large cylinder d d is filled with water, and the internal walls of the tubes f and h are, once for all, moistened with distilled water, by the introduc- tion of a few drops into each, through the stopcock /, and the stoppered funnel i. The three tubes being then placed in communication with each other, mercury is poured into o until It rises into the cup «, the stopper of which is then firmly closed. When the mercury begins to flow from /, that cock is also closed. The tubes f and h are now apparently filled with mercury, but a minute and imperceptible film of air still exists between the metal and Tottelhkm"^" Eoadl*^ ^ obtained fh)m Mr. Oertling, philosophical instrument-maker, Store Street 374 OOAL-iGAS. ^laM • this is eflfectually cot rid of by connecting f and h with the exit tube h, and allow. & merTury to C^^^ untU a vLuum of slvend inches in length has been produced in both tubes • on allowing the instrument to remain thus for an hour, the whole of the film of ^r a^ve iention^^ wll diffuse itself into the vacuum, to be filled up from he supply tube G These bubbles are of course easily expeUed on momentanly opening the cock / and tSe stopper i whilst G is full of mercury. The absorption tube i being then filled with Quicksilver and attached to / by the screw clamp, the instrument is ready for use ^ In illust^tion of the manner of using the apparatus, a complete description of an analysis of coal-gas by this instrument will be given below. , j j- ♦ For the analysis of purified coal-gas by means of the mercury trough and eudiometer, the following operations are necessary : — I. Estimation of Carbonic Acid. A few cubic inches of the gas are introduced into a short eudiometer, moistened as above described ; the volume is accurately noted, with the proper corrections, Mid a buUet of caustic potash is then passed up through the mercury into the gas : it is aJlowed to remain ?or at eL^one hour ; the volume of the gas, being again ascertained and «f trf ed from the^t volume, gives the amount of carbonic acid which has been absorbed by the potash. IL Estimation of Oxygen. This eas can be very accurately estimated by Liebig's method, which depends upon the ranid absorption of oxygen by an alkaline solution of pjTogallic acid. To apply this solu- Z a smTtest tube is-filled with quicksilver, and inverted in the mercury trough ; a few drops of a saturated solution of pyrogalhc acid in water are thrown up into this tube by meMis of a pipette, and then a simUar quantity of a strong solution of potash • a coke buj. l^tXched to a platinum wire is introduced into this liquid, and allowed to saturate itself; t is then withdrawn, and conveyed carefully below the surf-ace of the mercury into the eudiometer containing the residual gas of experiment ^o. 1 ; every trace of oxygen will be absorbed in a few minutes, when the bullet must be removed, and the volume being again meSured the diminution from the last reading will represent the amount of oxygen origi- nairpresent inThe gas. It is essential that the coke bullet, after saturation with the alka- hnelolution of pyroiallic acid, should not come in contact with the air before its mtroduc- tion into the gas. ni. Estimation op the Luminiferotts Constituents. Various methods have been employed for the estimation of the so-called olefiant gas Huminiferous constituents) contained in coal-gas. The one which has been most generally employed, depends upon the property which is possessed by olefiant gas, and most hydro- cXns of combining with chlorine, and condensing to an oily liquid : hydrogen and light carburelted hydrogen^are both acted upon in a similar manner when a ray even of diffused ThtTallowed to\ave access to the mixture ; but the condensation of the olefiant ga^ and hydrocarbons takes place in perfect darkness, and advantage is therefore taken of this cir- cumstence to observe the amount of condensation which takes place when the mixture is exSuded from li-ht. The volume, which disappears during this action of the chlorme, is Sed as indic^Uing the quantity of olefiant gas present in the mixture. Jh^re aj many soSces of error inseparably connected with this method of operating, which render the results unworthy of the slightest confidence ; the same remark applies also to the employ- menrof bromine in the place of dilorine ; in addition to the circumstance that these deter- Sfnations must be madl over water, which allows a constant diffusion of atmospheric air hi o the^a^ and vice versd, there is also formed in each case a volatile liquid, the tension of the vS of which inciiases the volume of the residual gas ; and this increase admits of neftheTcalculation nor determination. The only material by which the estimation of the ^umfn fei^us constituents can be accurately effected is anhydrous sulphuric acid, which im- Siately condenses the lurainiferous constituents of coal-gas, but has no action upon the otht nL^^^^^^^^ even when exposed to sunlight. The estimation is conducted as follows : A cokeTullet prepared as described above, and attached to a platmum wire, being rendered ^odhly dry by slightly heating it, for a few minutes, is quickly immersed in a saturated soEn of anhydrouf suWric tcid in Nordhausen sulphuric acid, and allowed to remam in the Squid fo/one minute ; it is then withdrawn, leaving as little superfluous acid adher. in- to K possible, quickly plunged beneath the quicksilver in the t'^^^g^ ,^" Vhin ^?th nto the same portion of dry gas, from which the carbonic acid and oxygen have been with- dtlw? by e"pe^rS^ and II. here it is allowed to remain for about two hours m order ?o emu^ the^ complete ab.orptiin of every trace of hydrocarbons. The residual volume of Ss^nnot, however, yet be determined, owing to the presence of some sulphurous acid denied from the decomposition of a portion of the sulphuric acd: this is absorbed in a feT minute™ by the inti^Kiuction of a moist bullet of peroxide of manganese which is ^IdiS made by converting powdered peroxide of manganese mf a stiff paste with water Sg iT?nto the shape of a small bullet, and then inserting a bent platmum wire, in such COAL-GAS. 376 a manner as to prevent its being readily drawn out ; the baU should then be put in a warm place, and allowed slowly to di-y, it wiU then become hard, and possess considerable cohe- sion, even after being moistened with a drop of water, previous to its introduction mto the gas. After half an hour, the bullet of peroxide of manganese may be withdrawn, and re- placed by one of caustic potash, to remove the watery vapor introduced with the previous one ; at the end of another half hour, this bullet may be removed, and the volutoe of the gas at once read off. The difference between this and the previous reading gives the volume of the luminiferous constituents contamed m the gas. This method S'very accu- rate ; in two analyses of the same gas, the percentage of lununferous constituents seldom varies more than 0*1 or 0*2 per cent. IV. Estimation op the Non-Luminiferous Constituents. These are light carburetted hydrogen, hydrogen, carbonic oxide, and nitrogen. The percentages of these gases are ascertained in a graduated eudiometer, about 2 feet in length, and I of an inch internal diameter; the thickness of the glass being not more than Vifof an inch. This eudiometer is furnished at its closed end with two platinum wires, fused into the glass for the transmission of the electric spark. A drop of water, about the size of a pms head, is introduced into the upper part of the eudiometer before it is fiUed with mer- cury and inverted mto the mercurial trough : this small quantity of water serves to saturate with aqueous vapor the gases subsequently mtroduced. About a cubic inch of the residual gas from the last determination is passed into the eudiometer, and its volume accurately read ott ; about 4 cubic inches of pure oxygen are now introduced, and the volume (moist) again determined The oxygen is best prepared at the moment when it is wanted, by he^n- over a spirit or gas flame a little chlorate of potash, in a very small glass retort, allowmg of course sufficient tinae for every trace of atmospheric air to be expelled from the retort before passing ihe gas into the eudiometer. The open end of the eudiometer must now be pressed firmly upon the thick piece of india-rubber placed at the bottom of the trou-h and an electric spark passed through the mixture ; if the above proportions have been obsc'rved the explosion will be but slight, which is essential if nitrogen be present in the gas, as this element will otherwise be partially converted mto nitric acid, and thus vitiate the results. ^Lflf^.K* T '^""^^ ?^ """"^^f^J all danger of the bursting of the eudiometer by the force of the exp osion is also avoided. The volume after explosion being again determined a biille of caustic potash is introduced into the gas, and allowed to reml so long as ^ diminution of volume takes place ; this bullet absorbs the carbonic acid that has been pro- duced by the combustion of the light carburetted hydrogen and carbonic oxide, and also renders the residual gas perfectly dry ; the volume read off after this absorption/ when de- bSn oHhe P''^''''''^ ''^^^'°°' Sives the volume of carbonic acid generated b} the com- The residual gas now contains only nitrogen and the excess of oxygen employed. The tTZi' ^"*f °^r^ ^l ^''\ ^^''"frS the amount of oxygen preint, and then deduct^ ing that number from the volume of both gases ; for this purpose a quantity of dry hydro- gen at least three times as great as the residual gas, is introduced, and the volume of the mixture determined ; the explosion is then made as before, and the volume (moist) again recorded: one-third of the contraction caused by this explosion represents the volum? of oxygen, and this deducted from the volume of residual gas, after absorption of carbonic acid, gives the amount of nitrogen. f ^ wwuii, ,,. S;w ^ri'^'A*^^ '''^^' ^^^^ non-luminous gases on explosion with oxygen-enables us readUy to find their respective amounts by three simple equations, founded upon the quantity of oxygen consumed, and the amount of carbonic acid generated by thV three gases m question. Hydrogen con§umea half ks own volmne of oxygen, and generates no carbonic acid ; light carburetted hydrogen consumes twice ita volume of oxygln and gen- erates Its own volume of carbonic acid -^ whilst carbonic oxide consumes half its volume of oxygen, and generates- its own volume of carbonic acid. If, therefore, we represent the volume of the mixed gases by A, the amount of oxygen consumed by B, and the quantUy of carbonic acid generated by C, and further, the volumes of hydro^n light ^rbuS hydrogen, and carbonic oxide respectively by x, y, and z, we hav^ thffollolingTquatio^ : x-|-y-F-z = A {x + 2y+^z=zB y-hz = C From which the following values for x, y, and z are derived : x = A — C 2B-A 3 3 ll I 376 COAL-GAS. V. Estimation of the Value of the Lumisiferous Constituents. We have now dven methods for ascertaining the respective quantities of all the ingre- dients contained in any specimen of coal-gas, but the results of ^^e above analytical o^^^^^^^^ tions afford us no clue to its illuminating power. They give us, it is ^^^f'J.^f ^"^^^^"^^^^^ illuminating hydrocarbons contained in a given volume ot the gas, but it will be evident, from what has already been said respecting the luminiferous powers o these l^ydrocarbon^ that the greater the amount of carbon contained m a given volume, the greater ^lU be the quantity of light produced on their combustion ; and therefore, as the number of volumes of carbon vapor contained in one volume of the mixed constituents, condensible by anhy- drous sulphuric acid, has been fomid to vary from 2-54 to 4 36 volumes, it is dear that this amount of carbon vapor must be accurately determmed for each specimen of gas, if ^ e v^ i.h to ascertain the value of that gas as an illuminating agent, /^^unately this is ^sily effected • for if we ascertdn the amount of carbonic acid generated by 100 volumes ot the gas in it^ original condition, knowing from the preceding f^lytical processes the percentage of illuminating hvdrocarbons, and also the amount of carbonic acid generated by the non- kmSus lases, we have 'all the data for calculating the i"'^™'"^.^^^^ Tf ^ 9^ ^^.f,^ Fo^ this purpose a known volume of the original gas (about one cubic inch) ^[^^ntroduced into the explosion eudiometer, and mixed with about five times its volume of oxygen, the ekctn^3 spik s passed, and the volume of carbonic acid generated by the explosion ascer- t^ed as^bove direct'ed. If we now designate the percentage of M^J^rbon^^^^^^^^^ by anhvdrous sulphuric acid by A, the volume of carbonic acid generated by 100 volumes of the original g^ by B, the carbonic acid formed by the combustion of the non-lum nous cons ftuen?3 remaining 'after the absorption of hydrocarbons from the above ouanmy of original gas by C, and the volume of carbonic acid generated by the combustion of the luminiferous compounds (hydrocarbons) by x, we have the foUowing equation :— x = B — C and therefore the amount of carbonic acid generated by one volume of the hydrocarbons is represented by r» n A^ But as one volume of carbon vapor generates one volume of carbonic acid, tWs fomula also expresses the quantity of carbon vapor in one volume of the illuminating constituents For the^ purpose of comparison, however, it is more convenient to represent Jhe value of these hydrocarbons in their equivalent volume of olefiant gas, one volume of which con- tZs twoToJimesof carbon vapor; for this purpose the last expression need only be changed to • n n ~Ta~ Thus, if a sample of gas contain 10 per cent, of hydrocarbons, of which one volume contS three volumes of carbon vapor, the quantity of olefiant gas to which this 10 per ''"W^hH^^-JiolT^^^^^ we obtain an exact chemical standard of comparison for the Uluminating value of all descriptions of gas ; and by a comparison of the arbitrary number thTobtained, with the practical results yielded by the same gases when tested by the Dhotometer, much valuable and useful information is gained. , ^ - u- AnXl^ Coal-Gas with Frankland and Ward^s ^;,;,araYt... -Introduce a few cubic inchts of the U into the tube i, fig. 173, and transfer it for measurement into f, by open- n^ the cocks ll ' and placing the tube f in communication with the exit pipe A the trans- f^ence being assisted, if needful, by elevating the trough c When the gas followed by a ffw drops of'rSTrcury has passed completely into f, the cock / is shut, and /turned, so as io con3 F Zl\ w^th A. ^ Mercury is allowed to flow out until a vacuum of two or three i^chesTn length is formed in h, and the metal in F is just below one of the divisions ; the Tock / b S reversed, and Mercury very gradually admitted fronj g, until he highes point in F exactly corres^nds with one of the divisions upon that tube ; we wiU assume it ?o be Ihe sixth division. This adjustment of mercury and the subsequent readings can be ven^accuSy made by means of a email horizontal telescope placed at a distance of about STet from the cylinder, and sliding upon a vertical rod. The height of the ^e^cu^-y jn h must nowT accurately determined, tnd if from the number thus read off, the height of he S dM«ion above the zero of the scale on h be deducted, the remainder will express t^ie f«,l volume of the eas As the temperature is maintained constant during the entire analy- r/o o^ct ofon^iatt^ore has t^ be made ; the atmospheric pressure being altogether excludedXm exerting any influence upon the volumes or pressures, "« barometrical obser- vations arorequisite ; and as the tension of aqueous vapor in f ,s exactly balanced by that [n H theTnstrument is in this respect also edf-K^orrocting. Two or three drops of a strong COAL-GAS. 377 solution of caustic potash are now introduced into i by means of a bent pipette, and mer- cury being allowed to flow into f and h by opening the cock ^, the gas returns into i through ll\ and there coming into contact with an extensive surface of caustic potash solu- tion, any carbonic acid that may be present will be absorbed in two or three minutes, and the gas being passed back again into h for remeasureraent, taking care to shut / before the caustic potash solution reaches / ', the observed diminution iu volume gives the t^ount of carbonic acid present. The amount of oyxgen is determined iu like manner by passing up into i a few drops of a saturated solution of pyrogallic acid, which forms with the potash already present pyro- gallate of potash. The gas being then brought back into i, oxygen, if present, will be absorbed in a few minutes. Its amount is of course ascertained by remeasuring the gas in F. The next step in the operation consists in estimating the amount of olefiant gas and illuminating hydrocarbons. For this purpose, whilst the gas, thus deprived of oxygen and carbonic acid, is contained in f, the tube i must be removed, thoroughly cleansed and dried, and being filled with mercury, must be again attached to /. The gas must now be trans- ferred from F to I, and a coke bullet, prepared as above described, being passed up into i, must be allowed to romain in the gas for one hour. After its removal, a few drops of a strong solution of bichromate of potash must be admitted into i in order to absorb the sul- phurous acid and vapors of anhydrous sulphuric acid resulting from the previous operation. The gas is now ready for measurement ; it is therefore passed into f, and its volume deter- mined ; the diminution which has occurred since the last reading represents the volume of olefiant gas and illuminating hydrocarbons that were present in the gas. It now only remains to determine the respective amounts of light carburetted hydrogen, carbonic oxide, hydrogen, and nitrogen present in the residual gas. This is effected as fol- lows :— As much of the residual gas as will occupy about 1^ inches of its length at atmos- pheric pressure is retained in f, and its volume accurately determined ; the remainder is passed into j, and the latter tube removed, cleansed, filled with mercury, and reattached. A quantity of oxygen equal to about three-and-a-half times that of the combustible gas is now added to the latter, and the volume again determined ; then the mixture having been expanded to about the sixth division, an electric spark is passed through it by means of the wires at m. The contraction resulting from the explosion having been noted, two or three drops of caustic potash solution are passed into J, and the gas is then transferred into the same tube. In two minutes the carbonic acid generated by the explosion is perfectly ab- sorbed, and its volume is determined by a fresh measurement of the residual gas. The lat- ter must now be exploded with three times its volume of hydrogen, and the contraction on explosion noted. These operations furnish all the data necessary for ascertaining the rela- tive amounts of light carburetted hydrogen, carbonic oxide, hydrogen, and nitrogen, accord- ing to the mode of calculation given above. Finally, the value of the luminiferous constituents is obtained as before, by exploding about a cubic inch of the original specimen of gas with from four to five times its volume of oxygen, and noting the amount of carbonic acid produced. I. Apparatus used in the Generation of Coal-Gas. Retorts. — ^The .use of this portion of the apparatus is to expose the coal to a high tem- perature, to exclude atmospheric air, and to deliver the gaseous and vaporous products of distillation into the refrigeratory portion of the apparatus. The materials composing the retorts should therefore possess the following properties : — 1st, high conducting power for heat ; 2d, rigidity and indestructibility at a high temperature ; and 3d, impermeability to gaseous matter. The materials hitherto used in the construction of retorts are cast-iron, wrought-iron, and earthenware; but none of these materials possess the above qualifica tions in the high degree that could be wished. Thus cast-iron, though a good conductor of heat, is not perfectly rigid and indestructible. . At high temperatures it becomes slightly viscous, and at the same time undergoes rapid oxidation. Wrought-iron is a still better conductor of heat, but its qtialities of indestructibility and rigidity are even lower than those of cast-iron ; whilst earthenware, though rigid and indestructible by oxidation, is a very bad conductor of heat, and is moreover very liable to crack from changes of tempera- ture. Very various forms of retort have been employed at different times in order to secure, as far as possible, the conditions just enumerated. Cast-iron Retorts. — The chief forms of the cast-iron retorts are : First, the cylindrical, fig. 174, used in the Manchester Gas Works, 12 inches diameter, and 6 to 9 feet long ; Second, the elliptical, 18 inches by 12 inches, by 6 to 9 feet, fig. .176 ; Third, the ear 177 B 378 COAL-GAS. shape, fig. 1*76, now little used, 2 feet by 9 inches, and of the same length as before ; Fourth, the D-shaped retort, fig. 177, 20 inches wide and 14 inches high. This form of retort is at present far more extensively used than any of the others. Fig. 178 shows a bed of 5 D-shaped iron retorts. The length is 7i feet, and the trans- verse area, from one foot to a foot and a half square. The arrows show the direction of the flame and draught. The charge of coals is most conveniently introduced in a tray of sheet-iron, made some- what like a grocer's scoop, adapted to the size of the retort, which is pushed home to its further end inverted so as to turn out the contents, and then immediately withdrawn. All these retorts are set horizontally in the furnace, and they have a flanch cast upon their open end, to which a mouthpiece a a, fig. 179, can be securely bolted. The mouth- piece is provided with a socket b, for the reception of the standpipe, and also with an arrangement by which a lid c c can be screwed gas-tight upon the front of the mouthpiece, as soon as the charge of coal has been introduced. By applying a luting of lime mortar to that part of the lid which comes into contact with the mouthpiece, a perfectly tight joint is Sometimes iron retorts are made of double the above length, passing completely through the furnace, and being furnished with a lid and standpipe at each end. Such is the con- struction of Mr. Croll's and of Lowe's reciprocating retorts. These retorts are charged from each end alternately, and there is an arrangement of valves by means of which the cas evolved from the coal recently introduced is made to pass oyer the incandescent coke of the previous charge, at the opposite end of the retort. It is highly probable that some advantage is derived from this arrangement during the very early stage of the distillation of the fresh coal : but on the whole, for reasons stated above, the principle is undoubtedly bad for although it enables the manufacturer to produce a larger volume of gas, the quahty is si much infenor as to reduce the total illuminating effect obtainable from a given weight *" ""Wrmght-Iron Retorts.-ytr. King, the eminent engineer of the Liverpool Gas Works, has for many years successfully used retorts of wrought-iron. They are made of thick boiler plates, riveted together, and are of the D shape, 5^ feet wide, 6 feet longs and 18 inches hWh at the crown of the arch. About 1 ton of coal can be worked off in these retorts m 24'hours. Occasionally the bottoms are of cast-iron, which materially prevents the great amount of warping to which wrought-iron is subject when exposed to high temperatures. Earthenware, or Clay Hetorts.-These are usually of the D shape although they arc occasionally made circular or elliptical. Their dimensions are about the same as those ot the cast-iron retorts commonly used, but their walls are necessarily thicker, varying trom 2^ ta4 inches in thickness; this, added to the circumstance that clay is a very bad conductor of heat undoubtedly causes the expenditure of a larger amount of fuel in heating these retorts • nevertheless, this disadvantage is, perhaps, less than might be supposed since iron retorts soon become coated outside with a thick layer of oxide of iron, which also greatly hinders the free communication of heat to the iron beneath. Moreover, the lower price and much greater durability of clay retorts, are causing their almost universal adoption m gas works, especially since the removal of pressure by exhausters greatly reduces the amount of leakage to which clay retorts are liable. ^ « „ >* r t • » «r The following is an extract relating to clay retorts, from the " Reports of Janes" of the ereat Exhibition of 1861 : — . , . j i xi • j -^v " The use of fire-clay is not of very ancient date, and has greatly increased within the last few years. It is found in England almost exclusively in the coal measures, and COAL-GAS. 87? from different districts the quality is found to differ considerably. The so-called " Stour- bridge clay " is the best known, and will be alluded to presently ; but other kinds are almost, if not quite, as well adapted for the higher purposes of manufacture, being equally free from alkaline earths and iron, the presence of which renders the clay fusible when the beat is intense. The proportions of silica and alumina in these clays vary considerably, the former amounting sometimes to little more than 50 per cent., while in others it reaches be- yond 70, the miscellaneous ingredients ranging from less than ^ to upwards of 7 per cent. " The works of Messrs. Co wen & Co. are among the most extensive in England, and they obtain their raw material from no less than nine different seams, admitting of great and useful mixture of clay for various purposes. " After being removed from the mine, the clay is tempered by exposure to the weather, in some cases for years, and is then prepared with extreme care. The objects chiefly made are fire-bricks and gas retorts — ^the latter being now much used, and preferred to iron for dura- bility. " These retorts were first made by the present exhibitors in ten pieces, (this being twenty years ago,) and since then the number of pieces has been reduced successively to four, three, and two pieces, till in 1844 they were enabled to patent a process for making them in one piece, and at the present time they are thus manufactured of dimensions as much as 10 feet long by 3 feet wide in the inside, which is, however, more than double the size of the largest exhibited by them. ^ 180 i 380 COAL-GAS. " Gas retorts of very fair quality are shown by Mr. Ramsay of Newcastle, who has also succeeded extremely well in the manufacture of fire-bricks. The retorts show a little more iron than is desirable, but the exhibitor has been considered worthy of honorable mention. Retorts of less creditable appearance are exhibited by Messrs. Hickman & Co. of Stour- bridge, and Mr. A. Potter of Newcastle. The surface of both these retorts is cracked and undulating. When we consider the high and long-continued temperature to which these objects are exposed, the absolute necessity of attending to every detail in mixing the clay and moulding the retort will be at once recognized, and the apparently slight defects of some of those sent for exhibition require to be noticed as of real importance. ". Next to England, the finest specimens of fire-clay goods on a large scale are from Bel- gium : the gas retort sent from France is not remarkable for excellence." Fig. 180 is an elevation of Mr. Wright's plan for a range of long clay retorts. t^j. 181 shows the plans and sections of the setting for these retorts. 181 COAL-GAS. 381 g Retorts, or rather ovens, of fire-brick, the invention of Mr. Spinney, have been lon^ used successfully at Exeter, Cheltenham, and other places. They appear to be very durabl^ and to require little outlay for repairs, but a very large expenditure of fuel is required for heating them. They are of the D shape, Y feet long, 3 feet 2 inches wide, and 14 inches high at the crown of the arch. Each retort receives a chaise of 6 or 6 cwt. of Newcastle or Wesh coal every 12 hours, and produces gas at the rate of 9,000 cubic feet per ton of Welsh, and 10,000 to 12,000 per ton of Newcastle coal. Clegg's Revolving Web Retort. — ^This retort, the invention of Mr. Clegg, sen., makes the nearest approach to a truly philosophical apparatus for the generation of gas ; in it the coal is exposed to a sudden and uniform heat, in a thin stratum, by which means the gases are liberated at once, and under the conditions most favorable for the production of a maxi- mum amount of illuminating constituents. Very little tar is produced from this retort. Fig. 182 represents a section of this retort, which is of the D shape, with a very low and flat arch. It is made of wrought-iron boiler plates riveted together, e Is a hopper for holding the coal to be carbonized ; r is a discharging disc ; o is the retort ; h is a web on to which the coal is discharged by the disc f ; n are revolving drums carrying the wrought-iron web h ; l l are the flues from a lateral furnace by which the retort is heated ; M is the exit pipe for the coke, its lower extremity is either closed by an air-tight door, or is made to dip into water. 182 ^i^ All the coal must be reduced to fragments about the size of coffee berries, and a '>4 hours charge must be placed at once in the hopper, and secured by a luted cover. The dis- charging disc has 6 spurs, and is made to revolve uniformly with the drum below it at the rate of 4 revolutions per hour. The diameter of the hexagonal drums is so regulated that the coal, which falls upon the web from the discharging disc, will at one revolution'have passed the entire length of the retort. The passage through the retort occupies 15 min- utes, which IS quite sufficient to expel the whole of the gas from the coaL In each revolu- tion of the disc and druna, 745 cubic inches of coal (or 21 lbs.) are distributed over a heated surface of 2,016 square mches. 18 cwt. of coal is carbonized in one of these retorts in 24 hours, and the production of gas is equal to 12,000 cubic feet per ton of Newcastle coal. The quality of the gas is also considerably superior to that obtained from the same coal in the ordinary retorts. Although the first cost of these retorts and accompanving machinery is considerablv greater than that of the retorts m ordinary use, yet the destructible parts can be replaced at about the same cost as that required to replace the latter. The coke produced is greater m quantity, but mfenor in quality, owing to its more minute state of division. The minor advantages attendant upon this form are, that it occupies less space, requires much less man- ual labor, and enables the retort-house to be kept perfectly clean, wholesome, and free from suffocating vapor If the principle of this plan could be combined with less compUcation of details, it would no doubt come into extensive use. 382 COAL-GAS. II. The Refrigeratory Apparatus. 18S f\r\n'^n From the moment that the gas leaves the retorts, it is subjected t» cooling mfluencea which gradually reduce its temperature, until on leaving the so-called condenser its temper- ature ought to be only a few degrees higher than that of the atmosphere, except m wmter, when it is advisable to maintain a heat, relatively to the external air, greater than m sum- mer The gas leaves the retort by the standpipes a a a, Jig. 183, which are of cast-iron, 5 inches in diameter at their lower extremity, and slightly tapering upwards. Some ot the least volatile products of decomposition condense in these pipes, but their prox- imity to the furnaces, and the constant rush of heated gas and vapor through them, prevent more than a very slight amount of refrigeration. They conduct to the hydraulic main^ which is shown at B,/^.'l83. It consists of a cylinder running the entire length of the retort house, and fixed at a sufficient height above the mouths of the retorts to pro- tect it from the flame issuing from the latter during the times of charging and drawing. The diameter varies from 12 to 18 inches, and the recurved extremi- ties of the Stan dpi pes {the dip-pipes) c C c c, pass through it by gas-tight joints, and dip, to the extent of 3 or 4 inches, into the condensed liquids contained in the hydraulic main. The use of this portion of the apparatus is to cut off the communication in the reverse direc- tion between the gas beyond the stand- pipes and the retorts, so as to prevent the former rushing back down the standpipe during the time that the lid of the retort is removed. Being maintained half full of tar it effectually seals the lower ends of the dip-pipes, and prevents any 184 I ii t » ! COAL-GAS. 383 T.ZV' ^^.^V'^^'^l *^« jetorts. The condensed products, consisting chicflv of tar. F± t^VT r^"' '^^ ^?^'^"''' "^^^° ^y '^^ P'P^ «' ^bi«»» l«^d« them to the tar well from the hydraulic main the gas passes to the condenser, the office of which as its name implies, IS to effect the condensation of all those vapors which could not be retkned by the gas at the ordinary atmospheric temperature. The condenser has received a varietv of .orms, but the one which appears to unite in the highest degree simplicity and efficiency is he invention of Mr. Wright, of the Western and Sreat Central Ga^s Complies iTJi^ stiuction IS shown in Jig. 184. a a a a are 5 double concentric cast-iron cyUndei^ throu^^h which the gas IS made to circulate in succession by means of the tiepipes b b b b wE the inner cylinders being open above and below, a current of air, set in motion by^heir hea ed walls rushes through them thus securing both an internal and external refrigeratory action I will be a so seen by a reference to the figure, that the heated gas enters ScyHndeS at the top taking an opposite direction to that pursued by the external andlnter^al cui^ente of a,r, and thus securing the most perfect refrigeration, by bringing the gas constonUy S proximity to air of increasing coldness. Each cylinder' is furni^ed at &m wkh a tS receptacle c for the collection of the condensed products, which are carrieS tHhlLr w^ by a pipe not shown m the figure. The details of construction are sufficiently seen from the drawing, and require no further description. ^*cuujr seen irom In some country works the condenser is used. infJnfo^r^f;- ""^^""^''^^ ^^'f^ the gas requires for its refrigeration before it is admitted into the washing-hme apparatus, depends upon the temperature of the milk of hme and the quantity of gas generated in a certain time. ' It may be assumed as a determination sufficiently exact, that 10 square feet of surface wlter' TnrT' T '""^ " '"^•'/""' ^^ ^"^ ^'' '"^"^'^ *« ^he tempe2»tu7e of the coding viater. For example, suppose a furnace or arch with 6 retorts of 150 pounds of coal each to produce in 5 hours 3,000 cubic feet of gas, or 10 cubic feet per miSuL there wouM be 1 n?»Tnn ' ^Z 'f' f ^r'"^ '"^r" °^ '^^ condenser, 100 square feet = 10 x 10 Suppose 100,000 cubic feet of gas to be produced in 24 hours, for which 8 or 9 such arches must be emp oyed, the condensing surface must contain from 800 to 900 square feet Alter the action of the condenser, the gas still retains, chiefly in mechanical susnen^inn a certain quantity of tarry matter, besides a slight percentage of Lm^S^T To /re?it Zi these 1 IS passed through a scrubber d, (fg. 184,) which Consists of a tall cylSr fiHe r^i HpTh \?'r"?f ^''"'i "^^ '^^^ V"^ ^^^^"g ^ arrangement by which a st^am of Zel can be admitted at top and removed at bottom. The chief use of the wateHs to remove ammoma from the gas, but as it also dissolves some of the Tmniniferour hydrecarbr. its use IS objected to by Mr. Wright, and dry scrubbers are now useTat 5ie Western GaJ Works. It IS also considered by the same gentleman, that the detention of a cert^ ^r centage of ammonia by the gas, is rather an advantage than otherwise as it serves^n ^^ to neutralize the sulphurous acid which is inevitablyVoducerbyThe combust^^^^^^^^^ the best gas. It must however, be borne in mind, that the presence of ammonia hi\as gives rise to the formation of nitric acid mng the quantity of Gas requisite for producing light equal to 1000 Sperm Candles^ each burning 10 hours at the rate o/" 120 grs. per hour. Name of Gas. Bate of Consumption per hour. OQ CO St a o ts o o Wigan Cannel (Ince Hall) Ditto by White*s process - Wigan Cannel (Balcarres) Ditto by White's process • Boghead Cannel . - - . Ditto by White's process • Ditto ditto, 2d experiment Lesmahago Cannel ... Ditto by White's process - Methill Cannel .... Ditto by White's process - Newcastle Cannel (Ramsay) - Ditto by White's process ^ Newcastle Coal (Pelton) Resin Gas by White's process Manchester Gas (June, 1851) 'City Company's Gas (July 15, 1851) Great Central Company's Gas, do. Chartered Company's Gas do. Imperial Company's Gas - do. Western Company's Gas - do. Quantity of Gas. L Cubic Feet 6 ft 8 5 S S 4 4 6 S ff 6 6 calculated ) from analysis ) ditto ditto 5 6 calculated ) from analysis ) ditto ditto ditto ditto Cubic Feet 2263 2500 2512 2618 1168 1786 2500 1394 2094 1798 2381 2049 2660 3356 8012 8448 8846 8546 8320 4099 1538 rati^rl'' JTh'Jll'!? thus sums up the advantages which he conceives to result from the appli- cation of the hydrocarbon process to coals and cannels -— 1. It greatly incre^es the produce in gas from a given weight of coal or cannel the increase bemg from 46 to 290 per cent, according to the natuS of the materi^!;ated 2. It greatly increases the total illuminating power afforded by a given weight of coal 4. It enables us profitably to reduce the illuminating power of the eases orodaced from rufslt-^da'S^t""" '"^'^° '^^'^' "' - - '» «' .he^o/Jt^S c„„|d;|f!:";i^;fntta1 iE^^^^^^^^^ -" «"^«»- ve^ ih. n^j °^'' investigation of this process showed, that whUst Wigan Cannel produces by 16 000 cub?. ?Jrn?9?f ^r"^'°^ "^""* '^'^^ ^"^^« ^^^' 0^ ITcandle gTiT^on! 16,000 cubic feet of 20 candle gas, or 26,000 cubic feet of 12 candle gas *^»ed ; whilst Boghead Canuel>£lds 52 000 cubic feet of 20 candle gas, or 75,000 cubic feet of 12 candle L. The follS table presents m a condensed form Mr. Clegg's results as to comparativ??^st --- ^ Name op Coai. Wigan Cannel at 14«. per ton - - . Lesmahago Cannel at 18«. per ton ... Boghead Cannel at 205. per ton .... Cost of 1000 feet of 20 candle gas by old process. s. d. 1 9f 2 5i 2 4i Cost of 1000 feet of 20 candle gas by hy- drocarbon process. s. d. 1 3i IH 11 Cost of 1000 feet of 12 candle gas by hy> drocarbon process. «. d 11^ 91 9i 394 COAL-GAS. Wood Gas. Attempts were first made in France towards the close of the last century to manufac- ture an illuminating gas from wood. The Thermolamp of Lebon, a wood-gas apparatus, then and for some time afterwards excited considerable attention, especially in the districts of Germany, Sweden, and Russia, where coals are scarce. This mode of illumination proved, however, to be a complete failure, owing to the very feeble illuminating power of the gas produced, and as at thus time the production of gas from coal was rapidly becoming better known, any thing like a regular manufacture of wood-gas never in any case gained a footing. Subsequent trials only confirmed the failure of Lebon, so that it was universally considered impossible to produce a practically useful gas from wood by the usual process of gas-manufacture. In the year 1849, Professor Pettenkofer of Munich had occasion to repeat these experiments, and he found that the gases evolved from wood at the tempera- ture at which it carbonizes, consist almost entirely of carbonic acid, carbonic oxide, and light carburetted hydrogen ; olefiant gas and the illuminating hydrocarbons being entirely absent. Such gas was therefore totally unfitted for illuminating purposes. The temperature of boiling quicksilver, at which coal is not in the slightest degree de- composed, is quite sufficient to carbonize wood completely. If small pieces of wood be placed in a glass retort half filled with mercnry, and the latter be heated to boiling, a black lustrous charcoal is left in the retort, whilst gas of the following composition is evolved : — Carbonic acid - - - Carbonic oxide Light carburetted hydrogen 100-0 If, however, the gases and vapors produced by the above experiment be heated to a con- siderably higher temperature than that at which the wood is carbonized. Professor Petten- kofer found that a very different result is obtained ; the volume of permanent gas is con- siderably augmented, whilst such an amount of illuminating hydrocarbons is produced as to render the gas actually richer in these constituents than coal-gas. Analyses of various samples of such superheated gas gave the following results : — Carbonic acid Carbonic oxide Light carburetted hydrogen 18 to 25 per cent. 40 *' 50 " 8 "12 tt Hydrogen 14 " 17 Olefiant gas and hydrocarbons 6" 7 tt tt The illuminating value of the hydrocarbons was found to be one-half greater than that of an equal volume of olefiant gas. Varieties of wood diflfering so much in character as pine and beech were found to yield equally good gas. These observations prove that wood-gas is indubitably entitled to rank amongst illuminating agents. With regard to the apparatus employed, various forms have been contrived so as to communicate the necessary temperature to the escaping vapors : it has been however at length found that the ordinary form of retort furnishes the necessary conditions, provided it be not filled more than one-third with the charge of wood. 120 lbs. of the latter, thoroughly dried, constitute the charge for one retort. In H hours the distillation is com- plete, the result being, after absorption of carbonic acid, 650 cubic feet of gas, which is perfectly free from all sulphur and ammonia compounds, and possesses, according to the numerous experiments of Liebig and Steinheil, an illuminating power greater than coal-gas in the proportion of 6 : 5. The following analyses show the composition of wood-gas when made on a manufactur- ing scale. No. 1 is a sample of- gas before purification from the works at the Munich Rail- way Station, and No. 2 is purified gas, as supplied to the town of Bayreuth : — No.l. Olefiant Gas. No. 2. Olefiant Gaa. Hydrocarbons - - - Light carburetted hydrogen Hydrogen - - - . Carbonic oxide - - - - 6-91 - 11.06 - 1507 - 40-59 « 1 9.74 • 7-70 - 9-45 - 18-43 - 61-79 = 11-93 Carbonic acid - - - - 25-72 • - 2-21 Nitrogen - - - - - — • - -42 99-35 100-00 The specific gravity of the purified wood-gas is about '700, and this, coupled with the lirge piercentage of carbonic oxide which it contains, renders it necessary to employ bum- COOHINEAL. 395 ers with much larger perforations than those used for coal-gas ; in fact, if wood-gas be con- sumed at the rate of from 3 to 4 cubic feet per hour from a coal-gas burner, it yields scarcely any light at all, whereas if consumed from a fish-tail burner with wide apertures, its illuminating power exceeds, as just stated, that of coal-gas. Although the relative cost of wood and coal will prevent the adoption of Professor Pet- tenkofer's ingenious process in this country, yet, as it can also be applied with like results to peat, there is a high probability that it might be employed with great advantage in Ire- land. Its rapid adoption in many German and Swiss towns proves the practicability of the process in districts where wood is cheap. — E. F. COAL NAPHTHA. See Naphtha (Coal.) COBALT BLUE, or THENARD'S BLUE, is prepared by precipitating a solution of sulphate or nitrate of cobalt by phosphate of potash, and adding to the resulting gelatinous deposit from three to four times its volume of freshly deposited alumina, obtained by the addition of carbonate of soda to a solution of common alum. This mixture, after being well dried and calcined in a crucible, afibrds, when properly ground, a beautiful blue pig- COCHINEAL. In order to ascertain the value of cochineal for dyemg, we must have recourse to comparative experiments. We are indebted to MM. Robiquet and Anthon for two methods of determining the quality of cochineals, according to the quantity of carmine they contain. The process of M. Robiquet consists in decolorizing equal volumes of decoc- tion of diflferent cochineals by chlorine. By using a graduated tube, the quality of the cochineal is judged of by the quantity of chlorine employed for decolorizmg the decoction. The process of M. Anthon is founded on the property which the hydrate of alumina pos^ sesses of precipitating the carmine from the decoction so as to decolorize it enth-ely The first process, which is very good in the hands of a skilful chemist, does not appear to us to be a couveiiient method for the consumer ; in the first place, it is difficult to procure per- fectly identical solutions ; in the next place, it is impossible to keep them a long time with- out alteration. We know that chlorine dissolved in water reacts, even in diffused light on this liquid ; decomposes it, appropriates its elements, and gives rise to some compounds which possess an action quite different from that of the chlorine solution in its primitive state. The second process seems to us to be preferable, as the proof liquor may be kept a lon^ while without alteration. A graduated tube is also used ; each division represents one- hundredth of the coloring matter. Thus the quantity of proof liquor added exactly repre- sents the quantity in hundredths of coloring matter contained in the decoction of cochineal which has been submitted to examination. The following remarks from a practical dver are valuable: — r j ^ " The coloring matter of cochineal being soluble in water, I have used this solvent for exhausting the different kinds which I havo submitted to examination in the colorhneter I operated in the following manner :— I took a grain of each of the cochineals to be tried dried at 122 Fahr. ; I submitted them five consecutive tunes to the action of 200 grain*? of distilled water at water-bath heat, each time for an hour ; for every 200 grains of distilled water I added two drops of a concentrated solution of acid sulphate of alumina and of pot- ash. This addition is necessary to obtain the decoctions of the different cochmeals exactly of the same tint, in order to be able to compare the intensity of the tints in the color- imeter.* •u 5* °^^^^ *® estimate a cochineal in the colorimeter, two solutions, obtained as de- scribed above, are taken ; some of these solutions are introduced into the colorimetric tubes as far as zero of the scale, which is equivalent to 100 parts of the superior scale • these tubes are placed in the box, and the tint of the liquids enclosed is compared by look- ing at the two tubes through the eye-hole ; the box being placed so that the light falls ex- actly on the extremity where the tubes are. If a difference of tint is observed between the two liquors, water is added to the darkest (which is always that of the cochineal taken as type) until the tubes appear of the same tint.f u " '^A^ P^mber of parts of liquor which are contained in the tube to which water has been added is then read off; this number, compared with the volume of the liquof con- tained in the other tube, a volume which has not been changed, and is equal to 100 indi- cates the relation between the coloring power and the relative quality of the two cochineals. And If, for example, 60 parts of water must be added to the liquor of good cochineal to bnng It to the same tint as the other, the relation of volume of the liquids contained in the tubes will be in the case as 160 is to 100, and the relative quality of the cochineals will be represented by the same relation, since the qualitj^of the samples tried is in proportion to their coloring power." — (Napier.) ^tff!rSf®«™K^' ^1 ^^^^^ "?u ^^^^^ '** *^? ^**^'"' "^^^^^ serves to extract the coloring matter from the t^ZTJ <'««'»'"«'»>Si "•«'•« than the requisite quantity of acid sulphate of alumina and solutton of Sash! because a s ronger dose would precipitate a part of the coloring matter in the state of lake ^ ^ in., m«fL. Lf l^! the liquors the same water must always be used which has served to extract the color- ing matter of the cochineals under examination, otherwise the darkest decoction would w^ into violeL Xcilt^rcompted." '*• '" ^'^°^ ^'^'' *^' "°* *" '^' ^'^'^ «^ ^'^'^^^^^y «« that of tiHe^tion ti 896 OOCK-METAL. The exports from Guatemala consist principally of cochineal, the staple and almost the only article of exportation for a number of years past. It is chiefly produced m Old Gua- temala, nine leagues distant from Guatemala, and also in Amatellan, about six leagues dis- tant The raising of this insect is subject to so many accidents and contmgencies that it is excessively precarious, and, above all, the weather has a great effect upon it. Taking all this into consideration, it is surprising that attention has not been directed to the cultivation and production of other articles suited to the climate and soil of Guatemala, and less liable to destruction by unseasonable rains and atmospheric changes than cochineal. It is reason- ably to be feared that, if a longer time be suffered to pass, the cochineal of this country cannot compete with that of Teneriffe, and other parts of the world, where it is now begin- ning to be cultivated with success ; and, should this happen, it would tend to dimmish the trade of this country with England. , - * , . COCK METAL. An inferior metal ; a mixture of copper and lead used for making cocks. See Allot. . COCOA-NUT OIL. Cocoa-nut oil is obtained by two processes,— one is by pressure, the other by boiling the bruised nut and skimming off the oil as it forms on the surface. It is a white solid having a peculiar odor. It fuses a little above 70° Fahr. ; becomes readily rancid, and dissolves easily in alcohol. It consists of a solid fat called cocin or cocinine, (a combination of glycerine and cocinic, or coco-stearic acid,) C'^H'^'O' + 2H0 ; or, according to Richardson, C^-H"0' + Aq, and of a liquid fat or oleine. Cocoa-nut oil is used in the manufacture of soap and candles. - t. ay j-j COD-LIVER OIL. The oil obtmned from the livers of several varieties of the (radtda family • especially from thetorsk, Brosmtus brosme. It is administered medicinally : it acts mainly' as a nutritive body, and the old idea that its medicinal value depended on the iodine it contained is now proved to be false, since it holds no iodine m composition. Since the demand for cod-liver oil has been large, it has been extensively adulterated with other fish CODILLA OF FLAX. The coarsest parts of the fibre sorted out by itslf. See Flax. COIR. The outer coating of the cocoa-nut, often weighing one or two pounds, when stripped off longitudinally, furnishes the fibres called by the native name of Coiry and used for small cables and rigging. t -d • « In England these fibres are used in matting and for coarse brush work. In rnce & Co.'s works they are advantageously employed, placed between iron trays and on the sur-- face of the cocoa-nut and other concrete oils and fats, and subjected to great pressure ; the liquid oil flows out, leaving solid fats behind. From the abundance, cheapness, and durability of this substance, it is likely to come into more general use, and it is even now very seri- ously proposed as a material for constructing Ocean Telegraphs, from its lightness and power of resisting sea-water. The qualities of coir for many purposes have been established for ages in the East Indies. Dr. Gilchrist thus describes the properties of coir ropes :— " They are particulariy elastic and buoyant, floating on the surface of the sea; therefore, when, owing to the strength of the current, a boat misses a ship, it is usual to veer out a quantity of coir having previously fastened an oar, or small cask, &c., to its end. Thus the boat may be easily enabled to haul up to the ship's stem. Were a coir hawser," he adds, " kept on board every ship in the British Marine, how many lives would probably be saved." It is stated that fresh water rots coir in a very short time, corroding it in a surprising degree whereas salt water absolutely strengthens it, seeming to increase the elasticity. Coir is' therefore unfit for running rigging, especially for vessels subject to low latitudes, it being easily snapped ia frosty weather. , , , vi e Nothing can equal the ease with which a ship rides at anchor, when her cables are of coir As the surges approach the bows, the vessel gradually recedes in consequence of the cable yielding to their force ; but as soon as they have passed, it contracts again, drawing the vessel gradually back to her first position : the lightness of the material adds to this effect for the cable would float if the anchor did not keep it down. At the present time the forces exerted upon cables and the angles assumed under different circumstances, in paying out submarine telegraphic cables, have heen the subject of practical attention and theoretical investigation. Some of the greatest authorities have assumed that the forces exerted, between the bottom of the sea and the ship's stem, had reference only to forms or waves of the cables, representing some curve between the vertical and horizontal line, but always concave to the water surface. For a curve to exist, in the opposite direction, was named only as a condition, without evidence of any practical kind to show that it really existed, or called for any attention to investigate it. So long since, however, as 1825, Dr. Gilchrist, among others, had described this very opposite curve of the coir, viz. — of being, when in action as a cable, curved with a concave surface toward the bottom of the sea ; a fact well known to the experienced sailors of England, as well as to the natives who employ these coir cables so extensively on the East Indian coast. " A hempen cable always makes a curve downwards^ between the vessel and the anchor, but a coir cable makes the curve upwards. Therefore, if a right line were drawn from the COKE. 897 hawse-hole, to the ring of the anchor, it would be something like the axis of a parabolic spindle, of which the cables would form, or nearly so, the two elliptic segments." In the employment of materials for ocean telegraphs, especially for deep-sea purposes, the use of iron and the proposal for using coir and other light substances, have caused the telegraphic means to be spoken of as " heavy " or " light " cables. Dr. Allan, of Edin- burgh, proposes the abundant use of coir to make a light cable, say half the weight of the lightest hitherto made, the Atlantic cable. He states that a deep-sea cable may be com- pounded to weigh not more than 10 cwt. per mile : while the cheapness, durability in salt water, lightness, and abundant supply, will give it advantages over gutta percha and other substances used to form the bulk of the lightest cables hitherto employed. When cocoa-nuts are sawed into two equal parts across the gram of the coir coating they form excellent table brushes, causing wood planks to assume a very high polish by friction. If the shell should be left, the edges should be perfectly smooth, and then they will not scratch. It is a good mode to strip off the coir, and, after soaking it in water, to beat it with a heavy wooden mall until the pieces become pliant, when they should be firmly bound together with an iron ring ; the ends bemg levelled, the implement is fit for use ; a little beeswax, rubbed occasionally upon them, adds greatly to the lustre of the furniture • of course, the polish is mainly due to strength and rapid action producing the friction upon the wood, and other articles of furniture. In India, the coarse bark of the nuts is extensively used to cleanse houses, and washing the decks of vessels. Coarse stuff, matting, and bagging are made of the fibres, as well as ropes, sails, and cables. The general preparation is simple ; the fibrous husks or coats which envelop the cocoa- nuts, after being for some time soaked in water, become soft ; they are then beaten to sepa- rate other substances with which they are mixed, which fall away like saw-dust, the strings or fibres being left; this is spun into long yarns, woven into sail-cloth, and twisted into cables, even for large vessels. Cordage thus made is considered preferable, in many re- spects, to that brought from Europe, especially the advantage of floating in water. Oa burning the ligneous envelope of the cocoanut, an empyreumatic oil is obtained by the inhabitants of the island of Sumatra, and used by them for staining the teeth • and a light velvet-like carbon which is found useful in painting. ' COKE. (Eng. and Fr. ; Abgeschmfelte, Germ.) It is necessary to distinguish between what 13 called gas-coke and oven-coke. The word coke applies, property, to the latter alone ; for, m a manufacturing sense, the former is merely cinder. The production of eoo.1 coke requires a combination of qualities in coal not very frequently met with • and hence first-rate coking coals can be procured only from certain districts. The essential requisites are first, the presence of very little earthy or incombustible ash ; and, secondly, the more or less mfusibility of that ash. The presence of any of the salts of lime is above all objec- tionable; after which may be classed silica and alumina; for the whole of these have a- strong tendency to produce a vitrification, or slag, upon the bars of the furnace in which the coke 13 burnt ; and m this way the bars are speedily corroded or burnt out ; whilst the resulting clmker impedes or destroys the draught, by fusing over the interstices of the bars or air-passages. Iron pyrites is a common obstacle to the coke maker : but it is found in practice, that a protracted application of heat in the oven dissipates the whole of the sul- phur from the iron, with the production of bisulphuret of carbon and metallic carburet of iron, the latter,of which alone remains in the coke, and, unless silica be present has no great disposition to vitrify after oxidation. Where th; iron pyrites exists in l^rquantUies It IS separated by the coal-washmg machines, some of which will be described in a general article—See Washing Machines One object, therefore, gained by the oven-coke manu- facturer over the gas maker, is the expulsion of the sulphuret of carbon, and consequent • purification of the residuary coke. Another, and a still more important ionsequencVof a long-sustained and high heat is, the condensation and contraction of the coke mto a smaller volume, which, therefore, permits the introduction of a much greater weight into the ^mo space-an advantage of vast importance in blast furances, and, above ^1, in locomSl^c engines, as the repeaed introduction of fresh charges of coal fuel is thus pivented^ Part of this condensation IS due to the weight of the superincumbent mass of^^d ?h7ownlnto the coke-oven, by which (when the coal first begins to cake or fuse together) the plSides are forced towards each other, and the cavernous character of cinder'got rM of -^but the chief contraction arises, as we have said, from the natural quality of carbon which 1 ke alumina, goes on contracting, the longer and higher the heat to which it is expoid. Henw^ good coke cannot be made m a short time, and that used in locomotive encrines is com- monly from 48 to 96, or even 120 hours in the process of manufacture ° The prospects of irnprovenaent in coke-making point rather to alterations in the oven than in the process. Formeriy it was not thought possible to utilize the heat evolved bv the gaseous constituents of the coal ; but now, as an example of the incorrectness of this Idea, It may be stated that at the Felling Chemical Worics, 200 tons of S? per^eek are made by the waste heat alone, and it is also employed in partially heating the bLTfor onl 398 COKE. of the furnaces. There appears no valid reason why lets of coke-ovens might not be so arranged as mutually to compensate for each other, and produce upon one particular flue a constant and uniform eflTect. Contrivances of this kind have been projected, — but hitherto, we may suppose, without uniform success, as many of our large coke-makers still continue the old mode of working. Mr. Ebenezer Rogers, of Abercam, in Monmouthshire, has lately introduced a new method of coking, which he thus describes : — " A short time ago a plan was mentioned to the writer as having been used in West- phalia, by which wood was charred in small kilns : as the form of kiln described was quite new to him, it led him to some reflection as to the principles on which it acted, which were found to be so simple and effective, that he determined to apply them on a large scale for coking coal. The result has been that in the course of a few months the original idea has been so satisfactorily matured and developed, that instead of coking 6 tons of coal in an oven costing £80, 150 tons of coal are now being coked at once in a kiln costing less than the former single oven. " Figs. 196 and 196 are a side elevation and plan of one of the new coking kilns to a small scale ; Jig. 197 is an enlarged transverse section. 196 !1 !! 'i ' I I ' i< 'I '< '< ' ' '! '< 0 60 _i_ 70 8on —1 ' ^'^y/m^Mmm^/yMm^y, " D D are the walls of the kiln, which are provided with horizontal flues, e, f, which open into the side or bottom of the mass of coal. Connected with each of these flues are the vertical chimneys g h. The dotted lines 1 1, fg. 196, represent a movable railway, by which the coal may be brought into the kiln and the coke removed from it. In filling the kiln with coal, care is taken to preserve transverse passages or flues for the air and gases between the corresponding flues e f in the opposite walls. This is effected by building or constructing the passages at the time with the larger pieces of coal, or else by means of channels or flues permanently formed in the bed of the kiln. When the coal is of differ- ent sizes, it is also advantageous to let the size of the pieces diminish towards the top of the mass. The surface of the coal, when filled in, is covered with small coal, ashes, and other suitable material. " When the kiln is filled, the openings k at the ends are built up with bricks, as shown dotted ; the kiln is not covered by an arch, but left entirely open at the top. The aper- tures of the flues f and the chimneys g are then closed, as shown in fig. 197, and the coal is ignited through the flues e ; the air then enters the flues e and passes through the coal, and then ascends the chimneys h, as shown by the arrows. When the current of air has proceeded in this direction for some hours, the flues e and chimneys h are closed, and f and G are opened, which reverses the direction of the current of air through the mass. This alternation of the current is repeated as often as may be required. At the same time COKE. 399 air descends through the upper surface of the mass of coal. When the mass is well icnit^H reaches the mass of coke bv which ifftirfLi^ I •^''^^ '' ^^^'^ P*"^^^ ^^'^^ "^^^i' *' without difficulty until the cokini^prrc^ss l.rarriver.^^^^^^^^ T/^'^ '^ ^^"^^^ «° U^ so as toSL rror^-r.^.Tnarort^-eor'^'* "^'™^ '^ "^^ '^ ""« torn, ^ inS'l97*"inStL?lt' t'h" """"'j: ?^ *" ''""• «' »* *« "««» "bo™ «^ ^ fluei, may-bf Blled with sma I LTJhf ff ' ''''•"'• Tl" ""« '«''«' "^ ">e bottom of the upon this bed of small mil ^XT^T f""****' «>rough the mass are then constructed and chimnevs nLd n„tr!eS^ily beSnl^T "^^ "^ '• ^, '^'"T »>«''«»"«d- The flues separate chimney with eaeh^^veL flT^ fl T""*" ' ■"<■ '""'«"' "^ connecting a walls of the kiln so S to con„^^ItT„ ' ^^ T^ ^ constructed longitudinally in The IrpUtSKtTthTJ tThS -^^^^p^^iT^^^^ and wood maybe effected in a Z^t^^'C. ^^.tX'^^R great saving in first cost oFoTneComrin^irj'''^/' ".Tber of other works. The improved Quality of coke, wiU pSlyCn^n^tS mZ f""^- ""''"^ ^''^' "»" others now in use. The kilns are moat »rtv»nt.™ i ?°^u "^ ""'""S to supersede the feet in length, and uZtTLchJTh^Iufw-^'^^^-?^'''' " '"«" '» "M*. and 90 coal." '" "^'S'"; *•« size of kiln contains about ISO tons of his mroi*- "« "'^"''""' "' '"' «""""^ "« "^ Muced to quote yet further from the memnro? r'cotl "a? S'SotnTlr'" ' ""■"'"^k"'^ ' "•" *» « ^ ^-ng minute babbles ; but the p«^S ^Zt^!F^ " '"'^'^""S themselves form vc,| face of carbon in a smaU ^oTtolTLSH V^.u T?^ '^'^< •"""''« » '«^e ^u^ made rapidly has lar^Tpor^d is^i Xt ^r,. ^J *^'''*'^ ,^ » «*»««• ™'«. "oke less bias?, .U crumbks tS^^n^ln thetrnal^ " "^^ ^'""''' " ""^"^'y *^ is fine?Xa;™fert^'"the'c::JtrdTtr "5 '^"V^^^^^ = When .he oven roof; enough Li admifted t .Silme* he ^es'5'v'Ir„ffL*'l?,'^"f^ "i^i ''«'■» *« temperature is maintained in the roof of the ovfT T^I „ 5 I *u®. "^' """* ""« » ^^ those portions of it which under the inflner^ ^V t* u"^ " ^^ ""' "^""^ "'«"«<' : "d form laseous compounds%re nL riZ o7?olf„i''f?.^°''^"^''^' T "^ «'»-»^I'« small bubbles or cells; the coke nowldi is onini ? ' T"*"l "*^ *"'"• l"»«tion of air U allowed to have acVe^ to k A rt.^^^" r"? '"^' ""^''^ » '•"*" ™PP'y yield of c?ke • hen^"„irr*"* "^ * '"^"Se fact, that the hotter th^ oven the better the 400 COLLIDINE. above mentioned, the hydrogen in the coal takes np two atoms of carbon for each two atoms of hydrogen, forming bicarburetted hydrogen gas, (C'H' ;) this at once escapes, but it has to pass upwards through the red-hot coke above, which is at a higher temperature than the melted coal below. Now when bicarburetted hydrogen gas is exposed to a bright- red heat, it is decomposed, forming carburetted hydrogen gas, (CH",) and depositing one atom, or one-half of its carbon, in a solid form. Consequently in the process of coking, if the oven is in good working order and the coke hot enough, the liberated carbon is detained in its passage upwards, and either absorbed by the coke, or crystallized per se upon it. This is simply illustrated by passing ordinary illuminating gas through a tube heated to a bright-red heat ; the tube will soon become coated internally, and ultimately filled with a carbonaceous deposit produced by the decomposition of the bicarburetted hydrogen con- tained in the gas. '* It is found that some coal which is too dry or not suflSciently bituminous to coke when put into the oven by itself in lumps, will coke perfectly if crushed small and well wetted with water and charged in this state. This fact, if followed out, would lead to an examina- tion of the chemical nature of the effect produced by the water, and would point the way to further improvements." " Charred Coal,'' as it is called, must be regarded as a species of coke. It has been largely employed in lieu of charcoal in the manufacture of tin plates. This preparation is also a discoverv of Mr. Ebenezer Rogers, who thus describes its manufacture : — The preparation of the " charred coal " is sunple. The coal is first reduced very small, and washed by any of the ordinary means ; it is then spread over the bottom of a rever- beratory furnace to a depth of about four inches ; the bottom of the furnace is first raised to a red heat. When the small coal is thrown over the bottom, a great volum<^ of gases is given oflf, and much ebullition takes place : this ends in the production of a slight spongy mass, which is turned over in the furnace and drawn in one hour and a half. To com- pletely clear oflf the sulphur, water is now freely sprinkled over the mass until all smell of the sulphuretted hydrogen produced ceases. Charred coal has been hitherto produced on the floor of a coke-oven, whilst red-hot, after drawing the charge of coke. See Tin Plate A process has for some tune been gaining ground in France known as the " Systeme Appolt;' from its being introduced by two brothers of that name. The coking furnaces employed are vertical, and they are in compartments. The authors have published a de- scription of their process and a statement of- its results, " Carbonisation de la Houille Sys- teme Appolt, decrit par les Auteurs, MM. Appolt Freres : " Paris, 1858, to which we must refer our readers. ., j i. COLLIDINE. C^H^'N. A volatile base discovered by Anderson m bone oil, and sub- sequently found in shale naphtha, in the basic fluid obtained by acting on cinchonine with potash, and in common coal naphtha. Its density is 0*921, and its boiUng point, 354°.— C G. W. COLORING MATTERS. The color of any object, either natural or artificial, owes its origin to the effect produced on it by the rays of light. This effect is either due to the mass or substance of the body itself, as may be seen in the colors of metals and many shells, or it arises from the presence of some foreign substance or substances not absolutely essential to it, and which may in many cases be separated and removed from it. It is in speakin" of these foreign substances, which are often found coloring natural objects, or which are employed in the arts for the purpose of imparting colors to various materials, that we generally make use of the term coloring matter. By chemists, however, the term is only applied to organic bodies and not to mineral substances, such as oxide of iron, cin- nabar, ultramarine, &c., which, though they are employed as pigments in the arts, differ very widely in their properties from one another and from coloring matters in the narrower sense of the word. Coloring matters may be defined to be substances produced in animal or ve«'etable organisms, or easily formed there by processes occurrmg in nature, (such as oxidation or fermentation,) and which are either themselves colored or give colored com- pounds with bases or with annual or vegetable fibre. According to this definition, bodies like carbazotic acid and murexide, which are formed by complicated processes such as never occur in nature, are excluded, though they resemble true coloring matters in many of their properties, such as that of giving intensely colored compound bases. Whether, however, even after accepting the above definition, coloring matters can be considered as constituting a natural class of organic bodies, such as the fats, resins, &c., must still remain doubtful, though modem research tends to prove that these substances are related to one another by other properties besides the accidental one of color, and will probably be found eventually to belong in reality to one natural class. Coloring matters occur in all the organs of plants, in the root, wood, bark, leaves, flow- ers and fruit ; in the skin, hair, feathers, blood, and various secretions of animals ; in insects, for example, in various species of coccus ; and in moUusca, such as the murex. Indeed, there are very few plants or animals whose oi-gans do not produce some kmd of COLORING KATTERS. ^^ coloring matter. It is remarkable, however, that the colors wh.Vh ««. m^* f^ sented to our view, such as those if the leaves ino>^rof nr.ntTtnTi frequently pre- mals,are produced by coloring matters with wSwr^eL^tt^vl?^^^ blood of ani- coloriug matters used in the arts, and which havP htf !. • 7 ^ ?^ acquainted, the derived%hieflyfrom less conspicu'oL ojans such^ tL SoT^^^^^ care, being almost all cases the preparation of coloring matter i^a sL^nf n •. ' ""{ ^^^^ ^"^ culties, so that it ma^ e'ven be said that r^T^^eln^^^l'l^^^^^^^ ^"*' ^^- Sorne coloring matters bear a great resemblance to the ^Lled eS^tive m«H. .k ers to resins. Hence they have been divided into extractim^dL^T^f " ^ **'^' These resemblances are however of no great imLrta^ Thf nrh. TV f""^ "^^'"^"^ posse, such peculiar properties that ley mustTe^Tnsid Ji^ T'^^^tdZ smallest number. Only one true greercolSripr!^' ^- ^^' class comprising the the substance to which the g^een^Sor o S^^ m^TVu' chlorophyll, of wine. la many cases coloring' matted oxh\h\t vi^C^^^ Doilmg water and spirits diff'erent color from what they do Xnfh^v ph i • ? '"^ f't uncombmed state, an entirely ing matter of litmus, for instance Js,^^^^^^^^^ combination The color^ lies are blue. The al'caline PnmnmmHV^p^— ^ .' ^"^^ '^^ compounds with alka- substance itself LredSyelloTj^^^ ^^ \"'^ ^^'^ ^^«'-' ^^»« '^« action of alkalies, and the blue ^olor^t mJf r„p' a^^^ '°^"'"'„ ^^*^°^^ b«>^ by the posed to the same influence The Sfi-Hn^nf 7^"" generally turn green when ex- therefore purely artifiS The terr^^^d ^e^^^^^ T'^''^ "^"^^^ *^ ^«»«^' ^^ that the substance itself possessfs^e of\S"'X^ ^^^^^^^^ respectively red yellow oi- hliiA t» „i ''"*^^^„ c**'ors, or that most of its compounds are stances of a pale ycllo«. color becoming oA deep yeTow IT^ln"^^ **'*^' """^ ThU proceeds on the one ha^d wSfsmrou*!'! '\!5 .T* ""l ^'^"""^^ *» ""^'y- in the otgans of plants and animab l„dTh„S i, r^'^J^^?^.^'''^'*"**^ '«"*"5' ?•*«««' eiaminadon in a state o* purtyS Tnf^lt^hVf °''""u'"°? '""'"*'" q>'antities for pounds. It is well known that S hnri;t?!.u ^^' ®5 colonng matters and their corn- when deposited L tWnZerf on o?in^^^^^^^ \^^ rays of the sun, especially much of the intensity of the r color ani someth^l pI^""^ ^' ^'^'^^^^ ^^^^"^^^^ ^^^ are converted into colorless bodies But Xtho^tl/ ^^^^PPear entirely-that is, they induced by the light, or whether as b more nrnhlhf P',^^^^^^^P«"d^ o^ a physical action posing actfon of olygen ^na"StnTo:^:Zi^^i^rTt: H^Z^'''' f'^ '^^^"■ influence. Colors produced by a^i^re of tZ^ ^1^^^^^^^^^ scriLd^undSfhrn^mtol"^^^^^^^^ '5??//?!;^?* ^P^«'«« of ma«zn«Oas lately been de- supposed, a muture of a blue aL7aVd?ow-coIo" LV^I^^^^ ^ ^ Peculiar substance, not,'^^rS^Tt t Vol. IIL— 26 402 COLORING MATTERS. the action of light better than those obtained from one alone. In one case, viz., that of Tyrian purple, the action of light seems to be absolutely essential to the formation of the coloring matter. The leaves of plants also remain colorless if the plants are grown in dark- ness, though in this case the formation of the green coloring matter is probably not due to the direct chemical action of the light. The action of heat on coloring matters varies very much according to the nature of the latter and the method of applying the heat. A moderate degree of heat often changes the hue of a coloring matter and its compounds, the original color being restored on cooling — an effect which is probably due to physical causes. Sometimes this effect is, without doubt, owing to the loss of water. Alizarine, for instance, crystallized from alcohol, when heated to 212° F., loses its water of crystallization, its color changing at the same time from red- dish-yellow to red. At a still higher temperature most coloring matters are entirely decom- posed, the products of decomposition being those usually afforded by organic matters, such as water, carbonic acid, carburetted hydrogen, empyreumatic oils, and, if the substance con- tains nitrogen, ammonia, or organic bases such as aniline. A few coloring matters, as, for example, alizarine, rubiacine, indigo-blue, and indigo-red, if carefully heated, may be vola- tilized without change, and ^eld beautifully crystallized sublimates, though a portion of the substance is sometimes decomposed, giving carbon and empyreumatic products. Coloring matters, like most other organic substances, undergo decomposition with more or less facility when exposed to the action of oxygen ; and the process may, indeed, be more easily traced, in their case, as it is always accompanied by a change of hue. Its effects may be daily observed in the colors of natural objects belonging to the organic world. Flowers, in many cases, lose a portion of their color before fading. The leaves of plants, before they fall, lose their green color and become red or yellow. The color of venous blood changes, when exposed to the air, from dark red to light red. When exposed to the action of oxygen, blue and red coloring matters generally become yellow or brown ; but the process seldom ends here : it continues until the color is quite destroyed ; that is, until the substance is converted into a colorless compound. This may be easily seen when a fabric, dyed of some fugitive color, is exposed to the air. The intensity of the color diminishes, in the first instance ; it then changes in hue, and, finally, disappears entirely. Indeed, the whole process of bleaching in the air depends on the concurrent action of oxygen, light, and moisture. The precise nature of the chemical changes which coloring matters undergo, during this process of oxidation, is unknown. No doubt it consists, generally speaking, in the removal of a portion of their carbon and hydrogen, in the shape of carbonic acid and water, and the conversion of the chief mass of the substance into a more stable compound, capable of resisting the further action of oxygen. But this statement conveys very little information to the chemist, who, in order to ascertain the nature of a process of decompo- sition, requires to know exactly all its products, and to compare their composition with that of the substances from which they are derived. The indeterminate and uninteresting nature of the bodies into which most coloring matters are converted by oxidation, has probably deterred chemists from their examination. The action of oxygen on coloring matters varies according to their nature and the manner in which the oxygen is applied, and it is the de- gree of resistance which they are capable of opposing to its action that chiefly determines the stability of the colors produced by their means in the arts. Indigo-blue shows no ten- dency to be decomposed by gaseous oxygen at ordinary temperatures ; it is only when the latter is presented in a concentrated form, as in nitric or chromic acid, or in a nascent state, as in a solution of ferridcyanide of potassium containing caustic potash, that it undergoes decomposition. When, however, indigo-blue enters into combination with sulphuric acid, it is decomposed by means of oxygen with as much facility as some of the least stable of this class of bodies. Some coloring matters are capable of resisting the action of oxygen even in its most concentrated form. Of this kind are rubianine and rubiacine, which, when treated with boiling nitric acid, merely dissolve in the liquid, and crystallize out again when the latter is allowed to cool. The action of atmospheric oxygen on coloring matters is gen- erally promoted by alkalies, and retarded in the presence of acids. A watery solution of heraatine, when mixed with an excess of caustic alkali, becomes of a beautiful purple ; but the color, when exposed to the air, almost immediately turns brown, the hematine being then completely changed. It is almost needless to observe, that the bodies into which coloring matters are converted by oxidation, are incapable, under any circumstances, of returning to their original state. The action of reducing agents, that is, of bodies having a great aflSnity for oxygen, on some coloring matters, is very peculiar. If indigo-blue, suspended in water, be placed in contact with protoxide of iron, protoxide of tin, or an alkaline sulphuret, sulphite or phos- phite, or grape sugar, or, in short, any easily oxidlzable body, an excess of some alkali or alkaline earth being present at the same time, it dissolves, forming a pale yellow solution without a trace of blue. This solution contains, in combination with the alkali or alkaline earth, a perfectly white substance, to which the name of reduced indirfo has been applied. When an excess of acid is added to the solution, it is precipitated in white flocks. By ex- COLORING MATTERS. 403 posure to the air, either by itself or in a state of solution, reduced indigo rapidly attracts oxygen, and is reconverted into indigo-blue. Hence the surface of the solutions, if left to stand in uncovered vessels, becomes covered with a blue film of regenerated indigo-blue It was for a long time supposed that reduced indigo was simply deoxidized indigo-blue and that the process consisted merely in the indigo-blue parting with a portion of its oxygen which was taken up again on exposure to the air. It has, however, been discovered that m every case water is decomposed during the process of reduction which indigo-blue under- goes, the oxygen of the water combining with the reducing agent, and the hydrogen uniting with the indigo-blue, water being again formed when reduced indigo comes m contact with oxygen. Reduced indigo is therefore not a body containmg less oxygen than indifro-blue but 13 a compound of the latter with hydrogen. There are several red coloring matters which possess the same property, that of being converted into coloriess compounds by the simultaneous action of reducing agents and alkalies, and of returning to their original state when exposed to the action of oxygen. There can be little doubt that the process consists, in all cases, in the coloring matter combining with hydrogen and parting with it again when the hydruret comes in contact with oxygen. The action of chlorine on coloring matters is very similar to that of oxygen, though in general, chlorine acts more energetically. The first effect produced by chlorine, whether it be applied as free chlorine, or in a state of combination with an alkali, or alkaline earth as an hypochlorite, usually consists in a change of color. Blue and red coloring matters gen- erally become yellow. By the continued action of chlorine, all trace of color disappears, and the final result is the formation of a perfectly white substance, which is usually more easily soluble in water and other menstrua than that from which it was formed. Smce it is most commonly by means of chlorine or its compounds that coloring matters are destroyed or got nd of m the arts, as in bleaching fabrics and discharging colors, the process of de- composition which they undergo by means of chlorine has Attracted a good deal of atten- tion, and the nature of the chemical changes, which take place in the course of it, has oflen been made a subject of dispute, though the matter is one possessing more of a theoretical than a practical interest. It is a well-known fact, that many organic bodies are decomposed when they are brought into contact, in a dry state, with dry chlorine gas. The decompo- sition consists m the elimination of a portion of the hydrogen of the substance and its sub- stitution by chlorine. When water is present at the same tune, the decomposition is how- ever, not so simple. It is well known that chlorine decomposes water, combining with the hydrogen of the latter and setting its oxygen at liberty, and it has been asserted, that in the bleaching of coloring matters by means of chlorine when moisture is usuaUy present, this al wavs takes place m the first instance, and that it is in fact the oxygen which effects their destruc- tion, not the chlorine. This appears, indeed, to be the case occasionally. Rubian for ins ance, the body from which alizarine is derived, gives, when decomposed with chloride of hme, phthahc acid, a beautifully crystallized substance, containing no chlorine, which is also produced by the action of nitric acid on rubian, and is, therefore, truly a plwiuct of oxidation. In many cases, however, it is certain that the chlorine itself also enters into the composition of the new bodies produced by its action on coloring matters. When for instance, chlorine acts on indigo-blue, chlorisatiue is formed, which is indigo-blue in Which one atom of hydrogen is replaced by one of chlorine, plus two atoms of oxygen, the latter being derived from the decomposition of water. The behavior of coloring matters towards water and other solvents is very various boine coloring matters, such as those of logwood and brazilwood, are very easily soluble in water. Others, such as the coloring matters of madder and quercitron-bark, are only spar- mgly soluble m water. Many, especially the so-called resinous ones, are insoluble in water but more or less soluble in alcohol and ether, or alkaline liquids. A few, such as indi.'o- blue, are almost insoluble in all menstrua, and can only be made to dissolve by convertiliff them, by means of reducing agents, into other bodies soluble in alkalies. Those which are soluble m water, are, generally speaking, of the greatest importance in the arts, since they admit ot more ready application when they possess this property The behavior of coloring matters towards acids, is often Very characteristic. Most coloring matters are completely decomposed by nitric, chloric, manganic, and chromic acid, in consequence of the large proportion of oxygen which these acids coitain. With man^ coloring matters the decomposition takes place even at the ordinary temperature • with oth- ers. It only commences when the acid is warmed, especially if the latter be applied in a state of considerable dilution. Concentrated sulphuric acid also destroys most coloring mattere especially if the acid be heated. It seems to act by depriving them of the elements of water and thereby converting them into substances containing more cari)on than before as may be inferred from the dark, almost black color which they acquire. At the same time the acid generally loses a portion of its oxygen, since sulphurous acid is almost always evolved on heating. Some coloring matters, such as alizarine, are not decomposed by con- centrated sulphuric acid even when the latter is raised to the boiling point ; they merely dis- solve, forming solutions of various colors, from which they are pr?cipitat^ unchanged on 404 COLORING MATTERS. the addition of water, when they are insoluble, or not easily soluble 1°*^^ latter Others, again, like indigo-blue, dissolve in concentrated or fuming sulphuric acid, without being de- cSraposed, and at the ^e time enter into combination with the acid, formmg true double acids, which are easily soluble in water, and combine as such with bases Many coloring matters undergo a change of color when exposed to the action of acids, the original color being restored by the addition of an excess of alkali, and this property is made use of for the detection of acids and alkalies. The color of an infusion ot litmus, for instance, is changed by acids from blue to red, and the blue color is restored by alkalies. An infusion of the petals of the purple dahlia or of the violet becouics red on the addition of acids, and this red color changes again to purple or blue with alkalies, an excess of alkali making it jrrcen The yellow color of rutine becomes deeper with strong acids. In most cases, this alteration of color depends on a very simple chemical change. Litmus, for example, in the state in which it occurs in commerce, consists of a red coloring matter in combination witn ammonia, the compound being blue. By the addition of an acid, the ammonia is removed, and the uncombined red coloring matter makes its appearance. Ammonia and most alkalies remove the excess of acid, and, by combining with the red coloring matter, restore the blue color. When a coloring matter, like alizarme, is only sparingly soluble m water, its solu- bility is generally diminished in the presence of a strong acid. Hence, by addmg acid to the watery solution, a portion of the coloring matter is usually precipitated. It is very sel- dom that coloring matters are really found to enter into combmation with acids. Indeed, only one, viz., berberine, is capable of acting the part of a true base, and forming definite compounds with acids. Some acids, such as sulphurous and hydrosulphuric acids, do cer- tainly seem to combine with some coloring matters and form with them compounds, in which the color is completely disguised, and apparently destroyed. If a red rose be sus- pended in an atmosphere of sulphurous acid, it becomes white, but the red color may be Restored by neutralizing the acid with some alkali. On this property of sulphurous acid depends the process of bleaching woollen fabrics by memis of burnmg sulphur In this case the coloring matter is not destroyed, but only disguised by its combination with the ^""^ if ost coloring matters are capable of combining with bases. Indeed, their affinity for the latter is generally so marked, that they may be considered as belonging to the class of weak acids. Like all other weak acids, they form, with bases, compounds of a very indefi- nite composition, so much so that the same compound, prepared on two different .occasions is often found to be differently constituted. Hence the great difficulty experienced by chemists in determining the atomic weight of coloring matters. There are very few of the latter for which several formula, all equally probaWe, may not be given if the coinpounds with bases be employed for their determination. The compounds of coloring matters with bases hardly ever crystallize. Those with alkalies are mostly soluble m wa er and amor- phous- those with the alkaline earths, lime and baryta, are sometimes soluble sometimes insoluble : those with the eai-ths and metallic oxides are almost always insoluble m water The compounds with alkalies are obtained by dissolving the coloring matter m water, to which a little alkali is added, and evaporating to dryness-an operation which must be care- fully conducted if the coloring matter is one easily affected by oxygen The insoluble com- pounds with earths and metallic oxides, arc obtained either by double decomposition of a soluble' compound with a soluble salt of the respective base, or by addmg to a solution of the coloring matter, in water or any other menstruum, a salt of the base containing some weak acid,°8uch as'acetic acid. It is remarkable, that of all bases, none show so much affinity for coloring matters as alumina, peroxide of iron, and peroxide of tm bodies which ^cupy an intermediate position between acids and bases. If a solution of any coloring Sr be agitated with a sufficient quantity of the hydrates of any of these bases, the solu- tion becoi^s decolorized, the whole of the coloring matter combming with the base and foxing a colored compound. It is accordingly these bases that are chiefly employed in dyeing for the purpose of fixing coloring matters on particular portions of the fabric to be dyed When used for this purpose, they are called mordants. Their compounds with colorin- matters are denominated /aAres, and are employed as pigments by painters. Ihe colors Sf the compounds usually differ, either in kind or degree, from those of the colormg matters themselves. Red coloring matters often form blue compounds, yellow ones some- times give red or purple compounds. The compounds with peroxide of iron are usually distinguished by the intensity of their color. When a coloring matter gives with alumina and olide of tin red compounds, its compound with peroxide of iron is ^^^^^J P^^jP^^ ^^."^ black • and when the former are yellow, the latter is commonly olive or brown. AUnost an the compounds of coloring matters with bases are decomposed by ^^F^^.g ^^f «V^,"^^^. ^^^"^^^ phuric muriatic, nitric, oxalic, and tartaric acids, and even acetic acid is not without effect Sn some of these com^unds.' The compounds with earths ^d metalhc ox'^es ar^^ also decomposed, sometime^ by alkalies. A solution of soap is sufficient to produce this effect in mZy ca^sVand dyes are therefore often tested by means of a solution of soap, m order to ascertain the degree of permanence which tiiey possess. COLORING MATTERS. 405 hnZo PJ^P^^^y ^« ^ characteristic of coloring matters, as a class, as their behavior towards bodies of a porous nature, such as charcoal. If a watery solution of a coloring matter be agitated with charcoal, animal charcoal being best adapted for the purpose, the coloring ^omhTn !•'" ^T"? T'^^^^J '•^'"^I^^ ^^«°^ *^« ^^^'^'i^" ^^ absorbed by the cW^ Thf Xffini V w^-'^ *f^' P^^'^ """"^^J '^^'^ circumstances is probably not due to Sy chemt ^ert^ if; h^H- ' "^f^' ^ '^''' ^^ '^" «^^^"^^ attraction of surface, which we often see exerted by bodies of a porous nature, such as charcoal and spongy platinum and which ZnH 'i, -'^""7 *^ "^T^ T^- '"^" ^'^^'^"^ «^ ^-^^^ of variouf kinds. ThaUhe^m cums?ance"?h!t T^f " f^'^'f '^'° " ^^^°^^^"^ °^*"^^' ««^°^« *« *>« ^^^^ »>y the c^r- ehrrS L 'O'^f /"?,^ ^^^ ,^«1«"»S "latter is separated from its combination with the Charcoal by means of boiling alcohol, an agent which can hardly be supposed to exert a use ofbvlT-" ff^ ^^ "^T-- ^' '' '^' P'^P^^y «f ^«»«^g °^atte« which ?made Thl nffi *• ' •? decolorize so utions, and by sugar manufacturere to purify their sugar. till manifested by coloring matters for animal or vegetable fibre, is probably tlso Dowerfr^ffi "^^ f 1"^"^ ""u^T^ ^^""^^ ^^ *^^ P^~"« condition of the latter, and the powerful affiaity of the so-called mordants for coloring matters, may. perfiaps be in part accounted for by their state of mechanical division beh^ different fr^m tSof ither S«^ or vJi!? ^''"ir' ^'O^^^^^' ^ary much from one another in tiieir behavior towards animal tnrSt^ Ki ^r""^' 'u^^ ^ indigo-blue, and the coloring matters of safflower and in Ti'^; "^^ ""^P n K °^ ^^"b^'J'^g directiy with the latter and imparting to them colors of feehlVHn?, ;; Others are only slightly attracted by them, and consequently impart only dvpW fi!!'- ♦ ^^ t^fr^fore require, when they are employed in the arts for the piu-pose of thp Sm . f *^"P?^'*»°," o^ an earthy or metaUic base. To the first class Bancroft ^pUed tne term substantive colonucr matters, to the second that of adjective coloring matteraT *h.y- ^^™°u* mteresting questions connected with the history of coloring matters, is ha tin regard to the ordinal state in which these substances exist in the animdrid v?g^ ?v. IXrT f''?^,.^hi«^*liey are derived. It has been known for a long time tS m^ are oSed «n^ TF ^^ "''"5" V^" ^"1"^^^' ready-formed in the plants from which they Z\uJ? t \u^ *^mu* ^?g ^^ 0^^° ^'®^^^<^ P'-ooess of preparation is required m order to el mma e them The plants which yield indigo exhibit, while they are grLnT no^Z ll u'ndeion. The coloring matter only makes^itsappeiance afte/tJ^j^Tcr^f'tL p^ ar.hn «n![f. process of fermentation. The lichens employed in the preparation of taTn^n. ammoZ^'n'd f.^^«^^^«^' ^ •"' °^"'' ^^^J *^"^^°' **"' by steeping them in li^ds con- taining ammonia and lime, a coloring matter of an intense red is gradually generated, which remains dissolved m the alkaline liquid. Other phenomena of a simili^^t Jro might ^ TpH fiT ' ^' ^''" '^''^''''' *>" ^^''"^^'^^^ of *^« «o-called Tyrian purple from^j^ of a shell-fish, and new ones are from time to time being discovered. In order to expCn thes^ phenomena, various hypotheses have been resorted to. It was supposS' for Stirn^ thS Z nrocls 'nP r"'"'-'^ "'i*' "kV^^'^^^^ '^*^^°^> "^^ ^^^^ wero d'evoid o?cotoraS Zl the process of preparing indigo-blue consisted simply in oxidizmg the white indigo which mdeTnttaTto^^hr"^^^^^^^ ^-^W-, by somVchemists. The same^um^Son w^ TdeoridizP^H In«»'; « dehvered to the manufacturer, it is so foul and flocliT that he "l^«ar ^"^^'^ " '^* ""' '""'°^' '^' ""■»"' •■* «" subje^it tTthe^ Vol. III.— 27 \ 418 COTTON MANUFACTURE. 198 * Fiq. 199, the scutcher or opening machine, though usually preceded by the willow, is often the first machine in a miU through which the cotton is passed, and serves, as its name implies, to open the matted locks of cotton and separate its fibres, and at the same time to remove a laige percentage of the seed and dirt which may have been packed with it. The cotton is placed upon the travelUng creeper marked a, which is made of a number of narrow slips, or laths, of wood, screwed to three endless bands of leather, the PJ^o^s «i which are marked h and c. Motion is given to the roller c, by a wheel on the end ol the feed roller, thus causing the creeper to advance, carrying with it the cotton to the teeding rollers d ; these revolving slowly pass the cotton to the second smallei*pair of fluted rollers, which serve it to the beater. j t, ij *u ♦* The top feeding rollers are weighted by levers and weights e c, and hold tne cotton sufficiently tight for the beater to act upon it. The beater is placed inside the machine at /", and extends quite across its breadth, its shaft or axis being shown with the speed fully upon it at g. The form of the beater varies, but we give the following as an example :— On a shaft are placed four or five spiders, each having three or four arms ; to the ends of these arms are attached steel blades, which pass along the whole length of the beater ; two of the arms being shorter than the other arms of the spider, allow two of the blades to contwn a double row 200 COTTON MANUFACTURE. 419 oti;"^t^;o^^^3.^^^L^l^^^^ ^^^oi^es'sr s^ t^s^^^ ^r ^ t. - ^^ t^^p^c^^^^^:^^ :^rrfo=of-sh» thesf SmplekTacE'''}|^2^^^^^^^^ 'Y ''^ ^k^' *^ ''''^'^' *^« comprehension of .nifeorco-brorr-de^^e^Vr^^^^^^ 201 202 6, and then falling in narrow fillets into its can T^n 9n9 ir r o-« *\.^ c^^a n end passing between compressing roUere into tlie « fibres held by the nipper, the cusUon nlate ■>« IS drawn forward, and the nipper plate 6 is lifted from it, and thSrele^s^e flee^ the flated segment 6. on the cylinder ta at the same time passing imm!SSr«^der AeTuihJon 422 COTTON MANUFACTURE. plate 6a the ends of the combed fibres lying upon it, and as the leather detaching roller 8a has been lowered into contact with the fluted segment, they are then drawn forward ; but as it is necessary to prevent any fibres passing that have not been properly cleaned or combed, the top comb 7 is placed between the nipper and the roller, and as this comb falls and penetrates the fleece just in front of the pai-t uncombed by the cylmdrical combs, it prevents any waste from being drawn forward with the tail end of the clean fibres. The leather detaching roller 8a, in addition to its occasional contact with the fluted seg- ment 6c, is always in contact with the fluted steel detaching roller 8, and participates in its movements. , , , . .. /.»_ . x- These rollers are stationary while the cylinder combs are cleaning the fibres projectmg from the nipper, but as soon as that operation is completed, they are put into motion, and make pai-t of a revolution backward, taking back with them the fibres previously combed, but taken out of the way to allow the cylinder combs to pass, in order for the next fibres coming forward to be joined or pieced to them, so as to form a continuous sliver or ribbon. As soon as the backward movement is completed, the leather detaching roller 8a is made to approach the cylinder by the lever 8/, which receives motion from a cam at the end of the machine, through the lever Sd, connecting rod 8c, lever 14c, and shaft 146. Before, how- ever, it comes in contact with the fluted segment ^, the movement of the fluted roller is reversed, and it is caused to turn forward, producing a corresponding movement of the de- taching roller 8a, the speed being so arranged that, before they are allowed to Aouch each other, the peripheries of the fluted segment 6c and the roller 8a travel with an equal veloc- ity. At this stage, the ends of the fibres cleaned by the cylinder combs and projecting from the nipper, are resting upon the fluted segment ; and the roller 8a, in coming in contact with it, presses upon those fibres, and inmiediately draws them forward ; the front ends are then lifted by the leather roller and placed on the top of those fibres previously cleaned, and brought back to receive them. The pressure of the rollers 8 and ba completes the piecing of the fibres ; the motion of the rollers being continued until the tail end of the fibres is drawn through the top comb, and a length of fibres is delivered to the calender rollers,— sufficient slack being left between to allow for the next backward movement. The roUer 8a is then raised from the fluted segment and ceases to revolve. From the calender rollers, the combed cotton passes along the front plate or conductor, where it joins the slivers from the other five heads of the machine, and with them passes through the drawing head, and is then deposited in a can ready to be removed to the draw- ing frame. , , *. « v v * The movements above described being necessary for each beat of the combing machine, they must all recur each second of time, or sixty times each minute. Iiecapitulation.—T!he combing machine is fed or supplied from 6 laps of cotton, (each lap being formed from about 18 slivers from the breaker carding engines, and doubled into a lap in the lap machine.) Each lap is 8 inches wide and about 12 inches diameter when /I 11 The following description of the manner in which the combing machine works is con- fined to one head supplied by 1 lap, as each of the 6 heads shown mfg. 204 is exactly hke ^The^kp of cotton having been placed on a pair of revolving lap rollers, the fleece or sheet of cotton, is conducted down an inclined guide to a fluted steel feeding roller, which places the cotton between the open jaws of an iron nipper. The nipper is then closed and made to approach the comb cylinder, by means of a cam, where it holds the fibres m such a position that the combs of the revolving cylinder pass between and remove from the fibres all impurities and short or broken cotton, which are afterwards worked up into yams of a ^^^Tsoon al'the combs have all passed through the cotton, the nipper recedes from the cvlinder, and as soon as it has reached the proper distance, opens its jaws, and allows the partially combed fibres to be drawn out of the fleece, by means of a leather-covered roller which works for this purpose in contact with the fluted segment on the comb cylinder, and with the fluted steel detaching roller. The drawing out of these fibres causes the ends of those fibres which were before held in the nipper to pass between the teeth of a fine top comb, thus completing the combing of each separate fibre. Previous to the movement for drawing out the fibres from the uncombed fleece, the detaching roller has made a partial revolution backwards, and taken with it the combed cotton previously delivered, in order to piece it to the fibres just combed. «,,.,. n ^„„j„,^„ The machine is so arranged that the forward movement of the detaching roller overlaps the ends and brings out the cotton in a continuous sliver to the front of the machine, where it ioins the other five slivers which have been simultaneously produced on the other heads of the machine. The united slivers then pass through thtf drawing head to the next opera- tion — ^the drawing frame. (See Vol. 1.) . n ^i. i * x • Fia 204a is a drawing frame, by Hetherington & Sons, contaimng all the latest im- provements, i. c, greater strength of materials; a stop motion to stop the frame, when L COTTON MANUFACTURE. ' 423 tVe" UverTn^^^^^^^ P^'T* "*"^^ ^^^'' '^^ ^^^^^ '"^^ion, by means of which IS placed m the can m circles overlapping each other on the principle diS 204a • ' 2046 only in a small degree and lonZu^^.^f, \ " ^^^^^ ^^'^^'* °eeds that cohesive aid utmost the further dongation ' ^ *'^'"'' °^"'* ^« mamtained to facihtotrto Sle scribed it only ieeds to add Th't mtoy tpCe'^en^V'^T " ^""^ *^ *^** ^--^>^ as will be seen on reference to the enS^ Trpnl^*''? ^T introduced by the makeit view of the back of the frame ; 3 sh^r the l^Z ""u ^ ^'T ^"^ °^ *^« ^^^'^ 2^ same end with the iron casing remover'o as to ptV^.^^k"'^ ^^^ ^"^"°S end ; and 4 the The spindles and bobbins beimrn^w ^ • *®^®^*»ibit the works mside. and greater strength of m^riX^b^W IZd^L^'t^"^ mstead of b, bands as formerly, producing a better quality with an Ka^d auSv nf '^^'*"* ?^ ^'^^' '^ ^ ^P^We of _ J'tff. 206 also represents a sMarSL^f^ ^ ^ "^"^"^ *^^ ^^ P^^^^le f^eriv. Tmt ""^^ "" *^'* ^reaX desSbed "^^"^ °^' ^^ Hetherington & Sonk HetheringtonTs^n^MlSste^^^^ ""^'^ '""^"^^'^ ^""'"^ ^^ *^^ ^^^ frame by Messrs. 424 COTTON MAKUFAOTURE. 205 COTTON' MANUFACTURE. 206 425 r.-,J^l\jy r "^ ^''''T\^ a previous edition of this work, mention was made of the sfn^f th! '•"! T^^^^^ Mr. Roberts, of Manchester, and of Mr. Smith, of Depone Hinpd f^ -P'"''^ ''^'" *^^* "^^^*^^ ^^ ^"'^^ * g'-^at ii'^n^ber of patents have ^n obi Sns fwhUrrroT^??!.''^^^^^^^^ '^*'^- P«"^^' ofMLchester, Me^ns ffi^ Sr^tJTilld many Iff ""^ ''^- ^^^S^-y, of Johnstone, Mess.. Cnug & Sharp, of Mr. Roberts's self-acting mule, which was practically the first introduced has maintainpd The following are some of the principal improvements they have effected- vi, ...h..: such a manner that, in the event of an obst?uctn "minglX'w:?^^^^^^^^^^ ^4T4in^ out, the motion ceases and prevents the mule being injured ^ ^ ^ Pr, tLT^°' ""^ ^.[f'f «^ motion, the object of which is to take the carriage in to the roll T.nl^ '^^ ""'" ^* ^"f ?^P '^ ^^^ «^^"' «f a°y obstruction presenUn/ft^lf ForThe C^' u« w'^tf ?' arrangement of the headstock-or self-acting poSff the m^I<^1? The f -,1"7"S,'''*P' r l^ '• '» ■« "^H which in low roomsi of c^LweS impoi^nT th,> ^li J'"'''?^.K ^''^ -T* numbers, say 6's, they have patented an arrangement by which Si^H-rgoi-ttTfiir-agtw^^^^^^^^^^ 426 COTTON MANUFACTURE. Some of their mules are working in the mills of Messrs. Thomas Mason & Son, Ashton- under-Lyne, and are making five to five-and-a-half draws per minute, the length of the stretch being 67 inches — a speed and length of stretch never previously attained. The following is a description of one of those excellent mules : — Fig. 208 is a plan view, jig. 209 a transverse section, and fig. 210 an end view of so much of a mule as is requisite for its illustration here. 208 As there are many parts which are common to all mules, most of which have been pre- viously described in the notice of the hand mule, we shall therefore only notice the more prominent portions of the self-actmg part of the mule. Among such parts are : the framing of the headstock a ; the carriage b ; the rovings c ; the supports d of the roller beam e ; the fluted rollers a ; the top rollers a} ; the spindles b ; the carriage wheels 6' ; the slips, or rails, 6', on which they move ; the faller wire 6' ; the counter-faller wire 6*. The following II COTTON MAOTFACTURE. 427 are the parts chiefly connected with the self-actmg portion of the mule :--The fast Dullev v the loose pulley p\ the bevels f« and ^\ which give motion to the fluted rollera the Wk' or drawmg-out shaft g, wheels o' and g«, by which, through* the shafrG» :^d Wh^e L c^nd G°, motion 13 communinatpd tn iht^ T^inir.^ ^e ^„ *. * _../.. °_s , .. **" . "'"«^eis G ana 209 receives motion therefrom. One-half of the catch-box k> is fast to one end of a Ion*, hoi low shaft on which are two cams, one of which is used to put the fronr^wW rolW^SS. box M mto and out of contact ; the other is used for the mroosl^ft^7^J^^TA^^^' strap on or off" the fast pulley f ^ required. The other hK the SSKMs'Sleof on the shaft k, a key fast on which passes throueh the boss of thp ^t^^T.^^ a ^^^^ to be earned round by the shaft as ft rotates. Though carried rtnTwUh theThaft'^h'Si^^ liberty to move lengthwise, so as to allow it to be put'into and out o?conLt with ?heoS.^ half when required. The spiral spring k» is a J placed on the shrK^L^tn^LJl!^^^^ 210 bears against the end of the cateh-bnx navf *r. u ^^a a the other, which it does when prrmitted and thP ^h? ^^^^'^^^^ .*« P"* »* '^ contact with K^* moves on a stud which paLs thTou^h ?n w! ^^^' are required. The change lever adjustable pieces a\ Wherthe machL i^^^^^^^ w "'^'^' '""^^ "^ i*^« ^^^^'^ '^^ coming out: the driving strap is L the most n^rt on ti^ f ?' supposing the carriage to be through the bevel wheels f' and f» fo thi h ^^ *n^ ^^' P""^^ ^ ^^^^ °»otion is given ings c%ff the bobbrns and del^^^^^^ Uver^T "/ '''"''! "tl ^}''^ ^" *»»^^ ^^^ t»^«>ov- same being fast to the spMeTas the ^^-^-^ ' ^"^ - ""^ *^^ '''"^'^' ^°*^ ^^^ and as the%indles at tWrtime are tum^^^^^^ drawn out the slivers are taken out also, minute,) they give twist toXsliversTnd oon^^^^^^^^^^ *^"-'^ ^"^^ ^"^^ ^'^^^ revolutions pe; tion U eommuficated to the t^i^^^^ ^^ pX^tth^.^^^^^^^^ 428 COTTON MANUFACTURE. passes from the rim pulley to a grooved pulley on the tin roller shaft, round which it passes, and thence round the grooved pulley f" back to the rim pulley, thus forming an endless band. It will be seen that the rim band pulley and the other pulleys, over or round which the rim band passes, are formed with double grooves, and the band being passed round each, it forms a double band, which is found of great advantage, as it will work with a slacker band than if only one groove was used ; there is consequently less strain on the band, and it is longer. A string or cord passes round the tin roller to a wharve on each spindle, round which it passes, and thence back to the tin roller, and thus, when the tin roller receives motion from the rim band, it gives motion to the spindles. The carriage is caused to move outwards by means of the cord l, one end of which is attached to a ratchet pulley fixed on the carriage cross, or square l*, and is then passed over the spiral grooved pulley I? fast on the drawing-out shaft o, and passes thence under the guide pulley l^ round the pulley l* to another ratchet pulley, also on the carriage square, where the other end is then fastened. The cord receives motion from the pulley l'*, round which it passes and communicates the motion it receives to the carriage, the carriage wheels 6' moving freely on the slips 6". When the carriage has completed its outward run, the bowl o* on the counter faller shaft comes against the piece a', depresses it and the end of the lever k' to which it is at- tached, and raises the other end, and with it the elide c, on which are two inclines. A round pin (not seen] passes through the boss of the catch-box next to the slide, and bears against the sliding half of the catch-box, and holds it out of contact. When the slide c is raised, the part of the incline which bore against the pin and kept the catch-box from being in contact, is withdrawn, on which the spring puts them in con- tact, and motion is given to the hollow shaft, and the cams thereon ; one of which causes the catch-box m to be taken out of contact when motion ceases to be given to the drawing rollers and to the going out of the carriage ; and the other causes the driving strap to be traversed off from the fast pulley on to the loose one when motion ceases to be given to the rim pulley, and thence to the spindles. The inclines on the slide are so formed that, by the time the shaft has made half a revolution, they act on the pin and cause it to put the catch-box out of contact. The next operation is the backing-off or uncoiling the threads coiled on the spindle above the cop, which is effected by causing the backing-off cones attached to the wheel J* to be put into contact with one formed in the interior of the fast pulley F, when a reverse motion will be given to the rim pulley and thence to the tin roller and the spindles. The backing-oflf cones are put into contact by means of a spiral spring, which, when the strap fork is moved to traverse the strap on to the loose pulley, it is allowed to do. Simul- taneously with the backing-off, the putting, down of the faller wire takes place, which is effected through the reverse motion of the tin roller shaft, which causes the catch c' to take into a tooth of the ratchet wheel c^^ when they will move together, and with them the plate c^, to a stud in which one end of the chain c* is fastened, the other end of which is attached to the outer end of the finger c*, fast on the faller shaft. When this chain is drawn for- ward by the plate, it draws down the end of the finger c' to which it is attached, and there- by partially turns the faller shaft and depresses the faller wire 6\ and, at the same time, raises the lever c**, the lower part of which bears against a bowl attached to a lever which rests on the builder rail c*. As soon as the lever c^ is raised sufficiently high to allow the lower end to pass over, instead of bearing against the bowl, it is drawn forward by a spiral spring, which causes the backing-off cones to be taken out of contact, when the backing-off ceases, and the operations of running the carriage in and winding the yam on to the spin- dles must take place. When the cones are taken out of contact, the lower end of the lever N is withdrawn from being over the top of the lever n\ leaving that lever at liberty to turn, and the catch-box n* thereupon drops into gear, and motion is communicated to the scrolls H* and n^ and to the cords ii' and h'. The cord h* is at one end attached to the scroll n', and passes thence round the pulley ii* to the ratchet pulley h" fixed to the back of the carriage square. The cord h' is at one end attached to the scroll h', and passes thence round the pulley h'" to the ratchet pulley h" fixed to the front of the carriage square. It will thus be seen that the carriage is held in one direction by one band, and in another by the other band, and that it can only be moved in either direction by the one scroll giving off as much cord as the other winds on. When the catch-box h" drops in gear, the stroll h* winds the cord n* on, and draws the carriage in. It will thus be seen that the carriage is drawn out by means of the back or drawing-out shaft g, and is drawn in by the scroll h'. The winding on of the thread in the form of a cop is effected by means of Mr. Roberts's ingenious application of the quadrant or radial arm o', screw i, and wind- ing-on chain i" and band i'. The chain i« is at one end attached to the nut i* and at the other to the band i'. During the coming out of the carriage, the drawing-out shaft, through the means of the wheels g\ g', g* and G^ shafts g* and G^ and pinion g«, moves the quad- rant which, by the time the carriage is quite out, will have been moved outwards a little past the perpendicular. The chain is wound on to the barrel by means of the cord o, which, COTTON MANFFACTUEE. 429 being fixed and lapped round the barrel as the carriage moves outward, causes it to turn. On the barrel is a spur wheel which gears into a spur pinion on the tm roller shaft, (these wheels bemg under the frame side, are no. seen in the drawmg.) The spur pinion is W Z^'T '^^!^%t«V?^ f '^" ^r^^« ^«"^^« «"' i* tumVloosely there^on, but as 'hi carriage goes m, the chain i» turns the barrel roimd, and with it the spur pinion. A catch whir^f ^'^'i? \^' ''^,? ^^*^; P'°^«°' ^* '^** *""« ^»^i°g i°to a tooth of the mShet 7^t^^ ^vf r *^5 l"^ '^"'' '^^*' ***^ ^«^^°" «^ *^« ^P"'- Pi°i«^ '^ communicated ioihl n/nn 'f'^f ' ^^ '^'f V^ ^^^ T"^'"'' ^^"^^^ *^« ^^'^^ ^' ^^ ^P*^^ during the com H^r 12 • "^T ^"^ ^^ ""^""^ '''' *^^ mnA\es, in the form of the cop, whUe the car- hS^wnl'S* i K ^^°»r?,*^e°^ent of the formation of a set of cops, when the yam is ^.Vp! n? ^^^ ^r T'^l^^^ '5!^ "P^"^^^" "^^^^^ *« ^^^ ^ g^at^; number of turns given to them than they do when the cop bottom is formed. tS produce this variation the following means are employed :-At the commencement of each set, the screw in the radial arm is turned so as to turn the nut i' to the bottom of the s^rew, where it is near to the shaft on which the quadrant moves ; consequently little or no mition is given A. th! f^\f^^ ?1 ''^'"^P' ^ '^ S^^ '°' ^^"«^^ *^e ^^i^ to be drawn off the band. AS the formation of the cop bottom proceeds, the screw is tumed and the nut is raised • bv which means a less quantity of chain is drawn off the barrel; the cham, at the point of attachment, gradually following the carriage as it goes in. ^ During the going in of the carriage the quadrant is drawn down or made to foUow the thTZion'of'th'"" ^"""^i*' '""'T'^ ^^ ^^'"^ ''' '' ^«-«d to descend r^El by the motion of the carriage ; the- quadrant, during the going in of the carriage through the ^'Thfn t^^" ""' ""^^ ' "°^ T^^"'« ^^ ^'' «^^°d G^driving the drawingTjt S DiecyA- aid dpZS' T completed its inward mn, the bowl a* comes in^ontact with the E P wWK .t^ ,f '' ?u^ *^^ f ^ ^^ *^^ ^^^^^ ^' *« ^bich it is attached, and also the slide c, which then allows the catch-box k> to be put in contact, and causes the cWslll? auTelL'c'atrL''^' JT'^^T- ^""°^ '"^^ ^^' '^^^'^^^^ «^ ^^ ^ shaft, T ims frnillev at h^vVf w^' '" '^°'^'' T^ *^" ^""'"^ «'^P '« ^ traversed' on to the ^t pulley, and, by the latter movement, the catch-box h« is taken out of gear and the run 3'X?tTh5« -^^ .««^«"^f ^e«> and the carriage will agam commencf £ ^fw^ run, ana with it the spinning of the thread. Fig. 211 is a view of a beetling machine, made by Mr. Jackson, of Bolton, for the &m 211 430 COTTON MANUFACTURE. of Messrs. Bridson, Son & Co., of that town, a is the beetling roller, and b, c are the rolls of cloth which are to receive the peculiar finish, which beetling alone can give to cot- ton cloths. Although this is a very simple machine, yet it is questionable if it or any other modem invention can effectually take the place of the old-fashioned but useful upright wooden beetle. The following extracts from the circular of Messrs. Learing & Co. present so complete a view of the state of the cotton trade at this date, that they are now and will continue of much interest and importance : — " Mobile, September let, 1858. " The close of the commercial year, ending the 31st of August, gives the total receipt of cotton at all the American ports as 3,113,962 bales, against 2,939,679 bales of the year previous. Of the past year's receipts, England took 1,809,966 bales, the rest of Europe 780,489 bales, while the United States bought 595,562 bales. This shows an increase to Great Britain, a falling off in the exportations to the Continent and other parts, and a dimin- ished consumption in the United States. " It is important to remark, that this falling off in the exportation to the Continent of Europe, and also the home consumption, does not necessarily involve any actual diminution in consumption ; because, what the Continent of Europe failed to take direct of the raw material, will be represented by increased re-exports from Livei-pool, and^ increased demands for yams from the English spinner ; and what the United States failed to buy and work up, has been bought and will be worked up by others. Consequently, although on the surface a falling off in consumption may appear as in regard to the Continent and America, the demand will be supplied through other channels in a proportionately increased ratio. ** Added to this established consumption, is the natural increase throughout the world in excess of supply. The opening up of China, and the mutiny in India, which, by inter- rupting not only the growth of cotton there, but also the weaving industry of the natives, have increased the demand for yams and cloths from England, conspire to add to the de- mand for our staple. The last large receipts of Surats from India occurred during the blockade of the Chinese ports ; consequently the exports from Bombay, usually sent to China, were, by this cause, thrown upon the Liverpool market, induced also by the attrac- tion of high prices. " The universal prevalence of the panic, the long-continued prostration in trade, and the working of short time, have reduced the stocks of goods everywhere ; and thi^ special feature is met in the markets of the raw material with a similar exhaustion. The reports in regard to the growing crop are conflicting. What with the certain effect of the floods in the Mississippi Valley, and the information from various sources in regard to the injury the young plant is receiving, serious apprehensions are entertained of another comparatively short^crop. It is worthy of remark that conflicting interests generally take opposite views in regard to the future prospects of the growing crop. The hopes and apprehensions of the buyer and seller, combined with the natural disposition to embrace that view which is dic- tated by self-interest, must continue to characterize all the reports upon cotton, either from Europe or this side. But it is well for our European friends to have clearly before them the utmost cotton crop America can yield under the best possible conditions embraced in a wide area under cultivation, an early spring, a good stand in the field, a propitious summer, and a favorable autumn. Accepting these rare conditions as embraced within any one year, it is simply impossible for the United States to produce for commercial purposes, with' the present supply of labor, beyond a certain amount of cotton. As the best standard by which to arrive at this capacity for ' utmost production ' in America, we select the year 1855-56. The commercial crop that season was 3,527,845 bales, from which must be de- ducted for cotton remaining over from the year previous, on hand in the interior, or in stock on the seaboard, say 250,000 bales, this leaves as the ' actual ' or ' new ' crop of 1855-56 the reduced amount of 3,277,845 bales. The season here taken, will be remem- bered as the most favorable ever known to a large production. It was also stimulated in its growth by previously ruling high prices. Accepting as correct the generally-received data that the negro labor force m the cotton States increases at the rate of five per cent, per annum, would give fifteen per cent, increase for the three years, from 1856 to 1858-59. This increase of labor thrown into the cotton yield would seem to indicate 3,760,000 bales (more or less) as the utmost possible capacity of production for the year ending 1st Sep- tember, 1859. In explanation, it is worthy of remark that the increase upon the increase, which we have not estimated, in the three years, would make the production even laro-er. Yet we see in the succeeding years a falling off from the production of 1855-56 instead of an advance. The total commercial crop of 1856-57 was only 2,939,519 bales, while the season just closed gives the limited yield of 3,113,962 bales. " The production of cotton in America is not therefore limited by soil. It is a question COTTON MANUFACTURE. 431 of labor, the negroes being almost exclusively the producere. Now » n^.^ i 'pick' so many pounds of cotton a day, and no more Th^ uTnL ^^ "^ ^'^'^ negroes; and these cannot be added to o herwise tC hv JhaZ^ , ^^"^ "l?"^'" ^* tion already estimated Thev cannot bp in -^ZLLk • ^ • ''*'"™^ increase of popula- seuson-that is, the cotton hai^est^iopnnn.T A immigration. The cotton poking Estimating, therefore, thflar^^^^^^^^^^^ ^^^° °"°>»>«^ «f ^^J^ per day to the hand and the lon-ernn jL ^^ ^^'''^!?' J^^ ^^*^* *°»«»°* ^^ «>"on ind we have the utl'fpossiWeTolS^^^ "^ the harvest or picking season, year of 1855-'66 present^ all tC fkvn" f^^^^^ f'^'-P'- ^« J>«f«''e stated, the cotton been reduced in exacTprrortL ^oiM^^^^^^ characteristics. Since then, the crop has the following state^nt'L S^ti^e ''' "^ ''"'' '*^^'"^^ ^^^^ ^''''''^' '- "^^^tnTtion, recei/t^ T^:^t^.Z7l:: iTofTpUe^J^Lr. ^5^0^!? V ^^ r^' ''' was considered large, being 2 394 503 Mes ^ ' ^ ^^ "'"'P ""' >«" at NewVrletnst 'b^uAiZl^t^Zf^'^ *« ?,* "' ^J-S^'' •"•"> *e receipts total o™p that yea, the i^^brgtnVl /v^eM^tes. "*" ""'"^ ""^ "^ '^^ '^'^ a totJiJ^Z7m,l96mS' °° "" ''' of September at New Orleans of 2,864 bdes, «,d tcmW tJt^^^'ln b&nTl*' """l the receipts at New OrIe«.s on the 1st of Se,^ ton at New Orleans on the 1st nf w.„i^ P „ „„?, ""^e and a receipt of new cot- the lai^est ever gro™ ud to hat neSS^^' '"'^' i'T '^^ ' ''''« <="? «h«« y^ was .»;'f t^r5d€SlP^^^ on the ist of Sep. " In ISwT. r " '^'^'e-^iP'. followed by a diminish^ crop crop. '" "'* "" ""'^ "°«'- ™«'' -ooipt on «.e 1st of Sepl^^ber, with a small totd on tL'°st rfs:»r,™untS ZL^^t of , cotton, with the re^ip.s at New OrIc»s "™?'I«'?85£^''^^''"™^^ only . 166 wt',\"? hrcrirt,rrth^''?^rTr»" ««' '^"^ September were much, fell to 2,933,781 blli' P™'*'^ "^ '^o*' o" ^^'^ i' depends so 33 bile", folL'td r« tt irop '' "' ^P'^'""" "' ""' -««" ■" ^'e- Orle«>s was only of cL'^mLTo^'S dSte"'' '" '""' "' '""' <'"'^'" fiS"- "P *.«31 bales, embr«>bg. Yeart. 1839-40 1840-41 1841-42 1842-43 1843-44 1844-45 1845-46, 1846-47 1847-48 1848-49 1849-50 1860-51 1851-52 1852-53 1853-54 1854-55 18KW6 1856-57 1867-58 Growth and Consumption of the United Stales. New Orleana. Florida. Alabama. 953,672 814,680 727,658 1,060,246 832,172 929,126 1,087,144 705,979 1,190,733 1,093,790 781,886 933,369 1,373,464 1.580,875 1,346,925 1,232,644 1,661,433 1,435,000 1,576,409 136,257 93,552 114.416 I 161,088 I 145,562 I 118,693 141,184 127,852 153,776 2"i0,186 181,344 181,204 188,499 179,476 155,444 136,597 144.404 136,344 122,351 445,725 820,701 818.315 481,714 467,990 617,196 421,966 823,462 436,336 618,706 860,952 461,748 649,449 645,029 538,684 454,595 659.738 503,177 522,364 Texas. Georgia. South Carolina. North Carolina. Virginia. 27,008 9.817 89,742 88,827 81,263 46,820 64,052 85,790 110,325 80,737 116,078 89,882 145,286 292,693 148,947 232,271 299,491 2.55,597 295,440 194,911 242,789 254,825 891,372 843,635 822,376 82.5,714 349.490 316,005 878,694 889,445 322,111 282,973 813,194 227,400 260,164 351,658 804,870 426,361 251,405 350,200 261,762 i 458,117 ' 384.265 I 887,075 I 476,614 ; 463.203 I 416.754 ; 499,272 ! 485,976 I 897,.331 I 406,251 9.394 7,865 9,787 9,089 8,618 12,487 10,037 6,061 1,518 10,041 11,861 12,928 16.242 23,496 11.524 26,1.39 26,098 27,147 23,999 I 26,900 21,800 21,013 15,639 15,600 25,200 16,282 13,991 8,952 17,550 11,500 20,737 20,995 a5,528 34366 88,661 84,673 2S,.527 84,329 Total Growth of United States. 2,177,835 1,634,945 1,688,674 2,878,875 2,030,409 2,.394,503 2,100,6.87 1,778,651 2,-347,634 2,728.596 2,096,706 2,355,257 8,016^029 3.262.882 2,930.027 2,847,389 3,617.&45 2,939.519 3,113,962 'CoDaumed and in Spinners' hands. 291,279 297,288 267,8.50 825,129 846.744 889,006 422,697 427,967 581,772 618,039 487,769 404,108 603,029 671.009 610,571 598,584 432 COTTON MAKUFAOTUKE. CO 0» O ^ CO rf «o C^ <— ' o* 5 5 oi CO ^ ^ SJ. ?. n -L '^ ^. ^^ ^- Z- ^- - - - 5 ^^ s sf s' s s s s s i § s s s ^ '^ ^ 91 0» CO o o s M H M 01 4) n fl o o CO oooo»ooeoco ;;i^r-tr-l r1rlrHt-l(N»-l 4i> et (^ a c^o>rj«eoi-'QOooor;- C^O»0>(MCCOO_i-»^»-<^0^ cf '^ CO CO o O o» '«^ CO «o •—> 00 o> ak «« «k «» *^ •« CO CO CO ""i** 1:- #« »> ^ >0 (M r-t a O 00 -* Tj« Tt* (M CO ■^1* o 4" -^ »o «o «^ lO «0 »0 £- O O CO Tl<»00»00 0> ^-. 0> »0 ^ CO ^ »^ i-T i-T r-T cf oi' (N 94 CO^ °1 o I'* l> I I e a } s 8 o 2 n ^CCCOTjti-'i^O©*"*^ o CO CO rH ■»♦* »ft W3 oi © «o fM O (N (N O) lO vs of 03^ of i-t o< ot^ of of s o a oi »o CO >o -tI* OS t- t~ >o »o to VO f) CO <& «k «« ^ ^ ^ 05 i:- t- "^ •-• i-H ^ r-4 I— t 01 Oi Tj«coeo>oooi--«2 ooicor-ooOf-jO co«o«coooi:-coo< rl< "* «0 •* ^ •* (S lO 0» CO •*• 0< I-" »-• OOOOOOOO oooooooo 00 «0 tJ* 0» 00 ir— ^ "3^ t>r otT ^ icT ir-^ CO © 'sJ' «ooit-oo»o«oo*«-' OT -^ >0 O rH -^ lO O © © 0» 00 «o «o «0 CO © © © © 0» 1— I co .-T '•f oo" o © oj t-H Ofl © ^ ** ^^ Ol 01 s o pit 14 © © aS © © « t- CO « S 2 © © © © oi CO 01 © © © 00 00 00 to ei CO 01 © © © © © © © © © © © © © © © © © © © © © © 3©ico«ooicoiooooi«oc»«ooi^ f ^ ^ of rf ^ OO of © «d" «©" 00 ^ j_.j_.„^j^j^w-^---^ oi o^coco CO CO CO > c n h) CO 00 o» Ol t- 00 CO CO CO «o « 00 00 00 CO CO CO t->o«ooi»e5ooco« cocoeoeoeoeooo'^co to -^ © © H O s O © © PQ to oi o> O 00, -^jT of CO CO a» CO O w ■^ 1-H Ti* 00 © © © © tcT co" CO OI © © of CO Ol © © © © © © O CO T»< CS »0 OS © Tj< OS t- © © © © CO t- © »o os^ w. r^ of © © © OI '-' © © © 00 00 C<1 >0 1-H OS ■'^ •» •* ^ ^ _r ■rl4 04 CO 00 to «0 t- .t- <0 i-H (?» I-H OI ^ ^ cf of of of of 00 O © © eo^ of OI MS CO OS^ of CO OI r- CO 00 t- .eo "* © © © © 00 © © © OS © © OS © © © © © © © © © © *~ ©©©©©©«© OS 00 1—1 ^ OS 'i^ ^ 00 CO ^ ir- OS»O'*OlOS©00i-<«-< rH f-l f—l »— * CUM © © © 00 CO © I-l OI 00 Tl< I— I OS 1-H O OI 00 ir- © o © © o 0 OS »0 I— ' ■'1' CO M5 00 © CO I-l rH -t- C3 3 © © CO CO «o CO CO CO »o I-t t- »o OI OI OI to CO © © CO OS © © © to »-• t- OI i^ »o >* 00 CO »o OS r-t OI —^ © © 00 «l> OI OI o» © © © © © © OI OS •• »> ^ jr- OI t' 01 00 © OI I-l CO © © © © co^ "^^ co" I-T OI o? CO OI © © CO CO to CO 00 © Ttl CO © OI CD O CO CO r-l OS rfi CO OS CO CO © CO CO ^ CO hi © 00 © © OS OS CO o* © t- OS OS CO CO 00 © © © © OI OI © © OI »o 00 o» CO oo OI © "^ OS ^H <-< CO © © © o © go OI 00 © •* ^ ^ o CO ^ O CO t- © © © © 1:- OI CO "* o -^ © © © © ^ OS OI CO CO © © I-t OS © I-t ■'J' i:- CO CO ^ OI 00 CO 0< CO a s B © © lO OI -^ CO I-l tJ* CO •• ^ ^ t^ OI CO CO © I-l- d OS © OS Tjt CO OI 00 OS CO OS CO CO OI CO © OS I-l OS OS tJ" OS © © I-t 00 o © © o © © T»« t- OI •• ^ •* »o t- -i* t- t- 00 CO •Tit 1-1 © © © © OI CO OS OS 00 CO t- © © o © O 00 o« »o CO CO lO CO CO © © I-l 04 CO oT © © co^ co" oo" OI >o r- co t- ■«* o © I- -^ Tjt 00 00 OI CO CO CO T*4 CO lo CO 1^ CO OS ^ Tj4 -^ •* Tjt CO CO 00 00 00 O I-t ffl 00 ^ to to to to lO 00 CO 00 00 oo to CO t- to to >o 00 CO 00 COTTON MANUFAOTUKE. Price of Cotton^ at Liverpool^ at the dose of each Year, 483 Dbscbiption. Sea Island Stained ditto - Upland - Mobile - - - New Orleans - Pernambuco - Bahia and Maceio - Maranham - Peruvian Egyptian Demerara, »kc. Common West In. Laguini, tfec. - Carthagena - Smyrna - - • Surat . - - Bengal - - - Madras - - - 1840. d. d. 28@86 6f 7i 6i 9 9 10 11 14 11 13 5i H 1841. d. d. 24@28 n 8i 8J 8i 10 7* 9i lOi 12 Ci 1842. d. d. 24 6i 7 8i 9 7* 8J 6* 7i 8 10^ 8* 10* 4i 5 1843. d. d 10i@20 5 10 4* 5} 4* hi 4* 7 5* H 5 6 6 8 4* 5t 4* 6i 8i 4i 4* - 3i 4i 8i 4i 1844. A d. 10^20 4 9 8i 4J Si 4* 8| 6 4i 6i 4* 5* 4 &i 4i 6i 5 8 4* 6J 4 4i 8 8i 2i 8i 2i 8 2i 8i 1845. 1840. 1847. d. d. 10i@20 8* 8 j H 4t' H 6 i 8* 61 5* 6t, ^ 5 4 6 I 4i 6i 5i 8 4 5 4 4* 8* 8i, d. d. 12®24 j 6 11 6J 7f! 6i 7i| 6i 9* 7* 8i 7i 8i 6i 8* 6i 8 7i lOi 7 lOi! 6i 8* 6t 7i 41 51 d. d. 7(^20 4 8 21 21 81 4 - I 4 81 41 5* 4* 4: 5i 61 4 6* 6 7 &i 6 41 61 51 61 51 8 54 8 41 6 4* 41 21 8 8 4 8* 184SL d. d. I 7@16 ' 81 6* 81 41 81 41 81 51 41 51 41 4 5 I 41 51 5 7 41 51 4 5 81 4 21 81 21 21 4i! 21 Description. Sea Island Stained ditto - Upland - Mobile - New Orleans - Pernambuco - Bahia and Maceio Maranham Peruvian Egyptian Demerara, &c. Common West In. Laguira, &c. Carthagena Smyrna - Surat Bengal - Madras - 1849. d. d. 9®24 6 9 51 61 51 61 61 8 6J 7 6l 6 61 61 6 9 51 71 51 61 6 61 41 61 4 6 l\ 5 1850. 1851. 1852. 185a L d. d, d. d. d. 111@24 |101®24 ,16® 7 7 7 7 81 81 71 12 4 81! 4 8114 91 4 9i5l 81 51 9i 41 10 I 51 61 41 51 41 61 41 7 i 61 6i 61 71 5i d. 80 14 6i 6i -71 d. d. 91@34 71 71 7 71 61 41 61 41 111 6 91; 51 9 41 W 41 6 8 81 2* 21 6i: 21 71 61 61i 6 71 61 9 51 9 51 61 51 6i 51 4i 81 4V: 4 4i 8i 81 81 4 81 18 12 9 10 61 61 71 7 61 8 51 13 6 11 51 9 51i 51 6 31; 21 81 4i: - 5 21 41 4 ! 21 81 41 21 41 18!^ 1855. I 185& 1857. d, d. 8(^32 4 9 31 6 31 6 d. d. [d. d. 71®32 ! 101^32 31 6 7 8 51 61 5 7i 61 61 5 10 51 9 41 8 5 5} 21 3i 21 41 21 81 21 4 4 8 ; 6 41 61; 6 91 8 ! 8 I g> 71 71 81 61 71 71 7 1 71 8i 7 71 71 9 I 61 11 ! 71: 61 91 8 ; 61 9 1 6 7 71 4l: 31 44 4V 6,6 41 71 6 6 ~ ~ ^ 51 51 51 51 5 51 81 23 81 61 «l 71 61 71 51 61 61 71 61 7 6 5 7 n 9 61 51 61 81 41 31 41 41 5-81 5 3 8* 41 45t 81 31 81 41 41 511 81 5 Price of Water and Mule Twist, in Manchester, on the ZUt of PeceinUr in each Year. MVLB Twist. Common Seconds | Best Seconds Water TWBT. Common Seconds No. 1840 1841 1842 61 8 10 12 20 81 71 . 81 30 101 I 9* 81 40 6 8 10 12 20 30 40 14 13 Best Seconds 101 13 161 81 91 12 151 61 81 91 91 U 121 15 17 71 H 101 111 12 16 18 201 61 71 91 121 71 m 13 61 71 8* 91 11 12 181 151 71 81 91 101 12 15 17 19 184.' 61 7J 9 121 7* 9 12 151 1844:1845 1846,1847 61 8 9 12i 71 81 10 131 7J 8J 121 n 81 9 101 14 91 81 101 91 11^ 131 151 61 61 61 7J 71 71 T\ »} 81 81 8f 10 9 9J 91 101 101 11 lOJ 121 121 18* 121 131 141 16 14J 151 161 181 181 191 71 71 71 91 81 8* 81 lOJ 10 91 9} 111 HI 10 101 111 HI 12 111 l^i 141 16* 181 151 171 181 161 181 191 |201 2n 22J 6 7 8 111 61 7i 9 121 51 61 71 71 81 10 12 141 61 71 81 9 11 13 141 16 1848 51 61 71 91 61 61 71 11 1849 61 71 9 121 71 81 91 13 61 71 81 91 101 121 131 17 6 61 71 81 .;* 18 61 61 8 7 9 71 10- 81 111 10 121 12 14 14 18 1850 1851 1852 1853] 81 61 61 61 10 71 8 81 11 81 91 91 13 101 111 12 9 7 71 71 10* 8 81 81 111 91 101 101 181 111 12 121 81 51 51 5J 91 61 71 71 K'l 71 81 81 121 8 91 91 181 91 11 11 151 101 121 12 171 121 14 141 191 141 16i 17 81 51 6* 6 10 71 81 71 111 8 91 81 121 81 10 91 141 10 10 111 16 111 13 121 171 13 15 14 20 151 17 171 1854 6i 71 81 11 61 71 91 Hi 51 61 74 81 10 11 18 161 6| 18551856 61 71 n !H 81 11 61 81 91 11* 51 61 8 81 10 11 13 15 6 7 71 8 81 81 i 91 101 101 111 11* 181 131 16 151 lOV 121 81 91 11 13 61 8 91 101 111 121 141 16 71 to 11 111 121 15 161 1S57 8 9 12* 7* 8* 9* IS 61 7 71 9* 101 11 12 16 6t 71 81 101 11 111 141 161 Vol. III.— 28 434 COTTON MANUFACTURE. The Growth^ Consumption^ and Export of Cotton from $fie United States during the last Fifteen Years. Tews. Crop of the UniWd SutM. ConramptioD in the United State*. Exported to Great Britain. Frauee. North of Europe. Other Foreign Countries. Total. 1844-45 l;>45-46 l!>46-47 1847-48 184a-49 1849-60 1850^1 1851-53 13 2-53 1863-64 1854-66 1855-56 1856-67 1857-6S 2,394,503 2,100,537 1,778,651 2,847,634 2,728,596 2,096,706 2,855,257 8,015,029 8,262,882 2,930,027 2,^7,339 8,527,845 2,989,519 8,118,962 889,006 422,697 427,697 616,044 642,285 618,498 48.5,614 699.603 803,725 787,286 706,412 770,789 819,936 696,662 1,489.806 1,102,309 830,909 1,324,265 1,637,901 1,106,771 1,418,265 1,668.749 1,786,860 1,603,750 1,549,716 1,921,886 1,428,870 1,809,963 869,867 859,703 241.486 279,172 868,259 289,697 801,858 421,875 426,728 874,058 409,981 480,637 418,857 884,002 184,501 86,692 75,089 120,848 106,468 72,266 129,492 168,875 171.176 165,172 186,200 804.006 245;79S 216,145 160,692 118,028 93.188 184,476 156,226 121,601 189,695 184.647 193,686 176,168 149,867 248,678 164,682 181,842 2,088,756 1,66^792 1,241,222 1,658,201 2.227,844 1,590,156 1,988,710 2,448,645 2,528.490 2,819,148 2,244,209 2,964,806 2,252,6o7 2,589,908 Cotton Crop of the United States. New Orleans Mobile Florida Georgia South Carolina North Carolina Virginia Texas Tennessee, 265,464 u 88.933 u 25,771 u 149,846 u 192,251 495 (( 164 ti 995 (i 110,721 u 14,110 . 1,809.966 - 1,428,870 881,096 To France and the Continent. 478,854 121,563 16,404 18,856 107,158 87,100 1,563 Total. 1,495,070 887.032 50,8S8 26.771 167,700 299,404 495 164 995 147,821 15,603 780,489 828,787 16,710 2.580,455 2,252,657 897,806 Cooanmption. Total crop of United States, 1858 - Add Stocks on hand at the commence- ment of the year 1st September, 1857 : — In the southern ports - - . 23,680 In the northern ports - - - 25,678 8,113,962' Makes a supply of - Deduct the export to foreign ports 2,590,455 Less foreign included • - 723 Stocks on hand at the close of the year 1st September, 1858: — In the southern ports - 57.604 In the northern porta - 45,823 Burnt at New York and Baltimore, and mana&ctured in Virginia - 49.258 8,163,220 Growth. Total Crop of Bales. Quantity consumed by, and in the hands of, jMnnufac- turers. 2,589,782 102,926 18,877 Taken for home use 2.711,085 695,562 1S57— 8 8.118,962 1856—7 2,939,519 1855-6 3,527,845 1854-5 2,847,339 1858—4 2,930,027 1852—3 8,262,682 1851—2 8,015,029 1S,50-61 2,355,257 1849-50 2,090,706 1848—9 2,728,-596 1847-8 2,347.634 1846—7 1,778,661 1845—6 2,100,537 1844—5 2,894,603 1843-4 2.080,409 1842—3 2,878,876 1841-2 1,683,574 1840—1 1,634,945 1889-40 2.177,835 1838—9 1,860,532 1837—8 1,301,497 1836—7 1,422,930 1835—6 1,860,725 1834—5 1,254,828 183.3-4 1,20.5,394 1882-3 1,070,438 Bales. 819,986 770,789 906,412 737,286 808.725 699,603 404,108 487,769 518,089 581,772 427,967 422,597 889.006 846.744 825,129 267,850 297,288 295,193 276,018 246,063 222,540 286,733 - 216.SS8 196,423 194,412 CURCUMA ANGUSTIFOLIA. 485 Stock in Ports, and Price of *' Middling" New Orleans, at the Close of each Year. Years. American. 1840 805,000 1841 279,600 1842 283,400 1843 483,200 1844 644,900 1845 693.100 1846 302,800 1847 239,200 1848 273.300 1849 816,400 1350 278,900 1851 245,800 1852 860,700 1353 808,900 1854 811,800 1865 236,300 1856 178,130 1857 202,430 Brazil. East Indies. 23,700 46,100 68,700 68,300 62,700 62,300 23,700 59,800 6.8,700 95,200 68,700 49,500 64,600 48,900 47,600 63,100 27,170 86,180 98,500 157,600 179,900 193.200 239,200 241,000 157,400 125,100 137,200 107,800 113,400 172,000 133,100 270,600 204,000 133,100 99,480 191,830 West Indies. 14,800 24,700 20,200 12,200 13,700 6,100 4,500 2,200 2,600 2,000 1,800 1,800 5,800 4.000 4,000 8,500 700 5,020 Egyptian, Ac 22,500 81,400 22.200 28,800 41,400 67,900 67,400 26,100 16,800' 88,000 85,100 25,900 108,200 85,100 59,000 50,600 27,170 17,550 TotaL Bales. 464,000 539,400 664,400 788,700 901,900 1,060,400 645,800 451,900 498,600 659,400 622,400 494,600 657,400 717,500 626,300 486,600 832,740 452,550 ^nal to Week's C«B- sunptioa, 19 24 25 29 83 85 18 20 13 IS IS 15 13 20 IT 12 8 12 Pries of MiddUag, SUt Dec d. 6 6 4 4 7* 4i 4 6i 7J 4} 5i 6i 5 7i 6» — D. M. CRYOLITE. The mineral from which the metal Aluminium is obtained with the greatest facility. See Aluminium. It derives its name from Kpvos, te(,temm.--This ibiution is easUy prepared for the electro-plater by the following process: Metallic silver is dissolved in nitric acid and the solution evapo^ rated to dryness. The residue is dissolved in distUled water and filtered. To tiie soE cyanide of potassium, dissolved in distilled water, is added, as long as precipitations place bu no longer. The precipitate is filtered off on calico st^nei^ and weU w3^S with distilled water. It is then to be dissolved in solution of cyanide of potassium and diluted to the desired strength. The solution is frequently dark-colored at first, but it becomes coloriess in a few hours, and should then be filtered from a small black precipitate which will be obtained Many operators neglect the filtration and washing of the precipitated cy- anide of silver, and merely continue the addition of the solution of cyanide of potassium to the nitrate of silver until the precipitate at first formed is re-dissolved. The first method is however to be preferred. Some, instead ot precipitatmg with cyanide of potassium, do so with solution of common salt, and then, after washing off the precipitated chloride of sUver, dissolve it m cyamde of potassium. Argento-cyanide of potassium can also be pre- pared with the battery by the process mentioned under auro-cyanide of potassium ; this method is so convenient where the proper apparatus is at hand, that few professional electro-platers would use any other meUiod. Daguerreotype artists who silver their plates, or rather, re-sUver them would find the battery process too cumbersome, and should, therefore' use a solution of argento-cyanide of potassium prepared by the first method. -^ In order to suspend Daguerreotype plates in the bath, the little con-' trivance figured m the margin, fig. 211a, wiU be found most convenient. It merely con- sists of pieces of copper wire twisted together and formed mto a grapnel at tiie lower end. It acts like a spring, and holds the plate so firmly tiiat there is no fear of its falling out. even it the apparatus be subjected to severe vibration. C G W CYANIDE OF POTASSIUM. See Cyanides. * * «« ^^J^^^S^^^'F^' ^compound salt radical, analogous in its character to chlorine nnL «'*^«^,.»»^^Sens. It was the first body discovered possessing the character of a compound radical, and the mvestigations made upon it and its derivations have thrown more Iiglit upon the constitution and proper mode of classifymg oi^anic substances than 211a J 438 OYMOPHANE. any other researches whatever. In consequence of its actmg in all its compounds as if it were a simple body or element, chemists generally have acquired the habit of designating it by the symbol Cy. Like the haloids it combines with hydrogen to form an acid, and with metals, without the necessity for the presence of oxygen. For a few illustrations of its analogies with chlorine, &c., see Hydrocyanic Acid. In the article Cyanides several of the conditions under which it is formed have also been pointed out. The modem French chemists of the school of Gerhardt very justly regard cyanogen m the light of a double molecule, thus, Cy Cy, or C^N". The reason of this is because most of the phenomena of organic chemistry are more easily explained by the use of four-volume formulae than any others. This latter mode of condensation has been shown by M. Wortz, in his admirable work on the compound radicals, to undoubtedly exist in the case of radicals belonging to the strict hydrogen type, not as ethyle and its homologues ; and numerous theoretical and experimental results are in favor of the supposition that all radicals in the free state are binary groups. If we assume the truth of the above hypothesis, we shall regard cyanogen m the free state as a cyanide of cyanogen, analogous to hydrocyanic acid, which is a cyanide of hy- drogen. Cyanogen may very conveniently be prepared by heating cyanide of mercury in a retort of hard glass. A considerable quantity of the gas is given off, but a portion remains be- hind in the state of paracyanogen. The latter substance is a black matter, the constitution of which is by no means understood. It has, however, the same composition in the hun- dred parts as cyanogen itself, and is therefore isomeric with it. Cyanogen is a colorless combustible gas with a sharp odor. Its density is 1'81. Hauy requires for two volumes 1-80. If cooled to a temperature of between — 13° and — 22° F., it liquefies iuto a transparent, colorless, and very mobile fluid having a specific gravity of 0-866. A little below 22° the fluid congeals to a mass resembling ice. The flame of cy- anogen is of a pale purple or peach blossom color. Some of the properties of cyanogen are very remarkable, and quite distinct from those of the true halogens. For instance, it combines directly with anilme to produce a body having basic properties. The latter is called cyaniline, and is formed by the coalescence of two molecules of cyanogen with two of aniline, the resulting formula being, consequently, C-^H^^N*. There are' a variety of singular compounds produced by the action of cyanogen and its halogen compounds upon aniline ; they have been studied with remarkable skill by Hofmaim. — C. G. W. CYMOPHANE. A variety of Chrysoberyl,»which exhibits a peculiar milky or opales- cent appearance. When cut en cabochon, it shows a white floating band of light, and is much prized as a ring stone. — H. W. B. D DAGUERREOTYPE. The progressive advance of this branch of the photographic art, thouf'h of gieat interest, cannot be dwelt on in this place. Those who are interested in the inqufry, will find the information fully detailed in Hunt's Manual of Photography, 5th edi- tion, 1857. It will be sufficient in this work to detail the more important improvements which have become generally adopted. The first advance of real importance was made by Mr. Towson, of Devonport, who has since that time distinguished himself by the introduc- tion of his system of Great Circle Sailing. Mr. Towson suggested the use of enlarged lenses, and by acting with such, Dr. Draper, of New York, was the first to procure a por- trait from the life. Still this was a tedious process, but in 1840 Mr. Goddard proposed the use of bromine of iodine, bv which infinitely increased sensibility was obtained. From that time the Daguerreotype was generally employed for portraiture, until the facilities of the collodion process drove it from the field. The improved manipulation now resolves itself into Carefully polishing the silver plate, and the application finally of the highest polish by the use of a buffer, the best form being that employed by M. Claudet. In a box on a roller, ta which there is a handle, fg. 212, is placed a long piece of drab- 212 * DAGUEREEOTYPE. 439 colored velvet, which can be drawn out and extended by means of a second roUer upon a perfectly flat table. The first foot or two, for example, is drawn out ; the plate which has already received its preluninary polishing is placed face downwards, and being pressed close with the fingers a rapid circular motion is given to it, and in a few minutes it receives its highest lustre. As the velvet becomes blackened by use, it is roUed off, the porUon re- maining in the box being always perfectly clean and ready for use. The iodizing process follows : and for this purpose a box similar to that represented wiU be found to be very convenient, (Jig. 213.) This iodizing apparatus consists of a square box with a closely-fitting cover g, false sides are placed at an angle with this box, a cup d at the bottom contains the iodine, which is covered with a thin gauze screen J J. c is a cover which confines the iodine when it is not required for the plate ; this dividing the box into two parts, H H, and k k, the former being always full of iodine vapor. When it is desired to iodize a plate, the cover c is removed, the silver plate is placed at E. — -" "'- 213 a, and the cover g closed. • The plate is thus placed in the iodine box until it In another box is acquires a fine straw yellow color. „„_ ^ placed either bromine or some one of the many ac- celerating fluids. If bromine, or any bromide is em- ployed, the plate should remam until it becomes of a rose color. As a general rule, if the yellow color produced by iodine be pale, the red should be pale also ; if deep, the red must incline to violet. The proper time for exposing a plate to anv of those chemical substances which are destined to produce the sensitive film must varV with the temperature, and it can only be determined by experience. The sensitive plate is now removed to the camera obscura, for a description of which see Photography It is scarcely necessary to say, that the plate must be preserved in perfect darkness until ex- posed to the image in the camera. A few seconds when the plate is properiy prepared wiU be found amply sufficient to produce the best effect. f f j y f «« The impression must be developed in the mercury box (Jig. 214) in the manner de- scribed by Daguerre. This mercurial box consists of a box mounted on legs, having a ClOSe-nttinff cover a. and an iron hnHnm ;« T^Ui^u :., ^^ ^ 214 close-fitting cover a, and an iron bottom in which is placed the mercury c, and a small thermometer f to indicate the proper temperature, g is a piece of glass let into the side of the box through which the Da- guerreotype plate H, fixed in the frame b, can be seen. D is a spirit lamp, and i the platform on which it stands. The subject is eventually fixed by the use of hyposulphite of soda, which removes the bromo-iodide of silver and leaves a picture produced by the con- trast between a combination of the silver and mer- cury, and the surface of the unchanged, polished silver. The application of chloride of gold to the finished picture was mtroduced by M. Fizeau. Chloride of gold applied to the picture has the effect of fixing and enlivening the tints. A small grate being fixed by a clamp to the edge of a table, the plate is laid upon it with the image uppermost, and overspread evenly with solution of chloride of gold, by means of a fine broad camel hair brush, with- out letting any drop over the edge. A spirit lamp is now brought under the plate, and moved to and fro till a number of small steam bubbles appear upon the image. The spirit lamp must be immediately with- drawn. The remainder of the chloride solution must be poured back into the phial, to be used on another occasion. It is lastly to be washed and exammed. This operation has been repeated three or four times with the happiest effect of givmg fixity and force to the picture. It may then be wiped with cotton without injury. The process of coloring these pictures is a purely artificial one "^cture '* ; that gem. Recently some experhnents made byaFrench philosopher have advanced the discovery another step : one of the poles of a volSc baV^rv bemg charcoal and the other of platinum, it was fouSd that the L^ cSr^o^ e«^L^S used m the place of diamond dust for polishing gems The formatinn nf tKT^„r: ^^ m nature is one of the problems which "our phiUpTy" S notTet e^^^^^^^ ^^ve Jv^n tho?, '^t^'T ""^'^ '"*^^ ^^"^'^^ ''""'^ Lure's works ; she o~s a th^^t or nnf Tko ^^"^^'°S. F.T^ks by Mr. Tennant cannot fail to be of interest and as Dointin^ out the errors which have been frequently committed through ignoranSfif ^aT vK ^ emeraW tnnhirf tirln' ''^. "' '' • 'T*^; "^ ''' quitS suS^that we shaKt find the , K^S ' ^ ?P u'^ ^"^*'^°' *''■ ^'^P^'"' '" ^^^ f«^n^ «f a cube, octahedron tetrahedron, or ihombic dodecahedron ; nor the diamond, spinel, or garnet in that of a six-^d^rism and so on with other gems. For want of 'a knowledge of the crystolSne fom of th^eX rth?n.\fr^°^r/" ^^^^f^^^- offered £200 foralmall specT^eT of qua^ He k^^^^^ nothing of the substance, except that it was a bright shining mineral exce^"eiv Wd noT to be scratched by the file, and which would scratch glass. PresS^thTthSe ZliS^ beonged only to the diamond, he conceived that he was offering X> priLfoTthTtm ^^l^-l^LTsLlilt^^^^^ The accompanying forms may serve to guide those who are ignorant of crystallography. 21S Brilliant, (upper side.) 219 Bose. Quartz. 100 carets. Diamond. o a, table; 6, star-facets; c, skill-facets; d, lozenges; e, girdle. The following technical terms are applied to the different faces of diamonds — - andf h'e ginile.' "'"'' "''' "' ''™'" "' '^' *"'''*'^'^' ^^^'^^ "^'^^^ '^^ ^^ of the table Collet: the small horizontal plane or face, at the bottom of the bnlliant bountd by t h^oSnTaTribt ''' ""' "'^^' ^' ^^^^^^ ^^ *^^ ^^' ^* '^^^ ^P. -d is Facets: small triangular faces, or planes, both in bHllianfs and roses In brilltants here are two sorts, skew or skill-f^ets, and ,^ar-facets. Skill-facets areTvidedini^^^^^^^^^ ^he ri'- .?rT" tufT '"' ™"^^' *^° '^' ^«^^^ P^rt of the bezil lid lemfnK the girde; under skill-facets are wrought on the pavili^s, and terminate in t^riiSi^ star-facete are wrought on the upper part of the bezil, and terminate Tn^et!^Ie ^ ' (rit-dle: the hue which encompasses the stone parallel to the horizon • or which dPtPr mines the greatest horizontal expansion of the stone. * ' ^ Lozengesr: are common to brilliants and roses. In bHllianta thpv nrp fm^^ k, *u rsis rib^"ifter:r ^'^ ''- '-''' '^ -' ^X'J^&zi^i^: ^^^Pamhons : the under sides and comers of brilliants, lying between the girxile and the brillf^s^r!^' " "'^"' "^^^ *^^^'^"^^«^ ^^^ —1 Par^ of the work, botk in 7a6/e .• the large horizontal plane or face, at the top of the brilliant. Fig. 218 represents a brilliant, and fg. 219 a rose-cut diamond. Ihe rose diamond is flat beneath, like all weak stones, whilp thp nnn^,. r««« • dome and is cut into facets. Most usually six ftcets a^ ^^ontL^fJf ""^ T ? are in the form of triangles, and unite at thel s?mmTs Mheir S^Jf l^t '^^'''°' ''^u^ Ss%:^£tl'7r '^^°^."' ^" ^^ -veJ~n SeXtg p^LTtfel' bases to them, while their summite terminate at the sharp margin of the st^ne.^S latter imm 446 DIAMOND CUTTING. triangles leave spaces between them which are likewise cut each into two facets. By this distribution the rose diamond is cut into 24 facets; the surface of the diamond being divided into two portions, of which the upper is called the crown, and that formmg the con- tour beneath the former, is called dentelle (lace) by the French artists. ■ According to Mr. Jefferies, in his Treatise on Diamonds, the regular rose diamond is formed by inscribing a regular octagon in the centre of the table side of the stone, and bor- dering it by eight right-angled triangles, the bases of which correspond with the sides of the octagon ; beyond these is a chain of 8 trapeziums, and another of 16 triangles. The collet side also consists of a minute central octagon, from every angle of which proceeds a ray to the edge of the girdle, forming the whole surface into 8 trapeziums, each of which is again subdivided by a salient angle (whose apex touches the girdle) into one irregular pentjigon and two triangles. - , « r i, To fashion a rough diamond into a brilliant, the .first step is to modify the faces of the original octahedron, so that the plane formed by the junction of the two pyramids shall be an° xact square, and the axis of the crystal precisely twice the length of one of the sides of the square. The octahedron being thus rectified, a section is to be made parallel to the common base or girdle, so as to cut off 5-eighteenths of the whole height from the upper pyramid, and 1-eighteenth from the lower one. The superior and larger plane thus pro- duced LH called the table, and the inferior and smaller one is called the collet ; in this state it is termed a complete square table diamond. To convert it into a brilliant, two triangular facets are placed on each side of the table, thus changing it from a square to an octagon ; a lozenge-shaped facet is also placed at each of the four corners of the table, and another lozenge extending lengthwise along the whole of each side of the original square of the table, which, with two triangular facets set on the base of each lozenge, completes the whole number of facets on the table side of the diamond ; viz., 8 lozenges, and 24 triangles. On the collet side are formed 4 irregular pentagons, alternating with as . many irregular lozen^res radiating from the collet as a centre, and bordered by IG triangular facets adjom- in" the girdle. The brilliant being thus completed, is set with the table side uppermost, and the collet side implanted in the cavity made to receive the diamond. The brilliant is always three times as thick as the rose diamond. In France, the thickness of the brilliant ij? set off into two unequal portions; one-third is reserved for the upper part or table of the diamond, and the remaining two-thirds for the lower part or collet, {culassc.) The table has ci'^ht planes, and its circumference is cut into facets, of which some are triangles and others lozenges The collet is also cut into facets called pavilions. It is of consequence that the pavilions lie in the same order as the upper facets, and that they correspond to each other, so that the symmetry be perfect, for otherwise the play of the light would be false. Although the rose diamond projects bright beams of light in more extensive proportion often than the brilliant, yet the latter shows an incomparably greater play, from the difler- cnce of its cutting. In executing this, there are formed 32 faces of .diflerent figures, and inclined at different angles all round the table, on the upper side of the stone. On the col- let (culasse) 24 other faces are made round a small table, which converts the culasse into a truncated pyramid. These 24 facets, like the 32 above, are differently inclined, and present different fi<^ures. It is essential that the faces of the top and the bottom conespond to- gether in sufficiently exact proportions to multiply the reflections and refractions, so as to produce the colors of the prismatic spectrum. ,, m . »r DI \MOND CUTTING. The following description, furnished to Mr. Tennant by Messrs. Garrard of the cutting of the Koh-i-noor, will fully explain the peculiar conditions of the process 'and also show that there are some remaikable differences in the physical condition of the gem in its different planes. The letters refer to the cut of the Koh-i-noor, article Diamond, Jig. 220. , . , . .i x* *t,' i " In cutting diamonds from the rough, the process is so uncertain that the cutters think themselves fortunate in retaining one-half the original weight. The Koh-i-noor on its arrival in England, was merely surface-cut, no attempt having been made to produce the Tc^uXax form of a brilliant, by which alone lustre is obtained. By reference te the figures, which are the exact size of the Koh i-noor, it will be clearly understood that it was neces- sary to remove a large portion of the stone in order to obtain the desired effect, by which means the apparent surface was increased rather than diminished, and the flaws and yellow tinge were removed. , ^ x- u«.,* ♦«„ " The process of diamond cutting is effected by an horizontal iron plate of about ten inches diameter, called a schjf, or mill, which revolves from two thousand to three thou- sand times per minute. The diamond is fixed in a ball of pewter at the end of an arm, resting upon the table in which the plate revolves ; the other end, at which the ball con- taining the diamond is fixed, is pressed upon the wheel by movable weights at the discretion of the workmen. The weight applied varies from 2 to 30 lbs., according to the size of the facets intended to be cut. The recutting of the Koh-i-noor was commenced on July Ijj, 1852 His Grace the late Duke of Wellington being the first person to place it on the mill. The portion first worked upon was that at which the planes p and f meet, as it was neces- ',-'* t . sary to reduce the stone at that part, and so to level t ho «^t ^e *\. j. could be fonned; the intention LngTtum the stot^^^^^^^ Btone before the table incision or flaw at e, and a fracture of the ot^er^de Tfthe sSno nnl'^h "'^^'- "^^ '^'^ '^^ ing, as the boundaries or sides of the girdle ' "*' ^^'''^'' '"^ ^^ ^''S^''- Ihe next important step was the attempt to remove an incision or flaw at c, described by Professor Tennant and the Rev. W. Mitchell as having been made fur the purpose of hold- ing the stone more firmly in its setting but pronounced by the cutters (aflcr having cut loMot .•'''^°''°^i* J') *« ^^ * ^^'"•^l flaw of a tiie top of the stone immediately above the last mentioned flaw. Here the difference in t le " ^ hardness of the stone first manifestei itself • for whn^ o„ff .i • r iiig that the work did not proceed sof^tLhhhZr^\^^'^^^ ^^^ '^P'^"''^- "otie- mill rather longer than usL, wl^ut t^Tng t It ^^""""^ '^ -"^^^ ^he diamond became so hot from the continul frioHnn a ' ^ consequence was, that the melted the pewter in which it was Lbedded S JS? ^T^' T'S^' applied, that it became so hot from the extreme CdneL of ^ stone ^^^^ T^ *"^^^' '^' "»»» diamond powder and oil i ^^ remove in order to acquire the present shaneThr I ^'^^u' ""^'^^ '' ^«« necessarv to might not take the desired dii^ti^n aL Ztf ^^\*^""««' however, had an idea that it and afterwards directlv upon a JC thev^^^^^^^^ *" '"•' ^'^^ '' ^"^^ ^'^ «des ting, the stone appeared to becime hanler and hS' the ft'lf "'°^ "^ ^^ ^^ ^'^'^ ^^'' just above the flaw at a, which part became sX^lfhT/ ft "'*''^' - ^ ^"" *^"* ^°*«' especially rate of 2,400 times pe^ minute, for sHoure lUtle^mnr^ • ^«'?'"^ *^« "i" «' the i^ium was therefore incrcied to more than 3 OOo' if whf T^T"'? ^^^ ^^^° "^^^ ? the speed When the back (or former top) Vthe stine ;L cut U n"^' *^^T^ ^^"^"^ proceeded, facet was made in three hours, which would h^^^^-n'S^ - """^^ ^^^'^ ^ '^^^ » had been equal to that on the Wr silef nevTr^hS^l^^^^ '^^ " '!J' ^'^^ ^^"^»-« a ly harder, especially underneath the flaw It f wSh^^ t ^^'^'^f^ became gmdu- directly above it. The flaw at n did not interfere aT «n J.wi.''^ ""^^^^ as hanl ^ that made to cut out the flaw at a, but it was found not it- k, ^ *^^ "^"""'"S' ^ ^"^"^Pt was diamond was finished on SeptemwTth havin'^^^^^^^ The welve hours per day without cessation." S wekht of h J"^^h'- ^^^^ ^ ^"'' ^*»'^^"g 162^ carats. ^"^ weight ot the Koh-i-noor since cutting w oneSKbro^ io^^^^^^^ ^« *^« -tural diamond, so act that the IXX'ot: t^^T^::^ ZC ^^^^ 7^ V-^ ^ ^- -^en duces a cut, which is scarcely visible but whieh.tlS-1 ^^ ^J^' ?"' '"^^^ pressure, it pro- Dr.Wollastonsucceeded^ingM^^^^^^^ those of the diamond, and with those^he succeed &/?« T^ "'^"'"^ ^^""^ ^''^"«' ^ All property of the diamond depended on ^rfom. If/i^f.^fu' P^^^^J? that this use- diamond is that of a regular octahedron the Dnkr^. ^'''^^^g^^'^e prhnitive form of the one hundred forms of VystalliLtioroV the S^^^^^^ P"**^^^^^. upwards of round facets are those proper for glazier^' d amonr '"^^"'^' octahedrons with Notwithstanding the hardness of the diamond vet in l.r^e i and two dozens are worn out everv week • W kI' ^^ ^^^ "^^^^^ "^ °»anv as one cave, and the cutting power is lost ^ ' ^"^ ^""^ ^°^^^^> ^^ey become rapidly <^n^ fectltnXt^r^^^^^^^^ &teor^r^^ ^^^ ^^"^^ --^' ^-P- ture for jewelling. fragments spht off from good stones m their manufac- mPPIV?^' n°^ «<*• See Steel, hardening of, vol. il mfi iM(x. Ornamental works in brass are ii«noiil k -v. ^ . ping. After the work has been pro^S^tSd C^l^t'^^ ^^ * P'^^ <^^^^, *^." .f XTorthe p^^^^^^ of other sub- ^nth f^cal decomposition. This gas is ^^^^^^J'^/j"^^^^^^^ of the other, stances. So far as is known, the destruction of the one cause^^^^ ^^^ But the P--- «^ «^P^^^^^^^^^^ being only an occa- ter, nor is its absence a proot ot ^V% *^^.^°f ^ "' _ .„j .u^ odoriferous matter are one, sional accompaniment. When the infectious ?^j"^[.f V^^^neorrize is to disinfect, as in the case, as far as ^^^now, of putrid flesh^cthe^^^^^^ ^^.^^ We can find then no line of duty to be P^f ^^^J^^^^^ ^^^Xr^^^^^^^^^ may be found that can bear the name, although there i»ay be a few ^^^^ X^alrea^^^^ that might in convenient. If, for example, we destroy one «^^f,^y ^""J,^^^^^^^^ the sulphu- one sense be a deodorizing, f -« f^^^^-^^^.^^^lT^^^^^^^ retted hydrogen, lettmg loose those ^^g^^^^^^If X'Tgtrov smell, and still send a sub- we might, to those who were not very ^^^;:^ ^T P f ^^ ^T^^ is stopped, staiice^into the air by Jo -ans w^^^^^^^^^^ .^J Vel's 'thrmosTdan^gero-, nor Z the at least for a while. The smeuing sia e ^ "J ^natters except in the grossest sense; it use of the word ^^<>^^^^a"yjl^^*i«?*^,^°ShTm^^^^^^^^ furnished by the nose, is desimble that persons should ^^^^ J"^^^^>«°^S"^^'^^^^^^ look for any in the must more or less have Substances which prevent decomposition. The words Antiseptics, or Colyttc Agents. J^^ostances wnitu ine r iTnS^Uof^^et^rbeTnlrd^^^^^^^^^ ^ --^ -- I DISINFECTANT. 449 fecting properties ; but the word has evidently been used in many senses, as there are many liquids to be obtained from cedar. It is used for the first liquid from the distillation of wood ; and Berzelius for that reason says that the Egyptians used the pyroligneous acid, which, containing some kreasote, was a great antiseptic. But a mixture of tWs acid with soda would be of little value in embalming, nor is it probable that they would add a vola- tile liquid like turpentine along with caustic soda. It is expressly said (in Pliny) that the pitch was reboileA, or, in other words, the tar was boiled and distilled, the product being collected in the wool of fleeces, from which again it was removed by pressure. In doing this the Uglit oils or naphtha would be evaporated, and the heavy oil of tar, containing the carbolic acid, or kreasote, would remain. It was called picenum, as if made of pitch or pissenum, and pisselaeum or pitch oil, a more appropriate name tlian that of Rungc's car- bolic acid or coal-oil, and still more appropriate than the most recent, which, by following up a theory, has converted it into phenic acid. The distillation was made in copper vessels, and must have been carried very far, as they obtained "a reddish pitch, very clammy, and much fatter than other pitch." This was the anthracene, chrysene, and pyrene of modem chemistry. The remaining hard pitch was called palimpissa, or second pitch, which we call pitch in contradistinction to tar. By the second pitch, however, was sometimes meant the pi-oduct of distillation instead of what was left in the still. Some confusion therefore exists in the names, but not more than with us. The pitch oil was resinous fat, and of yellow color, according to some. This oil, containing kreasote, was used for toothache — a colytic action applied to living bodies — and for skin diseases of cattle, for which it b found valuable. They also used it for preserving hams. — (" Disin/ectarUs,'" by ike Writer. Jour. Soc. of Arts, 1857.) It is quite possible that kreasote may be the chief agent in most empyreumatic sub- stances which act as antiseptics. But it is not the only agent. Hydrocarbons of various kinds act as antiseptics, as well as alcohol and methyl ic alcohol, which contain little oxygen. To this class belong essential oils and substances termed perfumes which are used for fumiga- tion, and have also a powerful colytic action. It is exceedingly probable that the true the- ory of this action is connected with the want of oxygen. These substances do not rapidly oxidize, but, on the contrary, only very slowly, and that chiefly by the aid of other bodies Their atoms are, therefore, in a state of tension, ready to unite when assisted. As an ex- ample, carbolic acid and kreasote unite with oxygen when, a base is present, and form rosolic acid. We can scarcely suppose that an explanation, commonly resorted to in the case of sulphurous acid, would suit them ; viz., that it takes up the oxygen, and so keeps it from the putrescible substance. It is, therefore, much more likely that its condition acts on the putrescible body. For, as the state of motion of a putrefying substance is trans- ferred to another, so is the state of immobility. An antiseptic preserves from putrefaction, but does not necessarily remove the odor caused by that which has previously putrefied. Many of the substances described as disin- fectants here, might equally be called antiseptics. When they remove the putrid matter, they are disinfectants ; when they prevent decomposition, they are antiseptics. But when the smell is removed by a substance which is known to destroy putrefactive decomposition, and to preserve organic matter entire, then we have the most thorough disinfection ; then we know that the removal of the smell is merely an indication of the removal of the evil. Disinfectants are of various kinds. Nature seems to use soil as one of the most active. All the dejecta of the animals on the surface of the earth fall on the soil, and are rapidly made perfectly innoxious. Absorption distinguishes porous bodies, and the soil has peculiar faciUties for the purpose. But if saturated, it could disinfect no longer. This is not allowed to occur ; the soil absorbs air also, and oxidizes the organic matter which it has received into its pores, and the ofiensive matter is by this means either converted into food for plants, or is made an innocent ingredient of the air, or, if the weather be moist, of the water. The air is therefore, in conjunction with the soil, one of the greatest disinfectants, but it act3 also quite alone and independent of the soil. Its power of oxidizing must be very great. The amount of organic effluvium sent into large towns is remarkable, and yet it seldom accumulates so as to be strongly perceptible to the senses. The air oxidizes it almost as rapidly as it rises ; tliis is hastened apparently by the peculiar agent in the air, ozone, which has a greater capacity of oxidation than the common air ; when this is exhausted it is highly probable that the oxidation will be much slower, and this exhaustion does take place in a very short time. So rapid is the oxidation, that the wind, even blowing at the rate of about fifteen to twenty miles an hour, is entirely deprived of its ozone by passing over less than a mile of Manchester. In London this does not take place so rapidly, at least near the Thames. But when the ozone is removed, it is probable that the rate of increase of the organic matter will be much greater. We may by this means, then, readily gauge the con- dition of a town up to a certain point by the removal of the ozone : but it requires another agent to gauge it afterwards or thoroughly. It is in connection with each other that the air and the soil best disinfect. When manure is thrown upon land without mixing with the soil, it may require a very long period to obtain thorough disinfection, but when the atmos- VoL. III.— 29 450 DISINFECTANT. phere is moist, or rain falls, then the air is rapidly transferred into every portion of the porous earth, and the organic matter becomes rapidly oxidized. To prevent a smell of ma- nure, and with it also the loss of ammonia, it is then needful that as soon as possible the manure should be mixed with the soil. The same power of oxidation is common to all porous bodies, to charcoal, and especially, as Dr. Stenhouse has shown, to platinized char- oal. Disinfection by the use of porous bodies is not a process of preservation, but of slow destruction. It is an oxidation in which all the escaping gases are so thoroughly oxi- dized, that none of them have any smell or any offensive property. But being so, the body disinfected must necessarily decay, and in reality the process of decay is remarkably in- creased. All such bodies must therefore be avoided when manures are to be disinfected, as the valuable ingredients are destroyed instead of being preserved. Stenhouse has employed charcoal for disinfecting the air. The air is passed through the charcoal either on a lai-ge scale for a hospital, or on a small scale as a respirator for the mouth. Care must be taken, however, to keep the charcoal dry : wet charcoal is not capable of absorbing air until that air is dissolved in the water. This solution takes place less rapidly in water. Wet charcoal is therefore a filter for fluids chiefly, and dry charcoal for vapors. Its destructive action on manures will, however, always prevent charcoal from being much used as a disinfectant for such purposes, or, indeed, any other substance which acts principally by its porosity or by oxidation. This the soil does only partially, as it has another power, viz., that of retaining organic substances fit to be the food of plants. Although air acts partly in conjunction with the soil and the rain to cause disinfection, and partly by its own power, it also acts mechani- cally as a means of removing all noxious vapors. The wind and other currents of the air are continually ventilating the ground, and when these movements are not sufficiently rapid, or when they are interrupted by our mode of building, we are compelled to cause them artificially, and thus we arrive at the art of ventilation. The addition of one-ienth of a per cent, of carbonic acid to the air may be perceived, at least if accompanied with the amount of organic matter usually given out at the same time in the breath ; and as we exhale in a day 20 cubic feet of carbonic acid, we can injure the quality of 20,000 cubic feet of air in that time. The great value of a constant change of air is therefore readily proved, and the instinctive love which we have of fresh air is a sufficient corroboration. Cold is a great natural disinfectant. The flesh of animals may be preserved, as far as we know, for thousands of years in ice ; putrefying emanations are completely arrested by freezing, but the mobility of the particles, or chemical action, is also retarded by a degree of cold much less than freezing. Heat is also a disinfectant, when it rises to about 140° of Fahrenheit, according to Dr. Henry. But as a means of producing dryness it is a disinfectant at various temperatures. Nothing which is perfectly dry can undergo putrefaction. On the other hand, heat with moisture below 140° is a condition very highly productive of decomposition and all its resulting evils. Disinfection by heat is used at quarantine stations. Light is undoubtedly a great disinfectant ; so far as we know, it acts by hastening chemical decomposition. In all cases of ventilation, it is essential to allow the rays of light to enter with the currents of air. Its effect on the vitality of the human being is abundantly proved, and is continu- ally asserting itself in vegetation. The true disinfecting property of light exists in all probability in the chemical rays which cause compositions and decompositions. Water, however, is of all natural disinfectants the most manageable, and there is no one capable of taking its place actively. Wherever animals, even human beings, live, there are emanations of organic matter, even from the purest. The whole surface of the house, furniture, floor, .and walls, becomes coated by degrees with a thin covering, and this gradually decomposes, and gives off unpleasant vapors. Sometimes it becomes planted with fungi, and so feeds plants of this kind. But long before this occurs a small amount of vapor is given off suffi- ciently disagreeable to affect the senses, and sometimes affecting the spirits and the health before the senses distinctly perceive it. This must be removed. In most cases this film is removed by water, and we have the ordinary result of household cleanliness ; but in other cases, when the furniture is such as will be injured by water, the removal is made by fric- tion, or by oil or turpentine, and other substances used to polish. Water as a disinfectant is used also in washing of clothes ; for this purpose nothing whatever can supply its place, although it requires the assistance both of soap and friction, or agitation and heat. Water is also used as a mechanical agent for removing filth, and the method which Hercules de- vised of using a river to wash away filth, is now adopted in all the most advanced plans of cleansing towns. It is only by means of water that the refuse of towns can be conveyed aw.iy in covered and impervious passages, whilst none whatever is allowed to remain in the town itself. In cases where this cannot be done, it is much to be desired that some disin- fecting agent should be used to prevent decomposition. Where water is not used, as in waterKjlosets, there must of course be a great amount of matter stored up in middens, and the town is of course continually exposed to the effluvia. Besides these methods of acting, water disinfects partly by preventing effluvia from arising from bodies, simply because it keeps them in solution. This action is not a perfect one, but one of great value. The DISINFECTANT. 451 water gives off the impurity slowly, sometimes so slowly as to be of no injury, or it keeps It so long that complete oxidation takes place. The oxygen for this purpose is supplied by the air, which the water absorbs without ceasing. To act in this way, water must be delivered in abundance ; when only existing as a moisture, water may act as a great oppo- nent to disinfection by rising up in vapor loaded with the products of decomposition. Mere drying is known to arrest decay, as the mobflity of the particles m decomposition IS stayed by the want of water. We are told in Anderssen's Travels in South Africa that the Damaras cut their meat into strips, and dry it in the sun, by which means it is preserved fresh. A similar custom is found in South America. Certain days prevent this and de- composition sets in rapidly. A little overclouding of the sky, or a little more moisture in the air, quickly stops the process. The above may be called natural disinfectants, or imitations of natural processes, char- coal being introduced as an example of a more decided character of porous action. They show both mechanical and chemical action. The mechanical, when water or air removes, dilutes, or covers the septic bodies : the chemical, when porous bodies act as conveyers of oxygen : or an union of both, when cold and heat prevent the mobiUty of the particles. Ihe action by oxidation causes a destruction of the offensive material. The other method IS antiseptic. It is much to be desired that all impurities should be got rid of by some of these methods, but especially by the air, the water, and the soil. There are, however con- ditions m which difficulties interfere with the action. Large towns may be purified by water, but what is to be done with the water which contains all the impurity ? If put upon land it IS very soon disinfected, but on its way to the land it may do much mischief. It has been proposed to disinfect it on its passage, and even in the sewers themselves • by this means the town itself is freed from the nuisance, and the water may be used where it is needed without fear. This introduces artificial disinfectants. There are other cases where such are required— when the refuse matter of a town is allowed to lie either in exposed or m underground receptacles; in this case a town is exposed to an immense surface of im- purity, and disinfectants would greatly diminish the evil, if not entirely remove it Ther« are, besides, special cases without end continually occurring, where impurities cannot be at once removed, and where treatment with artificial disinfectants is required Artificial disinfectants which destroy the compound, are of various kinds. lire is one of the most powerful. A putrid body, when heated so as to be deprived of aU volatile par- ticles cannot any longer decompose. It is however possible that the vapore may become putrid, and if not carefully treated, this will happen. It was the custom of some of the wealthy among the ancients to burn the dead, and it is still the custom in India- but although the form is kept up amongst all classes, the expense is too great for the Ixwr Ihe bodies are singed, or even less touched by fire, and thrown if possible into the river This process has been recommended here, but the quality of the gaseous matter rising from a dead body, is most disgusting to our phvsical, and still more to our moral senses, and the amount is enormous. It is of course possible so to burn it, that only pure carl^nic acid water and nitrogen shall escape ; but the probability of preventing all escape is smali enough to be deeined an impossibility, and the escape of one per cent, would cause a rising of the whole neighborhood. To effect the combustion of the dead of a great city, such a lai|e work, furnished with great and powerful furnaces, would be required, that it would add one of the most frightful blots to modern civilization, instead of the cali and peaceful churchyard, where our bones are preserved as long at least as those who care for us Uve and then gradually return to the earth. In burning the dead, some prefer to bum the whole wt- V?i,P'''*\f ^- 7^'^ was the ancient method ; but it is highly probable that the ashes which they obtained were a delusion in most cases. The amount of ash found in the urns IS often extremely small. The body cannot be reduced to an infinitesimal ash, as is sup- posed ; eight to twelve pounds of matter remain from an average man when all is over A second plan, IS to drive off all volatile matter, and leave a cinder. This disgusting pkn leaves the body black and incorruptible. It can never, in any time known tols, mix with Its mother earth, and yet ceases at once to resemble humanity in the slightest deil. The burning of bodies never could have been general, and never can be general. Fire has SpW?« r • T ^/.^«^"f^^i^"t- It cannot be used in the daily disinfection of the dejecta of anmials and is applied only occasionally, where the most rapid destruction is the most desirable, either because the substance has no value, or it is too disgusting to exist, of the products after burning are not offensive. There are two methods of usiSg fire, char- ring or burning to ashes. The second is an act of ti^J^f^^T'~f^^ '' r^l^^^. ""'^^^l ^y^^P^^ combustion called fire ; by slow combus- tion, the natural action of the air ; or by chemical agency, sometimes assisted by mechani- hP W.11 -7 ^''•^^*i^? !° ^^« ««1,1 '3 .» Pi-ocess which is desirable in every respect, and it would be well if we could bring all offensive matter into this condition ; the ammonia is preserved, food lZ?.''l''''i r''^'' ?,^-"° '''''^ a?d water, both the ammonia and nitric acid being tood for plants. Sometimes this process is hastened by mixing up the manure with alkalinS "1 452 DISINFECTANT. . substances, raisiDg it in heaps, and watering, by this means forming nitrates, a process per- formed abundantly in warm countries upon the materials of plants and animals, and imitated even in temperate regions with success. This amount of oxidation destroys a good deal of the carbonaceous substances, and leaves less for the land. It is only valuable when salt- petre is to be prepared. One of the most thorough methods of oxidation, is by the use of the manganates or permanganates. They transfer their oxygen to organic substances with great rapidity, and completely destroy them. They are therefore complete disinfectants. They destroy the odor of putrid matter rapidly, and oxidize sulphuretted hydrogen, and phosphuretted hydro- gen, as well as purely organic substances. As they do this by oxidation at a low tempera- ture, they are the mildest form of the destructive disinfectants, and their application to putrid liquids of every kmd will give most satisfactory results. The quantities treated at a time should not be great, and the amount of material used must be only to the point of stopping the smell, or at least not much more, because both pure and impure matter act on the manganates, and an enormous amount of the material may be used in destroying that which is not at all offensive. The manganates do not prevent decay from beginning again. Their use has been patented by Mr. Condy. A similar action takes place with various high oxides and other oxides which are not high. Sometimes, however, a deleterious gas is pro- duced, as a secondary result by oxidation, as when sulphuric acid in the sulphates oxidizes organic matter, allowing sulphuretted hydrogen to escape. In this case it is highly probable that a true disinfection takes place, or a destruction of the putrid substance, and all offen- sive purely organic substances ; still the amount of sulpuretted hydrogen given off, is of itself sufficiently offensive and deleterious, although not, property speaking, an infectious or putrid gas, but an occasional accompaniment. ^ ^ Nitric acid is another agent of destruction or oxidation, although it has qualities which might cause it to be ranked amongst those which prevent the decomposition by entering into new combinations. But property speaking, it is not nitric acid which is the disinfectant of Carmicbael Smyth, but nitric oxide, which is a powerful oxidizer, and most rapidly de- stroys organic matter. For very bad cases, in which gaseous fumigation is applicable, noth- ing can be more rapid and effective in its action than this gas. Care must be taken that there is no one present to breathe it, as it has a powerful action on the lungs, and care must be taken that metallic surfaces which are to be preserved clean, be well covered with a coat- ing of varnish. This was used with great effect in ships and hospitals for some years, be- ginning with 1780, and so much good did it do, that the Partiament in 1802 voted Dr. C. Smyth a pension for it. Guyton-Morveau was vexed at this, and wrote an interesting vol- ume concerning his mode of fumigating by acids ; but in reality acids alone are insufficient^ and his favorite muriatic acid has no such' effect as nitrous fumes, which so readily part with their oxvgen. , „ j • j *• Chlorine is another destructive agent, and its peculiar action may be called an oxidation. When used as a gas, it has a great power of penetration, like nitrous fumes, and stops all putrefaction. It has a more actively destructive power than oxygen alone, even when its action is that of oxidation only. It decomposes compounds of ammonia into water and nitrogen, and as putrefactive matter is united with, or composed partly of nitrogen, it de- etrovs the very germ of the evil. By the same power it destroys the most expensive part of a manure, the ammonia. It cannot therefore be used where the offensive matter is to be retained for manure. When chlorine is united with lime or soda, it may be used either as a powder in the first case, or as a liquid in either case. For direct application to the offensive substances, a solution is used, or the powder. This latter acts exactly as the ffaseous chlorine, but the power of destroying ammonia is greater. As a liquid, it acts too rapidly • as a solid, the chloride of lime soon attracts moisture, and soon loses its power. Some people use the chloride of lime as a source of chlorine ; they pour sulphuric acid on it and so cause it to give out chlorine, which escapes as a gas, and acts as aforesaid. This has not been found agreeable, or indeed more than partially useful. Too much is given out at first, too little at last. It is said to have increased the lung diseases at hospitals, where it was much used in Paris. When only a minute quantity of gas is given out, as at bleach works, it cert^nly causes a peculiar freshness of feeling, and the appearance of the people is much in its favor, nor has it ever there been known to affect the lungs. For violent action, in cases of great impurity, it is a great disinfectant, and to be preferred to njtrous fumes probably causing a less powerful action on the lungs. Eau de javelle is a chlondc of potash used in Paris. Sometimes oxygen, or at least air, is used alone, to remove both color and smell, oils having it pumped into them. Sometimes acids alone are used lor dis- infection. As putrid compounds contain ammonia or organic bases, they may be removed, or at least theyjnay be retained in combination, and in this way restrained from further evaporation. This seems to be the way in which muriatic acid acts, and all other merely acid agents. This acid, so much valued at one time, is now entirely disused, as it ought to be because it is exceedingly disagreeable to breathe, and destructive of neariy all uselul substances which it touches, being at the same time a very indirect disinfectant. Acids DISINFECTANT. 453 poured on putrid matters, no doubt destroy the true putrefaction, but they cause the evolu- tion of gases exceedingly nauseous, and of course unwholesome. This evolution does not last long, but long enough to make them useless as disinfectants when used so strong. Vinegar is the best of the purely acid disinfectants ; wood vinegar the best of the vinegars, because it unites to the acidity a little kreasote. Vmegar is a very old and well-established agent ; it has been used in the case of plague and various pestilences from time immemo- rial. It is used to preserve eatables of various kinds. For fumigation, no acid vapor used is pleasant except vinegar, and in cases where the impurity is not of the most violent kind, it may be used with great advantage. Even this, however, acts on some bright surfaces, a disadvantage attending most fumigations. Sulphurous Acid^ or the fumes of burning sulphur, may be treated under this head, although in reality it does not act as a mere acid combining with a base and doing no more. It certainly unites with bases so that it has the advantage of an acid, but it also decomposes by precipitating its sulphur, as when it meets sulphuretted hydrogen. It therefore acts as an oxidizer in some cases, but it is generally believed, from its desire to obtain oxygen, that it acts by being oxidized, thus showing the peculiar characteristics of a deoxidizer. We can certainly believe that bodies may be disinfected both by oxidation and deoxidation. The solutions of sulphurous acid act as a restraint on oxidation, and preserve like vin^ar. Its compounds with bases, such as its salts of soda, potash, &c., preserve also like vinegar, salt- petre, &c. ; probably from their affinity for oxygen, taking what comes into the liquid before the organic matter can obtain it. But it is not probable that this rivalry exists to a great extent ; the presence of the sulphurous acid in all probability puts some of the particles of oxygen in the organic matter in a state of tension or inclination to combine with it, so tl\at the tension of the particles which are inclined to combine with the oxygen of the air is removed. Sulphur fumes are amongst the most ancient disinfectants held sacred in early times from their wonderful efficacy, and still surpassed by none. With sulphur the shepherd purified or disinfected his flocks, and with sulphur Ulysses disinfected the suitors which he had slain in his house. No acid fumigation is less injurious generally, vinegar excepted, to the lungs or furniture, and its great efficiency marks it out as the most desirable, although much laid aside in modern times. The amount arising frx)m burning coal must have a great effect in disinfecting the putrid air of our streets, and rendering coal-burning towns in some respects less unpleasant ; this is one of the advantages which that substance brings along with it, besides, it must be confessed, greater evils. It is curious that this compound of sulphur should be one of the most efficient agents in destroying sulphuretted hydrogen, another compound of sulphur. Sulphtirous acid prevents decomposition, and also preserves the valuable principle of a manure, so that it belongs partly to the class of disinfectantsu and partly to antiseptics. The peculiar actions of sulphurous acid and kreasote have been united in that cafled " McDougall's Disinfecting Powder." Since in towns and farms, when disinfectants are used. It 13 desirable not to use liquids, these two have been united into a powder which assists also in removing moisture, as water is often a great cause of discomfort and dUease in stables and cowhouses. When they are used in this manner, the acids are united with hme and magnesia. When the floors of stables are sanded with the powder, it becomes mixed with the manure, which does not lose ammonia, and is found afterwards much more valuable for land. The cattle are also freed from a great amount of illness, because the air of the stable is purified. When fasces of any kind cannot be at once i-emoved by water as by the water-closet system, the use of this is invaluable ; but it is well to know that the instant removal of impurity by water is generally best for houses, however difficult the after problem may be when the river is polluted. In stables and cowhouses this is not the case, and It IS then that a disinfecting powder becomes so valuable, although it is true that so many towns are unfortunately so badly supplied with water-closets that dismfectants are still much wanted for the middens. The inventors have proposed to disinfect sewers, as well as sewage, by the same sub- stances ; not, however, in the state of a powder. They applv the acids to the sewage water m the sewers themselves, and so cause the impure water to pass disinfected through the town ; by this means the towns and sewers are purified together. When the sewaff7water IS taken out of the town it can be dealt with either by precipitation or otherwise! As it will cease to be a nuisance, covered passages for it will not require to be made. Liim is used for precipitating sewage water, and acts as a disinfectant as far as the removal of the precipitate extends, and also by absorbing sulphuretted hvdro<'en which, however, it allows again to pass off gradually. The other substances proposed" for sewera have chiefly relation to the precipitation, and do not so readily come under this article. Charcoal has been mentioned ; alum has been proposed, and it certainly does act as a disin- fectant and precipitant None of these substances have been tried on a great scale exoeot- mg hme. ° ^ 454 DISTILLATION. Absence of Air is an antiseptic of great value. The process of preserving meat, called Appert's process, is by putting it in tin vessels with water, boiling off a good deal of steam, to drive out the air, and then closing the aperture with solder. Schroeder and Do Dusch prevented putrefaction for months by allowing no air to approach the meat without passing through cotton ; so also veils are found to be a protection against some miasmas. &alts, or compounds of acids with bases, are valuable antiseptics ; some of them are also disinfect- ants, that is, they remove the state of putrefaction after it has begun. An antiseptic pre- vents it, but does not necessarily remove it. Common salt is well known as a preserver of flesh ; nitrate of potash, or saltpetre, is a still more powerful one. Some of these suits act in a manner not noticed when treating of the preceding substances, viz., by removing the water. Meat, treated with these salts, gives out its moisture, and a strong solution of brine is formed. Chloride of calcium prevents, to some extent, the putrefaction of wood. Alum, or the sulphate of alumina, is not a very e£Scient preserver ; but chloride of aluminum seems to have been found more valuable. It is sometimes injected into animals by the carotid artery and jugular vein. Meat usually keeps a fortnight : if well packed, cleaned, and washed with a solution of chloride of aluminum, it will keep three months. But in reality the salts of the heavier metals are of more activity as disinfectants. It has been suppased that their efficiency arose from their inclination to unite with sulphur and phosphorus, and there is no doubt that this is one of their valuable properties, by which they are capable of removing a large portion of the impure smell of bodies ; but they have also an inclination to combine with organic substances, and by this means they prevent them from undergoing the changes to which they are most prone. The actual relative value of solutions it is not ea.sy to tell. Most experiments have been made on solutions not suffi- ciently definite in quantity. Salts of mercury have been found highly antiseptic. Such a salt is used for preserving wood ; the process is known as that of Kyan's, or kyanizing. ^ A solution of corrosive sublimate, containing about 1^ per cent, of the salt, is pressed into the wood either by a forcing pump or by means of a vacuum. The albumen is the substance most apt to go into putrefaction, and when in that condition it conveys the action to the wood. It is no doubt by its action on the albumen that the mcreury chiefly acts. Thin pieces of pine wood, saturated for four weeks in a solution of 1 to 25 water, with the fol- lowing salts, were found, after two years, to be preserved in this order : — 1. Wood alone, brown and crumbling. 2. Alum, like No. 1. 3. Sulphate of manganese, like 1. 4. Chlo- ride of zinc, like 1. 5. Nitrate of lead, somewhat firmer. 6. Sulphate of copper, less brown, firm. V. Corrosive sublimate, reddish yellow and still firmer. In an experiment, in which linen was buried with similar salts, the linen was quite consumed, even the specimen with corrosive sublimate. Other experiments showed salts of copper and mercury to pro- tect best. — Gmelin. Nevertheless, all these metallic salts are found true preservers under other conditions. Chloride of manganese, a substance frequently tlirown away, may be used, as Gay-Lussac and Mr. Young have shown, with great advantage, and Mr. Boucherie has shown the value of the acetate of iron. Mr. Boucherie's process is very peculiar. He feeds the tree, when living, with the acetate of iron, by pouring it into a trough dug around the root. The tree, when cut down, has its pores filled with the salt, and the albumen in the sap is pre- vented from decomposing. For preservation of vegetable and animal substances, see Putrefaction, Prevention of. The chloride of zinc of Sir William Burnett is also a valuable disinfectant, and has more power than it would seem to possess from the experiments quoted above. Wood, cords, and canvas, have been preserved by it under water for many years. It has the advantage also of being so soluble as to take up less room than most other salts, although liquids gen- erallv are inconvenient as disinfectants in many places. Nitrate of lead is a disinfectant of a similar kind ; it lays hold of sulphur, and the base unites with organic compounds. All these metals are too expensive for general use, and can only be applied to the preservation of valuable materials. Even iron is much too dear to be used as a disinfectai;^ for materials to be thrown on the fields as manure. All are apt to be very acid, a state to be avoided in a disinfectant, unless when it is applied to sub- stances in a very dilute state, or in an active putrid state, and giving out ammonia.— R. A. S. See also Sanitary Economy. DISTILLATION. Distillation consists in the conversion of any substance into vapor, in a vessel so arranged that the vapors are condensed again and collected in a vessel apart. The word is derived from the Latin dis and stillo, I drop, meaning originally to drop or fall in drops, and is very applicable to the process, since the condensation generally takes place dropwise. It is distinguished from sublimation by the confinement of the latter term to cases of distillation in which the product is solid, or, in fact, where a solid is vaporized, and con- densed without visible liquefaction. The operation may simply consist in rjiising the temperature of a mixture sufficiently to DISTILLATION. 455 hI!S i.t''''^*'^® ingredients; or it may involve the decomposition of the substance heated, and the condensation of the products of decomposition, when it is termed dextrue- tive disttUahon ; m most cases of destructive distillation the bodies operated upon are solid, and the products hquid or gaseous ; it is then called dry distillation. In consequence of the diversity of temperatures at which various bodies pass into vapor and also according to the scale on which the operation has to be carried outfan almost end- less variety of apparatus may be employed. Whatever be the vaiiety of form, it consists essentially of three parts:— the retort or still, the condenser, and the receiver. r..rFu '^ ^''^^^^/^f^^*?* in the chemical lab(yrat(yry, distillation is performed in the simplest way, by means of the common glass retort a, and receiver A, as in Jig. 221. The .^at aclvantages of the glass retort are that it admits of constant observation of the materials withm, that it IS acted upon or injured by but few substances, and may be cleaned generallv with facility. Its great disadvantage is its brittleness. b^^uenm/ 221 The retort may be either simple, as in fig. 222, or tubulated, as in fig. 221, (a.) turP nf n^/^j; ^'-'"^"^ ^ ^,^^'" sufficiently convex in all parts, the degi^e of curva- ture of one part passing gradually into that of the neighboring port ons, as is represented in the figure ; the part to be heated should, moreover, be as unifSrm in ^nt of En^ Kf.pl'- -l^'" tf-^f ted retort is more liable to cmck than theTai^o^ on ac^um ^ the neceasarily greater thickness of the glass in the neighborhood of the tubilature • never- oflhe mat'eS ''''"^^'"^''* "^ ^^"^''°t «^ ^^^ ^^^^^^^y which it offers for the intriluction In charging retorts, if plain, a funnel with a long stem should be employed, to avoid soiling the neck with the liquid to be distilled: when a solid has to be intit>du(.^ It 2 ftTfn^pLhlf'L^^^^^ ^ ^"^"ll'" V^^^? ' ^^ ^^ * P^^^^^^ ^^^ »« to be mixed with a fluid, it is preterable to introduce the fluid first. Heat may be applied to the retort either by the ai^and gas flame, as in fig. 221 or a water, oil, or sand-bath may be employed. , xu /ty. ^-i, or a .n^^l^''*'i''"^ "'^-''"'^ substances, e. g., sulphuric acid, great inconvenience is experienced and even danger mcurred, by the phenomenon termed " bumping." This consists in^e accumulation of large bubbles of vapor at the bottom of the liquidt which Snfciusl a foreible expulsion of the liquid from the retort. It is prevented by the iSuJirol a whVhT ^hriv-lf "."^ solid matter of such a nature as not to be acted ujZby the UquiS which 13 to be distilled. Nothing answers this purpose better than a piece of platinum fbU cut mto a fringe, or even a coil of platinum wire introduced into the cold Hqufd before the twcK^sZndpT^'hf-. ^"'? ^''? '^t P^^^^"*^«^ the distillation of sulphuriracid! S dJffilt^^^^^^ ^''''^ ''' '^^ P-P<>- '' its purification, is not'unattended i, I'n^^'t '"°?'!f t»i^f«"«^'°g "method* :-A glass retort of about two pounds' capacitv 13 placed on a cylinder of sheet-iron in the centre of a small iron fuma^ while iteS T.Zf'' *^A"^^ an opening in the side of the furnace, (fig. 223.) K ch^oaTu cirJcnt o?W ' -^IV^^'"' without being allowed to come in contact' witMhTg^^d a current of hot air is thus made to play on all parts of the retort exceptmg the bgtt^; which * Mohr and Bedwood's Practical Pharmacy. 456 DISTILLATION; is protected by its support. There is a valve in the flue of the furnace for regulating the draught, and three small doors in the cupola or head, for supplying fresh fuel on every bide, and for observing the progress of the distillation. Instead of the sheet-iron cylinder, a Hessian crucible may be employed, and this, if requisite, elevated by placing it on a brick. If the vapor be readily condensed, nothing more is necessary than to insert the extremity of the retort into a glass receiver, as hi If a more eflScient condensing arrangement be requisite, nothing is more convenient for use on the small scale than a Liebig*s condenser, shown in fg. 224. It consists simply of 223 224 a long glass tube into which the neck of the retort is fitted, and the opposite extremity of which passes into the mouth of the receiver ; round this tube is fitted another either of glass or metal, and between the two a current of water is made to flow, entering at a and passing out at h. The temperature of this water may be lowered to any required degree by putting ice into the reservoir c, or by dissolving salts in it. (See Freezing.) Even on the small scale it is sometimes necessary to employ distillatory apparatus con- structed of other materials besides glass. Earthenware retorts are now constructed of very convenient sizes and shapes. There is one kind— which is very useful when it is required to pass a gas into the retort at the same time that the distillation is going on, as in the preparation of chloride of aluminium, &e. — which has a tube passing down into it also made of earthenware, as m fg. 225. The closest are of Wedgewood ware, but a common clay retort may be made impermeable to gases, by washing the surface with a solution of borax, then carefully drying and heating them. 226 Retorts, or flasks with bent tubes, which screw in thus, {fig. 226,) of copper are em- ployed when it is requisite to produce high temperatures, as for the preparation of benzole from benzoic acid and baryta, or in making marsh gas from an acetate, &c. In distilling hydrofluoric acid, the whole apparatus should be constructed m lead ; the receiver consisting of a U-shaped tube of lead, which is fitted with leaden stoppers so as to serve for keeping the acid when prepared ; or a receiver of gutta percha may be employed with a stopper of the same material. {Fig. 227.) *• <• « ^ k« For many purposes in the laboratory, as, for instance, the preparation of oxygen by DISTILLATION. 457 heating binoxide of manganese, — in the manufacture of potassium, &c., &c., where high temperatures are required, the iron bottles in which mercury is imported from Spain maj be employed, a common gun-barrel being screwed into them to act as a delivery tube or condenser. {Fig. 228.) 227 228 ^BiuuuiiuiifliiiiUHnuiuiuuuiMituiHaiun^ On a large scale an almost endless variety of stills have been and are still employed, which are constructed of different materials. The common " still " consists of a retort or still proper, in which the substance is heated ; and a condenser commonly called a " worm," on account of its havmg frequently a spiral shape. The retort or still is generally made in two parts ; the pan or copper^ which is the part to which heat is applied, and is commonly set in a furnace of brickwork, and the " Acao?," which is generally removed after each operation, and refixed and luted upon the pan when again used. The condenser or worm is commonly placed in a tube or other ves- sel of water. (See fig. 231.) The still may be either constructed of earthenware, or, as is very commonly the case, of copper, either plain or electro-plated with silver, according to circumstances ; less frequently platinum is employed. The still is either heated by an open fire, as in fig. 228, or, as is now very commonly the case, by steam. The stiU-pan {fig. 229) is surrounded by an outer copper jacket, and 229 steam is admitted between them from a steam-boiler under any required pressure. In this way the temperature may be regulated with the greatest nicety. Various adaptations for heating by steam have been appropriately arranged in a very convenient form by Mr. Coffey, of Bunhill Row, Finsbury, in his so-called Esculapian Still. It 13 in fact a veritable multum in parvo, being intended to afford to- the pharmaceuticai chemist the means of conducting the processes of ebullition, distillation, evaporation, de- 458 DISTILLATION. siccation, &c., on the small scale, by the heat of a gas-furnace. The followmg cut {fig. 230) represents this apparatus. 230 B, a burner supplied with gas by a flexible tube, c, the boiler or still, i, an evapo- rating pan fixed over the boiler and forming the top of the still-head, k, a valve for shut- ting off* the steam from i, when it passes through the tube m ; otherwise it would pass through L, and communicate heat to the drying-closet o o, and from thence to the condenser T T. o is a second evaporating pan over the drying-closet. Another arrangement for dis- tilling by steam is shown in fig. 231. Sometimes also distillation is effected by passing hot steam through a worm contained toithin the still, instead of or in addition to, the application of heat from without. 231 232 DISTILLATION. 489 The worm or condenser is frequently constructed of earthenware, and set in an earthen- ware vessel ; these are very convenient when the operation is not to be conducted on a very large scale, and only at a moderate temperature. They are now to be obtained of all manufacturers of stone-ware articles. More commonly the worm is of copper, tin, or cop- per lined with silver, and in some rare cases, where the liquids to be distilled act upon both copper and silver, of platinum. {Fig. 232.) A tube of the shape shown in fig. 233 is found more convenient than the worm, on account of its exposing a larger surface, and also because it can be placed into a vessel of a prismatic form which occupies but little space. The water employed for condensation enters at the bottom and passes out at the top. 233 234 Gadda's Condenser is represented in fig. 234. It consists of two conical vessels of metal, of unequal size, the smaller being fixed within the other, and the space between them closed at the bottom. These are placed in a tub filled with cold water, which comes in con- tact with the inner and outer surfaces of the cones, while the space between is occupied by the vapor to be condensed. This condenser is subject to the objection which applies to the common worm, that it cannot be easily and efficiently cleaned. To obviate this. Professor Mitscherllch has proposed a very simple modification in its form, in which the inner cone is movable, so that, when taken out, the intervening space between it and the outer cone can be cleaned, and then the mner cone replaced previously to commencing an operation. Distillation of Spirits.— lu the manufacture of ardent spirits, the alcoholic liquor ob- tained by fermentation of a saccharine solution is submitted to distillation ; the alcohol, being more volatile than the water, passes over first, but invariably a considerable propor- tion of water is evaporated and condensed with the alcohol. To separate this water to the required extent, it is necessary either to submit the product to redistillation, or to contrive an apparatus such that the product of this first distillation is returned to the still until a spirit of the required strength is obtained. One of the earliest and simplest contrivances for effecting the latter object is the still mvented by Dorn, which is employed up to the present time in Germany, {fig. 235.) a is the still, heated by the direct action of the fire ; b the head, from which r conveys vapor to a small refrigerator, for the purpose of testing the strength of the distillate ; e is an ordi- nary condenser containing worm, &c. The intermediate copper vessel answers two pur- poses ; the upper part c forming a heater for the wash, while the lower compartment d acts as a rectifier. The heater c, when filled up to the level of the cock m, contains the exact measure of wash for charging the still ; the contents can be constantly agitated bv the rouser i. The still and heater being both charged, the vapor will at first be completelv condensed m passmg through the worm g, and flowing into d will close the aperture. When the contents of o become so hot that no more condensation occurs, the vapor will escape by bubbling through the liquid in d, which latter rapidly becomes heated to the boiling poinL and evolves vapors richer in alcohol, which in their turn are condensed in e. In this manner, by one operation, spirit containing about 60 per cent, of alcohol is ob- tained. Of the recent improvements on Dorn's still, two only need be described: — Coffey's, which has in a great measure replaced all others in this country, and Derosne's, which i^ extensively employed in France. 460 DISTILLATION. 235 Coffey's Still far surpasses any of those before described. It was patented in 1852, and has proved most valuable to the distiller, since it yields the strongest spirit that can be obtained on the large scale. Its objects are twofold :— 1st, to economize the heat as much as possible, by exposing the liquid to a very extended heated surface ; 2d, to cause the evaporation of the alcohol from the wash by passing a current of steam through it. The wash is pumped from the " wash charger " into the worm tube, which passes from top to bottom of the rectifier. In circulating through this tube its temperature is raised to a certain extent. Arrived at the last convolution of the tube in the rectifier, the wash passes by the tube m m in at the top of the " analyzer." It falls and collects upon the top shelf until this overflows, whence it lalls on to the second shelf, and so on to the bottom. All the while steam is passed up from the steam-boiler through fine holes in the shelves, and through valves opening upwards. As the wash gradually descends in the analyzer, it be- comes rapidly weaker, partly from condensation of the steam which is passed into it, and partly from loss of alcohol, either evaporated or expelled by the steam ; till, when it arrives at the bottom, it has parted with the last traces of spirit. At the same time the vapor, as it rises through each shelf of the analyzer, becomes continuously richer in alcohol, and con- tains less and less water in consequence of its condensation ; it then passes from the top of the analyzer in at the bottom of the lower compartment of the rectifier. Here it ascends in a similar way, bubbling through the descending wash, until it arrives at f, above which it merely circulates round the earlier windings of the wash-pipe, the low temperature of which condenses the spirit, which, collecting on the shelf at f, flows off by the tube into the finished spirit condenser. In order still further to economize heat, the w-atcr for supplying the boiler is made to pass through a long coil of pipe, immersed in boiling-hot spent wash, by which means its temperature is raised before it enters the boiler. In fact, the saving of fuel by the employ- ment of this still is so great, that only about three-fourths of the quantity is consumed thsit would be requisite for distilling any given quantity of alcohol in the ordinary still ; and Dr. Muspratt estimates that in this way a saving will be eflectcd throughout the kingdom of no less than 140,000 tons of coal per annum. Very few persons have any idea of the enormous size of some of the distilleries. One of Mr. Coffey's stills at Inverkeithing works off 2,000 gallons of wash per hour, and one, more recently erected at Leith, upwards of 3,000 gallons. Berosne's Still is very similar, in the principle of its action, to Coffey's, differing in fact only in the mechanical details by means of which the result is obtained. It consists of two stills, a and b, fg. 237. The mixture of steam and alcohol vapor from A passes into the liquid in n, which it raises to the boiling point. The vapors from b rise through the duttillatory column c, and D,.(the rectijicaiory column ;) hence they traverse the coils of tubing in e, (the condenser arf(l wine-heater,) and the alcohol is finally condensed by traversing the worm in f, (the refrigerator,) whence it is delivered at z. At the same time a steady current of the original alcoholic liquor is admitted from the reservoir h, into the exterior portion of the condenser f, by means of the tap, the flow from which is regu- lated by the ball cock g. Whilst condensing the spirit in the worm, the wash has its tem- perature raised, especially in the upper part, and thence it ascends by the tube h into the heater e, by the small orifices k k^ fig. 238, where it is still further heated by the current of heated alcohol which has risen into the worm from the gtills, whilst at the same time DISTILLATION. 4fl 236 462 DISTILLATION. assisting in the condensation of the spirit. After performing its oflRce of condensation, and when nearly at the boiling point, the alcoholic liquor passes out by the tube /, and is con- ducted .to the top of the distillatory column c. Here it trickles down over a series of len- ticular discs of metal, (shown in Jig. 238,) so contrived as to retard its progress into the still B, and yet permit the ascent of the steam. In this distillatory column (c. Jig. 240) it meets the steam rising from the still b. The greater part of its alcohol is expelled, which, traversing the series of condensers before described, is ultimately liquefied and collected nt z ; but, to complete the rectification, it descends into the still b, and, when above a certain level, (m w,) into a, which stills being heated by a furnace beneath, the final expulsion of alcohol is accomplished, and the spent liquor run off at x. 237 239 240 I ¥?l I I • - -^^ •'"•--^ — z. ! . A^%V 238 DISTILLATION, DESTEUOTIVE. 463 The details of the construction of the apparatus employed in the distillation of spirits have been here given, since this process is perhaps one of the most important of the kind ; but various modifications are employed in the distillation of other liquids. In some cases, unusually effectual condensing arrangements are required, as in the manufacture of Ether, Chloroform, Bisulphide of Carbon, and Bichloride of Carbox. In others higher temperatures are necessary, as in the distillation of sulphuric acid. When the liquids to be distilled are acid, or otherwise corrosive, great care has to be taken especially that the worm or other condenser is of a material not acted upon by the acid. See Acetic Acid and Splphcric Acid. The term distillation is sometimes applied to cases of the volatilization and subsequent condensation of the metals either in their preparation or purification. In cases like mercury, potassium, and sodium, where they are condensed in the liquid state, or visibly pass through this state before volatilization, this term is qiyte appropriate ; but where the fusing and vaporizing points nearly coincide, as in the case of arsenic, the term sublimation would be more suitable. Nevertheless it is difficult to draw a precise line of demarcation between the two terms ; for in the cases of zinc, cadmium, &c., the metals being melted before volatilization, and condensed likewise in the liquid state, the term is certainly correct. For the details of construction of the distillatory apparatus, we must refer to the articles on these several metals. Distillatio per descensum is a term improperiy applied to certain cases of distillation where the vapor is dense, and may be collected by descending through a tube which has an opening in the top of the distillatory vessels, and descends through the body of the vessel in which the operation of evaporation is going on, being collected below. This is cleariy merely due to the fact of the vapor being even at a high temperature more dense than atmospheric air, and might be performed with any body forming a dense vapor, such as mercury, iodine, zinc, &c It has, however, practically been confined to the English process of refining zinc See Zinc. The two most remarkable cases in which the process of destructive distillation is carried out on a manufacturing scale, are the dry distillation of wood, for the manufacture of wood charcoal, acetic acid, and pyroxilic spirit, (which see ;) and of coal, for the purpose of obtammg coal-gas, and coke. This process will be found fully described in the article on Coal-Gas. Distillation of Esaential Oils or Essences.— The separation of volatile flavoring oils from planfcj, &c., by distillation with water, will be fully treated under another head See Perfumery, Essences. Fractional Distillation.— k process for the separation of volatile organic substances (such as oils) is very extensively employed in our naphtha works under this name. If we have two volatile bodies together, but differing appreciably in their boilin" points, we find, oq submitting them to distillation in a retort, through the tubulafbre of which a thermometer is fixed, so that its bulb dips into the liquid, that the temperature remams constant (or neariy so) at the point at which the more volatile constituent of the mixture boils, and the distillate consists chiefly of this more volatile ingredient ; and onlv after neariy the whole of it has passed over, the temperature rises to the point at which the less volatile body boils. Before this point has been reached, the receiver is chan<'ed and the second distillate collected apart. By submitting the first product to repeated redistiUa- tion, as long as its boiling point remains constant, the more volatile constituent of the mix- ture IS ultimately obtained in a state of absolute purity. See Naphtha. This method may in fact be adopted when the mixture contains several bodies ; and bv changing the receiver with each distinct rise of temperature, and repeating the process sev- eral times, a Jractional separation of the constituents of the mixture may be effected. H. M. W. DISTILLATION, DESTRUCTIVE. Oi-anic matters may be divided into two groups, tounded on their capability of withstanding high temperatures without underc^oin'' molecular changes. Bodies that distil unchanged form the one, and those which break Sp into new and simpler forms, the other. The manner in which heat acts upon organic substances dif- fers not only with the nature of the matters operated upon, but also with the temperature employed. We shall study the subject under the following heads :— 1. Apparatus Jor Destructive Distillation. 2. Destructive Distillation oj Vegetable Matters. 3. Destructive Distillation of Animal Matters. 4. Destructive Distillation of Acids. 6. Destructive Distillation of Bases. 6. General Remarks. 1. Apparatus for Destructive Distillation.—DestmctWe distillation on a large scale is 464 DISTILLATION, DESTRUCTIVE. most conveniently performed in the cast-iron retorts used in gas works. Where quantities of materials not exceeding fifteen or twenty pounds are to be operated on, for the purpose of research, a more handy apparatus can be made from one of the stout cast-iron pots pold at the iron wharves. They are semi-cylindrical, and have a broad flange round the edge. The cover should be made to fit in the manner of a saucepan lid. The aperture by which the products of distillation are to be carried away should be of good size, and the exit pipe must not rise too high above the top of the pot before it turns down again. This is very essential in order to prevent the less volatile portion of the distillate from condensing and falling back. The exit tube should conduct the products to a receiver of considerable capacity, and of such a form as to enable the solid and fluid portions of the distillate to be easily got at for the purpose of examination. From the last vessel another tube should con- duct the more volatile products to a good worm supplied with an ample stream of cold water. If it b^ intended to examine the gaseous substances yielded by the substances under examination, the exit pipe of the worm must be connected with another apparatus, the nature of which must depend on the class of bodies which are expected to come over. If the most volatile portions are expected to be basic, it will be proper to allow them to stream through one or more Woulfe's bottles half filled with dilute hydrochloric acid. Any very volatile hydrocarbons of the Cnlla family which escape may be arrested by means of bro- mine water contained in another VVoulfe's bottle. The pressure in the Woulfe's bottles must be prevented from becoming too great, or the leakage between the flange of the pot and its cover will be very considerable. The luting may consist of finely sifted Stourbridge clay, worked up with a little horse dung. A few heavy weights should be placed on various parts of the lid of the pot, so as to keep it close, and render the leakage as little as pos- sible. For the destructive distillation of small quantities of substances, I have been accus- tomed for a long time to employ a small still made from a glue-pot, and having a copper head made to fit it. The luting for all temperatures not reaching above 70° may be a mix- ture of f linseed and | almond meal, made into a mass of the consistence of putty. For the apparatus employed in the destructive distillation of wood, coal, bones, &c., on the lan'e scale, the various articles in this work on the products obtained from those substances must be consulted. . , t, 2. Destructive Distillation of Vegetable Matters.— The pnncipal vegetable matters which are distilled on the large scale are wood and coal. We shall consider these sepa- ratelv. Destructive Distillation of Wood.— The products obtained in the ordinary process of working, are acetic acid, wood spirit or methylic alcohol, acetone, pyroxanthine, xylite, lig- nine, paraflBne, kreosote, or phenic acid, oxyphenic acid, pittacal, several homologues of benzole, with ammonia, and methylaminc. There are also several other bodies of which the true nature is imperfectly known. The greater part of the above substances are fully described in separate articles in this work. See Acetic Acid, Paraffine, &c. Peat appears to yield products almost identical with those from wood. Destructive Distillation of Coal.— The number of substances yielded by the distillation of coal is astonishing. It is very remarkable that the fluid hydrocarbons produced at a low temperature are very different to those distilling when a more powerful heat is employed. The principal fluid hydrocarbons produced by the distillation and subsequent rectification of ordinary gas tar are benzole and its homologues. But if the distillate is procured at as low a temperature as possible, or Boghead coal be employed, the naphtha is lighter, and the hydrocarbons which make its chief balk belong to other series. See Naphtha. 3. Destructive Distillation of Animal Matters.— Bones are the principal animal sub- stances distilled on the large scile. The naphthas which come over are excessively foetid, and are very troublesome to render clean enough for use. The products contained m bone oil will be described in the article Naphtha. Horn and wool have recently been examined with reference to the basic products yielded on distilling them with potash. Horn under these circumstances yields ammonia and amylamine. Wool I find to afford ammonia, pyr- rol butylamine, and amylamine. My experiments on feathers, made some years ago, although not carried so far as those on wool, appear to indicate a very similar decompo- sition. ._ The products yielded by animal matters, when distilled per se, are very different to those obtained when a powerful alkali is added previous to the application of heat. If feathers or wool be distilled alone, a disgustingly foetid gas is evolved containing a large quantity of sulphur. Part of the sulphur is in the state of sulphide of carbon. But if an alkali be added previous to the distillation, the sulphur is retained, and the odor evolved, although powerful, is by no means offensive. During the whole period of the distillation of ordinary organic matters containing nitrogen, pyiTol is given off; and may be recognized by the reaction aff'orded with a slip of deal wood dipped in hydrochloric acid. An mterest- ine experiment, showing the formation of pyrrol from animal matter, may at any time be made with a lock of hair, or the feather of a quill. For this purpose the nitrogenous animal DISTILLATION, DESTRUCTIVE. 465 matter is to be placed at the bottom of a test tube, and a little filtering paper is to be placed half-way up the tube, to prevent the water formed during the expeilnent from retS and fra^nurmg the glass. The end of the tube is now to be cautiously heateTwii^aS kmp and, as soon as a dark yellowish smoke is copiously evolved, a siipTdL previS moistened with concentrated hydrochloric acid is to be exposed to the vapor ^^ a few woolta "oro'th7" K '^"" ' '^^P ^"T" ^«^«'- T^^ '^^^''^^ prLenrof su^hJi^ to an au^ ince bv thfrnlT'"-"' ^«°^P«"«d« «f Jjl^t description, may be made very evident traced solSno^n^?^^^^^^^^^ '^'^ ^^^^ matter in very concen- SL and rakP^h^h '1 Vll""^' ^J platinum basin, with the aid of heat. Evaporate to ToTC}Zr ^^ ^'i""'^ )'^'^ 7^'^^' ^°^ fi^*^^ ^^t« a fl^k half full of distUIed water. oLle tflrw-nT^-^^^ a little of Dr. Playfair's nitroprusside of sodium ; a magnificen sS aulntitT or h }'^i'''''^y P^ie^^^i^' indicative of the presence of sulphur.^A very small quantity of hair or flannel will suffice to yield the reaction. ^ ine above remarks on destructive distillation apply principally to highly comolex bodiP«» Ln'foTlirvTv""""''^ ''.''''''' dou'b?fJlfas in^h'e c^e^of'Sno^su^ snh.Mn.^I r ^ unknown, as with coals and shales. The destructive distillation of oi^nS pScts th^^^^^^^^^ simple constitution, such as acids and alkalies, sometimesT?^ ofAcids.-The destructive distillation of acids takes nlace on w S ^nfl'^v^'^'^'i """"rdi^g ^ we have a base present or the opemt^o^s c^S i-n^^the eSnat^n'of JhT' '^ ^Jf ^^^^ j..r .., undergo a veiy simple^r^action^^» + 2C0» C«H^O'« = C"H*0« + 2C0« Meconic acid. Comenic acid Comenic acid. Pyroi„;conic acid. ^Jj^lL^VV^f hydrogen remains unaffected. Perhaps the name pyrocomenic fnleTLVmZnt^:^;^^^^^^^ - ^ ^« '^^^^ ^- -S-Sd^ carh^nJ/«^mf ^"^ ''''• ^l^?f .derived from the parent acid by the mere eUmination of C"H'°0'« = C"W -f. 2C0» + 6H0 Macic acid. Pyromncic acid. fh. ? *^°^^.°«^ invariably happen that the destructive distillation of acids per se results in ^llZf *'°/ ^ P^'"^ ' '^? disruption is sometimes more profound, thlZodv^C rZZ I'^'^JJ^'^T^** ^°"P^^^- ^^' "^ ^^^ «« "» illusti^tion a ca^ where aU hf results can be reduced to an equation. Oxalic acid, when heated in a ^rt wiS^ut Jdf S/ellr ri'"'' '' """^^ ^"'^^ ^^^ '^^'^ -^«' - accoS^^e^t"^:^: 4(C»0»,H0) = 4C0'' -f- 2C0 + 2H0 + C'HO»,HO nf firT^- • • "^^^ ^""^^ pulverized pumice stone, or any other inert substance in a state f fi^f. Tr""'-?^"" remm-kably assists in rendering the decompositionTor^ ea^y^nd tnoZ A I ?:/ P""^ ^^^ ^ '^'''^^ ^^'^ «^^i<^ acid, the quantity of fo^^a^S is so iTra^d^'rXTtr^^^^^^ ''-''''''' ''' ''' ^^^^-'^^ - ^ -ro^f ^ffoMii^ n.. Y^' ^^* ^^ ""' ** destructive distillation of acids proceeds in a very different num ner accordmg as we operate upon the add itself, or a salt of the acid. S dSlo^f Vol. IIL — 30 466 DISTILLATION, DESTRUCTIVE. the pure salt .yields different products to those which are obtMned when the salt or dry acid ia mixed with a large excess of a dry base, (such as quicklime,) before the application of heat. If, in the former mode of proceeding, two atoms of the acid are decomposed, yield- in"- a body containing the elements of two atoms of carbonic acid and two of water less than the parent acid, such body is called a ketone. Thus when two atoms of acetate of lime are distilled, the products are one atom of acetone, and two of carbonic acid. Of course the carbonic acid combines with the lime, thus : — 2(C«H'CaO*) = C'H'O" + 2(CaO,CO') Acetate of lirae. Acetone. If however, the salt is not of a very low atomic weight, and the quantities operated on are at all considerable, secondary products are formed, as in the dry distillation of butyrate of lime, when, if the substance is not in very small quantity, carbon is deposited, and a certain quantity of butyral (C^H^O') is formed, and probably other substances. As an illustration of the decomposition undei^one when acids are distilled with a great excess of dry base, we shall select that of benzoic acid, which under the circumstances alluded to yields benzole and carbonate of the base. C"H'0* = C»'H« + 2(C0'*) Benzoic acid. Benzole. 5. Destructive Distillation of Bases.— It has been found that the organic bases undergo a much simpler and more direct decomposition when subjected to destructive distillation in presence of alkalies than when they are exposed to heat without admixture. There are two bodies almost invariably found among the resulting products, namely, ammonia and pyrrol. In this respect, therefore, the organic alkalies behave like other nitrogenized animal and vegetable products. The decomposition is almost always rather complex, and it is very rare that the products are sufficiently definite to be arranged in the form of an equation. The most common substances found, are the alcohol bases, and these are almost invariably of low atomic weight. One great difficulty connected with researches on this subject, is owing to the fact of its being seldom that the products are in sufficient quantity to enable a thorout'h knowledge of the molecular constitution to be arrived at. Unfortunately this informatfon is much wanted in consequence of the numerous cases of isomerism to be met with among the alcohol bases. See Formula, Chemical. Thus it is difficult, when work- ing on very small quantities, to distinguish between bimethylamine and ethylamine, both of which have the formula C^H'N. It is remarkable that there is a great similarity between the products of the destructive distillation of some of the most unlike nitrogenous substances. This is conspicuously seen in the case of bones, or rather the gelatinous tissue of bones, shale and coal naphthas, and cinchonine. An inspection of the following table, compiled from a paper, (by the writer of this article,) " On some of the Basic Constituents of Coal Naphtha," will render this evident. Gelatinous Tissues. Pyrrol. Pyridine^ Picoline. Lutidine. Collidine. Shale Naphtha. Pyrrol. Pyridine. Picoline. Lutidine. Collidine. Parvoline. Aniline. Coal Naphtha. Pyrrol. Pyridine. Picoline. Lutidine. Collidine. Chinolinc. Lepidine. Cryptidiue. Aniline. Cinchonine. Pyrrol. Pyridine. Picoline. Lutidine. Collidine. Chinoline. Lepidine. It is very possible that some of the above bases, having the same formulae, but deiived from different sources, will, in the course of time, prove to be merely isomeric, and not absolutely identical. The author of this article has quite recently found that the chinoline of coal tar is certmnly not identical with that from cinchonine. The base from the latter source yields a magnificent and fast blue dye upon silk, when treated by a process which gives no reaction if the coal base be substituted. It is unfortunate that the reaction is with the latter instead of the former, as it would have added one more to the list of gorgeous dyeing materials yielded by coal tar. ^ , . .t i x i. &. General Remarks. — The tendency of numerous researches, made during the last few years has been to show that there is no organic substance, capable of resisting high tem- peratures which may not be found to exist among products of destructive distillation. By varym*' the nature of the substance to be distilled, and also the circumstances under which the operation is conducted, we can obtain an almost infinite variety of products. Acids, bases and neutral substances, solid, liquid, and fluid hydrocarbons, organic positive, nega- DIVING BELL. 4«7 hilh tTlllf ^^ "^^'"^^^ organo-metallic bodies,-all may be produced by the action of high temperatures on more or less compUcated bodies. Much h^ already been done but On ltlttSnlT\rTf^''t ''^^'t "^''P ^ *^^ ^"P^^^^^ «"d more salient suS<^' to light?-C 1 W "^^^ ^^ "^""^ ^^"^"^^^ ^^ interesting facts will co^ sea or rilpS'^nH^^;n i^.u '% ^^J^^ntly desirable to raise objects from the bottom of the tT. dP« LT; K? *^ *^^ foundation of piers and similar structures, some contrivance tS firs mP hnT'^J' ?^? '^ ^r^^^ ^^'^^ '^« ^^<^^' ^^ *« «"«^^i° l^mself while i^Z l^^t^l^l i ^^""^^^"^ ""^ *^^ ^^^y «^°»P^« «°« «f le"i"g down a heavily weighted beU ros^lftKn butTv^^ t"^..*': ''" t'^?-'^'' ^'^ ^^ ^'' overpr.ssed,Ufhe water tTme ThP «1r hn "" ^^- *^P'/°^ T'^° *^*^ «P^^ '^^ °^" ^^ sustained for some be Lwn 1 \ • '^^'' ""^ TT^ ^y *^^ P^'ooesses of respiration, and the man had to wUhouTa Zu w«V!, '""T '^^1. '^' ^ ^^'^y ^ ^^^3 * ^^'y ^^•"Pi^te system of dMiS without a bell was devised, as the following quotation will show :_ ^ gentUan hath hvL .^"".^ ^^'h ^^ '^' ^'^""' *^- ^'' Whereas John Stapleton, Knnl'- ^ ^l^ ^''^^^ ^'"^y ^^ ^^P^°c« invented a new and extraordinary engine of copper, iron, or other mettal, with glasses for light joints, and so contrived as^ S! nv^p rr'lr^ *^ TT^ ^""^ '''^^^ f«^«ly ^ith under watir, and yet so clo^l^cS^S over with leather as sufficiently to defend him from all the juipes of t. lirL^nt^^ way to force air m to any depth of water, whereby the person iA the afores^d eSe mav A^7ff ""''^ I" T'^°"'i J"""^^' «^ fr^«^ ^i'«. ^bich not only rrTerhim fo? r^^ viceable for respiration,, and by continually !::'p:rg^h?^o;^^t! a'^^^^ long time under water in either of the sayd engine? withoi^ any otherT thS ^TTvd engines do contayne, whereby he shall be preserved from suffoitionT^^e^irdiraiJ acciden should interrupt the current of fresh air afore mentioned'^-UlTpS^ Rolls Chapel. Edited by Bennet Woodcraft. latent, whic'h't^t'r^meTy S " *'" ^^^^^^^^ ^^ ^^- ^^"^^ ^^"^^^ ^ ^^ the object of to auL'lhSsate rii'htTolh'.T^ ^*t ^'^S "°^ ^""^'^^ ''"^"^ ^'^ ^'^^^-^ ^^ove, lu auow ine passage ot light to the diver. In order to supply air a barrel was takpn with an open hole in the bottom, and a weighted hose hanging by, a^d'fitSt^t h^e atThe top. From this barrel the air of the bell was supplied a! fSquently ^ItTcle ^dlte^^^ the barrels of air being sent down from above. Spalding improved up^n HalSv^bX^d again Friewald made some improvements on Spalding's, but in princiX?hese Ss w"' ^n alike. The modern bells are usually lai^e and strong i'ron beUsrSwindow^^^^^ belt and^pT f ^ •" "P"°^P' ^^^^ ^'^ '^' ««^^^^^' ^ '« ^^At doZTIe Ze^ Ke I'ttCes Th^^^^^^^^^ ''"^T^ '^'^ the bell by other tubes th^h wh ch u escapes Ihese diving-bells are lowered by means of cranes, and are moved abTut in thp water by those above, signals being given by the men below ThP diffinnhl nf ^^^ !u- ^vt^rf":-^^^*"/ incpnvenie^n^nd rLentTe^rbavIterm^l't^'orv^^t^ by the construction of a diving-bell upon principles entirely different Thi^ neT^vW bell, to which the name of The Nautilus h£ beeS applied, iL proved so Lefulfn the 3 Sfpr/oniCndef ^^"^'^ "^^^' and^sLe'workrpnlhr ^^t "S^VZ wt K ^^r *d^*°tages must strike all as combining those requisites of suc?^ wS have been always wanting n the present known means for constru2ung worL rd^ ^att wni t/r™ ""^'^^ T'^'""^ '^ ^^t arbitrary, but depends entirely on thTnature ^f the nosition ^LPLt'™'^'"^r^"S ^*«^'^to the various circumstanceraVendin'ry^^^^^^^^ position. By reference to the annexed figures, it will be perceived that whpn «? ^7 k^ entirely enclosed, its displacement of watir be ne greater than hfn!! J- *^'°« rnrw!S!r A ^^ ■'' ^l ""^^^ ^'P^"" ^y * *^ck *' outwards to the external swround- mg water. An opening in the bottom of the machine of variable dimen.siork cYS hi a door or doors susceptible of being opened or closed at pleasure TheX^bers Tw.^ chtrand'Twh- V' '"^ '"•' r""r p'p^ ' ^' ^^i^h «p««« through ttTo^sThrr Sht^"^ Tv '^ .?'"'"« ^' ^®^'^ * ^^""'^^^ pipe* ^^ coils of wire spiiSuy enclo^d "er " ''"" P'^' ' ^^'^ ^^^ communication with the la|Lr o'r wS^ At the surface of the water placed on a float or vessel for the purpose, is a receiver of 468 DIVING BELL. Tariable dimensions, to which is attached at one end a hollow drum or reel, to the barrel of which is afl&xed the other end of the flexible pipe a, leading to the top of the nautilus. At the other end of, and in connection with the receiver, is iw powerful air-condensing pump. This combination represents the nautilus as adapted to engineering work. 241 i As to the modtis operandi ;— The operator with his assistants enters the machine through the top, which is then closed. To descend, the water-cock b is opened, and the external water flows into the chambers w tv ; at the same time a cock, on a pipe opening from the chambers outwards, is opened, in order that, the air escaping, an uninterrupted flow of water may take place into the chambers. The weight of water entering the chambers causes a destruction of the buoyancy of the machine, and the nautilus gradually sinks. As soon as it is fairly under water, in order that the descent may be quiet and without shock, the water-cock b is closed. The receiver at the surface being previously charged by the air- pump to a density somewhat greater than that of the water at the depth proposed to attain, 242 one of the branch-cocks on the pipe c e, connecting the chambers at top, is opened, and the air rushes into the working chamber, gradually condensing until a density equal to the den- sity of the water without is attained ; this is indicated by proper air and water gauges. DIVING BELL. ^^ These gauges marking equal pomts, showing the equilibrium of forces without anH witKi„ the cover to the bottom z is removed or raisfd, and commtSTcTtyn^a^rSi^e^^^ tTdef or^^"'"' r/^'"^ the nautilus is resting.' In order to move aZt In l^c^ities whe%* of thP h.r'^V?!,''^' *^f'' <>P^^ti«°«» it is only necessary for the workm^to Ld o^ i:^vrprhL;^^^^^^^^^^ ^'^ ^^ ^' i- -^e, the^p^^r^r; Dointe^frnm w^if """ ^^^^' ^°''^''^'' ^^^ ^""^^^ '^ ^^^^^^^^ neccssary to depend upon fixed &^rth^\ttZ^n?:K'' '""?,^" °^'i '"^ ^^ ^^^'•«"- This is accomp^ef^ 24Tuhro^ Jh wS^ i^ uf *^^ "*"'•''*'' stuffing-boxes of peculiar construction, (m m iiJ tubd ao pfevrn/ t^^ ""^ ^ over pulleys to the eSemal sides, thence^p tl^^h ihT^urZ ^f Jif ! ^'T^ '^''™') *« *°^ o^er oscillating or swinging puUevs olacedin respectively, (/y. 243.) The object to be gained by having the swinging pulleys in the ^sXfon.''^SnleTaLL^^^ ^t°^"^lS^ ^'^^'^^''^ P--^ for winding in the cables By wiiiL^^^^^^^ ^^^« stuffing-boxes, are windlasses course the number of these clbTeswi^fdJ^^fLff^' movement may be effected, and of be occupied. Havinl thi setred fhe 2?n« nT] ' ^T^^' '^*^'"^ «^ ^^ «'^"«^«° '^ torn, and of movemeSt, the S ;2?17^^^^ communicating with the bot- tiou of buoyancy at fi^st and conseauent S^n ^^^^ °^ ^""^^^ ^^ ^"^*^ ^ ^^^<^ removed, ai upward eSrt^ill at on- k. ^^ -^^ '^"^ ""^ ^ ""^ **^ ''**^' ^ water th^wn off The L> Ttt ZZl T^^^ tJ^'^^ proportionate to the weight of ther weight to LTown off the ^^^^^ T'^T'^ri. ^"'"' '^^'^ ^^S °o far- ing mass'es of stone or rock' prooraZ^Pm^nt ^ P"*!"""^' ^? "PP^^ '^' P^^^^r ^ Hft- in the bottom, by which connection J^^ ^ are affixed to the centre of the opening time, the swingin'g around of th^^^^^^^^ Z^y.^-r'^^'l: ^t^^^J"^' ^' ^^^^ position. In fhe°coustruction of Sanent wo^^^^^^^^ '^ ™^^ ^' S'*^^^ ^^ «"-^ ^^^^^^ is known, or can be estimated a wlr or ro^^ieruft^^^^^^ the water chamber, which indicaterthe liftin^^wn ^- ^''i^x! '' P^^^ «^ ^^^ ^'^^ ^f ment. The advantage of S 'fu J will hp^^^^ T'"''"^ ^l ^^^ '^^'^^"^ «' ^J 'no- attention of the opemtor, work4\e7y ^^^^^^ ^ ^*^«^' »' '^' -l«^^t the weight was overcome • bv it! ^?[ h?fwl. Ti. ^^^ ^ necessary to determine when valves necessary to deveToD^henowe^^ ^P^"?^"* boldly throws open aU the having reached^the propTletlTnS^^^ Tf'r^ "^ ""'^ '^^ ^^''^'' ^he wat^r, must be overcome, or so nearly sf hat the v^W.^n' 1'^''°^ P^^"' ^^ ^'^^^^ ^^^ ^^'g'^' that the movement may takelfa^: tl^n^J.^ ''I Z^^^^rl^ZZ^ro^^l^^'J J 470 DIVING BELL. there were not an index of this character, carelessness or inattention on the part of the operator, by leaving the cocks open too long, might develop a power greater than required, and the nautilus would start suddenly upward. The expansive power of air, acting upon the incompressible fluid, water, through the opening in the bottom, gives a momentum which, by successive developments of expansion in the working chamber, is constantly increasing in velocity, until, in any considerable depth of water, the result would be un- doubtedly of a very serious character. Take, for exemplification, the nautilus in tlurty- three feet of water, and bottom covers removed, and an equilibrium, at fifteen pounds to the inch, existing between the air and the water at the level of the bottom of the machine. Upward movement is communicated the instant the machine rises in the slightest degree, the existing equilibrium is destroyed, and the highly elastic qualities of air assume prepon- derance, exerting, from the rigid surface of the water below, an impulsive effort upward in the direction of least resistance. At each successive moment of upward movement the impelling power increases, owing to the increasing disparity between the pressure ot air within struggling for escape. The machine, thus situated, becomes a marine rocket, (in reality,) in which the propelling power is exhausted only when the surface is reached, and a new equUibrium is obtained. It will readily be seen that, were this difficulty not overcome, it would be impossible to govern the nautilus ; for, rising with great velocity to the surface, the machine is carried above its ordinarv flotation, or water line, a little more air escaping owing to the diminished resistance as that level is passed ; the recoil, or sur^ng downwards, causes a condensation of the air remaining in the chamber; a portion of the space pre- viously occupied by air is assumed by water ; the buoyant power becomes less, the machine settles slightlv more by condensation of the air, a larger space is occupied by water, ana the nautilus redescends to the bottom with a constantly accelerating movement, senoi^iy inconveniencing the operator by filling more or less with water, according to depth. *or many months the difficulties just enumerated baffled all attempts at control. A weight attached could be lifted, but the instant it was entu-ely suspended,— before ^e valves couw h2 closed,— upward movement was communicated beyond control. This difficulty, so lata , has been overcome by an arrangement at the bottom of the nautifus, with channels which radiate from the opening in an inclined direction, debouching at the sides of the machine. The moment, then, that the air, by its expansion from diminished resistance, or by the introduction from above of a greater volume than can be sustained by the water below reaches, in its downward passage, the level of these chambers, following the direction ot 244 DIVING BELL. 471 least resistance, it passes through these channels and escapes into the surrounding water without of course affecting the movement of the machine in the least. ° * The pump for supplying air to the diving-bell or other suitable vessel, is represented at Jigs. 244 and 245, and is constructed as follows :— d is a cylinder, opening at the upper part mto a chamber or chambers f f, separated by a partition e. On the side of each of these chambers there is a valve h h, opening inwards, and at the upper part of the same lu-e two valves i i, opening outwards into the valve chamber g. Outside the opening for each of the valves h h, there is a cup, into which the end of the water supply pipe if pa.^s • by this means a small stream of water is supplied to the cup, and is drawn from it into the chamber F to supply the waste in the operation of pumping. The valve chamber c is cov- ered with a jacket k, having a space between it and the valve chamber that is filled with water from the water pipe m, which affords a stream of cold water to carry off the heat from the condensed air which is forced into the chamber. The water thus supplied circulates through the tubes in the chamber and round them in the jacket, and thus cools the air in these tubes; it is then conveyed so as to be usefully employed in a steam-boiler, or is allowed to run off Thp air and a small quantity of water is forced up from the cyUnder d by the stroke of the piston c into the chamber f, which is thereby filled with water, and thus the air is expelled therefrom, a small quantity of the water passing with it and cover- ing the valves, by which means they are kept tight and wet. The air and water thus dis- charged, after passing around the small tubes in the valve chamber and being cooled are forced outward and conveyed to the condenser. On the return stroke of the piston, the other chamber f is fi led, and air and water expeUed from it in like manner through its valve mto the valve chamber. There is always a sufficient quantity of water in the cylin- der D and chamber f to fill the latter when the water is all expelled from the cyUnder by the piston c having been driven to one end of it, and when the piston returns to the oppo- site end of the cylinder the water flows in behind it, and draws in its equivalent in bulk ot air and water through the valve h. On its return, this is forced out through the valve k into the chamber i, as mentioned above. The water being non-elastic, if the parts are kept cool enough to avoid raising steam, this process may be contmued for any length of time. A transverse secUon of this apparatus is shown in fff. 245. 245 246 247 Mgs. 246 and 247 represent the speaking-tube and alarm-bell above referred to The construction of this mechanism is as follows -.—There is a hollow casting, one portion of which is triangular in form, from one end of which a short tube a projects. This tube a has a screw cut on it, and a projecting flange at its junction with the triangle This is screwed mto the top of the diving vessel or armor from the inside, and projects through 472 DIVING BELL. it to allow the coupling of a flexible or other hose to be attached to it. At the opposite angle, and in a line with a, there is a tubular projection 6, provided with a screw to receive a cap /, to which is to be attached a piece of hose. Within the tube /, and at its junction with 6, is placed a thm diaphragm of metal or other suitable material c, for which purpose, however, a thin silver plate that just fits the bore of the cap / is preferred. This diaphragm closes all communication between the diving vessel and the external air. By this means ii is easy to converse through any required length of tubing. It may be desirable to fit a stop-cock into the tubular projection 6, as a precautionaiy means of preventing the escape of air in the event of a rupture of the diaphragm. The upper part of the triangular en- largement of the speaking-tube is tapped for a stuffing-box at g, within which there is an axis A, which runs from side to side of the said enlargement, and through the stuffing-box at one side. On this axis /* is fixed a lever i within the said enlargement, which lever com- municates with the surface of the water by means of a wire fixed at its reversed end, and running through the whole length of pipe. On the outer extremity of the axis A is affixed a hammer, which strikes on a bell k connected to the tube, as shown in the drawing. By this means the attention of the operator below may be drawn to the speaking-tube when it is required to converse with him from the surface of the water, and the men whose duty it is to attend to the operator below can, by placing their ear at the end of the tube, hear the bell struck below as a signal for communication with them at the surface. The only parts of the apparatus not yet described, are the saw for cutting the tops of piles to an miiform level, the pump which enables the divers themselves to rise to the sur- face in the event of the flexible hose being detached or injured, and the contrivance for screwing an eye-bolt into the side of the sunken vessels. The arrangement of the saw-frame 248 and connections are sho-vn in fg. 248. Only as much of the bottom of the nau- tilus is shown as will render the position of the saw understood, p is a pile which is required to be cut down to the sjmie level as the others ; e is the blade of the saw ; d the framing by which it is stretched ; c, d, the handle which rests on the cross-bar k ; to which is attached the upright part of the handle which is laid hold of by the workman inside when working the saw. h, g, f, a bent lever witli two friction rollers at f which guides the saw forwards while making the cut. The pump for ascending, in case of accident to the air-hose, is not shown in the drawing. It is a simple force-pump placed in the working chamber, by which the ballast water in w w, {^g. 242,) can be pumped out so as to lighten the ap- paratus sufficiently to allow of its ascent. The apparatus for fixing the eye-bolts is shown in fg. 249. The operation of this apparatus is as follows : — It will be observed the chamber d opens outwards to the water, so that when the sliding partition or valve y is forced down by the lever g, the communication of the water with the chamber c is cut off. The lid z being removed, a bolt i (or other operating tool or instrument) is placed within the chamber c ; the rod k is forced through the stuffing-box /, until the recessed end of the rod contains the end of the bolt ; the small rod^' is then screwed through the stuffing-box «, until the screw on the end of this rod has be- come affixed to the end of the bolt con- tained within the recess at p. The lid 2 of the chest is then fastened on, and the partition or valve y raised, the stuffing-box m preventing the escape of air. Communi- cation is thus opened between the chambers a and d, the latter being open outwards. The DRY GRINDING. 473 rod 1 18 now pushed outwards by pressing on the handle k through the stuffing-box / mitU the vessel or object to be operated upon is reached, when the operation is perform*ed as required It will be observed that the stuffing-box prevents the escape of air out of the bell or the admission of water into it, the stuffing-box n having the same tendency. After the operation with the tool or instrument is complete, the rod k is disconnected by unscrewino' the rod^, and is drawn into the chamber a by means of the handle k ; the partition or valve y IS again lowered, and the operations above described are repeated. It will hence be ob- vious that a number of eye-bolts might in this manner be successfully inserted in the side of a sunken vessel from the diving-bell, so that by hooking on the " camels," the strain would nm nuVj'^ ^ '® prevent injury by the process of lifting the said vessel. UULOMIIE Magnesian Lunestone. This rock occui-s in very great abundance in various parts of England, especially in Yorkshire, Nottinghamshire, and Somerset. It is largely employed as a building stone. ' o » Kareten infers, from his numerous analyses of dolomite, that in those which are crvstal- iized, the carbonate of lime is always combmed in simple equivalent proportion with an- other carbonate, which, may be carbonate of magnesia alone, or together with carbonates ot iron or manganese, and sometimes both. In the uncrystallized varieties of dolomite the diversity in the proportion of lime and magnesia is indefinite, but such masses must he re- garded as mere mixtures of true dolomite and carbonate of lime. Acids do not produce a perceptible effervescence with dolomite, except when digested with it in fine powder Karsten found that dilate acetic acid extracts from dolomites, at a temperature beUw 32' J*' ?^^ carbonate of lime, whUe a dolomitic mass remains undissolved. Hence he re- gards them as mixtures of dolomite with unaltered carbonate of lime.— Bischof. ^^''Ipf^ate of magnesia has been manufactured from dolomite on the laree scide Dr. Wil ham Henry, of Manchester, patented a process of the foUowine kind —Calcine magnesian hmestone so as to expel the carbonic acid ; then convert the caustic lime and magnesia mto hydrates by moistening them with water; afterwards add a sufficient quan- tity of hydrochloric, nitric, or acetic acid, or chlorine to dissolve the Ihne, but not the mae- nesia, which after being washed, is converted into sulphate by sulphuric acid, or, where the cost IS objectionable, by sulphate of iron, which is easily decomposed by magnesia. Or the mixed hydrates of lime and magnesia are to be added to bittern : chloride of calcium IS lormed m so ution, while two portions of magnesia (one from the bittern, the other from the magnesian ime) are left unacted on. Hydrochlorate of ammonia may be used inst^iad ot bittern: by the reaction of this on the hydrated magnesian hme, chloride of calcium and caustic ammonia remam in solution, while magnesia is left undissolved; the ammonia is separated from the decanted liquor by distillation. In some chemical works on the Tyne, the dolomites from the coast around Maraden are «I1^L with sulphuric acid and the sulphate of magnesia {Epsom salts) separated from the sulphate of lime by crystallization. / t^ "*« The dolomite has also been employed by the late Hugh Lee Pattmson for the manufac- ture ot the Carbonate of Magnesia. DOWN. See Feathers. Down imported in 1857, 5,208 lbs. DRAGON'S BLOOD. Pereira enumerates the foUowing varieties of this substance found bacliis^'^''^''"''^ ^^"^ *"* '^ ''^'^' ^'''^''''''' *^^ »'* ^^^»'' Sanguis Draepni, m lachrtmi^'''''^ ^^"^ ''^ ^"^ »«««««; DragorCs blood in drops; Sanguis- Draconis in 3. DragoTt's blood in powder. 4. Dragon's blood in the tear; Sanguis Draconis in granis. 5. Lump Dragon's blood; Sanguis Draconis in massis. ^ Besides these, there are Dragon's blood in cakes, and False Dragon's blood, in oval Burnt-clay tiles, generally shaped in section like a horse shoe two or three inches broad. These are much used m agricultunJ DRAINING TILES, about one foot long and draining. DRY GRINDING. The practice of employing dry stones has been Ion- adopted for the purpose of quickening the processes of sharpening and poSg s^^l 3 bv th7wnt ^"'"'^ the sand-stone, mixed with the fine particles of steel,1>el^ iS ^Lh?" Tf ""r' P'?"*"""^ *^'''^'' ^^ ^^^ puhnonary oi^ans to such in extent^^ ^edle and fork grmders are reported rarely to live beyold the ages of twenty-five^Jr Mr. Abraham, of Sheffield, first invented magnetic guards, which, being placed close to the gnndstone attracted the particles of steel, and thus protected the men'fi^m theh-^^^ ences^ StUl they suffered from the effects of the fine sand-dust, and the grindere Se^v abandoned the 'use of them altogether. grmuers neeoiesaiy Mr. Abraham devised another plan, which is employed, although only partially, in the 474 DULSE. Sheffield works. The grindstone is enclosed in a wooden case, which only exposes a por- tion of the edge of the stone ; a horizontal tube proceeds as a tangent from the upper sur- face of the circle to the external atmosphere. The current of air generated by the stone in rapid revolution, escaping through the tube, carries off with it nearly all the dust arising from the process. It is curious to find so simple a contrivance frequently rejected by the workmen, notwithstanding that sad experience teaches them, that they are thereby -expos- ing themselves to the influences of an atmosphere which produces slowly but surely their dissolution. ^ DULSE. The Rhodomenia palmata. See ALGiE. DUXES. Low hills of blown sand, which are seen on the coasts of Cheshire and Cornwall, in this country, and also in many places skirting the shores of Holland and Spain. DUTCH LEAF or FOIL, a composition of copper and lime, or of bronze and copper leaf. See Alloys, Brass, and Bronze Powders. DUTCH RUSH. Equisctum Hyemale. This rush is known also as the Large branch- less Horse-tail. The dried stems are much employed for polishing wood and metal. For this purpose they are generally imported from Holland. DYEING. The relations of dyeing with the principles of chemistry, constitute the theory of the art, properly speaking ; thjs theory has for its basis the knowledge — 1st. Of the nature and properties of the bodies which dyeing processes bring into contact. 2d. Of the circumstances in which these bodies are brought together, facilitatmg or re- tarding their action. 3d. The phenomena which appear during their action ; and 4 th. Properties of the colored combinations which are produced. The first of these generalities embraces a knowledge of the preparations which stuff ne- cessarily undergoes previous to dyeing, and also the preparations of the dye-drug before bringing it into contact with the stuff. The operations to which stuffs are subjected before dyeing, are intended to separate from them any foreign matters which may have become attached, or are naturally inherent in the stuff. The former are such as have been added in the spinning, weaving, or other manipulations of the manufacture, and are all removed by steeping in an alkaline lye and washing. The second are the natural yellow coloring substances which coat some of the Tarious fibres, both vegetable and animal ; and the chlorophylle, or leaf-green of vegetables. The removal of these is genei-ally effected by boiling in soap and alkaline lyes. A weak bath of soda, in which the stuff is allowed to steep for some time, and then washed in water, is generally the only preparation required for wool, in order that it may take on a uniform dye. To remove the gummy or resinous matter from silk, it requires boiling in soap lye ; however, its removal is not essential to the stuff combining with the dye, as silk is often dyed while the g\mi remains in it, in which case it is only rinsed in soap lye at a very mod- erate heat, to remove any foreign matters imbibed in the process of manufacture. Vegetable fibre, as cotton, has such natural resinous matters that retard the reception of the dye removed by boiling, either with or without alkaline lyes ; but the natural dun color of the fibre is not removed, which from the laws of light and color already referred to, would interfere with the production of bright light tints ; under these circumstances, the natural color of the fibre has to be previously removed by bleaching, for which see the ar- ticle. Bleaching. The necessary preparation of the dye-drugs within the province of the dyer, is to obtain the color in a state of solution, so as to allow the fibre to absorb it, and to produce chem- ical combination, or to get the dye or color in such a minute state of division as it will penetrate or enter into the fibre of the stuff. These preparations embrace the formation of decoctions, extracts, and solutions, and also in some cases of precipitation, previous to im- mersing the stuff into the bath. Stuffs, chemically considered, have but a feeble attraction for other matters, so as to combine with them chemically; still, that they do possess certain attractions is evident from various phenomena observed in the dyeing processes, and that this attraction is possessed with different degrees of intensity by the different fibres, is also evident from the ease and permanence that woollen stuff will take up and retain dyes com- pared with cotton ; and also, that certain dyes are retained and fixed within or upon one kind of fibre and not at all in another. This may be determined by plunging the dry stuff into solutions of the salts, and determining the density of the solution before the immersion and after withdrawing the stuff. Wool abstracts alum from its solution, but it gives it all out again to boiling water. The sulphates of iron, copper, and zinc resemble alum in this respect. Silk steeped for some time in a solution of protosulphate of iron, abstracts the oxide, and gets thereby dyed, and leaves the solution acidulous. Cotton in nitrate of iron produces the same gffect. Wool put in contact with cream of tartar, decomposes a portion of it ; it absorbs the acid within its pores, and leaves a neutral salt m solution in the liquor. DYEING. 475 Cotton produces no such effect with tartar, showing by these different effects that there ie certain attractions between the stuff and dyes. This attraction, however, may be more what is termed a catalytic influence, the fibres of the stuff pi-oducing a chemical action with the salt or dye with which it is in contact. This attraction or affinity of the fibre for the dye-drug does not produce a very extensive effect in the processes of dyeing. More prob- ably the power of imbibing and retaining colors possessed by the fibre is more dependent upon a mechanical than a chemical influence. All dye-drugs must in the first instance be brought mto a state of solution, in order that the dye may be imbibed by the fibre ; but if the» fibre exerts no attraction for the color so as to retain it, it is evident that so long as it remains capable of dissolving in water, the stuffs being brought into contact with water will soon lose their color. A color thus formed does not constitute a dye, however strongly stained the stuffs may appear to be, in or oat the dyeing solution ; in order to form a dye, the color must be fixed upon or within the stuff m a condition insoluble in water. Hence the mere unmersion of the stuff into a solu- tion of a color will not constitute a dye, except where the stuff really has an attraction for the color and retains it, or causes a decomposition by which an insoluble compound is fixed upon it, such as referred to by putting stuffs mto solutions of iron. The abstraction of the color from a solution by the immersion of the stuff, is often the result of a mechanical at- traction possessed by porous substances, enabling them to absorb or imbibe certain color- ing matters from solutions that are held by a weak attraction by their solvents. On this principle, a decoction of cochineal, logwood, brazil-wood, or a solution of sulphate of in- digo, by digestion with powdered bone black, lose their color, in consequence of the color- ing particles combining by a kind of capillary attraction with the porous carbon, without undergoing any change. The same thing happens when well scoured wool is steeped in such colored liquids ; and the color which the wool assumes by its attraction for the dye is, with regard to most of the above colored solutions, but feeble and fugitive, since the dye may be again abstracted by copious washing with simple water, whose attractive force therefore, overcomes that of the wool. The aid of a high temperature, indeed, is requisite for the abstraction of the color from the wool and the bone-black, probably by enlar«-in<» the size of the pores, and increasing the solvent power of the water. '^ ° Those dyes, whose coloring matter is of the nature of extractive, form a faster combi- nation with stuffs. Thus the yellow, fawn, and brown dyes, which contain tannin and ex- tractive, become oxygenated by contact of air, and msoluble in water ; by which means they can impart a durable dye. When wool is impregnated with decoctions of that kind Its pores get charged by capillarity, and when the liquid becomes oxygenated, they remain hi ed with a color now become insoluble in water. The fixation of iron oxide and several other bases also depends on the same change within the pores or fibre ; hence all salts that have a tendency to pass readily into the basic state are peculiarly adapted to act as a me- dium for fixing dyes ; however, this property is not essential. In order to impart to the stuffs the power of fixing the color in an insoluble form upon It, recourse is had to other substances, which will combine with the soluble and form with It an insoluble color ; and it is not necessary that this new substance should have an attrac- tion for the stuff, or be capable of passing into a basic form, any more than the original color, but It IS necessary that it be rendered insoluble while in contact with the stuff. Such substances used to unite the color with the stuff have been termed mordants, which meant that they had a mutual attraction for the stuff and color, and combining with the stuff first, they afterwards took up the color ; but this is only so in some instances. A few- examples will illustrate the bearing of these mordants. If a piece of cotton stuff is put mto a decoction of logwood, it will get stained of a depth according to the color of the solution, but this stain or color may be washed from the cotton by putting it into pure water, the color being soluble. If another piece of cotton stuff be put into a solution of protosulphate of iron, and then washed from this, a portion of the iron will have undergone oxidation, and left the acid, and become fixed upon the fibre and insoluble in water Whether this oxidation is the result of an influence of the stuff, or the effect of the oxvceii of the air and water in which the goods are exposed, it does not matter meantime, only this fixed oxide constitutes an example of a mordant by its combining with the stuff If this stuff 18 now put into a decoction of logwood, the coloring matter of the logwood will combine with the oxide of iron fixed upon the fibre, and form an insoluble color, which after w^hmg will not remove from the stuff. If, instead of washing the stuff from the sul- P .^*!^,V,?'*°" ®®'"'*®" '^^ ^*^^^' ^^ ^® P^^^^ through an alkaline lye of soda or potash the acid holding the iron in solution is taken hold of by the alkali, and removed The oxide of iron 18 thus left upon the stuff, in a much larger quantity than in the former case and as firmly fixed, although not by any attraction between it and the fibre, but simply being left within It. And this stuff being now put into the logwood liquor, will form a dye of a depth according to the quantity of iron thus fixed upon the stuff, and equally permanent with that which had been fixed on the stuff by the oxidation in working III 'I 476 DYEING. Such, then, are the methods of fixing within the stuflf insoluble colors from soluble compounds, and from these remarks the necessity of having the dye in solution will also be evident. Suppose, again, that the sulphate of iron be mixed with the logwood decoction, there will be produced the same color or dye as an insoluble precipitate : if the cotton stuff is put into this, no color worthy of the name of a dye will be obtained, as the cotton will not imbibe within its fibre this precipitate. Place woollen stuflf in the same liquid, there is formed a very good dye, the woollen fibre having imbibed a great portion of the solid pre- cipitate, probably owing to woollen fibres toeing much larger than those of cotton. Thus, with cotton and other stuflf that will not imbibe freely solid precipitates, the mordant must be fixed within the fibre previous to applying the coloring substances, such as the vegetable decoctions. It will also be seen that the dye which is the product of combination between the mordant and color is not that of the natural color of the drug, but the color of the com- pound. Hence the great variety of tints capable of being produced from one dye-drug, by varying either the kind or intensity of the mordant. So that in the above instances, it is not the color of the hematoxylin fixed on the stuff, but its compound with iron, or tin, or alumina, as the case may be, all of which give diflferent tints. It is upon this principle of rendering bases insoluble while within the fibre by chemical means, that has brought to the use of the dyer a great number of mineral dyes which in themselves, whether separate or combined, have no attraction whatever for the fibre ; such as solutions of sulphate of copper, and yellow prussiate of potash, nitrate of lead, and bichromate of potash, &c. Suppose the stuff to be dyed a yellow by the two last-named salts, was first put into the solution of lead and then washed previous to being put into the bichromate solution, the greater portion of the lead would be dissolved from the stuff, and a very weak color would be obtained. If the stuff from the lead solution was put directly into the bichromate solution, a very good dye would be the result ; but the portion of the solution remaining upon the surface of the stuff will combine with the chrome and form a precipitate which the fibre cannot imbibe, out will form an external crust or pigment upon the surface, which blocks up the pores, and exhausts to no purpose the dye, causing great waste : hence the stuff from the solution of lead is put into water containing a little soda or lime, and the lead is thus reduced to an insoluble oxide within the fibre. The goods mjiy now be washed from any loose oxide adhering, and then passed through the bichro- mate solution, when the chromic acid combines with the oxide of lead, forming a perma- nent yellow dye. Thus it will be seen that whether the combination of the color with the stuff be chemical or mechanical, the production of the dye which is fixed upon the fibre is certainly a chemical question, and the dyer should be familiar with the nature and principles of these reactions. There are a few instances where the dye produced does not come within the sphere of these principles, there being no mordants required, nor any combination of the color formed within the stuff, but the dye-drug in its natural hue is fixed within the fibre. Such colors have been termed substantive^ to distinguish them from those produced by means of mor- dants, which are termed adjective. Amongst this class of dyes and dye-drugs stands pre- eminent indigo-blue. Indigo in its natural state is entirely insoluble in water, and is of a deep blue color. The composition of this blue indigo is represented as — Carbon - - - - 16 I Nitrogen . - - - l Hydrogen - - - - 5 | Oxygen - ... 2 But it is found capable of parting with a portion of the oxygen, and by so doing, losing entirely its blue color ; and in this deoxidized condition it is soluble in alkaline lyes and lime water ; this colorless compound is termed indigogene. The opinion of Liebig upon the constitution of this substance is, that indigo contains a salt radical, which he terms Anyle^ composed of C**H^N. He considers that indigogene or white indigo is the hydrated protoxide of this radical, and that blue indigo is the peroxide, represented thus : — C H N O Water. Salt radical, anyle 16 5 10 Indigogene - -••• - - - -16 5 11.1 Blue indigo 16 5 1 2 Advantage is taken of this property of indigo, of parting with its oxygen and becoming soluble, to apply it to dyeing, and it is effected by the following means, when for the pur- pose of dyeing vegetable stuff, as cotton ; and from the circumstance of these operations being done cold, the method is termed the cold vat, which is made up as follows : — The indigo is reduced to an impalpable pulp, by being ground in water to the consistence of thick cream. This is put into a suitable vessel filled with water, along with a quantity of copperas and newly slaked lime, and the whole well mixed by stirring. After a short time the indigo is deoxidized and rendered soluble by a portion of the lime which is added in excess, the reaction being represented thus : — II DYEING. 477 1. Indigo, composed of | ^^^^^""^ 2. Copperas 3. Lime - 'Protoxide of Iron Protoxide of Iron SulphuricAcid ^Sulphuric Acid - ■{ 'Lime Lime Lime Dyeing Solution. Peroxide of Iron. Sulphate of Lime. Sulphate of Lime. The peroxide of iron and sulphate of lime are precipitated to the bottom, and the indi^ro- gene and hme form a solution of a straw color, with dark veins through it ° The operation of dyeing by this solution is simply immersion, technically, dippina. The stuff by nnmersion imbibes the solution, and when taken out and exposed to the air the indigogene upon and within the fibre rapidly takes oxygen from the atmosphere, and be- comes indigo blue, thus forming a permanent dye, without any necessary attraction between the indigo and the stuff. Tn thlt^^'l'^lf ^^'/«^^«;1 ^^ «"k « made up with indigo pulp, potash, madder, and bran, m this vat the extracts of madder and bran perform the deoxidizing funcUons of the cod- peras m the cold vat, by undergoing a species of fermentation. Pastel and wood, either alone or with the addition of a little indigo, are also used for the dyeing of wool and sdk stuff, the deoxidation being effected by the addition of bran mad- der and weld. In dyeing with these vats, the liquor is made warm, and they require' much skiU and experience to manage, in consequence of their complexity, being always liable to go out of condition, as the dyeing goes on, by the extraction of the indigoglne and the mod- ification of the fermentable matter employed to deoxidize the indigo to supplv that loss. The a,lkaline solvent also undergoes change, so there must be successive additions of indi-o and alkali ; the principal attention of the dyer is the maintaining the proper relation of th^ matters, as too much or too little of either is injurious. Sulphate of indigo forms an intense blue solution, unaffected also by mordants. Vege- table stuffs dipped in this retain no dye, for the washing off the acid in order to preseAe the fibre removes the color; but animal fibre, such as woollen and silk, becomes dyed- a portion of the blue remains upon the stuff after washing off the acid, being retained' by capillary attraction. This dye is termed Saxon blue, but it has very litUe of the permanent ot mdigo or vat blue, although it k also a substantive color. Another truly substantive color is that dyed by carthamus or saflBower, but the fixaUon of this dye upon the stuff differs from mj of those referred to. Like indigo, it has no aflSnity for any base or substance capable of forming a mordant ; its solvent is an alkali but m this dissolved state it does not form a dye. The mode of proceedmg in dvein- with carthamus 13 first to extract the dye from the vegetable in which it isfound, by^a or potash, which 13 afterwards neutralized by an acid previous to dyeing, which renders the ttJ n 1^ V^S'-'" '^ ^^.^ l^'^. «f .'I'^^i^^ *hat no precipitation ^n be seen for some time, and the stuff immersed m this imbibes the color within its fibre, its lightness assisting V TlS\T ^^, P^ec'P»*ate;^i» remain suspended in water for days befori it wiU subside Vegetable fibre takes up this dye as easily as animal, but whether by an attraction for the stuff or by a mechanical capillary attraction of the fibre, is not so easily determined. A piece of stuff suspended m a vessel filled with water, having in it some msoluble carthamine, all the coloring pari;icles will flow to and combine with the fibre from a considerable distance eiv- mg a proof of the existence of some force drawing them together. ' Such then are the various conditions and principles involved m the processes of fixing the dye withm or upon the stuff. ^ During the operations of dyeing there are certain circumstances which have to be attended to in oi-der to facilitate and effect certain hues or tints of color. Thus, with many of the coloring substances, heat not only favors but is necessary for the solutiin of the dye and also Its combination with the stuff or mordant. Decoctions of woods are alwavs made by hot water, and he dyeing processes with decoctions are in hot liquor. When the coloring matter of quercitron-bark is extracted by boiling water, the color p^duced upon the s^ff S be a rich amber yellow, but if the extract be made by water at 180° Fahr., a blautiTS lei^on jfZZ'^ be the dye produced by it, using the same mordant in each ^ase Conors d?^ Sv.^, pt'.t!S q''''''"i? "^"^i ^ ^^^' ^' ^ ^^^^^«° ^^^' ^""°g the whole process, or^^ dye is effected. Sumach another astringent substance, is most advantageoilsly applied at hP r,^3 H •' t? r"" """^^"un ^r^ * ^^^^ ^^^ «^ *^^ ^y^ ^^ ^pontile stuff, it should be iminersed in the hquor whUe hot and allowed to cool together, dJiring which Ihe tannm win. T5 "^dergoes some remarkable change in contact with the stuff SaflSower dves are Kept cold so are tm bases, Prussian blues, and chrome yellows: by applyme heat to the last a similar result is effected to that with bark ; instead of a lemon ydloi^ Ser yd 'I 478 DYEING. low will be obtained. Almost all colors are affected less or more by the temperature at which they are produced. Some mordants are fixed upon the stuff by heat, such as acetate of alumina ; the stuff being dried from a solution of this salt at a high temperature loses part of the acid by being volatilized, and there remains upon the fibre an insoluble suboxide, which fixes the dye. These remarks respecting the methods apply more particularly to vegetable stuffs, as cotton, and in many cases also to silk, but wool is always dyed at a high heat. Although wool seems to have a much greater absorbing power than cotton, the lat- ter will absorb and become strongly dyed in a cold dye bath, in which wool would not be affected; but apply heat and the wool will be deeply dyed, and the dye much more perma- nent than the cotton. The permanence of colors is another property to be carefully studied by the practical dyer, as the color must not be brought under circumstances that will destroy its permanency during any of the operations of the dye-house. The word permanent, however, does not mean faxt, which is a technical terra applied to a color that will resist all ordinary opera- tions of destruction. As, for instance, a Prussian blue is a permanent color, but not a fast color, as any alkaline matter will destroy it ; or a common black is permanent, although any acid matters will destroy it ; while Turkey red is a fast color, and not affected by either acid or alkaline matters. A few of the circumstances affecting colors in the processes they are subjected to may be referred to in this place. If, for instance, the air in drying the dyed stuff in a hot chamber be moist, there is a great tendency to the color being impaired m these circumstances. For example, a red color dyed with safiflower will pass into brown, a Prussian blue will pass into a gray lavender, chrome yellows take an amber tint. Mostly all colors are affected less or move by being subjected to strong heat and moisture ; even some of those colors termed fast are affected under such circumstances. A dry heat has little or no effect upon any color, and a few colors are made brighter in their tint by such a heat, as chrome orange, indigo blue, on cotton, &c. «. , . ,. ui Some of these effects of heat and moisture differ with different stuff; thus indigo blue upon cotton is not so much affected as indigo blue upon silk, while safflower red upon cot- ton will be completely destroyed before the same color upon silk will be perceptibly affected. The same coloring matter fixed by different mordants upon the same stuff is also differently affected under these conditions. *. , u- i Light is another agent effecting a great influence upon the permanence of colors, which should be also considered by the dyer. Reds dyed by a Brazil wood and a tin mordant, exposed to the light, become brown ; Prussian blue takes a purple tint ; yellow becomes brownish ; safflower red, yellowish, and these changes are facilitated by the presence of moisture ; such as exposing them to strong light while drying from the dye-bath, either out or within doors. The direct rays of the sun destroy all dyed colors ; even Turkey red yield*. before that agency. « « , t • . j • **• Boiling was formerly prescribed in France ds a test of fast dyes. It consisted in putting a sample of the dyed goods in boiling water, holding in solution a determinate quantity ot alum, tartar, soap, vinegar, &c. Dufay improved that barbarous test. He considered that fast-dyed cloth could be recog-nized by resisting an exposure of twelve hours to the sunshine of summer, and to the midnight dews ; or of sixteen days in winter. In trying the stability of dyes, we may offer the following rules :— That every stuff should be exposed to the light and air ; if it be intended to be worn abroad it should be exposed also to the wind and rain ; that carpets, moreover, should be subjected to friction and pulling, to prove their tenacity ; and that cloths to be washed should be exposed to the action of hot water and soap. However, such tests are not at all applicable to most of the coloi-s dyed upon cotton stuff. Not many of them can stand the action of hot water and soap, or even such acids as the juice of fruits. Indigo blue, one of the most permanent dyes on cotton, yields its intensity to every operation of washing, even 1. Red with blue produces purple, violet, lilac, pigeon's neck, mallow, peach-blossom, hleu de roi^ lint-blossom, amaranth. Thus a Prussian blue dved over a safflower red, or vice versa, will produce any ot these tints by varying the depth of the red and blue according to the shade required ; but the same shades can be produced direct by logwood and an aluminous or tin mordant ; the stuff being steeped in sumach liquor previous to applying the tin mordant produces the reddish or purple tint when such is required. , . , 2. Red with black ; brown, chocolate, maroon, &c. These tints are produced by vari- ous processes To dye a deep orange by annotto liquor, and then form over it a black by sumach and sulphate of iron, gives a brown ; or dye the stuff first a rich yellow by quer- citron and a tin mordant, and then over the yellow produce a purple by passing it through logwood ; chocolates are thus produced. A little Brazil wood with the logwood gives more of^the red element. When maroon is required, the red is made to prevail, and so by a judicious mixture these various tints are produced. Brown, especially upon cotton fibre, is more often produced direct by means of catechu. Steep the stuff in a hot solution of cate- EDGE TOOLS. 479 chu, in which the gummy principle has been destroyed by the addition of a salt of coDner • obtdS ^"""^ ^ '''^''''°'' ""^ bichromate of potash at boiling heat, when a rich bro^ii 3 Yellow with blue ; green of a great variety of shades, such as nascent green gay green, grass green, spring green, laurel green, sea green, celadon green, parrot green ' J^ bage green, apple green, duck green. ^ , P»*r "i green, cao- Green is essentially a mixed dye, and produced by dyeing a blue over a yellow or a vel- ri^ inH^l • . ' T ^n '^ ""i ^^^° ^y^ °^*y ^« produced simultaneously by putting sulphate stuffl^Z wl'^Z ^^''^"*^' ^"? *^^^ ^«^^'"g '^' previously prepaVed or mordLt^ working t^-«t„ffl ''*w-' "^ r'"''^ ""^r^^"' (^^^^^«'« ^«°) ^y ^ P«xl»eed bj r. i^^ I f "" ^ '^^"*^''" ""^ ^^^""'^^ ^f P«^^ «^ soda, and then in sulphate of coi; per, which produces a peculiar tint of green. ^ ^ 4. Mixtures of colors, three and three, and four and four, produce an mdefinite diversity h „!°^^ *^"k; 'f^ y'"^^' "^"^ ^^"^ *"«™ b"^^'^ olives and greenish gSysHn wWcHe oi thf^'tr^^^^'^'^'.^^^J ^T* ^^^"°' ^^'' '^^ i^d'go vat should be so^h} othir ^^^o^ or the other colors spoiled by the alkaline action of the vat. Red, yellow and gray fwwS IS a graduation of black,) give the dead-leaf tint, as well as dark ^ora^g^^nu^^^^ ?r!v' h' ^f ^T ^'""^ ^ ^^'' ^^^^'y «f «^*d^s; ^ lead gray, slate Vay?woSpWon gray, and other colors too numerous to specify. See Brown Dye ^^ Care must be taken, however, in mixing these colors, to study the depth of the tint r^ quired ; as, for instance, were we wishing to dye a slate gray, and to proceed first by d^ TSlt'o; nr.h "t^"' * '"^' '' ^^ ^^^'^' would^Jduce. insS;^ o7a sTate^g^T a puiple or peach The arrangement referred to, applies only to the elements of the co^« that enter into the composition of the various tints, so that a slate gratis a blue wkh a r.v tiSr-' Th""^ ^^' "?^ * still smaller portion of the black elemenf,Xt product 5,* gray tint. Thus, dye the stuff first a deep sky-blue by the vat then bv o^inpr th^^^h ! solution of sumach, with a small quantit^f Vood^i^zTwcKTd" copC^Cd^^^^^ finTtle tl?nT'^' /'^ ^r^ "?^ ^^'' *•'« '^ ^»°^ s--««b aiid copiSSsThe SS dovVnpJ 1? y'f '"^u" u^'"' *°^ ""'^^ *^« ^d of the alum throwing in the puce or dove-neck hue ; and thus, by the variation of these hues by such arrangeie^ any ortl?I gray tints can be produced. See Calico Pbintino. arrangements, any ol the E EBOxNY. Of this black wood three kiBds are imported:— ^e Maunhtcs Ebony, which is the blackest and finest grain. Ih^ East Indian Ebony, which is not of so good a color. Thf tC''''\.t''^i ""^''^^ '? P"*'^"^' *^°d bad in point of color. fwJ^K I ""^ ?^ Mauritius is yielded by the Dihspyrm Eben^is. Colonel Lloyd savn neg^^^^^^^^^^^^ tb^'it splits like aTother wooSs f"S ?« £ii!!I f exposure to the sun. The workmen who use it immerse it in water as soon as it from «ni?r T '• "" *^ ^-'^^'^^^ "'^^^^^ ' '' ^ *ben taken out, and the two ends^e^^^ riZ ?>, K^ ^^ i"^^ r°S' ^"^ ^"^S^^ ^^0°^ I'loyd considers that next to the M^ ntius the ebony of Madagascar is the best, and next that of Ceylon. ^"' in dlmefer Th?E?J VVh^^^''*"^- ? '"""^ ''''^' ^'^' ^^«'^ P^^^ «bout fourteen inches ^rp Tnn?=°°"' ''■•'"" ""^ ?*'« "^ ^"^'^' ■««» ^ ">»«!> like boi-wood. th^TVnp H„i? i- f^K PT^'"^ '"""'^ '"o^- °^ ^^''^ «''« ehisel may be regarded as the type. HoltsipBel, whose book on Mechanical Manimdation is the bit to tefouS Z ^i 'Z^^C^'^ """'"^' '""'^ "'" '"- g-P«.-^e.y. paring . one hundred and twenty aeg ees. The planes of the edges form neariy equal angles with the surfaoP nrru duced, or else the one plane is nearly or quite perpendicular to the foce of the work ^ nVXZ'^W^^r '\'^^ "•'•^^"•) '^^^'^ *««'« ^^°^o^« t^'e fibres r^dir^ctrons^rii neariy equal facility, and they produce fine dust-like shavings by acting su^S y 480 ELASTIC BANDS. Thirdly. Shearing, or separating tools, ^ith edges of from sixty to ninety degrees ; gen- erally duplex, and then applied on opposite sides of the substances. One plane oi each tool, or of the single tool, coincident with the plane produced. ELASTIC BANDS. [Turns elastiques, Fr. ; Federharz-zeige, Geftn.) See Caoutchouc and Braiding Machine. . ELASTICITY. The property which bodies possess of occupying, and tending to occupy, portions of space of determinate volume, or determinate volume and figure, at given pres- sures and temperatures, and which, in a homogeneous body, manifests itself equally in every part of appreciable magnitude, {Nichol.) The examination of this important subject in Kinetics does not belong to this work. A few remarks, and some explanations, only are necessary. ^ ,. , . _j, r * ♦ Mastic Pressure is the force exerted between two bodies at their surface ot contact. Compression is measured by the diminution of volume which the compressible (elastic) body undergoes. . , . , . ^ r ^ !7%« Modulus or Coefficient of Elasticity of a liquid is the ratio of a pressure applied to and exerted by, the Uquid to the accompanying compression, and is therefore the recip- rocal of the compressibility. The quantity to which the term Modulus of Elasticity y^tis, first applied by Dr. Young, is the reciprocal of the extensibility or longitudinal pliability. (See the Edinburgh Transactions, and those of the Royal Society, for the papere of Barlow, Manrell, and Rankine, and the British Association Reports for those of Fairbairn, Hodg- Various tables, showing the elasticity of metals, glass, &c., have been constructed, and will be found in treatises on mechanics. The following notices of the mechanical proper- ties of woods may prove of considerable interest. The experiments were by Chevandier and Wertheiro. Rods of square section 10 mm in thickness and 2 m in length were prepared, being cut in the direction of the fibres, and the velocity of sound in them was determined by the longitudinal vibrations, their elasticity from their increase m length, and their cbhesion by loadintr them to the point of rupture. Small rods were cut in planes perpendicular to the fibre grain, (in directions radial and tangential to the rings of growth,) and their elasticity and sound velocity were measured by the lateral vibrations. It was thus again established, that the coefficients of elasticity, as deduced from the vibraUons, come out higher than those derived from the elongation. Names of the wood*. Acacia Fir - Hornbeam Birch Beech Oak - Holm-Oak Pine - Sycamore ■ Ash - Alder Aspen Maple Poplar Elm • Denaity. 0-717 0-493 0-756 0-812 0-828 0-808 0-872 0-559 0-692 0697 0-601 0-602 0-674 0-477 Srand Telocity. CoeflBrienta of elasticity. L. i R. 14-9 I — 18-96 8-06 11-80 ' 10-28 18-32 i 6-46 10-06 11-06 11-58 10-00 13-43 14-05 13-95 1580 12-86 12-89 9-24 a-58 9-02 8-89 8-25 9-72 9-26 8-44 8-56 T. 4-72 7-20 9-14 8-68 7T6 4-78 6-85 7-60 6-28 5-48 623 6-82 6-11 L. 1216-9 1118-2 1085-7 997-2 980-4 977-8 921-8 664-1 1163-8 1121-4 1108-1 1075-9 1021-4 517-2 94-5 208-4 81-1 269-7 1S8-7 97-7 184-9 111-3 98-8 107-6 157-1 78-3 122-6 Cohesion. 841 103-4 155-2 159-3 129-8 28-6 80-5 102 594 43-4 72-7 889 684 L. 7-93 4-18 2-99 4-80 8-57 6-49 5-66 2-48 616 6-78 4-54 7-20 3-58 197 R. 0-220 1-007 0-823 0-885 0-582 0-256 •0-522 0-218 0829 0-171 0-716 0146 0845 T. 0-297 0-618 1063 752 0-406 0196 0-610 0-408 0175 0-414 0-871 0-214 0866 L refers to rods cut lengthwise with the gram, R to those cut in a direction radial, and T to those tangential to the annual rings. ELDER. {Samhucus nigra. Bureau, Fr. ; Hohlunder, Germ ) /^^^^"^J^./l^^* trical purposes are manufactured from the pith of the elder tree, dried The ^ood '8 em- Dlovedfoi- inferior turnery work, for weavers' shuttles, netting pins, and shoemakers pegs. Its elasticity and strength render it peculiariy fitted for these latter purposes. ELECTRIC CLOCKS. The application of electricity as a motive power to clocks, ana as a means of transmitting synchronous signals or time, is naturally intimately connected with the attempts (not yet realized in an economic point) to apply it as a motive power to machinery and'wi^h its'application, so fully realized (see article ^-^-^^Jj^l^l^^^^ teleffraohv proper; and it has grown up side by side with the latter^ Frof. \\ heatstones aSon was (Greeted to it in the very eariy days of telegraphy. Without entering upon JheSorv of electric clocks, it will suffice to describe two principles on which they have been coSructed ^d which kre best known,-Bain's and Shepherd's. In the former, elec- Sy r^SSs Cpendulum in motion, and the pendulum drives the clock-train ; in the lllSr the motion of the pendulum b maintained by electricity, but the clock-tram is driven by distinct currents, sent to it by means of pendulum contacts. ELECTRIC CLOCKS. 481 250 The bob of Bain's pendulum consists of a coU of wire, wound on a bobbin with a hol- low centre. The axis of the bobbin is horizontal. Bar magnets, presenting similar poles. f nV^'ft *?'' ®*f^ ^^^^Pi *^® ^^^'' ^° ^"^^ ^ P««^*^«^ *^a*' as the pendulum oscillates^S and left, the poles on either side may enter the coil of wire. It is one of the laws of ekc- tric currents, when circulating in a helix, or spiral, or coil, or even in a single ring, that each tace of the coil presents the characters of a magnetic pole; of a south pole if the cur- rent circulates m the direction in which the hands of a watch liove ; of a north pole if ik circulates m the reverse direction. Things are so arranged in Bain's pendulum, that a bat- ^rJ„f.".^ ^il' «'«^.fr;at«^y circulating in and cut off from the coil. When thi current is circulating, the coil has the character of a magnet, with a north end and a south end ; if frn Jnn'^^ri"'"^^*' P'^'um^ ""P"^^ P^^^«' *^« "^'^^ ^nd of the coU-bob will be repelled trom one of the magnets, while its south end will be attracted by the other magnet. This consti- tutes the impulse or maintaining power in one direction. Now the connections are such that, when the arc of vibration is complete and the pendulum ready for the return vibration, the pendulum rod pushes aside a golden slide, by which the electric circuit had been completed, and the current is cut off; the pendulum is thus able to make its return vibration by mere gravity. It starts to repeat the above operations by mere gravity ; but, ere it com- pletes the arc, the rod pushes back the slide, and again completes the electric circuit, and gives rise to a second impulse, and so on. A small amount of magnetic attraction is sufficient to supply the neces- sary amount of maintaining power. One pair of zinc- copper, buried in the moist earth, has been found ample. In an ordinary clock, the train is carried by a weight or by a spring, and the time is regulated by the pendulum. In Bain's the time is regulated and the train is driven by the pendulum. The rod hangs within a crutch in the usual way; the crutch carries pallets of a particular kind, acting in a scape-wheel ; and from the latter, the motion is transmitted to a train of the usual character, but much lighter. For large clocks, Mr. Bain proposes a modification of the slide, which shall invert the current at each oscilla- tion, so as to have attraction as a maintaining power in both oscillations. The general arrangement of the pendulum is shown in fig. 250. b is the pendu- lum bob, with its coil of wire, the ends of which pass up on either side of the rod. z and c are the battery plates, with their attached wires d and d'. The ar- rows show the course of the voltaic current from the plate c by the wire d', thence down the pendulum rod by the right hand wire, through the coil b, up by the wire on left side of rod, then by the wire c, along the slide at e, and by the wire d to the zinc plate z. When the slide e is in position, the circuit IS complete, and the bob is attracted by the n pole of one of the magnets, and repelled by the n pole of the other. When the slide is displaced, the at- traction ceases, and the pendulum is left to the mere action of gravity. Shepherd's electric clock has a remontoir escapement There is no direct connection between the electric force and the pendulum, or between the pendulum an?S^ cbck- W The attractive power, derived from the electric current, is sunply employed to i^X s^ small weight to the same height; and the clock-train is carried by thJattracS^fo^c! rived from electric currents, whose circuits are completed by the pendulum toucWni^taS rS JY P'-^"^T '' '^' P'"^^^^ ^"^"^ the influent of change inThe S^^ current, or from irregular resistances in the train. Fig. 251 is a perepective view of tW^ pendulum, with batteries s z attached, and the clock co^mections aSd those of it^ batten^ s zsz shown. The electricity leaves the pendulum batterv by the wire a and returns to h by the wire p. There is only one break in this circuit, namely, at e, wWch sTsl^deT^prinl faced with platinmn, that is in contact with platinum in the ^nduimn at tL elSreme of ?te Vol. IIL— 31 GROUMO r I "\ i cn I I 483 ELECTRIC CLOCKS. ri^ht vibration, but at no other time. The wire a reaches the pendulum from the battery by the coils b, the plate c, and the frame d ; the wire f goes direct from the spring e to the zinc z. From this arrangement, it happens that every time the contact at e is completed, the iron core, of which the ends n s are visible, contained within the coils b, becomes a r.i macnet and when the contact at e is broken, the magnetism ceases. The poles n s have, thSefore a power alternately to attract and to release a, which is a plate or armature of soft iron 'moving on an axis, as shown in the figure, and to which is attached a bar 6, with a counterpoise i. We have said that the office here of the electric force, is merely to raise a weight • the fall of the weight maintains the pendulum in motion. When the armature a is attracted, the lever b is raised ; this raises the wire c into a horizontal position, and its other part d into a vertical position ; the latter is caught and retained by the latch or detent ELECTRIC CLOCKS. 433 6- 'and^«o t'^P^ril'^. ""^.^^'^ attraction ceases, the counterpoise i descends with the lever ^A^ ?u ^ armature a leaves the electro-magnet n s. But the wire^ remains vertLT mats^^l:ftC7n'M'^^^ %^A^ ^^"^«"^- Now when rVndS ries it a little to th^ W.^^- °' '^^ ^u""'/^ '^^ '"^'^ -^ ^'"P^'^S^ "P^^ '^^ «tem /^nd «i^ nes It a little to the left ; this raises the detent e, and liberates the piece d c which descends Cthp ,V,n;. J « " ^*^ °,'*' **'«^^ *^° * P^*' ^^ its faU is not an eighth of an inch ^terynowlr which Z!n-' ,'^™' '^^""V^ ^"^. '' '^^^P^^dent of any variation iS the XSrirre^«lXVh?«H- ""^ ^ ««»ce™^ "» "[aising the ball. The are of the pendulum's tre P?oS s^^^ '^V^^ ^f '^ ^ ^'^''' ^^ ^^ distance from the cen- pact of coSnt vJ^^ ir *t- *"' "^'"^'^^^g ^^^ pendulum in motion, and giving it an im- S^ M,^ i f • ^^ this arrangement is in connection with a compen^g mercurial Teconds^s sT^^^^ time-keeping is attained. The next stTp^t^fer S^ seconas, thus secured, to a dial or clock. The same movement of the keener a with iL<, ^TlT *' ^"^ '""'"'i^^l^ ^^^" °^^d^ ^« i™P^^ «»otio^ to the sm>n£ wSo?a d^ h?L inn • ,°'?'^'^"'"'^''^y.^^^ clock-train is distinct, as shown in the drawi^^d is e clocks above refeLd to,^vario^y^ the cLrof'^DuhfiJ^Ilf r' "'^ ^"■""^ convenient to drive the clock-train, espcciallv in whthTf r ^«y^_,^^f«''^atory precisely at 1, that drops a time-ball at tb? Strand office^ ,^ «n Ai /• ",^' t^' ?l ^^^*^^ ^* ^«^f«"l' seventy-three miles from Green^ch there I. an electric clock which has a gaining rate, ai^d which is so constru^^ t^7he\^^^ Ii I ! 484 ELECTRIC CLOCKS. 252 circuit is opened at 1 o'clock by means of pins and springs attached to the movement, and the clock therefore stops. At 1 p. m., Greenwich mean time, a signal is sent through the Ashford clock from the Royal Observatory, which starts it at once at true time. At the Post OflBce, Lombard Street, there is a clock which, m the course of the twenty-four hours, raises a weight At noon a telegraph signal is sent from Greenwich, which passes through an electro-magnet ; the latter attracts an armature of soft iron and liberates the ball, which falls and in falling it encounters a crutch, or lever, attached to the seconds' hand, and thrusts it this way or that, as the case may be ; but so as to bring it to sixty seconds on the dial, and thus to set the clock right. Intermediate between the one method of sending a signal every second to regulate a clock, and the other method of sending it once a day, we have the following arrangement of Bain's for sending it once an hour. Fig. 252 shows the arrangement, with part of the dial removed, to show the position of the electro-magnet. The armature is below ; it carries a vertical stem, terminating above in a fork. Its ordinary position is shown by the dot- ted lines. The minute hand (partly removed from the cut) carries a pin on its back surface. When the hand is near to sixty minutes, and an electric current is sent through the magnet, the armature is attracted upwards and the fork takes the position shown by the full lines at the top of the dial, and, in doing so, it encounters the pin and forces th-^ hand into the vertical position, and sets the clock to true time, pro- viding the signal comes from a standard clock, or is sent by hauid at true time. A dial of moderate char- acter keeps so near to time, that once or twice a day would be, for all common purposes, often enough to correct it. Fig. 253 is an arrangement of Bain's, by which a principal clock, shewing seconds, sends electric currents at minute intervals to other clocks, and causes the hand to move minute by minute, a is a voltaic battery ; b is the principal clock, which may be an electric clock or not, at pleasure ; G and h are two out of many subordinate clocks. The seconds' hand of the principal clock completes a voltaic circle twice (for the case of two clocks) during the minute ; at the 30 seconds for the clock o, and at the 60 seconds for the clock h. The clock H shows time in leaps from one minute to the next ; and the clock o from one half minute to the next half minute. As many more contacts per minute may be provided for the seconds' hand of the prime clock as there are subordinate clocks. 253 Next akin to the time signals above described, and which act automatically tipon clocks, either to drive the clock train or to correct the clock errors, are mere time signals, which are extensively distributed throughout the country by the ordinary telegraph wires and are looked for at the various telegraph stations, in order to compare the office dials with Green- wich mean time, and to make the necessary correction; they are also redistributed by hand the moment thcv apwar, through sub-districts branchmg from junction stations. Large I ELECTRICITY. 485 black balls, hoisted in conspicuous stations, are also dropped daily by electric currents in varwuy)laces, for the general information of the public, or of the captains of ships.— PnfPH^S^i?^?7 -^f ?i?^^^^ '"^ ^'"^^ ''''^ Quarries. Professor Hare was the first who entertained this idea, but Mr. Martin Roberts devised the following process :— In order not to De called upon to make afresh a new apparatus for each explosion, Mr. Roberts invented cartridges, which may be constructed beforehand. With this view, two copper wires are procured, about a tenth of an inch in diameter, and three yards in length, well^vered with fh ''J.Tr *^r'iif ^ f^^ '>''/■ i°«"'^''«n ^^y be ^ery good. They ^ twisted together \i!h 1 lu ^^ u ^^^L^'"" ^"^^^^^^ "^""^ "^^^"g *^en to leave their lower extremitiel free nLlttl!^ of about half an inch, (separating them about half an inch,) from which the insulating envelope is removed, m order to stretch between them a fine iron wire, after hav- mg taken the precaution of cleaning them well. The upper extremities of the two copper SnTi^vf Tr '"Py-'^^^^' »\«"1^^ t« a"ow of their being placed respectively in comiu- nication with the conductors, that abut upon the poles of a pile. The body of the car- soSrinlVnf^wV T^' '^"^ '°.f "' !?"? ^°^ three-quarters of an inch in diameter, the solderings of which are very well made, in order that it may be perfectly unpermeaWe to water A glass tube might equally well be employed, were it not fSr its f4ili^^™Wch ha^ eaused a tin tube to be preferred. The system of copper wires is introdu^d int^ the tub^ fiZl?^™.K ^ ""-^.T ""S ^v"'^^ *^^* ^"^^^^^^ '^ ^* «"*^h * ^«'g^* 'hat the fine iron wire is situated in the middle of the tm tube, so arranged that the ends of the copper wire do not extremity of the tube with a good cement. Mr. Roberts recommends for this operatiora wirnnwH™r'? ""^.r^ P^"* ^.^ **^^r^^ «°*^ *^« P^^'^ «f ^^«i° ; the tube is then fill'ed with powder by its other extremity, which is likewise stopped with i cork, which is ceme^ 256 ed m the same manner. Fig. 256 indicates the manner in which the car- tndge IS placed m the hole, after having carefully expelled all dust and moisture : care must be taken that the cartridge is situated in the middle of the charge of powder that is introduced into the hole. Above the ^wder IS placed a plug of straw or tow, so as to allow between it and the Solder a small space filled with air ; and above the plug is poured drv«md until of'th.'t': ^f^ "''^ '''. ?""' *"^ ^^^^ '' *^' cVpi;^w?rfs tLToLTuI of the cartridge are made to communicate with the poles of the nil*' hv Tzi::^zzrz'^i::! "-''''' "-' -^ -^^ •- ^-^^'^ '" t^^j^^ M. Ruhmkorff, and after him, M. Verdu, have successfully tried to substitute the mdnr tion spark for the incandescence of a wire, in order to bring Ibout the ^n^tio^f tL ±^^ der. This process, besides the considerable economy that it presents-since iXad of fi^m fifteen to wenty Bunsen's pairs, necessary for causing the ignition of X'^ft r^S^ but a single one for producing the induction spark-iSssesses the advaM^f L^^ ] I I 486 ELECTRIC LIGHT. susceptible of derangement. Only it was necessary to contrive a plan to bring about the ignition of the powder; in fact, it happens, that when by the eflfect of the length of the conductors that abut upon the mine, the circuit presents too great a resistance, the induc- tion spark is able to pass through the powder without inflaming it. M. Ruhmkorff has con- ceived the happy idea of seeking for a medium, which, more easily inflammable by the spark, may bring about the ignition of the powder in all possible conditions. He found it in Statham's fusees, which are prepared by taking two ends of copper wire covered with ordinary gutta percha ; they are twisted, {fig. 257,) and the ends are bent so as to make them enter into an envelope of vulcanized (sulphured) gutta percha, which has been cut and drawn off from a copper wire that had been for a long time covered with it. Upon this envelope a sloping cut, a, 6, is formed ; and after having maintained the extremities of the copper wires at about the eighth of an inch from each other, their points are covered with fulminate of mercury, in order to render the ignition of the powder more easy. The cut is filled with powder, and the whole is wrapped round with apiece of caoutchouc tube, c, rf, or else it is placed in a cartridge filled with powder. In the Statham fusees, it is the sulphide (sulphuret) of copper adhering to the wire, pro- duced by the action of the vulcanized gutta percha which is removed from the copper wire that it covered, which, by being inflamed under the action of the induction spark, brings about an explosion. But it is necessary to take care when the fusee has been prepared, as we have pointed out, to try it in order to regulate the extent of the solution of continuity. It might, in fact, happen that while still belonging to the same envelope of a copper wire, the sheath of a vulcanized gutta percha with which the fusee is furnished, may be more or less impregnated with sulphide of copper ; now, if the sulphide of copper is in too great qnantitv, it becomes too good a conductor, and prevents the spark being produced ; if, on the contrary, it is not in a suflficiently large quantity, it does not sufficiently faciliate the discharge. The first trials on a large scale of the application of the process that we just described, were made with Ruhmkorflf's induction apparatus, by the Spanish colonel, Verdu, in the workshops of M. Herkman, manufacturer of gutta percha covered wire, at La Villette, near Paris. Experiments were made successively upon lengths of wire of 400, 600, 1,000, 5,W0, and up to 26,000 metres, (of 3-28 feet ;) and the success was always complete, whether with a circuit composed of two wires, or replacing one of the wires by the earth ; two ordinary Bunsen's pairs were sufficient for producing the induction spark with Ruhm- korff' 8 apparatus. Since his first researches with M. RuhmkorflT, M. Verdu has applied him- self to fresh researches in Spain ; and he was satisfied, by many trials, that of all explosive substances, not any one was nearly so sensitive as fulminate of mercury ; only, in order to avoid the danger that arises from the facility of explosion of this compound, he takes the precaution of introducing the extremity of the fusees into a small gutta percha tube, closed at the end. After having filled with powder this species of little box, and having closed it hermetically, the fusees may be carried about, may be handled, may be allowed to fall, and even squeezed rather hard, without danger. The elastic and leather-like nature of gutta percha, which has been carefully softened a little at the fire, preserves the fulminate from all chance of accident. We may add, that with a simple Bunsen's pair, and by means of Ruhmkorff''s induction apparatus, M. Verdu has succeeded in producing the simultaneous explosion of six small mines, interposed in the same circuit at 820 yards from the appa- ratus. He has not been beyond this limit ; but he has sought for the means of acting indi- rectly upon a great number of mines, by distributing them into groups of five, and by interposing each of these groups in a special circuit. The fusees of each group are made to communicate bv a single wire, one of the extremities of which is buried in the ground, and whose other extremity is near to the apparatus. On touching the induction apparatus successively with each of the free ends that are held in the hand, which requires scarcely a second of time, if there are four wires, that is to say, four groups and consequently twenty mines, twenty explosions are obtained simultaneously at considerable distances. There are no limits either to the distance at which the explosion may take place, or to the number of mines that may thus be made to explode. ELECTRIC LIGHT. Various attempts have been made, from time to time, to employ electricity as an illuminating power ; but hitherto without the desired success. The voltaic battery has been employed as the source of electricity, and in nearly all the arrangements, the beautiful arc of light produced between the poles, from the points of the hardest char- coal, has been the illuminating source. One of the great difficulties in applying this agent arises from the circumstance that there^ is a transference of the charcoal from one pole to the other and consequently an alteration in the distance between them. This gives rise to considerable variations in the intensity and color of the light, and great want of steadiness. Various arrangements, many of them exceedingly ingenious, have been devised to over- come these difficulties. , The most simple of the apparatus which has been devised is that of Mr. Staite, which has been modified by M. Archereau. Two metal columns or stems, to which any desired ELECTRIC LIGHT. 487 form can be given, are connected together by three cross pieces, so as to form one solid frame ; one of these cross pieces is metallic ; it is the one which occupies the upper part of the apparatus ; the others must be of wood. These latter serve as supports and points of attachment to a long bobbin placed parallel to the two columns and between them, and which must be made of tolerably thick wire, in order that the current, in traversing it without melting it, may act upon a soft iron rod placed in the interior of the bobbin. This iron rod is soldered to a brass stem of the same calibre, and of the same length, carrying at its free extremity a small pulley. On the opposite side the iron carries a small brass tube, with binding screws, into which is introduced one of the carbons, when the entire rod has' been placed in the interior of the bobbin. Then a cord fixed to the lower cross piece, and roll- ing over a pulley of large diameter, is able to serve as a support to the movable iron rod, running in the groove of the little pulley. For this purpose, it only requires that a coun- terpoise placed at the end of the cord shall be enabled to be in equilibrio with it The metal cross piece which occupies the upper part of the apparatus, carries a small brass tube, which descends perpenijiculariy in front of the carbon that is carried by the electro-mag- netic stem, and into which is also introduced a carbon crayon. By means of a very simple adjustment, this -tube may besides be easily regulated, both for its height and for its direc- tion ; and consequently the two carbons may be placed very exactly above one another. The apparatus being adjusted, we place one of the two metal columns of the apparatus in connection with one of the poles of the pile, and cause the other pole to abut upon the cop- per wire of the bobbin, (one end of which is soldered upon its sccket.) The current then passes from the bobbin to the lower carbon by the rod itself that supports it, and passing over the interval separating the two carbons, it arrives at the other pole of the pile by the upper cross piece of the apparatus and the metal column, to which one of the conducting wires is attached. ° So long as the current is passing and producing light, the bobbin reacts upon the iron of the electro-magnet rod, which carries the lower carbon and attracts it on account of the magnetic reaction that solenoids exercise over a movable iron in their interior. It is this which gives to the carbons a separation sufficient for the luminous effect. But immediately the current ceases to pass, or is weakened, in consequence of the con- sumption of the carbons, this attraction ceases, and the movable carbon, acted on by the counterpoise, is found to be drawn on and raised until the current passes again ; cqm'librium is again estjiblished between the two forces, and the carbons may be employed again. Thus, m proportion as the light tends to decrease, the counterpoise reacts ; and this it is that always maintains the intensity of the light equal. M. Breton has an apparatus which differs somewhat from the above, and M. Foucault has also devised a very ingenious modification. M. Duboscq has made by far the most successful arrangeftnent, for a description of which we are indebted to De la Rive's Treatiae on Electricity^ translated by C. V. Walker. The two carbons, between which the light is developed, burn in contact with the air and shorten at each instant ; a mechanism is consequently necessary, which brings them near to each other, proportionally to the progress of the combustion ; and since the positive carbon suffers a more rapid combustion than the negative, it must travel more rapidly in face of this latter ; and this in a relation which varies with the thickness and the nature of the car- bon. The mechanism must satisfy all these exigencies. The two carbons are unceasingly solicited towards each other, the lower carbon by a spiral spring, that causes it to rise wid the upper carbon by its weight, which causes it to descend. The same axis is common to them. The galvanic current is produced by a Bunsen's pile of from 40 to 50 elements : it arrives at the two carbons, as in apparatus already known, passing through a hollow electro- magnet, concealed in the column of the instrument. When the two carbons are in contact, the circuit IS closed, the electro-magnet attracts a soft iron, placed at the extremity of a lever, which is in gear with an endless screw. An ant-igonist spring tends always to unwind the screw as soon as a separation is produced between the two carbons ; if it is a little con- siderable, the current no longer passes, the action of the spring becomes predominant the screw IS unwound, and the carbons approach each other until, the current again comm'enc- ing to pass between the two carbons, the motion that drew them towards each other is relaxed m proportion to the return of the predominance of the electricity over the spring • the combustion of the carbons again increases their distance, and with it the superior action of the spring ; hence follows again the predominance of the spring, and so on. These are alternatives of action and reaction, in which at one time the spring, at another time the electricity, has the predominance. On an axis, common to the two carbons, are two pul- leys : one, the diameter of which may be varied at pleasure, communicates by a cord with the rod that carries the lower carbon, which corresponds with the positive pole of the pile • the other, of invariable diameter, is in connection with the upper or negative carbon The diameter of the pulley, capable of varying proportionately to the using of the cart)on with wnich it is m communication, may be increased from three to five. The object of this arrangement is to preserve the lummous pomt at a convenient level, whatever may be the 488 ELECTRIC LIGHT. thickness ot the nature of the carbons. It is only necessary to know that, at each change of kind or volume of the carbon, the diameter of the pulley must be made to vary. This variation results from that of a movable drum, communicating with six levers, articulated near the centre of the sphere ; the movable extremity of the six arms of the lever carries a small pin, which slides in cylindrical slits. These slits are oblique in respect of the sphere ; they form inclined planes. A spiral spring always rests upon the extremity of the levers ; so that, if the inclined planes are turned towards the right, the six levers bend 258 'I li towards the centre, and diminish the diameter. If, on the contrary, they are turned towards the left, the diameter increases, and with it the velocity of the translation of the carbon, which communicates with the pulley. We may notice, in passing, that this apparatus is marvellously adapted to the production of all the experiments of optics, even the most deli- cate ; and that, in this respect, it advantageously supplies the place of solar light. As it is quite impossible to describe accurately the minute arrangements of this instrument, the let- ters of reference have not been used in the text. ELECTRO-METALLURGY. 439 Dr. Richardson informs us, that although Mr. Grove calculated, some years a-o that for tamed tor a.bout 3«. 6d. per hour, the cost of the light employed for about five minutes at Her Majesty's Theatre, as an incident in the ballet? which wi obtained bvemSlTs fondFtLs Tnoh. •'' f'^^jf^'' ^^ ^^P'^^ ^e have not a fair representation of all the conditions. To obtain a light for ten minutes, a battery as laree must be used as if it were vrfvenin' XrolnT'"^'^ \ "5:""^°' P^^^'^ Sie battery wa^ ch'a,^' ^ew every evening There can be no doubt but the cost of light or of any other force from o d n"rv L^^^^^^ "T^ ?' P^^^"T° ^*' "^'^^ "^^^'^y - elc^rofin; of r ?RO-SvK Evofvr m'"^ Illumination. For a consideration of this subject, sL Elec descent Sinumhn; th^'^w'V^ T.^"^ ^ ^'f^' ^^'^"^^ '*^^"^^ ^^ *>^'^''»^d from incan- up into sma 1 particles, the electric current entirely disintegrating the metal Mr Wav has S "5^/^^*^^/ very continuous electric light, produced fSm I cons^t flow of mm^u^ ErEcS^^^^^^^^ P^T "^ the dectric current ""^ '^''"'^ ELECTRIO WEAVING. M. Bonelli devised a very beautiful arrangement, bv which all the work of the Jacquard loom is executed by an elmro-magnetraSSent tS hv ST;'"^^;^,''^™^^- '"'« "^ "f '"'•ki»g i° ■"et'Js was carried on exclusivelT general public, by the announcement that electricity, under proper manaeement and bv mo t easy processes, could supersede the furnace in not a few operatiorS^n me^s and that many opei-ations with metals, which could scarcely be entertained unTr the old Tn if Sjiences at Tp^'T^ ^'' ^T^''^^ accompanied 'with specimens, t^ L A, as already described ; and 7w, the other metal of the voltaic pair, is suspended in the copper solution and connected with the zinc z by the wire te. The electric current now passes ; zinc is consumed, as in Jig. 259, but copper is rtOw deposited on the metal m front and back, and on as much of the wire w as may be in the liquid ; or, if Mr. Spencer's precau- tion is taken of varnishing the wire and the back of the metal tw, all the copper that is lib- erated will^ be accumulated on the face of m. If salt and water or very weak acid water is contained in the porous tube jo, and the zinc z does not considerably exceed in size the metal w, the conditions will be complied with for depositing copper in a compact reguline form. It is obvious that, with this arrangement, m may be a mould or other form in metal, and that a copy of it may be obtained in copper. Fusible metal, consisting of 8 parts of bis- muth, 4 of tin, 5 of lead, and 1 of antimony ; or 8 parts bismuth, 3 tin, and 5 lead, is much used for taking moulds of medals. The ingredients are well melted together and mixed ; a quantity sufficient for the object in view is poured upon a slab or board and stirred together till about to set ; the film of dross is then quickly cleared from the surface with a card, and the cold metal is either projected upon the bright metal, or being previously fitted in a block of wood, is applied with a sudden blow. Moulds of wax or stearine variously combined, or more recently and better in many cases, mouhls of gutta percha, are applicable to many purposes. But, as none of these latter materials conduct electricity, it is necessary to provide them with a conducteous surface. Plumbago or black lead is almost universally employed for this purpose ; it is rubbed over the surface of the mould with a piece of wool on a soft brush, care being taken to continue it as far as to the conducting wire, by which the mould is connected with the zinc. With moulds of solid metal, the deposit of copper commences throughout the entire surface at once ; but, with moulds having only a film of plumbago for a conductor, the action commences at the wire, and extends itself gradually until it has been developed on all parts of the surface. The nature of the electro-chemical decompositions that are due to the passage of voltaic currents through liquids, especially through liquids in which metal is in certain forms con- tained, can be best understood by studying the arrangement that is most commonly used in the arts, wherein the voltaic apparatus, from which the electric current is obtained, is dis- tinct and separate from the vessel in which the electro-metallurgical operations are being brought about. Such an arrangement is shown in Jig. 261, where a is a Daniell's cell, as 261 in fig. 259 ; and b a trough filled with an acid solution of sulphate of copper; m is a metal rod, on which the moulds are hung ; and c a metal rod, upon which plates of copper are hung facing the moulds ; the copper-plates are connected by the wire z with the copper of the battery cell, and the moulds by the wire x with the zinc rod. The voltaic current is generated in the cell a, and its direction is from the zinc rod, through the solutions to the copper of the cell ; thence by the wire z to the plates of copper c ; through the sulphate solution to the moulds m ; and thence by the wire x to the zinc rod. In this arrangement, no shelf is necessary in the trough b for crystals of sulphate of copper to keep^up the strength of the solution ; for the nature of the electro-chemical decompositions is such, that in proportion as copper is abstracted and deposited upon the moulds m, other copper is dissolved into the solution from the plates c. Water is the prime subject of decomposi- tion. It is a compound body, consisting of the gases oxygen and hydrogen, and may be represented by Jig. 262, where the arrows show the direction in which the current, by the wire p, enters the trough b of /^. 261 by the plate of copper c, and passes through the I I i .. li 492 ELECTRO-METALLURGY. water in the direction shown, and leaves it after traversing the mould by the wire n. Two cUoTM of water o h and o' h', as bracketed 1 and 2, are shown to exist before the electric current passes ; and two atoms, one of water h o', (bracketed 1',) and one of oxide of copper o c, exist after the action. On the one hand, an atom of copper c has come into the solution ;*and, on the other hand, the atom of hydrogen h', belonging to the second atom of water, is set free and rises in the form of gas. The explanation is to show that oxygen is liberated where the current enters, and combines there in its nascent state with copper : it would not have combined, for instance, with gold or platinum. We might easily extend this symbolical figure, and show how that, when free sulphuric acid is in the solution, the oxide of copper ou its formation combines with this acid to produce the sulphate of copper required ; and how, when free sulphate of copper is present, the hydrogen, instead of being freed in the form of gas, combines with oxygen of the oxide of copper, and liberates the metal which in its nascent state is deposited on the mould, and produces the electrotype copy of the same. One battery cell is sufficient for working in this way in copper ; it is increased in size in proportion to the size of the object operated upon. And, although for small objects, such as medals, a vertical arrangement will act very well ; for large objects it has been often found of great advantage to adopt a horizontal arrangement, placing the mould beneath the copper-plate. The varying density of a still solution in the vertical arrange- ment is not without its effect upon the nature of the deposit, both on its character and its relative thickness. This has been in some instances obviated, and the advantage of the vertical method retained by keeping the solution in motion, either by stirring or by a con- tinuous flow of liquid. We have described principally Daniell's battery as the generating cell in electro-metal- lurgical operations ; but Mr. Smee's more simple arrangement of platinized silver and zinc, excited with diluted sulphuric acid, has been found in practice more economical and con- venient. Fiff. 263 is a Smee's cell ; a vessel of wood, glass, or earthenware contains diluted sul- phuric acid, one in eight or ten, a platinized silver plate s, sustained by a piece of wood w, with a plate of zinc z z on each side, so as to turn to useful account both 263 sides of the silver plate. The zinc plates are connected by the binding screw b. Platinization consists in applying platinum in fine powder to the metallic surface. When hydrogen is liberated by ordinary electric action upon a surface so prepared, it has no tendency to adhere or cling ^ to it ; but it at once rises, and in fact gets out of the way, so that it never, by its presence or lingering, interferes with the prompt and ready continuance of the electric action ; and in this way the amount of supply is well kept up. Platinization is itself another illustration of working in metal by electricity. A few crystals of chloride of platinum are dissolved in diluted sulphuric acid. A voltaic current is made to enter this solution by a plate of platinum, and to come out by a silver plate. Two or three Daniell's or Smee's cells are necessary for the operation. The chloride of platinum is decomposed, and the metal is deposited upon the silver plate ; not, however, in the reguline compact form, as in the case of copper, but in a state of black powder in no way coherent. This affords also an illustra- tion of the different behavior of metals under analogous circumstances. Copper is of all metals the most manageable ; platinum is among the more unmanageable. Mr. C. V. Walker has, with great advantage, substituted graphite for silver. The material is obtained from gas retorts, and is cut into plates a quarter of an inch thick, or thicker, when plates of a large size are cut. He platinizes these plates in the usual way as above described, and deposits copper on their upper parts, also by electrotype process, and solders a copper slip to the electrotype copper, in order to make the necessary connection. With the exception of silver and gold, copper is the metal which has been most exten- sively worked by these processes. Seals are copied by obtaining impressions in sealing-wax, pressing a warm wire into the edge for a connection ; rubbing black-lead over the wax to make the surface conducteous ; fastening a slip of zinc to the other end of the wire ; wrapping the zinc in brown paper, and putting the whole into a tumbler containing sulphate of copper, a little salt-water hav- ing been poured into the brown paper cell. Plaster of Paris Medallions may be saturated with wax or stearine, and then treated, if small, like seals ; if large, in a distinct trough, as in Jig. 261. In this case the copy is in intaglio, and may be used as a mould for obtaining the fac-simile of the cast. More commonly, the cast is saturated with warm water, and a mould of it taken in wax, stearine, or gutta pereha. This is treated with black-lead, and in other respects the same as seals. ELECTRO-METALLURGY. 493 Wood-cuts are treated with black-lead, and a copper reverse is deposited upon them. This is used as a mould to obtain electrotype duplicates, or as a die for striking off dupli- cates. Stereotype Plates are obtained in copper by taking a plaster copy of the type, treat- ing it plaster fashion, depositing a thin plate of copper upon it, and giving strength by backing up with melted lead. Old Brasses may be copied by the intervention of plaster. Embossed cards or paper may be copied by first saturating with wax and then u^ng black-lead. Fruit may be copied by the intervention of moulds, or may be covered with copper. Leaves, twigs, and branches may have copper deposited upon them. The same for statuettes, busts, and statues. Leaves and flowers are furnished with a conducting surface by dipping them into a solu- tion of phosphorus in bisulphuret of carbon, and then into a solution of nitrate of silver. Silver is thus released in a metallic state upon their surface. Plaster busts, &c., have been copied in copper, by first depositing copper on the pla». ter prepared for this operation ; when thick enough, the original bust is destroyed, the cop- per shell is filled with sulphate of copper, as in Jig. 261, and copper is deposited on its inner surface till of sufficient thickness ; the outer shell is then removed. Tubes and vessels of capacity do not appear to have been profitably multiplied by elec- trotype. Plates have been prepared for the engraver to work on by depositing copper on pol- ished copper-plates, and removing the deposits when thick enough. For the multiplication of engraved copper-plates, the electrotype process has been very extensively adopted. A reverse of the plate is first obtained by the deposition of cop- per ; this serves as a mould, from which many copies of the original plate are obtained by depositing copper upon it, and then separating the two. The mode practised by the Duke of Leuchtenberg is to print from an engraved plate on very thin paper with a mixture of resin of Damara, red oxide of iron, and essence of turpentine. While the impression is wet, the paper face downwards is pressed upon a polished plate of copper. When dry the paper is washed away, and the impression remains. An electrotype copy from this is ob- tained in intaglio, and is fit for the use of the printer. Galvanography is a picture drawn originally in varnish on the smooth plate, and then treated in a similar way to the above. The plates on rollers used by calico printers have been multiplied like engraved Glyphography is a name given by Mr. Palmer to his process. He blackens a fair cop- per-plate with sulphuret of pota.ssium, covering it uniformly with a coating of wax and other things, then draws the design through the wax with fine tools. From the plate thus prepared, an electrotype is taken in the usual way, and is backed up and mounted as an electro-glyphic cast to print from as from a wood block. For a stereo-glyphic cast to work from as a stereotype plate, a plaster copy is taken of the original drawing, the high Ughts •are cut out, and then an electrotype copy is made. Electro-tint is done by drawing with wax or varnish any design on a fair copper-pUite and making an electrotype copy for the printer's use. , * Fern-leaves, &c., are copied by being laid on a sheet of soft gutta pereha, pressed into the surface by a smooth plate to which pressure is applied, and then removed in order to subject the gutta pereha mould to the electrotype process. This is Nature Printing which see. * MM. Auer and Worring have copied lace, embroidery, flowers, leaves of trees, entire plants, fossils, insects, &c., in their natural relief, by laying the objects upon a plate of cop- per, after having soaked them in spirits of wine and turpentine so as to fix them. A plate of clean lead is laid over, and, on being pressed, an intaglio copy is produced on it of the object. From this an electrotype is obtained. Undercut medallions, &c., are copied in elastic moulds made of treacle and glue in the proportions of 1 to 4. Masks and busts may also be obtained in such moulds. Electro-cloth was made by saturating the fibre of canvas or felt, making it conducte- ous in the usual way ; it was proposed in place of tarpaulins as a water-tight cover. Retorts and crucibles, &c., of glass or porcelain, have been successfully coat«d with electrotype copper by first varnishing or otherwise preparing the surface to retain the black- lead, and then treating them as usual. Soldering copper surfaces has been accomplished by galvanic agencv. The ends to be united are placed together in the solution of sulphate of copper, and connected with the battery as for ordinary deposition. Parts not included in the process are protected off by varnish ; copper is then deposited so as to unite the separate pieces into one. Iron may be coated with copper. But here a new feature comes into view Sul- phuric acid leaves the copper of the sulphate, combines with iron, and deposits copper on i I IN I I 494 ELEOTRO-METALLURGY. its surface without the aid of the voltaic apparatus. The iron surface is imperfectly cov- ered with copper ; no firm perfect deposit occurs. In order to obtain solid deposits of cop- per on iron, it is necessary to use a solution that has no ordinary chemical reaction upon iron. Cyanide of copper is used, which may be obtained by dissolving sulphate of copper in cyanide of potassium. This solution requires to be raised to and retained at a tempera- ture not greatly below 200°, in order to give good results. Electro-ziscing is applied to suifuces of iron, in order to protect them from corrosion. A solution is made of sulphate of zinc, which is placed in a trough b, fg. 261. Two or throe battery cells are required. The iron to be zinced is connected with the zinc end of the battery, and a plate of zinc with the copper end. Voltaic brass does not appear to have been obtained in a solid distinct form, but has been successfully produced as a coating upou a copper surface. Separate solutions are made of sulphate of copper and of sulphate of zinc in cyanide of potassium. The two solutions are then mixed, and placed in a decomposing trough. Two or three cells of a battery are used, and a brass plate connected with the copper end. An electrotype copper medal or other prepared surface is connected with the zinc. Brilliant and perfect brass soon appears, and will deposit slowly for some houre ; but after a while the character of the solution changes, and copper uppt;ars in place of brass. This hasty glance at the leading applications of this art will give an idea of its utility. It also comes into play in cases where least suspected. Pins were tinned by electrotype long before the art was known. Brass pins are thrown into solution of tin in cream of tartar, and are unchanged ; but when a lump of tin is thrown among them, a voltaic pair is formed, and tin is deposited on all the heap. Any stray pins detached from the mass, escape the influence. Space would fail us were we to go through the list of crystalline and of simple bodies formed by these processes ; as for instance, octahedral crystals of [.rotoxide of cop- per ; tetrahedral crystals of proto-chloride of copper ; octahedral crystals of sulphide of silver ; crystals of subnitrate of copper ; bibasic carbonate of copper, and others too nu- merous to name, have all been formed by slow voltaic actions. The alkaline metals, potas- sium, sodium, &c., were first obtained by Davy in the galvanic way ; magnesium, barium, aluminiuni, calcium, &c., are obtained by M. Bunsen by operating upou the chlorides of these metals either in solution or in a state of fusion. Electro-etch iNO is produced at the place where the current entcra the decomposing trough, as at the copper-plates c oi fg. 261. A plate of copper is prepared as if for the graver ; its face is then covered with an etching ground of asphalte, wax, black pitch, and Burgundy pitch ; and its back with varnish. The design is then traced through the etching ground with a fine point ; the plate is then placed in the trough b, containing either sul- phate of copper or simply diluted sulphuric acid, and connected with the copper of the battery. After a few minutes it is removed, and the fine lines are stopped out with var- nish ; it is then replaced, and again, after a few minutes, is removed, and the darker shades • are stopped out ; the parts still exposed are again subjected to the action, and the etching is complete. When the ground is removed, the design will be found etched upon the cop- per-plate, ready for the printer. Daguerreotype etching is a delicate operation, and requires much care. The solution^ employed by Professor Grove was hydrochloric acid and water in equal parts, and a battery of two or three cells. Platinized silver is used in face of the daguerreotype, instead of copper. The result comes out in about half a minute. An oxychloride of silver is formed, and the mercury of the plate remains untouched. A Photo-galvano-grapiiic Company has been formed in London for carrying out the process of Paul Pretsch. He makes solutions of bichromate of potash in glue water, or in solution of gelatine, instead of in pure water. He then treats the glass or plate with these, and in the usual way takes a picture. He washes the gelatine picture with water, or solu- tion of borax or carbonate of soda, which leaves the picture in relief; when developed, he washes with spirits of wine, and obtains a sunk design. The surfaces thus prepared, or moulds made from them in one or other of the modes already described, are placed in a galvano-plastic apparatus for obtaining an engraved plate from which to print. See Photo- graphic Engraving. The Duke of Leuchtenbei^ prepares a plate for etching by leaving the design on the ground, and removing the ground for the blank parts. When his electrotjrpe operation is complete, the design is in relief instead of being in intaglio, as in ordinary etching. Metallo-chromes consist of thin films of oxide of lead, deposited sometimes on pol- ished plates of platinum, but most commonly on polished steel plates. The colors are most brilliant and varied. Nobili is the author of the process. A saturated solution of acetate of lead is prepared and placed in a horizontal trough. Three or four battery cells are required. A steel plate is laid in the acetate of lead with its polished surface upward, and is connected with the copper of the battery. If a wire is con- nected with the zinc end of the battery, and held over the steel plate in the solution, a ELECTRO-METALLURGY. 4^6 series of circles in brilliant colors arises from the spot immediately beneath the wire and expands and spreads, like the circles when a stone is thrown into a pond. SUver-blond is the first color ; then fawn-color, followed by the various shades of violet, and indigoes and blues ; lake, bluish lake, green and orange, greenish violet, and passing throu<;h reddish yellow to rose-lake, which is the last color in the series. According to the shape of the metal by which the current enters— be it a point, a slip a cross, a concave, or a convex disc— so is the form of the colored figure varied. And if in addition to this, a pattern in card or gutta percha is cut out and interposed between the two surfaces, the action is intercepted by the portions not removed, and the design is pro- duced on the steel plate, in colors, that may be greatly varied, according to the duration of the experiment The different colors are due to the different thicknesses of the thin films ot peroxide of lead. M Becquerel proposed the deposit of peroxide of lead, and also the red peroxide of iron, for protecting metals from the action of the atmosphere. For the latter, prutosulphate ot iron IS dissolved in ammonia solution, and operated upon by two or three batteries. Ihe most important application of electro-metallurgy in the arts has been for platixo and gilding, which is most extensively carried on both at home and abroad. Results that were unattainable, and others attainable only at great cost, are readily produced bv this mode of manipulating. The liquids most in use are the cyanide solutions, first introduced by Messrs Elkingtons. They are prepared in various ways. Cyanide of potassium is added carefully to dilute solution of nitrate of silver; and the white deposit of cyanide of silver IS washed and then dissolved in other cyanide of potassium ; or lime water is added to the nitra e solution, and the brown deposit of oxide of silver is washed, and, while moisfr is dissolved in cyanide of potassium ; or common salt is added to the nitrate solution, and the white deposit of chloride of silver is wjiahed and dissolved in cyanide of potassiui^. Or a solution of cyanide of potassium is placed in the trough b, fg. 261 ; and the current from three or four cells is passed into it from a silver plate at c, which combines with and is dis- solved into the liquid, converting it into a cyanide of silver solution. To prevent silver being abstracted by deposition at m, as the current leaves the trough, the metal at m is placed withm a porous cell of cyanide solution, so as to limit the action. Gold solution IS obtained by dissolving the anhydrous peroxide of gold in cvanide of potassium, or by treating chloride of gold with cyanide of potassium, or by usin- a gold plate and a voltaic current with a solution of cyanide of potassium in the salne wSv as de- scribed for Sliver ; and allowing the action to continue until the solution is suffideutlv strong of gold. With these solutions electro-plating and gilding are readily accomplished. There are other solutions more or less valuable, which wUl be found in the books that treat upon the subject. Fig. 266 is an arrangement for operations on a small scale. The vessel a 6, containing 266 the gold solution rests over a small stove or spirit lamp. The objects to be gilt are sus- anS the /oirwL V^^ conducting rod d in connection Vith the zinc end of the b^^^ '0 20S' fs iesT4w. fcf I 'T"'"'"^ ^'"^ ^' ?"^"'' «°^- ^ temperature of from 1C^° one will suffirkiL.^^'' temperatures require fewer battery cells ; with the highest, one will suffice. The solution of course evaporates under the influence of heat- and dii tilled water must be added to supply the loss, before each fresh op^Zl ' . p. ^*l""/°^ ?'^^'°e '^ successfully, and, in point of economy, ^vantageouslv carried on at Birmingham, m more than one manufactory, by means of LgnetoXt^ci^y ^rthe artic e on Electric-Telegraphy, will be found a description ofthis formTelcLc foitf/ nlfn'f Tn"' ^^ "f ^ '' '' P^."^"^l^- ^^ electro-mainet is set in mo^on in f^^t of ^^ po es of a permanent magnet, in such a manner that thi soft iron core of the electro-mac raises up a current in one direction m the wire with which it is wound ; in the act7f ceas- ing to be a magnet, it raises up a current in the reverse direction. The ends of the ^S^ 496 ELECTRO-MOTIYE ENGINES. are led away and insulated. The instrument is fitted with a commutator, so adjusted that it collects the currents from the ends of the wire, and guides them in a uniform direction into the vessel that contains the solution and articles to be gilded or plated. In practice, a single machine consists of many electro-magnets grouped together, and many powerful mag- nets for exciting them ; by which means a continuous flow of a large amount of electricity is obtained. Hg. 267 is an illustration of such an arrangement as adapted by Mr. Wool- 267 rich : aaaa are four clusters of permanent steel magnets, seen from above ; 6 6 hhb\s the frame-work of the machine; c c c c are four bars of soft iron, wound with large size insulated copper wire ; ^°.TiS {s:Lte;:Xc':irh^^s^o?rei':?:J.'"'°''-"^'-'^^°- Mr. J. Scott Russell has shown that in the Cornish boilers, at Huel Towan and the Fnlt^ Mines, the combustion of one pound of Welsh coal evaporates of wa^rTfi^mif -J^ temperature, 1058° and 1048^ respectively.' 'Tut,' s^s Mr. Jo^"' w^ha^^sh"^ pv. r/ K^^r '' 'f ^^ .*° ^^^ ^^«- ^"^^ *« the height of one for Therefore the S evolved by the combustion of one pound of coal is equivalent to ihe Sa^cS for^P rfCb:L?S\^n%^^^^ *^ ^^^ ^^'-^^ «^ -^ ^-' - ^ aboi^Tn'tt^l^^- innf^^r^-^"^-*^^ conditions under which heat is employed as a motive power An enuiva h-« nl"°' V'^-i ?" ^^ *^^ ^^'^ ^" *he ceUs of the battery, and is oxKd thtrebv In A.JT' ^n^'.^,*^! ^^^""^^^ °^ his experiments, the mechanical force of the current pro- IxnoZ ?w '''''^' y^f\^ry^ equal to 1,106,160 lbs. raised one fc^thU per pound ^ Vol. III.— 32 498 ELECTRO-PLATING AND GILDING. It need scarcely be stated, that this is infinitely above what can be practically obtained. A great number of experiments, made by the Author some years since, enabled him to de- teraine as the mean average result of the currents produced by several forms of battery power that one grain of zinc, consumed in the battery, would exert a force equal to lifting 86 lbs! one foot high. Mr. Joule and Dr. Scoresby thus sum up a series of experimental results : "Upon the whole, we feel ourselves justified in fixing the maximum available duty of an electro-magnetic engine, worked by a Daniell's battery, at 80 lbs. raised a foot high, for each grain of zinc consumed." This is about one-half the theoretical maximum duty. In the Cornish engines, doing the best duty, one grain of coal raised 143 lbs. one foot high. The difference in the cost of zinc and coal need scarcely be remarked on. The present price of the metal is £85 per ton, and coal can be obtained, including carriage to the en- gines, at less than £1 per ton ; and the carbon element does two-thirds more work than can possibly be obtained from the metallic one. ^ By improving the battery arrangements, operators may eventually succeed m getting a greater available electrical force. But it must not be forgotten, that the development of any physical force observes a constant law. Whether in burning coal in the furnace, or zinc or iron in the battery, the chemical equivalent represents the theoretical mechanical power. Therefore the atomic weight of the carbon atom being 6, and that of the zinc atom being 32, it is not practicable, under the best possible arrangements, to obtain any thing like the same mechanical power from zinc which can be obtained from coal. Zinc bums at an elevated temperature ; in burning a pound of zinc there should be obtained, as heat, the same amount of mechanical power which is obtained as electricity in the battery. The heat being more easily applied as a prime mover, it would be far more economical to burn zinc under a boiler, and to use it for generating steam-power, than to consume zinc in a voltaic battery for generating electro-magnetical power. ^ , , „ ELECTRO-PLATING AND GILDING IRON. Professor Wood, of Springfield, Mass., in a paper which he has communicated to the Scientific American, recommends the follow- ing as useful recipes for the electro-metallurgist. He says : " I believe it is the first time that a solution for plating direct on iron, steel, or Britannia metal, has been published. In most of the experiments I have used Smee's battery ; but for depositing brass I prefer a battery fitted up as Grove's, using artificial graphite— obtained from the inside of broken coal-gas retorts— in the place of platinum. With one large cell, (the zinc cylinder being 8x3 inches, and excited with a mixture of one part sulphuric acid and twelve parts water, the graphite being excited with commercial nitric acid,) I have plated six gross of polished iron buckles per hour with brass. I have also coated type and stereotype plates with brass, and find it more durable than copper-facing." - . . • . To Prepare Cyanide of Silver. ^l. Dissolve 1 oz. of pure silver in 2 oz. of nitric acid and 2 oz. of hot water, after which add 1 quart of hot water. 2. Dissolve 5 oz. of the cyanide of potassium in 1 quart of water. To the first preparation add by degrees a small portion of the second preparation, until the whole of the silver is precipitated, which may be known by stirring the mixture and allowing it to settle. Then drop into the .clear liquid a very small quantity of the second preparation from the end of a glass rod ; if the clear liquid is rendered turbid, it is a proof that the whole of the silver is not separated ; if on the other hand, the liquid is not altered, it is a proof that the silver is separated. The clear liquid is now to be poured off, and the precipitate, which is the cyanide of silver, washed at least four times in hot water. The precipitate may now be dried and bottled for use. To Prepare Cyanide of Gold— Dissolve I oz. of fine gold in 14 oz. of nitric acid and 2 oz. of muriatic acid ; after it is dissolved, add 1 quart of hot water, and precipitate with the second preparation, proceeding the same as for the cyanide of silver. To Prepare Cyan- ides of Copper and Zinc.— For copper, dissolve 1 oz. of sulphate of copper m 1 pint of hot water. For zinc, dissolve 1 oz. of the sulphate of zinc in 1 pint of hot water, and proceed the same as for cyanide of silver. The electro-plater, to insure success in plating upon all metals and metallic allovs, must have two solutions of silver; the first to whiten or fix the sUver to such metals as iron, steel, Britannia metal, and German silver; the second to finish the work, as any amount of silver can be deposited in a reguline state from the second solu- tion. First, or Whitening, Solution.^I)issolxe 2^ lbs. (troy) of cyanide of potassium, 8 oz. carbonate of soda, and 5 oz. cyanide of silver in one gallon of rain or distilled water. This solution should be used with a compound battery, of three to ten pairs, according to the size of the work to be plated. Second, or Finishing Solution.- Dissolve 4^ oz. (troy) of cyanide of potassium, and 1^ oz. of cyanide of silver, in 1 gallon of ram or distilled water This solution should be used with one large cell of Smee's battery, observing that the silver plate is placed as near the surface of the articles to be plated as possible.-- N B By using the first, or whitening solution, you may insure the adhesion of silver to all kinds of brass, bronze, red cock metal, type metal, &c., without the use of noercury, which is so injurious to the human system. To Prepare a Solution of Gold— Dissolve 4 oz. (troy) of cyanide of potassium, and 1 oz. of cyanide of gold, in 1 gallon of rain or dis- tilled water This solution is to be used warm, (about 90" Fahr.,) with a battery of at least J _J ELECTBO-TELEGRAPHY. 499 Iwl ^fp"'' M*'"'*' T "^ ^«P«S''«<1 of Tarious shades to suit the artist, by addinc to thesoln senal^tfo?.?' ^^^™^ APPARATUS. M. Froment has devised an apparatus for the 7a wWl '"""^ ^'^"'. "'^^'"^^ ^^ ^^^^^ '^ °^^y ^ accompanied. The app^uS coLS^ Za^^T^^T-''^ on Its circumference eighteen electro-magnets. The h^rortred^^ wl?t InTnledr;' T'Tf' "^^^ ^"-^ "' *^^ ^^^^-^^'^ «^ « clothdr^:^!^ bourse b^en^broll?. ? f ' electro-maguets in motion. The iron in the ore, which has of Sed is seSd hv t^ ""^^T ''f \^^ ^^ «^ '^^ P^««^«^« ^y ""^^^^ thb may be Electricity separated by the magnets, and the impurities carried onward See J)e la i?L', mo^'^^eSuoP^Vl '' T:^^ '^^ ^^^^^^ «^^ '■-'*« -- - *« ^«-pt the mu.fmH^ fhf 1 ^- }^ ^"^^""^y °^ ^^'^ ^* 5 we shall therefore content ourselves with t^'r TaCit'r "fjitxre':rii'"^° "^""^ ^ *"« '^'^^p- ^^^•^ -'<* - whi^h f^^,t"urt>?dt7Ili? "" f ''!i *" " 'l-S^ ^-^ »f 'l™'"" to"^, the equilibrium of othm^ m„^ „ 1 ^^'*' "'■ J'^' ^"S^ ^y » ''™ety of causes, some eitremely «imDle Ser SSSrirfl'r^°"''"?r'1 T "' ""»" ^'^ '^ in operation, ThTlS staI\^^a.l'^h:t'idri%''^'^,a'rT„\rte^^ e™\tts.rr sttsf''^ ?f 7:iurr„t^'idT;^'s^e^» tzt SegrartMrire iT'l «o sSf tn! ""*'^ ''l"!"^?' ^ "'S^ *«»«'' » «-^pended copper S?SdZ w?re 750 mTrn^r.r^^'l^v^' ''J "• "r^^^ *■«= '«"«=' velocity through a values ^'"''^'^'^^ '° ^^'^ ^'^'^ *^ ""^^^^ cases may have an influence over the respecUv? trical machine, and his si"^l7™:t motn'oHigM SSi^ "ffif dd"r\Xr^''!S under c.rcumstonccs analogous to those to which we^avValSky r^fc^d A thrftr^ of his telegraph wire two pith balls were suspended close tr^e(L?i^„, • -J ?^l Z Srrofl^ht wi: ^r? '''"i,' ■^^^^"^oJit^^o.^^^i^^x^^- Ill III I I 500 ELECTRO-TELEGRAPHY. turned it into language was ingenious. He pressed time into his service, and by combining time and motion he obtained a language. He provided a clock movement at each station ; the clocks were so regulated as to be synchronous in their movements ; each ot them car- ried in lieu of a hand, a light disc, having the letters of the alphabet and other signals en- graved on it. The disc was hidden by a screen, in which was one opening. It is obvious that if the clocks were started together, and had uniform rates, the same letter at the same time would be visible through the opening in each screen ; and letter by letter would p^ seriatim and simultaneously before the respective openings. If absolute uniformity is diffi- cult for long periods, it is practicable for shorter. The sender of a message watched the opening of his screen ; the moment the letter approached that he desired to telegraph, he charged the wire with electricity, and the balls at the far station moved ; the letter then visible there corresponded with the one at the home station, and was read ofif. The sendar watched till the next letter he required came round, and so on. . , , Let us now pass on to some of the leading features of electro-telegraphy, as it has been realized of late years, and to a description of some of the telegraph instruments that are ™ Wmicsll action is the most fertile source of electricity. If a silver fork and a steel knife are connected together by a piece of wire, and the fork is thrust into a piece of meat, say a hot mutton chop, the moment an incision is made in the meat with the knife, elec- tricity will pass along the wire, and continue to do so while the above disposition of things remains. Upon the proper test being applied, the electricity is readily detected. This is the current form of electricity. The amount of force in circulation in this particuJar com- bination is not very great, and its power of travellmg to a distance is not very high, but still it is quite capable of producing good signals, on a delicate arrangement of the needle instrument, (of which more hereafter,) with which in England we are so famniar. The amount of electricity obtained by means of chemical action is increased to the required extent by a judicious selection of metals, and of the liquid or liquids in which they are immersed. Zinc is invariably used as one of the metals ; it is represented by the iron of the knife in the above experiment. Copper, silver, and platinum or graphite, (gas car- bon ) is selected for the other metal. When the two metals are immersed m a same liquid, a mixture of sulphuric acid with salt-water, or fresh, is employed When two liquids are used, they are separated by a porous partition ; the zmc is usually placed in the sulphuric acid solution, and the other metal in a solution varying with the nature of ihe arrangements proposed. Zinc is naturally soluble in the acid solution in question ; and would therefore waste away and be consumed at the expense also of the acid, unless precautions were taken to make it resist the ordinary action of the solvent. ^ hen zinc is dissolved m mercury it is not attacked, under ordinary circumstances, by sulphuric acid solution. Hence the plates of zinc employed in all good voltaic combinations, as they are called, into which this acid in a free state, enters, arl protected by being well amalgamated ; that is, they are dipped in a strong acid mixture and well washed ; and are then dipped into a mercury bath, and are placed aside to drain. The operation is generally repeated a second time ; and, m he best arrangements, the further precaution is taken of standmg the zinc plate, while m the acid water, in some loose mercury, placed either in the bottom of the containing vessel, or in a gutta percha cell : by the latter arrangement, mercury is economized. In single liquid arrangements, it is desirable to select a metal that is not attacked by the acid Copper has been extensively used, and is very valuable; but it possesses the defect of being s owly attackable. The waste, however, that it suffers in itself from this cause, is of small mo- ment compared with certain secondary results, which termmate in the consumption of the acid and the zinc, and the destruction of the functions of the apparatus. Gold and platinum are free from these defects, but are too costly. Silver is to a great extent free from them, and has been much and successfully used, especially when platinized ; that is, having its surface covered with finely divided powder of platinum. The corrosion from gas retorts cut into plates, and similarly treated, forms with amalgamated zinc one of the cheapest and most eflfective combinations. , , , ^ , r ^ +i „ f A single pair of plates, no matter what their character, is unable to produce a force that can overcome the resistance of a wire of any length, and produce an available result at a distant station; and hence a series of pairs is employed in the telegraphic arrangements. E ( fia. 268) represents a common mode of arranging a series of pairs ot plates, it con- sists of a wooden trough made water-tight, and divided into water-tight cells. The metals are connected in pairs by copper bands; each pair is placed ast"de over a parti ti^on and all the zincs face one way. When the plates (copper-zinc) are placed m, and the cells are filled up with pure white sand, and the acid water poured in, we have the veiy' portable battery that was originallv used by Mr. Cooke, and is still much employed in England. When bat- teries of a higher class are emploved, the cells are distinct pots or jars; and great precau- tions are taken to prevent any conducting communication existing between the neighboring cells, save by meaSs of the copper band. In the trough fonn there is a leakage and loss of force from cell to cell. The c or copper is the positive end of such a series, and the z ELECTRO-TELEGRAPHY. 501 or zinc, the negative ; and both are in a condition to discharge, either each to the other br the earth at the place where the battery stands, and the other by a loi wu^ (sayVtele- graph wire) leading to the earth at a distant place. The resistance to be over^me iTS UndS'wh'J'''' •^'''' *"^ '^^ """"'^^ °^ ^^"'^ in circulation is proportionately gr^n nf fhTj!^ H r ^'^J"?^«<^^ces a wire takes part in promoting the dik^hk^e of anipWr^ wlhaTi; pe'rvld^t;^^ "^' "^^ ^ in a condition t^ indicate 'JS presen^TS and as the force may be 268 presented to the wire in either of two directions, that is to say, the copper or the zinc, namely, the positive or the negative end of the battery, may be pre- sented to the given end of the telegraph wire, the rela- tive condition of the wire will be modified according- ly. Not only can the direc- tion of this current force be inverted at i)leasure, but it •can be maintained for any length of time, great or small, and in either direc- tion. This is accomplished by various mechanical ar- rangements, which are the keys, commutators, or han- dles of the various telegraph instruments, (of which more hereafter,) and are often the only part presenting any complexity about them. In fiff. 268, the source of elec- tricity, E, we have already described; the test-instru- ment for the abnormal state of the wire, that is to say, the telegraph proper, is the part A. The complex part, consisting of springs, cylin- ders, and studs, shown be- low A, is nothing more than the necessary mechanical arrangement for directing at pleasure the current from thp h«t tery E, in either direction through the wire, and through the pa^t a 6^11 owTn^ the^e ' ters m he order here given, the course of 'the current^ may b^raced from ^kaVn^^ ^y tiie positive or copper end of the battery, till its return to'the zi^cor n'gTtife end'c "d w w ^. t * companion instrument were in any part of the circuit of the wire A would correspond in its signals with the home instrument, fig 268 t..^'^^* A^ properties possessed by a wire, during the act of discharging a voltaic bat- tery, ,s to defioct a magnetized needle. If the two are parallel in the normal st^tfof thp he wirtt 172 ^'^'T\T^ " ^^^" "°^""^ ^"«""* «f «l^^*""'y i« circT ting fhro^h i^nnTh' [ f.**'^^' *^^ maximum deflection of 90°. This is an extreme casL^d ZZn^e approached m practice. Indeed, the deflection of any ordinary needkSr^he action of an ordinary telegraph wire, would not be appreciable But i eTerv foTt of the wire hai5 the mme amount of reaction we have merplv^ t^ o«.o«„« *k- 1 !^ ? ® ^tV^ZTl-r^"'"'' V'^f 'Z-'^- I' « ««■> »t « glance that the Vi,^ of the m„ £ SlI! «n <^?f »» o^r «ud above the length of the Mtual telegraph wire renuir^ for reaching the d«tant station, and thus it practically increases the diftan«To te ?Av1ra«l t lii 502 ELECTRO-TELEGRAPHY. Let U8 now turn to the face of the instrument. Here we have a dial and an index, which is on the same axis as the magnetized needle above described, capable of being de- flected to the right or left, and limited in its motion by ivory pins. We have a handle 269 for working the mechanical part so con- nected that, as it moves to the right, it directs a current into the wire such that the needle moves to the right, and vice versd. An alphabet is constructed from the combination of these two elementary motions, one or more of either or both kinds of deflection being used for the va- rious letters, as shown on the engraved dial. This is Cooke and Wheatstone's sin- gle needle instrument, fg. 269. The form and character of their double needle instrument is shown in Jig. 270. It is precisely a duplicate of the former ; two handles, and their respective springs, studs, and cyUnders, two multipliers, and two magnetized needles, with their external in- dexes, and two telegraph wires. One bat- tery, however, is sufficient. One or more of either or both kinds of deflection of either or both needles, according to the code engraved on the dial, constitutes the alphabet. This instrument is very exten- sively employed ; messages are sent by it with extreme rapidity. Another property possessed by a wire conveying a current, is that of converting 270 ELECTRO-TELEGRAPHY. 503 f n!J ^'^.?'/'''' ^H ^^^^^^'^to a magnet The attractive power, which can thus be given to and withdrawn from the soft iron at pleasure, is turned to useful accost, dtheri/piSJ^! Sf ^rf ^^,f^^^^,¥ «^'i«°» «r '^ liberating the detents of a clock movement BeTZ> ittr^^n^ tl^'i^^ZZ usSTsr^^ -' --' --''^''- — ^ ^« ^^ - reel^pS ^^^^Z^ ^^^^^ ^7J^.'-,^:, a^^.^ T. ^ shaped bar of iron passes through '^'^ » ^ • xuey are noiiow, and a U- them, presenting, its ends at the 271 face turned toward us in the draw- ing. This bar becomes magnetic —forms what is called an electro- tnaffnet— every time and as long as an electrical current circulates in the wire; and its ends be- come respectively north and south poles. A narrow plate of iron, an armature, as it is termed, is mounted on pivots in front of the ends or poles of the magnet ; it carries a vertical stem upon which the hammer is fixed. Every time the iron bar is magnetic the arma- ture is attracted, and the hammer strikes the bell. The spring or contact-maker for introducing the current of electricity into the cir- cuit, is shown in front on the right-hand side. This is Mr. Walker's bell for signalling railway trains from station to sta tion. The language consists of one or more blows. One, two and threrSowrai^ tS. wffh IniW repetition. By a simple arrangement of an index, that moves in feliowshio y o^ fT"""' '^^ T' ^ "^^^ ^^ *^^ ^^' °»ay »-ead the bell-signals. ^^^^^owship Fcff. 272 shows another application of the direct action of an electro-magnet in produc- ing telegraph signals. It 13 Morse's printing telegraph verv ffenemllv n«.H i« a • used to no small extent in Europe The coils ofwirp «!7 £®°^^'{ ^^ »» America, and fixed at one end of the lever p which is itself cai^Pd nno 1"^ *** ''' ^t ^""'•^^"'^ *' "' tion here is small in order to p^^duce rapifut^^^^^ ZfZ H h .?" "^^'f "^^ The reaction of the spiral spring /^ rStores th^TlV 1 1^ ^ '? ^^*^^ screws