MA S 1 ER NEGATIVE NO. 92 ( S0693 MICROFILMED 1992 COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY LIBRARIES/NEW YORK as part of the "Foundations of Western Crvilization Preservation Project" Funded by the NATIONAL ENDOWMENT FOR THE HUMANITIES Reproductions may not be made without peniub^ioi Columbia University Library J. JL COPYRIGHT STATEMENT The copyright law of the United States -~ Title 17, United States Code - concerns the making of photocopies or other reproductions of copyrighted material... Columbia University Librar}^ reserves the right to refuse to accept a copy order if, in its judgement, fulfniment of the order would involve violation of the copyright law. f • AUTHOR: FOSBROKE, THOMAS DUDLEY TITLE: TREATISE ON THE ARTS MANUFACTURES... PLACE: LONDON DA TE : 1 833-35 ? COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY LIBRARIES PRESERVATION DEPARTMENT Master Negative # BIBLIOGRAPHIC MICROiFORM TARCET Original Material as Filmed - Existing Bibliographic Record »i I ! ■ ■ in . i» i I III -^mmrmm I J H i i — m < 1Pl^r'''g^"Ww^^i^'*W— BBT^WW* 886 F78 I^lf9glffg0f^^9f!(rvim. ■ t (rim .1 • idam ■iNPiPMt ^"U-i'' [Fosbroke, Thomas Dudley] 1770-1842. A treatise on the arts, manufactures, manners and in- stitutions of the Greeks and Romans. London, Long- mans, jl833y35. 2 V. illus. l?*^". Restrictions on Use: "I 1 rr %y / *l4Tprcecc — Antiq. 2. Rome — Antiq. O 4-21942 Library of Congress DE59.F7 > TECHNICAL MICROFORM DATA FILM SIZE: ^2.rm_g^__ REDUCTION RATIO: %X IMAGE PLACEMENT: lA (iR) IB IIB . - DATE FILMED: a-.^JlLS.?^.. INITIALS_^_|Ai:S^J>' HLMEDBY: RESEARCH PUBLICATIONS. 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He begs, however, that the judgment of the critic on these points may be suspended until the whole work shall be before him, as the Editor can give satisfactory assurance that such objections will then be in a great degree, if not altogether, re- moved. The material arts and monuments of an- tiquity being dismissed in the present volume, the se- cond will be exclusively devoted to Laws, Literature, Philosophy, Religion, Manners, Customs ; to sub- jects which, as they have their foundation in human nature, must at all times be interesting, not merely to the antiquary, but to the general reader. This arrangement, by giving diversity to its subjects, will, VOL, I. A 379521 VI ADVERTISEMENT. he trusts, confer a more agreeable character on it, and cause the two volumes in connection to be regarded as a useful guide to the study of ancient institutions. ^ London^ Sept. 1833. ANALYTICAL TABLE OP CLASSICAL ANTIQUITIES. PART I. THE ARTS, ESPECIALLY THE ORDINARY ONES OF LIFE. SECTION L ARTS OF THE ANCIENT WORLD, ESPECIALLY THOSE OF GREECE* CHAP. I. ARCHITECTURE. Architectural Antiquities of Babylon • • The Birs Nemroud . • • The Bricks of Babylon of two kinds, sun^ied and kiln-burnt Description of the former • ■ . • Description of the latter ^ • • . Vitrified Bricks • • • • Inscriptions • • • • Cement • « • • • Reeds, Straw, &c. - • • • • Description of Babylon * . • . Construction and Dimension Of the Houses • « Tower of Belus • - • ^ • The Citadel or Palace, El Kasr . • • Architecture of Phenicia - » • • Description of Tyrins and Mycenae • * 1. Of Tyrins • . • • . 2. OfMycenffi • - • The Acropolis • • * ^ , Character of Pheniclan Architecture • • • Treasury of Atreus - , , • Buildings of the Cyclops . . « • Character of Indian and Egyptian Architecture Elevated Site of Egyptian Edifices • Antiquity of the chief Egyptian Cities The chief Temples, &c. of Egypt Jests applicable to the Architecture of this People Page 1 2 S 3 4 4 5 5 6 8 9 9 n 13 15 16 19 19 21 23 25 26 28 30 32 33 Till ANALYTICAL TABLE. Page Palaces of Egypt * - - - ^ ^ 36 Tombs - - - . - - 37 Mummies • - * • * • - 38 Pyramids - - - • • - 40 Obelisks - - . . . - 40 Colossal Figures • . • • . - 42 Sphinxes « - • • . ■>.42 Egyptian Houses - • • • • - 43 Architectural Antiquities of Persia • • - - 45 Persepolis . » , , « - 46 Monticules, Palace, &c. - • - - - 47 Symbols - •- • • - -48 Bas-reliefs . • • • . . 49 Other Characters and Distinctions of the Persepolitan Architecture - 51 Progressive Styles of Ancient Architecture • - - 52 Sites . . . . h, m .58 Acropoles - . . . • ..59 Walls .. ••.. .60 Fortresses - - • - - - 60 Other Remains of ancient Military Architecture in Greece « 64 Religious Architecture - - - - - 69 The Doric Order, Temple of Corinth . ' . . - 71 Pantel enium - - - . . - 72 Theseum - . - . - 72 The Ionic Order - - . . - 74 The Corinthian Order , - . - 76 Temples - - • - . - 77 Description and Classification of the chief Religious Edifices . .80 Altars - - - - - - 89 Tombs . . . - - - 92 Funerals - . . - - 94 Sepulchral Plants - • . • - 98 Subterraneous Vaults - - • • - 99 Cemeteries - - - - --101 Perfumes, Alabaster, Urns, &c. - - - - 102 Sepulchral Resuscitations or Symbols . . - . 104 Sarcophagi ... , . « . 105 Cenotaphs - . . • . 105 Epitaphs - . « . • . 107 Theatres - - . - - - 107 Origin of the Art— Ambulatory Theatres - - -107 Masks - - - - , . lOg Chorus . - . . - - 109 Stationary Theatres .... . hq Construction of a Greek Theatre • - - -111 Acoustic Vases • • • • .112 Orchestra • - - • . . US Scene . . . • • . 114 Hyposcene • » • - - 115 Parascene • • • - .116 >\ ANALYTICAL TABLE. The Stadium Games The Agora or Forum Aqueducts • • Baths • Canals Caves, Cisterns, Harbours, &c. Docks Demos Fountains, Lions, &c. Pni^ Prytaneum, Roads Towns, Street, &c. Caves, &c. Subterraneous Vaults, &c. Towers, Treasuries WeUs IX Page - 117 - 119 - 122 -123 . 123 - 124 . 125 . 127 - 128 - 129 . 130 - 131 - 132 -133 -135 - 136 . 138 CHAP. H. SCULPTURE. Antiquity and Perfection of Architecture in Greece Early Sculptors in Greece - • - . Progress of the Art - - . , Phidias . • - . . The Art after Phidias ... Statues of Minerva, Jupiter, Bacchus, Apollo, and many other Gods, Demigods, and Heroes .. • • . - Greek Painting • • • • . Vases ...«••. 1. The Monochrome Vases i- - . . 2. The Polychrome • » • > - Sculpture of Gems, Rings, &c. • » . . Seals • • » • « « . -139 - 139 . 140 . 143 - 145 147 153 155 155 157 158 161 CHAP. III. MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OP PRIVATE LIFE.— TRADES AND MANUFACTURES.— COSTUMES. Meals of the Ancient Greeks Some of their Diversions • Ancient Habitations Palace of Ulysses • . . Ordinary Dwellings of the Greeks Their Furniture and Internal Arrangements - 162 - 163 . 165 . 166 -168 . 169 ANALYTICAL TABLE. ANALYTICAL TABLE. XI Beds, Couches, &a Tables . - , Family Dinners Dinner Parties Invitations, Preparations, &c. Guests, Dishes, Courses, &c. Bread, &c. . . Meat, &c. : . Fish, Wines, &c. Cooks, Waiters, &a - - Vessels, Cups, &c. Bohemian Ceremonies at Table, &c. Pledges or Healths . - Songs Buffoons, Jugglers, Dancers, &c. Simplicity of the Dorians and Spartans Public Tables Relations of Life — Wives Mothers . . Children — Education Greek Characters Greek Furniture Tools, Implements, &c. Other Vestiges of the Arts Nautical Antiquities Ships Sails, Masts Parts of a Vessel Crew - - ^ i CHAP. IV. ABMOUE AND ABMi Armour in its Origin Helmets ^ , Body and Defensive Armour, various Kinds and Uses The Shield Offfensive Armour, various Kinds and Uses Club, Mace • , . Spears, Javelins, &a . . , Swords • . , Sword Belts , Bows and Arrows ^ . , Knapsack Standards Page - 170 - 172 - 173 - 174 - 175 - 176 - 177 - 178 - 179 - 181 -.183 - 184 . 186 - 187 - 188 . 190 . 191 . 192 . 194 .195 -200 .204 . 206 - 209 - 210 - 211 -213 -215 - 217 218 219 221 224 227 227 228 290 231 232 233 234 235 SECTION XL ARTS OP ANCIENT ITALY. CHAP. L ARCHITECTUBE, ETC. State of the Ancient Italian Population Architecture of Magna Grecia The Doric Order The Ionic - • I'he Corinthian • • • The Composite « • • The Arch • • Building Materials • • Brick • • « • Stone • • f • Foundation, Roof • • • Ceilings • • • Windows . • • Doors • • a a Floors, Pavements • - "^ • Staircase • • Chimneys Caves, the original Habitation of the Etruriani Roman Houses • « • House of Sallust • • Pompeian Houses • • Shops • • • Villas . . - Apiaries — • • Aviaries 3 • • Ponds ^ • - Dovecots « « • Warrens • •• • Stable . - . « Pistrinum — Pigsties — Poultry Yards Subterraneous Houses • • Cottages , • • Tombs • • * Sepulchres • • Monuments • • • Urns • m Funeral Rites • • • Roman Temples • * Theatres - • • Their Internal Parts • Characters *. • * Amphitheatres • ^ Page .239 - 241 .241 - 243 - 244 - 246 -'S46 .247 . 248 . 250 -250 . 251 . 25S . 253 -254 - 255 .256 - 257 -257 .260 -261 -267 -271 -275 . 276 -277 -278 279 - 279 -282 . 283 -284 . 284 • 284 . 286 - 290 .293 -295 - 298 .299 . 303 -304 xu ANALYTICAL TABLE. 1 * 1. Gladiators Circus Forum Curias Thermae or Baths Aqueducts Bridges - • Citadels, Walls, Gates Harbours, Ports Light-houses, Streets Barracks Prisons Reservoirs, Sewers, Wells Page . 307 - 308 - 310 - 311 - 312 - 313 - 314 -315 . 318 - 320 - 321 - 322 - 323 CHAP. II. SCULPTURE, PAINTING, AND DOMESTIC ECONOMY OF THE GRiECO- ITALIANS AND ROMANS. State of Sculpture in Italy State of Painting in Italy The Etruscan Vases Domestic Economy and Arts Architects Bankers - Booksellers - Butchers Carpenters Cooks Dice-Players Other Games Fullers Glass Manufacturers Horse-breakers Husbandry Plumbers Shipwrights Weavers Household Goods Beds, Couches • Bed-rooms Their Furniture • - 324 - 326 . 327 - 329 - 332 - 333 - 334 - 334 - 336 - 336 - 338 - 2S% - 342 .345 -346 -348 - 349 - 350 -353 - 354 -357 . 360 . 362 ANTIQUITIES CHIEFLY CLASSICAL. PAHT I. THE ARTS, ESPECIALLY THE ORDINARY ONES OF LIFE. VOL. I. a SECTION I. ARTS OF THE EASTERN WORLD, ESPECIALLY THOSE OF GREECE. CHAPTER I. ARCHITECTURE. / (1.) ''During the first ages^ after the deluge/' says sir William Drummond^ '^ men must have been chiefly dependent for support on the produce of the chace^ and on their flocks and herds. Accordingly, before the time of Nimrod or Belus, the inhabitants of Assyria appear to have been chiefly composed of wandering hordes, that lived by the produce of the chace, or by the surer means of nourishment obtained from their flocks and herds, and from the spots of ground that were casually cultivated as occasion required. This great prince united his subjects in cities ; and conse- quently changed entirely their political existence." Thus sir William Drummond, who is incUned to make Nimrod coetaneous with Abraham, though, ac- cording to Scripture, it is impossible, — the former having been great grandson of Noah, the latter eleventh in descent. The facility of preparing brick by mere solar heat, and the great quantity of cement (bitumen) which voluntarily presented itself, enabled the Chal- deans to erect immense structures in a very short time, and at a moderate expense. * Accordingly, cities were founded; and the first known in history is Babel {Porta Beliy according to sir William Drummond), or Baby- ♦ Archasologia, xiv. 60. B ^ 2 CLASSICAL ANTIQUITIES. Ion. However improved that city may have been by Semiramis, wife of Ninus, son of Nimrod or Belus, the erection of the celebrated tower is generally as- cribed to Nimrod himself. Sir William Drummond*, indeed, contends that the scriptural tower was com- menced at Senn, the Kaivoci or Caenae of Xenophon, and that the tower of Belus was a subsequent and more modest structure, upon a different site, though the work of the same founder. In an architectural view, whe- ther the tower of Babel and that of Belus be one and the same, or not, is of no moment, because they are admitted to have been contemporary. Most authors, however, identify them. The cause of the foundation of the former tower is stated in Scripture to have been an intention to reach to heaven ; perhaps a figurative expression, which seems to imply its use as an obser- vatory, — Belus being deemed the inventor of astro- nomyt; and the sky of Chaldea, at midnight, so cloudless, that the first rudiments of that science are said to have been derived from the shepherds, who lay gazing on the constellations. J As to the confusion of tongues, it may imply that the people of the several provinces employed on the work did not understand each other ; for the language of the natives of Aus- tralia, though they are evidently of the same race, is so diversified at the present day, that, within a compa- ratively short distance, one is just as unintelligible to * the other as both are to an European. § (2.) Whether the Mujellibah or the Birs Nemroud be the remains of this tower is not to our purpose, the materials and construction of both being similar. Both the Mujellibah and TuU Akerkouf being in ruin, the following representation of that more perfect specimen of Babylonian pyramids, the Birs Nemroud. may be more satisfactory. If brick be the chief material, it is to be recollected that the situation of a people, and the nature of the ARCHITECTURE. 3 » Origines, b. i. c. 12. f Plin. vi. 2& I Picture of Australia, 202. materials within their reach, mostly influence their architecture. The Babylonian bricks are found to be of two kinds, the sun-dried and kiln-burnt. BIRS NEMROUD. In countries where the sun is powerful, audit seldom rains, — in Chaldea not for eight months in the year, oc- casionally not for two years and a half together*, — the sun-dried bricks were sufficient for most purposes. The first walls of Mantinea wholly consisted of them, and they resisted warlike engines better than stone. They were still not proof against water f; but through elevated situation, or facings of burnt brick, and air- holes in the building, they were secured from deli- quescence.;}! Analysis shows that they were composed of pure clay. Although only baked in the sun, they are so solid and compact as to ring, if placed on the edge and gently stricken by any metallic body. § They were shaped in moulds, supposed of wood by captain Mignan, as appears from their having figures and in- scriptions ; and were beaten up with straw or rush to increase cohesion. Their dimensions are the same as those of the kiln-dried kind. || It has been said that t Mignan 's Chaldea, 85. • Archaeolog. xiv. 58. t Mignan, 207, &c. 11 Mignan, 206. 209. 22a f Dodwell's Greece, il 423—425. § Archaeolog. xiv. 55. B 2 I 4 CLASSICAL ANTIQUITIES. they were limited to ordinary buildings; but existing remains show that they were used for the base and in- terior of the Mujellibah, Birs, and other grand fabrics, and that they were bound in their courses by layers of mortar and reeds. The kiln -burnt bricks were of far superior indu- ration. Such was their strength and tenacity, that they compose the piers and arches of a bridge mentioned by the prophet Baruch, and still remaining.* Some of them were varnished, and adorned with figures. They have been found disposed in mosaic, so as to form the figures of a cow, and sun, and moon, t The colour is a bright red, or pale yellow ; in the unburnt kind, that of stone. The sizes vary from twelve or thirteen inches long by three or four thick, to the largest known, which measure nineteen inches three quarters square by three and a half thick, with the written characters along the edge, instead of being in an upright column on the face.;]: Some of these bricks have been found of a cylindrical form, inclining to the barrel entasis. They are made of the very finest furnace-baked clay, and are inscribed with a smaU running hand alone. From the perforation of some through the centre or sides, they are presumed to have been worn as amulets or talismans. The spe- cimen engraved in captain Mignan's work J is nine inches in length by sixteen in circumference. At the Birs Nemroud are brown and black masses of brick-work, more or less changed into a vitrified state. Albertill says, that there were persons who liked to have bricks ^^ vitro iUitos" {coated with glass) ; and he mentions the proper kind of earth, as weU as the pro- cess, which was similar to that of potters. These masses are, however, found on the summit of the piles, and were evidently vitrified by subsequent conflagration. J hus they resemble ^Witrified forts/' which are thought to have been formed by the immense heaps of wood burned upon the tops of hills, in the ancient fire. ARCHITECTURE. 5 worship; — piles of such magnitude, that they were loftier than the hill; were visible at a distance of 1000 stadia; and heated the atmosphere to such a degree, that the spot could not be approached for several days. * The curiosity of these bricks, both sun-dried and kiln-burnt, is the inscription. ^*^The language" (says Mr. Rich) '' may be safely pronounced to be Chaldee ; the system of letters an alphabetical, not a symbolical one ; and each figure seen on the bricks a simple letter, and not a word or compound character." Of these written characters there are three different styles, answering to our large hand, small text, and round hand. The two first are found on the bricks which measure from twelve to thirteen inches square by three and a half thick; the latter on other bricks, rather less than half that size, on the cyhndrical tablets, and on tablets of the same material, t Tt was certainly customary to inscribe astronomical observations on bricks and columns. The probability is, that all these inscriptions were of a talismanic character; for the faces, or inscribed parts, were always placed down- wards, so that the writing was never intended to be seen or read. Sometimes both the face and edge are inscribed — sometimes only the latter; and this kind is the more rare and valuable of these bricks. % Some of these bricks contain ten lines in an upright column, and many stamped across to the angles of the brick. § The next enquiry is the cement. The burnt bricks were laid in bitumen, but not exclusively so ; for in some instances only a simple layer of mortar occurs ||, occasionally very thin. IT The TtKfAa of Herodotus is the clay cement still used * * ; and the same author says, that as fast as the earth was removed from a trench, it was converted into bricks, and baked in furnaces ; and that, when it was thus prepared, melted bitumen was used instead of mortar; and that between every thirtieth l^^r&.udV^.^^.., '''■'''■ k P. 229. * Williams's Gepg. of Asia, 71. t Id. 175. 177. \ Id. 22,3. t Id. 207. ** Id.268. Dio. 179. B 3 f Mignan, 225. II Id. 177. \t ' ■i O CLASSICAL ANTIQUITIES. course of bricks there was inserted {ra^o-ot; ycotXafjLav) a layer of reeds. The bitumen^ annexed also upon occasion to sun-dried bricks^ has been subjected to experiment^ and proved to be the asphaltus of nature. * The lime appears to have been deemed most fit for the upper parts of a building. Captain Mignan^ speaking of the Birs Nemroudf^ says, — ^^The bricks here are thir- teen inches long by four and one quarter thick, and are cemented together with a coarse layer of lime, upwards of an inch deep, with an impression only of matting or straw;}:, [supposed to have adhered to the brick while in a soft state]. They are not level, but slope gently from the north face towards the east, and from the east face towards the south, — a curious circumstance. Below this is a large, deep, square hole, through which the materials of the structure are very discernible, consist- ing principally of sun-dried bricks of similar dimen- sions as the kiln-baked." " These appear to have been cemented together by mortar, and bruised reeds, or chopped straw, an inch in thickness ; and through this mass, holes measuring two , feet in height by one in width seem to penetrate to the heart of the building. Bitumen, which is found at the base of most of the ruined structures, is likewise dis- cernible in this pile. None is to be found in the upper portion,-^ di circumstance which confirms a passage in Herodotus." § The layer of reeds in the ^^ hanging gardens,'' was mixed with a great quantity of bitumen, over which were two rows of bricks, closely cemented together by plaster. || Upon digging into the base of the Birs Nemroud, captain Mignan found it composed ^^ of coarse sun-dried bricks, fastened together by layers of mortar and reed. At the depth of fourteen feet, bitumen was observable."^ In • Archaeologia, xiv. 59. + P. 209. X •* The Egyptians are said to have used straw in the composition of their bricks ; but there is no appearance of any thing of the kind adhering to it" -~ Analysis of a Babylonian Brick y Arch^logia, xiv. 58. § Atcc roivixovroc dofXMv rkivtiouy See. quoted by Capt. Mignan, 210. Ij Mignan, 181. H P.206. ARCHITECTURE. 7 some instances, neither lime nor bitumen were used, only simple clay.- Captain Mignan, a most minute investi- gator of these remains, speaks thus of El Hamir.* " The foundation is composed of sun-dried brick, which ex- tends halfway up the pile, the remainder being furnace- burnt, of a coarse fabrication. This pyramidal ruin is crowned by a solid mass of masonry, the bricks of which were so soft, that pieces might easily be broken off; but those composing the interior were as firm and hard as at the Kasr, and rather larger The bricks are cemented together with a thick layer of clay; and between the courses of brick-work, at irregular distances, a layer of white substance is perceptible, varying from one quarter to an inch in thickness, not unUke burnt gyp- sum or the sulphate of lime. From the peculiarly moUified state of the bricks, I apprehend this white powder is nothing more than common earth, which has undergone this change by the influence of the air on the clay composing the bricks.'* These white layers have been supposed to be remnants of reeds ; but as there are no discernible traces of vege- table substance, captain Mignan rejects the presumption, and proceeds to say,— ''Throughout the ruins small square apertures similar to those at Birs Nemroud are observ. able, but neither lime nor bitumen can be seen adhering to the bricks, though large pieces of the latter substance are very abundant at the base of the mound/' The chief material of a circular mass of solid brick- work at the Mugellibah, and that which composes the ruin called Akerkouf, is a mixture of chopped straw,with slime used as cement, and regular layers of unbroken reeds between the horizontal courses of the bricks.f At the brick columns of the Kasr and Athlah, the thinnest layer of cement imaginable holds the courses of brick-work so firmly and securely together, that captain Mignan found it utterly impossible to detach any of^the As to the layers of reeds, Herodotus says that they * p. 222. f Mignan, 166. B 4 X P. 178. 8 CLASSICAL ANTIQUITIES. ARCHITECTURE, 9 III were placed at every thirtieth course; but modern tra- vellers find them at every sixth, seventh^ or eight course in Aggarkuf; and at every course in some of the build- ings in Babylon.* The description of Babylon, by Herodotus, shows that it consisted of an exterior wall with turrets, and brazen gates, and a second wall within it of less width : houses of three and four stories, forming streets, strait and parallel. The temple of Jupiter Belus, a square struc- ture within the enclosure, a solid tower, measuring a sta- dium both in width and depth; upon which tower was a second, then a third, then a fourth, and so on to the number of eight, the ascent being by a path on the out- side of the towers, with resting places midway, and the summit crowned by a large templet; a palace and citadel, both the same; and a bridge. To these Strabo, Diodorus, and Curtius add hanging gardens. The exterior wall included a whole province, but the height and breadth have been greatly exaggerated ; for the real height, perhaps, measured from the bottom of the ditch,was, according to Strabo, seventy-five feet, the thick- ness thirty-two. The base of a modern rampart faced with brick is about forty-eight feet, and the parapet alone eighteen feet, so that there is nothing extraordinary in these walls. Of the superstructure there are no remains, the adjacent inhabitants having carried off the materials for their own purposes. As to the houses, there was an interval between them and the walls ; they were not contiguous (because, as presumed by Curtius X, danger from conflagration would be thus diminished), and occupied only a portion of the city, namely, ninety square stades. In 1817, lieutenant Hende, who was previously acquainted with Mr. Rich's Memoir, visited Babylon; and the substance of bis observations concerning the agreement between the superficial area of the ruins, and the square dimensions given by Curtius, is this : — " Mr. Rich gives two miles and 600 yards for the width, with about two miles and 1200 yards for the length of the space over which the ruins^ general are found to extend. As it may be conjectured that the river has encroached, this would complete the oblong nearly to a perfect square, and would occupy a space of ten miles 1280 yards, or very near eleven miles ; which, at eight stadia to the mile, would correspond within a mere trifle of the ninety stadia usually esteemed the circumference of the inner space that was built up, as described by Quintus Curtius."* Of the houses, no remains are particularised. Dio- nysius of Halicarnassus says that the earliest houses were towers ; and Diodorus gives great elevation to those of Egypt. Sir William Drummond t makes a house the probable Chaldaic hieroglyph of 2> B. It is square, of two stories, with a door in the centre, and three windows on the first floor; and resembles the tower houses of Thebes, and those, hke church towers without buttresses, which are represented in Belzoni s plate of the city of Bacchus. Such may be presumed was the fashion of the Babylonian dwellings. CITY OP BACCHUS. ♦ P. 139. t Dio. 179, 180. t B. V. a i. The tower of Belus. Conical structures and staged pyramids are weU-known in the ancient architecture of Asia, Ecbatana was built on a conical hill, and con- • Pratt's Q, Cur. 2d edit. pref.. 10. + Origines, il S43. m ''^ y 10 CLASSICAL ANTIQUITIES. ARCHITECTURE. 11 III sisted of seven diminishing circular platforms, each dis- tinguished by the colour of its wall ; and Mr. Taylor thinks that ^e description of the New Jerusalem* may mean a quadrangular pyramid of twelve stages; because no incongruity will then be implied in the measurement, which affirms that the length, breadth, and height of the city are equal.t Diodorus says, that by the advantage of the great height, the Chaldean as. trologers exactly observed the rising and setting of the stars. :|: Such towers seem to have accompanied ancient cities; for, besides the Birs Nemroud, there are others yet remaining at Tull Akerkouf, and El Hamir.^ The situation and greater magnitude of the Mugellibah render that far more probably the ruin of the tower of Belus, than the Birs Nemroud ; and under this assump- tion, some idea of its grandeur and elevation may be formed from the following statement : — '' Strabo says, that the sepulchre of Belus was a pyramid of one stadium in height, whose base was a square of like dimensions, and that it was ruined by Xerxes. That it was exceeding lofty may be conceived by the mode of expression of those who describe it ; and if it be admitted that the whole fabric was a stadium in height, as Strabo says, and as appears probable, even this measure, which is about 500 feet, must be allowed to be a vast height for so bulky a structure raised by the hands of man ; for it is about twenty feet higher than the great pyramid of Memphis, and would exceed the loftiest pile in Great Britain (Salisbury steeple) by 100 feet. But as the base of the great pyramid is about 700 feet square, or nearly half as large again as that of the tower of Belus, the solid contents of the pyramid must have been much greater. The tower, from its having a narrower base, would ap- pear much more than twenty feet higher than the pyra. mid." Hence it may be inferred, that the uppermost stories consisted more of masonry than earth ; but the * Revel xxi. 10—21. t A pud Mignan, 127. f Taylor's Herodotus, 725. § Id. lOa 120. lower, chiefly of earth, which was retained in its place by a vast wall of sun-dried bricks, the outer part or facing of which was composed of such as had under- gone the operation of fire. Strabo says, that the sides of the tower were of burnt bricks.* Near the summit is a niche, called by the natives serdaub, a word signi- fying a cellar or vaulted cellar. Captain Mignan found, by excavation, an earthen sarcophagus, and various urns of the same material ; so that, like the pyramids, it was a mausoleum.-)- That there was on the summit an observatory, where the Chaldeans attentively observed the rising and setting of the sun, is noted by Diodorus % ; for Babylon is seated in a plain, and when a Chaldean observed the horoscope of any nativity, he sat in the night-time on some high promontory, or lofty observatory, contem- plating the stars ; while another sat by the woman till she was delivered. Upon parturition, it was signified to the person on the promontory or observatory, who noticed the sign then rising for the horoscope ; but in the day he attended to the ascendants and sun's motion. § Another of the works of Belus was, according to Ammianus Marcellinus ||, the citadel or palace ; but, according to Diodorus f, it was the work of Semiramis, who added another on the opposite side of the river, and connected both by a bridge. It consisted of three en- closures, the walls being made of well-burnt bricks : the outer wall was sixty furlongs, seven miles and a half in compass ; the second within, of a round form, was of bricks, upon which were pourtrayed, before burning, all sorts of living creatures, dravm from life, and skilfully represented in various colours. This was in circuit forty furlongs, 300 bricks thick, in height, (as Ctesias says, fifty orgyas, or one hundred yards,) upon which were turrets 140 yards high (a palpable exaggeration), ♦ Mignan, 155. f Id. 168. 170. i^^-^' «KMn«nnhv i Tovvnley's Maimonides, 128. from Stanly's Chaldaick Philosophy. II L. xxiii. Hist. Aug. ii. 418. ed. Sylburg. H B- "• c. J. 12 CLASSICAL ANTIQUITIES. ABCHITECTUBE. 13 < I The third and inner wall^ immediately surrounding the palace^ was thirty furlongs in compass. It far sur- mounted the middle wall both in height and thickness : on this wall and its towers were represented all sorts of animals. To this palace, likewise, Semiramis added three gates, under which were apartments of brass for entertainments, into which passages were opened by a certain engine. [A portcullis and windlass, Q. ?] The other palace, on the eastern or opposite side of the river, was far inferior, the outer wall being only thirty furlongs in compass. The river having been turned aside into a reservoir, Semiramis built a tunnel across the old bed, for the purpose of communication between the two palaces, and then turned the stream again into the old channel. At each end of the tunnel she put brazen gates. Captain Mignan is confident that the enormous pile, caUed by the natives '' Al Kasr, or the palace," which rises seventy feet above the level of the plain, is the rum of the great western palace. These remains con. sist of a group of round towers, varying in size, very close together, and so assimilating some of our own castles, that they might be mistaken for the ruins of one, were it not known from a Macedonian coin, pub. hshed by Dr. Clarke, that walls and round towers are extremely ancient. Instead of columns there were brick piers, from sixteen to eighteen feet high, and nine thick. The Babylonian cuneiform inscriptions are traced upon the bricks; and glazed pottery, earthen vessels, engraved marbles, a statue large as life ; var. mshed bricks, with the figures of a lion, sun, moon, &c.; and calcarious sandstone glazed with brown ena. inel have been found, in confirmation of the statements of the prophet Ezekiel ^ and Diodorus, As to the frozen chambers, and brazen gates, both are confirmed by ancient remains, viz. the treasury of Atreus at My- cenae, and the metallurgic eminence of the Chaldeans. Annexed to this palace were the famous pemile • xxiii. 14, 15. gardens, or terraces, formed by rows of piers, upon which were placed large flat stones ; over them a layer of reeds mixed with a great quantity of bitumen ; above which were two rows of bricks, closely cemented to- gether by plaster. Thick sheets of lead, again, covered these ; and over all was laid the mould of the garden, so deep that it would admit the largest trees to take root and grow. In the upper terraces there was an aqueduct or engine, whereby water was drawn up out of the river. These terraces were raised by Nebuchad- nezzar, to gratify his queen Amyctis. In a subterranean passage, captain Mignan* dis- covered a granite slab, fifteen feet long and five feet and a half wide, the surface of which exhibited bitu- men, with an impression of woven matting or straw, apparently laid on in a perfect unbroken state; and this discovery seems to identify the site of the pensile gardens. ^ Such are the remains of ancient Babylon, which, as being the oldest city in the world, it was fit to treat diffusely. To this city we may trace the earliest known origin of pyramids, walls and gates of towns, towers, turrets, bridges, brazen chambers, sphinxes, colossal lions, bricks, and stone^work (the latter very partially), and various minor forms and materials of building, but no columns, epistyles, or other indicia of scientific ar- chitecture. It has been before observed, that the materials of a country influence its architecture; and the style in which stone was chiefly used, because it was more con- venient, is the next progressive state. The Phoenicians were the people who rose to power next after the Assyrians ; and we know that Solomon brought from the former country the architects who erected his temple and palace. There are reasons for thinking that the ancestors of these architects were the Cyclopes, by whom the earliest authenticated fabrics in stone were erected; for the assumed precedence of India, * p. 180. 1 ■1 c 14 CLASSICAL ANTIQUITIES. ARCHITECTURE. 15 ■^gyP^^ o** Persia, is very questionable. It is certain that Moses sent out spies to explore Canaan, and inform him what cities the inhabitants lived in, " whether in tents or in strong holds ;" and that they brought him back word that Hebron (not the modern town, but one upon a mountain) was built seven years before Zoan in Egypt (of which hereafter) ; that the cities were walled and very great ; and that they saw the giants , the sons of Anak, which came of the giants.^ Now, it is well known that men of large stature were called by the ancients Cy» elopes; and that Pezron considers them to have been the giants of the Septuagint.t The derivative from the single round eye;}: is doubted, because it is said by some to have been a corruption for chehiubes, chekleluhes^ a name given to them from the Phoenician chek, a bay, and Lilybeum.^ In confirmation of this etymon, it is to be remembered, that, like Virgil, in the story of Polyphemus, Cicero || states them to have frequented bays and promontories to entrap and plunder unfortunate mariners ; and that Euripides makes them homicides. ^ Homer, who first mentions them, says that they inha- bited caverns on the summits of hills, and were afic/^io-To*, lawless, through living in the patriarchal manner of de- spotic family government, and through being advanced to the agricultural stage of society. In confirmation of Homer, it so happens, that the Jews were the first who introduced agriculture into the land of Canaan, and that the natives, expelled by Joshua, emigrated to Argolis and Mycenae in the twelfth century B. C. As to mak- ing them Celts, it is contradicted by certain old authors, who say that the Celtae were so denominated from CeL tus, son of Polyphemus, the most memorable of the race. ** Of their gigantic figure, my thologically exagge- rated, some idea may be formed from the figures, twenty-five feet high, backed against pilasters, at the temple at Agrigentum, commonly caUed the Temple of f Encyc. of Antiq. i. 2. ^li! ♦ Numb. c. xiii. % l^vxXoi and on^. \ Valpy's fundamental words of the Greek language, p. 154. n. a II In Verrem, 1. v. ^ KvycXu^n av^poxrovot, in Cyclope. •♦ Natall's Cornib. MytholoR. 9«7. * ^ i- the Giants*, and intended apparently to represent these Cyclopes, or mythological Titans. The Anakims of Scripture, too, like the Cyclopes, were a fierce and bar- barous people of gigantic stature, who (as Homer says of the latter) inherited the mountains. If it be thought that the Cyclopean masonry was borrowed from Egypt, it should be remembered, that only the Babylonian style of building with bricks is mentioned by Moses, and that another portion of the Canaanites, expelled by Joshua, are the Hycsos, or Phoenician shepherds, who conquered that country. From all these coincidences, it may be fairly assumed that the Canaanites or Phoenicians ex- pelled by Joshua, were, as believed by Pezron and Dr. Clarke, the giants of the Septuagint, the Cyclopes of the Greeks, and the Phoenicians of Euripides. The two best authenticated and most remarkable spe- cimens of the Cyclopean style are Tyrins and Mycenae, which last town, Euripides says, was built in the Phoenician method. These are both ancient fortresses, and origin- ated in insecurity ; for in the Elian territory, which had a peculiar sanctity annexed to it, there are few or no re- mains of military architecture, t The Cyclopean style (properly so called) appertains only to these two cities ; and is chiefly characterised by huge stones, of which the interstices are filled with those which are smaller, as in the following specimen. The polygonal style, where Stuart's Athens, new edit vol. 4. t Leake's Morea, ii. 14.180. 16 CLASSICAL ANTIQUITIES. ARCHITECTURE. 17 '» i'P large stones are made to fit into each other, is of later date.* The reason why the stones were of such enormous size is, that both mining and battering by engines might be successfully resisted. The subjection of the chmate of Greece to earthquakes was another motive. Pausanias says that the Cyclopes built Tyrins for Praetus. Euripides says, that Mycenae was the city of Perseus. t The sera of Praetus is placed by our eminent travellers on or about the year 1379 B- C., but professed chronologists attribute his reign to the twelfth and eleventh centuries, nearly 400 years after the first date, and about 100 before the Trojan war. The general form of Tyrins is that of a shoe. The interior is divided into a lower and upper level. The latter is guarded by an additional but smaller work, and terminates in some curious arched galleries. The walls have in places a receding outline, and outworks were placed before the gates. The plan will best explain the form. The site is an oblong rocky hill, about 250 yards long, the breadth from 40 to 80; but the citadel, not following the sinuosi- ties of the ground, is stated to be only 220 yards by 60. The rock rises from the plain only from 20 to 50 feet. 150 yards. PLAN OF TYRINS. The walls in the highest part are now but forty.three • Stuart's Athens, new edit, vol. iv. p. 26. f Mycenae. j Ibid. feet ; they are supposed to have been originally sixty. Their general thickness is from twenty-one to twenty, five feet. Some later repairs are detected by hewn and even rectangular stones, but the finest specimens of the original work are near the remains of the eastern gate, where the ramp is supported by a wall of the same kind leading up to the gate. The principal entrance colonel Leake supposes to have been on the southern side, adja- cent to the south-eastern angle of the fortress, where a sloping approach from the plain is still to be seen, leading to an opening in the walls. In the interior of the fortress two divisions will be found, with an intermediate platform, which may have served for the defence of the upper citadel against an enemy in possession of the lower. The entrances are all placed in such a manner that they could be commanded even before they were carried ; and afterwards, the receding form of the outline in the intermediate platform shows that the assaiUng enemy could be attacked, upon passing the outer gate, both m front and flank. The great curiosity is the Galleries. These consist of narrow passages in the Gothic style, formed of immense pieces of rock projecting over each other, and chipped away into the form of the vault described. They are formed in the body of the walJ ; and as colonel Leake is professionally the best judge ot such subjects, and as the main use of archaeology is to furnish precedents of good or bad examples, it is neces- sary for the purpose of uniting instruction with enter- tainment, that the remarks of this excellent writer should be given in his own words. '' There were gal- leries in the body of the wall of the following singular construction: -In the eastern wall, where they are better preserved, there are two parallel passages, of which the outer has six recesses or niches in the exterior wail. These niches were probably intended to serve for the protracted defence, and the gaUeries for covered commu. nications leading to towers or places of arms at the ex- tremity of them. One of these places of arms still 18 CLASSICAL ANTIQUITIES. ARCHITECT LBE. 19 exists at the south-west angle of the fortress; and there may have been others on either side of the great south- ern entrance. pssi fC The passage which led directly from the southern entrance, between the upper enclosure and the eastern ' wall, unto the lower division of the fortress, was about twelve feet broad. But midway there still exists an immense door-post, with a hole in it for a bolt, show- ing that the passage might be closed up occasionally. In these various contrivances for the progressive de- fence of the interior we found a great resemblance not only to Mycenae, which was built by the same school of engineers, but to several other Grecian fortresses of remote antiquity. A deficiency of flank defence is another point in which we find that Tyrins resembled this fortress. It is only on the western side towards the south that this essential mode of protection seems to have been provided. On this side, besides the place of arms at the south-west angle, there are the found- ations of another, of semicircular form, projecting from the wall ; and further on, a recess in the wall, which serves in aid of the semicircular bastion in cover, ing the approach to the postern of the lower enclosure. There is some appearance of a wall of separation di- viding the highest part of all from that next to the southern entrance, thus forming four interior divisions besides the passage."* This fortress was small ; and the cause seems to have been, that it was, until the return of the HeracUdae, dependent upon Mycenae, and could not conveniently have been made larger, because, there being neither flanking towers nor salient angles, escalade could not be opposed but by manning the walls ; and a larger extent might have required too numerous a garrison. The early engineers seem, however, to have well pro- vided for the defence of the interior by an intricacy of enclosures t, and to have deemed defence of the ap- proaches of the gates a substitute for towers. Thus the assailants must, as Homer circumstantially insinuates by his battles under the walls of Troy, have had very severe fighting before they could attack them, while the reserve of the garrison was secured within the fortress. Indeed, it is evident from Homer, that these citadels were, under the humble means of the age, very con. siderable obstacles to besiegers. The next important Cyclopean relic is Mycenae, which Pausanias says was built by the architects of Tyrins, and, notwithstanding its remote date, is far less changed than any place in Greece. It is, in architec- tural character, utterly dissimilar to other Hellenic remains ; fo% in these we find nothing resembUng the lions, or the columns before the gate of the great trea- sury. Every thing left at Mycenae dates from the heroic ages. It was destroyed by the Argives in the year 468 B. C. J The plan of the Acropolis shows that it occupied the summit of a hill, and was divided into an inner and outer compartment. The most perfect of the remains are the gate of the lions, and the treasury of Atreus. In these old fortresses, the approaches of the gates * Leakeys Morea, iL 352. t Id. 386. c 2 X Id. 369—386. h. I 20 CLASSICAL ANTIQUITIES. were substitutes for towers; and the defence of the interior consisted in numerous enclosures, and intricacy of communication.* This gate of the lions t led into the lower Acropolis, which was separated from the upper by a wall parallel to the outer southern wall, and which appears to have had its communication with the upper Acropolis at the further extremity from the gate of the lions, evidently with the view of increas- ing the length and difficulty of the approach to the summit ; and it is noticeable, that a round court, between two gates, as a means of cooping up assailants, who had carried the first, occurs at Messene, a city of a sub- sequent era. Dr. Clarke presumes that the recess was also used for a court of judicature, and market. The genuine character of Cyclopean masonry, properly so called, consists of huge masses of rock, the interstices being filled with small stones ; the succeeding styles not being Cyclopean, although erroneously classed with it, and of later date. % The stones here appear to have been more cubed than those of Tyrins. The back part of this gate exhibits two styles of construction, differing totally from each other. That side which is towards the plain of Argos is of the rough Cyclopean; while the other side is regularly constructed, like the front of the gate, and the two lateral walls which diverge from it. It would appear that the gate had been made some time after the original Cyclopean structure : |but, says Mr. podwell§, ''I hazard this only as a probable con- jecture, without presuming to decide whether the regu- lar, as well as the irregular or polygonal construction were not sometimes employed at the same period :" but as the walls are mostly composed of the second style of well-joined polygons, although the rough con- struction is occasionally seen, and the outer enclosure^ or walls of the city, were apparently less ancient than those of the fortresses, and supposed to be the works of * Leake, ii 38a f See vignette on title page. t Stuart s Athens, new edit voLiv. p. 26. art. Mycens. \ Greece, ii. 240. et seq. ARCHITECTURE. 21 the Argives themselves, not the Cyclopes*, it may be affirmed that these changes were repairs only. The figures of the lions are deemed by sir William Gell to resemble the Egyptian style, and to be a monu- ment of the heroic ages. Sculpture is an art of more recent date than architecture, as ornament is of con. venience. All the travellers give to the figures of the lions an Egyptian character, and observe, that they have not the tails of those animals, — a feature observable in Persepolitan representations ; and sir William Gell and Mr. Dodwell admit that the Egyptian colonists might have executed them. It is certain that a portion of the natives, expelled by Joshua, did establish them- selves in Egypt, as well as in Argolis ; and that if the opinion before given, that these Cyclopes were Phoeni- cians, and the giants of the Septuagint, both styles may be ascribed, as by Pausanias, to the same people, namely, the Phoenicians. It is not that any hypothe- tical predilection is shown for that nation ; it is only certain that, next to the Babylonians, that nation is recorded as the most eminent in arts and sciences, in the oldest book in the world, the Bible, and that the records of India and Egypt are apocryphal and fabu- lous. It is historically affirmed, that the Phoenicians or Canaanites were the first who instituted an order of architecture t : and Sam.mest finds the Cyclopean style in Cornwall ; for he says, " I will only mention one thing in this peninsula, which seems to me exactly to preserve its Phoenician name {arithy a lake), and that is a fortification of stones only, without any cement or mortar, lying as upon the lake Leopole, — a fortification after the manner of the Britons, as Tacitus describes them, rudes et informes Saxorum compages ; which was the way of the eastern nations, as the Scriptures themselves inform us." To resume : sculpture was also a marketable commodity among the Phoenicians ; and the earUest specimens of metaUurgy are the Uons found • GelPs Argolis, 40—42. X Britannia^ 59. f Bromley's Arts, L 181. c 3 f ,» i.4 II 22 CLASSICAL ANTIQUITIES. in the ruins of Babylon. As Mr. Dodwell* observes, that these sculptures are probably the most ancient in Greece, and resemble those which are depicted in the most ancient ceramic vases found in Greece ; and that one of the lions, which is before the arsenal at Venice, and which was brought from Athens ; and another, which still remains near Cape Zoster, in Attica ; and others, which are represented in the Perugian bronzes, are of the same form ; it may be deemed importantly illustrative to give sir William Gell's minute descrip- tion of them. '' This gate t is mentioned by Pausa. nias, who says, some part of the circuit oY the walls of Mycenae remains, as well as a gate over which are lions. They are said to be the work of the Cyclopes, who built the walls of Tyrins for Pr^tus. This gate is situated at the end of a recess, about fifty ^eet deep, commanded by projections of the wall, which, in this part, is composed of rough blocks of squared stones ; but they are often placed exactly above one another, so that the joints of three or four courses are precisely in one perpendicular line, which gives a strange and bar- barous appearance to the whole. The architrave con- sists of a single stone, fifteen feet long, four feet four inches high ; the triangular stone, on which the lions are sculptured, is eleven feet six inches long, nine feet eight inches high, and two feet in thickness. The sockets, about three inches in diameter, which served for the insertion of the pivots on which the gates turned, are visible in the lower surface of the archi- trave." Sir William is of opinion that the gates folded, and were secured by bars : but it is more pro- bable, that, according to the very ancient fashion, they consisted of one piece, which turned upon central pi- vots ; so that, upon entrance, one side of the door turned outwards, and the other within. He also thinks, that as the Cyclopes were worshippers of the sun, fire, and Vulcan ; and as Cambyses introduced artists from^ Egypt to adorn his palace of Persepolis, that the lion. • Greece, ii. 239, 240. t Corinthiaca, p. 59. Cell, 35. ARCHITECTURE. 23 being the symbol of Mithras, the ball of the sun, the spirals of water, and the triangle, — a mysterious Egyptian figure, — that the Kons had an allegorical meaning, and might be the national symbols.* Mr. Hughes t, how- ever, believes that they merely designated a watch or guard : for such is the reason given by Valerian, for the appearance of lions over the identical gate in ques- tion ; and Homer observes, that, for the same cause, images of dogs, in silver and gold, adorned the thresh- old of the palace of Antinous. Colonel Leake % supposes that the entrance or recess was a place of arms, and not a mere wall; especially as it ccrmmanded the right, or unshielded, side of those who approached. p^^ ^^ ^^*>¥SS».. VTVWVP ^'i'i'i'i'i\,i^> I I II I III I I in ' 'I I I i~ ^n^e& I I I i i I |\ I i i I M I TREASURY OF ATREUS, The treasury of Atreus is a building shaped, as in the cut, like a beehive, and was Uned within with brass plates, of which the fastening nails remain. The vault is formed of horizontal courses, projecting beyond each other as they advance in height §, and the top sur- mounted by a large stone, which, it appears from Livy I , was superimposed by an engine. It is remark- able that the construction of this building is exactly ♦ ArgoHs, 35—40. f Travels, i. 230. \ Stuart's Athens, new ed. iv. 31. II B. 39. c. 5. Dodw. ii. 234. c 4 X Morea, ii. 370. 24 CLASSICAL ANTIQUITIES. !■; %* In similar to that of our ancient church spires, with this exception, that the stones, when laid horizontally in a circle, were not cut to fit, but had the gaping interstices filled with small stones; one of the criteria of pure Cyclopean masonry.* Mr. Dodwell says, that the lin- tel of the door- way must have weighed about one hun- dred and thirty-three tons ; with which no masses can be compared except those of Egypt and Balbec. Sir William Gell observes, that this is perhaps the only gateway where the antepagments do not consist of se- parate and appropriate stones, but are merely the com- mon blocks of the wall, cut into three receding faces. It has been thought never, like the temples of Egypt, to have had a door, only a curtain : but this opinion is rejected ; and the artists who have restored the ancient form have given to it an open-work iron gate^ orna- mented in the same manner as the other parts, and similar to the iron grating that appears to have parted off the pronaos and posticum from the pe- ristyle m the antique temples.f Over the door is a triangular aperture, as in the gate of the lions : and ac- cording to the restored plate, the door-case was orna- mented with columns and an architrave. Fragments of these still exist. The mouldings consist chiefly of scroll work ; and the shafts of the columns are wrought all over in the same manner, disposed in zigzag within a border J, but not intelligible by verbal description. Sir WiUiam Gell says that the leaves, which are the lowest ornament, are exactly similar to those represented by Norden in his view of the palace of Memnon. This treasury was a souterrain ; and so were those of Sardanapalus.§ Similar fabrics existed at Orchomenos, and in different parts of Sicily. They are also con- sidered to have been temples, tombs, and prisons ; in the latter acceptation, from the interior lining of brass plates to illustrate the fable of Danae. || Souterrains with * Leake, ii. 378. f Stuart's Athens, new edit, vol iv. p. 52, t Id pi. IV. § Herodot. Clio, 154. U Fosbroke's Foreign Topography, p. 162. seq. ARCHITECTURE. 25 dome tops, also called treasuries, occur at Mycen©: but as Homer says that the Cyclopes *T{\a?j/ opfuv vaL8(Ti Kapriva Ev ffTTcaai yXaipvpoiaiy Od-ix. i. e. inhabit the tops of high mountains, in hollow caverns, — and that the word yKacpvoo^ is derived from yXa(p(Vy which signifies to engrave or to carve, as well as to ex. cavate; it maybe doubted whether these supposed trea- suries were not Cyclopean dwellings. Of this architecture, colonel Leake gives the follow- ing account.*— '^ The ruins of Mycenae being anterior to the time of Homer, contain specimens of an architec ture very different from the Doric. The artists of those times were chiefly engaged in the construction of trea- suries, not of temples, which afterwards served for the same purpose as the former. Another fact, deducible from the ruins of Mycenae, as weU as from the descrip- tion left by Pausanias, and other authors, of the Greek buildings of those times, is that the early colonies of Egypt, although they introduced some of the mythology of that country, did not transplant its arts in any great " degree : for there is nothing at Mycenae bearing any resemblance to the monuments of Egypt; nor, indeed have the temples of Greece any similarity to those of Egypt, beyond the existence of columns, which are so natural an invention, that they are found in the huts or caves of similar climates in every part of the world, and in the course of improvement have become the principal ornaments of sacred buildings in the most distant countries." It has been before observed, that the proper criterion of Cyclopean masonry, — in truth, the only style apper- taining to those builders,— is that which consists of huge masses of rock, the interstices being filled with small stones. These small stones, too, as in almost aU the very early fortifications of Greece, formed the found- « Morea, iii. 271. 26 CLASSICAL ANTIQUITIES. I-. f 'M, ation ; so that there appears to have been no fear of mining. At Tyrins, sir WiUiam Gell noticed the re. mains of a solid tower, commanding the road, which pasftd under it ; and in one part of the wall of the citadel at Mycenae, something Uke a tower is visible, which being perpendicular, while the curtain incHnes a little inward from its base, there remains a projection at the top sufficient to enable an archer to defend the wall below.* The Tyrinthian style is deemed older than that of Mycenae ; because in the latter the stones are more squared and adapted to each other. Stone squarers are mentioned in holy writ as a branch of the masonic profession f, and there also will be found most of the tools now used ; the compass, plane, Hne, saw for stones, rule, hammers, and possibly others. There were also machines, as cranes, and wheels and axles ; but such enormous masses as those used in the Cyclopean build- ings could not have been raised by any other apparent means than rollers and artificial causeways, the stone being drawn upwards by means of capstans and levers. Herodotus adds wedges ; and ancient authorities men- tion all these methods. ;{: Before proceeding to the next style in Greece, the architecture in Egypt and India (a similar style), and Persia, must be noticed. That there is an evident as- similation between the styles of India and Egypt is attested by a very curious circumstance. The Sepoys in the army of sir David Baird, who was sent to assist lord Hutchinson in the reduction of Egypt, were so struck with the resemblance of the ancient temples, that they went there to perform their religious rites. How ancient the style of either may be, it is impossible to say. It has, indeed, been recently affirmed, that there exist monuments which take date so early as 2000 years before the commencement of our era ; and these showing that the arts were not in their infancy, but recovering after a disastrous epoch. § Now, Abra- * Gell's Argolis. ; Encyc. of Antiq. 16, 17. t 1 Kings, V. 18. ^ For. Rev. No. x. p. 541. » ARCHITECTURE. 27 ham's arrival in Egypt is the first time that country is mentioned in authentic history ; for it is known that the fifteen dynasties before that patriarch, which Jose- phus Africanus, and Eusebius borrowed from Manetho, are comment! tious. If the years be counted, the begin, ning of them ascends to 1735 years before the birth ot Adam.^ Acccording to Herodotus, Egypt was origin. aUy governed by eight gods, to whom succeeded twelve other gods, who commenced their reigns 17,571 years before the Christian era ! Such an absurdity can only be reconciled by one circumstance, viz. that accordmg to Diodorus, Plutarch, and Pliny f, the ancient Egyp- tian year consisted of only one month, and that accord- ingly they have mentioned kings who lived 1000 years. If the former number be divided by twelve, as the number of months in a solar year, the era will be only 1464 years B C. • and, by the same means, the longevity as to persons, of 1000 years, is reduced to eighty-three. This calculation, which is suggested by Phny, brings the era four centuries more recent than the arrival of Abraham (anno I916 B. C.) ; in whose era it has been presumed that there were no mighty empires upon earth, as no family had had time to increase in a degree equal to the population of any one large city m England. Lastly, sir William Drummond J shows, (1.) That ail the fables aUuded to were falsifications of the Egyptian priests, no two of whom told the same story of their national history. (2.) That names, though reaUy taken from ancient monuments, do not settle chronological questions, or can with certainty be appropriated to kings. (3.) That Petavius gave up as hopeless the impracticable task of settling the Egyptian chronology. U) That the era of Sesostris cannot be ascertamed ; and, (5.) That there is nothing approaching to cer- tainty before the time of Psammetichus the First, in the seventh century B. C, and 200 years later than X Origines,b. iv. c. 12. J. P-' i-i -l: ' 28 CLASSICAL ANTIQUITIES. Cheops, to whom Herodotus ascribes the erection of the first pyramid. Under these difficulties, it is fit to adhere only to matters which seem to be unquestionable. One is, that what has been denominated the ancient history of Egypt cannot be authoritative ; the other, that towns could not have been founded, in all such parts of Egypt as were subject to the rise of the Nile, before there had been superstructions or podia made above the level of the inundation. Accordingly, we find that all the ancient towns to which the inundation extended were built upon artificial elevations*; and such an elevation, whether natural, or a work of art, is conspi- cuous near Cairo in the present day; the old town having been erected upon or near the ruins of the Egyptian Babylon, by Amrou the Saracen, when he had destroyed Memphis, a town founded, as affirmed, by Cambyses.t Alberti writes thus : — '' The Ethio. pians, according to Herodotus, when they seized Egypt, killed none of the conquered ; but employed them in raising heaps of earth at the towns which they used to inhabit. Hence they say that cities were founded in Egypt.:}: These artificial substructions were com- posed, some authors say, of burnt bricks, or, according to sir William Drummond, of rubble, surrounded with enclosures, built of bricks, about one foot long by eight inches thick, and as many deep ; precisely of the same materials as those now made in Egypt, but very dif- ferent from ours.^ Pliny gives us the statement of some old writers, who say, that in the construction of the pyramids causeways were raised of bricks, made of mud, which, upon completion of the work, were dis- tributed among the private houses. || A pyramid at Saccarah is built of brick and chopped straw. All these premises are substantially confirmed by the labours of the Israelites in the time of Moses, about ] 600 years before the commencement of our era. * Denon. ii. clvii. ed. Londres. t De Re edific. foL i. a. IJ Denon, il cxlvii f Id. Append, xcvi. i Id. xxxvl 12. ■1 ARCHITECTURE. 29 It is to be repeated, that nothing authentic can be said concerning Egypt in remote periods, except that which the Scripture affords. Zoan is stated to have been built seven years after Hebron; and as Sarah died at Hebron, it must have been founded at least 2000 years before our era. The site of Zoan has been placed by an old author at Memphis; by Dr. Clarke at S'el Hajar, or Sais or Sin ; but, as the Hebrew Tsoan is the Coptic Djane, there is little doubt but that it was the subsequent Tanis, of which considerable ruins are still seen near the Pelusiac mouth of the Nile, and on the borders of the lake of Menzaleh.* It was a vast city, built upon an artificial elevation, and upon the ruins was founded a Roman town, called Tennys. It was certainly coexistent with the Pharaohs ; and intermixed with remains of monuments of more recent era, are ex- cavated those which are also found at Babylon, namely, immense masses of bricks, porcelain, pottery, and glass of all colours, t Denon's plate of the ruins shows obelisks, blocks, trunks of statues, and other works in granite, which appear to have been brought there from Upper Egypt. These first and ancient cities were deserted by their inhabitants, many of them in the time of Cambyses. The mounds and enclosures fell into ruin, and the con- sequent irruption of the Nile has obscured the traces of them. X It is not probable that there originally existed, in these ancient primary cities, any traces of columns, epi- styles, or other indicia of scientific architecture, because none are to be found at Babylon. The very curious courses in which the bricks are laid in the El Roumyleii of Cairo § are likely to assimilate the construction of the walls ; and the city of Bacchus, engraved by Belzoni, the general character of the place. Sais, near Salhaggar (the S'el Hajar of Dr. Clarke), an undoubted palace of « Sir Will. Drummond, 32. 30a f Denon, Appendix, ii. civil X Sir Will. Drummond, ii. 21. \ See the Graade Description, E. M. voi.ii. pi. 57. 30 CLASSICAL ANTIQUITIK8. fi. p the old Egyptian kings, mentioned by Herodotus, is also of very great extent, but has only, says one tra- veller *, '' a few mutilated statues and fragments of gra- nite, and a circuit of enormous mounds, to distinguish the site of this once proud metropohs ;" and Dr. Clarke adds, '' foundations of a vast edifice, forming a qua- drangular enclosure, the area of which was a high mound of earth, supporting the ruins of some building; the whole corresponding very accurately with the account t of Sais given by Herodotus." This *' father of history" visited Egypt only fifty- five years after the death of Cambyses ; and in state- ments which do not imply fabrication of the priests, much attention is due to him. The first of the Egyp. tian kings, Menes, is said by him to have founded Memphis, and erected there the celebrated temple of Vulcan, more than 2000 years before our era. J But Menes is a fictitious personage ; the term implying only the sun or Osiris. § Hermopohs, unquestionably very ancient, and anterior to Thebes, is stated to have been built by Ishmun, son of Misraim, son of Ham, son of Noah; but although there is no reason to dispute the first occupation of Egypt by Misraim ||, Eshmon or Ishmun only means the fire of the sun, and was a Phoenician deity. ^ Elephantina is undoubtedly very ancient, and fur- nished the wrong conclusion of Denon, that the smallest temples in Egypt are, as such, those which have the most remote claims. ** But whatever was the period of the reign of Sesostris, who may have been existent fifteen centuries before the Christian era, there is no reason to contest his actions, nor to disbeheve that many of the Egyptian remains may be traced to him ; for he was the only Egyptian monarch who reigned over Ethiopia tt^ and the monuments of Egypt are the more ancient, the nearer they are to the tropic ; nor were there any en- tirely built in granite, until the seat of the monarchy * Fuller, 141. f Foreign Topography, p. 247. I irf"^ ^^ I* T^ ^ Drumm. Orig. ii. 360.398. |( Id. 410. ir Id. 402. • ♦ Denon, Append, ii. xvi. f f Herodot. ARCHITECTURE. SI was transferred to Memphis. Then Upper Egypt was plundered to enrich the Lower ; and Herodotus in- forms us, that Sesostris employed the prisoners, which he took in the conquered countries, in drawing those enormous stones, which in his reign were collected at the temple of Vulcan* (at Memphis). Diodorus adds, that he, Sesostris, caused a temple to be built in every city in honour of the deity, who was the object of its peculiar veneration. The captives taken in war were alone employed in constructing these edifices ; and it was the proud boast of the monarch, that no native Egyptian was engaged in this hard and laborious ser- vice. To this period we may, therefore, safely ascend ; but according to the chronology of Egypt, as rectified by sir Isaac Newton, Sesostris was a contemporary of Solomon, the Shishak of Scripture, and the oriental Bacchus. Sir William Drummond urges that this iden- tification is untenable ; and other authors deny the very existence of Sesostris, or dispute his actions : neverthe- less, it is most certain that the style of the Indian cavern temple o* Elephanta, and that of Hermopolis, is the same ; and that the employment of the captives taken in war, if they were Indians and Ethiopians, in construct- ing 'the Egyptian temples, does explain the similar cha- racter alluded to. It must, however, be confessed, that the Phoenician or Canaanitish invasion was four centu- ries earlier than the alleged era of Shishak ; and that Herodotus and Strabo say that the Egyptians and,Phoe- nicians were the first who erected temples ; but as the vicinity of the Red Sea is the spot where the more an- cient temples are found, and we know of none of Cyclo. pean or Phoenician origin, precedence may readily be granted to the originals of the Egyptian fabrics having been the cavern temples of India. The character of Egyptian architecture is massy grandeur, adapted to giants rather than men ; but the cause is obvious. It was an imitation of the souter. rains of India, where the superincumbent earth re- * Denon, iu Append, v. H it » I > V w C L« t *li. 32 CLASSICAL ANTIQUITIES. quired heavy piers ; and the want of timber for roofing, in Egypt, recommended a similar style. The Egyp- tians, says Strabo, worshipped every divinity but the Graces, and the ornaments of architecture are heavy in the execution, and offer no repose to the eye. The subjects are Temples, Palaces, Tombs, Pyramids,- Obelisks, and Colossal Figures. All the forms of Egyptian temples, their massive co- lumns, flat roofs, and gigantic idols, are to be found in the Indian Elephanta ; and the details of their architec- ture appear in the older temples, while those of a Gre- cian character are found in the more modern erections. This appears by a very simple test, — the capitals of the columns. The Indian form is the urceolated, and is found at Hermopo- lis, Elephantina, Gournon, Luxor, the Memnonium, and quarries of Silsi- lis, which are known to be most ancient, and have no Grecism of cha- racter. The Grecian character is » the Ogee capita], thus: — and it occurs at Tentyra, Hermontis, ApoUinopolis, and many others, which have modern characteris- tics ; for it is to be remembered, that several of the temples are of the age of the Ptolemies, possibly of the Antonines*; and that the stupendous antiquity with which they have been invested, is as unfounded as the chro- nology from which such an appropriation has been assumed. ^ The following tests are given of the respective an. cientry of these temples : — Ipsambul is the most ancient of. all ; for, if the in- scription be admitted, it was of the age of Psammeticua the first, L e. according to the Newtonian chronology, 655 B. C. It is an excavation in the solid rock, and has no columns, only piers, faced with colossal ♦ Messrs. Banks, Fuller, &c ARCHITECTURE. 33 figures. The interior view will give the most intelli-'. gible idea of it. There was a general character, but no fixed plan, in Egyptian temples. The general rule laid down by Denon is, that the smaller they are, the more an. cient. But this is not a certain test : for Mr. Fuller says, that on the banks of the Nile, between the first and second cataracts, he visited, in the course of three easy days' sail, twelve different temples; all of them, with the exception of the excavations at Girshi-Hassan and Ipsambul, on a smaller scale than those of Egypt, and the greater part of a comparatively modern date. This circumstance is, he adds, indicated by certain pe- culiarities in the architecture, and also by the bas-reliefs and other monuments, which are evidendy of a period when the native Egyptian manner had been mixed up with imitations of Greek or Roman sculpture, introduced^ probably, by artists from those countries.* Nothing is more easy to detect than the intermixture of the Greek manner, as corrective of the cold and harsh Egyptian style. It is a portrait flattered, — an at- tempt to mould heaviness into elegance; to modify long visages, high cheek bones, beetling eyebrows, cat's eyes, and low foreheads, by the beau ideal stand- ard. Architecture by time grows Ughter, and sculp- ture more deUcate. These are rules which are always * Fuller's Travels through some ParU of Turkey, pp. 221, 222. D I 34 CLASSICAL ANTIQUITIES. correct : and certain it is, that at Phylae and Kalabshee, and in other modern examples, the heavy Egyptian be- comes light, and retains only the pattern, not the cha- racter. Further tests are these : — Connection of the porticoes of columns by dwarf walls or panels, each surmounted by a cornice and winged globe, as at Kalapshe, is said to prove a modern date, being never found in the more ancient edifices.* Columns of lighter proportions, and capitals with ornaments much resembling the Ionic volute, show the latest manner of the Egyptian school, when it was gra- dually melting into the Roman, t Inscriptions commemorating, as supposed, only re- pairs by Greeks or Romans, are now, if combined with Greek styles of architecture and sculpture, thought to indicate the first foundation of them in the time of the Ptolemies, or even of a later era. } The hieroglyphic writing is no proof of ancientry, for it was known and practised as late as the reigns of the Antonines. § Bas-reliefs representing battles, sieges, and military incidents, imply remote eras, when Egypt was a war- Uke and conquering nation ; but if they refer only to priests, sacrifices, and rehgious pageants, the time when it was reduced to a province. || The absence of the large overhanging cornice may be another denotation of antiquity, for it does not occur at Hermopohsir, Elephantina * *, Gournontt, the MemnoniumJ:]:, and Luxor. §§ It may also be doubted, whether the truncated pyra- midal towers are of the most remote ancientry. Strabo's account of an Egyptian temple is this; — An outer court or avenue, with rows of sphinxes on each side ; then one or more porticoes ; next, the temple, a large court; then the sanctuary, smaUer. The plans of ARCHITECTURE. S5 • Fuller, 219. IT Denon, pi. xi. U Id. pi. XX. f Id. 225. t Id. 177. * * Id pi. xxxvii. i§ Id. pi. xxl § Id. If Id. 183. ft Id.pl.xvi. all of them are not, however, similar, except in being courts or areas, lined with colonnades and apartments, — the communicating passages or avenues being rich porticoes, with magnificent columns, or with lofty pyra- midal towers. Some, as at Debode (Parembole), have four pylades or gateways, one behind the other : at Philse, the different buildings are not in a straight line, but are placed obliquely to each other ; and at the same place is an unfinished temple, which bears little resemblance to the other sacred edifices of the Egyp- tians. It consists only of an oblong enclosure, with five columns at each of the sides, and two at each end, between which latter are the entrances. * Mr. Fuller gives the following general character of Egyptian architecture : — Compared with the Grecian style, the temples on the Nile appear at first sight to be heavy, almost to deformity; the intercolumniations too small, the pillars crowded, the ordinary form of them extremely clumsy, and the ornaments monotonous in design and redundant in quantity. But, after re- peated observations, these unfavourable impressions wear off, and we become gradually sensible of the grand effect produced by the vast size of the buildings, the massiveness of the masonry, the strength of the co- lumns, the variety of the capitals, the graceful in- clinations of the outer walls, the simplicity of the mouldings, and the bold curve of the cornice. The ornaments, however crowded, are always subservient to the principal design; and at that point of distance where the architecture is seen to the greatest advantage, the sculpture, for the most part, is no longer distin- guishable. It is, however, to be lamented, that of aU the graphic works pubUshed on Egypt, not one can be found which does complete justice to the ancient monu- ments, or conveys an accurate notion of their effect to the minds of those who have never seen them ; and even in the '' Grand Livre" of the French Institute. the drawings often bear but little resemblance to the « Fuller. V 2 36 CLASSICAL ANTIQUITIES. subjects. * That the majesty of the Egyptian temple must have been supreme, may be conceived from colonel Light's account of the temple at Carnac; which, he says, was a mile and a half in circumference- the smallest blocks five feet by four; and the obelisks, of one single piece of granite, eighty feet high, on a base of eighteen. Palaces — That at Medinel Aboul was, in plan, an oblong square, divided into three compartments : first, a court; second, another court or peristyle; with a piazza all round, like an exchange. Denon says, that the most important remain is a peristyle of four ranks of columns, placed on four sides of the court. These four rows were necessary to protect persons from the rays of an almost vertical sun. The windows are long oblong square, rectangular square, double, and of the modem sash form. The surrounding wall of the palace is embattled, and adjacent is a hippodrome or • stadium. There were apartments, upper stories, small doors, a staircase, and very solid balconies, supported by a kind of cariatides ; but the interior of the state part resembled that of a cathedral. The mass of lofty dead waU was relieved by bas-reUefs and colossal figures. ABCHITECTDUE. 37 » Fuller 231—233. Tombs. — It was an opinion of the ancient Egyptians, that after a lapse of many thousand years their souls would come to re-inhabit their bodies^ if the latter were preserved entire. Hence proceeded the mummies, and the situation of the sepulchres, in places not subject to inundation. The tombs at Thebes consist of cham- bers and passages excavated in the side of a mountain, and covered with sculptures and paintings of such re- splendent tints, that they almost defied imitation in this country. Good taste in the combination of colours seems to be natural to the inhabitants of the East, even at the present day ; and artists who have ex- amined critically the paintings in the tombs of the kings, and elsewhere, which remain in perfect preserv- ation, have been surprised at the knowledge of effect which the ancient colourists possessed. It is not pro- duced, they say, by the purity or brightness of any particular tint ; but, as in the works of the Venetian school, by that perfect arrangement which will not allow any part, however unimportant it may appear, to be altered without injuring the effect of the whole com- position. They knew no other colours than red, blue dark and light, yellow, green, or black. With the red and green they produced a very splendid effect, parti- cularly by candle-light. They had no knowledge of elevating their figures by shading, or very little or none of perspective; all that was done being in profile : var- nish was either incorporated with the colours, or laid over them. In drawing and sculpture, the first process was to make the walls as smooth as possible, and fill up flaws with cement An inferior artist drew the first lines in red; another connected them in black. The figures then received a coat of whitewash ; and the white, says Belzoni, was of so beautiful a colour, that the best and whitest paper, when compared with it, has a yellow tinge. They commonly represented the hu- man flesh red ; but when they had occasion to depict a fair lady, often yellow. The garments being generally white, the other colours were mostly applied to the or- D 3 38 CLASSICAL ANTIQUITIES. naments. The most interesting part of these paintings consists in the subjects. These are taken from aU the arts of civilisation which obtained in Egypt ; and re- present the modes of manufacture, agriculture, na- vigation, pottery work, machinery and processes of trade, rural employments, hunting, fishing, marches of troops, punishments in use, musical instruments, dresses, and furniture. It was from one of these chambers that Belzoni extracted the famous alabaster sarco- phagus, which was purchased by Sir John Soane, the architect. Belzoni's account of mummies is very minute and valuable. It may correct his confused style, to classify that account. ' Position of the mummies — None standing ; all laid together in horizontal rows. Mummies of the lower classes — No cases, only dried by exposure to the sun -no gum, nor any thing else, found m them ; the hnen in which they are folded coarser and less in quantity ; no ornament about them' of any consequence ; piled up in layers, so as to crowd several caves rudely excavated. Few or no papyri found • It any, only small pieces, stuck upon the breast with a little gum or asphaltum. Cases of mummies of the superior orders. — Some sunk into a cement, which must have been nearly fluid when the cases were placed on it. No papyri found in cased mummies, but often in those without cases It appeared to Belzoni, that such people as could afford cases would have one to be buried in, upon which the history of their lives was painted. Those who could not afford a case, were contented to have their hves written on papyri, rolled up and placed above their knees.-Great difference in the appearance of the cases: some excessively plain; others more ornamented • and some very richly adorned with figures weU painted • the cases generally of Egyptian sycamore, apparently the mos plentiful wood in the country, because usually employed for the different utensils; all the cases withu I AROHITECTUKE. 39 human face, male or female ; some larger cases with others within them, either of wood or plaster painted : inner cases sometimes fitted to the body, others only covers in form of a man : wooden case first covered with a layer or two of cement, not unlike plaster of Paris, in which are sometimes cast figures in bas-relief, under niches cut in stone ; the whole case painted— ground generally yeUow ; the figures and hieroglyphics blue, green, red, and black,— latter seldom used ; the whole of the painting covered with a varnish, which preserves it very effectually. Cases of the sup- posed mummies of priests of better execution; one seen by Belzoni had the eyes and eyebrows in enamel, beau- tifully executed in imitation of nature : of eight un- touched mummies, the cases lay flat on the ground, facing the east, in two equal rows, imbedded in mortar ; the cases all painted ; one with a large covering thrown over it, like the coffin pall of the present day. Mummies themselves. — None of animals found in tombs of the higher sort; no papyri found in mummies with cases ; women distinguishable from men, by the beard and breast, like that on the outside ; garlands of flowers and leaves of the acacia or sunt tree, over the heads and breasts of mummies ; in the inside of mum- mies, lumps of asphaltum, sometimes of two pounds weight ; entrails often found, bound up in linen and asphaltum. « , , , . Supposed mummies of priests,— folded m a manner totaUy different from the others, and more carefully ex- ecuted ; the bandages or straps of red and white linen intermixed, covering the whole body ; arms and legs not included in the envelope of the body, as in the common mode, but bandaged separately, even the fingers and toes ; sandals of painted leather on the feet; brace- lets on the arms and wrists; the arms across the breasts, but not pressing them, always found in these mummies ; the shape of the person, notwithstanding the quantity of bandage, carefully preserved in every limb ; new linen apparently put over the old rags in some mummies, p 4 i ■Cfe*^ 40 CLASSICAL ANTIQUITIES. — which circumstance proves that care was taken of the dead long after their decease. The PYRAMIDS are known to have been mausolea connected with temples, and parts of Memphis. The most received date of their erection is that of Herodotus the ninth century before Christ. The sepulchral pur- pose IS evidently ascertained by the discovery of the sarcophagus and the interior chambers. The real en trance was at the base. That they were, in the primi- tive design, temples as well as mausolea, is well supported from the tower of Belus, the similar form of a temple of the Moon at Mexico, and the Indian pagodas. The ancients had certainly machines by which they elevated immense stones ; for they are mentioned by Livy; and Herodotus says, that when one grade of the pyramids was completed, the stones required for the next were elevated by means of small pieces of wood, which some of his translators presume to have been wedges. Jilevators and levers apply best to his description: but the precise method is not known. It is, however cer tain that the ancients did raise enormous masses, appa- rently with a facility unknown to the moderns. This is proved by the ingenious experiments of Archimedes * Obelisks.— PUnyt says, that Mitres, who reigned in Heliopolis, being warned by a dream, first erected these singular members of architecture, and no other origin is r,?'"'^"* , VJ^J^^ *^^ '*™^ ^'^ Mephres, he reigned in the year 1125 B.C., and at a time when the Ph^nician or Cyclopean masons had not been wholly expelled. This obehsk, presumed to be the oldest in Egypt, still remains, and has been repeatedly engraved ; but, by Cassas, with a crowd of accessories not to be found upon the spot. + It does not appear, however, that the design originated with Mephres j for Diodorus informs are nn'fiali;™* fu ^'^'^''^ '• "'■ =• 6., details the various modes- but as there t xxxli! I "^""^ ^ assurance against mistake ' ^ the franSifec'e orvoTif%5Tir/i'''^^^'^' ^,^""''' "^^ "een copied for ARCHITECTURE, 41 us, that a stone was erected by Semiramis, of which the breadth was a fifth part of the whole height, and it was called, however erroneously, an obelisk, — a term of un- certain definition. George Zoege, a Dane, has published an elaborate folio volume upon this particular subject. From this work we learn the Egyptian method of mak- ing them. They marked out in a hill, a stratum for the purpose ; levelled the surface and side with digging tools ; then, with a chisel, cut some furrows or channels to define the opposite sides. These being excavated to a certain depth, they tore the obelisk from the rock by the aid of wedges. Pococke, from vestiges existing in quarries, proves that this was the method ; and, in a similar way, are stiU cut, in France, pieces of granite forty-five feet long and eighteen broad. The obeUsks thus cut were placed upon sledges, and drawn to the river ; and thence conveyed by water-carriage to any town in Egypt. A vessel or raft purposely constructed, was firmly tied to the shore ; and a bridge being mad^ of strong beams from the edge of the shore, or steps cut in the bank, and projecting as far as the vessel or raft, any weight, by means of rollers, could be transferred to it. The Egyptians being contented with low plinths, instead of stylobates, the obeUsks were thus erected. They were dragged along a causeway made of earth or stones, until the base impended over a hole made in the plinth. A tower of beams was constructed, ropes tied round the top, and engines so disposed that it could be elevated. When it was raised to the perpendicular, it subsided into the cavity of the phnth by its own weight. * The obelisk at Constantinople was raised by windlasses and pulleys simultaneously worked, t In carving the figures, the Egyptians seem to have used the same tools as the moderns, t It has been said, that the Egyptian obelisks never had a pedestal ; but Belzoni mentions, perhaps, a solitary § exception ; and two obehsks with pedestals occur at Flora in India. || At Fayoum was • Zoege de Obeliscis, 185. 187. &c X Zoegc, 189. ^ P. ^0- f Wheler, Dallaway, &c. II rosbroke*s For. Topogr. 90. * i 42 CLASSICAL ANTIQUITIES. one, of two broad sides, not four equal ones.* There were none among the Egyptians trilateral, t In the beginning they were simple memorials, with- out inscription or ornament — when the latter were added, the subjects were historical, scientific, or reli- gious. They are not to be confounded with stelce appertaining to tombs, for they had no relation to funeral monuments, but were placed in courts of temples, caves, or adyta, upon tumuli, or on any other place which famous events had rendered memorable Two of them frequently decorated the entrances of grand bmldings, and had a superb effect. Pliny seems to hint that they were used as gnomons for sun-dials. 1 he moderns have spoiled them, by placing them upon an elevated base ; thus dividing into two pieces, that which owes its effect and grandeur to being a whole. They are equally spoiled by placing a globe, or any other object upon the summit. Colossal Figures — We are told that there is no account of any earfier than those which Sesostris placed m the temple of Vulcan, at Memphis, of himself and his wife, thirty cubits high, and of his children, twenty. Amasis, however, who reigned sixty years before Sesos- tris, is said, by Herodotus, to have placed before the same temple three colossi, one seventy.fi ve feet long He also mentions some of wood, at Sais, said by tra ' dition to represent the maids of the daughter of Myce- rinus, who reigned in the year 808 B.C., and he speaks of others of wood also, intended to represent priests. The porch of the temple of Vulcan, at Mem- phis, built by Psammitichus 655 B. C, was supported by colossal figures instead of columns. Sphinxes have been before mentioned as occurring a Babylon. They are also found in the Indian tern! p e of Elora ; and Strabo says, that rows of them were placed m the outer courts of Egyptian temples. Some at Persepohs are rampant. Various origins are ascribed lor this monstrous figure. Diodorus says, that similar * Grande Description, iv. pL 71. + Zoege, 133. ABCHITECTUBE. 43 animals exist in Ethiopia ; others, that it is an emblem rSe inundation of the Nile, -^ch commences unde^ the dominancy of the signs Leo and Virgo. Plutarch adds Tat sphinxes were placed before Egyptian em- is to denote that the national religion was enigmatical. "'" oncerning the towns and houses of tl- E|yP^-s, we have a good specimen in the remams of Beremce, I the Red Sea, a city built upon one of those moles which distinguish the site of ancient Egyptian towns The situatiof of the houses is regular, the ^JJ^J^J^^ coinciding, and in the centre was a temple. It was tn culm o'f the people to live dose togeOi^ and the largest houses were but forty feet in length and twenty inVeadth; others were smaller, for, adds Bekoni « these people had no need of great sheds to store coaches, chariots, or any other luxurious lumber. Their cattle and camels lay always m the open air, as they still do in all these countries ; nor had they any exten- ; manufactories. The only buUdings for tlieir com merce would be but a few storehouses ; nor could th. ™row lanes, which were in use in those^^--'^^ much of the ground." Diodorus «ay\*at the house of Thebes were four or five stories high ; and Belzon shows, from the city of Bacchus on the ^a^^ M«m, ^^^^ the houses of Diodorus resembled church to^J^J t"! out buttresses. The houses, he says, are not umted nor built in any regularity for streets, l>"^ ""^y ^^^^^^^^^^ bv alleys not more than three or four feet wide, anci afltfh of sun-burnt bricks. There is a causeway or road, made of large stones. It runs hrough the town to the temple, which faces the south J^/^/^ optitre of the city Belzoni observed several houses, or Xer celli:, un'der ground, as *ey appeared ^fr^^^ their tops, which were covered with strong pieces^ot wood over which there were some cane, and then above S a laver If bricks on a level with the surface, so that r mSrwalk over ^^^^ f^Zr'^^' ^^^^- TnT :mf o7 re t^, ^^^^-^^ ^^^ "^ 44 CLASSICAIi ANTIQUITIES. ARCHITECTURE. 45 bricks, was found a layer of clay, and then a layer of canes, which were nearly burnt ; and, lastly, under the canes some rafters of wood, forming the ceiling. The wood was m good preservation, and of a hard quality. I he mside of a hut, or cellar, was filled up with rub- bish ; but they had evidently been inhabited, as there was a fire-place in every one of them. They were not more than ten or twelve feet square, and the coramu. nication to each other was by a narrow lane, which was not more than three feet wide, also covered. Belzoni can- not conceive the reason why these people lived in such places. He is certain that they did not live there to hA^^^ ^l ^^^ ^^** ' "^ *^^ contrary, they must have Had all the heat of the sun shining upon them, without the slightest chance of a breath of wind. The houses above ground were constructed in a manner somewhat different from any which he had before seen. There were few which had a second floor, and those which were higher than the rest were very narrow, so that they were more like the form of towers than common houses ; but now they are scarcely to be seen entire, l^iodorus says, that the houses of Thebes were four or fave stories high ; and Dionysius of Halicarnassus con. hrms this, by saying that the houses of the first ages resembled towers,— an affirmation which had been qua- lified by Umitation to maritime situations and lone houses. The Greek pyrgos seem to have been derived irom this fashion ; but they were not universal. In the Grande Deseription » are plans of private habitations at Karnak, an adjunct of Thebes. These appear to have been squares, with chambers on the side ; in the centre ot one of them columns, a round well, and an oblong cistern. Denon says, that the Egyptian houses having occupied the level of the plain, and been built with un! baked bricks have thus disappeared ; but this circum- stance must have been guarded against, as in the present day, by placing the viUages upon elevations above the surface of the inundation. Other authorities say, that ♦ Vol. iii. pi. 16. even the palaces of kings were constructed of reeds ; and such fabrics for cottages and dove-cotes do appear in the famous tesselated pavement of Palestrina or Prseneste.* These reed edifices are said to have had no exterior windows, nor do any appear in them, apparently be- cause they have large doors at the gable end ; and these ample apertures are also found in the city of Bacchus. Houses of the better sort, as represented upon the Roman pavement, consist of one or more towers, con- nected by a wall, Uke a part of a castle ; and these houses have windows in the modern oriental fashion. The present buildings upon the terrace of the temple at Edfu are of similar construction to these towered edifices upon the Roman monument. The ancient dove- cotes have a conical roof, made entirely of reeds, and perforated with holes, for the ingress of the birds ; and at the present day the Egyptian houses seldom have windows on the ground floors, and the upper story is almost always devoted to pigeons, which are kept by thousands. The only modern difference of import is the lowness of the doors. Proceeding in chronological order, we now arrive at the celebrated remains of Per- sepolis. . The authors of the history of Iran, or Persia, lay claims to antiquity, which rival those of the Hindus themselves. In the division of this country, now called Pharsistan, and presumed to be that which the Greeks denominated Persis, are found the genuine race of Iranians ; and here was built the magnificent city of Istachar, also changed to Persepolis by the Greeks. Sir WiUiam Drummond supposes that this ancient capital was originaUy a pyraeum, or fire-temple.t Persia was, however, before the time of Cyrus, a province of the Babylonian or Assyrian empire, and inhabited by a very rude and barbarous people, who lived only on the rough produce of the soil, wore garments of skins, and drank not wine, only water. J It would be §i>smd to Ascribe \i • Engraved in Montfaucon, SuppL v. 4. b.7. (^5. seq. X Herod. Clio. 71. f B iii. c. i. w i6 CLASSICAIi ANTIQl'ITIKS. ABCIIITECTURE. 47 1 to such barbarians the foundation of a palace so magni- ficent, and so illustrative of skill in the arts, as Perse- polis. There is, from this state of things, every probability that ^lian * was correct in saying, that the elder Cyrus was proud, according to an ancient tradition, of the palace which he had built at Persepohs, though Justin t shows that the town had a previous existence. The Persian historians J give a different account. They say, that the palace was the work of Kayon Marasc, first king of the Peshdadian dynasty, who gave to it the name of his son Issthakar, or Djemchydd, a Persian king, whose era they do not fix; but sir William Drummond does; for he says, that he began to reign 1925 years before Christ, and about two years before the departure of Abraham from Uz. So far from admit- ting Istachar to be a name of Gemshieb, he conceives its etymon to be Istachur or Estachur, ignis solis, and its meaning, a pyrseum.g Nor are these accounts all. Diodorus || says, that after Cambyses, son of Cyrus, had plundered Egypt of its gold, silver, and sculptures in stone and ivory, he transported them into Asia, together with Egyptian workmen, and by this means founded the cele- brated palaces in Persepolis, Susa, and Media. Cyrus and Cambyses lived in the seventh century before Christ. Now, under the circumstances stated, the an- cient barbarism of the first Persians, and the traditions recorded by the Greek authors, traditions which, as being those of remote eras, are best entitled to attention, there is no external evidence for ascribing the existent remains of Persepolis to an earlier era than that of Cy- rus, the acknowledged founder, and Cambyses, the allegated but not undisputed improver. They who ad- vocate the claims of the latter assign the following rea- sons. Persepohs, they say, has the same latitude as Memphis (30 degrees). It was moreover situated, hke that, near a river, and mountains of granite sup- * Hist Anim. L i. c. 59. § Origines, I 310, f L. l c. 6. II L. i. 30, X Mem. Instit iii. 214. oorted the palace of its masters, which commanded the town. . At some miles distance, monticules, cut into plat- forms, enclosed the avenues of the plain, and formed by nature lodgments for fortresses and small armies of observation. Imitation of Memphis might therefore have influenced Cambyses, and the conveyance of Egyp- tian materials was not difficult; for it was only necessary to embark them on the Red Sea, to coast Arabia, enter the Persian Gulf, and go from thence to Persepohs by the Araxes.* On the other hand, Mongez, who has written an elaborate dissertation concerning these ruins f, contends, that the palace was founded by the elder Cyrus, and that the work was executed, not by Egyptian colonists, but the ancient Persians themselves, who bor- rowed the fashion from India. In support of this he quotes sir William Jones, who says, '' that the orna- ments of the palace of Badyk Kan, at Chyraz, are of the same style as those of Persepohs, and that the mo- dem architecture of the Persians much resembles that of their Persian ancestors." The plan of the palace, as given by Diodorus, was the same as that in the palace of Semiramis at Babylon ; viz. that of a series of platforms, elevated above each other, each encircled with walls and towers, the inner. most being the royal residence. In fact, the palace, as here described, was a castellated gaol. The second wall was of double the height of that without, and the third and inmost was a square, and cut in the mountain, and was further defended by pahsades and doors of copper. The existent remains consist of terraces or platforms, upon which stand columns and magnificent portals. The fronts of the terraces are decorated with has rehefs, and the ascent is by staircases, of which the steps are so low, that a horse might trot up them. It is evident, from the details, that the palace consisted of distinct courts, and that the universaUty of columns in all the apart. ments (at least in those of state), caused them in the • Enc. Method, v. Persepolis. t Mem. Instit. iii. 212. 302. i t 48 CLASSICAL ANTIQUITIES. ABCHITECTURE. 4<) interior to resemble churches! The description of Solo- mon's palace * seems well to illustrate this of Persepohs, A fifth platform, of much more extensive elevation than the others, is thought to have been part of the dwelling quarters of the royal residence; for such a distinct habi- tation existed.f The palace destroyed by Alexander is supposed to be concealed under a grand unknown re- main, now covered by heath ; others think it was only of wood. The several parts of this superb collection of archi- tectural remains present many noticeable distinctions. The chief are the columns. So numerous are these, that the place is thence denominated Tcekhel Minor, or' forty columns, forty being a term for any indefinite number. Some of them are from seventy to eighty feet high, the shafts being fluted to the top, and the component pieces bound by a band of metal. The pedestals are curiously wrought. The capitals are formed chiefly of squatted camels and basket forms. Upon these Mongez X makes the following remark: — "It cannot be denied, that capitals formed by squatted columns are not absolutely foreign to Egyptian architecture, i.or are those of the basket form also found at Persepolis; but these have no relation to any particular country, but are common to all, before the invention or under ignorance of the Greek orders. Some analogy may be found in the gross mo- numents of Easter Island, in the Southern Ocean. In truth, the capitals of the columns of Elephanta, with the exception of those formed by squatted camels, are in the same taste as those of Persepolis." Some of the capitals are also tauriform, and are formed by the heads and bodies of kneehng bulls, and project like brackets to support the entablature above. They are presumed to allude to the celestial bull, or rather to the sun in that prolific sign. Imitations of them occurring at Delos, the ensuing comments have been made:—" Such capitals were executed before Zoroaster had reformed the worship of Persia, under the auspices of Darius Hysta^pes, when die religious code of that philosopher was adopted by he s ate, on the ruins of the ancient and proscribed idolatry. * KneeUng bulls are introduced in the frieze of the temple 5 t?e sfn at HeUopolis or Ba'albeck. At the temple ot Solomon, the "molten sea" or « labrum,' wrought by rTyrian artist, stood upon twelve "o^^"^ ^f ^ ^^f^ Iced in four groups of three -side by side and probably with their hind parts enveloped in the sub- stance of the metal. It is remarkable that on the antique celestiri globes, the sign Taurus was represented having the hind part deficient, as if cut off, Uke those of our capital. Eratosthenes said, this was done to leave room InTe astronomic sphere for the consteUation called PleLdes, and bulls were often so defined on Greek corns, ^' B^rS/^f - The interior faces of one enormous por^J Irttlptured into the forms o^wo j^en- Urupeds, -Wch on "- ^PP-^^^ ^ ^^^^^^^^^^ ^:;^tri^^i^rJ^^^ only specimen 'rowrto'exist in Persia, and probably f^^^^^^^^^^ present Cyrus himself. This is inferred from certain passages in the prophets Ezekielt and Dame .§ The approach to the chief and magnificent hall con- sist' orresplanade, which has three ^^^^o^^rs one in the middle and two at each end. The face ot the wall which supports this plat orm .s -ered juh bas-reliefs. These are most '^'''^^'''^^\^^'i^^J Z sir Robert Kerr Porter. The subject is the /east of the vernal equinox, when the Persians presented their g^a tuities, and the governors of P'-^^'^^/^'J .^^'S gates, brought in the annuaUy collected tax from each with a due proportion of offerings besides. This inter wiin a uue V 1 following circumstances,— pretation is supported by ineiouu"" g „„.pnt« Darius adopted the style of Cyrus in receiving presents Smhis own countrymen, instead of tribute; and pro- Kiiigo, c. vii. t Id. V. 8. t Mem. Instit. ut supr. , Stuarfs Athen,. voUv. Delos. e6.^ew edit^ J Ezek. 1. 7. 9, lU. ^ E f Id 27. 50 CLASSICAL ANTIQUITIES. fessor Grottefund has so far translated the cuneiform or arrow-headed inscription, as to show that Darius is the subject of both. Accordingly, sir Robert ascribes the sculpture in question entirely to Darius [Hystaspesl : but this makes httle difference in the architectural character • lor Cambyses only died in the year 522 before Christ' and Darius began to reign in the year following. Mongez contends, that as the style of the figures has not the Jigyptian character, the workmanship is to be ascribed to Persian artists. The bas-reliefs show the ancient method of stringing the bow, and the manner of attaching It without cover to the quiver, which protects the fea. thers of the arrows from damp. No sword or dagger appears in any one of these armed figures. They were doubtless the doryphores or body-guards. The chariots drawn by bulls, the buUs, &c., the led horse for sacrifice to the sun, the spearmen, and others, resemble the pro. cession of Cyrus at his first great royal sacrifice. The ornamented ball at the extremity of the spear denotes th& melophores, or thousand guards of Xerxes who bore gold * "^ ^^^" ^^'"'^' *^^^^' *"" pomegranates of In confirmation of the elucidations by Sir Robert Kerr Porter, it is to be recollected, that the sophi, and the mogul m India, stiU exhibit themselves to their subjects and receive presents once a year ; and that the processional and simple figures bear the strongest rela- tion to such a ceremony ; especially as this is attest. ed by the corns of the Achaemenida, and a head from Persepohst, which has a curly wig, the distinctive costume of the gana, or attendants of the gods, in Indian temples. J ^ ' Among the bas-reliefs are also (i.) the king seated on a chair of state with both feet resting on a footstool. Tne last appendage distinguishes great persons, in Egyp- tian, Greek, and Roman monuments, with very few ex- X ^^^^^ '" 'he Archsologia; xiv. pi. 57- t Bombay, Iransact. iii. 279. 295. Cough's Salset, pi. 7. Stt AllCHITECTURE. 51 ceptions. (ii.) A hero combating with wild beasts. Sir Robert Kerr Porter supposes this figure to represent Darius Hystaspes, or his son and successor Xerxes^, and the beasts to be allegorical symbols of certain countries subdued by them. This is questionable ; for Mosheim says, that Mithras first signaHsed himself by ridding Persia of wild beasts ; and the combats of men with beasts, and lions tearing bulls, may allude to this fact ; for St. Croix admits that the benefits of civihsation were probably alluded to in the Mithraica. Doors and windows occur of granite, of black marble pohshed like a mirror, cut out of a single stone, and adorned with inscriptions and different mouldings. The principal doorway and high marble windows are yet in their places ; their lofty entrances and perpendicular jambs resembling, though with the finest workmanship, the Druidical monument of Stonehenge. The frames of the doors have all one sort of bas-reliefs, namely, a royal personage, followed by two attendants bearing an umbrella and a fly-chaser; the use of the umbrella being regarded in Persia as a privilege of royalty alone. The king holds in one hand a lotos, in the other a sceptre. Ceilings appear, and have commonly in relief a man holding a circle, borne upon a winged object. M. Sacy, from the Persian mythology, and the occurrence of this figure upon coins, makes it a spiritual being, called Fa^ rouher, meaning the principle of sensation. Cornices. — Very superb ones appear in the portals. Terraces, or esplanades, ascended by staircases, and basement stories, here first appear. Tombs. — Those, which are situated on the side of a rock, are not accessible from below, and in that respect resemble the embankment and Amran hill near Baby- lon, They at first, like the pyramids, contained only sarcophagi. A fire-altar consists of square faces with round pillars, and arches between them, by way of panels. * ♦ Sir R. K. Porter's plates. E 2 52 CLASSICAL ANTIQUITIES. From the above description it will appear that the Persepolitan style is a distinct national one^ formed out of the Babylonian^ Indian^ and Egyptian. Before leaving Persepolis, a peculiarity must be no- ticed. Unlike Babylon and Nineveh, it had no town walls, because it was surrounded by a circle of moun- tains, the passes of which were guarded by fortresses. * Polybius says that Susa had not walls, being fortified like a camp ; and Strabo says the same of Ecbatana.t Thus it appears, that, in the most early periods, town walls were limited to level sites. In the construction of ancient walls, chasms and in- terstices were deemed disgraceful. To avoid this, in the first and oldest Cyclopean style, small stones were inserted among the larger, but by means of what Ari- stotle calls the Doric rule, i. e. a flexihle strip of lead, polyhedric stones were made to join together. When the stones of their quarries, says AlbertiJ, were hard and intractable, they did not hew the pieces into right angles, but fitted the uncertain forms by applying the flexible rule, and dressing the sides and angles. Thus much time and labour were spared. This style is de- * Ency. Method, v. Persepolis. X DeReEdific. fol. xcvii. fi f Pratt's Q. Curt. ii. 530. I I 1 ARCHITECTURE. 5S nominated the polygonal, and, together with the third and following style, appertains more especially to the fortified places of Graecia Proper, as well as to the Peloponnesus. * It has been improperly denominated the second Cyclopean style ; but colonel Leake thinks that it should rather be deemed the Pelasgic. Speaking of the walls of Messene, he says, that the style of them indicates that the second order, or the polygonal, was not practised in the fourth century before Christ ; and that, in reference to Italy, we have reason to think that this style was not much in use after the seventh cen- tury before our era; for the cities of that country, which furnish the finest examples of this style, are of a period anterior to the extension of the power of Rome. Undoubtedly, he adds, there may have been particular instances, both in Greece and Rome, in which the poly- o-onal masonry was employed at a much later period. especially in periboli and terrace walls ; but he is in- clined to think that, in general, whenever it occurs of this kind, exhibiting no appearance of courses, the work may be attributed to the seventh or eighth centuries before the Christian era, or to still earlier periods, f At Larissa is a fine specimen of this order. It is without any horizontal courses, and the stones are exactly joined « Walpole's Travels, i. 318, 319. E ^ f Leake's Morea, i. 378. ,.^ 54 CLASSICAL ANTIQUITIES. ARCHITECTURE. 55 ii and smoothed on the outside. In the latter particular^ it differs from a piece of the exterior Hellenic wall, where the stones, though not less irregular in shape' and joined with equal accuracy, are rough on the out- side, and also of larger dimensions. * A very fine spe- cimen is to be seen at Segni in Italyt, and an arched gateway at Rhyniassa is very curious. J According to ARCHED GATEWAY AT RHYNIASSA. the dilettante publications, the incertum of Vitruvius as consisting of polygons with unequal sides, was bor^ rowed from this style ; and in the supposed temple of Themis at Rhamnus, the joints are not only made to fit with uncommon precision, but, like colonel Leake's specimen at Larissa, the face is polished. § Mr. Dodwell ascribes the disuse of this style to the time of Alexander. || The third, or succeeding style, is distinguished by the position of the stones in horizontal courses but varying from regularity, by occasionally descending below or reaching above the hne This third style is seen in the Phocian cities, and in some of lioeotia and ArgohsIT, according to Mr. Hamilton. Mr. M alpole**, however, says, that both this and the pre- X Hughes's Albania, ii. 340, 341. ^ Uned Antin nf aTh.; • II Greece, i. 504. H Arcl/^ologia. xv.m •♦ Kf^ 1 (flS^sTa I ceding style appertain to the fortified places of Graecia Proper, as well as to the Peloponnesus. The fourth and succeeding style presents horizontal courses of masonry. not always of equalheight, but formed of stones which are rectangular. It was chiefly confined to Athens and the frontier towns of Attica. * This style was particularly used in sacred and domestic architecture, and is seldom found in works of defence unmixed with the Tirynthian and polygonal styles.t All these styles afford examples of that early state of architecture, when the additional security acquired by the position of the centre of a lower stone opposite to the junction of the two superincumbent blocks had not been observed. Each stone rests almost entirely upon that below it. This peculiarity is observable in the waUs of Mycenae and Tirynthus, as well as in those of Lycosura in Arcadia, reputed the most ancient city of the Peloponnesus.:]^ With the age of Epaminondas, 370 years before Christ, commenced a style consisting of horizontal layers of stones, somewhat irregular in their sizes and angles, the stones oblong, in courses without mortar. ^ This ♦ Archjeologia, ubi suprft. t Leake, i. 5S, \ Ibid. Dodwell's Greece, 151, 152. E 4 X Cell's Ithaca, 57. .y b& CLASSICAL ANTIQUITIES. ARCHITECTURE. 57 Style IS seen at the Leucadian promontory, now Sauta Maura, and at Messene, now Maura-Matra, of which hereafter. This style of hewn oblong stones is very common in Italy, and a good s])eciraen occurs at Popu- lonia.* Alexander's reign takes date a few years after- wards, viz. ^SG before Christ, and with that commences a variation of style rather than a new one. Mr. Dod- well speaks of this style, in allusion to Platsea (near Kokla), in manner following : — The walls, which, in some parts, are in a high state of preservation, are ex- tremely interesting, since we are acquainted with the precise period of their construction, or rather restoration ; for they were rebuilt iti the time of Alexander. It is worthy of observation, that the walls of other free cities^ whose construction is similar to those of Platsea, were probably all built about the same period. The walls of Messene and Megalopolis, and part of those of Orcho- menos and Ambryssos, resemble those of Platsea. The latter was destroyed by the Persians ; and both Thucy- elides and Pausanias agree that the whole town, except the temple, was subsequently rased to the ground by the enmity of the Thebans. There are a very few and im, perfect remains of the original walls, which were con- structed before the several demoHtions, and which are in the ancient rough state, but they have been evidently almost rebuilt from their foundation. The walls are in general composed of regular masonry, with some irre- gularity in the size of the stones, which does not appear to be symmetric. They are about eight feet in thick- ness, and are fortified by square towers, with a few of a circular form. They are ornamented with perpendicular stripes or incisions, similar to those of the ruins of Agia Euphemia m Locris, and which occur in most of the walls of this period. At that place, the blocks which compose the walls are ornamented, and cut with paral- lel perpendicular, but sometimes horizontal, hues ; or- naments to be seen in many other parts of Greece,' and * Antichi Monumente, 1810, fol. t x, Firenze. still used, particularly in Italy.* Such were the styles of the ancient Greek military architecture ; and it may be here proper to remark, that one general rule of tra- vellers is to determine the antiquity of rums by the size of the blocks, small stones being indicative of modern ""'^This account shaU be followed by other general cha- racteristics of ancient Greek fortresses ; and afterwards bv more particular elucidations. They are invariably placed on high and commanding rocks, their form being decided bv the nature of the ground, and their founda- tions resting on the bare rock, in .^l^i^lL^^^^^^J^l were made to serve as weUs or granaries. This rational mode of adapting the works of art to those of nature obviated the necessity of ditches ; which, indeed, do not seem to have been used even where the ground was level Valleys, ravines, and the beds of torrents ge- nerally form their dikes and intrenchments, and the precipices above them are nearly as inaccessible as the 'vails which they support. No arches appear in the doorways and windows ; they are surmounted by single architraves. The ordinary width of the walls is from eight to nine feet ; their height from twenty to forty feet Square and round towers were frequently used ; the former at the angles, and at the distance of about fifty feet, in the straight walls ; the latter at the angles, where these were very acute. Thus Mr. Hamilton.t— These general characteristics are to be thus enlarged from the work of colonel Leake, a minute observer, and accurate judge of Hellenic fortification. He uniformly makes towers more recent additions ; but whedier he is well supported in that hypothesis is no further clear, than that" they were of more rare occurrence m remote eras and in those eras were solid, mere platforms, to jrain command over assailants by height. In two ge- neral positions he seems to have been perfectly accurate. The first is, that the point of defence chiefly lay m the « DodweU'8 Greece, i. 145. 278. f Archffiologia, xv. 323. E' I Hi \ ■ti I' U' 58 CLASSICAL ANTIQUITIES. \ numerous compartments of the interior; and that there ivas, m the earliest specimens, a deficiency of flank pro tection. To bring the subject into a clearer view, it may be better to divide it into sites, acropoles, walls, and .9«7e*.— The usual site was any elevation which com- manded the plain beneath ; sometimes, as at Kalakolo a promontory connected by an isthmus. Diodorus in his account of Sicyon, shows that precipitous sides were valued, because, being difficult of access, it would not be possible to attack the waUs with machines. At Assos, the acropolis stands upon a rock of granite with very steep sides. At Lil^a, the site is a rocky and ab. rupt acclivity, projecting from Sarnapos. At Olenos it was a smaU round hill ; near Trachea, a simple emi- nence ; at Phryxa, the summit of a pointed hill The situation of Philffi, a most perfect specimen, is a hiU accessible only on the east and south sides, the other two being precipitous. At Teichos, the hill with the acro- polis is in a great measure surrounded by deep and ex- tensive marshes, which communicate with the sea and appear to have had but one entrance, opposite 'that, and IS approached by a difficult and winding path ?Z^. fT" '"'^ *' P'"^" «^ *^« Cephissus, a? the' rocks of the mountain (says Mr. Dodwell), may be TrTf u^?^' ^''''^'^ P^^^^«^ remarkab e for the strength of their position ; which generally is a rugged or round towers at intervals, were continued along the . irregular contour of the hill, which served as an fcro aitil^ff r'^^ */ «^«P^ «f *« mountains a portion of level ground at the bottom, was enclosed • and contained the houses and buildings of tS c ty' Sometimes heights were fortified for the defence oTa pass in die mountains. We see an instance of this in Palaro Castro, in the Ih, .^.^, (deft way) and an her on the road to Parnassus, from the upp™ "f the Cephissus, which leads to Salona and Ddjhi Thf \ ABCHITECTUBB. 59 fort of Phyle on Mount Parnes, and one near a gorge in Citharon, continuing from the plains of Eleuther« into Boeotia may be added.* Elevations however were not always the sites ; for Mr. DodweU says, that the Kovai of Homer was seated on a low insular tongue of land, projecting from the foot of Mount Ptoon, near the Kopaic lake. , ^ -. ^e Acropoles, — This term is appUed to the fortresses of cities, and resembled, in intention and principles our castles annexed to towns. The most ancient, as that of Tiryns, are very small ; and that of Mycenffi is a very grand specimen. At Lepreos, a triangular waU is car- ried completely across the acropoUs, and thus divides it into two parts. At Trcezen, now Damala, in Argohs, and other places, it was connected with the city by in. termediate fortifications. At Orchomenos, the ancient town was converted into an acropolis, because it was situated upon a high, steep, and insulated hill. That of Rhyniassa, supposed Elatria, contains a very fine subterranean apartment, at the end of a narrow pass age. Temples of Minerva, because commonly placed upon very lofty sites +, occur in them; and for this, among other reasons, we meet with the celebrated Par- thenon in that of Athens. In general, th* chief pubhc buUdings were situated, for the sake of protection, within their enclosures. They were supphed with water by tanks, to catch the rain, weUs as at Tiryns, or a stream diverted, as at Mycense, to flow near them. At Agia Euphemia, a fortified city, situated upon a plain, there was no acropolis at aU ; nor Mantinea, nor Megalopolis, and other cities not anterior to the Ume of Epaminondas, In most Grecian cities that have an acropolis, lateral walls lead from the base to the summit, where they almost meet in a point, and nearly form an equUateral triangle. Drymaia, near Dadi, is a good specimen. • Dodwell, i. 508. _,. ,, ,„ _ __ ... c»i f " Teinplumque apparet tn arce Minervae."- Ftrg. Mn. ui. 5Jl. f 60 CLASSICAL ANTIQUITIKS. W.— In the early Cyclopean fortresses of Greece we find only elevations of artificial rocks, a projectiS abutment, a divided interior, and a sidelong and cor^^ s"em to ir"£-' ^"f ' '"^'^^ ^"^ ™"'''P^'-'l towers Ss of thT, vl '"''''^"^"* improvements; for, i„ tmngs of this kind, improvements grow out of circum rSlo"' °T "' ''^°'^' The singular feat'e of not nrn ^T "''T'^ "'" *^ g^"^"«« •• they oecur not only m Greece, but in Italy. The remains of some cities of Cora, Norba, Signa, and Alatrum, in Italy the walls of which resemble those of Tiryns, aS and Mycens. Colonel Leake supposes that they were Pkces of arms. In an open fortress, they may have been merely covered retreats of the garrison. ^ 1 here are two grand distinctions of era in Greek fortresses: one is the Cyclopean, which was retaLed in mihtary architecture ; while temples and civil build- ings were formed of more regular construction. These AfexLdef^Th'"" ^^^T^^^" *^ ^^^ *-^ ^^ w th^lfv Ti^^ '''"""^ i' *^ ^"^^ P^"«d^ wh'ch ends with the year 146 b. c, when the Romans, having con quM-ed Greece, destroyed the fortified places. criminated '''''™'''' "^ ^"'^ ^'"'^ ''' '^'^y ^'■^ c^^n ^^%^*^'y ^t^ges of society, the fortresses were small, and occupied the summits of hills ; so were also situated many of the ancient Arcadian cities,"? which five only were inhabited in the time of Pausa mas ,|^ name y Gortys, Theison near Methydriu^ reathis, and Helisson : all places seated in the mZl central mountainous and poorest part of the countr* »„a! ^^"^h^^t appear to have neither towers nor salient angles, and to have been chiefly fortified by numerous interior divisions. The entrances are, however co vered Such are Tiryns and Mycena. The nexj period may be denoted by salient or receding angles" to • I^ake, ii. 319. 325. ARCHITECTURE. 61 which were afterwards added towers. Colonel Leake could only discover one of these in the citadel of Phigaleia; and the reason which he assigns is, that the evenness of the ground rendered it easy to discover an enemy. It seems, however, clear, that towers were subsequent additions for the cover and protection of terminations and angles. Indeed, the author quoted, who made the military architecture of Greece his espe- cial study, forms this distinction of the priority of projecting and re-entering angles from a fortress at Khaiaffa, where on one side are towers, the apparent additions of a later age. These old fortresses have no precise shape, because they follow the outline of the elevated site, and adapt the citadel to the circumstances of the ground. The figure (No. 1.) is that of Phigaleia; that (No. ^J.) 2. of Nerovitza (olim Aliphia), where the citadel is in an angle of an ante-camp, called 7rpoacrT£iov. At Typanese is an upper and lower citadel ; at Le- preos, one divided into two parts by a cross triangular wall. At Acradina, in Syracuse, there are remains of a strong lower, with a staircase leading down to the sea. «f 62 CLASSICAL ANTIQUITIES. admirably constructed for defence ; the steps cut in the rock being twice interrupted by a plain perpendicular surface, m which a few holes alone afforded assistance to he climber in his ascent. At Halicarnassus, now JBadrun, or Boudron, the ancient walls of the city have been traced for some distance, beginning with what might have been an acropohs, for the city had more than one acropolis, as we learn from Strabo and Dio- dorus. The wall went in a western direction, between a smaU and a large mound, for about 130 feet. One of the ruined square towers, built of stone, without cement on the outside, and filled with earth, is thirty feet high 1 here are four more, communicating with each other by an interval of wall : they are what Diodorus, writ, mg of Hahcarnassus, calls towers and intermediate towers C'^W' and ^s^cnvpyo^. The polygonal waU, which fortified the defile between the Acharnen. sian and Thriasian plains, and is deemed contemporary with the Peloponnesian war, sixty years before the new style introduced by Epaminondas, is about four miles in extent, and is terminated by a clifF, on which stood the celebrated fortress of Phyle, " the very strong fortress" of Diodorus, Cornelius Nepos, and Plutarch. This famous wall consists, says Mr. Hughes, of barriers or Dreastworks, each, on an average, about 100 yards in length, ten in height, and eight in breadth ; attached to which, inclined planes, like buttresses, gave facUity of ascent to the defenders. Between these barriers an open space was generally left, through which the com. batants might either advance or retreat, though, in some instances, it was closed up by masonry, for the purpose of exposing the assailants in flank to the wea. Tflf^ ?,"'' ^i''''T''- Nearly at the middle point ot the defile, a broad passage was left for the admission of chariots. This plan of a succession of disjunct portions as barriers, instead of a continuous line, is sngular. At Toulis, an ancient road stands by a strong wall, of which the coping consists of immense ARCHITECTURE. 63 Fortresses of the Alexandrian era, — It has been already observed, that to the polygonal style succeeded ^iSJTT^J^S^^SC^W^ y^ — i^ ftv^m^^^M^^^m^^^^^^^M^ ■^A?^'- one of horizontal layers of stone, with some irregu- larity in their sizes and angles, and that this style is coeval with the time of Epaminondas, 370 years before 64 CLASSICAL ANTIQUITIES. Christ. It is well illustrated by the existing remains of Messene. He also adopted a new site; for, instead of a hill, he fixed upon, at Megalopolis, the middle of a plain, which had an unfaihng spring of water, that could not be in- tercepted*; a circumstance which seems to hint in what manner the old Cyclopean forts were rendered un- tenable under a long siege. The northern entrance to the city of Messene. consists of a circular court, a form presumed to have been adopted as affording greater space for the scrutiny of the persons or carriages en- tering the city, as well as to present a second barrier to a successful enemy, who, having forced the gate, would find their advance impeded by another obstacle ; while the citizens, from the ramparts surrounding the courts, could with advantage annoy the assailants confined within this restricted space. The two solid masses of masonry which flanked the entrance most probably formed the foundations of two towers that defended the approach to the gate.t Whether there were two or * Leake, ii. 41. f Stuart's Athens, new edit, vol iv. p. 21, pll. ARCHITECTURE. 65 three instances is controverted. The carriage entrance in the centre is supposed to have been covered by a iSrS&it^'""^*' i-j: cj large block, eighteen feet ten inches by three feet four inches high, and four feet wide. The width of the iiu — , — *— — MIIK idlllH ^— i I II till entrance seems to have been eight feet ten inches ; and wheel ruts are visible. The road, on quitting the gate, descends on a rapidly inclined plane towards the city, and is composed of oblong pieces of stone. The walls 66 CLASSICAI, ANTIQUITIES. are faced with regular blocks, tied together at intervals of from seven to ten feet, with transverse walls, the bays being filled with rubble work. The towers in the preceding plate are very curious. One resembles a broad house of only two stories, with a platform at top for combatants to annoy besiegers, and two square windows to each story ; those of the lower being splayed, as in castles, to admit light, and allow a greater range for the archers. There are no indications of a staircase between the two stories, so that they were probably mounted by a moveable ladder. On each side of the upper windows are square holes perforated through the wall, which probably received some iron-work to defend the opening. * At certain distances there were flights of steps, which led on to the walls from the in- terior of the city, and again from the walls ; some few steps ascended or descended to the level of the floors of the towers. The curiosity of the towers is the stair- case fashion of the battlements. Mantinea, another city of the same era, has a foss around it, into which the Ophis flows. The Boeotian 1 hebes had a similar protection, although rare in Greek fortresses. At Gyptokastro (probably Eleutherse), which is of the same style as Messene, the walls are fortified with projecting square towers at unequal distances. Many of these towers are nearly entire. They were divided into two stories, each of which had two rooms, at least the upper story, which has two entrunces from without, and three small windows. The lower story has only the door, which is but 3'^ feet wide at the base, and dimi- mshes upwards. At Cnidus, now Cape Crio, the walls are terraces, and, like those of Pompeii, are divided into intervals by towers standing upon them, not pro- jecting. The intention was to prevent an enemy who had obtained possession of one of the interjacent spaces iroii) extending his conquests any farther. Sir William • Stuart's Athens, new edition, p. 23. Iv. pi. li. ARCHITECTURIS. 67 Gell, in his ^^ Ithaca," has engraved walls inclining in, wards, and the towers perpendicular, as in the cut. Simple towers occur. Of these, the most singular are the pyramidal. At Phonika, Pausanias saw one, which contained the shields of those who fell in a hattle on that spot, between Praetus and Acrisius: of course, it must have bfeen as ancient as Tiryns. There were others, which, though perpendicular above, were pyra- midal at the base, as at the grove of JEsculapius, and the citadel of Chaeronea, and a phryctonon near Argos ; so named from a torch or beacon, because the watchmen made signals from it by smoke in the day and flame by night. The lower chamber is square, and was approached by a side door at the bottom of an entrance passage. * These accounts apply to the public fortresses of an- cient Greece; but there were prototypes of modern castles. Dr. Clarke saw one represented on a Macedo- nian coin, thus : — And an assimilation «to it may be seen in ruins at Tem- rook, formerly Cimmerium. Sir William Cell thus de- scribes another, near the mountain Sasypelaton, the ancient Arachne, the walls of which, erected in a very advanced period of the arts, are almost perfect. The entrance is on the side farthest from the road. The fortress is nearly square, having at the north-east angle a quadrangular tower, at each of the others one cir- cular. The gate is defended by a fourth circular tower * Stuart's Athens, vol. iv. new edit p. 23. pi. ii. F 2 68 CLASSICAL ANTIQUITIES. ARCHITECTURE. 69 (|i I in the centre of the south-west side. Upon the prin. ciple of the barbican in our own castles^ there was here, as in all other Greek castles, an outer and an inner gate with an interval between them. The pass- age, as also in all the Greek fortresses, does not run directly into the heart of the fortress, but parallel to the curtain for some paces, before it turns into the for- tress. The intention is obvious. A few men in the passage could resist a host of assailants, and fresh de- fenders from the garrison repair losses, or the passage could be easily blocked up. The interior construction of this, as well as of the towers of Messene before de- scribed, may receive some auxihary elucidation from the following account of the modern pyrgos of the agha at Miraka, described by Mr. Dodwell, and assimilating all others. It is a sort of castellated structure, or fortified house, bearing a resemblance to similar kinds of high- land castles in Scotland, which were constructed about 300 years ago. It is four stories in height ; the walls, which enclose the ground floor, have one door and a few narrow apertures, resembling arrow-holes, made to ad- mit the light. This floor serves for horses and cattle, and has no communication with the upper stories. An insulated mass of wall, with steps leading to its summit, stands at the distance of about twelve feet from the tower, and reaches as high as the door of the first ha- bitable floor, which is over the stables. From this wall to the entrance of the tower there is a drawbridge, or, in times of perfect peace, some planks- of wood, which are not removed at night. The floor and stairs within the tower are of wood, and the access to some of the most secure chambers is through a square aperture, which is made in the ceiling of the room below, and is sufliciently large to admit only one person at a time. The ascent to this is effected by a temporary staircase or ladder, which may be drawn up, and the trap-door closed. Thus far may suffice for the ancient military ar- chitecture OF Greece : for, upon the surrender of Corinth, with the rest of Greece, to the Romans, in the year 146 b. c, all the fortified places were dis- mantled. The religious architecture of Greece seems next in importance; but, being far better known, will be more summarily treated. The distinction and antiquity of the orders is a necessary preliminary. Whether they were borrowed or not from Egypt and Asia, is a question of considerable difficulty, which has not been satisfac- torily decided. According to subsequent statements, it may be inferred that the introduction of the orders fol- lowed the return of the Heraclidae, in the year %9.5 b. c. The Doric is known to be the first in date of Grecian remains, and it has been most ably and satisfactorily discussed by colonel Leake. This order, he says, al- though styled Doric, is, in fact, the European Greek, in contradistinction to the Asiatic Greek, called the Ionic. It was invented in European Greece, about the same time that the Ionic was produced in Asia, and was equally employed by every tribe of Greeks, as well in Grsecia'Proper as by the colonies of those tribes in Italy and Sicily. At the same time it is not improperly termed Doric, inasmuch as it was brought to perfection (invented, says professor MuUer*), in the Doric cities, which were the early schools of art in European Greece.f The buildings in which the Doric almost exclusively appears are temples. It is not presumed, although Homer mentions vtjo*, a term for temples, that they were architectural constructions of stone, because no as- similations occur in the remains of Mycenae and other Cyclopean edifices; and there are evidences that the Doric temples succeeded wooden prototypes. With this statement agrees professor MulleriJ:, who says that Corinth was the first place where the front and hind part were finished off with a pediment, the tympanum being adorned with statues of clay-work (terra cotta). • Dorians, b. \v. c. 1. sect 3. ». p. 273. Engl, trans. f Mo^ea, iii. ^^69. X Ubi suprk, 276. F 3 70 CLASSICAL ANTIQUITIES. ARCHITECTURE. 71 He adds, that '' the Doric character created the Doric architecture. In the temples of this order the weight to be supported is intentionally increased, and the ar- chitecture, frieze, and cornice of unusual depth ; but the columns are proportionably strong, and placed very close to each other. This impression of firmness and sohdity IS increased by the rapid tapering of the column. Its conical shape giving it an appearance of strength • while the diminution beginning immediately at the base, and the straight line not being, as in other orders softened by the interposition^of the sweUing {entasis) gives a severity of character to the order. With this rapid diminution is also connected the bold projection of theechinus,or quarter-round of the capital, which like- wise creates a striking impression, particularly if its outline IS nearly rectilineal. The alternation of lonrr unornamented surfaces, with smaller rows of decorated work, awaken a feehng of simple grandeur, without ap- pearing either monotonous or fatiguing. The harmory spread over the whole becomes more conspicuous, when contrasted with the dark shadows occasioned by the pro jecting drop of the cornice ; above, the magnificent pe- diment crowns the whole. Thus in this creation of art we find expressed the peculiar bias of the Doric race to strict rule, simple proportion, and pu»e harmony." Let us now refer to colonel Leake again. The Cy- clopean artists were chiefly employed in the construe, tion of treasuries, not of temples, which afterwards served for the same purpose as the former. Another fact, deducible from the remains of Mycen^, as well as from the descriptions left by Pausanias and other writers, of the Greek buildings of those times, is, that there is nothing borrowed from Egypt, nor any assimi. lation, except in columns (common to all countries) between the temples of the two nations. The distinc. tive pecuUarities of each may be traced to the nature of the respective regions. In a narrow valley, scarcely ever nioistened by the atmosphere, but annually inun- dated by the river, enclosed between stony ridges, and deficient in forest trees, the dwellings and temples were excavated in the rocks, or, at a later perioJ, were imita- tions of caverns, with flat roofs, situated on heights beyond the reach of the inundation. In the rainy cli- mate of Greece, on the other hand, a pitched roof was necessary. The country abounding in timber as well as stone, the earliest Doric buildings were naturally formed of the materials more easily wrought; and hence the temple of stone was an imitation of a con- struction in wood, as all the details of the Doric archi- tecture tend to prove. Upon the whole, therefore, it may be concluded, that the Doric order arose as soon as internal tranquillity had followed the settlement of the Heraclidce in Peloponnesus, 825 b. o. ; and that it arose in those cities which were the earliest seats of art in Greece, namely, Sicyon, Corinth, and Argos. As a proof that the first temples were built of wood, there still re- mained, in the time of Pausanias, the ruins of an oaken temple at Mantinea, of extreme antiquity ; and the oaken column in the Opisthodome of the Herseum of Olympia, if not actually a relic of a more early wooden temple of the same dimensions, was, at least, a memo- rial showing that the most ancient Herseum had been constructed in that material. Three centuries are not too much to allow for the space of time which elapsed between the first conception of the Doric temple in wood, its execution in stone, and of the dimensions of the extant columns of Corinth. This will bring down the Corinthian temple to the eighth century before the Christian era.* Nothing can be more easy than to ascertain the eras of the Doric. The length of the column, and the size of the entablature, are alone sufficient ; the shorter the former, and the heavier the latter, is the test which decides the antiquity, as will appear by the following concise enumerations. 1. Corinthian temple. — The oldest known, presumed date eighth century b. c. Characteristics: short mono- * Leake, iii. 270. F 4 7i CLASSICAL ANTIQUITIES. ARCHITECTURE. 73 hthic column ; projecting capital ; very high enta- blature, not less than half that of the column, including the capital ; intercolumniation very narrow ; in some the length of the column is only four diameters. 2. The next in date, about 600 b. c, is the Panhel^ lenium at Mgina. It is more ancient than the The- seum, because the entablature is heavier, and the column shorter. The dilettanti artists assimilate its architec- ture to that of the hexastyle hypaethral temple of Paestum. 3. The Theseum, or temple of Theseus, at Athens. The length of the columns is fixed to six diameters. This improvement Vitruvius states to have been made by the Greeks, who passed from Athens into Asia Minor; but this will bring it to a period too remote. The Theseum was built only 46 1 years b. c. The columns are six feet high, and the entablement only a third of the column. The pediment is very low ; and^ accord- ing to Le Roy, the triglyphs, &c. first appear. Corinth, in the sixth century before Christ, was the principal seat of the arts in Greece, and is supposed to have furnished the models of the oldest hexastyles of Paestum and Sicily ; for the hexastyles (six columns in front) are older than the heptastyles or octostyles. The difference of the colonial Doric colonel Leake ascribes to the architects themselves. These differences consist chiefly in shafts formed of several pieces instead of one, columns somewhat more light than those of Corinth, a wider intercolumniation, and a hghter entablature. The heptastyles (seven columns in front), the oc- tostyles (eight), and the enneastyles (nine), succeeded the hexastyles ; but a hghter kind of the latter still prevailed. Colonel Leake, speaking of the hexastyles at Acragas, says, these temples are lighter in their pro. portions than the temples of Paestum, Syracuse, Egesta, and Sehnus. These may be supposed not earUer than the year 500 b. c, but probably not much later, as the architects of Magna Graecia appear, in the fifth century, • 1 to have begun to lose that simplicity and uniformity of design which are still remarkable in the two Acragan- tine temples. This deviation is very conspicuous in the plan and details of the heptastyle of Jupiter Olympius at Acragas, and in the enneastyle at Paestum. The florid ornaments under the capitals of the columns in the latter temple, as well as in the smaUer hexastyle at the same place, indicate a similar deviation. These, how- ever, were elegant innovations ; but the architect seems tx) have been deficient in the good taste of Sicily, when he made the entasis (or swelling of the columns) so ap- parent, that they look like a caricature of the Doric order. At Athens, the entasis is so small, that its ex- istence has only been recently ascertained.* The declining Doric appears at Nemea, and is cha- racterised by the slenderness of the columns. Those at Nemea are more than six diameters high, or as slim as those of the Ionic. The entablature at Nemea was less than the fourth of the height of the column, whereas at Corinth it was but a half ; the architrave of this temple being so low, and the capitals of the columns so pro- portionally small and narrow, compared to the height of the shaft, that the impression is one of inelegance and meagreness. This temple is probably not of remote date, t Thus it appears that nothing can be more easy than to ascertain the antiquity of Doric edifices. The oldest columns are not more than four diameters, the next six, and the most recent more : but, besides this distinction, the ancient and modern capitals vary thus: — No. 1. is ancient. No. 2. more modern. 1. 2. * Leake, iii. 284. f Id. 332, 333, 74 CLASSICAL ANTIQUITIES. If Other minute variations might be adduced ; but it is not the plan of this work to enter into them. It may be sufficient to observe, that the ancient Doric column has no pedestal or base. Upon what an immense scale this Herculean order was wrought, may be conceived from the temple of Jupiter Olympius at Agrigentum. where the flutings of the columns are thirteen feet in diameter; the echinus of the capital composed of two large stones, each weighing twenty-one tons and a half and the stones composing the capital twenty-one tons.* The Ionic is the Asiatic Greek. If the Asiatic Greeks were distinguished in their character and in their literature by a certain degree of voluptuousness and ex- cessive refinement, a similar exuberance of fancy may be also discovered in their monuments. The com position of their decorative sculpture is beautiful • and the execution, although not so exactly finished as the work of the time of Pericles, is bold and imposing. 1 wo different periods are distinguishable in the Greek architectural sculpture, but which to prefer it would be difficult to decide. The ancient was of a delicately mi- nute design and highly finished execution; the latter not perhaps so correct in composition, but more largely and "ff r ^°™P^^'^*i' *°d the execution productive of a finer effect of bght and shade. The latter is more impres- sive; the former, although generally too much cut up, IS certainly more refined.f According to Vitruvius, the order was invented by Hermogenes, for the purpose, by lengthening or shortening the columns, of varying inter, columniations, the latter being closer, as the columns were higher The finest specimen known of the order IS hat of the Erectheum at Athens, and one of these columns is, we believe, in the British Museum. fjfhl f'f?'' °' f '^ ^^* '^^^' ^''^ «'='=«" perhaps tor the first time, and was such a favourite of the Ro- Juans, as not only to appear upon ahnost aU their tessel- • Stuarfs Athens, new edit voL iv. + 14 sect Fragnents. 56. lated pavements, but to have T}e€n imitated in glass^ which count Caylus * highly values, as a great token of mechanical excellence. Then follows a beading of eggs, below which are a smaller moulding and a deep orna- ment, combining with scroll work the antheniion, a flower of fan-like expansion, and very popular and di- versified among the Greeks. It is presumed to have been borrowed, with other ornaments, from the East, t Of the volutes, various illustrations have been given ; per- haps the best is that derived from the horns of an altar.;}; The most probable origin of the capitals of columns is, however, that, the latter having been primitively of wood, they were decorative improvements of the trunk of a tree cut off at the head ; for such is the reasonable hy- pothesis § to be deduced from Alberti. There is, how- ever, no uniformity in the patterns ; for at JEtylos, now Vitulo, in Turkey, there are variations in the capitals : other instances occur j but the beauty of all the ancient ♦ Rec. ii. 363. t Stuart's Athens, new edit. v. iv. p. 12. sect Sepulchral Marbles, &c i Id. p. 11. ^ L. vii. c. 6. fol. cii. .y- : '6 Ji CLASSIGAiL ANTIOrriEB. ARCHITECTURE. 77 kinds is rapturously applauded. Shallow capitals and square bases are seen at Eleusis. The latter, Albert! contends, were only the Doric embellished by two an- nulets; but the early Doric had no bases, and there were variations here also. Colonel Leake mentions Ionic columns with filled flutings.* The Corinthian order is said to have originated with CaUimachus, who took the idea of the capital from a sepulchre of a girl, which had been decorated with the acanthus in a similar manner +; but no trace of such an order, says Mr. DodweU J, is to be found at Corinth. Corinth, according to Muller, had, however, early (at least 490 B. c.) risen to riches and luxury. Indeed, the form of the early Corinthian capital is said to be analogous to that made by the lotus in Egyptian archi- tecture. § Dr. Clarke saw at Thebes several beautiful capitals of the most ancient and chaste pattern. It is entirely without volute at the corners, and has a single wreath of the simplest acanthus foliage to crown its base. Colonel Leake calls one of these primitive capitals only a variety of the Ionic order, with pelices and leaves of acanthus. I j Stuart found this early form of the capital in the portico of the Temple of the Winds at Athens ; and there are numerous examples and varieties to be found in that city and in Asia Minor. A concave face of the abacus is supposed to denote a more modern form. ^ At Mylasa the order occurs with elliptical shafts. It IS too extensive for the plan of this work to enter into architectural minutiae. The origin of the arch, geometrically constructed, is contested ; but the predo- minant opinion is, that it is not older than the time of Christianity. Arches formed by cutting away the inte- rior surfaces of parallel blocks, a mode by which \aults of a large span could not possibly be constructed, are far f c^^*"^^.' '^\ ?• + Vitruvius. t Greece § Stuart s Athens, new edit v. iv. sect. Grecian Ornament, p. 12, n. h. II Morea, il 5. H Stuart's Athens, vol. iv. new edit sect Bass« p 17 more ancient ; and Belzoni * saw at Thebes two modes ; one formed by projecting blocks, the other by smaller stones, worked in a modern way, but without keystones. Arches of more than a semicircle are considered to be only of Roman ancientry. The most eminent fabrics connected with Greek archi- tecture and the orders are Te3IPLEs. Temples succeeded barrows, or sepulchral mounds with altars raised upon them: the temple of Jeru- salem was founded upon the mountain where Abraham oflfered Isaac, and the sepulchre of Cecrops conferred sanctity upon the Acropolis of Athens. Moses does not mention any temple of architecture, only an altar sur- rounded with stones, what we should call a cromlech and druidical circle; assimilations to the Greek baituloi, mentioned by Pausanias. At Chard, in Achaia, he saw thirty stones of a quadrangular form, each of which was worshipped under the name of some divinity; for the Greeks anciently paid the same veneration to rough stones as they afterwards did to statues.t Moreover, a place once consecrated retained its holy character. The Greek writer quoted mentions, as occurring at the city of Phrixa, a ruined temple of Minerva Cydonia, which was in his time only a place of sacrifice. Colonel Leake observes Xy that vestiges of churches, similar to those of the temple which Pausanias describes, are com- mon at the present day in Greece. Sometimes nothing is left but a line of stones to represent the wall, with a single block, commonly of ancient workmanship, for an altar. Here incense is burnt, and prayers are said, on the festival of the saint. That the Phoenicians and Egyptians were the first founders of temples is repeatedly asserted in ancient books ; but such books ascend to the mythological eras. It is certain, that there are no indications of any Grecian temples in the Cyclopean ages, and that archi- •PL44. f Dodwell's Greece, ii. 173. X Leake, ii. 209. » ' 78 CLASSICAL ANTIQUITIES. ARCHITECTURE. 79 tectural structures of this kind are coeval with the first Doric. It is plain, too, that there is no assimilation of plan between the temples of Greece and those of Egypt, or the caverns of India. The first Grecian temples have been before shown to have been made of wood, out of which, by the natural progress of improvement, grew those of stone, and the Doric order itself. Nearly all the existing remains are of that style ; and the so- lidity of it apparently recommended it, from the sub- jection of the country to earthquakes. This inference has been deduced from the care exercised to prevent disjunction of the component pieces of columns, by plugs of wood, lead, or iron, in the centre of the blocks. Nearly all the Grecian temples had the same form, that of a barn^ ornamented with columns upon the fronts and sides ; Pausanias mentioning only six round temples, which had domes, by no means a mo- dern invention. The domes were formed by a very simple contrivance, still used in Turkey. A perpendi- cular pole was raised in the centre, to which a horizon- tal arm was annexed, and, as the workmen proceeded with tlie courses, it was elevated until it came to a perpendicular. Several of these temples were hypcd- thral (i. e. unroofed), because Vitruvius says that such a distinction suited the properties ascribed to Ju- piter Fulminans, Caelum, the Sun, Moon, and Deus Fidius. The temples of Minerva, Mars, and Hercules were to be of the Doric order, because the majesty of it typified the robust virtue of those divinities. The Corinthian was employed for those of Venus, Flora, Proserpine, and the Aquatic Nymphs ; the elegance of the foliage, flowers, and volutes harmonising with the tender and delicate beauty of these goddesses. The Ionic, which was the mean between the severity of the Doric and the delicacy of the Corinthian, was used in the temples of Juno, Diana, and Bacchus, as giving a just mixture of elegance and majesty. The rustic work was devoted to the grottoes of the rural deities. Vitruvius further gives the sites of temples, as fol- lows : — On eminences overlooking the city : those of Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva, as tutelary deities : Vir- gil mentions one of Minerva, as common in citadels. In Fora, or Emporia : of Mercury, Isis, and Serapis. Near theatres: of Apollo and Bacchus. In gym^ nasia : of Hercules. Without the walls : of Venus, Vulcan, Mars, and Ceres ; of Venus, in particular, at seaports. Modern authors say that all hypaethral (un- roofed) temples are generally, if not universally, con- secrated to Jupiter, and that all his temples are of the Doric order, those of Venus being generally of the Corinthian. Vitruvius says that effect was consulted in the sites of temples, for prospect over a city or a river, or on a highway, for passengers to see the interior, and do re- verence to the gods. It is certain that, according to the usual rule of viewing edifices, the propylaa were generally so contrived as to exhibit two sides at once. Greek temples have most commonly an easterly aspect, but at Phigalia was one which stood east and west. At Cadachio, in Corfu, a temple has been discovered in a ravine. Diodorus mentions two modes of building temples : one, which made the nave (vao;) the whole width, and had no peristyle, i. e. piazza, around it ; the other, where it had this adjunct. The latter plan, called peripteral, distinguishes nearly all the temples known to us. When the side columns were inserted in the walls (the style called pseudo-peripteral) like pilasters, both methods may be said to have been compounded. At Sparta, says colonel Leake ^, was a very ancient temple, consecrated to Venus, which had an upper story, sacred to Morpho (a name of Venus), and con- taining a statue of the goddess veiled and fettered. Grecian temples had the following compartments, * Leake, L 168. 80 CLASSICAL ANTIQUITIES. best understood by a plan, such as the following, of the temple of Apollo at Bassse. The several component parts are thus elucidated : — In the peristyle, or portico, around the temple, the people assembled, as anciently in our nave and aisles, be- cause they were not permitted to enter the cella. In these porticoes goods were sold, and business transacted, as afterwards among us. The Greeks also made pro- menades of them, and called them 9rf^*Spo/xo* (walks around them) : here rhetoricians held their schools, orators harangued from them, and children of the highest rank were sent for instruction. They also afforded a retreat from heat, and were spacious recep- tacles for works of art and sculpture. The porticus answered to our great western door ; the pronaos to our ante-chapel ; the cella to the choir, which the people did not enter ; the naos to the pres- bytery, or part where the communion-table stands; the opisthodome to the lady-chapel. The temples stood in an area, called If pov, or peribolus, like our church- yard. The cella was generally of solid wall, because it formed an essential support to the pediments charged with sculpture. The latter seems to have originated from the necessity of harmony with the enrichment, resulting from the combination of the capitals of the order, the varied entablature, and the cornice of the pediment, decorated with painted or sculptured orna^ >4- -& ARCHITECTURE. 81 ment.* The favourite subjects of these sculptures, in the early temples, were the battles of the Centaurs and Lapithae, and of the Greeks and Amazons. Most of the sacrifices were made on a platform, in front of the naos, where there was, on some occasions, a fixed altar, protected by a covering. In the temple of Juno, at Agrigentum, seats are observable for the purpose of viewing the sacrifice. The pronaos, or opisthodome, was often enclosed with rails. The area (peribolus) around the temples was necessary, because the great concourse of people present at the ceremonies during the time of the festivals could not allow admission into the interior. It may be seen, from the plates of M. Quatremere de Quincy's work, that, when the doors were thrown open, and the statue of the god exposed, the effect must have been grand. The Greeks also overcame difficulties as to aspect, through restricted space, in the following manner : — On account of the proximity which necessarily occurred between the co- lumns of the porticus and pronaos at one end, and between those of the posticum and opisthodome at the other, they made the columns of the pronaos and opis- thodome of less dimensions than those of the peristyle, in order that, by their reduced height, and by the step below, an optical illusion might be produced, equiva- lent to the effect that would result from distance. Where the sculpture of the capitals, &c. was of too low relief for strong effect, they were painted to supply the desideratum. The following is the classification of temples, given by Vitruvius and the architectural writers : — The first (i. e. the simplest) are those which had no columns on the sides. One of these is the temple in antis{l.), where there are only two columns, one on each side the door; the other where there is a porticus of four columns, and therefore called the prostyle. (2.) * Stuart's Athens, new edit 82 ill CLASSICAL ANTIQUITIES* 1. f^mmM/Mm//m///mmmMM^. llljy^ ^^^ The word antcdy called also by the Greeks Trapao-TaSfi?, meaned the square pilasters terminating the walls of a temple. When a temple had no portico in front, two columns were made to intervene between the antcd^ and the aspect of the temple was said to be m antiSy the Greeks called such a temple yao$ ic, Ttafa(7ra « i ® ® & « ^^:;:^J ® ® 9 © ® « <» <5> « « ® ® i • « • ® • e 9 • i « « 9 • % ® ® • • • ® 1 ® © [il ® 9 « ® ® ® 9 • e ® e • form of a circle, covered with a conical roof, was called monopteral. The term dipteral implied a temple surrounded by a double range of columns. The hypceihral was a temple whose cella was in part exposed to the air. These temples had a double range of columns within the cella, dividing it into three alce^ or aisles. The aisles on either side were roofed, but that in the middle had no covering. Mr. Wilkins has given the following plan of one : — ® ® ® ® ® ® ® ® ^~" © ® ® (§1 ® ® ||i^''^M':' mss ® ® ^t m o o o o o o o o o o o o[cpi 1^ ^^^^^^^s^ ® i ® ^ ® ® ® 'J) ® ® (9 ^ ® ® « ® ® @ It is a requisite, says Mr. Wilkins, of an hypcBthral temple, that it should be dipteral ; and of the hexa- style-hypcEthral we have instances at Paestum and -Slgina; of the octostyle^hypeethral at Selinus; but Vitruvius adds, that they were generally decastyle. They were mostly, if not universally, dedicated to Jupiter. The width of the intercolumniations was also dis- criminated by proper professional terms; as follows: — arcBostyle, so wide that only timber could be used ; dia- style, three diameters of the columns; eustyky the best, 2 \ diameters of the column; picrostyle only l^ diameter; systile two diameters. There are some architectural terms particularly fre- quent in the description of temples, which therefore require explanation. The podium is the raised stylobate upon which the temple stood. The stylobate means the substructure below the columns, sometimes formed of three steps, which were continued round the peristyle, G 3 cs 86 CLASSICAL ANTIQUITIES. and sometimes of wall raised to a considerable height, in which case it was approached by a flight of steps at one end. The pediment , or fastigium, means the trian- gular front, supported by the columns. The entablature comprises those members of a portico which rests upon the columns : it consists of three parts ; the lower (epistyle) formed by those pieces which extend from centre to centre of two adjoining columns; the zophorus, the centre of the three divisions, having the epistyle below and the corona above, the same as the frieze among us ; and the cornice (corona) the upper mem- ber.* At Octra, a mountain in Euboea, Mr. Walpole saw, and thus describes, a very curious temple without co- lumns, and assimilating the mouth of a cavern : — The roof is simply a covering of stone, which is made to support itself, and of which no other example is known. That portion of the roof which lies upon the walls coun- terpoises that which forms the ceiHng. The eastern wall was probably built a little thicker, in order to coun- terbalance the slabs, which on that side were not be- veled away and notched, as those were on the west. The inclination of the slabs answered two purposes ; first, to throw off the rain; secondly, to throw the weight more upon the wall. The opening between the opposite projecting stones must have been about two feet; which was probably formed with a ridged stone, the whole being covered with slabs : in short, the whole roof appears to have been an affair of calculation, and plainly denotes a considerable progress made in the art of building. The remains probably belonged to a temple of the Cyllenian Mercury. Instead of columns, some temples, as that of Jupiter Olympius at Agrigentum, had Telamones, or gigantic male figures, backed against square pilasters; and at the Erectheum in Athens, female figures, caUed Carya- tides^ or rather Canephorae, support the roof. * Wilkins's Vitruv. ; Gloss. ARCHITECTURE. 87 The Gieek temples had ceilings, commonly composed of marble slabs in compartments ; and in the temple of Minerva at Syracuse the long stones which connected the columns with the walls formed a ceiling in the style of a platband around the peristyle of the building. Byzes of Naxos, who lived 580 years before our era, is said to have been the inventor of marble slabs worked into the shape of tiles for the roof. As the wet would be admitted through the joints of these tiles, another sort, called harmi, i. e. jointing tiles, were used. At Rhamnus, these last tiles were semi-hexagonal prisms hoUowed underneath. The cut below shows the mode «ry itti iiiLiiinHr ii¥ iittdedeh I T T T I T L_L.^L — i — 1 J. . 1 1, of covering the roof with marble tiles affixed to timber framework. The upright pieces of the eaves of the roof, rounded at the top, terminate the alternate row of the harmi, or joint tiles. The ornament upon them was painted. The joint tiles of the eaves terminated in upright pieces, first rounded at the top, and after- wards indented or scolloped. The lower course of the tiles was formed in blocks twice the length of the other tiles. The joints take place over the centre of every triglyph. The tiles of the eaves, to which the joint tiles were attached by plugs, were the raking top-bed of G 4 88 CLASSICAL ANTIQUITIES. the cornice.* Thus the roofing of the Propyleea at Eleusis. In the Doric buildings^ with which we have been hitherto made acquainted^ the roof terminates in a stillicidium (dropping eaves) ; but in the Temple of Diana Propylaea^, at the same place, the upper mould- ing (sima) of the pediment cornice was continued along the flankS;, and a channel was hollowed in it for the purpose of receiving the rain which fell upon the roof. In this member of the building, lions' heads are sculp- tured in bold relief, through the perforations of which the water effected its escape. The tiles of the roofs were made of baked clay (of which below). The alter- nate joint tiles terminated at the ridge and eaves with a flowing ornament. The top-bed of the cornice, in blocks thrice the length of the tiles, was saddled at the joints, and constituted the lower course. In the centre of the upper surface of this, a check or stop was formed, to which the joint tiles, ending with a flowered orna- ment, were cramped. Every block had two perfora- tions, through which the water, falling upon the roof, escaped, f The learned editors of the '' Pompeiana" add the fol- lowing illustrations : — Two forms of tiles were used in ancient buildings. The imbreoc, placed in regular rows to receive the shower ; and the tegula (answering to the Greek harmus), which covere'd and prevented the rain from penetrating the joints. The latter were finished at the eaves with upright ornaments called antefixes, which were repeati^l also at the junction of these tiles along the ridge. These ornaments are called by Pliny personce, from their being probably at first masks. (See the cut p. 89.) He refers their invention to Dibulades, a Sicyonian potter, estabhshed at Corinth, who called them protypes, being stamped in front only. Those upon the ridge, an after-thought of the same artist, and worked on all sides were named ectypes. From the circumstance of their being originally formed of a plas- * Unedited Antiq. of Attica, pi. 3, 4. pp. 12, la t Id. p. 40. pi. 7. \ ARCHl lECTURE, 89 tic material, the ornamented ridges {anteficoei) stiU con- tnuT.^ be called pU^stes, after Byzes of Naxos had ntroduced marble in their execution ; of which mate- rSl he cut aU these ornaments, as weU as the whole covering of the roof, but still adhered to the original form and detail. The tiles of the temple at Ecbatana were of silver. The cuts below appertam to antefixes. The pattern of one is a persona or mask ; of the other, the Greek anthemion. ^ j2v. Lycophron and Euphorion, aXiltxacxw xccxov, Pmtian. in Plin, xxiv. 14. p. 513, ARCHITECTURE. 96 time of expiration, the sufferers addressed their prayers to Mercury, whose office it was to convey souls to the infernal regions : mothers, or the nearest in kin or affection, kissed the dying with open mouths, as if to inhale their departing spirits. After decease, the eyes were closed by the next of kin (o-vy^XiaK; re ofAuarot;)^ the face was covered, and the body, after being laid out, was, according to Bonn, consecrated, washed by persons called ycarayeuTaiy anointed, perfumed, and wrapt in the ireirXo;, an oblong square garment, resem- bUng in fashion a Highlander's plaid, and generally woven long before by the wife. The feet and hands were tied by x£<; of Nonnus. We hear also of the minstrels or musicians of scripture, who preceded, playing melancholy tunes, which the Greeks called /aXe/xoi, and the Romans ncBnicB. The addition of tumblers and buffoons, Dio- nysius Halicarnassus makes not a general practice, but one limited to persons who had lived merrily. There was such a variety in funereal customs, that none can be called universal.''^ It is, however, stated that the face of the corpse, when carried out, was uncovered, and sometimes painted, to make it more agreeable, espe- cially those of young maids ; but covered when the face of the dead was deformed or changed. Euri- pides t makes the corpse to have been carried aloft % by servants J ; but a Roman marble, in Montfaucon, which better accords with the action of Achilles in the Odyssey, places the two legs of the corpse upon the shoulders of a bearer ; a second person supports it round the middle, and the chief mourner holds up the head and shoulders. Immediately before the corpse goes the person who pronounces, as he goes, the funeral oration : and this is conformable to Euripides. If the person was military, and died a violent death, his arms and armour were borne as now ||: the former, probably, reversed, as Virgil says; a custom which we retain, ^ There are full details in Robinson's Antiq. of Greece, b.v. c. 1. p. 411. seq. ed. 2. f Alcestes, v. 607. X af^*)^ h ft^ocroXot, 11 Rom. 249. : Versis Arcades armis. We are told, that, in the burial of eminent persons, the mourners were clad in white, and adorned with garlands, and carried torches or tapers, or some orna. ments for the deceased, or images of the infernal gods. * The sons of the deceased walked with their he^ds veiled ; the daughters bare-footed, and with their hair dishevelled.t This does appear upon the Roman mar- ble, where the mourning gesture of the males appears to have been covering the face with the hand, or hold- ing it to the mouth with the head inclined. % Other gestures were to throw dust or ashes in their faces (the xapa xBxv(x^ea of Euripides) ; the yioirreaeaL or itei^de^v, to beat their breasts or thighs ; to scratch their faces (ovuliv TiXoyiKTiJiee' of Euripides) ; to drawl out f, f, f, f, whence came, according to the Scholiast on Aristo- phanes, our word elegy {aito tov Xeyetv e); to keep their heads and faces close covered, or lay their hands on their head, walk softly, keep silence, whence Ahab (1 Kings, xxi. 27.), and Isaiah (xxxviii. 15.); and, lastly, to cut off the best locks of their hair, and lay them on the grave or the funeral pile. § The men walked before the corpse, and the women, if aged, or relatives, behind. Cremation of the body, as well as barrow burial, were certainly tokens of honour paid to the deceased ; and Plutarch seems to connect it with the apotheosis, for he says||, "The ^ons surrounded their father's sepulchres at funerals, reverencing them as temples of the gods, and having burnt them, when they fi^st met with a bone, said that the deceased was deified. This apotheosis was represented by the Ro- mans, in the liberation of an eagle from the uppermost story of the pile, when burning. This eagle, soaring out of sight, they pretended to be carrying to hea- ven the soul ; and hence came the representation of James I. riding upon an eagle, in Rubens's fine painting upon the ceiling of Whitehall chapel. The primitive Greeks buried their dead in places within their own X Montfaucon, v. pi. 1. fig. 2. t Plut. Rom. Quest. { Rous. II Quest Rom. H 98 CLASSICAL ANTIQUITIES. ARCHITECTURE. 99 Nl houses, sometimes within temples ; but the general rule was, in later ages, without the cities (^within being an honour due only to public benefactors), by the high- ways ; kings or great men on mountains, or at the feet of them. Under a sepulchral burial, the coffin (or aopo;) was of cedar or stone. There were epitaphs (yvryptcr/xaTa), tombstones, and stelal; garlands, or fes- toons, crowning therri, made, Athenseus says, of the flower 7roSo(^, or parsley {apium). This explains the representation of them upon tlie tombs in Boissard, and the intention thus to typify the quiet of the dead from troubles, according to Clemens, or having won the victory over the grave, according to the Scholiast or Euripides ; and there appears to be a metaphorical allusion to this practice in the phrase of St. Paul (2 Tim. \v. 7, 8.), ''I have fought a good fight; I have finished my course : heDceforth I have laid up for me a crown of righteousness." The (pyXKotoXix was a custom of throwing boughs and leaves upon the grave, mentioned by Euripides, Servius, and Varro ; and this custom, says Minutius Felix, was improved into gar- lands, sometimes made of woollen. * The latter, called tcBnice, are the festoons or fillets which we see repre- sented upon sepulchres and urns.t It is remarkable, however, that although asphodel, myrtle, and mallow, were cultivated on the graves of the ancients, yet that the Greek foliage does not repre- sent either of these sepulchral plants, or others alluded to by the classic authors ; and its universal application to ancient decoration, both sacred and domestic, would indicate that its adoption as an ornamental embellish- inent does not convey its imitative origin. In the Egyptian mythology, fiowers and branches are connected with the view of eternal life. % The anthemion^ called also the lotus or palmetta leaf, divided into ramifications like a fan, is styled the funeral leaf, from its recurrence on almost all sepulchres, temples, and funeral vases.§ * Rom. 268, 269. X Enc. Antiq. + Pintian , in Hin. L. xxi. c.3. § Dodwell. A broken amphora, as a memento moriy (see Ecclesiast. xii. 6.) ; virgins with vases denoting the water poured upon their tombs ; symbols of the profession or cha- racter of the defunct, as a dog for a cynic, a syren for an orator ; a woman in bed with her husband, for a beloved wife ; an owl implying watchfulness ; a bridle, a well ordered family; and a muzzle restraint of the tongue, for careful housekeepers; instruments indicative of professions, &c., or animals of favourites; as dogs; or horses of youths; a broken stem of a flower, an inverted torch, symbolic of death ; and other matters which will be more fully noticed under the contents of tombs, are also of frequent occurrence. Greek tombs and sepulchres are all of the hypogean or subterraneous kind. The secondary origin may have been after the barrows of Pergamus, which are cones of earth, erected upon the site of the funeral pile, con- structed upon solid stone bases, and having interior vaults. The treasury of Atreus, at Mycense, is sup- posed to have been a tomb as well as a treasury, and belongs to the Cyclopean era. The term hypogcea {subterraneous vaults) has been, says Mr. Dodwell, confounded with the spelcea and krupia^ which imply artificial caves on the sides of rocks and mountains above ground. The latter are frequent in Egypt, Persia, the Grecian colonies of Asia Minor, Sicily, and Italy. At Syracuse they compose an entire street ; and near Cor- neto (Tarquinia) are some very magnificent, adorned with sculpture and paintings, and others of larger pro- portion, near Viterbo, have Etruscan inscriptions above the entrance. In Greece, Castri^ the ancient Delphi has a rock, excavated into these sepulchral chambers, with entrances in the form of round arches. Some have three sarcophagi each under a round niche, and others of these sarcophagi near the monastery of jBra%erof and the Caslatian spring still remain unopened, and, no doubt, contain vases of great beauty and interest. There are also magnificent tombs like those of Telmessus, H 2 f -'(% 100 CLASSICAL ANTIQUITIES. ARCHITECTURE. 101 with the rocks cut in the form of folding doors, and small square edifices of large blocks and good masonry*^ once containing sarcophagi. In Greece, however, the excavations in rocks for sepulchral purposes are gene, rally simple, and those at Athens, and even at Delphi, are inferior in grandeur and extent to the tombs in Asia Minor. There, too, the sarcophagi are more nume- rous, and larger. At old Smyrna, on the side of a hill, Pococke saw two kinds ; the plainest sort consisting of a raised ground in a circular form, made of stones hewn out or laid in a rough manner. In these generally are two graves sunk in the earth, made of hewn stones and covered with a large stone. The others are circular mounts, walled round as high as their tops, having within a subterranean room, divided in some into two apartments. At Syracuse the hypogcea are catacombs forming a labyrinth, with cavities and coffins of all sizes. At Agrigentum they are of two stories, and no door ; at Amphissa, and in other parts of Greece and Italy, they are cut in a rock, and formed within like a bell ; at Taman, in Phanagoria, a stone sepulchure, of on6 entire mass of a cylindrical form, shaped like a well, and covered by a marble slab, was found in a pit. At the Chersonesus they are hewn in a rock, each tomb being closed by a single stone ; at Claros, Hkewise, in a rock they have narrow door- ways, and within a large hori- zontal or transverse cavity for the body ; but the most famous of all are those of Telmessus. Here the whole side of a mountain is cut into caverns, with architectural facings, in general Uke the pediments of temples and in- terior chambers elaborately wrought. In some instances they are fixed upon the craggy pinnacles of precipitous rocks; and others have no entrance, through being built over the body, or a concealed one. Circular arches and domes occur, and Dr. Clarke finds in the architecture traces of the Indian or Persepohtan style : the latter * Dodwell may have been the immediate original, for the tomb of Cyrus is of the temple form. Other forms, in assimi- lation of the funeral pile, resemble a book-case over a At Gadara, in Palestine, the hypogsea are inhabited, as in the time of our Saviour. The ancients never placed one body upon another, as we do. Hence the number of cells. At Palmyra occur vaults under a temple, as now under churches ; and around a temple, at Labranda, in Asia Minor, are sarcophagi, raised upon pediments ; nor are recumbent effigies modern, for at Epidaurus is the draped statue of a female in such an attitude, which once apparendy formed the hd of a sepulchre. . i^ 1 1 Every body has read in Scripture of the potter s field to bury strangers. At Athens, there were two of these common burying-grounds, called by the same name (K«af*»Ko.)» one within, the other without the walls. That within, called by Thucydides the ltf>.ov or last farewell : shaking hands with the dying person. Mr. Dodwell thinks, that they were votive vases of the poor, who could not afford any thing else ; but some of them are so elegant and expensive, that they are pre- sumed to have been originally ornamental stelce, buried by accident or intention, when the ground was cleared. In support of this opinion, it has been observed, that the Greeks placed upon the tomb, instead of a cippus, a marble vase, or rather a representation of one, adorned with figures, either painted or in bas-rehef. The figures represented apply to persons depositing locks of hair, or making libations, or under the oppression of grief, covering a cippus with bandelets, a custom mentioned by Plutarch, or chariot races, or funereal games. The form of these vases is that of an equal belly, very long wide neck, and jutting handles, equal or unequal ; and from them is derived the custom in our churchyards of vases upon a pedestal, or as the ornament of mural tablets. The tombs of the poor, says Mr. Dodwell else- where, contained only human bones and pottery. Pliny mentions a certain Regulus, who, through grief for the loss of his son, killed at his funeral pile several horses, dogs, and birds, which had belonged to the boy ; and both Virgil and Plutarch mention the interment * Mrs. Elwood's Journey to India, i. 393. of arms, armour, and chariot wheels in tombs. El- penor says to Ulysses in Homer, '' Put an oar, with which I used to row with my companions, upon this sepulchre." Accordingly, symbolic figures are com- monly found in tombs ; as in those of children, play- things, some of them puppets in pottery, with movable legs and arms * ; figures of animals, supposed domestic favourites ; swords, leaden sling bullets, and flint arrow- heads, perhaps to denote soldiers; masks, perhaps players ; sea- shells, perhaps sailors or foreigners ; phi- losophers, sitting in chairs without backs, nearly resem- bling the curule chair of the Romans; proedras, or thrones with footstools, for a praedros (one of the Athenian senate of 500); Gorgon s heads of pottery, presumed amulets against the evil eye ; lyres of wood, shaped like the shell of the tortoise ; griffins, amulets ; egg-shells, even one of an ostrich, eggs being symbolic of the reign and fruitfulness of nature ; treasures and dresses belonging to the deceased ; astragals, probably of an eminent practitioner in the game ; iron fetters on the skeletons, presumed of prisoners ; paterae and mirrors, thought to be denotations of female interments ; box- wood combs ; even bird-cages of pottery, the bars formed of threads ; of earthenware, and other articles. Nevertheless, from the use of allegorical symbols before mentioned, it is evident that many allusions to the pri- vate history of the defunct must now be insusceptible of elucidation. Laminse of lead, inscribed with bitter imprecations of enemies, found also in Egypt and Etruria, often occur. The body was deposited in a soros, or, as more recently called, sarcophagus. This, however, was only the external case of a wooden coffin, made, according to ^schylus, of oak, to Euripides of cedar, and to Thu- cydides of cypress. Trimalchio, in Petronius, mentions triclinia, or eating rooms (still shown at Pompeii), as » 'Sivfioo-rxe'ret otyetXfJMroc.^yikXa^tce, nv^ox(xo"nt/J4vee,ofthe Greeks; Imagi- mentae, icuuculae, oscillaB, sigillae, sigiUana, sigilliota, and larvaj of the Latins. 106 CLASSICAL ANTIQUITIES. annexed to tombs^ and his foundation of an anniversary to be there kept. At MalasSy the ancient Mylasa^ is a sepulchre of the kind^ called distya, or double-roofed. This is seemingly a Greek fashion, after the Roman era. It consisted of two square rooms. In the lower, which has a doorway, were deposited the ashes of the deceased. In the upper, the relatives and friends solem- nised the anniversary of the friends, and performed sacred rites. A hole made through the floor was de- signed for pouring libations of honey, milk, or wine, with which it was usual to gratify the manes of spirits. The word libations implied pouring out some drops upon the ground, Anacreon says, of perfumed essences. The Greeks called these libations x^oLt^ and they chiefly consisted of honey, milk, and wine. The ceremonial, according to Euripides, was this : — They first went round about the sepulchre, pouring, in their progress, some of the liquid, and adding speeches to the deceased, and prayers to their manes and the gods, that they would be propitious to them. Lastly, Sophocles says, that they stood on the top of the tomb, and there re- peated the libation.* Cenotaphs^ or barrows of honour, were common among the ancient Greeks, as were also monuments in the Ceramegus: and Dionysius of Halicarnassus ob- serves, that great men had often many tombs, though their bones were only contained in one. Thus Mr. Dodwell : — At Sparta is one, on which an eulogium is still annually pronounced, in honour of Leonidas and his brave followers. In the origin, the intention was to repair the omission of sepulchral rites, with regard to those who had perished in a foreign country, or by shipwreck, or in battle, so that their souls might not be prevented from passing the Styx. When they erected the cenotaph they made a proclamation three times, called T^^vXayccyia, inviting the manes to come and take possession. Ansonius mentions this practice, and Ovid • Rous, £67. ARCHITECTURE. 107 adds, that epitaphs were added to the cenotaphs, as well as to tombs. The Greek epitaphs were very simple, and consisted only of the name, and a short character, as a good man, good woman. The Athenians put only the name of the deceased, of his father, and of his tribe. But in the col- lections of Greek epigrams are numerous firxTv/^fta, of va- rious lengths, in pure Greek taste, i. e. simpHcity and delicacy.* At Amphikleia, or Dadi, a sepulchral stone was found, containing merely the name of the deceased, on a large slab of marble, to show the psiphisma, or public decree. Either upon the grave, or close by it, says Rous, they were wont to erect a pillar (o-ttjX^j), which was gene- rally from six inches to a foot in diameter. In the court- yard of the British Museum may be seen one about three feet in diameter. The most common shape of Attic tombstones was a truncated cone, with the smaller end downwards, and marked simply with the name of the deceased, but sometimes sepulchral marbles have various ornamented forms, or are inscribed with pathe- tic strophes ; and, as may be inferred from numerous existing specimens of duplicate ornaments, were also ex- posed to sale at the workshops of carvers, adorned with foliage and figures, allusive to a future state, to the funereal ceremonial in use, and to the sex and pursuits of the defunct. The remains of a civil kind, which occur most fre- quently in Greece, are Theatres. The drama was, according to Polybius, an invention of the Arcadians, for the purpose of civilising the rude manners of the inhabitants. The first efforts are said to have been made by a rustic chorus on the festivals of Bacchus and Ceres, the stage being a waggon, after, wards a movable wooden platform, called *>cpioy, Thespis was the first who introduced an actor, who spoke only soliloquies. JEschylus added another for the * In Mr. Edwards's « Epigrammata," are no less than 107 pages of them, viz. pp. 196—298. 108 CLASSICAL ANTIQUITIES. sake of dialogue, and, according to some authors, added painted scenes, and instead of faces smeared with wine- lees, gave them the buskin, and decently dressed them, Sophocles brought on a third, which number was not exceeded in the Greek tragedies during the same scene ; but the rule was not observed in comedy. Players ojf second parts were obKged to speak so low as not to drown the voice of the chief actor. Tyrants, from the hatred of the Greeks, were always played by subalterns. The women were only dancers. Female parts were per- formed by eunuchs. That the characters might be dis- tinguished (a difficulty in this respect arising from the size of the theatres), parasites and he-bawds carried a straight truncheon, called apso-xo^; the rural deities, shepherds, and peasants, the crook ; heralds and ambas- sadors, the caduceus ; kings, a long straight sceptre, heroes a club, and other characters symbolic accompani- ments. The tragic actors generally carried a long staflP, or an erect sceptre. They who represented old men leaned upon a long and crooked staff, called ^oXkov. In paintings and sculpture, the figures of tragic or comic actors are known by long and strait sleeves ; but ser- vants in comedy have below the dress with strait sleeves a short tunic with half sleeves. The tunic of tragic actors descended to the heels, and was called ^v^fjuxy BiV(7Ti(;^ palla, Aristotle, in his Poetics *, confesses that it was un- known in his time who invented the dramatic masks. Suidas and Athenaeus says Chaerclus, a contemporary of Thespis; Horace, -ffischylus. The inventors of the several kinds are, however, distinctly named. Thus, Suidas ascribes the first mask for a female to the poet Phrynicus ; of a pedagogue to Neophron of Sicyonia ; of valets and cooks to Maison, a Megarsean ; hideous and frightful masks for furies Pausanias assigns to iEschylus, the serpents on the head being added by Euripides. The masks are said to have been made at first of leaves of the great burdoc (arction)^ then of the barks of trees, in the •C.5. ARCHITECTURE, 109 end of leather, covered with linen or stuff. They were made by sculptors. Every kind of the drama had its particular mask. Those of the dancers and pantomimes, because they did not speak, had natural features and a closed mouth, and were therefore called opxTjo-rpixa, and a?a?ya icpoa^Treta ; those which denoted ghosts [AopjAo^ \vy.eta; those of gorgons and furies, a hideous kind, yopyoj^eta. The comic mask had the mouth less open than the tragic, and a ludicrous aspect, while the latter had an opposite character, in the features and open mouth. Ultimately there was a mask appropriated to each particular character, and there were even masks so contrived, that the profile on one side exhibited chagrin, on the other serenity, or whatever was the passion re- quired. The actor, therefore, presented the side of the mask best suited to the passage under recitation. The necessity of augmenting the vocal powers of the per- former, on account of the size of the theatres, suggested, says Burney *, metallic masks, upon the principle of speaking trumpets. The chorus was taken from the original performers before actors were added. The duty of the former was confined to dancing, and singing verses allusive to the subject, or laudatory of exploits and virtues. Burney says that the ancient dramatic writers had a kind of melody different from the declamation of the actors, and for the songs of the chorus ; of which the one might be compared to modern recitative, the other to chanting in the Romish church, f The word chorus (x^po(») sig- nified only a band of singers, not a company of dancers ; for a-rpo^pri meant simply a strain, in which there was a change of measure ad libitum^ and avna-rpoiffi the couTt" ter-strain, the chorus never dancing at all J ; and the Greek dancing, or orchesis, though it sometimes had the modern sense, also signified gesture or theatrical ac- tion, and graceful motion ; and not only the chorus, but the principal characters, were, it is said, continually * Music, i. 153. f W. 157. X See the Prometheus of ^chylus, 8vo. 1831, p. 22. not, 128. no CLASSICAL ANTIQUITIES. gesticulating as long as they were upon the stage. In the latter drama, according to Lucian, a single dancer, or mime, was able to express all the incidents and senti- ments of a whole tragedy or epic poem by dumb show, suited to the recitation of the performers. Indeed, it is said that dancing and music were more particularly cultivated by the Greeks than the rest of the ancients ; and, according to Theophrastus and others, a flute- player, named Andron, a native of Sicily, accompanied his tunes with harmonious movements of the body. Stationary theatres are said to have been erected in the 75th Olympiad (480 B. C). Mr. Donaldson says, that simphcity and absence of ornament indicate those of the most remote era. In the situations and form the Greeks consulted acoustics. They observed, says Al- borti, that sound moved in circles, hke water when a stone is thrown into it, and that it was reverberated by woody valleys, or places confined within walls. For this purpose, they generally scooped out the slope of a hiU. Under any circumstances, the site chosen was in a part of the city most favourable to the transmission of sound — if possible, near the Stadium, Hippodrome, Odeon, Agora, and Gymnasium ; because the porticoes adjoining these edifices afforded shelter to the audience from bad weather. The only theatres known upon a plain, are those of Mantinea, Megalopohs, and Arabi- Hissars, probably AUbanda. These cities do not take date before the time of Epaminondus. That of Miletus is built of stone, and is apparently Roman. That of Argos is different from others, because it had two wings with seats, — one on either side of the pit, — so that more spectators might have been accom- modated, or the three theatres in one might have been intended for minor representations. The seats of the theatre of Bacchus, at Athens, were cut in the solid rock, and having, therefore, no staircases or vomitories under them, there were ample flights of steps at each extremity of the front. At Syracuse, two broad roads met at the theatre, possibly because they were always ARCHITECTURE. in loungmg-places, and devoted to public meetings and harangues of the philosophers. That at HierapoUs, in Phrygia, had a bath before it, perhaps indicative of a Roman era or addition. From there being no remains of Greek theatres with the stage part in any approach to perfection, it has been thought that this compartment was wooden and tem- porary. A most elaborate plan or diagram has, how- ever, been given by Mr. Donaldson, and is here repre- sented. OOOOOOOO ^Bi ^4 OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO 1^^ "^k OOoOOOOo OOOOO OQ O OOOOOOQOOO OOP OO OOOOQOOOCO OOOOOOOO t^ ff t I I I I I I I I t f f t t < t t I I 1 ^ PLAN OP A GREEK THEATRE. With this diagram before us, it is easy to explain the construction. To begin with the audience part : This (the xoiXov), the Roman cavea^ answered to our boxes ; the peristyle to the lobby, the seats (kerkides) or cunei,) being separated by landing-places {diazo^ matd), or the Roman prcecinctiones ; and the compart- ments were ascended by staircases, called climakes. Mr. Donaldson's more detailed account will gratify the classical student. The MiiKov was composed of a succession of seats, (fiSpa*, €a6fay axo*, cSwXa,) divided into two or three 112 CLASSICAL ANTIQUITIES. flights by hai^afAara, (the Roman prtecinctiones',) which were species of landings that separated the flights appro- priated to the different orders of citizens, according to their ranks. The seats were again subdivided into wedge-shaped compartments (called >cf/?Ky^/>to^,) was not the only post of honour. There were others (irpoe^gai) re- served for those who had hereditary claims from ances- tors who had served the state. The upper range was devoted to the inferior ranks, classed according to their tribes, and to the women. Above this upper flight was a covered portico (tectum porticus)^ which not only protected the audience from the currents of air, but also confined the sound of the voices of the actors within the circuit of the koilon. Under this portico were the entrances into the koilon. Connected with the seats of the koilon is the follow- ing curious fact relative to modulating vases, called Hxeia. By the properties of acoustics, if two instru- ments in perfect harmony be placed within the sphere of each other's power, and the chord of one be struck, the chord of the other will vibrate the note to a sensible degree. This vibration of the second instrument will, of course, extend the sound of the first to a greater dis- tance. Acting upon this principlef, which particularly suited the recitative, in which the epic and dramatic compositions were delivered, the ancients had Echea (vases) of earth and metal, modulated to the intervals of the different tones of the voice, placed in small cells under the seats. This contrivance extended the voice of the actor from the stage to the koilon. No occur- rence of these vases, by remains of them, has been found ; but it is said that Mr. Banks has discovered, at Scythopolis, cells which received these vases; and at Nicopolis are the ruins of two Roman theatres, where ARCHITECTURE. 113 are not only niches, apparently for this purpose, but wells sunk in the cavea, made, probably, for augment, ation of the sound upon the principle of Aristotle. But, as at Tauromenium, even tearing a piece of paper gra- duaUy can be heard in any part of the theatre, echea were not always necessary. In the blocks of the pen- style were circular holes for the masts, which with the aid of transverse ropes, as beams, supported the velarium or awning, extended to protect the spectators from the solar rays. Chandler supposes that the Greeks sat cross- legged, in the Asiatic fashion, at the theatres ; and this opinion is supported by the seats having usuaUy a smaU ledge in front. At Sparta, and other places, the seats are rounded hollow, so that the forepart of the benches is a little lower than the bottom. The orchestra, derived from op^Eo^ai to dance, occupied the site of our pit. The chorus, whose number, at a very early period of the dramatic art, was limited to fifteen in tragedy, and twenty-four in comedy, during the presence of the performers in the logeion, stood in rows, on lines marked for them in the floor. When divided into half-choirs (V*%^f*«)^ ^^^^ ^^ ^^^ ^1"^^ divisions flanked the proscenium, and joined in the dia- logue, as though only one person, by means of the cori/- phceus, or leader, who stood in the centre of his respec- tive division. The tragic chorus assumed, also, the division of three rows with five each, or five rows of three each, the former being called Kara o-tolxov^, the latter xara ^vya. In comedy, however, they were ranged in rows of four each ; and thus, during the ab- sence of the performers from the stage (scene), they went through their recitations, accompanied by the pipes. In the central part of the orchestra was placed the thymele (identified by various authors with the Roman pulpitum)y so named from the altar on which were offered the sacrifices to Dionysius, and around which were placed the tripods, crowns, and other prizes, to 114 CLASSICAL ANTIQUITIES. '1^^ ARCHITECTURE. 115 excite the emulation of the competitors. From the thymele there wQre steps, which led on to the logeion. The use of these steps is not ascertained. The scene (Dxt^vt^) was devoted especially to the principal performers. It may be classed in three parts • the sceney the hyposceney and parascene. The scene wsis a wall, the elevation of which rose to the level of the tectum porticus, and in width equalled double the diameter of the orchestra. The spaces be- tween the ends of the scenes and the bounding wall, and flanking the logeion or proscenium, appear to have been occupied by low walls, having lateral entrances (cio-oSo;) in it, to the stages which were supposed to lead from the city and the country. The oypiq^ or decoration of the scene, was divided into three distinct classes, the tragic, comic, and satiric. The first was the fixed de- coration ; and as the action was always supposed to take place in peristyles, or outside the palace in the open air it was enriched with three orders of columns. Con- nected with these orders were three doors, the centre one, called by the Greeks ^oca-iXeiovy and by the Romans valvcB regicdy was often situated in a hemycicle, and de- corated with a magnificence suitable to the palace, to which it afforded access ; and attached to this was a circular altar, sacred to Apollo Agyieus *, having a table with the consecrated cakes and sweetmeats thereon. Through the middle door the principal personage only, called the '7rpcoTCffyccvi(Trr)(;, was allowed to enter on the stage. The doors to the right and left, called the hos- pitalia, presented the elevation of a private dwelling. Through the one* to the right the SfvTfpayojv^a-TTjc^ or second actor, entered ; while that to the left was appropriated to the humbler characters of the piece, called rpirayuvia-Tat, and represented a ruined temple or prison, or a mere open- ing, or cavern. Painted scenes (others say of tapestry work) were introduced as decorations to the comic or satiric * So called, from presiding over the streets and ways. The altar, called Aywius, was in the shape of a column, with the summit pointed. dramatic pieces, and triangular slips (TrEp^avtTOi) were attached to the side entrances, by turning which the messengers and travellers were introduced upon the stage, as coming from the country, port, or city. Sometimes, by means of machines, sea and river gods appeared from behind the periacti. To represent occurrences within a building, cfw^rrpa and ua-jcvyiX'/iiAay elevated galleries, or balconies, were attached to the front of the scene, on which the representation of such scenes was seen by the audience. Not unfrequently a grand com- plication of machinery gradually descended with the divinities of Olympus, and produced a catastrophe to the piece ; hence the proverb, Seoq utto /x^^aj'Tj^. And, at other times, Perseus, Mercury, Iris, and other divinities rose from the stage, borne through the air by chariots or clouds, suspended by cords. The machines consisted of a beacon ((ppvKroopiov), a house with two stories (ha-TByia), a sky-platform for the gods (S^eoXo- jitov), the crane (yepy.voi), the machine for thunder (jS/?oyT£toy), for lightning (xcpai^voo-vcoTrcioy), for the descent of deities (iE>t^%avij), embroidered pictures ()caTa^X>?- fAOLTo), and ropes (avaTrccr/xaTa), for the appearance of any sudden apparition. The yXajLovy or clisium, the editors of the Encyclopedic Methodique make a house near the entrance of the scene, i. e. on the right of the theatre. Through the gate of this, they say, passed triumphal cars, &c. — real ones; for at Taormino ruts appear in that part of the rock which answered to the site of the clisium. But Vitruvius* shows that the clisium, called by Pollux 8i;o-T£Via, was the house erected at the back of the stage (as at Herculaneum and Pom- peii), whence old women and pandars used to look down and peep, and the lateral entrances the hospitaliceA The hyposcene was the stage, on which the principal performers, or scenici, alone recited; and to this there was an access from the thymele by stairs, called xXtj^caxTvjpe^. • L, T. c. 8, + L. T. c. 7. I 2 116 CLASSICAL ANTIQUITIES. The hyposcene was composed of the Xoyeiov and pro, scene^ the elevation of which, towards the audience, was adorned with enrichments of columns, niches, and statues. At the general assemblies of citizens on pub- lic affairs, the orators occupied the Xoyeiov (stage), in most theatres, of wood, but sometimes of marble. Under it, as with us, were the various machines em- ployed to produce thunder, and other sounds, and from it was drawn up, not let down, the curtain (aulceum, avXocix), which, between the acts, concealed the scene and stage, the attention of the spectators being then occupied by the dancers on the thymele ; a custom still retained in the ballets at the opera. The parascene was the enclosure behind, and on each side of the scenSy appropriated to the convenience of the actors when retired from the stage, and the magazines, which contained what are called the properties ; and to them were attached porticoes, in which the choragists arranged the procession of the chorus. The parascene, in fact, consisted of the buildings behind and on the sides of the stage, which buildings had several stories and apartments, besides five grand entrances, three in front, and two on the right and left. To the attached porticoes the audience retired during storms ; and shrubberies were attached to them. A modem theatre will easily give an idea of that of the Greeks, The pit may represent the orchestra with its several compartments of the conistra (applied to no specific purpose), climaktereSy thymele^ and logeion. Next to this was the stage, very narrow : where are now the stage-doors, were grand archways, and instead of a drop-scene, a handsome house, with three entrances in the front, pilasters and windows. At Pompeii between the stage and the cavea or orchestra, as now the pit, are sunk pews, apparently for the musicians : among the Romans, the thymele was changed into the pulpitum, where their singers and dancers were placed. The odea were theatres of later times, purposely ARCHITECTURE. 117 adapted to musical performances, rehearsals, and recita- tion S new pieces. Sometimes the archons used it for Sunals and public distributions of corn. The in te- r or of that of Pericles at Athens was adorned with columns, provided with seats ; and the roof, made of the mTs ml yards of the captured Persian ships, was finished by a cone, in the form of a royal tent. Adjoining to the theatre was often situated the '"^ Den^n mentions a hippodrome near the palace of Medinet Abou at Thebes; and Nestor m Homer describes the meta of the cursus in the plains before Trov The origin is severally ascribed to Hercules, Pelops, and (Enomaus, king of EUs. Berenger* gives the following account of the Greek chariot races, of which the stadium was the course. The atter con- sistedof two parts : the first, or barrier, resembled in form the prow of a ship. Here were the stands for the horses and chariots, and here they were matched and prepared for the course. The next partition was the spot apof.0^ in which the races were to be run. At the end of it stood a piUar, the goal, round which the candidates were to turn. Beyond this, a figure of the god Taraxippus (some writers made it a round altar) was placed to frighten the horses. The spectators were placed on each side of the course, the most advantageous stations (presumed to have been those at the two ends) being reserved for the agonothetce, or judges, and other distinguished persons ; those on the sides for the people. The horses were prevented from starting irregularly by a transverse rope. About the middle of the prow (curved end) was an altar, upon which was a brazen eagle, with outstretched wings. This eagle was dedi- cated to Jupiter, and by mechanical contrivances could be made apparentiy to fly, when the president thought fit. At the entrance was likewise a brazen dolphin, consecrated to Neptune, as the creator of the horse, * Horsemanship, i. 53. I 3 118 CLASSICAL ANTIQUITIES. ARCHITECTURE. 119 which would sink into the ground. The simultaneous action of the eagle and dolphin was the signal for re- moving the rope, and start of the horses, which were placed by lot. Several stadii yet exist, all (but that of Laodicea, which is circular at both ends) having the form of a staple or elongated horse-shoe. The dromos, or course, was a flat open area, universally, it is said, of the length of 6*00 Greek feet. It was surrounded by an embankment, upon which were rows of seats, like those of theatres; but Colonel Leake mentions one which had mere earthen banks and no stone seats. That of Messene, more modern, was surrounded by a colonnade, which was double at the upper end. At Epidaurus a staircase is perceptible on either side, but they are not opposite to each other ; and on the north side a subter- raneous passage, about six feet wide, led into the arena, which was about seven feet broad. At Ephesus, Chan- dler and Clarke saw an arch, presumed to be one of the avenues for spectators. At Laodicea the stadium was converted by Nicostratus, born A. C. 79 or 82, into a Roman amphitheatre. The stadium was one compartment of gymnasia, public edifices, which are said by Lucian and Cicero to have originated with the Lacedaemonians, whom the Athenians copied. Gymnastics, says Plutarch, were studied by the ancients on account of their obvious use in war. The denomination of gymnasium was derived from the nudity of the combatants ; and it was also called joa- IcBstra, from the wrestling there practised, and thermce by the Romans, from the annexation of baths. ' Burette divides a gymnasium into twelve compartments. 1, Ex- terior porticoes, where philosophers and literati ' gave their pubUc lessons, disputed, and read their works. 2. The ephebeum, where the youth assembled early in the morning to learn the exercises in private. 3. The coryccsum, or apodyterium, or gymnasterion, where they left their clothes for bathing or practising. 4. The CacBothesium, alipterion, or unctuarium^ in which they were anointed with oil before bathings the exercises &c 5. The palcBstra, properly so called, where the ex- erclses took place. 6. The sph^ristenum, where they played ai baU. 7- Large unpaved alhes between the porticoes and outward waU. 8 Xysta porticoes for use during winter and bad weather. 9- Other a^ysta, uncovered and unpaved aUeys for summer use some- times planted with trees. 10. Baths composed of many rooms: 11. The stadium sanded, of which before. 12. The grammateion, or repository of the athletic archives. — Vitruvius gives an ample account ot the construction and form of gymnasiums; f ^ Acre ^^^^ ^^- mains of one at Ephesus, as presumed by Chandler, en- graved in the Ionian antiquities.* , ^ , , The combatants for prizes in the games (of whatever gymnastic kind) were genericaUy denominated athlet^, from adXeco to wrestle. The exercises, as mentioned by Homer, seem to have existed before the Trojan war; but the profession was not distinct but a short time antecedent to Plato's era. They practised under a master of the palestra for ten consecutive months and were trained by a diet, consisting at first only ot dry figs, nuts, and soft cheese, but afterwards of beet, pork, seasoned with annise, and heavy unleavened bread, kneaded with soft cheese, called >cajXi^*ov. They ate these viands rather roasted than boiled, and this dry regimen is what authors have called l^po^ayia. They were enormous feeders and great sleepers, but very temperate in regard to wine and women. They contended m a state of nudity, having been first anointed either with oil alone, or a pomade (ceroma) made of that, wax, and dust, by servants called alipt(E, or unctores. During the operation they swelled their muscles and drew in their breath : after unction they often rolled themselves in the dirt of the palaestra, or covered themselves with sand and dust, or were so powdered by others, in a place called the vcovicrrpa, or konisterion. After the combat they were again rubbed, anointed, and taken to the bath for renovation. This process was called cn^oee^aiteLa. ♦ PI. .39. I 4 120 CLASSICAL ANTIQUITIES. \VTien candidates for the public games, and thbry could not be so without an unblemished character, they took an oath that they had practised their ten months, and would observe the laws of the combat, and good order. The agonothetae enrolled their names, and at the opening of the games a herald proclaimed them. They were paired by lot ; and if an odd one remained* he was called efiipog, and obhged to take up the con.! queror. If there was foul play in the combat, officers called Mastigophori struck them with their rods. The prizes consisted of slaves, mules, oxen, tripods and vases, silver cups, clothes, arms, and silver money in the games' called 3re^aTi)toi;^, or apyvptos>; ayscvaq ; and of crowns of leaves {wild olive, the Olympic ; pine, the Isthmian; parsley, the Nemean ; laurel, at first oak, in the Pythian) in those called ,*«) as an effemi- nacy of the Phffiacians. It appears from Athemeus that the latter usage did not become general tiU about the first century of our era. Cold baths termmated the gymnastic exercises ; and Theocritus informs us, that, at Lacedjemon, boys and girls (from their mascuUne education) bathed together. Of course, the splendid baths now found in Greece are of the Roman era. Bridges.— Greece being a country where there are no large rivers, and the others torrent sti-eams dry dur. ing summer, bridges are rare. At Mycente was one, not arched, but formed of projecting stones : indeed, to cross a mere chasm, it was not unusual to pitch two large stones so as to meet at top, and form an acute angle like the letter A, raise abutments to keep them in posi- 124 CLASSICAL ANTIQUITIES. ARCHITECTURE. 125 ? ! Hi tion, and then form a roadway across. Over the Ce- phissus is a small bridge^ composed of two blocks of marble, and hence called Avo fxapixopa. At the Cessus of Strabo, now probably Sienna, are three ancient bridges consisting each of a single arch. In the plain of Kala- buta is one of six arches. At the Maurozumeno of Leake, or Mauramatia of Dodwell, the Messene of Epa- minondas, is a triangular bridge for crossing two rivers — the Balyra and Amphetus. w *\ Skala The paucity of bridges may be explained by the fol. lowing circumstance : — Across the Kaltzanes is a rustic substitute, not uncommon in Arcadia. A large branch of an impending plane tree, which grows on the bank, forms the centre and the whole support of the bridge. From this branch to the other bank are laid large logs, and over them branches and boughs, and on the top of all, earth, and sometimes stones. Canals. — A canal for draining an inundated plain near Palaeopoli is supposed by Mr. Dodwell to have given birth to the fable of Hercules and the Augean stable ; the stable being the plain, and the foss the la- bour. Alexander attempted to cut a navigable canal to join the bays of Smyrna and Ephesus, but relinquished it when he came to the solid rock. There are remains. Caves and caverns were annexed to temples and other buildings, and had wells and steps leading to them. We find them also used for citadels, early habitations, votive niches, nymphaea, &c., and some were divided into chambers. Cisterns, for tanks or granaries^ are very common in Acropoles. Colonel Leake mentions several at My- cense^ built of rough stones, and lined with plaster : at Prasise, some cut in the rock and plastered ; hewn in the rock at the Acro-Corinthus for rain water ; and at Patra others bottle-shaped, and constructed of tiles. Cothon, harbour, port. — By the word cothon is meant an artificial harbour, in the shape of an amphi- theatre ; and one, so shaped, large enough to receive the whole British navy, occurs at the Syrian Laodicea. They occur of Roman construction at Algiers and Te- mondfrise, in Africa ; and at Demass (Thapsus) part of the cothon is built in frames (like the walls of Flemsan) with a composition made up of pebbles and mortar. Colonel Leake observes, that a ridge, which separated the lagoon from the sea, and a long sandy beach, were not favourable to those artificial moles, or cothons, or basins, customary among the Greeks. According to authors*, harbours were either at the mouth of a river, or in a creek of the sea, under some high promontory. The former were merely for the reception of ships ; the latter were made artificially for defence, Uke breakwaters, by piers in a semicircular form, called x^jXa*, axpa< rov KtfAsyo<;, or axra*. To the two ends of these piers were affixed great chains or booms, and they were sometimes guarded with tarred pales ; whence harbours were sometimes termed vikeia-TeK;. Strong towers, garrisoned, were placed on the piers, and * Robinson, 406. 126 CLASSICAL ANTIQUITIES. ARCHITECTURE. 127 !!! not far off was a light-house or pharos. The crro^aa was the mouth or entry between the piers. In the in- most harbour^ />ti^%o^, ships were frequently left loose. It was partitioned into compartments by walls^ called bpfj(,oky vavKoxot, and collectively vavo-TaOfjiog ; and here were also the docks, yeua-oyioiy siriaTtaf vsccpioc, &c. The adjacent places were filled with inns, houses of pro- miscuous resort, temples, and altars. Homer de- scribes the protection of a fleet, near the shore, by a semicircular wall, or mound, from one point to an- other ; and it is remarkable, that at Porkskewit, near Chepstow, is exactly such a protection, presumed to be thrown up by Ostorius during his wars with the Silures. Towards, or within the sea, were fixed strong stakes, before which the vessels of burden were placed to protect those within. At times, not of immediate danger, exploratory vessels ('7r2^(pvXay.ihg) were sent out and soldiers, called Ttv^frov^oi or irvpa-ovpibai, from irvpa-o; a torch, gave notice by that of the approach of the enemy's vessels. When the fortifications were suffi- ciently strong, the ships were drawn on shore : in winter, or when they did not fear attack, the soldiers pitched their tents around the ships ; at other times the latter only lay at anchor or moorings, ready to meet the enemy. At Athens, Argos, Corinth, and other Greek cities, long walls connected the port with the city. At La- rymna, in Boeotia, the port was formed by projecting piers, which left room only for the entrance of ships ; and at the Chersonesus, a mole, described by Strabo^ was constructed of immense stones for walls, filled up in the middle with cement and rubbish, and protected by two strong towers. At Athens, there were three ports: — 1. The Pirceus, in the form of a bladder, surrounded by three small like-shaped inlets. It had at its entrance two round towers, and in the middle a pharos. Upon the peninsula, Le Roy saw remains of the walls and towers, built by Themistocles, of a temple, and, as presumed, of an agora (market), and tumuli. 2. The Munychian port, separated from the Pirajus : it is an obtuse oval. Traces of foimdations are discoverable, and in the rock small niches, formed, perhaps, for statues of divinities. 3. The Phalerum is exceedingly small, fit only for boats. A mole across the mouth left only a narrow entrance. There still exist vestiges of the long walls and paved causeway which connected the Piraeus with the city, distant about four and a half miles. Temples of Venus, says Mr. Dodwell, were generally erected in ports or promontories near the sea, from the element which gave birth to the goddess; and from the remains of a colossal statue, found at Port Raphlo, it has been presumed, by Chandler, that such and other statues, in similar situations, were intended for sea- marks, or for holding lights. As to Docks ; — these were towns, important enough to exercise a maritime commerce, but too far from the sea for a harbour. In this case, they selected the nearest and most convenient spot, and built houses about it ; and this hamlet became the navale of the other town. In like manner, Corinth, situated in the Peloponnesian isthmus, had two navaliay viz. Dechceum and Cenchrea. Sometimes a town was built in a place where there was not a sufficient harbour for ships, because it required, through increase of trade, vessels of a larger construc- tion. Then, although the town was already a kind of harbour, another larger and deeper was annexed, though at some distance, which often formed a colony as flou- rishing as the town itself.* Some openings, formed in the rock of the lesser harbour, in Syracuse, are supposed to have been the docks of the ancient galleys. Colonel Leake t thus de- scribes the mode of fortifying maritime towns, from the most ancient and best specimen, that of iEgina : — " An oval port, sheltered by two ancient moles, which leave only a narrow passage in the middle, between the * Enc. Id^thodique. t Morea, il 436, 437. '^ 128 CLASSICAL ANTIQUITIES. ARCHITECTURE. 129 ill remains of two towers, which stood on either side of the entrance. Pursuing the same direction, we find anothei* oval port, twice as long as the former. Its entrance is protected in the same manner, by ancient walls or moles, fifteen or twenty feet thick, which, though now in many places below the surface of the water, stiU shelter these two Uttle bays, and furnish a commodious protection to the small vessels which navi- gate the gulf. Between the two harbours, there ap- pears to have been a succession of small basins, separated from the sea by a waU, and communicating with the two harbours. On the northern side of the promontory, there was an open harbour, or roadstead, protected to the north by a breakwater, on which there appears to have stood a wall, which formed a prolonga- tion of the waUs of the land front of the city. There is no more remarkable example in Greece of the labour and expense bestowed by the ancients in forming and protecting their artificial harbours.*' The walls of the city are still traced through their whole extent on the land side. They were about ten feet thick, and constructed with towers at intervals, not always equal. There appear to have been three prin- cipal entrances, of which, that near the middle of the land front, leading to the Panhellenium, was constructed apparently Hke the chief gate of the city of Platsea, was a retired wall, between two round towers. To the southward, the town walR abutted upon the mole of the great harbour, which formed a continuation of the city wall, in the same manner as that wall was just stated to have terminated in the northern roadstead. This appears, indeed, to have been the usual mode amongst the Greeks of fortifying their maritime towns, as instanced at Athens, Eleusis, and many other places. The ports were those xXeiCTo* kifA£y£<; placed within the walls of the towns, and to be closed by a chain. Demos. — Greece was inhabited by villages before there were towns ; but those belonging to the Athenian state were termed 5»j^o». Pausanias and Livy show » 4 that they had their particular temples, as modern vil- lages have churches. The indications of a demos, says Mr. Dodwell, are extensive foundations, tiles, and small stones. Fountains were deemed to have their particular nymphs or deities, and were hence held in high estimation • Pausanias mentions an oracular fountain, near the sea, at Patra. It remains nearly as he describes, and, being re-dedicated to St. Andrew, is still a sacred well. The present enclosure and appendages seem to be modem. The fountain was that where, to know the fate of the sick, they suspended a mirror with a thread; the back of the mirror touched the water, and the poUshed side floated above. From the appearances, they determined the presage. At Cos, now Stancho, is a cave, formed with great art, partly in the soUd rock, and partly with stone and stucco, on the side of the mountain. Within this cave is an arched passage, at the bottom of which the water flows, through a nar- row channel, as clear as crystal. It connects it with a lofty vaulted chamber, cut in the rock, and shaped like a bee-hive, with an aperture at the top, admit- ting air and hght from the surface of the mountain. It may be as old. as the age of Hippocrates, from whom it is named. Thus, Dr. Clarke, who also saw at Chceronea, now Caprana, a beautiful ancient foun- tain of five mouths, supplied by means of a small aqueduct. Lions. — It is not uncommon in Greece to see colos- sal lions. One, exceedingly fine, which had formerly stood before the gate of the Piraeus at Athens, still adorns the entry of the Arsenal at Venice. Mr. Dod- well mentions one at Cape Zoster as a remain indicative of a considerable demos ; from their frequent occur, rence in Attica, he supposes that they had an allegorical meaning. Chandler thinks, that in couchant postures they were, perhaps, placed in graves, and it is clear that the figure of the lion was an emblem of force and K .130 CLASSICAL ANTIQUITIES. ARCHITECTURE. 131 Ml courage, and was frequently placed upon sepulchres where any battle had been fought, as at the pass of Ther- mopylfiB, and on the tombs of the Thebans, in the plain of Chaeronea. Over gates, they might, as Mr. Hughes thinks, designate a watch or guard. Nevertheless, Herodotus mentions the " stone lion," named the Leo- nidas, at Thermopylae. Phryctorion. See Watchtower. Pnix. — The name and use of this place at Athens is mentioned by Thucydides ; but the etymon (whether from nivvcc or tti^kvo^) is far from clear. The same author makes it an ecclesia ; and it was clearly the place where the Athenian parliaments were held. Its remains are tolerably perfect. It consists of a circle or obtuse oval ; upon one side is a recess, called jSv^pa, or hus- tings, ascended by steps ; in the centre a square ele- vation, Uke a table-tomb. From hence the orators harangued. The Pnix was entered by a flight of de- scending steps upon one side. It was erected near the port of the Piraeus, for this reason, ascribed by Plutarch, viz. that the Greeks believed a maritime power inclin- able to a democracy; whereas persons employed in agriculture would be less uneasy under an oligarchy. Prison, — That in which Socrates is presumed to have been confined is a cavern, which adjoins the Areopagus and the Pnix. But the most extraordinary specimen is the " Ear of Dionysius" at Syracuse. It formed part of the quarries of the Neapolis. Swinburne says, that ^^ it is eighteen feet wide, and fifty-eight high, and runs into the heart of the hill in the form of a capital S. The sides are chiseled, and the roof cover, gradually narrowing almost to a Gothic arch. Along this point runs a groove or channel, which served, as is supposed, to collect the sounds that rose from a speaker below, and convey them to a pipe, in a small double cell above, where they were heard with the greatest distinctness; but this hearing-place, having been too much opened and altered, has lost its virtue. There is a recess, like a chamber, about the middle of the cave, and the bottom of the grotto is rounded ofi*. It is impossible, after an attentive survey of this place, to entertain a doubt of its having been constructed in- tentionally for a prison and a Ustening-place. Rings are cut out of the angles of the walls, where, no doubt, the more obnoxious criminals were fastened. The tear- ing of a piece of paper made as great a noise as a smart blow of a cudgel on a board would have done. A gun gave a report like thunder. " Prytaneum. — Some senators, called prytanes, were chosen out of particular tribes every month, to superin- tend certain matters of police and government. They had the final jurisdiction in processes instituted in the lower courts, and the chief administration of justice, the distribution of provisions, the general police of the state, and particular one of the town, the declaration of war, the conclusion and publication of peace, and the nomi- nation of tutors and curators. The prytaneum^ where they assembled, answered to our guild and town halls, and was a vast edifice, which had a great dining-hall, called doXo; by Pausaiiias, adorned with statues of gods and eminent men. Here they had their public meals, to which it was deemed a great honour to be in- vited ; and received ambassadors. Magazines were an- nexed, for they distributed provisions to the poor, and supported the orphans of men who had died in the public service. The prytaneum of Cyzicus was, next to that of Athens, the most magnificent. It contained a quantity of porticoes, in which were placed tables for the pub- lic festivals. At Acradina, Denon mentions a prodigious quantity of marbles and large columns, as the only remains of the prytaneum. Roads, — The paved way between Athens and Eleusis is composed of rough stones of moderate dimensions^ like the streets of modern cities ; but, in that from Man. tinea to Orchomenos, of large stones. Large square blocks, not in regular polygons, as was the Roman practice, occur at Stymphalos. At Cleonse, now Kour- tise, the road to Nemea was rock, curiously hewn into K 2 132 CLASSICAL ANTIQUITIES. ARCHITECTURE. 133 ml lull a variety of channels ; and at Tempe, by the side of the Peneus, the highway is cut in the rock, with resting- places for the feet of the horses, to prevent their shp^ ping into the river. The breadth occupied by the carriages of the ancients was five feet, and this road was thirteen, so that there was room for two carriages to pass. Towns. — Greek towns in general consisted of poor and mean houses ; irregular streets ; lanes like alleys ; and shops small and unglazed, like those of our butchers and brokers. The narrowness of the lanes is, however, more valued than hght ways, by residents in hot cli- mates, on account of the intensity of the solar rays. Professor Miiller says, that the towns of the Pelopon- nese were for the most part irregularly built ; whereas the lonians had early learnt to lay out their streets in straight Hues, a custom which Hippodamus of Miletus succeeded in spreading over the rest of Greece. It was probably this architect who, in the year 445 b. c, laid out the plan of Thurii in exact squares, with streets at right angles ; and the same who, in his old age, built the city of Rhodes (467 b. c.) with such symmetry, that, to the astonished ancients, it seemed like one house.* Street. — At Psestum, all the temples stand in a line, and border a street, which, running from gate to gate, divided the city into two parts nearly equal. There appears to have been a theatre opposite ; so that the street was probably lined with public buildings, and thus had a grand appearance. At Tycha in Syracuse, there are, in the middle of the streets holes, where the beasts, which drew the carriages, placed their feet. Denon frequently speaks of the narrow and wind- ing streets of Syracuse, one being cut to the depth of five or six feet in the solid rock. Stotty a term of Diodorus, was, says Mr. Wilkins, never used by him in any other sense than to open por- * Dorians, ii. i^ii ticoes with columns. Stuart has misapplied the deno- mination to another building at Athens. Subterranean fabrics. Catacombs. — At Suadea, near Antioch, the ancient Seleucia, are catacombs ornamented with pilasters, cornices, and mouldings. These may be Grecian ; but the city of catacombs at Syracuse apper- tains to the Roman era. Caves, caverns. — Strabo and Plutarch both mention altars in the temples, upon, which altars, called nrvpaiBna, were kept fires constantly burning. These fires were lit by invisible means. At -Slgina, on the flat surface, is seen a round cavity of thirteen inches* diameter, and two or three deep, within which is a square hole pervading the whole block of a column. Another cavern adjoins it, the roof of which is distin- guished by a small circular aperture, which is cut down perpendicularly, and admits the day. The diameter of the perforated frustum above mentioned, is a little larger than that of the circular aperture of the cave ; and was, perhaps, placed over it, and might have served for a pedestal or an altar; but it was most probably a puraitheion, or a fire-altar. Altars of this kind appear to have been used in all the temples, and to have been lighted by invisible means. Nothing more was neces- sary than to pour oil upon them, which would instantly burst into a flame, upon coming in contact with the fire, which was kept in readiness under the perforation.* Caves for subterranean passages. — Under the same temple is an excavated passage, which certainly proceeds farther than the fallen stones permit us to explore. Caves for citadels. — At Moghi, in Asia Minor (says Mr. Walpole), an enormous cavern is shut up in front by a wall, with battlements and towers, and seems once to have served for a sort of citadel to the town. Caves for towns. — Virgil says that, before Troy and Pergamean citadels existed, men dwelt in the bottoms of valleys, in grottoes or caves. An ancient town of these * Dodwell. K 3 i III I I 134 CLASSICAL ANTIQUITIES. caverns still exists at Ispica, in Sicily^ and is minutely described by Denon. Caves with labyrinths. — These caves^ says sir William Gell^ with labyrinths constructed in them^ occur near Nauplia, and were probably intended for retreats from danger. The labyrinth of Crete is a subterraneous excavation, full of irregular passages, terminating in caverns. Caves with niches for votive offerings. — At a cave near Kashar, on Mount Parness (Parnassus), says Mr. Dod- well, are niches for votive offerings, and an inscription. On the perpendicular face in the rock, which rises near the cave, several ancient apertures have been cut by way of steps from the bottom to the top. They shelve downwards, in order to assist the approaches of the feet and hands. The same kind of ancient stationary ladders are formed in perpendicular rocks at Leontium and at Syracuse in Sicily. The cave is probably sacred to Pan and the Nymphs. Caverns^ use unknown. — Denon saw at Selinus (now Peleri, in Sicily),in the upper part of the streets, small caverns, without roofs, but formed of large stones, rest- ing horizontally on pillars, and, on the surface, little columns of an interior decoration. At Syracuse he saw another, with a small iron ring inserted in the centre of the roof for a lamp, and a seat running along both sides. Caverns, adyta of Isis.— At Tithorea, now Velitza, Dr. Clarke saw a cavern, in the precipice of Mount Parnassus, rising above the ruins of the city, which, he thinks, may be the adytum sacred, to Isis, so obscurely spoken of by Pausanias. Caves, as Grottoes, temples of the Nymphs, common. Caverns oracular. — That of Virgil's Sibyl is well known. At the Hieron of Trophonius (now Lebadiea), a rocky recess, is a chamber of stone, hewn in the solid rock. Immediately below it is the stoma, or sacred aperture of the adytum. It is small and low, shaped like an oven ; and this Pausanias affirms to have been ARCHITEOTUBE. 135 the form of the artificial masonry adapted to its mouth. It is in fact, barely capacious enough to admit the pas- sage of a man's body. Niches cut in rocks. — At Mysus, Chandler mentions many small square niches, cut in rocks, with steps to ascend to the top. He supposes that these were de- signed for the worship of the watery divinities, to receive propitiatory offerings, or votive tablets, the memorials of real and imaginary perils and escapes, the tribute of their suppliants relieved, &c. Subterranean passages and apartments, annexed to citadels. — At the Acropolis of Amyclse (now Sclavo- Chorio), Mr. Dodwell was informed that there was a subterranean passage, of artificial fabrication, penetrating through the whole of the mountain. At the castle of Derial, in Persia, is a subterranean passage (says sir R. K. Porter) from the castle to the river, communicating probably with other works, which might bar ingress of the valley. At one of the temples of Psestum is a small aperture, like the mouth of a well, which was pro- bably intended to give air and light to a long and in- tricate subterraneous gallery, which extended to the sea on one side, and on the other communicated with the temple. In the interior of the citadel of Rhyniassa, supposed Elatria, is a very fine subterranean apartment, to which we are conducted by a narrow passage, almost twenty yards in length. This remain is nearly square, being nine feet by nine six inches. Its ceiling is arched, and as well as the walls, covered with stucco as smooth as polished marble, divided elegantly into compartments, with rich cornices and mouldings. Tholos, in Vitruvius, means a dome or cupola in general ; and when it was part of a temple, the presents to the gods were there suspended. The term, however, is applied to small edifices of honour, such as the chora- gic monument of Lysicrates, Sir William Cell describes another tholos as Epidaurus. It seems to have been a circle of about twenty feet in diameter. On some of the blocks* are inscriptions relating to the cures effected by K 4 I 136 CLASSICAL ANTIQUITIES. ARCHITECTURE. 137 -^sculapius. He also thinks that a tholos was annexed to the house of Ulysses at Ithaca. Towers. — Monopergia, or single-tower forts, to guard passages over rivers^ occur at Nauplia and Rhakes ; and Procopius mentions such structures. At Ithaca one was used to guard the well. Treasuries. — These, in the most ancient times, were of the form of beehives, and that of Atreus, at Mycenae, is the first and best specimen. Brass nails at regular intervals seem to have fastened plates of metal; and from this circumstance the brazen chamber, in which Danae was confined, is presumed to have derived its name. Homer in the Odyssey, and Plutarch in Philopoemen, mention the use of them as prisons. The treasury of Minyas at Orchomenos is of similar construction. Vaults of this construction are to be found among the ruins of the ancient Sicilian cities, and the great maga* zines of corn at Agrigentum are of exactly the same shape, but are cut in the rock. Mr. Walpole says that the Greek thesauri were places formed or excavated under temples, like the Roman ^arm^, cells or grana- ries. Every body knows the searches made in barrows and tombs for treasures. It is presumed that the My- cenaean edifice was also a tomb as well as a treasury, and perhaps a temple also ; for all these subterraneous chambers, in Greece, Italy, and Sardinia, were, no doubt, the primitive cryptae or sepulchres of great persons in the most remote era. Watchtowers are mentioned in scripture; and Chandler says that at Tmolus in Lydia there was on the summit a watch tower, erected by the Persians, of which per- haps the ruin is still extant in a hexedray or building with six sides or seats of white marble. The editors of the new edition of Stuart's Athens say that the watch-p towers were termed by the Greeks $^v>cT6jpc- To^, a torch or beacon, as in them guards were placed to observe and announce the approach of the enemy, or any other circumstance, and to communicate notice of the events to the nearest station by fires. By day the ascent of the smoke conveyed the intelligence, and by night the glare of the flame. Authorities of this ancient practice ascend to the Trojan era ; and the account of an exist- ing specimen near Argos is as follows :— The position of this tower, pyramidal externally, and square withm. commands from a great distance a view of the defile, that led from the territories of Tegea and Mantinea to that of Argos. The peculiarity of the plan renders the lower chamber most dangerous of approach and dif- ficult of access to assailants. It appears most probable that there was one, or perhaps more than one, other story above. This is one of the few ancient examples to be found of a wall, whose external face diverges from the perpendicular so rapidly towards the foundation. A tower near the grove of -Slsculapius, and part of the citadel of Chffironea, have a similar peculiarity of con- struction. Mr. Dodwell, speaking of Phanari, says, that its signification of lantern^ in modern Greek, has something traditional in its denomination. There are several places in Greece which are designated by the same appellation, all of which are placed in very lofty I ini hi Mi 138 CliASSICAL ANTIQUITIES. and commanding situations. Fire signals, before men- tioned, were, in fact, the telegraphs of the day, and termed (ppvY.roiy or (ppvyLTccoia, or airvpyot^ by the Greeks, and specula by the Latins. Near Lessa sir William Gell saw the foundations of a pyramid, not the situation of that on the road between Argos and Tiryns, mentioned by Pausanias. Wells.— The '' Encyclopedia of Antiquities'* states that Danaus is said to have first brought wells from Egypt into Greece. There are found wells bored through rocks of immense depth ; some so shallow, as to require only a bucket with a rope of twisted herbs. The mouth was sometimes protected by a massive marble cyhnder, or two pieces cramped together: but, according to remains, the contour of ancient wells was of one entirq stone, in some instances at least formed like round altars. The Greeks, but not the Romans, ornamented the brims of their wells with sculpture, and that very fine, and these brims were but twenty inches high. Some wells were not deep, and pulleys were not used, only buckets with ropes of twisted herbs, and sometimes the water was raised by a huge lever, great stones being a counterpoise to the other end. Other wells had an arch over them, and a descent by steps. Mr. Fuller says, in his '' Travels in Turkey," that the sight of the women in files, returning from the wells with their vases on their heads, reminded him of very common figures in sculpture ; and Dr. Clarke adds, that the old fountain of Syros, at which the nymphs of the island assembled in the early ages, exists in its original state, and is the same rendezvous as it was formerly, whether of love or gallantry, or of gossiping or tale-teUing. The young women, as on the ancient marbles, come singing from them with vases on their heads, and are met by their lovers, who ease them of their burdens and join them in the chorus. They also dance round the wells the ancient callichorus, accompanied with songs in honour of Ceres. From these customs, it has happened that many reliques of fine pottery are found in Greek wells. M SCULPTUREi 1S9 CHAP. 11. SCULPTURE. In sculpture the Greeks have never been rivalled. The Athenians seem to have been the first nation in the world that discovered, as it were, the virgin idea of beautiful form, and to have worshipped it with the fervour of a first love. The cause is thus explained : — The power of judging of art, like all the other niental powers, must be improved just as itis exercised, and it will be exercised just in proportion as the essays of art in all departments are multiplied. Thisfaculty,from its original constitution, has the capacity of ever conceiving some- thing more excellent than has been already attained; and therefore, as the powers of execution are improved, the perceptions of taste are refined in the same degree ; and thus it was, that, in the natural progress of the fine arts at Athens, that bloom of national taste evolved itself, which distinguished the age of Sophocles and the Parthenon.* To this may be added, with regard to the human form, that the gymnastic exercises rendered perfect examples common. The earliest sculptor mentioned in Greek history is Daedalus, a contemporary of Theseus, 968 b. c. Pau- sanias mentions nine of his works as then remaining in Greece, '^rude and uncomely in aspect,'' he says, '' but yet having an air of divinity." Among these nine was a naked Hercules in wood. This statue was so celebrated, that Flaxman thinks we may have copies of it in gems, coins, or small bronzes. He therefore says, that in the British Museum, as well as ♦ Patterson's National Character of the Athenians, 103— lOa II ii 11)1 1 140 CLASSICAL ANTIQUITIES. Other collections, are several small bronzes of a naked Hercules, whose right arm, holding a club, is raised to strike, whilst his left is extended, bearing the lion's skin as a shield. From the style of extreme antiquity in these statues, the rude attempt at bold action, which was the peculiarity of Daedalus ; the general adoption of this action in the early ages, the traits of savage nature in the face and figure, expressed with Uttle knowledge, but strong feeling, by the narrow loins, turgid muscles of the breasts, thighs, and calves of the legs, we shall find reason to believe that they are copied from the above- mentioned statue. Pausanias also mentions a chorus in white stone, made by Daedalus for Ariadne, noticed in the eighteenth Iliad, as youths and damsels dancing hand in hand. The earliest Greek bas-reliefs and paintings represent choruses of the Graces and Hours in this manner. Winckelmann says that Daedalus first added legs to statues, and that the earliest outlines of figures were for the most part in right lines. Pausanias saw in the Acropolis of Athens a statue of SCULPTURE. 141 Minerva, made by Endaeus, a disciple of Daedalus; and it is presumed that the heads of Minerva, on the early coins of Athens, were copied from this very statue, and that a whole length by Dipaenis and ScylUs is a repre- sentation of it. In these early times, the rude efforts were limited to divinities and heroes. Jupiter, Neptune, and several heroic characters have the self-same figure and action as the Hercules of Dedalus described above ; the same narrow eyes, thin lips, with the corners of the mouth turned upwards, the pointed chin, narrow loins, turgid muscles, the same advancing position of the lower limbs, the right hand raised beside the head, and the left extended. Their only distinctions were, that Ju- piter held the thunderbolt, Neptune the trident, and Hercules a palm-branch or bow, as may be seen in ancient small bronzes, on coins of Athens and Paestum, and on the most ancient painted vases. The female divinities were clothed in draperies, di- vided into few and perpendicular folds ; their attitudes advancing, like those of male figures. The hair of both male and female statues or paintings of this period is I illl I I 142 CLASSICAL ANTIQUITIES. arranged with great care, collected in a club behind, sometimes entirely curled, in the same manner as prac- tised by the native Americans and Australians. Daedalus and Endaeus formed their statues in wood ; but metal was also used for various purposes of sculpture. Such are Flaxman's characteristics of the first period of Greek art. The second era is thus distinguished. Dipaenis, and Scyllis the Cretan, were celebrated for their marble statues, about the year 776 b. c. Their works still retain much of the ancient manner, in the advancing position of the legs, the drawing of the figure, and the perpendicular folds of drapery disposed in zio^- zag edges. Elaborate finishing was soon after carried to excess : undulating locks, and spiral knots of hair like shells, as well as the drapery, were wrought with the most elaborate care and exactness ; whilst the taste- less and barbarous character of the face and limbs re- mained much the same as in former times. The exemplifications specified by Flaxman are colossal busts of Hercules and Apollo in the British Museum, probably done by Dipaenis and Scyllis for the Sicyonians ; very ancient statues of Minerva and a priest of Bacchus lately in the Villa Albani, published by Winckelmann in his '' Monumenti" and *^*^Art," and specimens of ex- treme finishing in early Greek pateras and bronzes. Catagraphy, or the oblique representations of images, to give different views of the face, looking up, or down; or backwards, and the representation of veins, and folds and plaits in garments, seem not to have been at- tempted before the time of Phidias. The approach to that era is marked by a better drawing of the figure, more careful attention to its parts, more precision and variety of attitude, less elaborate curling and dressing the hair, and the form of the figure better shown through the drapery. Winckelmann characterises this ancient school by ener- getic designs, but harsh and void of grace, and too great strength in expression. Flaxman says that the figures were stiff rather than dignified, their forms either SCULPTURE. 143 meagre or turgid, and the folds of the drapery parallel, poor, and resembling geometrical lines rather than the simple but ever- varying appearances of nature. Phidias flourished about 490 years b. c. His su- perior genius, assisted by a knowledge of painting, which he practised previous to sculpture, gave a gran- deur to his compositions, a grace to his groups, a softness to flesh, and a flow to draperies unknown to his predecessors. The imitators of Phidias were Alca- menes, Critias, Nestocles, and Ilegias; twenty years after, Agelades, Gallon, Polyclitus, Phragmon, Gorgias, Lacon, Myron, Scopas, Pythagoras, and Perelius. Phi- dias had the direction of the sculpture to be seen at the Parthenon and the Theseum at Athens ; and as the styles of different hands are sufficiently evident in the alto and basso rilievos, so there might, perhaps, says Flaxman, be no great difficulty in tracing some of the artists by resemblance to others of their known works. The combats of the Centaurs and Lapithae, among the Elgin marbles at the British Museum, enable us to behold the actual works of Phidias and his coadjutors. It is remarkable that, in the metopes alluded to, not only is the workmanship dissimilar, but the size of the figures, the largest being of the worst execution. * On these fourteen metopes are almost as many degrees of merit ; but, if Phidias touched them in any instances, the thirteenth, however mutilated, was one. Of other instances of the work of Phidias, Mr. Hope's Minerva is supposed to be a copy ; and in the Pio-Clementine Museum 7S an engraving of his Amazon, called Eukne^ mon, from her beautiful leg. Winckelmann calls the style of Phidias the sublime, and makes the change from hardness and saliency of the parts into flowing outlines ; but, the change being only partial, a hardness yet remains. His exemplification is the group of Niobe and her daughters. The fine style, he says, commences with Praxiteles, and is of the date of * Burrow's Elgin Marbles, i. 254. 144 I 1' CLASSICAL ANTIQUITIES. Alexander the Great and his successors. In this best style, every thing angular is suppressed, an improve- ment ascribed to Lysippus. Flaxman goes into the following details ; and these will afford a satisfactory elucidation of the jiarti- cular characteristics of the several eras. He begins with the earliest attempts at imitation of parts and proportion. The Daedalean school shows an attitude perpendi- cularly upright, the legs nearly closed together, the arms fixed to the sides, the head rather large, the hair straight, the eyes full, the nose flattish, the lower part of the face and chin projecting: a little fulness for each breast, and a slight indication of the Hne formed on each side of the thorax by the termina- tions of the ribs, are the only parts distinguished in front of the body. The shoulders and arms are meagre, and have little variety in the outline; the thighs are full, so are the calves of the legs; the joints are scarcely noticed ; their proportions are rather dwarfish, seldom exceeding six heads and a half in height. The improvements in the human figure, presumed to be not earlier than a century before Phidias, are those which are chiefly found on painted vases, or basso-rihevos of Bacchanahan subjects, or processions of divinities. These improvements consisted of a greater variety and violence of action, a bolder dis- tinction of the knees, elbows, edge of the pelvis, the ribs, and the ankles ; the muscles turgid and tendinous, proper to continual and vigorous exer- tion. Sculpture of the time of Phidias and his imme- diate successors, through the study of the human form upon anatomical principles, presents the portrait of it in the full developement of its powers and perfec- tion of its beauty by gymnastic exercises, at the same time that its anatomical forms * are decided ♦ Minute and technical particulars may be seen in Flaxman's Lectures p. Ill et seq. SCULPTURE. 145 with the same simplicity, elegance, and comprehen- sive greatness, which are equally admired in the work of the artist and the writings of Hippocrates. As a natural and certain consequence of the sculptor s in- telhgence being formed on the physician's instructions, the system was the simplest and boldest division of parts, and breadth of masses, that imitation of nature permits. There is reason to believe, from the ancient sculpture itself, that those groups and statues, which are pre- eminent in the display of anatomical skill, were not executed until after the age of Alexander the Great, when HierophoHs and Erasistratus had enlarged the bounds of anatomical science, by numerous dissections in the school of Alexandria. In the ages after Phidias, there is a greater particularity of anatomical finish and detail; but, at the same time, there is a choice selec- tion of those simple geometrical forms, which, in bone, muscle, and tendon, are strongest, most efficient, and elegant, whether the subject be masculine or feminine, strong or delicate. The anatomical distinctions in the forms of the gods were results of the study of Homer, whose works were collected and arranged when Hip- parchus, who lived a few years before the birth of Phidias, had formed a public library for the Athenians. Homer supplied subjects for poets, painters, and sculp- tors, and his descriptions fixed the persons and attri- butes of their gods. Phidias, continues Flaxman, seems to have been the first in this reformation. Minerva, who had before appeared harsh and elderly, was by him rendered beau- tiful. The change is visible from the subjoined por- traits of her, — the first the ancient, the second the improved. Her gently aquiUne nose, uniform features, and downward look, which distinguish her from the goddess Roma, who looks forward as mistress of the world, sufficiently appropriate her. Her usual symbol is the 146 CLASSICAL ANTIQUITIES. i II nuii nii owl ; but the helmet, long hair, and aegis on the breast, are enough to denote her figures. The Jupiter of Phidias was awful as when his nod shook the poles, but benignant as when, according to Homer's description, he smiled on his daughter Venus. The anatomical forms, selected from powerful nature, presented a massy breast and shoulders, projecting muscles above the hip-bone, the limb strong without heaviness, and the whole figure mighty. Ovid* says that his is a royal figure (^^ Jovis est regalis imago'"). He is almost always represented with a full face, en- throned ; and his portrait is distinguished by a peculiar serenity of look, (for if there be a sternness, the head belongs to Pluto or Serapis, the same deity,) and by the hair, which descends along the temples, entirely covers his ears, and is longer than that of the other gods. This was done to make it resemble a Hon's mane ; for Homer had that of an angry lion in view, when he re- presented Jupiter as shaking Olympus by the waving hair and moving eye-brows. He is commonly known by the * Metam. 1. vi. c. 74. • SCULPTURE. 147 thunderbolt and eagle. Local or peculiar Jupiters have other individual distinctions : as Ammon, a ram's horns. Ovid says * that the portrait of every god had its own peculiar features, L e. that the faces were always mo- delled or copied from one and the same standard ; and Flaxman adds, that the visages of Jupiter's progeny were settled by a scale of gradation, — ^^ they were more subUme near him, and less perfect by removal." Of the sons of Jupiter, Bacchus was the next di- vinity whose form was sublimated and moulded by Praxiteles. Ovidt describes him as a very handsome boy, with a girFs face, ^* virgineum caput"; and Winckelman says that his statues present the second kind of ideal youth, borrowed from mixed features of both sexes. His limbs are delicate and rounded, and his hips salient like those of women, because, accord- ing to Apollodorus, he was brought up in the habit of a girl. As conqueror of the Indies, through his having made a vow to let his beard grow during the expedition, he wears that appendage, and is always draped to the feet. In this figure, the ancient sculptors combined the ideal form of virile age with youth ; and exhibited their skill in the execution of the curls and hair. His common attributes are vine leaves, an ivy crown, the thyrsus, a drinking-horn, and car drawn by tigers. Apollo is very Uke his brother Bacchus, but his features are less effeminate. All statues of him are not, however, elevated to the finest representation of the male form ever known — that of the Belvidere Apollo. His figures are known by being beardless ; the hair tied upon the head, hke that of girls (the corymhus) ; the laurel crown, lyre, serpent of medicine, bow, quiver, tripod, cicada, cock, olive, hawk, and swan. Cupid. — At first, a youth with large eagle wings; latterly, a more infantine form, with shorter wings. Cyclops. — Two natural eyes ; a third, in the middle of the forehead ; the figure almost naked. ♦ Sua quemque Deorum — inscribit facies. ^ Ovid. Metam, 1. vl c.74. f Metam. 1. iil de Nautis, &c., and L iv. de Dercete, &c. JL 2 M! 148 CLASSICAL ANTIQUITIES. EscuLAPius. — His* face and head resemble that of his father Jupiter. The Greek shoes (crepidae cretatae), and the staff or club surrounded by a serpent^ discri- minate him. He is often accompanied by Hygeia, or Minerva Medica (known by a serpent drinking out of a patera), or the little gold Telesphorus^ wrapped up in a long cloak. Fawns have the ends of the mouth drawn up ; pointed ears; sometimes nascent horns; small tails, like those of horses ; often warts on the face and neck. Hercules is known by the bull-formed hair and neck. The celebrated Farnesian statue (^Hercules human), i. e. with nerves and muscles, the work of Glycon of Athens, is the hero reposing after his painful journey to the Hesperides, of which he holds the apples in his hand. Hercules deified^ i. e. without nerves or muscles, because his body is made for enjoy- ment only, appears in the Belvidere Torso. Figures also occur of him, with one arm above the head, and seated, to indicate repose; as Rusticus, the same as Silvanus, with a fawn's ears ; as Bibas, with a distaff and spindle, &c. Harpocrates. — A finger on the mouth, and single lock of hair on the forehead. Grseco-Egyptian ; not known before the time of Alexander. Mercury. — His face is a portrait of Alcibiades: he is known by the winged feet, to show that he was made, not for walking, but flying ; the caduceus, &c. Mars is naked, marching, and head helmeted. Morpheus. — A bearded old man, with butterflies', sometimes eagles' wings upon the shoulders, and birds* wings on the head, or vice versa. He is draped, and holds a horn, from whence he pours out dreams, and nocturnal illusions ; or asleep, with his head resting on his left arm. Without the butterfly wings, his head is that of the Roman god Termes. Neptune is distinguished from Pluto by nudity . and, as the breast was consecrated to him, that part is generally conspicuous. A trident, dolphin, or acros- sculptube. 149 tolium, are his symbols ; and he often occurs with one foot upon a rock, to show that he is king of the sea, and master of the earth. A diadem or fillet distin- guishes him ; the crown of reeds being limited to Tritons and subaltern marine deities. Pan was first represented as a satyr, afterward as a man ; his proper portrait is an ivied head, of serious aspect, with a thick beard like goats' hair. Pointed ears occur, at least in some instances. The griffin and pipe are his symbols. Authentic monuments of him are very rare. Ooeanus. — Lobsters' claws on the head. Pluto. — Figures of him, except in the rape of Proserpine, are uncommon. He commonly wears a sort of helmet, or Phrygian bonnet, and is symbolised by a two-pronged fork, and the dog Cerberus. As Serapis- Pluto, he carries the modius ; and the head, both of Serapis and him, is buried in hair. Saturn (another rare deity) is generally distin- guished by the head covered with a veil ; sometimes only a diadem, and a sickle or harpe, L e. sword with a hook at the end of it. Tritons are characterised by horses' legs, fishes' tails, drinking-horns (on account of their passion for wine), crabs' claws on the temples, crowns of rushes, and, sometimes, eye-brows formed of fish-scales, which pass over the cheeks and nose, and also surround the chin. Sometimes they are mounted on sea-monsters or goats, holding tridents, flutes, oars or helms, or sounding horns ; and sometimes have a fish-skin in the form of a chlamys. Vulcan. — He is known by a cap, egg-formed, and pointed, or with a crooked beak, like the Phrygian ; a hammer, tongs, and forge ; sometimes a thunderbolt. The goddesses or figures with faces uniformly alike are, — Amazons. — One breast naked, the hair dishevelled, the pelta or crescent-formed shield, and bipennis or double-bladed axe. l 3 150 CLASSICAL ANTIQUITIES. SCULPTURE. 151 ™ Bacchanals. — The faun smile, formed by raisino" the angles of the mouth ; the Greek comic character drapery^ a tiger's skin^ the vassaris or training gown, and the crocota, a transparent silk garment; girt with vine or ivy leaves^ carrying thyrsuses^ or striking cym. bals. Ceres. — Veil thrown back upon her head ; crown of wheat ears and leaves, or an elevated diadem, or a low turban or tower, or the modius^ a symbol of fer- tility, and mystic chest of the Eleusinian mysteries upon her head ; she carries a cornucopia, or wheat ears and poppies, or torches, or a cup^ vase or patera ; her car drawn by winged serpents or elephants. Cybele.. — Almost always crowned with towers • seated on a throne, on a car drawn by lions, and holding a tambourine. Diana.— A figure more like a girl's, than that of the other goddesses; a naked knee and short tunick; generally running, with a bow, quiver, and dog ; her hair tied upon the top of her head, and right shoulder uncovered. Particular Dianas have various forms. GoRGONS. — Medusa's head is very beautiful, because it was accounted an amulet against danger; upon the Etruscan vases, Gorgons have the body, feet, and hands of a woman, with wings, large hideous heads, great mouths wide open, staring teeth, and lolling tongues, from the intention of striking terror. JuNo. — Large eyes, fine hair, imperious mouth, diadem like the beaver of a helmet, and the attribute of a peacock. Minerva. — Of her before. Proserpine. — A crown of wheat ears, and distin- guished from her mother, by hair fastened upon the top of her head, like that of a virgin. Psyche. — Mostly embracing Cupid; her usual sym- bol, a butterfly or its wings. Venus has the eyes small, with a cast, and the ' lower eyelid raised. There seem to be only five Veriuses accurately denominated. 1. The Venus rising from the 14 bath, in the attitude of the medi, or half-draped, holding ^ mirror, &c., or with the clothes on a vase. 2. The Anadyomeney wringing her hair, standing in a car. 3. The draped Venuses, who have always two girdles, the tcenia and zona (or famous cestus), placed above the hips. 4. Venus Victrix or GenitrioCy with the spear and shield ; presumed from dressing herself in the arms of Mars. 6. The Venus Callipyge, which is offensively indelicate. Her attributes are very numerous, as dove, flower, helm of a ship, sceptre, apple, &c. Lessing, who has much studied the Venuses, does not allow that the Medicean statue was the famous chef-d'oeuvre of Praxiteles, described by Lucian ; and Flaxman thinks it but a deteriorated variety of that ^^most admired female statue of all antiquity, whose beauty is as perfect as it is elevated, and as innocent as perfect."* The Cnidian Venus, of which there is an excellent copy in Mr. Hope's collection, is a more tall figure, and with more expression in the countenance, than the Medicean, and there cannot be opinions con- cerning the most famous statues of the goddess of Beauty, different from those of Plinyt, viz. that the Venus of Alcamenes :{: was celebrated (praeclara), but the Cnidian ^^ a wonder of perfection" which people of all nations came to see. Victory, who has various attributes, much resem- bles Diana, but may be easily known, by the wings upon her shoulders, and the distinction of her robe, of which the lower folds, as if agitated by the wind, take nearly the form of a displayed fan. Such are the figures, which are copies from a stand- ard model. To give a catalogue of all statues known and appropriated, would be impossible, in a Umited work. The ideal style is only a selection from such perfect natural examples, as excites in our minds a conception of the supernatural ; and the cause of the excellence of the Greeks was this ; — the genial sun- * P. 230. f xxxvi. 5. X Engraved, Flaxman, pi. 21. L 4 152 CLASSICAL ANTIQUITIES. shine and mild breezes rendered light clothing requisite, and in some cases rejected the incumbrance wholly. This exposure of the body and hmbs naturally led to the contemplation of form in the human figure, and comparison of beauty in the parts, between one subject and another.* That this principle was acted upon, is, plain ; for when the Agrigentines employed Zeuxis to paint a picture for the temple of Juno Lacinia, they allowed him to inspect their virgins naked, select five, and form the whole figure out of the best shaped limbs which he found in each.t The perfection of virile and female beauty is seen in the Apollo and Venus, and of expression in the Hercules and Laocoon. The two last form the ne plus ultra of expression ; for any further attempt would make of them dissected or skinned figures. In judging critically of Greek statues, the following rules are to be remembered : — 1 . That divine figures have no nerves or veins, on account of their perpetual youth ; muscular statues being those of heroes. 2. That the profile of the face is on a right line with the nose, or slightly indented. S. That the eyes are sunk deeper than in nature. 4. That the lips are closed, teeth being visible only in fauns and satyrs. 5. That the forehead is low ; and that there are no statues with hair in indented angles, or without hair on the temples. 6. That the bosoms of goddesses, be. cause either virgins, or always capable of becoming so, have no visible nipples, and resemble the breasts of girls. 7. That the knees and legs are without visible articulations : and, 8. That the figures of Bacchus, hermaphrodites, and eunuchs, have the round hips of a woman. The subjects of all statues and bas-reliefs are taken from mythology, and the poets, more especially Homer: where xyTj^iSc.;, and the Phrygian bonnet, appear on the figures, it is presumed that the subject is taken from the Iliad. Statues of metaUic materials are of remote * Flaxman, 201. 207. f Plin. XXXV. 9. SCULPTURE. l'o3 antiquity : casts in these have been even found in the ruins of Babylon. In bas-reliefs, the figures have very little saliency^ and are detached from one another. The frieze of the Parthenon is the finest specimen, and the casts are nu- merous. The painting of the Greeks, as seen upon their vases, conforms to their sculpture, and its general character may be understood from the following passage in Flax- man: ^^ The characteristics of Grecian composition in the best ages, are simplicity and distinctness, in all the ex- amples of painting and sculpture which have come down to us. Where the story does not require much action, it is told by gentle movements ; and the figures, whether grouped or single, have a sufficient portion of plain back-ground left about them, to show the general lines, with the forms of the limbs and draperies per- fectly intelligible. Where complication and force of action may be required, it is done with a grace of con- catenation which adds continuity to the act, without causing it to be less distinct. And in such acts as are all agitation and violence, the force of striking, the rush of flight, the agony of dying, and the prostration of the dead, in which union of action is enforced by repetition, and difference of situation by contrast, — still the same distinctness is preserved." The origin of painting is uncertain, by the confession of Pliny, who derides the boast of the Egyptians, that they first invented it.* But the question of painting is not so important as to the invention of an attempt, which occurs among savages and schoolboys, but as to the time when the human figure was delineated with any kind of skill. The tombs of Thebes are the earliest specimens extant; and, the colours excepted, they assi- milate, in stiffness and conventional attitudes, the bas- reliefs. The difference between the ancient and modern * XXXV. 3. 154* CLASSICAL ANTIQUITIES. SCULPTURE. 155 pictures is^ that, in the former, there is no shading ; the practice of the ancients, as to light and shade, being only that of contrasting colours *, — a practice in which they have been exceedingly successful. It is still to be seen in the illuminations of manuscripts, and the hack- neyed coloured prints of saints, brought from Italy, and hawked about England by itinerant foreigners. To judge by the frescoes of Pompeii, it may, however, be justly said, that the colours are most glaring and gor- geous, without shade or rehef, and yet are without tawdriness. As to pattern, opposite and corresponding compartments may have variations of colour and mem- bers ; yet the differences are so overcome by the general effect, that no discord is apparent. The ornaments and decorations are generally in excess, and yet appear to be unimprovable by simphcity. Grecian columns are seen, full as slender and tall as the Gothic, and yet excellently harmonising with the lightness of the whole picture; for there i^ nothing heavy in any of them. Wherever re, ceding objects are represented, attention is paid to per- spective, however imperfect. But on the Greek vases^ as on the bas-reliefs, the pattern allows, where the sub- ject is historical, no picturesque addition or effect of back-ground. The field is occupied by the figure and acts of man. In the Pompeian paintings, the colours are all in excellent contrast, none of them melting into each other, and painted upon dark back-grounds. The Greeks preferred sculpture to paintings ; for amongst them, Pausanias saw very few; but the opposite practice obtained among the Romans. Of the extreme beauty of the Greek painting we can only judge by the vases, ai^l a certainty that they couJd not have been inferior to the sculpture, as to the repre- sentation of objects. From the commonness of dupli- cates, it has justly been presumed that the patterns were formed upon the plaster by means of outlines upon paper, which outlines were marked by small holes. This paper being laid upon the surface of the vase, * Pol. XXXV. 5. finely powdered charcoal, rubbed over the pattern, traced the form of the figure by falling through the holes. A series of other papers, having the places cut out where any particular colour was to be applied, was then used, in the same manner as thin plates of brass now are for colouring silks and satins. That such was the practice cannot be doubted, because there is a coinci- dence in the style and drawing, which could not ensue, were the pictures executed ad libitum by different masters. The paintings of the monochromatick vases were executed either by the parts for the picture being left untouched through the cover of the pattern, and the other exposed parts coated with black paint; or cavities cut out for the figures were filled with the black or white colour, and the rest of the vase possessed the natural hue of the clay, after being baked. The latter process was the more ancient ; and vases of this description are decorated with black, or very rarely with white, figures and ornaments upon a red ground. Vases are divided into two kinds, the monochroma- tick and polychromes. Monochrome vases are those where the figures are only of one colour. Pliny =* says, that the first inven- tion was a shadow, with the outlines of a man ; the second, single colours, called monochromatick : that linear invention was ascribed to "Philocles the Egyptian, or Cleanthes of Corinth; and that Ardries the Co- rinthian, and Telephanes the Secyonian, first exer- cised the art without any colour, only putting lines within. He also adds, that the ancients painted the monochromes with cinnabar ; and once with Ephesian minium, afterwards neglected, because it cost much trouble to prepare it ; sometimes, instead of red, white was used, — a process which Aristotle terms XsvKoypa^Jav. Winckelman observes, that painters used at first but one single tint, either black or red, or the white just alluded to. Count Caylus mentions one, where the figures were black, the nerves being picked out white * XXX iii. 7. XXXV. 3. 156 CLASSICAL ANTIQUITIES. for effect. In some^ the figures are merely outlined ; in others, they are of two colours, black and dark red, the muscles of the body and plaits of the vest being represented by scratches only ; those of the best era having red figures (the natural colour of the clay) upon a black ground, the effect being heightened at first by a rudely scratched outline, but in the best ages of the arts carefully delineated, and often tinted with other colours. But those fine specimens of execution have rarely paintings of equal interest with those of an earher era. In sum. Dr. Clarke says, that the style of painting upon these vases varies so considerably, that almost every branch of the art known to the Greeks may be observed upon them, from the monochromatick of Pliny, where the figures were destined only for shadows, by a black colour touched upon a red outline, down to the period in which more elaborate designs in the monochromatick style were represented by an out- line of the Hvehest vermilion (used for regal robes in more than one instance) upon a perfectly white surface. The designs of the earlier vases are historical events^ the employments of man in the earliest ages, either when he was destroying the ferocious enemies which infested his native woods, or procuring by the chase the means of his subsistence. Mr. Dodwell has en- grayed * one, the subject of which is a boar hunt. The subject is terminated by a bird as a mark of conclusion. This is one of the oldest kind, and its antiquity is de- noted by the formahty and stiffness of the figures. The vase itself is of the colour of box wood, the figures being composed of two colours, black and dark red; black upon a red ground being also the indication of the very ancient era. The next era is that where concerns of the bath, toilet, dances, or games are represented. Indeed, Anacreon says, concerning the table vases, that the artists of his time would gratify the wishes of indivi- duals both as to subject and cost. * ii. 197. SCULPTURE. 157 Polychrome Vases. — Pliny says, that Cleophantus of Corinth first taught the art of colouring ; that Zeuxis painted monochromes of white only; that Apelles and the first painters used only four colours, — white, yellow, red, and black ; and that Polygnotus the Pthasian, be- fore the ninetieth Olympiad (420 b. c), first painted women with a lucid, probably transparent, vest, like that of the Venus of Cos, and adorned their heads with various coloured mitrae. The polychrome vases are chiefly found in the isle of Agina, and are composed of all the different colours which the subject requires, and these are the scarcest of all the vases. Grecian painting and sculpture being the most per- fect productions of imitative art, it would be negligent to omit notice of the beauties of the drapery, which often accompanies the figures on these vases. They assimilate the stuff worn. In the finer and more trans- parent kinds, their texture, and consequently their folds, strongly resembled our calico muslin, and are peculiar to the more elegant and dehcate female cha- racter, as the nymphs, terrestrial, marine, and baccha. nalian ; victories, seasons, or hours, and celestial female messengers. The more transparent of these draperies leave the forms and outline of the person as perfectly intelligible, as if no covering were interposed between the eye and the object ; and the existence of the veil is only understood by groups of small folds, collected in the hollows between the body and limbs, or playing in curves and undulations on the bolder parts, adding the magic of diversity to the charm of beauty.* The borders of foliage have a very limited range of subjects ; and the winged Genii associated with bo- tanic ornaments may personify the Genius presiding over vegetation, fertiUty, and reproduction, t Ingherami supposes, that the first vegetable prototype had a symbolic meaning, but that it was so altered in succeeding ages by repeated copies, that even the re- presentation of vegetation became almost obhterated. * Flaxm^n, 245. f Stuart's Athens, new edit 158 CLASSICAL ANTIQUITIES. It appears from Vitruvius, that a Corinthian girl, who was passionately fond of vases, having died when mar- riageable, her nurse deposited them in a basket, brought it to her tomb, placed it on the top, and, that they might last the longer in the open air, covered them with a tile. These productions were profusely deposited within the Corinthian tombs, which, in after ages, were rifled by the Romans for their bronze and fictile trea- sures. Athenaeus shows, that the possession of cups and vases was in ancient times extravagantly coveted. The sculpture of gems, rings, and seals was equally excellent with that of marble, but it seems to have been of later introduction than the other arts. It is certain that engraved signets are mentioned in the book of Exodus * ; and that Pharaoh gave his ring to Joseph, Montfaucon says, to seal letters with. Herodotus t attests that every Babylonian, when the city was taken by Cyrus, wore a signet ring. Nevertheless, it is af- firmed by Pliny, from Homer ;}:, that they were not used by the Greeks in the era of that poet. The earliest specimens known of any signets or engraved gems are the Persepolitan or Sabaean cylinders, squares, or pyramids, which were followed by the Egyptian scarabaei, which were amulets. The Egyptians wor- shipped the beetle, and it was symbolic of various things. All these superstitions are very ancient, for they occur upon the sepulchres of Biban-el-Moluk, and are traced to the Indians, Hottentots, and other nations. Even Augustine, from some superstition, often compares Christ to a beetle. The Etruscans and Greeks imitated the Egyptians § ; for Gosi showed Barthelemy an Etruscan cornelian of the form of a beetle, and head and head-dress of a woman in the Egyptian style. The body of the beetle served for a hold to the hand, and the base for a place of safety and fa- cility to put the seal; some are so large as to be even four inches long. They are made of the most durable stones. The convex part is commonly worked i • * xxviii. 21. S6. xxxix. 14. 30. ' Tiind. 1. vi. Odyssev. 1. vH; f Clio, 1. i. § xcv. 5 Travels in Italy. SCULPTURE. 159 without much art ; and upon the base or flat side are characters not yet understood. In the end, the Greeks suppressed the body of the scarabaeus, and preserved the oval form which the base presented for the body of the sculpture; lastly, they mounted them in rings. Job=^ mentions the precious onyx, or the sapphire ; and Dr. Clarke says, that signets, without stones, and en- tirely of metal, did not come into use before the time of Claudius. Montfaucon makes agates and cornelians the most common material, but he adds rubies, grenats (garnets), hyacinths, sapphires, emeralds, turquoises, topazes, berils, chalcedonies, jaspers of all colours, gradi, aiguemarines, lazul stones, amethysts, onyx, sar- donyx, aganothyx, and other stones of less value, the diamond excepted, of which he saw only one instance. Both amber and ivory were also used, and some gems had two precious stones. Others say, that all the pre- cious stones, except the diamond (and the ruby, ge- nerally, because too precious and hard), were used; but for intaglios (concave figures, gemmce ectipce), agates, cornelians, sardonyxes, and chalcedonies were preferred ; for cameos (those in relief, gemmce sculpturd promts nente) the different sorts of agate-onyx. The hy- drophanous stones, which lose their transparency by immersion in water, and rock crystal occur, as well as other pebbles, of a colour suited to the subject, or tinged by art (as amber tinged by violet to imitate amethyst), black agate for proserpines, aiguemarine for Neptunes and Leanders, red jaspers for Marsyases, and amethyst for Bacchuses and Sileni, because it was of a vinous colour, and thought to prevent intoxication. The ancients also cut glass with the lathe ; and their pastes, as rare and valuable as their gems, often imi- tate the veins and various coloured shades of the ori- ginal. Some stones they did not know. Dr. Clarke saw a sardonyx exhibiting three distinct layers of brown and white chalcedony, upon the upper layer of which was an intaglio, representing the well-known figure of Mercury with a purse. A singular use was made of * xxviii. 16. 160 CLASSICAL ANTIQUITIES. SCULPTURE. I6l emeralds; they were not only blended with mosaic work, but they were cut flat to reflect objects^ engraved^ and carried on the end of sticks to dazzle the eye. Emerald rings were found at Pompeii.^ The ancients had not the art of cutting the diamond ; and, accordingly, those only occur, which had received a light polish and irre- gular facette by friction among sands and other pebbles in the beds of rivers. The distinction of ancient and modern gems is founded, according to MnedLS Vico, upon the different folding of the drapery, and upon the different character exhibited in the hair, ear, hands, and extremities. The attitudes and composition are not like the modern. The figures have different movements. There is also a grace and delicacy now unknown. Some gems appear, which could not have been executed without the lathe, or tourel, the Greek teretion. Instances occur, where the space of the figure has been hollowed out in order to receive a bas-relief of it in gold, or else it has been covered with gold leaf. As the engravers also executed coins, the best gems are contemporary with the best medals. The heads were first worked in cameo, as those of the moderns in wax, before the intaglio was cut : and the Greeks had an art of making the letters appear white, by means of passing the gem through fire. Dr. Clarke says, when the practice of deifying princes and venerating heroes became general, portraits of men supplied the place of more ancient types ; and that this custom gave birth to the cameo, not perhaps, introduced before the Roman power, and rarely found in Greece. Solon made a law prohibiting any vendor of rings from keeping models of them. Seal rings or annuli signatorii^ had sometimes engraved, in the very matter of the ring, some sort of figure or mark peculiar to the wearer. These were figures either of their fa- vourite ladies, or of the owners, or else of divinities, sacrifices, and sacred histories. In short, there was contained in these gems, almost the whole compass of mythology. Sometimes there are also true histories in * Pompeiana, i. 237. them, battles, marriages, devices, animals, and fancies of all kinds. Pythagoras forbade the setting images of the gods in rings, for fear that, by the familiarity of them, they should grow into contempt ; nevertheless, we find the heads and figures of deities, as of Jupiter, Serapis, Mercury, and others.* Ancestors, friends, and Alexander were the occasional subjects, especially the latter ; for, among the Romans at least, there was a superstitious notion that they who had the figure of the Macedonian monarch sculptured in gold or silver would prosper in all their actions.t Areus king of Sparta bore an eagle holding a ser- pent in his talons ; the Western Locrians, Hesperus, the evening star ; Polycrates, a lyre ; Seleucus, an anchor ; and the Romans adopted similar devices. Clemens Alexandrinus mentions rings with charms, by which they pretended to foretell future events. Others had only a plain superficies. There were rings for presents on birthdays, and rings given as pledges for the observation of contracts. Dying people gave their seals or signet rings to their successors in token of appointment. The Greeks wore the ring upon the fourth finger of the left hand, because they supposed that some nerve reached from that finger direct to the heart. The material used for sealing was a sort of clay named the Creta Asiatica, and mentioned in the book of Job.;}: Both the kinds are noted by Cicero. Job^, Aristotle, and Aristophanes allude to the practice of sealing the doors of houses, the apartments of the women, boxes, and other movables. Hence it ensues, that rings are most often found in the hands of the mothers of families. But according to ancient remains, this sort of seals was commonly made of bronze, being a mere circle, fastened to a tablet containing the owner's name. In seahng deeds, the wax was fastened ♦ Montfaucon. X Job, xxxviii. 14 f Sueton. c. 50., ed. Delph. Aug. \ Job, xll 15. M m 162 CLASSICAL ANTIQUITIES. to a thread ; and the Russians, who retain many ancient Greek practices, still use the chirograph, or signet ring, and apply it to bits of soft wax, fastened to a cord, when they would secure a door, chest, &c.* CHAP. III. MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OP PRIVATE LIFE. — - TRADES AND MANUFACTURES. COSTUMES. At cock-crowing, the inhabitants of the country, singing old songs, entered Athens with their provisions. At the same time, the shops were opened, and all the Athenians were in motion. Some repaired to their professional labours, others to the different tribunals to officiate as judges. Among the people, as well as the army, they made two meals a day ; but persons of a certain rank were content with one, which they took, some at mid-day, the most part before sunset. But this must be under- stood of only one chief meal ; for Athenaeus mentions breakfast {ayifaTicr^ciy or Jiavrjoricr/xo^), luncheon (Jeixvov), {afternoon meal (^icirspiaiJia, hiXivov), not mentioned in other writers] ; supper (SopTrov), always the last meal, after which Aristophanes makes it time to go to bed. However, three meals only were most usual, the ecnrepiciJLa being omitted. In the afternoon they took a nap, or played at the game of 'ffsa-a-oiy aa-rpaya- Xof, tali, our cockal, the tarsal bones of animals, or imitations in ivory, gold, or bronze. Homer says that the suitors of Penelope used to amuse themselves at the door of her house with this game, or with dice, mvSo^, alea, which were thrown out of a horn box, formed like • Guthrie's Dissert, on Russian Antiquities. I I MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 163 a tower, called ?>cXi/xaJca) to go to her room : and in the south por- tico, according to Mr. Wilkins, was the andronitis, or men's apartments, the cyzicene oicus (or splendid dining-room, so named from Cyzicus, a town cele- brated for magnificent buildings), and pinacotheca, usually rendered a picture gallery ; in the eastern, the bibliotheca (library) ; in the western, the exedra, or places for conversation. The thalamus and antithalamus were rooms in which the matrons and their servants worked in the lanifice, embroidery, &c., and the hospitalia, or strangers' apartments, had sitting and sleeping rooms^ and courts or passages called mesaulcB. Here they could live in private distinctly from the family. There was also the parthenon, the room for the girls, the most dis- tant part of the house, locked and bolted ; for some- times they could not pass from one part of the house to another without leave. Some accounts say that the oicos contained large ample rooms, where were made the feasts, to which women were not admitted to sit at table with the men. It was the custom of the Greeks to ornament in every manner that part of the house which was first seen by persons entering or passing; and this part ♦ Rous, p. 2C0. M 4* 168 CLASSICAL ANTIQUITIES. MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 169 Homer calls ivxitio. Truu^cx^vouvTcty which Hesychius defines by the parts opposite the entrance^ that they or- namented for the sake of passengers.* The arms and armour were placed in the av^fiuv t, which some translators of Herodotus call porticus (or portico) and others public halls. At the present day, the Greeks and orientals hang the walls of their chief rooms with arms. Besides this, some houses had a little court strewed with palae- stric dust, and a sphcBristorium (properly a fives-court) which they used to lend to philosophers or sophists, or persons showing their skill in arms or music.:]: The flat roofs of the private dwellings distinguished them from the public edifices. Plutarch adds, that houses were to be light and airy, and that it was desirable to have a palm-tree before the door. He quotes Xenophon for the existence of proper repositories for arms, the furniture for religious uses, culinary utensils, and implements of husbandry. The dwellings of the Dorians were plain and simple, the doors being only fashioned hy the saw, and the ceiling by the axe ; a regulation of Lycurgus, intended to limit architecture to public buildings, and prevent it from purveying to private luxury. The kings of Greece, in Homer's time, lived not only in spacious but also richly ornamented houses, the walls of which glittered with brass, silver, gold, amber, and ivory ; but no such splendour was seen in the dwellings of the Heraclide princes. The palace of the two kings of Sparta was said to have been built by Aristodemus at the taking of the town : here Agesilaus lived after the manner of his ancestors, the doors being, according to Xenophon, those of the original building. Hence Leontychidas (490 b. c.) asked his host at Corinth, which city had become luxurious, on seeing the ceiling ornamented with sunk panels (^aTVfit;jwaTa), whether the trees in Corinth were naturally four-cornered } * Theophrast 18. 330. X Theophrast 17. 1/2. j ed Casaub. t Clio, i. s. ^ The houses at Sparta, however, notwithstanding their rude structure, were probably spacious and commo- dious : in front, there was generally a court-yard, se^ parated by a wall from the street, and containing a large portico. Among the Spartans and JEolians it was the custom not to knock, but to call, at the gate.* Xenophon and Livy describe the houses of Sparta as lofty, and built more solidly than those of Athens. The furniture and internal arrangement of these splendid Greek establishments are thus described by Barthelemy : — ^^ A long and narrow passage led directly to the women's lodgings. Entrance to it was prohibited to all of the male sex, except the relatives and persons introduced by the husband. After having crossed a grass-plat surrounded by three piazzas, we arrived at a sufficiently large portion of the house, where was Lysis trate, to whom Dinias presented me. ^^ We found her occupied with two Sicilian doves, and a little Maltese dog that was playing around her. Lysistrate passed for one of the prettiest women of Athens, and sought to support that reputation by the elegance of her dress. Her black hair, perfumed with essences, fell in large curls over her shoulders ; she wore golden ear-rings, pearl necklaces and bracelets, and rings of precious stones on her fingers. She was also painted rose colour and white, and wore a robe of the latter colour, the common costume of women of dis- tinction. ^^ Through the real or pretended superiority of foreign goods, the seats were of Thessalian manufacture, the bed mattresses Corinthian, and the pillows Cartha- ginian. In the men's department, which had also a grass-plat in the middle, surrounded with four porti- coes, the walls were coated with stucco, and wain- scotted with joiners' work. These porticoes served for communication with many other rooms, most of them elegantly decorated. Gold and ivory set off the furni- ture, the ceilings and walls were ornamented with ♦ Mailer's Dorians, U. 272. \-:S 170 CLASSICAL ANTIQUITIES. paintings ; the screens and tapestry^ made at Babylon, represented Persians with their training robes^ vultures, and other birds." To this catalogue may be added, from Theophrastus, as luxuries especially valued, two sorts of the monkey tribe, the Tridmo^;, and the tityri (an Indian species, ac- cording to PHny, and according to Pausanias a large ape, or ourang-outang), dice or taU made of the bones of the antelope or gazelle, Thyriacan ampullae, of the round form, and Lacedaemonian crooked walking-sticks. To these, Aristophanes adds Cyprian carpets (as we should call them), of purple, adorned with plates or nails of gold, or embroidered. In short. Homer says* that the house of Nestor was furnished with beds, tables, gar- ments, carpets, and stores of new wine ; and the ivory, gold, and amber displayed in that of Menelaus suf- ficient to strike amazement. Beds perfumed with aloes f, and bedsteads of gold, silver J, ivory §, and iron||, and bed coverings of tapes- try^, are mentioned in Scripture ; and Herodotus** ex- plains the use of the precious metals, by mentioning '^ couches embossed with gold and silver ;'* and Plu- tarchf f , quoting a Greek comedian, speaks of bedsteads adorned with silver and gold; beds J J puffed with fea- thers, and women's pillows that sunk under the weight of their heads. The paintings upon the Hamilton vases confirm these accounts, Plutarch also mentions beds at Lacedaemon stuffed with reeds mixed in winter with a soft and downy thistle. §§ The poor slept upon mats ||||, or beds filled with leaves and boughs. IT^ Theophrastus shows that the beds were infested with bugs or insects, as now.*** Plutarch mentions the situation of beds in a recess ttt; and Herodotus, describing the chamber of the wife of Candaules, says, that, when undressing, she * Odyssey, 1. iv. t Esther, i. 6. II Deut. iii II. ft De Superstitione. ( i Lex Lacon. iril Plut. Daem. Soer. f f f De Curiositate. + Prov. vii. 17. § Amos, vi. 4. f Is. Ixi. 8. Prov. vii. 17. ♦* Clio, i. 49. It De Ira. De Adulatione. III! Casaub. Theophrast 338. *** Casaub. Theophrast. 338. \ \ MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 171 placed her clothes upon a chair near the door.* WheP the bed was of a sofa form_, the marbles in Spon represent it as very long, the husband in one corner and the wife reclining behind him; thus : — From the word KGoj/oTcua^ tent-beds are supposed to have been known to the Greeks ; but as kuvcc^ signi- fies a gnat or mosquito, it probably means a covering to keep them off; such a contrivance still existing among the Hindoos. In the days of Homer the Greeks sat at meat ; and he mentions three sorts of chairs. 1st, The J^^/jo^, which contained two persons, and was commonly placed for persons of the meanest rank. J2d, The S^ove^, on which they sat upright, having under their feet a footstool, ^prjvvq. 3d, xXficrp.0^, a sort of easy chair, on which they sat, leaning a little backwards. Upon the arrival of Ulysses at the palace of Alcinous, that prince seats him in a magnificent chair, and commands his son Laodamas to give him place. The effeminate Asiaticism of lying upon beds at dinner was introduced before 548 B. c. ; for it is mentioned in the account of the feast of Clisthenes by Diodorus. The Dorians of Crete continued to sit^ but those of Sparta adopted the cus- tom of lying, at first only upon hard benches, without cushions — a subsequent degeneracy.:j: Concerning tables, an important circumstance has not been heeded. There was mostly a prop, consisting of one or more feet, made of ivory or other materials, t Miiller's Dorians, ii. 290. \ \ V • Clio, 9. f Ency. Method. L / / / / 112 CLASSICAL ANTIQUITIES. »nd carved into the form of a lion or other animal, or of a hero, and then called Atlas, Telamon, &c. In the houses of the poor, this prop was of stone, and ^ called x.a.QepiJiariva'K;. The editors of the ^^ Pompeiana " y call it rp%ire<^Q(popojf ; and one which supported Arthur's Round Table is still to be seen at Winchester. From Pindar's mentioning ^^ the heroes sitting round the noble board," it seems that such a large round table was rather meant, than a long one. It is clear, however, that there were tables with a single foot (monopodia)^ with two feet (bipedes), and with three tripods. The table, or wooden board, consisted of an oXvogj which could be taken off or on ; and these oXvoi were made, in the heroic ages, of wood polished with art* ; but, in later ages, were adorned with plates of silver or other metals, and made of high-prized woods. Evelyn, in his '' Sylva," speaking of the Tigrine and Pantherine tables t, so called from the spots on them, says that king Jubas table was sold for 15,000 sesterces; and that of the Mauritanian Ptolemy was far richer, being 4^ feet in diameter, and 3 inches thick, and reported to have been sold for its weight in gold. So luxurious were the ancients in this piece of furniture, that when the men at any time reproached their wives for their expensiveness in trinkets, they were wont to turn the tables upon their husbands; whence, says Rous, came the proverb. The Greeks did not use tablecloths ; but Homer says, as does Martial also J, that the tables were carefully cleaned with wet sponges. It has been said that, in the days of that poet, every guest had a separate table ; but there may have been a confusion here with the messes, of which hereafter. The table, says Plutarch J, was placed in the middle of the dining room. These rooms are called by Athenseus otyLOi TpiKXmoiy houses with three beds ; but some of them had four, seven, nine, or more (dinner) beds in them, * Hence the epithets, Iscnj, Ji/^«of, xvctyofTiict, &c. t See, too, Plin. xiii. 15, % Apophor. n. cxliv. ^ De Conviv, Sapient, MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. l73 Vitruvius makes the length of these dining-rooms twice that of the breadth ; some, no doubt, resembled those large- columned saloons among the Romans called also ceci.* The primitive Greeks are presumed to have had only two meals a day — breakfast f, and a late dinner, the actual meaning of the Roman coenay commonly con- strued supper* The former consisted of bread dipped in wine. Afterwards there were three or four meals : — the SctTTvov (from ht ^ov£iv), because people went to work after it, and sometimes the same as the break- fast; but eventually applied, by change of name, to the late dinner ; the luncheon, called SsiXtvop or iavrBpto-iJLay according to some authors ; but others make it the same as the ^opiro^y from lotv^itoqy because the last before bedtime. Breakfast, luncheon, and dinner seem to have constituted the Greek meals. Of these, it will be more clear to give distinct divisions adapted to modern terms. Family dinners. — It is said that the mistress of the family and females did not dine in parties, except of relatives. But Plutarch J shows that, at family parties, the mistress (and even daughter), plainly attired, did form part of the company. When Thales and Diodes were passing through a porticus to a dinner given by Periander, they were, after anointing and bathing, in- troduced to a particular room, also connected by a portico ; which shows the abundance of passages, and insulations of parts of the house. In this piazza sat Eumetis, daughter of Periander : she was combing the head of old Anacharsis (a method of endearment), to coax him out of information, especially concerning the ways of dieting and physicking the sick among the Scythians. Before the dinner, Melissa, wife of Pe- riander, who had laid aside her richer habit, and as- sumed a very becoming but plainer one, sat down by her husband ; and, during the dinner, Melissa distri- • Lyson's Woodchester, 17. t De Desid. Divitiar. X ©g/o'Tflv, ocx^»ri<^f4M^ hocvr,ffTKriJtAs, ^^1 \ 174 CLASSICAL ANTIQUITIES. AIANNER8 AND CUSTOMS. 11/ buted the garlands ; sacrifice was offered ; and, when the minstrels had played a tune or two, she withdrew.* There is no reason to think that these minstrels were, like our hired bands of music at public dinners, those which attended large meetings, but females belonging to the family ; for .Montfaucon + has copied from Boissard a marble representing a family dinner, with a G7*€ek inscription. Here a woman, seated in a bee-hive chair at the end of a dinner-bed, is playing upon a lyre, which, if correctly copied, has a neck or finger-board like a guitar ; which neck or finger-board (an Egyptian instance excepted) distinguishes, according to Burney, modern from ancient musical instruments. Eumetis, the daughter, though blushingly, stayed after her mother, seemingly for instruction by the conversation. This was a particular party of sages and philosophers, where curiosity and instruction interfered ; but women were not excluded in more questionable society, for Hiero fined Epicharmus the comedian, because he spoke in- decently in his wife's presence. J In Boissard are numerous marbles, representing fa- mily dinners of men, their wives, and sometimes chil- dren, which, though Roman, may be justly accounted assimilations of Greek fashions. Dinner parties. — There were three kinds of these. 1 St, The ipcx.vo(; or Siao-o^, a club dinner, where every man paid his portion, and no one was exempt, except acrt//x- SoKoiy as poets, singers, and persons who diverted the company. To secure the contribution money, every one paid the sura beforehand, or gave his symbolum, a pawn or earnest, commonly a ring.§ The collectors and guests were called spavicjTa*, and thus are shown to have been the same persons. These entertainments were the most common ; and, as every man paid his share, usually the most temperately conducted. It is uncertain whether the h^Tvov cvvcx^yu^yiov^ where persons met to * Plut de Conviv. Sapient t T. iii. 65. and pi. 19. ; ed. Humphreys. t Apophthegms. i Thus Terence,— " Datiannuli; locus, tempus constitutum." 175 drink together, was the same as the spocvog ; but in the Seiirvoc STnSoa-iixay or afsTTiSo/xaTwy, some of the guests contributed more than their exact shares. 2d, The to aTTo (TTcvoi^o^;, where a person sent his dinner in a basket to eat it at a friend's house ; a^ro aTrv^iSo^ 3£*7rj/ETE^ (i. e. sausages), but never the brains, \vere favourite viands ; and Athenaeus, the great author on the subject, relates stories which attest it. Among these is a ragout called nyma ; it was made of the meat of a pullet, or any other meat, cut small and minced, with the entrails added to it, also minced, until the whole was brought to the consistency of a pudding or sausage. With this they mixed vinegar and blood, toasted cheese, parsley, cummin, thyme, coriander, and other odor- iferous herbs or seeds, onions, poppies, dried raisins, honey, and pomegranate kernels.* Mr. Robinson's t account is so satisfactory, that it shall be here tran- scribed : — • ^^ Bread was called apro^ ; and, being the chief and most necessary kind of food, it sometimes denoted all sorts of meat and drink. By a metonymy it was also denominated cr*To^. The Greeks used to carry it in a. basket, made of twigs or canes, and called navEoy and xavouv. They baked their bread either under the ashes, and then the loaves were called aTroJirat cx^pio^ and iyco^v^kon, or in the Kp^ta-yu (a sort of Dutch oven), when they were denominated KpkSocpnoci ; and the same bread was also termed ^TrnrYig. They had, likewise, another kind of bread, called /^ta^a, which was common food, and was made of meal, salt, and water; to which some say was added oil. AX^iTov, bar- ley-meal, was chiefly in use ; and the flour of barley was dried at the fire, or fried, after it had been soaked in water ; and that barley-meal was in great request, appears from the portico at Athens, in which it was sold.;}; They also used a composition of rice, cheese, eggs, and honey, wrapped in fig leaves, and hence called Spiov. Mi/TTWTov was made of cheese, garlick, eggs, and some other ingredients, mixed together. The poor ex- cavated their bread, and into the hollow put sauce ♦ Montfaucon. N t Antiq. of Greece, 495. 178 CLASSICAL ANTIQUITIES. which they supped. This kind of bread was called fjna-TvXXYi or iMiorrvXr}. The poor of Attica lived also on garKck and onions." Plutarch * derides those who would not eat bread, if it were bought in the market. Every body knows the locusts and wild honey, upon which John the Baptist fed ; and, in the present day, fried locusts are eaten on the shores of the Red Sea. The Greek poor were accustomed to feed on grass- hoppers, and also on the extremities of leaves. Meat, says Plutarch t, was not, at first, eaten, be- cause it was deemed sinful to kill animals that did no harm ; but when, through increase of population, the Delphic oracle directed sacrifices to be made, lest corn and fruit should be extirpated, a flesh diet was adopted. Swine were the first used ; and oxen were spared for some time, through their utility as beasts of draught. Lambs were prohibited, possibly on account of the encouragement of wool ; but, in the time of Homer, the flesh of sheep, goats, swine, oxen, and the wild animals were roasted ; but it is mooted whether, in the heroic ages, meat was ever boiled. Poultry and Game. — Tne Delians invented the art of cutting capons : but there were other birds and game. Pastry (usually called cakes) was of various kinds, but not all made by professed cooks. Plutarch men- tions voluptuaries who, besides Thasian wines, per- fumed unguents, and varieties of pastry, expected cakes steeped in honey (the substitute for sugar), made by females. J Salads, dressed with oil, are mentioned by the same author. Cheese. — Barbarian cheese was in high request. § Vegetables. — Athenaeus makes the choicest of these the Martinaean radish, the Theban turnip, and the Ascraean beet. Fish. — An idea of effeminacy was, at first, attached * De Trl X De Volui?. sec. Epicur. f Sympos. viii. 8. ^ Plut. de Conviv. Sap. BIANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 17 -J to eating fish ; and Homer shows that the Greeks en- camped near the Hellespont never used any ; nor did the companions of Ulysses let down a hook till all their provisions had been expended. As in the whale's dis- goi^ement of Jonas, it was said by Anaximander, that men were first produced in fishes, and, when they were grown up and able to help themselves, were thrown out, and so lived upon the land ; and this superstition was another cause of the avoidance of such food.* But though fish is not mentioned as food by Homer, it is certain that all in the heroic ages did not abstain from it. In the end, it was deemed more excellent than other food, and obtained from hence the peculiar name of o-^wy ; and Plutarch says, that the term (4o!pxw, and e Garrulis. II Sympos. vi. 7. Nat. Quest ** II. A. il I v^ the wine of Corinth was disliked, because it was harsh, and that of Icaria, because it was both harsh and heady. The old wine of Corcyra was reckoned extremely plea- sant ; and the white wine of Mende remarkable for its delicacy. The wines of Naxos and Tharos were com- pared to nectar: and the latter was preferred to the Chian, when of the first quality ; for there were three sorts. Pliny is copious upon all these kinds. * Some were made part of the materia medicaf ; and Plutarch, from Homer, notes that sweet wines were given to con- ciliate kindness ; the strong to Polyphemus, and the as- tringent to wounded persons and horses, to make them more spirited. J The Greeks had also second wines, called deuteria, made by aqueous dilutions of must or lees ; and artificial wines, as omq ycfuOkvot;, barley- wine, and o^ot;, being a general name for all made wine; o^og eyriTovy or oivo^, with the same epithet for palm- wine ; which Pliny § makes an expressed liquor from the fruit, of Indian origin. When M. Chateaubriand was at Athens, he disliked the wine, from its resinous flavour, and conceived that the fir cone upon the thyrsus of Bacchus was derived from the custom of immersing these cones in the liquor. The Greeks were in the habit of perfuming their wines with myrrh, origanum, aromatics, fruits, and flowers, as Mr. Robinson, among which Brodaeus || puts the leaf of the Nardus (Oriental and Gallic), and the lUy- rian Iris. Such wines the Greeks used to call avSo(7/x*av o»voy and avfiivyjv, and Ennius and the old Latins, flower ofwine^ with which the former represents an old woman to be drunk. IT Cooks y carvers, waiters, &c. — The heroes in Homer, as they were their own butchers, so they were also their own cooks. This is shown by the example of Achilles, who is represented as ^^ cutting up the meat into small parts, and transfixing them around the spits,^' * L.xiv. ^ L.VL28. f Id. C.8. II C. XX. s. 4. N 3 t Pipitian, in Id. c 9. H Annot. in Plin. xiii. 13. I f I 182 CLASSICAL ANTIQUITIES. The object of Lycurgus was to establish permanent hardy^ and mihtary habits ; and the profession of cook, at Sparta, was hereditary ; and, consequently, they had no inducement to vie with one another in the delicacy and luxury of their dishes. They cooked the black broth as their ancestors had done before them. For instance, some cooks were only allowed to dress flesh, others to make broth, &c. * Heralds (KYipvKtq), in addition to their civil and military employment, also officiated as cooks, and performed many holy rites at sacrifices; wlience they were presumed to have acquired skill in divination from the entrails, &c. But notwithstanding, when the art became a trade, some Greeks thought it a profession unworthy the meanest free-born person. In later ages, when culinary science was in the highest esteem, — another corruption of the Asiatic Greeks, — Sicilian cooks (that country being remarkable for luxu- rious living) were valued above all others, f These cooks were men ;}:, and, according to Plautus, were hired by the day, at a high price. Females did not like the profession ; for, in the early ages of Rome, the Sabine women conditioned that they should not be cooks. § Athenaeus, the great author on the subject, shows their skill in making meat resemble both fish and poultry. The Attic laws directed that the cooks should give in their names to the gyncBconomi, or those that had the care of the women, to guard them from any indecency or indiscretion. II The skill of these cooks was very great ; for Athenaeus says, that king Nicomedes, desiring some herrings when at a distance from the sea, his cook got up an imitation of one, along with other fish. He mentions also a cook who drew and stuffed, without paunching, a pig, half roasted and half boiled. He made a little hole under the shoulder, through which he drew all the intestines ; after which he washed it with wine, poured in at the mouth, which he let run * MuUer's Dorians, ii. 291. X Plut. Apothegms. 11 Montfuucon. f Robinson. Encyc. of Antiq. \ Id. Rom. Quest f' MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 183 out by hanging it up by the feet^ and then stuffed it with forced meat. They also made pastry_, cakes, sauces, and ragouts. * Carver. — Achilles, in Homer, carved for his visitors, and every man had his mess, which he was expected to eat ; not call for what was not to be had^ nor find fault with the provisions. Joseph is represented as sending to Benjamin a larger mess: and it was customary to help the persons most respected to the best parts. The custom of sending portions (/^spSfc) to absent friends occurs in Samuel, i. 1., Nehemiah, viii., and Plutarch, t In after ages, every man carved for himself. Waiters. — In the heroic ages^ the )t>^pv>c£^, or heralds, who were deputed to all sorts of offices, and handsome youths (even those of high rank) and girls^ that the eye might be dehghted^ filled the cup ; the bigger boys (vSpofopfA) serving the water, the younger (oivoxo^O the wine. In the heroic ages, full cups were distri- buted to men of quaUty; equal proportions to the rest. MontfauconJ has given us several figures of these waiters, who had their hair curiously dressed, and wore tunics, without sleeves, reaching only to the knee, and drawn in at the waist. All these persons, and the arrangement of the dinner, were under the direction of the symposiarch, who was sometimes the founder of the feast, sometimes a deputed person, and sometimes one elected by lot or suffrage ; and next to him, and sometimes the same person, was the toast-master, or ^xciXw^. § Vessels, cups, &c. — The Asiatic Greeks introduced the abacus or buffet (whence came our sideboard of plate), filled with cups rather for show than use, being, in the luxurious ages, made of gold, silver, or other costly materials, curiously wrought, inlaid with precious stones, and variously adorned. The Merulean vases were especially valued, and some vessels were of glass. Horns were first used, but, according to marbles^ they * Montfaucon. t iii. pL 20. f. 4—7. N 4 t Casaub. in Theophrast 306. § Enc Metl»od. 11 184j CLASSICAL ANTIQUITIES. MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 185 seem to have been made latterly of pottery, of the form of parts of animals, and held by the waiters, as reser- voirs from which they poured out water or liquor, while others held a patera or plate, as did those of the middle age a trencher. The cups were made of pottery, wood, glass, bronze, gold, or silver, and distinguished by different denominations. But the cups most in use were the yio-a-icnoc, what Euripides calls 7C07f\fciq >c*o-o-»va; ; cans made of the wood of ivy, from respect to Bacchus, because they could throw them about like dice, when playing the kottatus ; a game from which they augured success or failure, according to the part that lay up- permost.* Behaviour at dinner , table-talk, &c. — By way of grace, a piece of the viands, as an oflPering to the gods, was thrown into the fire. This oblation has been con- founded by some authors with the libations, a term which appertains to hquids. Long speeches were not to be made ; and during the dinner there was reading, which Plutarch wished to be more decent and edifying, than merely jocund. Paring nails was the height of vulgarity, but spitting, coughing, and speaking loud were not disapproved. When the ancient Greeks had greased their fingers (for they had no forks), they rub- bed them with soft bread, and threw the pieces (aTo- ^ay^oLkkoc) to the dogs ; but, afterwards, towels (e-^- /LtavEist, xeipoiJiaKTpa.)^ &c. were used. Numerous su- perstitious omens were ascribed to accidental incidents, which occurred during the dinner. After dinner, they again washed their hands, which, Rous says, was dis- tinguished from that before dinner, by the term aTsv*- 4.acr9f^i. In this last operation they added, says Athenaeus, some sort of stuff for scouring the hands f, and, lastly, perfumed them with odours. Wine and water (xsx/fairueyov) was usually drunk during dinner ; and, at the first introduction of the mix- ture, ^^ they used to remember,'* says Rous, " Jta larrifXy • Plut. de Music. This game was played in diffbrent manners. t'.,u« Jupiter, the presumed founder of the rain, (because a shower once falling into wine preserved the party sober,) and the mixture. To this they added the health, as he calls it, 5io^ oXi^/xTTiy, if it were a victor's feast, and a;pa*yya|uty, if it were at a wedding, al- tering the name of the health according to the occasion of the feast; and yet Sophocles* seems to make the third round to be that of Jupiter Servator." He has omitted the libation to Vesta. Although these healths resemble our toasts, and hea- thens toasted gods, and the mediaeval Christians, in imi. tation, saints ; yet the word used by Sophocles, a-Trovln, implies a libation, (spilling a little of the liquor on the ground) ; and Plutarch mentions the oivoxon or liba- tory cup, out of which they performed their libations to the gods before they drank; and it was deemed by Hesiod, an omen of ill-luck, if a sacred was put upon a drinking cup.t Other authors call these, particular and solemn cups ; and to them add the ayaSof Aa*ju.ovo^ x^aryjp (^the cup of good genius), i. e. of Bacchus. It seems to have sug- gested our grace cup, because it was introduced before the table was cleared. The cup of health (xpaTwp iiyiHa<;) termed, as well as the cups of Jupiter, and the Agatho- daemon, by some ix^TanirTpK; or metaniptron, from being drunk after washing the hands, at the close of the meal ; and the last cup, xparrjp 'Epjixoi;, before they went to bed, and left off, drinking to Mercury. However authors may differ in other respects, they all agree in making the sacred cups three in number. J In Homer every guest seems to have used a distinct cup, from which he drank when he pleased. On this account the cups in the heroic ages were capacious; and the cup of Nestor was so weighty, that a young man could scarcely carry it ; but the custom of using large cups was derived from the barbarous nations, and in the primitive times was confined to the heroes. The * K*/ hoi cayrvtooi — 2^dv5>j r^nv x^ocTyj^oS' f Flut. de aud. Poenu t Robinson, Rous, &c. ' 1 186 CLASSICAL ANTIQUITIES. MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 187 following is the form of the cups^ carried by a Silenus and an Indian Bacchus in Mr. Hope's collection, and it may be presumed, that the cups of the heroes were of similar pattern. In after times, the fashion was so far retained, that the cups used after dinner were larger than those for the meals. The wine was here drunk, says Rous, unmixed (aKparoy) and, notwithstanding what has been pre- viously said concerning distinct cups, he is correct in stating a great bowl (^KpccTn^) being placed in the mid- dle of the table. Virgil attests this, where he says, that after the meal and removal of the tables (prima quies epulis), they set on large bowls, and crowned the wine^ i. e. filled the bowls to the brim ; crowning wine being used in this sense by Homer, Aristotle, and Athenaeus.* The wine was emptied from the bowl into the cups, by a substitute for a punch ladle, called oiVYipvaiqf, and when a flagon was used, and not a bowl, the circulation of the wine was stopped by putting a cup upon it,:}: Homer says, that it was the old custom for the guests to drink one to another, (a Lydian custom, says Muller §, of Ionic introduction,) which custom they called (PtXoTrja-iov xi^Xixa, or (PiXoTYiCkocv, a cup of good friendship, and h^iua-aq, takings or pledgings. Thus Rous. Mr. Robinson thus enters : — ^^ Respect was paid to the most honourable guests by drinking to them first ; for it was customary for the master of the feast to drink to his guests in order, according to their quality. The manner of doing this was, by drinking part of the cup, and sending the remainder to the person, whom they named, which was termed 'irpoirmiv'^ But other ac- counts say II, that the Greeks, when they drank any one's • See not Delph. on G,eorg. ii. £»28., and ^n. i. 727. f Casaub. in Theophr. 22d. X I*lut. de aud. Poem. ^ ii. 292. II Enc. Antiq. health, generally sent him an empty cup, the Romans a full one. He who drank to another, said, sometimes, X^^?^ 9 ^^ others, TrpoirLvu} crok yccx^Xu^^ ^^ I wish you pros^ perity;* to which the answer was, Kafx^ocvu ociro dok rjSsw^, ^' I take it kindly of you." In speaking these words, the toaster drank a part of the wine in the cup, and sent the rest to the person whom he saluted. He pre- sented it with the right hand ; and when he drank to all the company ah imo ad summum, fiom the bottom to the top, began always on the right, and the wine was served from right to left. They began with small cups, proceeded to larger, and never drank in large com- panies without a toast ; at first the gods, then present friends, then mistresses, then absent friends (^^give me a friend" being derived from them). In drinking to such friends, Mr. Robinson says, at the mention of every name, they poured out a little wine as a libation to propitiate the gods; and in toasting their mistresses, took as many cups as there were letters in her name. From an inscription on an urn in the Villa Mattei, it appears that the classical ancients not only believed that the dead feasted upon the meat and wine offered at their tombs, but were capable of drinking healths to their friends upon earth. But these would have been insufficient to eke out a long evening. Therefore, they had o-xoXta, i. e. Bac- chanalian songs (and such were many of the delightful songs of Anacreon), as well as others more serious, pa- triotic, and heroic. The singer, if he did not under- stand music, held a branch of myrtles, which he handed to another, and he lo a third, and so on, till all had successively sung the song.* Other accounts say, that there were three sorts of songs; one, where all the com- pany joined in chorus ; the second, sung by the whole company in succession ; and the third, by those skilled in music, to whom a lyre was therefore handed. To this singing was often added the cottabus, a pastime invented by the Sicihans, and a siUy mode of fortune- • Enc. Method. 188 CLASSICAL ANTIQUITIES. telling, divided into three kinds. In the Sicilian game, a piece of wood being erected, another was placed on the top of it, with two dishes suspended from each ex- tremity, like scales. Beneath each dish was a vessel full of water, in which stood a statue. The players stood at some distance, holding a cupful of water or wine, which they endeavoured to throw into one of the dishes, that the dish by that weight might be knocked against the head of the statue under it. The person who threw so, as to spill the least water, and to knock the dish with the greatest force, was the conqueror.* The Ro- mans simplified this cottabus, by making it consist of dropping a little of the liquor from the cup, held on the back of the hand, upon the floor, and prognosticating the success of his love affairs from the sound of the liquor upon the floor.t A third cottabus consisted in floating little cups upon a vessel of water, and throwing on them from a distance the remains of the wine which had been drunken. The more they made the cups sink, the better was the omen.| A fourth kind of cot- tabus consisted in throwing dice, and a fifth in keeping longest awake. So fond were the Greeks of the first cottabus, that they not only prepared vessels with the greatest exactness, but erected circular houses, so that the cottahi being placed exactly in the middle, the players stood at equal distances. § There were prizes for suc- cess. But these were not the only amusements. — Dancing girls, and female performers on the flute, are presumed to have followed the scolia. Upon this, most of the company arose to dance, and as we have our an- chovy toasts, so relishes were brought in at the same time ; as grasshoppers, sliced radishes, pickled in vinegar and mustard, roasted vetches, and olives taken fresh out of pickle. A fresh stock of wine, and larger goblets were then introduced. Sometimes buffoons, jugglers, and showmen were introduced ; such as fire-eaters ; legerdemain persons, * Valpy's Fundamental Words of the Greek Language, p. 147. t Plin. xiv. 22. &c. % Enc. Method. \ Robinson. MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 189 with cups and balls ; writers or readers whirling rapidly round ; tumblers dancing on their hands, head down- wards ; women dancing and throwing up hoops, and catching them; and rushing amidst naked swords. Most of these tricks were performed to the sound of the flute. To these were added exhibitions, which, however, might occasion great alarm ; for Plutarch* mentions the terror occasioned by the sight of a monster, half-human and half-horse, introduced by a shepherd in a leathern bag. Matters more serious sometimes occupied conversation ; such as narration of stories and fables, reading pleasant discourses, or recitation of poems. Every body has heard of the riddle proposed by Samson to the Philistines, at his nuptial feast, and the queen of Sheba s question to Solomon. In the same manner, the Greeks introduced enigmas, and puz- zles of a more serious and instructive character, called ypi^oiy from y^^^Poc^ a fishing net, because it caught and bewildered the mind. Bochart says, that the puzzle of Samson, in the book of Judges t^ was a 7pt?o^ Athe- naeus and Pollux mention both prizes (garlands, cups of wine, &c.), and penalties, as annexed to this sport, the latter a glass of salt and water J, or salt and wine, to be drunk without taking breath. Drinking bouts were not uncommon. Diogenes Laertius mentions an instance, where a person was obliged to drink, or have the wine thrown in his face,^ When any person drank off a large cup without inter- mission, the company applauded him with ^^Zr)o-Eta^, long life to you" At Athens were three public officers, who attended at feasts, to see that every person drank his portion, and hence obtained the name of wine inspectors (oivoTrra*) and eyes (o(f)9aX/utoi).|| They who refused to drink were ordered to depart, say some ; but others, that they might not do so unless they had leave of the master of the feast. Sometimes they would sit up, drinking all night for a wager, and he that could ♦ De Conviv. Sapient X Enc. Method. t " Out of the eater,*' &c. xiv. 14. % Rous. U Robinson. 190 CLASSICAL ANTIQUITfES. MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. m keep himself awake till morning, had a cake made of flour and honey (7n/p|ut«?), for so doing.* Sometimes the founder of the feast made presents, commonly cups, to each visitor ; and before separation, wine was poured out as a hbation to Mercury, who was believed to send sleep and agreeable dreams. Such were the luxurious habits introduced by the Asiatic Greeks; but the Dorians long resisted these debaucheries. The Dorians adhered to the ancient Greek usages in their custom of eating together, or of the syssitiat; for these pubHc tables were not only in use among the Dorians (with whom, besides in Crete and Sparta, they also existed at Megara in the time of Theognis, and at Corinth in the time of Periander), but they had also once been a national custom among the CEnotrians, and their kinsmen the Arcadians, particu- larly at Shigaleia ; and among the Greeks of Homer, the princes, at least, ate together, and at the cost of the community; a custom which was retained by the Pry- tanes at Athens, Rhodes, and elsewhere. In particular, the public tables of Sparta have, in many points, a great resemblance to the Homeric banquets (^xne^) ; only that all the Spartans were, in a certain manner, considered as princes. With regard to the food, it is probable that in Sparta much had been retained from, ancient usage, and that the rest had been, from its first origin, pecuHar to the nation. The bakers, whose trade, like that of the cooks before mentioned (foreign cooks not being tolerated in Sparta), generally baked nothing but barley bread (ocX^na) : maize bread was only eaten at the dessert of the public tables, when presented by liberal individuals. The latter kind of bread was originally scarce in Greece, whither it was introduced chiefly from Sicily ; in which country they had also a particular kind of Doric maize bread, of coarser meal than was common elsewhere. The chief dish of meat at the public tables was the black broth (^ueXa,- ^a;/xo?) ; also pork: the meat being subjected to stricter regu- ' * Rous. t From avf and a-trof. I'* lations than any other kinds of food. Poultry and game were generally eaten after dinner ; beef, pork, and kid were chiefly supplied by the sacrifices, which, upon the whole, were an exception to the Striditia. Their mode of drinking was also that of the ancient Greeks. Before each person was placed a cup, which was filled by the cup-bearers with mixed wine, when it had been emp- tied; in Crete, however, the whole table drank from one large goblet. The wine was, however, not passed round, and no person drank to another; for these were Lydian customs, introduced by the lonians. Both in Sparta and Crete, it was forbidden by law to drink to intoxication ; and no persons were lighted home, except old men of sixty. In Sparta, the guests, as in the time of Homer, were called SocLTviJ.ong ; and a KpscSxnyjg presided at the meal, as a ^ocn^og, in ancient times; each guest in Sparta having a certain portion or mess allotted to him. But a still more beautiful feature in the Doric cha. racter was the friendly community of their public tables, founded upon the close union of the company of the tables (sT^ipta in Crete), into which fresh members were admitted by unanimous election by ballot* Whether a preference was shown to relations is uncertain. The syssitia, indeed, as divisions of the state, were founded upon a supposed relationship, i. e. the connection of clans, or yma,: but here we are speaking of smaller societies, consisting of about fifteen men. A company of this kind was a small state in itself, arranged upon aristocratical principles, although the equality was not interrupted by the privileges of any individuals. The ties of this friendly union were, however, drawn still closer by the constant intercourse of giving and taking, which enriched the scanty meal with the more palatable after-meal (sTraiJcXtov) or dessert, which no one was per- mitted to purchase; from which the Koirig should be distinguished, a sacrificial feast, which individuals fur- nished on stated occasions, and invited to it any friends whom they wished, and particulariy the kings. The 192 CLASSICAL ANTIQUITIES. phiditia were originally intended to increase the com- forts of the partakers. The conversation, indeed, turned chiefly upon public affairs: but laughter and jocularity were not prohibited. Every person was en- couraged to speak by the general confidence ; and there were frequent songs. Nor was the appellation (pEiSmoc, that is, the spare or scanty meals, of any antiquity, and the Spartans received it from abroad, by whom, as well as in Crete, they were once called avSpsia, or the meals of men ; for the men alone were admitted to them ; the youths and boys eating in their own di- visions : but the small children were allowed to eat at the public tables ; and, both in Crete and Sparta, they sat on low stools near their fathers' chairs, and received a half share, without any vegetables (ocSoci/.^o^'nwa-roc'). The only sTraivcXov, or dessert, eaten by the boys was some dough of barley-meal, baked in laurel leaves, and kneaded in oil. The women were never admitted to the syssitia of the men : both in Sparta and Crete, the rule was, that they should eat at home : in the latter state, however, a woman had the care of the tables of the men. ♦ Manners and customs of private life continued. — Amongst the Dorians and ancient Greeks, the conjugal relation was that of equality, and the wife was called SeWoiva, mistress ; but amongst the Ionic Athenians, the ancient custom of Greece was almost entirely sup- planted by that of the East : women were regarded in a sensual and inferior light. The wife shared the bed, but not the table of her husband ; she did not call him by his name, but addressed him by the title of lord, and lived secluded in the interior of the house.-}- Aris- totle, however, reckons it unbecoming for a man to meddle with any thing in-doors, or even to know what was done there. The wife had, therefore, the care of the menage, and superintended the spinning, weaving, embroidery, and needle- work carried on in the house. In the heroic ages, they drew waters (afterwards con^^ * Muller's Dorians, il 290—295. f Ibid. ii. 303-305. MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 193 signed to slaves), kept sheep, fed cows and horses ; even loosed (and watered, as did Andromache) the horses from their husbands' chariots ; conducted the men to bed and the bath ; perfumed, dressed, and undressed them ; and performed almost all the laborious offices of the house. There was a particular forum, called yvva.kvLikO(, ,cx,yopoc {women s market), or kvkXo(; {circles), because Homer, Sophocles, and Euripides show that the primitive fora were mostly of that form. Here were sold every kind of delicacy, except meat. * Newly married women were confined so closely, that they could not go beyond the door of the ocv7^,Yi {street-door) ; but, after they became mothers, they could go to this forum and elsewhere, attended by aged women, their companions at home : if the mistresses were young, their former governesses, or old men, or eunuchs. In these excursions, their faces were covered with veils, but so thin, that they could see through them. But the women were not always mere housewives ; some of them were famous for their drawings f; and Plutarch says, that the lady who is studious of geometry will never affect the dissolute motions of dancing ; and she that is attracted by the sublime ideas of Plato and Xenophon will look with disdain upon lascivious tales (the Milesian, the substitutes for novels) and schools of Venus, and contemn the soothsayings of ridiculous astrologers. J All these accomplishments and offices grew out of their education; for, according to their stations in life, they were taught to read, write, sew, spin, prepare the wool of which the clothes were made, and superintend the menage — sometimes music and lite- rature. As they assisted in the sacred ceremonies, they were taught to sing and dance. Their mothers in- structed them to be prudent, hold themselves upright, keep in their shoulders, be extremely sober, and avoid embonpoint. Plutarch adds of the girls of his era, that they generally worked at netting or girdles ; and that ♦ Casaub. in Theophrast. 125. X Id. Conj. Prec. -14. t PJut de Virt Foem. Proem. 19^ CLASSICAL ANTIQUITIES. some of the most ingenious made riddles. The chaperon was the nurse^ who always resided in the family which could afford it; and girls rarely slept alone^ or sat alone.* Indeed^ they were locked up^ and subjected to a severe diet. Their waists were constricted, to give them a fine and light forra.t The Spartan girls were used to gymnastics^, and made hoydens by education purposely. The Athenian women, says Rous, were, although they suckled their children, too proud to nurse ; and there were, as now, wet and dry nurses. Lacedaemonian women were preferred, because they did not swathe the children ; used them to any kind of food ; taught them not to be afraid in the dark, and did not spoil them, so as to make them froward and peevish. % The infants new-born were laid in imitative bucklers (the Lace- daemonian fashion), elsewhere corn-vans (Xixva) or among the Athenians dragons of gold, — all fashions intended for good omens. The child, as soon as born, was washed in warm water (among the Lacedaemonians in wine) ; the navel cut, o/u.$aX>iTo/xia. During the time of suck- ling, they used to carry the children out to air, having with them a sponge full of honey, in a small pot, to prevent crying. To compose them to sleep, they sang Lala, or Baukalan ; of which word the precise sens^ is not clear. § They, as well as the Romans, but not the Lacedaemonians, swathed the infants in the tight fashion once used among us, as may be seen upon a coin of Antoninus, published by Seguin, which represents the accouchement of Rhea. | The children were brought up in the gynaeconitis. IT They used to frighten them with the cry oi Acco and Alpheto^* ; the former of whom is only known, from vague traditions, to have turned fool from beholding hei agly visage in a glass ; and the latter to have been the subject of tales now lost ; also by a bugbear called /utop^oXuxeiov, which, Valpy says, was a * Barth^lemy, Jeune Anacharse. X Robinson. (I See, too, Philostrat. 1. i. n. 2 >. ** Plut. de Stoic. t Ency. of Antiq. ^ See Valpy. il Plut in Pelopidas. MANNERS AND CUSTOMS, 195 mask, made for the purpose of frightening. They were not weaned till after they were able to walk.* They were dressed like their parents, and in clothes of a similar form : their hair alone differed ; that of boys was long, because they did not cut it till adolescence. Sometimes they wore it long and curled, like that of young girls : thus the hair of Taras, upon the Taren- tine coins, is tied behind, and towards the top of the head. Plutarch says, that children were taught how to put on their shoes and clothes, and to take their meat in their right hands, and hold their bread in their left.t -Jlschines assisted his father, who was a schoolmaster, in teaching children their letters J : these they learned by means of a smooth board with a narrow rim, called ahax, from A, B, r, &c. ; and the same board served also for teaching the rudiments of writing and the prin- ciples of geometry. The abax being strewed with green sand, the pulms eruditus of classic authors, it was easy, with a radius or small rod, to trace letters, draw lines^ construct triangles, or describe circles. § As to reading' Guillatiere, who visited Athens in I669, gives us the system of mutual education, which we term that of Bell and Lancaster, and was at that time practised in Greece. His account of it is this : — '' We found about thirty young lads sitting upon benches, and their mas- ters at the head of them, teaching them to read, &c. His method was pretty, and much beyond ours; the master causing the whole class to read at a time, with- out confusion, every scholar being obliged to attention, and to mind what his next neighbour reads. They had each of them the same author in their hands ; and, for example, if he had thirty scholars, he chose out the same continued discourse, and gave them about thirty words to read. The first boy had the first word, the second boy the second word, the third had the third word, and so on. If they read handily and right, he gave them thirty words more ; but if any of the boys ♦ Plut. de Proper. Virtut. 1 Id. Orat s. d O f Id. de Fortuna. \ Ency. Brit art. Abacus, n ]9« CLASSICAL ANTIQIITIES. were out, or imperfect, he was corrected by the next, who was alwajs very exact in observing him, and he his neighbour. To obviate any of the scholars eluding this order, by preparing himself for any single word, their places were changed, and he who at one reading was in the first place, was removed a good distance in the next. Thus one lesson was enough ; afJd, what was very convenient for the master, the boys were not con- strained to come to him one after another, for every one was a master to his neighbour." * That this was the ancient system, is beyond doubt. It was said of Greece, that it took the best course in breeding up children of any country in the world. The children were usually taught, first to swim and dive, and then to read (7rpa;Tov xoXu^fi'av, dsvrspv di 76. Dod well's Oreece i. ^l t See Nicomachus, Boetius, and Pfellus (published A.D. 1556), for Greek arithmetic, of which Table I. is ei graved hereafter. \ If MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 197 generally a person unfit for any thing else ; and the girls (for they went to school with boys sometimes), had a paedagogue also. But Evelyn, in his translation of Chrysostom " De Educatione," mentions ol rpofetg, altores nutritiiy xmr^ing^fatherSy as distinct from the pcedagogue.* From the schools, they went to the gym- nasia, where they attended to running, wrestling, and similar practices; necessary, before the invention of gunpowder, in the art of war. Sometimes they had private tutors, for Isseus thus taught Demosthenes. The punishment of gross misbehaviour was annexation to a TTcx/JO'OL'Koq OX Ti/^TTavioy, and whipping (JiaiTraTaXEuecrSai, or Tup-Travi^Eo-S^i, or cLitoTvixitocn^itj^^i) ; but whether the passalus or tympanum here implied an upright post, or a board, to which the delinquent was fastened, and laid upon the ground, is not clear ; but from the phrase in Aristophanes, *' JiaTrarTaXsL'Syjcrn ^^ajixai," you shall he fogged upon the ground'' (with rods is mentioned), the latter is n¥)st probable. It appears, from Pollux ^nd others, that the games of the Greek children were (1.) The p^uT^ivSa, where the child who was the x^'^^^ sat in the middle, and the rest ran round him till they caught another, and put him in the place of the x^r^a. The French colin-maillardy our frog in the middle, and hot-cockles, have been severally deduced from it. (2.) The musca cenea, described by Pollux as a sport in which a boy bUndfolded exclaimed, '' I will hunt the brazen fly," the others answering, ^^ You shall hunt him, but you shall not catch him;" and beat him with ropes until he had laid hold of some of them. (3.) Spinning- chafers mentioned by Aristophanes {in Nuhihus)^ the threads being, however, fastened around the beetle's legs, (4.) Ostrachinda, tossing up a shell, smeared with pitch on one side and white on the other, and crying vi;| or yifx^pocj night or day^ our head or tail. (5.) Epo- strachismos, duck and drake. (6.) Elkustrinda^ where a rope was passed through a hole in a beam, and the ends held by boys, who pulled against each other. (6.) Apo^ * Evelyn's MiscelL HO. o 3 lys CLASSICAL ANTli^UITIES. didraskinda, hide and seek. (7.) Blindman's buff, mentioned by Pollux. (8.) Trundling hoops ^ seen on marbles. (9.) The Roman micatio, said to be an in- vention of Helen, who played with it against Paris, and won. Both named a number, and he who guessed right won the game. It is the modern Italian mora, and still used in Holland. (10.) A^Tia^siv, odd or even, and many other children's sports ; for it is remarkable that nearly all of them are of the most remote antiquity. The Greek children ate at the tables of their parents, but were only seated, not recumbent. They bathed separately ; they were forbidden to eat fast, or to giggle, or to cross their feet awkwardly. They were, in walk- ing, to bend down their heads from modesty. Wine was not allowed to them. When the sons arrived * at the third or, at the latest, seventh year of their age, they were taken by their fathers (who then swore to their paternity) to the ^parofic^ and registered in the tribe. The usual time upon which this was done was the third day of the feast ATTccTcvpycx. ; and this third day was called Kou^siTic, be- cause on that day they cut off a lock of the boy's hair, (ftaXXoy, (TKoXXov, S^eTTTTjpiov irXoKocixov^, which was Conse- crated and offered to some god. After this, they went to school and the gymnasia. Upon reaching the age of eighteen, they were enrolled among the ephebi, or youths capable of mihtary duty ; and, after a libation of wine to Hercules, their hair was cut a second time, and offered to some river god, because water was a principal cause of life and death. After two years, when they became twenty, what Demosthenes calls ETTi^iETsr »fS*£«;vrg^, they became men (sui juris), and were registered by the demarch in his Xs|iap;^*)coy XwKccfjLx {album leociarchicum), a book wherein he kept the names of all those that belonged to his Sn/xo^. This entry made him master of his estate. Besides this book, there was a boxwood tablet (Triva^iov Tri^f tov), wherein every one was to set down of what demos he was, to- * I here follow Rous : but it only applies to Ionian Greece. MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 199 gether with the name of his father. Females were not re- gistered before the time of marriage. If the father be- came old or necessitous, they were bound to maintain him {ynpoSotmsiv) ; and this alimony they were also bound to extend to persons who had brought them up. If a father had also been for any time abroad, the daughters, upon his return, presently washed his feet, and anointed and kissed them ; a practice which explains a ceremony used to our Saviour. They were also to be at the ex- pense of burial. If a man was childless, he might adopt a stranger or bastard ; but his estate passed to the heir-at-law, either by descent (xara ymq), or by will (jcara Sio^Qmrjy)* The validity of a will depended upon its being made by a testator of sound understanding, not under duress or persuasion of his wife, and without children ; but he could not disinherit his male child or children, the latter becoming i^-o/utoi^o*, copartners. If he died intestate, the next male succeeded ; if he had only a daughter, she was iiviKXripoq or iJiovoyiXYipo<;^ sole heir, and the next of kin was to marry her. A woman or a boy could not devise more than six bushels of barley, or its value (jUEJi/xvov xp*Sa;y). The will was proved before a prcetor, says Rous, and the process was called KXnfOvv rov xXrjpov, a iirt^biy.a^o'ouj^xi rov KXyjpov ; and to lodge a caveat, -TrapaxaTaffaXXEit,* The Spartan education consisted of gymnastics, and endurance of hardships, with a slight tincture of music, dancing, and versification. Where people have active minds, and little to do, they become gossips ; and also persons to whom private life has few or no charms. The Greeks were early risers; fond of exercise; constant frequenters of public walks and lounges ; immeasurable talkers ; passionate newsmongers ; fond to excess of baths, fes- tivals, spectacles, nicknames, music, dances, symposia, clubs, — every thing, in short, that supplied a social stimulus to the senses or the mind.f Theophrastus, who lived in the time of Alexander^ * Rous. f Patterson's Prize Essay, 116. o 4 200 CLASSICAL ANTIQUITIES^ gives US the following curious distinctions of peculiar Greek characters : — Greek vulgarity (Siyo^spEta). — This consisted in long nails, dirty teeth, bad dressing, wiping the nose at meals, talking while eating, eructation during drinking, using rancid oil in the baths ; speaking foully to his mother when taking an augury ; dropping the patera while making vows or libations, and laughing when he took it up ; clapping the hands, and imitating the tune of musicians, and then scolding them for not having finished sooner ; and, when at table, spitting upon the waiter. A Greek bore {^i^i ar)S»a?) waked people for idle gos- sip when they were just going to sleep ; talked about the physic which he had taken, during meals ; talked about water being cold in the cistern ; the garden ve- getables tender, and his house as open as an inn. A Greek fop (-Trfp* fjux^o^^^onijuxc). — When invited to a dinner party, he strove to sit near the host, bragged that he had taken his son to Delphi, there to deposit his hair ; that he had taken care to have a black foot- man ; and struggled, when he had money to pay, to have it in new coin. If he sacrificed an ox, he placed the fore part of the head, crowned with large garlands, before his doors, to let visiters know that he had made such a sacrifice ; when he led a procession with other horsemen, he delivered his usual dress to a boy, to carry home, and went in full costume to the agora, and walked there. If his little dog died, he erected a mo- Tiiiment for him, inscribed '^ Sur cuius , the Maltese" (Maltese shocks being the favourite dogs). If he had only offered a brass ring to ^sculapius, he would rub it crowned, and every day anoint himself. He attended the Prytaneum, when a suit was made, that he might communicate it to the people, crowned, and in the white dress used at sacrifices ; and when he came home, told his wife that matters went on very pros- perously. Greek meanness (tt^l avsXEySspta ). — The person MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 201 here characterised would, upon gaining a prize in tra- gedy, offer a wooden fillet to -^sculapius, upon which his name was inscribed ; when a requisition was made for the exigencies of the state, he would be silent, or sneak off; when he made a sacrifice at the nuptials of a daughter, he would sell all the meat of the victim, except such as was destined to sacred purposes; and hire waiters at board wages. As commander of a trireme, he would use the mats allowed to the common men to sleep upon the benches rather than use his own ; when he bought any meat and vegetables in the market, he would bring them home himself ; and, when he sent a garment to be cleaned would remain in his house ; when a distressed friend requested a contribution, he would avoid him. Instead of buying female slaves to attend his wife when she went out, he would only hire per- sons ; and when he got up in a morning would clean the house, make the beds himself, and turn the poor pallium which he usually wore. Greek ostentation (ttep* aXa^£.;vEia^). — This cha- racter applies to persons who attended the exchange (5:i7/xa) at Port Piraeus, and boasted to strangers what money they had gained by foreign trade and usury ; and, if he picked up a companion on the road, stated that he had been in the campaign with Alexander, and brought back numerous gemmed drinking-cups ; and contended with others that Asiatic artificers were supe- rior to those of Europe. Afterwards, he would pretend that he had received letters from Antipater, inviting him to Macedonia ; that he had an offer of exporting a large quantity of timber, but decUned it to avoid envy; had given enormous sums to the poor, and had fitted out three triremes, and been at other expense for the public service. Going to persons who sold fine horses, he would pretend to buy; and also to the tents in the fairs of those who had goods ; would order gar- ments worth two talents to be exhibited, and then would scold his attendant boy for not bringing money with him. Lastly, though he lived in a rented house. 202 CLASSICAL ANTIQUITIES. he would acquaint persons, who did not know it, that it was the house left to him by his father, and that he had thoughts of selling it, because it was too small for the company which he kept. The Greek proud man (Trtp; u7rf^»?Savia^) reminded people of favours conferred even in the streets^ ordered people on business to come early in the morning ; hung his head down in the streets^ not to speak to his ac- quaintance ; and, if he invited friends to his table, would not make one of the company, but order a de- pendant to take his place. When he went to make a visit, he would send a messenger before, to announce it, and would see no one when he was either anointing himself or taking food ; ordered a boy to keep his ac- counts, and, when he had made up the sum, not to deduct what he owed to others ; and when he wrote letters, instead of ^^ You will do me a kindness if*' &c.^ put ^^ / wish this to be done^' ^^ see that it be not done otherwise/^ and ^^ as soon as possible," The Greek coward (Trepi ^uX^aq) is much like Falstaff. There are other characters, of which counterparts may be found in modern eras. Trades and manufactures. — Both the Greeks and Romans carried on trades by means of employing large numbers of slaves as journeymen. We meet with these ocTKccvXon, makers of leathern bottles, bankers, money-, changers, or usurers (t^cx^tts^itock-) ; barbers, some of them females (Koi/psi^Tpiai), and barber-surgeons, whose shops were lounging-places for news ; basket-makers ; blacksmiths, who appear to have worked half-naked and had a peculiar cap ; braziers, butchers, of which there were none before the Trojan war, the heroes in Homer cutting up their own meat, afterwards persons who sold meat by the scales ; capon^cutters, a Delian invention, according to Athenseus ; carpenters ; cooks, men, some- times hired by the day at a great price ; coppersmiths ; cotton, manufacturers, or dealers in ; couriers, both on foot and horseback ; dyers ; enamellers ; eunuchs^ the Delians being famous for the operation ; factors ; TRADES AND MANUFACTURES. 203 farmers; felt-makers; fishermen and fishmongers; fiax^dressers ; founders; fresco painters; fullers; gilders ; glass manufacturers ; globe-makers, the globes being made of glass ; glue^makers ; goldsmiths ; gar- deners, who also understood grafting ; grooms, before the invention of stirrups, servants (called ava^oXsic) used to assist their masters in mounting ; haircloth manufacturers ; horse-breakers, anciently a title of ho- nour, because it was a practice of heroes, kings, and great men ; joiners ; market, clerks of, iirifjLsXyjToct, who attended to the weights, measures, and qualities of the goods, like the Roman aediles ; midwives ; moun- tebanks, of various kinds — the ox^^ayayyoi, or agyrtcB, who by fine speeches assembled mobs ; and others who mounted upon a stage to pufF and sell their remedies, or sat in a shop so to do. There were also tumblers, rope-dancers, jugglers, &c., but the most followed were fortune-tellers, who chiefly consisted of Chaldeans, Arabs, Egyptians, and Jews. Plutarch notes that they used very affected gesticulations. Oilmen ; painters ; paper and parchment makers ; pastry-cooks ; per^ fumers ; pilots, a profession of high repute ; porters ; potters; poulterers; prison-keepers; private tutors; quack doctors ; readers, avayyci)(nai, and the Roman lectores, or a studiis, persons taught to read well by masters, called prcelectores. Their office was to read to their masters during dinner, at night when they could not sleep, or at other times. Shepherds ; tanners ; watchmen, upon towers; wax-chandlers; weavers* Rous thus describes the process*: — ^^ ^avrtKri, the teezing (shall I say) or the carding of the wool! ? or crrvjixoyTtvixyiy when they went to spinne out the oryj/xwy, or stamen, and ha^ea-Qai (as they called it), to divide it and part it from the rest of the wooU ; or, last of all, at i(pavTiK'/jj the weaving and joining the a-TniAove; together, with the help of the KipKiq (the pecten) or the sley, like a comb ; and the ayyvOeq, or the Xfia, smooth stones (like our ♦ There are far more numerous terms, applied to weaving, than those used by Rous. 204 CLASSICAL ANTIQUITIES. smooth lace sticks, that they might not weare), which hung at the end of the threds. The posture in weav- ing was more anciently standing ; but at length (when they were weary) it came to sitting, with the Romans at least, excepting when they made plain work, reita, as the Latines called it, downe right with one thred a crosse and no more ; for there was tto^kiKtiky) too, and a great deale of variety in some workes, as well as several sorts of workes in the trade." Wine merchants ; woollen- drapers^ and other trades. The furniture, tools, and utensils of the Greeks are ascertained, according to Pliny's rule, adopted by suc- ceeding ages, by the mention of them in Homer ; but the catalogue to be deduced from that poet is incom- plete, and is chiefly supplied by the vocabulary of Pollux. Unfortunately, the remains of Grecian monu- ments are too scanty for determination of their forms, unless we admit the specimens upon the Etruscan vases to be similar, and that hypothesis is apparently well founded. The following are articles which appear in Greek authors, though it is impracticable to give their precise forms. Furniture, — This consisted of chairs ^ (among them an easy one, xAicrnxo;), bedsteads -y with feather beds of goose feathers**^, pillows of the same"^, sheep or lamb skins for blankets^, rugs^, &c., one kind of beds, at least, having apparently musquito curtains ^, others, being low, of a very humble kind. ^ TableSy for dining and meals ^, a particular kind for playing the cottabus ^^, and tables for counting i^, and the calcule '2 candelabra (XL>;^v»a), curtains ^^, hangings^ car-- 9 TpaTTC^O, &c. 10 7rAa(rTt7{. The cottabus was a game played with the re- mains of the wine, and requires a long description. 1^ aSoKiov, *'^ T7)\ia. 13 ouAaio. * ehpa, €j€5pa, &c. 3 ^Tj(Toir\ovfjLa7a, ^ irpocKccpaKaia, ^ (TTpaXTlS KOiJLa KVS. 6 aiuL(piraTrai. 8 acTKavrrjSy KpaS§aros, x®" Xau^poy, &c. TRADES AND MANUFACTUllES. 205 pets ^^y perhaps sofas ^^ ; footstools ^^; chafing-dishes ^^ ; lamps; close-stools^^ and chamber-pots ^^ ; chests of basketwork (mostly) of leather, or wood, among them the Y.otrt<;y in which women's things were kept. Fly- traps 2^; birdcages^ ; tripods; va*^^ in great numbers and of various fashions, and stands for them. 22 The household utensils were bagSy some of leather 2''^^ bakers* peels 2^ • baskets made of twigs, cane reeds, or rushes -^ ; basins, for washing the feet, hands, &c. 26^ of wood 27 ; bellows 2^ j boxes (see chests. some Beckman says, like the modern) ; bells ; bread-chest -9 • bread-moulds ^^ ; brooms and brushes ^^ ; caldrons ^2 j chafing-dishes^^; cisterns •^'*; clepsydrae or water-clocks; cocks for discharging liquids '^^ ; colanders '^^ ; combs made of boxwood have been found in tombs ; cords '^^ ; cheese-rasps or knives ^^ ; Dutch-ovens, or an assimi- lation^^; fagots'*^; frying-pans^^; funnels ^2^. hand- mills ^^ ; honey- vessel -^^ ; hooks for drawing water out of wells '^^ ; handles or frames for drying things ^^ ; keys ^7, some of wood ^^ ; knives ; ladles for soup '^^ ; lamps, synonymous also with lanterns, fooyo^ ; locks and a 1"* TTcpiarpcjfiaTou '^ K\l(TjJLOS, aKlflTTO^lOV, ^6 ^aQpov. ^"7 ^(Txt^ois — trvpavnoi sort in which hot coals were put upon a table. ^^ Aaaauov, ^9 a/jLis. 20 ao€v* «l K\v€os. 23 ^opos» 24 p7JfJU)5. 2^ Ka\afios, (Tapyounit (TirvpiSy Koveov* 26 ireXv^y curafiwOos. rrip. -S (pvaa, KopvKoi. '^0 (TiTrnj, 30 irXaBavov, 31 Koptifjiay aapos, ^VCTpOU, 46 6uAa«o, jLtaKeAi], (TKairavrj, 47 (TKapKpOS, MECHANICAL ARTS. 209 on walls ^^; turningJathe'^^ ; water-mill ^^ ; wedge '^^ i whetstone ^'^ ; whip^'^ ; winnowing-fanM In thus giving a dry catalogue, the most effectual means of knowihg the real state of the mechanical arts is best exhibited, because the names of things demon- strate their existence; and, where they continue to exist, have tolerably correct appropriations ; but, where they are only inteUigible by local knowledge, the expla- nations of lexicographers and commentators are either erroneous or unsatisfactory. The remains of ancient art show that there existed mechanical powers of raising large weights, and effecting superb architecture, by processes extremely simple, which imply rather labour than mechanism ; more dependence upon taste than artificial aid ; though tools, without machinery, cannot produce the perfection evident in many remains ; but of such machinery no verbal description can give clear conceptions. We only know that the potter's and spinning wheel, the turning lathe, and the wheel and axle, in building, did exist. Many Lacedaemonian manufactures were used in the rest of Greece. The Laconian cothpn, a drinking- vessel used in camps and marches, [an earthen vase,] the bowl, the goblet, tables, seats, elbow chairs, doors, and cars ; famous steel, keys, swords, helmets, axes, and other axes of iron, shoes, mantles, and woollen garments, besides embossed works, and those of the brass foundery.* The modern customs of the East may and do confer a knowledge of many processes in detail, but, except in particular in- stances, we have no accounts, however improving and useful such information might be in aid of various ma« nufactures of our own. In illustration of these remarks we have only to state, that Sidonian women are com- memorated by Homer for excellence in embroidery ; 48 irapaTT'qyixara, 49 KVK\OT€pr}S, TopvOS. so V^pa\€T7]S. *^ crctyrip, yo^ifpos, * MQUer ii. 25, 26 52 Xiy^Tj, 53 TrXaariy^* 64 trrvoPj (>L'iriSy aKacpiov. 210 CLASSICAL ANTIQUITIES. SHIPS. 211 lUi and it appears that a gentleman's servant, a native of Saide {olim Sidon), wore a sort of tunic, covered, especially at the back and arms, with the closest em- broidery and patches of variegated cloth. At Paros is still in use a pair of bellows, answering to Virgil's * description. It consisted of two sheepskins, united by an iron pipe, introduced into the fire, which were alter- nately dilated with air and compressed by an Arab slave, who knelt above them.t In nautical matters, the retention of ancient customs is still more apparent. Dr. Clarke observes, that the fez, or skull-cap, egg-shaped, like that on the figures of Ulysses, is still common in the Mediterranean; and from Winckelman it also appears that the costume of the modern sailors, a large surtout with a hood, resembles, except in the sleeves, that of the ancients. Mr. Emerson has also seen, in the construction of certain vessels, conformities to descriptions of Homer. The Greeks, in their ship- building, used the lightest kinds of wood, viz. ash, fir, pine, cypress, and plane; because they thought, that the lighter the vessels, the more swift they would be. Ancient are distinguished from modern ships, not only by difference of form, but by having no keel. The Romans had no shipping till after the first Punic war, a. u. c. 490 ; and the technical terms used by them being, almost without exception, Greek, show that their fashions were similar ; and these are quite familiar. Oars are said to have preceded sails, and the Corinthians first introduced the use of many ranks of them. The ships of war were commonly triremes, although they were not limited to that class ; for small vessels were frequently employed, because they could inflict damage and easily escape.:): Vessels of war were in length eight times their breadth, while those used in commerce were shorter by one half. In some of the former (as the pentecontoros at least), the hold was partitioned into a large number of compartments, each ♦ Georg. iv. 1. 170. f Emerson's Travels in the Egean, ii. 31. 181. X Mem. del'Instit iii. 144. III il M ^ water-proof.* The triremes, which were used for war, had their rowers disposed above each other obliquely, as in the following figure. I 1 2 \ The form of these galleys, which is thought to be preserved in the chebecks, Greek vessels, and light feluccas still used in the Mediterranean, differed from our vessels, which have tumble-home sides, in the pro- jection of the latter outwards. This arrangement made the use of oars easy and advantageous, and aided land- ing. Some of the ships of war, at least, had not only interior passages, but exterior shelves or ledges, large enough to place there ranks of combatants.t This, as well as the position of the rowers, is well deUneated in the following woodcut, which represents one of the vessels used by Antony at the battle of Actium. It has been noted, that the ancient navigation was limited to coasting, and it has been justly ascribed to their ignorance of the compass : but this was not the sole cause ; their craft was of the construction adapted to rivers as well as seas. If they intended the vessels for all seas and some rivers, the length was five times the breadth ; if only for some seas, six times ; if only for lakes or limited gulphs, of considerable length.:}: The oars were worked by various numbers of men to each oar ; and in the lower tiers, to prevent admis- sion of water, the upper ends of the oars were enveloped in leathern bags.§ According to Athenaeus, the length of the largest oars was that of the breadth of the vessel. || When it was necessary to run one vessel alongside another, it appears that there was a mode, as is shown in the cut, of dropping the oars, in a pendulous form, dose to the side ; for the oars, being fastened to the row-lock, could not be drawn in.^ The rowers did not • M^m. de rinstit iii. 145. 146. + Id. 155, 15a t Id. 1f>S, 169. I Id. 162. IJ Id. 156. seq. ^ «4Knir»J^, okocKijuos, p 2 S12 CLASSICAL ANTIQUITIES. sit^ but Stood in an inclining position. The practice was directed by a person called celeusteSy the Roman hortator remigum^ who was placed in the middle of them^ and carried a staff, with which he gave the signal when his voice could not be heard. This signal was for the rowers to strike; and he encouraged them by a song or cry. called the celeusma. This was either sung by the rowers^ or played upon instruments^ or effected by a symphony of many or striking sonorous tones. Winckelman says^ that ships disposed to battle had neither sails nor yard^. It is known that the former were not used during action. The Greeks had also long and narrow boats *y which one man rowed with two sculls. * cr.,aiuov was a carved painted image^ as now^ to denote the name of the ship. The following figure, from Fabretti, will show these parts*; from which it will appear that the boar's head^ sometimes confounded with the beak, was rather a further pro- tection to the prow, as sometimes to the stern: — a^is sometimes a goose's neck, the %>?yicrxot', because geese were considered fortunate omens to mariners, from swimming on the water ; b, the rostra ; c, the ophthal- moi ; d, the Trapaa-n^uov, whence the ship had its name — a sea-horse; e^ the figure of the tutelary deity {tuteld)y sometimes put upon both prow and stern ; merchants taking Mercury, soldiers Mars, or other deities favour- able to the profession of the persons embarked. In the (pocXaic (the modern limber) was the antlia, or pump, with its well. A succession of shelves on the sides formed the seats of the rowers_, and there were spaces in the middle between, in the lower decks. The uppermost shelf, S'^avoc, was part of the higher deck, and formed our gangway. In the stern was the pilot's place, and the apAao-rov, or aplustre, to which was at, tached a round plate, called a^a-Trihiov or a(mSvy.ri ; or flags differently coloured were there attached to distin- * Authors confound (says Montfaucon) the names of vessels, and verbal distinction is of little or no use. In the gems of Stosch, published by Winckelman, are to be found vessels of all kinds, too numerous to be here given, and unintelligible without plates. NAVAL OFFICERS. 217 guish the vessels, or a Triton to indicate the changes of the wind. The following figure exhibits, from the Tra- jan column, an aplustre^ cheniscuSy banners, ship's kin^ tern, helm, and two ram's heads to protect the stern —all united. The crews consisted of rowers; able seamen (vai/rai), who had appropriate oflSces ; ordinary seamen (fjuso-ovocvrock); and soldiers, who had heavier arms and armour (be- cause they did not march), very long spears, and bladed poles to cut the ropes of the enemy's vessels, and so disable them. The officers were, an admiral (oro^a^^o^, vocvcc^^oq, or a-T^ocTfiyoq) ; vice-admiral {I'TZicrtQKBvqy or €7r*(7ToXia(f)o^o^) ; captain (t^ iTj^a^^^^) i ^ manager of the business of the ship {oc^x^kvS £^vYira>) ; a master, or pilot {yivSe^vmYig) ; a boatswain (Tvpoj^evs or Trpu^ctTYiq, by some called the xeXeuctttj^) ; a musician, to animate the rowers {r^iYi^ocvXrjg) ; quartermasters (SiOTro*, vao^pvXccusq), em- ployed in sounding especially ; carpenters (jo^x'^px^k) ; pursers (ra^^at) ; cooks, or attendants on the fire (e(7- X^^ok) ; and a clerk, who kept the ship's accounts (Xoyt- o^yig^ or y^fxjJLfxaTwg). / 218 CLASSICAL ANTIQUITIES. ARMOUR AND ARMS. 4 As the Greeks and Romans fou^^ht their ships in a similar manner^ the tactics of naval engagements will be given in the next volume. 219 CHAP. IV. ARMOUR AND ARMS. Armour. — The three following figures are of a date anterior to or coeval with the days of Homer : Fig, 1. is a light-armed man (4^iXo^) ; fig. 2. is an oTTXiTa, or heavy-armed man ; fig. 3. exhibits the shoul. der pieces, leathern cuirass with plates, and the boots (jcvw/xi^f^) of Homer. AiuioLR, says Dr. Meyrick, had its origin in Asiatic effeminacy. The warlike Europeans at first despised any other defence but the shield ; but the Asiatic Greeks introduced this artificial shell, with other corruptions. The progressive kinds of armour appear to have been these; — 1. skins; 2. hides, padded linen, matted stuff. or wood ; 3. leather armour, with a rim of metal ; 4. plates or scales. Scaled armour distinguishes barba- rians from Greeks or Romans. * These positions shall now be illustrated by leference to the respective parts of armour. To begin with Helmets. — 1. The skin-kind, whence the Latin galea, from yaXsn, yaXr, a weasel or cat. A helmet of this description appears in fig. 1. above, as well as in numerous others, where the lion's skin occurs, as the uniform of Homer's generals ; is a common costume of Hercules ; is mentioned by Virgil ; and was retained by the Romans, according to the Trajan column, for their vexilliferi, or standard-bearers. The fashion was Indian, Ethiopian, and Egyptian ; and Dr. Meyrick supposes that the mane with the ears erect gave birth to crests and tufts. Such a helmet appears in the following head, with a rim of metal. The kinds of these helmets were the Ki^virj, dog's skin one, — -Trora/xo? xi;a;v, the water dog, being the most common ; and there were the iXTtScn, weasel's skin ; Tai;p»v>i, of bull's hide ; aAwTrsKE)?, of the fox's skin ; XgovTiTraij/Ei*?, of the lion's skin. These skins were always worn with the hair on, and the teeth were frequently placed grinning on their enemies. The savage ancientry of this custom is proved by its having been found among the ancient Mexicans. To these helmets were sometimes annexed the horns of animals ; for Ovid, in his combat of the Centaurs and Lapithse, mentions one who wore a wolf's skin on his head, with ox horns annexed. 2. The helmet of wood or of leather, strained upon framework, is given in the cut above, ^^f. 3.; one of them with a face guard, in^?^. 2. The next kinds are, (1.) the TTEpvcs^aXrj, with a nose- guard, and generally two leather flaps to protect the cheeks ; and these, when not used, were tucked up * Dr. Meyrick. 1/ .--•«•'. 220 CLASSICAL ANTIQUITIES. inwards. There are two in the British Museum. The leathern flaps do not ap- pear in the figures^ and here were unnecessary. Dr. Meyrick says that the TrsptJtcifaXy) had a ridge^ on which was a quantity of horsehair^ from the mane, cut square at the edges. (2.) The Kpocvoq merely covered the back part of the head, but was furnished with cheek-pieces, called oxov(;y which turned un- der the chin, and were concave metal plates, turning upwards, if not wanted, by hinges. One of these helmets, with moveable cheek pieces, is here given, from count Caylus. The x/javo^ had some- times a cock's feather stuck on each side.* The next helmet was the Kopv;, a very splendid kind : it had either a frontlet, termed o(p^viq, or a projecting piece over the brow, vH(7ov ; and was embossed with qua- drigae, sphynxes, griflins, &c. It had feathers, ridges, and horsehair of mane and tail. The ridge was called (pa,Xo<; ; the horsehair orna- ment Xo(poq, sometimes, perhaps, composed of wires of gold or hair gilt, whence the eSeipat x^^^^^'' ^^ Homer ; the ridge was of various metals; the crest painted, sometimes with feathers added, which occasionally supported the hair. Leathern scull-caps, slit open at the ears, and tied with thongs under the chin, and helmets made of twisted thongs, ornamented outside with boars' teeth : under them a woollen cap. After the time of Alexander the Great, common soldiers had only small crests, chieftains plumes or two crests (a/x??i7raXos ), three * See Montfaucon on a Camp, vol. v. pi. cxcvi. ARMOUR AND ARMS. 221 (rpu^aXEia), four(TET^a?)aXo,-): cows' and goats' horns were worn ; and hence the T^kX(^(Tig, or crest itself, was some- times called x.^oc(;. Mr. Hope* mentions helmets, which had cfoxa*^ eminences^ these were called a-re(pcx.vY}. The Macedonian causia had brims, like a petasusy the hat worn by Mercury.t Thus Dr. Meyrick.:}: The helmet with the fixed visor, which required being thrown back in the whole, in order to uncover the face § , fell very early into disuse, and never appears in Roman figures. Some singular helmets, with aigrettes, plumes, wings, horns, double crests, and double cheek-pieces, are ancient, being seen on the Hamilton vases ; while others, with fantastical additions, and overloaded crests, are either in the main bar- barian, or subsequent to the removal of the seat of empire to Constan- tinople. || The body armour consisted of tunics, cuirasses, mitrees, thoraces, girdles, and arm^pieces. The tunic in Strutt's bronze Etruscan warrior is short, having no skirts below the girdle. It seems to have been made of stiff and rigid leather, but has only one sleeve of that material; the right arm, for the use of the sword, being ap- parently wrapped in folded linen. , , ^n. ., Cuirasses appear to have been introduced by Philo- m^nes among the Achaean horse, that they might be enabled to use Hghter shields and lances. Those of the ancient Greeks consisted of back and breast pieces with lambrequines, i. e. pendent straps hanging over the thighs. Strutt has made the thoraa; and cuirass syno- nymous, but the figure which he gives is similar to one on the Hamilton vases. In the picture of the Sack of Troy, by Polygnotus, upon an altar, is a cuirass com- * Costumes, pi ixxxvi. X Armour, introd. xxiv. — xxvi § See Mr. Hope's Costumes, pi. Ixxiii. Ixxv. li Mongez, R^c. d*Antiq. 21. 25. f Goltz, pi. XXX. 222 CLASSICAL ANTIQUITIES. ARMOUR AND ARMS. 223 posed of breast and back pieces of bronze, fastened by buckles. Some cuirasses consisted of folded linen, or cloth, felt tempered with salt and vinegar. — See Lip^ sius. lib. Hi. de Milit. Rom. Mitrees, accompanied with gorgets. These were made of padded wool, covered either with flat rings or square pieces of brass, and fastened at the sides. In this state it was cut round at the loins ; but that in the time of Pericles foUowed the Kne of the abdomen, and was probably of leather, without metal plates. Sometimes, in front of it was placed another breast- piece ; but this only when the thorax did not wholly cover the chest. * Thoraces — The body, says Roust, was protected by three pieces of armour ;— the thorax, which reached from the shoulders to the navel; the hemithoracion, which covered half the breast; and the zoma, which reached from the navel to the knees. Dr. Meyrick says the Jews had pectorals, the "coats of mail" of our translation of the Bible: probably first of linen, but afterwards of plates of metal, and caUed thoraces. 1 hey were first changed into brazen thoraces by the Persians. Those of Homer and the Greeks he con- ceives to have been large breast-plates of brass, leather, or some other appropriate material, to which the shoul- der-guards (see the last cut) were connected at the back. The thorax varied in its form : sometimes, as a gorget, it entirely protected the chest, folding over the upper part of the mitree, and covering each shoulder- blade behind ; sometimes it guarded the upper part of the back, and the whole of the chest.* The middle part was called yuaXa, and the extreme parts im^vyiq ; and these were either fastened by a cord from each to a ring below, or put on a kind of button. The complete thorax was the most ancient, and borrowed from the Persians or Egyptians; but the ^/xi9&;^ax4ov, or half- thorax [said by Polysenus to have been much used by the soldiers of Alexander], though it covered the chest, and was open between the shoulder-blades, often occurs : the most ancient were of padded linen. They were also of brass, iron, and other metals [when in one piece, says Rous, (jtocto<; ;^*Tajv], presumed to have been the XaXKo;)^iTa;yf^ of Homer ; and leather and iron • the latter part being probably a collar t of linen, covered with scales and flat rings : in these cases they were called %^a,KS(; aXvo-i^uToi, thoraces of chain- work ; XsTiSwTof, scaled ; ?), very rich and varied, bound the armour together, whence |a;v£a-crai became a general word to imply putting on armour. In Homer, the girdle was not worn directly above the loins, but just below the chest, as in Hamilton's Etruscan Antiquities, t Arm-pieces. — The arms of the early Greek warriors are padded (see a preceding cut) ; but in later ages appear naked. Shields. — These were at first made of basket-work ; to which succeeded light wood ; but the most usual material was ox-leather, covered with metal plates. The cavalry of the first era used a long shield, but Phi- lomenes introduced a round light one, not wider than absolutely necessary to cover the body. The infantry at first used oblong shields, fiddle-shaped; but Philopoemen changed them to the Argolick shield. The original Greek shield was, however, the ao-T^ [see the middle figure at the beginning of the chapter], a perfect circle, made of several folds of leather, covered with plates of metal, laid one over the other, and about three feet in diameter, in order to reach from the neck to the calf of the leg ; on which account Homer calls them a^^iS'poTa^ and 7roJ)iyy)XE*^ ; the warriors often, by kneel- ing down, and bending their heads, concealing them- selves behind them.:{; The heavy armed infantry and charioteers used this shield. These shields were con- This part was termed avTuf, and edged with a vex. broad flat rim called Trgpt^^spia or vlvkXoc^ the circum- fertiuce or circle ; and the edge of this was denominated iTu?, the extremity : in this ixi;:, or border, according to Rous, were )c?7%pa?/xaTa §, little holes to see through. The centre had on it a projecting convex part, called QuL^cxXoq and iJiso-ofx^oC'Xiop, from its resemblance to the navel ; upon this was sometimes placed another pro- • Meyrick, pi. xxvii. — xxix. X See Hope's Costumes, i. pi. Ixvi. + Vol. iv. pi. XXX. . § Archaeol. Attic. 52C. I «fe' jection, termed gTro/x^aXiov, useful in glancing off mis. siles and bearing down enemies. The head of Medusa form'ed the umbo of the shields of Hector, Agamemnon, and Minerva. Upon a Florentine gem, this head is so enlarged as to make nearly the whole convex surface. There were other subjects, as Pegasus, &c.* The heavy armed infantry and charioteers used this shield. The cavalry had the Xaicr/itov, a much lighter and smaller round shield, composed of a hide with the hair on. Muller thinks that the Xocio-rna, TrTEpoevm of Homer re- sembled the shields, furnished with leathern fringes, or wings, represented on vases t, as in Tischbein (iv. 51.) The hght infantry used the pelta. (See below, fig. 2, 3, 4.) The y^^ov or yaf^a, otherwise the Boeotian buckler, fiddle-shaped (see below, fig. 1.), and the thureos, oblong, which resembled a gate, with the top rounded convex, and a hole in the middle. % At first, there was no other mode of carrying the shield, but by a piece of leather suspended from the neck, over the left shoulder ; Eustathius says, a leathern thong, or a brass plate: this apparatus often appears upon the Etruscan monuments. The Carians, says Herodotus, invented handles : this invention consisted of a band of metal, under which passed the arm ; it was called o^^^ovy or o;^av>i. The hand grasped one of the ;cavovE^, rings, on the interior edge, for which were substituted, some- times, cords attached to little rings, and called Tro^Trajcf ^, two of which crossed the arm, while a handle was held in the hand.§ Muller says, from Aristophanes, that the TTooTToc^ was all that was most essential for managing ♦ Gori Mus. Etrusc. i. 31. Monum. Antich. No. 13f>. &c. + Dorians, ii. 261. % Meyrick, xxiii. &c. 4 Id. xxxi. Hope's Costumes, pi. Ixvii. civ. Eustatb. H.B. 184. VOL. I. . Q 226 CLASSICAL ANTIQUITIES. the shield ; and that the TEXa^oji, or thong, could be easily procured, so that it was considered as an append- age to the 'nropTroc^. * When, after war the shields were suspended in the temples, the handles were taken away, to prevent their being of service in sedition. The Carians, says Herodotus, also introduced symbolic or ornamental figures. The Peloponnesians engraved their initials upon the shields for distinction in battle. Greaves, ocrece, the kv>7»/x,^£^ of Homer, Pliny makes a Carian invention t : Goliah wore them. Philopoemen, according to Pausanias^ introduced them and thoraces into the Greek infantry, that he might substitute the Argolic spear and long shield for the small spear and oblong shield. These greaves were either of metal, or bull's hide (see before from Strutt, vol. i., pi. 5. f. 5.) ; rose before, to the top of the knees, nearly met behind at the calves, and terminated just above the ankle ; but some are demicylindrical plates, and only protect the shank. J They were fastened behind. Dr. Meyrick says, with pieces of metal, even of tin, ending in buttons ; others, with thongs or buckles. Mr. Hope observes, that greaves are frequently omitted in Greek figures, particularly those of later dates. Sometimes, on fictile vases, a kind of apron or curtain is suspended from the shield, by way of a screen or protection to the legs. § Gauntlets. — Dr. Meyrick says, that he never saw any representation of the x^^i^^^y or hand-guards. A stiff leather cuflp, with a slit on one side, appears to cover the sword-hand of an ancient Greek figure, given above, from Strutt, i. pi. 5. Among the Spartans, says MuUer, whose attention was almost exclusively directed to heavy infantry, the arms consisted of a long spear, a short sword, only used in the closest single combat, a brazen shield (the round Argolic), which covered the body from the shoulders to • Dorians, ii. 261. t Winckelm. Monum. Antich. No. 132. and 22. \ Meyrick. t vii. 5. 6, OFFENSIVE ARMS. 227 the knees, and was in other respects also more simi- lar to the shield of the heroic age than that of the other Greeks. For, while the Greeks in general had adopted the Carian handle {oxyYi)) in order to direct the motion of the shield, of which the size had been con- siderably reduced, the Spartan buckler was probably suspended upon a thong (rgXa/^wv) laid round the neck, and was only managed by a ring (^rofTral), fastened in the concave side, which in time of peace could be taken out. Cleomenes the Third first introduced the handles of shields in Lacedaemon, and in general a less heavy armour.* Offensive arms. — The earliest, though the spear has been mentioned as such, was the club (^aXayl, in Homer, II. iv.), which, upon ancient monuments, designates persons who lived in the heroic ages : where they ap- pear as weapons of war upon Roman monuments, they denote barbarians. From the club proceeded the mace, battle-axe, and similar arms of percussion; but in all ages the great use of clubs and maces seems to have been destruction of the armour of the enemy.f The club soon gave way to the mace, which had its name (xo^yvn) from the little horns or spikes by which it was surrounded. It occurs in Homer, and on an old coin. J Several brazen mace-heads, which prove that the handle was originally of wood, may be seen in the Bri- tish Museum. Under the battle-axe class was the mXBKv<;y a short handle; at the top an axe blade; a pike opposite. The Amazons are armed with it. Homer § distinguishes it from the a|*y)j, which had a long handle, on the end of it a spike. At the head was on one side an axe blade^ on the other a spike. With this weapon Agamemnon is said to have encountered Pisander.|| The bipennis or double-bladed axe is com- monly seen in the hands of Amazons. We meet with blades crescent-formed^ and long handles (see Jigs. 1^ 2.), • Dorians, ii. 260. t Engr. Stuart's Athens, iii. 53, U Meyrick. Q 2 + Enc. Method. § Ii. XV. T. 711. 228 CLASSICAL ANTIQUITIES. with a short handle {figs. 3, 4.)^ as a double hammer or mallet {figs. 5, 6.), but sometimes the Amazons bore a 3 miU c:^^^ e mushroom-headed club {fig. 7.). Our bills, or alle- bardes, or cleave-alls, were derived from the bipennis. We meet with a Greco-Egyptian battle-axe, with a weight on the back of the blade.* Spears and Javelins. — The latter are considered mis- sile, the former not. They were kept at home in cases, and, it being customary to put them against a column. Dr. Meyrick thinks that in this intention originated fluted columns. They were adorned with banderoUs, and carried at funerals inverted. Homer says t that to present a spear by the middle was to request a suspen- sion of the battle. The spear {oyx^O was generally made of ash, with a leaf-shaped head of metal, and bottomed with a pointed ferule, called a-av^vm^y by which it was stuck in the * Meyrick, t II. iii. V. 77, OFFKNSIVW ARMS. 229 ground ; a method used, according to Homer, when the troops rested upon their arms, or slept upon their shields. The aynyXa, axXiSs^, amentum^ cestrosphendonus. The ccyxv'Koc and amentum were thongs in the middle, for fur- ther impelling them. The cestrosphendonus, a Macedo- nian instrument, much shorter, was darted by two thongs of unequal length. The aclides, short and thick, and stuck with points, were pulled back after attack. Aiyocvin, yvocr^poq, and ev^o^, were javelins, of which the form of the heads may be seen in Stuart.* Several of these, says Dr. Meyrick, were loose upon their shafts, in all probability having attached to them a cord, which was held by the side of the wood, so that, when the weapon once entered the body, the head could not be extracted without the greatest difficulty. Double-pointed lance. — This is mentioned by Homer.t See fig. 1. Ao^v. This lance, says Dr. Meyrick |, was probably that used by the cavalry, and furnished with a loop of leather, which served the warrior for a support, when he chose to let it hang from his arm, and to twist round the latter, for the firmer grasp, when charging. This strap was called ixea-aynvXriy being put on about tlie middle. Other accounts make the intention of the thongs to be that of balancing it Uke a sUng, for the purpose of sending it farther. The Romans distin- guished the amentum by these thongs. See fig. 2. Hunting-spear had salient parts to prevent the advance of the wounded animal. It appears on the coins of -ffitoha. See^^. 3. KovTo^, a long lance used in the defence of ships. The cataphracti, or heavy-armed cavalry, had other similar. There were, both in the Greek and Roman armies, horsemen called contarii, who used this spear as a mis- sile. The contus nautarum, when furnished with a crook^ was the boatman's hook. * Athens, iii. 27. vignette. \ XXXV. Engrav. Stuart's Athens, iii. 47. Q 3 f Winckelm. Monum. Antich. \ 21 230 CLASSICAL ANTIQUITIES. SWORDS. 231 Sarissa, a long Macedonian spear, originally sixteen cubits long, but in -^Elian's time only fourteen.* The mounting spear had a step annexed to the stafF by which the horseman, having leaned the spear against the horse, ascended. See/^. 4. Figures often appear. carrying two spears ; one for missile purposes, the other for retention. Swords.— It may be generally noted, that the swords of civilised nations were straight, of barbarians crooked, the Lacedaemonians excepted, which were very short, and curved. The modem thin-bladed narrow sword was unknown, though those of the cavalry were propor- tionably long. A further distinction between ancient and more recent swords is a guard for the fingers ; for though one of a single bar occurs among the Etruscans, yet no other instance is mentioned by Dr. Meyrick. The Greeks of the heroic ages wore the sword under the left armpit, so that the pommel touched the nipple of the breast. Generally, the sword was almost horizon, tal. It hung by a belt. The length was nearly that of the arm. The scabbard was terminated in a knob shaped Hke a mushroom. Dr. Meyrick thus describes the Greek swords, (l.) The f(po^, worn at the left hip, suspended from a leathern strap, which passed over the right shoulder. It was straight, intended for cutting ♦ Meyrick. and thrusting, with a leaf-shaped blade, and not above twenty inches long. It therefore reached only to the thigh. It had no guard but a cross-bar, which, with the KoXioq, or scabbard, was beautifully ornamented. The hilts of Greek swords were sometimes of ivory and gold. Inlaying sword blades and hilts with gold is mentioned by Herodotus ; and Caesar encouraged the adornment of arms, that the soldiers might be more desirous of pre- serving them. (2.) The Argive xottk, from the name, seemingly intended for cutting, had its edge in the inner curve of the blade, as had also the acinaces, or scimitars, borrowed from the Persians at a later period of Greek history. (3.) The Iuav^*, or |i;>7Xa*, Lacedaemonian swords, were all of the short cutting kind, and crooked like a sabre. (4.) The machaira, or dagger, was more frequently used for a knife, but worn, says Homer *, in the scabbard of the sword. t Sword J)elL — This was the tiK^ixoov, confounded in later times with the girdle. The Greek heroic figures carry their swords suspended by a belt similar to the modern, only shorter. Homer t mentions a sword, fixed near the shoulders to a thong, ornamented with silver studs ; and it is noticeable that Virgil, who was a copyist of Homer, and studious of depicting the manners of the heroic times, has mentioned both these characteristics in the ^neid.J In the Greek figures, to judge from a • n. r V. 272. X u ii y ^35 t Mn. Till m, « Turn lateri," &c. ; and xil 941. * " Humero cum/'&c Q 4 232 CLASSICAL ANTIQUITIES. Statue at the Villa Albania the belt was a simple thong, tied to the scabbard towards its aperture, whence it passed over the breast and right shoulder, and, falling across the loins, was fastened to the point of the scabbard. The custom of attaching the belt by many turns upon the scabbard is the most remote, the annexation of rings for that purpose, as in the base of the Trajan column, be- ing posterior to the Trojan war. The barbaroas nations were noted for splendid baldricks. Bows and arrows. — The Greeks and Romans, it is said, employed archers to draw the enemy into action. Two particular bows are noted ; the bow of Hercules, or Scythian bow, of the form of the Greek sigma, 2 (see/f/. 2.), and the bow of Apollo (see fig. 1.). 1 Dr. Meyrick says of the Greek bows, that the short bow was made of two long goat's horns, fastened into a handle. The knocks were termed )co^t)vr, and were generally of gold ; which metal, and silver also, orna- mented the bows on other parts. As the Greek bows were small, they were drawn not to the ear, but to the right breast. The arrows are said to have been made of reeds (meaning, I presume, cane, as were the Per- sian), or light wood, feathered at the butt, and headed with barbed points of bronze or iron ; but these were sometimes pyramidal, whence the epithet Tgrpay&^via. They were carried in a quiver, which, with the bow, was slung behind the shoulders. Some of these were square; others round : many had a cover to protect the arrows from dust and rain ; and several appear on fictile MISSILES. 233 vases to have been lined with skins. The original bowstrings were thongs of leather, but afterwards horse- hair was substituted, whence they were called iTr^rEia, and, from being formed of three plaits, r^ixcto-i^* Slings. — Slingers were very rare in the Greek ar- mies, and consisted then of inferior soldiers, who were fit for nothing better.t Pliny ascribes the invention to the Phoenicians:}: ; and this is probable; for the Jewish slingers are said to have been so expert, that some hun- dreds of them, in one army, could sling stones to a hair's breadth, and not miss § : and it is remarkable that the Scripture calls them all '' left-handed men." Hence the adroitness of David, who was possibly also left-handed. The Greeks had ax^o^oXtorat, or mounted slingers. The (r(p£v5oyr), or sling, says Dr. Meyrick, was especially the weapon of the Acarnanians, the JEtolians, and the Achaeans, who inhabited ^gium, Dyma, and Patrse ; but the last of these so far excelled, that, when any thing was directly levelled at a mark, or a successful hit, it was usual to call it A^aiKov /3eXo^ Some of the Achaian slings were made of a triple cord ; others of wood, and sometimes of leather ; and are de- scribed by Dionysius as having the cup not exactly hemispherical, but hemi-spheroidical, decreasing to two thongs at the ends. The Roman sling upon the Trajan column is simply a short thong, and is there used for driving the besieged from the battlements. But, as Florus and Strabo say, there were no doubt three kinds, long or short, according to the proximity or distance from the enemy. Out of them were cast stones, or bullets of lead, called ^oXvS^thg, or juioXi;6*Si5a icr(f)a4pau Some of these, engraved by Stuart j|, are spheroidical, having an ornament on one side, and the word Afif a^ on the other. Those in Count Caylus IT are of the form of olives, and inscribed with Greek or Latin characters. Aldrovandi, &c. have published others, with FUGITIVI PERITIS, ITAL. GAL. and FERI. SomC of * Meyrick, &c. f I^"c. M<^thod. [I Athens, iii. p. 27. Meyrick. X vii. 56. S Judges, xx. 16. H Rec.il. pl.9J. n.3. 234 CLASSICAL ANTIQUITIES. them weighed no less than an Attic pound, i. e. a hundred drachms. Small ones may be seen in the British Museum ; and, according to the size of them, the slings were managed by one, two, or three cords! Stones were also used, as by David ; but as these could not always be got of a proper form, these leaden bul- lets were cast. At a later period, the Greeks had a method of casting from their slings itv^oSoXo^ XkQoLy or fire-balls, and from their machines, a-KvrocXiocy made of combustibles, fitted to an iron head, which, being armed with a pike, stuck fast into its object, that it might be more surely inflamed. Both the Greeks and Romans called a mounted ring a sHng, from the resem- blance of the ring to the leather enclosing the stone. Montfaucon says, that, to judge from the slingers on the Antonine column, the sling was a long narrow piece of leather, or other stuff, the two ends of which were held in the hand, and the stone put in the folding at the bottom ; one of the ends having a loop for the fingers, that when the stone was thrown the sUng might not slip out of the hand. David carried his stones in a bag or scrip ; but upon the Trajan and Antonine columns the slingers carry the balls, or stones, in a corner of the cloak, held up by the left hand, like a woman with an apron.* The sling principle was applied to machines, of which hereafter. Knapsack. — The soldier, to carry his provision, had a basket y (yvXiovy or o^oQnKViv aTpocTkcortKYiVy made of oziers, irXsyiJLa,; with a long narrow neck.t But Mr. Valpy translates yvXiovy from the same authority, Ari- stophanes, by knapsack X; and the Greeks used o-kwcc'i^hv to signify things collected into a bundle for convenient carriage on the shoulders § : and it is certain, that on the Trajan column the soldiers carry their provisions in a sort of wallet, at the end of their spears. The etymon will not determine the question, for the root is yuaXo^ « Montfaucon, Meyrick, &c. t Rous, &c. X Funuamental Words of the Greek Laniruaee. d 63 § Hygen. de Castr. Rom. 272. © e > i' • KNAPS-ACKS. STANDARDS. 235 hollow ; but the poet uses, in the same comedy, yvX^uv^ vEva*, to signify men that had a neck as long as that thing, and this is the best support of the basket inter- pretation. The provision carried consisted chiefly of salt meat, cheese, olives, and onions, sufficient for three days. * Standards. — Diodorus Siculus says, that the Egyp- tians began this practice by affixing the effigies of an animal to the end of a spear, to make every man know his company, and prevent disorder; and, conceiving that they gained victories by this means, were hence led to worship the originals. Among the Grseco-Egyptians the standards resemble, at top, either a round-headed table- knife or an expanded semicircular fan ; but there were various patterns, possibly of higher antiquity.t Homer does not mention standards ; and Agamemnon, through inability to make himself heard, having elevated a pur- ple cloak upon a spear, to rally the flying Greeks (a practice (crr,/>cEAoy) subsequently mentioned by Polybius, Polyaenus, and Plutarch), it has been supposed that other ensigns were then unknown. But it is nevertheless believed that, in the heroic ages, a shield, helmet, or cuirass, fixed at the top of a spear, served for the same purpose. In later periods, the Greeks used ensigns marked with the national symbols ; as the oil and olive for Athens, Pegasus for Corinth, Sphinx for Thebes, the letter M for the Messenians, A for the Lacedaemo- nians, &c. It appears from Thucydides, &c. that the elevation of the standard was the signal to join battle ; depression of it to desist. The ancient Greek signal for the former purpose was ejection of a lighted torch by TTvpfofok (priests of Mars) in both armies, for which were afterwards substituted the shell, mentioned by Athenseus, as the shell used by xrjpuxE^ (heralds, or criers), and, according to Casaubon, of the fish murex X, or trumpet ; and, among the Lacedaemonians and Cretans, flutes. • Rous, &c. X Burney's Mus. i 522. f See Denon, pi. 73. ed. Lend. 236 CLASSICAL ANTIQUITIES. CHARIOTS AND CAVALRY. 237 Warlike engines. — These will be mentioned in the next volume, in connection with the Roman fera. Cars of war. — Though cavalry was in use before the Trojan war, none are mentioned in Homer. The heroes used instead shell-formed cars, guided by a charioteer with reins, which might be fastened to a handle in front. When they appear with three horses, one was often only a spare one, lest the others should knock up. But one car is an upright square box, with a pole turned up (see^^. 3.), a fashion of the Egyptian 12 3 car of war.* Scythed cars are nowhere represented, but Diodorust mentions them as having been used by Ninus. Shafts and poles were both used, but were altered into one, i. e. the latter, by Clisthenes.:): Iron linchpins are the Trapa^ovia, f/xg'aXoi, and Ev^Xaia. The plate put at the end of the axle, to keep it from dust, was known in the days of Homer, and caUed crTrsprfpiov. The horses were annexed by yokes (traces being un. known to the ancients), resemWing ours for oxen. These were called ^^vyXoci, and also axpo;^»,y4crxoi, from the curves, like a goose's neck. Homer calls the bowl, or round ornament, at the end of the pole,o/x?aXo^; and a gem * Denon, pi. 73. f ii. 5. ; % Kirke's Hamilt. Vases, pref. xiv. of Storch shows that the hook, upon which Homer* says that the reins were fastened, was of the form of a crescent. The car in the heroic ages seems to have been almost solely used for conveyance of the warriors speedily, or as desired, into action, that they might be fresh, un- wearied, and attack where they chose. Achilles dragged the body of Hector after it, because it was a custom of the Thessalians, where he was born. Wheels made entirely of bronze are still preserved at Berlin t, the Vatican, &c. ; and Pausanias says, that the public places and temples of Greece were decorated with no less than twenty-four cars of bronze, higcB and quadrigce, of the natural size, filled with one or more figures, and accom- panied with couriers and other men on foot. Cavalry of the Greeks. — TmssinmsX says, concern- ing a battle, that the cavalry forces were few, and did nothing ; for the Peloponnesians had not then learned the art 'of riding, and that they only attended, more major um {kxto. i^oitov tov a^;^aiov), to aid the infantry. The Greeks, indeed, considered cavalry rather as auxi- liaries than principals in action, though they had nume- rous light-armed soldiers, even of slaves, to assist in pursuit and useful purposes. § This indifference ac- counts for the non-employment of cavalry in the Trojan war. Plutarch states another reason : — Agesilaus, be- ing obliged to retreat to Ephesus through inferiority in cavalry, ordered all the rich to provide each a man and horse, which substitution should excuse them from per- sonal service. By this means, in the room of rich cow- ards, he was soon furnished with stout men and able horses ; and this, he said, he did in imitation of Aga- memnon, who agreed for a serviceable mare to discharge a wealthy coward. \\ Xenophon, too, adds, that horse- men should be able in body as well as purse. If In Attica, because a hilly country, there were very few horse, until they had expelled the Medes and Persians * II. E. 728. t P. Ii9. 1.21—24. ciL Frankf. 1583. II Lacon. Aiwphth. f Winckelm. ^ Miiller's Dorians, 11. 259 'if Rous, 317. 238 CLASSICAL ANTIQUITIES. out of Greece, when they increased them to only 300 and afterwards to 1200; and also armed an equal number of archers. Nor did the Spartans have teachers of horse- manship, whom they called i}noxocpo(.Toct, until they had subdued the Messenians. * The first cavalry, after the heroic times, were the a^cpi^rTro; of Homer, troopers who had two horses upon which they mounted alternately, or rather leaped, hke equestrian performers, from one to^the other when on full speed, t Pollux J attributes the esta- blishment of V<^X«*^ who fought both on horse and foot, and had servants, under the latter circumstance, to attend their horses, to Alexander the Great. Of cuirassiers (ca. taphracti), and light-armed cavalry (psiloi), in the next volume ; for Montfaucon says that the Greek and Ro- man cavalry were similar, in the manner of riding, ac- coutrements, and other matters. The following curious representation of Alexander, upon his famous horse Bucephalus, shows the x^^^^X^'^^v of Homer, a very curious |a;/xa, kilt, or camhoys, like that of our Henry YU.§ ; and the inscription Boujc?, for Bucephalus, be. cause horses were sometimes marked with the head of an ox instead of letters. || The star signifies the east ; and he waves a laurel crown^ to denote his conquests in that country. ! Robinson. f II. o. V. 679. 684. t i. lo. & S See Meynck's Armour, il pi liv. jj Scholiast in Aristoph. Nub. L 239 SECTION IL ARTS OF ANCIENT ITALY. CHAP. I. ARCHITECTURE^ ETC. Contemporary ideas can alone illustrate contemporary conduct : and this illustration^ in every relation to our subject, is fortunately supplied by Thucydides.* No great cities, he says, or other tokens of power^ ex- isted, because the people were perpetually subject to invasions: every distinct tribe easily resigned its ter- ritory to a larger supervening number ; and the richest tracts of country were ever most subject to these ag- gressions. A starving population and a barren soil, as well as the desire of plunder, prompted the study of navigation, as auxiliary to piracy ; and it was deemed an honourable profession, if these marauders, like our Robin Hood, spared the labouring cattle, and did not attack by night, or commit murder. The original pirates were Carians and Phoenicians, who inhabited the isles of the Grecian Archipelago, and were expelled by Minos, who substituted colonies of his own. After this colonisation, the maritime people became, as they ac- quired wealth, which generates a love of ease, more fond of settled habitations. They who were more opulent, strengthened their houses by walls, and also their cities. These, for the sake of trafBc with fo- reigners, and greater security from inland irruptions, they placed (as Caesar describes the sites of maritime , towns among the Celts of Gaul) upon lingulse, or tongues of land, projecting into the sea, and often in- sulated at high water. The town of Corfu is, according to Le Roy t, a surviving exemplar, as are the corsairs » Bell. Pelop. Introd. f Raines de la Gr^ce, p. Z, 240 CLASSICAL ANTIQUITIES. of Algiers of the pirates. The inland people seated themselves at a great distance from the sea, to avoid the inhabitants of the coast, who used to make incursions up the country for the sake of booty. The distinct continental tribes also robbed one another; and hence came the custom of wearing weapons, — a custom so no- ticeable upon the figures in vases. These were also worn, because all over Greece the houses had no kind of defence ; travelling was full of danger ; and their lives were, like those of barbarians, passed in armour. Thus Thucydides ; and his account further illustrates lYiuch of the ancient history of our own island, in reference to the internal quarrels of the Britons and Scots, and the Anglo-Saxon and Danish invasions. In the heroic ages, it was the rule to reduce the conquered to a state of drudgery for the victors, as Joshua* made of the Gibeonites, bondmen, hewers of wood, and drawers of water. Like the feudal nobility of our castles, the military and great men occupied the cities and for- tresses. The Greek word for city (ttoX^) signified, according to Miillert, the ruHng aristocratical power; and he says, from Homer, with the city, every thing that concerned the government of a state was connected; and those exempt from all personal share in the labours of the field, viz. the military families and the nobles, dwelt in it; hence it is viewed in Homer:}: as a dis- grace or a misfortune for a noble to live among the bondmen in the country. Nearly all the towns of Arcadia possessed citadels of extreme antiquity, like the ^^ royal cities " of the Bible, in and near which, many principal, sacerdotal, and mihtary families dwelt from an early period. The huts or houses of the agri- culturists and people were scattered about the fields, or formed into A>]/xoi or hamlets. These premises may well illustrate the primary state of Italy, so far as it is known to us* The aborigines, * C. ix. V. 21—25. t Od. xi. 187. xxiv. 414. f Dorians, ii. 71. Eng. transl. ARCHITECTURE. 241 • I called Umbri, whose particular territory lay chiefly among the Apennines, were, according to Strabo, with the Boii, Senones, and Ligures, immigrants from Gaul, i. e. Celts ; and Dionysius of HaUcarnassus accounts, from this circumstance, for the intermixture of Celtic words with Latin. * Celtic antiquities, however, pre- cede the date of history ; and the manners and customs of Italy are, in the main, of Grecian affinity. The Umbri were, according to Phny, expeUed from Etruria by the Pelasgi ; and, notwithstanding discrepancies in ancient history, they and the Etruscans are presumed to have been one and the same people.t The finest specimens of architecture in Italy are those which appertained to Magna Graecia ; a term loosely ap- pUed to the present kingdom of Naples, but more pre- cisely to Apulia, Calabria, Leucania, and the country of the Bruttii. The Doric, of which the origin is most successfully traced above to the Egyptian archetypes, is of course the order in use, unless it be admitted that the Tuscan was not a corruption of the Doric, but a distinct genus. The latter notion seems to have been taken up by those who have made the Pelasgi and Etrurians colonists of different nations, and the order an appro- priate peculiarity. It rather appears, that it was only a degraded and impoverished imitation of the Doric. Alberti says, that he found the Doric in use among the most ancient Etruscans:]:; and the Doric temples at Paestum have been ascribed to them. Le Roy § , who compared the only remaining memorials of the Tuscan order at Rome, viz. the Trajan and Antonine columns, with the Doric of Greece, finds few or no distinctions ; and the prostyle temples are so similar, that the Tuscan only differed from the Greek in the proportion of their length to their breadth (the Roman temples being shorter), and in the disposition of the interior. But the conformity between the two orders must be limited to ♦ A list of Celtic Latinisms is given in ]Mahe*s Antiq. du Morbihan, p. 67. t ArchaBolog. xxiii. 265. % De Re aedificat f. cii. a. S Ruines de la Gr^ce, p. ii. p. 2. VOL. I. n M 242 CLASSICAL ANTIQUITIES. ARCHITECTURE, 243 the most ancient Grecian Doric. * The colonial works which often exceed those of the mother country, differ from the style of Grecia Proper in the following general characteristics : — a shorter and more tapering column • a more spreading echinus t; a smaller intercolumni^ ation ; a greater entasis (swelling of the column) ; and a higher entablature. X The less refined taste of the Romans could not, however, appreciate the simple grandeur and dignified beauty of the Grecian Doric. The order was corrupted even in the time of the re- public. The sarcophagus of L. Scipio Barbatus, great, grandfather of Scipio Africanus, consul U. C. 456, is carved in the Doric style, with roses between the tri- glyphs ; and the Doric frieze is surmounted by Ionic dentils. § M. Bury, a French antiquary, says that the little Doric temple of Hercules at Dori forms the trans- ition from the Greek to the Roman Doric : and, ac- cording to Le Roy II, the Tuscan did not participate in this change. The Romans preferred the latter for simple memorial columns, as, besides those of Trajan and Antoninus, Evelyn IT mentions others, of Theo- dosius at Constantinople, and of Valerius Maxinms. The Roman Doric of the temple of Augustus at Athens, says Le Roy, so differs from that of the Parthenon or Theseum, that we perceive, on the part of the Romans, considerable and disadvantageous alter- ations. Vitruvius committed great errors, because he knew nothing of Greek buildings except through authors. He says, that the Doric ought to have seven diameters ; and, contrary to the intention of the architrave,— which, from its having to support all the other members of the entablement, required strength, — he makes the frieze too high, and the cornice too full of mouldings, ♦ Ruines de la Gr^ce, p. ii. p. o t The echinus is the second member of the capital : thus, a is the abacus; -J 6, the echinus, J^ X The entablature is the ornamental top finish, like . ; a mantelpiece, and consists of an architrave^ the ■^ '^ lower moulding, the frieze or middle, and the cor- nice or upper compartment. % Burton's Rome, i. 279. 1 Miscell. 405. II Pref. ix. X. thus destroying all grand effect in the execution. At the theatre of Marcellus, they even elongated the Doric column to nearly eight diameters, and put more mould- ings in the capitals and entablements ; by which they destroyed the original character of the order.* The cause is thus assigned by Palladio : — If an interco- lumniation was only three diameters, the Romans thought that elongation of the column was necessary to take off the heaviness ; while wider spaces admitted of less height, t They did not know, that, through too wide intercolumniation, as in the Tuscan order, the effect of the columns was destroyed. So different was the Roman from the Greek intercolumniation, that, where only foundations remain, the orders, among the Romans, might be ascertained by the intercolumniation. The following table will show this : — Orders. Doric - - Ionic Corinthian Composite Intercolumniation. Diastyle, 3 diam. Eustyle, 2^ diam. Eustyle, 2^ diam. Systyle, 2 diam. Do, Picnostyle, 1^ diam. Length of the Column. 7§ or 8 diam. 9 diam. 9 diam. 9J diam. 9^ diam. 10 diam. The temple of Augustus at Athens is further re- marked by Le Roy to be the source of all the changes which the Romans made in the Doric, as to the pro- portions which had been in use from the time of Pericles. The difference between this style and the ancient Doric is this: — the shaft of the column di- minishes less ; the echinus of the capital is more rounded, and has three small annulets between that and the shaft; the entablement is lower, and the cornice more salient and fuller of mouldings. The astragal, an ornament originating with the Ionic, was, apparently, first applied to the Doric by the Romans. Ionic* — Dr. Chandler saw some exquisitely designed and carved capitals of this order at Sardes, now Sart, in Le Roy. f Richardson's Palladio, LI c 13. p. 32, B 2 244 CLASSICAL ANTIQUITIES. li H^lry,;,;?^^-.^ ^^ Lydia : and, therefore, it is likely that the Pelasgi of the Troad and Asia Minor introduced this order into Italy. It is supposed to have taken its rise from some peculiarities in Persian architecture, and to have been known in Greece before the age of Pericles. The ancient capitals are not uniform, but very beautiful. In the hands of the Ro- mans, they are mean and tasteless deteriorations of the graceful Erecthean ex- emplar preserved among the Elgin Marbles. There is reason to think that the temple at Eleusis was the Roman model. The ancient bases of this order had, it is said, no square plinths under them; and Le Roy supposes that the fashion was not older than the time of the emperors ; but it is certain that the bases at Eleusis are formed out of square blocks *, and that the capitals, rudely imitated in the temple of Fortuna Virilis at Rome, are not deep, but very elegant. In the temple of Ilissus at Athens, there is a shorter Ionic, in beau- tiful proportion, between the Doric and Corinthian. The capitals are larger, to correspond with the enta- blature ; the bases have no plinths ; and the echinus (or eggs and anchors) is, contrary to the present custom, continued under the volutes, quite round the capitals. These distinctions denote one of the earliest examples of this order.t Corinthian order. — Columns with foliated capitals occur in Egypt and Asia Minor, but are not of very ♦ Unedit. Antiq. of Attica, p. 15. c. 3. pi. 3, &c. t Stuart's Athens, L 33. n. c ^ IJUUUUUUUil c j: > i 1 4 ARCHITECTURE. 245 early date in Greece. It does not appear that the most ancient capital, seen at Boeotian Thebes, without volutes at the corners, was known ; if so, it was despised for the richer form of that of the Choragic monument of Lysicrates. Le Roy thinks that the Corinthian was not adopted at Rome before the time of Adrian. The al ipsl g^ jULFLtLnp njLD n n n n.n-D foUated Corinthian became to the Romans, what the Doric had been to the Greeks — their national style. The Greek original was, however, varied to a wonderful extent, without losing its distinctive features. That the Romans, in this favourite style, could improve as much as equal their Greek models, is evident from the temple of Vesta at Tivoli, which seems to have been copied from the Choragic monument on a larger scale. Nor were the architects only Greeks. Many works of sculpture, such as candelabra, vases, and articles of household furniture, are some fashioned in the Greek style, and others as decidedly Roman ; so that there was a distinct national style, and native as well as foreign artisans. At Kiselgick, in Turkey, the capitals of a Roman Corinthian temple are of the highest richness ; in another instance, at Mylasa, the shafts are not cir- B 3 246 CLASSICAL ANTIQUITIES. BUILDING MATERIALS. 247 cular^ but elliptical. The Roman Corinthian differs from the Greek, however, in having a loftier stylobate, not graduated, except for the purposes of access before a portico ; and a steeper pediment, besides various minor differences. The intercolumniation is not the same in any two examples, and the antese are generally parallel, but pilasters are mostly diminished and fluted, as the columns.* So fond were the Romans of this order, that at Pompeii, Doric columns of less than six dia- meters were transformed into Corinthian by means of plaster; the capitals borrowing a part of the shaft, already too short, t Nero is said to have introduced the custom of over- loading architecture with empty ornaments ; and the Composite, an order purely Roman, is first seen in the arch of Titus. The ancient examples differ very little , from the Corinthian, except in the peculiar conform- ation of the capital. In 'the best ages of the Roman architecture, the Composite was only used in triumphal arches ; but the Romans afterwards made many other composites. In these variations, animals of different species, the human figure, armour, a variety of foliage, and other peculiarities, are found. Shafts of columns are sometimes corded or cabled, instead of being fluted: those of the ordinance of the Pantheon are cabled one third their height, and the flutes of the anteae of that ordinance are flat, eccentric curves. There are fragments of others, in which the fillets between the flutes are beaded ; some, in which they are wider than usual, and grooved ; and others again, whose whole surface is wrought with foliage in various ways. The columns of the facade of the temple of Augustus at Malasso {ol, Mylasa, in Caria) are of this order. The upper part of the shaft is adorned with festoons, and the lower part is enriched with leaves of acanthus. Palladio:}: says that the most regular and beautiful kind is that which is composed of the Ionic and Corinthian; and Alberti§, that the capitals ♦ Mr. Hosking. t L. i. c 18. t Pompeiaixa, 214. § F. cv. •\ were intended to comprise the most beautiful parts of the other orders : but that there were some, in which the parts were either increased or diminished, and there- fore disapproved by men of taste. The change of religion, which took place under Constantino, led to the destruction or destitution of many of the noblest edifices of Rome. The ancient Christian basilicas are for the most part constructed of the ruins of the more ancient Pagan temples, baths, and mausolea ; and in them a much greater degree of simpHcity,and consequent beauty, pervades the columnar arrangements, than existed, perhaps, in some of the pre- vious combinations of the same materials. Frequently, however, the collocation of various parts was most un- apt ; and gross inconsistencies were recurred to, to get rid of the difficulties of combining discordant fragments. Building materials. — The public works of the Romans were built by slaves, condemned to furnish a certain portion of materials {e, g. if of stones, eight cubic feet), every day, under penalty of a severe flogging. Crassus bought five hundred */avg carpenters and masons. The provinces were obliged to contribute every year a given number of loads of lime. Contractors of marble quarries, and proprietors of mines of all sorts, paid an impost according to the public necessity ; and to these were further added, contributions from the private funds of the emperors, from those of rich citizens, and tri- umphers, and from spoils of the enemy. In subse- quent eras, these benefits were lost* The military employment of the people, as soldiers, during the middle ages, and the feudal government, which isolated every fieignory and village, covered the whole surface of Europe with chiefs and vassals, none of whom were in the habit of building even a paltry bridge; for which humble fabrics, they were indebted to the subscriptions of in- dividuals.* In the choice of the materials, the Romans were guided * M^moire 8ur leg Travaux publics des Romains, par Antoine Moneez. Mem. Instit Nation, i. 4192—536, n 4* I 248 CLASSICAL ANTIQUITIES. by the productions of the country. If the soil was sandy^ they laid the foundation upon piles, the inter- stices of which were filled with fossil coals*, because insusceptible of wet; and they alsonised, where neces- sary, cinders, and successive layers of broken bricks, stones, and coals, rammed down hard. Coffer-dams for space, wherein to work the piles, and a mixture of oil with the cement, to resist moisture, also occur. t The greater extent of brick to useful purposes, espe- cially to arches, and its greater cheapness, caused the Romans to prefer it to stone. Brick, too, can, in al- niost every place, be made on the spot in which it is wanted. Accordingly, nearly all Roman works were made of it ; and the opus reticulatum (the modern mattoni), or brick walls, covered with reticulated plaster, is more common than any other. Raw bricks were used long before the foundation of Rome, down to the reign of Titus; but were prohibited (says Vitruvius) within the compass of the city, because, for the support of three or four stories, they required a thickness which would encroach upon the highway; nevertheless, they were allowed in the country.:]: These raw bricks were made of lime, sand, clay, or creta (marl), pulverised pumice- stone, and straw, although these substances did not enter into the composition of all raw bricks. They were dried in the sun for two years ; and Pliny says, that walls built with them, if they were made perpen- dicular, would last for ever. It is remarkable, that Vi- truvius mentions a sort of these bricks which would float in water ; a levity ascribed to the straw and pu- mice-stone, and one which would be now of enormous utility in the construction of cupolas, vaults, and floors. Bricks of this kind were made in the month of May ; for in summer the outside only would be scorched, and the interior remain damp, the result of which would be • Carbonibus sub terra defossis. — Vitruv, f Mem. ub. supr. 518. seq. X Vitruvius distinguishes these raw bricks from the testa and structura testacea (burnt bricks), by the term latejes, lateritii parietes^ and lateritia structura. At least, so says Mongez, M^m. ubi supr^. BUILDING MATERIALS. 249 fissures. The earth being cleansed from all asperity, and macerated in mixture with straw for a long time, was pressed into a mould ; then being left to dry, it was now and then turned to the sun. These bricks were 2 feet long, 1 broad, and 4 inches high.* That bricks could more easily be fashioned to pattern by moulds, than stones be carved, is obvious; and there- fore terra-cottas, i. e. pottery, cornices, ornaments^ as monstrous heads for water spouts, antefixes, instead of parapets, and other contrivances to exclude rain from the walls, repeatedly occur. Bas-reliefs of brick were let into the walls of houses; and lumps of the material, irregularly shaped, were, upon laying foundations, used to consolidate marshy and moveable soils. These lumps were not moulded, but formed by hand or a wooden mallet, and resembled, some, rude cylinders; others, irre- gular cones, parallelepipeds, &c. ; but none were found at Marsal of more than from four to twelve inches in circumference. t These were columns of brickwork, tribuli for water-pipes ; and at Pompeii, at the corners of rooms, for emission of smoke ; bricks of various sizes, the larger for public buildings, some shaped for arch- work ; others very small, not more than 6 inches long, 3 broad, and 1 thick, used edgewise {spicatim), for pavements; and triangular ones, for the corners and other parts of walls. % The art of glazing bricks was also understood § ; and some by vitrification, through this process, in the form of a leaf, of a silvery aspect, have been found at Pompeii, and, therefore, have not been invented, as assumed by** a Florentine sculptor of the fifteenth century. Most ancient bricks have sigles (in- itials of names, &c.), and some of these are noted by count Caylus || to have been intended for puffs of the manufactory and maker. Pliny divides bricks into the lidoron, at 6 inches long and 1 broad ; and the bisseda^ 2 Roman feet long. What we mostly find in ruins re- semble oven tiles. It is a curious fact, that to ease * De Re rustic. 345. Lugd. 12mo. 1537. f M^m. ubi supr. t Alberti, f. xxvii. § Id. II Rec. iii. 253. 250 CLASSICAL ANTIQUITIES. walls from weight and humidity, the ancients used to work into them water vessels, ^^ rimosa atque inversa/' says Alberti *, cracked, and the mouth downwards, and pour over them grout-work. Stone ^ materials. — The Romans distinguished the various kinds, as the Volscinian, which resisted fire and weather ; the Gahine and Alhan for beams, because un- affected by the former element; lapis albus, white freestone, which could be easily sawn and chiselled, but would not stand frost ; the Histrian, most susceptible of damage by flame and vapour ; the Campanian, good for all purposes, but too absorptive and siccatory of mortar ; and other kinds, t These had also distinctive characters. Some were called strong, juicy (succosi), and redivivi, growing, as flints^ marbles, and similar kinds ; others, with plane surfaces, right lines, and equal angles, they named quadratos ; again, with various lines and angles, incertos ; hght, the toph and sandy kind; the very large, prcegrandes, not moveable by hand; the minutos, the reverse ; the intermediate, justos ; but in every kind, it was indispensable that the stone should be sound, and not deliquescent.:!: To marble they ob- jected, because almost every thing stained and dis- figured it§ Foundations. — The ancients were guided in their choice of situations, by rocky strata, and places where the vegetation was barren, and the ground not springy. The methods of laying foundations were much the same as the modern, viz. excavation to a solid stratum, piling, substrata of stones, mixed with cement, and even solid pavements of whole square stones. There were, be- sides, various modes according to the materials and countries, and their own peculiar constructions fitted to maritime sites, and those upon which columns were to rest. II The roof was, according to Vitruvius, among the first people flat ; and so roofs were made among the ♦ Alberti, f. xlv. b. § Id. f. xxxix. t Id. f. XXV. xxvi. li Idem. t Id« £ xxxi. ROOF. CEILINGS. 251 Greeks for walking on ; but, to prevent inconvenience from rain and the lodgement of snow, they were, in certain countries, ridged. Alberti says that the roofs sub dio were not used for ambulation, like those non sub dio. * The covering materials consisted of thatch, wooden planks, or shingles, plates of stone or metal, and lead. The Etruscans and Ligurians used sections of crustaceous stone. There were also tiles in the later eras. These were divided into the following kinds : — as the imbrex, placed in rows to receive the rain ; and the tegulcBy which covered the joints. These were finished off at the eaves with upright ornaments, called ante/ixesy sometimes a fanciful leaf, sometimes a mask, t Buccides is said to have first invented the latter of red brick, for which marble with whole tiles was afterwards substituted.:}: Ceilings. — Some were only of planks (the Greek (parvoofjiarex,) ; but, when they had ornamented panels between beams, they were called laquearia. Some places had neither ; only figures, &c. in stucco, inside the roof. The more wealthy Romans were, however, particularly fond of splendid ceilings ; so much so, says Alberti, that they seem to have bestowed upon them their chief attention. They were ornamented with plates of gold, glass, and brass, gilt beams, and sculp- ture of crowns, flowers, and statues ; and he adds, that the ceilings (generally arched) had ornaments imitative of the figures which silversmiths disposed in paterse ; and in sleeping rooms were copies of the patterns which decorated the bedclothes. § This fashion of the Ro- mans, who detested naked spaces, is well exemplified in the vaulted ceilings of the tepidarium of the baths of Pompeii ; while that of the caldarium is entirely carved with transverse flutings, like that of enriched columns. Montfaucon mentions magnificent ceilings, • Of these more fully, under atrium^ hereafter. + Pompeiana, 221. 223. X Alberti, f. ex. S ** Atqui et habet quidem sua ornamenta testuda Apud veteres qualia ornamenta in pateris sacrificiorum facerent argentarii ; eadem ad testu- dines sphsericas exornandas architecti transferebant Qualia vero stratoriis lectorum pannis assuevere, talia fornicibuset caxnaris imitabantur."— f.cx 252 CLASSICAL ANTIQUITIES. covered with ivory plates, which moved and turned round in such a manner that, at intervals, they could make the ceilings rain flowers and perfumes. Varro recommends a ceiling made to resemble the sky, with a moveable star and index (radius), which within would show the hour of the day, and, without, the direction of the wind. Chambers, in cottages and humble build- ings which had no ceilings (a custom not uncommon formerly in the upper rooms of our colleges at Oxford), were vaulted with reeds bruised and flattened. The magnificent ceiling here given is from Montfaucon. The windows were so disposed as not only to admit light, but ventilate the whole house, that it might not be unwholesome, and not receive more or less light than was necessary. They were placed high, that the person might be sheltered from the wind, and re- ceive the benefit of the latter without injury. They WINDOWS. DOORS. 253 were to be large or small, according to the exposure to the sun. Those of a southern aspect were to be low and small, because they would receive the light airs, and be impervious to the heat of the solar rays ; but in winter dweUings, they were to be open to the sun. All windows, however, which were made for the purpose of receiving Ught, were to be placed on high.* It is certain that windows were very rare, and long galleries only lit up with loopholes ; and that the few elevated windows to be discovered were . closed with curtains and trellis- work of bronze, suspended upon hinges, to open and shut at pleasure. One of these, in a perfect state, was found at Herculaneum. The chambers at Pompeii had no windows, but were lighted by the door, as was, according to ApoUonius, the chamber of Medea. Elsewhere there are exceptions. The Pompeian exca- vations have clearly demonstrated the use of glass in windows. In the apodyterium of the baths, a skylight is placed in the archivolt, two feet eight inches high, and three feet eight inches broad, closed by a single large pane of cast glass, two fifths of an inch thick, fixed into the wall, and ground on one side, to prevent persons on the roof from looking into the bath. The tepidarium was also lighted by a window two feet six inches high, and three feet wide ; in the bronze frame of which were found four very beautiful frames of glass, fastened by small nuts and screws, very ingeniously contrived, that the glass might be removed at pleasure, t Other instances occur elsewhere, as well as the sub- stitute of alabaster. Vitruvius mentions windows {\mU vatce fenestrce) which reached from the window to the floor. Bow windows have been found both at Pompeii, and in some Roman remains at Ridgewell in Essex. % Beckmann will have it that transparent windows were, in the time of Seneca, entirely new. § Boors. — Doors were sometimes of marble or metal; ♦ Alberti, f. xv. t These instances are taken from a very useful little work, entitled Pompeii," vol. i. pp. 155. 162. t Archaeologia, xiv. 65. \ Invent, ii. 98. 254 CLASSICAL ANTIQUITIES. but cypress was a wood, from its durability, so valued by the ancients, that doors made of it at the temple of the Ephesian Diana lasted 400 years, and others, at Rome, once covered with silver, 550 years.* At Pompeii, fir appears to have been much used. The doors revolved upon pivots, which worked in a socket below, and were fastened by bolts which hung from chains, t A false door, with a ring for a knocker, six feet wide, and ten feet and a half high, framed with styles and panels, likjB those now in use, occurs at the Chalcidicum. By the side of the outer door was either a real dog chained, or one painted, a custom still re- tained in France ; and on the door-post was inscribed the name of the proprietor. Floors and Pavements. — The Romans were very par. ticular about their floors ; for they not only laid wood- work, distinct from the walls, lest contraction should induce clefts, but a strong coat of plaster upon it, and, over all, a pavement, which would not feel cold to the bare-footed servants, even in winter : in summer habit- ations, a similar bed received either a brick, or marble, or tessellated pavement, or lozenge- shaped scutulje, which were made regular at the angles by borders of brick.:}: The brick floors were of two kinds: those large, laid flat; and smaller, laid edgewise. Out of bricks, horn, marble, sawn pebbles, and artificial pieces of glass, they formed floors ; and even some carved with many figures occur: each sort had its respective de- nomination. In parts open to the air and rain, a very solid stone pavement was requisite; but there were details and particulars too numerous for mention in a work hke this : all, however, depended upon a bed of rubbish and plaster §, well beat into a cake. At Pompeii, pounded tile forms the surface in the more ordinary rooms ; in those of the next rank, small pieces of marble or coloured stones were embedded in pat- terns, at intervals, in the cement, while undried. |1 In * Alberti, f. xxiv. \ Alberti, t xlvu. t Pompeiana, 163. X Re Rust. 231. (I Fompeiana, 160. FLOORS AND PAVEMENTS. STAIRCASES. 9.55 t!ie bed-rooms, the famous mosaic, or, as we call it, tessellated floor (the Latins, lithostroton) occurs. The Orientals were most remarkable for gorgeousness in apparel and furniture ; and they invented this fashion of small pieces of stone coloured, not cubes of glass, in imitation of painting. A pavement of red, and blue, and white, and black marble, mentioned in the book of Es- ther*, is among the first known specimens: the Greeks adopted it in substitution for painted floors ; the Ro- mans copied them, and the fashion became in vogue about the time of Sylla. In the age of Augustus, glass was commonly used ; and Laborde t acquaints us that pavements became so complicated, as to take different de- nominations: — viz, 1. Sectilia; made of pieces of marble cut into large compartments. At Pompeii, the mosaic pavements in the principal houses are generally of white and black marble, or all of one or the other colour ; and one house was partly paved with milkwhite slabs of marble, about a foot square.:}: 2. Secta ; like the French parquets of marble. S. Tessellata, or quadra^ toria; our well-known specimens. And, 4. Vermicu^ lata; the same tesserae, but named from the design. In -he later ages, the new and old religions were mixed together in the designs: in some, David and Goliath appear; and in another, the Christian monogram ac- companies a figure of Neptune. Towards the end of the thirteenth century, when the art was almost for- gotten, Andrew Tafii learned it from a Greek named Apollonius, who became the founder of the modern mo- saic. This differs from the ancient by being shaded. § Staircases. — The Romans made very Kttle use of carpentry ; but Alberti || mentions ash and maple as good wood for stairs. The Romans thought them in- jurious to the good look of the house ; and held that the fewer they were the better, because more room was * Ch. i. ver. G. + " Recherches surle Peinture en Mosaique," annexed to his " Italica.'* Paris, 180^2, folio. t Short's Tour, p. 53. ^ For. Topogr. xxxiv, || F. xvL 256 CLASSICAL ANTIQUITIES. saved in the area. He says that, in the staircases of temples, there were landing-places at every seventh or ninth step ; and Palladio * adds, that in the Portico of Pompey, at Rome, were winding stairs of admirable construction. Being placed in the middle, so that they could receive light only from on high, they were set upon columns, for the purpose of distributing the light to all parts alike. Bramante imitated one without steps at the Belvidere. Staircases outside the house, and some within, arched and narrow, occur at Pompeii and Herculaneum. Chimneys. — None have been found at Pompeii; but Palladio, to use the words of Richardson's translation, speaks thus concerning them : — ^^ The ancients, to heat their chambers, did serve themselves in this manner : they made their chimneys in the middle with columns or corheaux (brackets), which bore up the architrave^ upon which were the funnels of the chimneys^ which con- veyed away the smoke ; of which kind one may be seen at Bay^ near the Piscine of Nero ; and one which is not far from Civita Vecchia ; and, when they would not have chimneys, they made in the thickness of the wall pipes or funnels, through which ascended the heat of the fire, which was under the chamber, and was con- veyed forth through certain vents and conducts which was on the top of the funnels." t There were, however, says Alberti:}:, no chimneys, because the Romans were afraid of fire ; and none have been found at Pompeii ; for it was usual to burn firewood which did not smoke. Although the ancients adopted stone for their public edifices, yet, as Greece was a country subject to earth- quakes, light framework was preferred for private dwell- ings. § Of Etrurian history, we have only the few glimpses exhibited by remains and Roman authors; and they all agree that caves formed the first habitations in the pastoral stages of society. || The vale of Ispica, in EDIFICES. 257 ♦ Lib. i. c. xlv. \ Leake, ii. J 43. t P. 193. t F: Ixxvii. II Invcn. 1. u. 8.6. 11— Ja Sicily, presents for eight miles long a series of these caverns, justly ascribed to the Phoenicians or Cyclopean occupiers. They are excavations in stories, mounted by temporary ladders, and are divided into apartments, each having as many distinct doors (a subsequent Roman fashion), there being among them no direct communi- cation from room to room. The cattle were under the same roof. Some of the caverns are still inhabited, and every thing still put to the same use. It excited the surprise of Le Roy to see, in the Greek cottages, the oxen, goats, and sheep, pass before him peaceably to their respective compartments. There can be Uttle doubt but that the cottages were adapted to similar plans, like those of the Greeks in modern times, and that of Baucis and Philemon, described by Ovid. The precursor of the Roman style seems, however, from the term Tuscan Atrium, particularly described hereafter, to have been derived from that nation. The succeeding houses were, generally speaking, open to a hall or court, called atrium, which was not wholly covered in, but unroofed in the centre (like a modern yard with sheds all round) ; and this was the only atrium used in the first times. In the dwellings of the poor, it is said that there were at no period atria; and that such was the distinction between their dwellings and those of the rich. Never- theless, these houses were full of rooms, and had a court or peristyle. The next sort of a house in rank is that of a trades- man at Pompeii, very like a modern house. It is fixed upon a basement story ; the entry up steps is faced by two pilasters ; the lower floor is dead wall, the. first floor has three oblong square windows ; the roof is flat, and in front is an escalloped parapet. Some of these more humble houses were very irregular ; ^^ an indication," says Mazois, "of the dwellings of obscure persons." The superior Roman houses have been assimilated to those of the Greeks ; but, assuredly, there were strong points of difference in the arrangement and character of the rooms. There does not, however, exist any remains VOL. I. s m 258 CLASSICAL ANTIQUITIES. of a Greek house ; and any plan made out of the de- scription of Vitruvius must be controvertible. Mr. Wilkins* and sir William Gellt have both given such hypothetical plans of Greek houses ; and^ however inac- curate all such plans may be, there seems to be one uniform principle in all, viz., that all were adapted to large households, and that there were, as to the women and visiters, distinct sets of lodgings, besides necessary offices for domestic purposes. Alberti:}: has given a plan, which, however it may differ in particulars, leads us to the intention, in disposing the interior, from which evidently resulted such an enormous number of closets. A man and his wife were to have rooms, but accessible to each other, that both might uninterruptedly enjoy their siestas, or noonday naps, and desire of occasional separation : each room had its distinct door, and one common to both, by which they could privately com- municate with each other. Under the wife's room was the wardrobe, under the husband's, the library. An aged mother had a quiet place apart from the family, with especial provision for a fire. Beneath this was a plate-room {argentaria cello) ; and here were lodged the male youths; the virgin girls in the wardrobe; in a room adjoining, the nurses. The visiters' place was near the vestibule, that the proprietor might receive friends, and not disturb the family. The master of the house had his rooms not far off from his visiter^ that he might enjoy the society of his friend, and both had subconclavia for private uses. The upper servants had lodgings adjacent to their respective offices, and the females and chamberlains their own apartments so near that they could be within call. The butler lodged near the wine-cellar and larder, to which he had access, the grooms near the stables ; and so forth. If we substitute the hall of our old manor-houses for the atrium, and mark the divisions of their interior, we shall see that the ancient Greek and Italian plan was, under some changes, the original of such an interior arrangement, * Vitruvius, p. 247. sect 4. pi. iv. + Ithaca. % F, IxxYilL HOUSE OF SALLUST. 259 although the feudal military construction, and variation of climate, required a different external form. The to S *? PLAN OF THE HOUSE OF SALLUST. superior Roman houses were of different kinds : town- houses, insukB, or rather winter-houses ; or villce sub-^ urhancp, or estival dwelhngs, and subterraneous houses, for the heat of summer. Of. the first kinds Pompeii s 2 260 CLASSICAL ANTIQUITIES. presents excellent specimens, but not coincident in ground plan. We shall select one of uncommon ele- gance, viz. the house of Sallust, and its interior restored. INTERIOR OF THE HOUSE OF SALLUST. Diodorus says, that this entrance and the portico were intended for the use of servants.* In this ves- tibule was suspended the civic crown voted to Caesart, and upon the side of it was the porter's lodge. Next to this was the atrium, or, as it has been sometimes called, the cavcudium, and would be by us denominated the grand hall. According to Alberti and Vitruvius, it ws^s the place where clients waited upon their patrons, and was what is called in scripture the judgment-hall (of Pilate), and the same as the basilica, there being in it a throne.:}: But these appropriations and uses we shall soon discuss further. No such assimilation occurs at Pompeii, although the atrium in private houses certainly was, Uke the halls of our ancestors, the usual room as- signed for general purposes, such as for the performance of plays, the instruction of pupils, and, in early periods §, for the woollen manufactory of the mistress. It was adorned with the images of ancestors, as our halls were * Alberti, f. Ixii. Z F. Ixiii. f Suetonius, Ovid, &c. i Suetonius. POMPEIAN HOUSES. 261 with family pictures, and was, in all respects, a show or state room. There were three kinds of atria. The first is the most ancient one, being the archetype of the others, viz. the Tuscan ; for Varro * has " Atrium, ab Atriatibus Thuscis, ejus primis auctoribus, derivatum.*' Atrium, derived from the Tuscan Atriates, its first uuthors. In this atrium, the roof inclined from all sides towards the centre of the court, and was only supported by four beams, crossing at right angles, the middle remaining open. This fashion appears at Pom- peii, the aperture in the centre being what we should call a skylight, and is the Roman compluvium : the basin or pond below to receive the rain, sometimes full of fish, being the compluvium.f There was one pattern called a Corinthian atrium : it did not differ from the tetrastyle (or four pillars, one in each corner), but by the number of columns which supported the roof, and oy the size of the impluvium. It was preferred in splendid houses, because it ventilated in a better man- ner the surrounding apartments. The testudinated atrium had no un- covered space; the displuviated, one with shelving roofs, which shot off the rain from the house, instead of con- ducting it to the impluvium. The first in the plan is of the annexed form ; the second, of the form in next page. The walls of the atrium were not only, as before observed, adorned with family images, but with pic- tures on general subjects ; Pe- tronius says, with stories from the Iliad and Odyssey, in the house of Trimalchion. Ro- sinus says that Cicero:}: is the only author who men- tions cuhicula ; and observes, that they appertained to the larger atria, in houses which had atriola,^ * Ling. Lat 1. iv. % Epist. ad Quint. I. iii. ep. 1. s 3 f Mazois. \ Rosin. 45. n 262 CLASSICAL ANTIQUITIES. These cubicula^ the closets on the sides, are presumed to have been sleeping-rooms of the male servants ; but Petronius seems to intimate for others also. An iron bedstead has been found in one of these rooms, which was not six feet square, but elegantly painted, and adorned with a tessellated floor : the bedsteads were often placed under an alcove. Trimalchion, in Petro. nius, says that his house had twenty cubicula. The next object is the pond or reservoir in the middle, the impluvium ; of which before.* Beyond this is an altar, according to the following lines of Virgilf : — " ^dibus in mediis, nudoque sub aetheris axe, Ingens ara fuit.' The altar was that of Jupiter Hercseus, to whom the impluvia of houses were consecrated.;}: Instead of folding-doors, opening to the next room, are curtains. These are mentioned by Corippus, who * Here has been a strange substitution of the compluvium for the im- pluvtum* and vice versa ; but Varro, 1. 4. de Ling. Lat., settles the question thus : — " Quod relictum erat in medio, ut lucem caperet, deorsum quo impiuebat, impluvium dictum, et sursum qua compluvium, et deinde atrium, ab Atriatibus Thuscis, ejus primis auctoribus, derivatur." Rosin. p. 46. t Mn. 1. 2. X From l^^df, septum seu vallum. See the Delphin note on Suet. Aug. xcii. ^ I POMPEIAN HOUSES. 263 gives, like the ancient Romans, similar ornaments to the Byzantine atria. In his Justin Minor, he says, — ** Clara superpositis ornabant atria velis ; " and again : — ** Verum ut contracto patuerunt intima velo Ostia, et aurati micuerunt atria tecti,*' * So much for the atrium, which was under the care of the atrienses, whom some accounts identify with the porter in chains, who had a lodge in the vestibule. t In Petronius, the porter is dressed in green with a cherry- coloured girdle, and is cleaning peas in a silver dish. But there were other servants employed in the atrium, besides him. Columella says that the wife ought to insist upon the atrienses cleaning the furniture and brightening the irons, and, if any wanted repair, con- signing them to the smiths. J Ph8edrus§ describes these atrienses as alticincti^ who had tunics of Pelusian linen drawn {districtd) from their shoulders, and hair hanging down in curls ; a cos- tume, of which resemblances may be found in Mont- faucon and other writers. Upon drawing the curtains aside, there appears in the front centre a considerable room with another on the left adjacent, both separated from the garden by a wide window upon a dwarf wall. Between the atrium and this compartment were communicating rooms, or pas- sages, respectively called alee dinii fauces : these exhibit the awkward disposition of such places by the Romans, who seem to have consulted little else than the effect of a view through the whole house from the front door, and a profusion of embellishment in staring colours, like that of toys and waxen images. The two centre rooms are called a tablinum with a triclinium. The former, according to Festus, was a business-room, or office, near the atrium ; others make it a wardrobe, store- * Rosin. 46. t L. xii. c. 3, Rosin. 46. s 4 f Kippingius, 687. § L. ii. fab. 36. Rosin. »<.,!' 264 CLASSICAL ANTIQUITIES. POMPEIAN HOUSES. 265 room^ or picture-room ; but the last was styled pinaco^ theca, and there was an acknowledged difference between them.* Upon this little stress can be placed, because in the best representation of the private life of the Romans, the Satyricon of Petronius, the steward is busied on accounts in the upper end of the triclinium. t This was the denomination of a dining-room, which certainly was connected with the atrium. The room was so called from its having three dinner-beds, and there were different triclinia according to the season. Petronius observes that the fasces, as ensigns of dignity from office, were fixed on the posts of the triclinia, and that a lamp with two branches was suspended, and two tablets affixed on both posts: one had an inscription importing that the host was engaged to dine out upon certain days thereon named; the other showed the course of the moon and Pleiades, and the lucky and unlucky days.:}: Beyond these two rooms was a walk under a roof and pillars, called a porticus, resembling a cloister; and such parts of our monasteries were evidently bor- rowed from the Roman fashion, and applied in part to the same uses. There were in large houses several porticoes. § They were distinguished by particular names. Ovid mentions one called Livia^ which had the name inscribed on a tablet, as we have that of a street. II It was the custom of the Romans, like the Greeks with their stoije^ to paint histories, fables, and many other things, on the walls of their porticoes, and place under them inscriptions, which loungers used to read. Boys with their masters played there ; tutors gave lectures, and persons spouted declamations; for which, if not approved, they we^e stoned and insulted by the auditors : and it is said that hence came similar uses of the porch in our churches.lT Artificers also exhibited in it their goods ; and in bad weather the * Burm. in Petron. I 530. f Prima parte Burm. Petron. I 150. ?^ Id. i. 525. 1 Id. i. 36, 39. 569. Romans used to take their exercises of the amhulatio (walking), or gestatio (being carried in a litter), or being drawn along them in a chariot and mules.* Behind this was, in the house, called Pansa s, a garden, sur- rounded also with a portico, and it had beds and walks^ divided Uke a gridiron. In this house of Sallust there was, instead, a kind of pseudo-garden, or conservatory. It is thus described : — The back wall is pointed with pilasters, shrubs, and trellis-work. Behind the columns, upon a double wall, were planted flowers and shrubs. There were a fountain and two cisterns, one at each end. Effect was not wanting, though often good taste, in t Id. i. 151, 152. II Id. i. 525. Roman works, was wanting (for instance, the lower portions of the columns and pilasters are here painted blue) ; notwithstanding, it is one of the most interesting and novel prints in the Pompeiana. The stand for a table and triclinium, which command a look down it, show that the family used sometimes to dine there.t Trellis- work appears ; and Winckelmann says that pergula in one sense signified a sort of veranda, formed of strong reeds latticed ; though some make it a gallery at the top of the house, or a balcony, or a connection with the portico for training vines and creepers. • Ency. of Antiq. f The Roman ccgna was no other than our late dinner 5 tc translate it gupper occasions only confusiou I '■: 266 CLASSICAL ANTIQUITIES. POMPEIAN HOUSES. 267 Upon the right side in the plan appears the gyn^co^ nitiSy or suite of apartments for the women^ also within a portico. Here the mistress and her maids conducted the lanifice (as making garments^ spinning and weaving, were called) ; and Jerome^, in his Epistle to Demetrius the Virgin^ says^ ^^ Always have wool in your hands." The portico was necessary, because Columella says they could not work during bad weather in the open air.* Here were employed^ besides the mistress and her immediate attendants^ females called quasillarice, from their baskets, who sat upon wooden blocks, and were deemed ^^ a race of ancillalcB,'' the most dirty and despicable.t Ad- joining to these apartments was the kitchen. This is engraved in the ^^ Pompeiana," p. 151., as above. It has a dresser and privy, a filthy appendage, brought from Greece, and still retained in modern Italy. Mr. Shortt X adds, at the back of the house [this] the great kitchen furnace is visible, and above it is a small stair- case, which led to the upper part of the building, under which the ^^hypanis" or ^^ aedes cloacinae" is placed. In the house of Pansa there were stoves; and the kitchen opened into a court, in which were dwarf walls for the arrangement of oil jars, needful in this instance, appa- rently, for supply of the lamps. There were very small « Rosin..36, 37. f Burra. Petron. i. 811. I P. 48. . dark rooms below for the slaves belonging to the de- partment ; and nests of closets annexed to offices for the same purpose occur in Roman villas discovered in this country.* There was a small aperture for the escape of smoke. Like our kitchens at Glastonbury and Stanton Harcourt, Columella recommends the roof to be so high that it could not catch fire. In the most ancient kitchens known, those at Ispica in Sicily, of the Cyclopean era^ is a sort of little furnace, before which are mortars hollowed out of the rock. These are all the apartments connected with the establishment in the plan. But on each side of the doorway were shops. The custom is still retained in modern Italy; and in London also there is often a passage which leads to a handsome building in the rear. The royal exchange, like the Roman houses, is now surrounded with these sheds. Of course the houses had no other architectural frontage than a door, some- times between pilasters, and sometimes not. The fol- lowing is the entrance elevation to one of these houses. The shops resemble those of our butchers and fish- mongers, being in front open. The Romans, even of opulence, used to carry on trades by means of domestic slaves who understood the business, whatever it might be ; and, accordingly, Mazois mentions shops of two sorts at Pompeii. Those of the kind mentioned have all a communication with the in- terior of the habitation; while the others, of independent tradesmen, form, with their offices and rooms, a division separate from the rest of the building. Both in Greece and Italy particular trades lived in peculiar streets; and we hear of those of the trunkmakers and carvers at ♦ As at Wilcombe. 268 CLASSICAL ANTIQUITIES. Athens, and the Vicus Thuscus at Rome for woollen goods.* At Pompeii one street is called that of Dried Fruits, from the quantity of raisins, figs, plums, &c. foUnd there. There are also shops variously dispersed and distinguished by signs fixed in the wall (as a marble goat for one), where milk was sold t, and other indicia. These are occasionally curious. In the house of a medical man, as presumed from chirurgical instruments there found, and a small well, with two chambers behind (for some therapeutic uses), was excavated a statue of iEsculapius, with emblematical frescos ; and at an apothecary's the articles mentioned below : — the shop of a pavimentarius, or worker in mosaic (as supposed), was denoted by a circular checkered sign If. ; and that of a wine shop, by two men carrying an amphora upon a pole, resting on their shoulders. § These signs are fixed in the walls, and Plutarch adds to them decoy placards and showboards {venalitia). At Herculaneum a loaf has been found in a baker's shop, with his name stamped upon it thus : ^^ Cleris Q. Crani Riser." At Pompeii, scales, money, and moulds for pastry and bread, in bronze, of very elegant pattern. On the counter of an apothecary were a box of pills, converted into a fine earthy substance, and near them a small cy- lindrical roll, prepared to be cut into pills, and a jar containing medicinal herbs. || In a fruiterer's shop were vessels full of almonds, chestnuts, walnuts, and fruit of the ^^^carubiere" (the caroh tree of the Levant, the pods of which were the husks, given to swine, that the pro- digal desired to eat), IT In the shops of the ^^ street of fruits" at Pompeii, besides raisins, figs, and plums, and various fruits, moist olives, and caviare, a pickle, preserved in glass cases (some square), have been also found.** The following shops or houses of trade at Pompeii • Pint. Daem. Socrat. Lubin. in Juven. 258. + Shortt, 48. X Ibid. \ Pompeii, 124. II Mrs. Forb^. Edinb. Journ. Jan. 1829. Ly ell's Geology, i. S5^. % Harris's Hist of the Bible, 208. *• Lyell. Pompeii, p. 114 POMPEIAN HOUSES. 269 have been particularly distinguished ; viz. that of an inn checkers being placed on the side of the door, way, and rings for tying horses having been found, as well as the bodies of cars, the bones of horses m the stables, and earthen vessels for wine in the cellar. Ihe stables, each of which is large enough for a single horse, extend for a long distance up the street. Above them are white marble columns, and a staircase is seen, which conducted to the apartments for strangers above. In the yard are three fountains. Inns were not reput- able places ; and Romans of rank used to send their bakers and cooks before them to take up lodgings at friends' houses, if there were any in the place, if not, at inns, and, where there were none, appUed to the magistrates for quarters.t Suetonius and Juvenal de- scribe inns as places frequented by muleteers, travel- lers, cut-throats, runaway slaves, sailors, executioners, coffin.makers for the poor (sandapilae), players on the tambourine {Galli\ where all were on equal terms, without any distinction of cups, or particular bed or table. ± A Syro-Phoenician used officiously to offer his services to anoint the visiter, and caU him " Dominus and Rex," and a girl from Cyane, with tucked up clothes, to bring him wine to taste. § Juvenal adds painted cloths used as signs. || The adulteration of wine, and sale of it by false measures, were commonf , and this dilution caused the joke in Petronius of inn. keepers being born under the sign Aquarius. ** Socrates used to boast that he had never even looked into a tavern tt; and Plutarch :|::}: says of inn-keepers, that they derided those who would not play at baU and idle away their time.§§ This inn at Pompeii precedes the gate, and the first edifice upon passing it is a 7ropv6*oy, lupanar, or brothel, having five or six cells, and a sign of the Phallus, which is not certainly indica- * Shortt, 46. X Suet. VitelL vii. Juv. 1. iii. Sat. 8. II Id. 368. ♦• Burm. 238. XX De Conserv. Sanct. f Plut in Cato, jun. ^ Lubin. in Juven. 368. t Casaub. in Theophrast. 244. ft Burni. Petron. 857. \ { Shortt, p. 47. 270 CLASSICAL ANTIQUITIES. live of such an appropriation. Opposite to the ntofv^iov is a wine-shop, thermopolium^ which has a counter dif- ferent from others by the annexation of steps at the end. These steps were intended, says Mazois, to hold the vases or ewers from which they mixed the liquors, for the Roman wine being thick and syropy, could not be imbibed in an undiluted state ; and Winckelmann men- tions cups and stands, like saucers, of silver, out of which the Uquor was drunk in a tepid state. On the marble counter are still to be seen the marks of the cups, and at one corner of it is a basin, in which they were rinsed. Next door to this coffee-house is a house called a saponarium, or soap-house, from certain troughs in which soap is said to have been made, but whether soap was then known is controverted. A substitute is admitted. In the counter of one shop are holes, in which were sunk large jars for holding the vendibles sold, and to this shop was annexed a back room, and perhaps another on the side.* We are told, that in front of the counter the shutters were slipped in a groove, and the door closed met the edge of the last, and, when fastened, kept all secure. The door turned on pivots, and, of course, opened to the left. Some of the shops are under an arcade, a terrace with other shops, and part of a house being above. Other shops, by the remains of staircases, appear to have had upper • Pompeiana, p. 196. vignette. VILLAS 271 rooms. In them are dwarf walls, against which were ranged oil-jars and other goods. The shops have stone seats before them, and emblems of the trade in relief. Villas, — No person so well explains the principles of the ancient Greeks and Romans, in the situation and construction of their edifices, as Alberti, an Italian ar- chitect of the sixteenth century. He says *, concerning a suburban villa^ that Xenophon recommends the site to be one to which people could go on foot, for the sake of exercise, and return on horseback. It should, therefore, not be too far from the city, and the road easy (not impedita)y but fit and very convenient (peropportuna) for going and coming in winter and summer, whether it be in a carriage, on foot, or perhaps in a ship ; and it will be better if it be not far from the gate of a city, that the proprietor may travel backwards and forwards without a greater apparatus in dressing, and notice by the people of himself and family. He then proceeds to matters of climate, as affecting the situation ; but con- tinues to observe t, that the town and country houses of the wealthy (villa et urbana) had this distinction : — the former was a summer diversorium^ the latter for better endurance of the winter. From the former they derive all the pleasantness of light, air, room, and pros- pect. In the town are only to be expected what re- fers to utility, dignity, and health; and if such houses, for want of space, cannot have a portico, ambulatory, a place of exercise, and garden, amends may be made by piling one building upon another, and sinking cellars with superincumbent edifices. The following, from a Pompeian painting of such a Umited villa, is a good specimen. This principle was consulted in the suburban villa at Pompeii, which, on the ground floor, consists wholly of a portico or piazza, and has above a mass of apartments without any uniformity whatever. Rome only began to have houses with stories towards the end of the republic ; and the uppermost rooms, or garrets, were the dining-rooms, hence called * F. Ixxiii. a. F. Ixxix. 272 CLASSICAL ANTIQUITIES. coenacula. The same denomination was, however, ap. plied to the habitations of the poor in meaner houses ; t2f oric frieze. Reservoirs for Water — These, of a subterranean kind, are found at Cannae : at Forum Julii (Frejus) are remains of another, formed of arcades, the water entering at a corner. The cement is remarkable for having in the second coat a great quantity of charcoal reduced to powder. The famous reservoir at Miseno IS a basin, divided into aUeys by rows of square pillars, upon which rested an arched roof ; but the chief of all of them was the Piscina mirabilis of BaiiE, of which a model is presumed to be that of Taormini (Tauromi- mum) in Sicily. It is an edifice oblong square, with an arcade ; apertures to convey and let ofF the water a staircase to descend by, and a sluice for emptying and cleaning it. It supplied a Naumachia. Sewers. — Alberti t complains of SencB in Etruria because at that place the filth was discharged out of the windows. He describes sewers as arches under streets but elevated above rivers, lest they should be choked with alluvial deposits. This was the object of Tar quinius Priscus, in the famous Cloaca Maxima at Home. It consists of three concentric rows of arches one above another, the stones of enormous size and uncemented. :|: Wells. —The contour of them, as appears by many of marble found at Herculaneum, was of one entire * Burton. f F. lix. Y 2 X Burton, i. 27. S24 CLASSICAL ANTIQUITIES. Stone, and this discovery is a confirmation of the follow- ing words of Alberti *: — ^' In the first soils where you resolve to dig a well, put a marble corona" Servius says, that coverings of wells were not approved, because evaporation was supposed to be thus obstructed, t CHAP. II. SCULPTURE, PAINTING, AND DOMESTIC ECONOMY OF THE GR^CO-ITALIANS AND ROMANS. Pliny acknowledges % that he does not know the origin of sculpture in Italy ; but the style of the Etruscan figures, where the design is in right lines, is Egyptian, and the annexation of wings to deities, Phenician, which Winckelmann makes also of Egyptian origin. With both these nations the Etrusco-Pelasgi had a very inti- mate commercial intercourse, and among the Phenicians sculpture was a marketable commodity. When Flax- man, therefore, says §, that Etruscan sculpture must be considered as entirely Greek, the work of Greek colo- nists and their disciples, he is not to be understood as referring to the earliest style, for Tarquinius Priscus is affirmed to have been the first who intermixed the •^ Greek genius'* (^Grcecum ingenium) with the arts of Italy II, because he was sprung from Corinth. This was one of the places most eminent for Doric sculpture, in which the same hardness is observable as in the Etruscan.H Besides, the prince of Canino contends** that the civihsation of Etruria was long antecedent to that of Greece. He formed his opinions from painted vases ; but, as the progress of the arts is to be judged from that of the mintage, Flaxman ft holds that the * F. clvii. + Id- clx. t xxxiv. 7. ^ Lectures, 98. H Mailer's Dorians, ii. 390. ** Archaeologia. II Hist. Aug. i. 382. ft 11^. SCULPTURE. 325 figures upon them are not older than a century before Phidias. The Eginetic school of sculpture is anterior to that of the beau ideal^ and, as Pliny * observes that the superficies of candelabra were only wrought at Egina, the shafts at Tarentum, there was a very early connection between those Greeks and the Etruscans. Notwithstanding, however, the Hercules of Evander, the double.faced Janus of Numa, and the two thousand statues found at Volsinium when captured, Pliny observes t, that wooden and fictile images were used in the temples, until Asia was conquered. It may be pre- sumed, therefore, that the statues of Horatius Codes, the Sibyl, Tarquinius Priscus, and the antecedent kings, as mentioned by Pliny :{:, were, the last Etruscan, the others Graeco-Etruscan. The first Etruscan is palpably of Egyptian character. The design is rectilinear, the attitude is tame {roide), the action cramped, the contour without undulation of muscles or flesh, the head oval or oblong, the chin pointed, the eyes flat or drawn obhquely upwards, the arms hanging down close to the sides, the feet parallel, and the plaits of the drapery marked by simple incisions. § The second Etruscan style is anatomical, like skinned figures ; the muscles very strong, and the bones very piercing, the Greeks attaching more expression to the muscles, the Etruscans to the bones. Thus all sorts of figures resemble a Hercules. The feet are placed close, and parallel, or in profile, one in a right Kne behind the other, and the hands badly designed, and constrained. jj The later style has the drapery in parallel or trans- verse folds, but sometimes free ; the sleeves are finely plaited ; the hair from the top of the head is tied behind, the rest hanging in tresses over the shoulders. ^ The hair, however, disposed par etage, in stories, is, continues Winckelmann, found without exception in all * xxxiv. C.2. f xxxiv. C.7. t Id c 1 .? T^'/lS^^l""; ^^^^ ^el A""^- i- 182. ed Amstelod. 8vo. II Id. 186^191. ^ Id. 193. y 3 326 CLASSICAL ANTIQUITIES. Etruscan figures, whether of men or animals. In early times it was disposed Hke scales of fish^ or corkscrew curls. Nearly all the deities are winged, and the furies have modii upon the head. The Greek fashion was to represent the figure in nudity ; the Roman, although the work was by Grecian artists, in military or civil costume. The former was conformable to the genius of the people, because it com- memorated war, conquest, and universal dominion.* The Roman compositions owe no inspiration to the muses, and urge no claim to the epic or dramatic. The columns and triumphal arches are the mere paragraphs of military gazettes, vulgar in conception and ferocious in sentiment. t The draped figures both of Greeks and Romans exhibit, however, the most beautiful specimens in ancient art, particularly those in which the garments display the human figure most advantageously, or give dignity to its character, or enrich its particular form by flowing lines, or harmonise in its sentiments and actions. Such were the Greek pallium and Roman toga. They suited grave and dignified characters, philosophers, apostles, and prophets, men presumed to give small attention to worldly objects, men whose thoughts are wholly engrossed by the cultivation of virtue and truth. These robes added imposing grandeur to the venerable wearers. :{: Under the reign of the Antonines, sculpture began to lose its graces, and the Roman work found in Britain is of rude execution, like that of Italy under the Gothic and Lombard kings. § Painting. — The Greeks preferred sculpture to paint- ing, the Romans the reverse. Pliny has given a history of the art, which has been most ably epitomised in the disquisition of AmeilhonH , and collated with the inci- dental observations of other writers ; but the whole history is that of the dates of improvements and new inventions before the time of Apelles. In his era, that ♦ Flaxman, 16a ^ Id. p. 8. + Id. 167. t Flaxm. 251. i Mem. Instit. I f^Ji. et seq. PAINTING. 327 of Alexander the Great, the art, says Cicero, was per- fected. A few observations must, therefore, suffice in a limited work like this ; for attempts at outline, however rude, and patches of colour, are found in the idolatry of all nations — the monochromata, or paintings with only one colour in India, and the polychromes in the tombs of the kings at Thebes. Facile est addere inventis, and the Greeks, with their divine taste evinced in their sculpture, may, from the study of the human figure in nudity, and knowledge of anatomy and geometry, have perfected draw- ings ; they may have, in shading, successively progressed from hatching*; they may have put a ground of black, upon which they drew in white the contour of the eyes, eyebrows, nose, and incipient hair t ; they may have mixed or contrasted black and white, an invention ascribed to Philocles or Cleanthus.:}: They may have laid deeper tints of the same colour when the object was in shade, and fainter under light, and formed the aTroxp&jcr*^ o-K/a^, or pri- vation of colour in the shades, by means of obscure tints : all these may have been Greek improvements. To them also may be ascribed the expression, which, says Pliny, tenet oculos ; its fine touches, argutice vultus ; and what the painters call balancing, symmetria. The use only of four colours — white, yellow, red, and black is pre- sumed to be erroneous, because the Egyptians knew others; and the paintings in the grotto of Elethyias seem equally to disprove their ascription of barbers* and cobblers' shops, provisions, &c. (our Dutch pieces), to Pyreicus and his partners, called Rhyparagraphoi. Pliny maintains that the art did not come from Greece to Italy, but he is confuted by Ameilhon^, who says, that, before the foundation of Rome, a Greek artist painted, at Lanuvium, a work which was admired in the time of Caligula. The most ancient specimens known of design in this art are the famous vases called Etruscan. Of the ori- * Mem. Instit i. 386,387. t Tlie hunting of the Calydonian boar, described by Homer (II. ix.)- painted upon the Hamilton vase (No. 1.), is the grand specimen. t Ameilhon, 394. \ P. 400. Y 4 S28 CLASSICAL ANTIQUITIES. ROMAN ARTS. 329 gin and charactei' of these there has been much disqui- sition. Professor Hausmann^ in an elaborate treatise on the subject*, which^ as being the most authoritative, shall be here used, maintains that the greater part of these vases are of Grecian origin, because they are all essentially of the same character. The prince of Canino, on the other hand, says, that those found on his own estate must have been Etrurian, because Vitulonia, where they were discovered, was extinct in the early ages of Rome, and painting was not then known in Greece. In invalid- ation of this opinion, the professor again observes, that the authentic Etruscan vases may be distinguished from others by the inferior quality of their materials, by the dulness of their coating, and especially by the greater rudeness of their forms and paintings, as well as by certain characters of the representations peculiar to the ancient Etruscan art. The earliest date of them cannot be ascertained, but the latest period in which they were manufactured is presumed to be that of the civil wars, for the vases of subsequent era found at Pompeii, &c. have a very diflPerent character ; they have no paintings, but frequently raised figures, and a red coating, similar to the vases dug up in Rome, Germany, France, &c. The finest of all these vases, as to paintings and var- nish coating, have been found at Nola ; next to them^ those of Locria and Agrigentum ; but others, very fine, have been found in other parts of Italy ; more rarely in the middle part, and none north of the Apennines. They are not to be confounded with the presumed later Aretine vases of Martial, Pliny, and Isidore, which have a red or blackish coating, and in other respects are of similar composition with the oldest Etruscan vases. The most ancient kind is deemed those called Egyp- tian, where the paintings are of a dusky red colour, upon a yellow ground. Less ancient than these are the vases called Siciliariy which have black paintings upon a reddish yellow ground ; and next to them, and most * Edinb. Philos. Journ. A p. 1825. Gent. Magaz. xcv. p. 165, &c. common of all, those with reddish yellow figures and ornaments, upon a black ground. The subjects of these paintings are chiefly taken from mythology and the Iliad : and, in the prince of Canino's specimens, inscriptions, announcing the subject, are an- nexed, a practice unknown to the Greeks. The figures have a compressed abdomen and spare limbs, because, Aristophanes observes, to be slender in the waist like a wasp {y\K'j)^i^(i) enabled persons to be more active, and better fitted for defence, warfare, and the chace. Through the imperfect knowledge of perspective, the ancients could not execute complicated groups, and the figures appear, like profiles of their statues, unconnected with each other.* Bearded Mercuries, and a beautiful variety in the disposition of the female tunic, distinguish these vases. Asiatics are denoted by flowered gar- ments ; travellers by staves, on which they rest ; per- sons of rank by parasols and footstools ; genii by winged youths ; and Asiatic warriors by bows and axes. The dolphin is the national symbol. Domestic economy. — It was a rule adopted by Pliny and others, that the antiquity of matters connected with the subjects before us is to be decided by the mention or omission of them in the poems of Homer, to which the moderns have added the discoveries made at Herculaneum and Pompeii. But it is evident that the manners of the Iliad and those of the patriarchal and early ages of the Eastt^ that Homer only recorded in- ventions antecedent to his own era; and that when he mentions Helen employed in embroidery, he only alludes to an act spoken of by ApoUodorus, who is considered to be an abbreviator of the Cyclic poets. % The same oriental origin attaches to the arts both of Greece and Rome ; and, did not Herodotus record the intercourse of the Sidonians, Eginetans, and Corinthians with the early Tarentines§, and Pliny || acquaint us that at Egina only * Flaxman's Lect. 133. 213. 252. t The conformities are exhibited by Mr. Coleridge, Introd. Classics, i. 70. t M^m. Instit. i. 384. § L. i. c. 24. Thalia, 137. || xxxiv, 1 330 CLASSICAL ANTIQUITIES. ROHAN ARTS. 331 U the superficies of candelabra was wrought^ but at Tarentum the shafts, one circumstance alone would denote a common assimilation ; and of course a copy proves the existence of an original. This circumstance is^ the distortion of the forms of animals into furniture patterns, a fashion to be seen in the ancient monuments of Egypt*, and still existing at Japan. t The curule chair occurs in the Theban paintings, and Livy:|: ac- knowledges that it was introduced into Rome by the Etruscans. At Nola has been also found a vase, re- presenting in form an Ethiopian in the throat of a crocodile. $i It may be, that, in the early ages, the military, sacerdotal, and forensic professions were alone deemed those proper for freemen ; the mechanical arts being, as in succeeding times, practised by slaves and women. But authors mistake, when, from the contempt of the Romans for such employments, and the rudeness of home-made tools and furniture among husbandmen and the poor, they infer that elegant arti- cles were unknown. Plutarch || says, that in the time of Numa^ who introduced the Etruscan arts into Rome, the city was chiefly peopled by tradesmen, whom he makes to be musicians, goldsmiths, masons, dyers, shoemakers, tanners, braziers, and potters. Evander is known to have contributed much to the civilisation of early Italy ; and many of his countrymen might have emigrant ancestors or tutors of these artisans ; for metal- lurgy, both by the crucible and tool, occur in the book of Job, and Livy ^ mentions golden arm bracelets and gemmed rings of great beauty, as worn by the Sabines. Romulus had royal purple robes** ; and Pausaniastt adds, that bronze horses^ and figures of female cap- tives, were known at Tarentum, as the works of Age- ladas, the Argive. The discoveries in the Etruscan tombs prove the assimilation of the objects painted on the vases to the originals in actual use, and, to a large extent, adopted by the succeeding Italians, But Homer's work will not elucidate all the Etruscan arts. He does not mention rings worn on the fingers; yet it appears from the Bible, that they were in use among the Orientals before his era. Gori showed Barthelemy* a carnelian in the form of a scarabaeus or beetle^ in- sculped with a head and head-dress of a woman in the Egyptian style, yet the stone was Etruscan. He there- fore thinks that there was a communication between the Etruscans and the Egyptians ; but the Phoenicians also used the beetle-formed signet. The convex form of the beetle, which had the figure of the insect, was the hold for the hand^ the under part serving for the device, and a hole was made lengthwise for suspension. This was the fashion before seals and gems were mounted; but the Etruscan ^eva^ are distinguished from those of the Greeks and Romans by a border of en- grailed rings, called grenetisf ; and, as Virgil gives an accurate description of the manners and customs of the heroic ages, the Etruscans and early Italians had mounted rings. Iji From all these instances, it appears, that the Etruscans did not derive their arts from the Greeks; nor the Romans from the Etruscans exclu- sively, but from them, the Orientals, and the Greeks also : the archetypes of all these arts being to be sought in the eastern nations. Julius Pollux, who lived in the time of Commodus, gives us a long list of various artisans, with which he unites their tools, and describes other articles. As he writes in Greek, and quotes the denominations and characteristics given by Honier, Aristophanes, Sopho- cles, and others, he plainly shows what trades and things were common both to Greeks and Romans. A few of them may gratify curiosity. * See Denon, pi. Iv. et alii. f See Titsing's Japan. ^ i. c. 8. ^ GentMag. xcix. p.ii. 628. || In Numa. t 1 11. ** Plut in Numl ff 326. ed. Sylburg. • Trav. in Italy, 33. f Gori, Mus. Etrusc. 431. Mariette, &c. t " Tereti subnectit fibula gemma."— ^E?i. v. 313. 332 CLASSICAL ANTIQUITIES. Architects. ^ — According to the denominations, there was no original difference between architects and builders. The tools were, stone-saws 2, in form like the modern ; the (lewis or) forceps (the Greek word signi- fies a crab), for holding stones'"^; a stone-bearing ma- chine^; files^; theyXapK, an instrument for excavating and pohshing stones; a stone-pick^; a trowel, if Brunck be correct in thus translating vTrocyccywg ; a rod or line, marked with red lead, for drawing right lines ''; a leaden rule^; (probably like the Doric one, a thin flex- ible strip, to take the form of a stone, so that another may be made to fit it exactly); a pair of compasses in the form of a A^; chisels; iron wedges; levers, or bars; and planks. ^^ To this list of Pollux may be added plummet levels, rollers, pulleys, and cranes i^; one of these, for raising large stones, being worked by a wheel and men running within. ^2 When the materials were so soft that they would not bear the lewisy or forceps, there were cut in the sides channels to receive ropes or chains, which were drawn away when the stones were raised and adjusted. ^^ Columns and obelisks were elevated by a rope, which wound round an erect cylinder or post, that was itself turned by long levers or arms, in the shape of a cross, pushed forward by meni"*; and, by affixing a wheel or roller at the end of such stones, and rearing similar posts and levers in succession, even large obelisks appear to have been drawn along. The Greeks are said to have universally cramped the stones with iron, the Romans with brass ; 1 T€KTov€s, Horn. apx'- r€Krov€Sy Plat. rcKTovapxoi, Thucyd. i\oiKo?iofjLoiy Xen. Poll. vii. 27. 2 TTplCOV Xld07rpl(TT7}S* 3 KapKipos \l6ovs €X00P, * firixo-^ \tdayovpy7}f Poll. X. 31. 6 devpay called also tvkos* 7 (TTaOfAtJ. 8 fxo\v€^€La5 Kav(av. 10 Poll. vii. 28. 11 Alberti, Ixxxvii. b. 1-2 Enc. Antiq. i. 257. 13 Stuart's Athens, new edit. vol. iv. pi. 8. p. 9. i4 Montfaucon, TOOLS. TRADES. 333 but iron binders, leaded at each end, occur at the Colosseum, and dovetails of wood at the Forum of Nerva. 3 4f \<^o^/ \ Fig. 1 1. consist of proportional and other com- passes ; fig. 2 2. are weights, suspended from the plum- met levels, 3 3. ; fig. 4 4, are rules, Barthelemy saw one of ivory, another of brass, folding by means of a spring ; fig. 5. is a square ; fig. 6 6. are mallets ; fig. 7. is a sort of pick-axe ; fig. 8 8. unknown, but probably soldering instruments, such as Barthelemy saw at Herculaneum ; fig. 9 g. chisels ; fig. 10. unknown. Bankers. — Pollux calls a banker rpocinl^iTay a term which, he says, properly means a dog standing at a table ; which table, for the convenience of paying and exchanging money, Demosthenes calls, from the mate- rial, li/Aov, wood. At the Chalcidicum of Pompeii *, supposed to have served for an exchange where mer- • Poll iii. 9. 334. CLASSICAL ANTIQUITIES. chants assembled, are pedestals of white marble, upon which these tables were placed, and the fashion not only passed through the middle ages, but is still to be seen at Bristol Exchange. These bankers were the money changers of Scripture, and the argentarii and nummularii of the Romans, who exchanged old coins for new, and conducted money business in various ways. Booksellers, &c. — Pollux mentions writers^ and venders of books'^, and the glutination of them 2, as they were rolls."* He makes booksellers' shops among the parts of sea- port towns : and Dionysius of Halicar- nassus^ mentions stands for the sale of them in such places. Martial ^, describing a bookseller's shop opposite the Forum Julii^ says, that all the pillars or posts were inscribed with the titles of the vendible books; and that the best books were kept in the upper nidus (pi- geon-hole), the inferior in those below. There, he says, you may buy Martial, polished with pumice- stone, and ornamented with purple, for five denarii. Butchers. — The heroes of Homer killed and dressed their own meat, and Pollux identifies the two profes- sions of cook and butcher.'^ Their tools were, a hatchet^; paxEvT^ov, translated runca, which would imply a a something like a weeding-hook, or rustic bill; K^ioc(no(,6(jLr}, a rod for measuring meat, according to the Greek, but also rendered scales and weights • a flesh hook^; skinning-knife^^; and chopping-blockn. Plau- tus nnentions their stands, and Pollux ^^ calls the sham- bles /LtscTKovia, although the Latin macellum means a general provision market. Whether they wore the steel or not is not clear ; but the aro/xw/xa was certainly a 1 fii€Kioypa(j>os. 4 vii. 33. 5 X. 5. 6 Ep. i. 118. 7 vii. 6. 8 KOTTIS, ^ Kpeaypa. lO Kpewbcipa. 1 * Tpaire^a fjiayeipLKnj of Pol- lux (x. 24.), mensa lanionia of Suetonius (Claud, xv.). 12 X. 5. ' trades, ETC. 335 sharpening tool of the kind.i There is a game, the Greek E'7ra>Aa^*^ Jaxn/Xwv, the Latin micatio digu. torum, the Italian morra, which Helen is said to have invented, and to have won at it in playing with Paris • but it is the Chinese tsoey^moey. It was played be- tween two persons, according to the most probable ex- planations, by suddenly raising or compressing the fingers, and at the same time guessing each at the num. ber of the other. Meat was purchased by this game, until, according to Burman^^ an edict of Valentinian reyived the old custom of weighing ; Theophrastus says with scales.^ Homer mentions the prostration of the vie. tims by a malleus^ or the hammer side of an axe ; and the following cut shows the forms of these tools and knives. r^± B Figs. 1. consist of hatchets from Barthelemy. Fig.^. is a malleus for prostrating the beast. Figs. S. are double- headed axes for the same purpose. Fig. 4. is a seva^ 1 Poll. vii. 24. 49. 2 Petron. i. 237. 3 P. 30. ed. Casaub. '■1 I! 336 CLASSICAL ANTIQUITIES. or secespita, a long knife for cutting the throats of the larger animals. Fig. 5. is a dolabra, or great knife, for dismembering the larger beasts. Figs. 6., the cultri or cultelli, are lesser knives for the smaller victims. Carpenters {^vXov^yoiy fabri lignarii). Pollux makes their tools a chip-axe, or adze^ ; a wood-cutting axe'-; a boring instrument (r^uTravov, whence our trepan), with its hsLTidle^; a gimblet^; the a^K, seve- rally translated by forceps (pincers), and scobina fabri, perhaps ^oi?, or ^vnXyi of Pollux; a plane, the run^ cina of Varro and Columella; a saw^; a file^ ; and the bipennis of Homer. 7 Pliny ^ adds the perpendi- cular ; glue, ichthyocolla, a sort of glue made of fish-skin, the level, rule, and lathe. Pollux adds^ iron tools in common use with masons, as chisels ^^ and others. Car. penters also used the trade of joiners, with regard to veneering, staining woods, and inlaying them with ivory and tortoise-shell. They even coloured these, to make them resemble woods. For most work, the ash was the favourite wood.^^ V ^ Cooks. — Pollux identifies cooks and butchers, as to implements used by both, but he mentions others apper- taining only to the former. These were cisterns or I aK€irapvov. Xen. 3 Tpinravovxos. 1 Poll.x. 31, * rcperpov. 5 irpicav, 6 vpKxnSy fj KCLXovfi^yri {>ivrj. 7 Poll. vii. 24. 26. X. 31. 8 vii. 56. 9 vii. 28. 10 TVKoty caeli. 11 Theophr. iv. 5. Plin. xvi. 43. I TRADES, ETC. 337 vessels for holding liquids ', platters 2^ Ecr;^apai, either hearths or chafing-dishes, fastened with lead*^, fish- knives 4, larger and smaller spits ^, frying-pans, in which, Athenaeus says, they fried fish alive, some versa., tile, in the form of a winnowing fan ^, a flesh-hook 7^ a ladle ^, one for broth or skimming ^, spoons, caldrons^ bronze vessels, Dutch ovens (clibani), stoves, and ves^ sels, in which they carried live coals, chafing-dishes, knives (some for skinning), the iron upon which the spits were placed for roasting (the meat being over the fire), pestle and mortar, bread-chest, dresser, chopping- block^ scales and weights or steelyard (K^Eoa-rocQiJLYi), colanders^ funnels, gratings over stoves (used as gridirons), hv7n^a(;l vessels for sprinkling water, &c. ; pits, called Eto-rpai, in which sucking pigs were roasted ^, and a frying-pan made of pottery. 1 1 Pollux also enumerates various sauces used by them, for Livy says that the Asiatic army converted a do- mestic drudgery (ministerium) , performed by the lowest slave of the household, into a trade or profession {ars), and that from hence ensued more expensive banquets. 12 Pliny mentions culinary vessels of silver, and in the Portici Museum are bronze kettles of different sizes and shapes, and brass dishes and eating plates, upon which were laid the quadrce of Virgil, square pieces of bread, to receive the meats on account of the fat.^^ See Drip- ping-pans. > X^Tpai, 2 AoTTttSey. 3 fio\i€do^€Tovs €(TxapcLS. ^ iX^voirpidas. * o€€\OVS, 0€€\0V5 iSoUTTO- pOVS, o€€\l(TKOVS, 6 rrryavopy TrryavoarpopSioy. 7 Kpeaypa, called also Kvkqs and €^avaT7]pcu 8 ropvvTf. ^ ^oofivprio'is. K€ia,Kpi€avov5,Pauvov5, itti/ovs^ vvpnvvovs, 077€«a, oh tqvs eyi^ VOL. I. irvpovs avOpaKas KOfxt^ovaiVy €- aX°'P^^o,Sy 47rj/oA€§r?Tioi/, i^€0)ua- KTTjpay x^poya^^ou ridfiop /coTTiSa, piaxo-Lpasy ^opidas, tu- poKvriCTTiy, KpaT€VT7}pLov aXe- rpiSai/os, 5ot5u|, a€a^y /copSoTros, ^veiUy ^aviovy ^varpaL, &c. Poll. vi. 13. 11 ayv^Lov K^pafjLeovVy Id. yi» 10. 1^ P. 642. ed. Elzev. 13 Pintian in Plin. 568, Plin. xxxiii. 11. Z 338 CLASSICAL ANTIQUITIES. Fig. 1. is presumed to be a vessel for sprinkling water, the hviv^^, for it is called a vessel by Pollux ; 2. unknown; 3. a colander or strainer; 4. a ladle (trulla) ; 5. a three-footed boiler ; 6. a skillet ; 7. a dish, presumed for soup; 8. a spoon; 9. a knife handle. Dice^players. — Pollux makes a profession of these persons, and calls them xt^fgyTa^, aleatores. Their instruments he makes to be a large and smaller chess- board ^, a sieve-, square dice^ (jtessercd lusorice^ men. a€cfi, a^aKiov, 2 KOCKiyov. 3 KV^Ol, GAMES. * 3gQ or counters), flat dies or tali, astragali i, dice-boxes ^, ballot-boxes ^, a dice-table. 4 iEschines says, he passed the day in the dice-room ( kvShov, aleatorium), where the TYiKioc is placed, and cocks are set to fight, and dice are played with ^ dice-box or vote-box, the Kr^Om, xuS^Jiov, described as a vase, calculi^, and tetto*,' or 'TTidaot, counters. 7 Each of these articles requires a distinct elucidation. The chess-board, or abacus, was of Asiatic invention, Pliny describing one with tesserce {the men) brought from thence, four feet long and three broad, made out of what he calls two gems, possibly glass, or laminae of spar. That in Petronius is made of fir, with men of crystal. According to the descrip- tion of Salmasius «, it was square, and divided by twelve lines, called the duodena scripta, on which the men were placed according to the points thrown. The twelve lines were intersected by a transverse line, called the linea sacra, which they did not pass, except under compul- sion. When the counters had got to the last line, they were said to be ad incitas, a metaphor for being reduced to extremities. It is plain that this was a game played with dice, and similar to our backgammon, the lines resembhng, also, to a certain extent, our tables inside a draught-board. This game was one of chance, and quite different in origin and character from the latrunculi, which was only played with counters. According to the Pompeian sign of an alehouse, the board was the modern chequer. The game was certainly intended to represent move- ments in warfare ; whence the squares were termed polis, a city, or chora, a region, or mandra, an enclo- sure, and the men were termed milites, or latrones because anciently the latter term was applied to stipen^ diary or mercenary troops, from the Greek aTro 7ov ^ ^laffeiCToi aCTpayaXoi. ^ (ptfioiy mentioned by Horace. ^ The phanes. KTifJioi of Aristo- z 2 ^ Valpy. ^ \prjoi. 7 Poll. x. 3J. 8 Hist. Aug. 467. 340 CLASSICAL ANTIQUITIES. 1 XxTfvzkv. » These men^ as we call them (but the ancient 4.r)$oi, calculis latrunculiy or tesserce lusoriai), were round counters made of pottery, glass, &c., and some found near St. Dizier were made of ivory or bone, and somewhat thick and convex. They were in number thirty, fifteen of one colour and as many of another. How the game was played is no further certain, than that it was not chess, and that two men of one colour took (ceperunt) one of another, whose move, if it was prevented, was termed ligatio, and that they expressed progression at the commencement of the game by darCy and retrogression by revocare. Upon a bas-relief of a Trajan and Plotina at the Capitol, is a young man hold- ing an abacus, upon which are placed a first rank of seven men, a second with only one, which he is passing with the fore-finger of his right hand, and a third rank reduced to six, on account of the one passed upwards. These were games with dice, which did not require any other board than the table (tyiXkx.) before men- tioned. The most common game was with three dice, and consisted in the raffle, a word derived from poc^ov »$£- Xwv, the highest number turned up being the winner. The second game was wishing for a certain number, and winning upon the success. The dice played with in these games were cubes, like ours, and many of them made of wood and earthenware have been found at Burzach and Baden in Switzerland, and tower-shaped dice-boxes of ivory at Herculaneum. The Greek astragalos, the Latin talus, the French garignon, and our cockal, signified the pastern or huckle bone of a beast, particularly of a sheep, and the game was played by the suitors of Penelope. Propertius, Martial, and Juvenal show that the forms of these bones were imitated in ivory, gold, and bronze : specimens are frequent (see fg. 1.); but there were other tali, square and triangular, but flat. (See figs. 2. 3.) The exca- vations at Herculaneum show the conversion of the \ Rosin. 311. GAMES. 341 actual bones into tali, and count Caylus has given some of agate. It appears that some of them at least were numbered. The ludi talorum are not to be confounded with the ludi tesserarum ; for in the former four tali were used, in the latter three dies. The boxes, too, (?)*/xo*, fritilli), from which the tali were thrown, were different. These boxes were round towers (Ausonius says '^wooden"), larger below than above, without a bottom, and worked within with steps , so that the bones or tali made leaps or cascades before their fall. Both tali and dice were sometimes used for divination, aAd there is no doubt of the origin in children's play' but the explanations of the games given by Winckelmann and others are not satisfactory, for authors are perpetu- ally confounding the dice and tali, and even Seneca calls the latter tesserce : — « Nam quoties missurus erat, resonantefritUlo, Utraque subducto fugiebat tessera fundo."'^ Thus does it appear that the talus box, having no bot- tom, dispersed the tali in a manner different from that of the cubical dice, of which the box had a bottom. Suetonius ^ shows clearly, at least one game, for he says that upon casting the tali, they who threw unlucky numbers deposited a forfeit of a denarius each, and thus ^ " Fundunt excels! per cava buxagradus." — Auson^ Rosin. 313. 2 Rosin. 314. 3 Aug. p. 185. ed. Del»^^ z S -a 1^ I 342 CLASSICAL ANTIQUITIES. TRADES^ ETC. 343 made a pool, which was swept away by him who threw the Venus ; that is, of the four tali used, one an ace, a second a three, a third a four, the last a six. The term alea was used for any game of chance, whether with dice or taliA The sieve mentioned by Pollux referred to the Cos^ cinomanteia, a mode of divination, practised by turning a sieve, suspended by a thread or placed upon a point.'^ The urnsy or ballot, or vote boxes, are thus explained by Rous^ : — ^' Casting or drawing lots was either with a(7TpayaXot or tali, cast into a box, or with tessercB (ypaju/xaTEia, Plutarch calls them), Uttle wooden tables with letters upon them, drawn out of a pot ; or calculi, little balls of earth, with marks upon them for the names; sometimes taken out of a pot, and sometimes thrown into a well, whether to see which came up first, or how it was, 1 cannot tell." Fullers. — Pollux classes fullers^ with modern scourers^, and makes their implements and materials a fuller's vessel, according to others, shop^, the teasel (i.e. thistle 7), the wooLcard^, caldrons^, nitre, especi- ally the Chalastraean^^, from the lake of Chalastra, in Macedonia; lye ', made of water and ashes, mentioned by Plato, not from the chemical action, but as a men- stfuum for washing away filth (evt* Ta;y pu7rTi)ca;v), says Pollux ; fuller's earth ^2^ or rather chalk, from the isle of Cymolus, the '' cretosi rura Cymoli " of Ovid ; a press, which the word ii:o; seems to imply, and sulphur. Thus Pollux ; but, an abstract shall now be given of Ameilhon's excellent dissertation upon this art. The first process was to clean the wool from the grosser impurities, and this was the occupation of fuller's I Rosin. 314. •^ Theocr. Id. iii. Archaeolog. 371. Kvarpeas. (paihpeveras, Kva(p€iop. ^ Kva(po5y 7] TDO(T(popa axrrois oucapQa. 5 4 5 6 8 From KvoHTT^Lv the verb* 9 \a€pa, 10 x.irpoVj Ktrpov x*^** arpatov, 11 KOVLO. 12 KifJLOuKia, children. To cleanse it from the natural grease, they ntxt boiled it in pure water ; but, as this was insuffi- cient, they used afterwards lye, prepared from wood- ashes and urine, because it contained various salts, which, in combination with the fat of the wool, formed a kind of soap. PUny says, that fuUers were not subject to gout, because they had their feet habitu- ally plunged in the excremental fluid. After passing through the urine bath, it was cleared from that by lotion in a large pool of water, — '' the fuller's pool of water." The finishing process was to im- merse it in a bath, containing a decoction of the herbs ctt^uSo^, or struthium, a plant which had the property of bleaching, and presumed to be the borith of the prophets Jeremiah and Malachi. Soap, which was at first only a pomatum for the hair, invented by the Gauls, was unknown in these periods, although, as a German article, the use of it, appUed to the 'person and cloth, is clearly described by a writer of the third cen- tury of our era. The soap-boilers shop at Pompeii is, therefore, an anachronical appropriation. To the lixi^ viates before mentioned, the fullers added, for further bleaching, the bolar earths, of which the chief was the cymoUan before mentioned, from the isle of Cymolis, now called Argentiere. This was mixed with the cloth, which they then fulled, i. e. trod, or rather jumped upon, with their feet, and worked with their hands, — an operation now performed by the stocks. They also used rollers (pilce fullonicce) to press and beat the stuffs. What was next done was the process now (and anciently, also, according to Pollux), per- formed by the teasel, a substitute for which was a bun- die of prickly plants, drawn over the cloth, aod the skin of a hedgehog. The next process was the sheer, ing. The workman, with common shears, cut or detached the little tufts projecting from the stuff; and these, with the wool further extracted by the instru- ment, formed the flocks of cushions and mattresses.- To complete the whiteness necessary, the cloth was z 4 \ 344 CLASSICAL ANTIQUITIES. TRADES, ETC. S45 fumigated by sulphur. To confer lustre^ the cloth was pressed by a machine, called the iTro^, presumed to con- sist of two planks, between which the cloth was placed, and pressed down by weights or a vice. Such was the process, whether to prepare the wool for the dyer, or to give the cloth its last touch, after it was returned by him. We have now to state how the same artisan treated linen and cotton. The art of dyeing linen is, according to Pliny, not older than the time of Alexander ; but linen being more susceptible of a purple dye, sails of ships so co- loured may be (and, according to authors, are) of earlier date. It is to be observed, that vegetables have less disposition than animal matters to receive colours. Spain was the country which, for the most part, sup- plied the Romans with linen fit for dyeing. The first step was to bleach it well, because it had a glutinous surface, which pre tented the contact of the thread with the colour. The ancient fullers, therefore, washed re- peatedly the cloth in a lye and solutions of soda, pro- bably exposed it on the grass^ as now, and finished by boiling it with a plant of the poppy kind, called pera-. cleon. The process was nearly the same with cotton, an article in much more use with the Asiatics and Egyp- tians than the Greeks and Romans. The trade of a fuller is one of most ancient date, and, because it required a great supply of water, their workshops were generally placed upon the banks of rivers, or near springs. (A fuller's pool, called fullo- nicay is represented in the plan of a house in the street of the Mercuries at Pompeii. Pompeianay 2d series.) Here are paintings representing fullers at work. In one, they are stamping the cloth in a large bowl of pottery ; in a second, a man is carding, with a carding comb, a piece of cloth suspended from a bar ; while another is carrying a demi-oval frame, upon which was stretched the cloth intended for fumigation. They did not work for the dyers alone, but scoured and whitened cloths and hnen for personal and domestic use. In large estabhshments, they had annual con- tracts for such works, — some even kept a fuller of their own. They had also the art, called interpolatio, of raising a nap upon old cloth, by a sort of carding instrument. They united the trade of scourers^ be- cause the customs of dining in a reclined position, and pouring perfumed oils upon the head, often occasioned large stains of grease, &c. They had, likewise, the practice of letting out clothes for hire, and are charged with having so used those of their customers, even with having worn them themselves. So keen were the ancients for gossiping, that the fuUeries were, like the barbers' shops, places of rendezvous even for philoso- phers and grammarians. * Glass Manufacturers. — Pollux throws no light upon this subject ; but it is evident that, whatever may have been the demerits of the manufacture, as to blue- ness and dimness, the taste, from the numerous articles found at Pompeii, is, as to pattern, indubitable. Pliny ^ gives a general but satisfactory account of the process of making it. He plainly shows, that the earthy ingre- dients were passed through repeated furnaces, and that one part was formed by blowing, a second by the lathe, and a third by cutting or carving, like silver. In short, the liquefaction and coagulation of certain earths having been discovered, the mass was treated like a metal, and greatly improved, until, by certain admixtures, was produced a pure (as it is called) white glass. It is also certain, that it was coloured in the melting by art. Not only paste glass and imitation of gems was pro- duced, but changeable tints, according to the points of aspect. The first glass manufactory known is that of Diospolis, the capital of the Thebaid ; and the Egyp- tians had the peculiar distinction, according to Athe- naeus*^, of knowing how to gild glass. It was applied to many more than the modern uses by the ancients. 1 Ameilhon M^m. de rinstit. i. 586. 2 xxxvi. 26. 3 v. 5. 9 34>6 21 CLASSICAL ANTIQUITIES. Drinking-glasses, the ^^ vitro bibis" of Martial (Ep.i. 38.), precisely as found at Pompeii^ the form of our jelly glasses, are the va^Xkva, sxTroj/xara of Aristophanes, who classes them with those of gold ' ; and, according to some found in a bagnio at Pompeii, they appear to have been employed on very strange occasions. ^ In the second series of the Pompeiana, part i. mention is made of the discovery of glass bottles with handles, fluted tumblers^ and circular glass vases. HoRSE-BREAKERs. — Pollux uuitcs tliis art with that of plain grooms, as given above ; but skill in the art was deemed of too great importance to be lightly passed over. The equorum domitor became a title of honour among the ancients, because it signified a soldier, or chief, who fought on horseback, and skill in riding or driving was a requisite qualification of such warriors^; but there were also professional riding-masters, alluded to by Xenophon, '' Equisones." ^ The manner of breaking horses was various in different countries, but that of the Greeks and Romans was in essentials this ; Xenophon directs the colt to be rubbed and stroked in those parts of the body where he was most likely to re- ceive the most pleasure, and these were deemed the parts most covered with hair. The groom was ordered, likewise, to lead him through crowds, and familiarise him to sights and noises of all kinds. The Greeks had a bridle armed with teeth, which came over the nose, like our cavezons, and very severe in its effects ; and there was a very rough bit, called the lupatum. These methods were applied, so far as was necessary, before the smooth bit.^ In the processes of teaching, the horses were moved in circles, that they might be made supple, and ready to turn any way.^ The Parthians, in training their horses to go safely over rough ground, and Hft their feet above opposing objects, dis- > Poll. vi. 16. X 19. 2 Gent. Mag. v. xcix. p. 2. 628. 3 Bereng. i. 49. 4 ii. 77 * Id. 41. 72. 260. 6 Id. 45. i TRADES, ETC. 347 posed, on a spot about fifty paces long, and five broad, in rows, boxes or coffers filled with chalk or clay. At first the horses used to trip and stumble, but being taught by repetition to lift their feet higher, and avoid the offending objects, they acquired a habit of bending their knees, and dealing their steps, sometimes shorter and sometimes longer, as the ground required, and thus ' were enabled to carry their rider in safety. * But the Romans, if nature had not furnished the horses with a proud and lofty action, used to tie rollers of wood and weights to their pastern joints, to compel them to lift their feet, a practice particularly required to go safely, skilfully, and with ease to the rider, in the amble. ^ This was the favourite pace with the Romans, and it consisted, through tying the legs, in controlling the steps of the horse, so that he moved two legs on one side together, and the other two in the same manner, and according to this account, the amble must have resembled a gentle canter. Trotting they abhorred, and horses of that pace they called even tormentors, {cruciatores) and torturers {tortores). To produce time and cadence in the steps of the horses, they were exercised by musical accompaniments, and books of horse music are said to be still existent in Italy. ^ Races were rode down hill in some nations, and when the horse leaped over a ditch, the rider laid hold of the mane, that the bridle might not check him, and when going down a steep or declivity he flung his body back, and supported the horse with the bridle, to prevent his falling headlong down the hill.^ They were taught also to kneel, that their riders, who had no stirrups, might mount them by jumping, a practice taught by means of wooden horses. They mounted on the off side, by holding the mane and the bridle in the hand. Plutarch^ mentions colts that would practise 1 Bereng. 17. « Id. 76. 78. 3 Id. 86. 4 Id. 253. ^ De Ration. Animal. 'ill 348 CLASSICAL ANTIQUITIES. 4 I* V figure dances, and theatrical horses ; and Homer a/x- (fiTTTroi, desultoreSy or persons that would leap from one horse to another. But what seems singular is, that impetuous and fiery steeds were deemed unfit for war. The Greeks tried their horses by a bell, and other loud and sudden noises, and, by their behaviour under these circumstances, judged of their tempers and characters. Such horses as were worn out and unfit to serve with the troops were turned out, and, as a mark of dismis- sion, were branded in the jaw with the figure of a circle or wheel. It was also usual with private people 10 mark their horses, by branding into their flesh cer- tain figures and marks; as letters of the alphabet, sigma and kappa being the most common (whence horses so marked were called KocTTTrxTiock and Sav^o^ai from crav the ancient name for o-iy/x-a), initials of the owner's names, or those which denoted the breed and country, figures of animals, and other devices. Thus Lucian mentions the practice of stamping horses with the figure of a centaur, and Bucephalus is said to have been marked with the figure of a bull. • Husbandmen. — Pollux 2 numbers among them, un- der one general term (yewfyoi), gardeners^, nursery- men '^, mowers, and venders of potherbs'^, woodwards^, and those who had the management of figs, olives, and vines. 7 The agricultural tools he makes a plough and its adjuncts, a waggon and the same, a winnowing fan^, a three-pronged fork^, a sickle ^^, a pastinum^^ (i. e, two-pronged tool to set plants with, or prepare the ground for them), a flail ^^^ a sieve ^^, a spade i^*, a scoop ^•^, a milk-pail i^, a rake or hoe^'^^ a scythe or weeding- J Berenger, 44. 2 vii. 32. 3 KTJTtwpOU "^ (pvTovpyot, 6 a\(T0K0jJ.0l, 7 €\aioKO/xoLf ^piacTaiy (Tvk- (CpOU 6 TTTVOV, 9 LOV, 16 (TKacpis. 17 0Ka\i5, TRADES^ ETC. S49 hook^, an axe^, a digging tool (driven with both hands, as some, or one with two prongs, as others^'), a chip-axe, a small hatchet ^^ a clod-breaking beetle ^'», and wood-cutting axe.^ The utensils he makes, recep- tacles of autumn fruit 7, places or vessels for dried figs^, cheese, &c., baskets of rush 9, &c., a vessel for grapes J^, stakes 11, pots 2^ rods, sticks i*"^, &c., props i**, a press for bruising the oUves, with its rope annexed, and the receiver for the expressed oil^^, culinary and bakers' implements, rushes, brar^bles, rough sticks, thorns, thistles, &c. to protect the fruit ^^ (at the pre- sent day, the Italians place boughs of the Ruscus aculeatus (butcher's broom) round their bacon and cheese to protect them from mice), shepherds' crooks i'', staves and walking-sticks ^^, casks or tubs, bread-bins i^, and skins of goats and dogs.^o Plumbers. — Whether there were any distinct trades- men of this calling is dubious, for Pollux expresses it only by ixoXvS^oxoriG-cti'^^ ^ although Vitruvius plainly denotes the business by the word plumhariuSy formed from an adjective. According to Phny, the ancients would have known nothing of such a metal, if Mida- critus had not first introduced it from Cornwall and Scilly2^ ; and it appears that our ancestors used to ex- port it in their coracles^ or cymhce sutites, boats made of t)| ** (Tfiivvrj, (TfJLlVvdlOV, ^ (T(pvpa P(a\oKoiro5, ^ treXcKvs ^vXoKoiros. 7 criroDpaL. ® Tpacria, ^ ovpixos, ap^txos, &c. ^0 (TTatpvXoSoKeioy, '^ Xapaxes. 4 paKTpiau 15 opoSi rpnrrr)py (j>opij.o5, Kparrip. 1^ (Txoivosy Paros, opxavVy pcLXoSt Kovv^a, Kvato<- To^i/.f The Lacedaemonian youth, says Plutarch, slept m distinct companies, in one common room, as in the modern hospitals and barracks ; the term was also ap- phed to single bed.rooms.:}: Before the doors was a curtam, either of linen, or of various colours, called by the same poet Cyprian. The beds, discriminated by I oUux, were of various sizes, made of oak, box, or ivory ; sometimes with silver feet.^ The construction of some of them was like a ladder ||; others like a tortoise-shell If, or with a double head**, or without a pillow for the feet, ft Servants lay upon mats, made of rush, broom, and the down of reeds. The bottoms were formed of bandages or ropes made of the same materials. :!::{: The scympodium is described hereafter. The »j. t Id. 464. XX PoUux. FURxNITURE. S6\ formed of tapestry work, woven in patterns, or em- broidered—some shaggy on both sides: and Homer ascribes similar properties to a goat-skin thus used. Blankets were also so woven. To these were added mattresses (culcitrce), never stuffed with hair ; cushions (say rather, beds), and pillows, covered with leather, woollen, or linen, and stuffed with feathers, straw, down of reeds. There were also stragulcB of linen*, answering to our sheets. There is nothing, in either authors or monuments, which clearly shows the use of curtains ; but from the word xwi/oTrcia, tent-beds have been ascribed to the Greeks ; whereas xcyv^i// means a gnat, or musquito ; and the derivative, conopeum, or canopy, implied a covering to keep off those insects t ; and the testudineum conopceum of Juvenal:}: was a tester, attached to cradles, to secure infants from being stung. The Delphin editor of Suetonius § adds, that curtains were invented to save the trouble of an attend- ant with a fly-flapper, as mentioned by Terence. || The Roman bed-rooms are called cellulm by Pe- tronius % and are, at Pompeii, very small. They were vaulted**, and had a little window, for privacy, placed near the roof, square, with a curtain and shutter, to exclude wind. ft In the chambers of the second story of Hadrian's villa are alcoves for placing the bedsteads; and Plutarch :{::}: mentions bed-chambers as upper rooms. The spare bed-room was called hospitale cubiculum.§§ Among the Greeks, the thalamus and amphithalamus had the same appropriations. At Pompeii the bed- rooms have tessellated pavements and paintings on the walls. The Greek and Roman bedsteads were six feet long and three broad, according to Aristotle and Hyginus ; ♦ rvKuee,. f Valpy's Fundamental Words, 157. X L. ii. s. 6. V. 81. Lubin. 232. § Aug. c. 82. II Eun. actiii. sc. 5. f Burm. i. 59. ** Winckelm. ft " Qua lucem thalamis parva fenestra dabat."— Ovfrf. Miss Knight*s Latium, p. 3Q. U In Pelopidas. \\ Livy, i. 58. 362 CLASSICAL ANTIQUITIES, FURXirrRE. o 63 and mention is made of two in every room ; one (yiXivvj) for sleeping, as above, the other for lounging, smaller; the yiXm^LOv or hXivt'/jolov of Pollux — perhaps used for the after-dinner naps, taken by Nestor in the Odyssey, by Augustus, and the other Romans. They were nearly of the form of a sofa ; and this, in Boissard, has no back. They were made, among the Romans, of ebony, cedrat*, enriched with inlaid work or figures in relief: sometimes of ivory, massy silver, with feet of onyx, &c.; though one, at Pompeii, was only of iron. According to Martial, as according to Pollux, before quoted, the * Citrus medica, Lin, bedding was laid, instead of sacking, upon latticed bandages, supported by a bed-cord. * The bedsteads were p aced along the wall ; and in the side next to tftat called pluteus, the women and children slept • in the sponda, or outer side, the men. ' The bedding consisted of paiUasses, or mattresses stutted with straw, wool, flocks, or dried vegetables. It IS said that the Romans at first slept upon straw ; to which succeeded dry leaves, skins of beasts for mattresses and to them mattresses of the wool of Miletus and down beds, imported from Egypt, on account of the number of geese there kept. Livy (xxxix. 6.) makes the lecti aerati {bronze bedsteads) and precious bedclothes in- troductions through the Asiatic army. The beds on «ie vases appear uncommonly full ; so were also the Roman, the feathers being sometimes those of the peacock, t Those for old men were exceedingly softt probably of down, of which the finest sort was used for the piUows of ladies. § Bed-coverings consisted of skms of sheep II or goats with the wool on, called triavpa, mum, &c. IT ; and if we may interpret lodices exclu- sively by blankets. Martial mentions a pair sewed to- gether. The Cadurci, and some other nations of Gaul, t mS a .. t Mart Apophor. j Plut Sen. &c. % Mart Apophor. Juven. &a || piut Dec Orat T Ammian. Marcellinus says, that Julian slept apon one. ' Hist Aug. it 364 CLASSICAL ANTIQUITIES. wove very fine linen from flax of their own growth ^ ; and the Romans, through the denomination of Cadurca for bedclothes, and the custom of sleeping stark naked, might thus call sheets. Juvenal says, that they were as white as snow^ ; and Pliny intimates^, through the synonym of strumentum, that they were used for bed- clothes. Bed-making was an art ; and sometimes the beds were so highly elevated, that they required steps or stools to reach them."* The necessary furniture of a bed-room, both among Greeks and Romans, is stated by Pollux to have been vessels^ of glass, metal, or earthenware; wash-hand basins^ and ewers", for washing the face at getting up; chairs, benches for two (St^poi) ; slippers, or woollen socks. ^ Chairs are mentioned by Herodotus, whereon to lay the clothes; clothes- chests by Theophrastus ^ ; and a scrinium, or round box, at the foot of the bed, and mirror, by Propertius. ^^ A golden Fortune was placed in the bed-rooms of princes » : a portrait some- times hung over the bed, and there were other pictures. ^^ Claudian mentions rooms hung round with mirrors •^; and Horace, though the passage is disputed, is said to have had his bed-chamber so furnished. ^"^ Plutarch'^ mentions the sword suspended at the bed^s head, as among ourselves. Pollux enumerates at great length the furniture and utensils of the gyncBceum, or women's lodgings. These consist of the instruments for weaving and spinning, baskets for the wool, measures, ayvvQet;^ or the "ksia ; '^ smooth stones," says Rous ^, ^^ like our smooth lace sticks, that they might not weare, which hung at the end of the threads ;" scales and weights : other utensils, mixed up with those for the person, he makes a comb, J Plin. xix. 1. 2 L. iii. s. 7. v. 220. 3 Ubi supra. ^ Suet. Delph. ed. p. 188. n. Toro ^ ;t«7g/6v, lebes. scaphium. 7 T^oxoog ov$, gutturuium. " Poll. Onomast. 467. 9 33. ed. Casaub. ^^ L. iii. 40. *^ Capitol, in Anton. Pius. Spartian. in Pescenn. Niger. 12 Lamprid. in Alex. Sever. ^^ Beckraann, iii. 169. »4 Sueton. vit. Horat ^^ In Pelopidas. 16 Archaeol. Attic. 196. FURNITURE. 56, lav/ov, a card for combing wool, a shearing knife Uo^ iA^Tfm ^vpou), a mirror with its case, caUed Kocps^oy - sheers, a frontal (irapccing), a mask, large and small • a broad-brimmed hat (petasus turhinatus, like a top' broad above and narrow below) ; a fan, umbrella, boxes made of alabaster, sandal or shoe-cases, and various trinkets or articles of dress. THE END. .% » ••• ♦.• * • • • •.•: « • • ♦ • • • -> t • • * • • " • » » I. • • t « « •« • >* « 4 • •* *• 3 • • • 4 4 • t> m te • i » * « • w « • » a • • • ft .» f LONDON PEIMED BY SPOTTIS W00I>K AND CO. 2f£W SJKEliT SQUAEE • * 4 t I I « • • » « «♦ • » • • < * V ft « I • * » • • • « ■ «^ • • V • » ft t « t « • • « • 4. « • » « • » • y» * •♦ 4 t ■{xl This book is due two weeks from the last date stamped below, and if not returned at or before that time a fine of five cents a dav will be incurred. ¥«^«' MV I f ^: Sipr^ JAN 6 '51 p ff • oils .■v-!». >T >*-. ♦ >l* - F^- 7 S I Si'"* "* w 4 • , » m • 4 # •• • f s? r m ePolitinbiit liiihu-ioitu in tltc Cttu c^f lli-nt lf„v!; V c \ l I ] ■ } i £ risM T M m KWK S , M AW UJ IF AC T UJ IE IS 0anrm"6 aiu'i lln6tuittuni& LUMMS VO'LAl. TempLe cr^ Mirier va. Temple of Pandroscs itondon PRTNTEI J FOK LONGMAN , RilE S . OJ<>J \\ , BB OAW, GRi:iLN Sc L0T5 G]^A1^ , PATERNOSTER HOW, AST) JOHN TAYLOR.FJ'PllR GOWER STREET 1S35 f I I ^^ Jm%^ i / ; \ u <#^ 4 \\ \ ARTS, &c. OF THE GREEKS AND ROMANS. A. Ablution, a rite common to most nations of antiquity. — By the Greeks and Romans it was probably derived from the Egyptians. It took place after some real or imaginary pollution, and before certain actions ; being m the one case natural, in the other symbolical ; in both generally of imperative obligation. All people seem to have entertained the notion, that outward cleanliness was symbolical of inward purity ; and there can be no doubt that, originaUy, the one was to remind the reli- gious votary of the other. 1. Ablution was so general, that it necessarily began with the infant just born. — Thus Terence : " jam exivit, nunc lavavit." 2. It took place after sleep, as if night itself were able to pollute ; though the custom had doubtless refer- ence in the first place to the pollution thoro matrimonii, m the next to that often produced by the imagination! — Thus Virgil : " Surgit, et aetherei spectans orientia solis Lamina : rite cavis undam de flumine palmis Sustulit." S. Before meat. — Thus Virgil : " Dant famuli manibus lymphas.'* VOL. II. B 379592 \ I I ! ART TO. OF THE GREEKS AND ROMANS. 4. After meat : " Et cum satis cibi sumpsissimus, manus lavimus.'* And sometimes between the different courses. 5. On the return from a battle^ generally in the running stream : no impression is more ancient than that all who had shed blood are in a state of pollution : " Tu, gen i tor, cape sacra manu, patriosque penates, Me bello e tanto digressum et caede recenti Attrectare nefas, donee me flumine vivo Abluero." Virg. 6. After the departure of the spirit from the body, thus accompanying the close no less than the com- mencement of our mortal career , here the water was warm : " Pars calidas latices et aena nudantia flammis Expediunt ; corpusque lavant frigentis et ungunt." Virg. 7. After attending a funeral, when the ablution was thrice repeated : " Idem ter socios pura circumtulit unda Spargens rore levi." Virg. 8. Before sacrificing to the Gods: i . Ego, nisi quid me vis, eo lavatum ut sacrificem." Plaut. Bv the fathers of the church this custom was ridi^ culcd. Thus Arnobius and Lactantius deride the popuJar notion that by the mere washing of the skin inward impurity could be cleansed: tamquam, says the latter with his accustomed eloquence^ libidines intra pectus inclusas ulli amnes abluant^ aut ulla maria purijicent. Of the care "with which some modern nations, espe- cially the Jews and IVIoiiammedans, perform their ablutions, few readers require to be informed. '^ Of these, the first is a total immersion of the body, which \ ' / r I 'V f ABSOLUTIO. « is necessary after the copula carnalis; after approaclan^ ^e, hands, and fl^^S t;;t h^^^ Z It from'' Job k ^so'"""^', t''-'^ '^ ^"^^^"^ ^« ^^ident irom Job X. 30. ; and that it was equally observed hv he Jews as incontestable from numerous passages of mied :T ''" ' '^ *^ P^g^" P"^«'« had mSvase, fil ed with water at the entrance of their tempL 1 Solomon had his molten sea. In the sacrmen; Tf bap^sm this ancient rite has been consettrrChHsf the^e'Ze'oT:}^'' Roman law, the word was used for uspeiSed in ti T'' "^ *' ^^'^ ^'^"^ *^ t«Wets before an t^ ^f ^'' ''^''''^' ^^ese names being before all the people, must have operated as a check t! tue commission of crime, until satisfaction were made ZZS:ri:^,t ^'^ tables. -Thus, according to " Diuturnorum reorum nomina abolevit;" and Domitian, Absolutio, in Roman law—When the advocates had spoken against and for a prisoner, the prio7 wS presided, exclaimed, '' Di.erL !" and gave to each of the judges present three tablets : one mafked with ^ to absolve ; another with C, to condemn ; the tWrd tth Zt^"V:rl!' '' .'^"^*^ ''''' *e evidence was d - urn ;nd 2 t""" '\ ''^^'' ^' ^^""''^ ^""^^ ^ I^rge urn , and the officer whose duty it was to collect tL suffrages, declared which of the Lters Cthfprepin jemse ! and the culprit was delivered to the lictor : if • History of Spain and Portugal (Cab. Cyc.) voL iy. p 15 B 2 .• • - ./ ^¥ \^y\ / / 4 ARTS^ ETC. OF THE GREEKS AND ROMANS. the A^ Videtur non fecisse ! and the accused was dis* missed: if X L, he was retained for future examin- ation. AccENsus, an officer different from the lictor. — Though subject to the general orders of the magistrates, his peculiar and appropriate duty was twofold. 1. To assemble the people on public occasions : " Omnes Quirites, ite ad Concionem ! " Varro. 2. To cry the hour in the pubhc streets : " Accensus inclamabat horam esse tertiam." And it was also the duty of the accensus to preserve silence in the courts. His functions were not honourable, since they were usually confided to a freedman. Acclamation differed from Applause, in that the former was expressed by the voice, the latter by the hands ; this always in the presence, that either in the absence or presence, of the person. Thus, acclamation was made to the emperor when a largess was received from him, and the formula has been preserved by Ovid: « Augeat imperium nostri ducis, augeat annos !" TVhen the soldiers elected a general or emperor^ the for- mula was " Dii te servent, Imperator ! " The acclamation. Victory ! was usual on the com^ men cement of a battle. — Thus Caesar : " Cum vero more sue Victoriam conclamant." And after the victory, in the procession throughout the city to the capital, the cry was, " lo triumplie ! lo triumphe ! ** It was common at the celebration of nuptials. It was more conspicuous, however, on public occasions; as, 1. In public disputations, when a speaker was applauded ; 2. In the theatre, when a favourite piece was performed or a distinguislied visiter was present. S. In the senate, ^vheii the dictator or prince proposed something for the 1 I 4;' \ / '\- \ S i '^, ACCUMBERE, 5 good of the state, or for the happiness of individuals. Sometimes the word was used in a bad sense. Accla* mationeS) says Lampridius, post mortem Commodifue* runt graves. AccuMBERE, to recliue on couches during meals. — This effeminate habit was not anciently that of the Romans, who, until they were corrupted by the example of the Greeks, sat at table as we do. " Perpetuis soliti patres considere mensis.'' ViRG. Round a table in the dining room were laid two or three couches, hence denominated biclinium or tricli- nium. Never more than three persons reclined on the same couch ; or if a fourth were placed there, the master of the house was taxed with avarice. The heads c f all were supported by cushions ; and they were placed in such a manner that all reclined on the left side, and with the right turned towards the dishes on the tables ; he who occupied the head of the couch stretched his legs behind the back of the one who lay below him, and whose head reached as high as his breast. The middle was the place of honour. Bathing and anointing often preceded the repast: even among the poor, the hands and feet were washed, the sandals laid aside, and, in fact, the whole garments changed. Often the rich had crowns on their heads during the repast. On approaching the table, the gods were invoked : Adisti mensamy says Quinctilian, ad quam cum venire coepimus^ deos invocamus. Statues of the gods were generally in the room. Music was a common entertainment during the meal : in later and more corrupt times, even gla- diators were introduced. — Long after this recumbent posture was introduced, it was considered indecent for the women to recUne at table ; but in the end they lost this modest feeling, and lay on the same couch as the men. Generally the lover or husband of the lady was placed immediately above her, so that she lay in his bosom ; that is, as she occupied the post of honour or B 3 6 ARTS, ETC. OF THE GREEKS AND ROMANS the middle place, her head would reach towards his bosom : " sed in gremio jacuit nova nupta mariti.*' Jvv. AccusARE. — In the Roman law, every person could not accuse in a court of justice ; thus the wife could not accuse the husband, the ward the guardian^ the freedman his patron. When one wished to accuse another, he appeared before the judge, and requested permission to commence the action, and this was called Postidatio. The next step was to name the person, and this was called Delatio. Then came the Accusatio which the plaintiff, or actor^ was obliged to sign. The charge being drawn up, the accused was cited on three suc- cessive market days to appear. If he failed, he was again summoned by the trumpet, and in due time was condemned as contumacious : if he obeyed, he was ac- companied to the court by his friends, who, in case of his conviction, were to solicit a mitigation of punish- ment. The accusation was then made; the trial pro- ceeded ; and if, at its conclusion, the evidence seemed conclusive, the judges gave their votes, and the proper officer reported the formula, Videtur fecisse.* If the accuser were convicted of calumny, he was branded on the forehead with the letter K. Acta Senatus (Acts of the Senate), corresponding to our journals of Parliament, were first instituted by Julius Caesar ; ^^ Primus omnium," says Suetonius, ^^ in- stituit ut tarn senatus quam popuh acta diurna confice- rentur et publicarentur.'* — This is one of the numerous instances in which that great man identified his own glory with the liberties of the people. Publicity was the best possible check to tyranny or rapacity, and con- sequently the best guarantee of social rights. In a spirit exactly opposite, but perhaps more pohtical, Augustus allowed, indeed, the journal to be continued, but forbade the acts to be pubhshed, under the pretext that the secrets of the senate ought not to be divulged. . ♦ See Absolution. /-"' ACTIO, ACTOR. 7 Actio, Actor. — No action could be instituted without the consent of a judge. The plaintiff applied for permission to prosecute his suit against some one, and it was given by the formula, actionem do. The actor tlien summoned the defendant ; and if the latter refused to appear before the praetor, he could drag him into the court : a witness, however, of this refusal was to be had, and any by-stander might be made one if the plaintiff pulled his ear. In regard to the stage. Actio and Actor had an ob- vious signification. — The action of a dramatic piece was to be one, entire, and perfect ; it was to happen in the same place, and within a natural space of time ; and it was to have a beginning, a middle, and an end. Hence the three famous unities of time, of place, and of action^ which from the days of Aristotle have so much occupied the critical world. They have generally been observed in modern times, at least, in Italy, France, and Spain, and have been as generally disregarded in other coun- tries. In the present place we cannot be expected to enter into a controversy so interminable : we may, however, assert, that the ejcact observance of the writers has always been acknowledged impossible ; that the nearer the approach to such observance, the more meagre the piece ; that if causes and consequences are to be connected and exposed, and if the drama be an imitation of human life, they must of necessity be so connected and exposed,— sufficient time must be allowed for the developement of these consequences. If, as Christianity, and even true philosophy, teaches us, there is, even in this life, a necessary connection between human actions ; if a vicious action or a vicious propen- sity be always punished either internally or in the order of events ; how can that result be contemplated^ unless those events have time to develope themselves? If it be infallible, it is not often speedy. To connect, the cause and consequence -mm^dia^e/y together, is to violate the order of God's justice, which we know from the best authority ^^ is long suffering." B 4 8 ARTS, ETC. OF THE GREEKS AND ROMANS. Both in Greece and Rome^ the same actor sometimes played in tragedy and comedy; but he seldom acquired distinction in both. Many of the parts^ however, re- quired less of mind than of bodily energy and supple- ness. To obtain the latter, some of the actors repaired to the circus to struggle with the wrestlers. To each piece there were three chief actors ; but the first was the only one on whom the public attention pecuharly rested ; and to secure his triumph, the others were not allow^ed to put forth their strength. The rewards of \heatrical merit were considerable: the wages were liberal; yet they bore little proportion to the presents which, even during the progress of the representation, were made to the successful actor; garlands, rings, golden chains, «&c. were sometimes profusely poured on the • stage. Yet in Rome the profession was dishonourable: no citizen could ascend the stage without forfeiting his privileges ; and a law of Tiberius forbade a senator to visit the house of a player, or an eques to appear with one in the street. Among the Greeks, on the contrary, it did not subject the person to any mark of infamy, or even of degradation ; and instances might be enumer- ated, in which actors were chosen to discharge the most honourable functions of the commonwealth. Thus Aristodemus was sent on an embassy to the Macedonian king. We may add that -ffischylus, Sophocles, and Aristophanes did not blush to perform in their own pieces. Yet this circumstance did not prevent the Athenian spectators from sometimes treating their actors with contumely. Murmurs, hisses, opprobrious epithets, were common : often the unlucky wight was compelled to take off his mask, to expose his features to the public gaze, and to resign his place to some other tragedian ; but he had always the consolation of knowing that success in another piece might transform this boisterous censure into rapturous applause. The habits of the actors corresponded with the cha- racter they represented. Kings appeared in their royal garb; heroes in full armour; the unfortunate in mourning ADOPTIO. 9 or in ragged garments ; the aged and women in appropri- ate dress. But of all the parts of the theatrical costume, the mask was the most striking and the most important. Its adoption was necessary. As women were not allowed to mount the stage, their parts of necessity devolved on the men, who were compelled to use masks for the sake of the illusion. And considering the immense extent of the ancient theatres, where the emotions of the passions on the countenances of the actors could not possibly be discovered, the interest of the scene equally required that these emotions should be expressed by artificial means. Hence the diversity of masks, to denote sorrow, pity, anger, rage, madness, and the other passions of our nature. In addition, most of them were so constructed as to increase the power of the voice, which could thereby be diffused throughout the vast enclosure. But this rude contrivance had one great disadvantage. It distorted the natural tones of the speaker ; and it prevented his smiles or tears from being witnessed by the spectators. What sympathy, indeed, could be inspired by a countenance always in- flexible, always exhibiting the same aspect ? Adoptio, in general, signified the act by which any man adopted the son of another as his own son, as a member of his family, as the sole or conjoint heir of his possessions. — Originally this adoption was permitted only to those who were childless ; but subsequently a parent was allowed to make others coheirs with his legitimate offspring. Thus, by order of Augustus, Tiberius adopted Germanicus, though he had Drusus, for his son. Under the repubUc, adoption took place before the praetor, or in presence of the assembled peo- ple : under the empire, in the name and by the authority of the sovereign. In the former case, the parties being assembled, the father consented that his «on should pass into the family of the adopter : the other declared that he received him as a son ; hunc hominem filium esse ajo; and a piece of money, by converting the transaction into a purchase, sealed the contract: Ua 10 .HTS, ETC. OP THE GREEKS AND ROMANS. ADULTEBIVM. 11 t.^qve mihi emptus est hoc cere. We also read of adop- tion by will, as in the instance of Octavius by Julius Caesar ; but alone it was not legal, it required confirm, ation by the people ; and that of Octavius was accord- ingly confirmed d Lege Curiatd. In general, sufficient attention was paid to the privileges of the higher orders • thus a patrician could not adopt a plebeian ; yet a ple- beian might adopt a patrician. The person adopted assumed the name and surname of his new father, retain- ing, however, the name or surname of the family to which he belonged. Thus C. Octavius was afterwards known as C. Julius Cffisar Octavius. He shared in all the privileges of younger children, as fully as if he had issued from the loins of his benefactor. Hence if he were already escaped d patridpotestate,irom the authority of his natural father, by submitting to the rite, he again incurred the obligation, and was as much at the disposal of his new parent as he had ever been at that of the former The ecclesiastical reader need not be told, that this custom of adoption led to a famous heresy in the church — that Christ is not the natural, but the nuncupative' or adopted son of God ; a heresy to which Nestorius was no stranger, and which was subsequently expanded by l-ehx bishop of Urgel and EHpando bishop of Toledo. Adouatio originally signified the act of honouring the gods by raising the right hand to the mouth — " In adorando," says Pliny, <' dextram ad osculum referi- mus." This adoration was performed in various pos- tures. 1. In making gyrations of the body from right to left, with the head inclined : Solemne est Romania, cum ado rant Deos, in orbem se convertere. 2. While making the circuit of the altar or statue. 3. While standing, the posture anciently consecrated to Jove I nus Martial : ** Multis dum preclbus Jovem salutat ' Stans suminos resupinus usque in unrrues ^thon.'' ^ 4. While kneeling. 5. While prostrate. In all the^e ' cases, except when sacrifice was offered to Saturn, the I head, among the Romans, was covered ; and this ex- ception was derived from the Greeks. Prostration fol- lowed the other ceremonies of adoration. In later times, even the sovereign was approached with many of the rites previously peculiar to the gods. Thus Suetonius informs us, that when a noble Roman returned from Syria, he durst not approach Caesar except with covered head, with gyrations, and prostration on the ground. The most usual way, however, was to apply the im- perial robe to the lips, and this was called adoring the purple. Adulteriu3i was punished most severely by the Ro- mans ; generally by castration : " quin etiam illud I Accidit, ut cuidam testes, caudamque salacem Demeterit fen urn.*' HoR. This custom was probably borrowed from the Egyp- tians, who, after severely scourging the culprit, inflicted the abscission. Sometimes cruelty refined on this pu- nishment, by the abscision of the nose, ears, mouth, &c. : " Atque hie Priamiden laniatum corpore toto Deiphobum vidit, lacerum crudeliter era, Ora manusque ambas, populataque tempera raptis Auribus, et truncas inhonesto vulnere nares.'* ViRG. By law, the father could kill the seducer of his daugliter, if caught in the act; and the husband could kill both his wife and her paramour. Among the Greeks, the injured husband could cither put the paramour to death, or torture him until he redeemed himself. The woman was always repudiated, and from that moment held infamous : she was for ever excluded from the ceremonies of religion ; and, if she appeared in pubHc in splendid apparel, every one was permitted to tear the garments from her back, to trample her ornaments under foot, and load her with curses. In this respect they were placed on the same level as pro- stitutes. -mo" i ! 12 ARTS, ETC. OF THE GREEKS AND ROMANS. JEdile^ a Roman magistrate^ the origin of whose functions may be assigned to a. u, c. 260. — The people, having broken into open insurrection, and retired to the sacred mountain^, refussed to be pacified unless allowed to appoint two officers, who,^ under the title of cedile, should assist the tribunes. Hence these magistrates w^ere styled cediles plebis, and colleagues of the tribunes. Their functions were numerous and important : among the number, were the charge of the public baths, aque- ducts, sewers, and streets ; the custody of the senatorial decrees and tlie popular ordinances, in the temple of Ceres ; the management of the police, of commerce, and of provisions for the whole city ; the care of all edifices, public or private; and the conduct of all public festivals. The nobles were anxious to obtain an intro- duction into this famous magistracy, and at length they succeeded. After a struggle between the two orders, the tribunes, having obtained for the people the election of a consul, and the patricians that of a praetor, the senate, in token of the reconciliation, ordered another day to be added to the public games. But the aediles, whose duty it was to defray the expense, refused to do so ; and the young patricians immediately proposed to pay the charge, if declared eligible to the dignity of a?dile. In a spirit of blindness, which, however com- mon among the populace, is not the less to be deplored, the proposal was accepted ; and the dictator Camillus instantly nominated, on the part of the senate, two patricians to the office. When, in a. u. c^ 709, Julius Caesar created two other aediles from the same privileged class^ denominated cediles CerealeSy from their exclusive care of the public provisions, the authority of the ple- beian aediles was almost null. The patrician aediles were styled cediles curules. By Constantino, the dignity was abolished. iEiiARiuM, the public treasurj/y the place where the annual revenues of the Roman republic were deposited. — It was in the Temple of Neptune, on the declivity of the Capitol. The guardianship was confided to the ^"'Tii '***" ' '"'" I Itl l -'*""f I ! . Iiri "! _ Miiy ^ '_■-;" '''^r'rT i|^g i; i ^_ ii ^ji !i " )j|[>i, yri '^'T^>0m!'it>'i'^'^uiam^,M f9 ' tm S mf^ ■Mwm'iiiw M I JETAS. 13 \ i '/i I I h r tribuni cerariiy — a species of officers chosen from the people, famed for their riches and integrity. This treasure was always at the disposal of the state; but there was another in the inmost recesses of the temple, which was only to be touched on the most urgent oc- casions, as when the Gauls should invade the Eternal City : hence it was called Sanctius Mrarium. In time it amiounted to a prodigious sum, and it consequently attracted the cupidity of the powerful. Nobody, how- ever, appears to have laid hands on it before Julius Caesar ; who, having need of money to prosecute the civil wars, deliberately seized it, telling the tribune, that, as he had for ever freed Rome from the apprehensions of Gallic invasion, the office of keeper was no longer wanted. There were, besides, two other Mraria. 1 . JErarium Vicesimarurriy in which was deposited the one twentieth of all successions, where the deceased left no children to inherit. 2. Mrarium Militare^ a trea- sury formed by Augustus for the pay of the Roman legions. -^TAS, age, the time fixed by the laws for eligibility to public offices, and for the validity of legal acts. — Thus no one could be chosen consul before his forty- third year. The age of the judges varied ; but by Au- gustus it was fixed at thirty, which was five years earlier than in preceding times. At what age cediles could be appointed is uncertain, probably it was thirty- seven ; for twenty-seven, which has had its defenders, seems too early for the maturity of judgment and cool- ness of conduct required by that responsible office. The cetas militaris was seventeen, and it ended at forty-five. No one could aspire to civil dignities, who had not passed ten years in arms. No one could be praetor, who had not served the office of aedile two years, and who was under forty. The quaestorship, however, might be obtained at any age. For the tribuni tial dignity, thirty years was required. Again, for the validity of civil acts, there were express terms. Thus no one could adopt another unless his years exceeded by eighteen i ii' *■ i yr'gfe'-aiij-it I- 5j ; ' j:.. .t^- "°T'~r'-— -T-^-^TTfr — -IpiawiilMiiinii ^niiiji 1/ ) 14 ARTS, ETC. OF THE GREEKS AND ROMANS. the number of the person he adopted. Thus, also, marriage could not be legally contracted^ unless the male had attained his fourteenth^ the female her twelfth, year ; and this was denominated cetas puberta^ or the age of puberty. In regard, however, to the magisterial dignities, we meet with frequent violations of the lea; unnalis in the Roman history. When a person arrived at the supreme direction of affairs, and was anxious to fill the inferior offices of administration with his crea- tures, he seldom allowed the age to be an obstacle. Where power speaks, the laws are mute. AoE HOC ! — a formula of frequent occurrence in the ancient temples of Rome; and its meaning is equivalent to •' Mind what you are doing ! " — The crier of the temple, himself of the sacerdotal order, repeated it often to the sacrificing priests, to impress on their minds the solemnity of their present duty. In the same man- ner the formula was often addressed to the augurs and the assistant magistrates ; and it also appears to have been used to the priest who struck the victim. At the proper point of time he demanded *^^ Agone?" The reply of the superior was, — '' Hoc age !" Thus Ovid: " Qui calido strictos cincturus sanguine cultros Semper " Agone ? " rogat ; nee nisi jussus agit." Agentes, — literally agents^ — were the imperial cou- riers or messengers to all parts of the Roman world : and they were not merely the bearers of letters ; they had also the inspection of the public vehicles, of the ports, &c. — At a later period they were evidently spies, since one of their functions was to report on the state of each province, into what political parties it was divided, what was the conduct of the leading functionaries, &c! In this respect they were the successors of the Fru^ mentarii: — '' Qucs nunc agentes in rebus," says St. Jerome, '' et veredarios appellant, veteres frumentarios nominabant." U a spy do not find, he is sure to make plots, both that he may recommend himself to the good % "V i i # AGER. 15 opinion of his employers, and that he may obtain the rewards due to his information. Neither frumentarii nor agentes were held in good odour : hence, by Au- relius Victor, the former are called pests, and the latter too much like them. Diocletian had the virtue to sup. press them. Ager, land or field. — As Rome increased her con- quests, and incorporated them with the state, it was her constant policy to colonise a considerable portion by locating on them soldiers and citizens. This pohcy was in many respects admirable: it rid the parent country of many who, grown desperate by poverty, were always inclined to disturbance; and it preserved the vanquished inhabitants in obedience. These lands, however, were not gratuitous : if the colonist had not sufficient money to purchase the portion which fell to him, he farmed it for the benefit of the commonwealth, or of some superior tenant. But this regulation re- garded the cultivated lands : those which were waste or which lay on an exposed frontier, were generally gra- tuitously conferred; yet, like the rest, they were subject to the burthens of the state : thus they annually yielded one fifth of the produce of the trees, one tenth of the grain, and a certain tax for cattle. The quantity of this public land in each colony varied according to the conditions on which the colony was originally secured. If the natives had voluntarily submitted, two thirds of the territory were generally left to them ; one third only being divided among the victors. In no case however, do the people appear to have possessed more than seven jugera each; where the territory was much circum scribed, only two : the surplus remained at the disposal of the state ; and was either farmed for its benefit, or, if more defenders were necessary, it was assigned to new settlers. In general, however, there was always a con- siderable portion unassigned. For what follows, the reader will be prepared. This surplus was soon en- grossed by the patricians, who farmed the revenues arising from it; viz, who offered so much for the pro- ■^? i \i f".' 16 ARTS, ETC. OF THE GREEKS AND ROMANS. !\ i J ^ M ' If 1 t I/. duce of the soil diiring^t'eyears^ — the period for which the public lands were invariably let : at the end of the five^, they had only to renew the contract. If to this we add that^ by judicial forfeiture, in default of issue, and through other causes, the portions of many among the resident coloni would devolve to the state, we shall not be surprised that the territory which the pa- tricians took such care to engross was greatly augmented. In the same degree we shall be prepared to expect the diminution of the allotments, originally made to the coloni. As the members of each family multiphed, as the children were admitted to co-inheritance, the portion originally held by each (it was two jugera in the im- mediate vicinity of Rome, and seven in the more distant colonies) would be split until the multiphed portions would be inadequate to the support, not merely of a family, but of an individual. We cannot, therefore, wonder at the complaints which, from the third century after the foundation of Rome, were so loudly uttered, that the patricians held most of the public land, while the plebeians were generally reduced to utter desti'tution. Nor was this the worst. The patricians, as the heads of government, showed a shameful partiality to their own order, by exempting their lands from the burthen of the one tenth to which they were liable, while those of the plebeians remained subject to it. This was a grievance which could not patiently be borne ; and we are prepared for the introduction of an ap-rarian law, the design and nature of which have been so greatly misunderstood by superficial enquirers into the policy of ancient nations. The agrarian law was neither more nor less than a Hmitation of the ager puhlicus, or public land, as possessed by the patricians to a certain quan- tity. No one was to possess, that is, to farm the re- venues of above 500 jugera, or about 280 Enghsh acres. Those who had more, were to be deprived of the sur- plus by the aediles, and this surplus was to be partitioned among the plebeians, in the proportion of seven jugera to each family. In addition, there was the common AGER. ly pasture land, on which each citizen had the right to graze so many head of cattle. Here, too, the patricians had encroached on the rights of the rest ; and it was proposed that none should in future turn on the pasture above 100 head of large and 500 of small cattle, each subject to a certain tax payable to the public trea- sury. This limitation did not regard private or patri- monial land, with which neither Licinius, nor Sextius, nor any other Roman legislator, ever presumed to in- terfere. Hence it may be denominated a salutary one. After many struggles, and a considerable interval of time, its sanction was wrung from the reluctant senate. Of the agri, there were many distinctions correspond- ing to their nature and uses. The ager compascuus was the common or pasture land to which we have alluded ; the ager decumanus was the tithable land — that is, the public land subject to the annual tenth of produce re- quired by the state. All Sicily w^as in this predicament: — ^' Omnis ager Sicilian decumanus est," says Cicero. The ager effatuSy where the augurs unfolded the fates. The ager occupatoriuSy which was vacant, whether in virtue of default by inheritance, or by revocation, or by judicial forfeiture, and might be dfccupied by any one who farmed it from the state, or to whom the state conceded it. In fact, the highest bidder was generally preferred at the end of a lustrum^ and would, indeed, always have been preferred, had not the more powerful nobles combined to intimidate other bidders, and, con- sequently, to obtain it on their own terms. The ager vectigalis was the land which paid money rent, on the condition of receiving the produce in kind ; — the tenth of the corn, the fifth of the orchards, trees, cattle, wool, &c. Any one who offered, at a public auction, the highest price during five consecutive years, for the pro. duce of a district comprised in the limits of the agrarian law, was, under ordinary circumstances, the successful bidder. He paid in money for the produce yielded by the land, and for the privilege of disposing of it at VOL. II. c V r 18 ARTS, ETC. OF THE GREEKS AND ROMANS. pleasure ; and he always gave sureties for the punctual fulfilment of his engagement. Agitator, a driver ; generally applied to the con- ductor of a chariot in the circus.— Anciently, this em- ployment being considered as equally disreputable with that of our jockies, was abandoned to slaves; it sub- sequently passed into the hands of freedmen, and, by a natural transition, into that of ingenui and nobles. To obtain the prize in the adventurous and dextrous race, the noblest did not hesitate to enter the Hsts ; and how much the honour of victory was valued, is famiUar to every reader of the first ode of Horace. In times still later, even emperors contended for it. Agmen, originally applied to the march of an army, and soon to the army itself. — In Roman tactics, the army was composed of three great bodies : tlie first, that of the legions, consisted of Roman citizens only ; the second, that of allies, contained the troops furnished by the other Itahan cities ; the third, that of auxiharies, was made up of foreigners, or mercenaries. The ar- rangement of these bodies corresponded to their relative importance. The legions always constituted the main body, and were placed in the centre ; the allies generally comprised the right, the auxiharies the left, wing. As the allies and auxiliaries were often disposed to resist the superiority of Rome, there was policy in their se- paration, and in placing them under the check of the formidable body in the centre. To render this check more effectual, the cavalry, which also consisted of Ro- mans, and of the noblest Romans, was made to cover both wings. And it was, doubtless, in part for the same reason, that the general, surrounded by his veterans, took his station in the centre at the head of the legions. In the central legions — and possibly the same may have obtained in regard to the auxiliaries, or at least the allies — there was another division with three lines, ac- cording to the weapons of each. In the front were the hastati, or spearmen ; in the second line the principeSy armed with the sword, the dagger, and the javehn ; AGRICULTURE, 19 and the scutati, or shield-bearers, also denominated an. tepilani, who were the most experienced of the Rom^n veterans, and were always few in number ; in the third rank were the triarii, whose name sufficiently denotes their position ; the rorarii, or hght-armed skirmishers, whose office it was to issue from the rear and provoke the battle. This name is explained by Festus : — '' Ut ante imbrem fere rorare solet, sic iUi ante gravem ar. maturam quod prodibant rorarii dicti." In addition to these were the antesignani, who were always selected from the hastati and principes, and whose honourable but dangerous duty was to defend the banners of the army. Some of these were also placed in front of the army, to direct the operations of the advancing line, and their leader was styled tribunus antesignanorum. — Before the imperial domination, the generals-in-chief were the consuls, the proconsuls, or the praetors, who had always one or more lieutenants, according to the number of troops. The cavalry had its own com- mander, the magister equitum ; who, however, was necessarily dependent on the general. The prefect had the care of encampment, and of the fortification of camps, with the superintendence of the baggage and the sick. The qucsstores corresponded to our commis- saries. Agonotheta, he who presided over the Grecian games, and distributed the prizes.— While in the exer- cise of his office, which was one of no slight importance, he was clad in purple, and no contest could begin with- out his permission. Originally there were but two of them ; but as the number of games, or at least of com- batants, increased, they were raised to nine : of these, three presided over the horse races; three over the pentathlum, consisting, as the name imports, of five games, — leaping, wrestling, running, throwing the disc and the javehn ; and three over the remaining games. Agriculture, as an art, was originally held in the highest esteem throughout the ancient world: on it, indeed, not only the social prosperity, but even the c 2 ^ 20 ARTS, ETC. OF THE GREEKS AND ROMANS. social existence, was based ; and it was held honourable so long as the useful were preferred to the splendid arts of life. — That the Romans were as much attached to it as to war, appears from the eagerness with which they demanded their accustomed assignation of two acres from the ager publicus *, and from the care with which they cultivated it. The highest magistrates of the city were not ashamed to exercise themselves in this most useful of the arts ; it was taught to their children as carefully as the laws of the country. In Greece it appears to have enjoyed equal esteem : some particulars respecting it may gratify a passing curiosity.— Walls or hed"-es were not the only distinctions ; there were also little columns, or elevated tablets, before the houses of such owners as had mortgaged their land, specifying the amount, and the name of the creditor. No land- owner could injure the possessions of his neighbour: he could not, for instance, dig a well, or build a house, or raise a wall, unless at a certain distance (fixed by law) from the domain of another. Agricultural labour commenced with daylight ; the meals were generally cooked and eaten in the open air ; and the labour was conducted amidst rustic songs. Of these songs we have specimens in Theocritus. Some consisted of in- vocations addressed to Ceres to prosper the harvest, and incentives to mutual industry: sometimes, however, there was an attempt at wit in the efforts of the rustic muse. The poHcy of the slave inspector was derided ; the frog was declared to be an object of envy, inasmuch as it had always enough to drink in the most sultry weather ; and the labourers were exhorted to tread out the corn at mid- day ; for then, owing to the heat, the husk of the grain was most easily and speedily thrown off. The grain was separated from the stalk in various ways. Often the sheaves were ranged in a circular form, and a rustic, standing in the centre, di- rected at his pleasure the motions of the oxen, horses, or mules, which trampled them continually under foot. * See the word. ALA. 21 Sometimes harrows were employed for the same pur- pose ; flails were certainly not unknown : and there were instances in which, by means of long forks, the sheaves were tossed into the air, while a brisk wind performed the same office. When a furrow was first opened, oxen were always employed; on subsequent oc- casions, mules. In Rome, the labourers, during the time of harvest, did not work in the same continuous line ; they separated into two parties, each commencing at an opposite side of the field : hence they necessarily met, and the party which soonest gained the centre had the honour of the day. Their granaries were usually under ground, carefully defended from humidity and the ingress of the air. The vintage seasoh, Uke that of harvest, was universally one of gladness : in the midst of the labour, songs abounded. While the grapes were detached from the vines; while youths and maidens collected them into osier baskets, and carried them to the press ; while rustic, generally female, feet, trod the grape, and the purple stream flowed beneath, the songs never ceased. The press, indeed, had songs peculiar to itself, and denominated from it : but these emotions of joy were much less animated than those which signalised the completion of the harvest and of the vintage. Fes- tivals in honour of Ceres and Bacchus were universal, but there was this difference between them ; that while the former were celebrated with sober, however lively, gladness, the latter were accompanied by intemperate mirth. The rustics of the ancient w^^ld never lost sight of the gods : sacrifices to propitiate them were offered at seed-time ; and the first fruits of the harvest, in token that every good thing was derived from them, were daily laid on the altar. Ala, a wing ; the meaning of which, in a military sense, deserves notice. — The term was first applied to the cavalry ; both because it was distributed by the old Romans to the right and left of the infantry, just as wings are placed to the right and left of birds, and because the swiftness of motion rendered the analogy c 3 '•tfUffiiinifiiii ii[i .m) 22 ARTS, ETC. OF THE GREEKS AND ROMANS. natural. Yet Aulus Gellius assigns only the former of these reasons : — ^^ Alae dictse exercitus equitum or- dines, quod circum legiones^ dextra sinistraque, tanquara alae in avium corporibus locabantur." Even when in- fantry was placet! to the right and left of the main Lody^ it retained the name of alee, or wings. As each legion was divided into ten cohorts, so, in subsequent times, the cavalry was divided into ten wings; each wing being subdivided into companies of thirty-two men^ and then again into decurice of ten men each. Alabarches. — According to some, the receiver of the duty on cattle ; according to others, the superin- tendent of the public salt mines. Alea, any game of hazard, but especially that of dice. — The antiquity of this latter game is lost in the night of time. St. Isidore assigns its invention to a Greek present at the Trojan war ; but this has all the appearance of a fable. It is probably of Asiatic origin. Both dice, and every other species of games where chance presided, were forbidden by the Roman laws ; but after the accession of the emperors, these laws were regarded only in so far as they accorded with the im- perial pleasure. The sovereign, who was fond of the game, did not hesitate to violate the prohibition ; and his example was so generally followed as to incur the animadversions of the satirists. Alia Omnia. — An expression of the gentlest cha- racter to denote dissent from a given motion in the Roman senate. When the members were called by the consul to divide, he exclaimed. Qui hoc sentitis, illuc transite y Ye who approve of the motion, pass over to that side ! But when he addressed the dissentients^ instead of saying, Qui non sensetis, or Qui contrarium sentitis — a formula of words long received as ominous; he said. Qui alia omnia, in hanc partem. This formula appears to have been derived from the Spartans, for we have it on record that when one of the ephori wished war to be declared against the Athenians, he cried : ^* Ye who think that the peace has been violated ALLIGATI. 23 \\ I by the Athenians, arise and pass over to this side ! ye who are of a contrary opinion, pass over to that." Alica, a beverage made from barley and apples, much used by the poorer classes of Rome. — As many of the public women resided in the quarter where this beverage was made, they were sometimes denominated AlicaricB. Alienare, in civil law, the transfer of the right of dominion from one man to another. — But this transfer was not effected by the mere sale ; it could not exist without the delivery, or, as it is termed in law, the tra^ dition of the thing. ^^ Alienatum/' says Ulpian, ^' non proprie dicitur quod adhuc in dominio venditoris manet ; venditum tamen recte dicitur." — ^^ Traditionibus enim dominia transferuntur." Alipilarius, a slave, who by means of ointments removed the hair from various parts of the human body, especially from under the armpits. — The old Romans were satisfied with this ; but in later and more effemi- nate times, the young dandies of Rome insisted on the same process being extended to the whole body. Hence the meaning of some passages in Ovid which we have no wish to quote. It is some gratification to perceive, that bad as modern times confessedly are^ they are not so effeminate as those before us ; our dandies are anxious to look more manly than they are ; they will not sacri- fice beard and whiskers, for instance, to please the fair. 6st of our countrywomen : " Tempora mutantur, et nos mutamur in illis.** Alipta, another servile menial, whose chief office it was to anoint with oil his master or his master's guests at the bath. Alligati, the vilest species of slaves, who laboured in fetters ; '' vineta plurimum per alligatos excoluntur," says Columella. —The orders of slaves may be called three, though undoubtedly some grades of respect might be found among individuals of the same class. 1st. The actores dispensatorcs, ordinarii, exercised the most c ^ ,1 » i 24 ARTS^ ETC. OF THE GREEKS AND ROMANS. honourable of the servile functions. 2d. The medi- astini, or the medii vulgares, performed the less honour- able offices ; in fact^ the least honourable in the house- hold, yet they were above the alligati, and consequently placed between the two. Sd. The alligati. Christi- anity alone was able to improve the condition of this unfortunate class ; and that improvement was effected as the accursed system of paganism dechned. Allium, garhc, was, hke cepcB, onions, one, of the Egyptian divinities ; '' Allium ca?pasque inter Deos jusjurando habet iEgyptus/' says Pliny. The Greeks^ however, detested it so much that a pubhc law pro- hibited him who had eaten of it from entering the temple of the Mother of the Gods. And Horace suf- ficiently shows how it was abominated^ as worse even than poison : — *' Parentis olim si quis impia manu Senile guttur fregerit ; Edit cicutis allium nocentius : O dura messorum ilia ! '* Hence its use was enjoined to certain criminals, who, during some days, were rigorously debarred from every other species of food. Its expiatory nature is evident from the following passage of Persius : — '' Hinc grandes Galli, et cum sistro lusca sacerdos Incussere deos instantes corpora, si non Praedictum ter mane caput gustaverit alii." It was the food of slaves and of the poor : " Quis te cum sectile porrum Sutor, et elixi vervecis labra comedit?'* Juv. '* Ingemit, hoc bene sit ! tunicatum cum sale mordens ^^P^-" Pers. Yet it was the food of soldiers, and, as such, signifi- cant of the profession. The proverb, allia ne comedas, siimified. Do not become a soldier, do not go to the war, lead a tranquil life ! It was thought to possess some quahty capable of calling forth the innate valour of warriors : ■ ALTARE. 25 « That, fillecj with garlic, thou mayst bravely fight,*' is literally translated from Aristophanes. And for a similar reason it was much used at sea : i< „^ — tum autem plenior Allii, ulpicique, quam Romani remiges." Plautus. It was even used by the Grecian mariners. Thus Aristophanes : " Woe is me ! I perish, since the Odomantes have de- spoiled me of my garlic I ** And Suidas tells us that whenever the Athenians went to sea, they provided themselves with a sufficient stock, which they put into nets. It was thought to be a pre- servative against sea-sickness. Thus Pliny : ** Magna vis allii, magnaque utilitas contra aquarum et quo- rumlibet locorum mutationes." It was the medicine and often the food of rustics, es- pecially of harvest men : — " Allium," says Pliny," "admulta ruris praecipae medica- menta prodesse creditur. And Virgil : " Thestylis et rapido fessis messoribus aestu Allia, serpyllumque herbas contundit olentes." It was thought to be a good stomachic, useful, as ginger amongst us, for restoring heat to the powers of diges- tion. And that, if taken beforehand, it was con- sidered availing against the bite of serpents, is evident from iEmilius Macer : " Haec ideo miscere cibis messoribus est mos, Ut, si forte sopor fessos depresserit artus, Anguibus a nocuis tuti requiescere possint." Altare, an altar, probably differed from Ara^ yet the distinction is, perhaps, impossible to be drawn* — Servius thinks that the former was consecrated to the celestial, the latter to the terrestrial and infernal gods. He acknowledges that arce are sometimes mentioned in reference to the gods above ; but denies that altaria are ever used in connection with the gods below. But we 26 ARTS, ETC. OF THE GREEKS AND ROMANS. know not that there is much justice in the observation ; nor does there appear to be more in that which makes the altare to be small^ little elevated above the ground, and used for the burning of victims ; and the ara to be a larger and higher structure, over which prayers were offered and hbations poured. The numerous instances in which altare and ara seem to be employed indiffer- ently are, we think, fatal to the distinction. Yet, if there were no difference between them, we should scarcely meet with such passages as these : — *' Post altare et aram amplexa." Tac " Ut ne propi- tiandis quidern numinibus accendi ex his altaria araeque de- beant.*' Plin. — " Electus est inter aras et altaria." Id. Both altaria and arce were solemnly dedicated : the formula may be seen in Montfaucon and other collec- tors. A far more important consideration regards the immunity w^hich ahars afforded to fugitives. That ^^ the horns of the altar " were frequently embraced in the same view by the Jews, is w^ell known to every reader of the Old Testament. The custom passed into Greece, and thence into Italy. See Ara. Amantes, lovers, were as fooHsh and as fantastic among the pagans as among us. — 1. They were ac- customed to seek omens in the crackling of leaves in the fire. — (See Theocritus^ iii. 29.) The laurel was particularly used in these cases. 2. Equally portentous were the omens derived from the escape of apple pips when pressed between the finger and thumb ; if they ascended high, especially if they struck the roof, it was a sure sign that the love was returned. Hence Horace : " Quid cum Ticenis excerpens semina poniis, Gaudes, si cameram percusti forte." S, ^TTien heated by wine at an entertainment, the lover naturally hastened to the house of his mistress. If not sufficiently intimate with herself or her family to enter, he walked before the door, coughing or whistling to attract her notice : — ■;/ A»fANTES, 27 i ii, \\ ■I * " Et similat transire domum mox deinde recurrit, Solus et ante ipsas excreat usque fores." Tibul. If the house still remained bolted, if the fair one did not even appear at the window, he struck the door ; and if this signal too were disregarded, an attempt was made to soften her rigour by an amatory song : Primus amans carmen vigilatum nocte negatae Dicitur ad clausas concinuisse fores," Ovid. It was possible that to all this the lady might be deaf, and his only remedy was to cut on the posts of the door, or suspend from the threshold, the history of his love and of his anguish : ** Ah quoties foribus duris incisa pependi Non verita a populo praetereunte legi.** Id. The last stage of folly was to kiss the door, to address it as if it were rational, to honour it as a deity, often to perfume or anoint it, to crown it with flowers, to moisten It with libations of wine : ** Ille meos nunquam patitur requiescere postes, Ar«ruta referens carmina blanditia." Id. Of the anointing : ** At Jacrymans exclusus amator limina saepe Floribus et sertis operit, postesque superbos Ungit amaracino." Lucret. Of the kisses : " et foribus miser oscula figit." Id. Of the sprinkling with wine : " Eaque extemplo ubi vino has conspersi fores, De odore adesse me scit, aperit illico. Plaut. Of the crowning with garlands or flowers : " Te meminisse decet, quae plurima voce peregi Supplice, cum posti florida serta darem." Tibul, The lovers of those days must assuredly have possessed either more robust constitutions, or far greater affection, than the dandies of our own, or would they have re- mained the whole night exposed to the cold at the most 28 ARTS, ETC. OF THE GREEKS AND ROMANS. inclement season of the year, often reclined on the cold hard stones ? " Et sine me ante tuos projectum in limine postes Longa pruinosa frigore nocte pati.** Ovid. if to ail these proofs of devotion the lady was obsti- nately deaf, the only remedy the poor fool had was to hang' himself, or to try his fortune at the door of one less obdurate. It is certain that many lost their tem- pers, and left, instead of amatory complaints^ the bitter- est insults inscribed on the door. Thus Propertius makes a door to complain of the injurious verses nightly inscribed to its mistress : *' Nee possum infamis dominae defendere noctes, Nobilis obscoenis tradita carminibus." Sometimes the heaviest imprecations assailed both the door and the mistress : " Janua difficilis dominae, te verberit imber ; Te Jovis imperio fulmina missa petant ! " Tibul. Ambarvalia, a festival in honour of Ceres. — There was a procession of the victim to be sacrificed around the vineyards and fields. They were either private or public, according as they were used for the rural pro- sperity of a whole district, or of some paternal inherit- ance. The usual public formula addressed to Ceres was, Avertas morbum, mortem, labem, nehulam, em- petiginem, pesestatem ! The victim, which was a sow, or a sheep, or a bull, was led three times round the boundary, on which the blessing of the goddess was invoked : " Terque novas circum felix eat hostia fruges." Virg. The animal was crowned with garlands ; dancing , and singing in honour of the goddess attended the whole procession. The public procession took place in May, when the Hostia ambarvalis was conducted by twelve priests, denominated fratres ambarvales. The private procession was headed by the chief of the family, or the owner of the land : the victim was the same. r I AMBIRE. 29 I' t'l '^ but the formula of prayer was less comprehensive, and was sometimes addressed to other deities as well as Ceres : " Dii patrii, purgamos agros, purgamos agrestes, Vos mala de nostris pellite limitibus ! " Tibul. Ambtre, to go round : the term was applied to the way in which the candidates for public offices or honours went round the forum, to beg the suffrages of the as- sembled people. — Hence the word ambition^ the act of going round the people, of seizing each individual by the hand, and of humbly begging his vote. Not only was sufficient suppleness shown by these worshippers of a greasy mob, but bribes were dexterously offered to the more influential. If the candidate had no money, he had promises, of which he appears to have been as lavish as any man who ever hoped to enter the walls of St. Stephen's. Such corruption was indeed forbidden by many laws ; but where it is equally the interest of both parties, the laws may just as well be silent. There were a few, however, who scorned to give any thing, or even to caress the filthy multitude. Coriolanus, as drawn by our great dramatic poet, is one instance : one much better authenticated is L. Crassus : ^^ Consulatum petens L. Crassus,'' says Valerius Maximus, ^' cum om- nium candidatorum more circum forum supplex populo ire cogeretur, nunquam adduci potuit." There was an honourable ambition, — that in which the candidate merely appeared, in conformity with the laws, to beg the suffrages of the people : the other, which endeavoured to corrupt, was stigmatised. Cicero draws the distinction between them. ^^ Cedo, si fuerit in honoribus petendis nimis ambitiosus, non banc dico popularem ambitionem, cujus me principem profiteor, sed illam perniciosam contra leges cujus primos ordines Sallustius duxit." But Cicero himself would have been as corrupt as any, had he possessed the means. Ambitus was also used in other cases : as when the criminal went round to entreat the mercy of the judges. f 30 ART 5, KTC. OP THE GREEKS AND ROMANS. AMIOI. SI (I I (See AccusARE.) Here too corruption was at work; for money, the stern severity of law often relaxed: often too the plaintiff in a suit resorted to the same culpable expedient. The sentences thus obtained were denominated decreta amUtiosa, and were generally con- trary to justice; but though they were condemned, as when Suetonius observed, '' Ambitiosa decreta decurio- num rescindi debent/' they retained their ground. No law, we repeat, can be efficacious, where corruption is universal. Ambitus also signified the circuit of a town. — The law of the Twelve Tables left a sort of path, two feet and a half m width, round each ; for anciently houses were not contiguous ; and a space was left, to arrest the more easily the progress of a fire. ^ Ambubai^, female players on the lute, who always joined the profession cf courtesans. — Most of them ap- pear to be of Syrian origin ; but their ranks were aoubtless swelled from Egypt and Greece. They seem to have had their assemblies, or perhaps to have hved in communities, for the exercise of their twofold call- ing. Horace mentions the Ambubaiarum collegia ; and Juvenal bears testimony to the double character, and to the fact that it was a Syrian who first brought these wandering lascivious musicians to Rome : - Jampridem Syrus in Tiberim deflexit Orontes, Et linguam et mores et cum tibicine chordas Obliquas, necnon gentilia tympana secum Vexit, et ad circum jussas prostare puellas." AjfBULATioNEs, Were the porticos or galleries for walking, common to the better order of Roman houses. — The porticos were covered against the sun and rain. The ambulationes, however, properly so called, had no covering except that which was afforded by the umbra- geous trees, planted in the form of an avenue. In some of these shady walks, the marble column arose with the tree ; and fountains constantly playing, added to the coolness of the scene : « Nempe inter varias nutritur sylva columnas." Hoe, r \i{ '7 No house of the higher classes was complete without the threefold convenience of a bath, a portico, and an ambulacrum : " Senex aedificare vult hie in suis Et balineas, et ambulacrum, et porticum." Plaut, Of a truth, the Romans understood the articles both of comfort and of luxury somewhat better than our- selves. Amburbium, a sort of sacrifice by which a city or part of a city was purified, either from contagion or from moral guilt. — The victim, often a sheep or goat, was led round the boundary in rural ceremony ; at the conclusion it was sacrificed, and the lustration was complete : ** Mox jubet, et totam pavidls in civibus urbem Amblri, et festo celebrari moenia lustro. Longa per extremes pomoeria cingere fines Pontifices sacri quibus est permissapotestas." LucAN. Amici, friends^ a word that would appear unnecessary to be so much as noticed. — Yet its designation and use merit in some respects a place in the present vocabulary. The sovereign had his Amiciy who were regarded as his counsellors, and whom he was supposed always to con- sult on difficult occasions. Horace and Virgil were among the amici of Augustus. Again, the word was applied in the way of honour to the foreign princes who were in alliance with, that is, obedient dependents of, the Roman state. Again, it was used in a wider than the ordinary acceptation, when applied to those who espoused the cause of some public character, of some candidate for honours : they who voted for him, or who employed their influence in causing others to vote, were amicL In regard to private friends, to those whom we understand by the ordinary import of the word, there were distinctions; and they were classed into three divisions, according to the comparative fa- miliarity of the footing on which they were admitted H 32 ARTS, ETC. OF THE GREEKS AND ROMANS. AMULETA, ANAGNOSiE. 33 into the house of any one : hence the distinction be- tween amici primce vel secundcB vel tertice admissionis. — The first were the familiar or bosom friends, who had the right or rather privilege of entry at any time. The second could not be admitted without the consent of the person ; nor did he see them singly and alone, which was the privilege of the first admission. The third were admitted together on affairs relating to all, and were in fact a sort of chents or dependents, yet who had a right to reciprocal obligations. These last were not held in much esteem, as sufficiently appears from the passage of Seneca : " Non sunt isti amici, qui agmine magno pulsant januam, qui in primas et secundas admissiones digeruntur/' And Lam.pridius mentions the condescension of one who saw his friends not only of the first and second admission, but those inferior, meaning of course those of the third : '' Moderationis tantae fuit, ut amicos non solum primi ac secundi loci, sed inferioris segrotantes viseret/' This arbitrary di' vision of friends had its origin, we are told, from the tribunes Gracchus and Livy : '' Apud nos," says Seneca, '' primi omnium C. Gracchus et mox' Livius Drusus instituerunt segregare turbam suam, et aHos in secretum recipere, alios cum pluribus, ahos universes. Habuerunt itaque isti amicos primos, habuerunt et secundos.*' Why Amicitia, or friendship, was made a goddess by the Romans, is not difficulf to be conceived. She was represented as young, with head uncovered, and in coarse garments. On her tunic was inscribed Mors et Vita : on her forehead, JEstas et Hyems : on her heart to whicli her finger pointed, Longe et prope. Friendship was often vowed at the altar, in presence of the god. dess. In the same solemn way it was renounced when one of the contracting parties proved false to his obligation. Amphidromia, a festival celebrated the fifth day after the birth of an infant. — On this occasion the mid- wives and nurses purified themselves, and takino- the child in their arms, ran round the fire. The reason of this custom seems to be, that as the hearth was conse- crated to the household gods, it served as an altar on which the new-born stranger was offered to their service and protection. The festival itself was celebrated with much joy. The parents, and especially the friends of the parents, made presents to the infant ; and an enter- tainment followed. During the ceremony, an olive garland was suspended over the door, if the child was a male ; a fleece of wool, if a female. (The same sym- bols had been suspended at the birth of the infant.) The ohve was, no doubt, symbolical of the agricultural labour — the wool, of the domestic arts — to which each was destined. The ceremonies are rather alluded to than described in some verses of Athenaeus : " But what 's the reason that no crown is placed Before the doors, nor grateful victim slain, Whos« frying fat delights the smelling sense, When the joyful Amphidromia are kept, . In which is toasted Chersonesian cheese, And cole wort tied in bundles seethed in oil. And linnets, doves, thrushes, and cuttle-fish. And calamary dress*d and eat in common. And polypus's claws with care procured. To diink them down amidst their less mix'd cups? " Amuleta (amulet), w^hich was doubtless of oriental derivation, was a fancied preservative against bodily dis- orders and magic. — It was usually a precious stone : ^^ Totus Oriens," says Pliny, '' pro amuletis traditur gestare eam jaspidem quae ex iis smaragde simihs est." It was suspended round the neck ; and was thought to exercise peculiar efficacy in regard to children. Anagnos^, were readers of the servile class, who read to their masters, especially at table. — There was one at least in every respectable house, — a proof that the Romans were not so illiterate as some writers would have us suppose. This custom of reading at meals appears to have been borrowed by St. Benedict from the classical times : in his celebrated Rule, he renders the VOL, II. D n\ li.i ti If < 34 ARTS, ETC. OF THE GREEKS AND ROfllANS. exercise obligatory on the communities of his order. The AmanuensiSy the writer or secretary, was also a slave ; but the condition of both was manifestly much above that of the other domestics, since they had the honour of playing and joking with their master ; ^' Cum amanuensibus suis/' says Suetonius, speaking of the emperor Titus, ^^ per lusum jocumque certantem." Ancile, Ancilia, were shields or bucklers, which, according to the superstitious Romans, had descended from heaven in the time of that half-fabulous king, Numa. — At first one only was vouchsafed, through the influence of the nymph Egeria ; but such was its effi- cacy in staying the plague, such the virtue which it possessed against the assault even of an enemy — Ege- ria declared that so long as it remained in any city, that city would be impregnable — that the Romans and their king were naturally afraid of losing it. In the view of removing the apprehension , no less than the temptation to theft, Numa caused several more to be manufactured — all of course endued with the same miraculous powers — and suspended them in the temple of Mars. We read of twelve, each confided to the care of a priest; and there was a festival in their honour, commencing on the first day of March, and continuing three days. In it the priests carried each his sacred buckler in the right hand, holding at the same time a javehn in the left. The Saliaris Ccena closed the festival. During the procession, no marriage could be celebrated, no arms girt on, no journey under- taken, no pubHc or serious act attempted ; and he who ventured to disregard the prohibition, was considered obnoxious to the wrath of the gods. When war was declared, these sacred shields were taken from the tem- ple, and during thirty days carried through the city, amidst singular demonstrations of joy. This was ap- propriately termed movere ancilia ; and unless the custom was observed prior to a campaign, the super- stitious judged unfavourably of the event. AxciLLiE, maid-servants y whose name is said — no I ANELABRIS, ANGORA, ANDABAT^. Sb doubt, very erroneously — to be derived from king Ancus, who made so great a number of women captives. — Their functions appear to have been restricted to the service of their mistress ; to dressing her hair, attend- ing her to the bath, making her bed, &c. : they were, in fact, her body servants. As they were res non personcB, they could not be cited in judgment, but their master answered for them. Anelabris, the sacred table, on which the victim just sacrificed, was laid to be skinned and divided.— Anelabria were brazen vessels used in the sacrificial rites. Ancora, the anchor J the invention of which is, by Pausanias, attributed to Midas; more probably, how- ever, the honour is due to the Tyrrhenians. — Its con- struction and shape varied among the ancients. Very anciently it was of stone^ especially of marble: iron was a much subsequent improvement; wood^ in fact appears to have intervened between stone and iron. Thus Athenaeus speaks of wooden anchors; but lead, in a somewhat heavy mass, was fixed in the extremity.; hence the pondera ancorarum, — an expression expHcable enough. Before anchors were invented, and indeed after their invention, where from their costhness or rarity they could not be procured, heavy sand-bags were used ; but in the harbours and bays, ropes, tied to posts fast, ened on the shore, were a still simpler expedient. It is curious to contemplate the progress of human improve- ments. First, a rope tied to \ stake ; next, sand- bags; then, huge stones; then, wood with lead at the extremity ; next, iron, but of a most inartificial shape, without teeth or prongs. At first there was one tooth only : time was required for the addition of a second, the honour of which is ascribed to Anachar- sis, the Scythian. The ancora sacra was the sheet anchor, used only in times of danger. — The Ancoralia were the ropes which held the anchor. Andabat^e, a species of gladiators, who generally D 2 36 ARTS, ETC. OF THE GREEKS AND ROMANS. fought on horseback, with their eyes bandaged, each provided with a peculiar helmet : sometimes they appear to have fought from chariots. Andron, that part of a Grecian, and, subsequently, of a Roman house, where the men abode, and the entrance of which was prohibited to the women. The unrestrained intercourse of the sexes was unknown to antiquity. — The apartment was long and narrow, and in it the men received the visits of their male friends. AxNGARi, couriers, originally employed by the kings of Persia, and posted at certain distances throughout the empire, that the royal orders might be communicated with the greater celerity. — Hence Angaria signiiaed the obligation of supplying horses and vehicles for the messengers on land, and ships for their transport by sea. Anguis, a serpent, much used in divination. — It was portentous of good no less than of evil, according to the circumstances in which it was exhibited. Of good : " Dixerat haec, aliquis cum lubricus anguis ab imis Septem ingens gyros, septem volumina traxit Amplexus placide tumulum, lapsusque per aras," VlRG. Of evil : " Hac agente, portentum terribili visum, anguis ex column4 lignea elapsus, quam terrorem fugamque in regiam fecisset, ip- sius regis non tam subito pavore perculit pectus quam anxiis implevit curis. " — Livy. Anima, the soul, life. — On its separation from the body, it was purified by one of these three elements, — fire, water, air ; and the three degrees were signifi- cant of the comparative degrees of guilt. The more guilty soul was purged by fire ; the less was cleansed by water ; the least was purified by the winds : and these three manners of purgation are well described by the poet : ** Ergo exercentur pcenis, veterumque malorum Supplicia f xpendunt. Aliae panduntur inanes ANIAIA. 37 1 I Suspense ad ventos. Aliis sub gurgite vasto Infectum eluitur seclus, aut exuritur igni." Virg. On the expiration of the stated period of pain, when the soul was blanched by the fire, or cleansed by water, or sweetened by the fresh winds, it rose into Elysium. Thus the same learned poet : " Quisque suos patimur manes : exinde per amplum Mittimur Elysium, et pauci la?ta arva tenemus, Donee longa dies perfecto temporis orbe Concretam exemit labem, purumque reliquit iEthereum sensum, atque aurai simplicis ignem." By the ancients the soul was believed to escape from the mouth as through a door. Hence the expression, aninam in prima ore vel labris tenere, in regard to those who were about to depart. Thus Seneca, in his ^^ Hercules," makes Antigona say — -— — " banc animam levem Fessamque senio, nee minus quassaiii malis, In ore primo teneo.** The last sigh was received by tlie nearest relative, who placed his face, his mouth, to those of the dy- ing man ; but the anima which was exhaled at the same time, and was impalpable to human touch, was quickly conducted by Mercury to the shades below, Those who in this life, by the exercise of the virtues, had purified themselves from mortal stains, were at once admitted into Paradise, the delights of which are a favourite theme with the poets : " Pars pedibus plaudunt choreas, et carmina dicunt, Nee non Threicius longa cum veste sacerdos Obloquitur numeris septem discrimina vocum, Jamque eadem digitis, jam pectine pulsat eburno. '* Virg. That happy souls knew, and could in some manner embrace, each other in Elysium, was also the common belief of antiquity : *' Isque ubi tendentem adversum per gramina vidit iEneam, alacris pahnas utrasque tetendit.** Jd. D 3 \ S8 ARTS, ETC. OF THE GREEKS AND ROMANS. (( da jungere dextram, Da, genitor, teque amplexu ne subtrahe nostro ! ** ViRG, On the other hand, there were some whose crimes were of so black a dye, that they could not be blanched by penal fires, and to whom an eternity of torture was reserved. But fire was not the only medium of punishment. From the stone of Sisyphus to the wheel of Ixion, there was variety enough. Some were turned into beasts, birds, fish, reptiles. — Those who killed themselves, or were the victims of others' cruelty, or who were deprived of sepulchral rites, wandered disconsolately, — the former in the shades, the latter on the shores of the Stygian flood, until the accomplishment of a period fixed by the Fates. Why the victim should be confounded with the suicide, misfortune with desperation, neither philosophy nor poetry condescends to inform us. Annulus, was used in a wide sense, being generally taken for whatever was round; but in the present article we shall consider it only as the finger-ring. — Its origin is lost in the night of antiquity. That it was believed to have been in use during the fabulous times, is evident from the fable of Prometheus, whom Her- cules delivered on the condition that he was ever afterwards to wear an iron ring on his finger in memory of his crime. ^^ Pessimum vitae scelus/' says Pliny, '^ qui annulum primus induit digitis. Nee hoc quis fecerit, traditur ; nam de Prometheo omnia fabulosa arbitror." The same author proceeds to say that he finds no mention of the ring in the Trojan times ; that Homer no where alludes to one. Nothing, however, is more certain than that rings were in use before the Trojan war, if not among the Greeks, clearly among the ancient Jews and Egyptians. When Judah turned in to his daughter-in-law, Tamar, (Genesis xxxviii. ] 8.) he left as a pledge his bracelet and ring ; and Joseph received the ring from the royal finger of Pharaoh (xli. 42.). The custom passed, in all probability. U ANNULUS. 39 through Greece before it was known in Italy ; yet, if Dionysius be right, it was of great antiquity even in the latter country : he speaks of the Sabines as having an abundance of rings. They were not, however, gene- rally worn in Rome, not even by the great, before the expulsion of the ancient royal line. The statues of Numa and of Servius Tullius were the only ones of the kings whose finger bore the ornament. — But enough in regard to the antiquity. In its origin the ring was of the commonest metal, — iron, lead, copper; next came silver ; then gold ; and lastly, a diamond adorned the centre, the workmanship keeping pace with the ma- terial. Before precious stones, however, were used, the human countenance was often sculptured in the same place ; and after their introduction, it often appeared on the gem. Thus the ring had three distinct parts : the orbicularius, or circle ; the pala, or bezil ; and the precious stone. But gold, and even silver, was too costly a material for the great bulk of the' Romans, who were yet as fond of the bauble as the wealthiest patri- cians. Hence some were gilt, others plated ; some of ivory, others of amber. Even slaves were resolved to follow the fashion ; but iron was the only material within their reach : if they were enfranchised, however, they could change the metal ; and that change is som^e- times made to signify the elevation in the social grade: ** Mutavitque genus, Isevaeque ignobile ferrum Exuit, et celso natorum aequavit honore." Stat. Why slaves should be prohibited from wearing gold rings is suflSciently apparent. They were long the distinctive mark of a senator : there was even a time when senators wore them only on solemn occasions ; but by degrees the use became general, and was soon adopted by the militeSy or horsemen, no less than the senators. How general the use in the time of Annibal, may be inferred from the vast number he sent to Carthage, as a trophy of his victory at Cannae. But the slaves, resolved to look as gaudy as their superiors, D 4 40 ARTS, ETC. OF THE GREEKS AND R03fANS. perhaps even to appear among strangers above their degraded state, soon found out the way to gild their iron. ^^ Necnon et servitia/' says Pliny, ^' jam ferrum auro cingunt." After the fall of the republic, gold rings were very generally worn by the soldiers, by the imperial amanuenses, by comedians, and by freedmen. But the patron who enfranchised his slave, did not by that act empower him to wear that emblem of honour- able freedom. The jus annulorum was conceded by the prince, with the consent of the patron. The privileged orders at length took the alarm ; and at their instigation Tiberius sanctioned a law, that in future no one. whose father or paternal grandfather had not a revenue of 400 greater sestertii, should enjoy the honour. Justinian, however, by one universal decree, granted it to all men above the rank of libertus inclu-# sively, without the necessity of applying to the sove- reign. In the luxurious period of the empire, the Romans had two rings; one heavy for the winter, the other light for the summer : " Ventilet aestivum digitis sudantibus aurum, Nee sufFerre queat majoris pondera gemmae." Juv The face of an ancestor, of a friend, or the reigning prince, was not the only sculpture on rings : often an event, such as a victory or a triumph, was substituted. Thus, according to Dio Cassius, Pompey had three trophies on his ring, or rather, perhaps, on three rings ; for though it was anciently accounted disreputable, as idle, criminal ostentation, to wear more than one ring. — ^' Apud veteres,'' says St. Isidore, ^^ ultra imum annu- lum uti infame habitum viri" — yet in time three were scarcelv infamous : " saepe notatus Cum tribus annulis modo laeva Priscus inani,'* HoR. Nothing is more rapid than the progress of luxury. Three rings were soon common : what more natural ANNULUS. 41 1 T than the number to equal that of the fingers ? Thus Martial : « Per cujus digitos currit levis annulus omnes." Of course, as nobody could pretend to be at the height of fashion, who had not one to each finger, the display would soon cease to be a distinction. What then remained, in order to exhibit both wealth and dignity, or at least respectability, but to furnish each finger with more than one 't Thus Lucian tells us of one man who had sixteen. But folly, which is no less contagious than the plague, did notend there: if one finger could bear three or four rings, why not one joint ? « Sardonychas, smaragdos, adamantas, jaspidas uno Portat in articulo Stella, Severe meus." Mart. When a person was dying, the ring was taken from his fingers — doubtless to disappoint the cupidity of the domestics who waited on the corpse. It, however, appears to have been returned to the finger when the corpse was laid on the funeral pile. It was em- ployed in various uses. The most ancient was to seal letters with the sculptured bezil. '' Veteres,*' says Macrobius, '' non ornatus, sed signandi causa annulura secum circum ferebant.'' But the most singular one was to fill the cavity — and most had one — with poison, that the wearer might be prepared for the changes of fortune. '' Alii," says Pliny, '' sub gemmis venena clu- dunt, sicut Demosthenes oratorum summus Grseciae, annulosque gratia mortis habent/' Thus Archias, to escape the wrath of Antipater, swallowed the poison w^hich lay beneath the bezil of his ring ; and Annibal, as related by Aurelius Victor : " Unde Romana legatione repetitus ne Romanis traderetur, hausto, quod sub annuli gemma habueret, veneno, absumptus est.'* Sometimes, too, the cavity was made to contain letters and other written instruments. — The mode of wearing the ring was various at various periods. At one time the right, at another the left, now either hand, now one finger, then another, had the honour, until the right hand > 42 ARTS, ETC. OF THE GREEKS AND ROIVIANS. being found inconvenient for the purpose, each fin^rer and member of the left was by degrees laden with the vam bauble. The ring was employed in various ways. — 1. Its tradition by a dying man often betokened the adoption ot the person to whom it was delivered as heir to him who gave it Thus, when the dying Alexander deli- vered his to Perdiccas, he was supposed to have consigned with It the care of the empire. ^^ Nee male," says a profound investigator of antiquity, - erat enim annulus signatorius yel sigillum, plerumque dominii et potestatis symbolum. 2. It was often delivered by the dyin^ parent to the eldest son, in token of the dominiof which the latter was to hold over the paternal substance. 6. 1 he annulus natalitius was so called, either because It was worn only on that day, or because it was one of the gifts which friends were accustomed to send each other on that memorable occasion. 4 The annulus pronuhus, or sponsalitius, was the riuR of be- t'rS ~ ^^''^^'^ ""^ '^' engagement solemnly con- " Conventum tamen, et pactum, et sponsalid nostra 1 empestate paras, jamque a tonsore magistro 1 ectoris, et digito pignus fortasse dedisti. '» Juv In the time of Phny this ring was of iron. ^^ Quo ^ argumente etiam nunc spons^ annulus ferreus mittiTur isque sine gemma,'' Before the time of St. Isidore' iron had given way to gold. - Foemin^ non us^ sunt aimuhsmsi quos virgin! sponsus miserat : nequeamplius quam binos aureos in digitis haberi solebant.'' 5 The annulus Samothrax was a kind of talisman : it was engraven with magic characters; and its cavity con^ amed either small portions of herbs cut at certain rl''', ""i u '^^"'' ^'™'' ""^^"' ^^^^^^^ constellations. 1 he fool who wore it believed himself secure against misfortunes, nay. in the high way to success." Its appellation, Samothrax, appears to have been derived from the superior delight which the people of that island took m mystical things. . ANNUS. 43 Annus, the year. — 1. The computations of time among the different nations of antiquity is one of the most difficult subjects of historical research. Omitting that of the Asiatic nations, and commencing with that of the Greeks, we do not find that this people had much knowledge of the data on which such calculations could be founded, until they were drawn into some species of intercourse with the Babylonians and Egyp- tians. The regular succession of the seasons, indeed, naturally indicated the first grand division of time; Spring, Summer, Autumn, and Winter, moved in one perpetual circle : but how estimate the exact limits of each ? consequently, how fix the duration of the civil year? In this respect the progress of improvement was slow. In the heroic ages, the years were numbered by the return of seed-time and of harvest, of labour and of rest. These were the grand divisions which all men could comprehend. The subdivision into hours was equally unknown : morning, noon-day, and evening, are the only distinctions which the most ancient records contain. Thus Homer speaks of the rising and of the dechning sun ; and he mentions the time when the woodman, fatigued with labour, spreads the sylvan meal on the grass. But, as Herodotus informs us, after the use of the pole, of the sun-dial, and the distinction of twelve parts in the solar day, was learned from the Babylonians, a more artificial mode of division began to prevail. Next to the period indi- cated by the revolution of the sun, was that of the moon, which indeed must have been observed as anxiously and almost as anciently as the other. By a rough calculation, twelve of the latter are found to be in- cluded in one of the former ; but, as one might rea- sonably expect, the relative adjustment of the lunar with the solar revolution was, in the infancy of astrono- mical science, a problem of surpassing difficulty, — in fact of impossible attainment, until, by successive ex- periments, an approximation to the truth was obtained. Thales has the honour of being the first to introduce t.n ^ i i\ 44 ARTS, ETC. OP THE GREEKS AND ROMANS. into general practice the system of the Babylonians, with^ however, some slight deviations from it. He made the duration of each moon thirty days, so that the year, which consisted of twelve months, amounted to 360 days only. But he himself discovered that the solar revolution comprised a greater number of days ; and by intercalating in every third year an addi- tional number, he endeavoured to supply the deficiency. But as that intercalation consisted of the days in a wdiole month, and was apphed at the end of every se- cond instead of every third year, the year was, with singular carelessness, made to consist of 375 days. This calculation was so outrageous, so much worse than the old one of 360 days, that we may doubt whether it was ever received in any city of Greece. It is certain that soon afterwards Solon, who more narrowly watched the length of lunation, and estimated it at less than 30 and more than 29 days^ decreed that the months should consist alternately of 30 and 29* But here again was a difference of 11 days between the civil and solar year ; for twelve lunations consisting alternately of 30 and 2Q days, amount only to 354. To supply this defect at the end of every second year an embolistic or intercalary month of twenty- two days was added. But by the more accurate observations of the Egyptians, it had been found that the solar year contained 365^ days, and that in four years a day was consequently lost. Hence the improvement effected by Solon, that at the end of every fourth year the emboHstic month should contain twenty ^three. The year was thus made to consist of its due number of days. But this cycle was attended with one obvious inconvenience : the addition of 45 days in every four years made the cycle terminate in the midst of a lunar month, and, consequently, greatly altered both the commencement and end of the civil year. It was accordingly resolved that the cycle should be extended to eight years, during which three whole months (or 9O days) could be intercalated. This pe- riod of eiglit years remained in force during some time. ANNUS. 45 i| r when, as the inquisitive reader will easily have divined, it was proved to be erroneous. The lunar reyolution is not exactly measured by 29^ days, in other words by the alternation of 30 and 29 ; so that in the time of Meton, there was a visible difference between the solar and lunar motions. To correct this error, he invented his famous cycle of nineteen years, often called after his name, which was received with unbounded ap. plause by the Athenians, who termed it the Golden Number. Perceiving that in I9 years the sun and moon returned to the same position in the heavens, the one performing 19, the other 235 revolutions, and still preserving the old lunar year of 354 days ; he added seven intercalary months, in such years as to make the motions of the two luminaries keep pace as nearly as possible with each other. Thus, of the seven months, he inserted one in the third, another in the fifth, another in the eighth, another in the eleventh, another in the thirteenth, another in the sixteenth, and the last in the nineteenth year of his period. For the common purposes of Mfe, this calculation was sufficient ; but it was discovered that, at the end of every cycle, the moon had gained seven hours over the sun. Seven hours in nineteen years seemed no great excess ; but in two centuries it would amount to about three days, and in a thousand years to half a month. Where religious fes- tivals were to be held, the highest possible accuracy was desirable ; and we find that Cahppus formed a new cycle, which embraced four of Meton's, and conse- quently extended to 76 years. His object was to de- duct one whole day from the 76th year, to reduce the excess of the lunar over the solar time. But even this improvement was not faultless ; for 7 hours X 4 = 28 hours, containing one whole day and four hours. The difference of 4 hours in every 76 years, or of one day in 456 years, was shght enough ; but it induced Hip- parchus to form a new cycle, containing four of Calippus, and consequently sixteen of Meton. To have been accurate, however, it should have contained six of Ca- 46 ARTS, ETC. OF THE GREEKS AND ROMANS. lippus ; for as the excess was still four hours every 76 years, 7^ x 6, or 456 years, would be necessary before another day could be deducted from the final year. The above were not the only cycles invented by the Greeks; but they were the most important, and are suf- ficient to convey a tolerably correct notion of the subject. That we may here finish all we have to say on the subject of time, we shall briefly advert to the inferior subdivisions into months, days, and huors. The months of the Greeks were, as we have before shown, twelve in number, consisting of 30 and 29 days alternately. Instead of our weeks, they had their T/?ia 8ep^>;a€pa, or their decades of ten days each. But these decades could only be complete where the months were TrXTjppeK;, or full^ that is, where they consisted of 30 days. Where the number was 29 only, the last decade was of necessity nine days only ; and the month in which it fell was called yioiXot;, hollow, and ^waa^BLvoq, from its concluding on the ninth day. The first of these decades, which always began with the new moon, was named /xvjvo^ larai^Evov^ or apxofAevov, or the beginning month ; the second, /x>jvo^ i^^aovvToq, or the middle of the month ; die third, /a/^vo^ (pdiovro^;, or the ending month. It is useless to present the reader with a barren nomenclature of the montlis, especially as no two states of Greece agreed in the denomination. Let it he sufl^cient to observe, that they were generally named from some great religious festival. In regard to the denomination of the days, iiothing could be more simple. The first day of the first de- cade was either styled i/sofAwa, from its being the new moon, or TrpcoTYj unocfAsvov, the first of the beginning month. The rest were likewise arranged in the nume- rical order of each decade. Thus the second day of the first decade was levrepa la-rafjiepov ; the third, rpiry) la-raiAsi/ov, and so on to the tenth, which was the hsKaTYj i(TTocf/,ei/ov. The second decade, as we have already seen, was the /^.tjvo^ /xscroi'yTo? ; hence the first r \P y h' « ANNxrs. 47 day was termed irpc^^yj iJizaowToq ; the second, ^svrspa usaovvToc, &c. up to leyiaTT) /xccto^vto^, the tenth day. Sometimes, however, we find a diflTerent denomination for the days of the second decade, but sufl5ciently ob- vious. Thus, instead of Trpoorr) lAta-ovvroq, we read irpccTri eirt hsKo,, one above ten ; hvTepoc bttl ^sku, two above ten, and so on to eiyia<;, the twentieth, which concluded the second decade. But this simphcity is not so ap- parent when we arrive at the third decade. Generally, indeed, the reckoning was irpuT'^ eiri aivcah^ the first above twenty ; levrspoc b-i fixaSi, two above twenty, &c. ; but we often meet with an inverted order of de- nomination. Thus, instead of irpcoTri (f^tovroq, the first day of the concluding month, we read (pdioyToq hyiaTrj, which in fact means the tenth of the concluding month, but which was used for the first. The second day was (pQkQVToq evvarri, signifying the ninth, but used for the second. But this inverted mode of computation is suf- ficiently explicable : fOtovrog Sexar^? signified not merely the tenth day of the concluding decade, but the tenth day before its conclusion, — in other words, the first day. In hke manner, evvaTrj, the ninth, might as well stand for the ninth day before the termination of the decade, as the ninth day of it. This subject, however, will scarcely be intelligible without a short calendar of the month. We will select the month eyiarofx^xiuv, which was TTAYjpyj^;, or a month of 30 days, and which com- menced on the first new moon after the summer sol- stice, corresponding to part of our June and July. We may observe that the name of this month was de- rived airo Tov irXeicTTaq evcaTO/x^a^ ^vaaOai tq) ufivt tovt^ says Suidas, from the number of hecatombs usually sacrificed in this month. yifivos iO-ra^^voVf or the First Decade. 1. "NeofiriPta, or KTrafievov irpounj, 2. larafxevov ^evrepa, 3. larafxeuov rpLTrj. 4. l(TTapL€Vov rerapTrj, 5. laraixevov Trc/xTrrTj. 48 ARTS, ETC. OF THE CREEKS AND BOUANS. \1 6. ICTafievov cxtt;, 7. larafjicvov €€^ofj.rf, 8. IcrrajLtei/ou oyborj, 9» Icrrajievov €j/vaTrj. 10. IcrafJi^vov ^eKaTTi, Mr}vos jxeaovvTos, or the Second Decade, 11. UpcoTT) fieaovpTos, or Trpcorrj cttl ^€Ka^ 12. Aei/repa ^ecrovvros, or eTrt 5e«a. 13. TplTT) ll^0ioj'TO5 oeKUTTjy or 7rauo^€»/oi/ Se/car??, termed also Trpwriy €7r €i/ca5i. 22. *0iovTos €uvaT7), or Seurepa €7r' etfca^f, &c. 2f^. ^Olovtos oy^oT}, or rpir?; 67r' el/caSz, &c. 24. tl'^^iovTos e§5o^7;, or rcraprr] ctt* €i/ca8i, &C. 25. «l>fc^ioi/Tus €/<:tt7, or Trefxirrrj 67r' €i/ca5t, &c. 26. *^toi/Tus ire/jLTTTrjy or c/ctt? ctt* ef/caSt, &c. 27. 0ioi/TOs TerapTTj, or e^dofxr) 67r' ei/caSt, &c. 28. 4>0iovTos rpiTT;, or 075077 ctt' €t/fa5i, &c^ 29. ^^iOi/Tos ^eurejoa, or ^vvarri 67r' fiKahi, &c. 30. Ei/97 /cai i^ea, or rpiaxasy or Brj/LirjTpias, 2. If from the Grecian we turn to the Italian, es- pecially the Roman method of computing time, we shall find some difficulty in tracing its origin. Whether the ancient people of Latium, who in stupidity may fairly be classed with barbarous nations^, had any notion of the division of time adopted by the Egyptians, the Babylonians, and even the Greeks, may perhaps be doubted. They are said, at a subsequent period, to have taught Romulus the division of the year into ten months, which contained no more than 304 days. Of these the first was Mars, in honour of the God from v.hom Romulus professed to be sprung. It is remark- able that this celebrated man caused /owr of his months ANNUS. r V V 49 •to consist of 31 days, — a number for which there was no precedent. Was this done through a superstitious veneration for an odd number ? Such, we are told, was the motive which actuated his successor Numa, who made the months to consist alternately of 31 and of 29 days. Numa, more enlightened than Romulus, adopted the Grecian computation of 354 days ; but, dreading an even number, he augmented it by one, so as to make the year contain S55. By reducing certain months of Romulus from 30 to 29 days, he would have reduced the whole year to less than 300, had he not added two new months to the calendar : the first, called Januanus, he placed at the beginning, the latter, Fe- bruarius, at the end of the year. After all, however the calendar was very defective, since the solar year consisted of 3Q5 days and a fraction. To remedy this defect, Numa introduced every two years an embolistic month, named Mcrcedonius, in honour of tlie godiless who presided over merchandise. Still the civil did not correspond with the solar year ; and Servius Tullius was obliged to decree that once in every 23 years Mercedonius should be struck from the calendar. For common purposes, this new arrangement, however complicated, might have served ; but, through the igno. ranee or roguery of the augurs, to whom was con- tided the computation, and who did not intercalate at the proper periods, a wide difference was at length found between the astronomical and civil year, — no less indeed, than 67 days. Assisted by an eminent matheniatician, whom he brought from Alexandria, Julius Cfesar undertook the reformation of the calendar. Ihe civil year was made to equal the solar, and consequently was made to contain 3(i5i days. R' - taining the twelve months as established by Numa, yet rejecting the embolistic month Mercedonius, he devi ated considerably from the measure of a lunation by adding to the days of the month. Hitherto these months had consisted of 355 days: they were now made to contain S65 ; and this was effected by adding VOL, II, n I 50 ARTS, ETC. OF THE GREEKS AND ROMANS. one day to April^ June, September and November; and two days to January^ August^ and December. Hence, by this addition of 10 days to the current months, they consisted of 30 and of 31 days. In regard to the 6 hours, or one fourth of a day, which remained over, he caused a whole day to be intercalated every fourth year; and every fourth was termed hissextiky from the sixth calenda being reckoned twice in that year {his seocti calendai) and consisted of S6Q days. But though this arrangement might very well serve for the future, what was to be done with the days which had been gained by the errors of the past computation ? Caesar did not hesitate to add the 67 days which remained of the year prior to his reformation of the calendar, to the inter- calary month of the year 708 — the period of that re- formation. Hence that year was long known as Annvs ConfusioniSy or the year of confusion. From that year must this Julian period be reckoned : it has remained in force unto our own days, subject to one reformation only, — that of pope Gregory XIV., who took into account the fraction of an hour omitted by Caesar. The following tables will exhibit the relative duration of the three different computations of Romulus, Nu'ma, and Caesar. 1. Annus Romuli. 2. Annus Num^. Marti us • 31 Januarius - 29 Aprilis - 30 Februarius - 28 Mai us - 31 Marti us - 31 Junius - 30 Aprilis - 29 Quintilis - 81 Maius • 31 Sex ti lis - - 30 Junius 29 September - 30 Quintilis 31 October - B* 31 Sextilis - . 29 November » SO September ■ew 2[) December • 30 October - . 31 - November December 29 29 304 ^ 354 1 355 r \: ANNUS. 3. Annus C^saris. Januarius Februarius Martius Aprilis Maius Junius Quintilis Sextilis September October November December J 51 y dies habuit ^ ^"31 28 31 30 31 30 31 31 30 31 30 L31 365 h The names of these months, as the reader will ini« mediately perceive, have undergone a partial alteration ; the signification of all may perhaps p-ratify^ curiosity. MartiuSy the first month in the ancient year, was so called because it was consecrated to Mars. Why Ro- mulus commenced the year with this month is explamed by Ovid : " Omnia tunc virent, tunc est nova temporis setas ; Sic annus per ver incipiendus erat." ApriliSy the second of the months in the ancient calen» dar, is said to be derived from aperirey to open ; be- cause in that month the flowers begin to open. It was consecrated to Venus, probably from its beauty. Maius, the next, was probably derived from Maia, the mother of Mercury. It was sacred to the aged ; doubtless from its adaptation to an enfeebled bodily constitution. Junius probably took its name from the celebrated ex- peller of the kings, or perhaps from Juno, who had feasts celebrated during its continuance. QuintiliSy the fifth month, was changed into Julius, m honour of Caesar, who was born in it: the change was made at the instance of Mark Antony. SeoctiliSy by a decree of the senate, was named Augustus, partly because that emperor won most of his trophies in this month, and £ 2 ■' 52 ARTS, ETC. OF THE GREEKS AND ROMANS. partly for a reason which will soon be explained. In it he was made consul for the first time ; in it he ob- tained three triumphs ; in it he subjugated Egypt ; in it he put an end to the civil wars. September^ October^ November, and December sufficiently indicate the nu- merical order which they hold in the calendar. In regard to the two new months introduced by Numa, January and February^ the former was named in honour of Janus, to whom, as the god of agriculture and of peace^ the Roman legislator was much attached. He assigned to the god the first place, the place of honour, the beginning of the year, thereby implying that in- dustry and peace should be the first objects of man. The lesson was pecuharly needed by a people so war- like as the Romans, Februarius, the last month of the ancient year, was so called from the verb februare^ to purify ; because a lustration was then made for the sins of the people during the whole year. The sacrifices were generally offered on the tombs of the dead, to propitiate the Dii Manes. We have already observed, that in the sequel thi^ month was transferred from the last to the second place in the calendar. The division of each month was into Calends, Nones ^ and Ides. CalendcB is derived from the old verb calare, to assemble ; because on that day the people were con- voked by the pontiffs to attend the solemnities of the new moon, and to hear on w^hat day the nones would fall. Hence the Calends only em_braced one day, — the first of the month. The Nonce, or nones, were so called because they fell nine days before the ides. In general they fell on the fifth day of each month ; but in four months, viz. March, May, July, and October, they fell on the seventh. But if the calends comprised only one day, and the nones did not commence before the fifth or seventh, what denomination was given to the intervening days ? They were dated from their proximity to the nones. Thus the second day of any month, where the nones fell on the fifth, was dated quatuor nonas ; that is, supplying the ellipsis of the preposition, quatuor \ .. n i ANNUS. 53 ante nonas. In like manner, the third day was iertia nonas; the fourth, or day before the nones, pridie nonas. If the nones arrived on the seventh, the date of the second day, viz. that following the calends, was sexta nonas; that is, sexta ante nonas. Idus, or the ides, comes from a Tuscan verb, iduare, to divide ; so called, because it divided each month into two parts nearly equal: in eight of the months it fell on the thirteenth, in four on the fifteenth of the month. The mode of computing the intervening days between the nones and the ides, was exactly similar to that which was observed in regard to those between the calends and nones. Thus the day after the nones was octava (ante) idus, the third was septima {ante) idus^ &c.y down to pridie idus, on the day before the ides. The days immediately following the ides, down to the ter- mination of the month, were calculated in reference to the calends of the succeeding month. Thus, when the ides fell on the 15th, as for instance the 15th of March, if a Roman dated from the following day, the l6th, he wrote 17 {ante) calendas Aprilis, because 17 days were wanting to the calends or first day of the succeeding month. Again, if the date were the 25th, the expres- sion was octava {ante) calendas Aprilis. Nothing can more clearly show the carelessness or the knavery of the pontiffs, than the fact, that, though the principles on which the Julian calendar was con- structed were so obvious, not many years elapsed before they had confounded the system : instead of observing leap-year every fourth, they caused it to be observed every third year ; so that in 36 years they had reckoned 12 bissextiles. To correct this serious error, Augustus decreed that during the next 12 years no bissextile should be observed ; that each of these years should consist of 365 days only ; and that consequently the three days anticipated by the blunder should be ab- sorbed by the regulation. It was on this occasion that the month Sextilis was changed into Augustus^ in honour of that emperor. £ S I'J I I li 54 AillS^ ETC. OF THE GREEKS AND ilOMANS Tiie names and appropriation of the lloman pionths are well described in the following verses of Ausonius : " DE MENSIBUS TETRASTICHA. Idyll IL Januarius. Hie Jani mensis sacer est,aspice ut aris Thura micent, sumant ut pia thura Lares Annoriim fecitq. caput natahs honorum, Purpureos fastis qui numerat proceres. Fe BRUARIUS. Atquem coeruleus nodo constringit amictus Quiq. paludicolara prendere gaudet avem, Dadala quem jactu pluvio circumvenit Iris, liomuleo ritu Februa menis habet. IMartius. Cinctum pelle lupae promptum est cognoscere mensem, Mars olli nomen. Mars dedit exuvias, Tempus rer, hcedus petulans, et garrula hirundo Indicatj.et sinus lactis, et herba virens. A PR I LIS, Contecta myrto Venerem veneratur Aprilis Lumen juris habet, quo nitet alma Ceres. Caereus e dextra flammas diffundit odores, Balsaraa nee desunt, quis redolet Papliia. Mail ;S. Cunctas veris opes, et picta rosaria gemmis Lanigeri in calathis, aspice, Maius habet. Mensis Atlantigenae dictus cognornine MaicEj Quem merito multum diligit Urania. Junius. Nudus membra dehinc solares respicit boras Junius ac Phoebum flectere monstrat iter. Idem maturas Cereris designat aristas Floralesq. fuge<, lilia fusa decent. H \\ ' ANNUS. Julius. 55 Ecce coloratos ostentat Julius arcus Crines cui rutilos spicea serta ligant. Morus sanguineos praebat gravidata racemos : Quae medio Cancri sydere lacta viret. Augustus. Lontanos latices, et lucida pocula vitro Cerno, ut demerso torrid us ore bibat. Alterno regni signatus nomine mensis Latona genitam quo perhibent Hecaten. September. Surgentes acinos varios, et praesecat uvas September, sub quo mitia poma jacent. Captivam fiio gaudens religasse lacertam. Quae suspensa manu nobile ludit opus. > « October. Dat prensum leporem, cumq. ipso palmito foetus, October, pinguis dat tibi ruris aves, Jam bromios spumare ]acus, et musta sonare Apparet vino vas calet ecce novo. November. Carbaseo surgens post hunc indutus amictu Mensis ab antiquis sacra deamq. colit : A quo vix avidus sistro compescatur anser. Devotusq. satis ubera fert humeris. December. Anna sulcatse conjecta et semina terrae Poscit hyems, pluvio de Jove cuncta madent. A urea nunc revocet Saturni festa December, Nunc tibi cum Domino ludere verna Hcet*' Tlie names of the Roman days, as every schoolboy knows, w^ere derived from those of the seven planets. They are thus described by the same author : E 4 f ■ " I . ■ J S WHJ |i <^_ .if ■y i'» n ; g i nn >ii n| i g p ^•■»»-«I»wr! WBrwn^lpw^ryi»' i « - wnnn mi mn\.f ( im"". ' im » mi f. 59 AQUILA. And Martial is more explicit : " Calidam poscis aquam ; sed nondum frigida venit ; Alget adliuc nudo clausa culina foco.** It was considered, and justly, as a great promoter of digestion in persons of a debilitated stomach. If the reader wish to see how well Rome was supplied with this first of necessaries, he may have his curiosity amply gratified in the endless works on Roman Antiquities. — Aqueducts were almost as numerous as public squares. Aqua lustralis, w^as a species of holy water, since it was that in which a torch from the altar during the oflPering of a sacrifice had been extinguished. — Thus sanctified, it was put in a vase at the entrance of the temples; and into it everyone dipped his fingers at ingress and egress : and to make the analogy between the Roman catholics and the pagans in this respect more complete, we may observe that light brooms being dipt in it by the officiating priest, it was scattered in the form of dew over those who were present : " Idem ter socias pura circumtulit unda, Spergens rore levi.*' In both cases it was harmless: as symbolical of in-» ward purity, it might probably have a good effect on the thinking. Aqua et igni interdicere, was a sentence of banish- ment, — sometimes for a period, as when a man was con- victed de amhitUy for which the penalty was ten years' exile ; often for ever, as when one was convicted of corruption. Having taken up his abode in some otlier city subject to Rome, he was compelled to lay aside the togay the symbol of his rights as a Roman citizen. Aqi iLA, the eagle, honoured as the king of birds, as the bird of Jove. — It was regarded by many ancient people as the symbol of royalty ; and even in the Holy Scriptures a Chaldean and an Egyptian king are styled eagles. Its appearance prior to an engagement was regarded, even in Homer's days, as a favourable augury 60 ARTS, ETC. OF THE GREEKS AND ROMANS. by the army on whose right wing it hovered. For these reasons it was the ensign of the Romans, the symbol of victory, and of the favour of Jove. Hence its wings were extended, and in its claws it held a golden thunder- bolt. The Persians, however, used this ensign long before the Romans. — After a victory, a species of worship was often paid to the revered standard. When the army inarched, the eagle was always visible to the legions ; and when they encamped, it was always placed before the prcBtorium, or tent of the general. As bearing in many cases the commands of that deity, its motions were narrowly w^atched by the augurs. If any prince dreamed that he was carried on the back of an eagle, his death was considered near at hand. — The eagle on the summit of an ivory staff, was also the symbol of the consular dignity. Ara (see Altare), from ardeo, to burn. — When altars were first used by pagans, has eluded the researches of the most learned antiquarians ; in the sacred writings they are at least as old as Cain and Abel, and, by impli- cation, as the expulsion from Paradise. Under the patriarchal dispensation, they were most solemn and important instruments of religion : they long preceded temples ; and from the summit of the highest hills, their fires consumed the offerings made to Heaven. False religion soon imitates the rites of the true : in fact, no false one could be immediately invented ; for it is by slow degrees that the characters of truth are deformed, and that error acquires magnitude. Herodotus, indeed, informs us that the E:gyptians were the first who erected altars and cast statues in honour of the gods : if so, they have a heavier load of guilt to carry than we have hitherto suspected, since they must have contributed more to the progress of idolatry than any other people. The pro- babihty, however, is, that they borrowed the supersti- tion from the Chaldeans, who first corrupted the patri. archal form of worship. The material and construction of altars varied among different nations and at different periods. Originally — that is, in the patriarchal times fl r k< I ! I ARA. 61 — they consisted merely of earthy clods piled one on another ; the next step was stones laid rudely or scien- tifically together, according to the civilisation of the wor- shippers ; marble was a natural improvement ; but wood and the horns of animals were the most expensive, since they admitted greater perfection in the w^orkman- ship, and more costly ornaments. The form of these altars was square, or round, or oval, as suited the whim of the builder : the height was usually that of a man's waist, but sometimes much higher ; and in some cases the size must have been considerable, as, besides the space necessary for the consumption of the victim, the surface held the statue of the god or gods to whom the altars were consecrated. They were invariably turned towards the east, — a custom followed in the Roman catholic, and, indeed, in most protestant, churches. The use of the Ara and Altare was not merely for that of sacrifice : from their sanctity they were places of refuge both for criminals and for those who had incurred the wrath of the sovereign : hence their ap- pellation, arcB confugii. The suppliant laid hold of the horns, and invoked the protection of the god. These horns were of the same shape as the horn of cattle ; they projected from the ends of the altar ; and each had two or four, generally the former. To drag a suppliant from the altar, or to destroy him there, was a visible outrage to the deity; and punishment was always expected to follow ; yet there are instances enough in which the sanctity of the place was dis- regarded. But the most usual way was to light a huge fire on the altar, under the pretext of sacrifice ; the horns became too hot to be held, or the fire too intense to be supported ; and the moment the culprit quitted his hold, he became the prisoner of his pursuers. In general, however, the suppliant was safe ; and we kno%v that complaints were continually made of the impunity which such places offered to crime. Thus Tacitus declares that the Grecian temples were filled with fugi- tive slaves of vile characters,with insolvent debtors of no 62 ARTS, ETC. OF THE CREEKS AND ROMANS. •: honesty, with the worst criminals. The same com- plaint had been already made by Euripedes. " Strange that the god should give these laws to men, Bearing no stamp of honour, nor designed With provident thought ; it is not meet to place The unrighteous at his altars, worthier far To be chased thence ; nor decent that the vile Should with their touch pollute the gods. The good • Oppress'd with wrongs should at these hallow'd seats Seek refuge : ill becomes it that the unjust And just alike should seek protection there.** EuRip., PoTT£R*5 Trans. Besides these altars for sacrifices, there were many which were merely votive^ and varying in size from the breadth of the hand to two or three feet high. These, unless consecrated, had no sanctity. Arcus, Triumphalis^ a triumphal arch, elevated in honour of the brilliant exploits performed by the Ro- man generals, and subsequently by the emperors. — In the older period of the republic, these were plain struc- tures of brick, without ornaments, and merely bearing an inscription in memory of the event which had caused their erection. Under the emperors, they were mag- nificent structures. Their construction was generally square : in front was a huge gate opening into an arched passage, through which the victor passed, while winged victories were made to descend, and, just as he entered the arch, to place a crown on his head, amidst the flourish of trumpets. Of these arches many vestiges remain, splendid relics of a age when architecture was in all its glory. Arena, the middle ground of the amphitheatre; so called, because sand was strewn there to receive the blood of the men or beasts which contended for the amusement of the public. — In arenam descendere be- came a proverb equivalent to a preparation for battle. The portico of the place was also strewn with sand, that the wrestlers, whose exercise was seldom fatal, might not slip. — Arenarii were the combatants in the amphi. K w I i i; i 4 I" ARMILL^. ARSE-VERSE. 63 theatre : the exercise was held infamous, and was devolved on slaves. Armill^, braceletSy the use of which is nearly as ancient as that of rings. — The Romans appear to have derived them from the Sabines. By the men they w ere worn on the right, by the women on the left arm. Armilustrium, ab armis lustrandiSy lustration of armour, a festival, in which the Romans, fully armed, offered a sacrifice to the gods. — They danced with energy, while the trumpets sounded, and the victim scorched on the altar. It was celebrated on the IQth of October (decimd quartd calendas Novemhris)^ and was consequently difierent from the festival of the Sabines, which was observed on the second day of ]\Iarch. ARRHiE, a pledge or surety, which at betrothals the man gave to his future bride. — ^It was generally some feminine ornament, such as a bracelet, necklace, garment, &c., which accompanied the gift of the ring, the pronubus annulus. In later ages, money, or land, or slaves, or some species of property, was often substi- tuted. The custom was, doubtless, a remnant of the ancient notion, that on both sides marriage was a pur- chase; that by her dowry the woman purchased a husband and a master : " Imperium accepi, dote libertatem vendidi:** Plaut. and that by the arrhae the man bought the bride : " Teque sibi generum Thetis emat omnibus undis." ViRG. Arse-verse, two old Tuscan words for averte-^ igneniy which the ancients wrote on the door of their houses. Could faith be had in the eflScacy of so vain a formula ? Even the walls often abounded with depre- cations of a calamity which, in such an age, where the houses were generally of wood, w^as generally irre-r Gi ARTS, ETC. OF THE GREEKS AND R031ANS. ASCI A. AST AND A. .parable. *^ Etiam/' says Pliny^ ^^parietes incendiorum deprecationibus conscribuntur." Artes, the ArtSy as divided by the Romans into liberal and mechanical : the former, as depending on the exercise of the intellect alone^, without the labour of the hands, were the pecuhar province of the free, and therefore called ingenuce, or liberates ; the latter were long confined to the lower classes. — The mechanics were long separated from the citizens ; they were not allowed to bear arms, and they were not enrolled in the centuries. Romulus is said to have been the first who deprived them of the rights of citizenship, which were restored to them by Numa and Servius. By degrees they were admitted to the honourable charges of the magistracy ; and though they remained a portion of the plehs, were, consequently, of considerable weight in the state. Among the Greeks, on the contrary, who had more rational notions of the relative obligations of society, mechanics and artificers were never degraded. In the Homeric times, Eumseus made, we are told, his own shoes, and built his own stables, while Ulysses constructed his own house, and even his own nuptial bed. From the first, mechanics were eligible to the higher offices of the commonw^ealth. The consequence was, a degree of perfection attained by the arts,-— by those most useful as well as those most ornamental, — which no other nation could reach^ and of which no Roman so much as dreamed. Aruspex, a diviner, who differed from the Augur in this, — that he predicted from the entrails of birds alone : hence the derivation ex ard et aspiciOy from exer- cising his imposture on the altar. — A great number of the rogues w^ere maintained in Rome, and were often consulted: an earthquake, a comet, a meteor, a dry or wet, a cold or hot season, the prevalence or absence of disease, afforded them an opportunity of predicting, and of declaring by what gifts the wrath of the gods should b^ appeased, or their favour obtained. The first im- postor is said to have been Tages : — 65 ** Indigenae dixere Tagen, qui primus Etruscam Edocuit gentem casus aperire futures." Ovid. The knavery both of augurs and aruspices was under- stood by some. When Prusias refused to fight, because the entrails were unpropitious ; — ^' An tu," says the great Annibal, ^^ carunculae vitulinae mavis quam im- peratori veteri credere ?" And Cato expressed his sur- prise how such knaves could meet without laughing. AsciA. — The words so common in ancient sepulchral inscriptions^ sub ascid dedicavit, have sadly tortured an- tiquarians. Without stopping to notice their various hypotheses, we may observe, that ascia is from the Greek, signifying a shady place ; and as these places were sacred to the manes, the inscription sub ascid dedi- catum (S. A. D.) simply means a tomb in the shade of the woods, dedicated to the infernal gods. AscoLiA, a festival in honour of Bacchus, and cele- brated by thr rustics of Attica. — The sacrifice was a he-goat, which, as being fond of browsing on the vine, was held to be odious in the eyes of the jolly god. The skin of the animal was made into a bottle, and filled with oil or wine, and rubbed with oil on the outside. To stand w^ith one foot on so sHppery a ball would seem a hopeless attempt; yet, after a multitude of trials, some one succeeded, and was declared the victor. The chief entertainment of the day was derived from the falls of those who, leaping with one leg, endeavoured to fix themselves on the skin. AssuRGERE, to rise from the seat, — a high honour paid • to men of worth, talents, or distinction. — When a host wished peculiarly to honour his guest, he rose on re- ceiving him. In the sequel, however, the act became a mere compliment, claimed as a right, and its omission regarded as an insult. But on public occasions the honour remained unimpaired ; as when those assembled at the Olympic Games rose in honour of Themistocles and when the spectators of a Roman theatre paid the isanie honour to Virgil. AsTANDA, a courier^ whose office it was to bear let- VOL. II. F 06 ATiT^, ETC. OF THE GREEKS AND ROMANS. ters from one given post to another. — Like the Angari, they were established on a continuous line of com- munication : what letters one received, he immediately carried to the next astanda, until they reached their destination. The astanda seems to have differed from the angarus, only that the former performed his ex- peditions race on foot, while the latter was on horse- back. Asylum, a place of refuge for offenders, protected by the most awful sanctions of religion. — Sanctuaries are of high antiquity : the Greeks assigned the invention to that half fabulous, or perhaps wholly fabulous, per- sonage, Cadmus, who^ when he built Thebes, opened asgla for rogues and vagabonds of every description. But this is contrary to reason. In their infancy, asyla were salutary enough : they insured to the fugitive a fair and impartial hearing, thereby rescuing him from the summary vengeance of his pursuers. Such was their use amongst the Jews. Among the pagans, the custom at length degenerated, but by slow degrees, into an abuse. If, under some limitations, they were humane and proper in regard to slaves who were cruelly treated by their masters, and to insolvent debtors, they were pernicious enough in regard to malefactors, who were thus taught impunity. From their amazing num- ber, spread as they were throughout the Roman and Greek world, no criminal had long to wander. Not only the altar (see Ara), but the shrines and temples of the gods— ^ nay, often tombs and consecrated graves had the privilege. Who can be surprised at the com- plaints of the more judicious heathens.^ Many violated the spirit, while they affected to observe, the letter of asyla. Under the article Ara, we have seen how the criminal could be forced from the altar : the roof of a temple was sometimes uncovered, to starve the supphant with cold ; sometimes, to starve him in another way, the gates were locked on him, and he was left to perish- without food. Struck with the manifold evils of the system — for in general asyla were held sacred Tibe- • ATHLETJE. ^7 rius put an end to them. In Rome, indeed, he retained two ; but every where else he closed them ; and even of the two, he so circumscribed the privilege, that it ceased to be felt as an evil. Athlete, wrestlers^ boxers y c^c, whose combats formed no slight part of the amusement of the ancient Greeks and Romans. These exercises, if Homer be an authority, were practised before the siege of Troy ; for they were a frequent and evidently a favourite diversion of his heroes. The athletce^ however, as a profession^ did not exist long before the age of Plato. Thenceforth, from their infancy, they were trained to the arts : they frequented the gymnasia, or pa^ lestria, and received instructions from the most ex- pert masters : they formed a distinct body, governed by their own regulations. At first wrestling — the exercise to the description of which we restrict ourselves in the present place, — was a mere trial of strength ; but Theseus^ we are told, reduced it to an art, and taught dexterity to triumph over bodily force. The mode of life followed by the professors was extremely rigorous ; while training, they hved on roots or fruits only ; and when, for the sake of strength, a more nutritious diet was necessary, they were allowed only the coarsest joints. No doubt it was feared, that if they were allowed savoury or even palatable dishes, they would soon become too pampered, perhaps too corpulent, for their business ! In return, however, they were voracious enough^ if any faith is to be had in the sepulchral distich : " Multa bibens, et multa vorans, mala multa locutus Athleta hie jacet Timocreon Rhodius." When we consider, however, the things which they were compelled to renounce^ — " Qui cupit optatam cursu contingere metam Multa tulit, fecitque puer, sudavit et alsit, Abstinuit Venere et Baccho ; " (the same training was required in wrestling as in run- ning), we may well inquire what were the advantages F 2 68 ART*, ETC. OF THE GJREEKS AND ROMANS. • corresponding with their privations ? There was evi- dently none_, except popular applause, and a main- tenance from the public treasury. The victor, indeed, had some honour ; he was crowned, or drawn in a \ triumphal chariot, and was supported during the rest of his life : the loser — and one half at least must have been losers — had no reward for their abstinence and toil, beyond meagre fare, and, when dismissed through age or accident, they had a precarious livelihood. Among the Romans, no wrestler could choose his competitor : the letters of the alphabet, with duplicates of as many as there were required pairs of combatants, were thrown into an urn ; prayers were made to Jove, and the athletce drew their tickets : the two \yhose letters corresponded were to be opponents on the following day. Their bodies, previous to entering the arena, were well rubbed with oil and ointment, that the task of seizing hold of each other might be the more difficult : nor was the slipperiness of the skin diminished by the perspiration which rose on it, or by the frequent tumbles on the earth. The victory was adjudged to him who thrice threw his antagonist. There was, however, another species of wrestling, which consisted in biting, scratching, and otherwise annoying, until the defeated party held up his finger in token of yielding : hence the expression ^xKTv'kbv avuTuvacrBai, to denote submission to the victor. When the combat was finished, both victor and vanquished were bathed and again anointed, both to preserve the suppleness of the joints, and to relieve the pain of the bruises which had been sustained. At first the wrestlers fought in a kind of short mantle, which covered the middle of the body ; but this being soon found an incumbrance, they fought in puris na^ turalibus, A Spartan, Acanthus by name, is said to have been he qui primus nudavit corpus ; and this is characteristic enough of a people who set all modesty at defiance. Al'gur, so called, because originally he predicted the future from the notes of birds^ ab avium garritu; bui «r AUGUR. 6p his office extended to the flight of birds, to their mode of drinking or eating, to their accidental motions or appearances. He occupied the sacred college of the priesthood, ruling immediately below the pontiffs. This college owed its origin, we are told, to Romulus, who fixed the number at three only, drawn from three tribes : subsequently it was raised to five ; and Sylla tripled the number : '^ Sylla," says Livy, ^^ quin- decem augures esse voluit." The members of the college continued for some time to elect themselves : by the tribune Enobarbus, the right was transferred to the people : by Augustus it was restored to the college, on condition that the candidate elect should be ap- proved by the prince : finally, the direct nomination was usurped by the crown, which continued in possession of the privilege until Theodosius the Great destroyed the order. — The augur was held in high consider- ation, since, from the enormous superstition of the Ro- mans, nothing was undertaken without consulting him. And as he was the keeper of religious secrets, he was never deprived of his dignity : whatever his crimes, he was left in his office : it was not thought wise to de- grade him, lest he should acquaint the people with the vanity of the science, or the roguery of its professors. Clad in his robe of scarlet and purple, the augur, on days of ceremony, turned towards the east, and with his lituuSy or staff*, marked out a tract in the sky, which he called templum. His next care was to observe the birds which approached to or passed over that tract : their species, their manner of flight, their accidental position, — nothing escaped him. The signs on the left- hand were happy; those on the right, of bad omen. Sometimes the divination was effected by domestic fowls, to which a kind of cake was thrown. If it were eaten with avidity, and if in the process of eating the crumbs fell freely to the earth, the sign was favourable ; other- wise it was unfavourable : if they refused entirely to eat, or flew away, the crisis was an awful one. Would F 3 70 ARTS^ ETC. OP THE GREEKS AND ROMANS. any sober-minded man,, however biassed by religious prejudices^ believe in such puerile imposture ? The supposition is incredible. There is the best evidence for concluding that the augurs were at once the tools and accomplices of the senate^ for making the stupid populace swallov/ any absurdity which it was conve- nient for them to swallow. By the wise they were cer- tainly regarded with dishke, and their imposture with contempt. Among these may be honourably classed Claudius Pulcher, who, when the fowls refused to eat, ordered them to be thrown into the sea, saying, '' Quia edere nolunt, bibant."' The art of divining by the flight and song of birds is very ancient. It was well known to the Chaldeans, from whom it passed successively to the Greeks, the Etrus- cans, and the Latins. — The Auguraculum was a place elevated above the ground, where the knave took his station. As he judged not merely from birds, but from the state of the atmosphere — the lightning, thunder, tempest, rain, winds, &c. — his extensive range of observation enabled him completely to accomphsh his aim. He often, we are told, selected the night for his divinations; but if we except the owl, the night- ingale, or the bat, he was not likely to perceive many birds by which to frame his predictions. He was care- ful, in such a case, that there should be no windj for otherwise the direction of the flight might be affected, not by the will of the gods, but by physical causes : if the flame of the torches was in the least moved, the divination could not take place. If the sky was se- rene, if not a breath was stirring, the knave ascended the auguraculum, and began his observations. When the prediction was to be taken from the lightning or thunder, great attention was paid to the progress of the fluid, the vividness of its flash, the short or prolonged noise of the clap. In general, the flash which pro- ceeded from north to south was ominous of evil ; from east to west, of good. If the thunders rolled on the left, the sign was equally propitious: f 1 AUGUR. « Audiit, et coeli genitor de parte serena Intonuit laevum.'* 71 ViRG. The Auguralia, or objects of divination by augury, were classed under twebe heads, corresponding to the number of zodiacal signs. The way in which an animal, whetlier tame or wild, entered a house; the animals which a traveller perceived on his journey ; the burning of clothing or of a house, whether effected by domestic fire or by the lightning, no less than the appearance of that lightning ; the rat or mouse which gnawed any thing belonging to us, the wolf which worried our ox or horse, the fox which carried away our poultry, or the dog which devoured any thing of ours ; the noises so common in old houses, which were believed to be made by some demon ; the birds which fell through lassitude on the way, or which entered a house and suffered themselves to be taken; the hooting of owls, the croaking of ravens, the chat- tering of magpies; the cat which entered a hou^e otherwise than by the door; the torch which was suddenly extinguished, or grew pale, or emitted a feeble hght; that which emitted sparks or a crackhng sound, or of which the flame darted suddenly upwards ; any sudden fear or sadness, or uneasy sensation of body or mind ;~ these, and a hunrlred other trifles referrible to the same heads, afforded ample room for the exercise of knavery. Yet, with all their absurdity, though despised by the wise and hated by the good, augury flourished ; pre- cisely because, in conformity with ancient custom, the mob would not allow a magistrate to be elected, or war to be undertaken, or a law to be enforced, or any public tneasure, great or little, to be adopted without consult- ing the purple-scarlet knaves. The preceding observations chiefly regard the Roman augurs: in Greece there was some diversity in the mode of divination. '' The Grecian augurs were not, as the Latin, clothed in purple or scarlet, but in white having a crown of gold upon their heads when they made observations, as Alexander ab Alexandre informs F 4 72 ARTS^ ETC. OF THE GREEKS AND ROMANS. US. ' The prophet Tiresias^ from his 0aKo<^, or hallowed seat (auguraculiim), was beheved to have the power of assembhng before him all the birds which were required for divination. " Eis yap iraXaiov ^aKov upviQos kottov 'ifoJi', 'iv' r]V IJLOL TVaUTOS OLavov At^T?!/," Soph. ^nt. " For sitting in my wonted hallow'd place, Whither all birds of divination flock." Potter. ^ '' They" (the augurs), says Potter, '' used also to carry with them writing-tables, as the schohastupon Euripides reports, in which they wrote the names and flights of the birds, with other things belonging thereto; lest ^ny circumstance should slip out of their memory/* That the omens which appeared in the east should^be considered fortunate, may be explained by the fact that the great principle of light and hfe rises from that quarter. When the Grecian augurs divined, they turned their faces towards the north, having the east on their right hands. On the contrary, the Romans had their faces to the south. Birds were called fortunate or unfortu- nate, lucky or the reverse, according to the circumstances in which they appeared ; for the same bird might be portentous of good at one time, of evil at another. If the eagle flew from right to left, the omen was remark- ably good ; if from left to right, it was evil. Yet among the Latins the reverse of this was the received opinion,-- a circumstance that might have opened the eyes of the most besotted to the vanity of this science. The vulture, the hawk, and the kite were of unlucky omen, since they portended slaughter. Why swallows, fly- ing or resting in a group, should be considered so too, is not so clear : if singly they were the harbingers of good, why should a cloud of them be sinister ? Every where but at Athens the owl was a bird of evil: tJiere it was the reverse ; doubtless, because it was sacred to Minerva, the patroness of the city. The dove and swan were lucky ; the raven, if it appeared prior to an engagement, boded no good ; if in other circumstances r| AUGUSTALES, AURIG^E. 7i I' it was seen on the left hand, it was a very bad omen ; if on the right, a favourable one. The cock-crow was auspicious ; and, as the bird was sacred to Mars, indi- cative of success in battle : if the hen crowed, no sign could be worse. — But enough of these knaves and their imposture. AuGUSTALES, a fraternity of priests, established by Tiberius in honour of Augustus, and consisted of twenty-five, chosen by lot from the more eminent classes of society. To Augustus — such was their deplorable blindness, or perhaps their wicked knavery ! — they offered sacrifices. At Lyons there was also a magnificent temple in his honour. But what could be expected from a people whose greatest poets, as Horace and Virgil, declared, even during his life, that divine honours should be paid to him — nay, who addressed him as a god ? AuRiGiE, charioteers, drivers of the rapid vehicles in the public games, who contended for the prize. — For ages the profession was abandoned to slaves ; next, to obscure freemen ; but in time, even the noblest were eager to obtain the honour of victory. How highly this honour was esteemed in the days of Horace, is evident from his first Ode, ^^ Sunt quod curriculo," &c. Caligula, according to Suetonius, greatly encouraged these races, and admitted of no auriga below the senatorial rank. They were long divided into four factions, — • the white, the red, the blue, the green ; Doniitiaa added two, the yellow and the purple. Each faction had its supporters among the nobles and people, who often took a personal share in the contest, and whose tumults prove that they were a thousand times more attached to the sport than our frequenters of New- market or Ascot The object of these drivers was to turn with celerity seven times round a central stone, the avoiding of which, while the greatest possible proximity was required, so as to lessen the circumference of the circle, demanded consummate dexterity. If the charioteer ran too near^ he shattered his vehicle to pieces, and »f 7t ARTS, ETC. OF THE GREEKS AND R03IANS. exposed his own life: if he were distant enough to allow another candidate for the prize to run between him and the stone^ he infallibly lost all chance of suc- cess. The victor was placed on the stone, and mu- nificently rewarded, amidst the acclamations of his own faction. Auspices, that portion of the augurs whose pretended science was restricted to birds alone ; and to the flighty not to the song, of birds : while the augurs, in its general sense, took cognizance not only of their flight, notes, and appearances, but of other things, as we have sufficiently shown under the former word. — See Augur. AuToxoMiA, the privilege of hving under their ow^n laws and magistrates, — a concession made to several vanquished people, or wrung by them from the Roman government. — They owed no obedience to the Roman magistrates or local rulers. The privilege appears to have been enjoyed by Marseilles from very ancient times : by Augustus it was conceded to Patras ; by Nero it was extended to all Achaia; the people of Antioch purchased it from Pompey ; the Arabs and Armenians obtained it under Trajan; the Athenians, Lacedaemonians, Carthaginians, and Ethiopians, pos- sessed a greater or less degree of it. B. Bacchanalia, feasts in honour of Bacchus. Of these festivals the Athenians are said to have been the inventors; but Herodotus, the best possible authority, says they were of Egyptian origin ; and Plutarch con- firms the relation, adding, that Bacchus was the Osiris of Egypt. And in their origin they were not much worse than other pagan rites. A cask of wine, en- vironed with vine branches laden with the ripe grape, was ceremoniously carried; a stag, ornamented with ivy, was led by the horns to the place of sacrifice ; and priestesses, with each a thyrsis or wand of Bacchus in the hand, danced and sung in the procession^ repeatedly / i ! I li k\\ 1 I ! r BALNEUM. 75 uttering,^t)oAe Bacche! In Greece, these solemnities, which were usually denominated H^iowcrtcx., and sometimes Oj^yia, were observed with peculiar splendour. The chief archon condescended to appear in them, and the officiat- ing priests were every where honoured. But from idle they were soon transformed into vicious ceremonies. The poetical fictions respecting Bacchus were in the memories of all ; and nothing, they thought, was so likely to please him, as to imitate his deeds. Clad in fantastic apparel, — some in skins, some in linen, and crowned with garlands of ivy, fir, and the vine, — with musical instruments, such as the lute, the pipe, the drum ; some resembling Pan, Silenus, and the satyrs; these on the backs of asses, those on goats ; all making the most ludicrous grimaces, and running up hill, down dale, laughing, shouting, dancing, singing, yelling; — it seemed as if the country were one vast bedlam. At Athens, some carried sacred vessels filled with water and wine ; next came honourable virgins, named yiavYjfopoi, because they bore golden baskets filled with fruit. From these baskets, serpents, whose fangs had doubtless been extracted, were often seen to creep, greatly to the amazement of the stupid populace. But the licentious part of the procession consisted in the ^ep^ccXXiocy or men carrying poles, with the obscene accompaniments ; and in the idvipaXXoi, a man in fe- male apparel, making the most wanton gestures — not imitating drunkenness, for they were in reality drunk. The people engaged in the procession, the spectators, the whole city, were distinguished for the most gross licentiousness, for the most disgusting debauchery. That the Romans knew how to adopt the vices of the nations they subdued, appears from a decree of the senate which in a. u. c. 504 abolished the Bacchanalia, as fatal to public niorals. In the sequel, however, they were partially restored, as is evident from passages of Horace and VirgiL Balneum, was generally used for the bath belonging to private houses ; balinece^ for the public baths. Both 76 ARTS^ ETC. OF THE GREEKS AND ROMANS. were in use from the remotest antiquity^ and were indispensable as long as sandals only were worn on the feet, and so long as linen was unknown. The river^ or the running stream, was long the only medium of ablution. The daughter of Pharaoh^ according to Scripture, went to bathe in the Nile ; and the Homeric princess, Nausicaa, resorted to the same primitive mode. Helen also, and her companions, washed in the river Eurotas ; but if the sea was near at hand_, it was always preferred, from a notion that salt water is more invi- gorating than fresh. Probably the Greeks were the first to construct baths, both pubhc and private ; and were followed by the Romans, who surpassed them in the number and magnificence of their baths. Like the Greeks and Egyptians, they were anciently satisfied with the running stream, and the Tyber was as useful as the Nile ; but when they had learned by experience the convenience of constructed baths, they multiplied them amazingly : under the emperors, Rome had above eight hundred devoted to the use of the public. Each of these structures had different apartments, the admis- sion to which was graduated by the condition of the person, and the comparative attendance or comforts he required. In general, the two outward apartments were for the use of the lower classes : the admission was lower than the smallest English coin, and children paid nothing. On each side of the same bath were rooms for undressing and other purposes. Besides the several baths — hot, warm, and cold — and the room for undressing, there was the sudatorium, or sweating-room, which was provided with a fire; and there was one for anointing^ — a ceremony always performed after bathing, espe- cially after hot bathing. This anointing was used for two reasons : it closed, or at least protected, the open pores of the body ; and it increased the polish of the skm. What this ointment was, is not very clear: anciently it consisted of oil mixed with roses, herbs and other odoriferous substances. The use, however^ of these ointments was justly regarded as effeminate by BALNEUM. m 77 *} f several legislators, who, while they left them to the women, prohibited them to the sex on which the defence of the state most rested. At Sparta they were forbidden to both sexes ; but that the prohibition was at length disregarded, we learn from Athenaeus : and for some time the male and female bathers were kept separate. At length, however, the same bath became common to both, until Adrian, disgusted with the indecency of the custom, restored the original distinction. "^T^here morals, however, are lax, law^s to reform them will fail ; and Heliogabalus was glad to purchase popular favour by removing the distinction. It was again restored by Severus; but not until the Christian em- perors were firmly established, was the abuse wholly destroyed. Hot baths are of greater antiquity than is generally supposed. Homer praises one of the warm fountains of Scamander in such terms as to show that the luxury was common in Ms age ; apd he produces individual examples of the use. Thus Andromache provides one for her husband against his return from battle; Nestor orders Hecamede to prepare S'ep^ua Xosrpa, and a whole people are said, in the Odyssey, to place their chief delight in ^^ changes of apparel, hot baths, and beds." In the baths of individuals, if peculiar honour were intended for the great, the daughter of the host washed and anointed his feet: in other cases the duty de- volved on a female slave. In Rome, nobody was per- mitted, in the public baths, to use the luxury when he pleased ; it was enjoyed at certain hours, from mid-day to sunset, and the time was indicated by a bell. In Greece there was no regulation in this respect. Though the excess might be condemned, the use was exceed- ingly salutary ; and the liberality of the emperors who built these convenient places for the people, might be imitated with good effect by sovereigns of our own times. — The Balnearii Servi were of several capacities : those who took charge of the fires w ere fornacatores ; of the garments, the capsarii^ — dnd sometimes^ the tempt- 11 78 ARTS. ETC. OF THE GREEKS AND ROMANS. ation being too strong for their principles^ they stole the garments^ — we often read of fures balnearii. The alipilce were provided with a sort of tweezers to pluck the hairs from the skin : the unctuarii anointed and perfumed^ &c. Barba^ the heard, was held in much respect by ancient nations. — It was the symbol of wisdom, for no philoso- pher was without it. By Persius^ Socrates is called harhatus magister. " I perceive the beard and the mouth/' says Aulus Gellius, '^ but not the philosopher." Horace bears testimony to the symbol : a tempore quo me Solutus jussit sapientem pascere barbam.'* And for a similar reason^ — because it was the accom- paniment of age, wisdom, and experience, — it was the emblem of authority. The appearance of the vener- able senators, with their flowing beards and majestic mein, struck, as every schoolboy knows, the Gauls with peculiar veneration. At this time, however, no Roman shaved ; nor was it until A. u. c. 454, that barbers were brought from Sicily. Hence forward Ro- man youths began to be shaven at twenty years of age ; and ihey continued to be so until forty-nine, after which age they were no longer permitted to shave. ^^ Vicesimo anatis anno," says Suetonius of Caligula, '^accitusCapreas aTiberio,uno atque eadem die togam sumpsit barbamque posuit.*' The day on which the Roman youth posuit barbam y or laid aside the beard, was naturally one of rejoicing, since it indicated their transition from youth to manhood. It was one of high festivity; presents were made to friends ; and the discarded beard was enclosed in a box of silver or gold, and dedicated to some deity, generally to Jupiter Capitolinus. But to wear or not to wear the beard was a matter of taste ; and taste is as fleeting as the humours of man. From a notion that a shorn chin was not sufficiently indicative of authority, Adrian retained this symbol of manhood ; and that his example was imitated by his successors, we may infer from the fact, that, as previous to his time, from Caesar BELLARIA, BELLUM. 79 h • i to himself, the Roman sovereigns are represented on the coins without beards, so after his time they are represented with one. We know not whether the same fashion of retaining it extended to the public in general ; but from one fact we might infer that it was not, viz. that on the arrival of any calamity, public or private, it was suffered to grow. This fact, however, seems exclu- sively to regard the period which preceded Adrian. — The Greeks, like the Romans, wore the beard for ages : in the time of Alcibiades, they began to cut it. From that period we find barbers* shops as celebrated as in our own days, for the news or scandal of the day. Bellaria, the second course at table, consisting of fruits, wine, cakes, sweetmeats, &c., and therefore cor- responding to our dessert : '^ Majores duas habebant mensas/' says Servius ; *^ alteram carnis, alteram pomo- rum.'' Bellum. — From Romulus to Servius, war was always declared in the comitia curiata, or assemblies of the people ; but the establishment by this monarch of the comitia centuriata, in which the right of suffrage was founded rather on property than on numbers, trans- ferred this important decision from the former to the latter assemblies. The proceeding was this : — irhen the Romans had received an affi*ont from, or, to speak more correctly, had taken the offence with, any other power, their first step was to demand satisfaction ; and if it were not granted, to declare war. After the de- claration, the Fecialcs examined if the grounds of war were just ; and if, as was generally the case, they were found to be so, four of the body went to the people from whom the offence, real or fancied, had been received, and made the complaint. If repar- ation were not immediately made, thirty days* were allowed for deliberation ; and on the conclusion of the period, the chief of the Feciales returned to the enemy, and in a loud voice declared war, with the reasons on which the declaration was founded ; at the same time he hurled a javelin, the end of which had been dipped 80 ARTSj ETC. OF THE GREEKS AND R05IANS. in blood, against the boundary of the country to be in- vaded. This attempt to secure the sanction of religion in favour of an ambitious project, was not pecuhar to Rome : the Greeks, in like manner, endeavoured to in- terest the gods in their cause; and war was not declared until satisfaction had been demanded by a herald. Beneficiarius, a soldier so called because he was promoted to a higher grade by the favour {heneficio) of the tribune. — ^' Beneficiarii/' says Vegetius, " ab eo appellati quod promoventur beneficio tribunorum :" but it was applied to veterans, who at the end of a certain period were discharged. Other magistrates too, besides the military tribune, had his heneficiarii : the consul, the proconsul, the praetor, the qua'^stor, had dependents of the same title. The most usual and most important distinction, however, applied to the military. Besti^e, beastSy which were made to fight in the Roman amphitheatre, sometimes with men, sometimes with one another, and which were often the execu- tioners of the law on condemned criminals ; if the criminal conquered, he was absolved. — The gladiators themselves (see the word) were often delinquents, whose life was spared on condition of their entering into mortal strife with man or beast for the amusement of the most savage people the world has ever seen. Ad hestias dariy is equivalent to fight for one's life ; but hestiis objici had a more terrible signification, since the culprit was tied to a stake, and unresistingly devoured by his ferocious assailants. This barbarous punishment was not used under the republic : it was probably of Asiatic origin, unless the exposure of Daniel to the lions be regarded as an unusual mode of punishment ; but it was in general use among the Carthaginians, from whom the Romans more immediately derived it. From the time of Tiberius it was adopted at Rome; and it was frequent under his successors. It was so much inflicted on the Christians, that it seemed to be their peculiar fate. '^ If,'' says Tertullian, ^^ the Tyber overflows its banks; if there be a famine or plague; if there be a cold, I! ^1 BESTIARTI, BIBERE. 81 a dry, or scorching season ; if any public calamity arrive; the universal cry of the populace is, Christiani ad leonem ' to the lion with all Christians." Bestiarit, were the persons appointed to fi» In addition^ some Grecian people were careful to invest the corpse^ often in splendid, often in warm cloth- ing, ^^ Lest," says Lucan, ^^ they should grow cold on the passage, or be seen naked by Cerberus/' The Romans buried the corpse in the habit which had been usually worn during life : the ordinary citizen was wrapt in his toga ; the consul or praetor, in his pretexta; the censor, in his purple robe, &c. The corpse was then crowned with a chaplet of flowers^ as symbolical of the crown of virtue, — that the deceased had lived a good life. Flowers were used to denote the fleeting duration of this mortal state. A piece of money was then put in the mouth, to pay Charon the passage over the infernal river Styx ; the boatman of hell was no more inclined to give his labour, than men of the same caUing nearer home ; and if the unhappy ghost had no money, it was left to pine on the shore : " Jam sedet in ripa, tetrumque novitius horret Porthmea, nee sperat coenosi gurgitis alnum Infelix, nee habet quern porrigat ore trientem." Juy. To please the same monster, a cake of honey was added. Why, as the body was about to be burnt, the money and cake were thus provided, the sages of ancient days do not inform us. It was now laid in a costly bed, in the vestibule of the house ; and a person was placed over it, partly to prevent the corpse from being insulted by creditors or enemies, partly to drive away the flies. If the deceased were a prince, the task of scaring flies de- volved on well-dressed youths. The head was always ele- vated, and looking towards the door, as if about to leave the vestibule : this position was chosen in token that when a dead man leaves the house, he never returns. If the corpse was disfigured, the image of the deceased, in wax, supplied the place of the corpse, which lay close by m a coffin. It was usual to call on the deceased several tunes by name, to waken him if he merely slumbered, io I I u I CADAVER. gi call back the spirit if lingering near; and when no answer was returned, the formula conclamatum est was repeated. Here the corpse was preserved a week. At the end of this period, and after the last conclamatii, the corpse was carried out of the house on a litter, which was borne by the nearest relatives, or, if the deceased were of distinguished rank, by the noblest persons of the city ; and if the deceased were of low rank, — a slave, a pauper, a criminal, — the body was borne by four common porters. — The rites of sepulture were held in the highest esteem ; since without them no soul could be conveyed over the Styx, but was doomed to wander for ages on its inhospitable banks. Hence the anxiety of the kindred to see these rights duly performed : hence too, that of some creditors to arrest the body, and detain it as a pledge until the afilicted kindred satisfied the ^laim. This was permitted by the Roman laws, not only in an- cient but in comparatively modern times ; for Justinian decrees that the corpses thus retained, shall not be in- sulted by the creditors. Christianity has preserved many usages which originated with the pagans — many which might have been suffered to die with the old system of absurdity. — If the deceased were a person of rank or of family, the ensigns of his dignity, or the portraits of his ancestors, were borne with the procession, which always took place by torchlight — the number of torches corresponding with the dignity of the departed ; if he were a warrior, the spoils he had taken from the enemy ; if d magistrate, the fctsces and secures were carried on high, while musical instruments raised their doleful notes, and. gave a more impressive character to the scene. Where the corpse was one of distinction, the procession halted in the forum or public place, when an oration v/as made by one of the family. The corpse was generally burnt in the Campus Martius. — Burning prevailed from a very high antiquity : thus Hercules is said to have consumed by fire the corpse of Argios, the first example on record : the tale may be fabulous, but the antiquity of the rite is indisputabk. li was 92 ARTS^ ETC. OP THE GREEKS AND ROMANS. reprobated by the Magi as an impiety, since fire was, if not the divinity, the sacred symbol of the divi- nity, and ought not to be polluted. The rite ex- isted in Rome unto the time of the Antonines, when the burning began to be superseded by the burial of the corpse ; but was not wholly, perhaps, abolished much before the time of Theodosius the younger. In the remote ancient times, indeed, burial was more general than burning, — witness the practice of the Egyptians and Jews ; the latter mode was of Asiatic, perhaps of Indian, derivation, transmitted to Italy through the n:edium of the Greeks. On reaching the place of burning, the corpse, with the face upwards, w^as laid on the funeral pyre^ which was constructed of very combustible wood, cut for the purpose: " Procumbunt piceae ; sonat icta securibus ilex, Fraxineaeque trabes ; cuneis et fissile robur Scinditur : advolvunt ingentes montibus ornos." Virg. And the pile, when scientifically constructed, — no com- mon labour, since it was huge and provided with steps, — was surrounded with the cypress, the odour of which might overcome the stench of the burning corpse. Vir- gil: *' Ingentem struxere pyram, cui frondibus atris Intexunt latera, et ferales ante cupressos Constituunt.*' The construction was similar to that of an altar, only beyond comparison higher. There were four compart- ments rising above each other. The lowest contained straw ; the second from the ground, flowers ; the third, aromatic herbs and other odoriferous things ; the fourth, or highest, the most precious clothes of the de- ceased. Staiius : " ima virent agresti stramina cultu^ Proxima gramineis operosior area sertis, Et picturatus morituris floribus agger. ) CADAVER. 9S # Tertius assurgens Arabum strue tollitur ordo Eoas complexus opes, incanaque glebis Thura, et ab antique durantia cinnama Belo : Summa crepant auro." The most precious liquors, ointments, herbs, &c. were thrown on the pile. The nearest of kin set fire to the structure, with averted looks. Oxen, sheep, and other animals, were immolated, and their bodies thrown on the pile. In the more ancient times, human victims were also offered. The whole process is well described by Homer : " Now those deputed to inter the slain Heap with a rising pyramid the plain : A hundred feet in length, a hundred wide, The growing structure spreads on every side. High on the top the manly corpse they lay, And well-fed sheep and sable oxen slay. Achilles covered with their fat the dead. And the piled victims round the body spread : Then jars of honey and of fragrant oil Suspends around : low bending o'er the pile, Four sprightly coursers, with a deadly groan. Pour forth their lives, and on the pile are thrown. Of nine large dogs domestic at his board Fall two, selected to attend their lord : Then last of all, and terrible to tell. Sad sacrifice! twelve Trojan captives fell." Pope. The fat of the victims, and the oily perfumes were intended to accelerate the consumption of the body : for the same purpose the aid of the breezes was invoked. Thus Achilles, while consuming the body of Patroclus, prayed Boreas and Zephyrus, that by their aid the flames might rage with renewed fury, promising them grateful victims and choice offerings as the price of their compliance. Fortunately the human victims were discontinued; but yet, as the notion that blood was agreeable to the deceased, was prevalent, a custom scarcely less horrid — the combats of gladiators — replaced the immolation of captives. — (See Gladiators.) When the deceased was of high dignity, a solemn procession was thrice made round the pile : m y i 94 ARTSj, ETC. OP THE GREEKS AND ROMANS. *' O4 5e Tpfs TTepi veKpou €VTpixO'S7}\aoav lirirovs MvpoiJ.^voi." Statius has graphically described the same cus- tom : *' Tunc septem numero turmas (centenus ubique Surget eques) versis ducunt insignibus ipsi Grajugenae regis, lustraritque ex more sinistro Orbe rogum, et stantes inclinant pulvere flammas. Ter curves egere sinus, illisaque telis Tela sonant : quater horrendum pepulere fragorcm Arma, quater mollem famularum brachia planctum." Thus inadequately rendered by Lewis : *' The Grecian prisoners then in order led, Seven equal troops, to purify the dead. Around the pile a hundred horsemen ride, With arms reversed, and compass every side. They faced the left (for so the rites require), Bent with the dust, the flames no more aspire ; Tlirice, thus disposed, they wheel'd in circles round The hallow 'd corse ; their clashing weapons sound. Four times their arms a crash tremendous yield, And female shrieks re-echo through the field." And Virgil no less alludes to it : " Tercircum accensos cincti fulgentibus armis Decurrere rogos, ter maestium funeris ignem Lustra vere in equis, uiulatusque ore dedere." "When the pile was burnt^ and the body consumed, the embers were quenched with wine ; the ashes of the corpse were carefully collected, and, with the whitened bones, were w^ashed, anointed, deposited in an urn, and buried. C^sTus, the defensive gloves which boxers wore on their hands and arms. — The ccBstus, which was ori- ginally short, reaching only to the wrists, but afterwards carried to the elbow^, and sometimes even to the shoulder, consisted of leathern thongs. Nor was it merely defen- sive ; being filled with plates of lead or iron, and made very heavy, it inflicted formidable, often fatal, blows : ' Erat durum certamen Csestuum/' says Servius, c& I ' CALAMUS, CALCEUS. ^5 ^^ raroque sine csede committebatur." The invention is ascribed to Amgeus, king of the Bebrycians, — pro- bably a fabulous personage ; but this only proves the antiquity of its use. Calamus, a rustic pipe, and apparently the very rudest species of this sort of music ; the invention of Pan. — ^ Certainly it was much less artificial than the fistula^ which had often the distinction of seven joints ; — " Est mihi disparibus septem compacta cicutis Fistula." ViRQ, The two, however, were often confounded. Calceus can only be rendered sandal or shoe, though it bore little resemblance to either covering of that name. — The sandalium, or solea, was fitted to the sole only of the foot, and was fastened by thongs or clasps: in women, of whom it was the ornament, the thongs were ingeniously made to cross each other a considerable way above the ancle* The solea was worn by men in the house only ; and when they rechned on the dinner couch, they pulled it oft', and delivered it to the care of a domestic slave. Women, whether of Greece or Rome, appeared in the streets with the sandalia or solea, which, in ladies of condition, were of a costly description* But, reverting to the calceus, little need be said to prove that it was of high antiquity. At first it was simply the tanned skin of a beast, made to fit the sole, and fastened with thongs. Subsequently, it was covered with stuffs, more or less valuable, according to the circumstances or caprice of the wearer. The Indians made theirs of wood; and that they were not unknown at Rome is certain, from the expression, solece lignece pedibus inducuntur. The Egyp- tians made use of the bark of the papyrus : other people had various contrivances for the same purpose. We read of bulrushes, reeds, and even of metals : Empedocles had shoes of steeL Among the Romans, we find iron shoes with huge nails ; but these appear to have been 06 ARTS, ETC. OF THE GREEKS AND ROMANS. reserved for the punishment of Christians. There were some of gold and silver ; others were of baser metal_, and were gilt. C«esar is reproached for his golden calcei. In these instances, however^ the shoe could not have been massive : probably the gold and silver were thin plates, which, instead of stuffs, were made to cover the leather. That these calcei should in time be made to cover not merely the foot, but reach to the calf of the leg, was sure to arise from the convenience of the thing. This, at least, is true of the patricians ; for the lower classes of the people were seldom covered so high as the ancle. The later emperors made their calcei into boots, since they were carried up to the knees. Anciently, the Roman calcei were peaked at the point, and were therefore termed rostrati^ or peaked. On those of the patricians w^as displayed the letter C, in token that the senators were originally of that number. And as the C much resembles the crescent^ this covering ivas often denominated Calceus lunatus, and was the distinctive mark of patrician dignity, Statius : " Sic te, clare puer, genitum sibi curia sensit, Primaque patricia clausit vestigia lunse.** The usual colour of the calceus was black for the men, and white for the w^omen : some of the latter, how- ever, were red, — a colour formerly restrained to the kings, who probably derived it from those of Persia. The example was at length followed by the magistrates, who thought they might surely wear a colour permitted to women : their motive was to emulate their sovereigns. The Greeks had not the same vanity in regard to the calcei as the Romans. The men had none in the house : but the women wore sandals. The calcei were of several species. The distinction between sandalia and solece was, that the former, which were long confined to women, came higher up the foot than the latter, and had ties to the ancle at least ; while the solece were tied only over the foot, and were for the women only. The caliga was a military boot. CALCULUS, CAMINUS. 97 and worn by the common soldiers. Caligula was so named, because his mother, to gain him the affection of the troops, made him while a boy wear that covering for the foot. Hence caliga and caligatus were synonym- ous with private soldier. The compedis was also a mili- tary boot ; but its use was confined to the officers. The crepida was of the same form as the sandal ; but while the latter had a covering for the top of the foot, the former suffered most of the upper part of the foot to be visible. The cerea was also a mili^tary boot. The pero was the largest of all coverings for the leg, and was chiefly worn by the rustics — the persons most exposed to the inclemencies of the seasons. Calculus, a little stone used by the ancients in their arithmetical computations: hence the word calculation — The word was also used for dice, chess-pieces, &c. Caldartum, the sudatorium, or sweating-room, with which every bath was provided. — (See Balneum') It also signified the metal pans in which water was heated. Calvus, bald, a term of reproach amongst the Romans: hence the extreme care with which thev ' nourished the hair, and when it fell off, supphed it by artificial means. — That it was a reproach long before the days of Juvenal and Martial, is evident from the insults addressed to the prophet Elijah. Yet many noble Romans were honourably distinguished by the epithet Calvus. JuUus Caesar is said to have covered his bald- ness by the laurel crown. Calyptra, the veil worn by the priests during the celebration of their mysteries, and even during ordi. nary sacrifices. A similar one, of a red colour, was worn by brides. Caminus, the chimney (we omit its other signi- fications). — Originally the hearths of the Greeks and Romans were not placed in the wall, but in the centre of the room, even without a hole in the roof. The smoke must have been an insufferable annoyance, unless some species of wood could be procured which produced VOL. II. g It ) If I If *' ■ > t ' i SB ARTS, ETC. OF THE GREEKS AND ROMANS none, or the windows were left open. In cold weather, the latter was impossible ; and the former expedient was too expensive for common use. Perhaps^, however, pipes to carry off the smoke were employed at a much earlier period than w^e generally imagine. In the time of Seneca^ there was an invention which altogether dispensed with hearths : from the fire in the lowest story the heat was distributed by pipes ascending to each apartment, and made to run along the walls. What, even in this case, became of the smoke is not very clear; as chimneys w^ere not yet invented, or at least in com- mon use^ the pipes might possibly be made to pass through holes in the wall. At a subsequent period^ traces of something like our chimneys might certainly be discovered ; but they were long confined to the upper apartments. Perhaps by means of the pipes w^e have before mentioned, the smoke might be conducted from the inferior stories to some common outlet above* Campan.e, helhy which are of much higher anti- quity than we generally suppose. — They were known to the Jew^s ; for when the high priest entered or left the holy of holies, a little bell was sounded. They Avere used in many other cases by the Romans. 1. They called to sacrifice. 2. They notified when any one departed this life — doubtless, from a belief that the sound frightened away evil spirits. It is singular that the same impression in regard to the church bells and the fairies exists in several parts of England at the pre- sent day. The passing bell of the church is partly founded on the same superstition : the chief motive, however, for its introduction, was the belief that the soul of the departed might be benefited by the prayers 01 the faithful. 3. They gave warning when the public baths were opened or closed. 4. They were used during visible eclipses of the moon, which were thought to be the effect of magic. 5. They were attached to the necks of beasts, as they are now to those of mules in Spain, and of sheep in England. 6. They \vere suspended at the doors of apartments to summon servants. 7. He I CANDIDATI. 99 ^ho made the round of the outposts during night used a bell ; and what is still more extraordinary, the cen tmels were obliged to sound one, to prove that tluy were not sleeping on their post. 8. They were suspended round the necks of criminals who were led to execution -— not with the view of attracting, but of deterring the looks of spectators : the sight of a criminal about to satisfy justice, and that of his executioner, were thought to be ominous of evil. 9. Finally, they began to be used in the Christian church, as they had before been used m the pagan temples, to congregate the faithful, in the fifth century, by St. Paulinus, bishop of Nola, in Cam- pania. They would, no doubt, have been used prior to that period, had not persecution rendered silence neces- sary. Candidati, so called from their being habited in white garments, were originally the aspirants for public charges or dignities. — In this habit they solicited the suffrages of each tribe (see Ambire); and during the two years required by law as a sort of trial for the magisterial offices, they appeared before the people in the same colours — emblematical, no doubt, of that purity of Hfe expected in a public functionary. They obtained permission, on certain occasions, to harangue the people, to extol their own exploits, to exhibit the wounds which they had received in the service of their country, and humbly to request their suffrage. During these two years, each was expected to testify his zeal for the welfare of his fellow citizens. He was to defend the innocent in the courts of justice ; and he was expected not to spare his money in entertaining the heads of the people : without feasting, spectacles, music, and, we may add, presents — things which^ though condemned by the laws against ambition, were always practised — he stood little chance of success. At the end of the first year— his annus professionis he could request to be placed on the list of aspirants ; but until his character had undergone an investi- gation, and until the tribunes had approved hiiii^ until H 2 mmmn -^»f!**~*mvrim*irr-^*-'-^ . - * -*■■*■ # -m- » 100 ARTS, ETC. OF THE GREEKS AND ROMANS. he had been solemnly elected by the people^ until by his conduct during a second year he had given proofs of ability and integrity, he was not invested with the dignity. We may add, that even when declared chosen by the magistrate, in presence of the assembled cen- turies, he could not, unless he were elected to the office of censor, immediately enter on the exercise of his func- tions : five months were allowed to every other ma- gistrate elect, that he might have time to make himself acquainted with the duties of his office. These forms, we need scarcely observe, were in force only during the best days of the republic : under the empire, there was no free election. Can ERE, to sing. — That singing and poetic recitation formed no mean part of ancient entertainments, is well known : no repast could be complete without it. Often the guests were required in their turns to sing or recite: ^"^ Etiam accubantibus singulis ordmabatur conviviale genus carminum," says an old writer in the collection of Grgevius ; the old and the young, fathers and sons sang in their turns. Horace " pueri patresque severi Fronde comas vincti coenant et carmina dictant." He who sang held a myrtle branch, in honour of the Muses. Sometimes instrumental no less than vocal music was demanded, and the lyre went round. Woe to him who knew not how to play on it ! Even The- mistocles could not escape contempt, when he professed his ignorance of the art ; and it may be doubted whether his boast that he could turn a village into a flourishing city, was admitted as an equivalent for this deficiency. This, however, is rather true of Greece than of Rome, for we know that no Roman was es- teemed the worse because he could not excel in such frivolous accomplishments. ^^ By the Romans,'' says Nepos, ^' such accomplishments are held to be very tri- vial:'' but the Greeks," says Cicero, ^^ thought the arts of singing and playing upon musical instruments a m f CANIS. CANON. 101 most important part of learning."— "Hence the country abounded with skilful musicians: every body learned the musical arts; or if any were ignorantof it, he was thought Ill-educated." In other respects the two people differed- the Greeks were immoderately fond of dancing after their repasts ; in Rome, according to the high authority ot Cicero, nobody danced unless he were drunk or mad Yet singing men and women, boys and girls, were lured to do that which the proud Roman would not do himself. The songs and poems chiefly concerned the praises of the gods, and the virtues of the mighty dead Hence Cicero regrets that time had destroyed these an. cient compositions. Canis, a dog.— At Rome, dogs were used to guard houses, and Cavecanem! was equally common with our Beware of the dog! In the same "manner they were entrusted with the guard of the temples, and even of the Capitol ; but suffering that fortress to be surprised by the Gauls, one of them was ever afterwards borne annually through the city, fastened to a cross. By the Egyptians— the most stupid and superstitious of natior.s — the dog was held in great veneration ; inasmuch asii was symbolical of the overflowings of the Nile, and once the constant attendant of their deities Isis and Osiris. Divine honours were paid to it. In Greece and Rome dogs were sometimes sacrificed to the gods; by the former to Pan, by the latter to the domestic Lares : both offered them during the dog-days, probably as a preservative against the rabid diseases of that animal. The howl of the dog was as ominous in former times as m the present. Most of our popular superstitions have a classical source. By the emperor Adrian, the dog and the horse were held in such veneration, that he ho- noured both with the rites of sepulture ; the former from its fidelity, the latter from its utility to man. Canon, a rule — A tax was called a canon ; and ca- nonica illatio the annual revenue which it produced, whether in kind or in money. Thus the canon fru- mentarius was the quantity of grain which Egypt, the H 3 102 ARTS. ETC. OF THE GREEKS AND ROMANS. rest of AiYica, and Sicily were annually compelled to furnish for the use of the Roman people ; this impost is believed to have been originally levied by Augustus. After his establishment in the empire^, Aurelius Victor acquaints us with the amount supplied by Egypt; ^^ du- centies centena millia frumenti urbi inferebantur." The produce was managed with so much economy by Severus, that at his death he left a seven years' stock or revenue, septem annorum canonem, for the use of the city. The canon largitionum was the gold and silver paid annually into the pubHc treasury by the provinces. In other respects canon had the same meaning : thus the canon metalliciis was the tribute derived from the mines. It was ultimately employed for all sorts of tax, and the collectors were termed canonicarii. We perpetually read of the canon navicularium, and the canon vestium; a proof that clothing was taxed as frequently as the most ordinary merchandise. Capillus, the human hair. — When mariners were in danger of shipwreck, they were often known to cut off their hair and cast it into the sea as an offering to Neptune. To cut the hair close by the head was termed tonsura lugubris, since it indicated a more than ordinary grief. The criminal condemned to death was shorn : ^« Ad aha tonsum templa cum ream misit." Mart. The cutting of the hair before death was regarded as necessary for the admission of the soul into the world of spirits; and it was to be mystically cut by Proserpine — the expression is doubtless an allusion to the threads of life, — before natural death could seize on any human being. Hence Virgil makes Dido long in expiring, because " Nondum illi flavum Proserpina vertice crinem Abstulerat, Stygioque caput damnaverat Oreo." And Horace, in allusion to the same notion : " Mista serum ac juvenum densantur funera^ nullum Saeva caput Proserpina fugit." CAPIIgLUS. 103 1 i \ A i w ^ Disheyelled uncombed hair has in all ages been sym- bolical of deep affliction ; and tearing the hair is another form of the same expression, since the action must necessarily discompose it ; in this state suppliants im- plored the succour of the Gods, or bewailed their sorrows. In the Electra of Euripedes, Helena is re- proached for sparing her locks, since she was defrauding the dead. Ovid ; — ^^ « Vultus in imagine Divum Figit et hos edit, crine jacente sonos. Supplicis, alma, tuse genitrix foecunda deorum. Accipe sub certa conditione preces." And in the Troades, Seneca alludes to the same uni- versal custom : " Solvite crinem ; per colla fluent Moesfa capilli." The hair of a surviving friend was considered a fit offering for the sepulchre of one deceased : ** Ilia meo caros donasset funere crines." Propert. It was sometimes thrown on the corpse : ** They shaved their heads, and cover'd with their hair The body.** Potter, It was often cast into the funeral fire, as was done by Achilles in regard to Patroclus. Canace in Ovid bewails her misfortune, because she was debarred from offering her hair on the sepulchre of Macareus : " Non mihi te licuit lacrimis perfundere justis In tuo non tonsas ferre sepulchre comas.'* The hair of the deceased was often suspended at the threshold of the door, in token of the recent event and of the mourning within. Of this mourning the most prominent sign was of course dishevelled hair : " passis sedet ilia capillis Ut solet ad nati mater itura rogum." Ovid. But the hair was often defiled with dust, •—- a token of etill deeper affliction. How the Jews scattered ashes on H 4 104 ARTS^ ETC. OF THE GREEKS AND ROMANS. their iieads is known to every reader of the Bible ; in the same spirit. Homer represents Achilles as throwing with both hands ashes on his head ; and Priam tells Achilles that he had mourned thus ever since the death of his son Hector : " Now, god-like hero, to an early couch Dismiss us both ; for never have 1 closed These eyehds since by thy victorious hands My son expired ; but sorrow here indulged Still ruminating on my countless woes. And rolling in the ashes of my court." Cowper'5 Trans* Ovid bears testimony to the custom : " Pulvere canitiem genitor, vultusque senil Fcedat humi fusos.** His hoary head and furrow'd cheeks besmears With sordid dust.'* And Virgil : '« Demittunt mentes : it scissa veste Latinus Conjugis attonitus fatis, urbisque ruina, Canitiem immundo perfusam pulvere turpans.'* And Catullus : " Canitiem terra atque infuso pulvere foedans." It would be easy to expend some learning in showing how the Greeks and Romans wore the hair, but we have no space for the subject. Capitatio, a tax per head, too well know^n to re- quire explanation, especially as that explanation, if the subject were less known, could not probably benefit any of our statesmen. But possibly a future chancellor of the exchequer may thank us for alluding to the Capnicox, or tax on chimneys, which might very well have entered into the head of him who devised the window tax. — The emperor Nicephorus Phocas has the honour of this expedient, and his statue ought to be in the library of every deviser of '' Ways and Means.' Capsarius, from capsa, a sort of satchel ; the slave who carried his young master's books to school, and foL .1-S i CAPTIVI, CAPUT. 105 lowed behind him. — A hint for Westminster and Eton. Captivi, prisoners of war, who were in general vil- lanously treated by their victors. — The king and the generals of a vanquished army were shorn, and sent to adorn the triumph in a manner utterly unworthy of a generous enemy : << Nunc tibi captivis mittet Germania crines : Culta triumphatae munere gentis eris." Even the graceful Zenobia, the captive queen of Syria, was, with her friends and counsellors, made to adorn the triumph of Aurelian : '' Vincti erant pedes auro, manus etiam catenis aureis, nee collo aureum vinculum deerat." The necks of the vanquished were pubHcly trod by the victor; and at the conclusion of this humili- ating ceremony they were returned to their prisons, where the leaders were generally put to death, the rest sold as slaves sub corona: so much for Roman mag- nanimity! The captives, indeed, had generally the power of redeeming themselves; but even this depended on the will of their owners, and it involved what few could possess, — the means of ransom, fixed too at the discretion of the victor. Caput, the head. — In their houses, the Romans had no covering for the head, nor even in the streets, if we except that- which was afforded by their robe, and which was pulled over the head in the form of a hood whenever the weather was unfavourable. In the temples, however, during the sacrificial rites, the same expe- dient was adopted, both in token of humiliation, and to escape the distraction caused by surrounding objects. Hence Virgil : " Purpureo velare comas adopertus amictu : Ne qua inter Sanctis ignes in honore deorum Hostilis facies occurret, et omina turbet." Yet when Saturn was the object of adoration, the head was uncovered in token that he was truth itself, and that all things Ue naked before him. In the funeral .1 loC ARTS, ETC. OF THE GREEKS AND ROMANS. rites of parents^ the sons had their heads covered, the daughters uncovered. To strike the head against the -wall or door was a sign of extreme grief; and if any rehance is to be placed in the statement of Suetonius^ this was done by Augustus himself, in concern for the loss of his legions : "Ut per continuos menses caput in- terdum foribus illideret." Hence the expression, so com- mon in modern times^ to knock one's head against the wall. To swear by the head was a solemn yet ordinary oath, understanding by it the noblest of the bodily members, the seat alike of intellect and of honour ; *^ Per caput hoc juro, quod pater ante solebat,'* was the formula, as preserved by Virgil. The oath was a tremendous one, inasmuch as the swearer devoted his head, in case of perfidy or non-fulfilment, to the wrath of the gods : " Jusjurandum et ille juravit, et expressit verba quibus ca- put suum, insciens fefellisset, deorum irae consecraret." — Puny. Carnifex sic;nified both a butcher and the public executioner, — The executioner, among the Romans, had not the rights of citizenship : he was forced to live in a low part of the suburbs. His acquaintance — even his look — was shunned by all but the vilest; it appears, indeed, to have been thought ominous^ In this respect the Jack Ketch of England is the lineal de^jcendant of the Roman carnifex. But is not the prejudice an absurd one ? If honour were measured by utility, what citizen would be so much esteemed as Jack ? Where is the profession which in this respect can be compared with his? The Greeks, too, were so blind to the well- being of the state, as to exile poor Jack beyond the confines of their city. They could not even name him by his calling ; but they had sense enough to distinguish him by a more honourable appellation, the Public Man. Castra, camp.— Thou^x this subject cannot be either described or understood, without the aid of draw- ings, we must make a few general observations on it. 1 1 ^^ CASTRA. 107 The use of camps is coeval with the art of war ; for though Pyrrhus is said by Frontinus to have been the first who ^^ totum exercitum sub eodem vallo continere instituit," the saying must not be taken in its literal sense ; since the Greeks before the time of Homer, and the Romans at a very ancient period, had fortified camps. The form of the Roman encampment was square, with a gate in the centre of each side : hence there were four, each with a distinct name. On arriv- ing at the place of encampment, the entrenchment was the first tiling the soldiers minded, — a ditch, varying in breadth from five to twelve feet, in depth from three to nine, according to the comparative danger of the position, and the time the army was to remain. The earth dug out of the ditch served as a rampart, which in addition was crowned with stones or palisades; and, if the encampment was to be long, flanked witli bastions and forts. These forts were eighty feet distant from each other. The wall or rampart had holes from which missiles could be directed against the enemy. The winter camps — those in which the legions passed that season — were constructed with great strength; while those which were designed only for a few nights, were comparatively rude and ill-defended. The former, both from their size and strength, might be compared to fortified cities. They had their streets running at right angles, being formed by strong ropes ; and they had their squares or public places, with a market plenti- fully supplied with every thing necessary to the sub- sistence, the clothing, the comfort, and even the luxury of the troops. Each camp, too, had its hospital, its arse- nal for armour, its shops for the supply of commodities between the market days, when the rustic population attended with their produce, and the tradesmen with their merchandise. The tent of the general occupied the centre of the encampment, in the midst of a square : to the left were those of his lieutenants : to the right that of the quaestor. The tent of the general was denominated the prcetorium, in one part of which he administered I 108 AIITS, ETC. OF THE GREEKS AND ROMANS. justice — for be was the judge no less than the mUitary chief. The qucestorium, or quarter of the quaestors, contained the treasure of the army, and was well watched by sentinels. The tribunes had also their quarters near the prcptorrum, where their inspection could easily be extended over the whole encampment. The Greeks were more scientific than even the Romans in the choice^ the tracing, and the construction of their camps. Their first object was one which the Romans appear often to have neglected, — the choice of a proper position for their camp, — one strong by nature, and that might be still more fortified by art. From this circumstance^ however, their camps could not have the same uniform shape, which was made to comply with the surface of the position. Whenever practicable, they preferred the circular to every other, and esteemed the angular the least, as affording more facihties to the assailants than the defenders. The circular had this additional advantage, — that from the centre, where the general with the flower of the troops lay, help could soonest be afforded to any point menaced by the enemy. In the centre, too, were the provisions, the altars of the gods, and the tribunal of justice. ^ Catadromus, a rope on which men or women danced or ran.— One end of it was fastened to the most elevated point of the theatre ; another to a ring in the ground : the descent or ascent was accordingly precipitous, and always dangerous. Yet one ancient historian has the knavery to assert that an elephant actually made the descent, and the impudence to expect that his assertion will be credited. Nothing in the exploits of Sindbad, Gulliver, or Munchausen, can exceed this. Catena, chains^ fetters, were placed on the ancient captives of war, and were of gold, silver, or iron, ac- cording to the dignity of the prisoner. — In general, the fetter was on the right hand, so that the left of the victor could hold his prize. Criminals, too, as may be readily supposed, were thus manacled ; but if any one were unjustly so treated, and his innocence were fully N> ! i CAUTIO, CEDRUS, CELERES. 109 established, the manacle was not loosened in the ordi- nary way ; it was broken^ in token that the infamy of the accusation was also destroyed. This happened to Josephus the historian, who being unjustly fettered, the emperor Titus ordered them to be broken, observing : ^^ Erit tanquam nee initio vinctus fuerit, si non dissolve- rimus sed inciderimus catenas." AV hen slaves were enfranchised, they devoted their chains to the domestic Lares. Cautio, bail, given both by defendant and plaintiff, that they would abide the decision of the court, and pay the costs : it was also a pledge that neither would em- ' ploy perfidy or fraud. Cedrus, the cedar tree, so common in the mountains of Syria, that ships were always built of it, because there was no fir, not because there was any thing in the wood supposed to be incorruptible: ^^ At in Egypto," says Pliny, ^^ et Syria, reges, inopia abietis, cedro ad classis feruntur usi." The sap of the ce vol. i. p. 21. _ i> ' 112 ARTS, ETC. OF THE GREEKS AND ROMANS. This policy of Servius gave the preponderance of \vealth over numbers. The whole number of centuries in the six classes consisted at most of 193 only; yet the first class, comprising men whose income reached 100,000 asses, had eighty of these centuries; the se- cond, containing those whose property was 75,000 asses, had twenty ; the third with 50,000 asses had also twenty ; the fourth, whose property was 25,000, were also divided into twenty centuries; the fifth, divided into centuries was composed of those w^hose income was fifteen ; and the sixth, which comprehended those whose property was below 11,000, and who had nothing at all, and which was consequently incomparably the most numerous, had one century only. As each im- portant measure was carried by suffrage, the rich had consequently the majority of votes. On the other hand, however, the real burthens of the state fell on the rich, the centuries being taxed in proportion to their property. — A century^ as the word implies, consisted of 100 indi- viduals with a certain qualification of property. The centuries of each class were divided into seniors and juniors ; the former being exempt from marching to the field of war, but were compelled to defend the city. This censorship devolved at first on the kings : under the republic^ it was usurped by the consuls and dictators, until, finding their functions too numerous for their ability to discharge, they devolved it on officers created expressly for the purpose, and named Censors. This census, which must inevitably vary every time it was taken, was very irregularly instituted. It was taken four times by Servius ; the fifth, by the consuls Octavius and Lucretius, two years after the expulsion of the kings ; the sixth followed in ten years. The law w^as, that it should be taken every five; but we some- times find seventeen intervening. This enumeration of persons and property did not include widows, or minors, or slaves ; it did not comprise mechanics or merchants, who in fact were a species of slaves; and as it was CENSORES. CIBUS. 113 confined to Roman citizens alone, it entirely omitted the colonies. The Censores, or Censors, to whom we have just al- luded, were created a.u.c. 310. — The number was two, who were at first selected from the patrician order ; but in about a century, the plebeians had the privilege of return- ing one. Two centuries afterwards, as the democratic principle acquired strength, it was not uncommon to see both censors of the plebeian class. They were elected in the Campius Martins, in a general assembly of the people. Their functions were not confined to the num- bering of the persons and the registering of the substance of the people : they watched over the construction of public edifices, over the collection of the taxes, over the poUce of the city, over the conduct of the individuals, and numerous other things. As the subject is rather po- litical than antiquarian, its elucidation must be sought in the elaborate works devoted to the Roman history. Centurion, the commander of 100 men, — There were, however, two centurions over that number : for the tribunes always nominated a second ; that if the for- mer died or were disabled, the company might not re- main without a head. Each centurion nominated two sub.centurions. Cera, waa;, which the ancients used for the twofold purpose of sealing letters and of writing on. — The wax was spread in a liquid state over tablets, and a sharp pointed instrument called a stylum easily traced the letters required. When the tablets were filled, they could be tied up and sealed. CiBus, food. — The most ancient Romans are said to have made one meal only in the twenty-four hours ; but this assertion appears to have no foundation in fact. Ter cibum veteres die accipiehant. In reality, as in the most ancient stages of society men were most devoted to bodily labour, nature could not possibly have stood one meal per diem. Four meals are enumerated by Athe- naaus, three by most other wTiters, 1, The first is VOL. !!• I 114 ARTS, ETC. OF THE GREEKS AND ROMANS. called by Homer apicrrov, either because it was the best meal of the day, or because it took its name from as^pt, the beginning and rising of the sun : and this latter opinion acquires confirmation, by the fact that the hrst meal was always taken as the shades of night were pass- ing away. 2. As^Trvov from §£* Trov^iv, because after it men returned to labour or to war. It appears to have been taken at eleven o'clock in the morning. 3. AopTro,^ or evening meal, before retiring to rest. The fourth meal of Atbena^us lay between dinner and supper. Yet this author plainly intimates that four, nay even three, were not usual in tbe Homeric times, — that men were satisfied with two, a^iaTov and SopTro; ; but we may infer that before mid-day there was a sHght refection, a hasty repast, as understood by luiivov. The carving devolved on slaves, who were expressly taught the art under celebrated professors. Juvenal speaks of one Tryphe- rus who, when his pupils showed any awkwardness m the' art, soundly cudgelled them with a branch of the elm : hence the expression ulmea coena, as applied to his teaching. The same domestic did not carve indis- criminately every joint, or animal, or bird, but such parts only as he had been taught to cut. While the carving proceeded, musical instruments sounded ; and from one instance we may infer that the motions of the knife were — in expert hands at least — regulated by the notes and flourishes. The Romans ate in pubHc on three solemn occasions : at the funeral of some eminent public man ; when public sacrifices were offered ; when a public festival was given on account of some joyful event. i • > CiNCTus, girded, and spoken of a soldier whose loins were always girt. — Hence, cingi, to be girt, meant the assumption of arms ; and cingulum deponere, to lay them aside, to quit the service. The term is applied to the tunic which the Romans wore over the toga, and which, if not bound round the waist, must of necessity have embarrassed the motions of the wearer. To deprive a soldier of his cingulum, or girdle, was the deepest mark CINIS. CI VIS. 115 of Ignominy. By several Christian emperors the punish- ment was decreed on all who blasphemed Christ. CiNis, ashes. See Cadaver. CiRCiTOR, an oflScer who made the rounds of the camp during night, to see if the sentinels were vigilant and at their posts. — They received their in- structions from the tribune, to whom they made their report. Nor were they wholly idle during the day ; since sleep was by no means uncommon during the summer heat, especially when fatigue was superadded. There appear to have been four in each army. Circus, a vast circular edifice with seats, constructed for the exhibitions of the public games, and for the ac- commodation of the spectators. — The feats of the gladiators, wrestlers, racers, &c., were performed in the arena below. The number of spectators which the Circus Maximus was able to contain, was prodigious : 150,000 could sit on the gradually ascending seats in the time of Dionysius ; 260,000 in that of Pliny ; and 345,000 in that of Aurelius Victor. But this species of building — for Rome had several — is so well known to the most ordinary schoolboys, that we need not dwell on the subject. CiTHARA, a harp or lyre, a favourite instrument among the Greeks. — Its invention is of so high antiquity, that it is ascribed to those fabulous personages, Orpheus, Ampliion, and Linus. Terpander raised the number of strings to seven ; Simonides added an eighth ; Timo- theus a ninth. It was used at all public festivals, in the theatre, and at private entertainments. Excellence in the art was so much esteemed, that there was scarcely an honour which it could not command : often statues were erected to the player ; he wore a purple robe ; in the theatre he had on his head a crown ; and the au- dience were often known to rise in testimony of applause on his appearance. Civis, a citizen.* — To commence with Rome. In * A full elucidation of this important subject must not be expected here. As one peculiarly historical, it should be sought in the histories of Greece I 2 '■x -J - '^ ^ 116 ARTS, ETC. OF THE GREEKS AND ROMANS. the full meaning of the word, three circumstances were necessary to constitute the cims : residence in the city ; incorporation in a tribe ; eligibility to puUic charges and dignities: where these three accidents met, the man ivas pleno jure civis, or civis ingenuus ! If a stranger repaired to Rome and obtained leave of residence, he was not a civis, because he was not incorporated with a tribe. If a slave were enfranchised, he was indeed aggregated to a tribe; but as the lihertus was not eligible to honours or charges, he was not a civis. The free citizens who belonged to a tribe, and who were so eligible, were not yet cives ingenui unless they resided at Rome. Hence a man might be civis without being a citizen of Rome. The advantages of the citizen were manifold. 1. He was incorporated in a tribe, enrolled in a century, had the right of suffrage, and might him- self be elected to the offices of the magistracy. 2. He could not be whipt, nor be fettered, nor condemned to death, without the judgment of the people. The first punishment, that of stripes, was pecuhar to slaves ; it had indeed been formerly inflicted on the civis, but the leges Porcia and Sempronia had exempted him from the humiliation. Hence the indignant exclamation of Cicero against Verres : '' Caedebatur virgis in medio foro Mes- san^ civis Romanus — O lex Porcia, legesque Sem- proniae ! " Hence, too, the remonstrance of St. Paul, when scourged by order of the governor. If the apostle was not resident in the city, still he was civis municepSy though not civis ingenuus, and was entitled to this and the preceding privilege. 3. He was enrolled in the legions, and shared in the prizes and rewards distributed, 4. He had boundless powers, — that of life and death, over his children. 5. He had the right of adoption, and of wearing the foga ; the distinctive mark of a civis ingenuus. 6. He alone could inherit the property of a Roman ; for CIVIS. 117 and Rome. For general purposes, the condition of the civis at Rome may be sufficiently understood from the " History of Rome," in the Cabinet CyclopvEDIa. That of the Grecian civis will no doubt be equally well explained in the *' History of Greece." ■ Strangers, though citizens, were excluded from all suc- cessions. When, in the time of the republic, citizen- ship was conferred on the inhabitants of a town or country, the act generally constituted the municipes ; but did not confer all the privileges enjoyed by the inhabitants of Rome itself. The municipes lived under their own laws, but were not entitled to the Jus Qui^ ostium, which was the most enviable privilege of the civis ingenuus. In other respects, however, each municipal city resembled, in its government, and police Rome : it had its decuriones, its senate, its decemvirs, who were a sort of consuls, its censors, its separate administration and revenues. The civitatis municeps was an especial grace to some city or state in close connection with Rome, and remarkable for its fidelity. We may add, that this privilege was generally conferred by the Roman people alone, assembled in their curicB ; but that when the republic was subverted by the empire, it was usurped by the sovereign. In the second pe- riod it was often venal ; though there are many instances in which it was conferred as the reward of zeal or fidelity. — A third species of cives were the coloni, or inhabitants of the cities colonised by Romans alone. They were usually ranked among the cives municipes, yet on account of their origin they had some privileges not granted to the latter. For instance, they were governed by the Roman laws ; and they were sub- ject to no other taxes than a fifth of the produce of trees, a tithe of grain, and a certain small sum per head for large or small cattle ; and they had a local govern- ment exactly formed on the model of that in the parent city, — a senate, equites, decemvirs, censors, aediles, quaestors, priests, augurs pontiffs, &c. In short, their government might almost be called identical with that of Rome ; while the municipal government resembled it. The barrier between the cives Romani, the cives coloni, and the cives municipes was, however, gradually lessened by grants of the emperors, until, by a general edict of Constantine the Great, all distinctions were re- I 3 ^^ *"•«•--"•■» ■ 118 ARTS, ETC. OF THE GREEKS AND R03fANS. moved, and every subject was declared a citizen.— See Jus. In Greece, the honour of citizen was sought by stran- gers and slaves with equal ardour, and was equally es- teemed by those who possessed it. At Athens, they who held it by right of birth, that is, whose parents on both sides were free, were not admitted without much formality ; and as the honour was often disputed, pa- rents were anxious to procure the registration of their children at an early age. The period of admission is not very clear ; probably it was five, certainly it was before the completion of the seventh year. The inhabitants of all Attica, Athens among the rest of the towns, were divided into ten tribes ; each tribe being sub-divided into three ifparpiak or communities, each community into thirty yevYj or famiUes. Again, the citizens of each 9paTptc6 or curia were classed, according to their relative property, under three heads. The first class of each tribe comprised the richest ; the second, those who were less rich, but who were still quaUfied to equip a horse for a campaign ; the third, the poorer classes, yet not descending so low as those who had no property, and also hved by labour. Hence it was the duty of the parent to procure the enrolment of his son in the curia and tribe to which he belonged. The ceremonies of admission were solemn. After one day of feasting, and one of religion, the young candidates, whether male or female, for the honour of citizenship, were presented to tlie assembly of the j^o^, or tribe ; with the name of the chief archon both of the present and of the preceding year ; were inscribed. From this moment he was pleno jure a citizen, and eligible to the offices of magistracy. Clamor, a cry, raised by the Roman soldiers on several occasions ; especially in reply to the harangue of their general, and when attacking the enemy. — In the latter case it was supposed both to raise their own courage and to frighten the enemy. And here it was not left to the discretion of the soldiers ; it was posi- tively enjoined. Caesar blames Pompey for neglecting to enforce it at the siege of Pharsalia ; and Crassus severely reprimands his own men for raising too feeble a clamor^ after the charge had been sounded. What the peculiar war-cry was, or even whether tliere was I 4 120 ARTS, ETC. OP THE GREEKS AND R03IANS. one peculiar^ would be vain to enquire. We only know that it varied on some occasions. Clarissimi, most illustrious, — a title applied to sena- tors as early as the reign of Tiberius and subsequently to consuls^ proconsuls^ and even inferior magistrates, Clarus, the previous title^ was too humble for men in the time of the empire. Classis, in its ordinary acceptation, signifies a fleet. — The origin of the word has been deduced from Classici^ the men who constituted the first class of Roman citizens, and who are said to have been the first to equip vessels at their own expense : ^^ Classici dicebantur primes tantum classis homines, qui centum et viginti quinque millia a?ris ampliusve censi erant." Men of the second and inferior classes were said to be infra classem. The word otherwise deserves notice as having given origin to the common term Classics, to denote the best writers of the Latin tongue. But before there were classes navium, there were classes equitum, and classes clypeati, the high- est of land warriors. Even at a later period, long after the institution of fleets — classis pr^cincta signi&ed slu army ranged in battle array, and ready to engage. And it is certain that these noble or choice troops were the first who manned the vessels. — Fleets are of great anti- quity. Semiramis is said to have equipped the first, w^hich she manned with the best of her troops. Among the Greeks, the same honour is paid to Minos. The Phoenicians were renowned for their fleets, — the na- tural result of an extended commerce ; and after them the Carthaginians had the sceptre of the deep. Their example was followed by the Romaiis, who in the first Punic war constructed a fleet to oppose their rivals. Subsequently they had several. The classis Alexandrinay which was instituted by Augustus, was employed to bring the canon frumentarius (see Canon), or yearly revenue of com, from Egypt. The classis Africana brought the corn from the rest of Africa. There were classes also on the coasts of Gaul, and on those of Italy, to protect them against unexpected assailants. CLAVIS. — CLAVUS. 121 I i I Clavis, a key. — Nobody has discovered the origin of this instrument. Eustathius, the celebrated com- mentator on Homer, ascribes the invention to the Spartans. But there were bolts long before keys — probably from the very infancy of society. When the bride was first brought to her husband's house, the keys were delivered to her by him — in token that she had thenceforth the controul over his household, and the undisputed disposal over every thing within his doors, with the single exception of the wine-cellar, the keys of which were never delivered to her. Was he afraid that she would get drunk ? Or — a more probable hypo- thesis — as the wine was pecuharly the property of die men, — did he intend that it should remain at his own disposal for the use of himself and his friends, — that he and they might indulge to excess without the know- ledge of the wife ? Clavus, a nail. — Clavus annalis was the nail which the praetor, the consuls, or the dictator, annually drove into the right side of the altar in the temple of Jupiter. The ceremony took place on the 13th of September. In its origin it was merely intended to serve as an enumer- ation of the years a. u. c, — an expedient which, in an age of ignorance, might be allowed : — ^' Quia rarae in eo tempore litterae erant, notam numeri annorum fuisse ferunt.'' When literature, and the laws of calculation, became more general, the ceremony was still retained ; but then it was converted to a reUgious use. It was supposed to possess some inherent virtue against public calamities ; and the ceremony was so important, that, as we have before observed, the praetor, the consuls, the dictators — the heads of the republic — were not thought too noble for it. We must, iiowever, add, that the dictator who drove the nail was not necessarily the head of the state, since a functionary of that name was elected expressly for the occasion. Clavus, also signified a purple band fastened to the tunic, and worn by knights and senators, yet much narrower for the former than for the latter. Hence 122 ARTS, ETC. OF THE GREEKS AND ROMANS. angusti clavi was the distinguishing badge of the equites ; laticlavi, of the senators. The distinction was often granted to other men as the reward of merit, — to the governors of provinces, generals, public magis- trates, &c. ; and was as eagerly sought as the blue riband or the garter in a country nearer home. Men are but overgrown children : a bauble will satisfy both. Clepsydra, a water time-piece, to show the passage of the hour. — The construction was simple : — A glass vase was filled with water: at the bottom was a very small hole, which suffered it to escape drop by drop ; on the sides was a gradually descending scale of hours from 1 2 to 1 ; so that as the water subsided^ a needle fastened to a cork, and floating on the surface, indicated the hour. This invention, it may be readily supposed, was a very rude one. In the first place, the heat or cold of the atmosphere accelerated or retarded the drop- ping. In the second, when the vessel was full of water. and the pressure was the greatest, the dropping was more rapid than when it was half full. The Greeks had this strange time-piece long before the Romans; but its construction was somewhat different. They used it at the theatre, at the bar, as well as in private houses. Clientela, the relation between the protector and the protected in civil life: the former was denominated the patron; the latter, the client.— The duty of the for- mer was to assist his client with his advice and his interest ; to defend him when oppressed or ill-treated ; to answer for him, or to prosecute his cause, before the tribunal of the judge; and, in general, to do for him what a generous master would do for a faithful servant, or even a father for a child. This obHgation, it will readily be inferred, was not gratuitously assumed : there were also duties on the other side. To undertake no- thing without the sanction of the patron ; to vote for him whenever he was a candidate for the popular suf- frages ; to contribute something towards the dowrv of his daughter ; to effl^ct his ransom, and that of his children, when prisoners of war ; to assist him, when clientela. ns f necessary, with money or personal services ; were among the chief obligations of the client. Neither could pro- secute the other before a judicial tribunal ; neither could give evidence against the other, or enter into a compact with the enemy of the other. Severe was the penalty decreed against all who violated the sanctity of the engagement: they might be killed with impunity, as acceptable victims to the god of hell. Clients, in fact, were held dearer than all relations, except children : and patrons were more honoured than any, except parents. Whence arose this, to us, extraordinary rela- tion between two individuals in different ranks of life, unconnected by family ties, often total strangers prior to the formation of the connection } It may be clearly traced to a period when there were but two classes of society — the lord and the slave. As the latter was the property of the former— as he was res^ non persona, and had no existence recognised by the law — he could have no rights, no interests of his own : his rights, his in- terests, his labour — all he had, and all he was— were the undoubted property of his owner. Hence, any injury that he sustained, affected his owner more than himself; and that owner never failed to interfere. Society could not always exist with this one broad line of demarcation. When enfranchisement was adopted — when the lihertus was permitted to labour for himself, subject to certain obligations towards his patron— new modifications were introduced into the social state. If the libertus was secured in the profits of his industry, save a defined return to this patron, still, as he was sprung from the servile class, the law could not recognise his existence : he could not appear in a court of justice ; he was merely the representative or agent of his patron, who was expected to answer for his deeds, and to enforce the claims which he might have on others, whose in- terests were regarded as of more importance than his own. The system would, ' in the progress of time, re- ceive ameliorations, until the dependence on one side ceased to be onerous. But as the obligations were M 124 ARTS, ETC. OF THE GREEKS AND ROMANS. equally formed, so the advantages were as much in favour of the client as of the patron. If a mechanic or tradesman arrived from some other city or country, the aristocratic community of Rome refused to receive him until he obtained a patron ; and one he was com- pelled to find on the usual conditions. If this poor and perhaps unprincipled man, it was argued, offend the law ; if he injure an individual or society, — and let us remember that at such a period, theft, violence, murder, were crimes of perpetual recurrence, — he is too poor to pay the pecuniary compensation awarded by the laws ; but shall he, therefore, escape with im- punity, or with stripes or fetters, or even death ? The idea was repugnant to the notions of men ; and it was resolved that each individual of the humbler classes- should have some resident freeman as his surety that he would live according to the laws. Hence the relations between patron and client — relations which originated, perhaps, in the bosom of the Germanic! forests : at least in many of the ancient codes of that country we read of them ; and Tacitus, like Csesar, bears testimony to their existence. — Such we believe to have been the origin of patron and client. In process of time, the institution gradually lost its ancient spirit. When whole people placed themselves under the protection of some powerful Roman family, as the Sicilians under the family of Marcelliis, and the Allobroges under that of Fabius, the tie by its looseness was of necessity weak- ened. At length it degenerated into a mere formality, and was discontinued, except in cases where dependents, under the name of clients, were really paid to attend their patron. It was, however, revived in the middle ages by the feudal system, with such modifications as suited a religion hostile to slavery in the more ob- noxious forms, and a different state of society. Clypeus, a shield) a buckler, differed from the scutum in this, — that it was round; while the latter was oval^ and of metal, while the latter was generally of wood or leather^ and was in addition much smaller than the CCELIBATUS. — COEMPTIO. CCENA. 126 scutum. It is not our intention to enter into a de- scription of this piece of armour, which, indeed, could not be properly understood without the aid of drawings ; and the subject has been sufficiently elucidated by writers on the military antiquities of Greece and Rome. We may, however, observe, for the information of the juvenile reader, that the custom of engraving on the clypeus the actions of the wearer, and those of his an- cestors, led to the armorial bearings of the middle ages: " Clypeoque insigne paternum Centum angues cinctaraque gerit serpentibus liydram." VlKG. The Roman soldier had on his buckler his own name, the name of his cohort, and century. After the war was over, they were often suspended in the temples, as an offering to the gods in gratitude for a successful campaign. The Clypeus was also a large metal disk, on which were engraven the effigies and exploits of heroes, and which, as votive offerings to the memory of illustrious men, were suspended in temples. CcELiBATus, celibacy, a state held in little respect among ancient nations. — In Sparta, the bachelor was subject to many humiliations, and received no honour even when age had furrowed his brow. ^^ I will not rise before theey" said a young to an old Spaitan at a public entertainment, ^^ because thou hast no children, who, when I am old, may return the same respect to me." The Romans, under the censorship of Camillus, first levied a tax on eos qui ad senectutem ccelibes perve^ nerant. It does not, however, appear that any other than a pecuniary penalty was decreed before the Lex Julia, which was as severe on bachelors as it was favourable to parents who had a numerous offspring. This law was abolished by Constantino, as inconsistent with a virtue so highly extolled in the sacred writings. CoEMPTio, a reciprocal purchase* See Connubium. CcENA, supper, was the chief meal among the li. 126 ARTS, ETC. OF THE GREEKS AND ROMANS. Greeks and Romans, — doubtless, because^ the fa- tigues of the day being over_, there was relaxation. The ordinary hour at which it was taken was three o'clock in summer, and four in winter. It was pre- ceded by the bath ; a robe called synthesis — lighter and shorter than the rest^ -— was assumed ; the sandals were put off; and the guests reclined on the couch. (See AccuMBERE.) If^ anciently, the repast was simple, it was not so in the flourishing times of the republic, still less under the empire. Formerly a plain dish of boiled meat^ honey, cheese, eggs, &c. satisfied the call of nature : now, three courses at least were necessary to the table of every man of condition. There was the ante-coenam, which consisted of such light matters as had a tendency to whet the appetite. There was the caput-ccena, or second course, w^hicb was the main one, consisting of the choicest dishes, — flesh, fowl^ fish, &c. — cooked in an endless variety of manners. The third and last consisted of pastry and fruits. A king of the feast was elected, who regulated the number and size of the cups, and the continuance of the entertainment. Vocal and instrumental music, dancing and harlequin exhibitions, tales and recitations, were admitted in turn to enliven the scene. The coenaculum^ or supper-room, w^as always, or at least very generally, the highest apart- ment in the house. Often the country-house had a tower far exceeding the rest of the building in altitude, and at the summit of the tower was the coenaculum. But this was only in summer, when to the pleasures of good cheer -were added those of an extensive prospect over the neighbouring country. The winter coenacula were less elevated. The supper was often protracted by gourmands, and those who were fond of society, far into the night. Hence Horace : ** O noctes coenseque Detim.*' CoGNiTio, the cognisance of a suit by a superior magistrate. — The cognitio prcetoria, or that assumed by the praetor, was two-fold, — domestica^ and pojmlaris COGNOMEN. — COHORS. 127 f< } .'P' I or publica. The first, which only concerned cases of inferior moment, he was allowed to institute at his own house : the parties were introduced by his cubiculariuSy or chamberlain, and he decided from the evidence. The popular is, which regarded the most important cases, took place in the chief city of each province ; the day on which the tribunal would be held, being notified so far previously as to allow time for suitors in the most distant angle of the province to assemble. The place chosen for such conventions, or assemblies, was always one conveniently situated, both as to its central situ- ation, and the roads leading to it. The time when such conventions were held, was generally winter, when the governor was not likely to be occupied in war. The praetor or proconsul did not hear and decide alone : he was always assisted by an advocate, and by the counsel of the wisest and most distinguished men in the province. And well that it was so ; for, in general, there was no appeal from his decisions. Cognomen, a surname, which was sometimes per- sonal, sometimes hereditary ; sometimes derived from accident ; at others from deliberations ; generally from some personal or family characteristic, or from some exploit. Most had one surname only ; many had two ; a few had three ; a very few four. — See Nomen. CoHORS, a cohort. — The number of soldiers com- prised in a cohort seems to have varied under the republic and the empire ; in the former case to have been taken for 120, in the latter for 500 or 600 foot soldiers, according to the strength of the legion. Ten cohorts made a legion ; and three centuri(B, or manipuli, a cohort. Each cohort was ranged in three lines, according to the arms of the men in each centuria : the one consisted of hastiarii, the second of principes, the third of triarii. (See Agmen.) Though cohort was generally applied to a battalion of infantry, turma to one of cavalry, we sometimes read of equestrian cohorts : but this is a misnomer ; for even the half at least of the men were on foot. In the first cohort of \m 128 ARTS, ETC. OF THE GREEKS AND ROMANS. each legion were always 130 heavy-armed horsemen. The cohors prcetoriay commanded by the praetorian prefect^ has obtained a melancholy immortality in the annals of the empire. Originally intended as a body- guard of the praetor^ and consisting of foot and horse, the institution was adopted and amplified by the em- perors. Designed as their personal guard_, and the guard of their families and palaces ; raised to 9^,000 or 10^000 men^ and provided with double pay ; this for- midable body soon learned to despise or to hate its nominal masters^ to dethrone and elect sovereigns at its pleasure^ and often to place its own general on the throne. Collegium, a name given to a corporate body. The Romans had many such bodies : the collegium augurum, pontificum^ aruspicuniy quindecemvirum, were the four chief: but there were also collegia artificum et opificum. divided according to their respective crafts_, each go- verned by a prsefect elected by themselves. In them may be found the germ of our Anglo-Saxon guilds, and of our modern corporations. CoLONiiE. See Civis. CoLOR^ a colour, — The colour alhus was among the ancients the symbol of innocence and of joy. Hence white was worn on all public rejoicings^ and lucky days were marked with a white stone. Color niger^ on the contrary^ or black, was abominated ; it was employed to designate unlucky days ; and, as homo alhus signified an honest:, so homo niger was used for a wicked man. (See Candidati.) The early Christians adopted the universal notion, when they clad their neophites and children at the baptismal font in the colour of purity. For the same reason, too^ it was the colour of the priestly garb in the Roman Catholic church. Why do the rural clergy of the church of England use black gowns? Why is black the ordinary habit of all clergymen ? As emblematical of aflSiction for the sins of men ? We believe not. Black was anciently worn b)' many pagan priests when offering sacrifices — no COLUS, COMITIA, CONFARREATIO. 129 ^ ,r doubt to prevent their garments from being sullied by the smoke ; and it has been retained ever since. CoLUS^ a distaff, which, with a quantity of wool^ was borne before the bride to the nuptial bed^ in token of the industrious state which she had just assumed. CoMiTiA, assemblies of the Roman people when their suflfrages were required. — It is, however^ useless for us to enter at length into a subject which is the peculiar province of the historian, and to which suffi- cient justice has been done in a work connected with the present.* We shall here only observe that there were three different manners, at different periods, of convoking the people. 1. The most ancient, attributed, like all other ancient things, to Romulus, was by curicB, of which he formed thirty, or ten to each of his three tribes. Whether the word was derived from curare, since the head of each curia was required to preside over the sacrifices, is doubtful : it may as well have arisen from the poll, the curia, where the business of each district or class was transacted. 2. The con- vocation by centuries was, as we have before seen, the work of Servius Tullius. 3. The tribunes of the people, perceiving that these comitia centuriata were, as Servius had evidently intended, too favourable to wealth, and regardless of numerical preponderancy, procured, in 265, the adoption of the assemblies by tribes. These comitia tributa gave the people an overwhelming pre- ponderance — assigning to number what had before been at the disposal of dignity and wealth. CoNFARREATio, an ancicut form of espousals among theRomans ; so called, because the two parties, — often the female, in the presence of ten witnesses, placed herself in the arms of the man, — ate together a cake composed of farina, salt, and water, which appears to have been blessed by the priest at the conclusion of the sacrifice offered on the occasion. — The three materials — farina, water, and salt — being kneaded together and baked so * See the History of Rome, vol. i. Cab. Cyc. ^'OL, II. K ISO ARTS^ ETC. OF THE GREEKS ANli R0MAN«3. that the parts could no longer be separated, were in* tended to show the indissoluble connection of marriage. CoNNUBiuM^ marriage. (See Nupta.) — The marriage ceremonies of different people it would be tedious to de- scribe, since they varied not only with the country, but at different times in the same country.* We may add, tnat some of them were too gross to be admitted into a volume intended, hke the present, for young scholars. Some regulations respecting the state may, however, gratify curiosity. — It was the custom of antiquity that people should marry their equals, and that ill- assorted marriages should be declared invalid. In Rome, citizen was to marry with citizen, patrician with patrician, the free with the free, &c. That the natives should not even marry with strangers who came to settle in the city, was bad policy : that patricians should not be joined with plebeians, was worse ; since it not only engendered a feeling of dislike between the two classes of society, but it prevented the poor noble from improving his circum- stances by connecting himself with the daughter of a rich citizen. Through the efforts of the tribunes, supported by the whole body of the people, the odious distinction, a. u. c. 306, was abolished. — In some parts of Greece there seems to have been less rigour in this respect. The Athenian, indeed, who mar- ried any other than an Athenian, had the mortification to see his children condemned to slavery. This law, however, was impracticable, and was as short-lived as that of Rome, Another was more easily kept. In some countries, if a freeman married a slave, he was condemned to death ; in others, he was reduced to the same servile condition ; in others still more lenient, the offspring only were condemned. In general, how- ever, the man who thus degraded himself was ranked among the lowest and vilest of society. And un- equal unions, even among the free^ were visited with * The popular works ot Potter and Adams render it useless for us to €nter on the subject Our object is to notice what has been either wholly overlooked or very imperfectly treated by those writers. CONNUBIUM. 131 ,%' penalties. We are told, that in Sparta, the man who contracted an ill-assorted marriage might be publicly prosecuted : yet this law, as quoted by Plutarch, scarcely harmonises with the character of that people. Where the free-born were held to be equal, and where money was despised, what room for distinction? espe- cially as the grand object of the Spartan legislators was to rear a robust, hardy, self-denying race of defenden^ for the state. From a passage in Athenaeus, we learn that, anciently at least, this people were so indifferent to the accidental circumstances of riches or station, that it was usual for marriageable girls to be enclosed in a dark room, and for each young man who was introduced to select at random her whom he was to espouse. Yet this singular custom would scarcely agree with the law or usage which appears to have directed the time of marriage, — thirty in men, twenty in women. But the subject is full of difficulties ; for though the object of such a law was manifestly the procuring of a vigor- ous offspring, we find instances enough of aged men with young wives. It was probably the belief that such wives would be unfruitful, that induced the Spartan legislators to pass another strange law, by which the old man, who had no issue by his young wife, was com- pelled to introduce a young friend into the bed of his wife, and adopt the issue as his own. We are also informed, that if a bachelor wished to perpetuate him- self or his offspring, he might borrow the wife of his friend for the purpose. Not only this abominable people, but even the philosophers of other states, wrote strangely about the dearest of ties. In his republic, Plato enjoins that the names of the men and women arrived at a marriageable age shall be thrown by the magistrates into an urn, and that the name drawn by any party shall be the husband or wife of that party. Lamentable is the wisdom of man, when he deviates from the usual course of nature and experience, or is: unacquainted with the laws which God hath promulgated for the human race ! We may smile at the absurdity K 2 132 ARTS, ETC. OF THE GUEEKS AND ROMANS. of the preceding regulations ; the wickedness of the following will excite a very different feeling: — ^^ The offspring of these marriages/' says Plato, ^^ shall im- mediately after birth be taken from their parents to some receptacle prepared for all children : thither the mother shall repair to suckle first one and then another of the infants, ignorant which is her own : so each of the children may reverence each of the mothers as its own ; and each mother, uncertain which of them is the fruit of her own womb, may look upon each in that light. When the object of such unions is gained, viz. when the husband and wife^ by producing a child, have satisfied the claims of the country, they shall be separated, shall be declared single, and, after a short interval, shall be again united by lot under the auspices of the magistrates. By this means,'' says the philosopher — by this perpetual succession of marriages and divorces — each woman will successively belong to several warriors.'* ^\'hen the age, however, of child-bearing is past, as choice must then be a matter of indifference, he gra- ciously permits them to form what ties they please, provided they do not marry their own offspring. But how is this to be avoided, according to his system of removing the new-born infants to a common hospital ? In such a case, the only guide for a man or woman is to avoid marrying with any one born during the year which witnessed the birth of their own child. Let the man, for instance, unite with a girl born a year before or a year after the birth of his infant. This obligation on parents of regarding each the child born at the same time as their own, as possibly the issue of their own loins, is viewed with much complacency by the philosopher, since it not only unites all the children or parents of the same state,..but places all the children in the tender relation of brothers and sisters. In fact, there would be a double tie ; for the man might, and often would, marry his sister. The time of marriage varied. In Sparta, as we have before observed, it seems to have been thirty in the CONNUBIUM. 133 ;?: men. Plato also approved thirty ; and in this he probably followed Hesiod ; but Aristotle thought the age too young, and preferred thirty-seven ; while the Athenian laws are said at one time to have enjoined thirty-five. In regard to the female, who so much sooner reaches maturity, and so much sooner passes it, the time was of necessity earHer. Aristotle approved eighteen ; the old laws of Athens, twenty-six ; those of Sparta, twenty; Hesiod, fifteen only —if, indeed, the i^r» c ih prayed to it incessantly. Statius thus alludes to the custom : " Quicquid fleverat ante, nunc adorat.'* Consul. — Of tliis magistrate, who succeeded royalty in Rome, few require information : those who do, as the subject is peculiarly historic, are referred to a work connected with the present.* Corona, a crown, or garland, the use of which was very frequent among the ancients, and worn as an emblem of dignity, of merit, or of rejoicing. — Many were, if not the varieties, at least the names, of this ornament. 1. The Corona Civica was conferred on him who had saved the life of a citizen in battle by killing the adversary. It was held in the highest esteem ; ^^ militum virtutes insigne clarissimum," says Pliny. The wearer was exempt from all public contri- butions ; and if he appeared at the public games, even senators rose to honour him. The corona itself was made of oak-twigs, probably on account of the facility with which this tree is found, and partly because it is sacred to Jupiter and Juno. 2. The Corona ConvU vialis was given to the guests by the master of the feast: it was generally of ivy, and was worn during the whole of the repast. By whom garlands were invented, and for wdiat purpose, have puzzled the most learned antiquarians. By some it is ascribed to Prome- theus, in token of his punishment for his kindness to men ; by some to Janus; by others to Bacchus, — for no reason, that we can discover, except that ivy was con- secrated to that god. Probably, as it was anciently used to distinguish the king of the feast, viz. the per- son chosen to direct the cups, the distinction was by degrees assumed by all the guests at table. It was sig- nificant of joy ; for the man who indulged in the plea- sures of the table soon thought himself as gooii c»s a king : and it was equally emblematical of silence ; at least, when composed of roses, it afforded a perj^tual • See History of Rome, vol. i. Qk\i. Cyc. 13S ARTS, KTC. OF THE GREEKS AND ROMANS. monition that wliatever passed there should be kept se- cret. 3. The Corona MuraliSy which was composed of gold or silver^ and was in the shape of a wall, was con- ferred on the soldier who first scaled the walls of a be- sieged city, or who first entered by a breach. 4. The Corona Navalis was^ for a similar reason, conferred on him who first boarded a hostile vessel : it resembled the figure at the prow of a ship, and was generally of the same precious metal as the corona muralis. 5. In like manner, the Corona Obsidionis was awarded to the man who had caused the enemy to raise the siege of a place. And there were many other crowns : the priest during sacrifice, the hero to whom a triumph was decreed, the victor in the public games, the soldier who had per- formed some feat of bravery, even the bust or sepulchre of the illustrious dead, had their crowns. Cothurnus, a covering not merely for the foot, but for the greater part of the leg, and anciently worn both by men and women^ — It was in use in the heroic ages ; and for this reason it was subsequently a part of the theatrical costume. Hence cothurnus and tragic actor were synonymous ; and by a natural figure^ the word was applied to a pompous^ inflated style : CURRUS. 139 (( Sola Sophocleo tua carmina digna cothurno." Crepitus, the sound made by the opening or shutting of the door. — Why the doors of the ancients, which turned on hinges, were so disagreeably noisy, has sur- prised many writers. In Greece, at least, where the doors opened into the street, there was some use in the noise ; since, by warning the passer by, it put him on his guarcL Cruciarius, one condemned to death on the cross. — The culprit was first beaten with stripes, either in the prcEtorium or on the way to the place of execution. He was compelled to carry the cross on which he was to suffer: ^^Et corpore quidem," says Pliny, '*^quisquemale- ficoium suam affert crucem." Arriving at the place, he was stripped of his garments : he was then either nailed V' 111 l||i I by the hands and feet to the cross before its erection^ or after it. If the body was too heavy to be supported by the nails, cords were used in addition. This was a lingering, and therefore a horrible, death; but rendered more so by other circumstances. Often the birds of prey flocked to the suspended culprit, and plucked away such parts of his flesh as they preferred ; or if the cross were not very elevated, the same friendly office was performed by dogs or wolves. Sometimes a merciful bystander pierced the body with a spear, and thus ended the lingering torments of the sufferer. At other times he was stifled by the smoke of a fire ex- pressly lighted for the purpose at the foot of the cross ; or the torments were ended by burning. If no birds or beasts of prey arrived to devour the carcase, it was suffered, like a wretch on our gibbets, to drop piece by piece until nothing remained. ^^ Suffixorum corpora cru- cibus," says Seneca, " in suam sepulturam defluunt." To this cruel and barbarous death, which Cicero calls '^^crii- dele teterrimumque,*' none were condemned but slaves or the vilest malefactors. Hence the cross itself is styled, arbor infeliXy infame lignum^ cruciatus servilis. In general it was erected by the side of some great road, that the ignominy and severity of the punishment might be witnessed by thousands. This punishment was of great antiquity; invented, according to Cicero, by Tarquin the Proud. It remained in force until the time of Constantine the Great, who, from reverence to the sacred symbol of Salvation, abolished it throughout the Roman world. Currus, a chariot.-— The first who fastened horses to a vehicle is said to have been Ericthonius. In Home, such vehicles were in use before the expulsion of the kings ; since Tullia, the queen of Tarquin, commanded her chariot to be driven over the dead body of her father. Those used in the pubHc games were of various descriptions : with two wheels or four ; some were open, others closed ; and some there were which could be taken to pieces and reconstructed every time ^i^^i<: ' \\ 140 ARTS, ETC. OF THE GREEKS AND ROMANS. they were required. By individuals — even the patri- cians — they were not used before the time of the emperors, nor was that use frequent. CuRsoRES^ runners in thq circus. — They were in general nearly naked. The winner was held in honour, but inferior to that obtained by the victor in the chariot race. There was horse-racing too ; but the exercise consisted rather in the agility of the rider than in the fleetness of the horse. He had always two horses; and his dexterity, during the full speed of the animals, in vaulting from one to the other, constituted the excellence of the art. The Cursus puhlicus, which was the most expeditious way of travelling among the Romans, was performed in slender, light vehicles, generally of osier, with two wheels ; and yet two or even three mules were yoked to it, though there was room for one person only. It was uncovered, and it had no springs ; yet Caesar is said to iiave travelled in one a hundred miles a day. D. Daivinatus, condemned, — After the sentence of death was passed at Rome, an interval of some, gene- rally of ten, days elapsed before the execution. The fatal hour being arrived, the hands of the culprit were tied behind his back ; a cord was thrown over his neck ; the hair of his forehead was turned aside that he might be recognised by those who knew him ; and he was led bv the gate Martia to the place Sestertium, w^here exe- cution was done. Criminals of importance were executed in prison. If the criminal were of the vilest class, and condemned ad crucem ; if he were a parri- cide or traitor ; his bones were not allowed the right of sepulture : in other cases, the body might be delivered to the kindred or friends of the deceased for that purpose. Culprits w^ere condemned to several fates : ad bestias^ or to be devoured by wild beasts (see Bestia) ; ad gladium ; and ad ludum gladiatorum ; — in DEBITORES. 141 *y. the former case they were executed within a year ; in the latter, there was a chance of escape : ad opus, to the public works, the highways, bridges, sewers, mines, and sometimes to the galleys. Debitores, debtors. — It was an ancient law of Romt^ that when a man was unable to satisfy the demands of his creditors, he should be seized, and made to labour as a slave until he either acquired money for the liquid- ation of the debt, or by his bodily services the claims of unrelenting justice. Nor was this the worst ; for some creditors were known to treat with the utmost severity — to scourge and torture, and half feed these unfortu- nate victims. It was the prevalence of this intolerable evil that forced the people to secede to the Mons Sacer, sixteen years after the expulsion of the kings. The immediate occasion, however, was the appearance of a veteran, who, having served his country with honour, and lost his substance in the wars, exhibited his gory back to the populace. The indignation of the specta- tors vented itself, first, in the delivery of all who were enslaved for debt; and next, in the famous secession just mentioned. But though this secession somewhat miti- gated, it did not end, the evil. By a law of the twelve tables, the debtor was henceforth allowed thirty days, that from the help of friends, or the pity of the popu- lace, he might acquire the means of satisfying his creditors. If, at the expiration of that period, he were unsuccessful, he was brought before the praetor and delivered to his creditor. The latter put him in chains ; and in this state he was brought before the praetor on three consecutive market days: the amount of his obligation was published ; and it was hoped that some rich spectator would have pity on him and discharge his debt. But such pity was not often found ; and at the expiration of sixty days he was sold for a slave beyond the Tiber, or else his head was exacted as the forfeit of his poverty. The creditor had over him the power of life and death ; but the worst part of the system was, that where several creditors had a claim. (t V :--.|^^ii^^' ^K- - ...^:_; ____^ / 142 ARTS; ETC. OF THE GREEKS AND ROMANS. tliey could divide the body of the debtor among them, '' Sunt qusedam/' says Quintiiian^ with great gentleness of language, ^^ non laudabilia natura^ sed jure concessa, ut in duodecim tabulis debitoris corpus inter creditores dividi licuit, quam legem mos publicus repudiavit/' In ancient times, the Romans must of necessity have been devils ; and it is some gratification to see that in the days of Quintilian they were humanised. But before ^25 days the evil was partially removed; since, in a. u. c. 424, it was decreed, that in future the person of no Roman citizen should be obnoxious to slavery, but that his substance only should be available. This was a rational law, and one which somewhat redeems the character of this abominable people. Still the defaulter might be committed to prison ; and to avert this fate, many voluntarily chose to become the slaves of the creditor : for though slavery w^as no longer compulsory, it w^as still left to the option of the insolvent ; but doubtless w^ith some stipulations from the creditor. Hence the addictio voluntarla, in opposition to the addictio legalis!, when the praetor delivered the debtor in fetters to his creditor. In Athens, a law of Solon forbade any insolvent debtor to be enslaved or impri- soned : his substance might be seized, or his house rifled, but his person was sacred. The Romans have no Solons. Decemviri, ten magistrates, who w^ere elected to succeed the consuls ; but whose government, being found worse than that which had been supplanted, was forcibly ended in two years. — For this brevity; and because the present work is not intended to develope the pro» gress of constitutions — the peculiar province of the historian ; and because this subject has already been treated in a work connected with the present ; we merely refer the reader to that accessible source of information.* Decimatio, the selection of one soldier by lot out of every ten, whose death was admitted as a satisfaction for * See History of Rome, Cab. Cyc. vol i. p. 44, &c. DECUM^. — DELATOR. un \ the fault of the rest. — If an army, or legion, or even a century, behaved with cowardice, if it left its post, or raised a mutiny, the offenders were assembled before the general, the lots were cast into an urn, and drawn ; and the urducky drawer of a certain number was executed. Decu3I^, or Decim^, fi/^e^. — Persuaded that every good in this life is derived from the liberality of the gods, both the Greeks and Romans set aside one tenth of their revenues to the purposes of reUgion ; not only one tenth of their agricultural produce, but of the booty taken in war. Thus Camillus dedicated to Apollo one tenth of the booty. That the Greeks and Persians were equally religious appears from Herodotus, where Cyrus, having taken the capital of Croesus, placed guards to the gates to prevent the removal of any booty before one tenth had been given to Jove. The decuman, too, were the rent payable in kind by the leaseholders of the public lands (see Ager Publicus) ; and the collectors of the produce were called DecumanL Decuriones, magistrates, who, in the colonies and municipal cities exercised the functions of senators at Rome, in imitation of whom they were created. — They consisted of ten men chosen to form a senate and court of justice, and styled Minor Senatus et Curia Decurionum : their decrees, decreta decurionum, were expressed by D. D. The candidate was of necessity rich ; since, if the public taxes fell short, the body had to make good the deficiency, and to defray the expenses of the public spectacles. Dedicatio. See Consecratio. Defensor Civitatis, the defender of the city — an advocate or syndic, who could take cognisance of suits under fifty crowns in gold, and where imprisonment only followed conviction. His functions were at first for five, subsequently for two, years. He was elected by the decuriones from the nobles and the rich citizens. Delator, a secret accuser, — one newer cowhowtexl witli the accused ; one, therefore, who might lie with 144? ARTS^ ETC. OF THE GREEKS AND ROMANS. impunity, who was interested in the conviction of the innocent no less than of the guilty, and whose office was a curse to the state. He was always execrated, often exiled by the sovereign, yet tolerated, be- cause the slave of the imperial will. This post arose with the empire : it had certainly no existence under the republic. It was unknown in Greece. At Athens, even the pubhc accuser was always rigorously examined by the judge ; and, to deter him from making charges from malice or levity, he was heavily lined unless the accused were found guilty by a majority of the judges. In some cases, even, he suffered death if unable to prove a capital charge. Delectus, a levy of soldiers. — In most parts of Greece, each district chose the men by lot : sometimes each family was compelled to furnish one, and the choice was also by lot. The Romans had a different system. ^Vhen a levy was required, the consuls in the capital, the proconsuls and praetors in the provinces, placed the public standards in a certain open situation, and thither all of a proper age repaired: failure to attend was at one time visited with a heavy fine, branding, and infamy ; at another, with death. The men, while drawn up in lines, were then chosen by the proper officers : hence the term legion^ from Icgere, to choose. In such levies great attention was paid to the stature and appearance of the men : but when the case was urgent, and when severe losses had been sustained, all who volunteered were accepted ; often all who ap- peared were marched to the war. These were appro- priately termed tumultuarii, Deportatio, banishment during a given period, and therefore different from exile, which was gene- rally perpetual. In Greece, the (pvyri was perpetual, and the estates of the banished man were confiscated ; but the oaroccKic-iAOi; w^as for ten years only, and involved DO forfeiture of property or civil rights. The first instance of deportation which the Roman consuls mention^ regarded the soldiers who fled at Canuie, and DESERTOR. 145 r were banished to Sicily so long as the Carthaginians should remain in Italy. But the punishment was not general before Augustus, who caused it to succeed the interdictio aquce et ignis, which was more rigorous. The deportatio did not involve the forfeiture of sub- stance, though, like the interdiction it deprived of civil rights. Desertor. — All Roman deserters in time of war were put to death, but not so in time of peace. In this case, if he were a horseman, he lost his rank : if a foot soldier, he was reduced to the lowest class. In Greece, these, and such as refused to serve in the wars, were punished with more or less severity. Deserters during war suffered deatli, and during peace were deprived of civil rights. At Athens they were care- fully excluded from the temples of the gods, from the assemblies of the people, and from access to the tri- bunals, unless a fine were admitted as compensation. At Sparta they were held in public contempt : whoever met them in the street could spit on or kick them ; they were not allowed to defend themselves ; and that they might be known, they wore a vile stinking dress. Their families shared the disgrace ; nor was it unusual for the mother to stab her coward son. In a Greek epigram, a Spartan matron is made thus bitterly to curse the son whom she had laid low : — " Begone, degenerate offspring I quit this light ! Eurotas is concerned at thy loathed sight : For see ! he stops his course, ashamed to glide By that polluted coast where you ahide. Hence, then, unprofitable wretch ! speed to the dead. And hide in hell thy ignominious head ! Base, dastard soul, unworthy to appear On Spartan ground ! I never did thee bear. " The charge of each matron, on delivering *he buckler to her son departing for the wars, is well known.. ^' Return with this, or on this ! " The loss of the buckler, indeed, was a serious fault, and as such punishable in all countries by death^ however some may VOL. H. L 146 ARTS, ETC. OF THE GREEKS AND ROBfANS. be enumerated who made a boast of their shame. For such a boast Archilochus was banished ; yet Horace, secure of the favour of Augustus, could with impunity speak of his " Parmula non bene relicta." Devovere, to devote. — The Romans sometimes de- voted to the infernal gods — that is, to utter destruction — the armies and cities of the enemy. This was done by the dictator or the general, who, if he took the earth to witness his vow, touched it with his hand ; if Jupiter, he raised his eyes and hands towards heaven. The formula, as preserved by Macrobius, is sufficiently horrid. ^Vliat could be more demoniacal than this cold-blooded vow, which consigned to carnage the bodies, and to the flames the substance, of an enemy ; which visited enfeebled age and helpless infancy, the smiles of innocence and the looks of beauty, with the same penalty that w^as awarded to the rebel taken in arms ; which pretended to clothe with the semblance of religion the most atrocious crimes ! Both in Roman and in Grecian history w^eread of self -devotion : where a man, for instance, devoted his life to the good of his country, believing that his blood would avert some impending danger ; or for the prosperity of a prince, in the behef that the act would be equally effectual. Such a fool was styled, in regard to the sovereign to whose cause he immolated himself, Devotus Numini Majestatique ejus initially expressed, D. N. M. Q. E. Dkxtha, the right hand, was a pledge of sincerity among the ancients. '' Dextra pignus pacis datur ; ipsa fldei testis atqne salutis adhibetur; et hoc est illud apud Tullium, fidem publicam jussu senatus dedi ; id est, dextram." In many passages, and on many coins, we find it the invariable symbol of concord and fidelity. Ovid : " Jura, fides, ubi nunc, commissaque dextera dextrae." And Tacitus : ^' Mos est regibus, quoties in socie- tatem coeunt, implicare dextras." The elevation of the DICTATOR. DIVINATIO. 147 right hand by the people, or the soldiers^ betokened assent to a given proposal, Lucan ; -—- " His cunctae simul assensere cohortes Elatasque alte, quaecunque ad bella vocaret, Promisere manus." From the preceding observations, the expression, renovari dextras, so frequent in ancient historians, will be readily understood to mean the renewal of an alliance. Dictator, a Roman magistrate with extraordinary powers, and created only for extraordinary purposes. — Of his tremendous authority no one is ignorant. For the occasions which led to his nomination, and for the persons invested with the dignity, consult the historians of Rome. Dies, a day. See Annus. DisciNCTus, ungirt* — Without the cinctura, no modest Roman could appear before any one ; and to be without one, or to wear one too loosely girt, w^as considered a mark of dissipation. Discus, the quoit J — a game very common to Greeks and Romans- It was a round mass of iron, or copper, or stone, thicker in the middle than towards the circum- ference, and exceedingly heavy. The victor was he who cast the ponderous missile the furthest. Before it was dismissed from the hand, the discobulus, or thrower, made some circular turns with the right hand to give increased velocity to the quoit. DiviNATio, the art of divining, was regarded as two- fold, — the natural, and the artificial. The former de- pended, on the flight or notf s of birds ; the latter on the interpretation which the diviner gave to these or other natural phenonema. There were six kinds of divination from these phenomena, the knowledge of which constituted distinct professions. 1. The divin- ation by the inspection of the entrails belonged to the aruspices. 2. That of birds to the augurs. 3. That of the stars to the astrologers. 4. Lots. 5. Dreams, L 2 148 ARTS, ETC, OF THE GREEKS AND ROMANS. 6. Predictions and oracular responses lay within the province of the priests. The augurs^ however^ were often conversant with the three first species of divination. To dwell on each of these subjects would require a volume.* Divus^ divine, — a term applied^, by a flattery as blas- phemous as it was senseless, to many Roman emperors. The poets^ as Horace and Virgil^ appear first to have been guilty of this daring impiety ; and their example was followed by others. Tiberius was the first empe- ror who caused divine honours to be paid to his prede- cessor : ^^ Sacravit parentem suum (Caesar) non im- perio sed religione; non appellavit eum^ ^eA fecit, deum.'* This power of making gods sounded strangely to the writer just quoted^ and was evidently ridiculous to Tacitus, who^ speaking of the apotheosis of Com- modus by Severus, says, ^^ Sepultura more perfecta, templum et coelestes regiones decernuntur." None of the emperors, however, could command temples, altars, priests, and the rights of worship during their lives : these were reserved until their consecration in the apotheosis — (see the word). In the basest spirit of flattery indeed, Virgil makes one of his shepherds de- clare that Augustus should always be his god, that his altars should always burn : and of the same emperor Propertius says — " Arma deus Caesar dites meditatur ad Indos." And of Domitian, who called himself dominus et deus, Martial thus speaks : ** Edictum domini deique nostri.'* The subject is too disgustJhg to be pursued. DivoRTiuM, legal separation of husband and wife. — - Divorce is said to have been first permitted by Romu- lus, for four causes : when the wife poisoned her child- ren ; when she brought spurious children as her own into her husband's house; when she committed adultery; • See Potter's Antiquities of Greece, vol. i, book 2. chap. 12—17., DIVORTIUM. 149 when she drank wine unknown to her lord. The laws of the Twelve Tables recognised three great causes of divorce : adultery ; bad temper ; barrenness. In the first case, the woman's dowry was retained ; in the two last it was restored to her. The divortium was effected by a written instrument; and by the restoration of the keys^ which on the nuptial day the woman had received from her husband. — From the specified causes, it might be supposed that divorces were always common in Rome ; yet this was not so ; at least^ no public record of any remains before the year 520. This may be partly explained from the fact, that, as the husband had power of life or death over his wife no less than his children^ he had a summary way of punishing the crime without appealing to the tribunals of justice; but in an equal degree, at least, it evinces the excellence of female morals during the earliest and best ages of the republic. Whe- ther the men were equally moral, may be doubted: whatever their crimes, the poor wife had not the same remedy ; she could not sue for a divorce, a privilege which was magnanimously engrossed by the stronger sex. — In the sequel, divorces were common enough. The Leji; Julia required that they should always be effected in presence of seven Roman citizens. The Greeks were still more easy as to divorce, — as far, at least, as respected the men. The Cretans allowed any husband, who was afraid of having more children than he could maintain, to put away his wife. The Athenians permitted it on shght grounds : they merely exacted from the man a writing of divorcement, speci- fying the reason of the separation, which reason was to be approved by the archon ; or if not, the woman had still a claim on him for conjugal rights. In Sparta it was very uncommon ; but this was owing rather to the virtue of the women than to the protection of the law. The union, however, could be dissolved by the consent of both parties ; and both could proceed to form new connections. Of course, adultery was one of the causes which enabled a man to seek a separation from his wife. 150 ARTS, ETC. OF THE GREEKS AND ROMANS. Yet this adultery^ in the vocabulary of a Greeks had a strange signification : it meant intercourse with another man^ ivithout the knowledge of the husband; if with that knowledge and sanction^ it ceased^ in some states at least, to be a crime. Sometimes the men were so accommodating as to lend their wives to each other. Thus Socrates lent Xantippe to Alcibiades ; and the laws of Athens permitted the heiress who had married an impotent man, to sin with his nearest male rela- tive. What the popular opinion respecting adultery was in Sparta, may be inferred from the words of Plu- tarch ; '^ Lycurgus, the Spartan lawgiver, thought the best expedient against jealousy, was to allow men the freedom of imparting the use of their wives to whom they should think fit, that so they might have children by them. This he esteemed a laudable proof of liber- ality — laughing at those who thought the violation of their bed such an insupportable affront as to revenge it by murders and cruel wars. He had a good opinion of that man who, being old and having a young wife, should recommend some virtuous handsome young man, that she might have a child by him to inherit the good qualities of such a father, and who should love this child as tenderly as if begotten by himself. On the other hand, an honest man, who had love for a married woman on account of her modesty and the beauty of her children, might with a good grace beg the use of her from her husband,'* &c. Such were this abominable people — such their notion of the holiest tie that binds one human creature to another — such their estimation of conjugal fideUty ! It may, indeed, be replied, that in many Gre- cian states, adultery was severely punished, — by loss of eyes, or death ; but then this was infidelity to the mar* riage bed without the husband's sanction. It must, however, be admitted, that the more ancient the period, the less dissolute the morals. Greece in the heroic ages was, in this and in many other respects, very different from the Greece immediately preceding the Christian era. DOMUS. ECCE TIBI VINDIOTA. 151 r DoMUS, a house.— For the description of one, see the first volume of this work. DoNA, giftsy especially the offerings made to the gods.— They were suspended to the columns and walls of the temples ; and the formula of words used at the offering was Suscipe or Accipe libens ! (.6 generis nostri Jupiter auctor, cape dona libens ! " DoNARiA was a general expression for the gifts de- posited in the temples. They were sometimes so nu- merous, that the priests took care to remove them under the pretext that they encumbered the edifice. A better use was made of them when in times of pubhc calamity they were appHed to the solace of the miserable, or to the necessities of the state. Duumviri, two magistrates inferior to the praetor, who had, indeed, cognisance of capital offences ; but from whose decisions a Roman citizen could appeal. — The Duumviri Municipales were chosen from the de- cemviri (see the word), and had almost consular powers in the municipal cities. Their office appears to have been annual. E. EccE TIBI viNDicTA ! the solemu formula pronounced by the pr^tor as he dehvered his staff to the Hctor, that with it the latter might strike the head of the slave enfranchised by the act. This enfranchisement was thus effected :— The slave and his master appearing before the praetor, the latter said, '' I demand the same freedom for this man as is enjoyed by other Romans.'* If the magistrate consented— and such consent, except in peculiar cases, was a matter of course — he replied Dico ilium liberum esse more Quiritium, — touching at the same time the head of the slave with his rod. Then delivering the rod to the lictor, he repeated the formula already mentioned, — Ecce tibi vindicta! The L 4 _?• ^vj^rcassts"? 152 ARTS, ETC. OF THE GREEKS AND ROMANS. lictor then caused the happy fellow to dance a turn, to show that he had liberty to go whithersoever he pleased. Effigies, the images of animals, men or gods. — There was always one at the prow of a ship, which was re- garded — such was the ancient superstition! — as the tutelary being of the vessel. Such effigies existed from the remotest antiquity. Again, there were ejffigies of men dead or alive. If a corpse were uncomely to view (see Cadaver), there was an effigies in its place, gene- rally constructed of wax. But effigies of brass were common, and were placed in the bed-chamber by the widow of the deceased. Thus, in one of the stories of Hyginus, we are informed that Laodamia caused a brazen effigies of her husband to be made, placed it in her bedchamber, and began to worship it. And in the life of Caligula, Suetonius, speaking of a deceased friend of that emperor, says, ^^ Cujus effigiem Augustus in cubiculo suo positam, quotiescunque intraret, exoscula- batur.'' Even of living friends or near relations, the effigies were sometimes placed in the bedchamber. This was peculiarly the case of wives and lovers. Egregiatus, a title of honour applied to such brave men as by their services had merited, if they could not obtain, some government. — Egregius was the epithet of the m.an invested with the distinction. Eleusinia, mysteries held at Eleusis, a village in Attica, and instituted in honour of Ceres and Proser- pine.— Of all the Grecian festivals and rehgious rites, none were more celebrated than these. Grateful for her reception at this place, while in pursuit of her daughter, Ceres was believed to have taught the inha- bitants two important things, — the art of agriculture, and the knowledge of the holy doctrine. In the esti- mation of mankind, nothing was so splendid as this doctrine ; since it not only purified the heart from sin, and expelled ignorance from the mind, but it insured the favour of the gods ; it taught a perfect virtue ; and it inspired the belief that, after a peaceful death, the soul initiated in its mysteiies should enjoy, in the Elysian ELEUSINIA. 153 fields, a happiness far superior to that of other spirits ; that it should enjoy eternal repose in the bosom of the divinity. With such a belief, no wonder that a people so superstitious as the Greeks should seek the privileges of initiation. If any one neglected these mysteries in youth, he was sure to apply for the know- ledge in his advanced years ; since the monitor within him told him that he had sinned, and if the wrath to come coidd be averted by '' the holy doctrine," he might leave the world without trembling. The festi- vals were of two kinds — the less and the greater— held at two periods of the year, and at two different places ; the lesser, which were introductory to the greater, being celebrated at Agrse, on the banks of the Ilyssus — the other at Eleusis. None were admitted to the [AvaTrj^ia. ueyaXa, who had not previously been purified by the p^pa lAv^rryj^toc. During the celebration of the greater, the judicial tribunals were closed, enmities were hushed, and death was decreed by the Athenian senate ao:ainst any one, however high in dignity, who should, even by a private quarrel, disturb the sanctity of the rites. If Athens were at war with any other Grecian power, any subject of that power might yet attend the festival with perfect security.— The i^LKoa lAvajyioia, or less mysteries, require little description. During the nine days preceding the initiation, the postulant was required to keep a close rein on his thoughts, words, and actions ; to abstain even from lawful pleasures ; to pass his time in meditation and prayer. Then, adorned with a garland of flowers, he was admitted into the temple ; sacrifices were offered ; he stood on the new-flayed skin of the victim, and by water was supposed to be purified from his guilt. Both in the less and the greater mys- teries, four chief ministers officiated. The first, the hierophant, revealed the sacred truth, and on him de- volved the task of initiating. He appeared in splendid robes ; his brow wore a diadem, his hair floated on his shoulders ; and, in addition to these marks of dignity, the better to impose respect on the postulant, his age 154^ ARTS, ETC. OF TUB GREEKS AND ROMANS. was mature, his voice was modulated, and his words flowing and graceful. His office was for life, and celi- bacy was obligatory on him. The second minister who partook in the duties of initiation, and who bore the consecrated taper, also wore a diadem, but was per- mitted to marry. The herald was the third; and it was his duty to proclaim what was passing, to see that the mysteries were observed with proper solemnity, and to scare the profane from the sacred rites. The fourth ad- ministered at the altar. So anxious w^ere these impos- tors to distinguish themselves, that the first called himself the representative of Jove ; the second, of the Sun ; the third^ of Mercury ; and the fourth, of the Moon. All were of distinguished birth ; the hierophant in par-» ticular, who was always chosen from the sacred family of the Eumolpidae. Besides these, there were many- inferior functionaries — some visible, others hidden — to carry on the imposture with more success : and many magistrates were also present; not, indeed, at the initi- ation, but at Eleusis ; and it was their duty to see that no disturbance was created^ no irregularity committed. These formed a sort of senate, with one of the archons for the time being at their head : nor did they hesitate to punish with death any violation of the standing rules. The celebration of the greater mysteries occupied nine days^ chiefly devoted to sacrifices, processions, and other acts of worship. The examination of those who had been purified by the lesser mysteries, and who were preparing for the greater, was in appearance rigorous. All who had been concerned in any species of magic ; who had even involuntarily committed homicide ; who had been declared infamous by the laws, or been guilty of any atrocious crime ; were excluded. Yet this was a farce : fOx* a notorious robber was initiated ; while some of the most virtuous men in Greece — Epami- nondas, Agesilaus, Socrates, Diogenes — dechned the honour, from a hearty contempt of its pretended advantages; and this, indeed, was one of the charges of impiety brought against Socrates. The instruc- ELEUSINIA. 155 r tion of the priests which preceded the initiation, tended to the repression of every tumultuous passion, — to pass the novitiate, which was always a year in dur- ation, so as to merit the sublime blessing to which they aspired. Of the ceremonies which attended the initi- ation we know little ; since every postulant was required, under the most dreadful oaths, to conceal whatever he saw or heard within the hallowed precincts ; and he who violated the oath was not only put to death, but devoted to the execration of all posterity. Yet the priests of ancient, like the freemasons of modern times, could not prevent the disclosure of some facts. Crowned with myrtle, and enveloped in robes which, from this day, were preserved as sacred relics, the novices were conducted beyond the boundary impassable to the rest of men. The hierophant, with his symbols of supreme deity, and his three assistants representing the three other gods, were carefully visible. Lest any should have been introduced not sufficiently prepared for the rites, the herald exclaimed, ^^ Far from hence the pro- fane, the impious, all who are polluted by sin ! " If any such were present, and did not instantly depart, death was the never-failing doom. The skins of new- slain victims were now placed under the feet of the no- vices, the ritual of initiation was read, and hymns were chanted in honour of Ceres. The novices moved on, while a deep sound rose from beneath as if the earth itself were complaining ; the thunder pealed ; the light- ning flashed ; and spectres glided through the vast ob- scurity, moaning, sighing, and groaning. Mysterious shades, the messengers of the infernal deities. Anguish, Madness, Famine, Diseases, and Death, flitted around ; and the explanations of the hierophant, delivered in a solemn voice, added to the horrors of the scene. This was intended as a representation of the infernal regions, where misery had its seat. As they advanced, amidst the groans which issued from the darkness, were distin- guished those of the suicides — thus punished for cow- ardly deserting the post which the gods had assigned 156 ARTS, ETC. OF THE GREEKS AND ROMANS. them in this world. But the scenes which the novices had hitherto beheld, seemed to be a sort of purgatory, where penal fires and dire anguish, and the unutterable horrors of darkness, were believed, after countless ages of suffering, to purify from the guilt acquired in this mortal life. Sud- denly the bursting open of two vast gates with a terrific sound, dimly displayed to their sight, and faintly bore to their ears, the torments of those whose state was everlasting, — who had passed the bounds beyond which there is no hope. On the horrors of this abode of an- guish and despair a curtain may be dropped; the subject is unutterable. Onwards proceeded the novices, and were soon conducted into another region ; that of ever- lasting bliss, the sojourn of the just — of those whose hearts had been purified, and whose minds had been enlightened, by '' the holy doctrine." This was Ely- sium — the joys of which w^ere equally unutterable, equally incomprehensible, to mortals not admitted into these mvsteries. Here a veil was in like manner thrown over this scene. Such is all the glimpse we can obtain of the famous Eleusinian mysteries. What was the doctrine taught? what the object of the priests ? what the real advan- tages of initiation ? These questions we should vainly attempt to answer. Tn all probability, the mysteries were derived from Egypt ; but we are more ignorant of priestly imposture in that country, than in any other on earth. By many writers it has been supposed that in this temple was taught a purer religion, — the unity of the Godhead, among other things, — than could be comprehended, or at least could be tolerated, by the vulgar. This hypothesis is wholly gratuitous. The emblems of the four deities ; the fact, that the rites themselves were instituted in honour of two others — Ceres and Proserpine; the triumphal passage of the great idol lacchus from Athens to Eleusis, which always took })lace on the sixth day of the [Ava-TYjpia ^syocXa, sufficiently disprove the inculcation of that sublime truth. Again, as thousands and hundreds of thousands. EMANCIPATIO. 157 r I — not merely wise men — but ignorant ones — not merely men, but women and children, — were initiated; if the doctrine they learned was so elevated and so rational, would it not have had some effect on the popular mind ? If, for instance, the existence of one only God, and a higher degree of morality, were inculcated ; w^ould not the notions have gradually pervaded the great mass of the people, and ultimately have tended to the very extirpation of idolatry, and of the grosser vices ? So far was this from being the result, that we find the initiated themselves among the most superstitious and sensual of the Grecian population. E31ANCIPAT10, the act by which a son was rescued from the patria potestaSy or paternal authority, in the more rigorous sense of the word. — The power of the father over his children in ancient Rome was unrivalled. Well does Justinian observe, ^' Jus potestatis quod habemus in liberos, proprium est civium Romanorum : nuUi enim sunt homines qui talem in liberos habeat potestatem qualem nos habemus." This potestas in- volved the power of life and death ; the right to sell the son three times, and to dispose absolutely of whatever that son might acquire by his industry ; to disinherit him even without assigning a reason, to expel him the paternal roof; or condemn him to labour with slaves. This enormous authority was, indeed, circumscribed by the emperors; but it had subsisted entire from the foundation of the republic ; and even after this circum- scription, it was too ample, since the son was still the domestic of the father. Hence the Emancipatio, which, though it greatly mitigated the severity of the Jus ratriuniy did not render the son independent : if he was no longer the slave, he was still the libertus, or freedman, of his father: he could labour, indeed, for himself; but he was compelled to award his father a certain return from the profits of his industry, and the property he might inherit, or otherwise derive from any source. If he died without will, the father was his heir ; and in any case his children were under the 158 ARTS, ETC. OF THE GREEKS AND ROMANS. guardianship of the latter. Still emancipation was a good incalculable. EmeritI;, those who had served the stipulated time in anv office. — The term was usually applied to soldiers whose term of service was expired. — Emeritum was the recompence which such soldiers obtained. At first this recornpence was in land ; but^ by Augustus^ a sum of money was substituted. Equitare^ to ride on horseback. — According to Dio- dorus Siculus^ the Thessalians were the first to tame and mount horses^ long after the invention of chariots. That province had certainly horsemen^ who, at a very early period of antiquity, encountered wild beasts, and in the same way advanced to battle. The appearance of a man on horseback, doubtless, gave origin to the term centaur : both were believed to be the same animal ; nor need we be surprised at this, as the Mexicans fell into the same error in regard to the Spaniards. Bridles were soon in use. " Fraena Pelethronii Lapilhae, gyrosque dedere, Impositi dorso." Virg. And so were horse-cloths, some very splendid. Virgil: " Stabant tercentum nitidi in praesepibus altis. Omnibus extemplo Teucris jubet ordineduci Instratos ostro alipedes pictisque tapetis. Aurea pectoribus demissa monilia pendent." Of saddles and stirrups, however, we have no mention ; so that some agility was required to mount and guide them : — " Corpora saltu " Subjiciunt in equos." But then the animals were taught to bow the knee for the more ready convenience of the riders : — " Iiide inclinatus colhim, subinissos et armos De more, inflexis pra^bcbat scandere terga Cruribus.** Silius Ital. And less agile persons could mount by a ladder, or on the backs of their slaves, or by heaps of stones raised EQUITES. 159 for the purpose. — The art of riding was in vogue among the Athenians, who had expert masters to teach it. From the heroic times, horses were shod in a manner not much, unlike the present. Little bells were tied to their necks, that they might be accustomed to the clank of armour, and to the sound of warlike instruments in battle. The Romans were no less addicted to the art ; and where animals were not always at hand, the exer- cise of mounting and dismounting, whether armed or not, was acquired by means of wooden horses, — which, indeed, were very common. Equites, horsemen^ or knights, were distinguished from foot soldiers at a very early period. — They were chosen for their wealth or their family ; so that "nnreK;, both in Athens and Sparta, indicated one who belonged to a certain order in the state. Eques among the Romans had a similar meaning. By Romulus, who is made the author of every thing Roman, the most dis- tinguished youths, it is said, were appointed to serve on horseback as a body guard to the sovereign. (See Celeres.) The number was at first 300 ; by Tarquin it was augmented to 1 800 ; and there was soon ad- mitted a third or intervening order, between the senators and the people. There is, however, a distinction be- tween Equites and Equester Ordo. The latter always signifies an order in the state ; but the signification of the former varies with the import of the accompanying words. When applied to the inhabitants of the city, during peace, it always denoted the same order ; but used in connection with the army, it merely distin- guished the cavalry from the infantry. Other men served on horseback during a campaign, besides the sons of rich or noble famihes. In fact, such could not pos- sibly be in number sufficient to constitute the strength of an army. But reverting to the Equester Ordo, the quahfication, besides birth, was anciently 400,000 ses-- tertii. The annual review which took place on the ides of July, and which extended from the Templum Honoris to the Capitol, was one of great pomp. On 160 ARTSj ETC. OF THE GREEKS AND ROMANS. this occasion, those who had not the pecuniary quali- fication required by law were degraded to the class of citizens ; the same penalty was inflicted on such as were notorious for dissolute morals. Besides the duty of serving in the war^ the equites had the privilege of dispensing justice in conjunction with the senators. At tirst, this was the privilege of the senators only^ that is^ of a number elected from that body^ for the right was not personal: the Lex Sempronia gave them for a time the exercise of die privilege, to the exclusion of the senators ; but the Lex Servilia restored the excluded order ; and the Lex Livia fixed the number of judges as equally consisting of senators and equites* A subse- quent law, indeed (Lex Plautia)^ placed even the ple- beians in the judicial office ; but Caesar deprived them of the right. Under the emperors, the senators and the equites had the most lucrative posts : they had, indeed, under the republic, been the farmers of the public revenues ; but they now looked to such offices as their birthright. We have the authority of Cicero for asserting that the flower of the Roman chivalry, the ornament of Rome, the strength of the empire, lay in these engrossers of the public revenues : — " Florem equitum Romanoium, ornamentum civitatis, firma- mentum reipublica, publicanorum ordine contineri.'* Ergastulum, a prison-house for slaves in the country-i houses of the wealthy. — It was merely a cellar, where the light of day was admitted through narrow chinksj^ and where the poor wretches were kept in fetters, ex- cept when their services were required at the mill, the cutting of stone, hewing of wood, drawing of water, and other servile occupations. Each ergastulum con-, tained about fifteen slaves, and was, in fact, their only home, until the emperor Adrian, compassionating their situation, abolished these ergastula. EuNucHi, eunuchs^ though derived from the East, were, after the accession of the emperors, common enough in Rome. They were peculiarly the servants of the Roman matrons ; and among other duties, they EVECTIO, EVOCARE ANIMAS. 161 combed, and held the silver ewer to their mistresses. Claudian : " Consulque futurus Pectebat dominae crines, et saepe lavanti Nudus in argento lympham gestabat alumnae.'' What pests they subsequently became to the Lower Empire, is known to every reader of history. EvECTio, permission to use the public horses in a journey, — a favour which appears to have been fre- quently and inconsiderately granted by some princes. Without a diploma, or written mandate from court, no one could command a single vehicle or horse ; and this diploma was, in addition, to be countersigned by the governor of every province through which he passed. EvocARE Animas, to invoke the souls of the dead. Among the Greeks, the invocation of the dead was an act of religion, which had its priests, its temples, and its Dii Manes, or infernal gods, who were believed to preside over these necromantic rites. This invocation was also common in Rome, and was made at the tomb of the deceased. Horace : " Canidia brevibus implicata viperis Crines, et incomptum caput Jubet sepulcris caprificos eratas," &c. The silence of night, at the time of the new moon, was considered the most favourable period for the cele- bration of these mystical rites. Horace : '^ Nox et Diana qua^ silentium regit Arcana cum fiunt sacra.'* Among the Athenians, the Psychagoges were the priests, whose office it was to evoke and consult the departed in the temples of the Dii Manes. These impostors were held in much respect through their pretension to great purity of life. They dwelt in caves or vaults ; were said to be unacquainted with women, never to have eaten VOL. II. JI 1()2 ARTS, ETC. OF THE GREEKS AND ROMANS. any thing which had Hfe, never to have been polluted by the touch of a dead body. EvocATio, had other meanings. — It was applied to the summons or voluntary return to the army of veteran soldiers who had served their legal time. In judicial proceedings, it signified the mandate of the praetor^ ad- dressed to the defendant to appear at a certain time, and answer the complaint of the plaintiff. Sometimes this mandate was deUvered verbally by the hctor, at the residence of the defendant. If the accused were not in his usual abode, the mandate was contained in a letter to the magistrate of the place where he had taken re- fuge^ to compel his return. If he remained at home, and obstinately refused to open his door to admit the lictor, another expedient was devised, which ought to be known for the advantage of our sheriffs' officers^ and for the information of our sapient legislators. Three successive edicts were, in the presence of witnesses, affixed to his door, each allowing him an interval of ten days to appear; and if, after the third summons, he stiil refused to obey, his property was summarily seized, and sold by pubUc auction for the benefit of his cre- ditors. This was infinitely better than the hide-and- seek foolery of our bum-bailiffs. Ex Ammi tui Sententia, the formula of the oath propounded in courts of justice to every person from whom an oath was required. — It is equivalent to ^^ you shall well and truly swear." ExAucTORATio, the dismissal of a soldier after the due term of service, who, as a veteran, had a claim to recompence. — In this it differs from missio, which im- plies the unconditional dismissal of a soldier before the expiration of the appointed time ; that is, before the expiration of twenty years' service. Sometimes, how- ever, exauctoratio signifies to dismiss in disgrace : ^^ Severitatis tantge fuit in mihtes," says an author, speak- ing of Severus, '^ ut ssepe legiones integras exauc- loraverit." ExcoMMUNicATio, was nearly as common among the EXCUBI^, EXH^REDATIO, EXPIATIO. 163 I I pagans as among the Christians of the middle ages. — Of this spiritual penalty, there were three degrees. The first cut off the delinquent from all intercourse with his kindred. The second merely excluded him from the pubhc exercise of religion ; from the temples and sacri- fices. The third, which was the most rigorous, forbade any one to harbour him, to give him shelter or food. ExcuBiiE, the night-guard, sentry, which appears to have been as well understood in ancient as in modern times. — For the institution, however, of this service, which would require more space to explain than we can devote to it, we must refer to military antiquarians. ^\^e shall only observe, that there was watch by night and day ; that the password varied with every watch ; tliat there were sentinels to every company as well as to every army, to every gate of the camp as well as to every outpost ; and that, to prevent treason, no soldier could know beforehand what post he was to occupy. For the same reason, — want of space to do adequate justice to the subject, — we must refer the reader to similar works for the description of the Exercitationes, or exercises of the Greek and Roman soldiers: that such exercises were perpetual, is evident from the very name of an army, Exercitus, from exerceo. '' Miles,'' says Seneca, '^in media pace decurrit sine ullo hoste, vallum jacit, et supervacuo labore lassatur, ut sufiicere necessario possit." Exh^redatio, disinheriting, which, according to a law of the Twelve Tables, any Roman father could do without assigning a reason. — No doubt, the privilege was abused ; for afterwards it was provided that, in so ex- traordinary a case, reason should always be given, in default of which the son might demand the setting aside of the will, on the presumption that the testator was not of sane mind, Expiatio, satisfaction made to some deity for the commission of a crime. — The forms of expiation were as various as the occasions were numerous. To in- stance two only, from the religion of Greece. If a ho- u 2 V l64 ARTS, ETC. OF THE GREEKS AND ROMANS. micide of distinguished station wished to appease the gods to avert the vengeance which the Eunienides or Furies were preparing for him, the sacrificial rites for the occasion were performed by some one of high dig- nity, often by the sovereign. A sucking pig was laid on the ahar, and killed with unusual solemnity ; with tlie blood the hands of the homicide were sprinkled ; libations were offered to Jupiter Expiator ; the remnants of the sacrifice were thrown away ; and cakes composed of meal, salt, and water were burnt on the altar, while prayers were devoutly offered to the Eumenides. — Ex- piations were sometimes made for whole cities ; and in the more ancient times, to remove or prevent, or to avert an impending calamity, human victims were immolated. Subsequently, human blood was regarded as most expiatory ; and parents brought their own children for the purpose of seeing their veins opened, and the warm current sprinkled over the cul- prit. All these sacrifices are illustrations of a most important truth, — that without shedding of blood there could be no remission. The culprits,— even those who offered a sacrifice,— acknowledged that they deserved the fate of the victim, and piously expressed a hope that its blood would be received instead of their own. ExposiTio, exposure of a child. — This practice was well known in Greece, except at Thebes, which forbade it bv law. In Sparta, it was rather infanticide than exposition. No sooner did an infant see the day, than, with the nurse, it was brought before the elders of the tribe to which the family belonged ; its shape and form were rigorously examined ; and if it were of a sickly or delicate form, or if its preservation were re- quired neither by the circumstances of the parents, nor by the interests of the country, it was thrown into a gulf near Mount Taygetus. At Athens, where the parent alone had the power of life and death over his new-born off'spring, the infant was placed at his feet. If he took it up in his arms, it was saved : if, through gome natural defect, or from the slenderness of his cir- 'I I* EXSEQUI^. FABRICENSES. lf)5 cumstances, he averted his looks, it was taken away and exposed, or even destroyed. What more humili- ating to human nature, to the boasted reason of man, than the fact, that this horrible barbarity was approved by most of the Greek philosophers ? Even '' the divine Plato,'' as he has been blasphemously termed by some writers, records his approbation of the prac- tice ; and Aristotle maintains, that where the means of support are inadequate, the woman has a right to destroy the offspring in her womb. At Rome, the prac- tice was the same as at Athens, only the child was not destroyed : it was simply exposed in a basket in well frequented places ; doubtless, in the hope that some rich or childless person wotdd have compassion on it. — The laws of some Germanic tribes prove that this horrible barbarity was not confined to Greece and Rome. In Frisia and Saxony, the infant which had not yet sucked its mother's breast, might be destroyed. Without the humanising influence of Christianity, man, whatever his intellectual qualities, is a savage. ExsEQUi^, funerals. See Cadaver. ExsiLiuM. See Aqvjf. et Ignis Interdictio. ExTA, entrails^ inspected by tlVe auspices when au- guries were required. They consisted of the tongue, the heart, the liver, the kidneys, &c. ; which, if in a clean, sound state, were sagely regarded as ominous of good ; if unclean or diseased, as portentous of evil. They were, subsequently to the inspection, offered to the gods, sometimes fully roasted, now half roasted. Virgil : " In flammam jugidant pecudes, et viscera vivis Eripiunt, cumuiantque oneratis lancibus aras.'* The knaves who managed the imposture could obtain what augury they wished. F. Fabricenses, manufacturers^ artisans^ who were employed for die public service in various cities of die M 3 l66 ARTS, ETC. OF THE GREEKS AND. ROMANS. empire.— They formed a distinct college, into which no one was admitted whose good conduct and skill in his particular craft did not recommend him to the notice of the governor. But if in this respect his place was one of honour, in others it was one of degradation. For the rest of his life he was forced to labour in the same arsenal ; he could not quit his post, or migrate to any other city ; and, that he might be known by every one^ his arm was branded : Stigmata, hoc est notce publicce, fabricentiiim hrachiis, ad imitationem tyronum infligun^ tur, ut hoc saltern modo non latitante possint agnosci. If one of the body fled, the rest were responsible for his flight ; and if he died without lawful heirs^ his sub- stance became the property of the college. Facibs, the face, — The ladies of ancient times were as attentive to the seat of beauty as their successors. A\liile the men simply washed it every morning in water, the women had various contrivances for adding to its delicacy and fairness. Asses' milk was much in request; and one lady, Poppea, though in exile, is said to have kept 500 she-asses for the purpose not merely of bathing her face, but her whole body, in the milk. Hence Juvenal : " atque illo lacte fovetur, Propter quod secum comites educit asellas, Exsul Hyperboreum si dimittatur ad axem." Nor was painting unknown. Ovid : « Scitis et inducta candorem qua^rere cera : San^-uine quae vero non rubet, arte rubet." Fasces, the symbols of execution^ as borne by the lictors before each magistrate who presided over the administration of justice.— If a person of high dignity met the procession, the fasces were lowered ; hence the expression, submitter e faces , to denote the salutation of persons in authority. Fasti, marble tablets, on which the Romans wrote, for the use of posterity, the exploits of their heroes, magistrates, public events laws, ceremonies, &c. I '/ fax, feciales, femina, teralia. 167 The pontiffs were the first annalists of Rome ; but their meagre dates and facts were carefully concealed from the people, and placed in the recesses of their temples, to be consulted by the privileged only. In 550, however, Flavius, secretary to the pontiff, who had access to the penetralia, published a sort of calen- dar (see Annus) from the tables. But these are the Fasti Majores. The Fasti Minores, which were divided into the Consulares and the Calendares, — the former denoting the consular acts ; the latter the days of the month which were lucky or unlucky for sacrifices, &c. — were open to the public on certain occasions. Fax, a torch. — Those used in funeral processions were of bark, covered with resin. The use was soon transferred to civil cases, and faces were as usual in the houses of the great as our rushlights. The Faces nuptiales were borne before the bride, as she was forci- bly taken from the arms of her mother to be carried to her husband's house. As the nuptials were always celebrated in the evening, and as the procession from the one house to the other was an integral part of ilie ceremony, torches were indispensable. They were also used on the more solemn occasion of purifying the peo- ple in February, the last month of the year (see Annus), when sacrifices were offered by night to the Dii Manes. We may add, that they were burnt in sepulchres. Feciales, a college of twenty priests, elected like the pontiffs, and whose functions greatly resembled those of heralds at arms during the middle ages. They were instituted by Numa, and were selected from the most distinguished famihes of Rome. They were to be presented at all negotiations for peace, at all deliber- ations of war; and as no unjust wsli was to be undertaken — such was the profession of the most ambitious people the world has ever seen ! — a rehgious sanction was in- tended to be given to every attempt at aggrandisement. For the chief duty of the Feciales, see Bellum. Femina. See Filia. Feralia, feasts of the dead, held annually in the M 4 iGs ARTS, ETC. OF THE GREEKS AND KOMANS. jtt month of February — They were brought, we are told, by the Trojan ^neas into Latium. Thus Ovid : ** Hunc morem ^Eiieas pietatis idoneus auctor Attulit in terras, justo Latine, tuas. Ille patris genio solemnia dona ferebat, Hinc populi ritus edidicere novos.** But Xuma is said to have regulated the ceremonies, and appointed eleven successive days for their duration. The surviving kindred, after the due performance of sacrifices to the JDii Manes, and the invocation of the departed shades, feasted together on the tomb, and left a share for the ghost. They doubted not of two ad- vantages thus procured to the dead,— that during the days in question there was a suspension of penal tor- ments, and that the spirits thus allowed to revisit their sepulchres were refreshed by the dainties. Poor human nature ! . Feri^, festivals, when labour was prohibited — ex- cept, indeed, the completion of some public work was concerned— and men were required to be present at the sacrifices. Of Ferice there were many kinds, according to the objects for which they were instituted — generally in memory of some important national event. FiDicuL^, a species of torture inflicted on criminals by small cords They appear to have been tied very tightly round the arms, legs, &c., while the accused was extended on a painful couch. Some added, that he was ?-lso lacerated by pincers. FiLiA, Femina, an unmarried girl and wife, were anciently kept in close tutelage. Their apartment was the most secluded, generally the highest, in the house ; their time was passed under the eye of the mother, as a guardian in some kind of manual labour, usually spin- ning or weaving; they never issued from the house except on urgent or indispensable occasions, as when sacrifices were to be offered ; and care was taken that nothing immodest should be uttered in their presence by their nearest kindred : before them, the father would not even embrace the mother ; they saw no man J A FILIA, FEMINA. ] 6(J except in presence of their parents or guardians ; and in Greece, they never sat at table with the males of the family, — a practice anciently unknown in Rome, but ultimately introduced. The daughters of men who had served the republic were dowried at the pubhc expense. When married, the woman retained her maiden name. When travelling, women, whether married or single, were carried in a close vehicle invisible to every body. When at home, some were so closely confined that they could not pass from one part of the house to another without permission. Thus Antigone, in Euripedes, cannot ascend to the top of the house to see the army of Argos besieging Thebes, without her mother *s leave : and that this was an uncommon indulgence, appears from the jealous care of the old domestic appointed to guard her : " But you, Antigone, my royal charge, The blooming glory of your father's house, Stir not — though suffered by your mother's leave, Some time from your apartment to withdraw, And to ascend the house's lofty top, From thence the Argian forces to survey ; But stay till first I see the way be clear, That by a citizen you be not seen, And from your royal honour derogate." Potter's Trans* That wives, at least young wives, w^ere under equal restraint, is evident from the reproach addressed to Hermione by her duenna : " Go in ! nor stand thus gazing at the doors, Lest you lament the scandal you'll incur, Should you be seen before the hall to appear ! " Potter, And Menander expressly affirms that the door of the avAYj was the utmost bound to which women ought to go: u You go beyond the married women's bounds, And stand before the hall, which is unfit; The laws do not permit a freeborn bride Further than to the outer door to go." I 170 ARTS^ ETC. OF THE GREEKS AND ROMANS. When become matrons^ the mothers of several children, they had certainly more liberty^ but this depended on the mere pleasure of the husband ; and never could they see any male^ however intimately connected with the house, unless the husband were present. Hence the complaint of the Athenian wife : ** But strictly us poor women they confine Within our chambers, under lock and key ; Make use of mastiffs, goblins, any thing That may adulterers fright." The case, however, was very different in Sparta, where the maidens were allowed a strange licence, — to contend with young men in the public exercises, and that not modestly, but in puris naturalibus. The object of this liberty was twofold, — to overcome the tempter by openly braving him^ and to procure husbands. But the married womenof Lacedsemonia were chaste enough; they never appeared in the streets without a veil : and Sparta is the only exception to the rule. Everywhere else, — in Rome as in Greece,' — the condition of the women was servile, and they were subject to the most jealous watching, until the corruption of public manners gave impunity to every species of immodesty. To recline at supper, was certainly an immodest posture, es- pecially as she was loosely habited on such occa- sions, and as her companions on the same couch might be, and often were, men ; but this is scarcely as bad as appearing in the same bath, — a licence permitted for some time (see Balneum). This was very different from the period when the husband, who knew that his wife had appeared in the streets without a veil, or been accessible to any men at home other than a near relation, would have divorced her, or even put her to death. Long they were rigorously debarred from the use of wine ; and the key of the cellar (see Clavis) was never delivered to them by the husband, lest they should drink : and that a constant dread might hang over them^ their nearest relatives were permitted to kiss them, expressly to know if they had violated the injunc- FILIUS, FLAGELLATIO, FLAMEN. 171 M tion. Nor are instances wanting, in which the woman who stole the keys, or was caught at the liquor, was put to death with impunity ; in one case by her own kindred, in another by the incensed husband. In the sequel, the Roman wives were as forward as those of Sparta; they had every species of liberty, and some were known even to wrestle in the arena of the circus and amphitheatre. FiLius, son. — Both in ancient Greece and Rome, the father had the power of life and death over his children, but not in the same degree. In Greece, he could only destroy the infant just born (see Expositio) ; in Rome, he could put the ofFending child to death at any period, unless emancipated from the patria potestas(see Eman- ciPATio). In Greece, when the son became a citizen, he escaped from the patria potestas, though he was bound alike by law and custom to honour, assist, and, if ne- cessary, to maintain his parents. We have before spoken of the power which the father had of selling his son three times as a slave ; if, however, he consented for that son to marry, he could no longer sell him. Under the Latin emperors, the power of selling was restricted to cases where the father was in danger of perishing through want. Flagellatio, scourging, which generally preceded execution, and which took place in prison, before the judge, or on the way to the fatal place ; it was inflicted in some cases by rods, in others by whips with many thongs ; the latter being the more severe, as the end of each thong was provided with a hard substance, generally bone, sometimes metal.— The scourging a virgis was for the more respectable ; that a flagello for the vilest, for those especially who were condemned ad crucem. (See Damnatus.) The Christian knows in what manner the Saviour of men condescended to these hu^ milities. Flamen, a priest attached to the worship of some particular god. — By Numa, three flamines are said to have been instituted, — one for Jupiter, one for ^Mars, 172 ARTS, ETC. OF THE GREEKS AND ROMANS. one for Romulus under the name of Quirinus. The number was subsequently increased to fifteen, as the gods of Rome were multiplied ; nay, each deified emperor had hisfainen. (See Apotheosis.) They were elected in the assemblies of the people, and were consecrated by the pontiffs. FcEDus, a7i alliance, was contracted in various man- ners. — Sometimes, as the oath was taken, a pig was struck by the Fecialis (see the word), to denote that, if he did not observe it, Jupiter might strike him as he struck the pig ; hence the ancient expression, ferire fvediis. But this custom was superseded by each of the contracting parties touching the altar at the same time. Thus in Virgil : ** Tango aras, mediosque ignes, et numina tester.'* And w^hen the solemn rites of religion could not be conveniently celebrated, the junction of the right hands was equally binding. — See Dextra. Fores, gates or doors of a house. — When any one by night knocked at the door, the porter was wont to demand how many w^re present. If, whether by night or day, he did not choose to admit them, not content wdth banging the door in their faces, — w^e invite the at- tention of modern porters to the laudable practice of their predecessors, — he beat them back with his staff ; and if that did not do, he ascended the w^all and threw stones at them. The Greeks had knockers to their doors; but we do not see that the Romans had. There were often statues on each side, which were thought to be preservatives against magic. On extraordinary oc- casions, they w^ere ornamented with garlands. Forum, marhet'place, public square. — No town, how- ever small, was without a forum, where the people might assemble. In the more ancient times, justice was administered there in the open air; and even when magnificent buildings were erected for the purpose, the place retained its name. Rome had seventeen of these fota or market-places, and three for tribunals, the former FRATRES ARVALES. FUSTUARIUM. 173 X. denominated venalia, the latter civilia. The fora civilia were also the rendezvous of persons who had private business, and still oftener of idle loungers. Fratres Arvales, twelve priests, instituted, we are told, by Romulus, to offer public sacrifices for the fer- tility of the fields, and a good harvest. They were elected for life, nor could they lose their character by captivity or exile. Frumentaria Res, corn, provisions, —Throughout the empire, the care of the corn was a national concern, being preserved in public granaries under the care of proper officers, called frumentarii, who distributed it both to the army and people, at such a price as was fixed by the praetor or president of the province. They were occupied too in buying corn, &c. from private in- dividuals, and collecting it in the shape of tax from all who were liable to the burthen — and several provinces furnished a given quantity yearly. The frumentatio, or distribution of corn, was often gratuitous, and was the most popular act of a sovereign. Augustus is said by Dio Cassius to have distributed at one time to 200,000 persons ; Tiberius relieved a greater number ; Severus far outdid even the latter. We must observe that frumentum, taken, as it usually is, in a generic sense, comprehended all the fruits of the earth. FuKEMBULi, rope-dancers, whose art is very ancient. — There were several species of rope-dancers : some turned round the cord in a perpetual circular motion like a wheel round its axle ; others glided along a cord on their breasts, using their arms and legs as rudders ; some ran along the rope horizontally, and with much agility ; others, not satisfied with this dexterity, in treading it, leaped, danced, and cut the most fantastic capers on it. Many of the emperors patronised the en- tertainment. FuNus. See Cadaver. FusTUARiuM, a scourging with staves^ — a punishment inflicted on the free only, slaves being beaten with virgcE, or rods. Yet the punishment was more severe ; it was r 17 i ARTS, ETC, OF HIE GREEKS AND ROMANS. often designedly fatal. Death by fustigation was anciently the lot of several offenders ; especially for thieves^ the perjured^ the sodomites^ and even those who were guilty of a repetition of inferior offences. The punishment was often inflicted on soldiers. No sooner did the tribune touch with his staff the ear of the guilty, than at the signal the other soldiers fell without mercy on the wretch, until he expired under their blows. Sometimes stones were used as well as staves. G. Galea, a head-piece, defensive like the cassis^ yet different from it in this, — that w^hile the cassis was of metal, the galea was of hides. It was evidently too heavy to be worn, except in battle ; for each army had its galeariiy a sort of military domestics {slaves, no doubt), whose duty it w^as to carry the galeae of the soldiers. Gallus, the cock. — Its crowing was, according to those wiseacres, a sure token of victory: for after fighting it crows, if victor ; if vanquished, it is silent. Cock-fighting was well known to the Athenians : once a year, at least, it was displayed with great pomp to the people, in commemoration of their triumphs over the Persians. The bird was sacred to Mars. Genius, a tutelary divinity, assigned to each person, nation, and place. — That one of these imaginary beings attended everv man. from his birth to his final de- parture from the world, was the opinion of all an- tiquity. What each genius w^as, w^hence his origin and nature, were subjects of doubtful inquiry to the most philosophic of the ancients ; in general, he was re- garded as the son of the gods, and the father of men. The name genius is certainly derived from gigno; and it implies that, according to the ancient notion, a genius presided over the work of generation. ^*^ Genius,'* says Festus, ^^ est deorum filius et parens honiinum, ex quo homines gignuntur ; et mens genius GENIUS. 175 nominatur, quia me genuit." Their nature was be- lieved to be intermediate between the divine and human : their bodies were aerial ; their intellect far superior to ours; and, though some of them were subject to human passions, the good genii could attain to a higher state of being. Were they subject also to death } Such, at least, was the opinion of Plutarch ; but it was not uni- formly entertained by others, nor did any two writers agree as to their nature. The general impression was, that they were visible to mortal eyes, but to eyes only of which the possessors were prepared for the vision by fasting, meditation, holiness, and prayer ; they were believed to have great influence over human actions : they instigated men to war, and were often at war with each other. Thus the genius of the city of Athens was generally at open hostilities with that of Sparta. Each person offered sacrifices to his tutelary genius, — seldom animals, the blood of which was not considered agree- able to one who was the protector of life, but wine, fruits, corn, oil, &c. : ^^ fcmde merum genio," says Persius. When the Romans entered a new region or city, they always revered the genius of the place* Many are the altars extant addressed genio loci, often in connection with a deity. Jovi Optimo, Maximo, et Genio Loci, is of high antiquity. Sometimes an altar was, in conformity with ancient custom, hastily erected from clods of earth, from the living sods : (C tu cespite vivo Pone focum, geniumque loci Faunumque Laremque Salso farre voca.'* The genius was doubtless of eastern derivation. Men- tion of it is more than once to be found in the Bible ; and the tutelary or guardian angels of the Roman Ca- thohc are its legitimate offspring. Of the notions en- tertained respecting it by the people of the East, enough may be seen in the Arabian Nights. — Often the same individual had two genii — a good and an evil one — J 76 ARTS, ETC. OP THE GREEKS AND ROMANS. which Strove for the dominion over him^ — the latter at least, appearing to him on extraordinary occasions. Thus Brutus, in the silence of night, saw his evil genius, which announced his destruction at Philippi. Often, however, this being did not appear in the human form, but in that of a serpent. ^^ Anguis apud gentiles/' says Isidore, '^ pro geniislocorumeranthabiti semper.'* Strange superstition that, where any snake that crawled in the brake or the grass might be taken for the divinity of the place! — The more subtle philosophers of Greece seem to have regarded man as the lowest link in the scale of intelligences. Next came the genii, whose ranks, as some beheved, were recruited by mortal spirits; at any rate, great men, like genii, might aspire to dei- fication. But the gods whom their virtues thus raised from an inferior order of intelligence, could never reach the dignity of the Dii Concentes, by whose counsel the universe was governed, or of the Dii Selecti, who were the special objects of adoration. — A few words on the origin of idolatry may not improperly be admitted here. That in the most ancient times, one God, sole, eternal, indivisible, the Creator of the universe, was acknow- ledged and worshipped, has been proved by the most profound investigators of antiquity : this was the uni- versal belief. Its existence may not only be traced in the tradition of all people, — those venerable relics of a patriarchal age, — but is expressly affirmed by some of the greatest philosophers of the heathen world. Nothing, indeed, could exceed the contempt with which some of them regarded the gods of the vulgar, though fear of danger often taught them to conceal the sentiment. The causes of idolatry were manifold, and were mostlv of Oriental growth. A great king regarded it as below his dignity to enter into the minute details of administration : he placed vicars or ministers over pro- vinces and cities, over the great departments of national polity. If the onerous charge was inapplicable to an earthly, it was still more so to the celestial Sovereign : GENIUS. 177 hence the subordinate deities which we perceive in the religious system of all nations, — the presiding genii of the Chaidieans, the numerous gods of Greece and Rome. The worship due to the Supreme alone was soon trans- ferred to those imaginary entities which, from func- tionaries, were transferred into so many independent chiefs, until the simple primeval notion of the divine unity was lost. The other causes of idolatry are foreign to our purpose : the one already assigned, which is in- disputably the most ancient and the most obvious, is of itself sufficient to account for the fact. In its origin, paganism, as a system, was simple. A few great divinities were placed in heaven to guide the affairs of the visible and invisible worlds. By degrees, each great planet, each law of nature, each region and city, nay each river, fountain, wood, tree, mineral, had its tutelary divinity. The laws of nature were often inexplicable ; what more obvious than to infer that each was subject to a superior power ? As the ideas of men became more precise and refined, gods were placed over human faculties and passions : thus the understanding and the will, love and revenge, were the ofFsprmg of cer- tain deities. Mere abstractions were similarly personi- fied, until the empire of reason, of sentiments, and of morals, was as much pervaded as earth, air, and ocean, with these visionary beings. — But might not men them- selves attain to that mysterious dignity ? might they not become at least a sort of demigods, — a distinction earned by some uncommon merit? In all countries we find instances of deification. Nor need this surprise. The human mind is naturally prone to exaggeration, the human heart to be led astray by the intensity of its own feelings. Thus he who, during life, proved himself a benefactor to his countrymen, who taught them useful arts, or freed them from some impending evil, would be regarded with affectionate admiration by his contem- poj aries ; and time, which so constantly increases every object, would convert a great exploit, a shining virtue VOL. II. N 178 ARTS^ ETC. OF THE GREEKS AND ROMANS. into a divine effort. But the worst part of the evil was, that men were often deified for brute valour, unaccom- panied by those elevated mental qualities which form the noblest distinction of the hero. It may, however, be observed that they were always reverenced for the quaUty most wanted in a state. If a district were in- fested by wild beasts, or by predatory savages, a Her- cules arose to free it. If a country required laws, a Minos established them. If the culture of the grape was unknown, a Bacchus appeared to teach it. Such benefactors, it was believed, deserved, as they certainly obtained, the peculiar favour of heaven — rewards which far transcended those bestowed on other men. In most cases, however, each was held to be a god incarnate, or at least the offspring of one. As the generation of the gods was a received tenet ; as the junction of the deity with a mortal w^as held to produce the usual effect ; imagination would have Uttle difficulty in the fihation of a benefactor. And most nations were eager to pro- claim a god as their founder. When one laid claim to the honour, the example was speedily followed hy others with equal appearance of justice. Hence the prodigious number of divinities; heaven and hell, the earth and the planets, air and ocean, the whole frame of nature, every part of the universe visible and invisible, even the realms of imagination, being pervaded by them. Hence idolatry became a complicated system, endless in its forms of worship, as in its objects. It has indeed been contended, that even in the most unenlightened times, men — except, perhaps, the grossest in comprehension — were never so absurd as to receive this almost infinite plurality of deities : that each derived its name from its being a distinct manifestation of the divine energy ; that the Neptune of the sea, the Apollo of the sun, the Minerva of the understanding, the Jove of the thunder, were mere denominations, founded on the distinct modes in which the Supreme manifests himself to the world: in short, that those enviable deno- minations were but so many imaginative terms for the r GLADIATOR. I79 emanations of the all-pervading Deity ; and that under each distinct emanation this deity might be worshipped without the charge of idolatry. But this hypothesis is too refined to be just, and is contrary to experience. The known progress of the human mind is from sen- sual to ideal, not from the ideal to the sensual ; philo- sophy is the end, not the beginning, of knowledge. If that great patriarchal truth, the unity of the Godhead was obscured by successive ages of ignorance, it could be regained only by an opposite and equally laborious process of the intellect. And even when thus recovered, it could not be communicated without danger to the brutal multitude. Gladiator, a public combatant in the circus. — ^^ Est qui in arena, populo spec tan te, pugnavit," saysQuintilian. Gladiators appear first to have been used at funerals : when captives were no longer immolated on the sepul- chres of the great, they were commanded to fight with one another; since it was a universal behef of antiquity that the shades of heroes delighted in blood. Junius Brutus is said by Livy to have been the first Roman who paid the mistaken duty to the shade of his father. During the early period of the republic, this horrible custom of men faUing by the hands of each other was observed only at the funerals of illustrious public men ; but in the sequel, private individuals left in their last will directions concerning it. They could not obtain captives ; but there were wretches enough, who, for hire, were wilhng to enter the mortal hsts ; they were often indeed slaves, whom the hope of enfranchisement drew into the list; but, — and this fact speaks volumes as to the character of the Roman people, — the exercise had soon its organised professors. Hence gladiators were of two kinds : coacti^ or forced, as were prisoners of war^ and many culprits who were judicially condemned to the lists; and the vo/i/n^anV, whose indigence, or the prospect of some great advantage, or the mere love of fame, allured to the circus. The professional gladiators formed a college : some maintained at the public ex- J^ 2 I 180 ARTS^ ETC. OF THE GREEKS AND ROMANg. pense, for the diversion of the Roman people ; some at the expense of rich individuals, for the entertainment of the people or of their friends. Each spiectacle was pompously proclaimed before the day, that all who chose might be present. In general, the wretched men fought in separate and successive couples^ so as to prolong the enjoyment of the ferocious mob. Their arming, their preludial exercises, their serious onsets, were regulated by sound of trumpet. When one was wounded, or threw down his arms, the mere yielding did not neces- sarily save his life : this depended on the personage who gave the entertainment (editor), or on that of the spec- tators. If his life were to be saved, the populace held forth the hand with the thumb bent; if he w^ere doomed to death, the thumb was raised. When the people refused the life of a gladiator, they were called infesti — probably because they thought he had not fought w^ell enough. But it was their pleasure to witness executions. On one occasion, Caesar rescued by force many of these unhappy wretches from the fate which the thumb of the infesti had decreed against them. When the unhappy victims perceived the fatal sign, many of them quietly held out their necks to the sword. The emperors, however, generally spared the vanquished, and allowed him to depart. — Infamous as was the pro- fession of gladiator in the best times of the republic — under the kings it was unknown — in the sequel it was sometimes exercised by nobles and princes, by knights and senators. In one spectacle, 600 knights and 400 senators w^ere pitched by Nero against one another. Many voluntarily offered themselves in the hope of pleasing the brute : even emperors like Commodus were not backward to appear on the arena ; nay, even women were known to forget alike the modesty and humanity of the sex, and to contend Hke she- wolves. The worst feature of the Roman character is to be found in the fact that gladiators w^ere not present merely at funerals or public spectacles : they were often admitted, that the sight of their streaming blood and ghastly wounds I GYMNASIUM, H.EREDITAS. 181 r might whet the appetite of guests at festive enter- tainments. " Quin etiam exhilarare viris convivia csede Mos olim, et miscere epulis spectacula dira Certantum ferro, saepe et super ipsa cadentum Pocula, respersis non parco sanguine mensis " SiL. Ital. And Strabo informs us that the number of pairs of gladiators at a private entertainment was great or less according to the comparative dignity of the occasion. The progress of Christianity was fatal to this accursed evil, as that religion must ever be where generally ad- mitted. Constantino the Great proscribed it ; but it was not completely extirpated before the reign of Honorius. Gymnasium, originally meant a place where the can- didates for victory in the exercises of wrestling, boxing, racing, quoiting, &c. contended naked. The custom and the nudity were of Lacedaemonian origin. The name was subsequently apphed to the pubhc baths, and even to the academies where philosophy and literature were taught. The latter were generally adorned with statues of Mercury and of Minerva. But the ordinary signification of the word regards the exercises of the body, and of the arts connected with war. They were strictly inculcated by philosophers, from their tendency to promote the health of men ; and they were patronised by governments, from their tendency to foster a war- like disposition. Hence the prevalence of public games, in which the applause of the spectators w^as the great stimulus to action. Of the antiquity of such bodily ex- ercises we have proof in the funeral of Patroclus, so graphically described by the father of song. H. H^REDiTAs. — When a man died intestate, his sub- stance was divided into twelve parts, which in the ag- gregate were styled As^ separately uncia. Hence the 1S2 AFxTS^ ETC. OP THE GREEKS AND ROMANS, meaning of two expressions so frequent in Latin writers : 1. Instituere hceredem ex uncia, signified to bequeath to a person the twelfth part of his property ; and, 2, Instituere hceredem in assem, denoted the appointment of the person as heir to all the property. This is all that need be said of the word : the particular laws of succession would require a volume to develope. Hedera, ivy, a plant consecrated to Bacchus (see Bacchanalia), which, as it is always green, may well designate immortality. Hence Horace : ** Me doctarum hederae praiinia frontium Diis iniscent superis." This is more probable than another reason why poets wore ivy chaplets, — that as they were like the Bacchffi, they must be provided with the same distinction. HoR.E, hours, a division of time unknown to the ancient Romans during 300 years: their only di- vision, — the only one, at least, recognised in the Twelve Tables — were the rising and setthig sun. But where the different parts of the day had their various duties, a more artificial means of computation was ne- cessary. The invention of the sun-dial, divided into twelve parts — an invention apparently due to the Baby- lonians — was a great convenience. But it was long de- fective ; for as the first hour commenced with the rising, and the twelfth ended with the setting sun, the length of each hour in summer was much greater than in winter. Of necessity, the same inconvenience attended the division of the nocturnal hours, according to the season. But the sixth hour of the day might be trusted,, for the sun was always in the meridian. The twelve hours of the day were generally classed under four divi- sions of three hours each, — primes, tierces, sexts, and nones, — the primes commencing at six, the tierces at nine, the sexts at twelve, the nones at three o'clock p. m. In like manner, the twelve hours of the night were classed under four vigils or watches,— the first, second, third, and fourth,— commencing at six, nine, twelve, and three o'clock respectively. In the sequel, when astro- HOROLOGIUM, HOSPITALITAS. 183 norny was better understood, the hours both of the day and night were rendered equal. — See Annus. HoROLOGiuM, any machine which served to distin- guish the hours by day or night. — The most ancient was the dial, which, as we have already observed, had its defects ; since, by dividing the day from the rising to the setting sun into twelve parts, whether in summer or winter, the hour was of very unequal magnitude. These dials, however, could be used only in public situations : to measure time for domestic purposes, the Clepsydra (see the word) was invented. The clock was wholly unknown to the ancients. HospiTALiTAs, a virtue in great esteem amongst die ancients. — In every respectable house were apartm^ents built for the reception of strangers. When a traveller arrived, nobody asked him his country, his name, or his business ; but by the master of the house, if he bore the appearance of rank, or by a domestic, if of inferior as- pect, he was taken by the hand and conducted into the house. The first care was to show him to the bath, where the daughters or servants of the host attended him : he w^as next taken to the table : and during the whole of his stay he was provided with appropriate vest- ments from the wardrobe of the host, who until the tenth day, had no right to ask any question of his guests. This attention to a great duty was of incalcu- lable utility at a time when there were no houses to en- tertain travellers or strangers. And the obligation to receive them was one of religion. They were believed to be under the protection of certain gods, who would revenge any injury done to them : " 'Tis what the gods require: those gods revere; The poor and stranger are their constant care. To Jove their cause and their revenge belongs ; He wanders with them, and he feels their wrongs," Homer, Pope*5 Trans* And it was the universal opinion of antiquity, that the gods themselves sometimes travelled under the human form, to prove the hospitality of men. The entertain- N 4 { >^l 184 ARTS^ ETC. OF THE GREEKS AND ROMANS. ment of a giiest created a lioly tie between him and hiB host. Salt was first placed before him ; a divine symbol, yet mysterious. As it preserved flesh from corruption, was it also intended to preserve the good will of both ? or that^ as it was used in lustrations^ so it was em- blematical of the purity which should connect hearts ? However this be, we know, that it was holy^Bgio^ aX^, U^oq d\q; that conversation under the same roof added to the bond ; and that an alliance was thus formed be- tween host and guest, stronger in many cases than the ties of blood. That both parties might know and re- spect the alliance, a token was mutually conferred, and was often handed down from father to son, in memory of the obligation. The token was various: in later times a die was split, and half was kept by each person : he placed it in his treasury, rightly regarding it as one of his choicest possessions. The sight, or the mention of the token, or the relation of the circumstance which had given rise to it, even if the alliance had been contracted a century before, seldom failed to suspend animosity: it even wrested the arms from the grasp of combatants on the field of battle. Thus Glaucus and Diomed, from a regard to the feasting which had connected their ancestors ffineus and Bellerophon, became friends on the plains of Troy. The passage in which Diomed relates the event to Glaucus is well worthy of perusal :' " Know, chief, our grandsires have heen guests of old, CEneus tlie strong, Bellerophon the bold : Our ancient seat his honoured presence graced. Where twenty days in genial rites he pass'd. The parting heroes mutual presents left : A golden goblet was thy grandsire's gift; (Eneus a belt of matchless work bestow'd, I'hat rich with Tyrian dye refulgent glow'd. This from his pledge I learn'd, which, safely stored Among my treasures, still adorns my board." Homer, Pope's Trans. The dye, which was termed Tessera hospitalis, was in use at Rome, and we may add throughout Italy. Thus Plautus : HOSTIA^ HUMATIO. 185 rj/. '- " Ag* Siquidem tu Antidamse hie quaeris adoptativum, Ego sum ipsus, quern tu quaeris. P. Hem 1 quid ego audio? Ag' Antidamae gnatum me esse. P. Si ita est, tesseram Conferre si vis hospitalem, meam attuli. Ag. Agedum, hue ostende : est par probe ; nam habeo domi, P. O mi hospes, salve multum ! nam mihi tuus pater, Pater tuus ergo, hospes Antidamas fuit ; Haec mihi hospitalis tessera cum illo olim fuit." HosTiA, the animal sacrificed to the gods, though often confounded with victima, differed from it in seve- ral respects. — L The hostia was immolated before ad- vancing against the enemy^ to entreat tlieir aid in the approaching contest ; the victima^ after the return, in token of thanksgiving. 2. The hostia could be offered by any one ; the victirrm by the conqueror only. 3. The hostia was generally smaller than the victima — being a sheep, or lamb, or kid, while the other was one of the larger cattle. In both cases the animals were to be without spot or blemish, as beautiful as possible, and fat. Their heads were adorned with ribands, or garlands ; they were voluntarily, that is, without beating or driv- ing, to approach the altar ; a cake of meal and salt was thrown on the victim ; and this was called immolatio^ from mola salsa ^ the name given to the cake ; and the cake itself, when placed on the victim, was denominated mactay an abbreviation of 7nagis aucta. The killing of the animal was called mactarCy to escape the ominous word jugular e, — See A gone. HuMATio, burial of the dead, the most ancient way in which human corpses were removed from the sight of the world. The old Romans buried their kindred in their own houses, but a law of the Twelve Tables prohibited burial in towns. The Vestal virgins, however, were allowed the honour, and it was sometimes con- ceded to those who had deserved well of their country, until combustion succeeded interment. After the abo- lition of burning by the Christian emperors, humation was again practised. — - See Cadaver. B»^a(k.Ai^i>'4>«^-$?>.' - 186 AfiTS, ETC. C^F THE GREEKS AND R03IAXS. I. J. Janua, a gate or door. See Fores. Idus, ides. See Annus. Jentaculum^ breakfast. See Ccenum. Ignis, fire, — This word is often taken for the guards, or centinels^ because they sat round a fire. Hence the expression of Tacitus, invalidi ignes^ to denote a weak or small guard. When the fire of a domestic hearth was extinguished — a calamity of rare occurrence — the loss could be repaired from the hearth of another ; refusal in such a case being considered as equally inhospitable and inhuman. But it could not, without sacrilege, be repaired from the altars. — The flame of fire lay within the province of the augurs; and the de- gree of its ascent betokened the comparative prosperity about to fall on those w^ho consulted the art. Fire too, like salt, w^as an emblem of purification ; a notion of Magian origin. Those, for instance, who had attended a funeral — those especially w^ho had touched a corpse — marched through or over fire on their return. ^^ Funus prosecuti,'* says Festus, ^^redeuntis, ignem supergradia- batur aqua aspersi, quod purgationis genus super., stitionem vocabant." Among several nations, especially the Persians, fire was a symbol of the divinity : hence the custom of bearing it before their kings, — a custom well known in Rome^ under the emperors. Numa, if such a person ever existed, introduced the worship of fire into Rome ; he built a temple to Vesta, furnished, not with images, but a perpetual fire, the nourishment of which w^as confided to certain virgins, called Vestals, who assumed the irrevocable obligation of chastity. The fire was a pure element ; purity, therefore, was exacted from its priestesses, who like it w^ere to be sterile. This perpetual element, if through the neg- ligence of the Vestals suffered to expire, could be re- kindled only by the rays of the sun: just as the earth, like Vesta, derived its principle of fecundity from the 1 k 1 /■ ! i- '4 ILLUSTRIS, IMAGO. 187 eternal fire believed to burn at its centre. This eternal Vestal fire, which was brought by iEneas from Troy, <« ^^ternumque adytis effert penetralibus ignem,*' was believed to be a symbol of the duration assigned by the gods to the Roman state. It was several times extinct, — a circumstance portentous of ruin; nor, though the guardian virgin was whipped to death, and a new supply of the element procured from the source of all heat, could the superstitious dread be removed. Illustris, an adjective originally applied to any one distinguished, whether in a good or bad sense : it was a})plied to knaves and prostitutes, as well as to heroes and philosophers. It was subsequently restricted ; and, by Constantino, was made to form a separate dignity, being assigned to the four highest functionaries of the senate the praetorian prefects. ^^ Primi ordines sena- torum," says Isidore, ''dicuntur illastres^ secundi spectabiles^ tertii clarissimu' — See Clarus. Imago, an image, representation, or bust of ancestors ill stone, wood, metal, or wax, which was preserved by certain Romans in the vestibule of their houses, and on solemn occasions carried in procession. — He only %vho had filled a high office in the magistracy, was entitled to leave his image to his descendants. Thus Caesar boasts of the jus imaginis, which, with other honours, his elec- tion as sedile secured to him. '' Ego me, ob axlilitatem delatam, adoptum esse inteUigo antiquiorem in senatu sententiae dicendae locum, togam, praetextam, sellam curulem, jus imaginis, ad memoriam posteritatis prodendam." The image was placed in the atrium, or entrance hall, of the house, enclosed in cases of wood, which on solemn occasions were opened, that the image might be adorned with flowers, and invested in suitable garments. In funeral processions, the images were usually placed on couches, and borne along with solemnity. That of tlie reigning emperor, which appears to have been an effigies on a small scale, m me- dallion, was always attached to the end of a long pike. 188 ARTS^ ETC. OF THE GREEKS AND ROMANS. and carried, like our modern ensigns, by an officer. It was always saluted by every passenger ; even Artabanes, king of the Parthians, '^ Aquilas et signa Romaiia, Caesarumque imagines adoravit." When any one was made Augustus, or even Caesar, his image was sent throughout the empire to be saluted, or, if the reader will, adored. The soldiers swore by the image of the sovereign ; and when they wished to revolt, they began by insulting it, bearing it from its place, and tramphng it under foot. Portraits in wax — eocpressi cerd vultus — of the emperors, were to be found, not only in public places, but in private houses. They were consecrated like the images of the gods, and after this ceremony they could not be sold without the penalty of high treason. Smaller ones, in the form of medals, w^ere even worn on the rings (see Annulus), of individuals ; but in this case much precaution was required, lest the finger, or even hand, which wore it, should be caught employed in any mean or filthy office. Delators were every where present, and the most innocent actions might be fatal. In the reign of Tiberius, a praetor, half drunk, proceeded to seize a certain utensil with the hand on which the imperial image was visible ; and one of the guests immediately directed the attention of the rest to the circumstance, with the view of destroying the praetor ; but a faithful slave, suspicious of the de- sign, dexterously removed it before it could be polluted by contact with the utensil, and saved his master's life by sliowing it to the company. The images of deceased lovers, husbands, or wives, were often placed in the bedchamber; of philosophers, in the library. And little images of the gods were often carried by travellers, that, on the return of their festival day, the idolatrous rites might be paid to them. Immunes Militia, those who were exempted from all military duties, other than that ^of fighting the enemy ; from the amstruction, the fortifications of cities, the opening of roads, the digging of trenches, &c. The Milites immunes weie of two kinds: those who by * INDIGETES. ITER. 189 tbeir dignity, as tribunes, centurions, &c. were exempted from the labour ; and the evocati (see the word), or veterans, who returned to the standard for a specific purpose. But, unfortunately for the Roman discipline, the generals, the tribunes, and even the centurions, were successively authorised to grant exemptions, which were multiplied to an extent fatal to the service. Money could at any time purchase what, originally, necessity only conceded. Indigetes, local gods y once mortals, but deified for their great actions. The name seems to have been given to them for two reasons ; ^^ first, because," says Servius, ^^ nuUius rei egerit," or because '^nos eorum indigeamus." Inferi^, sacrifices for the dead, and offered to the infernal gods ; sacrrficia quce diis manihus inferebant. Bulls, oxen, sheep, with libations of wine, milk, and blood, were thrown on the funeral pyre. — See Cadaver. Insula, not only signified an island, but an isolated house, surrounded with walls, and having only one entrance gate. — Hence the meaning of an expression common in the Roman law, Exilium in insulam. Inter C^sa et Porrecta. — The time which in- tervened between the dragging of the quivering entrails from the body of the victim and their consignment by the hand of the sacrificer to the fire on the altar ; that is, the time during which they were inspected. The expression became proverbially applicable in other cases. Iter, a journey, or voyage. — The Greeks were fond of travelling, if we except the Spartans, who were too stupid to learn any thing, and too vain to think any thing out of Sparta worth learning. In this spirit Lycurgus forbade them to travel, lest they should be corrupted : the true reason was, lest they should perceive the comforts and liberties of other people, and should despise their own country. Both in Greece and Rome, travelling was anciently a matter of much im- portance. Prayers were offered to the deities of the place about to be left ; to those of the places through which the traveller had to pass ; to those of the city or '< 190 ARTS, ETC. OF THE GREEKS AND ROMANS. country where his journey terminated. Of these di- vinities, Mercury and Hecate were the chief. For voyages, Neptune, Thetis, Glaucus, Castor and Pollux, were invoked ; and if the circumstances of the traveller permitted, a sacrifice v»'as offered to each. ^' It is commonly affirmed, upon the authority of Luitprand, that the Itinerary was made by order of Antoninus Pius ; but that copyists have loaded it with errors. Thus they; but there have been great disputes about the authors of Antonine's Itinerary. Vegetius notes, that it was a necessary part of a general's ap* paratus to have a written account of the distance of the places, the quality of the rivers, roads, hills, &c. and to have them not only written, but painted. Of this kind was the map of the world, made by Agrippa, of which Pliny speaks ; and the Peutinger Tables, pub- lished by IVIarcus Velserus, written in the fifteenth year of Theodosius. Ambrose observes, that the soldier on his march did not take the road which pleased himself, or even the nearest way, but received his route from the general, w^here provision, lodging, &c. were provided for him. If he took another road, he lost his annona and billet. Nor do the itineraries show the shortest ways, but the roads which lay fittest for business, es- pecially for the Roman magistrates taking their progress through the cities and colonies for the administration of justice. * JuGUM, a yoke, sl piece of wood to which the oxen at the plough were tied. — The word, how^ever, is here noticed, only from the usage of the Romans in making their conquered enemies pass sub jugum. Two stakes were driven into the ground ; a third was fastened horizontally to the top of both, so as to form a passage resembling a door, through which the captives were made to pass. A similar custom is said to have pre- vailed at marriage ; the bridegroom and bride passing \mder the yoke, in token of the burthen which the • From Fosbrooke's Encyclopaedia of Antiquities^ vol. i. pp. 277, 278. JURABIENTUM, JUS. 191 1 *1 m (1 marriage life imposed on both : hence the term con- jugium, the bearing of the yoke together. JuRAMENTUM, 071 ocithy which was one of rehgious obligation. — In taking it, the person often stood before the altar, which he touched with bis right hand. The gods, and heroes raised to the rank of gods, were attested until the time of Caesar, when the health and genius (see the word) of the sovereign were invoked. Tiberius forbade this formula ; but it was revived by Caligula, who made the full senate swear by the health and genius of his horse, which he intended to admit — and which, in fact, deserved the distinction quite as well as himself — his colleague in the consulship. Jus, law, justice ; Jurisdictio, the right or power of exercising that law within certain Hmitations. — This was always an important office, even where the laws were clearly defined, much more where something was left to the interpretation of the presiding judge. An- ciently it was exercised by the Roman kings : they were succeeded by the consuls ; subordinate to whom were the decemvirs, a^diles, curules, and the praetors: the em- perors seldom troubled themselves with the painful and laborious office; since, in more important cases, they assumed the privilege of hearing appeals, and conse- quently of judging in the last resort. The functions of the prator were so judicial, that he could not leave the seat of his jurisdiction tnore than ten days together. His powers were contained in the three formidable words. Do, Dico, Addico. The first denoted that he had authority over the persons and property, in litigation; the second, that his sentence was sovereign, as in many cases it was — no appeal being allowed before the imperial sway, nor even then except in certain defined cases ; the third, that he had power to execute his decisions. The jurisdiction of the aediles was confined to tlie objects that lay within their competency as magistrates invested with a certain charge. (See JEdilis.) Tt was only on certain days {dies fasti) that the judges could sit in the tribunals. As soon as the praetor, for instance^ ^,0^" ^ - '^ mrm -:wm^:^^^^ " 192 ABTS^ ETC. OF THK GREEKS AND ROMANS. appeared in courts the accensus (see the word) proclaimed that it was the third hour (nine o'clock a. m., before which no public business could be transacted), and the advocates commenced their pleadings. In the Roman law there were several species of Jus. There was the Jus CUentelce (see Cliens) ; the Jus Coloniarum (see Colonia) ; the Jus Italicum, or the law of the Italian cities in alliance with Rome; the Jus Latium, peculiar to the Latin people^ who were also in alliance with the same state ; the Jus Quiritium, which was the most favourable of all^ and the privileges of which were confined to the citizens of Rome (see Civis) ; and there were other species of Jus, not con- fined to people^ but to the classes and circumstances of the same people. The Jus Liberorum assured an honourable precedency to the magistrate who had the most children ; and where citizens were candidates for an office^ it procured the election of him who, ccBteris paribus, had the same advantage in number of offspring. The Jus Maritale was the power of life and death, which, in the infancy of the Roman state, was left to the husband over the adulterous or drunken wife. The Jus Patrium (see Filius), was that no less unbounded of parents over their children. K, Kalends. See Annus, L. Lac, milk, — This was of frequent use in ancient sacrifices. ^^ Verum et diis lacte rustici, multaeque gentes supplicant. Romulum lacte non vino, libasse indicio sunt sacra ab eo constituta. Victimae invergunt mulieres Ruminae sacrificantes, vinum non adhibent: ruma enim Latinis mammam significat, et ruminalem ficum earn appellant, ad quam lupa mammam Romulo praebuit : ergo Runiina, id est lactentibus, ac nutricibus. LAcus. igs et alendis pueris praefecta, merum non admittit, quod est infantibus perniciosum." It was offered to Ceres by the husbandmen at the conclusion of the harvest ; and was used instead of wine in the sacrifices of Mercury, and from this circumstance was called the sober feast. We also read of milk used in celebrating the rites of the goddesses Fortuna and Nox. To the former goddess it was offered in the month of April, together with the poppy, frankincense, and honey. As a libation it was equally acceptable to the Sylvan deities, and to Pluto, whose offerings consisted of barren cattle, milk, and honey. It was used in sacrificing to Pales, the goddess of shepherds and of fodder; and was offered to the infernal gods. Lacus. — A lake is a receptacle of running water. ^^Lacus, lacuna magna, ubi aqua contineri potest," as in a common river. ''Lacus est quod perpetuam habet aquam/' This term comprehended not only great reservoirs, but was applied also to every fountain which possessed a basin capable of receiving and containing water, and even to those pools used for watering the cattle. "Decrevit ut ad lacum, ubi adaquari solebat, duceretur capite involuto." '^Agrippain aedihtate sua adjecta Virgine aqua, caeteris corrivatis, atque emendatis, lacus Dec fecit, praeterea salientes cv, castella cxxx. In the first years of the commonwealth, before the pre- valence of luxury among the Romans, the water in- tended for the private use of the citizens was taken from the lakes only; and in most cases that alone was used, which had overflowed the margin of the lake, and fallen upon the ground. "Apud antiques omnis aqua in publicos usus erogabatur, legeque cautum fuit : ne quis privatus ducat aquam, quae ex lacu humum ac- cedit." In after-times, many cisterns were constructed in the city, which were called dividicula. From these the lakes and baths were filled, and from these the water was taken which was used for irrigating the soil. Cattle drank from the lake, linen was washed in it, VOL. II. o 19'^ ARTS, ETC. OF THE GREEKS AND ROMANS. and its waters were made subservient to cleanliness in various ways. The ancients frequently held banquets upon the lakes.* ^^ Convivatus est et super emissarium Fucini lacus/'t ^' Quin et convivium effluvio lacus appositum magna formidine cunctos affecit/':j: Lamijf.. — The Lamice were spectres, commonly re- presented under the forms of graceful women^ who by their beauty attracted young men^ to devour them. By this name witches also were called^ either because they appeared, like the Lamice, in a shape not their own, or because they were supposed to hold converse with the dead. Lampas (or Lucernd), a lamp, — The invention was long posterior to the Homeric times. Torches only were in use, and then consisting merely of a resinous branch. The period when lamps were first used, can- not be ascertained. We know that it must have been ancient, for Vulcan was believed to have taught the art of making them to man ; Minerva to have shown the use of oil; and Prometheus to have brought fire from heaven to earth. Hence the feast of the lamps among the Athenians, who lighted a great number in honour of the three. Lamps were first invented by the Egyptians ; — ^^ Lucernas accendere primi omnium JEgyptii docuerunt. ^gyptii et lucernas primi accendere docuerunt," say two ancient writers. Hence the Festum Lucernarum, or Feast of Lamps, first mentioned by Herodotus. Herodotus does not mention the origin of this ceremony, because, being a heathen, he was unwilling to speak of the plague which the Egyptians suffered by the judgment of God.^ In that night, all the Egyptians lighted their lamps {lucerncp), rising up to mourn the destruction of their first-born, and to urge the Hebrews to flee from Egypt, lest the further vengeance of their God should fall upon them. Hence, throughout the whole land LAMPAS. 195 ♦ Suet. Claud, c. 32. n. 2. X Piut. Sympos. iv. 4. f Tacit. Ann. xii. 57. 3. \ Sec Exod. ch. xii. ver. 29—33. ( of Egypt, the festival accensio lucernarum was annually celebrated to perpetuate the memory of that night in which the divine displeasure was so awfully manifest. The lucerncB were made of those materials which were able to resist the violence of the flame — such as gold, silver, brass, stone, &c. These lamps were not large, but the shape was varied, according to the caprice of the maker. Some were spherical, others v;ere of an obiong shape, square, or triangular, &c. Many were formed with single wicks, others with double ; and while some were found with many wicks, a few were entirely destitute, containing oil only. Many omens were de- duced from their light : " Nee nocturna quidem carpentes pensa puellae Nescivere hyemem : testa cum ardente viderent Scintillare oleum, et putres concrescere fungos." ViRG. For the purpose of divining, they were accustomed to pour wine into them : " Seu voluit tangi parca lucerna mero." Prop. The lucerncd, by which windows and doors were orna- mented, were suspended in the air by small chains. So Juvenal elegantly says, '^ Januam operiri lucernis." Many of these bronze lamps were used in Italy. Thev were suspended by the ancients from the sacred trees, and were used on every occasion, especially on those of rejoicing. Thus, when the master of the house returned from a journey, he always found his lamps lighted, and the whole house brilliantly illuminated. The lucernce used at festive entertainments were splendid, as sufficiently appears from the descriptions of them by Cicero, Sue- tonius, and others. There were various species of lamps — some of costly materials and workmanship — in use among the ancients. There were the lucerncd conviviales, which burned on the table ; the cubiculareSy which performed the use of our rushlights ; the meri- tricicBy which courtesans suspended over their wretched abodes. The most remarkable were the lucernce sepvl^ o 2 '}' ; ipG ARTS^ ETC. OF THE GREEKS AND ROMANS. ' chrales, of which so many have been found in ancient tombs. ^V^ere they designed to burn perpetually.^ The question would be absurd^ unless the superstitious people supposed they could be supernaturally fed. We SLve, however^ gravely assured^ that on opening several tombs^ which must have been closed many hundreds of years, lamps were found burning, but that all were extinguished on the admission of air. ^^ Winckelman places the lamps among the most curious utensils found at Herculaneum. In the number of those of pottery, the largest part represent a boat, with seven moutlis or beaks on each side, in order to place a like number of matches. The vase used to pour oil into these earthen lamps, resembles a small round bark with a close deck. Its beak is sharp, and at the opposite end is a little hollow dish, with a hole, for pouring in the oil. Among those of bronze, at the hinder end of one of the largest, is a bat with extended wings, which may be regarded as an emblem of night. The deUcate tissue of the wings of that animal, the tendons, the veins, and the skin, are admirably wrought. Upon another of these lamps is a mouse, which appears to watch the moment when it may lick up the oil ; and, upon another lamp, is a rabbit browsing upon herbs. But the most splendid is one with a bronze pedestal and square base, upon which is a naked child two palms high. In one hand this child holds a lamp, suspended by three chains four times entwined ; and in the other, another chain formed like the first, to which is attached the crook for disposing the match. Near the child is a column with spiral convolutions, and, instead of a capital, a mask, which serves for a lamp. The wick proceeded from the mouth, and the oil was poured in by a hole upon the top of the head, which hole was closed by a small plate or stopper w^ith a hinge. Etrus- can lamps, he adds, are very rare, but mentions one in the form of a theatrical mask. The wicks were made of tow (trimmed by an acus ox festuca, or the hand), of a plant called thruallis ; of inferior flax, next to the bark, • - a ' -T- ■ — ;— y J - ^ ' * i LANA. 197 which was combed with iron hooks, till all the bark was stripped ofF. In Sicily they used a kind of bitumen instead of oil. In subsequent ages we find the classical hilychniSy lucerna ; the pharus, or pharum^ round, with a certain number of lights (one in the church of St. Peter, in the form of a cross, had 370 candles) ; some- times made of silver, some in the form of a crown, others in that of a cross or net, or, as Pliny describes one, bearing fruit. Latterly they were so made, that there hung from them canthari, or dishes, in which were either candles or lamps. In the fourteenth century we find them of glass (among the Anglo-Saxons rare), drawn up and down with cords, lit with paper, with dishes under them. A kind of tallow, or kitchen stuff, was used from the days of Augustine. Both lamps and candles were used by the Irish in 1375.* Lana^ wool. — Areas instructed his countrymen in the art of preparing wool, showing by what methods it might be woven and figured. Posterity, in gratitude for his favours, decreed him worthy of divine honours, and appointed him a place in the number of the con- stellations. ^^ Lana laudatissima Apula, et quae in Italia Grseci pecoris appellatur, alibi Italica. Tertinm locum Milesia obtinet. Colorum plura genera : quippe cum desint etiam nomina eis, quas nativas appellant aliquot modis. Hispania nigri velleris prjecipuas habet. PoUentia juxta Alpes cani : Asia rutili, quas Erythrseas vocant : item Baetica : Canusium fulvi : Tarentum et suae pulhginis. Istriae, Liburniaeque pilo proprior^ quam lanae, pexis aliena vestibus, et quam sola ars scutulato textu commendat in Lusitania."t Thus in Apulia, the favourite colour was white; in Spain, black j in Pollentia, red ; while, among the Tarentines, brown was most esteemed. The most honourable ma- trons disdained not to be employed in its manufacture : Roman history affords many examples of this. Phae- drus, speaking of a certain opulent lady, has these * Fosbrooke's Encyclopedia of Antiquities, vol i. pp. 281, 282. t Pliny. o 3 198 ARTS, ETC. OF THE GREEKS AND ROMANS, »f words : ^^ At alteram lanificam, trugi, et rusticam. And because this was considered a woman's art, the newly married bride was accustomed to sit on a sheep- skin ; and for the same reason, a fleece was suspended at the bridegroom's door. Hence in the epitaph of an ancient Roman lady we read : " Hoc est sepulcrum baud pulcrum pulcrai feminae... Domum servavit, lanam fecit." And in Auson. Parental, ii. 3. : *' Morigera? uxoris, virtus cui contigit omnis Faina piidicitiae, lanificac manus. Cujus si probitas, si forma, et fama fidesque, Morigeraj uxoris, lanificaeque manus.** The woof was employed in divination for the dis- covery of theft. Heralds were ornamented with wool. "^ Lanx. — The vessel bearing this name was broad and deep, but yet more shallow than the patina^ and was used for animal food either roasted or boiled : '' Lancibus et splendidissimis canistris non olusculis nos soles pascere."'!' " Interea dum isti certant in popinam divertundum est mihi : Lances detergam omnes, omnesque trullas hauriam. ** Plaut. " In carnario fortasse dicis. P. H. Imo in lancibus." Ibid. " Aspicc, quam magno distendat pectore lancem Quae fertur domino, squilla, et quibus undique septa Asparagis. Juv. Lances ^vete variously shaped : not broad only, but deep : " Sic implet gapbatas, parosidasque, Et leves scutulas, cavasque lances.'* Mart. Many were square, and some round * Minos in Alciat. Emblem. 195. t Cicero. LAPIS, LARARIUM. " Umber, et iligna nutritus glande, rotundas Curvet aper lances carnem vitantis inertem.** 199 Hop When ornamented with gold they were called chry- sendeta « Immodici tibi flava tegunt chrysendeta mulsi.** Mart. ' Ponuntur semper chrysendeta Calpetiano. )) Ibid, By some, these vessels are thought to have been richly adorned with gems. Plutarch : ES&jparo %puo-£j/8fToy er/xcrpaySov rav TtoXvTSAccv. Pliny also mentions this kind of vessel : ^^ Nee hoc fuit satis, turba gemmaruni potamus, et smaragdis teximus calices : ac temulenti^e causa tenere Indiam juvat : et aurum jam accessio est. * They were sometimes made very large : '^ Claudii principatu servus ejus Drusillanus, nomine Rotundus, dispensator Hispaniae citerioris, quingenarium lancem habuit, cui fabricand^e prius officina exeedificata fuerat : et comites ejus octingentarum octo quinquaginta libra- rum." t Lapis, a stone. — Before the invention of stirrups, stones were often placed in the streets to assist horse- men to mount. Some stones were held in high rever- ence and were worshipped: they were placed by the roadside, and were carefully besmeared with oil, that they might attract the adoration of travellers. Stones, too, served to show the routes to different places, especially where two roads met. Lararium, was a place situated in the interior part of either royal or private houses, dedicated to the Lares, which the ancients appropriated to those images they v. tie accustomed to worship. — That of a ruler was double. Severus had a grotesque mixture of divinities. In the first apartment were the images of the gods and those persons who had led most exemplary lives. " Ma- tutinis horis in larario suo (in quo et divos principes, sed optimos electos et animas sanctiores, in queis et ♦ Turneb. adv. Rader in Martialem, xiv» a f Pliny. o 4 200 ARTS, ETC. OP THE, GREEKS AND R03fANS. Apollonium, et quantum scriptor suorum temporum (licit, Christum, Abraham, Orpheum et hujuscemodi deos, forte, et hujusmodi caeteros habebat, ac majorum effigies) rem divinam faciebat/'* — In the second were illustrious men. ^' Virgilii imaginem cum Ciceronis simulaci'O in secundo larario habuit, uti et Achillis, et magnorum virorum. Alexandrum, vero magnum inter divos in larario majore consecravit/' t — See Lares, and Manes. Lares, household deities, believed to be the offspring of Mercury and the nymph Larunda. — They were believed to be hereditary in families, like the household goblins of the middle ages, to which, indeed, they have given rise ; but in this they differed — that they were rather the protectors than the servants of the family. When a house was built, the first care of the occupant was to sacrifice to these imaginary beings, beseeching them to expel the Lemures, or souls of the unhappy dead, who were fond of returning to trouble mankind. And though they are originally said to have descended from Mercurv and the nymph, their number, it appears, could be augmented by the souls of deceased ancestors, which a Roman piously placed among them, and wor- shipped with equal solemnity. Images of the Lares were carefully preserved ; and offerings were made to them on their own altar, the domestic hearth. They were delighted with wine, frankincense, oil, corn, &c., and were sometimes regaled with a young pig. As these things were devoured by the fire, the Lares were thought to feed on them. There was no kind of stupidity too gross for the old pagans. Though the Lar was considered incorporeal — inasmuch as the soul of a deceased ancestor might become one — some were ma- terial enough to beget children on the mistress of the house. Thus Servius TuUius was said to be the son of one. Larv^, spectres, flying shapes^ which w^ere thought to hover about men and houses during the obscurity of * Lampridius. ' f Ibid. '* i i ^rj n.^'F^: ■:-^.'»m^' "^^M^ji LAURUfe'^ LECTICA. 201 night, and return below at the crowing of the cock. There seems to have been some difference between the Larv(je and the Lemures; but as paganism is not very explicit, nor very consistent with itself, we are left to dis- tinguish them if we can. (See Manes.) The chief distinc- tion appears to be, that while the latter haunted old houses, the former hovered about tombs, though they also visited human habitations. An image resembling a human spectre, and denominated a Larva, was sometimes placed on the table at entertainments — for what pur- pose does the reader suppose ? to inspire serious thoughts in regard to our latter end ? No ! but to circulate the cup more freely ; for as life is short, the greater ought to be our enjoyment. Laurus, the laurel, with which the brows of heroes, poets, &c. were crowned (see Corona) in the public triumphs. — The laurel was also an emblem of immor- tality. In this sense, might it not also preserve from death ? When the thunder pealed, many were the sages who placed a laurel leaf on their heads, in the hope that it would be respected by the god of light- nings. Tiberius, who was terribly afraid of the thunder, as, indeed, from his secret conscience he might well be, had recourse to this notable expedient. But though the laurel was sacred to Apollo, he could not prevent his temples, in which it was always suspended, from being riven by the element. Lectica, a litter, open or closed, and used both for the conveyance of dead bodies to the funeral pile, and for that of the living. — In this latter respect it per- formed the same service, though it had not the same shape, as our sedan chairs. In the lectica the person lay on a couch, while in our modern chairs he sits up- right. — Lecticarii, the bearers of the litter, were seldom Romans, who were not sufficientlv robust for the ser- vice : Germans, Calabrians, Liburnians, and Syrians, were preferred. They carried the litter on the shoulders, and the number to each varied according to the con- struction, and pride of the person who hired them, 202 *ARTS, ^TC. OF THE GREEKS AND ROMANS. There were often four, or even six, and not un fre- quently eight. In the Lower Empire, these men were also employed in bearing the dead to their final home. The number was prodigious, — 11,000; nor was it pro- bably less in Rome. Lectisternium, a festival celebrated during some grievous public calamity, and remarkable for two things : — 1. The gods themselves were invited to the enter- tainment : their statues were taken from the pedestals, laid on couches with pillows and cushions, and gravely placed at the table, while several of the menials as gravely bore the viands to the idols' lips. 2. Enemies forgot their animosity on this day ; and even prisoners were liberated. Legio. See Acies. Lemures. See Lares, Larv^. Leo, the lion, was sacred to the sun, and thence was called the solar animal. — '^ Leonem soli dedicant, quod de curviunguibus quadrupedibus sola leaena vi- dentem edat foetum, quod momento temporis dormiat, oculi dormientis sufFulgeant : et quod Leontini fontes, et hiatus sues nova aqua repletos inveniunt Nilo exundante, quando sol per leonem transit.'' The sun himself, says one, was sometimes repre- sented with a lion's face, either in reference to his swiftness, or because this god excels the rest as the lion does all other animals. And of this, or a similar repre- sentation, Minucius FeUx : ''' De capro etiam, et ho- mine mixtos deos, et leonum et canum vultus deos dedicatis." — It was sacred to the great mother of the gods. To kill so formidable an animal, was no easy task. Notwithstanding their ferocity, that they were fre- quently tamed, and in that state were exceedingly gentle, is one of the best attested facts in antiquity : " Man- suefactus a teneris mansuetissimus est, et mitis in con- gressu, et puerorum amans, et quidvis sustinet patienter gratificans magistro. Hanno leonem habuit vasa por- tantem, et Berenice leo cicur, nihil distans ab ancilHs, ornatricibus. Lingua enim vultum ejus perpoUbat, et LEPUS. 20S rugas levigabat, et conviva erat, comedens lente et moderate. Ilium primus hominum manu tractare ausus, et ostendere mansuefactum, Hanno e clarissimis Poe- norum traditur."* Those who tamed them were called mansuetarii. The combats of these animals in the circus afforded a favourite amusement to the Romans. The first of these exhibitions took place a. u. 652, when Caius Marius IV. and Quint. Luctatius were consuls. A more singular fact is, that, by the an- cients, they were frequently yoked to chariots instead of horses, and were first employed in this manner by Mark Antony t : — ^^ Jugo subdidit eos, primusque Romae ad currum junxit M. Antonius^ et quidem bello civili, cum dimicatum esset in Pharsalicis campis."t We read, too, of one Heliogabalus, that ^^ junxit sibi et leones." These animals were slain as sacrifices to the gods ; — ^^ Si imperatorium sacrificium fit, centum leones feriuntur." Christians were daily exposed to their fury ; — ^^ Odisse debemus istos conventos, et coetus Ethnicorum, vel quod illic nomen Dei blasphe- matur, illic quotidiani in nos leones expostulantur/*;}; — The annual inundation of the Nile was by the Egyptians attributed to the favour of the celestial lion : hence the lion was used by them as a symbol of an inundation. In relation to this circumstance, cis- terns and aqueducts were so constructed, that the water flowed from them through the open mouth of a lion. The Greeks and Romans borrowed this stvle from the Egyptian architects, and by that means it passed to the moderns, the lion's head being at this time a common ornament : — ^^ Leonem venerantur, ac rictibus leoiiinis templorum fores exornant, quia Nilus abundat," ** Titanis primum curru tangente leonem.*' Lepus. — The flesh of this animal was considered to be more delicate food than that of any other. — '* Zt^j/ €v Tracrt XocycooK;^ vivere in omnibus leporibus, ayri. tov €> Tpv(f)ri/' as the scholiast observes, which was so ge- * Pliny. + Ibid. t Tertul 204 ARTS, ETC. OF THE GREEKS AND ROMANS. nerally admitted^ that it became a proverb to signify the dainties of life. So in Horace, Catius orders ^^ leporis armos sectari." — Probably this was the first animal slain for the food of man, and for that purpose was confined in pens, which (we read) were called fejooraWa. The flesh of the hare was peculiarly esteemed^ from the common though whimsical notion, that he who dined on it would be beautiful for a whole week : ** Si quando leporem mittis mihi, Gellia, dicis Formosus seotem, Marce, diebus eris. Si non derides, si verum lux mea narras, Edisti nunquam, Gellia, tu leporem." Mart. The same vulgar superstition is noticed and ridiculed by Pliny : ^^ Lepore sumpto in cibis vulgus arbitratur fieri gratiam corpori in septem dies, frivolo quidem joco^ cui tamen aliqua debeat subesse causa in tanta persuasione." Some have given countenance to this opinion, by stating that this kind of food possesses the power of expelling the bile, and thereby exhilarating the mind. Probably, however, it arose from the similarity of the words kpdris and lepdris. In the religion of antiquity, much was drawn from various omens ; and on this account we find great attention to have been paid to the hare, which was an animal much regarded in augury. In the army which Xerxes had prepared against the Greeks, it is affirmed that a mare brought forth a hare ; which circumstance seemed to have presaged the shameful flight which soon after followed. The hare being a very timid animal, its appearance in the carnp was always considered as fore- boding flight. Thus Archidamas, son of Zeuxidamus, when besieging the city of Corinth, turned the attention of his soldiers to a hare, which, alarmed by the clamour of the fight, had crept from a place beneath the walls. This circumstance he made use of to encourage their minds, by taxing the enemy with sloth, assuring them that the nation could not be warlike which permitted the hares to dwell among them unmolested. Thus, also^ when Rome was besieged by king Arnulf, a hare. LIBATIO, LIBERALIA. 205 r^i which the noise of the battle had driven from the shades, ran towards the city. This the besiegers con- sidered a favourable omen, and followed it with the greatest alacrity. The Romans, finding themselves un- equal to sustain the impetuosity of their onset, instantly deserted the walls, and the city became the prey of the barbarians. — Winter was the proper season for hunting the hare : " Auritosque sequi lepores, turn figere damas, Cum nix alta jacet. glaciem cum flumina tradunt." ViRG. In nive sectatur." " leporem venator ut alta H OR. liiBATm, the pouring of wine between the horns of the victim after it had been tasted by the priest and people. The wine for this purpose was to be pure ; but the libation was sometimes made with other liquids, — with water, milk, and honey. There were also ordi- nary libations, where no victims, or altar, or priest, was present, yet which partook of a religious character. The Greeks, in particular, touched nothing until a por- tion had been offered to the gods : where there was no altar, the devotee placeil a portion on the table, and, after repeating a prayer, threw it into the fire or the water. The libatio in epulis was simply the pouring of a little wine on the table or on the ground, accom- panied by a certain formula of prayer, and ceremonies which meant nothing. These libations were chiefly made to Mercury, to the genius of each person, to Bac- chus, and the Lares : they took place at rising at every meal in the day_, and on retiring to rest. LiBERALiA and Bacchanalia were consecrated to the same god, who was called Liber or Bacchus ; yet, according to the Roman custom_, they were celebrated at diff*erent times. The Liheralia in 1(5 Kal. April, and the Bacchanalia monthly ; " Liheralia Liberi festa, quae apud Graecos dicuntur Dionysia." * ^^ Libera lingua loquemur ludis Liberalibus." t Some old wom.en, on the * Festus. f Nsevius. ■ T)»-.TT Ka » t if iiiiWr'iiiraw i 206 ARTS, ETC. OF THE GREEKS AND ROMANS. day of the TAheraUa, worthy priestesses of Bacchus, ac- companied by the more wine-bibbing of the other sex, crowned with ivy, a plant sacred to Liber, were used to sit in different parts of the town, having with them fire and a number of honey cakes which they had made. " Melle pater fruitur, liboque infusa calenti Jure repertori Candida mella damus. Femina cur pra^sset, non est rationis operta?, Femineos thyrso concitavit ilie choros. Cur anus hoc faciat, quaeris ? vinosior aetas Haec est, et gravidas munera vitis anians. Cur hedera cincta est ? hedera est gratissima Baccho." OviD. These called to the passengers, inviting them to pur- chase the cakes. If this was acceded to, they offered a sacrifice for the buyer, placing part of the cake upon the fire. W'ith the excesses committed at the nocturnal ceremonies under the same name, we will not disgust the reader. There would be pollution in the very de- scription. LiBRi, hooks. — These were anciently adorned with pendent ornaments of variously coloured silk. Thus Ovid : * Hirsutus sparsis ut videare comis." And an ancient epigram : " Cum dederit clemens veniam, natumque, laremque Reddiderit, comptis ibis et ipsa comis.'* The covers were stained with a purple or scarlet colour : " Nee te purpureo velent vaccinia succo.'* Ovid. " De primo dabit, alterove nido Rasum pumice, purpura que cultum Denariis tibi quinque Martialem.** Mart. cpovt'%ta a//,oX- yot;^ and ccoa ao-aXTTiyxro^. " Et lunam in medio nox intempesta tenebat" ViRG. Nox was the goddess who presided over the night " Dicitiir merita nox quoque naenia.'* HoR. She is represented clothed with a tunic thickly set with stars. To this deity the Romans sacrificed a cock during the night: " Nocte dese nocti cristatus cseditur ales Quod tepidum vigili provocet ore diem." Ovid. NuDiPEDALiA. — A religious ceremony among the Gentiles, common with the Greeks, Romans, and bar- barians, 'in the celebration of which the votaries ap- peared with the feet naked : '' Denique cum ab im- bribus [estiva hiberna suspendunt, et annus in cura est quidem quotidie pasti, statimque pransuri balneis et cauponis, et lupanaribus operati, Aquilicia Jovi im- molatis NudipedaHa populo denuntiatis." t This cere- mony was observed during the time of long drought, to entreat the gods to send rain upon the earth. This was called a Jewish custom, and is described by Jo- sephus. Yet probably it originated elsewhere than among the Jews : at least, early mention of it is to be found in writers who could scarcely be acquainted with that people. And although upon these occasions the Jews walked with bare feet, yet the NudipedaHa cannot with propriety be ranked among their festivals. Like them, when any district is threatened by some heavy calamity (the raging of a pestilence, for instance, the preva- lence of blight or mildew among the corn, or the failure or too great abundance of rain), the fathers of the church appointed days of fasting to be observed. » Pliny. ' t Tertul. NUDIPEDALIA. 245 { These penitential ceremonies were observed with va- rious symptoms of dejection ; for it seems to be innate among men to imagine that, in supplicating the divine mercy, they should use every outward sign expressive of humility and sorrow. Among the Gentiles, too, the NudipedaHa were employed to entreat the clemency of the gods in times of affliction. In this they were not led by the example of the Jews, but were directed by a natural impulse of the human mind inclining to this humihty, and beheving by these observances the gods would be rendered propitious. Those who carried the statues of the gods through the streets of the cities walked with the feet bare : " Nudare plantas ante carpentum scio Proceres togatos matris Idaese sacris : Lapis nigellus evehendus essedo Muliebris oris clausus argcnto sedet, Quem dum ad lavacrum praeeundo ducitis, Pedes remotis atterentes calceis, Alraonis usque pervenetis rivulum." Prudent, The Roman matrons uncovered their feet when they entered the temple of Vesta, to perform their vows to the goddess : " Hue pede matronam nudo descendere vidi.*' Ovid. And in the Gallic war, '^ Virgines ex sacerdotio Vestse nudo pede fugientia sacra comitabantur." * This also was observed in the performance of su- peistitious or magic ceremonies: ^' Privatim autem contra erucas ambiri arbores singulas a muUere incitati mensis, nudis pedibus, recincta.'* t In these the sor- ceress appeared with one foot naked : ** Unum exuta pedem vinclis, in veste recincta." Virg. " Tectis egreditur vestes induta recinctas, Nuda pedem.'* Ovid, Horace says it was customary for the priestess to at- tend, during these incantations, with both the feet bare: << Vidi egomet nigra succinctam vadere palla Canidiam, nudis pedibus, passoque capillo.'* ♦ Florus. t Pliny. K 3 \i It- 246 ARTS, ETC. OF THE GREEKS AND ROMANS. Some nations appeared with naked feet in war. This is related of the iEtoli, a warlike nation, who for this reason were called ^oi/oY,^Y)7:th(;. Virgil transfers it to the Hernici^ a people of Italy: — " Vestigia nuda sinistri Instituere pedis ; crudus tegit altera pero." This nation would not have uncovered the feet^ had not the necessity of it been suggested by their mode of fighting. They adopted the pero for the protection of the right leg, which^ during their engagements with the enemy, was advanced before the left. The Romans were barefooted who attended the fu- neral of Augustus : ^^ ReUquias legerunt primores eques- tris ordinis pedibus nudis/* as a token of respect ; and Ta7:iii/o(poo(Tvvrj<;, or, as Tertullianus remarks^ tocttsivo- > Sometimes men had sufficient presence of mind to con- vert a bad into a good prognostic. Thus, when Caesar stumbled in his disembarkation on the African coast, — the worst of all omens — he exclaimed, ^' Teneo te, Africa!" And when the horse of Flaminius the con- sid, about to measure his strength with Hannibal, stumbled, he too treated the pretended omen as trifling. Superstitious as were the ancients on this subject, they appear to have thought, that the value of an omen de- pended less on the will of the gods than on the sense in which it was received by mortals. Omens were beUeved to be present at the commence- ment of all human undertakings : ♦ Cicero. I \ " Turn deus incumbens baculo, quem dextra gerebat • Omina principiis, inquit, inesse sclent. Ad primam vocem timidas advertitis aures, Et visam primum consulit augur avem." Ovid. Thus^ at an embarkation, any thing was drawn into an omen. If any one of the crew, for instance, on the left hand, happened to sneeze, the presage was bad; but good, if the sneeze issued from any one on the right of the vessel. Yet sneezings from the right seem not to have been regarded as auspicious tokens, unless they succeeded some other unquestionable omen; and, in this case, were considered as a confirmation. If a swallow alighted on the ship, the presage was unfavour- able. Who ever doubted that it portended the ruin of Hostilius Marecinus } A similar one caused Cleopatra to return home. Nor were omens disregarded in the disembarkation from a vessel. It was usual to fix the attention on the first most striking thing which pre- sented itself, and judge of the event from its nature or name. Thus, when Scipio, casting his eyes on the nearest promontory, inquired its name, and was told it was Pulcher, he cried, " Placet omen ; hue dirigite naves ! " And when Pompey was told that a spacious and fair edifice, which he descried on the sea-coast, was called Cano-basilea, he groaned deeply. How dihgently omens were sought previous to a battle, is known to any schoolboy. See Augur.* Oraculum. — The most popular mode of divination was by consulting the oracle: in other cases, as the interpretation of things depended on man alone, there might be mistake or deception ; in the present, as the deity himself pronounced either in his own voice or that of a consecrated agent, there could be none. Oracles, indeed, were so revered, that nothing of im- portance, whether in pubhc or private life, was under- * Sneezing, under any circumstances, is considered among the Irish as portentous of evil, unless the omen be averted by the exclamation, *' God bless us! » See Croker's "Fairy Legends and Tradition^ of the South of Ireland." s 2 260 ARTS^ ETC. OF THE GREEKS AND R03IANS. taken without consulting them. We will briefly advert to the most celebrated. 1. The oracle of Jupiter and Dodona was the most ancient in Greece. The origin of this oracle, as related by the priestesses of the temple^ is amusing. Two black pigeons leaving Thebes in Egypt, one hastened into Lybia, the other into Epirus : the former, employ- ing the human voice, ordered the inhabitants to erect a temple in honour of Jupiter Ammon ; the latter^ perching on the branch of an oak, recommended, in very good Greek, that a temple should be erected in that place to the honour of the same Jupiter. The fable appears to be well explained by Herodotus, who learned from the priests of Egypt that two priestesses were carried away from Thebes by the Phoenicians ; and that the one was sold into Lybia, the other into Greece. Their transformation into slaves is equally exphcable by the fact, that, in the ancient language of Epirus, the same word signifies dove and old woman. The situation of the temple was in a forest surrounded by marshes, and on the declivity of a hill. Hence the invocation in Homer, as versified by Pope : ** O thou supreme ! high throned all height above ! O great Pelasgic, Dodonean Jove I Who 'midst surrounding frosts and vapours chill Presidest on bleak Dodona's vocal hill ! '* Three priestesses in the temple of Dodona were the authorised expounders of the divine will; and this will they learned in different manners. Sometimes they sought it in the neighbouring forest, at the foot of the prophetic oak ; and they appear to have divined from the murmuring or roaring of its branches, according as the wind was gentle or boisterous. But it was the belief of the more stupid part of antiquity, that these oaks had a human voice : hence the vocal powers of the good ship Argo, which was built of oaks felled in this wood. Perhaps, however, some jade of a priestess was concealed in the hollowed trunk of one tree among the rest, and thence uttered her responses. Sometimes they ORACULUM. 261 / m I :/ ii prophesied from the bubbling spring which issued from the roots of the same oak ; at others they prognosticated from the brazen kettles which were suspended round the temple ; and which, when vibrating, struck one against another, so as to transmit the circular sound round the edifice. According to Aristotle, there was another way of divining by sound. There were two columns near to the temple: on the top of one was a vessel of brass ; on the other was the bronze figure of a boy with a whip of brass in his right hand : the whip had three lashes; one of which, when the wind blew, was sure to strike the vessel, so as to produce a sound more or less clear according to the strength of the wind. And there was a fourth mode of divination, — that by lots drawn from an urn, — which requires no explan-* ation. That the imposture of these jades and their accomplices flourished, may be inferred from the re- verence with which the responses were received, and from the costly presents which adorned the temple and its precincts. 2. The celebrated oracle of Apollo at Delphi is almost too well known to require description. Declining to notice the splendid monuments which it contained^ the precious gifts with which credulity had enriched it — sad monuments of human depravity — we may spare a few words for its pretended prophecies. — The oracle itself arose from a cave, from which exhalations were said to arise, that threw whoever stood over it into a perfect frenzy ; and, during the continuance of the fit, communicated the power of predicting the future. How the imposture originated, would be vain to inquire : suffice it to know, that a magnificent temple was erected on the spot ; that a whole army of ministers and do- mestics were connected with it ; that a tripos was placed over the mouth of the pit ; and on it the Pythia, a priestess of Apollo, received her inspiration. Why a woman was selected instead of a man, can only be ex- plained by supposing that she was more likely to become the dupe of the knaves about her, even more than their s 3 262 ARTS, ETC. OF THE GREEKS AND ROMANS. accomplice. They^ no doubt, arranged the horrors of the cave ; instructing her to return such answers as cor- responded with the appearances she witnessed, and the sensations she felt. Before she sat on the tripos y she washed herself in the Castalian fountain which bubbled from the foot of Parnassus : she assumed a laurel crown ; sat in the fatal seat ; shook the laurel tree which grew beside the tripos; and in a short time began to foam at the mouthy to exhibit the most distorted countenance, to appear perfectly mad. Then it was that she uttered her predictions — often very incoherent^ always obscure — which were almost invariably put into Greek verse. The matter was no doubt suggested by some knave in the pit, embellished and altered by the attendant priests so as to suit their purpose : as they had always the task of arranging the words in verse, we need not seek long for the mystery. By what means the Pythoness was influenced from below, must for ever elude curiosity : what we know is, that she was always loth to sit on the tripod ; that she was generally held there by the asso^ ciating priests, and that under her tortures — for tortures they were — she sometimes died. Probably there was an exhalation which rendered her dizzy and wild with pain : perhaps, also, as was reported, a serpent was maintained below, which was taught — and no creature is more docile — to join in the contrivance. The anxiety of the priests to impose on public credulity will sur- prise nobody, who rtmembers that a gift_, or^ as it was called, an offering, was demanded from every one who consulted the oracle. 3. The cave of Trophonius, at Lebadea in Boeotia, illustrates in a strong degree the imposture common to all these oracles. — Who was Trophonius } One account says, an architect ; that, with his brother Agamedes^ he built the temple of Delphi j and that, when he solicited a recompence from Apollo, he and his brother were visited by death, — the greatest happiness that can befal man. Another, that he and his brother were secret freebooters ; that they constructed at Lebadea a cavern ORACULUM. ^^5 * m i( >• 1 ' i to which they could retire with their treasures; and that Agamedes being caught in a snare laid for the purpose, Trophonius, to prevent disclosure, cut off the brother's head, and was afterwards lost in the cave. However this be, the cave became one of the most ce- lebrated oracles of Greece; Trophonius being there wor- shipped under the name of Jupiter Trophonius. There seems to have been a good understanding between the knaves of Delphi and this cavern ; for, if Pausanias is to be credited, the oracle at that place expressly en- joined the Boeotians to consult the oracle of Trophonius at Lebadea. Pausanias, who himself consulted Tro- phonius, gives us a graphic account of the preparations and ceremonies on the occasion. * *^ Whosoever's exigencies oblige him to go into the cave, must, in the first place, make his abode for some set time in the chapel of Good Genius and Good Fortune : during his stay here he abstains from hot baths, and employs himself in performing other sorts of atonement for past offences ; he is not wholly debarred bathing, but then it must only be in the river Hercynna, having a sufficient sustenance from the leav- ings of the sacrifices. At his going down he sacrificeth to Trophonius and his sons, to Apollo, Saturn, and Jupiter (who hath the title of king), to Juno, Heniocha, and Ceres, called Europa, reported to be Trophonius's nurse. There is a priest stands consulting the bowels of every sacrifice, who, according to the victim's aspects, prophesies whether the deity will give an auspicious and satisfactory answer. The entrails of all the sacrifices confer but little towards the revealing of Tropho- nius's answer, unless a ram, which they offer in a ditch to Agamedes, with supplication for success that night on which they descend, presents the same omens with the former ; on this depends the ratification of all the rest, and without it their former oblations are of none effect : if so be this ram doth agree with the former, every one forthwith descends, backed with the eagerness of good hopes ; and thus is the manner : immediately they go that night along with the priests to the river Hercynna, where they are anointed with oil, and washed by two citizens* boys, aged about thirteen years, whom they call 'Ep/ios, that is, Mercuries : these are they that are employed in washing who- ever hath a mind to consult ; neither are they remiss in their duty, but, as much as can be expected from boys, carefully per- * Abel's translation, quoted from Potter : it is quaint^ but faithful. s 4 264 ARTS, ETC. OF THE GREEKS AND ROMANS. form all things necessary. Having been washed, they are not straightway conducted by the priests to the oracle, but are brought to the river's rises, which are adjacent to one another : here they must drink a dose of the water of it, called Lethe, or Oblivion, to deluge with oblivion all those things which so lately were the greatest part of their concerns. After that, they take the water of Mnemosyne, viz. Remembrance, to retain the remembrance of those things that shall be exhibited to them in their descent ; amongst which is exposed a statue, adorned with such admirable carving, that it is set up by the people for DcTdalus's workmanship; whereupon they never exhibit it, unless to their descendants : to this, therefore, after some vene- rable obeisance, having muttered over a prayer or two, in a linen habit set off with ribands, and wearing pantofles, agree- able with the fashion of the country, they approach the oracle, which is situated within a mountain near a grove, the found- ation of which is built spherical-ways, of white stone, about the size in circumference of a very small threshing-floor, but in height scarce two cubits, supporting brazen obelisks, encom- passed round with ligaments of brass, between which there are doors that guide their passage into the midst of the floor, where there is a sort of cave, not the product of rude nature, but built with the nicest accuracy of mechanism and proportion. The figure of this workmanship is like an oven, its breadth diametrically (as nigh as can be guessed) about nine cubits, its depth eight, or thereabouts ; for the guidance to which therer are no stairs, wherefore it is required that all comers bring a narrow and light ladder with them, by which when they are come down to the bottom, there is a cave between the roof ana the pavement, being in breadth about two (nnQap.a\ and in height not above one ; at the mouth of this, the descendant, having brought with him cakes dipped in honey, lies along on the ground, and shoves himself feet foremost into the cave; then he thrusts in his knees, after which the rest of his body is rolled along, by a force not unlike that of a great and rapid river, which overpowering a man by its vortex, tumbles him over head and ears. All that come within the approach of the oracle have not their answers revealed in the same way : some gather their resolves from outward appearances, others by word of mouth : they all return the same way back with their feet foremost. Among all that have descended, it was never known that any was lost, except one of the lifeguard of Demetrius ; and besides, it is credible the reason proceeded from the neglect of the rituals in his descent, and his ill design ; for he went not out of necessity to consult, but out of an avaricious humour, for the sacrilegious conveyance back of the gold and silver i '* i »4>> )1H ORACULUST, 265 which was there religiously bestowed : whereupon it is said; that his carcase was thrown out some other way, and not at the entrance of tlie sacred shrine. Among the various reports that fly abroad concerning this man, I have delivered to posterity the most remarkable. The priests, as soon as the consultant is returned, place him on Mnemosyne's throne, which is not very far from the shrine : here they inquire of him what he had seen or heard ; which when he hath related, they deliver him to others, who (as appointed for that office) carry him, stu- pefied with amazement, and forgetful of himself and those about him, to the chapel of Good Genius and Good Fortune, where he had made his former stay at his going down : here, after some time, he is restored to his former senses, and the cheerful- ness of his visage returns again. What I here relate was not received at second hand, but either as by ocular demonstration I have perceived in others, or what I have proved true by my own experience ; for all consultants are obliged to hang up, engraved on a tablet, wliat they have seen or heard." Plutarch has a singular story on the subject, too cu- rious to be omitted.* " Timarchus being a youth of liberal education, and just initiated in the rudiments of philosophy, was greatly desirous of knowing the nature and efl^cacy of Socrates's Demon : where- fore, communicating his project to no mortal body but me and Cebes, after the performance of all the rituals requisite for consultation, he descended Trophonius's cave ; where having staid two nights and one day, his return was wholly despaired of, insomuch that his friends bewailed him as dead : in the morning he came up very brisk, and in the first place paid some venerable acknowledgments to the god ; after that, having escaped the staring rout, he laid open to us a prodigious relation of what he had seen or heard to this purpose. In his descent he was beset with a caliginous mist; upon which he prayed, lying prostrate for a long time ; and not having sense enough to know whether he was awake or in a dream, he sur- mises that he received a blow on his head, with such an echo- ing violence as dissevered the sutures of his skull, through which his soul migrated ; and being disunited from the body, and mixed with bright and refined air, with a seeming contentment, began to breathe for a long time, and being dilated like a full sail, was wider than before. After this, having heard a small noise whistling in his ears, a delightsome sound, he looked up, but saw not a spot of earth, only islands reflecting a glimmer- ing flame, interchangeably receiving diflferent colours, accord- * Translated by the same hand. \ \ ^6G AilTS^ ETC. OF THE GREEKS AND ROMANS. jng to the different degrees of light. They seemed to be of /an infinite number, and of a stupendous size, not bearing an I equal parity betwixt one another in this, though they were all \ alike, viz. globular. It may be conjectured that the circumro- ' tation of these moved the aether, which occasioned that whistling, the gentle pleasantness of which bore an adequate agreement with their well-timed motion. Between these there was a sea or lake, which spread out a surface glittering with many co- lours intermixed with an azure ; some of the islands floated on its stream, by which they were driven on the other side of the torrent ; many others were carried to and fro, so that they were well nigh sunk. This sea, for the most part, was very shallow and fordable, except towards the south, where it was of a great depth ; it very often ebbed and flowed, but not with a high tide. Some part of it had a natural sea colour, untainted with any other, as miry and muddy as any lake. The i-apidness of the torrent carried back those islands from whence they had grounded, and situating them in the same place as at first, or bringing them about with a circumference ; but in the gentle turning of them, the water makes one rising roll : betwixt these the sea seemed to bend inwards about (as near as he could guess) eight parts of the whole. This sea had twc mouths, which were inlets to boisterous rivers, casting out fiery foam, the flaming brightness of which covered the best part of its natural azure. He was very much pleased at this sight, until he looked down and saw an immense hiatus, re- sembling a hollow sphere, of an amazing and dreadful pro- fundity. It had darkness to a miracle ; not still, but thickened and agitated. Here he was seized with no small fright by the astonishing hubbubs and noises of all kinds that seemed to arise out of this hollow from an unfathomable bottom, viz. he heard an infinity of yells and bowlings of beasts, cries and bawlings of children, confused with the groans and outrao-es of men and women." Here a voice fell on the ears of Timarchus^ which he had courage to answer^ and from which he derived much information relating to the invisible world. The conversation which followed between him and the in- visible being, the priestess of the place^ is curious^ but of too philosophic a nature for a work like the present. It explains the generation of souls ; their different changes and migrations^ according as they have ac- quired habits of virtue or of vice in this state of bein and their preparation for a new course of existence. or • l( tm ORARIUM. OSCULUM. 267 So much for oracles. Many more there were, sacred to Jove and Apollo ; but the three we have noticed will suffice to give the juvenile reader an idea of the subject. OjftARiuM, a pocket handkerchiefs — This was origin- ally used for a different purpose than wiping the nose, — to wave in the hand as a token of approbation to- wards actors in the theatre. It was introduced by the emperor Aurelian : ^^ Ipsum primum/' says Vespasius, *^ donasse oraria populo Romano, quibus uteretur po- pulus ad favorem." Hence the expression, ^^ uti orario ad favorem," so common in the writers of the period. At length the senators, and those who had business at court, began to employ the oraria in its present use ; but ages elapsed before that use became common to the people. The sleeve was the instrument emungendi ; as, indeed, it had always been before the introduction of this luxury. Orchestra. See Theatrum. OscuLUM, a kiss. — But basium and suavium had the same meaning. Was there a difference in the applica- tion of the word ? According to Servius, osculum im- plied a kiss of duty, and was given by a mother to her child ; hasiurriy one of affection, and was paid by the husband to the wife ; suavium, one of lust, and was given to a mistress ; and in this sense we find the de- finition in a commentary on Terence : " Oscula offi- ciorum sunt, basia pudicorum affectionum, suavia libi- dinum.*' There may be some justice in the distinction : but certainly it was often disregarded even by good writers, who appear to use the words indifferently.— Jacere oscula, to kiss the hand, was the most respectful form of salutation : thus the pagans honoured the statues of their gods, the images of their emperors. In the circus, the charioteers saluted the spectators by kissing the whip. Soldiers kissed the hand of tlieir general, slaves that of their masters, freedmen that of their patron ; and this was the ordinary form of salutation from inferiors. Kisses were impressed on the eyes. / /^ 268 ARTS^ ETC. OF THE GREEKS AND ROMANS. the forehead, the cheeks, the mouth, the head, the shoulders, the neck, the breast, the knees, the feet ; and were given on various occasions : on the departure and return of relatives and friends ; in token of joy at a banquet ; during the ceremonies of religion, especially at the altar and the statues of the gods. There was one form of kissing, first mentioned by Plautus, extraordi. narv enouiih. In or before the act, one took hold of the other's ears, — an ear in each hand. The cause ot this is hidden : perhaps it was meant to imply that as knowledge enters chiefly by the ears, — for where there are no books, no abiUty or opportunity to read, it is the only entry, — and is the most enduring of acquire- ments, so ought the love, of which such a kiss was the sign, to be enduring also ; it should penetrate to the very recesses of the soul. OsTiARiuM, a tax on doors. OsTREA, an oyster. — This luxury was well known to the Romans, and was served at the commencement of a repast. The largest and best were caught on the shores of the Lucrine. P. P^AN, a song of joy invented in honour of Apollo. — lo Pcean ! was subsequently the triumphal cry on any public festivity. In the circus or amphitheatre it was addressed to Mars before and after the combat ; in the former case it besought success ; in the latter it indi- cated both triumph and gratitude. Paganalia, festivals held in each village and canton in honour of the local tutelary divinities. — They were instituted by Servius TuUius, who commanded every living inhabitant of each pagus to assemble on a certain day each year, and offer public sacrifices. Hence the meaning of the word ; for paganus signified the rustic inhabitant of a pagus. The object of Servius was as much poHtical as reHgious. As every man, woman ■ J I PALATIUM. — PANIS. 26Q and child was compelled to bring a small coin, — that coin varying with the age and sex of the bearer, — he was annually acquainted with the strength of each district, and consequently with that of the kingdom. Palatium, residence of the sovereign, so called after Augustus had fixed his on the Mount Palatinus. Pales, the tutelary goddess of shepherds, to whom sacrifices called Palilia were offered on the ipth of April. On this day the shepherds purified their flocks by making them pass round a great fire made of laurel, pine, and olive branches sprinkled with sulphur. An offering of milk, wine, and millet was then placed on the altar of the goddess, who was prayed to bless the earth with fertility, the flocks with fecundity ; and to preserve both from injury by storm or frost, by parch- ing heat or deluging rain. As on the same day Romu- lus was believed to have laid the foundation of the city, there was another festival of more solemnity, in which the people of that capital purified themselves. Palla, a kind of long cloak which was cast over the stola of women. Horace : " Ad talus stola demissa, circumdata palla." In like manner the Pallium was the outer cloak of the men, — pallium eoctrinsecus habitus. This garment was of Grecian origin, and was introduced into Rome under Augustus. Palma, the palm, was the symbol of victory. Hence conquerors were first crowned with it ; then the suc- cessful in the 'public games; next writers, especially poets. Palmus, the palm of the hand, a measure in great use among the ancients. — There were two palms, — the greater and the less, — the former consisting of seven inches and a half, the latter of four and a half : both therefore, constituting a foot. Panis, bread. — Greece had no bakers, and the duty of making bread devolved on women. Thus in the palace of king Alcinous, fifty women were thus em- I •-.*siS»^#*,»»«'4fciH»-*--~- »*-'i**--».'-^>fcii*£iBe^;,Si / / 270 ARTS, ETC. OF THE GREEKS AND B031ANS. PAR IMPAR LUDERE. PATRONUS. 271 ployed. In Rome, the same duty fell to the mothers of families until a. u. c. 580^ when pubHc bakers first appeared in Rome. Under Trajan they were formed into a corporate body, governed by laws which pre- vented them from oppressing the public by arbitrary prices. — ^From the time of Aurelian^ bread instead of corn was often distributed to the poor. It was called Funis Civilis. Papyrus^ paper, — This term is derived from the Egyptian papyrus^ a reed now growing there, and called herd. To make the paper, they cut off the two ex« tremities of the stalk ; slit it lengthwise ; peeled off the several skins or barks ; stretched them out ; removed the irregularities ; covered the leaves with the troubled w^aters of the Nile, instead of a paste, placed a second leaf transversely on the first ; put several of these to- gether in a press ; dried them ; at last beat them with a mallet^ and polished them by a tooth or shell. If it was to last long they rubbed it with oil of cedar. Denon says, that in moistening a roll of Egyptian papyrus, in order to unfold it, he experienced an odour so strong and penetrating, although pleasant, that he was obliged to open the windows in order not to be incommoded with it. Astle, who more amply details Pliny's pro- cess of manufacturing the papyrus, says that this paper was of various kinds ; the imperial and largest, used by the great men for letters ; the Livian (from compliment to Livia), twelve inches each leaf; the sacerdotal, nine inches ; besides inferior sorts. Isidore^ says, that the first kind was of the two inmost skins of the papyrus^ the Livian of the next two, the sacerdotal of the third two. The Claudian paper, invented under that em- peror, had one leaf imperial, the other Livian, which, without losing its whiteness, thus acquired substance sufficient to prevent the ink blotting through, as hap- pened in the imperial or Augustan, on that account reserved for letters. Besides these, there were the Fan- nian, Amphitheatric, the Sactic, the Teniotic, and the Emporetic (for goods), each diminishing from ten to \. i y I six inches in breach, besides the difference of manu- facture. Mabillon contends, that the papyrus was in use in the eleventh century ; but Eustathius proves that the manufacture of it was on the decline in the third. In the early middle ages, after the papyrus was out of vogue, the cotton paper was used, so far as it was not superseded by parchment. The various kinds of an- cient paper are those of cotton, made in the East {charta bomhycind) of barks of trees, but not of rags, the era of which invention is in dispute. The abbe L'Andres seems to give the best account. The Chinese and Asiatic orientals made silk paper, the use of which passed in 6*52 into Persia, and in 706 to Mecca. The Arabians substituted cotton, which passed into Africa and Spain, where fiax being grown, linen rags were substituted instead of cotton, because the latter was only to be obtained by importation. From hence linen paper passed into France about 1270, thence into Germany about 1312, and from Germany to England in 1320 or 1324.* Par I3IPAR LUDERE, the game of odd and even, which has descended to our own times. — One of the parties held in his closed hand a number of nuts, dice, pebbles, or pieces of money, and demanded whether the other chose odd or emn. If the latter guessed right, he had all that the hand contained : if wrong, he paid the same number of pieces from his own store : — ^^ Si qui rogatus est riumerum divinavit, lucratur id quod erat in manu: si aberraverit, tantumdemde suo exsolvit," Augustus condescended to play at this childish game. Patricii, PatricianSy the descendants of the old QuiriteSy whom Romulus admitted into his senate, and who constituted the class from which senators continued to be chosen, until, by a constitution of the empire, equites were admitted to the dignity. For their cha- racter and privileges, however, recourse must be had to the histories of Rome. Patronus, a patron.— See Cliens. — When the * From Fosbrooke's Encyclopaedia of Antiquities, voL i, pp. 437, 43& >w 272 ABTSj ETC. OF THE GREEKS AND ROMANS, relation between patron and client ceased^ or at least when it became so feeble as to be useless^ the client, having no longer a patron to plead for him, to protect his interests in a court of justice, naturally selected the aid of the most eloquent and able of his fellow citizens. Hence the origin of advocates^ or counsellors, a curse to every country. These pests soon required so much for their services, that laws were made to restrain their rapacity ; but as the chief study of their lives was how to evade the law, they had little difficulty in evad- ing the penalties of this. Juvenal draws a good de- scription of the Scarletts and Sugdens of his day. In Greece, each party in a suit did what nature and reason ahke indicate — he pleaded for himself ; and when at length the locusts were admitted into the tribunals, wise regulations were made to circumscribe their ra- pacity, and — what was equally useful — to prevent their verbiage from influencing the judges. The salary was first a drachma, but was subsequently reduced to three oholiy for each cause. * They were forbidden all exordia, perorations, and rhetorical figures; were com- pelled to state the fact with all possible clearness and brevity ; and were only allowed for a speech as much time as was necessary for the escape of the twelfth part of the w^ater in the clepsydra (see the word). The Greeks were in this respect wise. Well would it be, if, in a reforming age like the present, somebody had common sense enough to imitate their wisdom. Pauperes, the poor y the necessitous. — In Greece, the poor, or those who were unable to work, were relieved by the state, by the ministers of rehgion, by private bounty. At Athens, each received tt^ro oholi a day from the public treasury : in addition, each had always some portion of the victims sacrificed either on public or private occasions ; and in some sacrifices, bread and other provisions were always distributed to the indigent. In Rome, they were assembled on every public festival, ♦ The drachma was about ninepence English ; three oholi ^ there were six to a rfrac^wo — fourpence halfpenny. PECULATUS, PECULIU3I, PENATES. 273 V I i I I and were regaled wuth extreme liberality. Even indi- viduals were forbidden, by the ancient laws, to hold a feast without distributing something to the poor of the neighbourhood. They were constantly at the circus, ready to seize the bodies of the slain animals, which were always abandoned to them. In other respects, their situation was unenviable. They could not give evidence in a court of justice, nor could they sign as witnesses to a testament, because extreme poverty was believed — and in ninety-nine cases out of a hundred the belief was just — capable of warping their sincerity. ^^ Give me," says an inspired writer, ^^ neither poverty nor riches." In itself, poverty is no evil ; but all ex. perience proves, that in general it is associated with want of principle. The man who does not strive to escape it, is fit only for the gallows. Peculatus, robbery of the public money, a crime of frequent recurrence in Rome. — In modern times, it is of course unknown. The origin of the word is curious. Anciently, before the introduction of money, all judicial fines were iii cattle : each crime, or conviction, was visited with the mulct of a certain number of oxen and sheep, according to its comparative enormity. He who stole these animals was a peculator, from pecus, a herd* Peculium, the property which any slave or depend- ant — and in Rome the son was a slave — might earn, or otherwise acquire, without the succour of his master. Thus, when a slave had wrought for his master a cer- tain defined number of hours daily, he might, if he pleased, work longer for a stipulated remuneration ; and with that master's consent he might work for any per- son. The profits of his industry constituted his peculiuniy over which his master had no control, and with which he might purchase his freedom. Penates, household gods (see Lares, Larv^.), — so called because they were placed in the most inward recesses of the house.. For the same reason, too, they were called Penetrales^ and their chapels Penetralia. vol. II. 274 ARTS, ETC. OF THE GREEKS AND ROMANS. These household gods were generally the souls of de- parted ancestors and kinsmen. They were worshipped by laying before them a small portion of each dish at table. The Penetralia were sacred : they were filled %v ith images ; and, for security, other treasures were often deposited there. There were also public Penates; — such were those which '' pius .Slneas/' — a great rogue, however, — brought with him from Troy to Italy. Pergamenum, parchment, — so called because it came from Pergamus. — The use of parchment was known long before the time of Herodotus. Before the preparation of the skins of animals, papyrus, or tablets smeared with wax, were used : they were, indeed, used long after- wards ; for skins were too dear for common purposes. After skins were adopted, they were rolled up before they could be sealed : hence the word volnmen, from volvere, to roll. And as the scribe wrote to the very bottom of the parchment — to the very place where the cord used for the folding was fastened, — we may account for the expression. Opus ad umbilicum per-- ducium. Persona, a mask, adopted by the actors on the stage. They varied so as to represent different personages. Hence the same actor might, by assuming different personcB, or masks, act as many parts as he pleased. There were masks for tragedy, comedy, and satire, no less than for different personages of the drama. Pes, a foot, consisted of sixteen fingers' breadth, or of twelve thumbs' breadth. Pharus, a lighthouse, — so called because the first designed for the guidance of vessels was erected on the isle of Pharus. Pila, a small human figure in wood, offered to the I.ares or domestic gods. If, as Macrobius assures us, infant children were anciently sacrificed Diis Laribus, we may applaud the humanity, because we may pity the superstition, which substituted inanimate figures for living victims. This salutary change is said to have PISCATUS. PRJBDA. 275 ^M m been effected by Brutus after the expulsion of the kings. PiscATUs, the exercise of fishing^ for which the Romans in particular had great affection, especially as no table was well furnished which had no fish. — Every country house of any magnitude had its fish-pond ; and where the house was situated near the sea, a canal of salt water was brought to the pond. At what period fish began to be used as an article of food, is impossible to be ascertained. No mention of it is to be found in the heroic times. It is, however, certain that it was used in Greece at a very early period, in Home, the employment of fishing occupied an immense number of hands : " Atque ita defecit nostrum mare dum gula saevit, Retibus assiduis." And the same poet (Juvenal) condemns the rashness of the fishermen, who, to satisfy the gluttony of the rich, ventured into the most dangerous seas. " Contemnunt mediam temeraria lina Charybdim." Plebeii, the third class of Roman citizens, compre- hending all who were not Patricii or Equites, — For their rights, privileges, &c., see the first volume of the History of Rome, Cab. Cyc. PBiEco, a public crier, was employed on innume- rable occasions by the Romans. — At auctions, he pro- claimed the commodity selling, with the amount of the last offer : in the Comitia, he called on the people to vote, and declared on what magistrates the majority of suffrages had fallen ; he invited to funerals by a certain formula of words ; he summoned the parties in a suit to attend the court of justice, and called on them in their order ; he proclaimed silence during the ceremo- nies of religion ; he notified every new law ; he read in the senate the letters addressed to that body ; and he was often the bearer of messages — especially of hostile messages — from one person to another. PRiEDA, booty obtained in war^ was generally divided T 2 276 ARTS^ ETC. OF THE GREEKS AND ROMANS. into three parts : one was for the wages of the soldier, the second for his reward above the arrears due to him, the third was for the pubUc treasury. — WTiether the general and the superior officers had for their shares more than the common soldier, may be doubted. They had to learn the modern art of distribution^, which awards the prize money in the proportion of five thou- sand to one^ according to the comparative rank of the soldier. Pr^fectura. — The nature, dignity, and functions of this high officer must be sought in the histories of Rome. Pr^egustator, one who tastes beforehand. — There was anciently one at the table of every prince ; he tasted of every dish and every cup, to secure the life of his master against poison. Pr^eire, literally, to go before, — It generally sig- nified the formula of words dictated by the priest on certain solemn occasions^ and repeated by him who took the oath, vow, or engagement. Pr.t.nomen. See Nomen. Praetor. — For the origin and dignity of this officer, see the Roman historians. Prandium. See Ccena. Preces, prayers^ whether public or private. — The Romans prayed standing with covered heads and faces, that their attention might not be distracted by surround- ing objects. The priest read the prayers, and was fol- lowed by all present. They generally turned towards the East ; often kissed the altar, embraced the knees of the statues, and raised the right haftd to the mouth. (See Adoratio.) The Greeks prayed standing or sit- ting. Before entering the temple, they purified them- selves by lustral water : it was common water, in which a burning torch from the altar had been quenched. This water stood in a large vase at the entrance, just like the holy water of the Roman Catholics, and in it each person dipped his hands. l^iti3iiTi^, the first fruits of any production of the PROCONSUL. PULVIS. 277 k^. \m\ earth, which were uniformly offered to the gods. — The custom was universal: — Ac ne degustabant quidem novas fruges, et vina, antequam sacerdotes Primitias li^ bassent. Proconsul. — For the dignity of this officer, see the Roman history. Prodigium, any prodigy, or prognostication drawn by the augurs from natural phenomena. — See Augur. Proscribere, to proscribe, was used in relation both persons and things. — In the former case, the name of the person condemned to death was written on tablets, with a reward offered for his head, and the advertise- ment was suspended at the corners of streets, and in the most public places. In the latter case, the goods of an insolvent debtor were proscribed, — that is, tablets of the articles, with the price expected for each, were suspended in a public place, and the crier invited by a certain formula all persons ^^ to walk in and buy." Provocatio, an appeal, was permitted in a great majority of cases from the sentence of any magistrate. — Originally, at the moment sentence was pronounced, the party aggrieved was to exclaim, ^^ I appeal ! " next the privilege was extended to two days ; subsequently, to ten. Appeals were sanctioned under the ancient kings, until the reign of Tarquin the Proud ; and, after his expul- sion, they were restored. There was, however, no appeal from the decisions of the Centumvirs, because, as they were chosen from aU the tribes, they were regarded as the representatives of the whole people, in whom resided the majesty of law. Publican I, publicans, a general name applicable to all who collected and farmed the public revenues. — They were not persons of low birth : on the contrary, they were generally of equestrian families : and they were not poor ; for they had always to give security tliat they would punctually pay the amount which they offered for the revenues of any particular district. PuLvis, dust. — When a corpse was buried, the nearest relations threw on it a handful of dust or earth. T 3 ^ 278 ARTS^ ETC. OF THE GREEKS AND ROMANS. The ceremony was one of religion, and he who neg- lected it was compelled to make a sacrifice to Ceres, The custom was derived from the Greeks, among whom the Athenians had a law to enforce it. Often the corpse was thus covered by degrees ; and the duty of throwing from one to three handfuls of earth upon it was rendered obligatory on every passenger. From a scholiast on Sophocles, we learn that he who passed by a corpse unburied — viz. one not fully buried — and did not cast earth upon it, was to be held accursed. Quadragesima, the tax of a fortieth, payable on the importation of merchandise to the farmers of the republic. QuADRiGiE, a carriage drawn by four horses, the invention of which, like the BigcB (see the word), is ascribed to Erichthonius ; but these chariots were in use before the time of that hero — if, indeed, he ever existed. Little is to be said about them beyond this — that they w^ere clumsy, and that the horses were all four abreast, instead of being yoked two by two. Qu^siTOREs, Qu^sTOREs. — The functions and dig- nity of these officers must be sought in the history of Rome. QuiRiTARE, to invoke the succour of the Quirites or Romans, to attest their faith : Quiritare dicitur is qui Quiritium fidem clamors imploret The Romans pro- bably derived their name of Quirites y either from their junction with the Curice, whose country they inherited, or from their w^arlike character — Quirts being the Sabinian name for the spear. If, however, the latter were the case, tlie word must in after ages have degenerated greatly from its original meaning; for Quirites was the most odious appellation a Roman soldier could receive. It seemed to imply that he was fitter for the quiet life of the city than for the labours of the campaign. BECITARK. - ROTA. 279 k R. Regit ARE, to read in a loud iwice. — Before pub- lishing his work, an author was careful to read it, or at least certain portions of it, to his friends, that he might profit by their criticisms. The more celebrated authors read in the Capitol, or in the palace of the emperor, — not merely to friends, but to every one who chose or who was permitted to be present. Asinius Poliio is said to have been the first who thus publicly recited his works : " Poliio Asinius," says Seneca, '^primus omnium Romanorum, advocatis hominibus, scripta sua recitavit.'* The houses of rich men who loved and patronised letters were often chosen by the author ; and the public baths w^ere similarly honoured^ because there was a greater concourse of hearers. Reditus, revenue. — The enumeration and amount cf the various sources of revenue belongs to civil history. Relegatio, a species of exile less severe than the AqucB et Ignis Interdictio (see the words). In the latter case, the banished man lost his civil rights ; in the former, he retained them, and often the whole of his property — being only compelled to retire for a given period to a certain island, or beyond the bounds of a certain province. Rostrum^ a platform elevated in the forum, from which the people were harangued. Tt derived its singular name, — the beak of a ship, — from the fact that it was adorned with the naval spoils taken from the Antiati by the Romans. Rota, the wheel, — This punishment was known to the Greeks, but it differed from that inflicted during the middle ages in some Continental cities. The ancient Greeks merely fastened th^ malefactor to the wheel, and turned it with rapidity until he died. If, however, the death was a slow, it was a cruel one, — more cruel than when his limbs w^ere broken by the execu- tioner. T 4 \ ' n 880 AETS^ ETC. OP THE GREEKS AND ROMANS. • RuPEs Tarpeia, the Tarpeian Rocky from which criminals were precipitated, — a punishment more hor- rible than the preceding. Hear the description of this rock by Seneca: ^*^Stat moles abscisa in profundum, frequentibus exasperatis saxis, quas aut elidant corpus, aut de integro gravius impellant : inhorrent scopulis enascentibus latera, et iramensae altitudinis tristis as- pectus ; electus potissimum locus, ne damnati ssepius dejiciantur/' To this horrible death were condemned, by the Twelve Tables, slaves convicted of theft, and free-born Romans proved guilty of high treason ; but it was abolished by the Lex Portia and Valeria. S. Sacellxtm (diminutive of Sacrum), a little chapel or temple, which had walls but no roof. — Sacella dicuntur loca Diis sacrata, sine tecto. Sacramentum, has two significations. — By the one, it denotes the money deposited in the hands of the pontiff by the two pleaders of a suit, which could not be re- covered by the loser, but was appropriated to the trea- sury of the temples to defray the expenses of sacrifices, &c. In the latter case, it is the oath taken by the Roman soldier, of fidelity to his general, his colours, his country ; to die, if need were, for the republic; never to leave his post without permission. As he took the oath, he raised his right hand, and the thumb of that hand. Sacrificere, to sacrifice. — The persons who offered sacrifices were to approach the altar chaste and pure ; that is, according to the most rational interpretation, during a suspension of the dehitum conjugate in married persons ; and, in single ones, after the lapse of a sufficient time from the copula carnalis. ^^ Deos caste adennto," says a law of the Twelve Tables. On many points, how- ever, the obligation to chastity was perpetual. Purity was obtained bv certain rites, which were believed to have some secret virtue for cleansing the heart, but \ I * i , \m\ H t/ * \f\ ■i U SAQUM, SALTARE. 281 which, in fact, were puerile observances. The priest was clad in white; and on his brow he wore a chaplet made from the tree sacred to the divinity he was about to propitiate. But when the sacrifice was votive — when a great blessing was to be obtained, or a calamity to be averted — there was no chaplet; the hair was dishevelled. The ceremony opened with vows and prayers : the victim was then brought ; silence was proclaimed by the herald ; the idlers or the impious were driven from the temple ; the cake was thrown on the victim; wine was brought, and tasted both by the priest and by all present ; the rest, poured between the horns of the victim, was called a libation. The fire was now lighted ; the incense was burned ; the inferior priests, half naked, brought forward the victim ; one, called CultariuSy struck it with a hatchet, and then cut its throat ; the blood was received into vases, and poured on the altar ; the carcase was laid on the consecrated table, and was either wholly burnt as an offering to the gods, or a portion only was consumed, while the rest was roasted and eaten by the attendants. The eating, as we may easily suppose, was, to the great bulk of the spectators, the most agreeable part of the ceremony. When this was finished, the sacrificers washed their hands, repeated some prayers, and made new libations, and the formula Licet or Extemplo dismissed the spec- tators. The modes of sacrifice were, Uke its objects, endless. On this subject the curious reader may consult Potter and Adams. Sagum, a garment of wool, fastened in front with buckles. — It was worn only in war, or during a cam- paign : hence the proverbs. Ad saga ire, to depart for the war; and Redire ad togas, to return home, — as the toga was the garment of peace. Saltare, to dance. — ^^ There seem to have been ab origine distinct kinds, viz. the Sacred, the Military, the Astronomical, Funereal, and Salian, borrowed from the procession and march, not the licentious source here- *vr- k I 282 ARTS^ ETC. OF THE GREEKS AND R03IANS. after mentioned. This kind of dancings 1, as a sacred rite, is coeval with ahars, was introduced among the Greeks from Egypt by Orpheus^ and from Greece into Rome by Numa. It also obtained among the Germans, Spaniards, Gauls, and Britons. Andron, a Sicilian, recommended adaptation of it to the flute; and Cleo- phantus of Thebes, and iEschylus, who introduced it on the theatre, cultivated it with success. The Greeks valued the noble and serious style, but rejected the Indian lascivious dance. The Romans held dancing in gieat contempt. The military kinds were —1. the Pyr- rhic Memphitic BancBy called an invention of Minerva, and revival of Pyrrhus, performed by two persons, who were armed with the spear, sword, and buckler, and went through all the mihtary evolutions. Vegetius considers dancing as important to the soldiery, on account of leaping ditches, &c. We find among the Anglo-Saxons, two men equipped in martial habits, each armed with a sword and shield, and engaged in combat; the music, the horn; the musician, with a female assistant, dancing round them to the cadence of the music, which also probably directed the action of the combatants. Scaliger, when a boy, danced the Pyrrhic dance before the emperor Maximilian. — 2. The Sword-dance. One kind is the Roman Saltatio armata, and the Germans had another kind which has been united with the former. It was accompanied among us with antique dresses; the chief having a fox's skin on his head, the tail hanging behind ; a de- rivative apparently from the lion's skin of the ancient heroes, the standard-bearers on the Trajan column, &c. The Goths and Swedes have a dance in w^hich they move the swords and themselves into circles, hexagons, and other figures. Strutt mentions a kind of sword- dance performed with several naked swords, by a girl of eight years old ; but the most curious sword-dance w^as that exhibited before Charles I. at Perth, where 'were' (says the author) 'thretteine of our bretherine of our calling of Glovers, with green cappis, silver f SALT ARE. 283 i \ I I strings, red ribbons, quhyte shoes, and bells about their leggis, shewing raperies in their handis, and all other abulzements, dauncit a sword dance, with mony difficile knottes, fyve being under and fyve above upon their shoulderis, three of them dancing through ibeir feet and about them, drinking wine and breking glasses/ In the modern sword-dance, the performers, when they have placed their swords in a figure, lay them upon the ground, instead of dancing before them. — 3. The Astronomic Dance, which passed from the Egyptians to the Greeks, and was adapted to the theatre by the latter, was intended to represent the planetary motions* — 4. The Funeral Dance was the ancestor of our pro- cession on these solemn occasions, and was a* march. In the funerals of the kings of Athens, a chosen troop, clothed in long white dresses, began the march. Tw^o ranks of young men preceded the bier, which was sur- rounded by two rows of young virgins. They w^ere all crowned with cypress, and formed slow and majestic dances, musicians being placed between the two troops. The priests of the different gods, in their respective costumes, walked slowly, and in time, singing verses in praise of the deceased. After these came several old women clothed in long black cloaks, who wept, dis- torted themselves, and uttered sobs and cries. The funerals of individuals were as similar as their circum- stances would permit. To these the Romans added the Archimimus, a person who preceded the bier, and who, by the aid of a mask and gestures, mimicked the deceased; and, during the slow tunes, played and imitated the characteristics of his archetype. — 5. The Salian Dance, a solemn dance with hymns. The priests car- ried a spear in one hand and a buckler in the other. ^^ The second kind of dancing was of distinct character. The origin of this kind was the same in all countries, an indirect expression of the sexual intercourse. The ancient dance, three thousand years old, is still practised by the Amlehs in Egypt. The dances of the Circas- sians do not resemble those of any other nation. 284 ARTS, ETC. OF THE GREEKS AND ROMANS. Fifteen or twenty persons all standing in a line^ and holding each others' arms^ begin lolling from right to lci\ lifting up their feet as high as possible to the music of the tune, and only interrupting the uniformity of their motions by sudden squeaks and exclamations. After some time there is a pause^ and a single dancer starting from the rest, prances about in the most ludi- crous maimer^ exhibiting only two steps which can be assimilated to the movements of a dance. Each of these may be noticed not only in our English hornpipe, but in all the dances of the northern nations. The first consisted in hopping upon one foot and touching the ground with the heel and toe of the other alter- nately ; the second in hopping on one foot and thrust- ing the other before it, so as to imitate the bounding of a stag. From this animal the motion was originally borrowed^ as it actually bears its name among the wild Irish at this day. A due attention to national dances frequently enables us to ascertain the progress made by any people towards refinement^ because the gross origin will, under the last state of things, be more disguised. ^^ Of the classical daJices, the chief were — 1. The Bacchic Dances, performed by Satyrs and Bacchants. These dances were of three kinds. The serious , which answered to the French terre a terre ; the gay^ which agreed with their gavots, passe-pieds, and tambourins ; and the grave and gay mixed, coincident with their chacones, &c. These dances they called Emmelia, CordaXy and Cinusi^, Upon numerous ancient monu- ments are the Thyases, or famous dances of the Bac- chants. In some they appear with one foot in the air, tossing the head up to the sky ; their hair dishevelled and floating upon their shoulders, holding in one hand a thyrsus, in the other a small figure of Bacchus, In others, the body, half naked, is in the most violent con- tortion, and in one hand they hold a sword, in the other a human head [that of Orpheus] just cut off. Mention has been before made of the dances of the Hindoo girls assimilating those of the Bacchanals* SCKPTRUM. 285 I I From the latter were also derived the nocturnal lascivious dances during intoxication. — 2. The Rustic Dances, which Pan, the presumed inventor, ordered to be made in the midst of a wood. They were very lively. Young men and women danced them with oaken crowns, and garlands of flowers hanging from the left shoulder, and fastened to the right side. ~— The Dance of the Ldpithce, imitative of their combat with the Centaurs, exceedingly laborious, and therefore con- signed to rustics. — The May Dances on the Floralia. — 3. Convivial Dances^ a ball after feasting, of various dances to different instruments.— 4. Dance of Hymen, a modest and serious dance of boys and girls, crowned with flowers.— 5. ThQ Nuptial Dance.— Q. The Theatri- cal Dance, pantomimical, serious, or gay. The old chorus and principal characters were continually danc- ing the whole time upon the stage. — 7. Mactrismus, a dance of women. — 8. Scope, Scopuma, a dance in which they put the hand to the eye, hke persons look- ing at a distance. — 9. Ionic and Angelic, performed amidst pots and bottles. ^^ They danced to music, as the flute, lyre, &c., wore a short dress, and sometimes had their hair curled. Plutarch notes, that the music was very bad, and that it was not easy to assemble many persons who could dance and sing together in exact time. He adds, that dancing consisted of graceful motions of the hands and arms ; gestures by which they represented the figures of Apollo, Pan, the Bacchanals, &c. ; and in mimicking the things of which they sung, with the body, &c." * ScEPTRUM, a sceptre, — " The sceptre was in its origin only a wand or staff; upon which kings or generals leaned ; the hasta pura upon coins, in the hands of divinities or kings. Justin expressly says, that the sceptre of the first kings was a spear ; and that in the most distant antiquity men worshipped sceptres, and for that reason put them in the hands of gods. That of ♦ From Fosbrooke's Encyclopaedia of Antiquities, vol. ij. pp. 620—623. r 286 ARTS^ ETC. OF THE GREEKS AND R03fANS. Neptune was his trident. In the end, the sceptre be- came the royal ornament, and mark of sovereign power. Ir: Homer, the princes carry golden sceptres. That of the kings was then covered with ornaments of copper, ivory, silver, or gold, and symboHc decorations. That of Atlas, a long staff, has a flower at top, indicative of the family of Uranus. That of Bellerophon and a queen has the same finish at top, but the staff is divided into compartments by rings. The Egyptian sceptre was a plough, the Hieralpha of Kircher, but not the only one ; for the Schohast on Aristophanes says, that the kings of Egypt carried a sceptre, upon whose top was the figure of a stork, and on the other side, towards the handle, another of the hippopotamus ; besides this, there was the cumbent sceptre, or war instrument, nearly in the form of the modern, engraved by Dr. Clarke, and the sceptre with an eye upon it, Osiris or the sun! The sceptre of Agamemnon was preserved by the Ch^- roneans, and seems to have been used among them after the manner of a mace in corporate towns ; for Pausanias relates, that it was not kept in any temple prepared for its reception, but that it was annually brought forth with proper ceremonies, being honoured by daily sacri- fices ; and a sort of mayor's feast seems to have been provided for the occasion, — a table covered with all sorts of eatables being then set forth. Tarquin the Elder first carried a sceptre, surmounted by a golden eagle; and the consuls and consulars bore it under the name of Scipio. During the repubhc, the consuls only used it on the day of triumph ; but, under the empire, every day. The senate alone had the power of conferring it on the consuls elect, and sent it for a present to friendly kings and allies. The consulars also carried it as a token of their ancient dignity, or wand of command. The sceptres of kings upon the theatres were as taU as the actors. Chryses, in Homer, leans upon his sceptre. Upon a Farnesian cameo, where Jupiter thunders upon a Titan, the god holds a long sceptre, surmounted by a flower. The Villa Albaiii SCIMPODIUM. 287 I t' i I ^schylus holds a long sceptre. That which the em- perors have upon coins, when in the consular habit, mostly worn by the Constantinopolitan emperors, is surmounted by a globe, charged with an eagle, in order to show, by these marks of sovereign power, that the prince governs by himself. From the time of Augustus, the consular sceptre already mentioned occurs. Phocas is the first who added a cross to his sceptre. His suc- cessors even quitted the sceptre to hold a cross of dif- ferent forms and sizes. In the Lower Empire, the sceptre, accompanying a civil habit, is a wand called vaoBBq, the top of which is square and flat. One sceptre of Charlemagne is seven feet long ; and so is that of Clotaire II. ; but there are short sceptres also contem- porary. The Anglo-Saxon sceptres are surmounted with crosses, a fleur-de-hs, or a bird. One king, of the eightii century, has a long staff with a plain knob, but the short sceptre also occurs in the ninth century. The editors of the '' Nouvelle Diplomatique'' distinguish in the middle age the sceptre from the verge, and perhaps the staff alluded to was that ; for the staff of Edward the Confessor formed part of the ancient regalia. The verge was the symbol of government and administration; the sceptre the mark of imperial dignity. Sovereigns not only concluded treaties by the reciprocal delivery of these verges, but further used them to invest their successors in the supreme authority., Aristotle says^ that the sceptre was the symbol of truth, by which kings swore to judge with equity. The sceptre and verge for the left hand, both occur, says Selden^ in Anglo-Saxon coronations." * SciMPODiuM, a couch, not a bed, for one person, who reposed on it during the day when fatigued or drowsy. On it both women and men were frequently carried through the streets ; but, in this case, it was carefully protected from the sun or rain by a covering and cur- tains : it was, therefore, a sort of litter, but much more luxurious. It was at first used by women only ; but * From Fosbrooke*s Encyclopaedia of Antiquities, vol. L pp. 312— Si4. »*( t»*»iftiiSi«#i«^ .jftwa.we*?'-* ..iw»fl^^:5;Ba»t»*s*sia««**a(aia*®«w*feSBil^*«-'='^^ --q.^^^"^' 288 ARTS^ ETC. OF THE GREEKS AND ROMANS. after Augustus and Tiberius were carried in one, the use became common to the rich and the indolent men. Scribe, scribes, of whom each magistrate had one, and the Republic several. — Their duty was to register public acts^ to transcribe the laws_, to keep a record of sentences and public proceedings. At first the pro- fession was not honourable in Rome, though it was always honourable in Greece: in the former place it was abandoned to freedmen, in the latter to respectable citizens. But in the time of Cicero it was honourable even at Rome, and for an obvious reason : ^^ Necesse est/' says Nepos, ^^ omnium consiliorum cum esse par- ticipem." Senator. — For the dignity of this office, see the historians of Rome. Sepulchru3i, tomb, grave, — ^^ The Tombs were very fine ornaments at the entrance of cities, and had a grand and interesting effect ; but it was a distinction rarely conferred. In earlier ages, a different practice prevailed, lest in the smaller states an enemy might de- stroy them. '' The veneration with which the ancients viewed their places of sepulture, seem to have formed the foundation upon which they raised their boundless mythology ; and, as is supposed with some probability, introduced the belief in national and tutelary gods, as well as the practice of worshipping them through the medium of statues; for the places where their heroes were in- terred, when ascertained, were held especially sacred, and frequently a temple erected over their tomb hal- lowed the spot. It was thus that the bodies of their fathers, buried at the entrance of the house, conse. crated the vestibule to their memory, and gave birth to a host of local deities, who were supposed to hold that part of the dwelling under their pecuHar protection. Removed from the dwelling-houses to the highways, the tombs of the departed were still viewed as objects of the highest veneration. '' ' To the custom of honouring excellence, even SEPULCHRUM. 289 \f\ I 1 I after life, the historian Polybius refers, in a great mea- sure, the cause of the higher qualities and superiority of the Romans over their enemies ; for, says he, this public institution excites the emulation of the rising as well as existing generation.' ^^ Barrows are the most ancient sepulchres ; but, lest the relics should be violated by enemies, the custom of burning the dead commenced with Sylla, and did not come into disuse till the time of Macrobius. Some families never burned their dead. ^^ Greek tombs were commonly placed out of towns, those of the founders and heroes excepted. Shrub- beries of elms, because not bearing fruit, were planted around them. The sepulchres were mostly denoted by the trurk of a column, upon which the epitaph was engraved. A young virgin with a vase of water was commonly sculptured upon the tombs of girls, and to this a pretended Naiad in Spon refers. It was usual for girls at certain periods to pour water upon tombs, as boys did^upon those of their comrades. It is still customary in Boeotia to place vessels full of water in the graves of the deceased, who are accompanied by women hired to weep and tear their hair^ which they wear dishevelled. The laws forbade any monument to be raised for humble individuals, except columns, only three cubits high, statues, or a simple inscription. Kii)gs, princes, and great men, they interred at the foot of hills and mountains, and planted there a sacred wood, where they elevated altars. Fiat paterae with- out decoration, with mirrors in the middle, Mr. Fauvel thinks, denote the burial places of women. Some Greek tombs, which are sarcopliagi, filled besides the body with various domestic useful things, had box- wood combs, musical instruments, statues, votive offer- ings ; in one a birdcage of baked earth, the bars formed of threads, and in it birds of pottery. He has also found that the Greeks placed oboli in the tombs or cinerary urns ; and in the former, not only vases, but figures of vases, solid, of a furm, he thinks, espe- / llf SfQO AllTS, ETC- OF THE GREEKS AND ROMANS. daily devoted to tombs. This form is an equal belly, very long wide neck, and jutting handles, equal or un- equal. The paintings of these vases are almost always allusive to funeral subjects ; as a tomb, upon which they are depositing locks of hair, or making libations ; figures oppressed with grief, who cover a cippus with bandelets ; chariot races and funeral games. Some of these vases are two feet high. They placed also upon the tomb, instead of a cippus, a marble vase, or rather a representation of one, about three feet one inch high, and, besides, of the same form, adorned with the same figures, either painted or in bas-relief. *< Montfaucon has given a very curious inscription, concerning Greek Hypogaea, by which it appears that these subterraneous vaults contained not only the re- pository and tombs, but Distya, an upper room over the sepulchre for the relatives to celebrate the anni- versary, with a hole in the floor to pour libations be- low, staircases, bed-chambers, and dining-rooms, the same as in houses for the living. " Dr. Clarke's account of the tombs of Telmessus is very illustrative. They are of two kinds, both being visible from the sea, at a considerable distance. The first and more extraordinary are sepulchres hewn in the face of perpendicular rocks. In places where the side of the mountain exhibits an almost inaccessible steep, the ancient workmen seem to have bestowed their prin- cipal labour. In this situation may be seen excavated chambers, worked with such marvellous art, as to re- semble porticos with Ionic columns and gates and doors beautifully sculptured, in which are carved re- presentations as of embossed work, bolts, and hinges. Yet each appearance, however narrow the parts that compose it, proves, upon examination, to consist of one stone. A similar «»tyle of workmanship may be observed in the stupendous Indian temples. These are the temples which resemble that of Persepolis. The other kind of tombs found at Telmessus is the true Grecian Soros, or sarcophagus of the Romans. Of this SEPULCHRUM. 291 l\ M br I I sort there are several ; but of a size and grandeur far exceeding any thing of the kind elsewhere, standing in some instances upon the craggy pinnacles of loftv pre- cipitous rocks. It is as difficult to deternune how they were placed, as it would be to devise means for taking them down ; of such magnitude are the single stones composing the Soros. This Soros answered the pur pose of a cenotaph ; for under it was a vault. It is a practice which we derived from the llomans : the form of their sarcophagus may be seen in almost every En- glish church-yard. Others of tliese tombs, by the meeting of stones above, prove the existence of circular arches and even of a dome in architecture, four c >. tunes before the Christian era. " The form of these tombs resembles that of a bock- case, with glass doors, standing upon a bureau, sur- mounted by ornamented rail work upon the front and sides ; withm was a chamber with receptacles for tiie dead, like baths, cut in the sides of the rock The mouths were closed with stone slabs, so fitted into a groove as to baffle discovery of the entrance. Others apparently built over the body, had no entrance what' ever or the clue was known only to the priests, or the family, whence originated the oriental tales of charms used in admission to subterraneous caves and chambers ot the dead. Many of these tombs have in front rude pillars, whose capitals exhibit the curvature or horn which is generally considered to denote the Ionic style of architecture. The mouths of these sepulchres are closed with beautiful sculptured imitations of bronze or ' iron doors, with hinges, knobs, and bars. " Hence it appears, that as temples originated from • superstructures upon barrows, so tombs over vaults are imitations upon a small scale ; and that as worship in the former began in honours paid to the dead, these honours were converted in the one into a grander form, while they remained in their original .tate in the other. * Etruscan tombs are grottos, or chambers, under a small hill, perforated below for a door, and at top for t 2 202 ARTS, ETC. OF THE GREEKS AND ROMANS. light. Tliey are full of paintings, referring, says Paciandi, to' the passage of souls to the Elysian fields. Winckelman quotes D'Hancarville, for an engraving of an extraordinary tomb, found in the middle of the Tiphatine mountains by sir Wilham Hamilton. The skeleton of the deceased was extended upon the ground, the feet towards the entry of the sepulchre, and the head placed against the wall, to which were attached six sticks of iron, short and flat. These being fastened by a nail, were moveable, like the branches of a fan. In the same place, above the head of the deceased, were placed two large iron chandeUers, quite eaten up with rust ; and a little higher were suspended, to bronze nails, some vases, of which one was on the side of the chandeUers, and two others on the right of the skeleton, towards the feet. On the left side of the head were two swords of iron, and a wine colander of bronze. It was a kind of deep bowl, with many holes, pierced in form of a sieve, with a handle, and, fitting into a saucer without holes, served for the wine. The wines being preserved in large earthern vases, not wooden barrels, were thicker than ours, which are drinkable soon after the vintage, and they were necessary to be passed through these kinds of sieves. On the same side, towards the feet, was a bronze bowl, in which was found a simpulum, i. e. a round salver, attached to a long handle, crooked at the end, an instrument which served for different purposes, either for draining wine from the casks and tasting it, or to pour it into the cups for libations. Besides the bowl of bronze were two eggs and a grater. The fan was, in Winckelman's opinion, the real one used in expelling flies from the corpse. The bowl, grater, and eggs may be deemed emblems of the provisions left with the soul of the de- funct, to drink the health of the friends and relatives whom they left upon earth. The vases are not cine- rary, and Wmckelman (and after him Dr. Clarke, to whom it has cost a useless disquisition) expresses his suri;rise at the silence of ancient authors concerning the STGNIFER, SPECULUM, TABELLA, TELA. ^9S \A I a i use of these vases. This is very extraordinary, since the supposed thirst of the dead, and the supply of them with cold water in particular (whence the drink- ing vessels found in tombs and barrows, and the Boeotian custom before mentioned), are conspicuously exhibited, on well-supported grounds, by Montfaucon. The su- perstition was derived from the Egyptians, as appears by invocations to Osiris for cold water, published by Fabretti."* SiGNARE, to seal. — See Annulus. SiGNiFER, bearer of the standard of the legion, and the image of the prince. (See Imago.) ~— He differed from the portator aquilcB, who bore the national ensign of the army. Speculum, a looking-glass, a convenience well known to the Romans. — It was invented, says Seneca, to show man what he is: '' Inventa sunt specula, ut homo ipse se noscerit.*' The same writer advises the beautiful to consult one, in the resolution that they will never do any thing to discredit that beauty ; the ugly, that by their virtues they may atone for the defect ; the young, that they may consider the vigorous season of life as the only one fitted for great undertakings ; the old, that they may be reminded of approaching death. Glass mirrors were not so ancient as metal ones. The assi- duity with which the glass was worshipped by men, no less than women, calls forth the bitter reproaches of satirists. « T. Tabella, a tablet, on which something was written or represented. — It served for epistles, wills, legal acts ; but was not used for the composition of works. The material was fine bark, slightly smeared with wax, on which the styluni could easily make an impression. Tela, Arma, Weapons, — ^^ The earliest offensive weapon (though the spear has been mentioned as such) * From Fosbrooke's Encyclopaedia of Antiquities, vol. I pp. 61 66. u 3 v 29^ ARTS, ETC. OF THE GREEKS AND ROMANS. appears to have been the club. Upon ancient monn- ments, it is the weapon of persons supposed to have lived in the heroic ages. From the chib proceeded the mace, battle-axe^ and similar arms of percussion. Where they appear as weapons of war^ in Roman monuments, they denote Barbarians. ^^ Club. — This weapon, being used in close fight, gave its name (paKay^ to the compact body of troops so called. The Scythians united it with the mace, both being spiked. In the army of Xerxes, the Assyrians and Ethiopians had clubs of wood armed with iron. On the coins of Commodus as Hercules-Romanus is a knotted club, with two square belts of iron ; and Winc- kelman has published one borne by Mars, which con- sists of a handle with only a round knotty knob ; and another, carried by an Amazon, merely a round staff, with two ornamental amulets, and a mushroom -formed cap. Upon the Trajan column, Dacians appear with clubs. (They were slaves, to whom no other arm was permitted. This appropriation descended to the middle age. Beating with clubs was a punishment of rustics and slaves ; and it became a question, whether any noble or free person could legally be punished by a solemn fustigation, around the market or church ? Du Cange mentions the Fulgastus, 3l crooked club ; the Plumhata, loaded with lead ; the Spontonus, with iron. Our apprentices used to carry clubs, when lighting their master or ^mistress home at night. And in the army of Charles I. rustics, untrained, were called club- men.) '^ Mace. — The club, says Dr. Meyrick, soon gave way to the mace, which had its name (jtopwij) from the little horns or spikes by which it was sur- rounded. It occurs in Homer. A Greco-Egyptian one has a guard for the hand. The Assyrians had them of wood, headed with iron. One of the Greek maces in a horseman's hand occurs on an old coin, and several brazen mace-heads, which prove that the handle was originally of wood, may be seen in the British % TELA. ^95 ([ . Museum. The origin of the corporation mace is thus given by Dr. Clarke : The sceptre of Agamemnon was preserved by the Chseroneans, and seems to have been used among them after the manner of a mace in corpo- rate towns ; for Pausanias relates, that it was not kept in any temple appropriated for its reception, but that it was annually brought forth with appropriate ceremonies, being honoured by daily sacrifices ; and a sort of mayor's feast seems to have been preserved for the occasion, a table covered with all sorts of eatables being then set forth. The gladiators, called secutores, used leaden maces, afterwards adopted by our archers^ &c. In all ages, the great use of clubs and maces seems to have been destruction of the armour of the enemy. ^^ Battle-axe. — Under this generic term may be classed the following weapons : — '^ Double^axes. — Immense, used by commanders of ships. — Egyptian. '^ Battle-awe, with a w^eight on the back of the blade. — Greco-Egyptian. ^^ Sagares, — Double-axe. — Scythian. ^^ BipenniSy double-bladed ; blades crescent-formed, and long handles ; with short landles ; one with handle knobbed at top, pointed at bottom ; blades fire-shovel form. Others have hammers on both sides, or a hatchet and hammer ; broad and sharp on both sides, used by sacrificers, wood-cutters, and sailors in sea- fights. — Phrygian. Amazonian, '' Bipennis, Bill, Halberd.-— ' The battle.axe/ says Dr. Meyrick, ' was double-edged, that is, a bypennis, and denominated by! ; when these were affixed to lorg staves, which was generally the case for the infantry, they were termed alle-bardes or cleave-alls.' — Scandi- navians. Danes. "IlfXcHi^^.— A short handle, at its top an axe-blade, a pike opposite. — Grecian. ^' A^v^, or Pole-axe. — The Aocine was a staff, on the end of which was a spike, with an axe-blade on one u 4 \ 296 ARTS, ETC. OF THE GREEKS AND ROMANS. side, and another spike on the other. With this wea- pon Agamemnon is said to have encountered Pisander. ^^ Spears. — Pliny ascribes the invention of the spear to the Etolians, but it is no doubt beyond the date of history. The Romans, before they knew sculpture, w^orshipped Mars under the form of a spear; a custom derived from the Sabines, among whom the spear was the symbol of war. Varro says, that from some nations worshipping a spear came the custom of arming the statues of the gods with a Hasta pura. Spears were kept at home in cases, and it was customary also to put them against a column ; whence, says Dr. Meyrick, originated fluted pillars. They were adorned with banderolls, and carried at funerals inverted. To pre- sent the spear by the middle, was to request a suspen- sion of the battle. Javelins, in this discussion, will be distinguished from spears, by making, as Strabo does, the former missile, the latter for thrusting only ; whereas both kinds were used, under necessity, for either of these purposes. ^^ The kinds shall now be given. ^^ Greco- Egyptian, — The common myrtle-leaf head appears on the bas-reliefs of the temple of Carnac ; but Dr. Meyrick very judiciously ascribes the era to the Ptolemean dynasty. The latter writer has engraved a quiver, containing javelins, with a throwing stick. ^^ Grecian, — The spear ojx^^ was generally of ash, with a leaf-shaped head of metal, and furnished with a pointed ferrule at the butt, called Sai^po-'T^p, with which it was stuck in the ground ; a method used, according to Homer, when the troops rested on their arms, or slept upon their shields. ^^ AyyLvXa, — Amentum Cestrosphendonus, Ax,Xi^s<;, The ajMvXcc and amentum were javelins, which had thongs in the middle for further impelling them. (See the next article.) The Cestrosphendonus, a Macedonian instrument, much shorter, was darted by two thongs of unequal ler-gth. The AclideSy short and thick, and stuck with points, were pulled back after attack. tela. 297 I k[ ^ Aiyavifi^ yvo(TfO(;y and eyj^a-a-o;, were javehns, of which the form of the heads may be seen in Stuart. * Several of these,' (says Dr. Meyrick, ) ' were loose upon their shafts, in all probability having attached to them a cord, which was held by the side of the wood, so that when the weapon once entered the body, the head could not be extracted without the greatest diffi- culty. ^^ Double-pointed Lance, mentioned by Homer. It was afterwards adopted by the Romans. '' Logv, — "^This lance,' says Dr. Meyrick, ^was pro- bably that used by the cavalry, and furnished with a loop of leather, which served the warrior for a support, when he chose to let it hang from his arm, and to twist round his hand for the firmer grasp when charging. This strap was called iAirTayY.vXfi, being put on about the middle. '' Hunting Spear, in Xenophon and Pollux had two salient parts, sometimes three crescents, to prevent the advance of the wounded animal. On the coins of iEtoHa is an undoubted hunting spear. The French anti- quaries distinguish hunting spears from others by their having no barb. ^' KovToc, a long lance used in the defence of ships ; some similar were used by the Cataphracti, or heavy armed cavalry. '' Mounting Spear. — "Th\% had a step annexed to the staff, by which the horseman, having leaned the spear against the horse, ascended. '' Sarissa, a long Macedonian spear ; originally six- teen cubits long, but in ^Elian's time only fourteen. '' The other spears are either Greek or Roman. '' Roman.— Contus, 1. A hunting spear, short, with a single point ; upon marbles sometimes swelled in the middle ; often carried reversed. 2. The same, used as a missile by the Contarii. 3. With a crook added, the Contus nautarum, or boatman's hook. '' Hiista. — A spear for darting, one finger thick, four and a half cubits' long. »»► * <1 298 ARTS, ETC. OF THE GREEKS AND ROMANS. ^^ Javelin. — Those carried by the Velites, or light troops, were about two cubits long, and so slender a point that they bent at the first hit^ and could not be returned by the enemy. After the conquest of Greece, the javehn more firm, and capable of being used at both ends, was adopted. ^' LupuSy like a boat-hook to lay hold of besiegers. ^' Piluniy about seven feet long. The head had a hook to retain it in the buckler after piercing. It was thrown just before attack with the sword. ^' Barbarian, — With wicker instead of iron tops, Sarmatian (because they had no iron). — The frameaj very long, with a short and narrow blade of iron. The Encyclopedists make it short, and the same as the Roman contus; but this was probably the framea used by the cavalry ; German. — With heads of goats' horns sharpened ; Ethiopian. — A large ball at the butt end, a lozenge-shaped blade at the other; Parthian. — Shaft composed of little bands, perhaps of cane, and becoming larger towards the head, where it terminates in a round ball ; — head pyramidal, or a spike ; Thracian. — Three-pointed or a trident, the same, adopted by the Gladiators, called retiarii. — Martio^harhuluSy or mat- tium ; on one side a long iron, on the other a hammer ; from the description rather a battle-axe than a spear. — Spears undistinguished by peculiarities are not men- tioned. ^^ Gaulish. — Diodorus says, for darts they cast those called lankia, w^hose iron blades are a cubit or more in length, and almost two hands in breadth. Propertius attributes to them the gcesum. On coins the head is barbed, and resembles that of an arrow. The gcBsum was the missile lighter than the pilum of die heavy armed, whence two were generally carried. Franks ; spear with a fleur-de-lis head, called the angon^ whence the royal arms of France. ^'Swords. — It may be generally noted that the swords of civilised nations were straight, of barbarians crooked, the Lacedaemonian excepted^ which were very TELA. 299 If I short and curved. The thin-bladed narrow sword of the moderns was utterly unknown, though the swords of the cavalry were proportionably long. The distinc- tion between ancient and more recent swords, seems to have been the addition of a guard for the fingers ; for though one of a single bar occurs among the Etruscans, yet no other instance is mentioned by Dr. Meyrick. ^^ GrcBCO'Egyptian. — A cutting sword with cord and tassel at the hilt, a modern Persian practice ; a scimitar with double cord to the hilt ; a long dagger with double cords, resembling, particularly in the hilt, those now used by the Moors and Turks. '' Greek. — The Greeks of the heroic ages wore the sword under the left arm-pit, so that the pommel touched the nipple of the breast. Generally the sword was almost horizontal. It hung by a belt. The length was nearly that of the arm. The scabbard, of the same breadth as the sword, was terminated in a knob, Uke a mushroom. Dr. Meyrick thus describes the Greek swords. 1. The ^^(poq, worn at the left hip, suspended from a leathern strap, which passed over the right shoulder. It was straight, intended for cutting and thrusting, with a leaf-shaped blade, and not above twenty inches long. It therefore reached only to the thigh. It had no guard but a cross-bar, which, wnth the jcoAso^ or scabbard, was beautifully ornamented. The hilts of Greek swords were sometimes of ivory and gold. 2. The Argive vtoTr^, from the name seemingly intended for cutting, had its edge in the inner curve of the blade. The ^vivon or ^vrfKon, Lacedsemonian swords, . were all of the short cutting kind. A sword on a gem in the Florentine Gallery, may be, says Mongez, a Lacedgemonian sword, or Carian, or Lycian. An Ama- zon in Montfaucon has one similar in the blade. Tiie acinacesy or curved dagger, with the edge in the inner curve, was t^rrowed from the Persians at a later period of Greek history. The machaira or dagger was more frequently used for a knife, but worn in the scabbard of the sword. It is mentioned by Homer, Inlaying karM> ■>i**m '<■■'—*•---"«■' /" \ 300 ARTS, ETC. OF THE GREEKS AND ROMANS. TELA. 301 of sword blades and hilts with gold is very ancient, being mentioned by Herodotus. Caesar encouraged ornamenting of arms, in order to make the soldiers more desirous of preserving them. ^^ Roman. — The Romans, says Dr. Meyrick, had brazen swords in their infant state. [I think it was leaf- formed in the blade.] Latterly they were of iron, the hilts of brass or copper. General Melville found the Roman gladius of iron at Portici. It seems ex- ceedingly probable, that sword blades of mixed metal hardened were in use among the European nations, both before and since the gladii of steel or iron hardened were the chief offensive weapons of the Roman heavy- armed infantry. The length of the blade was from nineteen to twenty-one inches. Polybius says, that down to the time of Annibal the Romans used the Greek or Etruscan sword ; but that they then adopted the Spanish or Celtiberian steel-double-edged cut and thrust, the gladius described above. On the Trajan column the sword is completely Greek, straight-sided, with an obtuse angular point. One from the ruins of Her- culaneum rather diverges on the sides, and has a sharper angle at the point. The blade of another on the Theodo- sian column is nearly a lozenge ; and a third taken from an inscription, in Muratori, where the deceased is called I.egionariuSy tapers off from hilt to point. According to these authentic monuments, the ages of Roman swords may be thus ascertained (leaf-shape excepted)^ the more obtuse the point the older, the last form of the blade being hke the modern. The dagger of Brutus upon his coins certainly tapers broadly downwards, and so do other daggers ; but the parazonium retained the obtuse Greek point. Dr. Meyrick mentions a Roman dagger, not a foot long, and much resembhng a French bayonet blade. The swords had ferrules. On which side the sword was worn appears not to have been set- tled till the time of Trajan, upon whose column the emperor, pretorian officers, tribunes, and centurions, always wear it on the left, all others on the right. This [ side is universal on the Theodosian column, where the sword hangs by two chains from the girdle, an inven- tion ascribed by Eustathius to this sera. Under Au- gustus, the right of wearing a sword was confined to military men and certain magistrates. Montfaucon doubts the antiquity of a very curious sword-hilt, be- cause it had upon it Scipio's name, and an inscription ; but it is certain that the soldiers wrote the names of their generals upon their darts. ^^ Barbarian. — Crooked like scimitars ; but straight swords, resembling the Greek, appear in Bartoli's ac- count of that pillar. Those of the Gauls and Celtiberians were also straight. The spatha, a large sword, like the Gaulish below, distinguishes the Roman auxiliaries. Leaf-shaped swords were used by the Etruscans and Samnites. The Encyclopedists make the sabre the Lacedaemonian sword ; the scimitar, the Persian and Gaulish copis ; and the sica, the Thracian harpe, or crooked sword. The Cimbri had swords of unusual forms, and, according to Plutarch, long swords, seem- ingly the degans or spads, so highly prized as to be sometimes, on account of the cruciform shape, the symbol of the Deity. They were sharp, and often inscribed wdth Runic characters; and in order to excite terror, those of the chiefs had proper names. Gaulish, — The Gauls had very large swords. Some particular kinds of Swords, — The dagger^ very large, was used in the Egyptian ships. The Roman dagger was called pugio and parazonium. Cen- turions and tribunes carried a sword and dagger. The latter was the mark of imperial sovereign power, and the praetorian prefect carried it, sometimes the emperor himself. Galba wore his hung to his neck. A poniard with a crooked blade, like a gardener's knife, is worn by the driver in the Circus at the Villa Albani. Such poinards w^ere stuck in the girdle ; and are distinctive attributes of the secretaries of the emperors of Constan- tinople. They were called ivx^i^iha, C. Caylus has given a Parazonium, the hilt cast with the blade, and very justly rebukes La Chausse for applying it to sa- (C cc * * S(y2 ARTS^ ETC. OF THE GREEKS AND ROMANS. crificial uses. Bulenger^ from Achilles Tatius, says^ that the theatrical dagger^ shpping into the handle^ and rebounding by means of a springs is precisely that called cliido, used in the Roman theatre. ^^ Sword'belt. — The Greek figures have the tela- ms>Uy a simple thong tied to the scabbard towards its aperture^ whence it passed over the breast and right shoulder ; and falling across the loins_, was fastened to the point of the scabbard. This fashion^ and, even the fringes at the two ends, appear under an heroic statue at the Villa Albani. This custom of attaching the belt, by many turns upon the scabbard, is the most remote ; the annexation of rings for that purpose, as in the base of the Trajan column, being posterior to the war of Troy. The belt was at first of ox-leather, adorned w^ith studs, metal plates, &c. upon the Trajan and Theodosian columns ; the officers only wearing belts, the soldiers girdles. There were particular marks in the latter, which showed the number of the legion. This girdle, proper to the soldiers, was composed of many thongs, one over another, or of many folds of the same thong. All the barbarous nations were noted for splendid baudricks. That of Darius was of gold. ^' Missiles. ^^ Bows AND Arrom s. — The Greco-Egyptians ap- pear in a car, using the bow. The Ethiopians had bows, four cubits long, with arrows proportionate, and pointed with sharp stones instead of iron ; the Jews had bows of brass ; the Arabs, large bows made with a handle and two curved horns ; the Persians, long arrows made of cane and sharp bows ; the Parthians, bows made of two pieces, fastened into a handle; the Indians, cane bows and arrows, the latter headed with iron ; the Scythians made coverings to their quivers with the skins of the right hands of their enemies; the Scythian bows resembled a crescent, or the letter C. The Mfieotian bow^ was like the Scythian ; the Sar- TELA. 803 r Ir r matian bows and arrows were of cornel wood, the piles of the latter being of wicker. The Caspians had bows of cane. '^ Greek Bows. — The short bow was made of two long goats' horns fastened into a liandle. The original bowstrings were thongs of leather, but afterwards horse- hair was substituted, whence they were called uTTreix, and, from being formed of three plaits, TpmaG-^% The knocks were termed yLopai/yj, and were generally of gold, which metal and silver also ornamented the bows on other parts. The arrow heads were sometimes pyra- midal, whence the epithet Terpayovia, and the shafts w^ere furnished with feathers. They were carried in a quiver, which, with the bow, was slung behind the shoulders. Some of these were square, others round. Many had a cover to protect the arrows from dust and rain, and several appear on fictile vases to have been lined with skins. As the Greek bows were small, thty were drawn not to the ear but to the right breast. '' Roman Bows. ~ Tlie sagittarii, or archers attached to the legion, were of various nations, but chiefly from Crete and Arabia. The arrows which they used had not only their piles barbed, but were furnished with lit« tie hooks just above, which easily entered the th s!i, but tore it when attempted to be withdrawn. The bow- string was made of horse-intestines. The mode of drawing it was with the fore-finger and the thumb, as Amazons do on the vases. '' Combustible Arrows. —- The term fnlarica signified variously : — 1. A halberd. 2. A pike with a very long head, and a bowd of lead at the other end. S. A kind of arrow shot against wooden towers. Sulpitius makes the head iron, and the wood hardened with sul- phur, bitumen, resin, and surrounded with tow steeped in oil, in order to be lit and discharged from a baUsta. '' Sling. — Pliny ascribes the invention to the Phe» nicians; Vegetius to the inhabitants of the Balearic Isles. The former ascription is most probable, tliough the origin is undoubtedly beyond the date of history. S04 ARTS^ ETC. OF THE GREKKS AND ROMANS. The Jewish shngers are said to have been so expert^ that some hundreds of them in one army could sling stones to a hair's breadth, and not miss^ a circumstance which explains the adroitness of David. The Greeks had ay-poSoXia-Tai, or mounted slingers. The paf. The Samnites wore them beneath the helmet. '^ Shoulder Shields, Epaulettes. — The latter were ori- ginally pieces of armour for the shoulders. In Demp- ster and Winckelman, they are of a square form ; but upon a small bronze statue of a soldier, in the College of St. Ignatius at Rome, they are formed like those of the French drummers. A shoulder-shield, called galerus, high enough to guard the face, was worn by the gladi- ators, called Retiarii, and said to have been thus affixed in order to leave the hands free for the management of the net. It was of different shapes ; square, curved at top like the thureos, or semicircular. The Lycians covered their shoulders with goat-skins. The Greek thorax had shoulder-parts fastened to it in the front with thongs. Mr. Hope describes these shoulder shields as a separate piece, in the shape of a broad cape, of which the ends or points descended on the chest. X 4 i; 312 ARTS^ ETC. OF THE GREEKS AND ROMANS. ^* Pectoral. — This, quilted and hanging over the breast and shoulders, like a tippet, sometimes very curiously wrought, was the only body armour of the Egyptians. Ancient figures of Minerva have a pectoral of scale armour, with flap sleeves of the same ; and among the Lybians, from whom was derived the -^gis, it was merely a skin, with a fringe of leather. The Jews had pectorals, ^ the coats of mail' of our translation of the Bible, probably first of linen, but afterwards of plates of metal, and called thoraees. The Assyrians, Medes, Susians, and Persians had them of linen. The change of them into brazen thoraees was first made by the latter nation. ^' Body Armour, consisting of Thoraees, Tunics, Cuirasses, Girdles, or Belts, — Dr. Meyrick uses these distinctions of terms, though they cannot always be se- parated ; however, in strict application, they are or were not synonymous. ^^ Tunic, — The continental antiquaries call the mili- tary tunic, that worn under the cuirass. That of some Roman soldiers has very large sleeves. If the Gra^co- Egyptian delineations at Thebes are correct, a tunic of rings set edgewise, or single mail, as it was after- wards called in Europe, is the earliest specimen of that species of hauberk. Denon and Mr. Hope have also engraved a cuirass of scales (generally deemed the dis- tinctive cuirass of barbarians) which comes up to the armpits, and is there held by shoulder-straps. The Jews are presumed to have had a tunic, upon which the thorax was fastened. The Medes and Persians had tunics covered with plates, like fish-scales, of scar- let or purple. The latter, in the time of Alexander the Great, had them embroidered with gold, the sleeves adorned with pearls. The Thracians, imitated in the Retiarii, had short tunics or cuirasses, which came up to their breasts, and reached nearly half-way of their thighs. The Phrygians wore a tunic, with tight sleeves, down to the wrists, and covered with flat rings. Some Etruscan spearmen had quilted tunics with short TELA. 813 sleeves ; and their archers tunics of leather. Strutt's bronze Etruscan warrior has a short tunic, with no skirts on the sides below the girdle. It seems to have been made of stiff and rigid leather, but has only one sleeve of that material ; that of the right arm, for the use of the sword, being of more flexible stuff. In Caesar's time almost all the Roman equites had quilted, stuffed, or felted tunics, or tegmenta. Some of these stuffed were steeped in vinegar, to render them hard ; others were of leather ; and both were edged with iron round the neck, and sometimes round the line of the abdomen. The light cavalry used such cuirasses. The Ligurian tunics were girt with a belt. " Cuirass. — Cuirasses, 1 of folded linen or cloth, or felted with salt and vinegar, were used by the Egyp- tians, Ajax in the Trojan war, Athenians, Alexander, &c. 2. Of leather, sometimes used by the Sarmatian chiefs, occur in Tacitus. Brass and iron were most common, of two pieces joined by a buckle at the shoul- ders. These were altered, tnrough their heaviness, to plates upon leather or cloth ; and both these, and chain- mail, but not interlaced, says Dr. Meyrick, also occur. Gold plates distinguished the Greek and Roman gene- rals. The soldiers on the Trajan column wear a short leathern tunic, like a waistcoat, upon which plates of metal were sewed. The plates were sometimes super- seded by small chains. Dr. Meyrick thus distinguishes the cuirasses of various nations : Of leather, with a belt of the same material ; Medes and Persians before the reign of Cyrus the Great. Plumated loricae of steel, of which the fore-part covered the breast, outside of the thighs, and external parts of the hands and legs ; the posterior part the back, neck, and whole of the head ; both parts united by fibulae on the sides ; the Parthian cavalry. Scales made of horses' hoofs, and sewed 'to- gether with the nerves of horses and oxen ; Sarmatian. Cuirasses appear to have been introduced by Philomaenes among the Achaean horse, that they might be enabled to use lighter shields and lances ; and Philopoemen, ac- 314 ARTSj ETC. OF THE GREEKS ASD ROMANS. cording to Pausanias^ persuaded the infantry of Greece to cover their bodies with thoraces, and their legs with greaves^ in order to introduce the Argolic shield and long spear, instead of the small spear and oblong shield, like the Celtic thureos or Persian gerra. Mitrees^ accom- panied with gorgets, thoraces, a girdle_, %o^crTri§^ to which was attached a petticoat, called ^uofjia. The mitree was padded with wool, covered either with flat rings or square pieces of brass, and fastened at the sides : in this state it was cut round at the loins ; but that in the time of Pericles followed the line of the abdomen^ and was pro- bably of leather^ without metal plates. Sometimes in front of it was placed another breast-piece ; but this only when the thorax did not wholly cover the chest. The Etruscan cuirasses were plain, scaled, ringed, lami- nated, or quilted. Dependent from their cuirasses were stra])s, sometimes merely of leather, at others with pieces of metal on them ; and these appendages, termed by the French lambrequins, were, together with their plain and laminated cuirasses, adopted by the Romans. Tlie body armour of the latter nation was the ioricay which, like the French cuirass, was so called from hav- ing been originally made of leather, and afterwards^ like that, apphed to metal : it followed the Hne of the abdomen at bottom ; and seems to have been impressed, while wet, with marks corresponding to those of the human body : at top, the square aperture for the throat was guarded by the pectoral, or plate of brass ; and the shoulders were, in like manner, protected by pieces made to slip over each other. This was the Etruscan attire ; but several changes took place afterwards. On the Trajan column we find the lorica of the Hastati and PrincipeSj consisting of several bands of brass or steel, each wrapping half round the body, and therefore fast- ening before and behind on a leathern or quilted tunic. These laminated loricse were very heavy. The Roman lorica was frequently enriched on the abdomen with embossed figures, on the breast with a gorgon's head for an amulet, on the shoulder-plates with scrolls of : ii TELA. 315 \,m ■ thunderbolts, and on the leathern border, which covered the top of the lambrequins, with lions' heads formed of the precious metals. The compact cuirass was made to open at the sides, where the breast and back plates joined by means of clasps and hinges. The lorica of the Triarii were of leather only. In the time of Marcus Aurelius, they had cuirasses of scales or leaves of iron, called squammatcB, or plumatcBy a fashion first adopted, from the Dacians or Sarmatians, by Domitian, who, according to Martial, had a lorica made of boars' hoofs stitched together. When the lorica was of one piece, whether of leather or metal, and reached to the abdo- men, it had the pendent flaps, called lamhrequins, before mentioned, made of leather, fringed at the bot- tom, and sometimes highly ornamented. At the time of Trajan, the lorica was shortened, being cut straight round above the hips ; and then there were overlapping sets of lambrequins, to supply the deficiency in length; and generals thus habited may be observed on the Tra- jan column. The Roman cavalry did not at first wear loriccB, but afterwards adopted the Greek arms, and then were called Loricati. In the time of Constantine the Great, the Cataphractes or heavy horse, the same as the Persian CHbanarii, had flexible armour, composed of scales, or plates ; and rings held together by hooks and chains, the lorica hamata, which, however, is much older than the period mentioned. The Sicilian cuirasses, like those of the ancient Greeks, consisted of back and breast pieces, with lambrequins. ^^ Thoraces. — Those of the Indians were made of matted rushes. Dr. Meyrick conceives the thorax of Homer and the Greeks to have been a large breast, plate of brass, or made of leather, or some other ap. propriate material, to which the shoulder-guards were connected at the back. The ancient Cimbri wore iron breastplates. ^^ Belts, Girdles. — These were plated with metal, and covered the body below the pectoral, among the Jews. The Scythian body-arraour, on the Theodosian column, / 31 6 ARTS, ETC. OF THE GREEKS AND ROMANS. consists of a tunic, apparently wadded, with a girdle and cross-belts of leather^ studded ; the sleeves very short, but secured with two bands like the belts. The Greek girdle, ^ojvt?, very rich and varied, bound the armour together ; whence ^oj^fo-fiat became a general word to imply putting on armour. In Homer^ the gir- dle was not worn directly above the loins, but just be- low the chest, as in Hamilton's Etruscan Antiquities. ^^ Arm.pieces. — The arms of the Greek warriors (very early ages excepted) appear naked ; but, among the Romans of rank, lambrequins, or straps^ richly adorned and fringed, protected the upper arms. ^^ Shields. — Dr. Meyrick, speaking of the shields of the Mysenaecians, which were made in the shape of an ivy-leaf, composed of the hides of white oxen, with the hair on, says, ^ In ancient times the shape of the shield had much to do with the mythology of the people, and, therefore, w^ere circular to represent the sun, crescent-like to imitate the moon, &c.' The ivy-leaf was sacred to Bacchus, and it might be from this people that the Greeks derived the pelta, which Xeno- piion describes as of the same form. The first shields were made of basket-work, to which succeeded light wood. The most usual material was, however, ox leather, covered with metal plates. The middle had a plate of metal, the Latin umho^ often furnished with a thread of metal, turned in a circle or spirally. At first there was no other mode of carrying and managing the shield but by a piece of leather, suspended from the neck over the left shoulder ; Eustathius says, a leathern thong, or a brass plate. This apparatus often appears upon the Etruscan monuments. These handles, says Herodotus, were inventions of the Carians. The arm ring was independent of two smaller, placed upon the edges of the buckler, to be laid hold of by the hand. This mode appears very distinctly upon the shield of Diomede, in the Monumenti Antichi. When, after war, the shields were sus}>ended in the temples, the handles were taken away, to prevent their being of J TELA. 317 ) I I ' cc cc service in sedition. JEschylus says, that bells were sometimes added to shields, to affright enemies by the sudden sound ; but Dr. Meyrick could not find a speci- men. The Carians also introduced the ornaments of symbolic or allegorical figures, attesting the antiquity of their origin, and the valour of their ancestors. The Peloponnesians engraved their initials upon their shields, in order to distinguish themselves in battle. Thus upon their coins often occurs only a monogram of the two first letters of their names. The Greeks carried the shield upon either arm, as do some gladiators in Stosch, the paintings of the Villa Albani, and other monuments. " Shields of different nations. Egyptian, — Convex. GrcBco^Egyptian. — The thureos, so called from its resembling a gate, oblong, with the top rounded convex, and a hole in the middle. '^ Ethiopian, made of raw ox-hides. ^^ Jewish — Philistine. — Four kinds at least, all of different sizes. Goliath had two shields : the smaller probably hung at his back by a strap, whence he could easily take it, if required, in time of action ; the larger one was carried before him by his armour-bearer. ^^ Phoenician. — Round, without any protuberance in the centre. '' Syrian. — Small bucklers. '' Assyrian — Chaldean.— Bucklers after the Egyptian manner. '' Persian. — Fiddle- shaped, with an ornament in the centre, the Greek gerra, borne by the Thebans. ^^ Scythian. — Oval. '^ Mysenecian — Pelta. — This is the usual shield of the Amazons ; but upon a bas-relief of the Villa Albani, some of them have the round Argive buckler. '^ Thracian. — Small and crescent-formed. '' Mysian. — Round, with a single handle in the centre inside, to be projected by the h'and, not put upon the arm. I t 318 ARTSy ETC. OF THE GREEKS AND ROMANS. '^ Lycian. — Small bucklers. ^^ Phrygian. — Lunated^ with a rise in the centre of the crescent. '^ Cilicians. — Small bucklers of untannecl ox-hides. ^^ Grecian. — The cavalry of the first era used long shields, but Philomaenes introduced a round light one, not wider than absolutely necessary to cover the body. The infantry at first used oblong shields, like the Celtic thureos, or the Persian gerra, but Philopoemen changed them to the Argolic shield. The original Greek shield was, however, the aa-wi;, a perfect circle, made of several folds of leather, covered with plates of metal, laid one over the orher, and about three feet in diameter, in order to reach from the neck to the calf of the leg ; on which account Homer calls them a(ji(pitp^.Taq and Trc^rjvrjyiBi;, the warriors often, by kneeling down and bending their 1 eads^ concealing themselves behind them. The heavy-armed infantry and charioteers used this shield. The cavalry had the Aai:rYiiov, a much lighter and smaller round shield, composed of a hide with the hair on. The light infantry used the pelta. The yeppov, or yeppa, was adopted, and thureos. ^^ Etruscan. — Circular, much smaller than the Greek aspis, and held by one handle in the centre, or else octagonal, but of that form which might be de- scribed in an acute angle, subtended by a curve, i. e. nearly of the paper-kite form. '^ Samnite. — Demi-cylindrical, like a crease, i, e. the tile running along the ridge of house-roofs. This gave birth to one of the Roman shields. Before, they are said to have used the Greek round ones. ^^ Sicilian. — Diagonal, with* a boss in the centre, but the sides so unequal as to resemble the long kite- shape. '' Roman. — The Ilastati and Principes (heavy in- fantry) used the scutum^ a hollow hemi-cyhnder, a convex hexagon, or that shape with its side angles rounded off. It was generally four feet long, by two and a half broad ; and made of wood joined togethei TELA. i Pi * t IJ r 319 with little plates of iron, and the whole covered with a broad piece of linen, upon which was put a sheep's skin or bull's hide, having an iron boss jutting out in the centre, of great service in close fighting. The Triarii (and sometimes the Principes) used a clypeus, or round buckler ; or, sometimes, one of leather, of a square form crimped into undulations. The VeHtes carried the round shield called parma^ about three feet diameter, made of wood, and covered with leather. The cavalry at first had bucklers made of ox-hides, resembling (says Polybius) the concave loaves used in sacrifices; but, being of little strength at any time, and utterly un- serviceable when wetted with rain, the Greek arms were adopted instead. Other writers distinguish the parmula of three Roman feet for the light troops, and the par ma of four Roman feet for the cavalry. An ensign on the Trajan column carries under his arm the parmula, which reaches from the neck to the knees; but the parnia of the cavalry upon the same column covers also the legs. In C. Caylus, where is a figure of a Roman horseman, he makes his round buckler larger than the parma. Mr. Hope, however, observes, the Roman shield seems never to have resembled the large round buckler used by the Greeks, nor the cres- cent-shaped one peculiar to the Asiatics, but to have offered an oblong square, or an oval, or a hexagon, or an octagon. The cavalry alone wore a circular shield, but of small dimensions^ called parma. In truth, how could horsemen conveniently use a shield four feet long ? — Votive and sacred shields. Every body knows, that there were very beautifully wrought arms, for pomps, processions, and other solemnities. The votive shields at first consisted of the spoils of an enemy, but at last were offerings made of the richest metals, finely wrought, even sometimes of marble. They were sus- pended in public places and buildings, with peculiar ceremonies. They were charged with inscriptions. The famous shield of Scipio was votive. The ancilia, or sacred shields, which Montfaufon has ovaly are round 320 ARTS^ ETC. OF THE GREEKS AND ROMANS. upon coins of Domitian, and one of the moneyer Licinius. — The chjpeum was a mere round medallion, enclosing a portrait, for suspension against walls, &c. There are several at Portici, the Capitol, &c. They are the clypeatcB imagines of Macrobius. — Shields upon seals. In eras posterior to the Antonines, nothing is more common than to see emperors holding a buckler in the left hand, adorned with divers figures ; and, after Constantine^ with the monogram J. C. It implied the protection which princes owe to their subjects. ^^ Every legion had the buckler painted of a particular colour, and charged with distinctive symbols, as the thunderbolt, anchor, serpent, &c. To the symbols were added the peculiar signs of each cohort, and the names of the person to whom each buckler belonged. These marks were necessary, for they were deposited in tents and magazines until wanted for use. To preserve the paintings, &c. they were kept in leathern cases. ^^ Gauls, — Diodorus makes their shields proportion- able to the height of a man, garnished with his own ensigns. These Pausanias also calls thureoi, adding, that they were introduced into Greece by Brennus. Re tells us ^ the Gauls had no other defence, and used thern as rafts on crossing a river.' This shield is in form the thureos. That carried, however, by the Parisian boatmen, in the time of Tiberius Csesar, and found sculptured at Notre Dame in 1711, appears to be hexagonal and convex, though long and narrow. Governor Pownall says, that the Gaulish shields, upon the triumphal arch at Orange, are of a long oval, with the two ends truncated, and had distinguishing marks. Livy and Appian say that the Gaulish buckler was long and flat, but too narrow to cover a man. ^^ Germans. — A large shield, distinguished by splen- did colours. In Gessner the form is a long hexagon with concave sides. Vandals y Goths, &^c. — Round. Scandinavians and Northern Nations. — One kind a long oval, the skiold, whence shield, of wood^ bark^ or ce (C TELA. S21 u\ leather, and entirely covering the bearer; the other smaller, convex, often furnished with a boss of iron or other metal. These shields were of iron or brass, and engraved, painted, or gilt ; and sometimes covered with a plate of gold. The large shield served to carry the dead or wounded, or to swim across a river. It was white, until the bearer, by some exploit, had obtained permission to bear some distinctive mark. " Spaniards, Africans. — The cetra, small, round, of leather, and very Ught. Also curtice, bucklers as large as shields. ^^ Greaves, Hv^jjunSfc, ocre^.— Gohath had greaves, as had the Lycians. Among the Greeks, they were the famous KvriiJLilzq of Homer, of metal (sometimes of bull's hide), which rose in front to the top of the knee, nearly met behind at the calves, and terminated just above the ancle. They were fastened behind. Dr. Meyrick says, with pieces of metal, ending in buttons; other accounts, with thongs or buckles. The Etruscans had them, apparently of rough hides, fastened behind by a single ligature, near the middle of the calf, which greaves subsequently gave way to buskins. The Sam- nites wore ornamented boots, reaching to the ancle and covering the instep ; and over that on the left leg was placed a plate of brass, fixed upon a wadded wrapper. Servius Tullius introduced the Etruscan greaves among the Romans; but, from the time of the republic, the word ocrecB applied to the boots, laced up, which suc- ceeded them. The ocrea is described as a plate of metal, or piece of ox-hide, tied behind ; but exceptions occur. It was common in the later ages to have only one of these greaves, mostly upon the left leg. Arrian and Vegetius mention this custom, which also obtained among the Samnites and Sabines, whose arms were in part, at least, similar, and from whom probably, not from the Samnites, the Roman imitations were bor. rowed. The Celtiberians wore greaves of rough hair. In some marbles, greaves guard tlie calf, but leave the shin bare. Mr. Hope observes, that greaves are fre- VOL. II. Y S22 ARTS, ETC. OF THE GREEKS AND ROMANS. quently omitted in Greek figures^ particularly in those of later date. Sometimes on fictile vases, a kind of apron or curtain is suspended from the shield, by way of a screen or protection to the legs. ^^ Gauntlets. — Dr. Meyrick says, that he has read of %e I r of singular beauty. Alexander placed 200 persons within the compass of one pavilion. Jornandes de- scribes the tent of Attila, king of the Goths, as very extensive and magnificent, having porticoes, ample areas within, &c. We hear of tents of silk and gold for pleasure. The Britons had tents, and it is ex- pressly mentioned that they folded up as now. They were used by the Anglo-Saxons for civil as well as mihtary purposes. Strutt says, that their tents were only lines, stretched from the top of a long pole, and fastened to wooden hooks driven into the ground. They are supposed to have been covered with a thick and strong cloth, or leather, on the top, a roof or guard sloping either way, like the ridge of a house, to shoot off rain. To some they had a door properly cut out, but others were entered by puUing the covering aside. He has exhibited both sorts. We hear of tents of silk large enough to feast 200 knights, and the poles of such a tent filling a cart. Some were made of linen. One was in the form of a chapel, of fine scarlet cloth ; the annunciation of the Virgin Mary and other mysteries being embroidered in the inside. In the fourteenth century our tents were of different forms and colours. Our royal tents, as appears by the plates in Strutt and Grose, were very large and splendid ; ^ but,' says Andrews, ^ Henry VIII. had in his wars with France, instead of a tent, a timber house, with an iron chimnev, and several pavilions, on the top of which stood tne king's beasts, viz. the lion, dragon, antelope, greyhound, and dun cow.' Cutting down tents and pavilions was one of the first steps upon an assault of a camp." * Toga, the chief garment of the Romans, was, like the pallium of the Greeks, peculiar to them. It resembled a gown, except that it had no sleeves, no opening before or behind ; and that, while the right arm escaped above it, the left was employed to carry the burthen on that side. Tlie gracefulness with which a person thus bore his toga, was not below the notice of the best writers. * From Fosbrooke's EncyciopaBdia of Antiquities, vol i p, 337. Y 2 ;i 3^4 ARTS, ETC. OF THE GREEKS AND ROMANS. The material was wool ; the colour generally white ; and the difference between the toga of the patrician and that of the humble civis, consisted both in the quality and the amplitude : the finer and the longer, the higher the dignity, or at least the respectability, of the wearer. Torus, a bed. — Whether the reason given by Ser- vius for this name — '' Torus ab herbis tortis dictus est," — may well be doubted. The most ancient beds, how- ever. Were on the ground, and consisted merely of leaves, straw, or dried grass. Skins succeeded, the fleeces of which, when thoroughly cleansed, were com- fortable enough. As luxury grew, stuffs of some value were spread over the skins. Bedsteads were the next improvement, when skins were abandoned in succession for wool, feathers, and down. Specimens of the torus may be seen in the first volume of this compendium. Tribuni. — For the nature, dignity, and history of the office, see the Roman history. V. Villa. — The Roman villa was divided into three parts : the urbanay for the master and family ; the rus- tica, for the farmer and husbandmen; and the fructuariay or store-house for corn, wine, and oil. The servants who were immediately attendant upon the master, and belonged to the Villa Urbana, were the Atrienses, or what the Itahans style the sala, in speaking of the hvery servants collectively ; the valets, cubicularii, who, it is presumed, were usually freedmen ; the secretary, styled notarius ; the gardeners for the pleasure garden, topiarii ; and the musicians and comedians, and persons for entertainment during repasts. This villa urbana, also denominated pseudo urbana, and prcetorium, from obvious distinction, had a peristyle, or court, surrounded by a portico, at the further extremity of which, opposite to the gate of entrance, was the atrium, or hall, with a portico on each side, looking towards the place of exercise, as awns, galleries for wrestUng, and other smaller build- VILLA. 325 i \ ;•• • :'i ings. The baths were also annexed to this part of the building, and were always so situated as to enjoy the winter's setting sun. Besides the sitting-rooms, cham- bers, library, and eatin/r-room, they would often have one of the latter kind in the midst of the park, as we should call it, and sometimes a bed-room, for the sake of quiet and retirement. In the villa rustica, or farm- house, in apartments over the gateway, lived the pro^ curator, or steward, that he might know who went in or out ; on one side of this, the villicus, bailiff, or chief of the husbandmen, and near the fructuaria, or store- rooms, the villica, or house-keeper, under whose order were the female servants, employed in providing food and clothing for the family. The inferior slaves lodged in one great room, and the sick in an apartment called the valetudinariunh The lodgings of the freedmen had a southern aspect. The aviarius had the care of the poultry ; and in considerable villas, far from a town, was a master of the workmen, ergastularius, with smiths and carpenters under him. Horses and mules were kept for the use of the master, and asses and oxen for that of the farm, which had yards, much re- sembUng the modern. Particular care was taken of the geese, hens, pigeons, peacocks, and other birds, who had also separate dwelUngs assigned to them ; and not only deer, hares, and every kind of game was attended to, but there can scarcely be named an animal, which was not kept by the more opulent Romans at their country seats. The villa was also divided into a winter and summer-house, because it had a suite of rooms adapted to either season. The parts which composed the summer residence were nearly the same as those of the town, except that the dwelling apartments, which did not commonly exceed one story, were always surmounted by a tower, on the top of which was a room pierced with windows on every side, uni- formly destined for meals, so that they could add to the pleasures of the table those of light and prospect. They nearly always built their villas along the high Y 3 S26 ARTS, ETC. OF THE GREEKS AI^D R03IANS. roaJs^ for two reasons : one to get to them more easily^ the other to place them more in sight. In the Pom- peian paintings we have villas of this kind. One on the sea-shore, of two stories, has trees planted on the roof. Winckelman says, that the architecture of the villas of Herculaneum is the same as that of the large houses of towns, so that the plan and elevation of the one is the same as that of the other.*' * ViNUM. — The Greeks understood the art of grafting the vine. Their vines were very lofty, and they could enjoy the shade under the branches. At the time of vintage they exposed the grapes to the sun and night for ten days. For five days longer they left them in the shade, and on the sixth pressed them. They did not put the wine into barrels, which were unknown to them, but into earthen vases or skins. Galen mentions Asiatic wines, which, when put into large bottles, and suspended near a fire, acquired solidity ; and Aristotle speaks of a useful invention. Arcadian wine so indurated by drying, that it was cut in pieces and dissolved in water for drinking. The Chian wine still preserves its ancient celebrity. ^' The vine was not planted in the environs of Rome before the year 600 u. c, and till then wine was very rare ; but afterw^ards it became very common, and the season of vintage was a time of diversion, when jests were passed upon passengers with licensed impunity. The vines were planted at the foot of trees, upon which they made the branches mount, in order to form arbours, as is still common in Italy. In making wine they put the must into a wooden tub, where they suf- fered it to ferment for some time; afterwards thev filled other vessels with it, where it continued to fer- ment. To aid the depuration, they threw into it the condimenta vinorum plaster, chalk, marble-powder salt, resin, dregs of new wine, salt-water, myrrh, aro- matic herbs, &c. each country having its particular pre- paration. The wine thus prepared they left in the * From Fosbrooke*s Encyclopaedia of Antiquities, vol. i. pp. 57, 58. J VINUM. 327 vessels till the year following, sometimes even two or three years, according to the kind of wine and its growth. Afterwards they drew it off into large jars of earthenware, coated within with melted pitch. Out- side they marked the name of the wine, and consulate of the vintage. This process was the diffusio vinorum. They had two kinds of vessels for their wines, the amphora and cadus. The amphora was a vase of glass or pottery with two handles, and contained two urrKje, or twenty -four pints. It ended in a narrow neck, which they stopped with pitch and plaster, to prevent the wine becoming flat. The cadus was nearly in the form of a pine-apple, and contained one half more than the amphora. After stopping these vessels well, they deposited them in the horreum vinarium or apotheca vinaricB, a garret exposed to the sun. Aqueous wines, however, they put in situations exposed to the north ; the spirituous, on the contrary, in uncovered places, subject to weather. The first kind was kept only two or three years in these airy places, and to preserve it longer it was moved into warmer spots. Wine become thick with age they rendered fluid by dilution with warm water, and then strained it through a bag. This process was called saccatio vinorum. The Greeks and Romans, says Beckmann, were accustomed to boil their wine over a slow fire till only one third or fourth part remained, and to mix it with bad wine, in order to render the latter better. When, by this process, it had lost part of its watery particles, and had been mixed with honey and spices, it acquired several names, as Mulsum, Rapa, Carenum, Defrutum, &c. The same method is still pursued with sack, Spanish, Hungarian, and Italian wines. Mulled wine was a favourite Roman beverage." * • From Fosbrooke's Encyclopaedia of Antiquities, vol. i. pp. 473, 474. • i INDEX. i> ^ Abacus, i. 559. Abolltio, in Rdman law, ii. 3. Ablutions, common to most na- tions, ii. 1. Ridiculed by the fathers of the church, 2. Absolutio, in Roman law, ii. 3. Accensus, an officer different from the lictor, ii. 4. Acclamation different from ap- plause, ii. 4. Accumbere, or the custom of re- clining at meals, borrowed from the Greeks, ii. 5. Accusare, in Roman law every one could not accuse, ii. 6. Achilles, i. 93, 94. 96. Acoustic vases^ i. 112. Acropoles, application of the term, and enumeration of several, i. 59. Temples of Minerva and other public buildings built within them, 59, Acta Senatus, or journals of the Roman senate, ii. 6. Actio, Actor, Action at law, could not be instituted without the consent of a judge, ii. 7. Action of a dramatic piece, should be one entire, ii. 7. Actors, or stage players, i. 108. See Theatres. The Roman, ii. 8. Adoption, among the Romans, il 9. The custom of, led to a famous heresy, 10. Adoration, ii. 10. Adrian's mausoleum, i. 288. Advocates, origin of; a curse to every country, ii. 272. Adulterium^ adultery, how punish- ed by the Greeks and Uomans, ii. 11. Adytum of Isis, the, i. 134. ^diles, Roman magistrates, ii. 12. ^rarium, or public treasury of the Romans, ii. 12. ^schylus improves the stage, i. 107. ^tas, age, at which persons be- came eligible to public offices, ii. 13. Age hoc ! ii. 14. Agelades, i. 143. Agentes, ii. 14- Ager, land or field, ii 15. Agitator, a driver, ii. 18. Agmen, the march of an army, the army itself, ii. 18. Agonotheta, the president over the Grecian games, ii. 19. Agora, or market, i. 122. Agrarian laws. See Ager. Agricultural tools, i. 348. Agriculture highly esteemed, U. 19. Alabarches, ii. 22.^ Ala, a wing, in a military sense, ii. 21. Alabaster, the etymon of, i. 102. Aleameiies, i. 143. Alexander, Roman superstition respecting, i. 161. Alia omnia, ii. 22. Alienare, the tradition of property, ii. 23. Alipilarius, a slave, ii. 23, Aliptae, anointers, ii. 23. Alligati, slaves who worked in fet- ters, ii. 23. Allium, garlic, an Egyptian divi- nity, &c. ii. 24. Us medicinal virtues, 25. Altare, an altar, ii. 25. Altars, first made of turf, differen sorts of, i. 90. Difficulty of ascer- taining their antiquity, 91. An- tiquity, &c. of. See Ara. A mantes, lovers, ii. 26. Amazons, the, how sculptured, i. 149. Ambarvalia, a festival in honour of Ceres, ii. 28. 330 INDEX. ( x\mbire, to go round begging suf- frages, ii. 29. Ambition. See Ambira Ambitus. See Ambire. AmbubajsB, ii. 30. Ambulationes, ii. 30. Anelabris, ii. 35. Amici, friends, ii. 31. Amicitia, or friendship, a Roman goddess, ii. 32. Aminodes, the inventor of Greek ships of war, i. 215. Amphidromia, a Roman festival to c'eiebrate the birth of a child, ii. 32. Am})hitheatres, Roman, i. 304. Greek and Asiatic, 305. Amphithcatrical games, i. 305, 306. Amuleta i^amulet), iL 33. Anagnos£e, ii. 33. Ancile, Ancilia, ii. 34. Ancora, the anchor, invented by Midas, ii. 35. Anabatae, ii. 35. Andron, an apartment for men, ii. 36. Angari, Persian couriers, ii. 36. Anima, the soul, life, ii. 36. Annulus, finger ring, ii. 38. Annus, the year, ii. 43. Ansarium, ii. 56. Anteambulones, ii. 56. Anteccena, ii. 56. Anthony ruined by the size of his ships, i. 351. Antricolae, nymphs, ii. 56. Antrum, a cave, ii. 56. Apartments. See Houses, Palaces. Aper, the boar, a dish well known to the Romans, ii. 57. Apiaries, i. 275. Apollo, statues of, i. 147. Apotheosis, how represented, i. 97. ii. 57. Appeals, manner of, ii. 277. Aoueducts, i. 123. Roman, 313. Aquila, the eagle, the bird of Jove, li. 59. The Persian and Roman ensign, 60. Aqua, water, its uses, ii. 58. Et igni interdicere, 59. Ara, etymon of, ii. 60. Arcadians, the, had only five cities in the time of Pausani'^s, i. 60. The, inventors of the drama, 107. Arcadius, i. 92. Areas taught the use of wool, ii. 197. Architects, i. 332. Architectural process, tools, and engines, i. 332. Architecture, i. 239. See Egypt, Assyria, Persia, Corinthian, Do- ric, Ionic, Tuscan, Forts, Tem- ples, Tombs, &c. Arcus triumphalis, triumphal arch, ii. 62. Argo, the first ship, i. 350. Arena, ii. 62. Armilustrium, a festival, ii. 63. Armorial bearings, origin of, ii. 125. Armour, repositories for, i. 168. Different sorts of, 218. Of dif- ferent nations, a list of the, ii. 395. Arms of the Gr^^ks, i. 226,' 227. Of different natittis, ii. 293. Of the Romans. See Agmen. Army, the Roman, ii. 217. See Agmen. Arrhfie, a pledge given to a be- trothed bride, ii. 63. Arse-verse, a charm against fire, ii. 63. Artemisia, the mausoleum of, i. 286. Arts, the, of oriental origin, i. 329. Proper for freemen ; introduced into Rome by Nurna, 330. Di- vision of, among the Romans, ii. 64. Aruspex, a diviner, ii. 64. Ascia, a tomb, etymon of, ii. 65. Ascolia, a festival in honour of Bacchus, ii. 65. Assurgere, to rise from the seat, a high honour, ii. 65. Assyria, state of its earliest inha- bitants, i. 1. Assyrians the inventors of archi- tecture, i. 1. Astanda, a courier, ii. 65. Astrological tablets, i. 360. Asylum, a place of refuge, ii. 66. Athenians, their insatiable appe- tite for news, nicknamed word- makers and news-irakers, i. 164. Athens, number of houses in, i. 165, Athletae, or combatants for prizes at the public games, i. 119. Must be of good character, 120. In- fant, 121. Antiquity of, ii. 67. Atreus's treasury, representation and description of, i. 23. Atrienses, the, their dress, &c., L 263. Atrium, etymon of, i. 261. Augurs, diviners from the actions of birds, ii. 68. Difference be- tween the Grecian and Roman, 71. Augustales, priests established in honour of Augustus, ii. 73. Aurigae, charioteers, ii. 73. Auspices, inferior augurs, il 74. Authors, ancient, recited their own works, ii. 279. Autonomia, ii. 74. Aviaries, i. 276b INDEX. 331 } B. Babel, the Tower of, by whom built, i. 2. Representation of, 3. Babylon described, from Herodo- tus, Curtius, Hende, Rich, Hali- carnassus, Belzoni ; area of the ruins of, i. 9. Bacchanalia, Greek and Roman feasts in honour of Bacchus, ii. 74. Abolished by the Roman senate, 75. Bacchanals, sculptures of, i. 150. Bacchus, statues of, i. 147. Bail, cautio, ii. 109. Bakers, institution of, ii. 269. Baldness, a reproach, ii. 97i Bankers, ancient, i. 333. Banishment, ii. 144. Barba, the beard, held in much respect, anciently, ii. 78. Barbers, ii. 78. Barbers' shops, places for gossiping, i. 164. Barracks, Roman, i. 321. Barrow, or tumulus, the most an- cient kind of sepulchre, i. 92. Great, at Marathon, 93. Burial a mark of honour, 93. Of Aly- attes, 286. Basiieus [BxaXivs'], i. 183. Bas-reliefs, i. 153. Baths, ancient, i. 123. Filters for the poor, 164. Roman, 312. ii. .75. Hot, 77. Bedding of the Greeks, i. 360. Of the Romans, 363. Beds and couches, magnificent, i. 170. Beds of the Greeks, i. 360. Of the Romans, 363. Bedsteads, Greek and Roman, i. 361. Bees, i. 275. Beetle, the, worshipped by differ- ent nations ; Augustine compares Christ to the, i. 158. Bellaria, the second course at table, ii. 79. Bellows, ancient, i. 210. Bells, campancSy antiquity of, ii. 98. Bellum, ii. 79. Belus, the same as Nimrod, i. 1. Coetaneous with Abraham, 1. His tower, 9. His sepulchre, described by Strabo, 10. Belvidere, the Apollo, i. 147. Belzoni. See Babylon. Beneficarius, a soldier so called, ii. 80. Berenger. See Chariot races. Berenice, a good specimen of the ancient towns of Egypt, i. 43. Bestiarii, persons appointed to fight with beasts, ii. 81. Bestiae, beasts, made to fight in the Roman amphitheatre, ii. 80. Bibere, to drink, ii. 81. Bibliotheca, ii. 85. Bidental, ii. 86. Bigae, chariots invented by the Phrygians, ii. 86. Birthdays, anciently observed, ii. 233. Bitumen, the use of, i. 5. Asphal- tus of nature, 6. Black colour abominated, ii. 128. Boii, the, i. 241. Booksellers, i. 334. Books, ancient, ii. 206. Books for public acts made of lead , i. 350. Booty obtained in war, the division of, ii. 275. Bo><, the ox, ii. 86. Koxing, patronised by the Ro, mans, i. 309. See Gymnastic ex- ercises. Bread. See Bakers. Bribery, the ill eff'ects of, ii. 30. Bricks. See Chaldean. Bridges, Greek, i. 123. Roman, 314. Brothel at Pompeii, i. 269. Brothels, ii. 110. Buffoons, jugglers, &c., i. 188. Building materials, i. 247 Bulla, ii. 88. Burial, primitive manner of, i. 97* Ancient ways of, 292. ii. 385. Burying grounds, the common, the haunts of public women, i. 101. Bustum, the place of cremation, ii. 89. Butchers, tools used by; were cooks, i. 334. C. Cabiri, Phoenician objects of wor- ship, ii. 89. Cadaver, a corpse, ii. 89. Caesar, Julius, plunders the trea- sury, ii. 13. Calamus, a rustic pipe, ii. 95. Caestus, gloves worn by boxers, ii. 94.. Calceus, a sandal, ii. 95. Calculi, an ancient game of chess, i. 163. Calculus, calculation, ii. 97. Caldarium, il 97. Callichorus, the, in honour of Ceres, still practised, i. 138. Callon, i. 143. Calvus, bald, a term of reproach ii. 97. S32 INDEX. Calyptra, a sacerdotal veil iu 97. Cameos, i. 159. Camps of the Greeks and Romans, ii. 106. Canals, i. 125. Candidates, successful, at the pub- lic games, highly honoured, 1 121. For public dignities, ii. 99. Canon, a rule, a tax, ii. 101. Captives, ill treated by the Romans, ii. 105. Carians, the, originally pirates, i. 239. Carpenters, i. 23^. Cars of war, i. 236. Carvers. See Cooks. Catacombs, I 100. At Suadea j city of, at Syracuse, 133. Catadromus, a dancing rope, ii. 108, Cato the elder loved wine, ii. 84. Cattle lodged in dwelling houses, i. 257. Cavalry of the Greeks, i. 257. The Roman. See Agmen. Caves, i. 125. For subterranean . passages, citadels, and towns, 133. With labyrinths; for votive of- ferings, &c., 134. The earliest habitations of men. Remarkable ones at Ispica, 256. Cedar tree, the, used in ship building, ii. 109. Ceilings, i. 251. Ceieres, Roman horsemen, ii. 109. Cehbacy, contemned and taxed, ii. 125. Cella, the residence of slaves and prostitutes, ii. 110, Celtic antiquities, i. 241. Cenotaphs, or barrows of honour, i. 102. Cenotaphium, ii. 110. Censere, to number^ enroll take the census y &c., ii. 111. Censors, the Roman, ii. 113. Ceres. See Ambarvalia. Ceres, sculptures of^ i. 150. Chains, catena^ suitable to the dig- nity of the prisoner, ii. 108. Chairs, ancient, i. 171. Chaldean bricks, i. 3. Inscriptions on, 4, 5. Manner of building with the, 5 — 7 Chariot races, the Greek, described by Berenger, i. 117. Chariots, their origin, ii. 139. Charioteers, noble. See Aurigae. Chess, a Lydian invention, i \G3. See Calculi. Children bound to maintain their parents, i. 199. See Education. Chimneys, i. 256, ii. 97. Tax on, ii. 104. Chorus, the dramatic, i. 109. Cingulum, a soldier's girdle, the de- privation of, ignominious, ii. 114. Circitor, a visiting military officer, ii. 115. Circus, i. 308. Sports of the, 309. The Roman, il 115. Cursores, or runners in, ii. 140. 17^. Cisterns, ancient, i. 125. Citadels, ancient construction of, i. 57. Of the Romans, 315. Cithara, a Greek harp, ii. 115. Cities, the ancient, i. 240. Civilisation. See Egyptians. Civis, citizen, rights and privileges of a Greek and Roman, ii. 115. Clarissimi, Roman senators so ti- tled, ii. 120. Classis, the word, what derived from, ii. 120. Clavus annalis, ii. 121. Cleopatra, a bust of, i. 352. Clepsydra, a water horologe, ii. 122. Clientela, the relation between pa- tron and client, ii. 122. Clocks unknown to the ancients, ii. 181. Club, the most ancient weapon, i. 127. Cock-crowing, a token of victory, ii. 174. Coffer-dams, i. 314. Coffins, fictile, i. 291. Cohort, from 120 to 600 soldiers, ii. 127. Coins, anciently executed by en- gravers, i. 160. Collegium, a body corporate, ii. 128. Colonisation. See Ager. Comitia, the Roman, ii. 129. Confusion of tongues, conjecture respecting the, i. 2. Conjugal relations, i. 192. Consecratio, ii. 135. Consul, ii. 137. Cooking utensils, i. 337 Cooks, Homer's heroes their own, i. 181. At Sparta, hereditary ; the Sicilian, valued, 182. Ihe Roman, 336. See Butchers. Corfu, i. 239. Corn, the care of, a national con- cern, ii. 173. Corona, crowns or garlands, vari- ous sorts of, ii. 137. Corinth, the principal seat of the arts in Greece, B. C. 600, i. 72. Corinthian architecture, origin of; characteristics of the oldest known, i. 71. The second and third in date, 72. Innovations in, 73. Invented by Caliima- chus, 76. Corinthian order, i. 244. INDEX. SSS I ! Cor/inus the philosopher loved wine, ii. 84. Cosmetics, used by the ancients, ii. 166. Cothon, harbour, port, i. 125. Cottabus, the, a Sicilian game, i. 187. Cottages of the poor, i. 284. Couriers. See Angari, Agentes. Courts and offices, public, i. 311. Cowardice. See Decimation. Cremation and barrow burial, to- kens honour paid to the deceased, Crier, the public, n. 175. Criers. See Age hoc I Criminals condemned to fight with beasts, ii. 80. Execution of, 140. Critias, i. 143. Criticism, ancient, ii. 243. Cross-buns, i. 298. Crucifixion, ii. 138. Cupid, statues of, i. 147. Cups, ancient, i. 183. Curtius. See Babylon. Cybele, the representations of, crowned with flowers, i. 150. Cyclopean forts, why untenable, i. 64. Cyclops, the ancestors of the Phoe- nicians, i. 13. Etymon of the name, 14. Their gigantic size, 14. Their buildings, 15. 24. The first builders, 13. See Greece. Cypress, the, why it became a fu. neral tree, i. 95. ^ .,^. Cyzicus celebrated for its buildings, i. 167. D. Dsdalus the earliest sculptor in Greece, i. 139. Added legs to statues, 140. Dancers. See Funambuli. Dances, different sorts of, ii. 281. Dancing, the Greek stage, i. 109. Dead, the, supposed thirst of, i. Death, ii. 229. See Soul, Ghost, Funerals, Manes, Larva. Debtors, laws respecting, ii. 141. Decemviri, the Roman, ii. 142. Decimation, a punishment for cow- ardice, ii. 142. Decuriones, ii. 143. Defensor civitatis, ii. 143. Deification. See Apotheosis. Delator, a secret accuser, ii. 143. Delectus, a levy of soldiers, ii. 144. Delphi. See Oracles. Democracy, maritime powers in- clined to, I 130. Demoi [A^jAto/], or hamlets, i. 240. Deserters, punishments of, ii. 145. Devovere, to devote, ii. 146. Dextra, the right hand, a pledge of sincerity, ii. 146. Diamond, the art of cutting the, unknown to the ancients, i. 16U. Diana, figures of, i. 150. Dice players, i. 338. Dignities, civil. See iEtas. Dinner, family, i. 173 Party, 174. Invitation to, and ceremonies, 175. Behaviour at, 184. Dinner-beds, i. 357. Aiovva-ioc. See Bacchanalia, Liber- al! a. Discus, or quoit, the game of, ii. 147. Set> Gymnastic exercises. Disinheriting, the power of, ii. 16>. Distaff, a, borne before Roman brides, ii. 129. Divination by a sieve, i. 342. Dif- ferent ways of, ii. 147. Divorce among the ancients, ii, 148. Divus, divine, a term apphed to many emperors, ii. 148. Docks, i. 127. Dodona. See Oracles. Dogs used to guard bouses ; wor- shipped by the Egyptians ; sacri- ficed by the Greeks and Romans, ii. 101. Domestic economy, i. 329. Donaldson. See Theatre. Door, ii. 186. Doors, i. 253. Curious Ifeauon for knocking at, 165. Dorians, the, had a bias to strict rule and proportion, i. 70. Their dweUings plain, 168. Resisted luxury, 190. Their public tables, 191. Doric, the first order of Grecian architecture, invented in Eu- ropean Greece, i. 69. Almost exclusively employed in the build- ing of temples, 69- Not borrowed from Egypt, 70. Rule for ascer- taining the eras of, 71. 73. The declining Doric, 73. Doric cities, the, were the early schools of art in European Greece, i, 69. The Roman, 241. Dormitories of the Greeks, i. 360. Of the Romans, 361. Dovecots, i. 278. Drama, origin of the, i. 107. The Roman. See Action. Drinking, i. 186. Compulsory, largely, 189. Among the Greeks .and Romans, ii. 81. Dromos [SfO/tto?], or race-course, the Greek, i. 1 17. Druidical amulet, I 291. I Drummond, Sir W., his opinion re- 334 INPKX. specting Nimrod and Abrahan, according to Scripture, erroneous, i. 1. Drunkenness, ii. 84. Duumviri, the Roman, ii. 151. Dwarfs, natural and artificial, ii. 232 Dyeing linen, the art of, i. 344. Dying injunctions, &c., il 228. R Eagle, an artificial, i. 117- Ear of Dionysius, at Syracuse, the, i. 130. Ecbatana, i. 9. Fortified like a camp, 52. Economy. See Domestic. Education of youth, i. 19fi The Spartan, 199. Effigies, superstitious use of, ii. 152. Egregiatus, ii. 152. Egypt governed by gods, i. 27. Its chronology uncertain, 27. Its architecture, 28 — 36. Its tombs, 37. Mummies, 38. Pyramids, 4<). Colossal figures, 42. Sphinxes, 42. Ancient towns and houses of, 43. Egyptians, the first civilised people, i. 284. Ancestors of the Pelasgi, £84. The firs" potters, 287. Eleusinian mysteries, ii. 152. Elgin marbles, the works of Phidias and his coadjutors, i. 14S. Emancipation from paternal au- thority, ii. 157. Embalming, i. 284. Embroidery. See Sidonian. Emeralds, a singular use made of, i. 16. Emeriti, ii. 158. Endaeus, a disciple of Dsdalus, i. 141. Engravers and engraving. See Coins and Gems. Entrails, divination by the, ii. 165. Epitaphs, i. 98. Short, 107. Equitation, origin of, ii. 158. Eqiiites, horsemen, or knights, ii. 159. Ergastulum, a prison for slaves, ii. 160. Esculapius, statues of, i 148. Ethiopians. See Egyptians. Etruscans, their early civilisation ; early inhabitants of Italy, L 241. 324. Not indebted to the Greeks for their knowledge of the arts, 331. Eunuchs, ii. 160. Evocare animas, to invoke the souls of the dead, ii. 161. Lvocatio, ii. 162. Exauctoratio, ii. 162. Excommunication common among the pagans, ii. 162. Executioner, the public, ii. 106. Expiation for crimes committed, ii. 163. Eye, the, much consulted in divin- ation, it 255. F. Fairs and markets, ii. 21.5. Fasces, the symbols of execution, ii. 166. Fasti, tables for records, ii. 166. Fawns, sculptures of, i. 148. FeraWay feasts of the dead, ii. 167. Feriae, festivals, ii. 168. Fesciales, a college of priests, ii. 167. Festivities, public and private, i. 120. Fidiculffi, a species of torture, ii. 168. Filia, femina, an unmarried girl and wife, ii. 168. Filius, son, Uie father's power over, n. 1/1. Filthiness of the Roman houses, i. 555. Fire, (f^nis, sometimes means guards ; sacred, &c., ii. 186. Fish. See Ponds. Flagellatio, scourging before exe- cution, ii. 171. Flamen, ii. 171. Floors and pavements, i. 254. Flowers and branches typical oi eternal life, i. 98. Fcedus, an alliance, ii. 172. Food of the Greeks, i. 176. Ani- mal, not originally eaten, 178., The Spartan, 190. 'Of the Ro- mans, ii. 113. Fores, gates and doors, ii. 172. Fortresses, ancient Greek general characteristics of, i. 57. Were small in the earliest stages of society, 60. Improvements in, 61. Of the Alexandrian era, 63 -68 Fountain, an oracular, i. 129. Fountains, i. 129. Forks, unknown to the Greeks, i. 184. Forum, market place, ii. 172. The Roman, i. 310. Fratres Arvales, twelve priests, ii. 172. Frescoes. See Pompeii. I Friends. See Amici. I Fullers, i. 134. ] Funambuli, rope dancers, ii. 173. ; Funeral of Patrocles, i. 93. Cub i toms, none universal, 96. Sym- % ^S INDEX. S35 bols, 99. Rites, ii. 89. Songs, 232. Funerals of the ancient Greeks, i. 93. Regulated by Solon, 94. Funereal honours, excitements to virtue, ii. 289. Furniture of the Greeks, i. 204. See House. Fustuarium, scourging with staves, ii. 173. G. Games instituted by Achilles in honourofPatrocles, i. 94. Public, of the Greeks, 120. Ancient, ii. 208. Odd and Even, 271. Pessoi, i. 162. See Chess, Circus, Dice-players, Education, Gym- nastic exercises. Gardeners, i. 348. Garlic. See Allium. Gates. See Citadels. Gems, sculpture of, i. 158. Ancient and modern, distinction of; man- ner of engraving; figures en- graved upon, 160 Genius, a tutelary divinity, ii. 174. Ghosts starved with hunger, i. 285. Gifts and ofl^erings, ii. 151. Girdles, armorial, i. 224. Girls were instructed in horse- racing, i. 121. Gladiators, origin of, i. 305. ii. 179. See Andabata?. Glass, where first made ; manufac- turers, i. 345. Glycon. See Hercules. Gods, local, ii. 189. Goddesses, figures of, i. 149. Golden crowns distributed at the Olympic games, i. 120. Gorglas, i. 143. Gorgons, sculptures of, i. 150. Greece, the earliest inhabitants or, i. 165. Guards and martial exercise, ii. 163. Guilloch, or curb bit chain, the, its first occurrence ; a favourite with the Romans, i. 74. Gymnasia, the, i. 118. Gymnasiarch, a female, i. 121. Gymnasium, ii. 181. Gymnasiums, their construction, i. 119. Gymnastic exercises, five in num- ber J officers of the, i. 121. H. Hspreditas, ii. 181. Hair, the, collected into a club, in ancient statues, in the man- ner of the Australians, i. 143, The consecrated, 198. The h-u man, cafjillus, ii. 102. Halicarnassus, description of the walls of the city of, i. 62. Handkerchiefs, pocket, origin of, ii. 267. Harbours and ports, Roman, i. 318. See Cothon. Hares, the flesh of, much esteemed, ii. 203. Much regarded in au- gury, 204. Harp. See Cithara. Harpocrates, i. 148. Head-dress, not used by the Ro- mans, ii. 105. Healths drunk by the Greeks, i. 185. Hegias, i 143. Heiresses, the next of kin to marry, i. 199. Hende. See Babylon. Heralds. See Cooks, Waiters. Herculaneum, ruins of, ii. 321- ^23. Hercules, statue of, in the British Museum, i. 140. Statue of, by Glycon, 148. Other statues of, 148. Herodotus's description of Babylon, i. 8. Highways, Roman, i. 321. Hippodamus improves the streets of the Greek towns, i. 131. Built the city of Rhodes, 131. Hippodromes, or horse-races, origin of, i. 117. Distinct from stadia, 121. Hippona, the patroness of horses, i. 280. Homer, i. 92. 119. 123. Deficient in elucidating the arts, 331. Honorius, i. 92. Horologe, a curious Roman, i. 360. Horse-breakers, i. 346. Horse-races invented by the Tyri- ans, i. 308. Hospitality, ii. 183. Hostages, law, rights, and privileges of, ii. 252. Hostia different from victim, il 183. House of Sallust, the, l 259. Houses, ancient and modern, i. 165. Athenian, 165. Dorian, 168. Spartan, 169. The earliest Italian, 257. Roman, 257. No remains of ancient Greece, 258. Greek and Roman, compared, 356. Household goods of the Romans, i. 354. Husbandmen, the Roman, i. 348. 336 INDEX. I. Idleness, effects of, i. 199. Illustris, the word, ii. 187. Images among the Romans, li. 187. Immunes militia, ii. 188. Infant sacrifices abolished, ii. 174. Infanticide of the Spartans, ii. 164. Infants, exposure of, ii. 164. Innkeepers, cheats, i. 269. Inns, ancient, not reputable places, i. 269. Called stables^ 279. Intaglios, i. 159. Ionic order, the, invented by Her- mogenes, i. 74. Description of; fine specimen of, in the British Museum, 74. Further account of, 243. Iran, or Persia, its claims to anti- quity, i. 45. A province of As. Syria, 45. Isis. See Adytum. Italy, arts of ancient, i. 239. An- cient inhabitants of, Celts ; ar- chitecture of ancient, 241. Iter, itinerary, ii. 189. Ivy, the, sacred to Bacchus, iL 182. J. James T., i. 97. Jani, i. 318. Javelin. See Gymnastic exercises. Jupiter, his statues known by the thunderbolt and eagle, i 146. Statues of his progeny, 147. Jus, laio, justice, ii. 191. K. Keys, their origin uncertain, ii. 121. Kisses, ii. 267. Kitchens, i. 267. Knapsacks, i. 234. Knockers, antiquity of, i. 355. Knocking. See Doors. Kopai, where se^ed, i. 59. Krupia frequent in Egypt, &c. i. 99. L. Labour. See Agriculture. Lacon, i. 143. Laestrigones. See Greece. Lake, the term applied to all bodies of water, ii. 193. Lamiae, devouring spectres, li. 194. Lampadedromia, the race so called i. 101. Lamps, antiquity of, ii. 194. Land. See Ager. Lares, household deities, ii. 200. Larissa, specimen of polygonal ma- sonry at, i. 53. Larvae, spectres, ii. 200. Latin, Celtic words in the, ac- counted for, i. 241. Laurel, the, a sacred tree, ii. 200. Leaden books, i. 350. Leaping. See Gymnastic exer- cises. Lectisternium, a festival in the time of public calamity, ii. 202. Leonidas, an eulogium annually pronounced iji honour of, i. 106 Leporarium, i. 279. Leschai [A6otcK<£, tow i^ J^gx^-'w^ ivclL>- ^^^ 30_ KP. }Sj^, ^ . yr. a/i(LiW6 c^ I. )i» FEB 5 l^tJi