SI hiK NEGA TIVE NO. ^^-80277 MICROFILMED 1991 COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY LIBRARIES/NEW YORK as part of the "Foundations of Western Civilization Preservation Project" Funded by the NATIONAL ENDOWMENT FOR THE HUMANITIES Reproductions may not be made without permission from Columbia University Library COPYRIGHT S TATEMENT The copyright law of the United States - Title 17, United States Code ~ concerns the making of photocopies or other reproductions of copyrighted material... Columbia University Library reserves the right to refuse to accept a copy order if, in its judgement, fulfillment of the order would involve violation of the copyright law. AUTHOR: CALLEJA, T. "LE: GENERAL PHYSIOLOGY; OR, PHYSIOLOGIC^ PLACE: LONDON' DATE COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY LIBRARIES PRESERVATION DEPARTMENT BIBLIOGRAPHIC MICROFORM TARGET Master Negative # Original Material as Filmed - Existing Bibliographic Record 113 C13 Calleja, Camilo. General physiology; or, Physiological theory of cos- mos. A rectification of the analytical concept of matter and of the synthetical concept of bodies, resolving the problem of the unity of all objective knowledge. By Camilo Calleja, m. d. London, K. Paul, Trench, Trubner & CO., ltd., 1890. X, 391 p. 19«». ^''^"^^^5 Library of Contjress QI73.C15 4-26305t l> Restrictions on Use: TECHNICAL MICROFORM DATA REDUCTION RATIO: 1].. FILM SIZE:_3_-5_J^/^^^^_ IMAGE PLACEMENT: lA (jR) IB IIB DATE FILMED:_ilr_5.^_lf^Z INITIALS_;221^_6_^ FILMED BY: RESEARCH PUBLICATIONS. INC WOODBRIDGE. CT M BIBLIOGRAPHIC IRREGULARITIES MAIN ENTRY; <^1(^')<^| Ccav^\\o ibliograph ic IrrcguJaritics in the Original Document List volumes and pages affected; include name of institution if filming borrowed text. Page(s) missing/not available:__ yolumes(s) missing/not available: Illegible and/or damaged page(s):. , Page(s) or voltunes(s) misnumbered: Bound out of sequence:. .Page(s) or illustration(s) filmed from copy borrowed irom:Ali_a\J^ # ^^ .\^ ^^X'lEG^' I/. raa" '^. — _ r\ ^. ,—•'>. »TA^ >» -3., ^- -V GIVEN BY -J AC d t' twL/r a i li GENERAL PHYSIOLOGY OR PHYSIOLOGICAL THEORY OF COSMOS Ir I GENERAL PHYSIOLOGY OR PHYSIOLOGICAL THEORY OF COSMOS By the same Author. -•o*- PRINCIPLES OF UNIVERSAL PHYSIO- LOGY : A Reform in the Theory of Physics, Chemistry, Biology, and Cosmolog>'. Crown 8vo, THEORY OF PHYSICS : A Rectification of the Theories of Molar Mechanics, Heat, Chemistry, Sound, Light, and Electricity. Crown 8vo, 5^. London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner & Co., Lt?/ t ^ I A RECTIFICATION OF THE ANALYTICAL CONCEPT OF MATTER AND OF THE SYNTHETICAL CONCEPT OF BODIES RESOLVING THE PROBLEM OF THE UNITY OF ALL OBJECTIVE KNOWLEDGE BY CAMILO CALLEJA, M.D. LONDON KEGAN PAUL, TRENCH, TRUBNER & CO., LxV. 1890 PREFACE. (^The rights 0/ translation and 0/ reproduction are reservtd.) In this work our principal aim is to comprehend under the fundamental principle of mechanism — conservation of energy — all the laws and theories concerning nature. To reach to this positive point we unite and rectify many contradictory ideas at present scattered through- out the current treatises on Metaphysics, Philosophy, and Cosmology, and on Physics, Chemistry, and Biology. I This comprehensive theory we call " physiologic," applying this qualification in its original and etymological meaning — "discourse of nature," — and with the same signification we have employed the name Universal Physiology, in order to denote the study of positive science in the abstract sense. We divide Universal Physiology into General and Special, subdividing each *c^ into Analytical and Synthetical. Therefore this General k^^^^P/iysiology comprehends two parts ; the first. Analytical, rectifies the concept of matter, and of all general terms referring to it, such as substance, force, mass, movement, ^ etc.; and the second, Synthetical, rectifies the general 10 **^ c *^ o \ 'fl^ CM PREFACE. Vll VI PREFACE. ideas of the different aggregates of matter — bodies—in their three degrees of complexity : inorganic, organic, and planetary. The work on "Theory of Physics" (already published), and that on Biology (in preparation) are the complements of this " General Physiology," the three composing the whole "Universal Physiology;" our "Theory of Physics" corresponding to the Special Analytical part, and " Biology " to the Special Synthetical part of our " Universal Physiology." We maintain that the before-mentioned principle of mechanism is not the generating cause of the System, that the sole true agent is the Creator, whose primordial effects are produced solely upon living matter, and that thus the potence of vitality becomes the proximate cause of all phenomena, which, consequently, are only changes of matter uniformly derived by simple propa- gation of movement. This affirmation, which is justified in this work, resolves the highest problem of mental speculation by discovering the unity of all objective knowledge, for as the universe is a system, a theory of its activity must be universal, not partial ; and if a mutual connection does indeed exist among all material changes, our reason, logically theorizing, must arrive at unity. The inquiry into the Physiological Theory of Cosmos must carefully follow the laws of thought, and the rules of a severe logic, in order to avoid mistakes to which the mind is so predisposed, that all writers on Physics have fallen into them by setting forth contradictory ideas, -,■-*. -J and by denying the reality of some existing things and forms of activity without any other reason than that they cannot be weighed or touched, when all we know as real existences are necessarily acquired, not by the irreflexive observation of the senses, but under the guide of reason — rational experience. For such a purpose this book opens with an " Introduction," giving the psychological and logical data necessary to develop and understand correctly the Physiological Theory. In addition, the work closes with a recapitulation of our principal conclusions, and a summary of definitions, in order to show at a glance the new ideas here given. C. C. London, 1890. iiiSSi^'^SSkef'SUSSiSJ^S^miiil^SMM'i a Ifirt'Tiitf"*'"'^'*' I -f*''Ti' *«5r^iafetiaaBMte CONTENTS. -•o*- Introduction to Physiological Theory ... Outlines of Psychology and Logical Data : Subject and Object— Division of Subject— Sensations— Thought— Phy- siological Knowledge — Physical Inquiries — Validity of Hypotheses — False Doctrines — Province of General Phy- siology. PAGE I PART I. ANALYSIS OF COSMOS: ANALYTICAL CONCEPT OF MATTER. CHAPTER I. General Concept of Matter : A. Ultimate Abstrac- tions OF Matter ... ... ... ••• 65 II. General Concept of Matter: B. Relative Signifi- cation OF ALL Material Terms ... .. ... 89 III. Ponderable Matter : Indivisible Particles, or y4/^w.f 123 IV. Imponderable Matter : Variable Parcels, or Progene 145 PART II. SYNTHESIS OF COSMOS: SYNTHETIC CONCEPT OF BODIES. V. General Concept of Bodies : Atoms and Progene TOGETHER ... ... .•• ••• •• ^^4 VI. Concept of Living Bodies: Solids and Fluids to- gether ... ... ••• ••• ••• ••• 214 CONTENTS. \ CHAPTER PAGE VII. Concept of Celestial Bodies : Inorganic and Or- ganic Bodies together .. ... ... ... 259 VIII. Concept of the Universe (God, Mind, and Matter) : Criticism on Cosmogony... ... ... ... 290 PRINCIPAL CONCLUSIONS OF THE PHYSIOLOGICAL THEORY 349 Summary of Definitions ... ... ... ... ... 381 GENERAL PHYSIOLOGY; or. PHYSIOLOGICAL THEORY OF COSMOS. INTRODUCTION TO PHYSIOLOGICAL THEORY. Outlines of Psychology and logical data necessary as a condensed guide to follow physiological studies-§ i. Subject and Object-§ 2. Nominal divisions of the Mental Subject-§ 3. Sensations and their classifica- tion— § 4. Thought and perception as its leading factor— § 5. Origin and character of physiological knowledge-§ 6. Process of reasoning in physiological inquiries-§ 7- Validity of hypotheses in Physio- logical Theory— § 8. Brief criticism of Realism, Eclecticism, Scepti- cism and En:piricism-§ 9- Brief criticism of Monism, Pantheism, Idealism, and Materialism-! 10. Province of General Physiology. § I. Subject and Object. We must commence the study of mental activity by fixing the meaning of the terms subject and object, because they are frequently used by authors not only with impropriety, but also in an equivocal manner. The word subject is commonly employed in three different significations: in the grammatical sense it means that of which something is affirmed; m the ontological sense it represents the supposed universal B -Vl INTRODUCTION. I. SUBJECT AND OBJECT. substance — substratum — which is illusively considered as the common basis of all things ; and in the psycho- logical sense it is assigned and admitted (by Kant and Fichte) as the knowing principle. But some psychologists have employed the words mhject and object in a signification contrary to that given by Kant and Fichte, calling object the capacity of knowing instead of representing what is extrinsically known. The confusion has become still greater because some authors, after having defined subject as the sentient individual with capacity for sensation and thought, con- taining in himself the principle of activity, add that " the subject can be an object also." Of course, by such a con- tradiction, they do not mean to convey the idea that the mind can be observed by the senses as a true cosmical object ; they only wish to express that it can be studied by the thoughts which it produces. But the mind is not susceptible of any division, as in the activity of thought we know only the ideas which it produces, and, consequently, if some authors consider thought as an object, it can be only as a mere mental abstraction from an illusory substratum of substantial thought. Sensa- tion and thought are never perceived separately outside of one's own personality, in the same manner, for example, as colour or movement cannot really exist apart from objects. Accordingly, there is an inextric- able confusion in the philosophical use of the word subject and of its opposite, object; nevertheless we will adopt them always, employing the word subject, however, as a synonym of the mind which must be recognized and admitted as an activity different from that which is manifested through the senses, i.e. matter. Hence we admit the distinction between spiritual and material created beings in harmony with two different kinds of knowledge. Our knowledge of the spirit, subject or mindy is purely intellectual ; the data of intrinsic intui- tion cannot be acquired by the senses, nor be submitted to any direct experimental proof; while our knowledge of matter, object or nature, is based in sensual acquisitions and proofs. Hence the changes manifested in Cosmos, which, as we shall see, are determined by acts of vitality, are only known by objective states of consciousness, which are the effects of manifested changes called also phenomena. From phenomena we form the concept of matter — object or no7i ego, in opposition to the mental unity — subject or ego. The conception of spirit is acquired by the perception of qualities which constitute our conscious activity, and which are perceived only in the consciousness itself, for each subject perceives only his own sensations and not those of others, that is to say, the states of self-perception can never be felt by another than one's self, and for this reason the intrinsic perceptions are not " phenomena," but purely "noumena " from subjective perceptions (emotions and thoughts). Accordingly, the nature of mental reaction depends on both — on the mental or subjective, and on the material or objective activity. We do not know what the first is ; we shall see that the second is movement. Mental activity cannot be explained by movement, on the contrary, the differences among simple states of con- sciousness are qualitative, while movement can differ only in quantity. The organic activity of the brain is, of course, material ; it is the propagation of movement by the nervous element that constitutes the encephalic mass, and nothing else. These two kinds of knowledge referred to — spiritual 4 INTRODUCTION TO and material — are under the immediate control of human perception, and in contradistinction to the Supreme Being or Primordial Cause, which our limited capacity of perception cannot comprehend, because, not being present in our consciousness we cannot directly know it. Thus we have made reference to three kinds of beings or things entirely different, God, mind (sub- ject), and matter (object), which together may be called the universal trinity. In accordance with this distinction between subject and object is our classification of the theoretical or speculative sciences we call sophological, which we group under two headings — Physiology and Metaphysics ; Phy- siology comprehending the study of object or material nature in its inorganic, as well as in its organized form, and Metaphysics comprehending the study of subject or mental activity, not only in created minds — Psychology — but also our conception of superhuman intellect or the Divine — Theology. In this introduction we principally though briefly explain the notion of the mental subject, in order to avoid falling into the error of confounding it with object, as do those who suppose that the activity of the mind is discovered by investigating the functions of nervous transmission, when, really, this inquiry, even in the most central organ of the system — the brain — reaches no farther than the knowledge of one of the forms of matter in movement. Such a mistake has led many physiologists into materialism. On the other hand, we need also the knowledge of a true, metaphy- sical base, because, without the notion of the funda- mental ideas of the spiritual, we cannot infer the concept of matter, which is the foundation of our Physiological Theory. physiological theory of cosmos. 5 § 2. Nominal Divisions of the Mental Subject. The acts of feeling and thought are symbolized in the entity which we call mind or psychical activity, and we say that the mind, in substitution of the personal subject, feels and thinks ; the product of feeling we call sensa- tion, and that of thinking thought. Sensation and thought are not two different activi- ties, but two successive degrees of single mental activity, because sensation is necessarily included in perception, which is the primordial and most essential factor of thought. Objective perception involves not only pre- sentation of ideas, but also their representation — that is, the manifestation of ideas previously formed by objec- tive sensations. Furthermore, the reproducing elements of knowledge (representation) are more important than the elements acquired in actuality (presentation). For this reason the processes of presentation and represen- tation are necessary at the same time, in order to acquire the scientific knowledge of Cosmos (Physiology). There are forms of representation, however, which do not involve any perception of actual presentation : such are the acts of memory and those of imagination ; but even then the object may also be suggested by the senses through the act of association. Therefore mature perception involves in some manner representative activity,though in many perceptions presentation plays an important part, while in some others, being purely repre- sentative, it constitutes a special phase of mental activity in which the elements can even be combined in new forms. The mind initiates the mental process with acts of sensibility, in which capacity it is an analyzer, for it makes a mental separation of the ideas on which > i 6 INTRODUCTION. abstraction depends. For the capacity of thinking the mind turns back to make the union of ideas or mental synthesis in order to form general concepts, or to par- ticularize in concrete, that is, to attach to the objects all their concepts. Moreover, extrinsic sensation is one of the forms of thought, the predominating result of which is to affirm in our consciousness some special act of sensibility. External sensation is essentially a con- scious process of the application of reflection to the impressions of the senses, in such a manner that our consciousness recognizes the existence of objective things ; all the forms of mental activity contribute to this process, although the most remarkable is sensation. Certainly, in order to perceive the sensations, it is necessary to form in our mind an ideal construction of the world, and for this it is indispensable that the things which constitute it have sufficient activity to impress the mind in such a manner as to provoke a reaction in har- mony with the conditions of the mind and the intensity of the excitation. Spontaneous or irreflexive consciousness distinguishes will from thought^ considering them entirely different, from which arises the classical division of the psychical into sensation^ thought, and will ; but the will is only a factor of thought which incites to discourse, in order either to know or to act with free will by means of contractions or muscular movements. The representative power of the mind is called mefnory when past occurrences (supplied by experience) are reproduced as they first appeared in sensation. In memory, then, representation is identical with presenta- tion. There are two classes of memory, one is spon- taneous, suggested unconsciously by natural conditions, 2. DIVISION OF THE MENTAL SUBJECT. f which may be qualified as irreflexive memory ; the other, on the contrary, is reflexive, consciously suggested by some scientific reason, either categorical or hypothetical, and may be qualified as rational or philosophical memory. Irreflexive memory is a factor or quality of sensation, including in this the power of association of ideas. Rational or reflexive memory is a factor or quality of thought, and this is most necessary for scientists. Imagination, like memory, is often considered as a special faculty ; this mistake is the eflect of the deceitful appearance of abstract language. Imagination is only a mode of thought in opposition to reasoning. Reflection follows the process of reasoning when the premises and conclusions aflirm objective existences exactly as they are known by sensation. On the contrary, it follows the imaginary process when it represents or thinks of something which does not exactly correspond with the true observations of nature ; if abstract elements of experience are then reproduced, it is without the original order. The fruits of the imagination are called artistic when they are beautiful, that is, when they keep harmonic proportions. Imaginary representations in general, and artistic representations in particular, may be either realistic or fantastic. Realistic representations are those which reproduce, or better, endeavour to reproduce as wpU as possible, natural objects in their culminating concepts, whether these contain one or more abstractions, as, for example, when one tries to represent the singing of a bird in music, or a human body in sculpture. Fantastic representations give us the conception of beings never presented to our senses, and, consequently, without identity with experienced objects, as, for example, when I INTRODUCTION. 3. SENSATIONS. one tries to represent celestial sounds in music, or an angel in painting. Here we must use only realistic representations. We see that, as the effect of an erroneous analysis of mental processes, authors admit many independent powers in the mind besides the intuitive, that of sensa- tion, and the discursive, that of thought ; but we must bear in mind that the words mental nature, perception, reasoning, imagination, intelligence, understanding, re- flexive or rational memory and representative power are all comprehended in the true signification of the word thought^ as they only denote partial states, acts, or factors of one and the same power. Even sensation and thought are not two independent powers. On the contrary, only by a mental division can they be conceived separately, though, in reality, they are mutually dependent on one another. § 3. Sensations. It is impossible to explain what a sensation is ; we can only give verbal or tautological definitions of it in which the grammatical subject and predicate are synonymous expressions. Thus we say that sensation is a particular state of the sensibility of the mind which is referred to some external thing, that is to say, to matter — objects of the physical world or nature. Proper or external sensation differs from emotion, because the latter is an intrinsic state of sensibility which is referred to the mind itself, though it may have some external impression or sensation as a remote cause. Again, we must distinguish conscious excitations or sensations from those which are unconscious, so limiting the meaning of the word sensation to the excitations or I 1 impressions which are produced in the peripheric part of the nervous system, and are transmitted to and perceived by our consciousness, and we must exclude the impres- sions which are not perceived from the list of sensations. The nerves which conduct excitations from the periphery of the system to the centre, that is to say, the trans- mittors of the centripetal currents, are the conductors of sensibility or estesodic nerves, calling senses the pheripheric organs which are at the end of such con- ductors in order to receive the special impressions. There are four successive acts or operations in all sensations ; first, the impressions produced on the senses by the exciting cause ; second, transmission through the estesodic conductors to the nervous centres ; third, reception or presentation of the sensation in the brain ; and fourth, perception, appreciation, and discernment of the qualities which give our consciousness a more or less perfect discriminating idea of a sensation, which is referred back to the starting-point. We must remark that all excitation provoked in any part of a nervous conductor is not localized at the point where it originates, but towards the peripheric extreme of the excited nerves. Furthermore, the sensations have not the same limits as the peripheric excitations ; if we excite some determined part, it may happen that the impression will be perceived not only in that part but in the parts around it, or in parts more distant ; this, which is called association of sensations, is the conse- quence of propagation among the centres, and generally happens when the excitation is intense. Sensations constitute the first mental order of re- action against extrinsic action, and are besides the in- citing cause of the second order of mental reaction, lO INTRODUCTION. that IS, of the activity of thought. This consists in associating and unconsciously suggesting ideas of sensa- tions, and afterwards reflecting, consciously of course, on the sensation already associated, and on the sugges- tions in order to form rational ideas, or to interpret them in accordance with certain ideas before acquired. Thus, then, we form two orders of ideas, for one of which our consciousness is in apparent passivity, while for the other we act with clear consciousness of mental activity, that is, with attention. To the first corresponds the activity of sensation, which includes the unconscious association of ideas ; to the second corresponds the intelligent activity, which includes the reference of sensa- tions to external objects. The excitations produced in the different conductors of sensibility are not the same in their perception, and from this arises the different forms of sensations — objective qualities, so to speak. There are impressions which are only perceived when the excitation has its origin in determined organs or conductors occupying particular parts of the body, and which give us some notion about the nature of the exciting agent ; these are called special sensations : sight, hearing, smell, taste, and touch. There is a second class of sensations, whose causing excitation does not need to act over determined organs in order to be perceived, and which do not give us any idea of the exciting agent ; these are called common or general sensations : hunger, thirst, necessity of breathing, pain, etc. The numerous forms of extrinsic impressions may be classified in two groups ; one comprehending the sensations ordinarily produced, or which, at least, can be produced in an indirect or mediate manner, the BWiWiiiiifiililiiiafaitinltir lid 3. SENSATIONS. II object then referred to being more or less distant. For the propagation of activity to a distance, some means of transmission are necessary which must be in con- nection on one side with the object and on the other with the senses. This is a fundamental distinction, because while in the first case the object and the senses are in direct interaction, in the second the interaction is not directly between the object and the senses, because there is a double interaction — on one side between the object and the medium of propagation, and on the other between this medium and the senses. Each of these groups comprehends three kinds of sensations, making a total of six : first group, immediate sensations, touch (of pression), taste, and smell ; second group, mediate sensations, thermic touch (heat and cold), hearing, and sight. The sensation of weight, that which gives us a knowledge of the application of muscular energy, is included in the tactile sensations. The sensations which give us the idea of changes of temperature (heat and cold), though seemingly propa- gated principally by the tactile nerves, can also be referred to a distant object from which heat irradiates (as we shall afterwards explain), in the same manner as sound and light are propagated by means of an all- pervading, imponderable matter which physicists call " ether." It is true that in ordinary cases of practical life the thermic sensation is more frequently experienced directly than indirectly, at least with reference to terrestrial bodies ; but the most original fact of thermic observation is distant propagation, such as heat from the sun, and frequently,, also, that which emanates from combustion in a furnace. The direct sensations, or sensations of immediate 12 INTRODUCTION TO PHYSIOLOGICAL THEORY OF COSMOS. 13 contact, result from the action of corporeal or ponder- able bodies over the senses, it being also worthy of notice that for the special sensations of smell and taste bodies must necessarily be fluid ; solid bodies being, on the contrary, the best to determine tactile sensations of pressure. Indirect or mediate sensations result from the impression of a metafluid — the imponderable sub- stance before mentioned, which we c^W progene. We have in all six kinds of external sensations — touch (of pression), taste, smell, thermic touch (heat), hearing, and sight. We see, then, that the sensations are expressed by abstract words which represent the different states of consciousness — differences of quality — produced by extrinsic excitation. But we must notice that the acts of nervous transmission consist purely and simply in propagation of movement, and consequently that objective knowledge is acquired only by the quantitative differences from sensual propagation. The total result of the process of extrinsic perception is the concept of objects in their relations with the different qualities or states of the receiving subject or mind. This makes it appear to us that the objects are contained in the mind ; but such contents are only objective symbols, and thus we acquire the knowledge of objective perception, not by inference, but by the association of those symbols. It is not the eye which truly sees the object, nor is it the ear which hears and understands ; it is the mind itself Indeed, light, sound, or any of those changes of the world which produce the activities present in the mind, is not perceived by the senses, though by a figure of speech we say to see with the eyes, to hear with the ears ; what happens is, that we see, hear, etc., by means of the senses, but we :4 ■ I { perceive only with the mind. The initial activity of perception depends on the interaction excited between the mind and the senses by the external object ; all that happens afterwards is a consequence inherent to sub- jective activity : association, unconscious suggestion, and reflection. We could not possess any idea of identity and consistency among objects if the mind constantly reacting did not correct the appearances of the sensa- tions, but was strictly limited to the impressions produced by the senses. The mind is the sole thing which has the power of elaborating sensations and thoughts, in the same manner as the ovule is the sole object from which an organism can be formed. § 4. Thought. Thought, like sensation, is an ultimate term, which cannot be genesically explained, but only defined in a verbal or tautological sense ; any such definition is composed of terms synonymous with that which is intended to be defined. When we think, we af!irm or deny, we agree or disagree ; the resultant of such a mental action we call judgment, and the capacity which contains all judgment is symbolized in the word criticism. If the result of the comparison of two con- cepts asserting either an agreement or disagreement in the relations which they express is a judgment, and a comparison of judgments is a reasoning by means of which we arrive at inferences (inductions and deductions) and calculations in which the expressed relations are known either by perceptible sensations (categoric know- ledge), or by ideas acquired from pure thought (hypo- thetic knowledge), categoric knowledge relies upon if 14 INTRODUCTION. the direct proof of experience in order to be considered as evident truth ; while the hypothetic is not within the direct reach of the senses, but is warranted by the laws of thought and the rules of art which direct reason (Logic and Mathematics). When we reason we can compare in two ways ; therefore there are two kinds of operations in reasoning : one purely logical — comparison of quality ; the other mathematical — comparison of quantity. By the power of reasoning man can foresee what he has not seen, foretell what he has not heard, predict what is going to happen. But to accomplish this supreme operation of the mind we need theories whose starting-point is in the principles which are the subject of study in this work. Hence, there are various modes of thinking: first, formation of ideas of immediate perception — primitive ideas ; second, formation of ideas by the comparison of immediate or primitive ideas (comparative ideasor common sense of the psychologists); third, remembrance of preformed ideas (remembered ideas or memory) ; fourth, acquiescence of ideas to the image and likeness of those already preformed, though not with reference to things that have not really been observed or experienced (imaginary ideas) ; and fifth, ideas arising from the comparison of judgments, that is, from reasoning (rational ideas inferred and calculated) But there are only three acts in the rational process of thought. The first act of reflection is comparison, which may be either qualitative or quantitative ; the com- parison of attribution is qualitative — substance and activity ; and the comparison of relation is quantitative — space and time. The second act of reflection is to make assertions or affirmations about that which we have compared ; this is judgment ; the assertion or 4. THOUGHT. >5 affirmation about that which is compared can express either similarity or difference, and this is the agreement or disagreement of judgment. The third act of reflection is reasoning, by which we acquire from inference and calculation some judgment different from those already known; the inference so acquired may be either inductive or deductive. Thought generally needs attentive, though not always voluntary elaboration by which we form a notion of the object of sensation more or less complete ; thus we see thought commences in the last act of sensation — primitive ideas, hence sensation is the initial element of reflection. Primitive ideas may be grouped, general notions resulting from those that are similar; in this manner ideas of more comprehensive signification are formed, and these are the general ideas called abstract. The expression of ideas previously collected reveals to us that the mind has the property of preserving for some time the changes produced by sensation and thought ; this is the retentive power of memory. Besides, some other special qualities of psychical activity are worthy of notice, e.g. the co-existence and succession of ideas, their association, the unconsciousness of some facts, and the lack of influence of the will over association of ideas and over some bodily impulses. Our conscious- ness can estimate whether the excitations which reach it have acted simultaneously or successively ; neverthe- less this knowledge has limits, as successive sensations when very near seem to us simultaneous ; and yet, in order that we should become conscious of excitations, it is necessary that they should last a certain time, and then we not only acquire the consciousness of them but also of their differences and similarities (comparison). i6 INTRODUCTION. 4. THOUGHT. 17 The modifications produced in our mind can in their turn produce other modifications, especially when they have been reproduced more than once in immediate succession or almost simultaneously; from this arises the association of ideas with such pertinacity that they are produced without our will. Thus we see that the ideas are linked together, some having the tendency to associate with others, and all these facts approximate in the last analysis to vivid memory by virtue of which the connections once produced have the tendency to reproduce themselves newly. Perception is the leading factor of thought ; it is a combination of the different degrees of mental activity in order to acquire the knowledge of what impresses our consciousness. To effect this there must be interaction between the mental subject and the objects of sensation. In an interaction nothing is given by any one thing to another, the conditions of the manifested action being only propagated. Thus, for example, the results of the action of light are very different according as the object on which it acts is a green leaf, a photographic plate, or the retina. The form of the reaction depends on the two things which must act over each other in order to manifest any change, and when one of the two is the mind the reaction will be on this in order to pro- duce sensation. For this reason, perception does not depend either directly or indirectly on the objects, but on the reaction of which the mind is capable as the effect of the special excitation or impression of the objects upon the nervous system. Hence a grotesque description is made in the order of the formation of ideas when it is said that objects stamp, paint, or impress themselves on the mind. The nervous propa- gation which produces sensations is not a picture nor an idea ; nervous action cannot be anything more than propagated movement ; it does not carry along alpha- betic characters when we are reading any more than a book contains thoughts which could be transported by the nerves ; for thoughts are developed or elaborated by the mental subject itself. Objective ideas, indeed, are products of the mind itself, which associates them under some laws forming the concept of abstraction, distinguishing and classifying these in order finally to refer them to the objects which incite sensation as their attributes or qualities, and to calculate the rela- tions between them. We classify the perceptions into perceptions of reasoning and of imagination, subdividing these into realistic and fantastic. Perceptions of reasoning can be either purely representative (memory), or presentative, this of course containing also representations. Hence, the perceptions qualified as presentative are mixed, for they need at the same time the help of the memory as well as the present sensations. We must bear in mind that the representations of reasoning are in exact accordance with the memory of forms previously ob- served, and that thus as actual sensations can enter into the perception of reasoning, so all the elements or abstract ideas are representative in the perceptions of imagination. The following circumstance in regard to representa- tive perceptions is worthy of mention in reference to Physiology : a case experienced will be more exactly reproduced the more links of connection there are among the data of sensation, as it will then be more intelligible. In fact, if the connection among the data C \v 18 INTRODUCTION TO PHYSIOLOGICAL THEORY OF COSMOS. 19 is known, it is enough to remember the premises in order to call to mind the conclusions, if we have rational or philosophical memory ; on the contrary, if the ele- ments or mental connection are lacking, the case is easily forgotten, except by one of those irreflexive or spontaneous memories which, by a sort of unrolling of words, can reproduce them without any other con- nection than the immediate succession in which the words were acquired. The knowledge which is the fruit of thought takes thought with its laws for a means, but the primordial or fundamental ideas are always derived from intrinsic and extrinsic sensations, that is to say, from the primordial facts which our mind discovers by immediate or direct perception, they being isolated without any connection in the existent system, and so lacking scientific cha- racter. Therefore, intuitions do not belong to Physi- ology, but to Ideology, a department of Psychology. In truth, the perception of objects is not complete as scientific knowledge until they are assimilated and classified ; mental assimilation demands the ideal de- composition of objects into sensations, and classification requires the recomposition of the ideas by thought. Without these two circumstances our mind could not define or specify any object ; it would only contain a vague and general idea of them. Nothing is quite definite so long as we are not able to refer it to one of the known classes, or at least while we cannot establish the relations fixing the similarities and differences with any of the classes already known. We comprehend the importance and necessity of classification only by noticing that all the terms of language are general, and therefore they pre-suppose the element of classification. I I I 11 Nouns express only abstract ideas of attribution or of relation ; and they always imply classification in their meaning, as to name a thing or apply any term as a predicate is an act of abstraction which pre-supposes classification. § 5. Origin and Character of Physiological Knowledge. Thoughts cannot be known by direct propagation from mind to mind, though they may be communicated by means of language ; the mental subject, receiving the symbols which transmit the ideas, assimilates them with the ideal signs which represent them in the mind, and which in the ordinary form of transmitting ideas are words. Thus language is the progressive necessity of the mind as food is the conservative necessity of the body, and that sublime necessity of thought yielding supersensual fruit in the field of the ideas is the essential means of elevating us to the rank of rational beings. In language there are two kinds of expression : intuitions (perceptions which are only felt), and pro- positions (perceptions which are thought, either inferred or calculated). Language is called propositional when it enunciates some new order of ideas by which we can acquire some knowledge not already experienced. A proposition, in order to be understood, presupposes that the abstract ideas which compose it are already known ; and such ideas may be either intrinsic, that is, of self-consciousness (intuitions), or extrinsic ideas which have been previously discovered by means of the senses (sensual representations). According to the theory of knowledge, the correlative I) 20 mTRODUCTION. succession in the acquisition of ideas is as follows : in the first place we get the predicates of attribution (ideas of substance and activity), whose aim is to reach quali- tative inductions by comparisons among the qualities of the sensations; we afterwards reflect on the similarity and difference of attributive ideas in order to form the predicates of quantitative relation (ideas of space and time) whose aim is to know with the help of the axioms of Mathematics the comparison of the quantity of the sensations which are perceptible, not directly in matter, but in its mental representations. The ultimate induc- tions and true axioms once known, we may derive from them the other ideas combined with new sensations, following the rules of deductive logic and mathematical calculation ; thus we get the deductions. The universal act of knowledge is expressed by judgment which consists in the comparison of many concepts with the assertion of their equality or differ- ence. But certain ideas of sensation in reference to the concepts which are compared must necessarily precede the judgment ; and besides, it is necessary for the ex- pression of knowledge that the mind should abstract from the judgment of particular cases some unity of thought, some analogy among them which is called the universal meaning; such universal ideas or common abstractions are a necessity for language, and for this reason the rational mind has an imperious tendency to ideal abstractions or generalizations, as the ovule has the tendency to nourish and reproduce. So we see that when many experiences have an element of common sensation, the mind has the condition required for abstraction, in order thereby to form a unity of thought with all similar sensations, and to appropriate this as a basis for the 5. ORIGIN OF PHYSIOLOGICAL KNOWLEDGE. 21 classification of ideas. Such a universal element can- not be known by any particular or direct experience ; the formation of universal concepts is a constructive action — an assimilation of ideas by which these are converted into a product identical not with the sen- sations but with the mind itself, as the cellule trans- forms that which it assimilates into an organization similar to itself; and such mental products, called universal ideas, are not simply a sum but a multipli- cation in which there is a true generation of know- ledge. Thought, we have seen, is of two orders — spon- taneous or automatic, and reflexive or voluntary ; the first supplies the ideas necessarily acquired by uncon- scious activity which is inherent in the mind itself; the second makes thought by reflection a self-director with self-consciousness. Spontaneous thought, which is immediate or irreflexive, acquires the knowledge of things according as they are perceived by the senses, and ordinary language expresses such a form of thought. But cosmos thus explained will be known only vaguely and with inexactitude as it appears to our senses. For this reason reflexive thought, which is mediate or philosophical, must, in the domain of science, com- pletely abandon the classification of immediate sensa- tion, and for this purpose ordinary terminology must be changed, or at least fixed, in order to give clear, adequate, and exact symbols to scientific ideas. No theory can be the fruit of intuition— it is the fruit of thought ; and a physiological theory must not be invented by imagination, but planned by quantita- tive reasonings or calculations which are the fruit of reason. If the mind had only its capacity of sensation, I 22 INTRODUCTION, even having the capacity of forming direct judgments, it could not follow discourse ; and with sensation alone we could not even refer the impressions to the objects which produce them. Objective perceptions are the data for the knowledge of cosmos, but our ideas of the world are conceptual abstractions, which the mind forms by reasoning. The interaction of matter and mind may produce either subjective differences — qualitative ideas, or ob- jective differences — quantitative ideas of space and time. The subject (mind) is known by qualities or attributive differences alone, and not by quantitative differences ; the object, on the contrary, is known by quantitative differences or different relations, and not by qualitative differences either of substance or activity; that is, objective perceptions which are the first data for the knowledge of Cosmos or ideas of the world are formed by mental abstractions from sensations whose differences are only in quantity. Thus matter and mind (object and subject) can only be known by their reciprocal action (interaction) ; there is no state of consciousness regarding the knowledge of matter in particular, which is not determined by such mutual action. Now, if we think that objective knowledge (that of material nature) is valid, we must also admit that there is a fixed relation among its antecedents ; and the sensations which result from the interaction of things and mental activity, must produce the same per- ception when the extrinsic excitation is the same. Physiological knowledge is based or founded in the perception of mutual actions among objects, that is, in their relations, because all the properties of an object are finally reduced to the condition of producing effects 5. ORIGIN OF PHYSIOLOGICAL KNOWLEDGE. 23 by interaction among things, and such effects, in order to determine sensations, must produce some change in the organs of sense, manifesting themselves to the mind after their propagation through the nervous con- ductors and centres. A thing alone cannot be known or conceived, because its existence would not be the object of sensation or of representation in thought. A thing really objective, then, is a term in an infinite series of things which are in mutual dependence, as without this there can be no possible form of reality known, either by experience or by pure thought. Acr cordingly, those cosmical determinations, which are generally called qualitative, because they cannot be numerically determined, are as quantitative as those which can be numerically determined. Quality directly results from the mutual action between the objects and the mind by an immediate connection without reflection — irreflexive perception, or attribution; and quantity is a relation, either numerical or of extension, among terms by mediate or reflexive connection — reflexive perception or relation properly so-called. There is nothing then truly attributive in objects, as the attri- bution or difference of quality is purely subjective or mental ; while objective differences, on the contrary, depend on quantity, and are material or mechanical relations. Let us now fix well in the mind the idea that determinations of quantity only, such as physio- logical inquiries, can be derived one from another in accordance with general relations which are called laws. Scientific judgment manifests some fact or syntheses of facts of the universal system, and we learn such facts and syntheses by the concourse of three kinds of ideas, namely, intrinsic intuition, experience, iiMfTitiliiiiifiriiiMIilin y 24 INTRODUCTION. and reasoning ; but there is no doubt that experience is the principal origin of all the explanation that can be given of nature, and that reasoning about cosmos has the data of experience for its foundation, or, in other words, that physiological knowledge is acquired by reasoned experience. Concrete sciences are not founded on any data of intrinsic intuition, but we cannot deny the contribution of this in Abstract or Uni- versal Physiology ; nevertheless, it is general among most physicists to deny intuition in all questions of nature. Rigorous logical proofs of the ultimate ex- planations of science, are impossible without accepting some principles which are evident by their simple enun- ciation with the sole guarantee of intuitive assertion or self-evidence, because otherwise there is not sufficient reason to consider a truth strictly universal, and no evident proof could ever reach its limit. Even in the fundamental truths of Mathematics there are no other proofs than their self-affirmation, and the so-called laws of nature are nothing but quantitative relations. Facts directly acquired by experience, and propositions which have been proved and recognized as evident by sensual data, are the most numerous elements of scientific knowledge. In addition to this, there are some prin- ciples which are only beliefs ; thus, for instance, we believe and assert as truths all the propositions whose denial involves contradiction in self-consciousness or impossibility of thought ; the assertion of the Miii- formity of nature is also a simple belief ; and only by faith alone have we confidence in the testimony of others about their scientific investigations and specu- lations. Many beliefs are indeed asserted without reasoning, as they do not represent either inferences or I I 5. ORIGIN OF PHYSIOLOGICAL KNOWLEDGE. 25 calculations, but only mental inherences ; and, besides, there are many tendencies very common to all people, which cannot be submitted to logical proof, and it may be said that their certainty surpasses the ideas capable of a logical demonstration. We repeat that all objective or physiological know- ledge is acquired by mutual action between the object and the mental subject, but this interaction must be subordinated to the postulate of uniformity in the su- preme purpose or end, otherwise equal antecedents could produce different consequents, and from this chaos only, instead oi system ^ could result in the universe. Phenomena or manifested changes of objects are the data for the senses, and ideologists usually say that such data may be contradictory one with another, and there- fore deceitful. But all physical or natural reality is material, and its knowledge is derived from what is manifested by the senses. If the sole proof of physical reality is sensual experience, the assertion that the testimony of the senses is deceitful is not true ; in fact, the sensations may deceive us, but they are also the testimony to prove the evidence of our knowledge. The data of the senses may be contradictory if we take for a moment only one sensual datum isolated from the data of the others ; for any sensual datum whatever is complementary, and must be rectified by other data taken from the same sense, or by the other senses. The true distinction between what is apparent and what is evident knowledge of nature is that the apparent is a partial inquiry or a contribution to the total evidence. An illusion of the senses results from testing them in an inconvenient and incomplete manner, so leaving the assertion without evident confirmation. 26 INTRODUCTION TO It is clear that all sensual proof requires the reflection of thought, and therefore that all knowledge, including the experimental, is not only the fruit of observation but also of reasoning. Knowledge is always, in fact, the fruit of mental elaboration ; it is a reflexive and not an immediate act ; it is, without any doubt, an intel- lectual product, and not alone a sensual one, but to prove the truth in the interpretation of natural phe- nomena, experience must supply numerous and correct facts. From these facts of observation we acquire the separate primordial ideas which are the basis for the knowledge of nature ; for without such a foundation the human mind could only build a fantastic world, and whimsically fix laws to govern it The power of the mind in the study of nature must be limited to discover, not to invent. Hence, pure reason alone is not sufficient to form a rational theory, nor are the particular experiences (which are under the jurisdiction of the senses) sufficient to elaborate a theory, as this is a mental synthesis. Both orders of mental activity — sensation and thought— are complementary in the acquisition of physiological science ; both, then, must work together to arrive at the rational conceptions of true generalizations, and to prevent us from reaching imaginary results. Pure thought without a deep obser- vation of phenomena can give rise to imaginary ideas alone, which, ordinarily, are only chimerical suppositions about nature, like the innumerable hypotheses of the Greek philosophers. But to believe in our external sensations, without submitting them to the examination or proof of reason frequently produces false conclusions also, as, for instance, we might think that the sun revolves around the earth if we trusted the evidence of I' I PHYSIOLOGICAL THEORY OF COSMOS. 27 our eyes alone. Errors of perception may occur, either by perturbation in the means of transmitting sensation (abnormal nervous action), or by differences in the association of ideas, or else by the arbitrariness of which mental influence is capable, especially in its most essential product— language, which is so frequently fal- lacious. All these may change the conditions of propagation, either materially or verbally, and therefore may change the qualities of perceptions; these are mistakes which can only be avoided by careful experi- ence and logical reasoning. Hence, strictly speaking, experience is the source and proof of all knowledge of nature, but the generalization of ideas in science is far beyond the limits of our sensual observation, which must be subordinated to the supreme capacity of the m\nd—reaso?i. Thus, in a figurative sense, we may say that experience, supplying the particular facts as ante- cedents, is the mother of science ; and reason, elaborat- ing the generalization necessary for the speculations of theory, is its mentor. § 6. Process of Reasoning in Physiological Inquiries. We have seen that true scientific propositions always enunciate mediate or reflexive knowledge acquired by means of some ideas already known ; and that for this reason language, by the use of propositions, serves to transmit scientific knowledge. Let us see now, how the process of reasoning follows physiological inquiries. The uniformity of nature is the only guarantee for the logical proof of all inferences, applying this denomi- nation only to qualitative reflections which may be 2S INTRODUCTION. cw either inductive or deductive, but not comprehending in them the calculations, that is to say, reflections about quantity. Induction is the discursive process from which generalizations are inferred, trusting in the law of uniformity of nature ; or, in other words, induction is a prognosticated generalization warranted by the belief that in all cases of the same kind the future, and that which has not been observed, will be identical with what has already been experienced ; thus, for example, the day always succeeds the night, and the night the day, and from this we infer that the same will always happen in future ; again, we know that an electric current passing through a mixture of oxygen and hydrogen produces water, and from this we infer that the same will always occur ; still another example, some animals and people have died a short time after taking prussic acid, and consequently we infer that prussic acid is a poison for all such beings. With such a guarantee, physiological science, referring to the whole cosmic mechanism, has arrived by reasoning at this ultimate induction : in the changes of nature nothing is created nor annihilated — conservation of matter and energy (substance in activity) ; and we must remark that the principle here qualified induction, although it has not been proved by calculation, does not suppose that all manifested or phenomenal energy has been created at one time, or has eternally existed, but only that all physical energy, including latent, neither in- creases nor diminishes. The law of continuity in Cosmos is only true if we admit that the reparation of manifested force is constantly engendered by the po- tential energy of vitality, that is, by the genesic activity of living matter, which draws out energy from the latent ^i;,^^ J* 6. REASONING IN PHYSIOLOGICAL INQUIRIES. 29 state to the phenomenal ; material change being thus constantly originated. Mental reflection not only generalizes but also par- ticularizes, inferring special cases that are comprehended in inductions already known, and such form of inference is called deduction ; thus, for example, we make a deduction when we say this substance is prussic acid, prussic acid is poison, consequently this substance is poi- sonous. The first premise that the substance is prussic acid supposes the necessary knowledge for applying to the substance in question those characters of classifica- tion which science considers necessary to distinguish it from other substances. In calculation — reasoning of quantity — we perform the same mental operation as in deduction, for in calculating we affirm particular cases from the fundamental axioms of quantity ; but we must notice the great difference between the two kinds of derived affirmations, assertions or conclusions : qualita- tive and quantitative ; the former have sensational facts for terms, that is to say, what the mind perceives by its interaction with objects ; while the latter have rational relations for terms, that is to say, concepts referring to proportional quantities. These last conclusions are what we call calculations. Calculation being the mental instrument necessary for a complete knowledge of phy- siological science, and the signification of the word quantity having been erroneously interpreted we must fix, though briefly, the Concept of quantity. There are two kinds of quantity ; discrete and continuous. Discrete quantities are unities and aggregates of unities — abstract numbers — by means of which numerical relations are determined. Continuous quantities are those which represent the extension of •t ,/ ■ 30 INTRODUCTION. objects and the forms of extension. We must not fall into the equivocation of thinking that the two classes of quantity are equal, although the word quantity represents indiscriminately the two kinds of relations here indicated. Number is the only discrete quantity. It is an aggregate or collection of unities, each of which simply represents an abstract act from perception without any determination at all, without taking into consideration the extension or nature of the object. Number, then, is the symbol of quantity, a means purely ideal to compare and measure objects, that is, a standard of comparison between discrete determinations of quantity, in which the unity as well as what is compared with it is considered abstractly and independently. Neverthe- less it has been admitted by most mathematicians that continuous quantities are co-ordinate with discrete quantities, considering both similar at bottom, because, they say, they are multiple or aggregate. The mathematical confusion between discrete and concrete quantities runs parallel with the erroneous identification between the pure conventional forms of thought or of language and objective realities ; indeed, most writers have forgotten or ignored the fact that words, being signs of thought, are not directly connected with the things signified, but indirectly by mental agreement. This causes a falling into the erroneous idea that our arbitrary and conventional classification of natural phenomena coincides with real distinctions among them, and that this can be a foundation for inferences on the nature and origin of objects. Such errors have necessarily given rise to a series of false premises which serve only to prevent the true progress of physiological science. I 6. REASONING IN PHYSIOLOGICAL INQUIRIES. 3^ All objects are entirely continuous in perception, this comprehending all data manifested by the senses, and they become discrete only after being submitted to successive acts of perception, thus being partly separated if the perceptions are partial, or co-ordinated with other objects perceived in the same manner forming a whole. No datum of sensation can be discrete in itself, that is, in absolute, because if it were the relativity of objects in the universal system would not be true. Numbers are but relative unities and collections of such unities, as they represent either single perceptions or groups of perceptions, the contents of the object never being taken into account. Besides, numbers are in abstract essentially entire, though they can represent partial relations, taking their fractional forms ; but fractions cannot be considered as numbers or prime unities which express original acts of perception ; they only represent objects perceived by parts, which are subordinated in comparison to the whole or entire unity. Hence, numbers are nothing in themselves, they only connect ideas with the objects to which they are applied, and consequently they are essentially abstract ; never- theless, in order to signify anything they must represent some concrete object or relation between objects in particular operations. We can now see clearly the technical differences between the notions of quality and quantity. In Mathematics (the science which solves the problems of quantity) there is a great difference between an objective concept of thought and the corresponding relation of such a concept with the object itself Mathe- maticians are simply occupied with problems of relations either singly or in groups, which reason has established 32 INTRODUCTION. PHYSIOLOGICAL THEORY OF COSMOS. 33 within the limits of arbitrary laws ; their concepts are exhausted when all the properties pertaining to the object of thought are included. The conceptual elements of the objects, and the laws of their mutual dependence are determined in Mathematics by pure thought ; for this reason a single concept can be developed in a series of others, so forming a mathematical reasoning ; one of the attributes implies the others, all being defined in accordance with the calculated relation. Qualitative concepts, on the contrary, are never exhausted, because their united attributes are necessarily incomplete and variable, on account of the infinite perceptions that can be formed in the mind by the most insignificant change in any relations. When we try to establish the points of community or similarity, and of particularity or difference among things which are compared, we can do so either in quality or in quantity in accordance with the two orders of reasoning. The process of thought which infers attributive propositions or propositions of quality is logical reason, that is, the capacity of reflect- ing on attributions. By antithesis the process of thought which resolves relative propositions or propositions of quantity is mathematical reasoning, that is, the capacity of reflecting on relations properly so called (those of quantity). The meanings of the terms induction and deduction must be circumscribed to the conclusions obtained by inference, which are, of course, qualitative reasonings ; while on the other hand, the term calcula- tion must be reserved for the conclusions of quantity. Inference and calculation together compose the complete process of mental reflection ; this is what we call reasoning, which consists in the formation of different judgments in mutual connection in order to h ■■■- 1 establish propositive conclusions as the material of the physiological sciences. Determinations of quantity only and not of quality are acquired by rational applications of general laws ; such is the true physiological know- ledge, and for this reason it is by Mathematics that the problems of Physiology are to be resolved, in order that this science may reach a perfect development. The extension and comprehension of abstractions, then, vary according to their rank, and the knowledge of the abstractions which characterize a class is what we call concept. Abstractions can be considered either as qualitative or quantitative ; in the first case we express a concept of direct perception ; in the second, we express a positive scientific knowledge properly so called. Qualitative concepts can only give descriptive defini- tions, while those that are quantitative can give rise to genesic explanations, in the field of Mechanics, of course, in which all causes are only anterior effects. Only when we cannot determine the relations of space and time among physiological changes we must content ourselves with qualitative determinations which constitute irre- flexive perceptions and not true scientific knowledge. § 7. Validity of Hypotheses in Physiological Theory. The greatest advantage of hypotheses in physiological theory is to help the memory with supposed connections among objects when the sensations of their form of activity are not directly presented to the mind ; but although there is no doubt that physiological knowledge is based on sensual appearances, we must not call that knowledge altogether hypothetic. It is necessary to determine the true conditions and fi \l 34 INTRO D UCTION. Use of a scientific hypothesis, not only in the criterion of its truth, but also in the conditions of its validity. Submitted to logical proofs we must affirm its possibility; and for this it must not be in contradiction with demon- strated principles, and must give full explanation of the idea affirmed by the hypothesis itself In addition to this, in order that such an explanation should be sufficient, a complete correlation is necessary among the different mutations comprehended in the hypothesis; thus fulfilling the scientific precept that all true knowledge consists in generalizing, by verifying the analogies or differences in order to assimilate many facts in one abstraction. When we perceive a phenomenon for the first time our investigations aim at knowing to what class it belongs ; this of course involves the idea of system or uniformity in nature. From this we infer that all hypotheses imply a classification, because this is nothing else than the grouping of the cases according to their analogies. Therefore, a hypothetical explanation, in order to be valid, must mark the analogy or identity between the mutation which we propose to compre- hend in it and the phenomena which are supposed to be already known by experience. If this prop of the hypothesis is imaginary instead of a fact already observed and rightly interpreted by reason, the hypo- thesis is valueless ; it is then only a tautological ex- planation, simply changing the form of expression. Such is the validity of materialism which pretends to explain the activity of nature by saying that "it is inherent to matter as this is always in movement." But material activity and movement are synonymous, both representing mental abstractions and not realities, and so that explanation is only verbal. We say the same 7. VALIDITY OF HYPOTHESES. 35 of vitalism when it maintains the existence of a vital principle in order to explain vitality. Of precisely the same value is affinity in Chemistry ; attraction and repulsion in Physics and Astronomy ; and, finally, a mathematician makes but vain deductions, when, start- ing from an equation alone, he thinks he has established the foundation of physical hypotheses. In every explanation we must keep in view the course of the acts of thought in which the relations are established, not among the objects themselves, but among their mental representation, i.e. among the in^ tellectual elements or different states of consciousness which we have acquired from the sensations arising from the objects. Hence, when we speak of any object or property we mean the results of interaction, either direct or indirect, between the objects and the mind ; and as the attributes comprehended in the concept of material things represent in extrinsic realities only their relations of space and time, the number of objects not being limited, the result will be that any of the said concepts will always be reduced to the properties which mark the known relations. Cosmic concepts are indeed limited or incomplete as an indefinite number of objective relations always remain unknown ; in fact, in the com- parisons we make in order to form material concepts, it is necessary to take into account only a finite number of relations ; we need only refer to a number of them, more or less limited, from which we form the abstrac- tions. From this it results that hypothetical judgments and reasonings, not being verified by experience more than in the categorical concept which is limited (but not in the supposition which we try to explain), are liable not only to the double error of defective observation and m^ 36 INTRODUCTION. 7. VALIDITY OF HYPOTHESES. 37 imperfect reasoning, but also to the error of imagination in what is supposed. Again, the concept which is supposed in a physical hypothesis is not absolutely identical with the categorical concept of comparison, because it is in relation with a limited number of con- ditions, which are not perceptible abstractions but imaginary ideas, and these we simply try to explain as they are not evident to the eye. For this reason we must not confound imaginary with rational concepts ; rational concepts are represented by direct abstractions of objective things, while imaginary concepts consist in the mental application or attribution of such abstractions to some other things, as, for example, when we imagine invisible movements from the concept formed of those which are visible. The explanatory or fundamental fact of a hypothesis, that is to say, the fact with which we identify the case we try to explain, must be something already proved by experience, because we do not learn anything by endowing the objects with occult principles, as when abstract forces are imagined in order to explain how manifested effects are produced. The true cause can never be known by experience, and for this reason the primordial or remote cause of the activity of nature cannot be included in Physiology; this studies only phenomena or manifested effects, and the latent material changes which are their immediate cause. By comparing physical changes we infer the general principles of movement — material activity ; and the chief use of a physiological hypothesis ought to be the deduction of new cases from those principles, employing in the explanation the same terms applied to observed phenomena, and recognizing the analogy of these with the changes which we desire to explain. But the identification of the hypothetical case with known facts may be at the same time partial and in- direct, supposing that there are circumstances yet unobserved in one or in both of the compared terms. Thus a hypothesis may comprehend one or more sup- positions if we can prove, or at least if we can see the possibility of its analogy with something really observed; the hypothesis being more probable if the identity is clearly recognized among many phenomena, and still more, if the identity exists among many of the particu- larities of different phenomena. Accordingly, a hypothesis makes an imaginary re- presentation, which, in the same manner as works of art, bears a resemblance to, but is not identical with things observed or realities existing in nature. Con* sequently there will be some points of similarity and difference between hypothetic and categoric knowledge, as there arc between a statue and what it represents. Thus, for instance, when we infer the invisible move- ments of imponderable matter from those which are visible we express an analogy of form ; but as the material is different in each case the activities of the two terms cannot be identical in all, but only in part. When we imagine new forms of existence we change the combinations, or, by analogy, the sensible properties, because we can represent something in our mind only by means of those data given by experience, as our physiological or natural ideas are formed by sensation. It is necessary at least in order to acquire the character of possibility that a hypothesis should not be contra- dictory either in its own terms, or with the facts which our rational experience has recognized as true. jijayjaaaJB'^-^"'*"-^*^ ■^"- 38 INTRODUCTION. We have said that a hypothesis is more or less prob- able according to the cases of coincidence offered to our observation ; but besides this it needs the successive confirmation or attestation of new facts, because it is clearly seen that it will become less and less probable if the new facts cannot be explained without increasing or modifying the first hypothetical proposition, and, on the contrary, the hypothesis will acquire so much more value according as a greater number of facts arise to attest its primordial affirmation. In the same manner, if, by means of reason alone, we discover deductions that can afterwards be tested by experience, it will increase our certainty more and more in favour of a hypothesis. Nevertheless, the value of such predictions must not be exaggerated, because they often arise from very indirect relations, and are without direct connection with what we try to explain ; these coincidences are due to the uniformity of the system. We see, indeed, that all the hypotheses that have been abandoned as contradictory or insufficient have helped human thought to foretell phenomena which have been afterwards observed, be- cause if a false hypothesis has explained many phe- nomena, it is not strange to prognosticate from it others in more or less relation with those for which the hypo- thesis was imagined. The validity of a hypothesis because it is conceiv- able has been very much discussed, and this question has been generally confounded with the following whose resolution is entirely metaphysical. Is all that is conceivable true, and the reverse ? It is an evident criterion of truth in physical propositions that the con- tradictory proposition must be inconceivable, though on metaphysical grounds our incapacity to conceive a thing I 7. VALIDITY OF HYPOTHESES. 3? is not a proof of its impossibility. All true physiological conception consists in establishing relations of identity between the case which our imagination must conceive and the facts known by rational experience ; therefore, in order that a physiological hypothesis should be con- ceivable, it must identify itself with the ideas previously known, and must have no contradictory terms. In regard to the previous concepts, it is necessary to distinguish them as categorical and hypothetical, because in the last there is the possibility of their being untrue, otherwise we should then assert as a truth an idea in contradiction with those that were before hypothetically maintained. The inconceivability of a case in nature can be admitted only by disagreement with notions which, though not completely and evidently proved, are sup- posed to be very probable. All the inferior concepts regarding the object are comprehended in some superior one, and therefore the validity of a physiological hypo- thesis requires mutual agreement among the concepts of different rank which is a guarantee of certainty. Nevertheless, scientific progress constantly rectifies ideas previously admitted as true. The false supposition of wrong hypotheses generally depends on the ontological error which considers mental entities as separate or independent realities, though they are only concepts of one or many abstractions. Thus, objects are frequently considered as existing independent of their relations, and vice versa; and the modes of forming concepts are also erroneously considered as constituents of nature. All this, as we shall see now, is what happens with the mistaken hypotheses of the doctrines called mechanism, materialism, evolutionism, idealism, and pantheism. ^^taaiMOdateia. -||||f|MfTliiiri1iiif |^'^a3toua&jti..%i^« r ' -■' 40 INTRODUCTION. 8. FALSE PHILOSOPHICAL DOCTRINES. 41 § 8. Brief Criticism of Realism, Eclecticism, Scepticism, and Empiricism. Realism considers as entities or beings of separate existence the concepts and even the conceptual elements which are formed by mental abstraction from our ex- ternal experiences. Thus, also, it is realistic to consider as separate existences every one of the different kinds of phenomena, as caloric^ luminous, magnetic, and electric agents, molecular forces, planetary attrac- tions, etc. {In Psychological Theory this error is also frequently found, namely, that of individualizing as realities the different conscious activities, and from thts results the general admission of plurality instead of unity in our mental power.] There is nothing absolute in nature ; or, better to say, our Imderstanding does not and cannot know physical unity, entity, or type in absolute, either of quality or of quantity ; there is no absolute material substance, no absolute activity, no absolute space, and no absolute time. We do not objectively recognize any- thing which may be an absolute cause or principle ; all that is physiological (nature) is an effect or medium. Every form of material existence suffers perpetual changes, undergoes incessant mutations which are not primordial, but derived by propagation. Manifested existence depends on mutual action among objects, and on the interaction of these with the mind from which we form the relations of the objects, and consequently all their possible knowledge. Although this is an evident truth, the greatest minds occupied in scientific speculations forget it when they suppose the ultimate elements or real constituents of the world, atoms^ ■ I *?*' ' ■ - , monads, etc., are absolute realities. Atoms are erro- neously considered absolutely simple and indivisible as if they were the last elements of the material world the physical unities absolutely constant which by their aggregation form the universe. The operations of language are comparison, discrimi- nation, and reasoning. When the capacity for classi- fication is lacking, there cannot be rational language, as for this are necessary — first, a multitude of ex- periences ; second, abstraction of the common element forming a unity ; third, formation of a term for such a common element ; and fourth, application of the same term or name to all the individuals of the group which gave rise to the common element. For this reason in the root of every noun we find some abstract signification of the most prominent character of the thing which it represents, and such a character (abstrac- tion) becomes the concrete sign of that thing. Thus language gives us the tendency to fall into realism. Language has a double function ; it is the extrinsic communication of thought, and it is also its intrinsic reflection ; in this case it shortens the work of thought extraordinarily, and it may be said that without language neither thought nor knowledge could make any progress. In the same manner as a word always expresses the result of an abstraction and generalization, abstractions and generalizations could not fix themselves in the mind without words, but would disappear from it as soon as the moment of sensation passed. Moreover, he who studies a language finds a wealth of knowledge for the elaboration of which the activity of many persons has been necessary. But although language enables thought to accumulate its products and abbreviate its process. f(M«ifcmtriiA«**«^^.« 4* INTRODUCTION. 8. FALSE PHILOSOPHICAL DOCTRINES. it is also frequently the motive of errors such as those of realism, which we may say are a consequence of a bad interpretation of language, confounding names with the things themselves, and giving a real signification to that which is purely an ideal concept. To avoid this mistake thought with sharp criticism must keep a con- stant watch over language so that it may serve as an instrument fit for its purpose, and not allow us to fall into absurd equivocations. Let us, then, keep in mind that the most disturbing element of the criterion of truth in science is defective and false language, because, as the elements of thought can be differently combined in perception, any fault or impropriety in association of ideas, and in the terms which represent them, or in any other mental connection may lead to error. We must be especially cautious in the use of equivocal terms, and avoid realistic technicism, which leads us into the error of considering as real existences the abstract ideas of quality and quantity. Hence it is an absurdity when philosophers impose on the mind work which goes beyond the limit of its conceptions, comparing these with reality ; for reality cannot be known in itself but only as it appears to our mind. For this reason the ultimate proof of our know- ledge must be the signification contained in words, not direct realities, but ideas which we have or which we form about them. Such a proof of what knowledge contains will consist in the suitable evidence or necessity of the conception and in the harmony of our concep- tions among themselves. That is to say, at the end of our investigations we arrive at concepts that cannot be proved by reasoning, or communicated by language ; every subject must acquire them by himself, and conse- 43 quently if such concepts are to be explained in any manner it can only be done by means of synonymous expressions. Such ultimate propositions are the foundation of theoretical science. Accordingly, in realism, as in all false doctrines, we find the same cause of error which probably originates in confusion or mis- interpretation of the terms employed, because they con- tradict the following evident principle : the definite cannot be derived from the indefinite, as a definite con- clusion can never be inferred from indefinite premises ; the indefinite is the basis of and leads to nothing, it is in itself nothing, and from nothing nothing can come. Eclecticism. The actual world manifests harmonic plurality in all parts ; constant intercourse taking place in nature where gains and losses occur uniformly in direct succession. Therefore we cannot consider the world as a conjunction of unitary and immutable things, unless, following the eclectics, we force our belief against the true existence of objects by considering all the phenomenal world as a complete illusion. But to con- sider object as mere illusion is an idea incompatible with all the fundamental principles of Philosophy, and conduces to the negation of all knowledge ; besides, if every object were one and immutable, how could the illusion of the plurality and changes of things ever take place in our mind ? Scepticism can be recognized only when a careful and complete analysis and definition of a point or question cannot control the discordance and contra- diction in our mind. But even sceptics admit the priority of some knowledge, they presuppose continuity of space in reality, that is, immediate contact among things in order that the action of one should directly .-^w .-•«l 4i INTRODUCTION. 8. FALSE PHILOSOPHICAL DOCTRINES. 4S affect the other ; and they admit the validity of the universal laws of thought — those of identity and con- tradiction. But if they accept these principles they must also accept their consequences. So we must now state the ultimate evident truths and their necessary conclusions in order to prove the falsity of scepticism. Among intrinsic intuitions there are some which are first principles, not derived but necessary as self-evident truths, and which are in the same case as our ultimate thoughts, that is, in the same case as are the supreme principles of reflection — limit of the intelligence. Such principles cannot be explained, in truth there are no words by which we can comprehend them, and for this reason they cannot be known if not directly perceived by our own intelligence or understanding. The terms which express intuitions and ultimate thoughts constitute the principles of scientific language, they being the foundation of propositions, and hence of inferences and calculations. Let us first see the basis of thought and language which represents the immediate reaction of the mental subject. The first intrinsic intuitions are the affirmation of our own subjective existence, and the consciousness of its activity as it is revealed to us by the emotions of pleasure and pain. The first extrinsic perceptions are the affirmation of a world of objects which exist outside of our mind, and the activity of such objects in order that they may incite sensations. We must remember that neither intrinsic intuitions nor extrinsic perceptions produce mature perceptions until they have become food for thought, and for this reason they are postponed to the following principles which are the first axioms of discursive laneua^e — the laws of thought. ^, We admit and recognize a general assertion as a fundamental law of language, which is called the principle of contradiction ; according to this what we affirm of one thing we cannot affirm of the contrary, as its negation is implied in its enunciation. To this principle is united that of consistency resulting from the synonymous or tautological forms of language, which permit us to affirm the same thing in different ways ; and this is the only resource we have for the definition of ultimate terms because they cannot be explained or defined by means of true propositions. We admit and recognize also three fundamental principles of mental reflection. One refers to the comparisons of quality, and for this reason it must be considered as the universal assertion of attribution ; this is that nature is uniform in its activity, which implies a law of causation in the universe and not chaos. The other two principles refer to the comparisons of quan- tity, and consequently we must consider them as the fundamental axioms of cosmic relations or physiological knowledge. Such are, first, that quantity is equal in different relations if it is equal in any two of them — that is, if they are compared two by two the result is equal ; and second, the sums of equal quantities are also equal among themselves. From these two ultimate principles we derive all the axioms and rules that govern calculation or mathematical language, by means of which we can discover the scientific connections of objects in their continuous changes of space and time. Accordingly, the main guide of mental elaboration for the physiologist is to be found in mathematics, as pure logic is the sole guide for the metaphysician ; logic being circumscribed to the art of guiding us in 46 INTRODUCTION, 9. FALSE PHILOSOPHICAL DOCTRINES. 47 qualitative reasoning ; that is, to the different states of consciousness by which we elevate our ideas to super- sensual regions : Mind and Supreme Being. Empiricism. By observation we acquire one by one abstract perceptions only, so experience in this sense is exclusively analytical. But reason works, not only in analytic mental operations, but also in synthetic, and must besides necessarily reflect even on the first expe- riences in order to elaborate knowledge ; therefore the so-called empirical laws of nature cannot be said to emanate directly from the senses. A theory is judged by reason and not by the senses, as the jurisdiction of these can only serve to accumulate ideas which are afterwards elaborated as scientific by means of the generalizations of reasoning. Strictly speaking, empiricism means that some facts in mutual connection have been discovered without a knowledge of the reason of such a connection. In this sense empiricism simply asserts that we do not know everything ; but this is so trivial a statement that there is no need of upholding schools in order to maintain it. According to the most ordinary signification, em- piricism means to assert that we are satisfied within the limit of our sensual experience, forgetting calculations and scientific inferences. But this does not satisfy the most insignificant thinker, even though he should call himself an empiric ; every one feels impulsed to follow more or less closely the current of progressive science, which treats of the discovery of the correlation that necessarily exists between the infinite variety of facts and the unity of principle ; and this can be sufficiently proved in order to be recognized and adopted. Notwithstanding this, there are different personal degrees of mental satis- ) faction, and from this a variety of opinions arises on this point, all more or less empirical and yet none empirical in absolute. With the universal conception that all the facts of relation (that is to say, the mechanical or physiological) are at bottom matter in movement, we can explain all kinds of activity discovered by the senses, those extrinsic means of existence which constitute the inorganic world, as well as the phenomena of living beings which constitute the organized world. Such an assertion can be derived by pure reasoning, because a calculation on quantity is an elaborate reflection on relative propositions which our intelligence can make a priori^ without any experi- mental proof of the resulting conclusions. In this manner the simple determinations of space and time are acquired, and so also are the quantitative compound determinations of mass, velocity, and force. In all these notions of abstract quantity, which are determined by means of Mathematics, the relations can be known as evident though they are obtained by pure reason. § 9. Brief Criticism of Monism, Pantheism, Idealism, Materialism, Transformism, and Atomism. All philosophical doctrines that are of any con- sequence can be grouped under two denominations — Monism and Deism. The doctrines which refer all things and changes to a single ultimate constituent are monistic. True Deism is neither Monism nor Dualism ; it does not recognize two principles as Dualism, nor only one common essence as Monism does ; it admits 48 INTRODUCTION. 9. FALSE PHILOSOPHICAL DOCTRINES. 49 a principle or Creator, and a consequence — things created (rational and irrational). There are three chief kinds of Monism; the mate- rialistic monism of the transformists ; the idealistic monism of Fichte and Schopenhauer ; and the pan- theistic monism of Spinoza. All monistic doctrines consider as unity all and every one of the parts of the universe, that is to say, the conceptual element of ultimate generalization — primitive atoms, monads, nebulae, mental spirit, essential substance, or something unknowable and capable of a triple aspect, objective (material), subjective (mental) and omnipotent at the same time. To-day most monists explain the universe as a sum with different degrees of aggroupation, form- ing the atom in the inorganic ground, and the cellule in the organic, and they consider the monad as the common element. Thus the monists see the atom as a corpuscle with its own action, all the phenomena of bodies depending on the sum of their atomic activities, and they say that cellules live, each one by itself with an autonomy whose synergetic or co-operating mani- festations constitute among them the apparent unity of life in superior beings. That is to say, they consider atomic and cellular elements as personalities which work automatically with pre-established harmony in the common work of the republic which they constitute after this conglomerate fashion. For the monist the organism is born, develops, and acts because the special attribute of life is inherent to it, embodying in itself the cause and effect of its, activity ; so Monism admits that the first organic creation was produced by itself without anything aggregating or concurring to give it activity ; that is, monists do not see in living bodies anything \ more than the proper conditions of matter. Vitality, then, which is a potential and phenomenal synthesis, would in such a case be a primordial causal activity of matter, and not the effect of something else. Monism involves Transformism, and, of course, Atheism, either materialistic, or idealistic, or else pan- theistic ; it implies at the same time spontaneity, automatism, or specific attribution ; all this is evi- dently anti-scientific, and the monists themselves abne- gate its admission on principle, although they have fallen into the consequences of such errors. It cannot be admitted in absolute that there is an effect without a cause, or a consequent without an antecedent; neverthe- less the monistic doctrine does not recognize in the cellule more power than the resultant of the sum of atomic unities, which the monists simply consider either as ultimate elements or as a conglomeration of monads. But mechanical power, that is, the power of which those particles are capable, is reduced to the formula r < f (manifest resultant is less than the loss of living force). Whence, then, comes the vital or generating power whose formula in Cosmos is r >/ that is to say, the resultant greater than the force employed ? If we try to explain this by the sum of material elements, there is no other way than the implication of spontaneity, automatism or specific properties in matter. This is evidently mathematical, and, strange contradiction, contempo- raneous monists recognize with great ardour the prin- ciple of conservation according to which the cosmic formula is R = F, that is, the whole resultant (potential and phenomenal) equal to the force employed, and base it on true, positive, experimental proofs, though this, rightly interpreted, is contradictory to their doctrine. E so INTRO D UCTION. We will see that the spontaneity of certain changes is only apparent. It is very common in inorganic matter, and constantly occurring in organic, that in order to produce changes it is enough to provoke them without the concurrence of a determined or efficient exterior cause, because the body in which the changes operate previously contained sufficient conditions to produce phenomena or functions by the influence of a living energy much less manifest than the consequence. As patent examples we may take the explosion of gun- powder, or the development of a chicken in an ^g^. The force which is then made manifest had been before accumulated in a latent state. Neither living nor inorganic bodies can be formed by an evolution of simple propagation from a monadic, primitive constitution of the universe in self-transforma- tion, without any more than the first created impulse. In living bodies there is no simple propagation ; there is a multiplication in the individual and in the species, and therefore, in order to avoid falling into palpable con- tradictions, we must admit that all the changes of existence obey an engendered evolution and not a simple transformation. In such generation nothing is newly created, but all changes become manifest in their origin by converting latent energy into phenomena when organic constructions are developed ; which is an act contrary to those of mechanism. In the incubation of eggs, for instance, we already see a great gain of living energy, because chickens are formed simply by keeping eggs at the same temperature. The result of such a change in organism is completely contrary to that which takes place in any inorganic machine. Mechanicians are monists when they do not recog- 9. FALSE PHILOSOPHICAL DOCTRINES. 51 nize in the universe anything but the existence of movement. Physicists fall into the same error when they elevate the abstract idea of the unity of force to the rank of unique reality. Chemists are monists in supposing atomic unity. Monism has also intruded into Biology as an effect of the mistakes of some analytical speculations, by considering as an ultimate causing prin- ciple that which is the end or finality in the succession of the acts of nature, and conceiving vital synthesis as a real independent existence ; from this error arise the schools of transformism of organic evolution which pretend to see the reason of change in matter alone. Materialism completely inverts the order of reality, because simple abstractions, that is to say, those which offer the most elevated, most general, and most compre- hensive concepts, and which are the ultimate principles, are considered by them, not only as the first concepts, but also as the most realistic of all the forms of existing things. Such an error arises from the false supposition that the general abstraction of all things constitutes their common substance as a permanent substratum, aggregating to this the attributes and particular proper- ties by which objects are differentiated, so that, according to such a supposition, subjective realities are considered as an aggregate of substance and energy, essence and accidents, matter and force, or mass and movement ; but if such elements are not realities, no real object can be produced by their union. Materialism supposes substance as a union of passive, resistant and unalter- able particles (atomic unities) ; and considers energy as an active force equally unalterable, to which the ad- vocates of this theory attribute all phenomena. Evolutionism or transformism ^ like materialism, 52 INTRODUCTION. supposes that the real objective forms are contained or implied in the superior forms or ultimate concepts, the former being derived from the latter by an inherent process of evolution or development, asserting that a constant quantity of force naturally belongs to every part of matter, and that all transformations are pro- duced by a simple differentiation in such primordial force. Matter, according to this doctrine, is endowed with the power of the Primordial Cause (God), engen- dering by itself the activity of nature, as all differing existing realities and all forms of energy, including vitality, would then be potentially contained in matter, successively manifesting themselves by a kind of natural emanation in a spontaneous, gradual develop- ment of ulterior evolution. When transformists say that matter incloses or implies in its own origin the forms and qualities of life, containing them potentially at least, if not actually, in order that they should be engendered by a spontaneous development, they do no more than use the qualification of potence as a shield for ignorance of the cause, and thus persuade them- selves that they can deny the purpose and finality of the Cause which directs the system of the universe. We will see in the last chapter of this book, that the formula of evolution is to reduce all the states of actual manifestation to one having the power of becoming manifest ; thus transformism pretends to conceive the universe in some state anterior to the phenomenal, without explaining anything of the engendering of matter or objective reality in which phenomena are manifestly produced by simple propagation or trans- ference of movement. The errors of evolutionism have conduced to nihilism, 9. FALSE PHILOSOPHICAL DOCTRINES. 53 according to which all is engendered by " the void," that is, by nothing, or by a pure substance completely devoid of attributes; scientific nihilism expressly de- clares that such a substance cannot be distinguished from nothing, and consequently is identical with it ; thus pretending to deduce the phenomenal world from the supposed concept of nothing, i.e. zero. The sub- stantial nothing, as an origin of all existing things, has been also expressed in another manner, by supposing that the germinal principle is an impersonal will, which, being contradictory in its own expressed attributes, will also result in an empty concept, i.e. non-existence or nothing. Atomism (that of the Greek atomists, as well as of their followers, the modern physicists) has also failed to observe the conditions of the problem regarding the common existence of a pure being in nature, since it considers atoms as the sole realities, endowed with self- existence and complete independence. Such an idea is taken entirely from the illusions of sensual or irre- flexive experience, and it is a contradiction with the most rational inference according to which objects necessarily constitute a true system in the universe. If objects were independent, that is to say, if they could exist indifferent to one another, and so without mutual relation, how could we explain the actions and de- pendences which we observe in the actual world 1 It would be impossible to explain them, because indi- vidual independence excludes community, which is necessary in a system of things mutually related. With such an atomic conception of matter, the theory advanced by most authors up to the present time be- comes useless for the purpose of physiological science, 54 INTRODUCTION. FALSE PHILOSOPHICAL DOCTRINES. 55 which must distinguish natural changes into pheno- menal and latent ; the former are the changes which are extrinsically manifested to us by means of the senses ; and the latter are the changes which are not manifested, but which explain the propagation of move- ment in the acts of loss and reparation of living energy or phenomenal force. It is an evident necessity to conceive matter in such a manner that we can clearly explain all that is mani- fested in the universe, and these changes being defined and determined, the atom or corporeal element cannot be a thing undefined or undetermined. Again, we say it is an evident truth that one thing cannot be primarily considered as indefinite and afterwards as an object of definite determinations ; it is a self-evident truth that the definite can proceed only from the definite, and that the indefinite (not confounding this with the undc- finable or illimitable — that which is beyond the reach of our mind) cannot produce anything intelligible. It is as impossible to deduce the definite from the inde- finite as to obtain movement from repose, or a being out of nothing. No argument is necessary to prove this self-asser- tion ; to grasp it we need only understand the terms which are employed. Nevertheless, many thinkers, and among them perhaps the most notable among our contemporary physicists, uphold the idea that matter is constituted by centres of indefinite action which are without extension and are supposed to be endowed with influence acting at a distance in a spherical space that must of course have some extension. This is untenable — still more, it is incomprehensible, and can only be admitted as an unknown quantity — an " x " in the speculative process of calculation on physical pheno- mena. Hence, it is an unresolved problem, as those who uphold the theory under notice start with an imaginary phrase to represent the atom when they consider it as a mathematical point— without length, breadth, or thickness. The false universal notion of common being is nothing more than the result of the pernicious influence of the erroneous doctrines of the ancient Greeks and scholastics with their distinction between matter and form, as the supposed infinite substance of Spinoza; the absolute being of Schelling ; and the absolute idea of Hegel. The last three are old abstractions expressed in new words. Nature cannot be conceived as definite in itself, for we cannot refer to it nor form an estimate of it, save by our purposes and perceptions. But the current theories of nature are built on the false base of the abstraction of being as indefinite and immutable, admit- ting abstract forces in nature, which, they say, act, determining and changing the conditions of being. The doctrine of Cosmogony according to Spencer, Darwin, Haeckel, etc., is equal at bottom to the idealism of Hegel, to the pantheism of Schelling and Spinoza, and to the'ancient speculations of Platonism which imagine things as the product of the union of the idea with indefinite existence; and, finally, it is also identical with the scholasticism which used to give the name " form " to such ideas as those which we directly dis- cover by sensual or extrinsic observations. The conceptual elements of objective being or real nature are four : two are attributive abstractions— sub- stance and activity (abstractions of an entity in itselQ ; 56 INTRODUCTION. and the other two are relative abstractions — space and time (abstraction of different entities among them- selves). When an entity is not defined its four ab- stractions are also indefinite, and from this arises chimerical, ontological concepts ; and when the entity- is defined by our sensual observation or experience, then the four elemental abstractions are also defined, and from this arise true physiological concepts. When this distinction is not well established, the metaphysician, influenced by ontological errors, leans to pantheism and idealism ; and for the same reason the physicist or naturalist usually falls into atomism, atheism, and materialism. If these abstractions in regard to the Infinite Being are confounded with the finite, we then fall into the error of considering them as really existing, not in the Divinity, but in themselves ; and if the ab- stractions regarding the finite being or nature are con- sidered as exclusive existences, the result is the false supposition that matter is in itself alone the only prin- ciple of the universe, and nature then should be governed by itself alone, as is the idea of atomism. Therefore, we must proclaim monotheism in science, thus proving our agreement with religion in the belief in only one true God as the Causal Unity of the Universe, and reject all abstract or causing forces in nature. § lo. Province of General Physiology. The supreme principles of Philosophy offer two different concepts ; one unlimited, indefinite, intrinsic to thought alone ; the other limited, definite, and extrinsic, being within the reach of our senses. The first concept, which is purely subjective, is metaphysical, and the 10. PROVINCE OF GENERAL PHYSIOLOGY. 57 second, which is objective, is physical or physiological, this last word signifying what is perceptible in the material world, or what is commonly called Nature ; this alone is within the province of Physiology. The starting-point of thought in following the pro- cess of mental elaboration is the comparison of sensa- tions, and these are of two kinds, intrinsic (subjective) and extrinsic (objective). The assertion is completely different in accordance with the class of premises of thought ; the assertions of intrinsic sensations or intui- tions are purely mental (immaterial, spiritual, meta- physical knowledge), while the truths inferred from extrinsic sensation, though taking intuitions as a base, are material, that is to say, physiological knowledge. To metaphysical knowledge the mental ego has in itself an exclusive right, as nobody but one's self can directly perceive the acts of self-consciousness. On the con- trary, the limit of physiological or natural knowledge, that is to say, of the knowledge about extrinsic or objective things, is experience ; so that nature or object is equally common to the observation of all minds, i.e. the perception of its changes is the common right of everybody. We have adopted the title, '' Universal Physiology," to comprehend the whole abstract knowledge of material nature or physical cosmos ; its province, then, is the conceptual analysis and synthesis of Cosmic Mechanism, unifying all the theories of Physics, Chemistry, and Biology. We have divided Universal Physiology into General and Special, and subdivided each of these departments into analytical and synthetical ; all com- prehending nature in the abstract sense. Cosmos is effectually an organic system whose special analysis has 58 INTRODUCTION. lo. PROVINCE OF GENERAL PHYSIOLOGY. 59 been the subject of our work, " Theory of Physics," and whose special but partial synthesis is the subject of " Abstract Biology ; " our " General Physiology," then, must occupy itself with the study of the abstract analysis and synthesis of Cosmic Mechanism in its most comprehensive ideas, without taking into consideration the knowledge of every special change. Mechanism is not a thing really independent ; it is the concept of an abstraction from objective or material nature, making the elision of the Primordial Cause. We cannot explain the creation of matter, nor the primordial determination or generation of manifested or living change in organism ; but we may refer to the subject of vitality and say that it is the Supreme Power, and not a transference from mechanical energy, because this does not suppose anything more than matter in movement under the different forms of secondary activity. The proofs of this assertion are the impossi- bility of affirming the contrary, and the principle of conservation. The uniformity in the order of the universe compels us to admit that it is an organized system, for which we must recognize an Organizer whose power is not directly manifested in any form of matter save organ- isms. Hence, God as Organizer is the principle of vitality — that is to say, vitality must be considered as the only activity really originated, and such primordially derived unity is the proximate cause of phenomenal motion in cosmos. This idea must take the place of that host of abstract forces admitted by authors as exciting the world to action. Physico-chemical forces are only the result of movements ; they are not causes, and still less can they have the conditions of intelligence < necessary to accomplish the determined principle and final aim of the system. The prime influence which governs living bodies is a perpetual miracle, and the only one of this kind constant in the world ; we can only know it by the continuous effects it originates in organism — first in imponderable material or progene, and secondly in the continual transference of ponderable matter in and among different bodies. In nature there will always remain this eternal mystery to us : the continual creation of phenomenal activity in organism, which is revealed to us under two forms — generation of new beings or multiplication, and growth or development of living beings. The other changes of nature exist in a con- tinuous succession, keeping reciprocal equivalence among themselves, and can be perfectly explained as conse- quences of vitality ; while the reverse we have proved is an impossibility. Physiology occupies itself in acquiring the know- ledge of what is extrinsically manifested, and of that which, although latent, is directly derived from pheno- mena, the differences in the material world not being absolute or essential, but formal ; that is to say, they are quantitative differences more or less, either in the numerical measure of physical energy, or in the geo- metrical measure of extension. Objects are only known by the perception of the relations among themselves, and among such relative differences our mind discovers an exact correlation among the same objective changes when their succession is inverted, and such a correlation is nothing more than the fact or law of conservation of physical energy, including in this, not only manifested, but also latent ««fi 60 INTRODUCTION. 10. PROVINCE OF GENERAL PHYSIOLOGY, 61 energy. We have already said that in all relations there is a common standard of comparison ; this is quantity ; and the conservation of the same energy is the reason of the unity of the material system, abstracting from it the Primordial Cause, that is to say, considering the world in its derived activities as a mechanism. Accord- ingly, Physiology in the sense of Universal Mechanics is a science treating only of motion which produces effects manifested to the senses, or, in other words, that which has movement as form of activity and which con- stitutes the material or natural object. In Physiology (comprehending the whole science of nature) it must not be forgotten that the object pursued is partial ; that this science does not comprehend all know- ledge, and therefore must not deny the existence of those sciences which treat of that which is beyond our extrinsic sensations, and that the inquiry into Meta- physics (Theology and Subjective Psychology) is of quite a different order from the inquiry into Physiology. Any sensation implies the perception of a difference among all manifested things, for uniformity in percep- tion in a practical sense is equal to absolute lack of sensation. Without a change in the perceptions, no phenomena whatever could be made manifest to us ; we must at least experience the distinction between something that exists and nothing. Every different act of perception excites a special act of consciousness, and the mind refers it to something existing outside of itself, and considers it as a qualitative attribute of the thing referred to. F'urther, we have the consciousness of the special sense by means of which we appreciate pheno- mena, and from this arises a distinction of classes, or, better to say, a certain analogy between all the per-. ceptions acquired by the same sense, considering them as a similar class of qualities. The nerve does not transmit the object of sensation ; it only propagates the movement produced by direct or indirect interaction between the object and the organ of sense ; and con- sequently the differences in the qualities (from which attributive differences arise) depend on the arithmetical factors of the propagating movement. For this reason attributions or qualities are subjective or ideal differ- ences, not objective or real ones, because the last are what we acquire by reflecting on the basis of experience, referring the sensations to their objects ; and by quanti- tative comparison between natural changes or physical mutations we arrive at the knowledge of their arithme- tical factors. Thus, although objects are perceived as different, reason recognizes some identity among them, i.e. all objects or things manifested by means of the senses are constituted by matter in movement. This great induction is another reason of the unity of the sciences which, taken together, we name Physiology. The v^arious phenomena (physical and chemical) with which physiological sciences are occupied have an intimate correlation in the system, one determining another in very different ways. If the degree of mutual dependence in nature could be exactly known, and a perfect conceptual analysis of the phenomena could be determined, Physiology — the complete study of nature — would become a science as deductive as Geometry, and on this depends the preponderance of Mathematics in Physiology. This science is constantly working towards that progress, but so slowly that in our day we cannot expect to see it arrive at any practical degree of perfection ; and, besides, we have the contrariety that •ii^. 62 INTRODUCTION. 10. PROVINCE OF GENERAL PHYSIOLOGY. 63 the number of properties which are daily discovered in bodies are becoming considerable at the same time that we know nature better, and also know more about the mutual dependence among properties already discovered. There is another set of questions which is beyond the sphere of our natural knowledge ; such are : Where does matter come from ? Why does it move ? How is the connection between the Immaterial Principle and matter effected ? What is the cause of the uniformity and continuity of natural evolution ? For what reason is change originated in living bodies alone, and pro- pagated throughout all the world ? These inquiries are not within our limits, their dis- cussion belongs to Immaterial Philosophy or Meta- physics, as in them we ask for knowledge about the Creator, and the connection of the Creator with things created. This miraculous connection is the incomprehen- sible cause of the function of organism, and therefore of all the phenomena of cosmos. Hence the more immediate or direct effect of the Primordial Motor upon nature is vitality, which is the synthesis of all the changes taking place in both kinds of living individuals — in the vegetable and in the animal kingdom. The limits of physiological knowledge are the unknowable or infinite qualities ; i.e. problems of Metaphysics which comprehend the generation of the mental and of the organic process. These, evidently, can never be included in the material circle of Physiology. Some doctrinaires maintain that our understanding cannot reach the knowledge of any more in the universe than of that which refers to matter in move- ment. This only shows the narrow limits of their ultra-positive satisfaction, but it does not prove that the universe is constituted only by what is manifested to our senses, and in making such an affirmation they put themselves in palpable contradiction to what is dis- covered by our rational capacity superior to irreflexive experience. Everything in the world conduces to the belief that a Supernatural Power acts upon living bodies as the true or real Causing Force which is the antecedent and cannot be the resultant of their organization ; so that all the phenomena or manifested changes of nature are secondarily derived from vitality which is the sole proximate effect in the world of the sole and true cause. Hence, we must admit a God, not only as an agent or principle — Creating Cause — but as an agent of evolution — Governing Cause ; and in such a supreme principle we must recognize the divine finality which must immediately direct the primordial effects of nature, these are those of vitality or living generation — im- mediate cause of all phenomena in the universe. We must explain to ourselves the universal law of conservation of energy by considering the genesic potence one and the same for all bodies, producing different effects according to the invariable conditions of the universal whole in quality and quantity ; that is to say, such a primordial potepce is obedient to its own principle, it creates in relation with its power. This potence, being perfect, cannot be conceived either as de- fective or exuberant ; it cannot create more, nor can there ever be less than what it has created ; therefore the cause (Creator) and the result (matter) can neither increase nor diminish, that is, there is no new creation nor annihilation. Matter experiences metamorphoses or evolutions, but the potence will be always essentially 64 INTRODUCTION. the same, changing only the form and combined consti- tution of its resultant — actual world in involution. Accordingly, the first fundamental idea of our Physiological Theory is to proclaim scientific Mono- theism in the place of Materialism, which, with its atoms and multiple abstract forces is a real idolatry, and finally, also, in the place of the incredulity of Empiricism, which pretends to be scientific without theories. 1 PART I. ANALYSIS OF COSMOS: ANALYTICAL CONCEPT OF MATTER. CHAPTER I. GENERAL CONCEPT OF MATTER : (a) ULTIMATE AB- STRACTIONS OR CONCEPTUAL ELEMENTS OF MATTER. 1 § II. Brief definition of the four elemental concepts of matter — § I2. Con- cept of substance explained — § 13. Concept of activity explained — § 14. Concept oi space explained — § 15. Concept of time explained — § 16. Real or concrete concept of movement. § II. Brief Definition of the Four Conceptual Elements of Matter. The simplest notions of the understanding, i.e. the fundamental or elemental concepts — classes of ultimate abstractions — are complementary ideas, which, in order to express knowledge, or even suppositions, must be combined in themselves, for they are nothing in reality if considered apart from one another ; if their significa- tion is complementary their validity is only ideal, as by composition alone can they enunciate real truths. Simple conceptions, then, are distinguished from pro- F I 66 /. MATTER IN GENERAL, positions ; the last are complete ideas or speeches by which we express either knowledge or suppositions ; the first are necessities for thought to express the truths from which we are enabled to make our reflections, that is, inductions or generalizations, and deductions or definite determinations which are derived by the appli- cation of the general truth of an induction to particular cases. Natural science contains at bottom some conceptions that are but suppositions concerning the connection of material changes ; yet such connections, although self- evident truths, are not at all perceived by our senses. Thus, for instance, we suppose substance as the supporter of material changes, and we take it for granted that activity is the interchange of substance. We also assume things existing in space as the extension they must occupy ; and time as the duration of some change. None of these four fundamental conceptions of material things—" substance," " activity," " space," and " time " — are objects or things of immediate perception ; they are, of course, only theoretical or speculative ideas, but they are indispensable to the so-called positive knowledge of nature or physiological propositions, because these could not even be conceived without the connection among such elemental ideas. Now, these simple con- ceptions, being necessarily used in every scientific proposition, must be known in their true signification, in order to avoid in Physiology erroneous suppositions of the causal connection of natural phenomena. Thus, for instance, when we say, according to irreflexive observation, that light is of many colours, we only suppose colour as an attribute of light ; but in studying the real meaning of attributive conceptions concerning II. CONCEPTUAL ELEMENTS. 67 ^1 objects we learn that there is no possible difference in the quality or essence of substance and of natural activity, and that all objective differences are relative, that is, in the connections of space and time. So we may affirm, after our principles of investigation have been rightly interpreted by reflexive thought, that if two lights differ in colour that difference is only relative, and consequently, colour can be essentially aflirmed as a relation and not as an essential or qualitative con- nection — attribution. This argument is applicable to all and every one of the judgments concerning objective knowledge when subjects and predicates are simply combined as substantives and their qualitative attributes, and in this way we see that thought constantly rectifies the ideas acquired by immediate or irreflexive ex- perience. Always bear in mind that in simple concep- tions we have only the elements necessary for thought to reach the fundamental proposition of Physiology, not by deduction but only by generalization or induction of the fact of inertia, with the sole guarantee of our belief in the uniformity of nature, because anything to the contrary is inconceivable and contradictory to the most insignificant affirmation of scientific knowledge. We have mentioned two universal intuitions ; one is substance, which is the nominal attributive ; the other is activity, which is the real attribute. When we reflect upon these intuitions we either infer subjective ideas — qualities ; or we calculate objective ideas — quantities. These last are reduced to two classes of terms — space and time, which, as we shall see, are products of mental reflection and not mere intuitions. Hence the conceptual elements or concepts of matter are Substance, Activity, Space, and Time, The word 68 I. MATTER IN GENERAL. substance is the conceptual term for the ultimate abstrac- tion of all the attributions that can be a subject in a grammatical or nominal sense. The word activity is the conceptual term for the ultimate abstraction of all pre- dicate attributions. The word space is the conceptual term for the ultimate abstraction of all the relations of extension and distance. And the word time is the conceptual term for the ultimate abstraction of all the relations of duration. We must clearly fix the meaning of these four terms, as many doctrinal errors arise from some ontological interpretations. Limiting their scientific signification to their cosmic or physiological concept, according to which they are the ultimate abstractions from extrinsic or cosmic perceptions (not extending it to their absolute comprehension as universal or metaphysic), we will still further define the expressed terms in the following manner : — 1. Cosmic substance {^dX is, in the material or physio- logical sense) is the nominal notion common to all objects, that is to say,, to all things perceived by the senses, abstraction being made of activity, space, and time. 2. Cosmic activity (that is, in the material or physio- logical sense) is the general notion of the attributive predicate applied to all objects ; that is, movement, abstraction being made of substance, space, and time. 3. Cosmic space is the extension of matter, abstraction being made of substance, activity, and time. 4. Cosmic time is the duration of a part, or of the whole of the material system, abstraction being made of substance, activity and space. According to the definitions here given we classify I \ \ II. CONCEPTUAL ELEMENTS. 69 ultimate abstractions as attributive and relative. Sub- stance and Activity are attributive ; Space and Time are relative. We call the first two attributive abstrac- tions, because they are referred to matter itself, and their conception can be made separately in every object ; when a comparison is supposed purely in substance or activity, without making reference to the relations of space and time among the objects, it is not quantitative, it is merely qualitative or attributive. On the contrary. Space and Time we have denominated relative abstrac- tions, because they are conceived, not in matter itself, but in the comparison of two states of consciousness that are different in the quantitative or mathematical reasons of things supposed identical in substance and activity ; comparison being then quantitative in their explicit factors. Attributive differences are purely ideal or metaphysical ; nevertheless, by an ellipsis of the mental subject the intuitive perceptions directly con- nected with the object are referred to matter and con- sidered as its own qualities. Quantitative differences, on the other hand — those of space and time — are always real, natural or physio- logical, though (by an ellipsis of the material object) the perceptions are directly connected among themselves, being compared quantitatively, and then referred to the mind itself; and because of this scholastics call them " relations of reason." It is necessary, we repeat, to determine precisely the reflexive signification of the words which represent ultimate mental abstractions, with the view of making the ideas of language clear, in order to avoid the error of ontological realizations, which is the irreflexive or spontaneous tendency of the mind when we mention 70 /. MATTER IN GENERAL. I 12. SUBSTANCE. any term whatever, although it represents an idea that cannot be realized ; and for this reason we shall treat of every one of them separately, in different sections. § 12. Concept of Substance explained. This word in Ontology commonly represents an abstraction different from that which it represents when its signification is circumscribed to Physiology, because in the latter the supernatural or supersensual concep- tions are set aside, as it considers only those things which produce extrinsic sensations — objects. In the meta- physical sense substance includes the spiritual and the divine or infinite essence — God and mental subject, while in Physiology it is generally though erroneously defined " as a passive existence which is supposed to be the basis of all the properties and qualities which things manifest." Such an abstract notion conduces to the illusory belief that something exists as "substratum" different from activity, and that activity rests on the substratum as if they were separable things. But we cannot represent in our mind any objective thing without manifested activity, and in nature we cannot recognize substance without activity. If substance is what remains apart from the manifestions inherent in activity, nothing can be known as absolute substance, passive matter, or motionless mass. There is no possibility of perception without the recognition of activity in that which produces sensation, and for this reason the existence of anything, after separating from an object all the manifestations, properties, or activities which connect the outside world with the mind, is a fantastic supposition of irreflexive imagination; thus 71 material substance completely passive is no more than an elliptical term employed in the mental process of language in order to express an ideal notion and not a thing. What, then, is substance as a reality .^ It is nothing in cosmic reality ; it is simply an abstraction. If physical knowledge must be based in intelligible conceptions, and if in nature nothing exists (at least for our reason) which could be absolutely a passive sub- stance, because this could not impress our mind, the abstract notion of substance cannot be intelligible, and, consequently, a true or rational knowledge about it is not possible. Substance, then, is only a connotative word, or a term of elliptical discourse, but apparently there is a reason in favour of the real existence of passive substance. We shall see that this is entirely false. It is said by many that, as extension is not only confined to material substance but must also comprehend empty space, the existence of some passive substance is also presupposed when it is recognized that something exists in that which is occupied. But in making such an illogical reflection they have not taken into consideration that in order to recognize what is occupied we have necessarily perceived something active in order that matter should manifest itself, and consequently we cannot make real reference to any passive substance, nor to absolute void. It has also been a matter of objection that as the idea of repose is contrary to that of motion, by merely supposing matter without movement we can have a concept of passive substance. To combat such an idea we need only repeat the former argument, as no idea of absolute repose is possible in any place from which our 72 /. MATTER IN GENERAL, 12. SUBSTANCE. 73 mind receives the slightest impression. It may happen that as far as our senses can reach we do not perceive the movement of some manifestation or phenomenon ; and then we say in irreflexive language that there is repose. But reason tells us that the repose is only molar or in sensual appearance, and that there must be movement ; as without this there is no sensation possible, because the reality of material things, as far as they can be known, consists in some change or activity pro- pagated to our mind, and this presupposes, not repose but movement whether visible or invisible ; no natural existence can be known if it is not under the jurisdiction of the senses, these furnishing the first ideas for the activity of the mind in our experiences from the world. Notwithstanding this truth, the notion of something completely identical in all matter has been erroneously affirmed as realized ; and this illusory concept of abstract substance, which is a fantastic invention of the philoso- phers and which was only a hypothetical possibility in the thought of the Greek sages, many scientists of to-day have elevated to the rank of a fundamental theory of natural sciences (Physics, Chemistry, etc.) with their materialistic idea of the primordial or elemental atom. But the atom, even if it were the common element of all the material system, must, in order to manifest itself, be necessarily active and not passive ; hence, if the atom represents any reality, this cannot be an abstract substance only, but the corporeal element of active matter. Besides, atoms are inconceivable as unities perfectly homogeneous in and among themselves, that is to say, the world cannot be identical in every one of its parts and in its totality, as we observe many forms of activity entirely different which produce in the mind the ideas of various attributes or properties in the same thing. Some authors think they can obviate this difficulty by imagining secondary atoms quantitatively different among themselves and also from the primordial ; this they think sufficient to determine the differences among phenomena, as phenomenal differences are only quantitative, that is, in their relations of space and time. In any way either primordial or secondary atoms as well as any part of matter or the whole world must always be considered active, and no possible conception of matter can be made as passive or abstract substances. Accordingly the signification of the word substance as a passive means and universal base equal in all things is beyond the reach of our comprehension ; then it is only an imaginary being of nominal existence which cannot be explained and to which we can only refer in tautological language by words admitted as its synonyms, expressing a connotative concept or an implicit ultimate notion of the process of mental abstrac- tion. Natural substance as a reality can only be com- prehended as matter in movement, the terms substance and activity being complementary, as, we repeat, the condition of being active is essential to all that is manifested to the senses. Nevertheless, the word sub- stance may be used elliptically in language (either internal, reflexive — or external, communicative) in order to represent matter in general when we cannot, and when we do not want to denote anything regarding its activity and quantitative relations. Then, not as a reality, but as a universal abstract noun, it represents an imaginary existence in which nothing active can be expressly determined ; it is admitted as a convenience, and, it may be said, even as a necessity in the process I 74 /. MATTER IN GENERAL. 13. ACTIVITY. 75 of mental reflection, and also in that of language. We acquire our ideas only by mental abstraction, and we enunciate them separately, from which may arise the false appearance that every abstraction is a reality. This is the mistake of realistic philosophy, and the same error is implied in language when we enunciate separately, as different things, the universal predicate of being, and the special attribute of the predicate, in this manner making an incomprehensible distinction between grammatical subject without properties, or, nothitig^ and the same subject with properties. § 13. Concept of Activity explained. Abstract activity means power without substance, that is to say, a property or quality without any one possessing it ; this is as great an impossibility as to suppose dancing without dancers, or war without fighters. Substance and activity are complementary, both to- gether forming the notion of attributive existence. Yet with the attributes alone (substance and activity) our understanding cannot acquire the notion of material unity, that is to say, of something equal in its parts and in the whole, like the concept of atom, because such unity as must be supposed in movement is necessarily an object, and we need also to establish its relations of space and time^ in order to complete the concept of natural existence, or of the material element which, therefore, is a relative and not an absolute existence. The nominal abstraction we make in the process of language when we reflect or transmit our ideas, induces us to believe, or better, to imagine that what produces our impressions is something really separated from U^^'= I matter, or that can exist without any substance — abstract activity ; but an attribute is never manifested, nor can something which is the base of activity be even conceived separately or apart from an object. Material, natural, or physiological activity consists only in propagated motion, in which there is nothing but a mutual ratio of energy ; i.e. proportional energy or quantivalence in the interchanges. If physical activity — movement — comprehends the notion of all that is acquired by extrinsic observation or experience, it is not opposed to substance ; it is all that is attributed to the notion of objective reality, and to conceive it separately would be the same as to form an abstract conception of movement. But as every- thing, in order to be known and considered as a reality within the limits of natural phenomena, must deter- mine some impression in our mind, all objects must necessarily be active or in movement. Hence, passive existence, we repeat, is in fact equal to nothing ; it is only an error of imagination still maintained in science, or an elliptical expression to represent a relative state of repose in massive relations when only one of the forms of activity is mentioned — this is visible or massive movement. We must not confound the words inertia and pas- sivity^ the first meaning phenomenal indifference, and the second the state of matter in apparent repose to the eye or in accordance with the immediate impression of the senses, expressing, in fact, that we do not see the motion of an object, at least, in relation to the things around it ; in such a so-called state of repose there is necessarily some activity, as we shall see when we treat of invisible motion. Even the so-called passive 76 /. MATTER IN GENERAL. 13. ACTIVITY. 77 resistance is produced by matter in movement, as some activity is necessary in any manifestation, even though it should seem passive to our senses. The sole idea suitable to the mind and differing from nothing is active existence, and in this the limit or ultimate point of scientific knowledge is the impressions acquired from the world, from which our reason forms the ultimate mechanical notion ; this is, that all material activity is movement. Beyond this all terms are above our intelligence, as we can only define nature by what is manifested by means of the senses, and in order that a scientific assertion should be true it is necessary that that which has been experienced must pass under the control of reason as the supreme rank of the mental capacities — the office of judgments, inferences, and calculations. When we discover in nature that all its activity is reduced to effected movements, and that following its successive propagations we arrive at a mysterious origin of organic generation, we can do no less than admit the influence of an immaterial generator, though any character of a Supreme Being is absolutely imperceptible to us. The phenomenal activity of nature is engendered by the sole power capable of doing so — by the efficient or determining Primordial Cause, i.e. by the Super- natural Power, the Almighty. The synthesis of the material changes effected in living bodies is called vitality, whose first phenomena result from the colloca- tion or formation of organic material. Mechanical activity as the common abstraction of all forms of objective energy — that is to say, as the manifested power of the world, is primordially effected by the special function of living bodies in the generating power \ of organism, which act is beyond the reach of our understanding. We can only imagine it as a spiritual connection between the Creator and living things, rele- gating the questions of this problem to Theology, a branch of Supernatural Philosophy or Metaphysics. For us, then, activity denotes only what is definitely produced by propagation of movement ; this is the natural or physical effect whether manifested or not — and comprehends the phenomenal and potential changes of the world. This activity (material energy) can only be propagated, it can never be created or annihilated ; when there is an appearance of cessation, there is only a change in which things have passed to an imper- ceptible form of action — potential state, and when the reverse occurs, i.e. when there is an apparent creation, it is that a form of imperceptible action has become perceptible — phenomenal state. In this manner nature is incessantly changing. The universe is a perfect system in which nothing is independent, and when there appears to be indepen- dence among the changes, it is because some inter- mediary action was imperceptible on account of the mediation of an invisible object between two visible ones by means of which these, though separate, propa- gate their actions. A continuous connection in matter must always exist for any propagation, and we repeat again, when an action appears to take place at some distance, there is certainly an indirect propagation or transmission by means of some moving thing which has escaped our sensual observation ; then reason recognizes the necessity of some interactions by contact or conti- guity. Attraction is a myth, and not a possible form of activity ; in all cases where attraction appears to be, we must look for the series of interactions which neces- 78 /. MATTER IN GENERAL, 14. SPACE. 79 sarily exist between bodies that seem to influence each other at a distance. Always bear in mind that the cause of vitality must be excluded from the concept of physical activity, as that generating power produces an interaction which is originated and not propagated. Such transcendental action on the organism is as different from natural phenomena as creation itself, and thus living inter- action may be considered possible as generated by the Almighty alone. The generating action cannot be pro- pagated to organism from the material world, in which nothing is created or annihilated ; all in nature is con- tinually changing by vitality, which causes matter to pass in its mechanical, propagating activity from the inorganic world to the organic, and the reverse, render- ing manifest in this manner the energy which is con- tinually converted into latent by a series of acts purely mechanical, as is seen in the continuous loss of living force in machinery. The connection between cause and effect in Physio- logy is an abstraction of activity itself when we compre- hend only the antecedents and consequents of a change, or of a partial system of changes. Physical cause being always a propagation of movement generated in the process of vitality, primordial cause is never found in experimental facts ; those which are recognized as causes of some phenomena are only the effects of other changes of former activity ; and in this endless chain of events the primordial effects in cosmos are, we repeat, the acts of organism, so that vitality being a synthesis of all the effects of cosmic mechanism, permits us to conceive the world, suppressing in it all the phy- sical forces which are supposed to be abstract causes, I and which are called attractive and repulsive forces by scientific writers. § 14. Concept of Space explained. True scientific distinction between one object and another does not depend on attributive differences or qualitative abstractions, but on their various relations or quantitative abstractions. We have already said that there are two elemental relations — space and time. It is necessary to acquire a concept of them by reason from experimental data as their ultimate notions cannot be comprehended by words alone, nor by intuition. We acquire the idea of space from its two forms of relation — extension and distance. Consciousness refers its impressions sometimes to the mind and sometimes to the world. Extrinsic impressions are referred to any object which we recognize and admit, apart from the mind, so determining the idea of the relation of space by the appreciated distance between such an object and our mind. When such an inexplicable perception is many times multiplied it is clearer to our under- standing, because taking some determined space as an average we establish the measure of space or its exten- sion. Besides, when we perceive two objects at a distance from each other, that is to say, separated by an interval which is not made manifest to us by visible signs of continuous objects, we call such an interval also space ; and, finally, when we compare all the im- pressions of position of the different parts of an object we identify more and more clearly the idea of space with that of the extension occupied by such an object. In mature age we immediately refer the experiences Lf ^•« 80 /. MATTER IN GENERAL, 14. SPACE. %l of the senses to things in space and time, and this is what makes it so difficult to assign to the different senses their participation in the process of establishing the mutual relation of exterior things. So that the percep- tion of things and that of the relations of space are formed at the same time. Objects do not begin to exist for our mind until they are individualized in space ; while, on the other hand, as soon as they are distinguished in the relations of space, these relations appear to be as objects. For the perception of extension all the senses must have some power, but not all the sensations are equally efficient in presenting to the mind the represen- tation of objects in space. Taste, hearing, and smell can scarcely localize objects ; sight and touch (including articular and muscular pression) determine their locality much better. Nevertheless, in actual experience our senses work in co-operation, and the mind uniformly interprets the sensations, there being a fixed relation between the given form of sensation and its interpreta- tion in reference to space, because the sensations cannot be interpreted in each one and in the different forms of such relations. The exact connection between an object and the perception to which it gives rise is a fact which cannot be demonstrated. The most important external perception is that of space, with its two forms — extension and distance. We cannot consider extension as a reality without losing our intelligence in the labyrinth of the infinite divisibility of matter, so making a contradiction of the conception of being. It is referred to an aggregation expressing only a certain order of relation among the aggregated ele- ments. The concept of space, then, is not necessary as a mental principle in order that we should form its true knowledge, because no other idea of space can result than that of conceptual relations. Our judgment of size and distance also is acquired by experience, for the mind must learn by external observation how to per- ceive the sensations which teach us those relations, as such perceptions do not result from immediate contact with the object but by means of some nervous changes produced by the object. The action of the nerves, then, is the inciting cause of sensation, and this in turn becomes the inciting cause of perception. Absolute space — that is to say, space as an existing reality in nature independent of matter in movement — is a senseless phrase which implies the indeterminable sum of all extension of occupied as well as of empty space, including in this the infinite space which is beyond the reach of our senses and of our understand- ing. The infinite cannot be a material thing ; it is a word without real representation ; it is the negation of the finite, and is consequently the existence of nothing in nature. There is no comprehensive notion of abso- lute space if this embraces not only what is occupied by the known world but also by the unknown. The infi- nite — space in absolute — considered as a thing existing before the creation, is a metaphysical problem. In such a sense space cannot be an object of physiological reference, its discussion is inseparable from the concept of the supersensual, and so does not come within the province of Physiology; nevertheless, space is still con- sidered by most ontologists as an infinite reality. Reason infers the idea of natural space from experimental data, and not simply by intuition, as space of course implies movement either visible or invisible. On the other hand, the hypothesis which maintains G 82 /. MATTER IN GENERAL. the absolute limitation of the world and of space, is con- trary to the most fundamental truths ; it is an error equal to the supposition that the atom is the absolute minimum of corporeal extension. In order to arrive at such an erroneous conclusion the pangeometers — main- tainers of such a hypothesis — start from an abstruse basis, such as supposing the discovery of new dimen- sions in space, affirming that the true and real space has four or more dimensions, and not three as is gene- rally taught ; that the ordinary space of three dimen- sions is only one of its possible forms, adding that in real or absolute space every line previously considered by common sense as straight could be converted into a closed curve if sufficiently prolonged, because, they say, space has some curvature which is inherent in itself, thus being limited in a spheric, or pseudo-spheric form. They pretend that such assertions can be experimentally proved, presuming besides that numerous optical, mag- netic and other phenomena can be thus accounted for ; and they also claim that such a notion of space is the base for the discovery of the mysteries of modern spirit- ism, considering this as produced by natural causes, because otherwise, they say, such phenomena would be elevated to a supernatural rank ! The members of this geometrical school, which they call transcendental, have confounded the facts which they wish to explain with false ontological abstractions, starting from the erro- neous concept that space is a real thing ; not only an object known to experience, but an independent object of direct sensation, which, according to them, can be recognized by means of instruments of physical and astronomical investigation, so empirically establishing the properties of space as one may those of any object or physical thing. I 14. SPACE. 9-« This conception of modern metageometers about spheroidal finite space is not new. It has been enun- ciated in Aristotle's " Cosmology," with the advantage in favour of the wise Greek that he did not infer the extravagant conclusions of our contemporaneous mathe- matical philosophers. No further commentaries are necessary to see that such a conception is contradictory to fact. We must not confound the untenable idea of space upheld by the sensualists, with the evident proposition that all knowledge of the objective world is derived from experienced data. Space is a product of mental abstraction ; it is a concept ; like extension, it is simply a relative character corresponding to all the objects of our sensual experience, and is reduced to nothing when all the sensations are ignored. Space is neither a phy- sical object nor an innate form of the mind independent of and forerunning the sensations. Space has neither proper form nor evident structure, but is simply the conceptual possibility of all forms of geometrical con- struction which depend on the concept formed by the abstraction of all the properties and figures which dis- tinguish objects. The first elements to form the con- cept of space are the perceptions which we derive from the limited extension of bodies ; from these arises the indefinite abstraction of space. When we state that all forms are in space, that extension is a necessary condi- tion of all things having objective existence, we mean to say that there is nothing in physical reality which can be without extension. No act of sensation can disassociate the extension of a body from its other properties and manifest only extension. Thus this, which is an irreducible or ultimate act of sensation, 84 /. MATTER IN GENERAL. 15. TIME. 85 when, for instance, it is acquired by the eye, is neces- sarily associated with the sensation of colour, which is a form of activity and an ultimate or irreducible quality. Confounding the concept of space with sensation, there could be no possible distinction between space and matter ; if such were the case, all objective existence could t)e called indifferently either space or matter, because these two terms would then have the same signification. Enough has been said here to judge not only the sensualists (materialists), but their adversaries the spiritualists, because both take the same error as a base; both consider space as some existing reality, either as an object of sensation (sensualists), or as a form of intuition (spiritualists). In either case the result is the same, because these doctrinaires conceive space inde- pendent of objects. But, as we have already said, the mind alone cannot imagine, nor obtain the sensation of pure space ; on the contrary, the idea of space is always relative, for it is associated in our consciousness with something determined by sensation. In opposition to this true view, idealism has wrongly interpreted the concept of space in two ways, one school having for its leader Kant, and the other being led by Fichte and Schopenhauer. According to Kant, space is a form of pure subjective intuition (intrinsic intuition) existing in the mind with independence and anterior to all acts of sensation. According to Fichte, space is also purely subjective ; he adds that space, being entirely in the mind, cannot be the basis for anything outside the mind itself,' and he concludes that the mind is the only ground where objects can exist ! All these erroneous conclusions, we repeat again, i depend on the false ontological supposition that every concrete thing and every abstract entity is considered as really existing with independence ; and in order to avoid falling into the error of such an absurd hypothesis, we must always bear in mind that in all initial acts of the understanding what is called phenomena or objective manifestations, and qualities or subjective distinctions, result, both at the same time, from the mutual action (interaction) between object and mind, the names of objects being nothing else than terms of attributive and relative abstractions. § 15. Concept of Time explained. What has been said about space is applicable to time by simply making a substitution of terms. Thus the word duration as a measure of time is the correlative of extejision as the measure of space. In order to be enabled to recognize an objective impression, a change must occur in sensation, and no change can be conceived without succession ; an un- definable relation is then admitted by the mind which establishes a difference of time between an impression previously recognized and what occurs afterwards. Time in absolute is only a nominal phrase, without a real signification ; it is in the same case as the imaginary subjects already treated of — Absolute Sub- stance, Absolute Activity, and Absolute Space or the Infinite. Common time is the standard of comparison used to determine the duration of change with more or less exactitude. Time, supposed to be continuous, is measured by the return of objects in space to certain relative positions, but such a return depends on physical 86 /. MATTER IN GENERAL. i6. MOVEMENT. 87 conditions which are variable, and consequently the results are variable also. This happens with our modern chronometers, although not to such an extent as it did with the hour-glass of the ancients. No instrument is absolutely free from friction, or from variation in inten- sity of gravity according to the latitude, or from changes of extension which are effected by variations of tempe- rature ; even the celestial clocks, like the sun and stars, suffer changes that make absolute equality indetermin- able in the measures of time, as there are indeed secular irregularities like some disturbances of celestial gravita- tion. Consequently absolute constancy of succession in time is simply a conception of the mind as illusory as the positions in space which serve as fixed points for determining the quantity of movement. The concept of the abstract idea, time, is of little importance in physiological science, and a criticism similar to that made of space is applicable to it ; so that we have sufficient with what has been said. § 16. Real or Concrete Concept of Movement. All that can be perceived by our senses, which is the object of physiological science in general (Physiology, properly so-called) is necessarily active substance — moving matter — in which relations of Space and Time are defined, and consequently the terms Substance, Activity, Space, and Time are abstractions of language from moving objects or concrete motion ; when we mention one of these terms we make the ellipsis of the others, which are then unnecessary or unknown in a determined manner. When we have tried to define every one of them as a particular existence we have had i no possibility of doing so except by verbal propositions, that is, by means of terms analogous to themselves. The supreme or ultimate proposition of Physical Science must be the recognition of universal organism, admitting that the primordial movement of phenomenal changes is effected by the act of vital generation, whose agent is potential and not phenomenal, and that those changes observed as directly producing the experimental or ordinary idea of movement are always secondary ; and as a corollary of this proposition we affirm that mechanism — object of Universal Physiology — is the con- cept of motion formed by abstraction, but comprehend- ing in it the derived changes of the system. Thus all which is physical, objective or material, is only matter in movement. And what is movement? It is an ultimate or inexplicable fact which can only be defined by words synonymous with itself. The word movement has two significations ; in the abstract sense, as a concept sepa- rate from matter, nothing exists which is really move- ment, this being only the possible reason of all physical activity ; and in the concrete sense movement is an ellip- tical term of language in which the existence of matter is implicit. In this last sense it has been the subject of analysis in this chapter, because movement is the com- plex concept of the four ultimate abstractions of all natural being or object, that is to say, of the four conceptual elements which result from the mental analysis of all objective things: Substance, Activity, Space, and Time ; circumscribing the signification of these terms to the concepts of natural beings or those which are manifested to the senses. These four words are the ultimate terms of scientific language, and are not only undefinable, but also inconceivable as realities. 88 /. MATTER IN GENERAL. In language they represent the grammatical subjects and universal predicates of objects. Hence, all physical changes in general, and each one in particular, being kinematic, that is, resulting from movement, necessarily presuppose Substance, Activity, Space, and Time ; if these four conceptions are not expressed they must be tacitly recognized, and in this sense it can be said that all real existing objects suppose the mental synthesis of the four universal abstractions — two attributive, Substance and Activity, and two relative. Space and Time ; and such a synthetic notion is movement in reality. 17. PROPERTIES OF MATTER. 89 CHAPTER n. GENERAL CONCEPT OF MATTER ic07ltimied) : (b) RELA- TIVE SIGNIFICATION OF THE FOLLOWING PHRASES : — § 17. Properties of matter— § 18. Essence of matter— § 19. Matter and force— § 20. Mass and movement— § 21. Universal attraction— § 22. Physiological or physical change— § 23. Inertia of matter— § 24. Conservation of energy. § 17. Properties of Matter. The concept of matter, as we have just seen, is very complex, containing in its signification the four con- ceptual elements: the two attributive, substance and activity ; and the two relative, space and time. Ordinarily speaking, matter expressly means only the substance of objects ; this is the irreflexive signi- fication of the word matter ; but in the scientific sense this word connotes the notion of the other three elemen- tal abstractions which are the complements of substance : activity, space, and time. These words, physiologically employed, express, as we have already said, abstract concepts, limited to the objects or material things, which are concrete realities. All the so-called properties of matter are, like the conceptual elements, but abstract concepts, nevertheless extension and impenetrability are considered as universal 90 //. MATTER IN GENERAL {CONTINUED). 17. PROPERTIES OF MATTER. 91 properties of matter by all physicists, excepting those who maintain pure dynamism by denying the real extension of matter and admitting only elemental activities without extension, related in the infinite in such a manner as to produce sensations with the appear- ance of a world of corpuscular things not continuous in space. With such a fantastic idea some physicists, among them great mathematicians, presume to solve the difficulties of some problems of matter such as its unity, divisibility, and indestructibility. This hypothesis of pure dynatnism explains penetrability of bodies by the false statement that matter is absolutely lacking in extension, and that it is constituted by mathematical points endowed with the ideal elements they call forces, which are considered to be infinitely small (and this amounts to nothing) in comparison with the distances which separate them from one another. Dynamists, then, consider the total extension of objects as an effort of the predominating repulsive forces of such points. It is clear that this inconceivable hypothesis springs from a mathematical abstraction. We must recognize extension as a general predicate of matter which is employed in all objects, but it does not establish absolute distinction or attribution, it is only a distinction of relation. It has already been effectually demonstrated that extension is the measure of the relations of space, that is, a quantitative deter- mination of any object or group of objects. Two objects could not occupy the same space at the same time if they were extended in absolute, and this is the meaning of the word impenetrability. But practically we see that all bodies are penetrable, a fact which is contradictory to the idea of considering objects endowed with abso- \ '-4 lute extension. This contradiction is obviated by giving to the terms "extension" and "impenetrability" their true relative signification, as practically we never reach the limits of the minimum extension of bodies, nor of course the limits of their impenetrability ; a complete or absolute case of impenetrability never comes under our observation. But most physicists pretend to know by direct sensual experience that bodies are impenetrable, and they say they arrive at this conclusion without even the necessity of appealing to reason. They have formed such an illusion from the crudest appearances of massive mecha- nics, considering space as an objective entity in which every object should occupy in its minimum extension a fixed or determined part into which no other body could penetrate, for that space they say is absolutely full. But the determination of minimum or absolute exten- sion is an impossibility, it is an eternal " X " (unknown quantity) practically indeterminable, and parallel with the fixation of the absolute zero in the thermometric scale, which can be only the reduction to nothing. We have already demonstrated that the reality of space is an ontological enigma, so it only remains for us now to prove that experience has never given us the knowledge of the minimum limit of the extension of a body. No one doubts that when we submit bodies, especially liquids, to compression by means of the most powerful machinery, we find a limit of compressibility to the strongest forces that can thus be employed in molar or massive mechanics, but we must not infer from this that we have reached the minimum extension of bodies or the limit of their impenetrability, because the same space can be occupied by another body, as is -'* *'S?'- 92 //. MATTER IN GENERAL {CONTINUED). 17. PROPERTIES OF MATTER. 93 observed from the reduction of volume when many fluids are mixed, and from the great contraction of volume which frequently occurs in the combination of liquids, though they seem incompressible by the force of the most powerful presses. It is also well known that if two or more gases are enclosed in the same cavity (even without determining chemical metamor- phoses) each gas is distributed in that space in the same manner as if it were alone. All bodies are really penetrable, and the continuity of their contents is only apparent. Impenetrability as well as extension is a relative property — a relation of space — which depends on the mutual action of bodies, and not an absolute inherence in matter. It is evident that a determined particle of matter must occupy some minimum space, but this fact cannot be acquired by our knowledge of objective realities, as these are constituted by corpuscles separated by imponderable ether always in movement (heat), and consequently the space which is apparently occupied by bodies cannot be absolutely filled with matter, because otherwise such movement could not be possible. The false presupposition that objects are in reality in the same correlation as they appear to human under- standing has also conduced to the error of considering impenetrability of matter as an absolute property known by experience ; thus, because solids are perceived before fluids, we are inclined to the spontaneous or irreflexive preference of supposing that matter is primordially endowed with solidity, or impenetrable rigidity, and that softness, flexibility and fluidity result from complex modes of aggregation. But, as we have already said, the ultimate corpuscular elements of bodies — atoms. I which are supposed to constitute ponderable matter — must never be in perfect continuity or absolute contact in all parts, because otherwise they would not permit any form of internal movement, which consists in oscil- lations of imponderable matter (progene), the degree of temperature and the state of bodies being thus deter- mined. The affirmation of impenetrability is merely gratuitous in the sense of observation, it is solely a condition which presupposes reasoning, because to deny it would be a contradiction of the affirmation of objec- tive existence. But what are in reality the practical limits of penetrability ? We do not know them, we repeat, any more than we know the absolute zero or absolute lack of heat. Accordingly extension and pene- trability (instead of impenetrability) are sensual data of quantitative relation which vary, not only in the quan- tity of matter, but also in the movement of the mechanic action, internal, as well as external. The different states of bodies result from the relation of internal and external actions, which arise from the interaction of objects with one another. Solidity is not an attribute of objects ; it is only the concept of relative abstraction ; in reality we have never seen an absolutely solid body ; the greatest or least resistance observed in different bodies is a rela- tive condition especially contrary to thermic activity. All material elements have not the relative properties of ponderable masses, though these properties are deter- mined by the effect of the distribution and interaction of the parts ; the relation among the material elements is purely dynamic. We shall see that the solidity of a body does not depend on the integral solidity of its ultimate elements, but results from want of equilibrium in favour of ex- *. ^siei■6aua■iaaMfjffl^|f^^rtMii 94 JI. MATTER IN GENERAL {CONTINUED). i8. ESSENCE OF MA TTER. 95 ternal pressure upon the constituted elements of a solid body ; so that the resistance of a body to yield in its extension, or to break, depends, not on the absolute continuity among its elements, but on the control of heat expansion by external pressure, principally that of imponderable ether (progene) which compresses all bodies. The idea of absolute solidity of matter, from which the idea of absolute impenetrability arises, is an unreasoned perception, a superficial and imperfect datum of the most culminant sensations acquired during our childhood, and from our most ordinary experiences. Solidity is the most complicated structure of inorganic matter ; in truth, organized matter is the more complex, but this is because it comprehends in the same body all the dififerent states forming a whole. We must affirm, in conclusion, then, that there are no absolute properties of matter, that even extension and impenetrability are relative. § 1 8. Essence of Matter. There are, in reality, no essential differences among objects. On what, then, depends those so-called essential differences of matter? What is that which is called essence or proper nature of every object } A doubt instantly arises in our mind as to the pos- sibility of knowing the true or qualitative essence of a thing, because we lack the assistance of the proof of the senses which gives no more experimental data than those which oblige us to recognize attributive or quali- tative identity instead of differences of substance and activity among material or objective things. The essence of matter cannot be found by what are \ called its qualities, as these do not reveal how matter is, but only how it affects our mind ; thus the same object can produce opposite sensations by producing contrary ideas of quality, and if the qualities of that object, whose essence we would like to express, change or vary, the result would be the contradiction that the same thing is not the same. If, on the other hand, the word essence were employed to signify something per- sistent in the object through all observed changes, it would represent a supersensual problem whose reso- lution would be in the dominion of pure reason or Meta- physics. Accordingly, if the terms "essence" or "qualitative nature" were admitted in Physiology to express what is characteristic in every object, they would not express any quality, but only commensurable quantities or material relations of space and time, which vary with the active change that occurs in all things. Hence the qualitative nature or physical essence of things may be spoken of only as a pure mental formula, expressing the most persistent mutual action of objects in their quan- titative variations, which, of course, are not absolute but relative. Furthermore, the determination of the proper essence of objects should not consist in fixing definite velocities and directions of movements at a given time, but in fixing the general velocity and constant direc- tion of objects at all times, which is an impossibility on account of the condition of variability in the universe. Physicists commonly speak also of the essence of substance as something different from the phenomenal and potential activity of nature. But it is a fallacy of language to say that phenomena have their proper essence in absolute when only the differential characters 96 //. MATTER IN GENERAL {CONTINUED). 1 8. ESSENCE OF MATTER. 97 which result from the changes or modes of movement are observable, and these are always quantitative differ- ences, and therefore differences of space and time. Neither is an essential or absolute distinction in matter possible between the potential and the actual, or, in other words, between the latent and the phe- nomenal, because the actual differs from the potential only in the quantitative conditions of the propagation of movement ; in the first place its influence can be felt in sensation, while in the second there is not sufficient intensity in the propagation to produce a mental impression through the senses. For example, if a movement of four vibrations in a second should be propagated to our ears, it is uDt sufficient to produce sonorous vibrations, nor will any vibratory movement be felt if it exceeds forty thousand vibrations in a second. In such cases there is an energy which is not manifested to our senses because of defect or of excess of celerity, and which is called potential energy. This nevertheless may be usefully employed by converting it into phenomenal movement. Therefore the distinction which we try to establish between the words potential or latent, and actual or phenomenal, is purely personal or subjective. That which is called potential, virtual, disposable, or latent, is what is not manifested to our senses because the factors of movement are not in the relation necessary to impress the organs of sense, and propagate it to the brain in order to determine the sen- sations. The potential state of matter is as well defined by reason as can be the forms which are seen and touched ; the difference of phenomenal states are deter- mined only by sensual effects, and consequently they are defined only in their appearance, not in their evi- dence, which last can be recognized and judged by the supreme faculty of reason alone. In action all that is directly appreciable by the senses is what is qualified as actual or phenomenal, but in the exact sense all that exists is actual ; nothing can be a potential thing in absolute, and consequently such expressions are in reality figures of speech always implying a dynamic state of the objects and not any essential difference. Nevertheless, we admit the term potential, in a conven- tional relative sense, to signify that which is not directly manifested by the senses, and which we recognize by reason alone, when, with the appearance of spontaneity, phenomenal determinations are produced by energies not directly perceptible ; then the occult proximate causes are called potential. If within the limits of our intellectual efforts the essence or proper nature of an object is known only by the quantitative relations of its activity or movement, we must investigate what is the essence of matter by observing how the objects of cosmos act. Our intelli- gence cannot go beyond the calculations on extrinsic perceptions, acquiring from these alone all the data for the knowledge of matter. We must not forget that our understanding is limited, and that man, being a creature, cannot control a supernatural intellectual domain. In other words, if the essence of the proper nature of objects makes reference to human capacity it must not be in matter itself, as this cannot have an essence as different entity ; matter is the whole (in objective cosmos), and its essence is in the ratio of its definite modes of quantity, and from the form and con- tinuation of activity we derive the law of its action. By this we do not mean to say that a law governs cosmos, 11 jsiaiBr 98 //. MATTER IN GENERAL {CONTINUED), 19. FORCE. 99 but that cosmos acts in accordance with a law which is but a quantitative relation. All cosmic law, then, is also relative and not essential ; the essential or pri- mordial law by which an object has been created and is governed in its activity, is and will be for ever as enigmatic for the most piercing intellect as for the savage. Thus, we do not tire of repeating what we have said many times before, that in the things defined in nature (for human understanding at least) as the sole physical realities, the distinction between object and its law, like that between substance and activity, matter and force, or mass and movement, is nothing but a division in our mental speculation. Hence, we affirm that the essence or qualitative nature of things is only an abstraction or mental separation of that, which, being more constant among the activities of a thing, characterizes or distinguishes it from the others so as to aid us in our scientific purposes, but it is a relative distinction, arbitrary or conventional, though useful. § 19. Matter and Force. All objects must be considered as a field of finite though indeterminable extension always in activity, which may or may not be manifested ; otherwise we could say that matter does not exist as well as that it does exist, and material nature would be reduced to a pure ideal thing, which, sensually or objectively con- sidered, is equal to nothing. Matter cannot be the passive object of force, as is said by atomists and materialists, for a thing without activity cannot be an object for the mind ; thus physi- cists usually say that matter is a vehicle of force, but a thing cannot be a vehicle without power or energy. Strictly speaking there is no absolute repose, no absolute inaction in nature ; an object, in order to be perceived, must exist with some corresponding action to impress the senses, either propagated directly or by means of something which propagates the activity between the object and the senses. Hence the distinction in nature between matter and force is only verbal, it is merely a difference of words to express the same real thing in a definite sense. The terms " matter " and " force " do not represent separate existences in the reality of cosmos ; to carry into the world of objective things such a distinction is to labour under a delusion of language. In reality, when we speak of an object, we adopt the same form as in the judgment, putting the name of the thing as the gram- matical subject separate or apart from its attributes or relations which are the predicate ; in this manner language makes a fictitious division between the thing itself and its predicate, but an objective substance does not exist separate from its predicate, although such a distinction is made in thought and language ; thus we speak, though improperly, of matter as containing forces, and so imagine that there are true entities separate from matter ; in this manner even the sagest minds have fallen into the erroneous idea of admittingr and recoe- nizing in nature many abstract forces, as attraction, affinity, caloric, luminous agent, etc., so representing matter with several forces, some of them fatal (inevitable in their effects), and others elective (choosing their efifects). Thus, for instance, attraction is considered by astronomers as fatal according to the law of distances, while chemists consider affinity, and biologists irrita- lOO //. MATTER IN GENERAL {CONTINUED). bility, as elective. Besides, they say that every force is independent. This cannot be so ; the notion of force is in every case an abstraction. Forces are separate only in the mind ; they are mental abstractions by which we determine the different classes of acts which are dis- covered in nature : forces are simply the measure of movement Every act of matter must be directly attributed as a proximate effect to matter itself, and not to illusory abstract forces residing in object ; any other conception is contradictory to fact. Passive matter is never dis- covered by rational experience, for we know an object exists only because it acts through our senses. Reflec- tion conducts us beyond the apparent repose of matter, and then, with the light of reason, we see the real world which always manifests power in incessant action. Therefore, when a thing that was in mutual action with others appears after a change operated in its relations, as passive matter or matter in repose, this will be only a relative state which must never be confounded with absolute repose or passivity. If we affirm the inde- structibility of matter, it is because it never becomes inactive in absolute, otherwise for us it would be annihilated. Nevertheless, the ancients, almost without exception, believed that the natural state of things was repose, that objects could come into motion only as the effect of some exterior agent, and always resume their tendency to repose as soon as the action of the agent was removed ; movement being considered by them a violent and accidental state of objects. This would be true if there were no other movement than the pheno- menal or manifested, and, consequently, the cause of such an erroneous belief is sensual or irreflexive experience 19. FORCE. 10 1 which constantly furnishes us with apparent proofs of the difficulty which exists in initiating a movement in ponderable matter and also with the apparent tendency to the cessation of molar movement. When we reduce movement to the field of sensual irreflexion, without thinking of that which must also exist in the actions in which there is no visible change in the place of things, the word movement then signifies only molar movement like that of massive mechanics. The irreflexive concept of matter and force as different things is taken also when we make an effort to move ourselves and after some time are obliged to rest ; then, extending the meaning of the word movement, this personal condition is translated to all things, and finally, the dissipation of physical energy observed in all mechanical changes inclines us to the idea of the tendency of matter to repose. At present many physicists maintain an idea oppo- site to that of the ancients but equally incorrect, affirming that movement is the natural state or inherent condition of things. The materialistic conception is obliged either to endow matter with movement in itself (automotion), without any dissipation of manifested energy, or to imagine the existence of material motors in nature (abstract forces), which would impel matter to depart from its natural tendency which according to such a supposition is a state of repose. The modern concept of constant or persistent movement, according to which motion is supposed to be an essential or in- herent property of every objective element, is altogether materialistic. But if matter were so, every element abandoned to itself would move with a constant velocity as the result of its own nature ; this is directly and I02 IL MATTER IN GENERAL {COSTINUED). completely contradicted by the unquestionable fact of inertia of matter. Movement must be truly considered as the universal state of manifested objects ; not as an attribute inherent in matter, but as a relative effect, because movement can only be admitted as an indifferent condition in which matter may or may not be, as is expressed by the principle of conservation and the law of inertia ; so if we consider matter as having determined movement it will continue with the same movement, and if we con- sider it in repose it will remain in repose. But if move- ment does not proceed from matter, if it is only its physical mode of being, what is its cause .'* Who has put matter in movement t Here we arrive at a truly primordial fact of creation, and, therefore, the actor will be the Author oi all things. In addition to this, move- ment in nature is not absolutely uniform ; on the contrary, it is always changing as a proximate result of the mutual action of objective elements. And what is the primordial cause of such a change in movement? It is the engendering power of vitality which is also a final or ultimate act. Hence we have two classes or cate- gories of causal connection in material activity : first, engendered forces, i.e. the primordial changes or move- ments of nature (potence of vitality) ; and second, derived forces, i.e. the secondary changes or movements in nature (acts of mechanism or materiality). By the former an energy is manifested greater than that which was spent, and by the latter manifested energy is constantly lost, being resolved into a latent or potential state, from which it moves to the actual or phenomenal state by the acts of vitality, so closing the circle of life in the universal system. In addition to this, vitality 20. MASS. 103 includes all the forms of materiality, that is, all kinds of mechanical acts, which are afterwards propagated to the inorganic world to repair the loss of living force. All phenomenal variations or extrinsic manifestations imply a change of movement whose measure is the forces which may be propagated into another manifested movement, or transferred into a potential one. Now if the notion of one object is unity, how does it produce such plurality in the manifestations of its activity? Because manifested activity results from composition of forces, although, properly speaking, in an ultimate analysis it is but the various modes of the sole and persistent state of movement in which matter is always kept ; and, consequently, objective unity is relative ; the manifestations varying with the proportions ia which the components come into action — intermotion. § 20. Mass and Movement. The same criticism which establishes the relativity of movement is what has served us to settle the rela- tivity of activity, space, and time ; thus it only remains for us now to apply what is said about the relativity of substance to that of mass also. We have seen that the terms substance and activity are in reality synonymous and not complementary ; each alone truly represents the whole attributive idea of any objective thing ; they are neither separate nor joined, but only one thing alone. Some who object, as we do, to the asserted distinction of realizing such abstrac- tions, try to explain mechanism by saying that material activity or force is nothing but movement, and that the only thing opposite to force or movement is mass. But I04 //. MATTER IN GENERAL {CONTINUED). they fall into the same error, because mass and move- ment, like matter and force, are not complementary, they are inseparable ; in fact, there can be no mass without movement, and no movement without mass. What, then, do these words mean ? Like substance and activity, they are nothing but symbols of concepts of mental abstractions taken from cosmic mechanism, physiological universe, or material nature. Thus, when we refer to mass, we mean the measure of the force of gravity exclusively, which is a resultant of movement ; but because of this we must not forget that that which may be a manifested object cannot be passive matter ; that when we speak of active movement it is only to differentiate it from relative repose, as objects are always in movement either actual or potential. It is evident that a pure movement, separate from all bodies, is an impossibility ; and we must say the same of the other correlative terms, the true proposition being that in the real concept of any of the terms, matter, mass, force, or movement, the four conceptual elements are compre- hended — that is to say, the four universal abstractions or simple categories of object : substance, activity, space, and time. Mass is the measure of some movement propagated from one object to another, and its intensity depends on the relation among the four abstractions here mentioned. What is said here of mass may be said also of the other three terms which are in reality correlative with mass. Matter, if it is ponder- able, is measured by mass ; mass is measured by the force of the gravitating resistance ; and movement is measured either by mass and velocity or by velocity alone. Nevertheless, physicists speak of mass and move- ment not only as real elements of matter, but also as ^ASS»^iii'lS*I^ISi^UaM 2a MASS, 105 alwaj's existing each in the same quantity in cosmos ; this affirmation also, thus enunciated, completely lacks foundation, because mass and movement, as well as any other relation, are susceptible of increase and diminution. Again, in ordinary Mechanics mass and inertia are con- sidered as synonymous terms, and are measured by the force of acceleration or of deviation in the movement of a body — that is, by the force which is necessary to propagate movement to a given body in order to deter- mine in it some velocity. This use of the words mass and inertia is of course limited to ponderable or atomic matter alone, with the abstraction of the differences of place or position of bodies. Mass, movement, matter, and force are not only inseparable concepts in reality, but they are not even separable in thought. All are terms of relation among objects of sensible experience, without any difference among them than that which they have in abstract language on account of the omissions or ellipses which are necessary to scientific explanations. Such differences are therefore only verbal ; they are only differences in words, and not in the real or true propositional sense. We need not refer back to the realism of the Middle Ages to see the conceptual elements of things confounded with objects of sensation ; such an error has caused modern physicists to cheat themselves into interpreting nature by their mechanical atomic theories. This error has produced the most contradictory consequences, and has given rise to endless discussions without any foundation. Mass is not a real thing or individual entity which can be directly presented to the observation of the senses, or that can be known objectively by thought. It is nothing more than a definite determina- io6 //. MATTER IN GENERAL {CONTINUED). tion by thought in the relations or mutual dependence of matter in movement ; it is merely a result of calculation of movements whose measure is the dynamic correlation between the antecedents and consequents of a physical change. Nevertheless, mass, like physical force, is a term of quantitative relations necessary in our discourse and in our thoughts. The measure of the mass of a body is inverse to the acceleration produced by a given force, and the measure of force is determined by the acceleration produced in a given mass, of course referring to ponderable matter. The ordinary method to determine the mass of bodies by their weight is merely an arbitrary agreement among scientists ; it is not based in the nature of anything. Moreover, the weight of a body does not depend on itself in absolute, but on its relation with others, differing according to the position of the body, and especially according to its dis- tance from the centre of gravity of the earth, because the velocity of falling bodies near the surface of the earth is greater than if the experiment is made at a great elevation, as is proved by the oscillations of the pendulum. §21. Universal Attraction (which would be better called atomic gravitation). If activity of nature cannot be absolutely inde- pendent and proper to matter but must relatively de- pend on what is a genuine cause, what is the true interpretation of the so-called universal attraction and of its law in relation to distances ? Physicists say that matter attracts itself with an intensity which varies according to the inverse ratio of the square of the distance. In this manner they admit an abstract force 21. ATTRACTION 107 or specific cause which is not merely matter but some- thing united to it, so separating the cause of an act, which is the agent in itself and therefore a thing, from the field of action, which by a peculiarity of nature under appropriate conditions is converted into the apparent cause of the act. This is the same as to deny the fact that substance and activity are only abstractions of reality, and not two different things. How, then, must we explain the appearance of facts according to the so-called law of universal attraction ? Only by propagated impulse ; thus, in gravity, for instance, as the surface of the spheres varies with the squares of their radii, an energy, in order to be centri- petally propagated, must be distributed in four times less quantity of matter in another sphere of half the diameter, where, therefore, the energy will be four times more intense than in a surface of the same extension but corresponding to the greater sphere. The centri- petal impulse, then, will increase according to the ratio of the square of the distance. Hence the fact of gravitation must be explained by pressure, that is to say, the force of gravity cannot be attraction but only the measure of an impulsive movement. We cannot study the generation of such an impulse until we treat of Synthetic Physiology (Part II. Chap. VII.). To produce any material interaction we must sup- pose matter in immediate continuity or contact, as it cannot do anything else but propagate movement by impulse. In matter there can be no attraction, nor can there be any influence acting at a distance, because to admit this would be the same as to recognize that every particle of matter must be omnipresent and om- nipotent. We must give a brief dissertation on this ic8 //. MATTER IN GENERAL {CONTINUED'). point to settle the most transcendental truth of the Physiological Theory here set forth in such a manner as to satisfy, not only the intuition of facts, but also our rational intelligence, in conformity with the laws of thought, and with the principle of conservation. We cannot conceive matter as containing inherent forces, either of attraction or repulsion, but as deter- mining different forms of manifestation by the mutual action of the parts, according as these vary in their circumstances ; because force, as we have seen already, is nothing more than an abstraction of the forms of physiological activity. It is also absurd to define force as the unknown cause of phenomena, as is expressed by the phrase, " force of attraction," for this will lead to the belief that forces are things, as only things can be causes ; and besides, as the only aim of our speculation is to find the proximate causes of phenomena, the final result will be that only forces could be recognized, which is the erroneous conclusion of pure dynamism. If force in general and attraction in particular were real things, we ought to know where they come from and how they can be engendered so as to fill space. If at- traction is supposed as an influence alone, then we have only a figure of speech without real signification ; and if, according to most physicists, attraction is supposed as a cause inherent to matter and therefore as some- thing really different from material things, this would lead to an incomprehensible dualism in which the forces will be as things different from the manifested being, and nevertheless will not be anything separate from the objects. Admitting this contradiction, attraction, in order to produce effects, should pass from one thing to another, and in the case of gravitation as is explained V 21. ATTRACTION. 109 I'l 1 I by the hypothesis of attraction, when a body is at- tracted, as the authors say, by the sun, for instance, and between that body and the sun there are some other bodies interposed, these do not intercept the action, because attraction, they say, passes to the other side ! If we were to admit this action at a distance, we would also be obliged to connote that the real agents of the system are removed by attraction throughout all the space of the universe. But nobody can arrive at an understanding of the real sense or the possibility that things could act at a point where they are not, no more than it can be intelligible that an object acts in the time during which it does not exist. When one thing is said to attract another, that is, when it is said that one thing acts separately from another, this is, we repeat, to attribute absolute omnipresence to every- thing, which will lead to the false conclusion that there is no more right in saying that objects and their par- ticles are in any one place than to say that they are in another, for the reason that the objects are referred to the place of their activity. Then, the same object could be in one place and all places at the same time, and so be considered as an Infinite Being, but as the infinite cannot be anything in the series of phenomenal determinations, and as these are what give us a know- ledge of the objects, the result would be the paradox of denying the existence of matter. Accordingly, there can be no such thing as Uni- versal Attraction so-called ; and so we group acts of this kind under the denomination of Atomic Gravita- tion, which is simply a mechanical effect resulting from ethereal (progenic) impulse. iSitebiifa» no //. MATTER IN GENERAL {CONTINUED). § 22. Physiological or Physical Change. In a material sense, i.e. in the objective world, change implies causal continuity ; in fact, change is only a different mode of the manner of being, object, which is always dynamic, and constantly keeps a relation, that is, a law in whose succession the passing from one con- dition to another determines the present, and this the future ; change would otherwise involve contradiction to the idea of identity in the thing itself through all its mutations ; that is to say, it would affirm that a thing could be and could not be at the same time. For our understanding material change is nothing but a quanti- tative relation, and from this it results that it does not demand any other foundation than consistency in the field of thought. Physical or material change has no real signification as an existing thing ; its meaning is figurative, making the ellipsis or omission of the object ; there is nothing really existing as change alone, the objects themselves are those which change in their movement as they vary in the modes of their activity. Neither change in general nor change of movement in particular can be defined except by terms which express the same idea as that which we try to define, the subject and the predicate being synonymous or tautological expressions. Change, like the other ultimate notions of our understanding, cannot be derived from any other ; mental reflection forms its concept only by experience, so that it cannot be communicated by words ; thus we observe that cosmos is in perpetual or continuous change, all its parts following an order of antecedents and consequents in which a second term 22. CHANGE. Ill -■? '■1 or effect becomes a first term or relative cause and so on. But our senses cannot discover all the changes of nature, and it happens also that the incessant repro- duction of a similar change may produce in our minds the appearance of a constant situation or absolute repose. From this arises the relative distinction between potential and manifested changes, calling the last pheno- menal. We must not forget that for reason at least, if not for the senses, potential changes denote activity, and consequently actuality as well as phenomenal changes. Again, we repeat, we must admit and recognize that natural knowledge is not under the control of irre- flexive experience ; that what is called also positive knowledge lies beyond sensual observation, and that there only the highest power can penetrate ; with this motive, and in accordance with Greek etymology, we may say that among the changes some are "pheno- mena," and others " noumena," giving this last quali- fication to those which are under the control of reason, though this derives them by reflecting on the pheno- menal or manifested antecedents. Objects thus succeed each other in this eternal change of cosmos, so consti- tuting a continuous process in which some changes are often discovered in a manner manifest to the senses, while others appear as latent or imperceptible, and from this arises the distinction already established between phenomenal and potential states of matter. How can we amalgamate change and unity in things? ask the philosophers. They resolve this question either by denying change, as do the eclectics, or by denying unity, as do the heraclitos. Some factor in things must remain relatively fixed or permanent in order to make known to us their constant individuality; in truth the knowledge 112 //. MATTER IN GENERAL ''CONTINUED). 23. INERTIA. "3 of the notion of change reveals to us the existence of some factor, which from its greater constancy serves as a standard of comparison for the more mutable changes. It is a contradiction to affirm that there can be absolute identity and absolute change at the same time, but identity and change are not incompatible in objective relations ; that is to say, when a thing changes it is and is not the same before and after the change, because it is neither equal nor different in absolute, it is only so in a relative sense, for change does not consist in an absolute transference of things from one to another ; it only varies relations at a time. In this question most metaphysicians maintain an ontological idea which is quite arbitrary and opposed to scientific understand- ing. They say that a thing cannot exist in different states, because, when it takes on a new state it is trans- formed into a new thing ; but, in physiologic science above all, we understand that when water, for instance, changes its state, though it is not the same in absolute in one state as in the other, we always estimate it as being the same thing — water, but in a different state. The ontological error before stated arises from the false conception of being which controls all the systems of transformism, and the conclusions of such ontological thoughts are that objects exist in an incessant pro- gressive change in the perpetual process of nature, that objects themselves force one another to pass to different forms, that nothing rests in the same state ; and so the transformists say " everything is constantly transformed, things as they appear being only the links in an eternal chain, or a transient ebb and flow in the current of the world, all passing and ending thus except the change in the things themselves." But if all could pass in this k- manner, even the law of correlation of quantity could not remain, as it is nothing independent from the reality of the things themselves, it being only a mental abstrac- tion. So we see that such an erroneous conception of change is one proof more against transformism. In every part of nature we find only efifects, and we must add that these effects become in turn causes, not primordial but derived ; but we never find in the changes of the physical world either the prime cause or the ultimate effect ; every object must be conceived as a cause in the mechanism of nature, but as an effect in universal organism or system. For this reason the expressions cause (excepting the Creator), effect, and change are relative ; still more, change in a physical sense denotes variation in the sole form of activity of which nature is capable, that is, movement. § 23. Inertia of Matter. What has hitherto been said in this chapter obliges us to give a correct scientific interpretation to the word inertia, because in its etymological sense it is a contra- diction to the concept of persistent activity of matter. We cannot acquire the idea of action in things if we suppose them absolutely inert, nor can we comprehend the changes in nature if we consider it as constituted of particles completely at rest, because in order to be per- ceptible a thing must determine an action of which it is the proximate cause, for all sensual ideas must neces- sarily have cause and effect, that is to say, actor and action ; so we insist on affirming that a concept of absolutely inert matter is an erroneous abstraction of our irreflexive experience. Matter may appear to the I E*. 114 II. MATTER IN GENERAL {CONTINUED). 23. INERTIA. "5 eye as inert or as a recipient of action, but our reason penetrates into the truth that such an idea is a contra- diction, because anything acting on that which is sup- posed to be absolutely passive could not determine reaction, and therefore is an impossibility for our rational intelligence. Thus we have seen that when an object appears to be in repose or inactive, reflection teaches us that it follows in a state of incessant activities which are neutralized or compensated because they act in contrary directions; that is to say, repose is an equilibrium resulting from the opposition of energies in a part of the universal system arbitrarily limited for our views and purpose. In cosmos all is in incessant activity, and everything is in the most complex connections with all others as the result of intermotion ; hence sensation or irreflexive experience deceives us when it accepts the existence of passive objects. The dynamic conception of matter is the only one which in its elemental as much as in its massive form affirms the reality of nature as it exists ; that is, always in activity or movement. Accordingly inertia cannot signify absolute pas- sivity ; analyzing its law we discover in it a double meaning. In one sense it denies the spontaneity of matter as to change in its relations of space ; this sig- nifies that matter is never an automaton, and that a body, in order to change its place, must be impulsed by another, but inertia does not imply that the material elements are lacking in relative and derived activity, for the constituent parts of bodies are in mutual action, and liable to a great variety of changes. We must always keep in mind that every visible thing is con- stituted of many invisible parts, and that the law of inertia, although connoting these parts, only expresses what appears to the experience of the bodily whole. In the other meaning the law of inertia states that ponderable matter offers resistance to change in its relations of space ; the phrase " force of inertia " being derived from this fact, although there is a contradiction in its own enunciation, and such a resistance of ponder- able matter is a true force useful in mechanics, and therefore implies activity. Hence, the word inertia has not the same signification in the scientific or technical as in the ordinary or vulgar sense; in the technical sense it does not exclude the idea that all matter must have power, activity, or energy, relative and derived, of course, although many times observation does not directly reveal to us the sensation of movement, nor that of change. It is a truth that the law of inertia thus interpreted is perhaps the best established fact in Physiology, and it can be said that all universal mechanics or the whole theory of Physi- ology is based on it, the results of experience being constantly true in accordance with this law. Some philosophers and physicists, with the aim of excluding the immaterial from the universal system, have proclaimed as a principle that the law of inertia is a necessity of thought ; they say that our understand- ing can immediately penetrate the idea that a body is inert, that is to say, that a body cannot stop moving of itself; that if it is in repose it must necessarily con- tinue in repose, and if it is in movement it will continue moving with uniformity in a straight line unless inter- rupted by the interference of some other body. Such a law is only the abstract expression of mechanical facts, and therefore it cannot be qualified as an evident principle by itself, that is as a necessity of thought by ii6 //. MATTER IN GENERAL {CONTINUED). its simple enunciation. If we observe that a fact occurs in a determinate manner, this does not permit us to affirm that the fact must be so in the absence of true proof Although there is not sufficient evidence to deny that an element if existing alone in space could come into movement, as movement is the expression of the rela- tion in space and time among objects, the isolated existence of a particle in empty space is an idea opposed to reality, because the particles have their existence and properties only in the system of which they form a part. The sole use of such an illusion is to in- culcate the law of inertia in the mind, but it must never be considered as an argument ; and yet nobody can affirm that an element alone in space could be capable of existing in movement. We may say the same about the persistent direction of movement which is affirmed by the law of inertia ; therefore there is not sufficient reason in this enunciation to consider it as an evident truth. Furthermore, the fact of the law of inertia is a corollary of the principle of conservation according to which a natural force can neither produce nor destroy a definite movement in its direction or in its velocity. Again, if we consider the facts of experi- ence as they are, we never see anything in the world which always remains in absolute repose, nor do we see anything in the world moving with uniform velocity and in a straight line. Therefore, the law of inertia does not account for the constant changes of the natural existence of things in variable movement ; it takes movement separately as a figurative abstraction, and from mere fictions and impossible cases derives the deductions for reality ; the idea of system is then over- looked by those who, intending to find in nature supreme 23. INERTIA, 117 laws, commit at the same time the peculiar paradox of denying the existence of the universal system, which needs the government of a supreme intelligence, the only one that can be causal law. All scientific laws, including that of inertia, express only some relation of mechanical effects. The realization of abstractions is nothing in material reality, and nothing can be imagined or can be con- ceived as resulting from it ; therefore it is as impossible to construct an object by a synthesis of abstract forces as it is by the aggregation of corpuscles absolutely inert or passive. Everything in the universe is subordinated to the purpose and fixed aim of the Creator, who con- tinually determines the manifested activity of nature by inorganic generation ; in organism the transforma- tion of potential (not manifested) changes into actual or phenomenal is constantly produced ; we can never find in any object the principle of such constant activity ; this always results from the propagation of movement among objects, and this is the true idea of the inertia of matter. Hence inertia does not presup- pose want of effected, but of causal activity ; the differ- ence between the agency of life and the inertia of matter is that the former produces manifested gene- ration, while inertia in bodies only shows propagation with phenomenal loss. Death does not signify annihi- lation, but a ceasing of the generation of " living force," which is the measure of manifested changes. In order that a latent change in a body should become patent or phenomenal some antecedent determining such con- version is necessary ; the organisms are the only labo- ratories or machines for such a metamorphosis, in which there is profit or multiplication of disposable force, and Ii8 //. MATTER IN GENERAL {CONTINUED). therefore the true Primordial Cause of activity in the natural system acts directly in them. For this reason we have repeatedly said that the primordial effect in cosmos is organic generation, and accordingly from this all physiological phenomena must be derived. Inertia essentially presupposes force instead of being its opposite term, as appears from the etymological sense and vulgar application of the word. Even the definitions of the ancients express correlation between inertia and force, although, like most of our contempo- raries, they were under the control of the same onto- logical error. Thus, in accordance with Newton, many authors have defined inertia as an inherent force of matter, by virtue of which matter has in itself the power to resist any change from the state of repose and of uniform rectilinear movement. Some modern authors, trying to reconcile the vulgar with the scientific sense of the word inertia, say that matter is powerless to change its situation of repose or of movement on account of the effect of the resistance of mass — that is, of the quantity of matter considered as resistant to the communication of movement. This is neither more nor less than the definition of Newton ; it declares the fact, but leaves it without explanation. Absolute inertia, like passive matter or mass in absolute, is nothing. If for a misinterpreted illusion we try to conceive a body as isolated in absolute — that is, alone, without any connection with others, we cannot obtain even the idea of a passive body, because all manifestation results from the mutual action among bodies, and therefore a truly passive object could not be anything perceived by the senses — that is, it could not be known to us. 24. CONSERVATION OF ENERGY. 119 / \ The law of inertia embraces the animate as well as the inanimate world, the organism of rational as well as of irrational beings. All propagations of material activity are engendered, but how we do not know ; we can only say that organized matter is as incapable as inorganic is of originating or producing a primordial activity. Accordingly, the law of inertia simply denies sponta- neity in nature ; a change of material conditions is always an effect which presupposes some cause with reference to the relations of space and time, and nothing more. § 24. Conservation of Energy : Ultimate Principle of Mechanism. Movement and repose are not opposite facts, but a purely relative distinction, although we may consider any object in the universe either in repose or in move- ment, according to the point we take as a standard of comparison. Nevertheless, it is a common occurrence with philosophers of nature to suppose they can con- ciliate in thought the absolute reality of movement and repose with their apparent phenomenal relativity. To heighten this error, some have admitted in space a centre or point in absolute repose, to which they could refer the position of all bodies in absolute ; but this is no more than an expression of chimerical language, abusing its power by making it express even the incon- ceivable—phrases without any signification of course being the result. Movement is the general fact that has been recognized in all mutation or material change, whether the energy is or is not manifested directly to our senses. It is the ultimatum in our understanding 120 //. MATTER IN GENERAL {CONTINUED). for the interpretation of phenomena and potentiality of nature ; beyond that our rational experience cannot reach. Movement, being an abstraction, cannot be any- thing primordial ; there must exist some why or where- fore in order that objects should move. Observation proves to us the constant loss of mechanical force ; for if a constant reparation were not experienced in the world all physiological manifestations would soon cease. From this true concept of material inertia we infer the ultimate induction of mechanism — the principle of con- servation of energy. To find the general law or sole synthesis of the material world has always been the unanimous desire of the great scientists, and a comprehensive law of all cosmic mechanism has been found in the quantitative relation of the following law, which denotes only a rela- tive unity ; in nature there is conservation or persistence of the same quantity of moving matter. Reason proves that this great principle of quantity called "conserva- tion " is a true and just one, and not a chimerical aspiration of science, because though phenomena are constantly manifested as newly engendered, it is only by propagation of latent or potential into phenomenal energy. Hence such a principle of conservation, like the law of inertia, simply means that material energy is never annihilated nor created in absolute, but the con- servation of energy in its actual state is the effect of a supreme act upon organism. In apparent opposition to this' unity of Cosmos, observation supplies us with a multiplicity of qualities of objects which are separately perceived by irreflexive mind as different sensations altogether. Our conscious- ness, in truth, perceives the different sensations as if 24. CONSERVATION OF ENERGY. 121 they were many primordial properties, and consequently in the attributions or qualities we do not find any reason common to all objects which could explain the unity of cosmos ; such a reason we find only in objective rela- tions. Let us now see what kind of relation explains such a unity. We know that the establishment of a relation or proportion of quantity needs at least two perceptions, and the act of mental repetition gives us the idea of number — that is, the difference between unity and plurality. We also know that quantity can be either discrete or continuous. With discrete quantity the combinational operations of mathematics or alge- braic calculations are made ; and with continuous quantity the extensional operations of geometrical studies. It can be said that we see in nature infinite forms of extensional or continuous quantity, while combinational or discrete quantity, in which abstract number is implied, supposes invariability. Besides, extrinsic or objective perceptions can be quantitatively compared ; but intrinsic or subjective perceptions cannot be admitted to comparison under the standard of abstract number. Hence the capacities of the mind cannot be mathematically calculated. This can be done only with the acts of the material world, which are manifested by the senses as natural phenomena, and which are collected by our understanding as a basis for natural science — Physiology — under the principle of conservation with the standard of abstract number. This means that all physiological energies — phenomenal as well as latent changes — are the effect of matter in movement, this being always equal in its total force, energy, power or intensity ; and this is the true mathe- matical reason of the relative unity of cosmic mechan- 122 11. MATTER IN GENERAL {CONTINUED). 25. ATOMS. 123 ism. If there is always the same discrete amount of matter in movement in cosmos, we can derive from such a principle all the other physiological laws which are considered by authors as primordial laws of nature. Calling R and F the cosmic energies, comprehending those in a latent state as well as those manifested, we can condense this law into the formula R = F, that is, the resulting energy of a change equals the force employed to produce it. But this axiom of persistence, or conservation of energy, needs a universal reason ; this is the vital or organic postulate called the principle of unifonnity of nature^ which must depend on the existence of only one primordial power — that is to say, on the absolute unity of the Supreme. Hence we pro- claim a true scientific monotheism, according to which only one cause of uniform involution of inert matter exists, and that is the Creator. Cosmos as mechanism is a simple machine which, in order to develop its func- tions, uniformly needs a governing power ; but this does not come within the province of Physiology. In fine, the principle of the conservation of energy is neither more nor less than the law of inertia, and represents but a generalization of the facts of inertia of matter. To understand it thoroughly needs the full study of this work, and for this reason we reserve for the last chapter and conclusion the complement of its explanation. CHAPTER III. PONDERABLE MATTER : ATOMIC THEORY. § 25. Real existence of atoms— § 26. Disagreement among atomists— § 27. Atomic properties so miscalled -§ 28. "Unity" erroneousl derived from atomism — 29. Recapitulation of the concept of atoms. § 25. Real Existence of Atoms. In this century the atomic hypothesis has been the conception of most general application to the study of nature, and yet the determination of the atom is a problem impossible to solve. Most modern physicists and chemists consider the question of the atom as solved with evident proofs, founding their belief in the assertion of the practical limit of the divisibility of bodies from which we cannot pass by the physiological or physico- chemical actions which are at our disposal. Many philosophers, and some physicists also, on the contrary, fight against the atomic hypothesis, saying that matter is absolutely continuous, and therefore that space is completely full. The chief and pretentious idea of the non-atomic hypothesis is to establish more surely the fan- tastic notion of the pure individuality of things. Those who maintain such an idea say that the concept of matter is one alone, and that for this reason we must take into consideration all objective things as being also one with- 124 ///. PONDERABLE MATTER, 25. ATOMS, 125 out any discontinuity, because, they add, the plurality of things is owing only to accidents or modifications of matter which is always one and the same thing. But what has continuity to do with identity ? Such an idea does not need further comment to show the evident falsity of the arguments on which it is based ; and, besides, the concept of absolute continuity of bodies is contradicted by true empirical laws. Again, although the limits of objects are only relatively known (as we have seen in treating of extension and impenetrability) we can do no less than admit continuity in a minimum limit, other- wise much would be left unsaid in the explanation of phenomena and other material changes. Although almost all scientific writers actually admit some kind of atomic hypothesis, it is necessary to determine the true limitation of atomism by interpreting it in connection with the principles of reasoning and those of empirical observation. The material necessary to form a true atomic hypothesis is dissemin- ated in the most admired disorder ; but we must be just, and add that, thanks to modern scientific investigations, within that chaos already exist all the materials which must contribute to the formation of a true physiological theory. We aspire to reach our purpose by following a logical method which is here completely proved, seeking what is true in this intricate labyrinth, and setting aside what we judge has been falsely asserted. Here we must make special mention of two great errors maintained by most physicists. The first is the contradiction of endowing atoms with forces as the causes of their activity, and at the same time admitting as true the fact of inertia of matter. We have explained how this is opposed to the direct light given by reflective -i speech, for matter is either inert or has causal forces, but both things cannot be at the same time, as there is a contradiction in the very words. This, then, is an error which becomes patent simply by an explanation of the terms. The truth of inertia has been clearly proved by merely interpreting the empirical determination of the acts of matter ; and, on the other hand, it has also been demonstrated that all the physical forces are effects and not causes ; that they are the result of the mutual action of things which are but matter in movement ; and that they have no real existence as things, being purely mental relations, that is, comparative determinations of quantity. The second great error of atomists is to affirm that all matter is atomic. We will show in the next chapter that imponderable ether or progene cannot be atomic, being distributed in parcels of very variable quantity — indiscriminate or indefinite quantities of progene. With this brief criticism, and the data of the fore- going chapters, we are prepared to acquire a true con- ception of atoms, so proportioning an idea in harmony with the unity of all physiological science, and in harmony also with a true metaphysical theory ; because physio- logical theory must be perfectly subordinate to the high concepts of the immaterial, in the psychical as much as in the theological sense. This is the only true method of scientific speculation ; to follow any other is to try vainly, so to speak, to let in a ray of light at the expense of mental blindness, the result being an illusory clear- ness, as the eyes of the mind see less afterwards by the pretended light of positivism than they did before. 126 ///. PONDERABLE MATTER. 26. ATOMISTS. 127 § 26. Disagreement among Atomists. We cannot assent to atomism in its present chaotic state, as authors disagree in the interpretation of the atomic theory in the different departments of physio- logical science, explaining the facts of every one separately without connection with the other. But cosmos being a harmonic system, a similar view must be taken in all the theories of hypotheses whose end is the same, that is, the explanation of the mechanism of nature. There can be no intellectual satisfaction in the atomic hypotheses given up to the present day by writers on Physics and Chemistry, because every one of them, being circumscribed only by predilection to one physio- logical branch, graphically interprets the empiric deter- mination of very limited generalizations which are called laws, and which have no other advantage than the practical value of helping the imagination and memory, though without giving more than illusory explanations of the generation of physico-chemical changes, that is, of Mechanism. The atomic hypothesis, we said, has been described in different and contrary terms according to the end every author had in view. Thus, in molar or ordinary mechanics, atoms are considered endowed with inertia, absolutely passive, without taking into account either gravitation or the other actions of bodies which physicists and chemists suppose to be produced by atomic or molecular forces. The astronomer sees the atoms as simple centres of attraction without pre- occupying himself with the admission of imponderable means ; so he thinks all is based on the " law of attract- ing gravitation " according to which every atom or group f of atoms is supposed to attract every other with an in- tensity which varies in a fixed relation according to masses and distances. The chemist settles the scientific base of chemistry without any connection with the theories of im- ponderable physics ; he prescinds the idea of mechanical necessity in the metamorphoses of bodies, and endows atoms with a special elective force — affinity — without recognizing the influence of imponderable matter in anything, explaining the corporeal relations by an atomic limitation completely baseless. On the contrary, the physicist, properly so called, that is, he who is specially devoted to the study of imponderable changes, recognizes imponderable matter as a necessary principle, though this is very differently comprehended by every author, and is generally endowed with absolute elasticity, rotatory movement, etc. ; he admits atoms as consti- tuents of bodies, either endowing them with limited extension and molecular forces, or as pure dynamism maintains, considering them as imaginary points where the resultants of universal forces act, and from this arises the erroneous conclusion that forces are the only exist- ences in cosmos. We must remark also that the limits given to atoms by physicists who admit the corpuscular hypothesis are entirely different from those determined by chemists. The mineralogist introduces, besides, new concepts and other atomic forces principally in order to explain crystallization ; and finally, the biologist names one force more of a specific character and elective reaction — irritability — which is considered entirely dif- ferent from chemical afiinity, though this, they say, is also elective. The hypotheses of atoms have a long history, these having been invented by the earliest scientists, and 128 ///. PONDERABLE MATTER, 26. ATO MISTS. 129 having already reached the rank of a doctrine among the ancient Greeks. But the elaboration of an atomic hypothesis chemically explained was based by Dalton on the discovery of definite and multiple proportions ; he proclaiming that the fixed ponderable proportions in which bodies are combined (equivalence) depend on the relations of weight among the constituent atoms. Chemical atomism afterwards received an apparent confirmation by Gay-Lussac's discovery relative to the definite and simple proportions of the components of gaseous combinations. Dalton's idea has been applied to this fact by declaring that the weights of the volumes of gases which are combined are in relation with atomic weights ; observing, then, that a simple relation exists between the so-called atomic weights of gases and their densities. The entire existing theory of chemistry is founded on this atomic hypothesis thus elaborated. Let us ask, then, what is the reason of Dalton's assertion, which is deduced from the idea that bodies are com- bined by numeric equality of atoms. Having selected hydrogen as the standard unity, Dalton has said that the weight of the atoms of the other bodies, as oxygen, for instance, is in the same proportion to the weight of the atoms of hydrogen as are the weights of the respec- tive bodies in their combination forming water. There is no reason for this conclusion, because it is a common occurrence that the same components form different combinations, and it is not possible to suppose that in all their combinations there is an equal number of atoms in the components ; if the elements have the capacity to combine without equality in the number of atoms, why, then, should we suppose such equality, even when elements do not form more than a compound ? Accordingly, the atomic hypothesis as conceived by chemists may, perhaps, be of great descriptive value, but it does not explain anything in the field of phenomenal genesis. Because masses combine in proportions of definite weight Dalton and his followers say that the atoms must also be proportionately definite in weight ; but there is no reason in explaining definite proportions and equivalence of components by the averment that the weights of the atoms are in definite proportions, for this does not give any additional knowledge ; it is only a confusing play of words. What has been said is enough to prove the lack of unity in, and the falseness of, the atomic hypothesis of authors, considered according to their own explanations. All the facts of nature must be united under one theory alone, comparing them one with another so as to derive a universal generalization ; for science must not be satisfied with partial opinions which only lead it into the existing labyrinth of innumerable conceptions of nature, and which result in a physiological theory so imperfect and abortive. A true theory must comprehend the whole cosmos as a real system ; it is therefore necessary for the establishment of a valid and complete theory to compare the facts of the present hypotheses in order to demonstrate the fallacy of the atomic conceptions of cosmos, not only because it is impossible for a scientific understanding to entertain the idea that every depart- ment of physiological theory conceives atoms as vehicles of forces and with different characters, but also because it is impossible to consider atoms as the material unity or reason for substantial identity, and for the uniformity of nature. This work is not the proper one in which to discuss I30 ///. PONDERABLE MATTER. 27. ATOMIC PROPERTIES. 131 IX all the varying conceptions of atomism, which are almost as numerous as imagination can conceive, from the nascent ideas of the Greek atomists up to intricacies like those developed by modern mathematicians who consider atoms either as mere centres of force, or as annular axes in revolution. A special criticism of all the different hypothesis of atoms, besides being un- necessary, would be interminable, and what has been said is enough for our purpose, which is to prove that the existing hypotheses of atoms cannot be accepted in a true physiological theory. § 27. Atomic Properties so miscalled. Contemporary physicists in general consider atoms as corpuscles endowed with absolute solidity, elasticity, and movement. This concept of atoms is wholly erroneous, because if they possess abstract forces they should be considered as causing agents instead of inert corpuscles, and such an idea is contrary to the principle of conservation of energy. Thus modern works on thermo-dynamics proclaim that the constituent atoms of bodies are in constant agitation on which physicists say the degree of heat depends ; but this cannot be true, as it is contradictory to the recognized fundamental principle of mechanism, for such an affirmation denies the fact of inertia of matter. To the asserted absolute solidity (hardness) of atoms we oppose the same argu- ments that we have used against the idea of impene- trability considered as a primordial and absolute property of matter. Elasticity, implying movements of parts, cannot be comprehended as an attribute of simple atoms. In case of a collision between bodies there is^ in fact, a loss of visible movement, which is said to be converted into an invisible agitation of the constituent particles of the bodies in collision ; but, when simple atoms collide, such a conversion cannot occur, because they are not formed of parts in which the movement or work could be divided. Nevertheless, most authors in order to account for the reparation of force lost in mechanism, i.e. for conservation of energy in cosmos, suppose atoms in perfect movement and endowed with perfect elasticity as properties inherent in their own essence ; for, other- wise, they say, atoms will lose part or the totality of movement in every collision. According to these erroneous ideas most contemporary authors admit the hypothesis they call kinetic, in which they maintain that the smallest particles of ponderable matter, called atoms, have weight in themselves and are in perpetual agitation, this being, they add, the cause of heat. As an inevitable consequence, they have been obliged to recognize for this purpose a perfect elasticity in atoms, and they themselves affirm that, if elasticity were not admitted, the kinetic hypothesis would be a contradic- tion to the laws of conservation of energy. Here we must take care not to confound the word kinetic in the sense in which it is here used with its etymological signification, as in this it is applicable to all energy, for latent as well as manifested energy supposes movements both of ponderable and imponderable matter. In- genious hypotheses have been invented to explain the supposed elasticity of atoms, bnt all serve only to com- plicate the question, as they cannot escape falling into contradiction between the enunciation of inertia and conservation of energy on the one hand and the belief w 132 ///. PONDERABLE MATTER. 27. ATOMIC PROPERTIES. 133 in the perpetual movement of gravitating atoms on the other, the result being that atoms which, like masses, are really inert, are conceived by them as things endowed with proper activity. Thus, some authors have imagined that atoms are whirlpools containing an invariable quantity of imponderable fluid, having also permanently a certain and inherent rotatory move- ment of their own, and that, in consequence of such movement, when atoms collide they repel each other as perfectly elastic bodies would ; but we must remark that perfectly elastic bodies do not exist in reality, and therefore that even this standard of comparison is imaginary. This hypothesis, besides affirming a sup- position contrary to the law of inertia, cannot explain any sensible difiference in movement, and would there- fore oblige us to admit the conclusion that there are no phenomenal changes in nature, so denying precisely the contrary of the facts these same authors try to interpret — changes of propagation of movement in accordance with the principle of conservation. Some physicists, though admitting the inherent rotation of atoms, consider them not as ethereal fluid in movement, but as real corpuscles, supposing that when atoms collide they keep the same quantity of movement in the sum of their rotation and translation, there being then only a conversion in the form of movement but without any loss, thus strangely affirming that atoms have always the same power. All experi- ence demonstrates the contrary, as even when bodies possessed of the greatest elasticity (which is never per- fect) collide in such a manner as to produce the most complete repulsion possible they lose at least a third of their movement; and this is without taking into consideration the cases in which there is almost a com- plete loss of rotatory as well as of translatory movement. Hence we see that to attribute rotation to atoms in order to endow them with inherent and perfect elasticity does not explain the purpose for which it was intended, that is, the reparation of the loss of living force in mechanism, without contradicting the principle of con- servation of energy. Ponderable matter must be truly considered of atomic constitution, composed of discrete particles, that is to say, of corpuscles which are separated either in part or totally by imponderable matter or progene, the expansion of a body being the result of the augmen- tation of the intervals relatively occupied by progene, and its contraction the result of their diminution. Nevertheless, such particles cannot be defined in their minimum limits, any more than in any other property, by chemical laws or by any other means. The mole- cules which compose the different chemical elements have a determined specific weight or equivalence of combination in harmony with the definite constitution of the bodies combined, that is to say, with the definite and multiple proportions of the components in com- bination. From these relations and laws chemists especially pretend to determine atomic limits and properties, which is an impossibility. The indestructibility of ponderable matter is a truth attested by the balance, which shows us that all the changes to which bodies are submitted are simply changes of form, the relation of mass or quantity of matter always remaining invariable. But, at the same time, we must keep in mind that weight, and therefore mass, is not an absolute property, but a relation deter- '34 ///. PONDERABLE MATTER. 28. ERRONEOUS UNITY OF ATOMISM. 135 mined by comparison, and which, as the pendulum demonstrates, varies with the position of the body with reference to the centre of gravity of the earth. It is necessary to bear in mind that the atomic weights of Dalton simply represent the relations in weight accord- ing to which bodies are combined, the arithmetical ratio of the numbers being ordinarily proportional or equiva- lent ; but with this no atomic limits are determined. Many chemists have also tried to determine the volume of atoms, deducing it from atomic weights, dividing the quantities which express the atomic weights of every chemical element by their densities, i.e. by the weights of the unity of volume, and, in this manner, they believe they have obtained the volume of atoms. But if we admit that ponderable matter is discrete, that is to say, that atoms are separated by greater or less space, such quantities represent the relations of atomic parcels, comprehending in these parcels not only the atoms, but half of the space which separates them from one another. We must not forget, then, that the unities of volume that we call atomic parcels are not com- pletely occupied by ponderable matter alone, they also contain imponderable matter or progene. We must elucidate in a similar manner what are called the molecular volumes of a combination, and which it will be better to name molecular parcels. These are deter- mined by the sum of atomic volume which we have called atomic parcels. If the atomic and molecular parcels contain not only ponderable corpuscles but also imponderable matter in movement, the energy of this matter must then be a factor of chemical metamorphosis, although, until now, it has never been determined. Nevertheless we can already make some conjectures \ \ from the progressive discoveries of thermo-chemistry, as we have shown in our " Theory of Physics." In all ways the Daltonian determination of atomic weight by supposing equality in the number of atoms when elements are combined lacks favourable proof, because what is right to affirm from the fact of the multiple proportion is that the numbers which represent the quantity of atoms in an element common to different compounds are usually in arithmetical relation, that is, I, 2, 3, 4, 5, etc. ; but there is no determining from this what must be the precise number of atoms which can be put for such a relation in chemical combinations, and consequently the so-called atomic weights, we repeat, represent a relation in the equivalence of bodies in combination, and nothing else. § 28. Unity erroneously derived from Atomism. Authors differ in opinion on the concept of atomic identity. Many say that the atoms of bodies, considered as different elements in Chemistry, cannot be of the same nature, while others affirm that all must be constituted of the same primordial matter. It is necessary to under- stand what they desire to express by the phrase " matters of different nature," but remembering the signification of the words qualitative nature and essence of matter, we obtain the true concept of qualitative identity of atoms and of all matter. Nevertheless, we must not fall into the error of considering the atom as the cause of unity in the universe. Here it is well to remark the difference between chemical elements and simple bodies. A chemical ^element is the minimum mass of homogeneous con- ^1 136 ///. PONDERABLE MATTER, 28. ERRONEOUS UNITY OF ATOMISM. 137 stitution, which is chemically determined by the relative weight of combination ; while a simple body, though chemically homogeneous, may or may not correspond in its mass to its chemical equivalent. Neverthe- less, when there is no such equivalence the relation is multifold. Chemical elements are all different from one another (in quantity of course), while the term simple bodies makes no reference to quantitative rela- tions which may or may not be equal. Hence, the different chemical elements are not things without mutual relations ; on the contrary, they form a series whose terms are in regular gradation in conformity with some law or quantitative relation plainly appreciable though not yet exactly formulated. One relation yet exists which is common, not only to all chemical ele- ments, but also to all bodies whatever their quantity may be ; this is the equality of densities of all ponder- able matter when we take progene (imponderable ether) as a standard, which fact is proved by the falling of all bodies with the same velocity within a tube from which the air has been exhausted. These facts, united to the consideration of simplicity in the idea, a thing which is so attractive to the mind, are at least good reasons, though not complete proofs in favour of the admission of but one primordial matter ; and though up to this time experience does not permit us to expect the practical possibility of a metamorphosis of all simple bodies into one alone, we have settled in the introduc- tion that all objective differences, that is, all the actions which are known by propagation through the senses, are quantitative, the differences of quality arising in the mind itself through the various reactions provoked by sensation. This is the highest argument and sufficient proof in favour of the identity of matter, for how is it possible to recognize ponderable matter of different qualities, if such matter cannot be propagated through the nervous system in order to be perceived by the mind ? It is not possible, for what the mind receives from the object is in reality either the propagation of movement or the transmission of progene, and therefore objective differences can be quantitative alone. Physiological Theory starts from the facts of ex- perience or extrinsic observation ; the mind groups such facts and brings them under laws of generalization in accordance with their connections, and these laws express quantitative correlations which must be mathe- matically expressed in order to be scientifically exact. Hence, though every simple body were constituted of atoms of different qualities, the result would be the same for our understanding as if they were all consti- tuted of atoms of the same quality, for, we repeat, no other differences but the quantitative can be known by the data of the senses, that is, physiologically. Most authors say that the atom is a permanent element which continues in bodies, though they are constantly passing through many different states and conditions, and that this permits them to affirm that a body is the same through all its changes ; but we have seen that the so-called properties of matter, and there- fore those of constituting atoms, are relative, depending on the mutual action between the objects of nature and the mind ; this interaction varies with many circum- stances, principally with that of relative position among atoms when there are changes between the proportions of centripetal energy (gravitation) and centrifugal (heat). Thus some bodies, though chemically equal, may be in tBiaiilMBLJffl1ii'ffiliiriir P / P P P P P P V p When the first layer of the atmosphere is impulsed 164 JV. FROGENE. 34. lOTENTIAL STATES. 165 by the pressure of interstellar progene it must produce different results according as the points of collision are the progenic parcels, P, or the atomic particles,/; the parcels P, are driven with a velocity equal to the initial or interstellar impulse, while the particles /, being of more density than progene, diminish in velocity in pro- portion to their mass. The propagation of movement in the second layer undergoes a similar change, and calling the second layer that which has four times more par- ticles than the first, the interruption of the velocity of the interstellar impulse will be there four times more than in the first layer. Hence, the propagation of inter- stellar impulse with its initial velocity, that is, across the progenic parcels, must be in inverse ratio to the square of the distance, while the propagation of the said impulse with its velocity interrupted by the particles must be in direct ratio to the square of the distance. The former relation is the law of radiating propagation, and the latter is the law of gravitant propagation ; and in this manner the interstellar impulse is divided into photothermic action (light and heat) and gravity. F'or this reason the effects of gravitation are contrary to those of the repulsion of heat. By the effects of gravi- tation bodies and their particles approach nearer to one another, and from this results the appearance in cosmos of attractive forces which together are improperly called " universal attraction," and which are really the effects of progene circulation. The radiation of progene in bodies is easily transferred into progenic oscillation of the interstitial parcels (heat) ; and from this arises the constant opposition between the two resultants of inter- stellar action, that is to say, between the two opposite effects — namely, progenic radiation and atomic gravita- tion — which are displayed by the interaction of inter- stellar progene with our planet. § 34. Brief Idea of Progenic Potence. The qualifications, potent, latent, or passive forces, are frequently employed in Physics to denote the capacity of bodies to make manifest, with the appear- ance of spontaneity, some of the actual, present, or active powers, known as phenomena of nature. Thus, when heat arising from a chemical metamorphosis is manifested, the chemist ordinarily says that heat was latent in the bodies in which the change took place. All latent or potential power is the effect of the distribution of progene, whose quantity and energy in any point can be greater or less in relation with the surrounding points, and the action of the force called latent or potential may be manifested the moment equilibrium is re-established, (escaping, for instance, from the point where it was excessive towards that where it was deficient), and impressing the senses in conditions to be the object of perception. Thus bodies ordinarily preserve some degree of potential energy, which, when it manifests itself, produces determined thermic con- ditions ; this is principally recognized under the measure called specific heat, which differs in proportion accord- ing to chemical combination. Sensible heat or tem- perature is a manifestation of a mode of molecular movement which principally determines the dilatation or expansion of bodies, but besides this there is po- tential or latent heat ; e.g. a body in order to change its state of molecular aggregation from solid to liquid and from liquid to gas, consumes a great quantity of ;':^- i66 IV. PROGENE, 34. POTENTIAL STATES. 167 heat which is not sensible to the thermometer (potential heat), because the intermolecular distances have been increased in the same proportion as the oscillations of progene. For this reason thermic propagation keeps at the same degree during all the time a body is changing its physical state. The progenic energy which is consumed in becoming latent during liquefac- tion has been employed in a work of molecular separa- tion, which consists in dividing the solid particles into liquid ones, and we have supposed * that every liquid particle must contain two atoms. A similar thing occurs in evaporation, or in the change from a liquid to a gaseous state, but the molecular separation is then carried on in a greater degree, leaving every atom separate from the others. Again, a chemical change is a heterogeneous molecular composition or decomposi- tion, and no more than a continuation of the said thermic changes, which are necessary to produce the different physical states. But in order to explain the different physical and chemical states of bodies, authors have imagined the most impossible things. We have already said that matter cannot be conceived as en- dowed with movement inherent in itself ; that we must recognize as a primordial truth in nature only the physiological law of conservation of energy, and of course the laws that can be derived from such an axiom, as the law of inertia. Notwithstanding this, most authors admit at present that the molecules of bodies are animated by different movements, and by vibratory movement in a permanent manner ; that even solid bodies never have their molecules immobile or in repose, but are constantly in vibratory movement whose * See "Theory of Physics," II., Heat. amplitude increases with the temperature. To this idea we oppose that of considering the particles of a body in relative repose among themselves when the body undergoes no change of temperature, nor a change in its physical or chemical state ; because if molecules cannot be abstracted from the action of gravity, being formed, as they are, of ponderable matter, how is heat preserved in a body though that body is protected by isolating means ? In order to suppose molecules in constant movement, it would be necessary to recognize in them an exhaustless fountain of inherent force which we have proved to be inadmissable ; moreover heat, manifested by the changes of temperature, must not consist in vibration of ponderable matter, but in the transposition of the particles among themselves ; this translatory movement is only produced during the manifested changes of temperature and state, and when the change ceases the molecules rest in relative repose. What constantly vibrates, or better to say, oscillates, although it may remain in a potential state, is the matter of the porocules— progene— which does not lose its energy by the action of gravity because it has no weight, yet which, by its movements, determines the force of gravitation in condensed or corpuscular matter. But keep well in mind that the changes of progene are not primordial though they are persistent in nature ; they emanate from organic generation. Such persistent oscillation and the irregular distribution of confined progene are the proximate causes of progenic potence, and therefore of all latent states. Progene, condensed or accumulated in a potential state, can be set at liberty either gradually or instantly. In the first case it ordinarily produces light or photo- & i68 IV. PROGENE. 34. POTENTIAL STATES. 169 thermic irradiation and radiating heat ; and in the second, besides these, it can produce sound and molar movements, forming the complex phenomenon called explosion. Photothermic irradiation results when the progene progresses in a diffuse manner, and with suffi- cient velocity to impress the retina ; when the irradia- tion is not sufficient to produce a luminous sensation it is then simply thermic or radiating heat ; this last may easily convert its translatory movement into oscillatory (interstitial heat) by collision with a molecular resistance sufficient to oppose progene in a diffuse course. Ex- plosion results when the force of the progene instan- taneously freed greatly exceeds the molecular resist- ance, so dispersing the ponderable matter in pieces ; the greater the quantity of progene and the more in- stantaneously it is freed, the greater is the force of the explosion, just as in any molar force or mechanical energy whatever, which always increases in proportion to velocity (the other factors being equal). Accordingly the term " latent heat," and the other latent forces of a similar kind, like electricity, will be advantageously supplanted by the phrase potential pro- gene. We state in the " Theory of Physics " that what is called static positive electricity is nothing more than condensed potential progene, and static negative elec- tricity is potential progene in rarefaction also confined in a body, both electric states being potential. The electric current is only latent progene passing in easy conduction from a point which is continually over- charged (effect of a chemical reaction, for instance), towards another point in which there is a relative de- ficiency. Magnetic phenomena are visible movements determined by continuous currents of progene, which H\ are directed from condensed points towards others in relative rarefaction ; so that magnetism is the most peculiar manifestation of electric transferences. The explanations of all these facts are sufficient to lead us to infer that interstitial progene exists in very different conditions ; that some is free within the bodies to manifest interchanges with the progene of other bodies, while some is confined within the body and is not manifested until a phenomenal transference takes place; in this last condition of confinement progene is potential. Furthermore, the quantity of progene existing in a parcel must vary in bodies with their changes of physical as well as of chemical state ; thus, for instance, when a body changes from gas to liquid and from liquid to solid, it frees or eliminates some fixed quantity of progene, and on the contrary bodies absorb progene when they change from solid to liquid and from liquid to gas. Thus, also, some quantity of pro- gene is absorbed in a direct combination of elements, while it is eliminated in a simple decomposition ; from this arises the distinction of the changes of state of bodies into endothermic (with absorption of heat) and exothermic (with elimination of heat). Accordingly, in every change of state, some definite proportion of pro- gene is evolved which may be z^\^^ progene of combina- tion or combined progene to differentiate it from that existing in variable proportions which may be called mixed progene— diS electricity. In short, confined pro- gene (progenic potence, whether combined or mixed, this being either condensed or rarefied) is the cause of the latent powers called electricity and potential heat (latent and radiating heat). I70 IV. PROGENE. § 35. Brief Idea of Progenic Phenomena. Progene may be in a state either potential (latent) or phenomenal (manifested). We have already indicated the results of the former, it now only remains for us to indicate the results of the latter ; and here we will ^\v^ only a slight idea of progenic phenomena in general, as the study of every progenic change in particular is given in our " Theory of Physics " (Chap. IV. Sound, V. Light, and VI. Electricity). All phenomena, those of the inorganic as well as those of the organized world, are always produced by propagated movement. We must constantly bear in mind that to consider matter or its particles as endowed with elasticity and inherent movement is to suppose also the existence of an abstract or inherent force in matter which is really inert. The degree of separation among the particles of the same body chiefly depends, not on attractive and repul- sive forces, but on the intensity of the oscillations of the interstitial progene whose measure is the temperature of bodies. The different states of molecular aggregation that are called physical states, which completely change the conditions of penetrability in bodies, are also errone- ously explained in Physics by one of the imaginary attrac- tive forces called cohesion which we have set aside as we have done in the case of all the others in the abstract sense, limiting the meaning of the word force to the measure of movements produced in correlation with the law of inertia. When we employ the term cohesion it is in the sense of a secondary or concrete force, resulting from the interaction of progene and ponderable particles, and the degree of cohesion must depend on the pre- f 35. PROGENIC PHENOMENA. 171 dominance of the action of gravity over that of thermic or oscillating interstitial progene. The resultant of such a predominating force of gravity is not constantly the ^ame, the differences being the cause of the different modes of molecular aggregation from which result the four physical states of bodies, the innumerable chemical metamorphoses, and still more frequently differences of volume in the same body (changes of temperature). In a similar manner all phenomena are immediately derived from the movement of progene when they are not the effect of direct propagation from molar move- ment. Thus we must consider also as proximate effects of progenic energy the movements qualified as mole- cular, magnetic, and planetary. In order to produce such phenomena, progene must exist in two forms of movement, oscillatory and trans- latory. It may be said that translatory movement is the simplest, as the oscillatory is no more than a return movement or a constantly repeated reverse translatory movement. Both forms of movement may occur either in diffuse or in confined progene, in accordance with which there are the two different states of progene— phenomenal and potential, each comprehending two different kinds of changes. The two phenomenal states of progene, with the two states of potentiality, compose the four radical states of progene, which may be expressed in the following manner : — I. Progene infiltrated in the interstices of ponderable matter in oscillatory movement, which, being transmitted in determined conditions of amplitude and velocity, can be perceived either by the ear, in the sensation of sound, or by the touch, in the sensation of heat. iSSi^'f 172 JV. PROGENE. 2. Progene in translatory, radiating movement which, playing upon the retina with conditions sufficient to be perceived by it, produces the sensation of light ; and when the conditions are insufficient to impress the retina producing only radiating heat. In the interstellar region both form the photothermic radiation which is the sole medium of all interplanetary actions. 3 and 4 are potential states, progene in confined current — dynamic electricity, and in tension — static electricity. Electricity, in fact, is not phenomenal, because, althouorh when transmitted to the nerves, it can be transformed into nervous action, it may produce the most different sensations according to the organ ex- cited, but none of the sensations is characteristic of the exciting agent. For this reason progene in such states is not recognized by extrinsic sensation or irreflexive experience, but by reason, which estimates or appreciates a synthesis of manifestations whose proximate cause receives the name of dynamic and static electricity. Hence electric currents are not phenomenal but potential or latent, and progene in tension, called static electricity, like the currents now mentioned, cannot be directly perceived while it preserves such a state of tension ; these states are recognized, not by themselves, but by their transferences into all possible forms of manifesta- tion and principally by a phenomenal synthesis consist- ing in heat, explosion, electrical sparks, light, apparent attractions and repulsions, and so on. Light and radiating heat are the sole movements that can be transmitted or propagated across interstellar progene ; sound and electricity can be transmitted only by interstitial progene which pervades all ponderable 35. PROGENIC PHENOMENA. 173 matter, because, being propagated by conduction, some degree of progenic condensation is necessary in order to transmit them to any distance; such a condition is impossible to interstellar progene on account of its diffusibility. Progene, in propagating movements to ponderable matter, produces phenomena which result from mole- cular movement, and also produces massive or molar movements. Molecular phenomena are of two kinds, calorific or thermic changes, manifested heat, effect of the oscillatory movement of progene, and chemical meta- morphoses, effect of its translatory movement. Heat is the most frequent energy of molecular activity, and, for this reason, we may consider it as the typical energy and standard of comparison in the calculations of trans- ferences. An inverse proportion exists between the thermic energy called heat and the chemical energy called affinity; but, though both kinds of molecular movements may result from each of the two forms of progenic movement, the transferences between the said energies cannot be direct in both cases. Progene in confined currents must produce the molecular change of thermic effects by indirect trans- ference, the translatory movement of the progene being then converted into oscillatory movement ; and the reverse, progene in oscillatory movement cannot by direct transference determine chemical metamorphoses, for these require its direct influence in translatory move- ment. Hence the two kinds of molecular movements may be mutually transferred, not directly into each other, but by the intermediate concourse of the progene which needs to be set in the movement corresponding to the resultant molecular change. That is to say, heat, 174 IV. PROGENE. in order to produce a chemical change, first needs to transform the oscillatory movement of progene into translatory, and, on the contrary, a chemical change, in order to produce a variation of temperature, must first transform the translatory movement of progene into oscillatory. For this reason the final aim of pro- gressive chemistry must be to supplant the modern thermo-chemistry by the electro-chemistry of the future. As all phenomena can be produced by progenic changes, to comprehend at a glance the relation of phenomena in nature with the states of progene, we have formulated the following table : — I. Directly, pure progenic pheno- mena. r Acoustic propagation : sound. 2. Indirectly, by transference to ponde rab le matter. Molecular Phenomena. Molar Phenomena. Photothermic propagation : light. ' Change in inter-molecular distance : temperature and physical states of bodies. Change in molecular composition : chemical changes. Gradual and continuous transference (without noise) : gravitation and magnetism. I Rapid and noisy transference : ex- \ plosion. V I It is worthy of notice that the phenomena produced by restoring progene to a point in which it is in rare- faction are insignificant, and are ordinarily reduced to very limited molecular changes and magnetic move- ments. Progene in deficiency is the state called negative polarity, while progene in excess is the state called positive polarity:; and this last is what determines all and every one of the phenomena with the greatest intensity and frequency. After what has been said we will better understand the effect of the resistance that ponderable matter opposes to imponderable matter in its continuous rushing across the universe, and from 35. PROGENIC PHENOMENA. 175 which results the illusory property of attraction which authors consider as inherent to all matter, that is to say, universal gravitation so called, on which the cohesion among molecules and the adhesion among masses depend, and which is also the proximate cause of the loss of living energy in the world's mechanism ; as, in fact, there is always a loss of manifested force determined by the pressure of interstellar progene, the energy dissi- pated or lost becoming then of course latent. Molar or visible movement, when not produced by another massive movement, but by something which is invisible, results from direct or indirect transference of progenic movement ; thus the movement of falling bodies (gravity) results from the pressure of the progene which forms the interstellar ocean. The atmosphere, opposing some resistance to the progressive movement of inter- stellar progene, changes in part this progressive move- ment into interstitial oscillations, and these, being transmitted from the upper to the lower layers of the atmosphere, produce heat in direct ratio to the square of the distance, and this relation is inverse to that of the diff*erent masses of concentric spheres. The transference which most frequently occurs in the practical uses of industry is the production of molar movement by means of heat ; the reverse transference, that of molar move- ment into heat, being also very well known. In both cases there is also a progenic change which is the inter- mediary between the molecular and the molar move- ment. Progene, we repeat, must be in translatory movement in order to move the molecules, and thus it produces chemical metamorphoses, while in its oscillatory move- ment it produces the effects which are vaguely called 176 /v. PROGENE. 36. RECAPITULATION, 177 by authors effects of repulsion, this being the cause of the great influence of heat in the decomposition of combined bodies. Progene must be also in translation in order to determine magnetic phenomena in the same manner as it is to determine chemical metamorphoses, and there- fore we may say that chemical changes are in some manner like molecular magnetism. § 36. Recapitulation of the Concept of Progene. Progene can only be admitted as a material medium, and therefore is only capable of propagations ; we must conceive it as inert in the scientific acceptation of the word, that is, as a substance able to propagate motion without any power to increase or diminish it, being then subordinate to the principle of conservation of energy, l^esides, progene is neither elastic nor dense, because both conditions are derived from the interactions of ponderable and imponderable matter. The hypotheses of imponderable ether, as conceived up to the present time, are contradictory to the fundamental principle of mechanism, because they endow the imponderable meta- fluid with inherent elasticity, and, according to this con- dition, it should be provided with a force of pressure proportional to its density. It is inconceivable that a perfectly simple and imponderable medium should be elastic, and still less that it should be dense. Some scientists have fruitlessly endeavoured to ex- plain the phenomena of nature without recognizing in cosmos anything but ponderable matter. We must admit a relative, not an absolute dualism in objective things, recognizing two kinds of matter, because some propagations of changes in irradiation without visible movement, as sound, light, and radiating heat, and also the latent or potential, states, as electricity, can only be explained by means of an imponderable matter which we Qd\\ progene. This matter, which is already actually admitted by almost all physicists under the name of " ether," to explain light, heat, and electricity, must also be recognized as the means through which sound is propagated. (This is explained in the "Theory of Physics," IV., Sound.) Bodies, we shall see, are complex objects constituted by two fundamental forms of matter, ponderable and imponderable. Hence substances, actually considered as chemically simple, are simple only in a relative sense, considering ponderable matter alone. There is but one simple object in all nature ; this is the interstellar pro- gene — that is, the ultra-atmospheric metafluid which is generally recognized by physicists as the great ocean of imponderable ether. We have proved the necessity of admitting in science qualitative identity among the things of nature, although this is not a fact of irreflexive experience. Reason teaches us that all objective difference is quantitative, and therefore that, within the reach of our perceptions at least, there is nothing perceptible in cosmos but the relations among the parts without any essential or attributive distinction. All changes appreciable to the senses — that is, physiological phenomena, progenic as well as molecular and molar — consist in changes of matter in movement derivatively produced by the mutual action of cosmic parts, the change effected being primordially in vital genesis. In the changes of nature, even in those called imponderable (progenic were a N " ^ht. ,.%i :»*<". mtj^mss^i^osis^iii^^iie^itaM m 178 IK PROGENE. 36. RECAPITULATION. 179 better name), there is mutual or reciprocal quanti- valence : by this we mean, that the same force necessary to produce a determined consequent must be employed to effect the inverse change ; that is, to produce that which was antecedent by means of the other which before served as a consequent. Progene, therefore, differs from ponderable matter in quantity only ; the quality or essence of all objects is the same. The constitution of imponderable matter has been very much discussed, some authors maintaining that it is atomic (discontinuous), and others that it is con- tinuous matter. Neither of these two extreme opinions can be accepted ; the arguments given in favour of the atomic idea prove no more than that there is no con- tinuity in progene. The facts observed in progenic propagations induce us to conceive progene as dis- tributed in parcels which may exchange matter among themselves without any limit existing to such divisi- bility. On the other hand, the admission of vacuum is as necessary to the theory of cosmos as is that of atoms themselves. In fact, vacuum is necessary in order that atoms and progene can move ; yet it is not absolute, it is only relative ; porocular space is relatively fully although in an interrupted manner, of imponderable matter or progene in movement. There exists, then, a relative vacuum among atoms which is not permanent, but which is successively occupied and interrupted by the constant change of position of imponderable matter —interstellar and interstitial progene in movement. The propagations through interstellar progene must be instantaneous, including their two degrees, photo- thermic irradiations as the sunlight, and thermic as the invisible propagations issued from the planets. The sun, as a luminous body, is nothing more than a great focus of progenic reflection, transferring the thermic irradiations which are produced in the planets by living bodies, especially by animals, into photothermic irradia- tions or light. We will see in Part II. Chap. VII. that the sun has also some surface of thermic emission, but this is relatively very small. The sun has no proper force of attraction ; the changes of interplanetary gravi- tation we explain by the periodicity of vital activity, especially in vegetables, gravity resulting from the trans- ference of ultra-atmospheric radiations of progene into movements of the mass of our planet. Accordingly the hub of material circulation is the potence of vitality, and not any force of solar radiation, nor any other of mere mechanical character, as gravitation. This is not the opportune place to consider at length the parallel and difference between gravitation and the forms of radiating progenic action ; but we will make this distinction clear, in order to avoid confusion and to relieve ourselves from combating in detail most of the arguments which have been advanced against the con- cept of gravitation as explained by progene (imponder- able ether). Gravitation, according to our hypothesis of progene, is a movement precisely opposite to that of radiation : it is a movement in which the resultant forces are approximated or concentrated in the direction of the propagation according to the ratio of the square root of the distance ; while in radiations like those of light, the resultant forces, on the contrary, are eccentric, separating in the direction of propagation in the ratio of the second power of the distance. Thus, then, a power of radiation is centrifugal, while gravitation is centri- petal ; radiation is an efferent action from the centre y and ^^''^*'^'*ii*'*«^"''^^'^ii^^ I 80 IV. PROGENE. 36. RECAPITULATION'. 181 gravitation is the reverse, afferent tozvards the centre of the sphere in action. In spite of such opposition, the action of gravitation is not a thing absolutely different from radiation ; both are direct effects from the move- ments of the same intermediate agent— progene ; their differences are relative, and we have effectively marked as the sole distinctive character between them that they are opposite in their directions, from this alone arising two contrary effects in the interstices of bodies : radia- tion, which being eccentric or centrifugal, acts as a repulsive force in its molecular transferences ; and gravi- tation, which being on the contrary concentric or centri- petal, acts as an attractive force ; and from this arises the physiological analogy between the phrases universal attraction and universal gravitation, which we have called atomic gravitation. We do not deem worthy of consideration the objection in regard to interplanetary gravitation made by Arago, who has said there is no reason to doubt that the action of gravity is instanta- neous, and that if universal attraction were the result of the impulsion of a fluid, its action must need a definite time in crossing the inamense distance which separates the celestial bodies. This criticism is fatal for the hypothesis which considers interstellar progene as of an atomic or absolutely discontinuous constitution, like atomists see gases when they are highly rarefied, but it does not in any manner affect the concept formed by us of interstellar fluid. This point will be further explained in Part II. In fine our hypothesis of progene defends the truth of the organic theory in the primordial cause of pheno- mena, considering cosmos as an organism, admitting the Vital Power or Creator as the sole abstract or true causal force, rejecting the materialistic idea of considering the atom as active or passive in itself, and maintaining the existence of a universal means of propagation — progene — which is the first matter in effecting the acts of me- chanical process, and which is the agent of indirect transferences when they appear to be produced by distant influences. Here we will make no further explanation of pro- genic changes, because they form the special topics of Progenic Physics in our " Theory of Physics." l82 GENERAL PHYSIOLOGY ; OR, PHYSIOLOGICAL THEORY OF COSMOS. 183 together forming great masses visibly discontinuous in their ponderable matter. 4. Universal system resulting from the union of all bodies under a supernatural plan. Every one of these different syntheses will form the subject of a separate chapter. PART II. SYNTHESIS OF COSMOS: SYNTHETIC CONCEPT OF BODIES. Material substance is either ponderable or imponder- able ; the former is a condensation into diminutive, indivisible, and indeterminable particles called atoms, and the latter is the metafliiid called " ether," by the physicists, and which we call progene ; this last, in opposition to the indivisible corpuscles or atoms, is dis- tributed into variable parcels. To form a complete idea of cosmos in its general sense we must make an application of the general concept of matter, not only to its two fundamental forms separately, but we must also consider them jointly in the constitution of bodies. This is the aim of Part II., and we shall see that the complexity of bodies is of different degrees forming four syntheses, namely — 1. Inorganic bodies : atomic and progenic matter together forming bodies which are either solids or fluids. 2. Organic bodies : solids and fluids forming together organisms. 3. Planetary bodies : inorganic and organic world Ik A i84 V. INORGANIC BODIES. 37. CONSTITUTION OF GASES. 185 CHAPTER V. CONCEPT OF INORGANIC BODIES (PONDERABLE AND IMPONDERABLE MATTER TOGETHER). § 37. Constitution of gases — § 38. Kinetic hypothesis of gases — § 39. Differences among physical states — § 40. Slight idea of symmetrical bodies — § 41. Chemical states — § 42. Spectral analysis applied to the study of the constitution of bodies — § 43. Recapitulation of the consti- tution of bodies, especially of gases. I 37. Constitution of Gases. Inorganic bodies are in four different states ; two solid, and two fluid. Solid bodies are either symmetric or asymmetric, and fluids are either liquid or gaseous. The complete theory of the physical state of bodies cannot be known without a previous study of heat, because by heat only can we explain clearly and dis- tinctly the differences and changes among these four states. The genesic study of the change of state in bodies is given in the Theory of Heat, " Theory of Physics." Nevertheless we must now give the fundamental notions on the physical constitution of bodies, beginning with the descriptive study of gases which is the most interest- ing, because they are the simplest, and because the system of atomic weights at present generally adopted by chemists is based on the law of Gay-Lussac relative to the discovery of the relations of volumes among combined gases. Bodies in their gaseous state appear to have an expansive force which consists in a centrifugal pressure, sensibly equal in all points of the vessel which contains them. Expansive force is almost equal in all gases when they have the same temperature and the same quantity of matter. For this reason the limit of volume of a gas is determined only by the resistance of the vessel in which it is enclosed, and if these limiting walls are so arranged as to reduce the capacity of the vessel we are obliged to increase the pressure according to this reduction of volume ; that is to say, the expansive force of gases decreases in proportion to their volume. Again, there is another general fact: if we change the degree of heat of gases which are enclosed in a vessel constantly of the same volume we find that their expansive force increases in proportion to their temperature. Most authors have tried to explain these two empiric laws by the hypothesis of Avogadro, which consists in supposing that equal volumes of gas or vapour have the same number of molecules, these being proportional to the densities and having a volume double that of the atomic volume of hydrogen. In accordance with such an idea these authors deduce the weight of the con- stituent molecules of gases in the following manner : if every molecule of a gas occupies two atomic volumes, to obtain the molecular weight it is sufficient to mul- tiply the density of the gas by two. The standard of comparison is the density of hydrogen, which, compared with that of the air (ordinary standard for other purposes) is 14*44 times smaller. Such reasoning as this of Avogadro is a circle of \ \ i86 V. INORGANIC BODIES. 37. CONSTITUTION OF GASES 187 / / puzzles; while pretending to give a prepositive conclusion, it simply arrives at a verbal explanation, doing nothing more than to affirm in the consequents the same idea put forth in the antecedents, in different words but without teaching anything new. Nevertheless chemists believe that the hypothesis of Avogadro is a basis sufficient to determine the molecular constitution of simple bodies, and especially that of gases either simple or compound. Accordingly, they have decided that bodies, including the simple ones, are formed of molecules which are dis- tributed with perfect uniformity in the gaseous state and at immense distances from one another, and that such distances are equal in all gases and vapours. Chemists also admit that the space occupied by every molecule, whether the body is simple or compound, is equal to two atomic volumes of hydrogen, but that while the molecules of some bodies are monoatomic, those of others are polyatomic, atomic aggroupations more or less complex so resulting. Thus, for instance, the mole- cules of the simple, more permanent or perfect gases, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen, are considered as dia- tomic, that is, formed of two atoms exactly equal. It is true that the densities and atomic weights are equal' in hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, chlorine, bromine, and iodine ; but the density of the vapour of mercury is half of its atomic weight, the densities of phosphorus and arsenic are double that of their corresponding atomic weights, and the density of sulphur is three times greater. But it being impossible to divide atoms, chemists have supposed that a molecule of mercury is composed of a whole atom, and that then the molecule of hydrogen, for instance, should have two atoms and so on. From this arises their arbitrary distinction of bodies into monoatomic, diatomic, triatomic, tetratomic and hexatomic. These expressions must not be con- founded in this sense with the same expressions when they serve to qualify what is called atomic quantiva- lence, that is, their value of combination, or better still their relation among the bodies as they take the place of one another in chemical metamorphoses. From all this we clearly infer that the intimate constitution of gaseous bodies is not the same for all of them, and therefore that neither the number of particles nor the spaces between them are equal in all the gases and vapours of simple bodies. Besides, they are not equiva- lent in their chemical molecules, as has been demon- strated by the discovery of polybasic acids. We have seen that the present notion of the consti- tution of bodies is derived from atomic weights, these being determined by the ponderable relations of bodies in their combinations or chemical metamorphoses. But if the volumes of atoms are determined by dividing the atomic weights by the densities (weights in the unity of volume), this quotient is not really the volume of atoms, but rather that of atomic parcels which may be occupied by atoms only in a very small extension in relation to the interatomic space occupied by progene. The space of such a unity of volume then is far from being occupied by ponderable matter ; it contains a considerable proportion of imponderable matter, espe- cially when the gases are not under great pressure. The assertion that equal volumes of all gases contain an equal number of molecules is worthless. It is pro- bably true that the vapour of mercury is the gaseous body which in greatest extension has only an atom for nucleus, but this does not mean that mercury is mono- '''""-. ^'v'^.,?'''^''T?^s^^ffi. 1 88 V. INORGANIC BODIES. 38. KINETIC HYPOTHESIS. 189 atomic and other gases polyatomic. Supposing that the atoms of all ponderable substances have the same degree of condensation, as is inferred from the fact of the falling of all bodies with the same velocity in a tube from which the air has been exhausted, the difference among atoms must be in geometrical proportions and in nothing else ; with this we have sufficient to establish chemical differences among bodies without the necessity of admitting an impossible elective force in various degrees — affinity. The inequality in the volume and form of atoms, gives us not only an explanation of the different atomic weights and of specific heat, but also of the inverse proportion of these for every simple body, so that the product of these ratios is about equal for all bodies, 6*4. Accordingly, there is no reason for the atomic classification of bodies, because if this were true it would oblige us to presuppose that chemical differ- ences could result from different degrees of condensa- tion of the minimum particles, which, as we have proved, is contrary to fact. Therefore, the hypothesis of Avogadro is an erroneous interpretation of the em- pirical laws of gases ; it does not explain them, and it does not account for the fact of an almost equal force of dilatation of all bodies in a gaseous state ; on the contrary, such a hypothesis increases the confusion which has been already caused by the kinetic theory. The chemical molecule, and not the true atom, is the smallest portion to which the relations of weight and volume of the combinations make reference ; but such a molecule as that of the chemists should be formed of an indefinite number of separate atoms, though this number must be inversely proportional to the mass or quantity of matter of every atom, on the supposition that the conditions in which the bodies in reaction are found, are the same. There is reason to deduce from chemical laws that atomic masses keep simple volu- metric relations among themselves, as the numbers i, 2, 3, 4, 6 ; but this does not imply that the chemical mole- cule whose position in such a scale is six is formed by an atom in determined volume, and that that mole- cule whose position is one should need six atoms. We do not know any more, we repeat, than the relation, and we can only take the abstract numbers to represent such a proportion without thereby fixing any knowledge of the real atomic constitution of bodies. Therefore, the numbers i, 2, 3, 4, 6, which correspond to the denomi- nations monoatomic, diatomic, etc., denote only a relation of volume among chemical elements, and not a determined number of atoms. § 38. Kinetic Hypothesis of Gases. We will now see how the dynamic condition of gases is interpreted by the so-called kinetic hypothesis, which is the current scientific opinion of the day, though it is altogether an impossibility. We have already said that the kinetic hypothesis is inadmissible, whatever may be the state of matter, but the kinetic hypothesis of gases has taken such a leading place, in spite of its worthless- ness, that we must occupy ourselves with it in particular.^ The results of some calculation on the phenomena of nature have apparently confirmed such an interpreta- tion of modern atomism ; thus, for instance, the specific heat of gases when their temperature is increased under conditions which permit their expansion in such a * For elucidation on this point, see " Theory of Physics," II., Heat, ..^ i^^.^a,^,...^.^'^ titftMfeiaiiyaaiiiMtMa 4-- 190 V. INORGANIC BODIES. 33. KINETIC HYPOTHESIS, 191 manner, that the pressure to which they are submitted always remains the same, is a Httle greater than when the temperature is increased, and they are at the same time constantly reduced to the same capacity, in which case the expansive pressure of gases increases. Clau- sius has determined the theoretic relation of specific heat in these two conditions as i : i'6y. But though this relation is constantly exact for mercury, it is not exact for permanent gases, in which the relation is only as I : 1*40. Most authors explain this by saying that the difference of 0*27 between these two quantities consists in this, that the permanent gases, being dia- tomic, employ some work in changing the intermolecular disposition of the two atoms in relation with the tem- perature, while in the mercury, which they suppose monoatomic, the gaseous molecules do not employ any other energy than that of progressive movement in the case of free dilatation. In this we clearly see that modern physicists have used a play on numbers as frequently as a play on words to maintain false ideas, for such a difference — 0*27 — can only depend on volu- metric (or geometric) differences among atoms. We can well conceive, after the notion we gave of atoms and progene, that when gas expands freely in such a manner that the pressure is constantly the same, progene has to lose in velocity as it increases in the amplitude of its oscillations, and as an effect of this the molecules will be separated, some progenic move- ment being then transferred into molecular, which is spent in the work necessary to control the force of gravity in the particles or molecules. But when the gas is confined in such a manner that it cannot expand, the work of molecular separation is not produced while ^ t it is heating, and then the movement of progene increases only in velocity, so that the difference of work between the two cases must be greater when there is a greater quantity of ponderable matter in the gaseous parcels, this denomination being given to a determined volume which is equal for all gases. Most physicists, accepting the erroneous idea of equality of intermolecular spaces in gases, think they can explain by the kinetic hypothesis the following empirical laws: (i) quality of expansion of gases by heat ; (2) equality in the reduction of volume by pressure ; and (3) simple proportions of volume in their combinations. But these three facts are the result of proportional quantities of ponderable and imponder- able matter existing in all gases. According to the kinetic hypothesis of gases, their constituent particles or atoms vibrate freely in perpetual movement ; this being preserved, they say, by virtue of an absolutely perfect elasticity, which they suppose to be an essential property inherent in all kinds of molecules. But the idea of endowing gaseous particles with the liberty and independence necessary to move in- cessantly in all directions is either forgetfulness or ignorance of the relativity which exists among all parts and particles of nature. Whence comes such movement without analogy with any experienced fact and in con- tradiction to the principle of conservatism and the law of inertia? It seems to be an idea erroneously sug- gested by Astronomy, with the additional aggravating circumstance that the supposed particles, in their movements to and fro, should collide among them- selves. Then they try to explain the continuation of energy by making another gratuitous supposition, 192 V. INORGANIC BODIES. 39. PHYSICAL STATES, 193 that of endowing gaseous particles with the necessary elasticity to compensate the loss of energy which should be produced by their collisions with one another. We must never forget the action of gravity, as it is an illusion to believe that gaseous particles could be in absolute liberty during the time that elapses between one collision and another, in order that the abstract and illusory conception of an incessant, uniform, and rectili- neal movement should be perfectly realized. So we see the kinetic theory sets gravitation aside and supposes the gaseous particles to be endowed with perfect elasticity ; it therefore is a hypothesis without any validity whatever; it is thus judged and found wanting by its own enunciation as it is contradictory to the correlation of energy between the antecedents and consequents of phenomena. In addition to this the so-called elasticity of gases is an equivocal phrase, whose signification has been improperly ascertained by authors, as it consists in what is also called their expansibility, which is recognized by the centripetal pressure determined by the gases on the walls of the vessel containing them, and whose force is directly proportional to temperature and inversely proportional to the volume occupied by the same quantity of gas. This phenomenon is very different from that called elasticity in solid bodies, which con- sists in their condition not to augment, but to occupy a portion of space whose volume and forms are deter- mined ; this elasticity is recognized by the reaction against any force or action producing a modification in the volume or in the form of solid bodies, observing the fact that such force or reaction is always weaker than the action of the deforming force. We persist in saying ■■ that this elasticity of solids is not like that of fluids which is nothing more than the reaction against reduc- tion of their volume. In any way elasticity as a property inherent in particles of matter is as enigmatic as if it were applied to matter in general ; it is a word which represents a fact, but which gives no explanation of it, and it is one of the many relics of occult qualities believed in by the ancients. § 39. Differences among the Physical States. According to the hypothesis held by most authors ponderable particles (atoms and the other molecules) are supposed to be in continuous or eternal agitation, and therefore more or less separated from one another in all physical states. In order to avoid the explana- tion of such an enigma they content themselves by saying that we cannot see such particles and for this reason we cannot see their separation and movement. This supposition once made, they explain the differences between solid, liquid, and gaseous states in the following manner : in a solid when the molecules vibrate, etc., they can separate only very little from their initial position ; in a liquid there is not so great a restriction to the excursions of the molecules, but yet their free path is also limited to short distances ; in gases the molecules move freely and rapidly, being separated from one another by enormous distances. Physicists so accustomed to the abstract conceptions of theoretic mechanics forget the weight of the particles, and repre- sent bodies as constructed of enigmatic molecular forces, explaining the solid state by greater attraction than repulsion among the molecules, the liquid by the O t1t-fiiliiiv.flttfe#t^'«>^--^ "-^ i.j.f-aj-a.aa^»«««3M 2JO V. INORGANIC BODIES. 41. CHEMICAL STATES. 201 temperature, that is to say, when they are dilated by heat. These facts confirm our theory of the differences among the particles in the intimate constitution of bodies in their physical state, and so confirms the following affirmations which are contrary to the opinions held by most authors : neither symmetric nor asym- metric solids are in a free molecular state ; nor are liquids constituted of atoms separated from one another but of atoms grouped in separate pairs. In solids all the atoms are in immediate contact, but not in their whole surface, they leave among themselves many spaces like invisible cells — vacuums — more or less small in every substance according to the temperature ; these are what we have denominated porocules, and which must necessarily exist also in crystals. The particles into which a solid is partially divided by such diminutive cells we call orocules. The porocules of solid bodies, then, are all cellular, not completely closed, but forming a kind of open little cell, which in crystals, at least, must be of polyhedric regular form in correlation with their visible characters. The law of symmetry, which shows us the regular proportions among many inorganic bodies, is an addi- tional proof of the beautiful constitution of the universe even in its smallest details. Two peculiar conditions of crystals — allotropism and isomorphism — are worthy of mention. Allotropism is the peculiar circumstance common to different particular forms or states of the same class of matter which result from the various modes of grouping invisible particles. When such particles are dissolved, changing their allotropic state, either an absorption or an elimination of heat is produced, as in the case of a chemical reaction and the changes of physical states. IsojHorphism consists in analogies of configuration between bodies chemically different, observing that there is great connection between the forms of bodies and the forms of their combinations, so much so that Berzelius adopted as a principle, that atomic weights of simple bodies are such that similar or isomorphic combinations ought to receive analogous forms. This is one fact in favour of the correlation between crystalline forms, and the characters of the constituent invisible particles of bodies. § 41. Chemical States. Dynamically considered, the process of chemical metamorphosis is no more than the continuation of the process of changes of bodies in their physical state. This is not the right place to study the production of such phenomena, which will only be mentioned in order to establish the culminant similarities and differences in the constitution of bodies according as they are simple or compound. Though calculation in reality does not find any limit to the divisibility of matter, we know that practically there is some relative limit of division never passed by the experimental actions of chemical and physical changes of state ; such particles are the atoms which are supposed to be homogeneous in themselves, among themselves, and with the whole of the body in those substances which form the chemical simple species, called simple bodies, and in which atom and molecule are synonymous. Other bodies have in themselves the appearance of being homogeneous in their optical '■A^&L. 202 V. INORGANIC BODIES. 41. CHEMICAL STATES. 203 character ; the most diminutive particles are then similar among themselves, but they are not similar in them- selves, because by the action of heat, for instance, a compound being either alone or mixed with other bodies, may be divided or decomposed. In such cases, it is said that the elements were chemically combined ; the smaller particles in the physical division of such bodies which are not decomposed in their elements are called heterogeneous molecules. Accordingly, bodies are chemically divided into simple and compound, the last comprehending binary, ternary, and quaternary combinations. The terms organic and inorga7iic are somewhat equivocal in science, as chemists and natural- ists use them in a different sense, chemists including as organic matter the definite compounds of carbon^ resulting from the molar analysis of living structures, while many naturalists, with better criterion, call organic bodies which are either living or dead ; those in the last case, however, still preserving the structural character which the living body presented to our ocular observation. We have adopted the words organic and inorganic in this last signification. Binary compounds. The most important and essen- tially binary body in the world is water, which repre- sents half of the weight of the earth at least, and serves either as a vehicle of dissolution, or as a constituent part of more complex combinations. The other binary com- pounds are not important in this work of generalizations. Ternary compounds may be subdivided into com- pounds with carbon (hydrocarbons) and without carbon ; the former are usually elaborated by living matter ; the latter are salts very easy of formation in the laboratory as phosphates and chlorides of soda, of potash, etc. The ternary compounds of carbon are alcohols, sugars (glucose and saccharine), and greasy and soapy sub- stances. Quaternary compounds. Among these are albuminoid substances, which are the principal constituents of living matter. All the chemical principles of this group are nitrogenized, and contain also carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, and the principal albuminoids contain sulphur besides, one kind only — coloured proteins — containing iron. Nitrogenized substances or nitro-carbons may be classified into crystalloid and colloid. The last almost corresponds to what are called albuminoids, in which only two crystalloid substances are included — hemo- globine and viteline. There are many species of nitro- carbons, among which the most important are (i) crystalloids, acids, as uric acid, amides, as urea, and colouring matter, as hemoglobine ; (2) colloids, as albu- men, fibrine, casein, etc. These are the chemical states (distinct from the physical ones), in which even in the same body there are great differences in intermolecular distances, and m the state of aggregation in their particles. Almost all chemists recognize to-day the analogy of all chemical combinations ; the organic compounds so- called by authors (but better named immediate principles of organism), do not essentially differ from those called inorganic compounds. Thus, the supposed simple radicals are assimilated according to Proust's theory to the compounds denominated organic radicals ; the former differ from the latter only in their greater stability so much that they have resisted up to this time all efforts to analyze them and to produce them in the laboratory. Here it is sufficient to remark that chemical operations 204 V. INORGANIC BODIES. 41. CHEMICAL STATES. 205 Sf- cannot be logically divided into organic and inorganic, because there is no phenomenal difference between the reactions qualified by such opposite denominations, and finally that all chemical metamorphoses are mechanic results, as is heat or any other physical phenomenon. Therefore, there is no doubt that the most complete harmony exists among all chemical reactions, and that there is no absolute difference between organic and inorganic metamorphoses ; and from this arises the present true tendency to unify these two unjustly separated branches of Chemistry. It is believed that the atomic weights of all simple bodies are a multiple of one particular body. This body, which must be the primordial chemical type (protile? = x) is not hydrogen, as was formerly believed, from the fact that the relations of the other bodies with it as a unity are expressed almost always in entire num- bers, but there are some exceptions to that rule, and this is a sufficient reason for not considering hydrogen as the type. If all simple bodies belong to a natural family forming by their relative value an arithmetical progression, we again infer that even bodies considered as simple in Chemistry are aggregates of one kind of matter alone, though with quantitative differences. By irreflexive experience, at first sight, we observe indefinite varieties of similar bodies ; nevertheless, after all are analyzed, they are relatively reduced to a very limited number of chemical elements, about seventy in all. In every one of these their minimum particles are similar among themselves, and with the totality of the mass, so that the bodies constituted by only one of those elemental species of matter are completely homogeneous in and among themselves. If the molecules of a simple body (homogeneous molecules) come in contact with others in such a manner as to form complex particles (hetero- geneous molecules), every one constituted by molecules of the two kinds, the conflict of a chemical reaction called combination is produced. On the other hand, the resulting compound submitted to the actions of other bodies may be disassociated into its elements, so producing the contrary reaction called decomposition. Most chemists admit that such metamorphoses among heterogeneous bodies are produced by a special force, the exclusive resource of Chemistry — such is the so-called affinity ; they add that such a force is different from that which produces the union of homogeneous molecules, and they admit still another for their sepa- ration or repulsion. But, in our day, some distinguished chemists are studying the great connection between heat (a mode of movement acting as a repulsive force) and affinity and cohesion (which act with the appearance of attractive forces). We shall see in Chap. VII. that these attractive actions are perfectly explained by the preponderance of the centripetal pressure of progene — ravity upon the centrifugal — thennity. If the direct combination of bodies emits heat, the same heat must be newly absorbed in the moment of their decompo- sition ; and it is a very important and fundamental fact of modern thermo-chemistry that the thermic and chemical actions are always in such a correlation. Most chemists have not contented themselves with endowing atoms with the inherent force they call affinity, they have supposed them besides as possessing a property in themselves as a consequence of their own constitution which they call quantivalence or valence alone. This is the relation in the substitution of the o 2o6 V. INORGANIC BODIES. 42. SPECTRAL ANALYSIS. 207 bodies in their chemical combinations. The particular criticism of such ideas belongs wholly to the Theory of Chemistry given in " Theory of Physics." § 42. Spectral Analysis, applied to the Study OF the Constitution of Bodies. The new spectral analyses have revealed great know- ledge of the constitution of bodies, not only in the gaseous, but in the other states. All bodies may become luminous when they are submitted to the action of great heat, but luminous radiations vary according to the constitution of bodies, with specific characters for every one. The particles which produce light and the spectrum can be considered as the characteristic mole- cules of the chemical species, because the spectral images of compound bodies are characteristic of them, that is to say, of their complex particles (which we call chemical parcels), and not of the component elements — atoms. It is always necessary to take care not to decompose them by the temperature needed for the experiment, because if they are decomposed by the action of the flame, it is then observed that all the com- pound bodies of the same metal generally produce the same spectrum consisting in the rays emitted^ by the common constituent element. Although the luminous radiations of simple bodies produced under the same circumstances are different and characteristic for every element, giving in every case a determined spectrum, we must observe that the spectrum varies according to the temperature and the state of the body when submitted to the experiment. The spectrum of all bodies, elemental and compound. ( may vary, as we have now said, with the different degrees of temperature ; thus, for instance, sulphur heated to a dark red produces a continuous spectrum obtained by absorption, but if it is heated to a white red, we obtain the linear or discontinuous spectrum. Spectrum analyses show us clearly that when a simple solid is heated its constituent particles are more separated, and this state- ment is applicable to all bodies. The spectrum varies also and principally according to the physical state of bodies. When the first studies in spectrum analysis were made, all physicists only took into account the extreme cases of spectrum, and the general proposition was enunciated that "solids and liquids give a con- tinuous spectrum, while gases and vapours give a linear one." But the spectroscope has shown us besides inter- mediate images between the two extreme cases ; such intermediate spectrums are fringed, or at least there are continuous but partial absorptions which can be resolved into such a fringed spectrum. All spectroscopic facts show us the correlation be- tween the molecular changes in the constitution of a body and the spectral variations. This correlation is erroneously interpreted by the kinetic hypothesis, main- taining that the only molecular difference in bodies, when they change their physical state, is the greater or less extension of intermolecular space without any variation in the particles ; so that, according to the kinetic hypothesis, these particles are the same for solids and liquids as for gases. If (according to this hypothesis) the particles were equal in all the states, a difference in movement only existing, it is clear that all authors should deduce the false consequence that under different conditions of intermolecular space the same particle, 208 V, INORGANIC BODIES, according to the different states of its supposed vibra- tions, would give us such spectroscopic differences as those between continuous and linear spectrum, which is contrary to fact. The particles— atoms— which con- stitute a gas are disposed with great order, and are separated from one another by the oscillatory move- ment of interstitial imponderable matter (progene) as is seen by the spectrum analysis ; while in the other states the spectrum reveals great atomic union, especially in solids, and greater still if they are not subjected to a very high temperature. The number of characteristic lines in a spectrum is proportional to the chemical equivalents ; and the luminous absorption (in the spectrum of absorption of course) is proportional to molecular complexity. From these facts arises the supposition that the unity of atomic comparison {i,e. protile) will be determined when we find the body whose spectrum is characterized by only one line ; and precisely such a kind of spectrum has been recognized among the sun's constituents, and has been called helium. Is this, then, the long-sought- for protile } Reason, always, though in different ways, is obliged to establish the inductive unity in nature in order to derive physiological relations and theories. Spectroscopic facts are not in connection with mole- cular motion, but with the manner of molecular aggre- gation. The continuous spectrum will result when the atoms are grouped in greater though incomplete con- tiguity, in opposition to the line-spectrum which supposes the atoms widely disseminated in the bodies — gases and vapours — which produce it ; and in addition to this we observe that such a spectrum results only when a very high electric tension is employed for the incandescence 42. SPECTRAL ANALYSIS. 209 of gaseous bodies, and that even at the highest tem- perature produced by combustion the vapour of some elements give us a continuous spectrum in the most refrangible extreme. When the density of gases is increased, and their temperature diminished, their spec- trum becomes more and more complicated ; while on the contrary it is possible with small pressure and high temperature to obtain from gases and vapours a spec- trum consisting of one line alone, different in every one of the gaseous bodies, in which case the atoms are much more separate than in the other. But bodies in a solid or liquid state always, or almost always, produce a con- tinuous spectrum, whatever may be their degree of incandescence ; this denotes the contiguity of atoms in these bodies, forming greater and more proximate particles. Our explanation of spectrum is as follows : When a body is heated to incandescence the imponderable material or progene acquires more amplitude in its oscillatory movements, until it cannot be contained within the porocules of the body; it is then partly forced outside of the body and so establishes the radi- ating movement of progene — light and radiating heat. Hence corporeal particles are only reflectors, either Vpolyatomic as orocules and hydrocules, or monoatomic as the particles of gases. These last, from their small- ness and great dispersion, may be discontinuous reflec- tors, for this reason producing discontinuity in refraction through the prism ; when the discontinuity is very great, we see the line-spectrum which perhaps is produced by the reflection of every separate atom. The particles of liquids and solids are always continuous reflectors, this being the effect of their greater magnitude and prox- 2IO V. INORGANIC BODIES. 43. RECAPITULATION. 211 imxty. Finally, the fringed spectrum gives us reason to suppose that it is produced by orocules, whose atoms, though in close contiguity, leave large porocular spaces as the effect of the expansion produced by very high temperature or by electric tension. § 43. Recapitulation of the Constitution of Bodies, especially of Gases. The true atomic and molecular constitution of bodies exists only in their gaseous state, and for this reason the study of the constitution of gases is most interesting. To think rightly on the constitution of gases, we have been obliged first to fix the facts establishing the generalizations called laws, and afterwards to select the theoretical ideas that have been considered as evident or very probable in order to infer a logical interpre- tation of such empirical laws. These are three: (i) All gases (simple and compound) change volume equally when they are subjected to the same variations of f temperature and pressure ; (2) all gases have the same fixed relation (with slight differences) between their capacity under a constant pressure and their capacity under a constant volume ; (3) gases are com- bined in very simple relations (first digits, i, 2, 3, or the most simple fractions J, J, f), and the resultant of a combination of gases is also in a simple relation with the sum of the components. For the interpretation of these facts we must remember the true concept of matter and that of the constitution of bodies in general, without forgetting principally the influence of the universal means — im- ponderable matter or progene. We must not admit in f our reasonings the intervention of imaginary molecular forces, nor of other actions at a distance. The relations of volumes before expressed show us that gaseous bodies have their particles distributed with regularity, and that they can be considerably separated from one another in comparison with their volume. Therefore the energy of progene among the minimum particles must be equal throughout when the gas does not experience any change either of temperature or pressure, for progene being free, any change of tempera- ture will be propagated through it to re-establish a uniform equilibrium. Thus, for instance, when the capacity of the vessel which contains a gas is reduced, the pressure will increase first on the particles nearer the walls of the vessel, and will be at once transmitted by means of progene as far as the most distant ones ; so the volume of the gas will be reduced with sensible equality in all its parts. When a gas is heated, pro- genic energy is propagated to it ; the increase of energy may be only in the velocity of its oscillations, or in its amplitude ; the former occurs when a gas is com- pletely enclosed in a constant volume, and the latter when the pressure limiting the gas is constantly the same — that is, when the gas can freely expand accord- ing as it is heated. From this it results that every gas must have its particles — atoms — more or less separated in relation with the temperature and the pressure, the intervals being equal in all parts of the same gas if they are submitted to the same conditions of temperature and pressure ; but the intervals must be different according to the volume of the minimum par- ticles of every gas, because the greater the atomic matter the greater must also be the quantity of progene, 212 K INORGANIC BODIES, 43. RECAPITULATION, 213 nearly in the relation of i : 2. This is inferred from the 46 per cent, loss of force in movement, that is to say, the volume of interatomic progene of a gas neces- sary to equilibrate atomic gravitation must be almost twice as much — vg2 — as that of atoms. This idea is contrary to that enunciated in the hypo- thesis of Avogadro, which is that equal volumes of gases or vapour contain the same number of molecules ; but we must remark that Avogadro called molecule a por- tion of any gas enclosed in a volume always the same for all gases. We see that this, rightly interpreted, is merely a tautological explanation of the laws of Boyle and Mariotte, the same idea defined with synonymous ^vords— that is, that all gases occupy the same volume under the same pressure and temperature. This tells us nothing of the proportion of ponderable and im- ponderable matter in the constitution of bodies ; still less does it take into account the porocules which con- tain the interstitial progene, and that form part of the volume called by chemists atomic and molecular. The adoption of atomic weights is also a conclusion contrary to the said hypothesis, for there is no exact proportion between atomic weights and the density of vapours and gaseous bodies, as is clearly seen with mercury, phosphorus, arsenic, and sulphur. Spectral analysis has given us great knowledge, and will give us still more, on the intimate constitution of bodies — that is, on the arran-gement of the particles in the different states, distinguishing the molecules from the hydrocules and orocules, and thus also differen- tiating the ponderable particles from the imponderable ether or progene existing among the said particles. In order to interpret correctly spectroscopic facts, it is necessary to bear in mind that corporeal particles, being ponderable, must suffer a continual loss of living force, so that any of their movements must be arrested soon after the action of impulsive force has ceased ; and this affirmation is also applicable to vibratory move- ments, however minute or invisible. Therefore the interpretation of light and spectrum according to the kinetic hypothesis of molecular vibra- tions, is wholly erroneous. In our real or practical reflections we can subtract imponderable matter alone from the action of gravity, as this is the only substance capable of keeping in movement when ponderable matter is not opposed to it. Great differences exist in the intimate constitution of gases, liquids, and solids. In liquids the molecules are not completely isolated from one another— they are grouped in series of twos, so forming hydrocules ; and in solids the hydrocules are grouped in indefinite num- bers, forming series of cells called orocules, which, when arranged with harmony, symmetry, or regular propor- tions, constitute crystalloid bodies. 214 VI. ORGANIC BODIES. 44. GENERALITIES. 215 CHAPTER VI. CONCEPT OF ORGANIC BODIES : SOLIDS AND FLUIDS TOGETHER, ESPECIALLY IN THE FORMATION OF THE HIGHLY COMPLEX STRUCTURES CALLED LIVING MATTER. § 44. General idea of organic structures (chemical and morphologic characters) — § 45. General idea of organic functions — § 46. General idea of organic generation (cellular multiplication) — § 47. Brief idea of nutrition in particular — § 48. Classification of vital functions — § 49. Cause of vitality — § 50. Recapitulation of the concept of living matter. § 44. General Idea of Organic Structures. (Chemical and Morphological Characters). The substances for the formation or elaboration of organic structures are of two kinds — ponderable and imponderable ; the earth and atmosphere supply ponder- able substances, and the rays of light supply the imponderable metafluid or progene. From the chemical analysis of inorganic bodies (the ovule and its derived organic elements) four simple elements principally result — carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen — which combined with very small pro- portions of other elements (sulphur, phosphorus, chlorine, sodium, potassium, calcium, and iron) form chemical species of definite composition called immediate prin- ciples. These may be separated and distinguished from one another by molar division without the necessity of subjecting the whole living body to chemical analysis. Particular attention must be called to the fact that all the immediate principles of organism are compounds of carbon— a fixed solid, perhaps the most perfect in its solidity— and of the gases oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen, which are the only ones that can be called perfect in their gaseous state. This condition, being so general in organic constitution, must be very important, although its object is as yet unknown to us. There is no organic structure which may not be divided simply by molar action into different chemical species, most of which are ternary and quaternary com- pounds of carbon and are ordinarily called immediate principles. These are considered by most authors as •• organic matter," but we have avoided using this phrase with such a meaning on account of the vague and erro- neous concepts that have been attributed to it ; to-day there is an imperious necessity of unifying concrete chemistry instead of dividing it into inorganic and organic. We have reserved the word organic for the structure of living matter, or of dead organism while the body still preserves the same somatic appearance as it did in life, that is, for the complex material which can be elaborated only by organism— protoplasm, cellules, and their derived anatomic elements. Living matter is chemically constituted by the union of simple and compound bodies which may be classified into four groups— monary, binary, ternary, and quater- nary ; and although some have more than the four ele- ments in combination, they may also be comprehended as quaternary. A few gases, as oxygen, nitrogen, and *Sv5, 2l6 VI. ORGANIC BODIES. 44. GENERALITIES. 217 hydrogen, are found in a simple state of dissolution in the liquids of organism. The union of such chemical species in organism is not a fixed or definite combination but an indefinite, variable mixture forming highly complex structures whose anatomical synthesis is of more importance to us than their chemical one. Anatomical elements may be considered either as isolated or united, the last forming the organic tissues and the constituent liquids of living bodies. The abstract conception of the ultimate living elements is called cellule, and the smallest microscopic parts resulting from the anatomical division of the most complex organism are cellules or derived from cellules. Thus, the human germ or ovule is a typical cellule of the most complicated constitution, composed of protoplasm contained in a closed, round, minute vesicle or bag formed by a membrane of uniform appearance — cell- wall ; enclosed in the protoplasm is a round or oval nucleus standing either in the centre or near the cell- wall. The protoplasm constitutes the total contents of the cellule with the exception of the nucleus ; its cha- racteristic marks vary considerably in every kind of element, but it is always composed of a nitrogenized substance which is of a very complicated structure though at first sight it appears to be a uniform viteline mass. The protoplasm and nucleus have been objects of microscopic details which are, however, of no great consequence, because no conclusion of functional interest is drawn from them ; we need only know that the nucleus, like the protoplasm, when very young, has no membrane around it, though frequently one appears later on. We must also remark that some cellules lack a nucleus, while others, on the contrary, have many. Of I all the parts of organic cells the constant and primary one is the protoplasm ; the vesicular bag called mem- brane or cell-wall is often wanting, and is considered as a simple condensation of the most peripheric part of the protoplasm. Most embryos (animal and plant) are in their first stage perfectly simple and uniform granular globules of protoplasmatic mass, but in their develop- ment, usually after a prodigious reproduction, they keep in some cases the form of cells, either free, one cell being separated from another by liquids, or grouped together, acquiring a solid consistency, while in other cases anatomic elements are so changed in form that they can only be known as derived elements by observing their successive transformations. The organisms developed in some degree have not only corpuscular constituents but also formless materials called extra-cellular or inter-cellular. These amorph substances are liquid and solid, and form an atmosphere for all the organic corpuscles. The function of such substances is not yet well known ; they seem to act as an internal medium in which there are no changes other than those derived from the material circulation of the anatomic elements. In solid intercellular substances a great distinction is made between those of uniform appearance, and those formed by the juxtaposition of heterogeneous parts ; these last may be classed into four kinds in relation with their chemical constitution- gelatinous, elastic, cartilaginous, and calcareous. In addition to these four solid intercellular substances, there is one semi-liquid between the embryonic cells of connective tissues, and another liquid which usually constitutes the extra-cellular substance of the circulating liquids of organism (blood, lymph, and chyle), and V 2l8 VI. ORGANIC BODIES. 44. GENERALITIES. 219 which by some histologists is also supposed to be in the interstices of solid tissues where it is called interstitial juice or blastema. We need not pay any attention to the characters of these different parts, because they are not general objects, but only special to very well developed beings. The word " organism " signifies the existence of parts dissimilar in structural character acting in harmony and definite succession, with multiplication of living beings ; and the phrase " organic matter " signifies, not only organisms, but also dead bodies which yet preserve the morphological characters which they had during life, though having already lost living energy. So organic matter may be either living or dead, and we exclude from this the material resulting from its division by decomposition which has already lost the structural appearance of living bodies and corpuscles. It is never- theless impossible to determine any graphic character as specific to all organic matter, though this has been attempted in most works on Natural History, in which a pretence is also made of establishing many phe- nomenal differences between living bodies or organisms and non-living bodies ; we here anticipate the fact that there is in truth only one characteristic difference, and that is the reproduction or multiplication which com- pensates the constant loss of living force in the mechanism of the world. Most organisms, in their origin or ovular state, are minute globules essentially formed, as before stated, of a highly complex organized substance called proto- plasm, which is usually enveloped in a membrane called cellular, and ordinarily contains a condensed nucleus. There are many living bodies whose constant state is the globular, called also cellular: such are many microscopic unicellular organisms; but most living bodies (those which are seen by the naked eye) grow by a cellular multiplication, the numerous cellules being developed and arranged in marvellous order, forming a multicellular organism. In some of these the cellules lose their primitive globular form and take fibrous, tubular, and membraneous forms ; others form a substance of uniform appearance separating the cellules more or less from one another, being called for this reason inter- cellular substance, which, as we have already said, may be either solid or liquid, in the first case forming tissues, and in the second the constituent liquids of organism. The unicellular organisms, and even many which are multicellular, are in all their parts in direct interaction with the inorganic world, so that the material change between the cells and the cosmic medium is immediate ; but most living beings are formed in such a manner that all the elements cannot be directly in mutual action with the external world, and many of them interact only with some other constituents which may be called their internal medium. The former elements are those which constitute the prosenchyma (tegumentary and glandular epithelium), and the latter are those which constitute the parenchyma. In the latter are the circulating elements (as blood, lymph), which establish their molecular inter- change directly with the superficial elements, being besides the intermediary elements for the molecular changes of the fixed elements of the parenchyma among themselves and with those of the prosenchyma. The stationary (non-circulating) elements of the parenchyma are connective and cardinal, the last comprehending those which are nervous and muscular. 220 VI. ORGANIC BODIES. 4$. FUNCTIONS OF VITALITY. 221 We have enumerated five species of elements, namely, epithelial, circulating, connective, muscular, and nervous ; every one of these characterizes a class of elemental organs, and all are in perfect correlation with as many forms of functional activity, which are : (i) the epithelial organs (including the glandular) are especially engaged in the work of introducing material into, and eliminating it from the living economy; (2) the circulating organs engaged in the molar interchange among the separate parts of the economy ; (3) the connective organs which, besides their conjunctive use, are the most fertile for the regeneration of most of the other elements ; (4) the muscular organs which are engaged in the molar work of contraction ; and (5) the nervous organs which are the progenic transmittors for the sensations, and for the order of the movements the body must execute. § 45. General Idea of Organic Functions. The interactions of living bodies (as of any object whatever) are of two kinds, intrinsic and extrinsic ; in the former the antecedent and consequent of the action are within the individual, they being then called intran- sitive ; while in the latter one of the terms is within the individuality, and the other is without in the cosmic medium, such interactions being called transitive. The transference of one kind into another is simply by propagation. Intrinsic as well as extrinsic interactions may be either imponderable (progenic), or ponderable (molar and molecular) ; and in the progenic we make the distinction of phenomenal and potential according as the changes are manifested or latent. We always employ the term potential, not as the opposite of actual or active, but according to the capacity of our percep- tion or consciousness of physiological propagation ; iu like manner the term intransitive is also relative in reference to a part of the system which we can imagine separate from the rest only by mental abstraction. We must not forget that when progenic activity is directly propagated through interstitial progene, the changes we have called progenic result, which generally produce in bodies expansive actions apparently repulsive (as thermic, sonorous, and luminous propagations), and when, on the contrary, progenic action is directly propa- gated to the ponderable matter of another body,and when interstellar progene collides with bodies, a contracting action results ; such are the effects of molecular and molar changes which appear to be produced by attrac- tion, gravitation (in its different forms as cohesion and affinity), and magnetism. Thus, then, progenic proga- gations, through bodies, produce the effect of dispersion among the molecules, while the effect of ponderable transference of progene is compressive. If these different classes of changes or energies exist in cosmos in general, and in organism in particular, forming a synthesis, any phenomenon whatever, either in cosmos or in a living being, is the result of the contrary operations of the two forms of progenic propagation now mentioned. Thus, for instance, a potential change like the progenic trans- mission of electricity and what physiologists call automatic and nervous action, may be a virtual result of the phenomenal movements of sound, heat, light, cohesion, affinity, gravity, magnetism, etc. The first agent we know in the sphere of physio- logical actions is already a secondary one ; this agent is progene in movement under its two forms, oscillatory \ 222 VI. ORGANIC BODIES. 45. FUNCTIONS OF VITALITY. 223 and translatory, and these movements, when communi- cated to ponderable matter, produce the apparent effects of attraction and repulsion which we have called gravi- tating and thermic energies. This occurs in the same manner in living as in dead matter. Then, translatory movement, being implied in phenomena, having the appearance of molecular attraction, as cohesion, affinity, and gravity, necessarily supposes the current action of progene, while the oscillatory movement of progene, which causes heat, must be the immediate origin of all phenomena having the appearance of molecular repul- sion. There are, besides, phenomena called magnetic, which have the appearance of molar attraction and repulsion ; these must necessarily be determined by translatory movement of progene, and must therefore be considered as effects of progenic potence in all nature, in the inorganic as well as in the organic world. The physiological synthesis of organism cannot have a perfectly developed theory, so long as it cannot mathematically explain the changes of propagation and transferences which are combined in vitality. When can this point be reached which must be the beacon of the physiologists of the future ? That we cannot calcu- late, because a great analytical difficulty is yet to be overcome, which now only allows us to make a very defective study of physiological synthesis. The mole- cular movements of chemical metamorphoses and pro- genic movements are not yet measured either directly or with precision, as are those of the steam engine ; hence arises the lack of fundamental knowledge of necessary data to experiment on the transferences of the different forms of energy in cosmos, and especially The work is as yet scarcely begun in m organism ) physiological analysis, and until the knowledge of cosmos is analytically complete, we cannot take one secure step in its synthesis. Nevertheless, experience has begun to prepare the field with what is called Chemical Synthesis. There is a material circulation in organism by which constant renovation of its constituent elements is pro- duced, because in organized bodies there is a constant absorption and elimination of their component sub- stances. To accomplish this many chemical reactions take place in organism, their result being the oxidation (decomposition) of the complex principles constantly elaborated by the vegetable world, and in this manner the substances and heat needed by the vegetable king- dom for its growth are returned to the inorganic world. This material circulation in all living things is only a continuation of the generating power — the permanent and superior function of living matter ; all other func- tions of vitality are but modes of the great original function — generation. This, then, is at bottom the first of all physiological operations ; such an organizing power acts continuously in organic beings during all their development, although its effects gradually de- crease from the beginning to the end. Generation presupposes the fecundation of a generating element and the conception within it. Thus, any cellule feels the impression of the medium which surrounds it, and this excitement is its fecundation which incites such morphologic element to a vital evolution in itself. The cause of this capacity is supernatural, that is, beyond what mechanism can accomplish, as in this only propa- gated effects are produced. All living bodies, without exception, are subject to a 224 VI, ORGANIC BODIES, 45. FUNCTIONS OF VITALITY. 225 limited existence, during which they undergo continuous changes which determine successive phases according to their ages ; every organism is born by excision of its germinal being, develops like its originators, and ends its evolution only with death, which means lack of engendering energy, followed by decomposition into inorganic matter. The vegetable kingdom has apparently no other manifestations of vitality than material circulation (nutrition) and reproduction ; but in the animal king- dom, especially among the larger animals, the living force is well manifested in some other ways, in order to accomplish its great necessities, which are the establish- ment of the mutual connections of their parts among themselves and with the world, and especially for their molar movements or muscular work. These two last manifestations of vitality, innervation and contractility, have been considered peculiar to animals, and qualified by the determination of animal functions or animal life, in an attempt to differentiate them from vegetative functions or vegetable life — reproduction and nutrition. But, in fact, sensibility and contractility are also func- tions common to all organism, and are clearly mani- fested even in vegetable germs. Nevertheless, these functions are not practically worthy of special mention here, because they are only well developed in animals of most remarkable complexity. The first and most important fact of the elaboration of immediate principles occurs chiefly in vegetables whose leaves and green parts, containing chlorophyl (green colouring matter), may appropriate the progene necessary to produce a chemical reaction between car- bonic acid and water in order to form hydro-carburets and eliminate oxygen. Rays of light are also neces- sary for the successive reactions of organism, among which the most important is dishydratation (elimination of water from a combination). In organism there are not only reactions with absorption of heat, or endo- thermic reactions, but there are also exothermic re- actions, in which there is elimination of heat and car- bonic acid with absorption of oxygen. These last combinations occur in living matter which lacks chlo- rophyl (or any other colouring structures), and also in all organisms when not under the action of sunlight ; they are necessary for calorific reparation in organism, and for the compensation of other losses of living force which are continually dissipated in the works of cosmic mechanism. So during the night all living bodies, whatever their colour and class, exhale the products of exothermic reactions, while during the day there is an excess of endothermic combinations, or chemical re- duction in the green vegetation which contains chlo- rophyl. Inferior microscopic organisms also assist the vegetable kingdom in its work of organic formation, especially in the elaboration of nitrogenous principles. Chemical reaction of animal life is a kind of oxidation which ends in the destruction of organic matter, thus providing the heat and movement necessary for the play of their own mechanism and that of the world in general. The constituent substances of organism, pro- gene included, are in this manner in constant circula- tion, being taken from inorganic means by the vege- table world and restored to that cosmic means by animal life. We have said that the living elements (cells and their morphologic derivatives) are characterized by iSai^^^Mg^^M 1 226 VI. ORGANIC BODIES. 45. FUNCTIONS OF VITALITY. 227 eSc W' their texture, and we will now see that the function of the elements is correlative with their texture, and that in this agreement exists the culminant reason for the classification of the anatomic elements and organic systems. We must bear in mind that though every one of these organic systems is characterized by special activity, this does not mean that every change of vitality is exclusively produced by a determined ele- mental structure ; on the contrary, all the organic changes take place in all and every one of the ana- tomic elements (cellules) ; they all accomplish the acts of nutrition ; they all feel in their own way and are more or less contractile ; but there is a great difference in the relative intensity of the changes of every ele- ment, and some elements are infiltrated with inorganic substances so as to become useless for all vital changes in general and for nutrition in particular. Thus, also, some elements are permanent, living as long as the whole individual, and such elements lose with age their genesic power, becoming sterile like old people and old animals. Only the very young elements are fertile, and these exist in all ages of organism, because some cellules are very frequently regenerated by multiplica- tion and have a shorter life than the whole being. So there are fertile and sterile elements : thus all the mus- cular and nervous fibro-cells are sterile, while on the contrary the young layers of epithelium, and the cells of connective tissues are very fertile. On the other hand, no element develops its activity in a great degree in all forms of vital action ; according as one form increases the others decrease, and some pass to a rudimentary state, becoming almost inorganic. The elements which preserve vital activity are of two < J kinds : one preserves the primordial activity which is called vegetative, that is, simply the changes of circula- tion of matter (reproduction and nutrition) ; the other changes the form and the activity very much, acquiring in complete development the functions which are not developed in the vegetable kingdom (innervation and contraction). The four are common to all living matter, but the former being almost the only form of activity of the plant cell are called vegetable systems^ while the latter, being remarkably developed in some of the animal cells, are called animal systems. We have already called attention to the relative signification of these terms. In complex organisms every anatomic element (cellule) produces its material change in harmony with its organization, and manifests some peculiar form of activity which is always derived from engendering potence ; but no element is independent ; all are subordi- nate to the organic system of the individual whole ; every element is complementary to all the others, so constituting a being which is also a partial system and not an independent thing ; hence, one living being is in interaction with all the others which compose its external medium, and every part of a being is also in interaction with the rest which acts like an internal medium. In consequence of this, animal blood and the sap of plants are not the only internal mediums, for every cell has around it the immediate medium for its interchanges, and the distant elements serve also as internal mediums, though in a mediate or indirect manner. Nevertheless, it may be said that the circu- lating and nervous apparati are principally the internal medium, the one serving for molar or bodily trans- 1 228 VI. ORGANIC BODIES, 46. GENERATION. 229 portation and the other for progenia transmission ; both determine acts whose final aim in the individual is general to it, as they are the common and mutual inter- mediary parts of all the parenchyma, and form the means whereby the distant interchanges between the other internal elements and the prosenchyma are pro- duced. This last is the external intermedium, although like the parenchyma it needs besides interchange with the internal mediums — circulating and nervous comple- ments. Two interstitial changes are common to both parenchyma and prosenchyma which consist in: (i) assimilating from the interstitial transudation of the circulating apparatus the necessary principle for the vital evolution of the elements, and transforming the assimi- lated material into its own substance ; and (2) disas- similating the constituent substances by a gradual oxidation, that is, by a kind of combustion producing living force manifested as heat, muscular contraction, etc., or transferred into nervous current. Afterwards, for the elimination of the products that result from the said oxidation, they must be dissolved in the inter- stitial juices in order to enter the circulating system. The changes of the prosenchyma that are said to take place exclusively in the periphery of the body and in the cavities visibly open to the outside, are not special ; they are similar to those in the paren- chyma ; but it may be said that the external changes of the tegumentary and glandular systems are generally reduced to two kinds of operations : osmos (exosmos and endosmos) and genesis. Both are really similar to the nutritive changes that take place in the interstices ; the osmos may be either gaseous or liquid, this last ./ containing substances in solution, and it may also be endosmotic or exosmotic, the former consisting in greater absorption than elimination and the latter in the reverse. The principal genesic external changes are those of the special organs for the reproduction of individuals in which the elimination is not only of liquids but also of cellular elements. We have here mentioned four forms of external changes : (i) gaseous osmos or respiration ; (2) liquid endosmos ; intussus- ception or absorption ; (3) liquid exosmos : elimina- tion ; and (4) cellular secretion, the elements of which may be either fertile or sterile, in the last case there is epithelial renovation. In addition to these there is another form of external change, that of imponder- able or progenia interchange which consists principally in the absorption of light and the elimination of heat by radiation and conduction. § 46. General Idea of Organic Generation. All living bodies, elemental as well as complex, have a fixed determined evolution ; all are at the be- ginning a unicellular germ of the same species, and every one of the anatomical elements of our organism must, like its totality, be engendered by parents ; not one can be formed by the direct union of inorganic matter outside of an organic field : " omne vivum ex ovo " : ** oinnis cellula a celliila'^ Genesis must be studied in the species and in the elements ; the former is the individual or total repro- duction (integral genesis) ; and the latter is the partial evolution of every one of the living constituents of an individual (elemental genesis). From this arises our 230 VI. ORGANIC BODIES. distinction between integral and elemental genesis ; but this being here only the subject of generalities, each part does not need separate treatment. Genesic evolution in general has three periods: (i) birth, molar change consisting in the excision or multi- plication of living elements ; (2) development, which, applied to the elements alone, is a molecular change consisting in the thermochemic phenomenon of nutri- tion ; and (3) regeneration or new multiplication of the developed element in order to give place to those which must substitute the dying cells. These three subjects comprehended in genesic evolution (birth by repro- duction, development by nutrition and regeneration by reproduction) are identical in fact, and it would be a departure from the natural if we should treat of the study of them as altogether different functions. Develop- ment is only a continuation of genesis until the period of the decadence of life, and from that onward the only form of genesis is nutrition, which lasts until death. Nevertheless, nutrition is considered apart from genesis, and will form the special topic of the next chapter, chiefly because it is the most important function. We must now criticize the theories of cellular forma- tion which describe the modalities of elemental repro- duction. There are two principal ones ; the first originates in the so-called German school, at the head of which is Virchow, and the other is the French school, at the head of which is Robin. The theory held by the first school is also called cellular, and that held by the second sub- stitutive or free cellular formation. The German school maintains that intercellular substances are always pro- ducts of cellular secretion or a modification of the peripheric part of the cells, and that the substance thus 46. GENERATION. 231 *t produced has not the capacity of reproduction ; that the blastema (if it exists) is sterile and cannot be the field for the formation of new cells, and consequently Virchow and his followers admit only intracellular genesis ; still more, many deny the existence of blastema. According to the hypothesis of the free cellular formation the first thing that may appear in order to form some organic elements is a blastema, that is, an amorph substance in which the constituent parts of the cellules are formed by a kind of crystallization ; that is to say, Robin and his followers admit not only genesis by intraformation, but also genesis by juxtaposition. Robin says that blastemas come from the blood and are not completely homogeneous, as, he says, he has observed in them protoplasmatic granulations, and frequently cells like leucocites or white globules. In truth the juices of the parenchyma are not well known although they must undoubtedly exist, and we can only suppose that they are a compound of blood exudation and of products from the surrounding cells. But this is not sufficient reason for affirming that there are organizing substances outside of cellular life ; that the elements of new forma- tion or granulations are formed by juxtaposition and condensation of the supposed blastemas or citoblastemas. There is great objection to such an idea, as it is well known that nutrition (genesis of cellular development) is a process of intussusception, the substances being received within or absorbed by the cells and not juxtaposed to them. In order to overcome such an objection, those who maintain the existence of blastema suppose that this is the product of pre-existent cells, and therefore that the new ones proceed from old ones, though by indirect reproduction, and that such inter- 232 VI. ORGANIC BODIES. 46. GENERATION. 233 mediary blastema may engender cellules in two ways, first, by the spontaneous or free appearance of a nucleus around which some quantity of blastema is condensed in a less degree than in the nucleus, and, second, by the division of a free mass of blastema into globules in which nuclei are afterwards formed. This hypothesis of substitution is now upheld by very few, and even these only admit it in the following cases: (i) in the formation of the sexual elements, male and female ; (2) in the formation of the first embryonic cells ; (3) for the generation and regeneration of epithelium ; and (4) in the greatest number of pathological neoplasms. We see that there are two contrary opinions in regard to the formation and functions of intercellular substances. In fact, there are still some doubts as to the predominant source of such substances, whether they are principally formed by the cells as products of secretion, or by the blood, the substances of assimilation then predominating. It may be stated with great likeli- hood of truth that the solid intercellular substance is formed by the nearest cellules, as the exudation from the blood-vessels must be about the same in all parts, and the chemical and morphological constitution of intercellular matter differs according to the proximate anatomical elements, and it has been sometimes clearly seen that the elastic filaments are directly formed by cellular metamorphosis or by cellular prolongations. Cellulists assert that the use of intercellular substances is purely connective ; that they undergo molecular change, but that this activity depends on surrounding cells, and that in any case they cannot be organizing or engender- ing fields. Their employment, then, is reduced to that of molar supporters for the union and separation of *^i elements, and under molecular interchange they serve as an internal medium for the passage of matter from the blood-vessels to the cellules and vice versd. The belief in the free formation of cells in the blastema is in some manner coequal with that of the spontaneous genesis of living beings, and the maintainers of such ideas say they have presented experimental proofs in favour of their opinion ; they believe in the birth of inferior organisms in a liquid in which no such organisms previously existed, and they think that fungi, algae, infusoria, and interstitial worms are engendered in organic detritus. It seems to be true that organized elements originate in a medium where others were not before perceived, such as in the exudation from a blister after being filtrated, or in a drop of sweet and perfectly transparent whey in which the microscope has not previously discovered any organized corpuscles. But in such cases experience is very untrustworthy, knowing as we do to-day that germs exist almost everywhere. Furthermore, in a protoplasmatic mass the granulations may act as nuclei in perfect cells, and therefore as first motors for cellular multiplication. The principal propositions proclaimed by Virchow in what is called the " cellular theory " may be reduced to three: (i) the cellule is the characteristic and pre- existent element of all living forms, the conservation and vitality of complex organisms being always due to its confederation ; (2) the protoplasm (or non-nuclear contents of the cells) is the part in which are incarnated the special properties or constant characters of small as well as of large cells, of normal as well as of abnormal ones ; and (3) the nucleus contributes greatly to con- servation and multiplication of living elements, serving ''W 234 V/. ORGANIC BODIES. 46. GENERATION. 235 very little or not at all for cellular development. These three propositions (in their descriptive assertions) seem to be in close conformity with facts, and from this arises the favour which the cellular theory has received ; but cellulists have not a correct concept of life as may be clearly seen in the additional proposition of Virchow when he says that " many cells constitute with mutual dependence an individual, and that every one is a vital unity endowed with its own or inherent existence, having in itself alone inherent and personal activity from which the vital functions emanate." This proposition ex- presses a concept of the cells as erroneous and confusing for Biology as is the materialistic concept of atoms in Physics and Chemistry, and the same arguments we have employed to rectify the idea of atomism may be here applied to the ideas of the cellulists, and, conse- quently, it is not necessary to repeat them. In reality the word cellule is only the expression of an abstract concept derived from the ultimate generalization of Comparative Biology ; it represents a single vital element of analogous organization everywhere, and therefore the anatomic elements constantly formed in complex ex- istences must be deprived of all the particular characters which have operated in their development, as form, cell-wall, and nucleus. Accordingly we must recognize that protoplasm may generate by excision two or more individuals from one alone, even if it exists in a diffuse, amorph mass of semi-liquid consistency. We see that there are no great essential differences between the two mentioned schools ; that the ultimate conclusions of both are inadmissible in Biology, because Robin's as well as Virchow's notions of life are con- tradictory to the fundamental principles of a true physio- V ft I r i^ logical theory in which must be avoided all idea of the independence of any part of nature, an idea from which transformism has sprung. There are two other doctrines of cellular repro- duction, besides those already mentioned, both of which are ordinarily confounded with that of the blastema, though at bottom they are different. We refer to the genesis of cells by protoplasmatic granulations, and also by inorganic matter (cellular abiogenesis). According to the granular genesis (maintained by Hughes Bennet, who is its most characteristic representative), the ulti- mate elements of organism are neither cells nor nuclei, but smaller granulations necessarily born from disaggre- gation of organized corpuscles, such granulations being endowed with properties by virtue of which they unite among themselves outside the cells as well as within them, in order to engender visible forms, namely, nuclei, cells, fibres, and membranes. Bennet calls attention to the same kind of observations as do the upholders of the blastema, which might in that view be considered as a conglomeration of such elemental granulations ; and another point of similarity between Bennet's hypo- thesis and the doctrine of blastema is the admission of the direct engendering of other cells by different ways of excision after the cellular organism is constituted. The doctrine which admits "spontaneous generation" of organic elements is called also '' heterogenesis ; " according to this the anatomic elements may be born in the interior of organisms without the direct formation of cellular germs, whether embryonic or of the same species. But such an idea has arisen from the lack of means for true observation, as to-day, after a deep analysis of the facts which have tended to that belief. aEafiH[fair«fa/ And repxesenting by capital R and F the sum of the resultant and expended forces in the whole cosmos, including potential state, we have — Cosmic work = C is R = F. We know by Mechanics that the work of any trans- ference may be presented in round numbers thus, r =//2 ; and, therefore, with the guarantee of the principle of conservation of energy in the universe, we infer the formula of genesic work in round numbers r = 2/ This is the formula of the great secret of nature, as it repre- sents the antagonistic and repairing action of mechanic dissipation. The total work of cosmos comprehending both //2 and 2/ which we represent in a whole by R 252 VL ORGANIC BODIES, 49. CAUSE OF VITALITY. 253 may be condensed in the formula R = F, that is, con- servation of energy. In this last formula and principle we must take into account the constant conversion of living force in mechanism into latent by the determined resistance of centrifugal oscillation and the centripetal pressure of progene on ponderable matter, that is to say, by thermic potence, and principally by the resistance of gravity. Mechanical or artificial synthesis must not be con- founded with biological or natural. The difference does not consist in the possibility of producing any change whatever. When a chemist combines carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen to form immediate principles, he cannot do it as an organism, because he needs to employ a living force greater than the resultant. In the same manner, if a chemist in the future should be able to accumulate the immediate principles in order to form protoplasm, it is certain that the work then produced will be under the same mechanical condition, that is, according to the formula r < f or r = f/.2 — phenomenal resultant about half less than employed force (excluding that which is latent). A chemist will never be able to do that which is done by an organism, to elaborate organic matter with the formula r > / or r = 2/ that is, phe- nomenal resultant twice as great as the expended living force; this is a problem which Chemistry cannot resolve, no more than Mechanics can ever resolve the problem of perpetual movement, which is a cosmic work ac- cording to the formula R = F — resultant equal to the expended force. This is sufficient to set aside all transformistic ideas which try to explain the origin and evolution of nature by matter alone, the only principle which transformists admit in the universe. (\ C'l Many scientists believe that in the future chemical synthesis will be able to explain organic generation, basing this belief on the sole reason that they expect to elaborate all the immediate principles of organic bodies. But this would not be an organic synthesis, it would be only the first link in the chain of successive analysis. Furthermore, even if we suppose that the chemist of the future in the laboratory may reach that point where he can associate the immediate principles to form a complete organic structure, is it logical to deny an elaborating intelligence to the natural laboratory of a living body, when we necessarily admit it in the artificial one ? Such a primordial organizing intelligence is not, in truth, perceived by the human mind because no one can be conscious of another's intelligence, but it must be conscious in the Divinity itself (it being contra- dictory to suppose an unconscious intelligence), and in it alone are the purpose and finality of objects or natural beings. The conditions of the cosmic means are never com- plete or perfect for the development of an organism, as in the successive intermingling phenomena of cosmos there is always some deficiency, and so in a finite number of objects we never contemplate absolute quali- ties which can be attributed only to the Infinite. The Infinite alone can be true, good, and beautiful in absolute ; only the universe as a whole is a true, good, and beautiful system in absolute ; one part alone, as the living body, cannot be more than relative in all and for all. 254 VI. ORGANIC BODIES, § 50. Recapitulation of the Concept of Living Matter. Organic genesis comprehends individual evolution during the time an organism preserves its existence, and reproduction of species when the multiplication of beings is produced. Individual evolution may be summarized in the three following propositions : — 1. The vegetable world produces transferences of progenic energies, propagated from the inorganic world into molecular energies, while the animal kingdom trans- fers the progenic and molecular energies which it draws from the vegetable world into molar energies, and restores to the inorganic world the progenic power which was transferred into molecular by vegetation. 2. In both living kingdoms such acts have as the first manifestations of vitality, chemical metamorphoses, whose force is measured by calories, and therefore calorie must also serve as a standard of comparison to determine the relative quantivalence of vitality. This concept is indispensable for the progress of Biology, for which we must take as a base the law of maximum work when we discover the transformations which take place in every being, and the degree of stability in its composition. 3. The potence which is the limit of our physio- logical investigations is progenic, admitting and recog- nizing that the Generating Cause (Creator) constructs organic structures by means of currents of progene in the same manner as inorganic combinations are formed. 50. RECAPITULATION. 2SS because at bottom organic as well as inorganic reactions are only material combinations or changes in molecular extension and complexity. In Part I. we have demonstrated that all forces are measures of resulting movements, and that all physio- logical laws express only relations among the effects of nature ; neither forces nor mechanical laws are gene- rating causes which could produce primordial effects. That tendency of modern authors of Physiology to explain all natural phenomena by variations in the structure and configuration of bodies, is, therefore, a pretension not to be realized ; otherwise we should only have to invert the terms of the phrase, and then say that the formation and configuration of organic structures are explained by themselves. But this is evidently false, because the greatest analogies in the germs of organism correspond to the greatest individual differences in their ulterior development, that is, in the phenomena of their succession. The collocation of matter in organism is an incon- ceivable change, it is completely opposed to the facts of inertia of matter, and needs therefore the action of immaterial influence. By propagation of movement alone we cannot effectually construct any organized body even theoretically, because, as we have already seen, in it the contrary happens to what takes place iri an inorganic machine ; there is a conversion of latent power into manifested, from this resulting the generation of actual and disposable forces, instead of the dissipation of living or phenomenal energy, as we see constantly produced in any pure mechanic means, complicated and perfect though it may be. The power of generation, or of collocation in organ- '*•-■. -' 256 VI. ORGANIC BODIES, 50. RECAPITULATION, 257 ism is metaphysical ; we have sufficient reason to declare fully, that there is no possibility of explaining the con- struction of living matter more than by the influence of an Intelligent Cause, which cannot be perceived by our consciousness. The generation of potence which directs the collocation of organic principles in the construction of a living body is as enigmatic as the creation of inorganic material. Cellular multiplication. A complete exposition and discussion of the various doctrines of organic generation would be almost interminable, and we will confine our- selves here to recapitulating only the principal ones, and these as briefly as possible. All may be comprehended in two groups ; one embraces those pretending to give a genesic explanation, or to discover the original mystery by vain words representing abstract forces as bionto- logic animism, vitalism, directing and creating force, vital affinity, and so on ; and the other group compre- hends the descriptive explanations of the formation of new cellules, as the so-called cellular and blastematic theories. Some histologists, of the French school in particular, maintain that among the morphologic elements of organic tissues there are semi-liquid substances that almost always contain elements of new formation, which they suppose to be formed by a kind of free condensa- tion of some semi-liquid they call blastema. Those who maintain this free cellular formation admit it in the following cases: (i) generation of the reproducing elements (male and female) ; (2) formation of the first elements of an embryo; (3) generation and regeneration of epithelium ; and (4) generation of the greater part of pathologic neoplasm. t I r I : i ; The cellular theory is principally held by the German school, and is to-day the most widespread throughout the world. Its propositions may be ex- pressed in the following terms: (i) the cellule is the characteristic and pre-existent element of all living forms, the succession and conservation of vitality being linked to it ; (2) the nucleus is the part which con- tributes most to sustain and multiply the living elements ; (3) the protoplasm is the part which gives to the cellules their special characters ; and (4) every cellule of those forming a complex organism is an individuality which possesses in itself its own activity from which its functions emanate. This last proposition expresses as erroneous a con- cept of the cellule, as does that of physicists and chemists about atoms. This parallel once made, the same argu- ments which were employed against modern atomism are applicable here. Thus the cellule is the concept of a mental abstraction of an ideal protobio (from protos first and bios, life), by means of which it is represented* in language as a simple element, always analogous and constant in all living bodies, thus stripping the cellule, which has a true cellular figure, of all that is particular in its real or concrete existence. So that reproduction by excision of the protoplasm is admitted, although this may be under a diffuse, asymmetrical, and perhaps semi-liquid form. On the other hand, without detaining ourselves here to investigate the existence and functions of blastema, it is sufficient to remark that the two schools, French and German, do not differ essentially in their fundamental concepts, and that both are contra- dictory to the true principles of physiological theory, as they aim to inculcate independence among the parts S k \.^ 258 VI. ORGANIC BODIES. 51. ORGANIC AND INORGANIC AGGREGATES. 259 of the system, so sowing the baneful seeds of trans- formism. All living beings, elemental as well as complex, are subject to a ftxed> determined evolution, being neces- sarily born from a germ ; our organism, as well as every one of the living elements which constitute it, must be engendered in direct succession : omne vivum ex ovo, equal to omnis cellula a cellula. We recognize the truth of this assertion of the cellular theory, but we interpret the term cellule in the most extended sense according to abstract signification^ including in it even the free masses of protoplasm ; although in general, especially in superior beings, the generating elements have their own form more or less like a typical cellule. After birth, all individuals follow three successive stages during development— growth, fixed condition, and decline to death. Growth depends on the sum of the interaction of constituent elements, producing an increase of the anatomic elements already existing principally by new elements formed by multiplication of those pre- existent. The form of organic growth explains the other two stages in the evolution of life, because they grow in their totality relatively more on their surface as the ratio of the cube to the square. The molar work, also, principally in animal life, is greater in proportion to the growth without increasing the ingress of matter, and besides the constant diffusion of liquids through the membranes leaves mineral substances incrusted in them, eventually producing their true mineralization, which decreases their endosmotic power and therefore their activity for the interchange of matter. / CHAPTER VII. CONCEPT OF PLANETARY BODIES : ORGANIC AND IN- ORGANIC MATTER TOGETHER FORMING WORLDS (ABSTRACTION BEING MADE OF INTELLIGENT POWERS). § 51. Aggregates of organic and inorganic bodies — § 52. Brief description of the earth, sun, and moon — § 53. Terrestrial gravity — § 54* Planetary movements of the earth and terrestrial magnetism — § 55* Recapitulation of the concept of planetary bodies. §51. Aggregates of Organic and Inorganic Bodies — (World or Physical Cosmos). The worlds are composed of the two kinds of bodies, inorganic and organic ; the inorganic are in different physical states (solids and fluids), and the organic constitute the two living kingdoms (vegetable and animal). We must now give the fundamental analogies and differences between living and non-living bodies, as well as a summary of their distribution in our world, although this last point is more especially reserved for the next section. From the material analysis of living bodies only a few chemical elements result which are the same in dead bodies (corpses) ; they exist equally in the most inferior beings and in man, and they are profusely scattered throughout the inorganic medium. Nevertheless, reflect- \' s6o ViL PLANETARY BODIES. Ing on the cliaracters of lite from the ovule or organic germ to its development and death, there is no doubt that, in it we discover functions which consist In a sV'^tem of changes never observed m synthesis outside of living bodies ; but in analysis all the changes of vitality aix; exactly eqyai to the potential and phenomeeai states that have been discovered in the inorganic world. I fence, the organisfJi, physiologically considered, is only one of the phases of* matter ; in a material sense the orgaoic germ, then, consists simply in the conibiiiation of the elements which are discovered by chemical analysis as forming ao alotropic state of the matter common to both k?nds of bodies. But iS this a condition sufficient to deterriiiiie the r.ctions of the ditlereiit parts uf" inir organism, among themselves and with the exte^niai medium, in such a manner that a living body could be considered as a peculiar form of redistribotion of matter regulated only by mcchaaicai laws ? Although we have already answered this question negatively and have demonstrated our assertion, this point needs further consideration in order to explain our fiKidaniefital^ pro- position : we admit that the true Primordial Cause, which is the metaphysical subject to be treated of^oii supernatural grounds, acts directly upon living bodies, giving them the necessary direction to build their organic structures ; but we do not recognize any essenlial differ- ence in the effects which constitute all possible know- ledge of the physical object or natural ground The manifested differences betweeo organic and inorganic bodies are only quantitative and not essential ; this fmm% m analysis, has been already elucidated in the gmm^l concept of iiiatter. Now let us consider it synthetically. ^ Perhaps our mmd might be a little better saHisied. i 51, ORGAmC A WD IMOMGdMIC AGCREGATES. t6t- with the idea that the natural eiements of an organisiB, t.e. those %¥hich are manifested^ are the sole ageots in relation to vitality, if all organisms were identical, haviof the same configuration and functional e¥oiiJtioiii ; but Hving bodies are of very different forms, and have the most various evolution in opposition to their identity in tlieir niateriai composition. The complete proof of the necessity of an essential cause of life different from the mechanical propagation of movement belongs to Meta- physics and not to Physiology (Natural Sciences), as this in it:^ inqiiiries must not go beyond maoifested erlects and tlierr proximate cause (material potence). The inquiry into tlie Prioiordial Cause does not coiicern Fhysioloijy, which must limit itself to the study of Cosmic ^fechardsm. but this is no reason to forget and still k^ss to denv the principle and end of objective nature~--thQ Suprentc Intelligence to which physical cosmos must be subordinated merely as a, supplementary medium. Thus, then, wc consider the world as a whole io which hvhig matter is the direct fTiedium, and dead and inor- ganic matter the indirect inediurn to accomphsh the supernatural aim. Accordingly., it is not out of place to state that true physiological science is not opposed to theok\gical behef ; thoogh badly interpreted in their principles, they have been considered by rnan).^ as con- tradictory ; on the contrary^ the Science of Cosmos, according to our physiological theor}^ is in complete harniony with true Monotheism, and subordinate as a sypplemcnt to the subject of true behef This maxim m^e must not forget, lest we fell into the erroneous view of those who, intoxicated by the fantasy of the present posittvisiB, pretend to subordinate everythieg to the much-talked'Of ** experience," wheti: this consists but of > \ !26o VII. PLANETARY BODIES. ing on the characters of life from the ovule or organic germ to its development and death, there is no doubt that in it we discover functions which consist in a system of changes never observed in synthesis outside of living bodies ; but in analysis all the changes of vitality are exactly equal to the potential and phenomenal states that have been discovered in the inorganic world. Hence, the organism, physiologically considered, is only one of the phases of matter ; in a material sense the organic germ, then, consists simply in the combination of the elements which are discovered by chemical analysis as forming an alotropic state of the matter common to both kinds of bodies. But is this a condition sufficient to determine the actions of the different parts of our organism, among themselves and with the external medium, in such a manner that a living body could be considered as a peculiar form of redistribution of matter regulated only by mechanical laws ? Although we have already answered this question negatively and have demonstrated our assertion, this point needs further consideration in order to explain our fundamental pro- position : we admit that the true Primordial Cause, which is the metaphysical subject to be treated of on supernatural grounds, acts directly upon living bodies, giving them the necessary direction to build their organic structures ; but we do not recognize any essential differ- ence in the effects which constitute all possible know- ledge of the physical object or natural ground. The manifested differences between organic and inorganic bodies are only quantitative and not essential ; this point, in analysis, has been already elucidated in the general concept of matter. Now let us consider it synthetically. Perhaps our mind might be a little better satisfied « ( 51. ORGANIC AND INORGANIC AGGREGATES. 261 with the idea that the natural elements of an organism, i.e. those which are manifested, are the sole agents in relation to vitality, if all organisms were identical, having the same configuration and functional evolution ; but living bodies are of very different forms, and have the most various evolution in opposition to their identity in their material composition. The complete proof of the necessity of an essential cause of life different from the mechanical propagation of movement belongs to Meta- physics and not to Physiology (Natural Sciences), as this in its inquiries must not go beyond manifested effects and their proximate cause (material potence). The inquiry into the Primordial Cause does not concern Physiology, which must limit itself to the study of Cosmic Mechanism, but this is no reason to forget and still less to deny the principle and end of objective nature — the Supreme Intelligence to which physical cosmos must be subordinated merely as a supplementary medium. Thus, then, we consider the world as a whole in which living matter is the direct medium, and dead and inor- ganic matter the indirect medium to accomplish the supernatural aim. Accordingly, it is not out of place to state that true physiological science is not opposed to theological belief; though badly interpreted in their principles, they have been considered by many as con- tradictory ; on the contraryi^ the Science of Cosmos, according to our physiological theory, is in complete harmony with true Monotheism, and subordinate as a supplement to the subject of true belief This maxim we must not forget, lest we fall into the erroneous view of those who, intoxicated by the fantasy of the present positivism, pretend to subordinate everything to the much-talked-of " experience," when this consists but of 262 V2I. PLANETARY BODIES. sensual appearances often highly deceptive. Neverthe- less, let us see what experience teaches us, but only when guided by sound reason. The corporeal species are defined either as chemical species or living species ; the former can be produced by decomposition of organic structures or by chemical combination of different elements, while the latter can- not be produced either by decomposition or by combi- nation of different elements. Besides, in the formation of complex inorganic bodies, the resulting substance is very different from the producing or original ones, while organic bodies are necessarily engendered by a complex individual of the same species, and better to say, the new body is no more than one part of one species, sole matrice of all the individuals which are separated by exci- sion. So it results that the engendering body and the engendered one are analogous, and that the last formed part of the first with all the conditions of a partial existence, depending on the individual. But the two kinds of corporeal species are not independent nor essentially different, they are complementary, because there is no new creation of material ; every increase in one kingdom supposes a diminution in the other and the reverse ; such change of material circulation is con- stant, but the prime object of such incessant change is the organic world, and the secondary medium is the inorganic world ; that is to say, the former is the place where the first effect of primordial action is produced, while the latter serves only as a conditional medium for the interchanges of the organic world. Therefore, in the relative succession or relation of derived causes the activity of the inorganic world is a secondary effect subordinate to vitality ; the genesis of this is a mystery I SI. ORGANIC AND INORGANIC AGGREGATES. 263 and the only one of its kind in the world, as any other change may be explained by mechanical propagation. The growth of both kinds of bodies is operated in similar ways : either by molecular combination or intussusception, or by molar aggregation or juxtaposi- tion, with the only difference that living bodies increase almost exclusively by intussusception, while dead and inorganic bodies, on the contrary, commonly increase their bulk by juxtaposition. But there is a still more remarkable characteristic in the growth of living bodies, that is, in the morphologic concept ; they must have a peculiar form and limited dimensions while the exist- ence of inorganic bodies is compatible with an indefinite number of forms and is also capable of undergoing the greatest increase or diminution in dimensions. Organ- isms have, besides, another morphological character very well defined : they are necessarily of some solid con- sistency, they cannot be fluidified ; while inorganic bodie'^ can be changed in their physical state, those which ordinarily are solid may undergo either liquefaction or evaporation or else both, and even if there is an excep- tion, like carbon, which is a fixed solid body, that also may be dissolved (by combination) in some liquids and solidified again (by decomposition of the solution), becoming the same corporeal species as before. Lique- faction by any means in living bodies determines their death, and consequently they cannot be afterwards restored to their former state. Again, the limit of the existence of living bodies is formed by molar division, while it is illimitable in inorganic bodies. In this sense we may say that organic bodies have a definite existence in space, and therefore are specific in their morphology, while inorganic species are variable, mor- 2^4 VII. PLANETARY BODIES. 51. ORGANIC AND INORGANIC AGGREGATES. 265 e.f phologically considered, and therefore have an unde- finable existence in space. Living bodies are not only defined in their relations in space, but also in time ; the duration of every indi- vidual is limited, ending always by decomposition or corruption, and beginning by birth. Generation is an activity existing only in the living species, and not in any object outside of that, while the elaboration of a chemical species is necessarily produced by one or more species different from the resultant ; thus, for instance, to form water we combine hydrogen and oxygen. We might enumerate many other morphologic and phenomenal differences between living and inorganic bodies, but all are, of course, relative or quantitative, because, as we have repeatedly said, we are not able to perceive objectively or by means of our senses any other characters than the relations of quantity. Thus, mor- phologic differences do not consist in any qualitative character, for organic matter consists in the combination and mixture of inorganic elements, though in such a manner that a peculiar structure is formed (protoplasm and its derived formations), which can never result as a direct product of an inorganic laboratory. In the same manner, the phenomenal differences between living and non-living bodies, are also differences of aggregation, as may be more clearly seen in the following table : — I. Known energies primordially derived as functions of organism : vital synthesis. (We do not mention in this table either protogenition or biotension, because they are unknown.) T . -ui / • r Progenic change : potential transmis- It Ind morT")' ^'^^ <^^^" electricity). ) Innervation, m ecu ar;, < Molecular change : thermochemical ) tvt *. -i.- mnvpm^ntc I ^i,^„^_^„„ ^ \ NutlltlOn ^ phenomena. ( Visible (bodily or molar) move- ments. Complete division : cellular excision. Reproduction. Return movement in cellular ele- | Contraction. ments. 2. Energies secondarily derived, common to inorganic and organic matter : mechanical analysis. {Quantitative change \ Electricity (static of progene. j and dynamic. Change of progenic \ Potential heat (latent oscillations. / and radiant). TV. -^ . A ^'^''^^^^^^^y "*°^"- \ Light. Manifested 1 ment of progene. J *» changes, j Oscillatory move- \ gound Progenic or imponderable energies. Atomic or ponderable energies. \ ment of progene. ! Change of intermole- "I Heat (temperature cular distances. / and state). Change of molecular \ Affinity (chemical composition. / change). , Molar changes : visible or ordinary movements. movements. } But in opposition to the analogy between the effects there is the difference in the cause, for the physiological synthesis of vitality is produced according to a mathe- matical formula precisely inverse to that of inorganic machines ; these constantly lose some living force — that which may be manifested in works necessary to fulfil the mechanical aims of man, and the empire of living bodies produces as a definite resultant the reparation in cosmos of the force dissipated in the propagations of non-living bodies. Thus the ovule or living germ con- structs a more or less complex building and engenders phenomena at the expense of energy, some of which is potential. This cannot be done by any inorganic machine, nor even can any mechanical works resolve the problem of perpetual movement which exists in cosmos, because all bodies lose 46 per cent, of living energy in any manifested propagation. It is necessary to be on our guard in order not to be 266 VII. PLANETARY BODIES. 52. EARTH, SUN AND MOON 267 deceived by certain false appearances ; thus, on the one hand, electric machines convert potential into pheno- menal energy when they produce light or molar work, but electricity must be produced by a living energy greater than that which results from it ; and on the other hand green vegetation when very well developed and under the action of sunshine, absorbs a greater quantity of manifested energy than it spends, but we must take into account that such conversion is only a temporary reserve, and that such latent energy after- wards becomes manifested. Accordingly, our reference is made not to every one of the changes of a machine, whether organic or inorganic, but to the whole partial system which constitutes a living body from its birth to its death, and an industrial factory from the begin- ning to the end of its operations. Then, as we have already said, we may express the differential character of the two kinds of bodies by opposite formulae ; calling the living force expended in a change/ and the resultant r we have — 1. Work of organized bodies, . . . r > f. (Some potential energy becomes then manifested.) 2. Work of inorganic bodies, , . . r < f. (Some manifested energy then becomes potential.) 3. Work of cosmos (inorganic and organic bodies together), . , , r — f. Now we will call F the sum of the energies in cosmos (whether manifested or otherwise) before any change is effected, and R the amount of phenomenal and potential energies after the production of such change, we have then the formula R = F. Here is the mathematical reason and limit of that physiologic principle (or the beginning, so to speak) which is known as the principle of conservation. In fine, observation never shows us a case of the formation of a living body without parents, that is, by direct combination of inorganic material, and if the genesic influence is never observed outside of living natures, we must then necessarily suppose that material nature with its laws is always the purpose and end of a supernatural being — the Maker — by means of organic generation, by which the divine idea is constantly real- ized ; we do not see the same direct connection of the Creator with the inorganic world, whose activity is subordinate to the organic world, and which is therefore left to act outside the direct realization of the divinity. In this lies the only essential difference between the two bodily constituents of the worlds, which we can now mentally construct simply by the combination in one system alone of the concepts acquired of both the organic and inorganic kingdoms, § 52. Brief Description of the Earth, Sun, AND Moon. We will here briefly give the principal generaliza- tions, inferring them from the study of our planetary system, but particularly from the earth, although in addition to this something must be said of the relations, analogies, and differences between the earth and the celestial bodies, more especially with regard to the sun and moon. We will commence with the earth, which we will consider only in its totality. Among the Greek sages we see the idea of the rotundity of the earth already indicated contrary to 268 VII. PLANETARY BODIES. 52. EARTH, SUN AND MOON 269 the irreflexive belief of almost all humanity up to the sixteenth century. But no practical demonstration was made until the modern age, when Magellan (in 1520) sailed from Europe to Asia and back again by doubling the South American promontory. It is well known to- day that the earth is an oblate spheroid, whose equa- torial radius is 6,377,398 metres, and whose polar radius is 21,318 metres less; so we see that the equatorial diameter of the earth is about eight thousand miles (12,754,796 metres). The density of the earth, accord- ing to geologists, is from five to six, but the average density in the superficial layers of the earth being from two to three, they have supposed that in the interior of the earth there are very heavy substances. But we must not forget that the nearer a body is to the centre of the earth the weightier relatively it is, therefore this condition must be taken into consideration in estimating the true relation of densities at different depths. The temperature of our planet is very variable to the depth of twenty-seven metres ; beyond that it can be said that there is a fixed temperature, the thermometer always registering nearly 12° centigrade at twenty-eight metres, the temperature increasing in a uniform progres- sion of one degree for every thirty metres of descent, while, on the contrary, the higher we ascend above the surface of the earth the lower the temperature becomes. In order to simplify the description of our planet, it is convenient to divide it into three parts — the surface, the exterior or atmosphere, and the interior. These we may call in correlation mesogeos, exogeos, and endogeos. Mesogeos is the surface of our planet, and in its study we indicate only the principal points concerning the irregular distribution of land and water, and also of animal and vegetable life. The highest points of the earth's surface are generally less populous in living beings than the middle heights, and the most depressed parts are covered with water, in which pullulates animal life in particular. At first sight there is found a great disproportion between animal and vegetable life in these three regions, which naturally serves to unbalance or perturb cosmic functions ; and thus change in cosmos is originated. We should pass far beyond the limits of this work if we were to explain here the concrete terms referring to the different objective forms of our planet, as seas and continents, mountains and valleys, etc., so we shall restrict ourselves to the data needed for our abstract inferences. We must first notice the vast extent of water on the earth's surface, and its irregular distribu- tion in relation to dry land. It may be said that the greater part of the earth is covered with water, about eight parts water and three parts land, that is, almost thrice as much water as land. The dry land principally occupies two opposite sides of the planet, forming in one part what we call the old world, or Eurasia and Africa, and in the other the new world, or America (North and South). There are other portions of dry land less vast, which are called islands, and which in many cases form archipelagos, the most important of which is Oceanica. The distribution of land and water is very irregular, water preponderating in the southern and land in the northern hemisphere in the proportion of three to one. It is also worthy of notice that the depth of the sea is greater than the height of the moun- tains, a fact which still further increases the proportion of the surface of the earth which is covered with water. f*4 270 V//. PLANETARY BODIES. 52. EARTH, SUN AND MOON, 271 The uppermost layer of the earth is generally made ground, that is, a thin layer of soil ordinarily modified by the artificies of human necessities, but beneath this is what is called subsoil, which is very commonly exposed to view by the denudation of waters and by artificial constructions, and is seen by comparison to be of many different kinds, as calcareous rocks, sand, chalk, clay, etc. Soil and subsoil may be classified as sedi- mentary and crystalline ; the sedimentary is of aquatic origin formed by the precipitation of dissolved sub- stances, and the crystalline is supposed to have an igneous origin. The state of each in particular is the object of the concrete science of Mineralogy. Exogeos or atmosphere is a gaseous mixture princi- pally constituted of nitrogen and oxygen in the ratio of four to one. It also includes in its composition aqueous vapour, carbonic acid, and a multitude of microscopic organic and inorganic corpuscles. This mixture, more- over, besides being complex, is very variable in the pro- portion of the mixed elements according as it is day or night, and according to season, temperature, winds, height, etc. Air is nearly eight hundred times lighter than water ; nevertheless, the influence of its weight over other bodies is a matter of great importance, because its height (not yet precisely determined) is more than 100 kilometres, and determines on the surface of the earth a pressure which, measured by the mercurial barometer, is equal to a column of j6 centimetres with slight variations of some millimetres. The knowledge of the succession of more or less regular barometrical variations, as well as of the movements of atmospheric translation (winds) does not belong to this chapter because it presupposes evolution in time and explanations of the reasons of such changes. 2 Endogeos. We know that the material of which the earth is composed is arranged in layers or strata, which the cutting of any section shows in a succession one above the other. To enter into details of endogeos, i.e. about the structure of these layers, is to invade the province of a branch of Mineralogy called Geology which is a concrete science. The only important fact we need treat of here is that deduced from an indication already referred to about subterranean temperature, and that is that if the temperature increases regularly in relation to the depth or distance from the surface, it is clear that at the depth of 100 kilometres (equal to the height of the atmosphere) the heat must be suflficient to melt all rocks, and therefore the greater part of the interior of our planet must be in a state of fusion, the solid crust being relatively very thin. In the constitution of cosmos the earth is no more than a planet of secondary magnitude. Let us now consider its principal relations to the celestial bodies, especially to the sun and moon, as the sun is in the focus of the ellipse described by the earth in its orbit and annual revolution, and the moon is a satellite which revolves around^ the earth. Both, by their reflection, greatly influence the changes of our planet principally in the terrestrial fluids, air and water, and above all more directly on the metafluid or progene existing in porocules or the interstices of bodies. We have already indicated, and we will clearly state in the next chapter, that we must not consider the sun as the prime motor in the production of terrestrial phenomena. The idea we form of the sun by irreflexive observa- tion is very deceitful. When viewed through a dark coloured glass it appears like a white disc perfectly 272^ VIL PLANETARY BODIES. circular, whose diameter does not seem greater than MXy centimetres, and whose surface appears homo- geneous ; furthermore, the solar disc seems to move from west to east, following a curve whose centre is the point in which the observer stands, and whose extremes touch the visible horizon. We know that the more distant an object is the smaller it appears, thus, calcu- lating the distance of the sun from the earth as about ninety millions of miles in round numbers, the true diameter of the sun is inferred to be more than one hundred times greater than that of the earth ; the difference between the diameter of the sun and its distance from the earth being almost in the same ratio, I : lOO. To form some comparative idea of these relations of size and distance, let us imagine a sphere of one metre in diameter at a distance of one hundred metres to represent the sun, and a little ball, one centi- metre in diameter to represent the size of the earth and its relative position to the sun. Accordingly, more than a million balls like the earth would be necessary to make a sphere like the sun. But perhaps we can acquire a clearer idea of the extraordinary dimensions and distances referred to by the following calculations. A ball shot from a cannon, moving uniformly with its ordinary velocity, would take about thirteen years to reach the sun, and if we suppose the ball diametrically crossing the sun it would take more than a month in passing to the other side, while it would need only about seven hours in crossing the earth's diameter. We can further acquire some idea of the distance of the earth from the sun by considering that a train running at the rate of thirty miles an hour would take about 350 years to accomplish the distance. 52. EARTH, SUN AND MOON. 273 Telescopic observation reveals a fact worthy of men- tion. The sun has spots which appear and disappear every fourteen days, reappearing on the eastern edge of the disc about fifteen days after disappearing from its western edge. This regular movement of the spots shows us that the sun is in rotation, and that this rotation must be accomplished in about twenty-six days. From this we infer, in accordance with the principles of our Physiological Theory, that the sun has a continent with living matter in order to produce such a rotation, but comparing it with the earth we must suppose that the ratio marking the difference between land and water in the sun is much greater than that of the earth, and we must deduce from this that the great reflecting power of the sun is owing to the extraordinary extent of surface covered with water. We must also explain the lack of orbital movement in the sun by the fact that the surface of the sun in which vegetation can exist, being relatively small, the force of propulsion emanating from it is not sufficient to counteract the resistance of the solar atmosphere, and so only a rotatory movement results. If the sun has any translatory movement whatever, it must be a very slow one, and so it is not worth taking into consideration in this work. The moon, like the sun, produces many deceitful appearances, among which the most surprising are the different forms it presents during its successive stages, and we see that every twenty-seven and one-third days the same phases are repeated. Nevertheless, it is demonstrated that the moon is an entirely round or regular sphere, and that such phases depend on the greater or less surface which reflects the sunlight. Its distance from the earth is in round numbers something T -M^ \ 274 VII. PLANETARY BODIES. 53. GRAVITY. 275 w W more than three hundred thousand miles (380,000 kilometres), that is, it is about three hundred times nearer than the sun, and therefore at a distance almost equal to the third part of the solar diameter. Accord- ingly, the space between the earth and the moon is only sufficient to accommodate a body twenty-seven times smaller than the sun. The diameter of the moon is almost one-fourth (y\) that of the earth, and its size is forty times less. The general opinion of authors is that the moon has no atmosphere and lacks water, and consequently cannot contain living beings ; but from the general principles laid down in this Physiological Theory we infer that the moon, in order to accomplish its orbital and rotatory movement, requires life as does our own planet. It is not possible to determine the forms of living matter, but we have sufficient reason to affirm its existence. Analogies exist between all the other heavenly bodies and the sun, the earth, or the moon, but their study is particular or concrete. We only need know as a general fact that the differences among all of them are not absolute, and the transitions are graduated in such a manner that relying on spectroscopic observations we can proclaim the analogy of the constituent material without any other difference than in the proportions of its components, and thus can add that in all the universe perfect harmony reigns in the descriptive relations — those of space, as well as in the genesic — those of activity in time. § 53. Terrestrial Gravity. The force of gravity is manifested to our irreflexive experience in two different states ; one is movement, J: which is seen in the falling of bodies through the atmosphere when they are of greater density than the air, and the other is the equilibrium ordinarily called weight. Reason has discovered that both states are but one which results from the intermotion of progenic and atomic matter on account of their different con- densation, the ratio being as 54 : lOO (almost i : 2). That is to say, an atom must be almost twice as much condensed as a portion of progene of the same volume, but all the atoms of the different atomic substances must be of equal density (the same weight in the same volume) because all bodies fall with equal velocity in an empty tube. This relation is, of course, established, supposing the atoms to be compared in a tube void of other particles. The force of falling bodies, moved by gravity alone, increases in direct ratio to the square of the distance passed through, and the force of gravity decreases with, or is in inverse ratio to the square of the distance from the centre of the earth. Gravity is not a property of matter, it is only a mental relation from quantitative comparisons. Such a relation is not constant, it is subject to periodical and irregular variations, as is proved by the measurement of atmospheric pressure. If we take into consideration the maximum and minimum changes of atmospheric pressure in different places, on different days and hours, we may discover many curious results, and explain them according to our Physiological Theory ; but the consideration of this point alone would be sufficient matter for a book. It must suffice for us to remark here that the average atmospheric pressure on the surface of the earth is equal to the weight of y6 centimetres of mercury (measured by the barometer), 1 i\ 'i\ -»-; 276 VII. PLANETARY BODIES. S3. GRAVITY. V7 and that the widest variation from that number represents only a few millimetres on the mercurial barometer. Most of the barometric changes are periodi- cal, alternately increasing and decreasing every six hours in harmony with their proximate cause, the circulation of progene, which systematically changes its activity according to the vitality of both kingdoms, but principally that of the vegetable kingdom, whose changes are in correlation first with the position of the sun and second with that of the moon. The results most apparent to the senses arising from the perturbation of atmospheric pressure, are the move- ments of the two principal fluids distributed around the earth— air and water ; but the more noticeable of the two are the ebb and flow of the waters as manifested in tides, the progenic pressure being greater where there are ebb tides or low water and less where there are flood tides or high water. But these motions of great masses of water may also vary according to other circumstances, principally from the difficulty encountered in passing through narrow channels (as in the Mediterranean), and also with the rotation of the earth, which produces a centrifugal influence which affects the movement of the waters. Modern writers on Physics have already explained the action of gravity by means of imponderable ether (progene), but their theory is not complete because no explanation has ever been given as to how the circuit of the current in the system is closed ; it was either left open altogether, or in some cases there was a pretence of closing it, but in an incorrect manner, and consequently the problem was not resolved at all. Some physicists are opposed to the ethereal explanation of gravity, and have based their opposition on worthless objections. They say that no analogy can be established between gravity and the other forms of action which are referred to propagations of imponderable ether, that is, progenic propagation, as sound, light, radiating heat and elec- tricity, because these are transmitted with determined velocity in opposition to gravity which is instantaneous. In addition to this, they pretend to find many other essential differences which are not real ; they say that gravity is a rectilineal and fixed or invariable force for all bodies, that it is inexhaustible, that it cannot be neutralized, that it is independent of the nature, volume, and structure of bodies, that it cannot be interrupted, reflected, refracted, or combined, and finally, that it only differs in a ratio proportional to the quantity of mass and to the distances among the bodies in attraction. To these objections we reply in a few words which will suffice to convince us of their untenable character. We have already said in the theory of light that the propagation of movement through interstellar progene must be considered instantaneous, and that the defined velocity of a progenic course depends on the resistance of corpuscular or ponderable matter, from which inter- action the transference of photothermic radiation into gravity results. Light passing through bodies has a definite velocity, because progene is not continuous in them, but distributed in parcels which are in a constant rotatory oscillation, not primordial, but produced by their collision with the particles which limit the inter- stitial porocules. Therefore, there is no reason for sup- posing any difference of velocity between gravity and all the other forms of progenic propagation. It is true that gravity is rectilineal and inexhaustible, but so also t- 278 VII, PLANETARY BODIES. is light ; it is not true that gravity is invariable, becaus its direction varies in dififcrent points, and it is also variable in intensity, which may be provoked by baro- metric changes; neither is it independent from tlie nature, structure, volume, etc., of bodies, as bodies lighter than the air are raised in that medium by the action of gravity ; and, finally, gravity may become a factor or component of a resultant force as we see in f chemical metamorphoses. The effects of gravity, that is, of atmospheric pressure within the earth, are extraordinary ; but not all subterranean changes are produced by gravity, as elec- tric currents passing through the earth greatly contri- bute to cause such effects. The hypothesis supported by most geologists is that in the interior of the earth heat exists which has been accumulated since its forma- tion, and such heat is generally considered the prime * cause of all subterranean phenomena. It is a fact that the earth preserves the same temperature at the depth of 28 metres (about 100 feet) ; from that depth (where the thermometer always registers 12° centigrade), the temperature increases in a uniform progression of one degree for every 30 metres of descent (in round numbers 100 feet), and it is a mathematical conclusion that at such a rate of increase the heat must be sufficient to melt rocks at the depth of 100 kilometres (about 60 miles). Such an increase of temperature is principally produced by the transference of gravity into oscillatory move- ments of progene. Gravitating pressure is greater within the earth than on its surface, because the increase is in proportion to the square of the distance from the sur- face ; the compression of subterranean bodies then is greater according to their depth, and this is sufficierJ t f ? I. lit 53- GRAVITY. 279 cause for the high temperature which exists in the inner- most part of the earth. Moreover, we repeat that progenic currents passing through the earth are partly- transferred into heat, thus increasing the temperature. Hence, the heat within the earth is not primordial ; it is derived like any other manifested change of nature ; it is only a proximate cause of subterranean storms ; it produces dilatation of bodies, changes of state and chemical metamorphoses, all of which may produce either discharges of progene as in simple earthquakes, or the escape of fluid and solid matters through perfora- tions they make in the solid crust of the earth, in this manner volcanoes beincr formed. Finally, once we admit the fluidity of matter within the earth, we must make our inferences according to the results of fluid pressures, that is, that the action of gravity is equally distributed throughout all the interior mass which is composed of liquids and gases, accom- panied, of course, by the corresponding progene. Static laws or those of the equilibrium of bodies are derived from dynamic laws ; thus, although the effects of gravity are apparently manifested as repose and movement, the cause is always dynamic, for they result from progenic movements, and in order to perceive gravitating movements, falling of bodies (except in the case of falling meteors), it was formerly necessary to employ a quantity of living force in order to elevate the bodies in a direction contrary to that of gravity. Accordingly there is a constant neutralization in the world between living or manifested forces and gravity, w^hen bodies do not exactly follow a direction towards the centre of the earth. 28o VII. PLANETARY BODIES. i^' %K § 54. Theory of the Planetary Movements of THE Earth and Terrestrial Magnetism. The diurnal and annual movements of our planet are known only by reason, for our irreflexive sensations refer such movements to the celestial bodies ; but since the time of Galileo they have been admitted and recognized as movements of the earth, so proving that the senses are deceived by the phenomenon called aberration of sight. It is inexact to say that the planets are animated by forces, and the error is twofold when it is said that the planetary forces are two, one instantaneous and the other continuous. This last, astronomers say, is the force of interplanetary attraction, and the former they suppose to have existed only at the moment when the celestial bodies were set in motion, adding that the impulsive effect of such a force still persists by virtue of the inertia of matter. This explanation is fully contradicted by the fundamental principle of mechanism — conservation of energy — which in other words is the indisputable law of inertia. The earth, as a whole, is in translatory divergent movement following the direction of an ellipse, and it is at the same time in spheroidal rotation ; the first move- ment is called orbital and the second rotatory. The orbital movement is that which the earth follows around the sun, but at a great distance from it, closing the curve every year; this movement therefore being annually repeated. The rotatory movement is the daily move- ment of the earth on its axis, this being an imaginary line passing through the earth's centre from north to south, and on which it is supposed to rotate. 54. PLANETARY MOVEMENTS. 281 1) Both movements depend on the same cause, this is, the generating power of living matter by which im- ponderable matter first and ponderable matter after- wards are constantly disturbed, progene thus becoming the primary effect of material circulation throughout the universe. Let us now clearly and precisely determine the movements of progene, which are the origin of the total movements of the earth. For this purpose it will be sufficient for us to know the great influence of sunshine on green vegetation, without the necessity of taking into consideration either the other planets, or the stars of other systems, as these only act in the modality of the change, but not as determining causes. In order to understand more thoroughly the production of the total movements of the earth by self propulsion instead of by mutual and distant attractions, let us imagine it in a moment of repose, that is, in a fixed position in relation with the sun, one half illuminated (day), and the other half in shade (night). The rays of light are translatory progene which is absorbed by the chlorophyl of the green plants. The moment progene is condensed by plants in a quantity sufficient to destroy the com- binational resistance of the elements of carbonic acid and water, a great elimination oi oxygen takes place, but some part remains in the plant with the carbo?iy and these two elements combined with hydrogen form new compounds called hydro-carburates ; these ternary principles afterwards combine with nitrogen and thus form nitro-carburates. These combinations are not permanent ; in the act of disassimilation from organism they are decomposed by gradual oxidation for which the absorption of oxygen and the elimination of progene .ft • * 282 VII. PLANETARY BODIES. 54. PLANETARY MOVEMENTS. 283 iiT are necessary. This oxidation is the predominant metamorphosis of animals during day and night, though it is more exaggerated during the sleeping hours, which are generally in the night ; the metamorphoses of organic composition are predominant in the vegetable kingdom during the day, principally in those parts containing a great quantity of chlorophyl. Light, too, is an affluent stimulus for the formation of the carburates before mentioned, and although oxidation or interstitial respiration is constant in the vegetable as well as in the animal kingdom, it is not externally manifested in green plants during the day because the products of oxidation are taken by the plant itself to supply its great com- binational necessity instead of being interchanged with the external medium. The chief consequence of these transferences determined by vitality is the propulsion of the earth by the circulating progene in two different directions, whose resultant, according to the laws of molar mechanics, is a double divergent movement, rotatory and parabolic. The forces in reference are, first, a propulsion in the direction of the sunlight pro- duced by the absorption of progene which presupposes transference into ponderable motion ; and, second, a propulsion in an almost contrary direction, produced by the escape of progene from all the organisms existing in the shaded hemisphere. That is to say, in the illuminated hemisphere the oxidation does not compen- sate the changes of organic composition, while in the shaded hemisphere the oxidation predominates, and it may be practically said that vitality during the night only produces the final result of organic combustion by the effect of which progene is freed and escapes into the atmosphere which is deficient in it, because during the night it does not directly receive any from solar re- flexion. The propulsion of progene must be greater where the oxidation is most active, and this occurs in that part of the shaded hemisphere which is the last to receive the sunlight. Accordingly, this force of the night current is produced in a manner similar to the movement of a rocket, that is, by discharge of progene. Such a current propels the earth in a direction opposite to the point where the progene escapes, as when water running from a pipe produces a pressure in a direction contrary to that in which it flows. Of course, the ex- planation of the elliptical form of the terrestrial orbit, and the alternating position of the earth changing every six months from its aphelion to its perihelion is also based on the periodicity of vegetable life. There is no doubt that the cause of the elliptical revolution of the earth is the evolution of vegetable life, because when the total amount of vegetative assimilation on the earth increases, the day or light propulsion predominates, the effect of the absorption of progene being then stronger ; then the earth is separated from the sun until the power of the sun's rays, diminishing with the distance, is compensated or equilibrated by the night currents. When the total amount of vegetable assimilation de- creases and the night or escaping propulsion predomi- nates, the effect of the absorption of progene becomes weaker, and then the earth again approaches the sun until the rays of light become very powerful (as they increase in strength in proportion to proximity) and can compensate the night propulsion. The succession of such changes naturally occurs every six months. The position of the earth's axis in relation to the sun is also an effect of the periodical function of vegeta- :'-j'j; \ 284 VII. PLANETARY BODIES. 55. RECAPITULATION. 285 tion, which is not equally exuberant at the same time in all parts of the earth, the progenia propulsion being always greater in those places where the activity of the vegetable kingdom is greatest. We have already explained three phenomena which are manifested as permanent molar movements of the earth ; one, gravity which is partial in its manifestations, and the two others rotatory and orbital, which are movements of the whole earth. Another molar move- ment, partial like gravity, is also constantly manifested by the direction of the magnetic needle towards the poles. The constant disturbance produced by vitality on the surface of the earth determines some other currents of progene (besides those before mentioned) which, as Ampere said, convert the terrestrial globe into a large magnetic ellipsoid. The most important of these currents flows towards the poles from a neutral line in the equatorial regions, which is called the mag- netic meridian. This meridian does not coincide with the equatorial line, it is inclined to the northern hemi- sphere, as there land, and therefore vegetation, pre- dominates over that of the southern hemisphere. This current, which may be called the polar current, depends, as we have already said, on the difference of the vital process between the life of the polar regions, where animals almost alone exist, and that of the equatorial regions, where vegetation, and, consequently, chlorophyl is more abundant. There is still another cause for the deficiency of progene in the polar regions: the light there acts with less intensity, and consequently the direct supply of progene from the sun is smaller. Between these two causes such a lack of progene in the polar regions is sometimes produced that the polar S I 4 currents become luminous, the aurora borealis and similar peculiar luminous phenomena thus originating. § 55. Recapitulation of the Concept of Planetary Bodies. All the changes of the world may be divided into two groups, phenomenal or manifested, and potential or latent. There are two kinds of phenomenal changes, total and partial ; in the former we see the movements of bodies, while in the latter the movements are recognized only by the intelligence which refers them either to the two constituents of bodies — molecules and progene, or to progene alone. From this arises our distinction between molecular and progenic phe- nomena, each comprising two kinds, which, with molar movements, gives us five kinds of natural phenomena. Furthermore, we have already mentioned another kind of change which we have denominated potential, and this gives us the sixth material change, as shown in the following correlative order : — 1. Molar phenomena : visible movements and equili- brium of bodies. 2. Thermic phenomena : changes of temperature and of physical state. 3. Chemical phenomena : metamorphoses in the composition of bodies. 4. Acoustic phenomena : oscillatory movement of progene. 5. Optic phenomena : photothermic emission of progene. 6. Potential changes : electricity, latent and radiating heat. 286 VIl. PLANETARY BODIES. 55. RECAPITULATION. 287 9f Putting these changes together, we form the concept of the motion throughout the world, establishing a very- remarkable difference among the three kinds of physical changes, as in molar phenomena the body changes its place in totality, although it may or may not change the relative disposition of its corpuscular and progenic constituents ; in molecular phenomena there is a change of place in the minute corpuscles of bodies, and therefore a change in the two corporeal constituents without any total movement ; and in progenic changes (phenomenal and potential) the motion is in progene alone apart from molar or molecular movement. All these changes must necessarily take place in planetary bodies. Bear in mind that the distinction in physiological changes between propagations and transferences is relative, as in fact all material change consists simply in propagation of movement, and never in a true transference, but the propagation may be either homologous or heterologous, that is, without or with change in the form of movement, and from this arises our relative distinction between simple propagations (homologous changes) and trans- ferences (heterologous propagations). The most re- markable thing in transferences is that the intermediate change is not ordinarily manifested, almost all taking place in the organic and inorganic world by means of potential transmission. Thus the conversion of molar movement into heat, of this into chemical action, and of molecular phenomena into progenic changes, and vice versa, always need in other worlds as well as in ours the intermediate action of progene. There can only be a direct conversion when there is a transference of molecular change into molar movement, as occurs in the transference of heat, or of the movements of physical state, or of chemical reaction into utile molar work or into dangerous explosion ; and this kind of transference is produced in order to determine planetary movements. In a final analysis all the changes of the world, inclu- ding all functions of organic bodies, are reduced to the different kinds of propagation of movement which have been comprehended in "Analytic Physiology." We must not forget that mental activity must be separated from the synthetic concept of vitality in which there is only that which is properly organic. Viewed from an etio- logical standpoint, vitality has a very important natural condition, as it is the first effect or immediate con- sequence of the true cause of mechanical order in the cosmic system, that is to say, it is the first operation of the sole causal law through which the direct purpose or immediate aim of the Creator is effected. But circumscribing ourselves to the limits of material nature, vitality is the object of our study only in the succession of potential and phenomenal effects, i.e. in the functions of living bodies. By the generating activity of living matter a current of progene is formed whose circle is complete ; progene in such a course interacts with ponderable matter, and from this interaction four constant forms of molar change result : gravity, orbital and rotatory movements of the earth, and terrestrial magnetism. In order to convey more clearly an idea of the complete circulation of pro- gene, we may compare it to the circulation of the blood, and in accordance with this parallel divide it into a greater and lesser circulation, and the greater may be subdivided into afferent, efferent, and communicating currents. The heart being represented by the living world, and the great capillary net by the ocean of 2S8 VII. PLANETARY BODIES. ^ interstellar progene (communicating current), we have then this parallel : progene flows towards the illuminated hemisphere from the sun (afferent current), passes round (effect of the rotation of the earth) to the shaded hemi- sphere, where by oxidation it is set at liberty (efferent current), and irradiated through the atmosphere to the great ocean of progene until it collides with the bodies which constitute the ideal dome, and is newly reflected back by them to our planetary system in which there is a great focus — the sun — for the confluence of all planetary emissions. From this we must infer that the same change which takes place in the earth takes place in a greater or less degree in all the planets, and as the intensity of radiation decreases with the distance from the sun, the focus of all the planetary orbits is the point where the sum of all radiations is greatest ; and in addition to this we must take into consideration the immense extension of the sun's reflecting surface, and also its emissive surface, which cannot be a small one. Accordingly, the rotatory and translatory movements of planets and satellites, and the rotatory movement of the sun are produced by progenic currents which are prin- cipally the effects of contrary reaction in vegetation during the day and night. All planetary bodies radiate heat as a necessary emission from the organisms existing on them, but the radiation becomes luminous by the confluence or combination of many thermic radi- ations in a sphere so vast in extension as the sun. Light also may result as the direct effect of very active combustion, as in comets, but this is a rare, and not the ordinary manner of its production. All the phenomena of "universal attraction," or, better to say, atomic gravitation^ have their rational 55. RECAPITULATION'. 289 explanation in physiological synthesis as resultants of organic movements or vitality. We have explained terrestrial magnetism in the same way as gravity, plane- tary movements, and chemical metamorphoses, all of which may be comprehended under one denomination, as magnetisffi for instance, differentiating its modalities by prefixing certain words. In this manner magnetism should then mean all the states of ponderable matter directly produced by the transference of translatory movement of progene, and molecular magnetism may be substituted for the phrases atomic and molecular attrac- tions. Cohesion and affinity have been explained in the theories of Heat and Chemistry by the intermotion of molecular gravity with progenic oscillation, and we now add that the result is a true molecular magnetism, which may be in a state of equilibrium or of movement, the former resulting when the centrifugal force of heat and the centripetal one of gravity are equal, and the latter when one of the two predominates. Thus the harmony in the world is perfect ; the pro- genic currents are the sole agent of magnetic phe- nomena ; they move the molecules to their chemical metamorphoses, and are also the occult motor of the immense masses of the planetary systems. That is to say, planetary movements and those of molecules in chemical changes are produced in the same manner as the magnetic movements of the earth ; all three result from the transference of the currents of progene into translatory movement of pondera,ble n^atter. U = t I 290 VIII. THE UNIVERSE, 56. IS IT AN ORGANISMS 291 CHAPTER VIII. CONCEPT OF THE UNIVERSE. § 56. Is the universe an organism or a mechanism ?— § 57. All objects in the universe qualitatively identical-^ 58. Propagation of movement throughout the universe— § 59. General criticism of the doctrines of evolution— § 60. Additional argument against transformism— § 61. The doctrine of Cosmogony is not physiologic— § 62. Causal determi- nation of the universe— § 63. Recapitulation of the concept of the universe. I 56. Is THE Universe an Organism or a Mechanism ? In the dispute regarding the question as to whether the universe is an organism or a mechanism, the terms are not set forth by the majority of writers exactly as they should be defined. Most authors, especially those circumscribed to Physiological Sciences, have no clear and complete idea of the concept of mechanism, as they affirm its exclusive existence, comprehending in it the whole cosmos ; while most philosophers, speculators of the mind and of the divinity, proclaim the great truth — the necessity of the organic conception of the universe, and therefore the existence of an organizer. The uni- verse, properly interpreted, is in principle an organism, but such an affirmation does not exclude the real exist- ence of mechanism, if this is limited to explain the efifects of physical cosmos, objective things or material nature. And for this reason great success has recently been experienced in Physiological Science upon the sole basis of mechanical theory, but such progress has been erroneously interpreted by most physicists, who have fallen into materialism, confounding what is purely phenomenal, that is, the description of the effected form of objects, with the cause itself, so identifying their ideas with positivism, protesting against the possibility of our intelligence acquiring any other knowledge than that given by phenomena and their laws, without admitting the existence of a Primordial Cause. Physiological Theory has demonstrated the essential necessity of unity in nature, and certainly a system cannot be constructed of independent parts without mutual rela- tions of principle and aim ; the whole universe cannot be explained by a causal sum or aggregation, but by causal union of the parts. Such a cause must neces- sarily be a supernatural, supreme intelligence which must be conscious ; an unconscious intelligence is an impossibility, as the terms are in plain contradiction. The unconscious intelligences interposed as immediate agents of nature, like the vital principle or force admitted by vitalism, are fantastic, incomprehensible things, because our mind contains but two kinds of perceptible notions, that of our own consciousness and that of matter ; by the first, whose data are qualitative perceptions intrinsic to the mind, we infer the knowledge of the immaterial or supernatural (soul and God), and by the material notion, whose data are quantitative perceptions extrinsic to the mind, we acquire the knowledge of physical nature — material object or mechanism, composed of ponder- able and imponderable matter. The material concept 292 VUI. THE UNIVERSE, 56. IS IT AN ORGANISMS 293 is different from but not opposed to the mental one, and our understanding excludes from reality, and considers as nothing, or simply as names of imaginary things, all which is not one of the two— either intelligent cause or me- chanical effect. Furthermore, mechanism is determined in accordance with the supreme idea or law which, like its dictator, can only be good with absolute perfection, and then it must be one and invariable ; this is con- firmed by the uniformity or constant regularity of nature, and by the truth of the mechanical laws which, being derived from the divine idea by means of its engendering influence upon living bodies, are never capricious or irregular. Accordingly, Physiological Theory recognizes the mechanical laws acquired by rational experience, and yet, while it admits the truths of Mechanics, it also admits the existence of the True Cause, because, if mechanical ideas are considered independent of a cause, we should affirm the abstraction of effects without cause, and then we would be obliged to refer ourselves not to the complete system, but to the object of physiological science alone, that is, to the redistribution of matter in movement, and this does not embrace all which exists in the universe. Our division of theoretical or philosophic sciences into Physiology and Metaphysics removes the traditional opposition between physicists and metaphysicians, each having a very well-defined province. Metaphysical explanations go beyond what nature offers to sensual experience, that is, what is not within the reach of our senses, and cannot be inferred from sensual data but by pure reason ; this is the reference of things and changes to the Prime Cause interpreting the end of manifested activities. Physiological or physical expla- t nations teach in what manner a definite state of things results from another state which is its antecedent in accordance with general laws, or, in other words, the properties of a compound depend on those of its com- ponents ; but physical explanations must implicitly assume the total system, although expressly considering only its mechanical laws without any attempt to interpret them, or to inquire which is the beginning or which is the end. Therefore, if a mechanical law is taken as a basis of Physiology, it always implies the existence of the author of the law. The physicist must follow the advice of the metaphysician in order to correct his errors in the fundamental concepts of nature (matter and force, mass and movement, protoplasm and irrita- bility, etc.), instead of denying or treating such advice with disdain, as most of them do ; and, on the other hand, the metaphysician must gather physiological knowledge in order to guide his ideas by the natural facts which are the sensual fruit of the activity of the Creator. All manifested changes have a common origin ; organic generation is the causal determination of phe- nomena in all material aggregates, whether living or not, and this common character is discovered by our Physiological Theory. Starting from this fundamental distinction between living and non-living bodies, we afiirm that in the connection with the Primordial Cause or Creating Activity only organic generation is under its direct and continuous influence, and so we can then understand the relative validity of mechanical laws in the universal system. Such laws are only a comple- ment or contribution to the notion of the universe in which unity presides over the beginning and the end • J- 294 VIIL THE UNIVERSE, of all things. Our task is not to establish the proofs of such an affirmation ; but we declare such a truth in order to put ourselves in opposition to pure mechanical ideas, and to exclusive atomism, which try to explain all the system merely by the accumulation of material elements, every one independent of the system, sup- posing activity is all inherent to matter or to atoms. The universe cannot be explained by mechanism in its primordial effects — creation and organic generation — so that the concept of mechanism, excluding causal determination, assumes but a partial system of nature, comprehending in the signification of this word that which is manifested and inferred from the data of extrinsic experience ; in this sense Mechanics and Physiology are synonymous, and their final aim is only to discover the laws of mutual connection of the pheno- mena within the derived effects of the universal system. Mechanic explanations, then, do not go beyond organic generation, a fact that cannot be explained without having recourse to something outside of mechanism, while by mechanism itself we can clearly account for all the other facts in which we do not need to refer directly to the true cause of the universe. Accordingly, Physiology, including Molar Mechanics, Physics, Chemistry, and Biology, is a science altogether mechanical, but the mechanical ideas are limited to the assumption of the partial cosmic system with its material changes and laws alone, so that a physiological explanation consists in teaching how a derived or secondary effect is produced, leaving us nothing as to the Primordial Cause and effect save the belief that there is a purpose in the process, as the integrity of cosmic mechanism in its actual state consists not only in the 57. QUALITATIVE IDENTITY OF ALL OBJECTS, 295 continuity of movement, but also in the natural depen- dence among the members or parts of the system which are all under the same general laws. § 57. All Objects in the Universe qualitatively Identical. We have affirmed in the Analysis of Cosmos that matter is everywhere equal in its attributive conditions or qualities ; that all objects are of the same substance (which differs only in numerical or geometrical propor- tions), and of the same form of activity, which is always movement, and which is propagated with conservation of energy. We now add some explanation in order to give such a proposition its universal concept, extending it to organic as well as to inorganic bodies, to celestial as well as to terrestrial ones. For this we need only apply the arguments given on the abstract concept of matter to the concrete aggregation of all the objects constituting material cosmos. The substantial identity of all objects of the universe is a question beyond practical resolution, since by ex- perience we cannot transform all objects into one and the same chemical element ; but the character of this question is not purely descriptive ; it is genesic, and as such it is not a matter of the senses but of reason ; consulting this, we know that the propagations through the senses and nerves cannot be propagations of different quality but only of quantity, because the object does not touch the centres where the proximate change to the presentation of ideas is produced, and therefore that qualitative differences, when they make reference to objects, depend on the reactions provoked in the mind V s«. 296 VIII. THE UNIVERSE. by the propagating movements, which vary only in quantitative relations. If there could be differences of quality among material objects they could not be observed by our perceptions, so that the reference of qualities to objects is a consequence of our ignorance, as in order to know the object completely we must discover the quantitative relations of all its changes, explaining in this manner all their analogies and differ- ences. We repeat that the perceptions of the qualities only give us the knowledge of the mental subject, as they connote its power or capacity of objective repre- sentation. Hence all objective properties consist in relative differences resulting from the different collocation or redistribution of matter in movement ; and although such identity of quality among all the constituents of the universe cannot be affirmed as an irreflexive fact, it is a principle of thought inferred from experimental limits, as the data of sensual observation can never pass from the determination of relative or quantitative laws. Most physicists explain material or objective inter- action by forces acting between things and producing their sensual effects ; thus they explain action at a distance by the empty phrase " universal attraction," which, according to their view, must be a force of omnipotent and omnipresent power, as it can act through void spaces and through interposed objects ; they ex- plain calorific changes by an equally empty phrase, " repulsive force," which they suppose is originated by an inherent elasticity in imponderable ether. If this really constituted cosmic mechanism our proposition of the attributive identity of all objects would be erroneous, because the existence of such opposite forces of attrac- ts 57. QUALITATIVE IDENTITY OF ALL OBJECTS, 297 tion and repulsion would denote the existence of some essential quality inherent to the peculiar nature of every kind of matter. But we know already that physical forces are nothing more than names for mental abstrac- tions, and being only ideal names they cannot explain anything ; and on the other hand, even if forces were really things, the question would still remain unresolved, as we cannot say what things really are. We must deny that objects act by the effect of forces, and con- sequently to say that the particles of a body or different bodies are united by their attractions is only to describe a fact, and, what is still worse, to describe it in improper terms, because matter cannot be attracted as if its different portions were drawn together by inflexible cords. The sole material reality is in the objective things themselves, and there is nothing else among them ; they are not independent, but under the law of the director of universal organism. We repeat that the mind needs the constant atten- tion and guide of reason in order not to be deceived by the abstract signification of some words and mistake them as representing realities, as, for instance, when we speak of mass and movement in Mechanics we must not think that they are independent things of different qualities ; movement simply represents the abstract idea of the points where an object may be successively changing its place, and with such points we can draw a continuous line which marks the course of the object. There is nothing attributive to the thing itself, for we suppose it in movement ; the differences between an object in relative repose and in movement are differences of reason, marking either simply the relation in space, that is, the direction, or the compound relation of space 298 VIII. THE UNIVERSE. and time called velocity, which is the peculiar or charac- teristic measure of movement, and which is determined by the space run over in the unity of time (a second). When movement is variable (as is always the case in nature) the velocity is determined, supposing that the movement is uniform, the moment we try to deter- mine it ; this implies that movement is completely different from its determination or measure, as velocity does not exactly fix the intimate condition of what is impelling the body to move with greater or less intensity in order to change the place or position of objects. We make the same arguments in regard to every one of the terms and properties of objects as they are all relative, their differences being only quantitative. But we cannot be too careful in closely analyzing the complex concepts of most of the terms in order to see which of the elemental concepts are comprehended ; thus, for instance, mass represents the quantity of pon- derable matter which is measured by the action of gravity, and gravity is a resultant of the intermotion of atoms and progene in movement. Therefore the concept of mass comprehends in itself the two attributive elements, sub- stance and activity. In addition to this, in a concrete sense, mass is not a fixed relation, but on the contrary varies according to the conditions of space and time. This is enough to prove our proposition, which in other words affirms that when language expresses a qualitative difference among objective things it is always in a figurative sense, either connoting a direct reference to mind according to irreflexive or sensual appearances, or representing simply by abstract nouns the conceptual ideas we form from objects. In the former case language has given rise to the fallacy of 'j^s^fiBiii^'^iiiSi^^mmk 58. PROPAGATION OF MOVEMENT. 299 sensation in which the representations of the mind are taken as objective differences, and in the latter a fallacy of thought is produced, taking concepts as objective realities. Accordingly, we must conclude that all objec- tive natural or material differences must be referred m reality to quantitative relations. § 58 Propagation of Movement throughout THE Universe. Irreflexive appearances of sensation have engendered in human understanding the abortive concept of absolute repose, considering it as primordial and in correlation with the ontological idea of movement, considering this movement as a thing merely originated in the world. The signification of the terms absolute repose and absolute movement are irreflexive and not intelligible, because we can only comprehend objective change as produced by propagation of movement, a finite or partial system of things passing, for instance, from a state of relative repose, in which the distances among those things are preserved, to a state of relative move- ment in which the things do not preserve the same position among themselves, and then a correlative equivalent change, but of a completely opposite order must be produced in the other material things. If the limit of physiological explanations is in the knowledge of the correlation of material changes, the primordial origin or generation of movement is inex- plicable as is that of matter ; besides generation of movement is inseparable from creation of matter, as we cannot start from the supposition of considering it as primordially passive. Hence neither has repose pre- 300 VIIL THE UNIVERSE. 58. PROPAGATION OF MOVEMENT. 301 Vi ceded movement nor movement repose ; they are only two relative conditions of objective reality, differentiated by the sensual states of the relative ideal division that we make of the circulating system of nature into smaller or larger sections, which generally represent only a very small part of the whole. If movement is only a condition of objective things it cannot be transferred. Speaking with propriety, it can only be propagated. Nothing can transfer its own movement ; an object can produce an equivalent move- ment in another object, and then the antecedent move- ment disappears for the sensation, but the resulting movement is not truly generated, it has only appeared either under a different form or in a different place. In the propagation of movement the fundamental law of mechanism — conservation of energy — is ad- mitted, but although this is a true principle, many physicists have drawn from it deductions which are totally different from its enunciation, and it has con- sequently been considered as the basis for the false dogma of the kinetic hypothesis that movement in the phenomenal state is constantly the same, and that there- fore it is something inherent in matter with the perpetual condition of continuing manifested in the same quantity. It is mathematically demonstrated that movement does not persist in the same quantity in bodies, because the continuity in the change of movement through ponder- able matter is lost or constantly neutralized by gravity ; the movement then is returned to its potential uniformity, and as this is a progenic energy, and progene can pass from one body into another, the movement or energy of all bodies varies. Therefore there is a tendency to repose in ponderable matter, not through its own agency but through gravity. We have seen that, in order to explain the loss of living force in mechanism, the upholders of the kinetic hypothesis have considered elasticity as an inherent property of matter, having the power of restoring the loss of living energy and there- fore of generating movement. This, as we have already explained, is not only an imaginary conception but one contradictory both to the fundamental idea of their hypothesis and to the undoubted condition of inertia of matter. We have also explained that mani- fested changes are engendered in living beings, and for these a variable movement must be precisely originated for the collocation of the elements necessary for the formation of organic structures. Such a movement, which restores the loss of living force in the world, is certainly not a new creation ; it is a propagation superior to the power of mechanism, as a variable movement has been produced by a uniform potential energy thus converting it into manifested changes or phenomena. In this manner we have explained the mutual connection in the system between multiplica- tion of living beings and that called multiplication of living force, which regenerates manifested changes or phenomenal evolution. Although all these questions now enunciated have been separately considered before, we must bring them together here in order to explain clearly the causal determination of movement Energy is the capacity, whether manifested or otherwise, to produce a movement, that is to say, the force to change the relative position of an object either in its totality or in its constituents — atoms and pro- gene. The mechanical principle of conservation affirms 302 VIII. THE UNIVERSE. 58. PROPAGATION OF MOVEMENT. 303 that there is always the same quantity of energy in the universe, but the word " energy " in this compre- hensive sense does not alone represent the quantity of molar and molecular movements, whose measure is half the product of the mass and the square of the velocity ; in energy is also comprehended progenic movements, either phenomenal or potential. For this reason we cannot consider as a logical consequence the affirma- tion of the physicists that the quantity of movement of two bodies cannot be increased or diminished by their collision ; that the sum of the product of the mass of the bodies and half the square of the velocity are the same after as before the collision. They say that the translatory movement of bodies is then converted into a vibratory movement of their particles, from this arising an erroneous corollary of the principle of con- servation of energy by which they affirm that movement is inherent in bodies, these always preserving the same energy though changing the form of the movement. In order to maintain such a fallacy, these authors claim to be assisted by the results of experience, affirming that such a conversion of energy into vibratory move- ment of the bodies in collision is palpably seen if we experiment with elastic bodies ; and, they add, in those cases in which there appears to be a complete loss of energy, as in the collision of soft bodies, it is because all molar movement has been converted into molecular. We have already seen that the true facts of experience are contrary to such imaginary ideas, as there is not even one case of conservation of energy in bodies after their collision, because there is no such thing as perfect elasticity in bodies ; and even if we take into account the translatory movement which in a collision is trans- I- ■*';^ ' i-',\ formed into potential forms of energy, we constantly find the loss of living energy and the propagation of some movement from within the bodies in collision to other bodies ; and in the same manner we may affirm that the movements of ponderable matter, either of masses or of particles, constantly lose some energy after any manifested change, on account of the passive resistance determined by gravitation. This constant neutralization of mechanical energy in the world ac- counts for the notable differences between such abstract ideas of Mechanics as those now mentioned and the practical facts of real cosmic mechanism. Propagation of movement throughout progene alone, as in interstellar spaces, is constantly preserved with the same energy, because, the density of the metafluid being the same, there is no cause for passive resistance as there is in bodies whose atoms are of almost twice the density of progene. From such uniformity in the interstellar fluid arises the perfect persistency or con- tinuity of planetary movements in harmony with some determined law, and in opposition to this is the fault of persistency or continuity in the movement of the constituent bodies of our planet, the problem of con- tinuous movement being for this reason of impossible resolution in our industries. Therefore, if we apply the calculations of Astronomy to the movements of terrestrial bodies, we must take into account the differ- ences between the mediums, and consequently the law of gravity. The law of gravity is precisely our proof to demon- strate the difference of condensation between ponder- able and imponderable matter as well as the equal condensation of all atoms, because the influence of 304 V211. THE UNIVERSE, 58. PROPAGATION OF MOVEMENT, 305 progene upon ponderable matter in a tube from which the air has been exhausted is equal for all bodies. From this we deduce the fact that progenic pressure upon the earth determines in all bodies a force pro- portional to the quantity of ponderable matter which they contain — mass, and the measure of such force is the weight of the body. This explanation of terrestrial gravity shows us that although mass and weight have been considered in ordinary Mechanics as passive re- sistance, they really represent activity, as they are the effect of an invisible movement determined by the con- stant pressure of progene in a centripetal direction, that is, towards the centre of the earth. This pressure is also the cause of the necessity of employing a force proportional to the mass of bodies in order to elevate them to the same height, that is, moving them to the same distance in a direction opposite to that of gravity. The influence of gravity which is palpably observed in molar movements is sufficient to lead us to infer its general application to the propagation of movement throughout the invisible particles which by their aggre- gation form masses. Thus, for instance, a chemical combination takes place because the equilibrium of progenic impulses is re-established in accordance with the greatest neutralization of forces which represent the measure of the oscillating energy of interstitial progene on the one hand and the atomic resistance to the pressure of gravitating progene on the other, so that we must not forget, in invisible movements like these, the constant effects of gravitation, which produce a loss of living force in every corporeal change. Accordingly, we have made two limitations in the principle of conservation of energy, as we have demon- strated on the one hand that there is always loss of living force in intraplanetary actions, and that such conservation may occur only in interstellar propaga- tions, and on the other hand that the whole universe is not a definite mechanical system to which the mathe- matical formulae of the correlation of forces can be applied, as in our investigations we finally reach a point which is not mechanic — this is the generation of vege- table and animal organisms which work under a power of collocation, the reparation of the loss of living force being also due to this. Many biologists affirm that vital functions result from physical and chemical phenomena, which are nothing but changes of movement among constant and uniform elements. But there is a fallacy in this affir- mation ; it consists in taking as resultant that which is identical ; and there is also an error of irreflexive obser- vation, because in the acquisition of the ideas which explain phenomena we first refer in the development of our mind to inorganic bodies and afterwards to the organized. Vitality does not result from physico- chemical changes, though phenomenally considered it is only a synthesis of all physiological changes which are primarily recognized and studied in the inorganic world; from this fact has resulted the erroneous concept of afifirming such a succession in the acquisition of ideas as the natural order in genesis. It is evident that every phenomenon or change manifested to the senses, whether the object referred to is organic or inorganic, supposes a change of movement, and therefore we may say that vital phenomena are physico-chemical changes like the inorganic, but this is not to say that the former result from the latter. If the word " result " means that 3o6 VIIL THE UNIVERSE. 59. CRITICISM ON EVOLUTION 307 the phenomena in organism are consecutive to those of inorganic bodies we then invert the natural order, be- cause organic generation is the sole movement in nature that cannot be explained by the propagation of living energy like in mechanism, as, on the contrary, by life some force becomes manifest instead of being lost. Thus we may maintain that the world is in uniform variable movement, as this is necessary for the constant and uniform changes of nature ; that in any mechanical change occurring in bodies there is a loss of living force because the density of atoms is greater than that of progene ; that from this difference atoms are always losing movement in their continuous intermotions with progene ; and consequently that progene would reduce its variable movements to a state of invariable uniformity if it was not returned to a variable state by the act of organic generation. § 59. General Criticism on the Doctrines of Evolution. The most important points in the genesis of natural evolution are: (i) the transformation of the different states of bodies ; (2) the generation of chemical species ; and (3) the generation of organic species. This last point, the origin of organic species, and that of mankind in particular, is reserved for Biology, because a general or comprehensive criticism of the evolution of all bodies will here serve our purpose to combat the false doctrines of evolution, especially that of modern transformism, and because the special criticism on the doctrine of evolu- tion of living bodies belongs to the separate treatise we shall publish under the title of " Abstract Biology." It is generally supposed that the solid state is the primordial one, and that the fluid (in its two forms, liquid and gaseous) is engendered by the dispersion of solid particles, liquids being thus first derived and gases afterwards. This manner of conceiving the evolution of the states of bodies, according to which the solid is con- sidered as the prime material, is the fruit of irreflexive observation in which the sensations presented to the mind are not analyzed with reflection, thus lacking rational interpretation. The state of matter which has been primarily perceived by our minds is that which forms solid masses ; thus humanity in its first age, and every individual in its infancy, has first taken notice of solid bodies, afterwards assimilating in perception and language the fluid states (liquids before gases) to the solid as things equally material, in the same manner as in the present day we assimilate the metafluid (although imponderable) with the different states of ponderable matter as being also material substance. The mind is predisposed to explain the order of the natural genesis of things by the order in the acquisition of ideas, and for this reason the mental construction of bodies has been generally reverse to that which reason discovers ; but instead of beginning with solid particles which is the most complete state of chemical species, we must begin with the simplest state of matter — progene — which, condensed by a power superior to mechanism, has formed the indivisible particles called atoms ; these, when dispersed or separated from one another, form gases ; when they are in contiguity two by two they form liquids ; and when all are in contiguity in some point they form solid bodies. The erroneous belief of the priority of solid matter ■^& fcT--A-ii.' .^Tuffliiiftitnanfi 3o8 VIII. THE UNIVERSE, i4 has engendered, as we have already seen, the erroneous concept of absolute atomism, which supposes that matter always consists of indivisible particles absolutely rigid and tangible, thus presenting the solid body not only as the typical but as the general form of the con- stitution of matter. But such an idea, we repeat, is opposed to rational experience, which directs us to assume expressly the contrary, that bodies in their gaseous state are comparatively the simplest, and that therefore the natural order of evolution is to go from the simple to the complex. But this argument has conduced one of the most notable thinkers, Laplace, to found another hypothesis affirming that the primitive or typical state of matter is the gaseous existing in a very subtile or rarefied form called "nebulus." Comparing the two mentioned hypotheses, we can at once estimate the great scientific superiority of the last, considering it as more rational than the first, but only as a descriptive means. In our judgment the hypothesis of atomism may be qualified as spontaneous or irreflexive, or, it may be said, puerile; and the doctrine of the nebulus is merely a graphic or descriptive illusion which is not worthy of elevation to the rank of a genesic theory of the uni- verse as it is considered by almost all physicists and naturalists. In addition to this the hypothesis of nebulus has been the basis for the doctrine of transformism, which, as a theory of genesis, is altogether inadmissible. The existence of cosmos can be explained only by invo- lution, this word meaning that natural existences have been created even in the most complex form — living species, and that the successive change of things consists in changes of physico-chemical states, but continuing in a circle returning to their former condition and state. 59. CRITICISM ON EVOLUTION 309 Nevertheless, the most plausible genesic explanation at present for most physicists is the hypothesis of nebulus, according to which all the forces of cosmic evolution are derived in final analysis purely and simply from the position of original gaseous particles uniformly diffused throughout space, and endowed with attractive and repulsive forces ; they supposing that all changes of compound forms, organized as well as inorganic, must be referred to the chemical affinities of the original material elements. In this manner the upholders of this hypothesis fall into a chaos from which they can- not extricate themselves ; they pretend that the system was formed only by its own tendency, denying in a more or less concealed manner and with vain words the intervention of the Creator in the successive changes of cosmos, leaving matter to make the evolution by itself alone. This hypothesis marks the second step in intellec- tual development in the same manner as the idea of primordial solidity may be considered as the first step in mental perception ; but there is a third step beyond physiological inquiries, to reach which is not within the capacity of all minds, though every one who attains it has the consciousness of the three stages : first, irre- flexive experience, for which the explanation of absolute atomism is enough ; second, rational perception of effects, for which a transformistic theory suffices ; and third, the conception of the unity of the system, for which the admission of a Supernatural Generator is necessary. This last step must not be confounded with mysticism, which sees in the changes of nature the capricious and variable commands of a changeable Deity instead of the necessary and invariable connec- pifeaBatiaMaa8gi«ite.iyha i ii|itt^^^^^^ 310 VIII. THE UNIVERSE, tion between cause and effect, as is demonstrated by the uniformity of nature, which necessary belief is the universal postulate from which we can draw the funda- mental principle of Physiology, with the assistance of the experimental facts of inertia of matter. Although the complete knowledge of the universal system can never be reached through physiological studies, still every student of nature has tried to con- struct it mentally ; but the base of the method has been always false, because each and all have tried to build the whole infinite of a finite part, selecting for this starting-point the concept which every one has judged to be the simplest. Thus, for instance, those who have examined only extrinsically have seen the origin of all things in some material substance like the earth, air, fire, water, hydrogen, helium, protile or imponder- able ether ; while others, whose studies are introspective, have taken as a genesic principle some ideal conception as love, friendship, discord, intelligence in general, and even personal reason in particular. Hence they have all supposed that which is the final result of the unifi- cation or generalization of their thoughts to be the principle of all existing things ; that is to say, reasoning with material or ideal entities, once they have reached to the end of the process of abstraction they have con- verted the simplest or ultimate induction to which they have arrived into the generator of the whole, real or universal system. Setting aside as unworthy of consideration those doctrines which pretend to take as a basis what is simply an abstract idea of our mental or psychical capa- city, let us return to the criticism of the doctrines which explain the origin of the universe by objective or t w 59. CRITICISM ON EVOLUTION. 3" physiological characters from the material elements. We cannot comprehend a universal system compounded of chemical elements alone, because we would not be able to perceive the object if this existed without any change ; then with the power of mechanism alone r < f (manifested energy less than living force employed) all the activity of the material world would be reduced to a completely uniform movement of progene, and there- fore no sensual manifestation of living force could exist. Our intelligence can comprehend a system only by admitting manifested changes simultaneously produced by generation of living force, r > f, and by its dissipa- tion, r < f. The universe being in a variably uniform movement, needs some parts acting as generators of living force, while other parts act as dissipators, energy thus passing from the actual to the potential, and from the potential to the actual state. The physiologist, then, has no data by which he can investigate the complete evolution of the universe, either in space or time ; his limits are reduced to the interpre- tation of definite or material changes after the creation of the world in a state which can differentiate from the actual only in quantitative relations owing to the redis- tribution of matter in movement, and which relations can be calculated as mechanical transformations, that is, according to the formula r = fl^- The potence which produces this change of organic generation acts, then, in a manner inexplicable by mechanism, not only because the resultant energy cannot be explained by the propagation of movement as in a machine, but also because we cannot refer the methodic and constant relations like those observed in organism to mere coinci- dences, but to a supreme necessity, and from this arises 3ii VIII. THE UNIVERSE. complete harmony in our physiological conception of the system. Physiological theory is justified in denying the independence of mechanism, because an aggregate of agents acting mutually is impossible ; we must con- ceive the whole as dependent on a fundamental unity whose purpose or essence is at bottom the ground of nature and its laws. To know what a thing is is not to know how the purpose of the same thing is effected, and the lack of knowledge of such a purpose must be always supplied by the study of the means in such a manner as not to destroy the belief in a causal principle. The negation of the principle of supreme unity arises only either in ignorant or in vainglorious minds which, because they presume to know how some changes are effected in nature, deny a determined purpose in them without other reason than that our limited intelligence cannot discover the final purpose or nature of the cause as it does the means or effects. We must admit the final purpose of universal activity in accordance with a supreme will, and in this we recognize, of course, a free intelligence not only as a creator, but as a gene- rator of the phenomenal world or actual state of the object. Nature is uniform in its evolution, because the finality of the Almighty cannot be conceived as imperfect or bad ; His laws finally conduce to the greatest perfection and good in the material system, which consequently must be formed of combinations of actual necessity in accordance with the aim of the system, and not merely as coincidences or accidents of matter. Radical mecha- nism, on the contrary, conduces to the belief that the laws, order, and harmonic combinations of nature are 59. CRITICISM ON EVOLUTION. 313 fl .■' merely coincidences of the elements without any rela- tion to final effects. We may sum up our ideas of the order of succes- sion of the different changes which are produced in the circle of involution of nature as follows (starting from the mysterious effects of nature) :— 1. Protogenition—di progenic change consisting m the generation of progenic currents necessary to move the atoms in order to determine organic combinations —generation or multiplication, and growth of living matter ; 2. These combinations constitute nutritive or trophic assimilatiofi, which consists in molecular or thermo- chemical changes of reduction ; 3. Biotension—\h^.t is, the progenic latent energy which is accumulated in the organic combinations of reduction ; 4. Nutritive or trophic disassifnilation, which consists in molecular or thermochemical changes of oxidation by which the energy of the progene which was in tension may be used in the functions enumerated under innervation. 5. Innervation— consistmg in a progenic current through the nervous system which, in its characteristic change, may be considered as the electricity of orga- nisms, although the transmitting current is combined with thermochemical changes of the nervous elements ; 6. Contraction, which consists in a return molar move- ment in which progenic energy is principally transferred into muscular work ; 7. Reproduction, which consists in a division and sub- division of organic germs, in order to multiply either the parts or the whole of living individuals ; and 314 VIII. THE UNIVERSE. 60. TRANSFORMISM. 3'S 8. External changes of organism with the cosmic medium, consisting in material transferences or propa- gations, either progenic or molecular, or else molar ; in this manner also all the changes of the inorganic world are secondarily produced. Therefore, all variation of movement in the inorganic world, and consequently phenomena, are secondarily derived, that is, consecutive to the organic movements, which in synthesis constitute the functions of vitality. Thus, progenic propagation, if continued in a diffuse, potential radiation, is radiating heat ; if conducted in a confined manner through bodies, is electricity ; if diffused, but interrupted, so that the emissions have sufficient celerity to impress the retina, is light ; heat, electricity, and light, then, by their different interferences in bodies, occasion the molecular or thermochemical changes of the world, and afterwards, either directly or indirectly through molecular changes, all the molar movements are produced, the movements called magnetic and planetary included. If the changes in the inorganic world are simple propagations of movement, produced by the operations of the organic world, and the former at the same time is a necessary medium for the latter, the living or mani- fested energy of the world could not last without both. Furthermore, the existence of the two kinds of organic material — coloured matter, principally green, as in vege- tation, and colourless, as in most animal webs or tissues, is complementary, and without both life in the universe could not be possible, one principally producing the metamorphosis of reduction, and the other that of oxidation. Here we see once more the error of trans- formism, because the universe could never exist in evo- lution without living bodies, nor with vegetable life alone — its evolution, or, better to say, its involution needs the co-operation of the three kingdoms — mineral, vegetable, and animal. § 60. Additional Arguments against transformism. Can any one imagine a greater contradiction than the admission of a primordial state of matter perfectly uni- form, affirming the truth of inertia of matter, and at the same time considering matter capable of changing by itself? Inertia necessarily presupposes the admission of causal activity in matter, and if this were the case, such activity, according to the order and harmony of the changes it promotes, reveals an intelligence, and then, according to this, matter is endowed with intelli- gence and not with inertia. In this manner naturalists of the materialistic school, in trying to deny true deism or monotheism, fall into polytheism, presuming with childish insistance that they can interpret universal evo- lution by the so-called inherent forces of matter alone. Consequently, those who uphold the transformistic doctrine of evolution so widespread to-day, must con- fess either that they don't want to say what they say, or that they do not know even how to place the problem of Primordial Cause, which is the supreme, unknown quantity of Metaphysics. To endow matter with an inherent power of evolu- tion and at the same time to consider it as inert involves contradictory and irreconcilable ideas; action as inhe- rent to matter is then a contradiction to the principle of the conservation of energy, because this principle and 3i6 VIII. THE UNIVERSE, the law of inertia are the same idea enunciated in different terms, both affirming that matter cannot change by itself, that is, that it could not produce any mutation by itself if all was primordially in a state of relative repose, or, better said, a completely uniform movement, and consequently that the movement or energy of the physical changes of the system can never result from the mutual action^ of the objective parts and particles among themselves. The greater number of those who have occupied themselves in explaining cosmic evolution think that they can elaborate a theory of the origin, present state, and end of the universe, considering this as a something finite in time and space, and that they can scientifically determine its past and its future. Thus, transformism starts from the principle of an absolute nothing, and this non-existence is referred back some millions of years ; the transformists suppose, in the beginning, a material state of absolute uniformity without any change, from which the phenomenal differences which are the essential conditions of physiological notions gradually arose. But if evolution is of itself an impossibility it would be equally impossible of occurrence "through many millions of years," and "through infinitesimal changes," under which expressions transformism lies hidden. This affirmation of a limited duration of the universe pretends to be founded upon physical con- siderations deduced from recent studies on planetary constitution, but this is nothing more than to confound the genesic principle with the descriptive method in which we begin by supposing that at first our mind is absolutely empty of knowledge and that knowledge is formed by a successive aggregation of material, until we 60. TRANSFORMISM, 317 give to the mental construction the greatest complexity to which we can arrive in our inquiries, giving to such a complexity the representation of the actual state of the universe, although this at present is in reality the state of the past and of the future. We must not confound the relative mutation of a limited system of things which is within our knowledge with the absolute muta- tions of the universal system which are unknowable ; to affirm that which is inconceivable is too absurd a pretension to be given a place in science ; nevertheless, the geological studies which transformism presents as proofs of its doctrine are considerations of this kind. This cosmogonic hypothesis, presuming that absolute determinations can be scientifically explained, either makes a grotesque description of the acts of the Creator in parallel with those of the human creature, supposing that Creator as the image and likeness of man who makes a work of art, and as first existing and thinking alone how to make a work of art, forming the whole from nothing, or, what is still worse, that without any Creator all which exists sprang from nothing, or, what is almost the same, from an eternal uniform state of matter in invariable movement. The origin and end of the universe is to us an impene- trable mystery, and therefore we must never make it the subject of a scientific thesis on our physiological ground ; we must circumscribe ourselves to the study of the rela- tive changes of cosmos in the course of time, and not inquire about its principle and end. Nevertheless, the doctrine which affirms the limited duration of cosmos has also received the favourable opinion of many physi- cists who maintain that the limit of the future is deter- minable, because, they say, the mechanical energy of the •'-"# 3i8 VIII. THE UNIVERSE. 60. TRANSFORMISM. 319 universe is gradually lessening, since that which dis- appears does not seem to be restored in equal quantities ; they affirm that a time will come in which the earth and the other planets will not be habitable, and that the energy will be finally lost as a proof of change, movement throughout the universe becoming again abso- lutely uniform. This conclusion, which pretends to be experimental, lacks foundation, because only a partial reference can be made to experience, as this cannot grasp the whole universe ; thus, such a reflection is made, of course, with limitation to our planet, which, being a part in mutual dependence with the other celestial bodies, must always change through interplanetary propagation, and therefore decrease of energy in this planet presupposes increase of energy in the indefinite cosmos. But they think that the changes of our planet could be extended to all cosmos, and in order to make this application easier they have imagined a universe definite not only in time but occupying a definite space. Thus, instead of simplifying matters, transformism has increased the difficulties of the conception of cosmos even without saving the contradiction of the terms i7ifi' nite and dissipatio7i of energy. We must not forget that we refer ourselves to a physiological thesis, and that therefore all discussion must give us some positive knowledge ; and if we do not know how to determine the limits of the universe either in its substance, activity, space, or time, it is for us as illimited, as infinite, as is the determination of any rela- tivity of existing things. And now we may add that in an illimited thing, as is the universe, it is as incompre- hensible to us how energy can be dissipated as how it can be preserved the same ; but we have admitted con- I servation of energy as the fundamental principle of mechanism, because the fact of inertia of matter is undoubtedly true. Once we have demonstrated the fallacy of the hypothesis of transformism in general, we might excuse ourselves from treating in a general theory of cosmos of any one of the transformistic doctrines in particular, but we will make a slight notice of them in order to present in a brief classification the principal points of diflference among them. All are under the same principle, but contain two series of explanations, so that we can classify them into two groups according as they refer to inorganic evolution or to organic, and if we do not take into account the slight variations on particular subjects we may reduce to two hypotheses all those belonging to each group. Those referring to inorganic evolution are those of nebulus and meteoric aggregation, and those referring to organic evolution are the monotypic and the polytypic. Taken in all, radical transformism is a full application of the supposed idea of the old alchemists of the existence of the philosopher's stone with which they hoped to engender in the laboratory all the minerals, and even to transmute base into precious metals, with the difference that transformism goes even further, extending the power of its basical stone to that of engendering living bodies ! Organic like inorganic transformism is simply based on the process of formation of concepts from mental abstractions ; but we reserve for Biology the special criticism on the origin of organic species in general and of mankind in particular, and for this reason in this question there only remains for us to fix the con- cept of the word species, on account of the different 320 VIII. THE UNIVERSE. 60. TRANSFORMISM. 321 interpretations it has received and the importance of the word in cosmic evolution. We have already grouped the species under two headings— living species and chemical species; the former are frequently called also organic, and the latter inorganic, but we must keep in mind that organic and living are not synonymous, because organic compre- hends not only living but dead structures which still retain the morphologic characteristics which they pre- sented when they were alive. Chemical species are perfectly defined in their quantitative relations, which are in definite proportions when they are combined, and they form a series in a harmonic scale when they are in a simple or elemental state ; these elemental chemical species are primitive forms thus created ; there is no species newly coined, if we may use the expression ; the species of to-day exactly resemble those of the past. Living species, like the chemical elements, are also created forms, but they do not follow exactly their former types ; they may change in the conditions of their ulterior development, thus originating the different varieties which in turn may be mixed by the act of fecundation, so giving rise to more extended varieties. Thus there is something immutable in the act of fecundation which is the only circumstance that permits us to characterize the different species, and, indeed, if we exclude the character of their origin, we cannot define the living species, because we do not know the characteristic of their quantitative relations as we do in the chemical species. We must admit, then, the existence of species in the two kinds of bodies in nature, that is, in non-convertible inorganic forma- tions and in non-convertible organisms, with the only difference that as the former are simple and homo- geneous in themselves they can be very well dif- ferentiated numerically, while the living species are so complex and heterogeneous in themselves that they cannot by any means be numerically defined or determined. The natural species exist from the Creation, but man classifies them according to their manifested analogies, although the analogies among the different species are referred to conditions that are not inherent properties but mere abstractions of concepts which only express facts of quantitative relation without stating the cause. The " why ? " is always the universal potence which is only one and perfect in goodness and beauty ; the multiplicity of the effects depending on the mutual relations which are determined by the conflict of every part of the universe with its extreme conditions. Some writers object to the admission of the specific power of the Engendering Cause because from the same parents different creatures can be born, even if they develop under the same external conditions ; but the examples they give are of course deceitful appearances, because it never happens in the world that in all the relations of two changes there are any two conditions identical ; the Engendering Cause is the sole invariable condition, otherwise we would be obliged to affirm the contradiction that one thing could be one and many at the same time. They also say that inheritance of traits from distant ancestors may occur without any mani- festation in their intermediaries, but such an observation is made even with the faulty intelligence of wrongly interpreting what the word " inheritance " means in the succession of organic individualities, and they exclude V 322 VIIL THE UNIVERSE, from the concourse the extrinsic influence of the medium. The act of reproduction is a continuation of the ancestor in connection with the Engendering Cause ; there cannot be multiplication of beings without particles of organized bodies serving as germs, which, separating themselves and growing, form the new, individuals ; consequently the constant and successive generation of living individuals is not a complete creation but a succession with multiplication of the effects arising from the organizing potence. For this reason the word " genesis " and its derivatives are employed in Physiology in a figurative sense and not exactly in their etymo- logical meaning of '' creation." To affirm the possibility of new creations would be the same as to defend spontaneity, and this is the error into which trans- formism has fallen. With this we have said enough on this question, in which all explanations only serve to set back and com- plicate the mystery in order to put it at an immeasur- able distance from our understanding, and when it is shrouded in such a heavy fog that no eye can distinguish anything, it is then that transformism tries to show the origin. Accordingly, in our opinion, contrary to the reigning assumption of transformism, the evolution of the universe cannot be scientifically discovered either in its principle or in its end ; but the proof of this proposition requires further argument, so that we will devote to it another separate article. 6i. COSMOGONY. 323 § 61. The Doctrine of Cosmogony is not Physiologic. The science of the formation of the universe, or Cosmogony, belongs not to the science of nature — Physiology, but to the science of the supernatural — Metaphysics. We are now to consider this proposition, for which it is necessary to review some data previously given. We must all be convinced that the constituents of the universe form a true system, and that the position and action of the different parts of the world are under the conditionality of its relations with the whole, this being not a sum of independent elements, not a simple aggregate of things entirely isolated from one another, but a community in which all objects are in mutual dependence. There are no absolute individualities in physical cosmos like a true primordial cause, neverthe- less all physicists are constantly falling into the fallacy of supplying matter with abstract or causing forces, thereby implying mutual independence among objective things. Vitality, phenomenally considered, also represents a community whose functions consist in a partial synthesis of the general changes which are singly manifested in inorganic bodies, although in these they are consecutive to the progagation of movement from organized bodies. Vitality in all living matter must have its functions and follow all the phases of its natural development in accordance with a plan, but although this plan is a unity there are variations in the consequences depending on the interaction of every living body with its cosmic medium. 324 VIII. THE UNIVERSE, In our physiological inquiries we have finally reached a point whose discussion, we repeat, belongs to metaphysical science : What is the cause of organic generation ? But we have answered this question with- out prejudging anything of the nature of the Creator and his connection with the created ; without trans- gressing the bounds of Physiology we have concluded | that matter alone is not sufficient in the universe, and that its activity must be subordinate to an ultra-material, supernatural, or immaterial principle. We do not need to discuss whether the immediate cause of organic generation is a special vital agent, or whether it is the rational soul itself but with unconscious activity, or else whether the Creator is directly the great Architect or proximate agent of the generation of all living beings ; what we do need to know is that an organized body cannot be engendered by the action of material elements alone, and that from the admission of the contrary the most mysterious conception of matter results when physicists try to explain its evolution. Nevertheless we have given our opinion on this point, because if the admission of intermediary principles like vital agents and unconscious activities of the soul only complicate and remove to a greater distance from our under- standing, the explanation of the causal process, we set aside the existence of agents emanating from the Supreme in order to direct organic generation ; it is clearer and more in accordance with our perception to admit the direct intervention of the Creator in such a process, as all that we can perceive is either subject (mind) or object (matter), and so we may imagine the abstraction of the generating cause as the supreme subject or supreme mind. Hence we admit that in the ■•j^^fit!' ---•■■ - • '■- — 6i. COSMOGONY. 325 organisms matter is combined, forming highly complex structures in accordance with the direct realization of the divine aim, and for this purpose it must constantly dispose of the forces that such an end demands, but such protogenesic force, or, better to say, the origin of changes of movement, is not the effect of powers inherent in the elements of material nature ; on the contrary, all inorganic activities are in their promotion the result of the functions of organism. Accordingly, the Primor- dial Cause is not only the creator of the physical elements but also the generator of the series of activities that are necessary for the development of the organic world, from which, we repeat, all the energies we recognize in inorganic matter are derived. How, then, can we expect that a ray of scientific light could ever spring from the highest intellectual effort to illumine the eternal mystery of the Creation ? It is impossible, and therefore Cosmogony must not be considered as a problem of physiological science ; it is solely under the dominion of belief. Thus, when human intellect is ambitious to explain or comprehend scientifi- cally the mysteries of creation and organic generation, it can do no less than wander away from the true path and lose itself either in grotesque hallucinations or in chaos, imagining a cosmos in incomprehensible disorder whose principle is eternal confusion, an image only com- patible with the mental rachitis of blind incredulity. Experience, guided by rational reflection, as well as the self-consciousness of most minds, conduces to the belief in the existence of a primordial motor which is the Creator and Generator of the universe, in opposition to atheism, materialism, and modern transformism. These doctrines set out to explain the origin of the universe 326 VIII. THE UNIVERSE. 6i. COSMOGONY. 327 11 IS. as an absolute whole deduced from the laws of dynam- ism, which is a complete absurdity, because there is no foundation for any hypothesis which supposes that we can understand what lies beyond the mutual dependence of object and mind. The only thing that our intelli- gence can comprehend is the knowledge of such a dependence which is reduced to quantitative relations, and therefore in such a mutual dependence among cosmic objects there is no antecedent which can be the primordial cause. Nevertheless, we have seen that these false doctrines uphold such inconceivable absurdities as the idea of the construction of all nature from pure ether, which as a material thing must completely lack attri- butes ; and many even affirm that the physical world has sprung from the concept they presume to have of zero, which equals nothing ; and still others derive it from the existence of an impersonal or non-subjective will. The fallacy of all these can be seen at a glance because they are even fallacies of language. Besides this, a cursory observation shows us the impossibility of scientifically fixing epochs in the sup- posed evolution of cosmos because the time necessary for the production of a change varies in the widest degree with the conditions of activity. Thus, for in- stance, a change which at the temperature of zero needs some centuries to be effected will need at 100° only a few years, at 1000° only days, at a still higher temperature only hours, and higher still seconds. As a proof of this we may observe that in the operations in a chemical laboratory a transformation which at zero needs many years to be effected can be produced in a short time by having recourse to very high temperatures. In addition to this motive of error, that is, calculating the m epochs of cosmic evolution, there is another cause of error which is not dependent on the conditions of our planet but on interplanetary connections, so that we call attention to the extraordinary terrestrial changes which can be effected by some variations in planetary inter- actions. Who, then, is capable of expounding the results and necessary time for one of those phases of engender- ing evolution ? In our ulterior existence let us suppose, for instance, an increase of interstellar pressure, which pre-supposes as its direct cause an extraordinary propa- gation of living force from some of the planets for which a disorganization beyond that of ordinary conditions must take place, like a great fire destroying more organic material than can be at once restored, the result of such an increase of interplanetary pressure would be then an increase in the condensation of bodies pro- ^ 328 V7/I. THE UNIVERSE. 61. COSMOGONY. 329 confounded by writers on Cosmogony, this is that the phases which they suppose a limited part of the uni- verse have followed, have been referred by them to the universe in totality, committing in the generalization an error of principle. Thus then by every path we come to the conclusion that the problem of the primor- dial formation of objects in nature cannot be studied and resolved by physiological method ; it is a meta- physical thesis. Every assertion made on physical grounds about material change or evolution must be partial and not total, that is to say, geological know- ledge cannot in any manner explain the Creation but only the mere metamorphoses of things already con- stituted. Thus, Geology, with its ridiculous pretence of teaching the Creation by discovering the changes or differences existing in a limited part of the universe has, we repeat, for a principle and conclusion either chaos or fatalistic spontaneity. This is not only a conjectural idea but a false and vicious creation of language ; it can- not be even a mental presentation, as it is inconceivable ; all knowledge on generation in the physiological order is only apparent, because what rational experience really observes is that something never comes from nothing, that there is nothing spontaneous or newly created, and no existing thing is ever annihilated. The Book of Genesis, which treats of explaining the work of Creation, presupposes the belief of operations engendered by a primordial motor capable of executing its purpose in accordance with the formula r > f (manifested resultant greater than living force employed). This is evidently of the metaphysical order, but in our desire to dis- tinguish how physiological theory may come into accord- ance with Christian Cosmogony we can make a brief ^ excursion into metaphysical ground with the principal aim of knowing more clearly the limits of physiological knowledge. The affirmations of Cosmogony are inconceivable as a scientific theory ; the creation of the world from nothing, and the transformation of the universe from an absolute uniform state to its present phenomenal condition or permanent variation are mysteries for our intelligence for ever physiologically irresoluble. We may enunciate these mysteries more clearly as different successive acts as follows : — 1. The primordial origin or creation of matter in a uniform and perfectly metafluid state, that is, as if all objects were reduced to the simplest or progene. 2. The condensation of progene into inorganic elements which are irreducible or non-convertible and which presuppose the formation of indivisible particles — atoms — of equal density but with geometrical differ- ences of volume and figure. 3. The formation of living bodies and organic gene- ration to produce growth and reproduction. 4. The generation of mental power and its successive operations constituting the capacities of the mind, which does not determine all the operations of its activity by dynamic changes, because in the mental process there is no definite space, and it is only revealed to us intrin- sically, that is, by consciousness. The first act of these four now enumerated represents our first mental abstraction of a " substance " without taking the other conceptual elements (activity, space, and time) into consideration ; in the second we make the abstraction of material activity, but as existing in an absolutely uniform movement ; in the third we take 330 VIII. THE UNIVERSE. 62. CAUSAL DETERMINATION. 33^ into account the abstract cause of manifested changes in the world — organic generation ; and in the fourth we abstract the qualitative ideas as engendered by the exciting impressions from the object, which propagate nothing to the mind but progenic movement, which can differ only in quantitative relations. The philosophical school called positivism has fallen into the other extreme opposite to evolutionism and admits only as true abstract knowledge that which is physiological, considering as negative all philosophical inquiries which go beyond the immediate relations of phenomena, and therefore it denies genesis ; but posi- tive knowledge so-called cannot satisfy the moral neces- sities of humanity nor the intellectual ambition of those who feel themselves impelled to investigations regarding the cause of the phenomenal world, and we must here remark that perhaps all who call themselves positivists do not content themselves within the intellectual bounds marked by their school ; they are positivists in name but not in fact. From all this it results that physiological sciences have no experimental data referring to the acts of creation and organic generation, and consequently they must be limited to the study of the history of cosmos in its present involution, considering only the changes of actuality and material potentiality. The physiologist cannot comprehend even the " Why ? " of the funda- mental principle — conservation of energy, and this would be sufficient reason to deny his authority in a criticism of the genesis ; he has no data to explain any of the transformations in which the resultant living force is greater than energy expended ; neither can he fix epochs, short or long, to the ages in which he presumes (! from his geological studies that the transformations of the universe have occupied. Therefore, it is but a useless waste of time to seek a physiological solution of the questions of genesis, and explanations for the agree- ment or disagreement between the false conclusions of most contemporaneous scientists on the cosmogonic problem and religious traditions. Physiology must be positive in a relative sense, and must prosecute investiga- tions only of what can be demonstrated by facts of observation ; only these and their relations compose the knowledge of the object ; it must not follow the investigation of the first cause nor of the end of the changes, as such problems cannot be resolved by experience but by pure reason, because they transcend physical grounds and must be treated in metaphysical sciences, which try to remove the veil that conceals the connection between the finite and the infinite. § 62. Causal Determination of the Universe. The object of this article is to inculcate in the mind of the physiologist the notion of the cause of the system, in order to correct the common tendency which those have who do not possess fundamental speculations, either to fall into mechanical positivism or into sensational doctrines. These refuse to acknowledge the investigations of the causes, and do not admit anything else within the possibility of the understanding than the study of phenomena ; they pretend that sensation is the sole source of knowledge, and because the senses cannot discover the true cause they deny its existence. In trying to avoid this fallacy we must not go to the other extreme, that of supposing that the acknowledgment of M..aafe.»:^^.i^ "ii«8«^«'*^^a#ftiiiii*VtiJiftiMlririiii lifin 'ittn rm iiiifriiflT'riii'Biii 332 VIIL THE UNIVERSE. 62. CAUSAL DETERMINATION. 333 the assistance of a cause denotes its essence or qualita- tive nature ; let us see, then, what is the just concept of the causal determination of the universe. We have already demonstrated the absurdity of those vain attempts to construct the system with atoms alone, in imitation of the Greek atomists, and also of the most unreasonable idea of admitting the substantial reality of space. Such absurdities in the concept of the universe must give place to the admission of a generator of its activities as the sole causal determination, instead of that multitude of nominal agents like the so-called molecular forces attributed to matter, and which cannot be agents at all, being only the measure of some effected movement. It is certain that all activities are deter- mined in their nature and mutual relations by the plan and nature of the whole system ; but we must not confound the forms of activity which produce natural manifestations or phenomena with their primordial cause, and in the successive order of the relations between cause and effect we must distinguish that which is immediate or direct from that which is mediate or indirect. Thus the definite acts or phenomena like those manifested in inorganic bodies must not be con- sidered as directly or immediately proceeding from the Supreme Being, but as secondarily derived from vitality, which represents the synthesis of all the changes pro- duced in organism, and whose manifested functions are like any other phenomena derived from organic genera- tion. Hence, the proximate cause of the relative unity of cosmic mechanism is not the atom, but the primordial potence of living activity — organic generation — which at present is the sole, immediate or direct effect of the infinite on material ground; such a primary effect is /' ii C^j" the only change which has directly received its con- ditions of nature and mutual relations from the nature and plan of the whole, and such relations will be con- stant if the plan of the cause requires constancy, and if the plan demands progress the organizing activity of living matter can pass from low to higher forms. Objects having a fortuitous existence under the plan of the world, it must be possible to change their characters according as that plan is developed ; in what, then, consists the dependence of objects among them- selves in accordance with their necessary interaction in the system 1 We must always distinguish, we repeat, that which is effected from that which causes the effect. We have seen that living germs and the anatomical elements which they develop, when chemically analyzed, are constituted of a few inorganic elements equal in all beings, though the proportions in which these are com- bined and the relative aggregations of the compound so formed are different for every living species. But such a collocation of particles then for the construction of organisms must be governed by rational laws, which are necessarily dictated by an intelligent principle; this employs in matter only its quantitative reason, reserving the qualitative for the procreations conscious in them- selves, that is, the mind. By this inquiry into the first effect we arrive at the fundamental distinction or division of bodies into inorganic and living, which division has no other essential difference than that of the origin of these bodies. We have already seen that writers on natural history usually try to explain the difference between living and non-living matter by simple material analysis, a vain task, because the mental impossibility of qualitative distinctions among objects is demonstrated, 334 VIII. THE UNIVERSE. 62. CAUSAL DETERMINATION. 335 and the analogy of the material which composes all the natural kingdoms is therefore widely recognized. Con- vinced of the truth of this conclusion, some authors have contented themselves by saying that the sole differential or essential characteristic of inorganic bodies is that they have no life ; but that does not convey any scientific knowledge ; it is a phrase that involves a mere play of words, in which the definition is already connoted in the same term which it is attempted to define. Some other naturalists correctly deny all differences among existing things, but then they erroneously affirm that everything in the universe is the same thing, and that there is nothing supernatural. Organic generation is an eternal secret ; it is a mystery that will never be penetrated by human intelli- gence, and the cause of such a change is a supernatural power which, although unknowable in its nature, we are compelled to acknowledge in accordance with the following argument. No one doubts that man is the supreme being among those which have material ex- istence ; now where is the man who has the power to execute a work according to the formula of cosmos r =z f ; or, in other words, can man practically resolve as cosmos resolves the problem of continuous movement t What being in nature, then, can elaborate anything according to the formula r > f,z.s is the work of organic generation? Hence, it is most irrational to suppose that carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen, associating among themselves, could be the authors of the uprearing of a structure, whose conditions and work are far beyond what even the best mechanician would dare attempt to produce. If the pretension of resolving the problem of perpetual movement {r = f) has been opportunely i qualified as an insane idea, how must we qualify the pretence of resolving mechanically the problem of the cause of vital movement, which produces (according to the formula r > f) organic generation in its two forms — growth and reproduction ? Causation implies determination, but not all deter- minations are causal, material determinations being, on the contrary, effects or derivations which can be brought within the logical domain of reason, as in them we can know the consequents if the antecedents are given. Our mission in Physiology does not extend to causal determination, but only to those which are mechanically derived, and the conditions of these never depend on one thing alone, but in the mutual intermotion of many things ; because if only one thing were sufficient to determine an effect in the world, the cause and the effect would be co-existing, and then all effects would take place simultaneously. The contrary of this is the case with the changes effected by the system ; they successively result from the mutual action of parts, that is, from interaction. Then all the conditions of the parts are equally co-operating causes of the effected determination, and, therefore, objective things must be such that when the causes are determined the effect must necessarily be produced in accordance with the guarantee which the universal postulate — uniformity of nature — offers. This conclusion is altogether different from that which supposes that one objective thing alone can be a sufficient cause without taking into account its relations with or dependence on the others ; for, we repeat, in order to obtain any effect in nature, co-operation is always necessary. Therefore, the word " cause" in Physiology has only a relative signification, it 336 VIII. THE UNIVERSE. 62. CAUSAL DETERMINATION, ZVJ represents a nominal abstraction of all conditions necessary to effect a physiological change, which is never a creation but only a variation in the form of propa- gated movement. Thus objective things are not created nor destroyed in their mutual actions, they only pass into other conditions. The effect of such a change may be phenomenal (manifested), or only potential (not manifested to the senses and known only by mental reflection) ; but in neither case do we know the actions in themselves, but only the relative consequences of the interactions. We have no real experience of interaction ; it is only a mental affirmation inferred from the antecedents and consequents of a change ; so to know how material or physiological actions are produced is a problem of the intellect, and not any fact of irreflexive experience. Nevertheless, action is commonly conceived by phy- sicists in a figurative or imaginary representation as something transferred from one object to another, but if the states, conditions, or attributes of objects are nothing that can be separated from them they cannot be transferred ; the idea of transference results only from the mental tendency to substantiate abstractions. The cases which have principally given rise to the erroneous conception of substantial transference are those observed in the propagation of molar movement and heat. When a body in movement communicates movement to another body and stops moving itself, we see, that is, if we do not employ reflection in the data of experience, that the movement has been apparently transferred to that other body. The same apparently occurs in the propagation of heat ; the body which is hottest loses temperature in proportion to the rise of M temperature in proximate colder bodies. But these are facts to which we must apply rational interpretation in order not to be deceived by sensual or irreflexive ap- pearances ; and these facts are called transferences in a figurative sense, expressing then a description of the facts but without interpretation or explanation of them. Besides, in such a descriptive denomination we do not employ the appropriate terms, because a state or con- dition without an object is as inconceivable for the mind as it is impossible for matter. In all interaction then there is no transference ; there is only propagation. Nevertheless we employ the word transference for the cases in which propagation is produced with change into a different kind of movement, as heat into molar movement, etc. ^ Interaction is impossible if we consider things as independent, because what is a reality absolutely inde- pendent must contain the cause of its determinations in itself, but what is under the necessity of interaction must have the conditions for its determinations in other things as well as in itself Any attempt to harmonize independent things in a universe by means of forces or physiological influences results only in a play of words impossible to understand. Such expressions as " universe " and " abstract forces " represent concepts which cannot be combined in any manner among them- selves because they are contradictory to one another. The abstract forces considered by all scientists as causal or primordial determinations must be altogether eliminated from scientific terminology, as in such a signification they are only expressions of ignorance in the succession of effects. In addition to this, inter- action and independence are also contradictory, and 338 VIII. THE UNIVERSE. 62. CAUSAL DETERMINATION. 339 as we are obliged to admit interaction among objects we must deny independence. Therefore, we affirm that the plurality of things is reduced to dependence under a comprehensive being which can be the unity and co-ordinator of the parts and of the whole. When a series of things varies with order it is impossible that all can be absolute unities ; there must exist one which directs the community, and the whole, being a system, can never be comprehended as the sum of the parts, but the parts must be considered as phases of the whole subordinate to an absolute and truly independent unity, to an omnipotent being to which everything is omni- present. Thus, then, interaction in nature is not a property of matter itself; it is an effect, and there- fore the generation of mutual actions depends on the Creator. It is not our purpose to investigate how this cause determines interaction ; the physiologist must study only the derived effects, that is to say, the extrinsic or objective action of matter, which consists in a mutual collision either of the material elements or of bodies, a mechanical change or variation of movement being pro- duced as the effect of such collision or contact. It is impossible to determine any physiological change with- out contact between that which is the relative cause and that which is effected, the action which appears to be produced at a distance always presupposes propa- gation by means of interactions in which the play of some intermediary propagator is unknown ; there are no physiological actions at a distance such as are im- plied in the enigmatic forces, attraction and repulsion. The proper meaning of force then is reduced to re- present the measure of the resultant from interactions ■J in nature, and the notion of conservation of force in the mutual action among the things of the physical world is an imperative necessity in the universal system, while it follows the uniform evolution which we observe in the present and the past of nature. The cause of interaction is a metaphysical principle as we have already said ; everything in the universe results from a primordial action whose agent is un- known to the light of our intelligence, which can only acknowledge it by the results of such action. The uni- verse being in such marvellous harmony gives us faith in optimism, that is to say, in the doctrine which teaches that the primordial agent, operating as a determining cause in the generation of organisms, orders all things for the best ; so that the fatal cases in the mechanism of the world are derived or secondary, that is, subordi- nate to the interaction of living and non-living bodies, and are therefore only accidental results. Although it is impossible to draw any exact parallel between the supernatural subject and the object, our imagination can draw an artistic representation of this case com- paring the Great Organizer to an engineer who directs all the operations of an engine for which his arm is the moving power. If, then, application of the machine is made to some work, and if in its interaction with the cosmic medium which is around or on which it operates a break occurs in it, that is an accidental effect in rela- tion with the motor or moving power. Now in a manner similar to that in which all the changes of a machine are connected with one another, however dif- ferent they may be, the changes of the universe are also connected, resulting from the same motor, which acts with a constant law in the mutability of objects, 340 VIII. THE UNIVERSE, 63. RECAPITULATION. 341 ;■*■ directing and preserving the world with uniformity, so that we observe His law is inviolable and eternal. Accordingly in all and everything the light of reason illuminates the idea of the necessity of a Supreme Cause which reconciles in His infinite unity the individuality and community of the universe, con- sidering all natural things as partial elements of a system which has its transcendental action only by the influence of a fundamental, infinite, absolute, and inde- pendent Being in which everything else finds the cause and reason of being as it is. § 63. Recapitulation of the Concept of the Universe. Physiology presupposes attributive identity (only one substance in activity or movement), the differences being due only to relative changes of space, or of time, or of both. The only possible knowledge of nature depends on the condition that all change is a trans- formation. Matter changes by the union or separation of parts, but through all these transformations we must suppose that material substance is always identical ; and we may say the same in regard to movement, which may be distributed into greater or smaller masses in a form either manifested or latent, but material activity is always movement. Thus the Great Archi- tect with His true purposes of goodness, beauty, and harmony, directs organic constructions, engenders in them disposable energy and phenomenal movements, governs the course of cosmic material, but without changing the total quantity of matter in movement, that is, without ever newly creating or annihilating. He only engenders relative metamorphoses in the redistri- bution of the same quantity of matter in movement. The concept of conservation of movement is altogether different from the continuation of the actual energy of objective things in the universe ; the former expresses a fact derived from the true creation, while phenomenal activity is constantly engendered by the transformation of potential energy in organisms under the direction of the Primordial Motor. The work directed by the Creator not only preserves the quantity of matter in movement in its mechanical relations, but the per- sistence of the Supreme purpose in the good and beauty of its execution is denoted by the uniformity of nature. This ultimate postulate is presupposed before any calculation or determination of the quantitative relations are made ; it is directly induced from the qualities or subjective differences, and for this reason we may say that the postulate uniformity of nature is the fundamental principle of attributive abstractions formed from objective analogies, while the principle of con- servation of energy is the fundamental law for the relations from objective differences. Accordingly, the true idea of conservation or persistency in universal mechanism presupposes that the partial forms of the enunciation of that principle are erroneous, so that we must not say there is conservation or indestructibility of mass in the world, because the quantity of mass is variable ; neither can we affirm the conservation or indestructibility of abstract movement, because the quantity of existing force, considering this separately from mass, is not always the same, but varies like any partial relation. Without the evidence of the principle of successive 342 VIIL THE UNIVERSE. 63. RECAPITULATION, 343 gil- continuity and uniformity in nature between antecedents and consequents, science could not infer its great prog- nostications ; it could not determine by the present state of things, either the past or the future, as there is no doubt that our scientific calculations would fail if there coulc' actually be new creation or annihilation in the factors of mechanism. But it is impossible that the regularity of the established and necessary order in cosmos shouk fail, because the work of the Almighty being true, good and beautiful in absolute, it could not be otherwise than as it is. In the comprehensive theory of cosmos we omit the intervention of any agent acting as causing force, as we have done in the theory of Analytical Physiology, and in Biology also we deny the intervention of any special force in life. In this manner we dethrone the gods of the scientific Olympus, and admit only the one of most elevated rank — the Directing Power of Vitality which cannot be other than the Creator. Force must never be considered as having an existence separate from objects ; mechanical force is not an absolute anc primordial cause of nature, but simply a measure, anc therefore it is a relative determination of quantity, ai effect which becomes at the same time the proximate cause of manifested actions, so that it is a secondary cause in the successive changes of nature. Forct expresses the determination of the quantity of move- ment propagated in a physiological change, or in the changes of a partial system, as occurs in the synthesi> of life. If we conceived force in a metaphysical as weL as in a mechanical sense, it would become an equivocal term, representing then in the metaphysical signification the True Cause, the Primordial or Engendering Potence of Vitality, because if we prefix to the word " force " the adjective primordial we indicate what the Divinity does in cosmos, instead of the effected potence and phe- nomena. All phenomena are mechanical in the true sense of this word, as they are always the effect of some change of matter in movement ; therefore, it is erroneous to admit the abstract conception of mechanism as an inde- pendent reality ; all phenomena take place within the universal organism in which any mechanical notion or effect of movement cannot be separately conceived ; it can be conceived only as a mental or verbal abstraction without an existence independent of the bodies, like colour or any other so-called property. All phenomena compared according to the standard of discrete quantity are quantivalent in their mutations, so that all natural changes (molar and physico-chemical) are subordinate to the rational principles of quantity, as the so-called laws of mechanism are nothing more than corollaries derived from the universal principle of conservation. In any functional transference or propa- gation of vitality, as in any other physiological change, we must admit the principle of mechanical quantiva- lence, that is, a proportional interchange in the energy of antecedents and consequents. Therefore, in organism as well as in inorganic machines, there is always a direct relation between the molar work produced and the heat expended ; this in turn must be in direct relation with the chemical movements which produce it, and these reactions must be proportional to the progenic currents which change the position of the molecules. If Mechanics were well known in its most compre- hensive or etymological signification, it would be con- *^ 314 VIII. THE UNIVERSE. 63. RECAPITULATION. 345 sidered the science which would interpret the genesis of natural phenomena, and would embrace the study and explanation of all material mutations in cosmos, deter- mining the force of every change, which, in corpuscular matter, is equal to the product of the mass, and half the square of the velocity. The physical, chemical, and biological theories, now widely disseminated under con- tradictory principles must be thus unified. All material changes, whether manifested or not, though multiple in the sensual appearance, always arise from matter in movement. Hence we repeat that all mechanical force must always be supposed as a con- crete measure comprehending the two factors of all movement — mass and velocity ; we must never suppose the ideal existence of abstract forces without dimen- sions moving across empty space, neither must we admit them to explain the functions of organism. Cosmic and biological syntheses, inasfar as we can know them, are under the control of Mathematics. A true inquiry into nature and the proof of physiological truths has for a base the facts of extrinsic experience from which our reason calculates the relations which must serve us to develop the Physiological Theory. Mechanical theorems are the real guide of physiological science; the principle of conservation is common to physical and chemical changes, to acts of vitality, and to astronomic movements ; the calculation of the movements of visible bodies (Molar Mechanics) must be applied to the invisible particles called molecules (Molecular Mechanics), and to progenic (Progenic Me- chanics). When we question the material world, what- ever its state may be, the determination of quantity by calculation {i.e. by the infallible law of number) is a ^' fe^ t;,^ help of undoubted exactitude. But, unfortunately, we cannot numerically determine phenomena in all cases ; science has scarcely passed from the analytic acqui- sitions of irreflexive experience, qualities for this reason being yet erroneously considered as objective properties. In actuality much imperfection of true scientific know- ledge yet prevails ; nevertheless, it does not weaken the base on which the principle of conservation rests, because our intelligence, penetrating more deeply than our senses, foresees the true analogy where sensations show us what falsely appear to be essential differences. Although up to the present time science has not been able to prove numerically all physiological facts, we have arrived at an ultimate principle which comprehends them all, both known and unknown — that is, though much remains to be discovered, we have sufficient know- ledge to declare that all the laws of the science of nature are comprehended in the principle of propor- tional interchange (quantivalence), which is synonymous with the principle of persistency or conservation. For this reason, after numerous observations, we have con- vinced ourselves that all future discoveries will be subor- dinate to the universal principle of conservation, and in accordance with the ultimate postulate of uniformity ; hence the true progress of the Physiological Theory consists in explaining the derivation of all empirical laws actually proclaimed in Physics, Chemistry, Cos- mology, and Biology, by the conservation of energy in Cosmic Mechanism. In the Physiological Theory we must not confound the evident principle of conservation of energy with the erroneous supposition of " continuity " in transformism ; this doctrine employs the word " conservation " in such an 346 VIII. THE UNIVERSE. 63. RECAPITULATION. 347 ample sense that it completely lacks a fixed signification. Furthermore, transformists include in " continuity " the reason of its antithesis, " variation," although they pre- tend to disguise the opposition of contradiction of terms with the adjective "infinitesimal," and then qualify as continuous the variations they call infinitesimal. The Physiological Theory resolves this problem without the intervention of moving forces in nature, and without appealing to such a fallacy as that of transformism ; in fine, it determines that cosmos does not follow the phases of transformistic evolution, but is in a true invo- lution. We admit only one substance and one form of activity in matter, but not atomic unity. To prove the identity of matter or substantial equality of all the objects of nature it is sufficient to know that we cannot perceive in them more than differences in the relations of space and time, as all sensations result from propagation of movement which can be but of one quality. Qualitative differences are formed in the mind from such quantitative changes ; they are not really objective, but subjective, therefore progene (the ether of the physicists) must be considered in its natural quality or essence as a substance identical with ponderable matter, and all bodies, even those considered elemental in Chemistry, must also be considered identical in their essential quality. We must not confound this idea of material unity with that asserted by atomists. We cannot admit atomic unity, because among other reasons the principles of thermodynamics are sufficient proofs to convince us ot the error of the atomic hypothesis of progene, which must necessarily be distributed into variable parcels. 4 A A \1 :. « Ws'-'i ;if; ■Mi ll The atomic hypothesis assimilates progene to the gaseous state, but this is completely contradictory to facts, and insufficient to explain imponderable changes. The difference between progene and atoms lies only in a relation of condensation, the atom being an invariable corpuscle of almost twice the condensation of progene, as the calculations of propagated energy lead us to infer by showing us a dissipation of 46 per cent, of manifested or living energy which, as we have seen, is a loss resulting from gravitation, an effect of the action of progene on atoms. The condensation of matter in atoms must be equal in all bodies, as such a ratio is invariable, the differences between atoms thus being in volume and perhaps in shape. Such an idea of substantial equality, though undoubtedly a true one according to mental analysis, has not a practical confir- mation, for in the laboratory all bodies cannot be reduced to one alone. The realistic idea of chemical transformism pretends to be based on the unity of matter, but such a hypo- thesis, like all those which try to explain the evolution of cosmos, surpasses the limits of positive knowledge. We must restrict ourselves to the possibility of physio- logical succession discovering always and everywhere in nature effects alone ; we can never explain the true cause, nor investigate the primordial genesis of cosmos. Such inquiries belong to Metaphysics. With this restric- tion of Physiology to calculate effects alone, ie. to estab- lish the relative laws among the objects of nature, we will consider progene as the first material element of evolution in cosmic mechanism. The different forms of matter in the constitution of cosmos may be shown in a progressive table as follows : — M 48 fa Simple bodies practically irreducible. Compound bodies reducible to simple bodies. VIII. THE UNIVERSE. 1. Progene = imponderable matter (ether of the physicists). 2. Protile (helium ?) = primary condensation (perfect gas ?). 3. Most permanent gases = secondary condensation. 4. Simple bodies that can take a liquid form (many elements). , 5. Simple permanent solids = carbon. , 6. Compounds without carbon. 7. Ternary compounds of carbon = hydrocarbonates. 8. Quaternary compounds of carbon = albuminoids. 9. Protoplasm = organic granular matter. 10. Ovules = unicellular organisms and germs of all living bodies. PHYSIOLOGICAL THEORY OF COSMOS. 349 It has been proved that we cannot interpret this scale by the doctrine of infinitesimal continuity — the fundamental principle of transformism ; and that we must not suppose because matter leaps infinitesimally, or changes gradually from one form to another, that such a change can be made by matter alone without the intervention of the Motor. PRINCIPAL CONCLUSIONS OF THIS PHYSIOLOGICAL THEORY OF COSMOS. Summary. 1. Physiological theory is still very defective, especially in the quantitative or correlative determination of those changes in which propagated movement is invisible in inorganic bodies as well as in the functions of vitality. 2. The principle of conservation of energy enunciates a quantitative correlation among the antecedents and consequents of all physiological or mechanical changes ; it is only an inference drawn from the facts of inertia of matter, and it has as a future guarantee uniformity of nature ; hence it is not a causal determination. 3. Mechanism — object of Physiology — is nothing really independent ; it is only the concept of a mental abstrac- tion in which we make the ellipses of the Primordial Cause and of the mental subject ; hence it comprehends the effects of material motion alone. 4. Matter, in order to be an object, can only be conceived as a substance in activity, occupying some space and existing in relations of time. Hence the division of object into matter and force, mass and move- ment, protoplasm and irritability is purely ideal or conceptual. 350 CONCLUSION, 5. Physiological change always results from propaga- tion of movement without any new creation or annihila- tion. Hence the differences among material changes are only quantitative — relations of space and time ; the qualitative nature — substance and activity — being always the same throughout all nature. 6. Monotheism is the true doctrine of all causal deter- mination, admitting only one cause of unity in the uni- versal system, and hence rejecting abstract or causing forces, and also atomic unity throughout nature. First Conclusion. § 64. Physiological Theory is still very Defective. The method of proceeding with physiological studies is : first, to analyze material things or objective events as far as their ultimate factors ; second, to investigate the laws which govern their combination or succession ; and third, by the union of such factors in accordance with their laws to construct mentally the complete object in all the forms of its sole activity — mechanism. When this last deduction is impossible we cannot arrive at a complete or mechanical explanation, and in fact there are many cases in nature which are not yet susceptible of a rational explanation ; this occurs with most of the changes in which movement is invisible, and with the functions of vitality. We do not take into account the primordial effect which is produced in organized beings, and which may be known only as a fact referred to the Prime Cause, but never as constructed by mani- »ft \\ 1 ^ " 64. PHYSIOLOGICAL THEORY IS DEFECTIVE. 351 fested antecedents, and therefore it is not within the reach of physiological acquisitions properly so-called. Our study, then, is limited to material concepts, not including either the knowledge about the origin and end of things or mental activity. The doctrine of pri- mordial genesis — Cosmogony — is not physiological ; it is metaphysical, because the facts of creation and organic generation, in which we comprehend not only the acts of reproductive inheritance, but also of nutritive de- velopment, cannot and never will be rationally con- nected with mechanical antecedents ; in creation and in vital generation there is a general order or uniformity which reveals the succession of the changes of nature in accordance with an intelligent, supreme law, and this idea is contradictory to chaos or fatal mechanism. Phy- siology must treat only of knowledge acquired by sen- sual data ; it must not comprehend the totality of the universal system, but only the mechanical world, whose actual synthesis is the proximate effect of the activity of living bodies. Physiological explanation of change must never pass beyond the numerical equivalent or correlation between antecedents and consequents, but this is not to assert that we find tenable the idea of scepticism, which affirms that a mental satisfaction of causality can be found merely by numerically determining the relations of material effects. This assertion is erroneous, yet it is still a truth that physiological synthesis cannot have a perfectly developed theory so long as it cannot mathe- matically explain the changes which are combined in vitality and in cosmos. If we maintain a physiological theory under the preceding limits or restrictions we fulfil a just demand of science ; our intelligence asks mnnfilt^ltfMiWiiitiiit 352 CONCLUSION. "^ for continuity and law in the system, since to imagine a system without order in its process would be as absurd as to imagine a present state with only temporal rela- tions with the past. All physiological laws and propositions must be in accordance with a fundamental relation of all mechanical changes ; such is the fundamental principle of conser- vation. But many inexactitudes in the enunciation of secondary laws, and in the explanation of material events, are noticed in all writers, for they frequently contradict the said fundamental principle; and in addition to this there are still many great difficulties in explaining some observed laws and facts. Again, some difficulties make reference to very palpable events, as those of molar mechanics, and yet an error has been committed in their concept, originating in a fallacy of language, taking what are simply mental abstractions as if they were concrete realities. Accordingly, we have mentioned three different defects of Physiological Theory; one is a defect of origin of change, which is insurmountable and in reality beyond the limits of Physiology, and therefore we will not further concern ourselves here with this point ; the second arises from fallacies of scientific language, either in contradiction to the fundamental principle of mechanism or in the realization of abstractions ; and the third is a defect of rational experience. The defects of contradictory or realistic fallacies must be corrected at once, as such a correction is purely a work of reasoning upon experimental facts; and so now we are to give the rule to clear the way on this point, but here in this conclusion we do not concern our- selves with the inexactitudes of the mechanical concepts 64. PHYSIOLOGICAL THEORY IS DEFECTIVE. 353 of Other authors, as the conclusions on this criticism will be continued in the followed sections. It is certain that some laws of Physics are very clear in their consequences, such as the law of gravity in massive or molar mechanics ; for, assuming the truth of the law, it is easy to deduce the results as rational necessities, the mind then feeling completely satisfied. Nevertheless, serious misinterpretations arise from the confusion between theor}^ and practice in molar mechanics, because the former is based in a series of ideal abstractions which are very far removed from mas- sive realities. It is clear that this is in obedience to the necessity of passing in the explanation from the simple to the complex, because without beginning with the simplest case the complex constructions could have no foundation. Without such a method, speculative theory would be impossible, and for this reason Mechanics supposes first points and lines, formed by continuous points, then single forces acting on points, afterwards bodies absolutely rigid, cords perfectly flexible, rotatory wheels or pulleys and other implements without friction, etc., so that the mecjianician in the practical application of his theories needs to take into account the difference between such data and objective reality in order to calculate resistance. But if the mechanician represents the reality in mind by means of such abstractions, also considering matter as always homogeneous and abso- lutely passive to which movements and forces are applied, he must never confound such suppositions with real existences, and must constantly bear in mind that such forces are not causes ; that they represent the result of the production of movement in the changes of nature ; and that the movements and forces manifested 2 A 354 CONCLUSION. by the mutual action of objects express only the measure of a limited portion of the material changes of the system. In regard to the defect of the present lack of rational experience, we may say that the idea of the physiologist, as of the mechanician, is to deduce every phenomenal consequent taking place in the world from its antecedent ; but this cannot be done, as yet at least, with phenomena whose antecedents are invisible movements. Never- theless, there is sufficient reason to affirm that if we could see interstitial changes more clearly we would also be capable of connecting their antecedents and consequents with the same mechanical necessity as we can now proceed with massive propagations of move- ment. Many physiological problems are yet unresolved, such as the exact calculation of all the transferences of heat, chemical metamorphoses, sound, light, and electricity, and yet we may infer on principle that such processes are at bottom necessarily identical with the simplest ordinary mechanics, because they are all either potential or manifested changes of the redistribution of matter in movement; and consequently in whatever form movement may be produced, it must always be of the same qualitative nature, the difference being only in the quantitative factors — relations of space and time. Thus, then, no one who comprehends the idea of mechanism and movement, not only visible but in- visible, can doubt for a moment that the changes pro- duced in chemical metamorphoses, for instance, must be subordinate to mechanical laws as well as are plane- tary movements, nor can he have any doubt that the properties of complex molecules depend on those of \ I 64. PHYSIOLOGICAL THEORY IS DEFECTIVE. 355 the elemental components according as they exist in the compound, and therefore there is no reason for con- sidering, as most chemists do, that chemical reactions are not so mechanical as the actions of molar gravitation. Furthermore, in the same manner we must interpret all nature under the mechanical concept, confining our intelligence within the limits of reflecting only on the results of effects without inquiring into the Primordial Cause. Although up to the present time the result of investigations upon the changes of vitality has been altogether unsuccessful, the connection between ante- cedents and consequents being still unknown, such a connection is a fact of rational experience, but we can- not yet mathematically determine the results in an organic machine, and therefore we cannot numerically mark the propagations of movement in vitality, not even to the simple extent that we can in the inorganic world. Synthetic Physiology, then, especially Biology, must spring from the irreflexive state of actuality, sur- passing its descriptive limits to investigate rationally in their quantitative correlation the effects derived from the genesic Potence of organism. When it makes this progress vitality, except in its protomotion or proto- genition, will have the same mechanical explanation of its effected changes as the simple phenomena combined in it ; but we must never confound such explanations with the things themselves, as the result of the process of reasoning is not the same as the genesic order of things ; it is precisely inverse to that ; the first effects we discover are those proximate to our senses, and consequently farthest removed from the Primordial Cause. This inversion between the logical order of thought and the genesic order of cosmic activity in the ■^'''*^^'''**'''***11lilM^^^ i 356 CONCLUSION. 65. CONSERVATION OF ENERGY. 357 1^- changes of movement must always be kept in mind in order to avoid a lapse into the monistic error of trans- formism. Second Conclusion. § 65. Conservation of Energy is the Funda- mental Principle of Mechanism. The principle of conservation of energy signifies that among the antecedents and consequents of physio- logical change there is always quantitative correlation. The sole guarantee for applying this affirmation to future events is the universal postulate uniformity of nature which is inferred from our strong belief that the facts of inertia of matter will hold true at all times and in all material cases. Hence the principle of conserva- tion simply marks a relation among objects and is not the causal determination of mechanism. Material nature is inert in living as well as in non- living bodies ; but we must not confound the term inertia, as is frequently done, with that of absolute passivity or absolute repose. Technically considered, inertia signifies indifference to movement, or, what is the same, that there is nothing in nature capable of engendering or annihilating the existing activity of matter, this only changing from latent to manifested states and the reverse. Thus we admit the phrase " force of inertia," which means the resistance of bodies to effect a movement, or to change either their direction or velocity. The enunciation of the principle of conservation and that of the law of inertia are at bottom synonymous, and that contradiction which apparently exists between I I such terms arises from the vulgar idea of inertia, which is acquired by the sensation of the effort necessary to move ponderable matter, as this always has some energy of position which is the effect of the pressure of progene gravitating towards the centre of the earth. The rational signification of the word inertia and its true concept in science is, we repeat, that all which is comprehended in the material world is indifferent to any form of movement, and consequently that all objective change is produced by something apart from matter, as this has no power by itself to increase, diminish, or change the form of its activity; so that great contradiction results from the language of physicists when they affirm that the sole real things are mass and energy, and that matter is completely passive. If inertia of matter implies that all manifested activity is determined by supermaterial or immaterial generation, and hence primordially originated by some agent apart from matter itself, the principle of conserva- tion of energy must not be confounded wuth the cause which determines the persistency of objects in their actual manner of being. The principle of conservation sums up all the energy of matter, potential as well as manifested, but the actual state of cosmos supposes a persistent reparation of the manifested energy which is constantly lost in the mechanical changes of the world ; such a reparation or protomotion is a change which must be engendered, and therefore it can take place only in organism. Mechanism by itself alone, i.e. without the activity which causes living generation, would soon be completely reduced to absolute uniformity of move- ment, and therefore would be without any manifestation or phenomenal change. But to suppose such perfect 358 CONCLUSION. equilibrium and such uniform movement among all the parts of cosmos, if this could exist without living bodies, is exactly the same as the imaginary representation of a world existing constantly in invariable oscillation, and therefore without phenomena. Nevertheless, beyond this state still, the doctrinaires of transformistic evolution have reached to imagine a primordial existence of the world, in which all and everything was equal with absolute uniformity. Cosmos, then, would be a perfectly continuous thing, and therefore in absolute repose ; but as it is impossible to conceive any kind of evolution arising from absolute repose, transformists endow the prime material — progene — with an inherent movement, which, according to them, was at first persistent and immutable. How, then, could progene, being matter, and therefore inert, be the source of all which is actually manifested, if, in such a uniform movement, and con- sequently without change, no phenomena can be pro- duced ? Inertia of matter is at present, has been in the past, and will be in the future the true condition of cosmic mechanism. Matter continually undergoes changes or mutations, but is never newly created nor annihilated, and consequently material changes can only be conceived as propagations of movement whose energy is preserved, and those changes which are mani- fested to the senses constituting phenomenal activity simply result from propagation of movement governed by the principle of conservation, as is inferred from the undoubted facts of inertia of matter. Accordingly, in the mechanism of the world the same energy is always preserved — conservation of matter in movement — and from this principle all natural laws are derived, and therefore the problems which come within the sphere of 66. OBJECT OF PHYSIOLOGY. 359 Physiology are exclusively mechanical or material. But if the activity of cosmos presupposes nothing but propagation of movement in accordance with the principle of conservation, this is not the cause of mechanism but only the law according to which nature is governed, not by itself but by what is capable of being causal determination. This solution given to the highest physiological problem is justified in this book and in the special study of every material change in " Theory of Physics." Third Conclusion. § 66. The Object of Physiology is Mechanism. Mechanism only comprehends the effects we can discover in the material world ; it is, then, the concept of a mental abstraction in which nothing is really inde- pendent, its changes resulting from intermotion which is subordinate to the Primordial Cause. Thus, making the ellipses of the generating cause and of the mental subject, the physiologist completely separates the object of Physiology from Metaphysics, and for this reason we must not admit any other cause, not even in vitality, than the determining cause of organic generation. This becomes manifested in two functional ways : as molecular generation— nutrition, and as cellular generation— repro- duction. There is no doubt that we may say that the object of Physiology is purely mechanic, but this must not induce us to fall into radical positivism, which admits only the existence of what is physiologic ; on the con- trary, apart from mechanism, we must not deny a true 36o CONCLUSION. cause, though this cause must be treated, not physically, but metaphysically. Experience is the only source of all the data (sensations) by which reason infers the laws of nature, these laws being relatively fixed or constant ; but reason also discovers that neither the existence nor the conditions of cosmic mechanism are ontological necessities or independent things, and that the exten- sion, duration, and character of cosmos are as the plan of the Creator designed them. A physiological ex- planation of cosmos only conduces to the knowledge of what manner within the system of nature one objec- tive state results from another, and in what manner some factors are combined to produce a determined result ; physiological theory, then, must not inquire into the True Cause, though it is obliged on principle to affirm its existence, but circumscribe itself to consider the world in its actual state and from this to infer the history of the order and the laws presiding over material changes, which are primarily determined by the cause implicit in the system, although it only manifests its actuality directly upon organic generation. Under this criterion physiological theory simply comprehends, first, the analysis of the factors of nature — Analysis of Cosmos ; and second, the construction of the resultant by the union of such factors in accordance with natural laws — Synthesis of Cosmos; in this manner the explanation of a physiological change consists in connecting it with its antecedents in accordance with the laws of material or objective succession ; and the explanation of a compound change consists in referring it to its components. For this reason a correct analysis of living functions leads us to the knowledge that though they are highly complex changes they have no 66. OBJECT OF PHYSIOLOGY. 361 special quality ; that physiological synthesis consists in a natural concurrence of the simplest material changes whose union forms a partial synthesis in inorganic, organic, and planetary bodies and that these together form only physical cosmos — not the whole universal system. Hence, physiological theory in its synthesis tries to compass the combined study of the same changes of nature which are separately studied in Special Analytical Physiology (see " Theory of Physics "). In fact, in Synthesis of Cosmos, we do not study anything new, as the living functions are but combined changes like those that take place in the inorganic world, but because of this we must not arrive at the erroneous conclusion of materialism which affirms that vitality results from material activity, when in the true order of succession the changes of the inorganic world are secondarily derived through the activity of living matter. Living generation is the sole primordial effect of nature, and it cannot be produced by propagation of movement or mechanical derivation ; it is the original or primordial change from which the continuous per- turbation of physical cosmos is derived. Living matter cannot change its physico-chemical state as can matter which is not alive ; it has a special structure or organiza- tion which can only be formed by organic generation. The multiplication of living beings is really an incom- prehensible procreation which cannot be produced by mechanical propagation, as the inorganic world con- tinually experiences a loss of living force which is repaired by organism, thus determining the conservation or persistency of material change in the universe. Thus we have explained planetary movements, gravity, and 36; CONCLUSION. 66. OBJECT OF PHYSIOLOGY. 363 terrestrial magnetism, by progenic impulsions arising from the difference between the periodical changes in vegetable and animal organisms, and also from the difference between both organic kingdoms during the day and night, and we have also explained the photo- thermic propagation of sunlight, not by solar combustion, but by the interference of the heat radiated from all the planets to the surface of the sun which is situated in the focus of their orbits. Vitality is the proximate effect by which all the material changes of the world are directly originated ; all the changes of inorganic matter are secondary effects, and serve as a medium for the development of organic matter. The functional synthesis of organism or vitality is then the proximate cause of the uniformity of nature, that is to say, of the persistent uniformity with which the material mutations or operations of nature are effected ; this means the constant succession of material manifestations or phenomena whose differences are in fact very gradual and not sudden. But the cause of the elective capacity of generation is a complete mystery, which can only result from the direct influence of the Supreme Motor, the Supernatural Subject which we admit and recognize only by its effects. We must also recognize as metaphysical or im- material activity the mental subject whose process is inexplicable by the acts of mechanism, its characteristics being differences of quality and therefore very different from the characters of movement, which is always the same in its qualitative attributions — substance and activity. We conceive the mind by the attribute of its own consciousness, and mental acts may be only related to time without our being able to predicate of them 11 I any phenomenal activity, that is, any change directly appreciable by the senses, and any relation of space ; while the object or material being has as a constant and indispensable characteristic the predicate of extension, which implies attribution not only of material substance, but of movement, and relation not only of space, but of time. In reality we can perceive an evident distinction between the material and the mental : the material is inert according to the principle of conservation, and is known by the relations of space and time or predicates of quantity, while the mental is active and is known by the attributions of differential activities or predicates of quality. In the material changes of mechanism the antecedents and consequents are equivalent, there is neither creation nor annihilation of anything (conserva- tion of energy = inertia of matter), while in mental process the general conclusions are not equivalent to their antecedents, as they comprehend the universal concept of all cases of the same kind though we can never observe more than a limited number ; inductive thought, then, creates some ideas in contradistinction to inertia of matter. Material differences have mathema- tical reason, as changes of matter are propagations of movement expressed by quantitative differences or rela- tions of space and time, connoting identity of (qualita- tive) attribution, that is, substantial identity and identity of activity — motion ; while mental differences have no more reason than the states of consciousness (different kinds of perceptions) ; these qualitative differences of activity are inexplicable by propagation of movement, and in them we cannot determine relations of space. The knowledge of mechanical or physiological changes must be acquired by means of experience or observa- iilifMfiiiiitrjrittfiTiiiiPiftiiiiiiiiiiiMliW 364 CONCLUSION. 67. CONSTITUTION AND ACTIVITY OF MATTER. 365 tion ; it cannot be reached by pure reason alone ; while the knowledge of the mental process can only be known by our own conscious activity which is not manifested to the senses. Fourth Conclusion. § 6^. Matter is an Active Substance, but its Activity is of Course Derived. Irreflexive experience distinguishes matter and force as separate things, and these mental abstractions give rise to the erroneous concept of matter current among physicists. Objects are not aggregates of matter and force, neither are inorganic bodies aggregates of mass and movement, nor are living bodies formed by the aggregation of protoplasm and irritability. A body, even a living one, is in reality one thing alone ; such terms as "matter" and "force," etc., represent, not dif- ferent things, but only the ultimate notion of objective attributes. Hence there are no such things as force, movement, and irritability in the sense of abstract or causing agents which can determine the changes of nature. Any material thing or object is necessarily a substance in activity — movement, whose measure is called force, and whose differences depend on variable relations of space and time. Force, then, only represents the measure of the movement which is constantly propagated through- out the world, and is but a mechanical resultant in accordance with the principle of conservation. Forces, we repeat, are not abstract agents or primordial powers ; they represent the resultant measure of the movements of matter which are natural effects mechanically derived, and which are constantly changing in the world, without creation or annihilation, in accordance with the evident fact of inertia of matter, that is, always preserving equivalent energy in their propagation. But this affir- mation would not be true if by force we meant (like many writers) the product of half the mass (quantity of ponderable matter), and the square of the velocity, for such a product is not the same throughout the incessant mutations of nature ; we must include in the total quantity of mechanical power or force the potential or non-manifested state of material energy which results from some progenic movements. Accordingly, abstract causing or generating forces in nature, as attraction and repulsion, which are the remains of the supreme a7iima miuidi of the ancient philosophers, must no longer be admitted, the word " force" always signifying in science the measure of the effects of propagated movement. If sometimes we do not discover direct propagation in a change, it is because there is indirect transmission through a medium which is not constantly manifested, and in order to explain this, we must now briefly express our ideas on the constitution of matter. Matter is not continuous in extension, it could not move if all space were absolutely full ; there must be diminutive spaces relatively void among the smallest particles which constitute matter. Ponderable matter is formed by invisible and indivisible corpuscles, which are separated from one another, either totally or partially, leaving the spaces we call porocules. Atoms have no determined properties, and therefore they are not what liJIftiffea^iMiiKMh-^^ifrirrtiMii \ -.66 CONCLUSION. 67. CONSTITUTION AND ACTIVITY OF MATTER. 367 the chemists suppose them to be — the determined equivalents of combination, nor what is determined by what they call atomic weights and volumes ; nevertheless, in the phenomena of nature, especially in chemical metamorphoses, we see sufficient reason to admit atomic constitution of ponderable matter, though we do not recognize the atom as an object of fixed determina- tions. The atomic interstices of bodies contain imponderable matter or progene, but this does not fill such porocular spaces in absolute but only relatively, because it is always in oscillation, and thus it serves as the universal medium for the interaction of atoms when these are not in contact. The gradual interchange in the propagation of progenia movements, which may be mutually trans- ferred according to the most variable proportions with- out fixed relations, like those of atomic changes, conduces us to the belief that progene must exist in very variable parcels in the interstices of bodies. Not only are atoms of the same qualitative nature, but atoms and progene must be identical, except in their density, this difference being, if we take the atom as the unity, as i : 0'54. DifTerences of matter, then, are only quantitative, inferring this from the mutual quantivalence of progenic transferences into molecular, and molar changes, and vice versd. Progene cannot change in its physico-chemical state ; it is always a metafluid which is distributed in very variable parcels, so that it cannot form different kinds of irreducible or non-convertible objects as ponderable matter may, on account of the geometrical differences of its invariable or indivisible atoms. Although we have made a distinction between interstellar and interstitial progene, such denominations do not mean that the progene in one condition cannot change place with that of the other ; on the contrary, interstellar and interstitial progene are in constant mutual interchange. We have rejected the idea of the inherence of any properties in matter, such as elasticity and movement, and we have also rejected the inherence of causing forces like the hypothetic attractions — affinity, planetary attraction — and the hypothetic repulsion of matter, engendering heat by means of molecular vibration, and we have set aside, too, the existence of different imponderable fluids, as luminous, electric, magnetic, and nervous fluids. In all these cases we admit the intervention of the medium we call progene, whose real existence must be recognized, although it is neither tangible nor ponderable. The affirmation of the exist- ence of such a metafluid is a necessity in science, in order that reason may explain the mechanism of the world in general and that of living bodies in particular ; its existence cannot be denied, because interstellar changes suppose propagation of movement, and if interstellar space were empty, nothing could move in it ; consequently there must be some matter in move- ment there serving as a medium. Thus, also, when the diminutive particles of a body are approximated and separated in order to produce different molecular changes, we must admit something that impulses the molecules to the execution of their movements. Besides, such an all-pervading substance is directly felt by the eye as light and by the ear as sound. The first change of movement or generation of living energy in universal mechanism takes place in progene in order to determine the molecular and molar changes gJiMiiiiifeailtfif^^ 368 CONCLUSION. 68 MATERIAL CHANGE, 369 of organic generation. But to effect this the interven- tion of a power superior to mechanical propagations is necessary, as mechanism in all its changes dissipates living energy, which is constantly repaired by the said act of generation. So that progene, in accordance with its etymological meaning, is the first-engendered sub- stance, or the primordial existence in mechanism, and by its means we can explain all the changes which are apparently effected by physical agents, as attraction and repulsion, erroneously supposed to be forces acting at a distance. Furthermore, progene conceived under different forms of movement, perfectly explains all the potential states of nature, which in non-living bodies, are denominated latent and radiant heat and electricity, and which in living bodies we have denominated proto- genition, biotension, and innervation. We can also very well conceive the formation and different characters of inorganic bodies by the union of atoms and progene. Thus, when the energy of the interatomic progene of a body is greater than that which acts in external pressure the body is in a fluid state, and on the contrary, when the energy of inter- stitial progene is less than the progenic pressure gravi- tating outside the body a solid state results. A liquid is no more than a gas reduced by molar pressure to its minimum capacity. Bodies in their physical state may be either incom- plex or complex, the greatest complexity on earth resulting in living matter, whose formation we cannot explain by the simple combination of atoms and progene ; it cannot be mechanically constructed like inorganic bodies. From what has been said the physio- logical analysis of the constitution of cosmos shows us I ^ very different states of matter which may be more clearly seen in the following table : — Metafluid state — progene alone. Corporeal state — atoms and progene together. { In unbroken continuity = Interstellar progene. \ In minute parcels All states of o . rf"3 I matter together. Primordial = Interstitial progene. r Gases. \ Liquids. { Symmetric \ Asymmetric. = Protoplasm. ' from proto- f Organic nuclei, plasm. \ Organic cellulae. ^^"^^^ ^ from cellu- I ^'^anic fibres. Ise. Organic membranes and tubes. Accordingly, in all which is the object of sensual observations there is no unity ; in the physical world irreflexive experience finds plurality as in the immensity of the universe we see scattered innumerable stars and planets, among which is the planet we inhabit ; on the earth we observe many different kinds of bodies which we classify as organic and inorganic, and among the last there are many different persistent substances which are considered as simple or elemental because they cannot be decomposed nor are they chemically con- vertible or reducible to one another. Nevertheless, there are sufficient rational proofs to affirm that quali- tative nature — substance and activity — is always the same in all objects, and that objects differ only in their quantitative relations — space and time. Fifth Conclusion. § 68. Material Change is but Propagating Movement. We have said that cosmic mechanism, that is, physi- ological object, nature properly so-called or the material 2 B iffiitiBriiHlfi'ii iirrrfHii ffinrnnimltillif . ^■^.a..j.i,a^-aaM»{...i,»*.Kftqi'a«iiita{t m •r 370 CONCLUSION. I 68. MATERIAL CHANGE. 371 world, is an abstract conception of matter in movement. In truth, all the changes of matter, potential as well as phenomenal, must be explained by movement, either visible or invisible, this last not being manifested, but beyond the reach of our senses on account of its minute- ness. If all changes of matter, potential and pheno- menal, always consist in changes of place and then at bottom all are movement, their differences are only quantitative, that is, differences in the relation of space and time; but the manifestation of movement or pheno- menal condition of change is different for every sense according to its perceptible factors, and from this arises the qualitative classes of sensations, although among all their originating movements there can be only quali- tative identity. In reality, movement, which is the sole form of material activity, can differ only in its quanti- tative relations, and therefore the so-called qualitative differences of matter are merely subjective or ideal ; they can never be objective or material. All physiological change implies propagation of movement, which first becomes manifested in living bodies in the genesic acts of vitality in the collocation of material in order to form the organic structures ; all the other changes of cosmos are afterwards determined by the transference, or, better to say, by the propagation of such genesic movement. Our final aim in this Theory of Cosmos is to explain correctly the material circulation in the world by pro- pagation of movement, in a way contrary to the present doctrines, which pretend that the original centre of such a circulation on the earth is solar combustion ; but even if it were true that the sun was persistently burning, it would still be a fact that a thermochemical change is a derived and very secondary one, and although this kind of change is the first manifested in cosmos, we must admit and recognize in nature the priority of some potential progenic energy which is necessary to impulse the molecules to produce the primordial metamorphoses of living matter. But as organic generation is a mys- terious, supreme fecundation, the remote or primordial cause of all manifested changes (including solar light, gravitation, terrestrial magnetism, and planetary move- ments) acts upon cosmos, using organism as the sole medium. Let us now see how Physiological Theory must explain the successive evolution of material changes, or, better to say, the involution of cosmos. The first manifestation in the world is trophic or nutritive func- tion, and so chemical changes are primarily effected in the act of organic collocation. From this perturbation all the material changes which we can discover in living as well as in non-living matter are derived. Thus, the progene necessary for moving atoms to the formation of organic structures and preserving them in such a complex condition is freed when the decomposition of such structures takes place ; and then the progene that was before static— potential state which we call bioten- sion, becomes dynamic, either in oscillation as heat, or in a confined course through the nervous conductors as innervation. The propagation of oscillatory movement through interstitial progene increases the force whose effects appear to be the result of molecular repulsion, and then there may be either increase of temperature, or change of physical state, or else another chemical decomposition may take place. As the propagation of oscillatory revolution of progene through the interstitial 372 CONCLUSION. parcels of all bodies constantly occurs the effects of an apparent repulsion of the ponderable particles are produced, and for this reason some degree of heat always exists in all objects. Heat may be propagated either by conduction or by radiation ; the radiating heat which is propagated from all planets is reflected by all celestial bodies but principally by the sun, in which the interference is sufficient to determine the photothermic radiation called sunlight. This motion of interstellar progene is propagated through the atmos- phere in two different ways because some of the progene collides with the atoms of the atmosphere and propa- gates to these some concentric or centripetal movement from which atomic gravitation results, while the progene which passes through the interatomic spaces continues in its diffuse propagation as light. In this manner all the parts of the earth, including the atmosphere, are under the pressure of ultra-atmospheric progene, which produces the force called gravity ; and this apparently determines in corpuscles and bodies the effect of a centripetal attraction in proportion to the mass and the square of the distance. Heat and gravity then act as opposing movements from which the so-called forces of attraction and repulsion result. The two usual ways of manifesting atomic gravitation are by the so-called forces of cohesion and affinity ; the first is referred by the authors to homogeneous corpuscles, and the second to those which are heterogeneous and which may com- bine in definite proportions. In chemical metamor- phoses all kinds of movements or material changes may be evolved, which in the correlative order of their fre- quency may be mentioned as follows: (i) oscillatory movement which, as we have said, produces heat; (2) 68. MATERIAL CHANGE, 373 I progenic currents confined in conductors which may be either living nerves or inorganic matter, principally metallic wire ; in the first case we call the current inner- vation, and in the second dynamic electricity ; (3) diffuse radiation of progene which may impress the retina and produce the sensation of light ; and (4), in chemical reactions progene may become freed in such a manner as to produce the explosion of a body, whose particles thus coming into vibratory movement, and whose progenic parcels coming into condensed oscil- latory movement, may propagate this progenic motion to the ear and produce the sensation of sound. Any one of the forms of invisible movement, but especially heat, is frequently transferred into visible movement or molar work both in animal economy and in machinery ; among these works the principal are locomotion, orbital and rotatory movements of the earth as of the other planets, terrestrial magnetism, and gravity. The period- ical increase and diminution of gravity alternating every six hours is very remarkable, and this, like the other planetary phenomena, directly depends on the periodical changes of organism, which varies in its activity twice every twenty-four hours, according as it is day or night. Besides, the vegetable world generally varies twice every year according to the seasons, and this also produces some changes in gravity. Thus, some material acts, which at first sight or to irreflexive observation appear to be far removed from a possible interpretation, show to reason analogies with the work seen in the simplest machine. Accordingly, the circuit of change in the Cosmic System is closed, not by a mechanical propaga- tion like combustion, but by living generation, in which there must be the immediate intervention of a Super- 374 CONCLUSION. 69. MONOTHEISM. 375 natural Power in order to generate living force ; this is first manifested by the functions of living matter, which afterwards propagates its action to the inorganic world, where the living energy is dissipated by the gravitating resistance of atoms, until it is newly manifested by the protomotion of vitality — protogenition. Sixth Conclusion. § 69. Monotheism must be proclaimed in Physi- ology, THUS rejecting ALL ABSTRACT FORCES IN Nature. We have recognized the constant generation of change in material activity — motion — with conservation of energy, and we have admitted one, and only one causal determination in accordance with the unity of the sys- tem, because we must reject abstract or causing forces, and also atomic unity throughout nature. The doctrinary physiological error most commonly upheld by physicists is realism, they taking for granted that the ontological abstractions of passive substance, and, above all, of abstract or causing forces are real existences. In the fundamental definitions given by most authors such ontological realizations are expressly admitted, as may be seen in their definitions of the words attraction, repulsion, gravity, affinity, cohesion, and so on. Such definitions show that authors suppose that invisible particles and great masses are endowed with attractive and repulsive forces which determine all material changes. The so-called hypothesis of universal attraction is both imaginary and absurd ; it is a fallacy of language ; still more it is the name of nothing, because I the existence of an attractive force acting at a distance is an impossibility. To admit attraction among invisible particles and great masses is an incomprehensible absur- dity. To explain gravitation, chemical combinations, cohesion, etc., by the enigmatic mutual attraction of matter is in complete contradiction to the true fact of inertia of matter and the law of conservation, because attraction means constant creation of force or mechani- cal power as a continuous source of movement, and if there was really such a thing as attraction matter would be the generator of energy instead of being inert. For this reason we supplant the phrase " universal attrac- tion " by that of " atomic gravitation," as we notice that those changes in which matter acts as if mutually attracted take place only in atomic or ponderable matter. In order to explain the changes in which objects act as if they were in repulsion, and also to explain the reparation of living force in mechanism, most authors admit elasticity, or, what is the same, an inherent move- ment, rotation, for instance, in matter, which determines elasticity. There is no property or action inherent in matter, and this is confirmed by the study of Special Analytic Physiology (see " Theory of Physics "), where all phenomena and the other changes of nature are ex- plained without the intervention of elasticity as a causing force. Elasticity is a movement which appears to be a reaction of bodies to recover their dimensions when these are changed by some force whose action has disappeared. Such an apparent inherence of abstract or causing force in bodies depends on progenic oscilla- tion, or, better to say, is a resultant of the relative interaction of progene and atoms, and this resul- ''iiiftfiiii'miiitf/, that is, manifested resultant greater than living force employed. In spite of this truth many writers distinguished for their scientific descriptions have cynically affirmed the philosophic error that belief in a God is always a refuge of ignorance. This needs no higher commentary than simple reasoning, which at least is not controlled by the mental pride which makes such men presume that there is nothing in the universe which can resist their penetrating vision, and from this they draw their final conclusion that " nothing exists outside the dominion of the senses ! " But, on the other hand, they justly accuse religious beliefs in having frequently served as a mask for ignorance. Who doubts that it is a superstition to refer directly to the Creating Cause or Prime Motor any material or mechanical change which is operated in conformity with the formula r < ff These are natural changes produced simply by propagation of movement. But in such a superstitious 378 CONCLUSION'. 69. MONOTHEISM. 379 reference an error of succession has been committed by taking the remote cause for the proximate, yet this is of no such consequence as and much more excusable than to deny the Generating Cause and suppress the concept of succession, after the manner of atheists. Again, irreflexive experience and the realization of ideas in the order of their acquisition and teaching, has conduced many writers to imagine that life results from the union of mechanical forces, and they give no other reason for this idea than that every one of the changes of organism is also produced in the inorganic world. In this manner the observed facts of cosmos, which are, of course, relations, and therefore descriptive, are con- sidered by renowned writers as genesic ; such is the error of the conception of Laplace concerning the evolution of the solar system, and of all the ideas of modern evolutionism and transformism. Any trans- formistic doctrine is not an advancement from the indefinite towards the definite, it is purely a phenomenal description of nature — a graphic representation of the world to the senses — but it does not genesically explain anything ; it does not teach us to reason out the process of causality. Universal effects are of two kinds, spiritual and material ; the spiritual are the subject of direct per- ception, and the material are the objects perceived, not directly, but by the interaction of the senses, both with the external world and the mind ; but the Primordial Cause of all effects in the universal system is one alone which is neither subject nor object of perception in our mind, but is truly the Creator and Generator of all we perceive. Nevertheless, the existence of God, mind, and matter are inconceivable as really independent of ^^^^« or separate from one another — that is to say, our under- standing can only hold the ideal abstraction or nominal independence of any of the said entities ; we cannot truly comprehend a real being which could be cause without effect, nor mental subject without material object, or vice versd, comprehending, of course, in this concept of universal dependence the mechanism of life as well as that of the whole cosmos. For this reason the traditional truth of Christian revelation of the separate existence of God, soul, and body is and always will be a complete mystery, inexplicable by words and impenetrable to the intelligence. The problems belong- ing to this transcendental Trinity are beyond the limits of Physiology ; they belong to Metaphysics. Physiological explanations can never pass from the numerical equivalence of correlation between ante- cedents and consequents, but this is not to assert that we find tenable the pretended scepticism of those who afiirm that there is a complete mental satisfaction of causality by determining in numbers the relations of cosmic effects. Perhaps this may satisfy some minds, but it cannot satisfy minds privileged with such intel- lectual development as to be able to reach the con- templating concept of a Supreme Cause, although this may be only admitted and recognized by the attributions and relations of the created, principally by the organic and psychic activities which are multiplied and developed in the universe. No substantial predicate nor relation in space and time can be referred to the Creator, as we cannot have any concept of perfection more than the material and the mental ; God is inconceivable as He cannot be either the one or the other, and at the same time must contain the capacity for both. To the 38o CONCLUSION. PHYSIOLOGICAL THEORY OF COSMOS. 381 Supreme Intelligence, as to any human intelligence different from our own mind, we cannot make reference more than in its activity, and this is revealed to us by the government of the whole universal system through organic generation. 3 'Ml SUMMARY OF DEFINITIONS. A. Definitions referring to the "Intro- duction. I) Subject in Philosophy (Physiology and Metaphysics) means the knowing principle — ego, mind, or spirit — that is, the abstract idea of that which perceives sensation and elaborate thought. Subjective or mental activity is known only by self consciousness, which perceives differences of qualities, and not by the senses, as it cannot be submitted to experimental proof. • Object in Philosophy (Physiology and Metaphysics) is the opposite term to mental subject, and therefore means all sensual things together — 71071 ego, 77tattery or 7iature, that is, the abstract idea of that which is known by experimental data. Objective or material activity is known by extrinsic propagations from which the mind can only perceive differences of quantity. Se7isatio7is may be grouped under two headings — subjective and objective sensations. Subjective scTtsa- tions are referred to the intrinsic states of the mind — intuitions, which may be either emotional or instinctive. Objective or proper se7isatio7is are referred to the extrinsic states of the material things which propagate their activity or movement to the mind, and are acquired \immimvMiMkS^imAi^^^^e^iA\ 382 GENERAL PHYSIOLOGY. SUMMARY OF DEFINITIONS. 383 by means of the special senses. These special or objective sensations we divide into two kinds— immediate and mediate. Immediate objective sensations are touch of pression, taste, and smell, which, in order to be produced, need the direct contact of ponderable matter with the senses, it being worthy of notice that solids are the best to determine the sensation of pression, liquids of taste, and gases of smell. Mediate objective sensations are thermic touch, hearing and sight, which are regularly produced by objects separated from the senses, to which movement is then propagated by means of imponderable matter or progene. Physiology in its original and etymological meaning is the science of nature, matter, or object, and its first data are the special sensations which constitute our experience or sensual observation. This is the sense in which we employ the term Physiology, which we divide into Abstract and Concrete, subdividing Abstract Physiology into General and Special. General Physiology concerns itself with the abstract study of nature, that is, with the Physiological Theory of Cosmos, which does not treat in particular of the know- ledge of every physical or physiological change. B. Concept of Matter. Conceptual elements are the abstract terms which represent the ultimate analytical notions of things, namely, substance, activity, space, and time. Material substance is the conceptual term used to represent the ultimate abstraction of all the names of 11' ) real objects, that is to say, the nominal concept common to all things perceived by the senses with the elision of their activity, space, and time. Material activity (abstract movement) is the con- ceptual term used to represent the ultimate abstraction of all attributive predicates which are applied to real objects, that is to say, the predicative concept of all things perceived by the senses, with the elision Of sub- stance, space, and time. Space is the conceptual term used to represent the ultimate abstraction of all relative predicates regarding the extension of real objects and their distances, elision being made of substance, activity, and time. Time is the conceptual term used to represent the ultimate abstraction of all relative predicates regarding the duration of objective changes, elision being made of substance, activity, and space. Extension is not an absolute property of matter, but a quantitative determination of the space occupied by bodies according to the relative movement of their con- stituent elements. Impenetrability is not a property of matter ; on the contrary, it is practically impossible to reduce bodies to their minimum extension, and we do not know even theoretically what could be the limit of penetrability of bodies. Essence of matter or qualitative nature of objects is always the same throughout the world, as objective sensation results from propagation of movement, and this can only differ in quantitative relations — those of space and time. Force is not an abstract or causing agent, but simply the measure of material activity — movement. 384 GENERAL PHYSIOLOGY. SUMMARY OF DEFINITIONS. 38s The notion of material existence or object (concrete things in motion) comprehends the four elemental concepts : the two attributive concepts, substance and activity, which are called also essence or qualitative nature, and the two relative concepts, space and time, called also contingencies or quantitative connections. These last — the relations — are the only ones to be con- sidered in natural or physiological differences, as the qualitative differences depend on the reaction of our mental subject. Realism is the erroneous doctrine which admits the ontological realization of the conceptual elements either separately or combined, and therefore it considers abstract ideas as realities. Idealism is the erroneous doctrine which admits only the ideal conception of all things, even of those which are active substance existing in space and changing with time, and therefore idealism considers the concrete existence of objects as mere ideas. Monistic doctrines have as a fundamental error either realism or idealism ; thus materialism, atomism, and transformism are realistic doctrines, and pure dynamism is also in some measure realistic. Universal attraction is supposed by most authors to be a force or tendency of matter to approximate the parts which are separated ; but there is no possibility of the existence of such a thing as attraction, and it is still more contrary to fact to consider it as a universal property. Physiological change \s a different mode in the manner of being of objects, and so it is only a variation in the quantitative relation (space and time) of matter in movement. 5 1 , 1 ^i^»^A ! Inertia of matter means that physiological change is never a new creation, and is never annihilated, but only a variation in the form of propagated movement, and hence inertia is technically equal to conservation of energy in the world, which signifies that in physiological transformations the same quantity of matter in move- ment is always preserved. Physiological cause represents the nominal abstraction of all the conditions necessary to effect any material change ; the word cause^ then, in Physiology, has only a relative meaning. C. Ponderable Matter. Mass is the quantity of ponderable matter which bodies contain, and is determined by weight, which, like any other force, is a variable and not a fixed relation. Atoms are the most minute or indivisible particles of ponderable matter which are identical in their attri- butions and density, and differ from one another only geometrically, that is, in volume and perhaps in figure. Atomic weights and volumes represent the propor- tional quantities in which bodies enter into chemical combinations, but they do not represent any determined weight and volume of atoms. Molecule is the common term used to represent all the concepts of invisible particles whether divisible or not. Molecules, then, may be either simple or com- pound ; simple or elemental molecules are the atoms, and compound molecules are polyatomic particles in which the elements may be either incomplex or complex. Chemical molecule is the concept of a particle con- 2 C 386 GENERAL PHYSIOLOGY. SUMMARY OF DEFINITIONS. 387 taining the proportional though indefinite number of atoms in which bodies are combined. D. Progene = Imponderable Matter. Progene is the all-pervading imponderable matter which relatively occupies all space void of ponderable matter, and its density is about half that of atoms (as fifty-four is to one hundred). Progene occupies both interstellar and interstitial space ; in the first case it is in unbroken continuity, and in the second it is distributed in very variable parcels throughout the porocules of bodies. Interstellar and interstitial progene are in constant interchange. Progene may be either in a potential or phenomenal state, this difference resulting from the impressionability of our senses to notice the changes of its persistent movement. Progenia potence results from the non-manifested changes of progene which are infra- and ultra-sonorous oscillations, infra- and ultra-luminous emissions, and static and dynamic electricity. Progenia phenomena are the manifested changes in which progene only is in movement ; this movement may be either oscillatory — propagation of sound, or translatory — propagation of light. E. Concept of Bodies in General and of Inorganic Bodies in Particular. A body is a limited portion of ponderable matter containing in its atomic interstices (porocules) variable parcels of progene. fST Bodies may be either inorganic (cosmic medium) or organic (living and dead matter), or else mixed bodies — ^g^g^'^g^tes of inorganic and organic matter (planets). Inorganic bodies are classified by their physical con- sistency and by their chemical composition ; by the first concept (physical states) bodies are either solids or fluids, and by the second (chemical states) they are either simple or compound. Physical states result from the relative proportions between the internal energy of bodies which is deter- mined by oscillating progene or heat and the external energy which is determined by gravity. Solid states, whether asymmetric or symmetric, result from the preponderance of the external or gravitating energy over the internal or thermic, and Fluid states, whether liquid or gaseous, result from the preponderance of thermic energy over gravity. Gas is the most simple state of bodies, because they have their atoms separated from one another ; and it is the regular state of all fluids when they are not under the pressure of some other body. Liquid is an intermediary state between gas and solids, and results from the reduction of gas by molar pressure to its minimum extension, thus equilibrating the excess of internal action, and producing the union of atoms two by two (hydrocules). Symmetric solids or crystals when fractured show plain surfaces which present constant incidences among themselves, and therefore they are constituted by sym- metric, polyhedric particles — regular orocules. 388 GENERAL PHYSIOLOGY. F. Concept of Organic Bodies. SUMMARY OF DEFINITIONS. 389 Organic bodies are highly complex structures of living matter, and are also those structures which, although dead, still preserve the morphologic appear- ances which they showed during life. Characters of organic ^natter there are none but the manner of being engendered, and therefore we practi- cally recognize this only because we cannot fluidify organic matter without destroying its structure, which cannot be reconstructed by any industrial means, not even by chemical combination. All definite compounds, even those complex com- pounds of carbon which can undergo either fluidification or decomposition, and which in either case can be recon- structed by industrial means, must also be called inor- cranic bodies like those included at present in works on Inorganic Chemistry. Protoplasm is the simplest organic matter of granular, homogeneous, and semi-solid appearance, from which all the other organic forms, as nuclei, membranes, and fibres are derived. Vitality is the synthesis of all the functional changes which are operated in living bodies. All functions after an ultimate analysis are nothing but material changes like those observed in the inor- ganic world, and they may be classified as potential and phenomenal. Potential functions are changes not manifested to the senses ; they are only inferred by reason, which sees the necessity of admitting some progenic movements in living bodies, in order to determine their acts of proto- genition, biotension, and innervation. I «'fe*-. ¥ I Protogenition is the progenic movement necessary for the changes of collocation of ponderable matter in the acts of organic generation — nutrition and reproduction. Biotension is the static progene which is confined in the organized particles, and which is manifested under different forms, principally by heat in the decomposition of organic matter, and by visible movements in muscular contractions. Innervation is a confined current of progene running through the nerves, and hence is but electricity propa- gated through living conductors. Phenomenal functions are manifested changes which may be either partial movements of invisible particles — nutrition, or total movements of visible parts — repro- duction and contraction. Nutrition or trophic function — assimilation and dis- assimilation — is a complex molecular movement or thermochemical phenomenon, and consists in endo- thermic metamorphoses or reductions and exothermic metamorphoses or oxidations. The thermochemic changes of reduction predominate in green vegetation, and those of oxidation in animal life. Reproduction is the total movement of a visible organized particle which is separated by self-excision in order to take on an individual existence like its parents or other ancestors. Contraction or contractility is also a visible move- ment, but a returned one, in which protoplasm in general, principally the muscular, is alternately reduced and relaxed. Cellule is the common concept of all organized, visible particles, elision being made of their anatomic forms and peculiar functions ; so that the elements ffi' 390 GENERAL PHYSIOLOGY. which have acquired the most complex development are imaginarily deprived of their derived parts as nuclei, membranes, and fibres, and also imaginarily deprived of all living functions except nutrition, which is the primary and sole manifestation common to all living bodies. [Although reproduction is, like nutrition, a manifestation common to vegetable and animal species, it is not a function of all organisms, many being sterile.] Irritability z.s> the cause of living functions or cellular activity is an inadmissible agent, and, as an effect, would be an improper denomination for vitality, and therefore it must be omitted from scientific terminology. G. Concept of Planetary Bodies. Planets are bodies constituted of organic and inor- ganic matter. Living organic matter is the proximate agent of planetary movements, for which non-living bodies are only the cosmic medium. The sun is not a body in combustion ; it is princi- pally a great reflecting mass, which, situated in the focus of the orbits of many planets, reflects their infra- luminous emissions, these producing light by their con- glomeration. The rotatory movement of the sun is accomplished in twenty-six days, therefore there must also be some living matter in the sun. Natural light or daylight is a photothermic radiation produced by transference, not only of the radiating motion of the planets, but also of the motion engendered by solar living beings. The sun principally differs from the planets in that having but one and relatively small continent it cannot sensibly come into any orbital revolution. i\ I P V * ,^ V SUMMARY OF DEFINITIONS, 391 Satellites must also be constituted of organic and inorganic bodies, and they revolve towards the planets because the progenic energy which they receive from their corresponding planets is greater (on account of their proximity) than that which they receive from the sun. H. Comprehensive Concept of the Universe. The universe is not only an aggregate of all the planetary systems, but there is besides some cause apart from matter acting as its governor or Prime Motor. Periodicity of phenomena or manifested energy in the universe results from the alternating increase and diminution of the intrinsic and extrinsic changes of organism ; vitality thus being the primordial effect of the Supreme Motor. Cosmogony — the science of the formation of the uni- verse, and of the cause of the conservation of the world in its actual state — is not a physiological doctrine ; it is a matter of pure belief which is beyond any experi- mental proof, and therefore it enters into the province of Theology — a metaphysical science. PRINTED BY WILLIAM CLOWES AND SONS, LIMITED, LONDON AND BECCLBS. A LIST OF KEGAN PAUL, TRENCH, TRUBNER & CO.'S (Limited) PUB Lie A TIONS. 7.90. 57 and 59, Ltidgate Hill; and i, Paternoster Square, London, ■ A LIST OF KEGAN PAUL, TRENCH, TRUBNER & CO.'S (Limited) PUBLICATIONS. -M- CONTENTS. PAGE 2 31 General Literature. Theology and Philosophy. English and Foreign Philo- sophical Library . 42 Science ...» 44 International Scientific Series . . . .48 Oriental, Egyptian, etc.. 52 PAGE Trubner's Oriental Series 68 Military Works. . . 72 Educational . . .73 Poetry 80 Novels and Tales . . 84 Books for the Young . 87 Periodicals . . . .88 GENERAL LITERATURE. Actors, Eminent. 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KEGAN PAUL, TRENCH, TRtJBNER & CO.'S (Limited) EDITIONS OF SHAKSPERE'S WORKS. THE PARCHMENT LIBRARY EDITION. THE A VON EDITION ff|if*. The Text of these Editions is mainly that of Delius. Wher- ever a variant reading is adopted, some good and recognized Shaksperian Critic has been followed. In no case is a new rendering of the text proposed; nor has it bun thought ne- cessary to distract the reader's attention by notes or comments [p. T. a SHAKSPERE'S WORKS. THE A VON EDITION. Printed on thin opaque paper, and forming 12 handy volumes, cloth, iSi"., or bound in 6 volumes, 15X. The set of 12 volumes may also be had in a cloth box, price 21^., or bound in Roan, Persian, Crushed Persian Levant, Calf, or Morocco, and enclosed in an attractive leather box at prices from 31^. dd, upwards. I I 1 \. ^ SOME PRESS NOTICES. " This edition will be useful to those who want a good text, well and clearly printed, in convenient little volumes that will slip easily into an overcoat pocket or a travelling-bag. " — St. J'ames's Gazette. " We know no prettier edition of Shakspere for the price. " — Academy, " It is refreshing to meet with an edition of Shakspere of convenient size and low price, without either notes or introductions of any sort to distract the attention of the reader." — Saturday Review, "It is exquisite. Each volume is handy, is beautifully printed, and in every way lends itself to the taste of the cultivated student of Shak- spere. " — Scotsman. London : Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner & Co., Lt?. SHAKSPERE'S WORKS. THE PARCHMENT LIBRARY EDITION, In 1 2 volumes Elzevir 8vo., choicely printed on hand-made paper, and bound in parchment or cloth, price ^^3 12^., or in vellum, price ;^4 105. The set of 12 volumes may also be had in a strong cloth box, price j[^z ^l^-t or with an oak hanging shelf, jCs iSs. SOME PRESS NOTICES. "... There is, perhaps, no edition in which the works of Shakspere can be read in such luxury of type and quiet distinction of form as this, and we warmly recommend it.* — Pali Mall Gazette. " For elegance of form and beauty of typography, no edition of Shakspere hitherto published has excelled the 'Parchment Library Edition.* . . . They are in the strictest sense pocket volumes, yet the type is bold, and, being on fine white hand-made paper, can hardly tax the weakest of sight. The print is judiciously confined to the text, notes being more appropriate to library editions. The whole will be comprised in the cream-coloured parchment which gives the name to the series." — Daily News, *' The Parchment Library Edition of Shakspere needs no further praise." — Saturday Review, Just published. Price 55. 1 AN INDEX TO THE WORKS OF SHAKSPERE. >)^pplicablc to all editions of Shakspere, and giving reference, by topics, t|o notable passages and significant expressions ; brief histories of the inlays ; geographical names and historic incidents ; mention of all characters and sketches of important ones ; together with explanations I A allusions and obscure and obsolete words and phrases. By EVANGELINE M. O'CONNOR. London: Kegan Pall, Trench, Trubner & Co., Lt?. SHAKSPERE'S WORKS, SPECIMEN OF TYPE. THE MERCHANT OF VENICE Act I Salar. My wind, cooling my broth, Would blow me to an ague, when I thought What harm a wind too great might do at sea, I should not see the sandy hour-glass run But I should think of shallows and of flats, And see my wealthy Andrew, dock'd in sand, Vailing her high-top lower than her ribs To kiss her burial. Should I go to church And see the holy edifice of stone, And not bethink me straight of dangerous rocks, Which touching but my gentle vessel's side. Would scatter all her spices on the stream. Enrobe the roaring waters with my silks. And, in a word, but even now worth this. And now worth nothing ? Shall I have the thouglit To think on this, and shall I lack the thought That such a thing bechanc'd would make me sad ? But tell not me : I know Antonio Is sad to think upon his merchandise. Ant. Believe me, no : I thank my fortune for it. My ventures are not in one bottom trusted, Nor to one place ; nor is my whole estate Upon the fortune of this present year : Therefore my merchandise makes me not sad. Salar, Why, then you are in love. Ant, Fie, fi« 1 Salar, Not in love neither ? Then let us say you are sad. Because you are not merry ; and 'twere as easy For you to laugh, and leap, and say you are merry, Because yom are not sad. Now, by two-headed Janus, Nature hath fram'd strange fellows in her time : Some that will evermore peep throi^h their eyes And laugh like parrots at a bag-piper ; And other of such vinegar aspect I FSINTED BY WILLIAM CLOWES AND SONS, LIMITEI1, LONDON AND BECCLES. '*--. London : Kegan Paul, Trexcii, Trubner & Co., Lt^ r -/ •:^-.i f^ I COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY LIBRARIES This book is due on the date indicated below, or at the expiration of a definite period after the date of borrowing, as provided by the library rules or by special arrangement with the Librarian in charge. m DATE BORROWED DATE DUE DATE BORROWED DATE DUE ■ «AR 3 ,5g ^ I I i r 1! . 1 ■ ■. i^ 1 ^^^ ■v. •1 1 '- 1' r * I, ■- ■ ■ C2B< 251 ) 100M 1 tl V l_ I t\JJ I I I- 1010658912 J 1 V ■„' ■■ 'jbttnV* ,.^-^t* 4 i ♦^ . \\