!^B 1 ^EGA TIVE 91^80441-11 MICROFILMED 1992 COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY LIBRARIES/NEW YORK ik «% as part of the ndations of Western Civilization Preservation Project" Funded by the ^MENT FOR THE HUMANITIES Reproductions may not be made without permission from Columbia University Library COPYRIGHT STATEMENT The copyright law of the United States - Title 17, United States Code - concerns the making of photocopies or other reproductions of copyrighted material . . P «^ or ocner i^n.^M t'-^'^^J'"^^^^ '" Its judgement, fulfillment of the order ive violation of the copyright law. AUTHOR: TITI PLAC "^ '^^° ''W •—If DAI MIL ™ ^ IS I • r THA I A y^^ k-^ » -.#■ # • ETIQUETT LATE .... % i3 ASTER, PA # 14 COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY LIBRARIES PRESERVATION DEPARTMENT ^iSI^I^SRAPHICMICROFORMTARGE Original Material '^^FiliWTi;^!;!^^;^^ Mastc^r Negative # B7h M612 Miller, Anna Bertha, 1874- Koinan etiquette of the late repuhlic as revealed by the .or i a., I less of the New era prmtin^r vompimy, 1D14. Restrictions on Use: j^Itom,^Soc,Ilfe & cust. ^ Cicero, Marcus Tullius. i. Title. rLu.""^ n' *^''°P"^ DG78.M6 15-1311 Lnlv. of Pennsylvania r.jbr. i38bl TECHNICAL MICROFORM DATA ^ FILM SIZE- ^ ^-W--v\r> IMAGE PLACEMENf:W^-m flB "'^''""'O^ RATIO:__^-0_f >■ DA IF FILMED: ^^A'/?^ tmitia.o . Imi!' rtainriH'iit (•!' iriU'^i^: \i>it-, dinners, calls. C. Attt'iuinii to {)er-niia{ event>: birth, marriage, death. ( HAl'TF.K III Cu-Mi'I.IMF.\T> AND FaVU11> 45 A. Pohte hmgna^e. B. rnsoHcited courtesies. (.'. Requests. Chapter IV Lp:tter-writixg 53 A. Occasions: congratuhition, apology, thanks, con- dolence, introduction. B. Form and style: handwriting and materials, titles and names, greeting, close, language. (\ Confidential nature of correspondence. iii I V^*.r--f iv ■ (^IlAPTKU \' LiTEUAKY Work . . . .' 71 A. Personal dedicatinn and allii-U'iis. B. Sul)niis>i()n of inanu-cripT-. C Prest'iitatioii ('n[)ies. 1). l*iil)li«' rtu'oirnitinn «'f auilnT-. Cil WTi'Al ^7 PuBT.ir (iATiii.!;ivn^ 75 A. KtHpu Uc lur ^piakti_^ uidtr and privilege in the xnatt . trrntirifnt hv niidience, use of personal ailu-itMis. B. iupLilar drinniist rations: at the theatre, on the streot, p-i >N 83 f »• lUliLKKniAPHY ^M]»'r(■ n(= ;HiTliMf i^- .'lltd III ;! fnotlK^tf tllC pUSSagC \^ frOlll CicTTO, and ihr following , 1 W . Cicero as a Wit. CI. J., vol. 3, pp. 3 ff. Marf|iKirtlT. 1 , D n^ Privatleben der Romer. (1886) Miirill. \']. 1 . i^h < ertain Roman Characteristics. CI. Ph., \'ui. 1, f>p. oUl* V'. Momm^rn, Thrndf r History of Rome. (Trans. 1905) Pa lit' i-\Vi- . ( ) w i , i \ 1 ncyclopiidie. 1894- Peast . I' M 1 iH CreetinET in the Letters of Cicero. Studies iii llniM,! m! Hi ii <, dirsleeve. (1902), pp. 395 ff. Port* rfitl«l, < \1 It l(i ^fh'cwm Superscriptions. CI. R., "^. n! J. i-p. ;:-:;. iVc^iuii and 1 >uii^i;, T.ic in . b Life of the Romans. (1893) Pitter. } r . Tf l^rrtru V^one bciieu der Romer vor gewissen Au>(lru('krii iihil WMPt -^^•rlaIH]]lngen. Rheinisches Mu- seum flir I'liiini. .^.r, vol. 'V Pp. "'()9 ff. S<}i!n!tlt. (). L., Cicero in i 1* rentia. Xeue Jahrbuch. der kiass. Altcrtuinswiss, vC I. pp- 174 ff. Miiitli, I>i(ti.aiar\ I Circkand Roman Antiquities. (Third rdil loll ) SttH'lr, \l. 1) . rh. (irrrk in Tjcero's Epistles. A. J. P., vol. 21.PP. ;:s7iv. T\ rr( 11. IL v., liie Correspondence of Cicero. (1885) INTRODUCTION The following thesis is based primarily on a study of Cicero's correspondence, with a view to discovering what society in that age considered the proper attitude and conduct of one individual towards another. The investigation has not dealt with the moral question whether a man's treatment of his fellow was just or unjust, but simply with what the social organization accepted as the customary or conventional act under given circumstances. We are concerned wiiii inaiiners, not morals, and these manners may seem good or l^nd nrrnvfVmg as they please or offend our own taste, but they are equally important in establishing a code of etiquette which may be said to belong to a certain age of society. The purpose, then, of this paper is to illustrntr f] - iigh a collation of passages from Cicero, and from th< r writers of that period, the Roman idea of etiquette which prevailed during the closing years of the Repid li^ TIm ii'vm ttirpiotte is used in its broadest sense, to include not only courtesy nial good manners but liie observance oi cuiiventiunal piuprieties, whether thev be loose or strict: not only social dntio- nTid \\\nr proper form, but also customs whi( h fashion illMwrd even if it did not endorse them. The letters of Cicero give < !• the impression that he and his contemporaries had iCicate sense of appreciation of the niceties of courtesy, i i 1 iliat while their standards d. i •: na a ure up to wliat iIm t\ < m a t fi vchiury w(MJd consider r.a'rect, liiere did exioi a certain ral } afiiHimt ot convein aauii other r u-tie anee^tors. The culture and polish of *' eit\' Wir " had hr p>i .kt-n i .f as superior to the uncouth -turtiino^-^ isf fiHifn!-;, h'-r-Jin^. hen Republican equality, which -till exi-nMJ iu rxn-rtiai i^vui at i.-ast, stamped the social worhl with a nnirk * f .han-MTacy and freedom, which later (h>a}tpeart d nrah r ik linence of an imperial court. In mattt r- <>i .>(>eni! nn rcuiiin>e, liierefore, the age of Cicero mark- a -ra::a hiaw ♦■*•?. f]ir -'mplicity of the early Republic and the elahnrata I'Mrnnahty of ih- Iniipire. Ciceru'^ pta'-auicd iiu- aiai ihaL oi iiis associates may well funii-h II- with t pieal in nitrations of the proper conduct in fa>hiona})h^ eirrh'- at i •!.' rjn^.. ..t rh*' Ic-piiMic; for the famous orator, thomil: la-t of ari-iueratir !)iriii, laid reached the sum- mit of pohtii-ai and -..rial di^tint t ion. His friends represented J^ IX the wealth and nobility of Rome, and whatever his own success or failure in politics, he was always a prominent figure socially, whether at his city home, or in semi-retirement at one of his villas. No one, moreover, could have been more strictly conventional than Cicero. Public opinion was at once the guiding influence and chief dread of his existence. Wo need have no fear that his manners created comment by their impropriety, or shocked his associates by their originality, as did those of his contemporary, Cato. Whatever people approved, Cicero must do; for he could ill endure public censure, as we shall often see. We feel, then, that he is a safe guide through the social world in which he ii\ ed, and liiat what was accepted by him and his associates may well illn-trate for us the code of Roman etiquette in the closing years of the Republic. CHAPTER I RECOGNITION OF SOCIAL RANK In any social organization distinction of rank is apt to be a dominant factor, and would, of course, have an important bearing upon the subject of etiquette. Thus even in Repub- lican Rome we find that a man's treatment of his associates was more or less influenced by their birth, official position, age, ability, occupation, or sex. "Woman's Sphere," for example, is no more an idea of modern invention than many another social problem with w^hich Cicero and his contempo- raries were familiar. But it is important to remember in this connection that w^e have to do here not with the rights and privileges of^different classes of society, but only with customs observed in the exercise of these rights. A. Influence of Birth The Roman Republic was founded on the principle of special privileges for those of noble births Only after long struggles did the patricians share their rights with the plebeians, and the nobles admit the equites to their exclusive senatorial body. Rome had, therefore, an aristocracy of birth. To what extent did this establish social barriers in Cicero's age? The great orator himself w^as a novus homo, who had risen to the first posi- tion of honor politically and socially. He therefore might naturally feel, or affect, as he sometimes did, a scorn for noble birth^. But there is evidence that his coniemporaries (ii i recognize it as a very real distinction. Thus Atticus used t . . compliment his aristocratic friends by presenting them with » Momm. History of Rome, I, 337 flf. — I In Verr. 2, 5, 180. copies of their family trees ^ An instance is Brutus, who coukl m this way trace his ancestry to the hero who expelled the last of file Tarquins^. Xiuong those at Brundisium Caesar particularized certain *'\uuiig men of senatorial families"^ and it was of them, too, thfit Pnmpey said, "such important people" should be resent I (,)iiijitus Metellus put forth his family rank as his ^liifi! ; r respect ^ and even Cicero did not fail to speak of i> li'^Mili a< n ^'youth of noble birth"8. He also taunted I'aetu- ujifi f. ring many plebeian ancestors whom he might well « I l:-rr_;;{ r< ousrh he admitted that he also had some fKitriciaii uhL'.-. uiiuot busts he should keep^ We cannot fail < itlinr to notr tho tone of respect with which the orator writes L,At I:* iF ilS owi 1 aullus of the " splendid position of his family "^o. it T mess at the opposition of the aristocrats, 1 ! Iiim was not confined to political matters", ' indignant that he now possessed the Tusculan i tulonged to the noble Catulus^-. i fi< * \! tcnce of slavery is always a striking recognition of ♦^''■^ '"*'•' ' '1 'irth. .V Tiome, however, the slaves, who were V ! ra]>tives, d'ul not necessarily belong to a race inferior tu Liiat of their masters^^ and indeed they were sometimes their superiors in natural ability or ■^5 ^ 1 i n' n And so the intelligent Greeks who delighted Cittiu hj ilitii care and arrangement of his library^'*, who (<\ii Slaves. 8 Att. 7, 8, 3. »F. 9, 21,3. i°F. 15, 12. Cf. Plin. Ep. I, 14. "F. 1, 9, 5. »AtL 13.40. 1; Nep. Att. 18. * Phil. 2. 26. 'Caes. B.C.I, 23. « Atl. 8. 12*, 2. 'F. 5, 1, 1. " Att. 4, 5, 2. Ferrero (Greatness and Decline of Rome, II: 136 ff.) thinks an important factor in breaking down class distinctions at this time was the dem- ocratic influence of the schools where the sons of freedman and senator sat side by side according to Horace (Sat. I: 6, 71 S.) We may object to this instance as exceptional, but even so, it is significant, and perhaps all the more so on that account. " Att. 5, 20, 5. u Att. 4, 8\ 2. 1 assisted Atticus in his studies^^, or who took charge of their master's financial affairs^^, did not hold the position of menials. Accordingly, there was no impropriety in Cicero's caring for Tiro's education by personal instruction^^, nor in his ever watchful attention to his talented slave's comfort and happi- ness^^. He frankly acknowledged his dependence upon Tiro in his literary work^^, and he expressed his appreciation of his many services as carefully as if he were addressing an associate of equal rank^^. When separated from him Cicero WTote frequent letters-^ upon one occasion three on the same day^^. This correspondence reveals a personal attachment^, a deferential respect for his judgment^^, and the fact that Cicero's friends also expressed their regard for the cultured slave^. There is no reference to their relationship of master and slave, nor anything to suggest that these were not letters to some intimate friend. The orator even jokes in a familiar way about Xiro's washing to have his own letters included in a published correspondence^^. This attitude toward a favorite slave cannot have been exceptional in Cicero, who spoke of Atticus' private secretary, Alexis, as the image of his own Tiro^^, frequently sent messages to him when writing to his master^^, and complained of not receiving letters from him as Atticus did in the case of Tiro^^. More light however is thrown on the latter's position in the family by the correspondence between him and the orator's son, at the time when he was a student at Athens. This shows quite plainly the boy's affectionate comradeship with Tiro, the slave-friend of his home life^°, and also his recognition 15 Att. 5, 12, 2. "F. 16, 3. 1. »» F. 16. 10, 2. " F. 16, 4, 3. « F. 16, 24, 1. « F. 16, 6, 1. « F. 16, 1, 3. "F. 16, 1, 1. "^«. 15, 15, 3; 15, 17, 2. J8 F. 16, 9, 2; 16, 17, 2; Att. 9, 17, 2; F. 16, 4, 1-2. »F. 16, 4, 4: 16. 5 1 « F. 16, 17, 1. " Att. 12, 10. " Att. 7, 7, 7. "^«. 5, 20, 9; 6, 7, 2. " F. 16, 21, 1-2. ^ of the fact that he might gain his father's ear through this i^fl lential private secretary^^ C )i! the other hand, to plead the cause of slaves was scarcely a iL-ptjLtabit iiicLiiod of attracting attention in the courts^^ Mnrpnyrr ih^ c]hphy of great grief by Atticus at the death ! f lis Atliainas called forth a rebuke from Cicero^^ who, when ^ii- <'V li Khj.r Sositheus died, said he was more deeply alu( tr I Th I i i iM hniild be by the death of a slave^. And so, J!i-t as an earlier age had shown a Cato who worked, ate, and drafik uiih his se^vants^^ but at the same time a Piso whose blu\ t liaitd liuL :>peak until first spoken to^^ similarly at this tini' nUn. it i-^ probable that propriety left much to the indi- ^^i^hiiil III n-iird to the social recognition of servants. Sueto- 1 ill- It • ' tu all uid custom" by which they daily appeared bofort rhi if ownrr in \xv WMiYv lanPin^- than those of siiapix- " crnest-friend- Shij)'"'*'. Such riaJI'trHf^ inU-t t.f r(>ur:>«J \>v Vr\\\r\\r^\ \\\\v\i liiC ea>t('r!i frit-iid-^ \i-itr(l the < apital. S(* liir -i>n i.i' \v\n- harzaiu'>. who canit' a- an airiha--a< !• a* it . ( 'aesaia '\ as generally ft'tt'tl hv Uoiiiai! -och-tx ' , bccau-r (.K'ciaj aiiii ijUkt pri-'iuiiiL-iiL |HM)|)h' wvvv iiii(ha* ohlisrntioii t<' the jiriiK r'< of rnpi'a.hH-an'^'^. Ill 40 B. ('. K(»i!ir had tor the fir-t tiinr a InrriLi'Ha- a- o'ir ol' its C()n>iil>. (\)r!i('hii- iKilhii- t.f (ia(h'-''. hut fXt.'U lliat iiai uul mark tht* end (»f tht" -aoiHni: at one who wa- >o unfortunate^ as not to ha\e ht'cn hcuai a lioinan''. ■' Att. 1, la. in. '8S:il!i^t Jnj. N,-,. ni. "» Caes. BeW. AZcx. 3. ^••- luize, Sr>ri.trl' - thr Caesars. p. 153. S' Pint. ('at:> M,n. ■2-2. Pliny, .V. //. 7, IIJ 11. n *- Fr. 1, 1, Js. ^' F. l.n la. 1. n; :>. l; in Cat. -\. I 1, 23. *3 F. lt>, 4. _'. 8" Mt. l-i. J. J. ^' F. i:p 1. 2. 8^ F. ir>. 1. 7. \ Afr a. i .»;. »^ F. Vi, \>). 4; .4//. 2, 20, u. -J I),,, 4^. n2. Vhir:. A. //. 7, l^-n ^^ Drum. (Jtschu-fd-- R->'ns, H :,\)\ fi. I t-' ~t I < ^ « * 'r B. Influence of Official Position Official position established a rank among the Romans which was recognized in every sphere of life. A passenger of such distinction aboard ship received more careful attention from the sailors, and hence insured a safer voyage for all ^\ while the public honors won by such a statesman as Cicero' brought him the deference even of Caesar, long after the orator had ceased to have any real power^^. Sulla, who wanted to compliment Pompey, a young man as yet with no official rank, rose and saluted him with the title Imperator^\ The pomp and ceremony with which a magistrate was attended is indica- tive of the respect which his position demanded. In dress he was distinguished by the toga praetexta with its purple border^^ his was the chair of state, the sella curulis^^; at public amuse- ments a special seat was reserved for him^^. j^ ^ provincial governor, he and his staff were the guests of towrr^ whr n they travelled^^ Cicero took such pleasure in the irnhh. ivrML^nl- tion of his official rank that he hesitanod i., aiau. at I'aia.n when on his way to ('ilicia, ka.L liic euniuMon of hnidniir in' small boats should give no nppnrtuTut U^v appropriam .ji:.- play^s^^ TIa. lictors who Av.av m oori.rnnt aiTondauor upon a ^emaMJ inad^' him a con^]aru.ai. ii^urn whcrcMu- he wnnt^^ Ihe i\-.-uhuii- iuah-iht;, to escape Tintir>r> -^ometimc^ proved a decidrd nnnovanrc even t-. ('avro wh^n iir waitrd (ait>ide ^'';'''" '^'_ ''"J" "^' - triiiiiiph' , ur wa:. iiut in the mood to onj:'\ puhhaity^^h Ihi.piotio dnmandrd an ofxcrvancn of official tith- in M)cial '"^^'^■'■'"'^'^'■- "^"^ '^!^1> ^va^. it (hM-oiirt(a)U-< to omit Mich inij.ortant (Uh'. a> rnu^id, Itgattus, etc.'"-, but even an au^ur was ^- / . 4, 7, G; 5, 6, 13; 9, 16. 2. ^^ F. 2 \i>. 7. »^e.g. TJv. I 20; 2. M 7. I. a. 4,;. ^.e Smnfi: V.,n praa.,ta, ui.J ,dUi curulis. , ,^ff ,1 - *' Att. 5. in. ;l. c.;.. .,_ ^.^_ J. j,^ .. ^^^ ^ * Att. 8, 1, 3; 8, 3, ■"). Pi.r fu!I >!-'-( ri;,t ion ,-,.(■ Snuth- //r/<,/- "°^- ^•^^ '0'.i/a 11, a. 1^, »«/■. .V '.. 1: I.i. tn. 1; la, 7.1, 1. * ^ 10 11 careful to address another rneiulxT of his eolh-ire as '' rollifja "'"^ while a merely honorary title, too, nHi>t iu>t he o\'houl(l he hrou^lit to him by his constituents, to save him the trouhle of iroiFii: ahoiit to investigate them^*'^'; it recjuired too that admis>ion to his ])resence be secured only by formal recjuot'^''. KesptMt mu-t be shown to a man's ofHce even if his chara<'ter did not de>rr\ e it. "Such indii^nity is never intlieted upon the most di>lo>al citizen in the humblest ofhce," said Cicero, when deprived of the privileies marked the conduct of officials toward one another. An out-i^oinu; ii:o\'ernor \va^ exju'cted to discontinue his administration immediately on the arrival of his successor at the borders of his province''", to nu'ct him upon his arrival if possible'", and to turn oxer the office unembarrassed 1)\' difhculties''-. Care mu.-.t be taken bv governors whose territories adjoine an in>ta!ice of courtesy to an opposing general in telling how laiculhH' lictors gave a part of their fresh laurel branches to replace the withered ones on Pompey's /f/^'r7,s•''^ The higher rank of a magistrate demanded respect from lower officials. " Kticiuette forbids your finding fault with me," wrote Cicero to Titus Fadius, who had been i/innslnr i^'F. 15, S, 1. '^* F. 1. 9, 1; .4/^ ."), 20, :; t. •^5,.1«. 10. 11.5. >o« F. 3, 7, 3. "" F. i;-{, 5S and 5K. '^^* F. 5, 2, 7. i"3 Plut. ('r\s attitude toward the consul or general to that of a son toward his father"^ though this relationship, influ- enced as it was by chance, was not so complimentary as voluntary friendship"'. (\ RksPKCT F()I{ A"\ It wa^ customary for young men, ambitious for a ])u})lic career, to attach themselv(\s to an older statesman, not only lor the })eneht of his instruction, but also for the honor of as.-^ociation witli him"". It was counted one of the ])lea.sures of advanciMl age thus to be courted bv the voun'^^'-'^ ( hrros es^ay on Old A^jr refers frecpiently to the influence which that period enjoys, "so great," he says, "that it is worth more than all the diversions of youth"'-'. Good form rerpiired thost^ who were younger to make way on the street for an elderly person, to rise when hv entered their presence, and to escort him toaixi from public f)laces'-'-. These customs, say> Cicero, were obser\(Ml not onlv in Rome but bv all nation^ who had cultixated manners; and he illustrates the })oiiit by a .-^tory of some Sj)artans attending the theatre in Athens. uIk, were >hocke(l to see no seat offcTcd to an old gcfitleman when he entered, and immediately gave him one of rli(^ places reserved for them as foreign ambassadors. Since the AthcMiians a])plau{le(l, they evidently "knew what was prt^per but wc^re umvilling to do it "'-•'. We find Brutus hesitating to give Cicero advice because he "did not j)resume to counsel a man of his age "'-^^ while all Iiome rebelled at the iniproj)riety when the senate heaped "'^'- "■ -^- '■ •- /•'. 2. 10. 1; 5. 10, 1. '" /■'. 1-^. lf». 1 ; ].{, L'tl, 1. 11^ f . -••■ '- lh;,i. 17, (il. '■' F'td. is, i\4: y-.iU r. Max, 2, 1. !»: I)r Anur. li, 12. '-De Sen. 18. 01. 1.4 A((. Hi, 7. 5. 12 f 13 honors upon one so youthful as Octavius^-'' and the aij:e(l Cicero had to follow his leaderships-^. Plutareh notes that before Caesar delivered a public funeral oration on his wife, none hut an elderly matron had received this honor^-'. The (juestion whether the courtesies due old a^e or those heloni^nni,^ to official rank should take precedence, ^Faurus. the philosopher, decided as follows: '*0n j)rivate occasions a father should remain seated before his son, even thou^ih he be consnl; bnt in public it were more fittin*^ even for the aa:ed to show re>i)e(t to a magistrate." Accordingly he commended the >on of ii. Fabius IMaximus, who wliile consul, bade his own father dismount when he met him on a public hi^hway'-\ Ju\t'nal mourns the rudeness of his at with an earlier time when it was deemed a crime if a \'outh did not ri.>e in the presence of an old man^-^, and this, Cicero says, was com- mon in his time^"^^. Gellius coni})ares tlie early Uonians' respect for old age to that shown for j)arents or gods''\ which suggests the old Hebraic teaching: "Thou shalt rise uf) before the hoary head, and honor the face of the old nuin, and ft^ir thv God' 'S3-. t I). Occupation': its Kffkct cpox Social Staxdixg It is of special interest to the studtMit of Roman eticpiette to notice how far a man's occupation atlVcted his social j)osi- tion. In earlier times, war and agriculture had been thought the most respectable vocations for a Roman gentleman'''; but Cicero placed the legal profession beside the militar\' as one conferring equal dignityS'^', and we know the high social position of advocates in his age, courted as they were by \ oung men of noble births^^ The fact that nominalh' no fee was !-^ (ioU. 2, 2. '-' Juv. lo, 51 '){>. '^■-^ad Brut. 1. lo. 7. '■■^ Att. \i\, S. I. '"-• Plut. Cues. 5, 2. 15" Dc Invent. 1, 30. is. (7. Sen. dt ira 2, 21, s. 131 Cell. 2. 15. !^i Lerit. 10, H2.' 1" De Ojjk. 1, 42. 151; De Sen. 7. 21. '"" I'm. Mar. 11, :iU. 13* De Amic. 1, 1; Brut. 89. 300; Pro Cad. 1, U. *-r-^ paid for legal service presumably placed this profession above the j)lane of money-makingS•^^ though in reality it yielded a considerable income in gifts and legacies that was by no means d(^s])isedS'^^ Of professional arts Cicero considered architecture and medi- cine the most res|)ectableS'^\ He showed great deference for the \iews of his own architect, CyrusS'^'\ and spoke of his physician Asclajx) as an intimate friends^^, though the pro- fession of medicine at this time was largely practised by fretMlmen, chiefly foreigners, who were, as a class, enfranchised by Caesar^ 's Although tlie stage was far from being generally accepted as an honorable vocation in Cicero's dayS^'-, the orator was ])r()ud of his friendship with the great actor Aesopns'^\ and j)aid high tribute to Roscius^-^^ He also fre- quently referred to his great esteem for the bankers, Curius, \ estorius, and othersS'\ Atticus himself, a leader in social circles, was a money lenderS'^ conducted a publishing busi- ness''', and l)ought and sold gladiators^^^. We may infer, therefore, that mere money-making was not a disgrace, and indeed by Horace's time it had become so general as to call forth his satire upon its influence^'-'. However, in spite of this tendency to approve money-getting, the gentleman of liberal education continued to hold in contempt occupations of handcraft, shop-keeping, and the like, so that in the time of Juvenal scorn was still felt for those who had grown rich by [)akeries, batli houses, the business of an undertaker, auc- tionecTing, and similar pursuits^'*'. During the Ciceronian age the position of teachers ranged '■'' Liv. 31. ■}, \)\ T:if. Ann. 11, 5. '3' .1//. 1, 20. 7. '5^ l)i Ojltc. 1. 42. 151. '^^ Aft. 2, 3. 2. ^'" F. 13, 20. 1^' Suet. Cars. 42. •^- Xepos Pr(uj. 5. '«/■>. 1. 2. 14. i" Pro Arch in s; Pint. Cic. 5; cf. Pliny, A'. //. 7, 12S. 1^^ Att. 0, 2. 3: F. 13, 17, 1; 13, 50, 1. '«.4^/. S, 7, 3. 1^5 Hor. S". used by the early Christian church to "' '. The reference to Staberius Eros, a friend of (^icero's, who taught wiiJiout com- pensation the children of i)ersons proscribed by Sulla. ma\' suggest that this was more honorable than teachini: for money^^^ but Marcus \'errius Flaccus received a salary of fivr thousand dollars for educating the children of Auunistu>"'\ and we may note the wealth of (^uintilian who was a famous schoolmaster of a somewhat latcT period""'-. In connection with the subject of (.C('upati(»ns, we may notr '^' .1/^ f), L 12: 7, 4. 1. !>-■ F. ir,, 21. :•!. ^" Cf. Martiars reference to flo^yiiim hy >ch')()!niasters (in. Tij, ](),, ;i (re." ih'jn.sf 2, 1. 71.) ^■'^F. IG. 21,4. ^^Uhut.2U. '- F. 9, IS. 4. (7. Quint. 2, 9. i- Suet, ./c (iram. 13. ^^«Cf. Quint. 2, 2,4. i.i n^ia. 17. »*■ Prov. 1, 8; 4, 1. Cf. M. Aurel. .\fedit. I. 13. '^^ Juv. Sat. 7. ISS 1" Nep. Att. 1, 2. I ^ 1 -9?^^ 7 15 here the rules of etiquette observed in business transactions. (Vmrtesy, for instance, forbade the buying of a friend's estate Courtesy ^^^^^^ ^^^ confiscation^^l Crassus won infamy by of Business thus heaping up riches during Sulla's proscrip- Relations tions'^''. He was denounced, too, for courting favor with the owners of property which he wished to buy at a low figure"'', and, though he loaned money without interest, his strict demand for prompt payment destroyed the good im- pression of his intended generosity"''^ In the matter of borrowing monex". so common among acquaintances in this agr"", we ha\(' a shining exam})le of long-suffering courtesy in Atticus, whose ])urse was always ()[)en to the ever-needy Cicero"'". It was not the j)art of a gentleman to press a dt^btor for i)ayment before it was due''''*, when the market was tight''", or when he was in distress'"', nor to sue a sponsor without first notifying the debtor himself'-, l)ut it seems to have been possible to collect a debt in court without severiuL' the ties of friendship''^ Shakespeare's warning, however, was founded on the ex[)erience (tf ag(>s, for we do find that lending money sometimes lost a friend. Caelius Uufus dis- coxcred in the large sum which he owed Apj)ius Claudius, a reason for the hitter's hostilitv''', and Titus Uufus staved a\\a\ from Cicero's sdluidiii, to avoid meeting there a common friend to whom he was in debt''"'. E. RKrocxrriox of Womkx 1 ndcr the subject of class distinctions made by Cicero and \\\> contemJ)orarie.^, it is important to consider how far thev W3.4//. o, S, 2. >fMhid. 1. 4. "^ Phit. Tra.v.v. 2. 4. ^" Ihul. 3. !. From Phjtarcli we learn that Cato also kej)t money on hand to lend hi- friends without int(>rest. (Plut. Cat. Mui. (>, 3.) ''• .1//. s. tl. 3: n, 11. 2; 12, ol. 3. ^'^ Ait. 10, 15, 2. '" -1^^- •''■ l-'>. -■ '-'Att. 15. 13", 5; 16, 15, 1. ''^ -1//. Iti, 2. 1. i-t l\ s, 12, 1. ''' -^ft. 7, IS. 4. :^^.4//. 5, 2, 2. '" Att. 5, 1',). ]. IG 17 Social Freedom discriminate for or afrainst woman in the matter of social privilee^es. We must remember that in the closing clays of the Republic the "emancipation" of the Roman matron was far advanced^'*'. The ideal of woman- hood was now found in records of the past, such as the toml)- stones which told of the lovin^^ wife and mother who " ke{)t the home and made the wool"'", or who "married but once"^'^, and in tlie exce])tional mother who nursed and taught her own children''-'. The |)raise bestowed upon such womanly virtues of a bygone age suggests their absence in the present'^^. Nominally the wife of that earlier time had bcuMi under the complete control of her husband'^'. But (/ato the I'hicr, that enemy of womankind, had disclosed the fact that even the ideal Roman matron of those earlv daxs wa> not entireh' satisfactory. She had made some progress, indeed, toward the liberty enjoyed by her daughters in Cicero's age. "All men rule women," the Censor bitterl\- remarked, "we Romans rule all men, and our wives rule us"'^-; and of the three things of which he repented during his whole life, one was that he had ever told a secret to any woman'^\ The following un- gallant words of Metellus Mactulonicus are recorde 1'^ Donaldson, Woman in (irrece and Rrnru\ pp. s3 ff. A^hntr, Sncicty and. Politics in Rome, 41 if. Drum. G. H. V. 3tii) tl. 1" C I L I. 1007; VI. 1527; VI, U49U. ''^ P-id. VI, 3^01. !■» Catul. 61, 212 ff.; Plut. Cato Mai. 20. 'r. Tar. Dud. 2s. 1*0 Cic. Bnit. i)^, 211. 1^3 I}, J,} () () 'siGell. 3. 2, 12-1:5. -'Kiel!. 1, »'.. i« Plut. Cato Mai. S, 4. i»5 Val. Max. S, 3, 3; Liv. s. IS; 34. l-^s; cf. Marcp Pr. 03 fT. i'*«Plut. Cato Mm. 25: 3. age. We shall imd, rather, that she enjoyed great respect and courtesy from men, notwithstanding the many examples of immorality which resulted from her social freedom^'*". As long as Cicero was able to keep ])eace with his wife, Terentia, his attitude toward her showed not onlv the affec- tion ex])ectcd from a luisban(l'''\ but a frank and kind ac- knowledgment of her noble character'^', of her courage and fortitude as greater than a man's'"', and of her influence over himself'''. Ib^ chivalrously refused to have her sliare the misery of his exile'"-; and desired to protect her, "as a hus- band should, from anxiety an.d hardship"'-'''. Even the last letter of ( 1cero'> correspondence with Terentia, which is simply a <-urt request that she have his Tusculan villa made ready for himself and guests'-", is discourteous in manner rather than in content. J^'or the Roman matron claimed such direction of her household as her special privilege. We recall ]\)m- ponia's (juarrel with (^uintus Cic(To, who on one occasion gave orders for dinner without consulting her. "1 seem to be a stranger in my own house," she said, and refused to appear at the dinner, although gue.->ts were l)eing entertained^'-*''. Moreover, since (^uintiis Cicero entrusted Pomj)onia with his signet ring, during his absence from Rome, we infer that at .^uch timc> >hc attended also to his j)rivate business'''^'. A> to a daughter'^ position in the Roman household, we ma\ learn nnich from Cicero's correspondence, in the refer- ence.^ not only to his attentions to TuUia''*', but also to the life of Atticu>' little girl, who was the pet of her father'-'*". If Tullia wished or advised, CiciTo was ready to act in accord- ance with her ])leasure or judgment, be it to set aside his own plans and take her to Antium for the games'"'-*, or to follow '•^' Phit. Ant. 0. ;^- and 10, 2: pro C(ul 20. 40; Drum. G. R. II: 371; V: 388 ff. '■^^ /■'. n. I. 1. '•'•'^ F. 14, 20. '^^ F. 14, 4, t.. i^'' Att. 5, 1, 3 4. ''■■'' F. 1 I, 1. 1 : U. 7, 2. i-'^' Att. 11, 0, 2. 1*1 F. 1 1. 2. 2. '^' F. 14, 2, 1: -4//. 1. 5. 8. '^- F. 14, 4, 3, ■•■"• Att. o, 11). 2, 7. 2. 4. = 53 F. 14. 2. 2 ''■"' Att. 2, S. 2. V 18 her advice in legal controversy^oo. Durin.E,^ the wretched months of poHtical unrest, when he waited at BruncHsiuni, torn by indecision and despair, it was the companionshij) of this beloved daughter that he wished for constantly-"'; and when she was ill, nothing was important enough to call him from her bedside^^-. Atticus' daughter, though much younger, seems to ha\c received quite as much attention in her father's houseliold. He scarcely wrote even a business hotter to dcero without referring to her, or inclosing a message from her-'"l His friends, too, recognized Attica's im{)()rtance in her parent'^ life, and so paid their tribute of appreciation"-'". We notice that in letters written to tlie women of one's own family, the formal address, which was a mark of courtesy, wa> used '"'. Outside the home circle the woman of Cicero's tinu' was no less conspicuous. She went with her male rclativ(^s to public places of amusement-•^^ and sat among the men'-'*'; but such a vulgar flirtation in the theatre as that of which Hortc^nsiu..' sister was once guilty ai)parently olTended good taste as nuu'li then as it would now-"\ Women also dined with men'-"'', and indeed their presence was a matter not of tolerance, !)ut of importance, for Cicero once omitted a man from liis Ii>t of dinner guests to prevent Tertia. l^rutus" si.tcr, from declining an invitation-"'. Good form re({uirc(l that women should sit and not recline at the banquet table -'. and >}ionld drink no wine-'-. Presunud)ly the gentlewoman was accom- panied by her husband or some male relative when >lie dined '-'■- F. r,, is, '. ■'' At!. 4. It). J: 1(1. .s. 1. -"' Att. 11. 17, 1. "''Att. 6. 1, 2-; 12, 14, 4; IJ, '2A. ;]; 12. 24, :V. 13 ■^•~> \ ^■<^'Atf. 12.3:5, 2; 13, 12. 1; 13. 13. 3; 15. 2!». 1. 20^ F. 14, 21^24; 14, II. 17, etc. (^f. p. (V,. '^'Att. 2. S. 2; d, hnr. n.istance for her son"-'*'. Merely as a friendly courtoy. lIorten>ius turned out of his way to call upon Tereiitia. when he was passing near Cicero's villa'-'', and the latter paid the same respect to Atticus' wife, while she was .staying at ruteoli'-'^. In social gatherings we find women taking ])art with men in the discussion of public matters-'''. In one instance Cicero admits that he interru])ted Servilia because she was ()p|)osing his argument "-", though he does not also im})ly that his conduct was the more di-eourteous in that she was a woman. Men on the street were expected to make way for women'"'. Their failure to do so, which called forth action by the senate'"^ ma\ ha\e been due less to an absence of courtesy tlian of space for pedestrians, since in the twentieth century the etiquette of Roman street life re\'eals the same fault. Propriety allowed a woman to greet her relations with a kis.s"—^, but we remember that Cato the ( "ensor expelled Manlius from the senate for ki-sing his wife in the presence of others'-"-'. There is some e\ idence that it was customary for women to use the public baths at tlie end of the He])ublic; for Atia, the mother of Augustus, did so'--', and Plutarch says that the Romans, under (Jreek influence, ceased to (lisapi)rove of wives' bathing with tlieir husbands'--*'. Woman's social activities, in the age which we are studying, -nz pro (\i F. 5. 11, 2. -'^ F. (i, 22, 3. '-'■ Att. 10, 1(1. 5. •'•- Att. 14, 20, 5. 2'^ Att. 15, 11, 12. "0 .1//. 15, 11, 2. -'-1 Plut. Rom. 20. G. — Val. Max. 5, 2, 1. "'■' Plut. (Ic rnulicr. virt. 1 ; Suet. Jul. 13. ■-■' Plut. Cato Mai. 17, 10. ^-^Suct. Aug. 94. 2^Mnut. Cato Mai. 20, 10. 20 allowed her a prominent part in the arrancrement of betrothals, even outside her own family circle--'. Hence the match- making mother of to-day has her Roman pr()t()typc"\ An ambitious young woman might also keej) watch for her own opportunities. Cicero complains that a thoughtlos comi)!!- raent which he paid to a lady was wrongly interpreted as a suggestion that he wished to marry her-". Her forwardness. which thus annoyed the famous orator, makes n^ won.ler how many of the names submitted to him by Attiei!> for a ciioiec of his second wife, had been suggested by the women them- selves'-'^". Quintus Cicero, the younger, tells of an oll'er ..f marriage from a young woman-'^ but hi.. uneh> di.eredlte' >n,all daughter who took her father's fri(.nd, Cleern. to tadv for any neglect of attention to her-", would indicate that the woman /.f this period grew up with some idea of the re.ptvt which s.u-iety owed her. A notable instance of the comradelike e(|uality possible between man and woman at tlii. time i. found in the friendship of Cicero and (^terellia. 11, ey met on tiic common ground of intellectual companionship'*, but ("icero also borrowed money from her-'^\ and she proxed her dis- interested attitude in their relations by her attemi)t to recon- cile him to his young wif(% Publilia-''\ Man's attittide toward woman i> often indicated by the moral stamlard which he sets for her. There i. no denying that the prominent women of this i)eriod did not entirely forfeit their social position by their immorality, when Scrvilia's beautiful villa at Xai)les was known to be the gift of Caesar- ', and her influence over him was admitted in the , 11, 1 "» Att. 5. 21. 14. "^--1^/. 15. r*. 4. "'^ Att. 12, 11. 231 Att. 15. 29, 2. "2.4//. 10, .'i 3. -'' Atf. 15. 27. :<: 15. J^. -'* At!. !;•!, 21. 5. -•- Aft. 12. 51. ;i. -^'' Att. 14, lit, 4. -•^^ -1//. 14, 21, ;•!. -^^-1//. 2, 21, A. I 21 when Clodia swayed the social and political leaders of Rome in s{)ite of her notoriously loose character^^; and when deopatra dared appear in Rome as Caesar's guest'^". But there is sufHcient evidence that no such moral standard was accepted for tlie resj)ectable Roman matron. Caelius, when he wrott^ Cicero a cha])ter of society scandal, added: "There are many incredible things of this nature which have happened in your absence "-'^ The orat(>r, too, when he had attended a dinner at which a woman of (piestionable character was j)re>ent, oll'ered the excuse that he had not known that she would be there'-'-. Again, to s{)are a friend mortihcation, he refrained from mentioning in his ])resence the unfaithfulness of the hitter's wife-'\ The ver\- ])leasure which dcero's gossi])-loving soul found in the discovery that a young rake carrie(l in his luggage from Rome the ])ortraits of many of its iiKtst ])rominent matrons, reveals the fact that the society of the capital did not >anetion such conduct on the part of its elect-". Hie re>pect paid to wonuMi by Cicero's contemporaries did not stop with social formalities. In the sphere of political activity their inHueiice is plainly visible. Indeed, if Cato the Klder could have returned to Rome at this time, Public Influence he might have recalled sadly his own i)r()phetic warning to the senate: " When once women have begun to be our ecpials, they will become our superiors "-^"\ We have various instances in which a man's political success"^^ or rtH'all from exile was due to his wife's elTorts"-'', and also of her mediation between her husband and his ])olitical opponents"^^. Julia, the daughter of Caesar and wife of Pompey, surely held the thread which bound the great triumvirate together, and ^^' Att. 2, •». 1 ; 2, 1, 5; j>ro Cutl. 14, IVA: 20, 50. -' .4//. 15. 15, 2. '■''' Liv. :M. .':!. •^' F. S. 7. 2. '^c F. 4. 2, 1; 5, 0. 1. •■•- F. 9. 20, 2. ' -^' F. 14. 4. 2; 15, 7; 15, 8. '-^-' .4//. ir., 11, 1. '^^ F. 5, 2, 0. -'■'.4//. 0, 1, 25. 22 which snapped at her death'-'-'. Pornpey. at the hei-ht of hi. fame, allowed his h)ve for hw to infhieiice his puhhe can-cr, since he resi.i^nied the command of h^irions and distant [)roviiic('. to avoid separation from her''^ Tht- peopk' (h'manded a celebration of her fnneral on tlie ( 'ani})us Martins, altfioii-h htT husband had phmned to bnry her privately-"'. Hnt tfii> was not an exceptional honor for a woman; as early a> 1()L> I^ (\ a funeral oration had been delivered for Popilia. the mother of Quintus Catulns'-'-, and there are many later in>tanc('s-^l There is no tellinu: how nnich of the incon>i>tency of Hrutu,.' political moves was due to tlie conflictinir influence of hi. wife Porcia, Cato's dau,t.diter, who was hi> confidant and po>>ible inspiration in the plot a-ainst Caesar- \ and of hi. mother Servilia, the Dictator's favorite- '. Durinir the disorderly days followin.cr the assassination on March the fifteenth, it was Servilia who sent for (^icero to discuss plans of action-'^, and the great statesman once apoloudzcd to her son-in-hiw, Cassius, for not havintr followed her advice in the senati'-"'. Bruttis would write to his mother and >istcr political confi- dences which they were to share with ('icero-'\ Plutarch describes Antony's wife, Fulvia, as a woman "not born for spmning nor for h()usekee|)in<,^ not content with rulini; a husband of private rank, but prepared to <:overn a chief magistrate, or to give orders to a eonnnander-in-chief " -", and she it was who secured the bribes paid to Antony by the eastern monarch, Deiotarus. for gaining the intercession of the Roman senate'-^*^. Of Terentia, (/icero said that she would rather thrust herself into his public atfairs than communicate her domestic matters ■-"■'- (It Ordtnvf _', 11, n. - ' .>uet. Jul. 0; iJio ('a.- ■'-'' Att. 2. 17. 1; Plat. Pomp. 53. .",. •-■'opiut. Cras.s. 10, 1; Plut. Pump. 5;j. 12 -'1 Plut. Pomp. 5:5, 4. ■^' Att. 13. 9, 2; Att. 15. 11, 1; Plut. Brut. 13, ;]~4. ^^^ ad Brut. 1. IS. 1. ,:, pi,^^ .j^^^ j,,^ ^_ ^- I-' '^' 1- ^'^ Att. 11. 12. I. 3U, t;4. i' * 23 to liinr'\ and if >he did. as Plutarch tells us, influence him to testify against ( ■lodius-'-', she indeed directed the course of his hie thereafter, which involved important public measures. To Precia, the wife of Cethegus, Lucullus and other political b'aders app.^aled in behalf of any public measure for which they desired her husband's supj)()rt-''\ and the fate of the Athenian^, when concpicred by Sulla, was more serious because tlu-v- had sculled at his wife Metella from the walls-*'^ 2'^' Vl'.it. Cic. 2(1. 2. "- IMin. r:.\ 2't. 1. 2«3IMiir. Lurul. .;, ;■; O. 2Mplut. S.dla. ti. 18. I . CHAPTER II SOCIAIL FUNCTIONS AND DUTIES A. Regard for Manners and Dress Before we pass to the study of separate social functions and the Romans' idea of their proper performance, we shall con- sider what regard there was for manners in general, including the subject of dress, which is likewise one asj)cct of what propriety demands. We are apt to think of the ideal Roman of Republican times as the exponent rather of stern virtues than of good manners, but we find, in fact, a marked regard for the latter also. It is a pleasure to discover that Cato the ( 'cnsor was Persons.! Manners admired not for, but in spite of, his rudt^icss and disregard for c()nvention\ but even he would not have near him "a soldier who wagged his hands when he walked. shuffled his feet when he fought, or snored in his sleep""-. In Cicero's age the younger Cato was censured for imitating his blunt ancestor and his rudeness cost him the consulship'. When he went to Asia, Cicero expressed the hope that he would bring back more agreeable manners from his visit'. It is interesting to note that then, as now, politeness was attributed to city influence*'. Marius, who had spent his early life in a j)oor little village, ''began too late to haunt the citv and learn the manners of Rome "^, and so he had not thecivilitv to attract and entertain courteouslv those who came to him. "There- fore in times of peace men paid no attention to him, but in wars onlv/' savs Plutarch'. 1 Plut. Cato Mai. 3, 2; 4. 2. 2 Ibid. 9, G. 3 Plut. Cato Min. 35; 50, 2. * Ibid. 14, 3. ^ F. 3. <,», 1, « Plut. Manns 3. 1, ■ I'>id. 32. 2. 24 I ^ 25 The contrast between Pompey's haughty formality and the gracious manners of Crassus had much to do with the dif- ference in their popularity^ So Gaius Gracchus had won public favor by his great courtesy^ and so Dolabella's "charm of manner" served to outweigh his moral shortcomings in the estimate of Cicero's familv^^\ As to what were good manners in Cicero's day, we have some details. When three persons walked or sat together, the place of honor was that in the middle^^ To rise in the presence of one wlio entered was a mark of respect^^^ This courtesy the senate showed ( ^u'sar in a bodv^\ and Sulla alwavs stood with uncovered head to receive Pompey, although he was younger than himself^'. An unusual demonstration for Romans was that of Cato's soldiers, who spread their clothes at his feet, and ki>se(i his hand as he passed^l We find that certani forms of sj)eech were regarded as afl'ectation^^ and (^cero eon.^idered it rude to contradict'". lie refused to a{)p()mt a certain (Javius to an office during his governorshij) ot Cilicia because of the diseourteous manner of his asking for It; without any evidence that he would aj)preciate such a favor, he liad simply said: "Where do you want me to get the allowances of prefectr"'' Again, (^icero re])rimanded Lepidus because he failed to ex})ress thanks to the senate for honors conferred upon him''*. Drunkenness was a breach of good nui II nets'", as well as other forms of del)aucher^'-^ Dancin^' vxvvpt in religious rites, was not in good taste"". There were times a!i Min. r,7. 1 '- Pint. Ciitn Mill. 14, 1. '^ Plut. Cars. titi. -2. '" Plut. PnrnjK S. 4: Plwt. Crass, f,, .">. -- fifi' Afur. (■>. l.i. a. ,n Pi.^iiN. 10, 22 = •' Plut. Cato Min. 12, 1. •' Att. 1, 14, 1. '■ F. 3. s, 5. '^ Atf. i), 3. (i. ^» F. 10, 27, 1. "" /'. 12. 2. 1. "' Plut. .4/?^ 9: 2-4. Serv. ad Verg. Ed. 5, 73. I I n L>0 misfortiine-"\ and he considered it l)eneatli his dit^nitv to have the impression spread hrn;Hh-a-t tl;:'.t he v.ouhl \ i.-it (Ireeee to see the 01ymj)ian pinies'-^ However the orator may oil'eiid (»nr ta>te hy hi^ own x-lf- praise-^ he makes frequent reference to the inih'hcacy of dwelling upon one's own achic\-eni(MitN-'\ or forciiiu- one's ideas upon others-'. In the matter of jokini,^ on pcr-onal subjects, considerable freedom wa- apparently pernii-^ihh' between friends. When (/icero had failed to receive a letter in a lontj: time from Trel)atiu>. he wrote to tlii> \ounu- la\vy(>r: *'If you have for^^^otten how to write, fewer will be the clients who will lose their cases by emploxini: you as their ad\-oeate'"'\ and to Wderitis, when he wished him to come home from Cilicia: "People from xour neiu-hborliood >ay that \ on are proud, because you <,dve no opinions, or insultini: because you give bad ones."-^ lb' ofieii twittrd Aitieii. ahoui lii- scanty meals-'^'\ his closeness with money^*. or some >lip in his hterary work'^-. Even bodily defect.^"* were the >ubject of -nth wit as that of Appius, who said to Sextiu>, a man with onl\ one eye: "I'll come to dine with you, for I -(•(> there i> room for one." This, to be sure. Cicero regardtMl a- iroing too far, though he approved of Sextiu-' r<'ply: " \Va>h \ oin- hand- and come"''^ Other ex'ideiiee on thi- -ul)jcet ma} be found in the section treating of etitpiette for public -peak< rs^-'. (h)od manners naturallx iiichide*! ^i^uw form t)f -ahitatiL'U wlien one met an ac(juaintance. Iba-acc iiotr^ i !ic tailnr.' of n - F. !>, :]. 1: <>, -J. .1. 2^ /■ :, ! I !. -* Ati. It). 7, .-). 29 f I j,) }_ -'inCil. Ill li / .- 7, 3. "^«. 6, 1.13; 16, 3.1. Cf. Nep. ^«. 13. 2« Acad. 2, 1 :;: .1//, 1, h;, -, i, 13,5. 31 ^^^, 4^ ^^ j ^^ ,-,_ ^ -'Acad. !. \. 14: J, .in. 11 \ 3'- Att. 12, 6, 4. 33 Tlu' K.>; 11:1: v^ '■!•(• t,:ir t leularly keen to note these, as is evident from the < t>ni(jl()i;y of th. ir names, e. g. Barbatus, Naso, Capito, Rufus, Caesar (Plut. Coriol. 11). i h. ir i ■ < . ridants also exhibit a proneness to give offensive nick- n irues, so many of which are found, for instance, in a list of their painters: O itriinr). "the squint-eyed"; Giorgione, "Big George"; Masaccio, "Dirty Tom." etc. 3< de Oratore 2. 246. w pp. 75 ff. V ♦ " ^X h VI '/ 27 tradesman to >ay '"good morning" fir.st to a wealthy man on the street'''. "J/v" was long the customary greeting of the Homanv'', but Servius thought that -diaking the right hand w;i> the usual formality iji these earlier times'^\ Great stress wa. laid upon calling the name of the person to whom one spoke: hence the custom of employing a nofumrhifur, to announce who wa> approaching on the street or at the morn- '"- ''l^-^'ption". One reax.n why (^rassus made such an im- 1*''*;^^'"" ^;y '^'^ <-<»urte^x- was that he ncvia- met evcai a humble citizen without returning liis >alute by nainc^^ In the more demonstrative greeting between friends, embraces and kisses wtav cxchange,b=; but ki»ing, so general as to form a fea- ture of the host's reception of his guests at the sahifafio, did lint bec«.ine customary before the empire^-, when the habit is referred to as ex(rs>ive''\ and was finallv forbidden })v law''. The Pvomans gave considerable attention in dcero's age to appropriate dress and proper personal appearance'*. We note hrst Its significance in the designation of civil rank. A bo;, lai.l aside his childhood dress with special ceremonies and assumed the for/a rin'lis or garb of citi- zcnship"-, which was the r)nly proper dress for the Forum and all tormal occasions-y but should be removed indoors'^ So ^■nniph'teiy wa^ the fu(fa identihed with Roman nationality ifinl as a people thex were called 7C//.V /n././/./ -'. A special form "^ ^'"' ^"-•'- "i*"^'' f»y the addition of a puri)le border and <-Jhd iIh' /-;/ra^f>j:fa, marked the wearer as of jiiirf, ofhcial «Ep. 1, 7, 66. *' Sen. de Bene/. 6, 34, 3; F. 8, 16, 4. Cf. Mart. 1, 108. 1 1 7, 39, 2. »8Serv. ad Aen. 1, 408. "AU. 4, 1,5; pro Mur. 36, 77; Sen. ad Seren. 11 I <■:. Mir,i /> iw 117 <° Plut. Crass. 3, 5. li hr wore in proof thereof an elaborately embroid- trr.l Toga^^. Tlir prnr»rr occasion and manner of wearing different L:.ifii!. !iT^ was determined by etiquette. The conventional < ri ii . win i jM Mt.i once in the wrong cloak, made haste to < li i!!ur i! , w hilt < in firoiurbt disgrace on his office of praetor by gniiiLr Hi ( !iri \ iihout his siioes and tunic^^, and was guilty "1 * oiit. flip! smp 1,1 hion ii! scaring dark purple, when light ^va- if! voLTiK . WIm! In !n;t'\' w(»tt his embroidered toga, and !]i> nnliiarx i.iH.t., ;in^n<' up''. LllCllllu:- (»ncf ])!!Ill-!M'(i -nn.)- -nlMicf- h, !ii;;ij'i_: f!ir!!i d\'^ a trench in l]\v prc-cncc of ilir ir^i oT tiic arm; un-ird.-d*'^. In ( "ieero'-^ au'e -fiaxinu' \\a< L^eiicra!. 'I'litrrt'oTv- beard--, I n ( especially when i'anrily {riniuif.l, uci-r allowed to irrow h)nu-, were conddcrrd -hca nh. a 1 . 1 1 I i 1 haicr the -' Plut. (J. U. vi : 1 : Vlxny. V. If. 9. 1J7: I'l it. Sulla. ! Tlor. Sat. 1. 5, 35 ff. Tho th('()r\' ha.- t)fcn adxaii't-'l t'd.-it ifi. ',;ya praetcxtn, also worn I';/ rliiiarcn, erubodiod r(>lii:;ioiis ^iirmlii-auce. (Wirdf F^'wI.t. (~'\. }\'\. l^nc. pp .;i7 :;i':i.") ^' Pliny, -V. //. 'C t^; l{^>r. Snl. I, ti, J7. l-.,r ,;. t::il, a ,ii^r..-H. .a see ^^Iu!•i!: ■'' F. l;-J, (i\ 1. sprint. (•.!!.. M.n. 11 1 ^' .U^ 1, IS, 0. 66 Jlji^i^ ,,, _>. 5^ Plut. Crass. 2.-!; 1. •- ,1'/. 1. Is, fV 2. :^ 1. ^Un Cat. 2, 10. 22; CW'l!. t; .7). 12; Hur. /:"/;.>,/. }, 7 Ic A/-. 1, Is, ;^o. Horace gives us some {)ictur(\s of peojjle who were the .-ui'jrcr- of ridimlr lifr;iu,-e of their dress, in the fickle Priscus, wlio changed his costume several time< the same day (Sat. 2, 7, S-IO); th»» fop who added to ordinary clothimi " .-t(Hkinirs, an elbow pillow, and a muffler" (Sat. 2, ;>, 27)1); the rustic who was mark«Ml hy the cut of his hair, his ill-setting gown, and his loosely-fif tintr shoe- [Sat. 1 . a, aO) ; and the poor man whose poverty was revealed by his >ha!)l)y tunic i A'/'. 1. 1, 94-96; cf. Ep. 1, 18. 7). ^* pro Cluent. 40, 111; FroiM-rt. r,, 2, 3S. 6i in Cat. 2. 10; Att. 1. 11. 7,. 60 Plut. Lucull. 15, 8. t-: j,rn C:iil. 1 1, ;;a; lav. 27, .n. ^ 4 Y > •.* } I •( i'n he \\(».-e,^'' latter were an appropriate sign of mourning, in which the hair of the head was also left uncut^. The mourning garb, a dark or black robe, was proper in time of death or other sorrow which might affect oneself or friends^S including such occasions as trials in court^^ or defeat in election^^ At the time of Cicero's banishment twenty thousand were said to have shown their sympathy in this way^^. After Pharsalus Pompey wore, until the time of his death, such garments as told of his grief in defeat®^. The Roman gentlewoman of this period had not attained the same liberty in style of dress which she enjoyed m ua r matters; for here propriety drew close Hues ;d)< an hn ( says that Clodia revealed her character bv what and even in Horace's linM^, nniy -hives and cuurie^aus iii:,- ren-ard. d ^.an. imMh- n; drrss'^ dldsrecaih- tliecaseof Oai'is ^iidas. There is some indication thiat -ue.-t-fricnd.ship al.>o carried witli it the (rreek interpretation of a pledge of ^ood faith ''^ and Roman . ,. . -, • , , Hospitality ^^'^''^"^ protection ior the guest '^ with a heredi- tary v\\i\\i of hosj)iiinrii for individuals as well as for states". The formal sign of such a compact between host ^' Pint. Cato Min. o:^ 1. '* .1/^ a. i.y .y /■'. :,, i, 2; it, :?, 2; Fr. 2, ;\. i. '^I'l^it. C,c. \). 1. 71 y.^i Max. 6, 3, 10. " Plut. C Mm. .■>(). 1. :-' Plut. Q. R. 14. «■ Plut. Cir. ;•!() 4; Plut. Crass. Vi. o. ■?• Att.:i, l.->, 7: .see Smith: hospitium. " ''l^'^- P''r"P- 72, 2; 7:-!, 4. ■* Cell, 5, 13, 5; in Caecil. 20, 67. ^' pn, Cad. 20, 4!1. v. Caes. B. C. 2, 25, 4: o. 50, 3. '^' ll:)r. Sat. 1, 2, 100 fT. 30 and guest was the clasj)ing of piirht hand-'*', a custom so old as to be associated with the legenchiry fricnddiip cstahh>hc(i hr- tween the founders of the Latin race, Aenea> and Latinu^''. Thus Roman hospitahty was tracHtional. Cicero's many houses were always (.{)t'n to hi> fri(>nd-, a small coterie of whom generally surrounded him, whctjicr lie happened to he in his villa at I*uetoli'\ or in the ciijox nicnt of quiet at Tusculum"'. Of Lyso, a physician from Patrae. \w once said: "He almost lived in my house in Komcfora \-car"^", as he might also have said of Dolahella, \\\\n>v Iciigthx visits at Tusculum often interfered with Ciccn.'s literary work^'. Mention has already heen made of the fact tliat the Stoic philosopher, Diodotus, made his home with Cicero duriii<^ many years^"-. We have many references also to the hospitality of Atticii^. In his home Cicero first took refuge after Tiillia'> death, when sad memories haunted liis own fireside^', and to thi> friend he often went before returning to one of his own house, after a journey^^ It was not luuisual, it seems, thu> to acee[)t an invitation to visit a friend first after an absence from home'\ Since the wealthy Roman conunonly owned more than one residence''\ he sometimes turned over one of them to a friend temporarily for his own use"' or for the entertainment of guests^^ Cicero gave his villa at Puteoli to Atticu.V wife U^r such visits, and provided it with the servants necessary for her comfort*^^; the one at Astura, too, he otfered to Brutus to occupy as long as he wished'^ and he himself imcv })orrowed the villa of his son-in-law. Oassipes, for the purpose cf enter- taining some friends there". The exchange of free hospitality ■« Tacit. Hist. 1, 54. "■ Liv. 1, 1. s. '^ Att. 14, 11, 2; 14, _U. 4. ".4//. 13, 9. 1. «oF. 13. 19. 1. »i Att. 13, 45, 2. ^^- Acad. 2. 3t). 115. (Cf. p. s.) ^^ Att. 12, IG. ^' Att. 4. 5. 3. '^ /•'. 9. 19. 1. ^'^ }•". 9, I, 2. ''■ Att. 12. :U]. 2. ■''^ /•>. 2, S. 3. ^'-4//. 14, 15, 4; 14. 10. 1. 8^ .4/;. 15. 3. 2. '' F. 1, 9, 2U. \ 31 between relatixcs is illustrated by the irregularity with which ( 'ieero's son and ne])hew lived either in the home of their uncle or in that of their father''-. 1 he absence of comfortable inns for the accommodation of tra\ cler-''' made it almost necessarx' to own lodges along the public highways'", and these abo they placed at the disposal of their friends'''. Travelers were the quests, too, of any ac(}uaintances who might live along their route■*^ so that by spending each night at the home of a dill'crent ])erson"', they made the jonrney a succession of \isits''\ though sometimes the host himself might not be at home''', dcero repeatedly enjoyed such liospitalitx from Atticus on his iournevs to (ireece; at ('(.reyra and Sybota elaborate entertainment, prepared by his friend's freedmen, awaited him^^*^ while the house in Mpirus was open as a resting place on the long j(*urney"", or as a refuge in exile'"-. The banished orator wa3 indei)ted to other friends for the same kindness'"^ even though by sheltering him they exposed themselves to danger^^^ With (Mpial generosity he, too, entertained (^u'io, though the latter was on his wa\- to Sicily as Caesar's rej)resentative^^^. Plutarch record> that Crassu^, wlio kept oj)en house for strangers, won many friends by his kind but simj)le hos- pitality"''. The first formalit\- in connection with the entertainment of a guest was the invitation from Ids host. The numerous ex- amples found in Cicero's correspondence further illustrate the ^' /•>. 2, S, 1 ; Att. 4. 9, 2. ^'' Horace, in his amusiim description of a journc\- to Jirundisiunj, has intro- con)f(;rts of th<' ordinary public inn. (Sat. 1. 5, 2-lOj. Cf. ("ic. "' .4//. 10, 7. 3. '"'^ Att. 3. 7, 1; 3, 15, 6; 3, 19, 1. ''^ F. 14. 4, 2. 1"^ Att. 3, 4. 1"^ .4/^ 10. 7, 3. ^ceplut. Crass. 3, 1. / (\ 32 Formalities important part which hospitaHty phtyed in the between Host social Hfe of that day. An invitation to visit or and Guest ^^^^^^ sometimes inchided tlie privik\<:c of [)rinirinur an entire party of friends or travehn^i: companions'"", i^'u-vvo often insisted that Atticns hrini: his wife with him'"\ and when he wanted to empliasize her weh-ome he achh-d : '• Tnlha wi^jn^s to have her."^^-' His nnmerons villas nuulv it {)os>ihle for him to offer his i^uiests a choice of tlie i)hicr at whicli they pre- ferred to he entertained"". lie took no ollenM', thercfor<\ when Atticns dechncd to accept hi> in\itation to a -ea.M(h'"' or a conntry resick'nce"-, and acconhndy he would a>k him to visit at these places only as a pergonal faxor-'. There were circum->tance>, moreover, which placed tlH> ho.t under obli^ration to his i^ue^t for the vi>it. For in>tanee, propriety denied (^ra>-us the ri.uht to expect a Ion- vi^it fn.ni a man of Scaevoki's aire and honor>=^', althou-h even Cicero felt complimented by Cra-sns' conn'nir to dine without >pe( i;il invitation"'. It is evident, then, th:it a i^uot came >ometin!cs self-invited, either hecjiuse this {)rivilei:e wa< warranted by lntlmacy"^ c)r because his position made >nch an inference of friendship a compliment to hi.> host"", a> when roni|)cy and Cicero, meeting Lucullu> in the Forum, otfered to dine with him"\ The traveler, too, before >tartin<: on a journey, would ask permission of his friends to :>to|) at their villa> or lodges on his route"'\ \\hether invited or not. a guest wa> expected to -ixt' j)re- viotis announcement r.f his arrivah-", a courte^v which was frequently observed even before pa\ing a call'-k Such fore- thought as to the opportunene.>^ of one's coming made (^icero ^''' AU. 4. 12. 1; v.], 47\ 2: 11. _', 4. 1'-^ .4^/. 4. 4", 2. »^o .4^/. 2. S. 2. »" -4^/. 2. IG. 4. "- Att. 2. 11. 2. >'^ Att. 2. 4. 6. "^ Att. 4, IG, 3. 1. :>. 2< 30: TTor. S^f. 2. s. 21 fT. '■' F. 1. l», 20. '•'' -4^/. ;-i. 21), 1. '•' F. 1>. 1. 2. ''■' Plut. LucuH. 41. 4. '••^ ,1/^ i;-!, .-)0, -,. '- F. 0. 19, 2. '-' Att. 10. 4. S: F. 7. 4, 1. * 4 >.n ^ 33 hesitate to arrive at ]\)m])ey's villa on the day of the Compi- tali (I, lot he interfere with the household celebration of the festi\ak"-. He once complained that \'arr() with a large compan\' stopped for dinner without having notified him^-'l The ancient lio>t was most considerate of his guest's physical comfort'-', and indeed })rovided one courtesy which the modern Roman i> lc>s read\- to offer -a hot bath upon arrival after a journey^-*. \\\v\\ for dinner irue-ts it was customarv lo pro\ide wat(M- for the hands and feet^'-''. If tlu^ visitor >utlercd from the chill of morning hours, there was a fire kindled for hinc-'. and if he wa> staxing with an intimate friend, the gue-t did not hesitate to ask for such attiMitions^-^ nor to >ugge^t, perhap- jokingly, the sort of food he expected^'-''. '2. Dinners .Since the earlie-t recf)rd> of ci\ili/ation. man's social pleas- ure< lia\ e centercil about the sharing of food and drink with hi> fellows. The .v//////^o,v////// of the (Greeks, which signified l)y its name "a drinking together", as well as the ('(nirir'nnn of the llomaiis with its connotation of "living to- Formal , .., ,i I ,. , and Informal •^'''^''*'^' '' ^^'^'^"^^ the prototyjjcs of our modern "dinner-part\' ", and were j)erhaps then, as now, the chief social function. A i:iie>t was invited to diimer merelv for the plea-urc of his company^''k (^r for the purpose of discuss- ing important matters with him''^-, or perhaps as a courtesy to some common friend' l Cicero once complained of being bored by the rejx'ated invitations to dine with a man whose claim up(tn him was the common friendsliip of Trebatius''^*. Persons on terms of intimacy dined quite informally with each other, ("icero wrote to Paetus, who was ill with gout: '■' Att. 7, 7. ;•;. ■^- Fr. 2, S, 2. '-'-1^^ 1-^. ;-!;^. 4. ^-■' Att. 2, 3. 3;F. 9, 5. 3. '-^ Plain. Ptrs. .'). 2, 14: Il.jr. Sat. 1. 4. ss. ''' -1^^ 1-, 1. '■^. -' Fr. 2. G, 2; Att. 2, 2, 3. '-" F. 9, IG, 0. is-' /''. 1, 2, 3. ^-' F. 9, 20, 1 : 9, l'.», 2. i3i f,\ J 9_ ;^_ ^^^ de Stn. 12, 45; /•'. '.I 24. 2 3. '^^ F. 7, IG, 2. 34 "I shall come to see yo„ and takr ,lin,UT, A.r I ,lon't suppose you have a cook who is souty to,,--. II,. „„.„tio„e,l on,-,. that (^uintns the youn,:er had come in to .linn,.,- nn,.xp,Tt,-,liv because h.s mother was away from h„nu.'-, just as Cu-rvo h.mselt would sometinuvs ,li„e at ins s„n-in-law\ cnntrv home, to avoid I.eim,' "in town" tor a se.. f ,h,. „.nat,.'^^ buch a d.nner ^ucs. as Cicero n.u.t have iM-.-n in ,„n.tant deman,P\ Wherever he happe„,.,l to I,.-, h,. ha,! ur.un invitations Irom the people „f the ,u.io-l,l,„rh 1' '. an,| a't iJome he found it necessary, for ,„,li,,v-. ...d<,., ,., 1„. ,,,,..,■„, at the dinners of those in p,.wer"', in,.|,„li„o- ,!„,.,. .,r ,|„. Dictator himself". We cannot snpp,.se that h,. alwa^.. f„un,l the company „i, such occasions entirel.x ,-,,ni:,'nial^'-'. ' The attenti,m of the host at ,!inner inii^t hiM I Iven t., the correct placiuK of his ,n,ests,whos,Mn,n,l,erpn,perlvran..v,l from three to nine, hepniii,,.. as Varro .ai,l, with ,h,MnHni„r ot the Graces, and limitcl l,y that ,,f tli,' .Mu>,.Ji^; f,,r ,,nlv the vulgar crowdcl in,)re tlian thiv,. np,.n nn,- conch"'. <"onventi,.iials,,hx,M|a,!,.hnit,.,,n|,.r,,f precedence in places of honor. Th<. mi,l,lh. ,.„u,h wa, ,•,..,,■^ ,-,1 ior d.stinj:u,shed suests"', with, the low,..t pla,v np„n i, /;.„. in medio, as chief honor. This was n.-xt al„u,. th,. ho.t who with his family occupied the thinl c,,u,-!i'»' If tli,. "iicst of honor hroufrht others of hi. own >elc,ti„n. a. !„■ wa^ of„.n invited to . 26. 2. "'All. 14, 12, :i: If,. 1, 1, " /■'. '.'. 7. 1. '" Ml. ii'). Hi', 1. "- I-'. '■'•. .. 2. "■' (iflL I!. 11. 2. '" m /'„■„.,. .'7, i;7; (i,,,-, .s,,^ , |^,;^ '" Plut. firu/. :i!, t. (•! \f.,r,i P, in. -uu, t , '"Pint. 0,/ae,,(. Connr. 1. :?. n' //,;,; - ,- ■, ii .• . , ■ ' Piut. Calo M,n. ,7. 3. I„ M.nu V. Ts. :i , . „„. .„ost ,s ,„M ..^..^..^.j «hat place he ., ,o occup.v on ,h.^ ,„7,„,/,„„, „„, ,,^,..1 wl.a, „■„„„„ ,,„ j,...„., to have next above him. ui.irta I I, f 35 iiidicatc its important .Mirnifi(•an('e^^^ Xo one was allowed to rcvVuw ahove xlw rr.r sacrificed iis'''^ and only he had a place above X\w j!re in their i)laces })efore takini,^ his own'"'-. Durini: the dinner, iruest- were expected to lay aside their t(),uas and -iiocs and to wear ,sin(hils'-"\ whieh they hroui^dit with them, if they (hd not come in a litteH"''. Plutarch men- tion- a-^ proof of the rudeness of Demetrius, Pom])ey's freed- man. that he kept lii> to,<:a })uhe(l over liis ears at table'"'. It wa> cu-ti.marx al-o to loosen the tunic while reel inim,^'"'^ 1 )e>cnptioii-s of bad tabh> manners condemn greediness and ••tien-i\c prr..onal habits of catin.ir'"'' ; but the thrifty farmer who >ii\vi\ >vvi\> in the fold of his cloak at dessert seemed not to fia\«' diockcd a xounir aristocrat hke Cicero's son^''l It is nitcrc-tniL: t(» notice what we shouhl consider extraordinary frcc(h.m on the jtart of !)oth .<;uc>t and ho.^t in attending- to matter- of pcr-onal int(M-e,>t \ (hctation"' or by scribl)lin,ir o{f a roui^di dnift for an amaiuicn.^is to copy later'''-, as was (/aesar's cu-tonc-'. Whatever other form of amusemc^nt the host provided for his .irue.-t-. con\ creation ])roperl\- formed the chief means of enter- tainment at (h'nncr'''=. It assumed a somewhat formal charac- ter (hn-inix the drinkin,!,^ of wine at the close of the meab under the (lirection of the arbiter bibend?^'\ ho wa> often chosen not by courtesy, but by lot'^^ The Amusements w '^' Cell. 10, 15, 21. '•■■ Plut. Pomp. 40, 2. ^"/•'. '.*, -Mi, 1. >"8erv. A, It. 2. 2. '^^rir. I'h^l. 2. ;:(i. 7.1: Crll. i;^, 22. 1: Phit. Quarst. Connv. 7, h, 4. ^-Mfor. /■.'//. 1, i;{, 1.-,. lif y_ 10,32,;^. »"riin. r.>>nj). Id, J. "' llor. .N,;/. !, Ii. u_'. Cf. Lvician Tlmon 'A. "»/•'. ni. _>l. 7. ^^^Fr.'A, 1, 19. "»/•'. '.'. 7, 1 ; .1//. M, S, 1. K2 y ,,_ 2(), 1. '''■■^^^' 1^' "• i -■ >'M>lut'.CW.'G3:2. ^" ',',. i:;, 1."). Plut. Qii>i>.^f. Cofiiu-. 7, s, 4, (12j. ''' '^' *^"'- ^ ^' ^•'- ^"i"- "^ ^'"-r. 5, 2S. i« ll„r. Od. 1, 4, IS; 2, 7, 25. 36 first occupant of the first couch began the discussion^^' , which might very properly include professional and political sub- jects^^l The dinner party was avowedly an occasion for gathering information^^^ which might be got from intoxicated guests, if not from sober ones^"°, though Horace said tliat no gentleman would take such an advantage^''. In entertaining persons of culture tlie host often provided for his dinner guests a reading by a trained slave^"'-, from some new^ literary work. Atticus thus added to tlu^ charm of his social functions; for his literary friends were phrased to make their first public appearance in his triclinium^''' before an exclusive and friendly company. This custom continued jfi Pliny's time^^^ but gradually the presence of nnisician.s and of dancers characterized the fashionable banquet'' '. Even in the days of Cato the Censor sim[)licity had ceased to be a marked feature of a Roman dinner i)arty. Vor he reefers to his own wild dissipation in ''early banquets"'"*', and as the Menu "^^"^^ ^'^^'^^' "^^^^^' t'laborate, the proper hour of dining was moved forward in the da\'". Cicero blamed Epicureanism for the demand for rare dislics and great variety^"^; but whatever the cause, fashion adoi)te(l the result. and we find the orator excusing himself for taking [)art in >uefi elaborate dinners, because he "did not wish to 'd\)\^vdv chur- lish "^'^ Lucullus, who was famed for the extraordinary menu and elegant service of his dinners, was so careful to keep \\\) his reputation, that even when (^icero and Pomjxy tried to surprise him, they found him ready to set a sumptuous re[)ast before them''^^. \'arro commented on the varietv of foods 16' de Sen. 14. 4(5. »««F. 7, 22, 1; .1^/. 2, 18. 2. i«» Att. 4. 8^ 4. J'OF.O, 17, 1. CL llor.h-p. 1, Is. .'is. i"i Hor. Sat. 1, 4, 88-90. ^'2.-1^/. 1, 12, 4. -3 -1//. ir...s. 1; ir,, 2,r,; x,.p. Att. n. i '■^ Pliny Ei>. 1, I.",. 2. '■'' P'i 37 used in his time^"^', and later writers seemed to think it a sub- ject worthy of their attention'^'-. Calls Salutatio The cu.stom of calling on friends or acquaintances also formed a prominent feature of Koinan social life. Such a brief visit was not so mucli an occasion for the display of hos- pitality by the host as it was a courteous attention from his guest' ^l The highest development of the call as a social function we find in the sahdaiio, a morning rece])tion, to which the friends and clients of a promi- nent man came to pay him their respects'^". The early hour at which this social diit\- was performed, was in itself a com- ])ilment to the host, if not a consideration for his comfort. Thus a candidate for office might feel encouraged if his house was filled with callers at daybreak'''"^ and Cicero had reason to rejoice when the vestibule of his enemy, Clodius, was still deserted at three o'clock on a November morning'''^. Once when he was called awav from his letter-writinii: bv the arrival of his morning guests, he hastily added: "It is growing light and the crowd is pushing in'^'". Tnder the Empire when the salutatio was attended bv clients who lived on the bountv of their patrons, Martial tells of the sleep they lost in order to make their rounds of morning calls before daybreak^^*^. The real significance of the salutatio, however, lav in the number that attend(Mi it'^''. Even after Cicero was an ex- consul he still measured his influence^ bv the fact that his "home was as crowded as the Forum "''^", while Appius might well realize his (h)wnfall from his empty house^^^ In these throngs which attended the morning levee were manv of the \'ulgar class, sometimes "only a few who were congenial", 1^= Cell. k. 13. ''' Fr. 2, 4. (i. ^'' F. 7, 2s, 2; Att. 10. 10. 4. >^' d> Ptt. Cnns. 12, 4 'J; 13. ,')(). 1^' Att. 4. 3. :>. '^' .4/^ G, 2, 10. '^^ Mart. 10, 10. 183 Plut. Cir. 8, 3. '90 AU. 12, 23, 1. 1^1 Fr. 2, 10(12), 5. 38 as Cicero wrote of his^'^-. However, men of such proniiiieiice as he received also many persons of hiij^h rank. On one occa- sion after this mornini^ function dcero wrote: "There were many loyalists, who were sad enouirh, and man\ exultant victors, followers of the Dictator, who were j)olite and ail'cc- tionate in their attentions"^''-. After ('ae>ar"s death hi- devoted friend Matins was frequently among tho>e wiio went to pay their respects to Anton\'". The courtesy of a host in receivini: his callers atlVcted hi- popularity^'-^'\ (^icero was especially can^ful to wch-onie them in person durino- his irox-crnorship of Ciheia'^ "I1i(y nevt-r found him in hcd." >ay> Plutarch, hut -tandini: or v.alkin- before his door"'''". The (^atihnarian con-pirator-. \\\\i> planned to call so early that he would -till he in hi- chamber, expected, we remember, to be receixcd !)y him there, when^ it would be easy to murder him'''\ ("icero criticize(l the rude- ness of Antony, who once slej.t till nine o'clock when a delcira- tion of country peoph^ was callini: at hi- \illa near Cumae, and even then sent out word that they -hould r(>turn the next day^''''. Since \isitors waited in the \-e-tibule until tlie\ were admitted to the r/ //*/// ///-"", the courteous ho-t would be readv to receive them promptly-^", and not subject them to the di-- comfort and humiliation of a lomr wait there, as ('ae-ar often did, even when Cicero was anion-- his caller--"'. At the ^"iidutatio we note that it was })roper for the ho.-t to L,n\-e his attention to such matters as letter-writinir in the presence of his <,'uests'-^'\ thou<,di he miu-ht rcrcnt the fact that one gue.-t called to see another rather than him.-elf'-"*. 1^'' Aft. i\, 2. .".. '^' IMut. c:,-. ;•!(•,. 2. '^^ ni Cat. !, 1: i'lut. C'r. U\, 1. '^-F. .5. 21, 1; Att. 1, is. 1. '" F. [), 20, :l ''' F. 11, 2,s, 7. ''•'^'/r I\t. Cons. 11. 41. '''Att. 10, i;:!, 1. ('f. Senora's picture of the in.lifTcn-nt lu»>t -'awakenrd from sleep, greetint: his callers with a haughty ki^<. and inuttenn- their names." (de Brev. Vit. 14. 4.) ^"HJell. IG. 5. 0. 803,,,/ jirut. 2. 4. 1. 4 ti. *"' ^-1tran,«icment between Pompey and (^iesar-^**\ When cticpictte required that Ignitus, whose oflicial rank was lower, should call upon dcero'-^^ the orator ollered to return to hi- city home to spare Brutus a trip to l^isculum-"'. Whether in Pome or at one of his suburban villa-. ( 'icero was coii-tantly honored by calls from people only h-- di-tin-ui'.hed than h!mself-'"\ and in the case of those of ecjual rank, such as Ponipiw, he was ])romi)t in returnin^ir the eonrte^x-"'. lie and Atticus thou^irht it im])ortant th;it they should iro to see \'arro imuKMliatcly after his return from a journey-'". Accordini: to Plutarch, Cato, when a small l)()y, was taken by his pedao;()<,ruc, Sarpcdon, to j)av his re-i)ccts to Sulla-''-. Ot cour-c the Pomans also went to see each otlier quite intormally. Cicero often , from whom there was no escape'-'^"\ The appro- -"^ Aft. 7. 4, 2. '"'" '-^(l- l-'i 11. 1. r()nir)aro here Horace's story of Volteius Mena and his ofTense in not calliiiir upon his patron Philii)pus. FJjh 1, 7, 52 ff. '"' Att. l.'i 2;'!. 1. '''^Att. 12. l.s, \:F. 11. 7, 1; U, G, 1;.!//. 4, 9, 1. -"^.4//. 4, 10.2. 2'-, 4// Q 1 '>• 19 1 o -" .4ra^/. 1,1,1. 213 f ^^ 3 i •'■"•Plut Caio Men. 3. 2. '^^ Att. 5,G, 1. "'■ .4//. 2. 14. 2. 40 priate time for any call was the morInnl:-'^ >^o wlien Cicvvo went to Pompey's house after dark, he felt that an exphmation was necessary-^', and the visit of Fulvia. "a nohh' hidy," to his house at midniiiht was only justified by the fact that -he was bringinfi: news of a plot against his life-^\ It wa- en — tomary to go in person to the house of an aecpiaiiitancc who was in trouble or was ill'-^'', even though it might be imp(K>iblt' to see him--^\ Sestus was confined to his home by -ickncss when the charge of bribery was made again-t him. whercujxni Cicero went at once to call and offer his lei:al a--i-tanc('-'. The orator often speaks of the friends who called at lii> home during his exile, to express sympathy or >how kindne>> to hi-> amilv— . C. Attention' to Peksoxal Events Although personal events in the life of an individual had to do more especiall\' with liis family association-, Roman societv at larire showed some recognition of them, and >o wc find social functions or duties connected, for instance, with birth, betrothal, marriage, and death. Pliny >ays that on(^ who is asked, "What have you been doing to-day?" commonly replies: "I attended the ceremony of a boy's putting on the toga virili.^, I was present at a betrothal or weddini: ])art\, so-and-so asked me to come to witness his will, another to gi\e him advice '""l While the Roman of i'liny"> day probably devoted more of his time to such matter-, wc find that the social life of the late Re|)ublic involved many of the-e -aine duties. 1. Birthday Celebrations From Cicero's letters wc learn that the birth of a cliild miglit receive but brief mention at the time. The orator. e\-en thomrh writing to his \ery intimate friend Atticu-. announced :i6 4^^ 4 4* 1. :- F. t'.. !'.>. 2: Plut, Catu Min. o, ^. -J" Fr. 2. 5, 3: 2, 7\ 2. --' Fr. 2. o, 5. ■'■^ Plut. Cic. 15. 1; 10. 1. -" F. S. 13, 1. :i^ F. 7. 20. 2; Hor. Sat. 1, 9. 17-lS. -"- Plin. Ep- L '*• -• i Ll^ I. 41 the arrival of his only son and heir in the one sentence: "I want to tell you that on the day of the election of the consuls, L. Julius Cae-ar and ('. Marcius Figulus, our family was iiUTca-ed by the advent of a small boy"--^ Of course it was uruieeessary to give the name of his son, since that was fixed by convention, and any failure to comment upon his importance at this time is at least atoned for by sufficient deinon-tratioii of hi> father's affection when he had reached the age of -even-'-'. Witli equal brevity (^icero announced the birtli of hi> fir^t grandchild, though he spoke at the same tini.> of h\> anxiety for the child's mother, his well beloved Tullia^^''. On the other hand, the anniversary of a birthday received marked recoirnition. When dcero happened to land at Hrundi-ium. upon his return from exile, on the natal dav of hi> daughter, who \va> there to meet him, the citizens made that coincidence the >ul)ject of particular congratulation and celebration--'. On hi> own >ixty-first anniversary he sent a special invitation to Atticu- to dine with him in honor of the e\-ent--\ for a dinner })arty was customarily a feature of such celebrations--'. Plutarch relates jin incident which happened when Tato. as a -mall boy, along with other children, was r)n'-ent at the birth(]a\- -upper of a relative'-''^ which makes it probable that whole families had assembled to celebrate the occa-ion. 2. Betrothal and Marriage Festivities Betrothal and marriage were occasions of marked signifi- cance in the -ocial. as well as in the civil and religious, life of the Roman-. Tlie sjxntydJid were celebrated by festivities, which might include a dinner given by the father of the bride- elect in honor of tlie l)ridegroom-'^, and a banquet was an --' .1//, 1. 2. 1. -• F. 1 }, 4. 3. ■-• Mt. 111. Is. ] Att. 4. 1, 4. Att. 13. 42. 2. ^^^ Phil. -l.i). 15; Hor. .: "1 wi-h to be in Rome on the seventeenth, nay, I do not ^ay. wi^h, rather I must. It is Milo's weddinu' " ". Etiquette seemed to recpiire that propo-al fur niarriaire should l)e made to the famil\- of the xounij: woman, either 1)\' the man himself or by one of his parents'''. Hut w lien ( ieero was absent from Home, he a^ked Atticus an hand to Tiberius Gracchus-''\ but this would perhaps ha\-e been more unusual in Cicero's au'c. Friend> outsi(h' the faniih took a keen interest in arranLrinir niarriau'c>, and were often consulted. Brutus even incpiired of Atticus why lii> ad\iee had not been asked about suitors for the youthful Attica, who was at this time twelve years old-''. Her father. nioreo\-er, had discussed the subject of possible liusbands for her two years before'-'^^. From sources other than Cicer(» we learn that a betrothal, thouirh attended with ceremony, ,-ueh as the presence of witnesses'-'\ and the use of a rini: a> token of a pledi]:e-^-, might be annulled without ini})ropriety'-'". -3- Fr. 2, 3. 7. ■^■" Juv. (i: 202. '-^^ Macr. Sat. 1, 15, 22. For a fuller disru^sion soo, o. p., Mani. Pr. '>'A. -'''-> Alt. 4, 13. 1. •^'' Att. 13, 21. 7. 236 Att. 6. 6, 1; 6. 1, 10. -'> Pint. Cntn .\[,u\ 24. 1. Sec Mar.i. Pr. ll'J iT. -3- Att. o, 17, 4; F. 8, 0. 12. "'- Pliny. .V. //. IVA, 1, 12. 23spiut. Tib. Grac. 4, 1. ="Suot. Jul. 1. 1. ( 7. (Icll. 4. 4, 2. 239 ad Brut. 1, 17. 7. 43 . Mourning for the Dead ^[ost announcements of death, as of birth, in the Ciceronian correspondence are brief or unemotional. "Our father left us on the twenty-eighth of Xovember," wrote the orator to Atticus-", and again: "I have lo.st (^aninius, a man who in his treatment of me was not uno:rateful "-'^ and " It Expressions • i i i of Grief '^ ^'*** '*^' about hems -'*'. This is his reference to the death of llortensius: '* I am sure vou irrieve for llortensius. 1 am heart-})rokcn m\self, for I had resolved to live on very intimate^ terms with him"-''; and this to I'onipey".-: "1 never had any doubt about what would be the end of Ponipey. .such a com})lete despair of his success had taken po->e»i()n of the minds of all kings and nations, that I thought this would happen wherever he landed. I cannot but lament his fall, for I know him to havi^ been honest, pure, and a man of principle "•-'\ When Attieu.>' grandmother died, Cicero wrote him the news in almost a jocular tone"-''', though ot eour>e thi^ wa< e\idently not an occasion of grief to either of them. '1 here are in->tanees, liowi'\-er, of fuller expression of grief'-"'^^ anilenee seemed the fitting tribute of regard for sorrow. " I d to a letter from Caesar, V. ritten ju-t before the death (.f his daughter Julia-''"'. P>re\ity. then, or apparent indifference in the mention of -" .1// 1. <;. 2. ''•'•' Aft. n., ] 1, ,3. '"' Att. 12, 11. 1. -'•' Att. {\, (;, _>. ■•■'' Att. 11. 0, ."). -''Att. 1. .i. 1. ^^'' Att. 1, .-). 1; 4. 0. 1. -= /''. 4. 12. 1. - Cf. pp. OS ff. ^'^Att. 12. 11. 4; 12, 40, 2; 12, 4^. 1. ^^*Aft. 1.-). 1'', 1. '"F. 7, 0. 1; Fr. 3. 1. 25. >» 44 death did not necessarily imply a lack of feelini:, hut was probably due to the Roman idea of proper self-rcNtraiut-'^ Cicero's friends constantly admonished him to coiicral from the world his sorrow for Tullia'-'', and he wished his jd)sen('e from augural meetings to be excused on tlie j)lea of ill heahh rather than that of grief-''^ Only regard for puhhc opinion induced him to recei\e all those who came to offer s>inpatli\ •' *, for as soon as he could escape from Rome to the sohtude of fiis seaside villa at Astura'-^", he declined to entertain even con- genial acquaintances-^', and would not sec his new wif(\ Publilia, who, unfortunately, did not share his grief for Tullia-^-. Caesar's conduct at the time of his (laughter's death accorded better with the Roman ideas of propriety. *' He displays great courage and dignity in his extreme sorrow," wrote Quintus Cicero, who was with him at that time in (hiur*'. The moderation which the Romans a])pro\'e(l in the expres- sion of personal grief evidently did not extend to the matter of public honors for the dead, such as funerals and monuments. So elaborate were these in the age of Cicero that the amount to be expended was re>tricted by law'-*"''. Tliis the orator planned to evade by making his memorial for Tullia a public shrine, sacred in character"-^'. It was customary for >ome member of the familv to deliver an oration in euloir\ of the deceased at the funeral'-**^, though convention did not recpiire that it be written by the speaker himself-^'. Sometimes this laudatio was afterwards publishe(r~''\ and it was not imi)roper for the author to indulge in extravagant praise of hi> own relatives'-*'-'. :^^ F. r,, 14. 2; Att. 12, ;5s. .S. ^■^' Att. 12. 14, 3; 12. 20, 1. 2^« Att. 12. i:i, 2. 2^9 .4/^ 12, 40, 2. 260,4//. i_», \A, 1: 12. 23. 1. -■■ Att. 12. 2f,. 2. -'- Att. 12. 32. 1. -^ Fr. 3, ^, 3. 2«-' .4^^ 12, 35, 2. Cf. Flut. Sulla 35, 3. ^^'^ Att. 12, 30, 1; 12, 19, 1. 266 Fr. 3, 8, 5; Serv. Aen. 1, 712; Liv. 2, 01, 9. 26' Att. 13, 4S, 2. 26S(/e Sen. 4, 12. 269 Brut. IG. 02. Cf. Liv. S, 40, 4. y CHAPTER III COMPLLMEXTS AND PAYORS A. POLITK LAXCiUAGE A consideration of the coin|)liments that such men as Cicero exchanged, gives one a sense of the high degree of refinement to which soci(>ty had attained two millennia ago, and sug- gests a modernity in the social usage of that age which is most striking. In delicacy of expression^ cleverness in outrivalling a complimentary friend'-, and in ingenuity in the use of polite phraseology", Cicero has set a standard which even a modern gentleman would rate as high. No personal quality worthy of admiration failed, it would seem, to receive his tribute, for he found opportunity to compliment a friend's good judgment^ sense of justice"', clevernes.^*', al)ility as a leader", good taste^, integrity^, braxcrx-'*', >'t('.^\ while every achievement, from Atticus' scholarly letters''-, to his brother's elal)orate dinners^'^, he promptly rewanled by some word of appreciation. Again, it might not be what his friend had done, but what lie was ex})ecte(l to mall circle of puj)ils who were studying with the orator, 1 /•'. 2, 1.1. 2 F. 7. 23, 4. 3 Att. 5. 20, 0. < F. 4, 1,2; 13, 7s. 2. ' Att. 3, 15, 2. 6 F. 2, 4, 2. ' /'. 2, <■), 4. " Att. 1. S. 2. 3 Att. 0, 2, S; Fr. 2, 14 (15), 4. if F. 7. IS. 1. :' Att. 10. S. 9. '- Att. 10, 13", 1. '^^ Fr. 3. 1. 22. 5" F. 9, 1 }, 0: 11, 22. 1. 1^ Fr. 1,1, 30 and 30. 45 -J ^ 46 a common friend wrote to the latter: "I should envy Hirtius, if I did not love him "^^ The mere use of a name or tith^ sometimes implied a compliment^'; so, to call one " Acidinus" suggested the noble type of character associated with the dis- tinguished men of that name'\ and in the same s{)irit dcero addressed Octavius as "Caesar" before this title of his adop- tion had been confirmed by law'*. With perhai)s more subtlety he wrote to Appius: '' U you do this duriiii,^ your censorship,"— whereas Appius had not yet been elected to that office-'^. Again, we find the following tribute to the grcatucs> of Caesar: "A man to whom people had no access, not because of his haughtiness, but because of his i)rc.>sing duties "-'. 'Vlw friend who was called the " personihcatioii of old-fa-hioucd wit"", might find his compliment in the univcrsaht\ of the idea expressed by "good old times" wliicji contiimcs to be proverbial throughout the march of ccnturie-. A compliment had an added value if paid tlirough the agency of some third person. Cicero often made the request that his praise of other j)eoi)le should be repeated to them''\ and he would use his friend, Atticus. for the di-tributiou (.f such favors-^. He enjoyed his own triumph of courte-y on one occasion when, after telling Ifortensiu- of a eoniphnient from Atticus, he opened a letter from the latter in Ilorten-ius' presence and read aloud a confirmation of what he had ju.st said -'\ In an age when so nuich attention was gi\-en to tlie use of polite language, it i- not >urpri>ing to Hnd it further de\-eh)pe(l as extravagant flattcry-\ which Horace later satirized in its employment by legacy-hunters-'. "/". A. in, :;, -' /■■. 7, 111, 1. -- /■'. I*. 1.^. 2. '' F. 7. :y.]. 1. '- F. 1, 10. 1. '^ Att. 4. 11 ;•!. '' Att. 14. 1_\ _': 15. 12, J. -' F. 11. 0. :i: Att. 5, 1. :>. ri. F. 13. 11. I. ■-'Att. 2. 25. 1. 2./'. ;. o J. J.. J J. j^ j-_ ^_ -^ Att. 10, 17, 1. •-•: Hur. Sincerel>- a.])preciate(l''-. A person about to ^et out uj)()n a journe\- would notif\- his friends in time for them to write whatever thc\' wished him to take''\ or if he were to leave unexpectedly, he would hurry about to collect h'tter> which might be ready or could be hastil\ written'*. If not iroinir him>elf, but on}\- sendin^^ nie<>en.gers. he (.ii'ered to forward his friends' mail with his own, and in-truete(l iiis carrier's to cohect it before thev stnrted". An\' failure to notify a friend of such an oj)j)or- tunity was a breach of eti(|uctte not readily excused'*'. This custom naturally gave room for many cxten>ions of the ia\(/r. As a >pecial mark of attention, a friend sometimes >ent his slax'c some distance with a departing traveler in order to bring back his first letters''^". Since it was not safe to entrust important missive^ to >tr;ingers or to irresponsible carriers'\ we have such instances as that of Antony's sending an intimate triend to carr\- a communication to Cicero, who considered tlii> a special honor to himself''*. Lack of i)ublic facilities in the matter of travelinc:, too, led -^ Att. 4. 10. 1. "/■■/■. 2. 12 (14;. ;>; F. 2. 17, 1. •*"/-\ 10. 5, 2; Att. 1, Vi, 1. ^' Att. 1, i;i 1. '•'■■ Fr. 2. 1. 1. 23 /'. 12. 1.^, 1; Fr. 2, 1, 1; 2, 2, 1. '"' F. 0. 2. 1. 2^ F. 15, l.s. 1. 2«/-V. A, 1, 21. ''' Att. i:-5, s. ^' Att. 10, s. 1; 10, 11, 1. 35 .4^/. 10, b\ 2. / 48 to the Romans' custom of invitini]: others to share one's accommodations for a journey, that is, to accept a seat in one's carriage or Htter^". On one occasion (^icero found con- siderable difficulty in dccHning such an offer from an acquaint- ance whose company he wished to avoid '^ Horace speaks of Maecenas' invitations to ride with him as among the favors of his friendship^-. As a mark of attention to their own tribesmen, officials secured seats for them at the puf)lic games '^ but this nuist also have been one of the courtesies shown to personal friends, for Clodia controlled the distribution of the consul's seats, when her husband held that ofHce". Legal service, in the age which we are studying, was nomi- nally a personal favor, rather than a matter of business'''. So advocates offered their assistance in return for obligation^^"', in proof of friendship for a defendant'', or at the recpiest of a common friend'^. In return, the Roman lawyer expecttMl gratitude, at lea>t'^ tliough we have reason to believe that he accepted other and more tangible rewards". This element of personal friendship between an advocate and his clients often led to embarrassing complications, as when Cicero was asked to defend Atticus' uncle, Caecilius, against some of his own friends''^ and when he became the advocate of Milo against Pompey--. In the former instance he con>idercd Caecilius quite discourteous to ask his assistance, and in the latter he appreciated Pompex's generosity in not takiriL: offence. I'nder the head of unsolicited favors we may perhaps con- sider bequests, which fre([uently named peo{)le out>id(^ the <' Fr. :i, I, \. Cf. pro Mur. 7 J. *' Alt. 2. 1, 5. *^ F. 7, 1, 5. e.. al-o Smith: Wx Cincui. ^' F. 8. G. 1. SI Att. 1. 1. .3 4. *^ Att. 4, IG. 4. " /,' i^ 10 10 *^ Fr. 3, 1. IG; F. 3, 10, 5. m I r 49 family circle as beneficiaries, especially men prominent in public affairs'', or which might show a special preference for some relative, as did the will of Caecilius, the disagreeable old uncle to whom Atticus had been kind and patient^. However, even in Cicero's age the securing of such benefits became recognized almost as a business, in which the orator spoke of his various successes or failures as one would of speculating in tlie stock market to-day^'', disappointed one day because the wrong will, signed by mistake, had cut him off from the sum which he expected,'^^ on another pleased that he had seen the seal affixed to a legacv in his favor'". From Plutarch we know of Pompey's indignation when he found Sulla had not included him among the friends remembered in his will'\ It was quite proper to add to the announcement of a friend's death, a statement as to the settlement of his estate■*•^ espe- ciallv the amount which the writer had inherited^'^. It is easy to see in this age the origin of the professional legacy hunter, so common a few years later, and the subject of such bitter satire from Horace and Juvenal. Naturally a legatee whose relation to his benefactor was that merely of a client^^ physician^'-, (tr friend*'^ incurred the suspicion of relatives^S so that it was entirely i)ro])er for liim to take an interest in having j)er>ons witness the will who were favorable to his interest/''. r. Requests Knough has l)een said, perhai)s, to |)rove that the well-bred Roman was extremely courteous in volunteering favors to his associates. But it is important also to notice that in Cicero's age it was customary to ask outright Character ^' .1//. 13, 4S. 1. ^« Xep. Att. .'>. 2. ^' Att. 4, 17, 2. '"^ Fr. 3, •». s. *' Att. 7, 2, 3. ^^ Plut. Sulla 3S. 1. "' Att. r., ',», 2; F. 14. .-), 2; Att. 13, 4."j, 3. fo Att. 2, 20, G. 61 Att. 1, 20, 7. «2 Att. 15, 2, 4. « F. 13, Gl, 1. 6^ Att. 12, 18". 2. ^' Att. 13. 25, 2; 14. 3, 2. 50 for many kindnesses. There seems indeed to have heen no hesi- tancy in making requests, either between such intimates as Cicero and Atticus^^ or among such shght aecjuaintanees as those who besieged official candidates in hope of reward for their votes^'. Since tlie poHtics of the day were so hiri^dy affected by personal ambition and influence^'\ the \)\va> \'nr political assistance were especially numeroii>: one b(>^^(.,j .,,, acquaintance to be present at his election*'", another widi^d for defence in the senate or in the popular a>>eml)ly'". a third to have a decree of public honor passed in his bdialf'' ; xUvw Wi^w numerous entreaties for appointUK'nt to olhce"'. recall from exile'^ etc. Since partisanship did not alway> limit friend- ships, a man like Atticus. who could remain on intimate term> with (dodius and dcero at the same time"'. wa> in a po>iti(.n to render assistance to urgent friends on both >ides in nian\ a political battle"'. Tnder similar circumstances, Dohibeila, while an enthusiastic supporter of Caoar, consented to u>e his influence to procure for Cicero an appointment as A7/r////.v withotit duties, in sj)ite of the hitter's ho>tility to the I )ietator'''. The Uoman called (piite as freely upon his friend, for financial aid, though we may not as>ume that all of Cicero's appeals to Atticus drew upon his friend'.- own bank account'". for he also had charge of ('i(r-ro'> e>tat(-\ IJnt he did put his own fortune at tile orator's di.j)()>al' ' to secure hi- return from exile'^ and again to provide for In's daughter Tnllia in a time of great distro.s^'. deero alx. wrote of .»ther friend- during his exile: "If they remain loyal, there will l)e no lack of money"'-, and at the .-ame time he bt>>,,nght hi- wife to . ti". r>: ^'- Aft. ;•{, ;-;. ^^ Att. 14, 12. 1. 1.;. K ''^ At(. 1, 1, 2; li. '23, 1. ■' F. 5, 0, ;^; ,1/^ 1. 12, 1. "' F. lo. 4. 11 and Ki. '• F. 2. 17, 0: 11. 10, 2-3; 12, 14. 4 ■^F. 4. 13, 0; (). 7, 5. "■'.4/^ 2, 9. 3; 10, S, 3. ''Att. 1. 15, 1: 5, 17, 5. /■'. ::, '», i; AtL .'y, ID, :\: ,.f. /•■. s. ;», i. •^ Att. \r>, 1 1, {. ■■ Att. 7, 2, 7: 11, 2, 4. ■^ -l^'. 12, 34. 2. '' Att. 4, 1. 3. *" -4//. 3. 20, 2. ^- Att. II. 24, 3. '' F. 14. 1, o. ^ ^^ 51 *Met those suj)port lier wlio could, if they would "^^. Again he referred to paying his debts "through the assistance of friends"^', and when his brother Quintus asked Atticus for a subscription toward his son's ex])enses as Luperciis, he con- sideretl not the recjuest for money, but the ])urpose for which it was to be Used, !mpro])er'\ AinonLr re({uests commonly made of friends or acquaintances, was that for a letter of recommendation'*', or for mediation between people who had become estranged''. In response to such an ap])eal, \ arro brought al)out a reconciliation between Cicero and Pompe\ ", and Atticus, the friend of all men, was often called upon for similar ser\ ices'-'. Cicero tried to return the fa\-or when Atticus inul dilhcultv with his rich old uncle, « ( "aecilius'*", and the orator also aspired to the office of mediator between Cae>ar and Pompey at the outbreak of the Civil Wai ,jji Judging from the amount of advice which Cicero received from his friend.- during the j)eriods of indecision in his life''-, we ma\ suppose that some of it was a voluntary oil'ering. But we know that recpiests for c-ounsel were very numerous, and that Cicero considered it an important duty of friend shi})**'\ This great freedom in asking favors of one's fellowmen, did not also impl\ an indill'erence as to the manner in which re- (piest^ were ])resented. It should never be in a tone of arro- gance'', said Cicero; nor was it courteous to make an ap])eal to a ])erson who was in suffering or anx!(^ty''\ ( "icero resent (m1 (^lesjir's rudeness when he sent a re- (juest through Trebatius instead of directly to him''^ I>gent or lengthy pleas might iin{)ly distrust of a friend's good offices'^^, Manner " F. 14. 2. 3. ^' Att. 4. 3. 0. S" .4//. 12. .",. 1. ^' Cf. ]>. ♦',(). ''^ F. ."), 2, s. 8^ Att. 2, 2(1, 1; 2. 22. 4. ^^ .4//. 1, 2, 2: 11. \K A. ' Att. 1, 3, 3; 1, 1(1. 2. *' .4//. 9. \\\ 2. »- .4//. 12. 21. 5; F. 11. 29. 1. «^ Att. 3. 23, o: 3. 11, 1; 4, 3, G; 11, IG, 3. ''' Att. (;, 1. 7. •»F. 11. 10, 1. ^'' Att. 7. 17. 3. '■ F. 7. 10, 3; Att. 5, 18, 3; F. 15, 13, 2. ^ i 52 though in fact we have examples of the most impassioned language, accompanied sometimes by tears■•^ while in puhlic the dramatic scene of a suppHant fahin- at the (vet of his benefactor was not unusuaF^l The most courteous form of petition began with an acknowledgment of past favors'"", or was perhaps accompanied by a compliment, such as a tactful phrase implying the certainty of its l)eing granted'"'. Etiquette laid more stress on the manner of replv to a request than on the necessity of granting it'"'. "l\>"rcfu>c courteously gives no more offence tlian to grant discour- teously" was Quintus (Icero's warnin- to one who wisjie.l to be popular^"l We have a model of polite refusal in Cicero'. letter which declined to assist Lentulu. to appointment- but he evidently considered it a difhcult matter to make .uch refusals graciously, since he asked Atticus to spare him the.e experiences by anticipation of any impossible demand, which might be made of him'"->. Between clox^ friends tluTc was presumably no resentment if a request could not be -ranted"^ ''F.2, U:Fr. 1.2. ll; At/. J, 2;^ ;5 ; ]().(, ^^.1//. 1. 14. o;/->. 2. 3. .';.U/. 4. 2, 4. ^°° Att. 1, 20, 7. '"'F. 15.0. 12; .1/^ 10. 1G^ lU; F. :i ;5 > '•^-^V. 3, 1, 10. '"■'/' /^^ (\,us. 1 1, 4.".: 12, If; '' F. 1, 1. 1. (7. Att. S. 4. 2. '• '' Atf. r,. 21, -y. ''^' .1//. -A, {•>: 11, 22. 2. I ciiaptl:h IV LETTER-WRITIXG A. OCTASIOXS In a stud;/ of tlu^ courtesies exchanged by individuals in our social world to-day, we should probably find that letter- writing played an important part. If this be true now, it must have been more so two thousand years ago, when it represented almost the oiil\- means of communication between {)ersons who were separated by a long or short distance, where- as the twentieth century modes of rapid travel, telephone, and telegraph service liaxc done away with the necessity of sending a letter, if a personal visit of even a few moments would be more appreciated, or a (piick message over the wires more ell'ective. But in Cicero's aide to pen a tVw words' which some passin- carrier nii,-ht take al<.n-''. and it wa^' doubtless only hy .uch !nicea>in- etf'ort that hr and Atticu^ kept up their corre-^pondence of daily letter, for many yt«ar.'. Moreover, an ei)istle which must encounter >uch difficuhies in reachinir the person to whom it wa> addre^-^ed. had to ^wiu worth the effort; and the art of lettcr-writim: wJnch. savs tlie French scholar, Boissier\ has been almost lo.t in the hurrv and complexity of our modiTu life, flourished in tho>e ancient* day> of fewer demands. Fortunately we haxe in Cicero's corre- spomlence a rare collection of hitters which rc^cal in u^vat richness the occasions upon which the polite Ionian made u^e of this form of intercourse with his friend., as wrll as the detail, of form and style sanctioned by correct u^au'c. Before we consider these subjects indivi.luallv, we nuLt m)te that etiquette naturally rccpiired an answer to written communications, and imposed an obligation in re-anl to the length of the epistle". "I should think you would bc> ashamed," wrote (^icero to Cas.iu., '"that this i. the thinl letter which I have inflicted upon you without a pa-e or a syllable from you^"'\ Uv once said of an^werinir a n..te from Caesar: "There is no alternative without otlence"". while Caesar once pur|)osrly ne-lected to r(>ply to a letter from Clodhis in order that this sli,i:ht miirht indicate a .ympathv tor Clodius' opponent, Cicero'-. Since letter. oft(Mi arrivewer to be prompt'^'. Prominent among the occa.ions which called for the use of ^ -4^^ 5, 17. 1: 5, 11. 7; Fr. i, .s. _>. ^.-l^^ 5. 10. 1. ' Att. 4, 2, 1; 7, 9, 1. 8 Bois:^ier, (r. Ciceron tt sts amis. Intm.!. i> ' Att. 11, IG, 4; F. 14. 2. 1. "^ F. 15, 16, 1. " .4//. S. -J. 1. '- Fr. H. 1, 11. '^ -4//. s, ir, }, '' F. 1(1. :]:], I; i\ s 1 ) 4 '^ -4//. 11, _'. 1: ir>. 21. 2. "^■"- -'. 17, 1,IM>. 3. f ? ^ )■) wnttrn ,n,.>.s.:;,.. were HKiny nnply thanks, hut congratulations for his successful part in ;'"■ 'T:"""' ''"■"'■"■ '^"'"- ■'' '""•'■'"-'^ "'■ a duaditer's , ''"'""^''- '■^'■" '^' '■ "-^ l'>''- third n,atrin,onial venture ;n.u,ht t<, her father expressions of pleasure at In. „oo,i '"••'".H.-. (^uhc naturally fric.,.!, and acquaintances u^te t" .■oiii^ratulate a person who had just recavcl an inheritance^' ''^'-';^'-;' a 'ase in c-onrf^ ha,l I.ecu ch-cted to office^', or ha,! '■•■'■'•■ved - -•■>.r this elluHv,. r..,.ly : - I .,nl.raced vou in ima-dua- """■ >in.e you were not her,., and kissi,,. the verv letter I <-.t:ra,ula„.d n,ys,.|f ,|,„ •., .j-,, ^j^,^;,,^^ ^^.|^; ^,.^j _'^^ attend Pouipcy s .^ranus at the openiu.ir <>( his new theatre the <"-^'tor also wro,,., rcjoicin.i; that his friend's absence ha,l been diM n,,t to ill health but to -ood sense-'. iu th,. ni.atter of writin-r apolof,ries social nsa.ire was evidently I'-xactn,-. and we have variuu.s examples wliich throw liuht u| >on p. .".-') iH.tos lliat the Romans '■' An. .i. -'o. J. " /■. 7. -•, -•. "/■'■ -'. ■.'. I: I.-. 7, ],-,. s -' /■'. I. ^1, -'. =' /•'. 2, .-,. 1 =•/■'. ■■'.. II, L'. '"'■'■ 7. 1, 1. ' rft.. Apologies 56 the prevailing standards of etiquette. We have spoken of tlie importanee attaehed to a eorrespondencc Ix^twcen friends, and of the (Hffieultirs whieh attended it. We are not surprised, then, to find exeuses for the ai)s('n('t' of letters, on the ground that there had been no means of xMuhng them-^. Sueh an explanation was readilx' acccptt'd, as was also that of ill healtlr'l (/ieero's i)lea that he had omitted writing to save expense was, of course, an attempt at wit '", although his humble apology to Trel)atius for ha\ ing >ent him no letter during his campaign with ('ae>ar in (iaul, heeaii-c he did not know his address^ does little credit to the orator's sense of humor^^ The uncertainty as to a letter's reaching its (lotination furnished an adeqtiate apology for its brevity--, but the famihar "too busy to write" was regarded as an all'ectatioii in Cicero'^ dav^'\ however conventional it ma\ be in the twentieth century. When Atticus, too, ^hortened hi^ message "to take a walk or an anointment," his friend sarcastically rephed that he "likewise must close to get some sh'cp"''. (\)n>i>ti'ntly with this the orator pleads insomnia as an excu>e for writing at too great length'^'', since this caUed for an exphmation"*', as did dullness of subject matter''. Cicero's correspondence furni>hes examples of the con- ventional apology which was written after a discourte^x or offence to a friend or acqiuuntance. Thus Antony wrote to ask Cicero's pardon for not having caHed upon him (hiring a brief stav near him at (^imae'-, and the orator wa> careful to explain to Plancus why he had not been in the >enate when his suppUcatlo was voted'^*. Xumerous other in>tance^, among which we find an apologx' for the riM-all of an invitation to ^' -1//. 4. 2, 1; F. 1, 7, 1. -3 Att. 5, 11, 7. ^0 Ihid. 3' F. 7, l.S. 1. 3- Aft. !.".>, 1. ^^' Att. 1. It. 1: cf. M. Aurcl. Mid. 1, VI. ^* Att. '.», 7. 7. 35 ^4// s. 1 , 1. 36 F r. .;, t,. 3" At*. ^. 11. 1. 38 .1//. IM, I ■,, .J, ^9 F. in, _'. 1. % ^ K k^^ 57 VKit'", for tlie breaking of a business engagement^^ for tardi- ness in offering congratulations-, c/r., convince us of the general use ()f such polite forms in Roman society. J^rutus accom- })anie(l his critici>m of Cicero to Atticus with the ho])c that tlie latter wonid pardon him for thus ..peaking of his closest iVH'nd'\ while Cicero, a.side from his i)unctiliousne.ss on indi- vidual occasions, once begged general forgiveness from Atticus b>i' all his omi^Mons and ollcnces during their friend.ship'''. Among the convrntional phra>es in vogue we find " / Vr fun ^[''''''"[ "• " Jf' .vou will pardon my saying ,.o"'^\- and the brief formality: '' Ej-rusniimu i„ arrijjin": "I accept your apology" ^^ Brutii> con>idered an exi)res>ion of thanks a formality that was iinne(v>sary between intimates. "Don't expect me to ^^'''''^ ''"""' ^'y ^^'-'^te to Cicero, "from the clo.scness of our Thanks ^'''i^'"<^^J»']>' that ought long since to have become superfluou.V"'. On another occasion he.said: "A debt eaiinot be paid in words to one whom I can .scarcely repay in de.*l>"=\ With .similar f(>eling Plancus al.^o wrote to Cicero: "Such ch.M' intinuny as you have wished me to have with you doe. not >vvui to require an expression of thanks, nor I willingly make in return for your v(Ty great kindness tlH" i)oor ollerin- of word>"''. But since language provides a natural mode of expre.>i(,n for gratitude, however inadequate, verbal acknowledgment of a favor was not only acceptable to i^)man etiquette, but its omission .seemed a mark of dis- courtesy''". While Cicero was in exile, he had Terentia .send him a li.st nf the people to whom he ought to write letters of thanks for tlK-ir cllort. to have him recalled'. To Atticus he made courteous acknowledgment of his assistance in political *" .\tt. ;>, }, 1. ^' Att. 1, 12. 1 ' - . ( , 1 . ^3 ,:,/ />V ■•>/; alul I). I. *'y. 7, 17, 1 ^^ .1//. Ui, 1. fi. ■'•• 'v/ liruf. 1, (1, J. '^ /•'. II. 1.!, ]. ■'■■ /•". l'>, 2}, 1. 5° F. .'>. .-,. _'. '' /■^ n. 1. .y ii. ;:;, ;j. -i I" »- 58 circles''-, of his generous otl'er to aid by his wealth'*, of his care of Tullia during lier fatlier's absence''*, and of nnniberh'ss instances in which his help and counsel had been present in the life of his unfortunate friend ". So pnnctihous was Cicero in this matter that once, when a letter of thanks to Attit iis was returned to him without having been delivered, he -ent it back to him to sliow that he had written of lii> gratitu(h' promptly'^, although Atticus suggested that he did not expect such strict formality''. Among the iniineroii> rni>>i\('> written in expression of thanks we find >uch subjeet> a.> pohtical support'^, a compliment, or gift which had been reeeixed by the writer''', or such a fa\'or as release from attendanct at a meeting of augurs''\ or the recei})t of information concerning personal slander^^ Not satisfied witfi his own offering of thank>. the courteous Roman also asked liis friend^ to nienticn hi> gratin:onietiine-> >o effusively, in fact, as to embarrass the orator**', whih' the hlth' girl, Attica, who sent a message of appreciation in lier father's letter, shows the early training of t!ie Roman chihl in thi- form of courtesv^'. We have seen that the Roman of RepubHcan (hty-> frowned upon any extravagant expre>.-ion of grief in time of (h'ath or other sorrow^'^', and gloried in the fortitude and , 2; 0, 0, I; !», 12, 1. '"^ Att. 2, i;:5, 1. *■ -4//. ,3. 17, 3. •'-"' F. 2, 6. .5. »^ ad Brut. 2, 4, 0; Fr. :;, 7, 2. «o .1//. 12, 17. 1. «' A ft. s. 2, 1 ; /•'. 11, 21, 1. '- Att. 4. 0, 4. " /•■•. 2, 13 A :>''), ;;. •-• Att. !». (1, ti; /•'. 1, ',), Jl. •■• .4/^ 1 !. 10, ('.. '•-^ F. 4, 0, 1 : .4//. 3. 11, 2. '• .4//. 10, 14, 1. ^% 59 ence had its place in the code of social courtesies^\ it often bore as well the burden of advice, or reproof for showing grief^'-*. Among the letters of syinj)athy which Cicero received'^in'^ exile, came the warning that because of his manifest dejection the rumor had spread abroad that his mind was unbalanced bv his nn-sfortune'". Later he himseh' wrote to Alarcellus, who'was m exile: "I am bound rather to congratulate you for your fortitude in trouble than to condole with you in your afflic- tion "''. In dcero's C()rresj)ondence tliere are some interesting exami)Ie^ of consohitory letters. We find the stereotyped form, which admonishes the sufi'erer to "take comfort in the consciousness of crood intentions, since there is no serious evil except misconduct"'-; or "it must be a comfort to have done what is right in spite of the resulting misfortune "'l There is the reminder that "death must come to all ""\ and the exhortation to find solace for trouble in the noble son who mii^t be a joy to his father. In this particular case there follow, a lengthy enumeration of the youth's virtues'"'. Some writers mak(^ an effort to keep alive ]ioj)e''\ and take a more cheerful tone than the facts would warrant''. 1 he prescriptions for cheerfulness are in some cases quite elaborat(^ Cicero >ays of a letter from Brutus at the time of Tnll!a'> death: "It contained a great deal of wisdom, })ut iK'thinir to give me comfort "'\ His reply, when he wrote to con^.Ic Brutus on the death of his wife, shows that this form of sympathy was not always acceptable: "You are pro- vi(h'd with the remedies which you offered for my relief. . . . T truM xhv'w cure in your case may be more effective than in '. This may li(>lp us to understand Cicero's self- miiie «' .1'/. 13, 2(». 1: F. r,. ]:;, :;; o. .; «' A/t. 3. 10, 2 :',: :i. ].',. I. '"' Att. '.i, [:',, 2. ■' F. 1, s, 1, "- /•'. ti. }, 2, '^-4/^ 11, 0, 1. '' F. r>. IG. 2. '■'/'. 5. 17. r>. '^ Att. ,3. 10. 1. "-4//. ::;, 17. 2; 3, IK. 2. '' -4//. 12. 14, 4. •^ a misfortune than a disi,Tace^-\ Such a letter of sxinpathv mitom, that T . J .• prominent men u-a\e tlie-e introductions rather Introductions ... mdiscrimmately, as ( 'icero admits". Therefore in the case of a special friend he felt oMi^ed to>tatethat he wa> not writini,^ merely in conventional terms^\ \vry sli-ht ac(piain- tance seemed to justify a request for an introduction or a recommendation^"'; and so the circumstances were entirel\- probable, which Horace later pictured, in his anuisiiii: satire on an encounter with a bore who wanted entrance into the circle of Maecenas-'". Such letters were often petitions for some si)eeial attention to the bearer-^S or reciuests for the j)rotection or inlluenec of a ^^overnment ofhcial'*-, either for an individual or a wiiole community'-'-l Since a reconunendation mii^ht furnish the writer a means of cancelliui,^ an oblipition'*, lu^ would perhaps su^^trest that any courte>y shown the per-on whom he intro- duced would be re^^arded as a fa\()r to liim>elf '"'. ^ 9 »" Att. 12. 11. :•{. *' Att. S, (), A; 10. 10. ;5; /•'. T,. L'l, :». ^- F. 5. \-4, :i. ^^ Att. 11. s. 1. ^' F. 5. IS, 1. ^' F. 1."). n, 1; ;;, m, i. '■' /•'. s. :.'. 1. •'^ F. \A. 70. 1. ^^ /•'. !;•!. iy.K 1; /•'. 7. 0, 1 "' F. l-l r,"': i;;. m, i. «'^ Hor. Sat. 1. 9. 4."^ 47. Cf. also Hor. F/>:^(. 1, Is, OOan.l 70 tT. uii tliodunu'or of reromniciulin<: on slijzht ;;c.iuaintanc«'. 31 F. 7, 5. 3; V.i, 53, 1-2. ^' /•'. 1.^, 7o: i:-!. 00, l. «- F. 13, 50, 1; 13, Or,. I. r l\ 13, 01. 1 ; Fr. 3, 1, ',). "F. 13, 11, 2. jPt'^ *> Handwriting 61 B. FoHM AND Style When we look into the matter of the form and style which were considered proper for a courteous letter, we find that tlie handwriting,^ and material received attention, as well as the form of title, the .trreetin^% the close, and the style of lantruai^^e. Althou^^h the o^reat number of intellie it indicated that his friend was \\V'^\ and he was deeply touched once b\- the cramped script which showed that Atticus had written with In's own pen while sufferin<( from fever'"'. I'.ven in letter^ penned l)y a scrib(\ there was often a con- fidential j)art added by the writer himself'"*^. So when dcero read some of a personal letter to another friend, he explained that it was only the dictated ])orti()n'"'. '■>' Alt. 5, 10. 1. Cf. cpi-tlc-^ wriltcii hy St. Paul from Rome in which he sptak- of haviiiiz pcnnrd hi> incs.^atre with his own Jian. 2. 2, 1:2. 15 (10), 1; 3, 3. 1. ••^1^/. 2, 23. 1. i"4 .{(f 7^ 2, 3. •^ Att. 4. Ui, 1. loi ^.1^/ (i_ ,)_ I •"o.4/^ 5. 17, 1; 5. n. 1. 106/;^ 2, 13, 3; .1/^ S. 1, 1: 11, 24, 2. '^"-l"- '^. 1-'. 1. ^^^ Att. <., 0,4. i"2 Aff. 2, 20. 5. Materials 62 There is some reference to the (h'scourtesv of writiin^ illegibly^^^ hence it is possible that a k'tter neatly written by an amanuensis sometimes i^ave no more oU'ence than its typewritten successor of to-day. Quintilian empha>iz('(l tlie importance of learnini; to write a .i^ood hand "becaux' of it> advantage in private and intimate correspondence " "*. Modern etiquette helps us to a})preciate the attention [)a!d by the Romans to the proper materials for letter-writing-. Cicero ridiculed Trebatius for sendinic him one on parchment which had been used before'^". Xotes retpiirinu- an immediate answer should be written on wax tablets which were suitable for rei)eated n>e, and hence \'\\r- nished a medium for the rei)ly^^^ To in>ure his correspondent the secrecy and inte.i^rity of his mes>air(\ the writer mu-t >eal it with great care. lie tied the packet with a >tring and sealed the knot by wax with his signet ring''-. Although we have the benefit of nuich re>earch and (\\>vu<. sion on the opening and closing of a Roman letter, there is >till some question as to the genuineness of the >up(>r>cri{)tion> as they now appear in dcero's correspondence, and a- to the signihcance of the fornudae emplovcd"'. I low- Titles and . ' • Names ^'^'^'^' ^^^'"^ quotations and references in the body of the letter to titles or names u>ed in the ad- dress, we have some direct evidence that the formal opening did correspond to tho>e found in the mamlscri{)ts"^ and in the absence of sufficient proof that any considerable number of these superscriptions are spurious'^', we are probably >afe in deducing conventional forms from such a classification a^ Mr. Pease has made of the greetings in Cicero's letter.^'*''. i"^Fr. 2, 14 (l.V'). 1. IP. fr. J. -t. 1. io» Quint. In.st. Oral. 1,1, 28. »- in Cat. -l o. "0 F. 7. is, 2. 11' See E. M. IVasc: Th> (;n,tifu, in L,tt'rs ,,/ Cuum. Stu.li.v- in Ikhi.u- .,f B. L. Gildersleeve. pp. .■•!!KV-401. Cora M. Portrrfu-Ul : 77>. ,id Attirum Sup, r- scription^^. C\. Kev. vol. 12, pi). 4;iS ff. Johanii B:ibl. h,.. Kpistulamm Latinaruin Formulis. '^'Att. 3. 20, 1: F. 1, 10; 3, 11; 7, 29; 2, 10. 1. "^ Cf. Porterfield. ''M'f. \uu> II.;. 1> 1 f--^ 63 A comparison of the titles and forms of names which dif- ferent people used, or the same people used under var\inir circumstances, shows (]uite plainly that etiquette was an important factor. We have aln^idy noted that in addressing an official it was proper to usi^ his highest title''". We find, also, that the writer might make an ecpial dis])hiy of his own rank"\even when his corresi)()ndent had no such distinction''-\ F>ut the demand for such formality de|)end(Hl upon the occa- sion. Thus while we hnd full titles used in th(^ business or public letters even of intimate friends'-", these same persons omit them in informal or familiar mi>sives. In one instance we have; "M. Cicero Procos. . . . Appio Pulchro Imp."'-', or "M. Cicero . . . l^ruto Imp. Cos. I )esig."''--, while else- where it is simj)ly: "M. dcero . . . Ap. Pulchro "''-\ and "M. Cicero . . . 1 ). Bruto"'-'. Similarly. con\-entionality allowed the omission of names uudvr certain circumstances. In official and extremelv formal letters we find tlie full jn-dOKniun . nofncn and cognomcv of both persons'-', whereas the use of onK- two nain(>s, with varietv in choice, characterizes business letters or those of mere acquain- tances'-". This applied also to the address on the outside of the j)acket. Cicero refers to one such as "M. Curio"'-', and a fresco at I'ompeii shows a letter inscribed simply "M. Lucr(^tio"'-^. Persons associatiMl l)\- intimate friendshii) or bv familv ties might propiTly ust^ one name only in their exchange of letters. T!ie evidence as to which name was commonly chosen is some- wliat conflicting, and the selection ])erhaps was not always con- sistent. Mr. Pease concludes that i)ersons whose intimacv began in childhood used the jji'tfcuoDuii, while the use of the i;: S vv ]). 0. '- F. 2, li». 1. "»/-\ 10. 34, 1. '" F. 3, 0, 1. '■'■' F. 11. 17. 1. -■ F. 2. U), 1: o, 2. 1. '-» CL BaM.. pp. 17 iT. --^ F. 4. 14. 1 ; 4, 4. 1 ; o, 10, 1. Cf. Pca-so. p. 401, '- F. 3. 2, 1. '-- /•'. 11, is, 1, '-■ Att. S. .'), 2. '-- T3rrL41; Corrcsjjondificc of Cicera, I, Introd.. p. 4S. 64 nonieu ij:enerally indicates matiiiT friendship or family rclation- ship^-^ Thus Cicen. used lu's own and his brother's prat nm/n n when writino: to Quintus^'", as he thus oeea>i()nally addrexM'ii a friend of lonix standin.i:■■^^ hut in h-tter^ to hi> wife he ummJ her uomen, Terentia, and Hke\vi>e his own, Tuihu>' ~. Hnt we notice, on the other hand, that ahhou^di ( 'icero usually ealU Atticus hy his nomrn, "Pomponius", in the early part of their correspondence''-\ he sometimes use^ the />/7// //o/z/r///' Titn^ "■ ^ and occasionally hoth'-. Tlien after hi-^ friend receixcd the cognomen "Atticus", lie adopted that alnio>t entirely' '''. and as a further extension of it, called hi> friend",> little dau-hter "Attica"^-'". The playful use of Attieu-" full name on ene occasion when " Caecilius" had ju>t heen added hecauM' ,.r hi. adoption by an uncle of that name, explain.^ it.>clf a^ a de- parture from custom' '\ Accordincr to (Icero's own statement it wa^ th<' /.n/. //^/v, /? that familiar friends droppeir^', and if Tyrrell', interpretatinri of a letter from Tiro may be accepted-", the latter (pu-tioned the propriety of his patron's showin- .>uch intimacy with his freedman as to address his letter: " TnIUjj.s' Tinnii Sol." omittino: the prarni>/ro:/i^''K Moreover. Cicero el-ewhere tells us that it was the cognnm, u which intimate-^ u>ed'''-. alth.tu-h the disputed pas.sii^e in Horace: '' ijniidnit prononn'no' mnlh.s' aurlcuIac''''-\ may imply that to call one by hi. j.raninmnt imlicates a flatterin^i: intimacy'^-. A> a special mark of atlec- tion, diminutive form> of proper name^. >uch a> TolHulo''', i:i See Pease, p. 3!»s. ''"Fr. 1. 1. 1; 1, 3, 1. ,ic. ''-■ F. 4, 1. 1. '■-F. li. 1-24. ^'■^ Atl. ;>. 9. 2: 4, Is, 2, ilc J- Att. 9. 0. :,. 1- Att. 4. -2. 5. !'■ .1/', \J. 1. 1 ; IJ, 14, 4: I '^' At;, -s. Jii, 1. '"' F. 7, M. 1. i^cTyrrril W 109. ''■ F. m, Is. 1. = '- 'it I )■.><,. I «i, _>_>. ^^^ Ilur, Sat. 2, 3. o2. !. 1", .'. ttc. ^^'' Att. 0, 1, .n); 14, 12, 1; r,, 2, s. i-Sce hou-ever Tyrr--ir> note ivol. 1. IntrM.i,, p. 49^ on thi-^ pa-a-o of Horaee. He suc-e.t:^ that re^l.ect rather than intinia<>y i> v> i,,. .houn l.y thnr u^iuii the j>'-'it nnnun. '•'' F. 14. 1. 0. r * < I ^ Greeting 65 or playful nicknames like Calnis — "Bald hea(^'^^^ and Mi I (fi(h\ — "Old fellow"'*', were quite common; the j)()ssessive j)ronoun al>o. attached to a friend's name, implied the writer's fondness for hiin''\ The salutation with which a lunium letter be,i:an was quite stereotyped, and when used in full indicated the writer's inten- tion to be formal and resi)ectfur*\ An ofHcial despatch to the senate and magistrates properly bei];an: Si rohfi.s- l/hi n'jnc rtsfri ralnit, Jxnf csf; cah o^'-\ and if A\ritten by the commander of an army, lie achied: kno > .n rrifn.^ujur /7//m////.v'''. ( 'ourte.^y recpiired this formal i^reetini: aho in a letter to a treneral''-. P>ut in private corre- spondence a briefer form: Si rtihs Jjrnr r.v/'"' was sufhcient, or -ini])ly: sojutnn difif was added to the names of the writer and recipient of the letter'"'. In instances of close relation-hip we hnd a still further reduction of the formula to: siiliifi III isoh. '■'■', .sometimes mo(lifie(l l)y ])liiri}noiii^''^\ it was often entirely omitted'^''. Convention therefore <:ranted con- -idt-rable \ariety' \ but letter., written to women, even within the family circle, show the more polite irreetim:: sohitviii . . . (lii'if' '. The ft.rmal endini: of a Pioman letter of this period was not so elaborate as it- beirinninir. The briefest and commonest formula in the Ciceronian corresj)ondence is simply Vale, which -tands at the clo.<« .1". 1. Ui, .' : r\. Hor. Snt. 1 ; ::!, pa-im. ^*' /'. 7. 19. 1. ; '■ F. 12. 11. 1; 1.";. 2. 1. ^*^ .1". :■'.. \: F. 1 \. y>. 1 : n^ 4. 2. ^'■- F. :,. 7, 1 : .J. 2. 1. "M-f. Ha!,l , ;,. 21. 15^ /•. 12. \r>. 1. i»* /■ . 1. 1: 1. : >-' Att. s. 11: 'J. 7 -' F. 4. 4; 1 1, 2. 1. <:tr.. nd Brat. 1,9; F. '■). !«. 1^* / . i. 11. '• F. V.i. 7s. 2; Fr. .j. 7, 2. i5- A't. 1 I, 19: 1 J. 21 : F. .". 19: 9. ^. ■■-- F. 14. 2, 4: 14. 3. r>. IS* /■. '*. '9 Ui. 1 1. !•- F. 19. 5. 2: 19. G. 2. '" / . 14. 1: 14. ;;: 14, 4, >tr. 'J 6G appeal suggests intimacy-'-' „r atlVction"'-. An nppropriatc form ot ending a letter ais„ includes a niessai^e to ,„• from some other frieiui or meinher of the writer's family"'" The date and place of writing alo„ f„r these omissions, a German scholar makes th,. deductions that the date was not customary in short n,,tcs to f,e proniptK de- livered, nor in letters given to friend> to .■arrv; l,„t that i't wis always written in official letters, and gcneralK i„ ,l,„s,. ..,,t to friends from a distance or on a journcv"-. Ilnwever t'lr evidence for these conclusions is not entirely co„vi„ci„,,'..,nd Cicero tells us that Attics was ./„■„,,/. .afeful to date his letters, in a tone of commendation of tin-, coin-tc~y"- The language of a letter, as well a. it. ,.x„,-nal form re- flects the standards of etiquette in voun.e at thr tin.,, it wa. written. Courteous phra^.s, restriction or freedom in the u.r. :■ r k1 ... Aitonumswiss.. vol. 139. pp. 32 ff " i/' ■''■ -■>. 1. rf. Suet. Atuj. 30. '^'F.o, IJ. Ki,.}, 17. 5; 5. 18. 2; 13, 6«. 5. ^ 67 by an intcrchan^rre uf letters"^"". So, too, a letter frequently el(>ses with ^onie e.\|)res.->i()n of iTi,^ar(l'''. There is no denyinir the fact, if we may judge from the litera- ture, that })(.lit<' society in the elosini; days of the Republic imposed h'ss restraint on choice of lanirua.i^e than we should expect in sinnlar circh's to-day. It is, therefore, somewhat of a suri)ri-e to find dcero'.- ('{)rres])ondence comparatively free from coar.^c ex})re.->ion^ intended to be amusing, and reserved in discus.-!oii> of imh-hcatt^ matters. To be sure, dccro offers no apolo-y fur ]\\> extravagant use of puns'"'-, many of which , too. in one h'tter wa> guilty of a ])un >o bad that ( iccro had great diflicuhy in .seeing the point of it'"'. The Roman wa- e\idently not so careful about boring his corre- spondent in thi- way ;i> a eourteou,> writer of to-day would be. Hut Cicero criticized Raetu> for the coarse jokes at the end of fii> h'tter.-, comparing them to tlie niinu^^ presente .subject of refinement in lamiuage a! M.nic h'n-th in a letter to Raetus'"'. The Stoics, he said, thiuiirhi it w;;^ alway. hc-T to UM' word- which nn"ght !)e taken !it(M';iliy. hut he (h'fciidtMJ the other custom (A' referring to "b-(*'!i«' niattc!'- in xcih-d hingnage, and we ma\ rea>onably infcrihai inafi\ o! hi- ci )nieniporarie> agreed with him. (^uin- tiiiaii -how- how thi- indirect mo(h' of e.\pre>sion Ivd to condi- ti"n- ii!i word- or phra-c- mi^dit ha\-e a double meaf!i!iL^ and -<> -imirc-t (.b-cenit\- where n(»n(^ was intende{r''\ In the ellurL lliu.- tn [ire^cnt aii m(h'hca<*\- clothed in pr(»per evtcrnnl fnrni, a wriicr * nipjoxcd anien- (*ilier mean- tliai of 1^0 F. 15,21.5. 17* Alt. 7. iu . i. i^»F. 2, 3, 2;7. 14.2. 175^.9. 16,7. 1^' F. 7, 32. 1-2; Att. 6, 1, 25; 8. 14, 3; F. 7, 13. 2. i'^ Att. 2. 1, 5. '^» de Oratore 2, 235. w: F. 9. 22. i^« Quint. 8, 3, 44-47. Cf. F. Ritter: Rhein. Mus. vol. 3. pp. 569-580. > I 68 foreign words and phrases. Many of the Greek expressions in Cicero's letters served this purpose, such as medical terms, and the names of diseases and physical conditions, which he used even where less technical names were available^'^. In one of the philosophical dialogues Varro asks the indul- i:. nee of his . n pauions for his use of Greek in their dis- "^--'^'^^^ ^^? ' - 1 -in cnuU not supply the necessary words. P-'^ n. M vn;^ iJM :, onsent Im n plied: ''You are verv kind " ' ' ''• '^ '* '^' ' i I ^piu in uuii permission to speak in Latin "ISO, It un^ nm, ihrn, nr nil tin.s and places, courteous to UM. :i huv,,., lanmi.^,. in .•nn^.r-.n.n .^th one's fellow- '■-^^^^^^•y^^^^'^^^ ^^n.\ ,U:r lu.inu ... h.,u nua we account for the pn-enru ot .o nnirh twv.k in < K.Tn'< lott.Ts, asi<|r (v,.n t^e rt'fm'nrTstoin(lHi.-air-u!.j,..ts>' it .-an m.M n. . ,r .. anse, only niH' thin-: that thr writ.-r knru nf hi. r. aav.p.anh m'. ai.ility tn u^e thr hinirua-e; anj Mnec ihi. ua. -rurrnUv trn.^ ..t ,.,,L tnivd peoph" in that airo. it nrr.j n.a inJi.-ai.' an ..innn^r r nf nn.a.-iaint^ in thr .lAnviy of letter>, it wa> al>o pmprr tu um- a hnn:nauv niikn^wn to the avera-e rnnh'r a. a mean, of M.nrin:: fM■i^a.■^ .,! r.aav- spondence''-. The letter, convince n> that pohtc coiTe>.])on.haHr in ( i.vrn'. aire made free u>e of exehinuition^ and <.ath.. onnv.pun.hn- perhai)s to slan- phrase.. Mich a. wunhi .caivcK hrham r,. a good style to-(hiy. One of tlie nio.t conininn.' .1/. /A ;vv./. . indicates little more than an emphatie "I tell xa.n'" nr • ] shouhl >ay"^-=. while /Vr fnrfunns, ''hi the name nf V.y. tune''^ and Mr .//.,v _/;.//... -Cp,,, ,,, wmxl ^ , qnln. frequently form a part nf appraU and Mmnir n-ertinns. I nder ^tre^s of deep fcrlini: thr writm ifunkn-, ila' ^,m1- in ''' ^■'- 11. T. 1: .on ns, in, i. n^. i^. i n; .v i 180 ^caf/. 1, 7, 25. , 7 n ' ? ' ' " ""''^''" ^^ ^h« "Greek in Cicero's Epistles." see R. B. Steele ' ; ''■ P^^- ^^^ ff: ^^d of. -Cicero ad Atticum". by Louise Dodge.' A f. { V 1 ,_>. pp. 439 IT.; also Tyrrell. Vol. I, pp. 66-68. ^"^.1.8.2;. 1 1 I 1 Fr.2.8.1. ^^ F. 8. 13. 1;^//. 9. 12. 1. r2^t^ t^ 69 Per deos ^^\ Di honi ^^\ or Di immortales ^^\ all of which are probably equivalent to our exclamation, "Heavens!" More in the nature of oaths are Moriar^^^, Peream^^^: ''May I die," and Illi diirate^^\ Di hercule istis^^\ I Hi male sit ^^\ot Male faciant^^\ meaning "Confound them!" or "Curse them!" which are also common. One is tempted to look for a significance in the Latin use of the singular nos corresponding to pronominal usage in certain modern tongues, but although it undoubtedly expresses an attitude on the part of the wntri hnt idmucai with hi.^ use of ego, it seems more a matter of prr^nnn] feelinn tlnan nf etiquette^^^ C. CoXFTPFvrr !\ ^Mn'RESPONDENCE Sinnn ihe liouian.-. tiepended .>o karnrk, nn thr htter- of their fri'^nd^ fnr nrw^. wr nm-t imm kr nirpri^rd tn find that ^''<'''' "'-^t • h-- fr-;n'-(| trr the fM'i\ar\ nf rnrrc-pnndenrr than J""'l'''''i riiqnrtlr wuiild deman.k Ahhnnirh nian\ of tlie 1''^^'-"- «'\(hanur.l kin intimate-, -nrji a- ( 'irero and Atti, ^vrrr rn!ifi(haitiak nthrr- donkth'-- pa--r(l from friend to 'fi'iid; lirnrr thr -perial mention nf a p('r:-ona.l me.ssaLCc'"k ( iccro e.\pre>.>e(l no -in-pri-c or disph-a-nrr when he h'arne ])ri\ate cnnimunications' ''. When (^nintn- ( irrm wrote ahn^i\-el\' of iiis brother to some ac(piaintance-. they did not he-itate to show the h'tters to othrr p)eoph'''\ and hna]l\- to deero himself, (^uite hc- (pnaitly the (.rat<.r enrh)M-d tlie copy of a letter which he had rcrr.\rd, w licn lie wrote to Atticu,-^^'-^^. '" Att. 4, 7 1 192 ^«. 16, 1, 1. iw^«. 15. 15, 1. i«^F. 11, 21, 1. "« F. 8, 1 ! I , '8- ^«.6,6, 5 - ]r,,i, •88 F. 2. 7, 2; Att. 8, 6. 3. "» Att. 9. 7^ 3. "° F. 8, 15, 2. •"On the "Singular Use of Nos'\ see R. S. Conway. Camb. Phil. Trans., vol. 5, pp. 7 flf. "«^«. 4, 17. 1. 198 ^«. 11,21, 1; 11.22, 1. "^.4«. 8, 2. 1;8. 9, 1. '"yl«. 8. 1. 1; 8,6, 3; 8, 11,6; 9,6,3. 70 More surprising than this freedom with one's own corre- spondence, is the Hberty which was apparently taken with that of others. Servilia, the mother of Brutus, appropriated a letter from Cicero to her son which arrived in his absence^°^, not, however, without annoyance to the writer. But the latter once admitted to Atticus that he had opened and read a h tier from Pilia to Quintus-°S as he did also a packet from his brother which he suspected of containing some abuse of him- self. He even contemplated preventing its delivery, but finally had it resealed with his brother's signet, which could be obtained from the latter's wife-^-. This deception would indicate that he wished to conceal a breach of good manners, if not morals, and elsewhere Cicero condemns such conduct^^^. Q^^'ntus' son, he tells us, was in the habit of opening his father's mail-^^, and so his uncle did not trust him to carry a confidential letter about himself to Atticus^^^. A corresponding lack of integrity in the signature of letters seemed not entirely beyond the bounds of propriety as it was conceived in those days. Cicero asked Atticus to write in his name to whomever he thought advisable in his absence from Rome-^, and to make some excuse for the absence of his seaF°'. Decimus Brutus likewise entrusted Plancus to write letters over his signature-^^ 200 AH. 15, 24. 201 ^«. 5, 11,7. 202 A«. 11,9, 2. 203 Phil. 2, 4, 7. 204 AtL 6, 3, 8. 205 ^«. 16, 1, 6. 2o« Att. 3, 15,8; 11.5,3. 207 A«. 11, 2, 4. 208 F. 11, 15, 1. 1 > CHAPTER V LITERARY WORK A. Personal Dedications and Allusions The etiquette of writing concerns itself not only with letters, but also with more formal literary work, for ;ven in such productions the author's attitude toward his associates •s shown Roman writers, like modern ones, used to dedicate a book to some fnend or to a prominent individual, as an IXotl" r "''''^ '' '"''''''''■ C'^-«'^ ^--I'^tion of Anstotle s Tomca appeared as a memorial to his youne avonte Trebatius^ and he referred to his published speech for Deiotarus as something which he had "written as a little g.ft to an old fr.end, though not in my best style'" One letter preserves for us the dedication of his "Academy" to Varro, the great scholar, and his contemporar^■l There seems to have been no impropriety in asking an author for th.s compliment, since Cicero, in the same letter in which he sent h,s dedication to Varro, reminded him of his promise for a like courtesj-*, and received in reply what he considered "an absurd excuse-. It was in response to Brutus' own request hat Cicero thus honored him in the De Oratore, though the former did not allow the compliment to restrain his criticism of the author's style'. Caelius Rufus also suggested to Cicero that he publish some treatise in honor of their friend- Other devices for personal allusions, such as introducing one s friends as speakers in a philosophical dialogue, gave ' F- 3, 4, 1. ' F. 7, 19. ■''•9, 12, 1. ' F. 9, 8. 'F. 9, 8, 1. 'Att. 16, 12, l;ct.Acad. 1, 1,2. ' AU. 14, 20, 3. ' F. 8, 3, 3. 71 i 72 further opportunity to compliment them publicly^. When Varro felt slighted because he had not been represented in Cicero's published work^^ Atticus suggested that he **put him in somewhere in the De Re Puhlica''^^, B. Manuscripts Submitted to Friends The difficulty and slowness of publication in ancient times were responsible for a much more general circulation of an author's manuscript than is customary to-day. He often sent it i5rst as a mark of courtesy to his most intimate friend^-, who passed it to others^^, or returned it to the writer^^, who wuiiid then give it to various friends in turn^^. Such an introduction of a new book sometimes took place at a dinner party, where it was read aloud to a small company^'. The iuh uisd Atticus made his home in Rome a center for such liit.nn L'ntherings^^ at which this fortunate host might present to iii- un* i some unpublished writing of his brilliant friend Cicero, who in return expected the favor of an especially LriMMi !( nit ! ;n 1 ;i < 'v iiji choscn audience to insure a favor- aMc itMtpti,!: t. r ; ^^ fM.-k . Jt was quite important for a lU'U' pr-a'' r^. !■»:•'! his nianuscript^^. A-idt' I'rcui anv th-irc i*. ^■^■. material wa- ^eiit tn rrvM^h'r t! (»t iiitimarx'^-'. 1 i^ltr -u< n . bt'trax al ot ('( >Iitli if! ;i ■( J 1 t! i ■-' iiiULLL a iririid, unpublished wMirfit of ]ii< rTitioi-ni m r-ase ini-tances it constituted a i\ one cl-f t ' ' iT.i.i I u^- ina wn- -20 son}>t-". \\"o ma> inf\ term- Hirtiu-' \\ork (^ ^ A'.t. 1.;. ij, :;, i.j. n. .. "-■I'f. IS. 1.;. 1. 1- A'.'. \. :>. 1. ■' F. 0, 7, 4. AIL 12, 4. -, l!;al < irtT.i haij n.it rt,-c'ei\'C(i (*n >ik4i Cat... n a > , h I at gave out for puhlioa- 15 F. 1. 9. 23. i«.4//. 16, 3. 1. 1" Att. 16. 2. 6. 18 .4«. 13. 14. 2; Fr. 2, 15. 5. 19 F. 12, 12. 1: .4«. 5, 18. 1. 20 F. 6, 5, 1; Att. 2, 12. 3. ^» 73 tion^^ Among authors we notice a hesitancy to inquire about writings not yet made public. " I have been looking forward a long time to your book," said Cicero once to Varro, ''but I have not made bold to ask for it "^2. C. Presentation Copies Upon the appearance of a new work, its writer might call attention to it, or express his regard for some friend by sending him a " presentation copy "23. Cicero had a copy of his " Acad- emy" made for Varro on ''large and handsome sheets of parchment", as a special distinction-^ The fortunate owners of these first copies were besieged with requests to lend them or to share their first reading-^. D. Public Recognition of Authors Cicero's was an age of entire freedom in the realm of literarv criticism, so that a frank expression of opinion in public greeted the publication of a new book. Aside from the open attacks of partisans, should the subject be one of current interest, such as Cicero's eulogy of Cato-^ the author must ex- pect the criticism of scholarly men like Varro, whom Cicero describes by the Homeric line: "Keen-eyed for faults, to blame the blameless prone "27. However, the orator, though himself sensitive to public opin- ion,-^ intimates no lack of r-Durtesy in snob ..jvn comrrn iit, which must be expected as a matt* a of coaa .. T* r,aai- ficius, a !< llnu-augma lie uia:.-s: "Seizincr upon iht a.p]H,.r- tunity ol juiiv aiisence, and iJm' aiTairr i'rr*-,i*ai] it irivf'< mo, T nni writinLT ^^i'h more tlia-i u-ial hnhluess "-^ \l rr 74 I plume myself not worth readinir ""'. Of a contenipoi-ary poet, Sallustius, he said to Quintu-: " If \ou -uccecd in rcadini: his Empedoelea, I shall regard \ou a- a hem, yt>t ^carcclx' human ""^^ C'ieero also expre>sed the fohowinir opinion of Lucretius: "His poems are characterized h\ nian> fhi-hc- of genius, but are very technical"'-. rerhap> adverse criticism is more aj)t to haxc hccn liandcd dovvn to us than the favorahk-, hut we know -omethimr at least of com|)limentary reference to Cicero's work. Of the first hook of his poems (^aesar said that he had nc\«r -ccn anvthiuir hetter^^ and the Dictator also ratt'(| his hons ///n/.v so high as to wish to include them in hi> own coHcition''. Caelius Rufus spoke of the Dc lu Pnldicn a- in "uni\ersil favor""^"'. We need not suppose, morco\cr, that Atticiis expressed only in i)rivate his hearty prai>e of ('icero'> literary success^'^, especially >ince he was recognized as a worthv critic in the world of letters^' ■'^ Att. 10. 5. o. '' Fr. 2, '• (11). ;^ '■- Fr. 2, 9 ill), ;>. "Multi- lumini!)us iimfuii. niiilf;n- taincu artii." -' Fr. -2, 15 (16:, r>. ^' -1/'. !•>. ^5. 1. 3« F. 9, 10, 4. ^' -1^'. Iti. 11, -L "^F. 8, 1, 5. i CIIArTEll \l VVBlAi^ (;atiierings A. FTiQiKirE FOK Speakers The aml)ition> citizen of the Hepnhlic usually sought fir.-t to attract tlie attention of his fellowmen }>y a display of his oratorical |)ower<. Hence in an age when pu})lic speaking formed >nch a })rominent ])art of the daily life of men, con- vention ixave rit, not only because his rank of ex-consul warranted that pri\ilege, but because the magistrate wished to designate him as the most di>tinguished of the consulars^. The public orator must be prepa.red for free ex])ression of appro\al or the ('(^ntrary from his audience. Oato's hearers once showed their symi)athy with his attack Treatment by ,> i +i • ^ ' i- i -i "^ i 4. , ,. upon 1 Omix'v r)\' tlieir profound silence " , but Audience ' i . . x in(»re commonly we hear of a|)j)robation expressed by c]ieer>'', by the raising of hands", by exclamations of praise^, >uch a>: lUiK (f jirtu durv. lUUc it frsticc, Xon potest indlus\ J .1//. 1, :\. M; /•'/. 2. 1. 2. - .1/'. 1. 2. :;, 1, !, (1. ■* Atf. 7. 1. 1. ' Fr. 2. 1, ;•:. ^ /'. !, .") . 1. ("f. ;// Cat. 1. S. 2 ^ Att. 1. 14, 4. " Acad. 2, 19, 0:i. ^ Fr. 2. 1, ;-!; 2. A. 0. •' '/. Ornt. ;■!, 2r), 101. iO i b or that the supporters of a speaker erossed the floor to stand or sit by him^^, or erowded uproariously about him when he ceased talking^^ In the theatres, too, an actor's su(('e>s was measured bv the demonstrations of tlie audience^-, which Horace describes as the clap|)incu->i(»ii of certain measures b\' their irroans'*'. The\' finalh siltMic((l Clodius, after he had harani^^ued the senate for three hours, by drowning his voice in noise'", and the\' u>cd the >anie inean< to force the adjournment of a meetinL:'\ At the trial of Mih) before the coinitin frihufa, Pom{)ey persi>te(| in delixfrinu- hi.-> speech in s[)ite of hostile cries and per>onal abu^e, but ( 'Indin^, who rose to reply, was silenced and pu>hed oil' the ms-'ra''. The tone of Cicero's narratix'c here does not su^^ge.>t that tlie-e experiences were extraordinary. We cannot wonder at such expre^>ion of feelini; from the audi- ence when we consider the freedom of spein-h before ('ae-ar- Dictatorship-^', and especiall\- the license of per->onal allu>ion. even in >enatorial debate. The ci/n'n witne^^ed Personal Allusion more than one contest betwe(Mi such bitter ene- mies as ( 'icero and ( lodius, when each held up the other to j)ublic ridicule or contem{)t-'. and tried to outd(» hi> opponent in repartee, dependinicon the applause of hi> audience to decide the victor\--. Cicero sa\'s that in a debate on the state of the republic between himself and Metellu^. the latt<'r ''threatened liim at every third word"-'. The piibli-hed orations against Pi.^o and \'atiniu>, and the >econd Thilippic .1'/. 1. U'., In. '" Fr. 2, 1. 3. '' .1^^ 1, U3. 4. '- .1^^ 4. 15, ♦;. 1' Hor. Ep. 2. 1: Jo:,. '-• Hor. Ars Port. 42^ iT. \'j p -J •) •> "' Fr. 2. 7, ;?. »' Aff. \. 2, 1. (■ ■'* /•■/•. 2. 10. 1. '^ /■'/■. 2. ;!. 2. -^ /•'. '.», Ui, .V -1 Aft. 2. 1. :,: 2. 7, 2. " .1//. 1, It., M. -^ /•'. ."), 2. s. (t / i well illustrate the violent personal abuse in which a gentleman of (^icero's rank might indulge, and which, as Fowler suggests, is probabl\' a j)art of the traditional Roman tendency to defamation and satire"-'. The ancient custom of levelling abuse at a ])ul)lic man, from the superstitious belief that evil could thus be averted from him, is illustrated in the soldiers' songs at triumphs'-', and may have been partly responsible for such freedom of criticism, dcero himself states that personal attacks in public nuist not be taken too literjilly'-*'. I'ree licence in the use of wit also included nuu'li personal allusion in ])ublic. Plutarch sa\s that Cicero overstepped the l)uund> of propriety in order to be witty and po])ular'-', and gi\'(»s example^ in which the orator resorted to rude mention of the phy>ical deformity of \'atinius'-^, and of the low parent- age of Marcu^ (iellius, "at whosi^ loud voice he did not wonder. >ince he canu' from the class of public criers'"-'*. Hut ('icero wa-^ famous for facetiousness, both among his cont(>mporarie>'", and later'', and althougli in his discussion of the j)r(iper >ubjects for ridicule he excludes wickedness and nii-ery -', in practice he made use of any shortcoming or defect, either moral or ))hysical, which might serve his pur})ose. lie at lea^t therefore won his reputation in s])ite of, if not l)ecause of. hi^ rude and bitter ])ersonal attacks in public speaking'^ I^. PoIULAlJ DK-MoXsTRATIOXS In ancient as in modern Rome the inhabitants lived much of their life on the streets and in j)ublic gathierings. There was always a crowd in evidence, and the crowd was always ready to show it> interest in what went on about it. So anv At the Theatre and Games a<>embly of pe()})le afforded a fitting occasion to di>pla\- parti>anshi]) for or against an individual -'• T-'iA\ liT, W: Sncid! Lift . ]K nt7. '•=■'' Cf. H. A. .1. Munro; Criiiri^iu- and Ehicidatioii of Patul., p. 7.1. 2« i,r,. Cn.L :\. T). -"■' V\\\X. Cir. 27. 2. 2' Pint. Ctr. 2."), 1 : 27, 1. ^^ F. 1."), 21. 2 ;■!. 28 IMllt. dr. '.», 2. 31 (,)iiiiit. C. ;;. :\ \. Marr. Sftt. 2. :?. 1. rf. Kdvcy: n. Jour. vol. 'A. pp. 3 ff. "-'/( (Jrntnn 2, eh. •>.'/>. ^^ riut. Cic. 7 and 2G. Vtrr. 2, 1, 121. discovered in Its midst, and etiquette put no re>traint on such popular demonstrations. " It is ever the way with a populace, especially here," said Cicero, "to vent their freedom without consideration, upon the very man who secured it for them"^'. The voice of the mob made itself heard in hisses and catcalls at the games, when the object of its disfavor appeared among the spectators'^ or it evinced its hatred for Pompey l)y ap- plauding the actor who gave special significance and emphasis to the line: "By our misery thou art--(ireat." '' Such playing to the sentiment of the audience was not an un- usual device on tlie stage, where the {)hiycrs either adapted or improvised their lines with special n^ference to sonic con- temporary character. They once turned a scene from the burning of Priam's palace into sucli an ciftM'tivc appeal and defence for Cicero that it amounted to a public demonstration for him in the theatre^'. Hortensius had the exceptional good fortune to reach old age without having been exposed to jeers at a public gatluTini:; but finally he made himself so unpopular in the accpiittal of Messala that his fir>t subsequent appearance at tlu^ theatre was the occasion for a wild storm of abuse from the spec- tators'^^ During (/icero's consulship the praetor Manu-^ Otho. who had assigned special seats for the knights at the games received on his arrival simultaneou>ly hi»e> from the people, and applause from tho,>e who were enjoying tlie benefit^ of his favor'^^ Quite as j)lainly did the multitude ex{)re>> it^ disapproval l)y an ominou> >ilenc(> in-tead of the e\{)e(tc(l cheers when a bust of (\'iesar wa- carritMl in procc^-ion at the games <>f Apollo"\ But the Roman mob was ecpiallx- generous in it> attention- to a favorite. A man's reception in the tlKNitre wa- an index of his poptilarity*^ for a {)n)min(M!t citizen found hi- -eat ^** F. ^. L'. ! 39 {) It. ' ^' F. 11. 12. _>. 3^ Att. 1. It). 11: F. s, 2. 1. ^"Att. 2, 19. :i. 40 i;f j.._ ij I ^' prn Srst. 120-12;^ a. Surt. Jul. si. *' Att. 2. is, 1; 2, 19, :i. Pint. Strt. 4. t. ( 7. Suet. \\t. \\y. 11 i v^ 79 amid the applause of those already assembled^-, just as to-day m Rome the strangiT at the opera may discover many a dis- tinguished person in the audience by noting the demonstra- tions upon his entrance. To a Cicero there was nothing oilensive in the ()utsj)oken praise of .some one in the crowd who shouted: "There is the man who did so and so for his cit\ . ' '4,^ The famous ex-consul enjoyed, too, the compliment innn the Senate, which asseml)led in crowded session whenever It was known that he would be present^'. Even this dignified b(Kly boisterously dem()n>trate(l its approval by applauding the mere mention of a favorite's name'\ or the reading of a des{)atch from hinr''; and when the motion for Marcellus' recall was j)resented. they ros(> in a body and assumed the attitud(> of .supj)liants Ix^fore (^aesar, who was presiding^". On the .streets, no le of the templt\s and other buildings, to cheer him as he pa.--ed\ Kven at the little town of Clubrae, which Cicero <'nited as the representative of its patron, Trebatius, the inhabitant- who asseinl)led to honor him seemcfi so numerous as to sui^r^r^.^t that the frogs of the surrounding- marslies had joined their voices to the l)al)})le-'-. Once after the announcement of Poinpey's recoNcry from a serious illness, m all the citie- of Italy peo})le turned out in j)r{)cessions with Street Crowds *'^ AH. \. l.-.,ii: 1. It,, 1 *^ F. 2. in, J, ''' /■'. II. •!, :>. *'' At!. \. 1. (,, " /■'. II', \u, I. ' F. 1. \. ;i. •' .1.'.'. 2. is. 1 '■' Fr. j, 14 , ].- ".'l/^ 1. 1, •}. "^1//. 1, 1.1 .-,, "/\ 7, Is y.. ( 'f. (/( P 1^-/1. 22, 51. dc Domo 2S, 70, 4*if>j 80 81 festive garlands, and offered saerlfice to the ,^od.> in thanks- giving''"^, ^lobs sometimes snrronndcd the home of a magis- trate to express their resentment of his official acts'**, or of a general to eelebrate an important victory which he had won' Public Escort The popular citizen of Rome in Cicero's age recei\'e(l more than cheers from hi> admirers on the >trcct. Thcx' aNo accompanied him as fie went id)ont tlic cit\'', con>titntinL: tliemselves an escort to attend fiim from lii> home to tlie Fornnr'". to tfie curia \ or to the rostra'^'^. The train followed him if he cfiancc(l to walk alone at any time^'", and returned with liim to hi^ hou^e, e-{)eci;illy on sucli occasions as hi> election to, ov retirement from office''^, or after some notable s|)eecli or other aehie\ement*'. On the evening of the execution of tlie ( 'atilinarian conspirator^, Cicero's escort carried inan\ torche> and KmI liim honu' with great applatise^''. Plutarch tcll> us that on th.c la^t da\ of Cato's quaestorsfiip almost the wliole people attende(l him' '. A candidate for public election depended on the impres>iv(^- ness of his escort to win votes for him'", while the eonimeiit on a man in |)nblic (lisfa\-or was that "he >lunk into hi^ h(»u-e unattended "^^\ A similar >ignificance a})peared in the fa home was larger than that of the praetors whom he had just attacked in a public speech'". Cicero descril)es the {)ersonnel of such a following a^ neighbor^, friends, clients, freedmen, and e\'en >la\"es. who were welcomed to swell the niimber>'\ and Martial tell> u^ that a> they j)ro- ceeded part of them cleared the way and part fi)lKjwed after* *. ^^ Plut. Po'tij). .")7, 1 -. '^ Att. -2, L'l. .'.. " C'aes. B. ('. I. r>:]. ^^ Att. 4, 4. A; cf. Hor. S it. 1. '*, Is. 5' Att. 2. 1,5; (It Ptt. Cnns. «,<. :\h. 5s F. U), V2, _>: S, n. 1^. otl. ^'Uid Brut. 1, A, 2. 6"^ Att. 2, 22, :•;. «' Fr. 2. 7 {\>), 2. ''-■ .1.'/. L Hi. .">. ' lM:!t. Cic. 22; :-. •■' I'iut, (■•!!■' M't. 1 6if/< /'. t. ('.>,! --. ',». :;t ^' Fr. A. 2. 2. '■ Plur. Cnf., M;, «^ a'l Pi t. ( '"'i^. .■■). 17. f-' Mart. ;;, It', s. f"f. .IV. I. ii;, r, 5 2. I. I 'I The honor of puf)lic e-cort is perha])s the fundamental idea of the marriage proc(\s>ion''\ A special o{)p()rtunity for the coiu'tesy of attendance was alh)r(led by the de])arture or return from a jomaiey. The popular general or go\-ernor when he started for his i)rovince, pas>c(l outside the gates with a large company of friends and admirer^', and the greater the display, the greater tlie dis- ti'iction'-. Any neglect to show tliis court esv to a friend wlio might be le;t\ing Rome gax'c serious offence"'. When a traxt'ler returned from a long journey, not only did a ])rocession assemble out-ide the wall;> to e-cort him within the city'\ but many friend,^ went >ome (li>tance to meet him'". Hence he made hi^ return to Rome by tlie route which might be ni(wt conxcnient for tho^e who wished to join this rctinne"'\ iiiid he >ent nie->enger> ahead to announce his arrival in time tor them to meet him. Clodius therefore boasttnl of his niode-t\ in entering the city at night, miannounced and nn- attendcfl, after a rapi eager for lii^ son to return to Rome with l)rutu-, in order to share the honors (»f the latter'> receptiorr\ (lovernors or generals soinetinie> brought back from their provinces de})utati()ns, o-ten-ibly to pre.-ent >oine matter to the senatiN but realh' to add to the displax' of their entrance into the cit\'''. Th(> (pie-^tioii of rank entered into tlu^ eticpicttc of j)nl)lie e-eort. ^ oung men especially attended an ohler or more prominent one^", but a man of noble birtli might not l)e ex- pectcil to show this courtesy to one who was much his inferior^b Both Cicero and Caesar acconi])anied friends outside the city when they were -tarting upon a journey^-, and men of all '3-1//. n, A. 0. '' F. 10. ]], 2; Fr. 1,2, 1 '^ r:itM!l. r,i. 121 {"i. ■1 -1//. 1. 1.-;. 2. "- /•'. \:,. 17. ;;; Hor. >.,•/. i, ;;, i:;7 IT. •^ Att. s, ].,, 1 : \K (1, 2; V-',. 7, 2; i:^, 5U, 3-5. 7, 5. '.\. »o t)f i>,(^ rnn.<. S, ;•]:■!. 81 /■'. ■■',. 7. 4 5. 82/.-. :;, 1,1. s; Fr. 1, ;i 1; Suct. Jul. 71. • (> \ fr '■ .1//. 2. 1, 5. '^ 'l'l Brut. 1,11 '3/ 82 ranks went to meet ( ae.^ar when lie cnKTctl Roiiif''. iticlndiii.:: Attieus^\ \'arr(), and CiefTo^''. thonirli the la-t -(iuuht -onir reasonable exeuse tor ahx'ntini: liini-t'Il'"". Ili^ nHiiirninir f'»r Tullia would, he thou.irht, explain al-u lii- absence Iruui the f)roeession which welcomed F)nitn«^^^. Moreovt^r, the manner nt" attcn nien- tions with >pecia] ]">ridf th;ii Hrutu- < amr t,, nir.r Iii'n .^n foot^^. A more formal an! ♦•!;! fMiriiM- d< \ >•!.>', ni'-nt of tlie piililic escort \\a> tlif tninn! h. ^r itrocession which accompanied a \"ict(:'ri<»ii^ irtTHT;!! iiiM.ii \\\< rf^tnrn nnr! nffirinl entry into the «itv In 1.1 dnwn \\<> imperium. This, the hi£:h- ' -t f (!iM[ w In, ii \\]c state had to bestow^^, was a |)ri\-ih.'i:-t' awar(h'd o!i!\ !.;, (h-' to t ho ^ apiiohue, nnd d:d n<*i ai^o pro\ i(h' for the expen-e (if iho adoi-nniont^^. If w t* may hid:'* f'-- ai ( i«/ero s nndi-^;iui-od o;;L;orno-~- ' and effort- 'i - --^ n'-i- a i i-iurnpli after hi- term a- l:o\ criiur of ( ilieiu, u o ouuoiiiilo liiai oriHji'ietv allowed t!ie -ohoilatioTi fif thi- iinblir' hruirir''^. nnd inat the recipient duly aoknow hMiu-r. a na )i *■( 1 lie III securmir it for n 1 1 i i lo I hn-c w jio assisted It !- I'^id Mj Lueiiliii--' iaiiiuUS trium{)}r''. that tho e(Mi--i]N i iirni-rh, < - h d t into the (•itv^^ aial i! at that it re(piired t\\ o sja^. .- f. 'n:pev s at tr: : O . i I i n ■ procession to pass^ . L'-em ! d > chariot [ice was so great 99 87 Att. 12, 27, 3. "Fr. 2, 11 (13), 2. 89 Att. 16, 7, 5. 83 F. 9, 18, 1. 8^ Att. 8, 9, 2. 85 F. 9, 5, 1. 86 Att. 1 1 Ji' 2 Cf. Plut. Cic. 39, 2. «' F. -' 1 "'. 1 / 1- r, 2. See Smith: triumphus. ^- /•. l.y ■-,. J, n , 1 1. 4. 9« Att. 6, 6, 4; F. 15, 11, 1. «■- -1/'. r,. !t, J: 7, 1, a. 97 Plut, Lucull. 37. ' ^^'^ -'■ !-. ■''■ 5" t'. <••. t. »8^cad. 2, 1. 3. 9^ .1//. e, s, .V /'. It, !. 1. 99 Plut. Pomp. 45, 1. 8' .1//. 7, :i. 2. rovriJ^^lox In the foregoing investigation Roman etiqueiie ui ihe a-c of Cicero has been presented under th< followimr topir-- 1. Recognition of social rank: In this cha].t< r \ o uiU-il t] t influence of birth, official position, age, occupation, and sex upon the proper attitude of individuals toward one auotlKT, as illustrated in the different treatment of slaves, Ireedmen, foreigners and officials, and by the respect for -id age, the social rating of occupations, and the po.^iLiuu ui uumuu. 2. Social functions and duties: The T]. ma.n^ displayed a certain regard for dress and manners as dct- rni no 1 ! fa "nnn their social life was characterized by a generous liu>piiaiii\ in accordance with prescribed formalities nf visits, dinners nn.d calls; special honors were accorded to in\ididnai o i k h occasions as binhday celebrations, betrothal^ weddings, and funerals. 3. Compliments and favors: We have abundant i'v'Ai'na' that Cicero's contemporaries were punctilious in the use of n( '^'.fo language, aiu Ihrl- 11. 1 ; 1 lie exeiaiiige ui euurle^^ie^ and favors; we note al -^ then' fia t dom in rec}uesti!!i: the e atten- tions. 4. Letter-writing: A study of Liic correspondence oi f leero illustrates the occasions upon which lotters nf ( (Hi-rntnlatinn, apology, thanks, condolence, and i-ii I'^HJu.a aai \\( ro \^aatten, as well as llie eoiro.t i-rui aial -t \ h- «'| a jiohte h-ttrr. 5. L'fi riirii work: Hi'' (^tirpnaic t.f' author- and their rea lladzsits, and Dr. Eugene S. ^IcCartney, whose exacting scliolaf Im) and sympathetic advice have iuriiiaiicd liic iii^pirata n anl assistance which made this work possible. T am in.lfhu.l also to Goucher College for the privilege of stnh in IN ine as the holder of the Alumnae Association Fellowship. I / /I (' I L o o u • fSJ ao X »»liir 0025984136