OE-14104 U.S. DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH, EDUCATION, AND WELFARE Oflficp of Education OE-14104 Bulletin 1964, No. 33 EDUCATION in PERU Adela R. Freeburger Research Assistant, Western Hemisphere, in collaboration with Charles C. Hauch Acting Director, Comparative Education Branch U.S. DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH, EDUCATION, AND WELFARE Anthony J. Celebreeze, Secretary Office of Education Francis Keppel, Commissioner Superintendent of Documents Catalog No. FS 5.214:14104 U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON : 1964 For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office Washington, D.O. 20402 Price 30 cents Contents Parti. BACKGROUND General Characteristics of Country and People Educational Development Administration and Finance Part II. EDUCATIONAL LEVELS Preprimary Education Elementary Education Secondary Education Private Education Vocational Education Teacher Education Higher Education Special Schools Illiteracy and Adult Education Programs Part III. EDUCATIONAL OUTLOOK Problems, Trends, and Developments 41 International Cooperative Assistance 47 Educational Centers and Services 49 Glossary ■ 51 Selected References 53 Tables Text Page 1. Total population and school population of Peru : 1906-60 10 2. Number of hours a week, per subject, in the 5-year general secondary schools, by year 15 3. Selected data on elementary and secondary binational-sponsored schools in Peru . — 18 4. Number of schools and students, by educational level and type of school: 1956-60 43 5. Number of teachers, by educational level and type of schools : 1956-60 44 Appendix A. Selected data on the principal universities of Peru 58 B. Peruvian universities recently founded or in the process of organi- zation 59 C. Degrees or titles awarded by the universities and number of years of study required for each, by university and faculty 60 Chart Educational System of Peru, 1963 22 Map Geographical Regions of Peru . iv m Page 1 2 6 8 8 12 16 17 23 26 36 37 SOURCE: Ministerio de Educacion Publico . Plan Nacional de Construcciones Escolares . Lima: Peru, The Ministry, 1959, p. 2 Part I. BACKGROUND General Characteristics of Country and People Peru, the FOUETH largest country in South America, stretclies approximately 1,400 miles along the north-central Pacific coast of the continent. The country's total area, counting its 80 islands in the Pacific Ocean, is over 500,000 square miles. Continental Peru is divided geographically into three natural subdivisions, designated as the costa (coast), where Lima, the capital, and seaports are located; the sierra (mountains), or the zone of the Andean cordillera; and the sel/ua (jungle), or the forested eastern region of the mountains, which occupies approximately two-thirds of the total national territory. These subdivisions differ greatly in their physical, cultural, and economic aspects. The costa, with roughly 11 percent of the total land, has 25 percent of the nation's population; the sierra, with 27 percent of the land, has around 62 percent; and the selva, comprising approximately 62 percent of the land, has only 13 percent of the population. This jungle area is largely underdeveloped and only partially explored. The single largest racial group are pure-blooded Indians, who comprise about 46 percent of the total Peruvian population. The rest of the population is distributed as follows: 37 percent mestizo (mixed Indian and Caucasian strains) ; 15 percent of European descent ; and approximately 2 percent Negroes and orientals. Thirty- five percent of the population speak only Quechua or Aymara, the two main Indian languages. Spanish, the official language of the nation, is spoken by only 46 percent of the people, and various dialects by the remainder. Preliminary figures from the 1961 census estimated Peru's total population as 10,364,620 inhabitants. More than 60 percent of the population is engaged in agriculture and over 18 percent in manu- facturing. The present Constitution, which was promulgated in 1933, desig- nates Peru as a democratic republic. Economic, social, and individual 1 2 EDUCATION IN PEETJ rights are specifically enumerated, and freedom of the press, religion, and assembly are guaranteed. The Constitution vests the power of the National Government in three branches: executive, legislative, and judicial. The President of the Country is elected by direct vote for 6 years. He must be a Peruvian by birth, over 35 years of age. The Deputies and Senators, who also must be Peruvians by birth, are elected for 6 years. The Deputies, who represent the Provinces, must be 25 years of age; and the Senators, elected by the departments, must be at least 35. The Government is highly centralized and the principal adminis- trative officials, both national and departmental, are appointed by the President. The main political subdivisions of the Eepublic are departments or States (each with its own capital), Provinces, and districts. There are 23 departments and the Constitutional Province of Callao, 135 Provinces, and 1,259 districts. Lima, the political and cultural capital of the nation, covers over 40 square miles, and with a population of more than 1 million, is the sixth largest city in South America and the major industrial zone of Peru. Educational Development The history of education in Peru follows the same general pattern as in the other Latin American republics and covers three distinct periods: Inca, Colonial, and National. During the Inca period, Cuzco was the center of learning, and public instruction was reserved to the sons of the nobility who were taught the Quechua language, religion, government, history, law, and science. The common people were trained in occupations and trades. The Spanish colonizers started their system of education with the same objectives as the Inca system. Taught by the church, ele- mentary education included elements of reading, writing, arithmetic, morality, and religion. Designed for the upper classes, secondary education was a combination of secondary and university study in Latin, law, and theology. During this period the Universities of San Marcos (1551) , San Antonio del Cuzco (1598) , and San Cristobal de Huamanga (1667) were founded. In 1821, Peru proclaimed its independence from Spain, and education began to receive more attention. In 1822, Jose de San Martin decreed the founding of a normal school in Lima where the BACKGROUND 3 Lancaster system,^ the so-called monitorial plan, was put into practice. Three years later, in 1825, Simon Bolivar decreed that this system be extended throughout the Eepublic. He ordered the estab- lishment of a university in Trujillo and a normal school in the capital city of each department. In the same year, the decree establishing the University of Arequipa was issued. A further decree in 1825 differentiated between elementary and secondary education. During the early years of the national period of Peru a number of secondary schools were established, and the Golegio de Educandas (Secondary School for Girls), the first secondary school for girls of all social classes, was opened in Cuzco. A decree of 1833 created a Department of Elementary Education, in Lima to administer and direct elementary education. The de- partment continued to use the Lancaster system, prohibited the collection of fees from students, established public and private semester examinations, abolished coeducation, provided bonuses for excellence in teaching, and set a time schedule for the schools. How- ever, little actual improvement was effected. The Constitution of 1828 had authorized Congress to formulate general plans for public education and to promote advancement in the arts and sciences. It directed the departments of the Eepublic to encourage public education and to guarantee elementary education to all citizens. Absence of a strong pedagogical orientation, inefficient administration of school funds, and general political unrest in the country all combined, however, to forestall the actual fulfillment of the laws on public education authorized by the Constitution. In view of the need for reform in public education, under the leadership of President Eamon Castilla, a new regulation was issued in 1850 to centralize the direction and control of all public education in Lima and to establish a division between public and private education. At the same time three levels of education were dis- tinguished: elementary, secondary, and university. The normal school at Lima became the Central Normal School and other normal schools were set up in each department's capital. In 1855, another general regulation created the University Council for the direction of higher education in Peru, and established iden- tical instruction for boys and for girls in the lower schools. Teachers were brought from France for certain Peruvian institutions of higher education. In 1861, the University of San Marcos was made the center of university activity for the entire Eepublic. The faculties 1 Under this system, the teacher instructed the monitors, who in turn instructed the students. It became very popular, since a large number of children could be taught by a single teacher. 4 EDUCATION IN PERU of ecclesiastical science, law, medicine, mathematics, natural science, philosophy and letters, and political economy were established at San Marcos. However, not until the administration of President Jose Prado (1904-8) did the National Government actually assume the responsi- bility for the administration and direction of education in Peru. A new law in 1905 brought a revision of public education. It re- emphasized the centralization of elementary education under the National Government, removing it from control of the municipal councils; established free and compulsory education; reorganized the General Department of Education (set up in 1836); established a system of school supervision at the national level ; and appropriated funds for elementary education. Teachers' salaries and school ma- terials were to be provided by the Government. The Organic Law of Education of 1920 initiated steps toward new developments for a more stable and effective system of public edu- cation, particularly in administration, finance, organization, school attendance, and quality and methods of teaching. A constitutional amendment in the same year required that at least one elementary and one secondary school be established for each sex in each district and provincial capital. A congressional committee on education reported in 1940 that less than 5 percent of the articles of the law of 1920 were in force, and that the nation still remained without an effective educational system. It may be noted that from 1822 through 1920 many laws, decrees and regulations were enacted, but the lack of the proper articulation and continuity of effort in educational matters, plus the lack of financial resources, impeded the implementation of such laws and therefore the development of education in Peru. However, the frequency of so many changes in laws may also be looked upon as a sign of unusual activity and constant desire to improve the Peruvian system of education in spite of the many problems involved. Although in 1941 a new Organic Law of Public Education was passed, positive steps toward implementation were not taken until the end of World War II, with the assistance of the U.S. Govern- ment. The law of 1941, which is the basis for Peruvian education today, brought vital educational developments in the Eepublic. Elementary education became more industrial in nature and rural education more agricultural, but common to both were general educa- tion subjects of the elementary school program. Secondary education for both boys and girls, became general and technical and was divided into commercial, industrial, and agricultural programs. In some of the secondary schools, vocational departments were added to the BACKGROUND 6 traditional academic offerings. Detailed programs of study, in- cluding teachers' guides for the various levels of education, were prepared and distributed throughout the Eepublic. Under the 1941 law, schools were required to teach history, geography, civics, and religion in the Spanish language, and these subjects were to be taught by Peruvian nationals. Fundamental education was made compulsory to the age of 40 and called for the incorporation of the Indian population into the national life through educational channels. Teacher-training centers were set up and traveling units were organized in rural areas to teach sanitation, animal husbandry, farming, and the like. The law also provided for the organization of Patronatos Esco- lares^ to promote social, cultural, and economic cooperation with the school, by the home and the community, but with the provision that the Patronatos would not participate in technical and adminis- trative matters, or in the selection or dismissal of teachers. The autonomy of the universities and other institutions of higher learning in the nation was guaranteed, and their annual subsidies allotted by the Government were legally fixed in the education section of the national budget. In 1948, the President of the Eepublic, General Manuel A. Odria, created a Fondo de Educacion Nadonal (National Education Fund) for the construction of school buildings to serve as a basis of a re- organization of the educational system in Peru. Also, in 1948, the work of General Juan Mendoza, who became Peruvian Minister of Education in that year, was a notable contribution in modernizing Peru's public school system, on the pattern of what he had seen carried out in some rural areas of the country with U.S. assistance. During his first 2 years in the Ministry, school enrollments increased by 150,000 and the educational budget had an even greater propor- tional increase. In February 1950, a 10-year Plan de Educacion Nacional del Peru (Plan of National Education of Peru) was initiated for the develop- ment of education in five major areas: (1) Indian communities — expansion of the nucleos escolares (discussed later under rural edu- cation) ; (2) rural villages — creation of a system of primer grado (incomplete, or lower, elementary) schools and prevocational training centers; (3) urban centers — establishment of escuelas primarias com- pletas (complete elementary schools) and an increase of academic, industrial, commercial and agricultural schools ; (4) capitals of each 2 These organizations, wliich correspond somewhat to U.S. parent-teacher's associa- tions, are autonomous groups composed of teachers and parents who assume a great share of the general responsibility for pupil health and school welfare. 6 EDUCATION IN PERU department — creation of more urban and prevocational elementary schools and the organization of the grandes unidades escolares (large school centers), similar in organization to a comprehensive high school (described under secondary education) ; and (5) other areas — expansion of the normal schools, military institutes, and universities. The 1950 plan started a coordinated effort for the development of new curricula, textbooks, teaching procedures, methods, and training personnel. In 1957, a national survey of the Peruvian educational system (Inventario de la Realidad Educativa, del Peru) was completed, which appraised the programs, courses, examinations, textbooks, teacher certification, teacher training, and inservice training. The results and recommendations of this survey have served as a basis for the implementation of various aspects of the 1950 plan. Despite these efforts, advancement in public education has been hampered by recurrent political and social disturbances, which have been frequent throughout Peruvian history. Administration and Finance The Ministry of Public Education is the official body responsible for education throughout the. Republic of Peru. The Peruvian Con- stitution states that education is the responsibility of the state. Under law, the Minister of Education exercises jurisdiction over all public and private education, Avith the exception of the univer- sities, which are autonomous, and various independent schools under the jurisdiction of other ministries. He is appointed by the Presi- dent of the Republic and serves for an indefinite term. The Minister of Education presides over the Gome jo Nacional de Educacion (National Council on Education), which is also appointed by the President. The Gonsejo, composed of seven members repre- senting the various levels of education, has important advisory func- tions in formulating national education policy. Under the Minister is a general director to whom the head direc- tors in the six regional areas of the country are responsible. Under these are the provincial and district inspectors who administer ele- mentary, rural, secondary, vocational and normal school education. Official programs are. formulated by the pedagogical departments in the regional offices and approved by the National Council on Edu- cation. The programs are compulsory in both public and private BACKGROUND 1 schools and are enforced by the inspectors. Other directorates in the Ministry are concerned with school property and construction, supplies, statistics, examinations, personnel, and other administrative details. The Ministry of Education, through its Department of Inspection and Private Schools, controls all private schools. In general, they are required to follow the official plans and study programs of the public schools, but enjoy a degree of autonomy under the national system of education. Under certain conditions, the Government also authorizes grants for private schools. The Ministry plans the education section of the national budget and allots the funds for educational expenditures by departments, provinces and districts. All school funds come from the educational budget. There is no provincial, district, or departmental income. According to a Government report, since the mid-1950's education has been the largest item in the national budget, with national de- fense next. The following figures are the percentages of the total national budget expended on education for the years shown.® Year Percent Year Percent 1955 13.87 1959 16.84 1956 14.41 1960 17.36 1957 15.10 1961 18.00 1958 14.86 1962 19.00 1963 20.70 3 For the years 1955-60, see Eoca, Pablo. "Costos de la BducaciOn," La Educaci6n, Nos. 21-23. Washington, D.C. : Pan American Union, 3 961. P. 53; for 1960-63, see Ministerio de Bducacion PiSblica. Informe Sohre el Desarrollo de la Educacidn en el Penl Durante el Ano 1962. Lima, 1963. Pp. 93-94. Part 11. EDUCATIONAL LEVELS Preprimary Education Preschool education for children from 4 to 6 years of age is coeducational and provided in kindergartens, Avhicli generally are adjuncts to urban elementary schools. The program for 4-year-old children includes singing, dancing, drawing, and games, and for those 5 years old, safety precautions, handwork, oral expression, hygiene, and outdoor activities. Children 6 years of age attend closes de transicion (transition classes) , whose purpose is to establish liaison between preschool and elementary education. The 1-year transition classes are offered in kindergartens and in many elementary schools. The program in- cludes language (oral, writing, and reading), simple arithmetic, manual activities, drawing, music, moral and religious instruction, and social habits. Curriculum and syllabuses for all preprimary schools are issued by the Ministry of Education. Instruction, as well as meals, cloth- ing, and toys, are free. Although the 1941 Organic Law of Education required the estab- lishment of kindergarten in all urban areas, in 1959 there were only 242 kindergartens located in the larger towns of departments and Provinces. In 1962, the Ministry of Education reported 298 pre- school establishments in the Republic, with total enrollment of 32,217 children. Elementary Education The Public Law of Education of 1941, modified in 1943, stipu- lates that elementary education (usually called primary education in Peru), is free and compulsory for children between the ages of 7 and 16, or until completion of the sixth year of the elementary school. The law is not strictly enforced because of the employment 8 EDTJCATIONAL LEVELS 9 of children in agricultural work, apathy of parents, the low standard of living of the Indian population, long distances between the school and the home, the lack of qualified teachers and their ignorance of the Indian languages. Elementary education is also compulsory for illiterates over 16 and under 40 years of age. In Peru, the school year is from April to December with a 15-day midyear vacation in August. Children attend from 5 to 6 hours a day. Public elementary school children receive textbooks and school supplies free of charge. Depending on the location and en- vironment, elementary schools are classified as urban (which may be either public, private, or fisealizadas or rural. Prior to 1951, elementary education comprised Y years^ — the tran- sition year plus 6 years of elementary schooling. A Government decree dated August 1, 1951,^ eliminated the sixth year of the pro- gram, since it was considered to be a repetition of the fifth year. Urban Schools Urban elementary schools comprise two grados (grades, or lev- els) : escuelas de primer grado ("first grade" schools) also called escuelas primaries incompletas (incomplete primary schools), con- sisting of 3 years for children 7 to 11 years old, and escuelas de segundo grado ("second grade" schools) comprising 2 years for children between 11 and 13 years of age. The subjects included in the elementary school program are arith- metic, art, language, manual activities, moral and religious instruc- tion, health, and physical education. Premilitary and prevocational subjects are taught in the fourth and fifth grades. The main purpose of urban elementary prevocational education is to prepare students who are not continuing on to secondary schooling for a gainful occupation, i.e., it is terminal training for the majority of children in urban and rural areas. In addition, prevocational education serves to discover students' aptitude for aca- demic or vocational secondary education. Industrial classes are given in the urban schools and agricultural in the rural schools. In 1962, there were 445 prevocational urban and rural schools having 3,091 teachers and a total enrollment of 132,181 students. * Escuelas Fiacalinadas (State supervised schools) are required by law to be estab- lished by agricultural, mining, industrial, or other enterprises, whose employees form a population center Including more than 30 school-age children. If more than 20 illiter- ate adults are employed, classes must be conducted for them. Attendance is free of charge. State supervised schools must follow the ofacial programs of study. 5 Mendoza Rodriguez, Juan, iluevo Potenoial para la Mducacidn Peruana. Lima : The Ministerio, 1956. P. 157. 10 EDUCATION IN PERU According to the report of the Ministry of Public Education,® presented in August 1963 at the Third Interamerican Conference of Ministers in Bogota, Colombia, over 1,400,000 children (6-14 years) were enrolled in the elementary schols in Peru in 1961, as follows : Total 1,462,642 Transition year 483,571 First year 304,298 Second year 233,670 Tliird year 186,052 Fourth year 143,016 Fiftli year 112,026 Table 1 shows the increase of school population in relation to the total population in Peru during the years 1906-60. Table 1.— Total population and school population of Peru: Selected years 1 906-60 Year Total population (in thousands) School population Percentage of school population 1906 3,617 150,506 4.16 1910 3,807 146,408 3.85 1915 4,080 165,724 4.06 1918 4,265 176,689 4.14 1920 4,397 195,701 4.45 1925 4,764 236,482 4.96 1930 5,186 432,016 8.33 1931 5,278 351,057 6.65 1935 5,669 465,274 8.21 1940 6,207 565,932 9.12 1945 6,838 703,751 10.29 1950 7,535 1,010,177 13.41 1955 8,315 1,127,605 13.56 1960 2 9,720 1 1,401,040 14.40 1 Not including university school population. 2 Estimated. Source oi data : Vega, Aristides. "Problemas de la Educacifin Nacional." El Oomercio (Supplement). Lima: December 1901. P. C-7. A Ministry of Education report showed the percentage of chil- dren of ages 6-14 seeking elementary education for the years 1950- 62 was as follows : Tear Percentage Year Percentage 1950 — 63.72 1957 66.83 1951 64.01 1958 68.85 1952 62.91 1959 71.09 1953 62.27 1960 71.28 s Ministerio de EducaciOu Publica. Tnforme Solire el Dessarollo de la Educacidn en el Parti Durante el Ano 1962. P. 49. 1 Ihid. EDUCATIONAL LEVELS 11 1954 1955 1956 63.33 64.50 67.09 1961 1962 72.93 73.68 Rural Schools There is no great distinction between rural and urban schools in Peru, other than that rural schools include those in urban districts where the people are mainly engaged in agricultural pursuits. Eural schools are mostly "first grade" or incomplete schools offering the transition year and the first 3 years of the elementary school program. In 1961, a change in the law required all elementary schools to offer the complete 5-year program, if the enrollment would justify doing so. The final 2 years of the program are devoted to academic subjects, or to agricultural and vocational preparation. For reasons previously indicated, this law has not been completely enforced. Eural schools are classified, according to the local needs of the community, in various types: the nucleos escolares campesinos (rural community schools) ; escuelas wnidooentes (one-teacher schools) ; escuelas rumles prevocacionales (rural prevocational schools) ; and escuelas hilingues de la selva (bilingual schools of the jungle) . The nucleos escolares campesinos, introduced in Peru in 1946, have been established in major Indian communities. The nucleos consist of an escuela central (central school) offering the complete ele- mentary school program, and 15 to 20 escuelas seccionales (sectional schools) offering the first 3 years of elementary schooling. The schools provide instruction in farming, gardening, sanitation, arith- metic, shopwork, and the regional language of the Indians, as well as literacy classes, vocational training, and extension work. The central school, which is the headquarters of the director of the school and its supervisors for health, agriculture, and literacy, administers, supervises, and coordinates all the operations of the sectional schools. In 1951, there were 22 nucleos and 320 sectional schools in the Cuzco-Puno district of the Sierra, with enrollment of 37,000 Que- chua- and Aymara-speaking Indian children. By the end of 1962, 73 nucleos were operating in the Sierra, representing a total of 2,416 schools with 5,424 teachers and enrollment of 219,738 students. Escuelas umidocentes (one-teacher schools) or minimo type schools, are established in rural districts having at least 30 school-age chil- dren. These schools follow the same program as those of the regular 12 EDUCATION IN PERTT schools. Students are usually arranged in three groups for 2 years of study beyond the transition classes. After completing the 3 years of rural schooling, they can transfer to a regular elementary school. The one-teacher schools are now being converted into schools offer- ing the full elementary school program and staffed with several teachers, or they are being incorporated with the nuoleos escolares. Escuelas rurales prevocacionales are mostly "first grade" or in- complete elementary schools, established in rural areas, stressing the teaching of agriculture. Like those in urban communities, rural prevocational schools prepare students for a trade or occupation. Escuelas iilingues de la selva are located in the jungles where Indian children are taught in both their native language and in Spanish. The native language is the medium of instruction and Spanish is used as a second language. Farming, native crafts, sani- tation, and similar subjects are included in the program, as well as training for illiterate adults. Teachers in these schools are required to know the language of the community. Special Education There is no compulsory law for the mentally deficient children in Peru. Some of the physically, mentally and socially handicapped children attend free semiboarding special schools, while others enroll in the regular schools. In general, these children are taught such trades as shoemaking, bookbinding, embroidery, and dressmaking. In 1962, there were nine schools for special education : three for the blind and deaf, two for mentally deficient, two for physically handicapped, one for the socially unadjusted, and one for indigent mothers. A report * on special education submitted to UNESCO by the Ministry of Education states that in 1958, of a total population of 1,083,260 school-age children, about 4 percent were mentally deficient. Secondary Education The Directorate of Secondary Education, under the Ministry of Public Education, is responsible for the administration and super- vision of all academic secondary schools in Peru. s UNESCO/International Bureau of Education. Organization of Special Education for Mentally Deficient Children, p. 197. EDtrCATIOlirAL LEVELS 13 According to the law (No. 10263) of October 27, 1946, every Peruvian adolescent has a right to free secondary education. In 1957, the aims, structure and curriculums of secondary education were redefined by decree. However, the reform of secondary educa- tion started in 1948. At that time the Galegio Naoional de Nuestra Senom de Guadalupe (Our Lady of Guadalupe National Secondary School), a boy's school, was turned into an experimental school to serve as a laboratory where the new curriculums, syllabuses, and organization were being tested. The reform has been applied pro- gressively to all secondary schools, and in 1957 the first-year programs in all the secondary schools of the nation were following the new curriculums on an experimental basis. In 1960, the reorganization of the first cycle of the secondary school was completed, and the reorganization of the second cycle started. The main objective is to coordinate academic, prevocational, and vocational education at the secondary school level. For admission to the general secondary school, the student must be between 12 and 16 years of age, in good health, must have success- fully completed the elementary school program, and have demon- strated good behavior. There is no special examination for admission to the secondary schools. Four tests of student progress are given bimonthly by the teacher on the subject matter covered during each period. The final pro- motional examinations cover the work of the whole year. In the academic secondary, vocational, and normal schools, the examinee who fails three subjects in the final examinations may take exdmenes de aplasados (makeup examinations), but to be promoted to the next year he must attain a passing mark in two of these subjects. The grading system for the secondary schools is as follows : 0- 5 reprobado (failure) 6-10 malo (poor) 11-17 iueno (good) 18-20 sobresaliente (excellent) A general average of 11 is required for passing a subject. The grades are generally reported in words rather than in numbers and altera- tions or erasures in a record are forbidden. The school year extends from the beginning of April to mid- December, and comprises 270 schooldays, with 51/2 days per week and 15 days' vacation at midyear. Educacion secundaria comun (general secondary education) is provided in colegios nacionales (national secondary schools) , colegios particulares (private secondary schools), and graTides unidades esco- lares (large school units), and in evening schools. The gran unidad escolar (large school center) , developed under the 14 EDUCATION IN PEETT 1950 National Education Plan, is a Peruvian attempt at a compre- hensive type of high school. These centers, which have been estab- lished in many parts of the nation, offer academic secondary, tech- nical, commercial and agricultural education in accordance with the characteristics and needs of each region, and the last 2 years of the elementary school. The gran unidad includes a series of buildings grouped in a large unit, housing the various types of schools, the staff residence, shops, manual training installations, laboratories, libraries, study and music rooms, and assembly halls. The centers offer training for students who expect to enter universities, and terminal-technical-vocational education for those who expect to end their education at the secondary level. Admission is based on an entrance examination. The 1950 plan called for 30 centers for boys and 25 for girls; and by 1960, 26 centers for boys and 10 for girls had been established. The general secondary school program comprises 5 years and is divided into two cycles. The first, cido comun (basic cycle), covers 3 years of study of general education subjects for all students. The second, cido de espedalimoion (specialization cycle) covers 2 years, subdivided into letters and science, with certain general subjects for either specialization. Upon the successful completion of the full program and after passing the official examinations given by the Ministry of Education, the student receives the Gertifioado de Edu- cadon Secundaria Gompleta (Certificate of Completion of Secondary Studies) , which is required for those wishing to continue on to higher education. Prior to 1959, the secondary school program was divided into two cycles (3/2), with specialization in arts, science, or comerdo ad- ministracion (business administration). The 5 -year general secondary school program shown in table 2 was established by Eesolution No. 127 on April 1957 and modified by Resolutions Nos. 32 and 29 of February 20, 1958 and February 2, 1959, respectively. In 1960, there were 181 public secondary schools, 306 private and 46 evening, of which 42 were national ; 2 municipal and 2 operated as demonstration centers by the Universities of San Marcos and Trujillo. General secondary school enrollment was estimated at approximately 158,000 students. Unlike most other Latin American educational systems, in Peru the iachillerato (bachelor's diploma) is not granted upon completion of the academic secondary school program. The Iachillerato program generally comprises 2 years of postsecondary study in preparation for certain university programs. Some universities, however, now EDUCATIONAL LEVELS 15 Table 2. — Number of hours a week, per subject, in 5-year general secondary schools, by school year: 1963 [ — indicates course not given] Basic course Year 1st 2a 4th 5 til Total Anatomy, pliysiology and hygiene Art education and manual arts Botany and zoology (general) Civics Directed studies and educational activities. Elements of physics and chemistry Foreign language Guidance History of Peru History of Peruvian boundaries Introduction to philosophy (logics and ethics) Mathematics Peruvian and world geography Physical education Political economy Premilitary training or domestic science Psychology Religion Spanish and Spanish literature World history 38 38 38 30-24 8-2 3 1 3 28-28 2 5-5 4th Specialization i Arts course Science course 5th Arts course Science course Total Chemistry General biology History of Peruvian culture Literary readings Physics Solid geometry and trigonometry Survey of geography and social science Survey of mathematics Survey of Spanish Survey of world history 14 10 14 1 The specialization subjects listed here for the 4th and 5th years are in addition to those listed for the 4th and 5th years under the basic course. Source of data : Translated and adapted from the Ministerio de Educacion Piiblica. Injorme Sotre el Desarrollo de la EducaciOn en el Peril Durante el ano 1962. Appendix. Lima, 1963. offer 4 or 5 years of study upon completion of which the student receives the bachelor's degree. The escuelas vespertinas (evening schools) and the escuelas noctumas (night schools) follow a special (6 years) secondary school program adapted to the needs of the students. The study of English was declared to have great importance in Peru's economic, social and cultural relations, and in 1944 became obligatory as a basic subject in all the public and private secondary schools of the Eepublic. The Gurso de Ingles (English course), a 16 EDUCATION IN PERU textbook prepared by the Peruvian-North American Cultural Insti- tute and published by the Ministry of Public Education, was adopted as the official English text for all the schools. Some private schools teach English beginning with the lower grades. The number of graduates by level and type of schools in Peru in 1961 was as follows ® : Level Graduates Total Men Women Types of Schools Private Public State supervised Elementary Secondary _ _ Vocational Normal (teacher training). 106,235 20,433 2,098 1,148 519 629 15,048 7,250 154 87,794 13,183 1,944 3,393 Private Education Under the specific framework of the 1941 Organic Law of Educa- tion, all private schools are under the jurisdiction of the Section of Private Schools in the Ministry of Public Education. Private ele- mentary schools are required to admit free of charge 7 percent of the children enrolled in the schools. The Ministry approves all school fees, and authorizes, under certain conditions. Government grants to private schools. "With the exception of a few special schools, all private schools are required to follow the official plans and programs prescribed by the Ministry and to conform to the requirements established by the Organic Law of Education. By law, only Peruvians may teach Peruvian history, geography, civics, and any other subject which may be required by the Ministry. All instruction in these subjects must be in Spanish. The Spanish language must be taught by a Peruvian or a Spanish national. Private secondary school graduates must take the official final examinations prescribed by the Ministry to receive the secondary school certificate. 9 Ministerio de Bducacifin Ptiblica. Informe Sobre el Desarrollo de la Educaoidn en el Peru Durante el Ano 196i. P. 23. EDtrCATIONAL LEVELS 17 Private schools, some of which are accredited by the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools in the United States, have been established in Peru by North American, German, and British private citizens, companies, and various religious denominations. Such schools supplement activities of the Peruvian national system on the elementary and secondary levels, as shov^n in table 3. Vocational Education The Department of Technical Education is responsible for voca- toinal and technical education at the elementary level, as previously explained, and at the secondary level. The main objective of tech- nical education is to prepare technicians and to give them a general cultural background. Curriculums, programs of study, course con- tent, and other administrative matters are under the direct super- vision of the department. Vocational secondary education is provided in industrial and technical schools, agricultural institutes, and commercial institutes, but is not free. Because of the lack of school facilities, admission to vocational schools is highly competitive. Completion of the 6-year elementary school, a health certificate, and an entrance examination passed with, an average grade of 60, are required for admission. The programs comprise 5 years of study divided into two cycles of either 2 and 3 years or 3 and 2 years, respectively depending on the pro- gram. Many vocational schools still follow the older 2-3 plan. In 1956, the Government declared the completion of the 5-year vocational education program to be comparable to completion of the academic secondary school program permitting vocational secondary school graduates to be admitted to Peruvian institutions of higher education in the field of their specialization. As in the case of general secondary education, vocational education is in the process of reorganization. In 1957, plans for the reorganiza- tion of the various types of programs were formulated and approved. Some of these programs have been put into effect on an experimental basis in certain schools. The new programs comprise two cycles — a 3-year basic cycle of general academic subjects, and a 2-year cycle of studies in the various vocational fields — agricultural, industrial (for boys or for girls), and commercial. Examinations and titles or certificates given in all the vocational and industrial schools are approved by the various boards appointed by the Ministry of Education. In the public schools, these boards Table 3. — Selected data on elementary and secondary binational-sponsored schools in Peru: 1963 [ — indicates no data available] Name The American School of Lima 1 (1955).2 Colegio "Alexander von Humboldt"-- Colegio America del Callao Colegio Andino Colegio Immaculado Corazon Colegio Markham Colegio San Antonio — Colegio San Josi Obrero . Colegio Santa Maria (1949)2 Colegio Santa Rosa de Lima Colegio Union Colegio Villa Maria (1949)2 Escuela America de la Victoria Lima High Schools Peruvian-North American School 4 Toquepala-Ilo Junior High School (1958).2 Location Lima- . do- Callao Huancayo- Lima- - do— . Callao— Trujillo- Lima . do- . do- do- do- do- .— do— Tacna- Date founded 1946 1891 1914 1943 1957 1939 1919 1923 1906 1950 1956 Control Nonseetarian. do Methodist- - do Catholic- Methodist- Catholic . do -do- Public Adventist Catholic Methodist do Nonsectarian. - do Student body Coeducational- . do do- do- Boys- -do- -do- -do- -do- Girls Coeducational- Girls Coeducational- Girls Coeducational- do Enrollment (estimated) 800 400 1,000 450 600 500 1,700 300 700 800 300 1,200 950 750 400 350 Grades K-12 Secondary- K-12 K-12 K 3 K-12 K-12 K-9 6-12 K-12 K-12 K-12 Elementary K-9 K-12 6-9 Type of program Peruvian and U.S. Peruvian and West Ger- man (English and Ger- man taught). Peruvian. Peruvian (English taught). Peruvian f English taught from elementary grades) . Peruvian and British up to G.C.E. Ordinary level Peruvian (English taught). Peruvian (English taught from elementary grades) . Peruvian (English taught). Do. Peruvian. Do. Do. Peruvian (English taught). Peruvian and U.S. Do. O d Q > M o SI 1 Also called Franklin Delano Roosevelt School. 2 Accredited by the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools in the year indicated. 3 Also called Colegio Maria Alvarado. 4 Also called Abraham Lincoln School. EDUCATIONAL LEVELS 19 are made up of teachers of the schools concerned, but for private schools, the members are appointed by the Ministry from other schools. The examinations are prepared in the Department of Vocational Education in the Ministry of Education. In the voca- tional schools, the grading system is 0 to 100 ; 60 is the passing grade. In 1962, the Ministry reported the enrollment in vocational schools as follows : ^" Type of school Total Men Women Total 49,707 28,117 21,590 Agricultural 4,927 4,894 33" Oommercial 18,040 10,506 7,534 Industrial 26,740 12,717 14,023 This represents an increase of 10 percent over the enrollment for 1961, which was reported at 45,087 students. The types of vocational training, prior to the reform in 1957 and still in effect in some schools and institutes, are described below : Educmion agropecuaria. — Agricultural education, given in insti- iutos agropecuarios (agricultural schools), provides the basic prin- ciples and practices of farming, care and breeding of livestock, and creates interest and appreciation of farm life and of the woric of the farmer. This 5-year program is divided into two cycles of 2 and 3 years, respectively. The first cycle trains workers for occupations in the farms and prepares those students who wish to continue on to the second cycle. A Gertificado de Oompetencia de Oapatm Agrope- cuario (Certificate of Competence as Foreman in Cattle and Crop Raising) is granted upon completion. The second cycle, or last 3 years of the program, trains the student as a Tecnico Agropeouario (Agricultural Technician), which qualifies the holder of the cer- tificate to work in the Industria Agncola-Ganadera (Agricultural- Livestock Industry) or to continue on to an institution of higher education, such as the Vniversidad Agmria (University of Agricul- ture) or the Facultad de Veterinaria (Faculty of Veterinary Sciences). Admission to the second cycle of the program is highly selective since the places in the schools are very limited. Educacion inditstnial para varones. — Industrial education for men under the older arrangement is offered in colegios mdustriales (in- dustrial schools) and is divided into two cycles. The first cycle (2 10 Ibid. P. 66. 11 Mlnlsterlo de Educaelfin Piiblica. Beglamento de Educacidn Secundaria Ttonica. Lima, 1951. 123 p. 20 EDTTCATION IN PERU years) includes vocational and academic subjects and orients the student toward an occupation or a trade. Upon completion of this cycle, the student receives a Gertificado de Gom'petencia (Certificate of Competence) in a chosen field : general mechanics, blacksmithing, masonry, tailoring, mining, silverplating, soldering, metallurgy, electrical installations. The second cycle offered in mstitutos poliUmdcos (polytechnic institutes) or institutos indmtriales (industrial institutes) , is 3 years in length, corresponding to the third, fourth and fifth years of the program, and prepares technicians in a special field : shop and auto- mechanics, sanitary installations, radio, construction, metallurgy, technical drawing and leather work. Upon completion of this cycle, the student receives a certificate of tecnico (technician) in the specialty concerned. Graduates may continue on in their field to the (1) Instituto Politecnica Nacional '■'■Jose Prado''' (Jose Prado Na- tional Polytechnic Institute) ; (2) the Escuela 'Normal Tecnioa (Normal Technical School) ; (3) the TJnvoersidad Nacional de Ingenieria (National University of Engineering) ; or (4) to other university faculty in the respective field. In addition to the regular vocational education programs, short courses of various length in lathing, milling, leather work, electrical installations are offered for students who expect to be employed in the aforementioned occupations or trades. Ediocadon indiistrial de mujeres. — Industrial education for wom- en, as in the case of technical education for men, under the older pattern, comprises two cycles beyond prevocational elementary ed- ucation, and is offered in colegios indnstriales (industrial schools) for women. The first cycle (2 years) orients the students toward a trade or an occupation, such as dessmaking, millinery, tailoring, embroidery, textile work, decorative arts, toymaking, cosmetology, interior decorating, homemaking. Upon completion of this cycle the student receives a Certi-ficado de Oompetenoia. The second cycle comprising 3 years, corresponding to the third, fourth, and fifth years of the program, is given in Institutos indus- triales (industrial institutes). The title granted after completion of the cycle is Tecnioa (Technician) in the field chosen and quali- fies the holder as follows: for (1) a position of manager in a shop, beauty salon, tea room, etc.; (2) a certi-ficado de segunda categoria (second class teaching certificate) provided she takes a preparatory course for teachers at the Instituto Nacional de Oiencias Domesticas y Artes Utiles (National Institute of Domestic Sciences and Useful Arts) ; (3) continuing studies leading to the title of Profesora Especidlizada en Educacion Tecnica (Teacher of Technical Edu- EDUCATIONAL LEVELS 21 cation in a special field) ; (4) continuing studies in the Escuda de Dietistas (School for Dieticians) ; (5) for admission to the Escuela de Servicio Social (School of Social Service), or to other special schools of higher education. Evening vocational courses for adult women are designed for those who cannot attend the regular schools and who are working without the proper training. Classes are arranged according to the working hours of the applicants. There are no special require- ments for admission for the 1- to 3-year programs offered. Educacion comeroial. — Commercial education is provided in in- stitutos comercicUss (commercial institutes). The older 5-year pro- gram is also divided into two cycles of 2 and 3 years successively. Students who complete the first cycle receive a Oerti-ficado de Gom- petencia de Auxiliar de Comer do (Certificate of Competence as Commercial Assistant). In the second cycle, upon completion of each successive year, the student receives the aforementioned cer- tificate as follows: at the end of the third year, MecanSgrafo- Taguigrafo (Stenographer-Typist) ; at the end of the fourth year, Auxiliar de Gontahilidad (Bookkeeping Assistant) ; and upon com- pletion of the fifth year, a diploma, either Contador Mercantil (Business Accountant), Tecnico en Oomercio (Business Techni- cian), or Secretario Comerciai (Business Secretary), depending on the field chosen. In the evening schools, the first cycle lasts 3 years while the sec- ond cycle is the same length as that of the regular program. In addi- tion, supplementary evening and night commercial programs of vary- ing length are offered to interested adults and business employees. The new programs, still in the process of experimentation and expansion, comprise in the first 3-year ciclo idsico vocaoional (basic vocational cycle) the general academic subjects of the regular sec- ondary program. The second 2-year ciclo tecnico (technical cycle) is devoted to agriculture, industrial (for men and for women) or commercial training. Upon completion of any of these programs, the student receives the title of tecnico (technician) in the respec- tive specialization. Courses for men are offered in carpentry, elec- tricity, radio, television, automechanics, sanitary installation, metal- lurgy, and mechanics. For women, courses are provided in dress- making, embroidery, knitting, cooking, and bakery. Commercial education for both sexes comprises courses in general business, bookkeeping, and secretarial work. Educational System of Peru: 1963 Years of study 17— 1 — HIGHER EDUCATION Major Fields of University Study Institutes ond Professional Schools ENGINEERING Preparatory Studies I J Preporotory Studies I 5 Specioliiation Cycle {Lelters 5, Sciences) Bosic Cycle (General) z Secondary jricultural j Commercial Vocafionol Educotio Complete - Elementory Educatio - Transition CIcss. Kindergarten H O d o !2| EDUCATIONAL LEVELS 23 Teacher Education The director of tlie Direccion General de Eduoacion Normal (General Department of Normal Education) in the Ministry of Public Education coordinates and formulates the plans and pro- grams for all teacher-training institutions of the Nation. In ad- dition, he is responsible for the appointments and promotions of all the teachers in the public schools. In Peru, elementary school teachers fall into three categories : (1) normal school graduates who hold the title of Nornmlista or Maestro Normal Vrhmio de Primera Oategona (Urban Elementary School Teacher, first class) ; (2) Liceneiado Normalista (Certi- fied Teacher) or Maestro de Segvmda GategoriM (Elementary School Teacher, second class), who has not completed the nor- mal school program but who has completed special courses and has received a license to teach; and (3) Maestro Intitulado (Un- licensed Teacher) or Maestro de Teroera Gategoria (Elementary School Teacher, third class), who is generally an elementary school graduate who is granted a license to teach in rural areas. In 1962 the Ministry of Education reported the normal schools distributed throughout the nation as follows : Total 63 Higher normal 9 State *4 State supervised ** 5 Urban normal 43 Coeducational . 13 Men 9 Women 10 State supervised 5 llural normal 11 Coeducational , — . 3 Men 2 Women . 6 • Including the National Pedagogical Institute ana National Teachers' Inservice Training Institute. •* Including the Institute of Family Living and the Institute of Trcschool Education. Teacher preparation for elementary, secondary, vocational, and normal schools is described below. 12 According to statistics from the Ministry of Public Education, 50 percent of the teachers in Peru are of the second and third categories. 24 EDUCATION IN PEET7 Preprimary Teachers for preprimary schools must be qualified teachers pre- pared in a teacher training school, and must have specialized in preschool education which includes 1 additional year after the 3-year normal school program. Preprimary school teachers are also prepared at the Instituto Nacional de Especializacion de Eduoacion InfantU (National Insti- tute of Preschool Education), Lima, which offers a 1-year course beyond the normal school program for the title of Profesor Es- pecializado en Educacion Pre-esoolar (Preschool Teacher). Elementary Prior to 1959, urban normal schools offered a 3-year program be- yond completion of the first 3 years of secondary education to stu- dents between 15 and 21 years of age. Urban normal school grad- uates received the title of Normalista Vrbana (Urban Elementary School Teacher) . The rural normal schools required for admission the completion of elementary education for students at least 12 years of age. Upon completion of a 3-year program students received the title of Nor- malista Rural (Eural Elementary School Teacher). A decree issued in September 1959,i^ provided for a 3-year pro- gram beyond full secondary education for both urban and rural elementary school teachers. However, because of the teacher short- age, lack of funds and school facilities, this decree has not been gen- erally implemented and, therefore, the older programs are still fol- lowed. Secondary Trained teachers for the secondary schools are graduates of the National Pedagogical Institute, of the higher normal schools, or of a university faculty of education. These institutions offer 4- to 5-year programs, beyond secondary school, leading to the title of Profesor de Eduoacion Secundaria (Teacher of Secondary Educa- tion) . The preparation of teachers at the Faculty of Education of San Marcos University includes general education subjects which 13 Based on the 1957 Plan for the Eeorganizatlon of Normal Education. EDUCATIONAL LEVELS 25 are lacking in the programs offered in most of the teacher-training institutions in Peru. The following higher normal schools and institutes offer various programs for the preparation of elementary and secondary teachers in Peru. Escuela Normal Superior de Mujeres (Higher Normal School for Women), formerly the Escuela Normal Central de Mujeres (Central Normal School for Women), Monterrico, Lima, financed by the Government, is operated by the nuns of Monterrico, who founded it. The school provides a 3-year program for the title of Profesora de Educacion Prirmria (Elementary School Teacher) with specialization in education of abnormal children or kinder- garten teaching; a 4-year program for the title of Profesora de Educacion Secundaria (Secondary School Teacher) in various fields; and a 4-year program for the title of Profesora Tecnica (Technical School Teacher) in family living education. Admis- sion to these programs is based on secondary education. Escuela Normal Superior de Urubamha (TJrubamba Higher Nor- mal School), Cuzco, was founded in 1959, with U.S. aid, to train teachers for rural areas and inservice and specialized personnel. It is coeducational and follows an experimental curriculum includ- ing an elementary school laboratory. The program is 3 years in length beyond secondary education. Instituto Nacional de Educacion Fisica (National Institute of Physical Education), Lima, established in 1932, offers a 4-year program beyond secondary education for the preparation of teach- ers of physical education for elementary and secondary schools. It also offers 2-year programs in physical therapeutics or sports. Graduates receive the title of Profesor de Educacion Fisica (Teach- er of Physical Education) at the elementary or secondary school level. Escuela Normal Superior '■^Enrique GuzTndn Valle'^ Para Va- rones (Enrique Guzman Valle Higher Normal School for Men), La Cantuta, Chosica, also known as "La Cantuta" or "La Chosica" Normal School, [established in 1946 with the cooperation of the Servicio Oooperativo Peru/mo Norte- Americano de Educacion, SECPANE (Peruvian-North American Cooperative Education Service)], functions under the Ministry of Education. It offers 4-year programs in various fields for the title of Profesor de Edu- cacion Primaria (Elementary School Teacher) ; Profesor de Edu- cacion Secumdaria Comun (General Secondary School Teachers) ; and Profesor de Educacion Secundaria Tecnica (Vocational- Secon- dary School Teacher), upon completion of secondary education. 26 EDITOATION IN PERU The Instituto Naoional de Perfecoionamiento (National Institute for Inservice Training) established in 195Y, oifers special courses for teachers who have not completed secondary school education and for those teachers holding older certificates. It is expected that teachers while in service will complete their professional train- ing through these courses. The Instituto also offers courses for general secondary, vocational, and normal school teachers in ser- vice, who have not taken teacher education subjects in their prep- aration. Instituto Pedagogico Nacional (National Pedagogical Institute), Lima, founded in 1961, offers beyond secondary education a 3- year program for the title of Profesor de Educacion Primaria (Ele- mentary School Teacher) and a 4-year program for the title of Profesor de Eduoadon Secundaria (Secondary School Teacher). Vocational and Normal Teachers for vocational schools are graduates from the higher normal schools or from other institutions of higher learning, with the title of Profesor de Educacion Secundaria Tecnica (Vocational Secondary School Teacher), in the chosen field, or are professional and experienced engineers or technicians in a special field. Teachers for the normal or teacher-training schools are Pro- fesores de Segunda Ensenanza (Secondary School Teachers) who are graduates from the National Pedagogical Institute, or from the higher normal schools. Higher Education University Lav^^ In Peru, institutions of higher education are governed by a uni- versity law, passed on April 8, 1960, which supersedes all previous laws and provides the legal basis for all universities in the nation. Under this law the autonomy of all universities is guaranteed, and private universities are recognized and made subject to the provisions of the law. This law was aimed at university reform in instruction and administration. Article 11 prohibits partisan EDUCATIONAL LEVELS 27 political activities in the university; makes class attendance legally compulsory for both students and professors; enables univer- sity graduates to apply for another program of study without tak- ing entrance examinations thus allowing them to earn degrees in different faculties (schools) ; and permits students to remain in the university for two consecutive years without passing any final examinations. Under exceptional conditions, the student may reg- ister for a third year with the approval of two-thirds of the Uni- versity Council. The new law also distinguishes between alumnos de matnoula ordinaria, (full-time students) and alumnos de matnoula for cursos (part-time students) ; and provides for at least 70 percent attend- ance at class in a course as a prerequisite to taking the final exami- nation in that course. Generally, universities in Peru consist of independent faculties, schools and institutes. Internal university organization is similar throughout Peru. The university law states that each university is a corporation consisting of professors, students and graduates. It enumerates the governing bodies as the University Assembly, the University Council, the Faculty Council, and the Council of Economic Ad- ministration. Two-thirds of the membership of each are professors (including administrative officers) , one-third are students, and there are two nonvoting alumni. The two main bodies are the Asamhlea Universitaria (University Assembly) and the Gonsejo Vniversitarw (University Council). The principal function of the University Assembly is to elect the rector (president) and the vice rector, both of whom must be full professors with 10 or more years of service. The University Council is the supreme governing body of the university. The rector and the vice rector are included among the university staff members of the Council. Each faculty or school, of the university is represented by members of its teaching and administrative staff and of its student body in the ratio indicated above. University staff members serve for 2 years and student members for 1 year. The University Council determines the over- all policies and regulations of the institution generally, but each faculty enjoys a large measure of autonomy. The rector, the executive head and legal representative of the university, must be at least 35 years of age with 10 years of experi- ence as a full professor. He is elected for a period of 5 years and cannot be reelected. The rector presides over the University Council. 28 EDUCATION IN PEETT The inclusion of students in the various governing boards known as co-gobiemo (cogovernment) or the participation of students in the government of university affairs is officially enforced under the new law. Go-gohiemo, legally compulsory, has given the students a strong part in all university matters. University students in Peru, as in most of the Latin Ameri- can republics, are accustomed to exercising strong political influence in the universities, particularly those enrolled in the faculties of law, humanities or letters. The basis of university politics is the "professional student"^* who remains in the university indefinitely, maintaining affiliation through an occasional course, and building a career upon student leadership and subsidies from the national parties. The university thus lacks protection from political in- volvment and disruptive forces. The only two organizations provided by the new university law which have no student representatives are the Inter-University Council comprised of the rectors of all the universities of the nation and the Eesearch Institutes of the University of San Marcos. By law, the Ministry of Education recommends the annual sub- sidy for higher education in the education section of the national budget. The largest part of the budget of each university comes from the government since income properties produce very little, privately donated funds are limited, and students' fees are ex- tremely low. Since salaries are low, most of the universities operate on a part-time faculty staff. This is the practice in the majority of institutions of higher education in Peru. In 1960, Peru had one private and seven public universities (table A, appendix), and several specialized schools, all recognized as institutions of higher learning. All public institutions of higher education are subsidized by the Government. From 1960 to 1962, approximately 16 new institutions of higher education were estab- lished in the nation (table B, appendix). Those devoted to the preparation of elementary and secondary school teachers have been mentioned in the section on teacher education. Entrance Requirements, Fees, and Grading System In general, applicants for admission to Peruvian universities are required to be at least 17 years of age, must present the official Certi-ficado de E studios Secundarios (Secondary School Certificate) 1* Benton, William. The Voice of Latin America. New York : Harper, 1961. P. 124-27. EDTJCATIONAL LEVELS 29 issued by the Ministry of Education and must successfully pass an entrance examination authorized by the respective faculty. Gen- erally, students enroll in one faculty and follow a prescribed pro- gram with few electives. For admission to certain academic or professional programs some universities require completion of a 1- or 2-year preparatory course, depending on the program chosen. Generally speaking, as in most Latin American universities, Pe- ruvian secondary graduates apply for admission to a professional program and upon admission begin work in the chosen field. Uni- versity education is usually oriented toward preparation in a spe- cific field. The principal method of instruction is the lecture, and all classes are conducted in Spanish except for a few summer and special programs designed for foreign students. Although each institution drafts its own entrance examinations, programs of study and degree requirements are similar to those of the University of San Marcos. Student fees vary with the faculty ; a nominal fee of the approxi- mate Peruvian equivalent of $6 in State universities and of $50 to $60 in private universities is paid once a year. Scholarships are available for worthy and needy Peruvian students. The university year begins in April and ends in December, with a short vacation in July. For examination purposes the school year is divided into two terms. Some of the new universities func- tion on a semester-hour basis. The grading system, generally used in Peruvian universities, is from "1" to "20," with "11" as the passing grade. Degrees and Titles Only legally constituted universities are eligible to confer grades oGodemicos (academic degrees) or tUulos (titles or licenses) . Under the law, the Catholic University of Peru is considered on the same level as a national university. Other private institutions must meet certain requirements set by the Ministry of Public Education. Foreign degrees are revalidated (granted official recognition) only by national universities. Programs of study leading to academic and professional degrees may be taken simultaneously although they may not be of the same length in years. That is, in some instances the bachelor's degree may be granted after 2 years of preparatory study, and the pro- fessional degree, which follows, is given in 3 additional years. In 30 EDUCATION IN PERU other instances, the bachelor's degree may be awarded after 4 years of study and the professional degree after 1 additional year. The two degrees may be granted simultaneously without additional study, or the academic degree may be granted upon completion of the full program and the professional title upon the approval of a thesis. The bachelor's degree is always required to obtain the doctor's degree. However, in some programs the professional title is also a prerequisite to the doctor's degree, and in others the doctorate is granted simultaneously with the professional degree. A list of the degrees and titles and the programs leading to them are given in table C (appendix) . According to the 1963 report published by the Institute of Inter- national Education,!^ 335 Peruvian students were enrolled in U.S. colleges and universities during the academic year 1962-63, while 6 U.S. students were studying in Peru in the same year. There were 28 Peruvian faculty members in the United States and 28 U.S. faculty members in Peru in 1962-63. In 1960, 15 Peruvian students reportedly were enrolled in universities in Iron Curtain countries. The National University of San Marcos The Universidad Naoional Mayor de San Marcos (National Uni- versity of San Marcos), commonly referred to as the University of San Marcos, was founded in 1551 by a royal order of Charles V of Spain and is regarded as the oldest institution of higher learn- ing in the Americas. It was closed at the time of the establishment of the Eepublic in 1821, but was reopened in 1861, becoming an autonomous university in 1874. While the University of San Mar- cos is the largest university in Peru and offers the most extensive programs, it does not maintain a monopoly on higher education. All 10 faculties of the University of San Marcos offer both aca- demic and professional degrees, and in certain cases, certificados de competencia (certificates of competence). In addition to their professional programs, the Faculties of Letters and Sciences pro- vide preparatory programs for the other eight faculties. That is, the Faculty of Letters provides 2-year prelegal and preletters pro- grams, and a 1-year preeconomics program, and the Facultj^ of Sciences, a 2-year premedical program, and 1-year prepharmacy. 15 Institute of International Education. Oven Doors 1963. P. 24, 33, 34. EDUOATIOIirAL LEVELS 31 predentistry, prechemistry, and preveterinary programs. The Fac- ulty of Education requires a 2-year preeducation program in either the Faculty of Letters for preparation in humanities and social sciences, or in a combined program in the Faculty of Letters and Sciences for preparation in the natural sciences. The University of San Marcos student enrollment for the school years 1957, 1960, and 1961, by schools, was as follows : Law Medicine Letters Sciences Economic and commercial sciences Pharmacy and biocliemistry Dentistry Education Cliemistry Veterinary medicine Institute of Human Relations Total 1957 1960 1961 1,146 1,532 1,532 1,204 1,835 1,840 1,859 1,751 1,751 1,869 1,308 1,308 1,278 2,900 3,000 646 850 850 624 882 882 527 1,238 1,238 124 225 225 165 190 270 730 10,442 13,441 12,896 The 1960 university policies limit the number of admissions to the Faculty of Medicine to 150 applicants per year. The Esouela de E studios Especiales (School of Special Studies) of the University of San Marcos was initiated in 1932 as the Esouela de Verano (Summer School). It was reorganized in 1942 and renamed the School of Special Studies. The school is respon- sible for matters concerning foreign students in the university. It otfers a special summer session for foreign students and a ourso de revalidacion (revalidation course) for those wishing to enroll as graduate students in the regular faculties of letters or economic and commercial sciences of the university. Subjects are conducted in Spanish, but English resumes are distributed. The school cooperates with Indiana University in offering a plan of studies which permits U.S. students to take their junior year at San Marcos. Information on these programs is issued by the Chair- man of the Committee on the Junior Year in Peru, Department of Spanish and Portuguese, Indiana University, Bloomington, Ind. Since 1951, San Marcos University City has been under construc- tion outside Lima. In 1962, the Faculty of Letters, Science, and Education occupied new buildings there. 10 Eogers, Francis M. The University of San Marcos in Lima, Peru. P. 21. 32 EDUCATION IN PERU Besides its academic endeavors, San Marcos University fosters artistic and cultural programs. It has a ballet, choir, museum of archaeology, orchestra, and theater. In addition to the main Uni- versity library, most of the Faculties have their own specialized libraries. Special University Programs Universities in Peru are patterned rather closely after San Marcos, but some have been expanding and modernizing their pro- grams and developing new facilities and new plans. The following universities depart in various ways from the traditional university pattern in Peru : ^'^ Universidad de San Cristobal de Huamanga reopened in 1962 under the direction of Fernando Romero, a distinguished Peruvian educator, who initiated a program based on applied study and re- search. The university prohibited partisan politics and co-goiiemo, required full-time attendance from professors and students, and made Quechua language a compulsory subject. Students who are selected through entrance examinations must maintain a higher average grade, and cannot enroll for more than 16 semester hours of study. All students are required to take a 1-year basic general course given at the university for admission. Extension work (community activities) is required from faculty members and students. The university conducts an evening pro- gram mostly devoted to domestic science for women and has a de- partment to develop native arts. In 1963, Indians comprised most of the 400 students enrolled in the institution. Universidad AgraHa, (University of Agriculture) formerly known as the Escuela Nacional de AgricuUura (National School of Agriculture) was established by an act of Congress on April 9, 1960, to prepare and train professionals in the field of agriculture. Veterinary medicine, a department of the university, was set up in 1941 as the Escvsla Nacional de Medicina Veterinana, and in 1960, it became the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine of the Uni- versity of San Marcos. The University of Agriculture is in a period of expansion with frequent changes in its organization. It has modernized its pro- grams and more than a third of all the curriculums required for graduation consists of courses common to all faculties. It has 17 English translation of university names appear in table 5. EDTJCATIONAL LEVELS 33 arrangements by which the various faculties make use of each other's courses when feasible to meet requirements and electives. These practices represent major changes from the usual Latin American concept that each faculty must recognize only its own courses. The university also enforces a quality requirement that is higher than merely passing. It was planned to begin construction of a new $8.7 million physical plant in mid-1964, with U.S. Govern- ment assistance. The university offers a 5-year program upon completion of which a bachelor's degree is granted. If a thesis is prepared, the pro- fessional degree of Ingeniero Agronomo (Agricultural Engineer) is awarded. In 1962-63, the University Graduate School initiated a master's degree program. Universidad Nacional de Ingenieria, formerly known as the Es- cuela de Ingenieria (School of Engineering), has a common first- year program for all students. Courses are defined in terms of semester hours and its quality requirements in terms of grade- averages are higher than passing. It carries on research studies and an active program of post-degree level in the field of city planning. Several Latin American countries send graduate engi- neers for this program. National University of Engineering, like the University of Ag- riculture, is going through a period of expansion and diversifica- tion. Both universities emphasize integrated curriculums and qual- ity instruction. Universidad Nacional de San Agmtin de Arequipa, the second largest university in Peru, suffered serious losses from the 1956 and 1958 earthquakes. The university offers a 2-year Studium Generale (general study) preparatory program in the Faculty of Letters, which is also pre- requisite for studies at the Faculties of Law and of Education. In cooperation with the Smithsonian Institution of the United States and the Carnegie Institute, a satellite tracking station and a geophysical institute were installed in 1960 at the university for international studies and research in geomagnetism, meteorology, and seismology. The university also maintains an Institute of Cultural Extension to encourage the appreciation and development of Peruvian culture. Universidad Nacional de Trujillo, the third largest university in Peru, has a strong students' organization, which participates in strikes, labor disputes, and other political, social, and cultural activities. 34 EDUCATION m PERU The Faculties of Sciences, of Letters, and of Education oifer the preparatory courses which are required for admission to some fac- ulties of the university. Private Universities Prior to 1961, the Pontifical Catholic University of Peru was the only private institution of higher education in Peru. Since 1961, five new private universities have been established, most of which are in the process of reorganization and expansion. Pontificia Universidad Gatolica del Peru, in addition to the regu- lar programs, provides programs for the preparation of elementary and secondary school teachers. In 1963, a new Faculty of General Studies offering 2-year general studies program was initiated. The university gives no instruction in science except some courses in the Faculty of Engineering. There are several active students' organizations in the university, but, in contrast to other institutions of higher education in Peru, students are not represented in the University Council. The university is operated almost entirely on part-time faculty statt. Students' fees are higher than those in other national uni- versities in Peru, and in dollar equivalent range from $28 in the School of Journalism to $192 in the Faculty of Agriculture. The Riva-Agiiero Institute, founded as part of the University in 1947 as a School of Higher Studies, does not confer degrees or titles. Dr. Victor Andres Belaunde, president of the Peruvian Delegation to the United Nations and former president of the U.N. General Assembly, is the director of the institute. In collaboration with Loyola University of Chicago, 111., Catholic University initiated in 1961, an Escuela Internacional de Tempo- rada (International Summer Study Program). Information on this program may be obtained from the Escuela International de Temporada, Universidad Catolica del Peril, Apartado 1761, Lima, Peru. Universidad de Oiencias Medicas y Biologicas, formerly the Fac- ulty of Medicine of the University of San Marcos, became a private university in 1961. Insofar as structure is concerned, it has estab- lished Faculties of Humanities and of Medicine, and an Institute of Graduate Studies, where courses in various specializations will be offered. The premedical program is given in the Faculty of Humanities. EDUCATIONAL LEVELS 35 ZJniversidad de Lima, established in 1962, comprises three fac- ulties and five schools, and offers programs in arts and sciences, social and economic sciences, administration, labor, and public re- lations. According to its 1963 plans, "the university will be staffed with full-time professors and will offer degrees comparable to those of U.S. colleges and universities." Prof. Raymond C. Gibson from Indiana University has been contracted as an advisor in the ad- ministration and organization of the university. Vniversidad del Paoifico, opened in 1962, was organized through the efforts of a group of Catholic business men in Lima. It is operated and staffed by faculty members from Loyola University in Chicago. Although it started as a school of business adminis- tration, Peruvian university law forbids the establishment of busi- ness schools at the higher education level. The university of the Pacific, therefore, is expanding to include other programs to meet legal requirements. ZJniversidad Particular "San Martin de Porres^'' another Catho- lic institution founded in 1962, is an expansion of the former Insti- tuto Dominicano de Giencias Sooiales (Dominican Institute of So- cial Sciences). It comprises a Faculty of Education and a Faculty of Letters, including seven institutes. ZJniversidad Santa Maria, established in 1961 by Marianist Fath- ers from St. Louis, Mo., is the first attempt at a U.S. type of a 4-year liberal arts college in Peru. Programs in the Faculties of Education and Letters lead to the bachelor of arts degree. Technical Universities In addition to the above universities, three technical public uni- versities recently created in Pei'u provide training for technicians, engineers in industry, and for students as teachers in secondary-level technical and vocational institutions. These institutions are still in the process of reorganization and expansion and some of the pro- grams have not been completely defined. Among these universities, the ZJniversidad Nacional Tecnica del Altiplano, which opened in 1962 with 8Y students, initiated in 1963 a general college program similar to a U.S. community college offering 2-year terminal programs in agriculture and engineering. It has an experimental farm devoted to the improvement of the alpaca, vicuna, and llama. Programs in applied studies are intended for the Indians in the region. 36 EDUCATION IN PERTT Universidad Tecnica de Piura, created in 1961, began to function in 1962. So far, it has organized the School of Agriculture, the School of Economics, and the Institute of Mechanics. Other institutes in the planning stages, which will admit elementary school graduates, will train technicians at the secondary school level. Universidad Tecnica de Gajamarca, opened in 1962 with a Faculty of General Studies, six schools and seven institutes. The University has es- tablished a Centre de Gapacitacion de Ohreros (Workers' Training Center) . Special Schools The following schools offer programs in various fields, some of which are at the higher education level: The Gonservatorio Nacional de Musica (National Conservatory of Music), Lima, prepares teachers of music for the elementary and secondary schools of the nation. It also prepares professional musi- cians in its specialized music section. EsGuela de Gicerones (School for Tourist-Guides), Lima, founded in 1940, functions as a part of the Peruvian-North American Cultural Institute and provides short courses for secondary school graduates for a certificate of ciceron (guide) . Escuelas de enfervieria (schools of nursing) of which there are eight in Peru, admit students with 9 to 10 years of elementary- secondary schooling to a 3-year program leading to the title of enfermera (nurse) . A certificate of enfermera auxiliar (nurse aide) is granted to elementary school graduates after 1-year training. Escuela de Servicio Social del Peru (School of Social Service of Peru) , Lima, founded in 1937 under the Minister of Public Health and Social Welfare, offers a i-year program (formerly 3 years) upon completion of full secondary education, for the title of asistente social (social worker). A similar school was founded in Puno in 1960. Escuela Nacional de Bellas Artes del Peru (National School of Fine Arts of Peru), Lima, founded in 1919, admits elementary school graduates for programs in the Department of Fine Arts and sec- ondary school graduates for programs in the Teacher Training De- partment for a certificate leading to the title of Profesor Normalista de Bellas Artes (Elementary Teacher of Fine Arts). Escuela Nacional de Bihliotecarios (National School for Librari- ans), Lima, founded in 1943, offers a 2-year program, beyond sec- EDUCATIONAL LEVELS 37 ondary education for the title of hiiliotecario (librarian). The pro- gram emphasizes technical training. The Peruvian Escuela Naval (Naval School), Escuela Militar (Military School), Lima, and Escuela Aeronautioa (Aeronautics School) Callao, each offer 4-year programs beyond secondary school in the corresponding fields, and also offer programs at the secondary school level. Instituto Politecnico Naoional (National Polytechnic Institute) offers 2-year programs for the title of Tecnico Esfecializado (Spe- cialized Technician) in such fields as diesel motors, generators, vapor motors, electrical and vapor tension, refrigeration and air condition- ing, graphic arts, and electronics. The programs, terminal in nature, parallel the upper secondary school program. Instituto PsicopedagSgico Nacional (National Psychopedagogical Institute) , Lima, was founded in 1941 to carry on studies and research on Peruvian education, and to offer special programs to secondary school teachers. It operates through 5 different bureaus, including a publication section. Applicants must hold the title of Profesor or Doctor in secondary education. Instituto Superior de Educacion Familiar (Higher Institute of Family Living), Lima, founded in 1939, offers a 4-year program beyond secondary vocational education for the title of Profesora de Educacion Familiar (Teacher of Family Living) for teachers in elementary or vocational schools. Teachers may specialize in do- mestic sciences, needlework, sewing, or cooking. Illiteracy and Adult Education Programs According to preliminary figures from the 1961 census, the pro- portion of illiterates in Peru is 53 percent of the population 14 years of age and over. However, this figure increases as high as 73 percent in the Sierra, where the largest concentration of the Indian popula- tion is found, and decreases to as low as 29 percent in areas where the white and mestizo population live. The illiteracy program in Peru results not so much from racial but from linguistic factors. Most of the illiterate population are non- Spanish-speaking Indians who speak either Quechua, Aymara or some other Indian dialect. The problem here is first to make the Indians literate in their own language and then possibly in Spanish. As early as 1943, Peru has been emphasizing the importance of the problem of illiteracy in the Americas, particularly among the Indian 38 EDUCATION IN PERU population. In 1944, the President of tlie Kepublic decreed the first campaign against illiteracy in Peru, Oampana Nacional del Alfor- hetizacion (National Campaign Against Illiteracy). The campaign was designed against illiterate adolescents and adults 16 to 40 years of age. The Informativo Pentano (Peruvian Eeport) was published for teachers and the Libro Feruano de Lectura (Peruvian Reader) was published for students who have learned to read. In the same year the Brigadas de Oulturisacion (Culturization Brigades) were formed in the regions where Indians were concen- trated. The brigades complemented the activities of the literacy campaign. All the activities of the brigades were carried out in two languages, Aymara and Quechua. Despite the various campaigns to eradicate illiteracy in Peru, which according to the 1940 census was 58.6 percent of the popula- tion 15 years and over,i^ in 1961 it was still 53 percent. Perhaps the greatest weakness of these campaigns has been the fact that they lacked continuity and financial resources for a well-planned continu- ous effort. In 1956, a Plan Nacional de Alfahetizaoion y Education de Adoles- centes y Adultos (National Plan of Literacy and Education for Adolescents and Adults) was initiated, and in 1959 a decree created the Comision Nacional de Alfabetizacion (National Commission of Literacy) under the Dlreccion de Educaeion Fundamental y del Adulto (Department of Fundamental and Adult Education) in the Ministry of Public Education to coordinate and organize the activities of the literacy campaign. Again, in 1962, the Junta Militar (Military Junta) declared 1963 El Ano de Alfabetizaeion (The Year of Literacy Training) and in- augurated under the DirecciSn de Educaeion Rural y Analfahetismo (Department of Eural Education and Illiteracy) the present literacy campaign using radio and television broadcasts. Teachers, students, and civil guard units comprise the brigades to carry on this campaign. Discharged servicemen, trained as instructors, returned to their villages to instruct civilians. All recruits are trained to read and write and the Peruvian Army provides books, pencils, and paper. The following literacy and adult education centers are operating in various parts of the Republic: Gentros de Educaeion Fundamental (Fundamental Education Centers) are boarding schools offering elementary schooling similar in organization to the nucleos escolares described under elementary education. 18 UNESCO. World IlUteracy at Midoentury. 1957. P. 70. EDUCATIONAL LEVELS 39 EsGwelas BiUngues (Bilingual Schools) located in the seVva were organized in 1951 with the collaboration of the Summer Institute of Linguistics of the University of Oklahoma. The institute has made studies of the aborigenal languages and pre- pared records and textbooks of these languages. Gentros y Talleres Artesanales (Centers and Artisans Shops) to preserve and stimulate Peruvian crafts and to train Indians in the native arts. Planes de Colonizacion y Programas de la PoMacion Ahorigen (Colonization Plans and Programs for the Indigenious Popula- tion) were designed to train the Indians in modern methods of farming and production, small industries, sanitation, social welfare, and other fields. This program is under the Gomision Nacional de Integracion de la Pdhlaoion Ahorigen (National Commission for the Integration of the Indigenous Population) created in 1959 with the cooperation of fhe Ministeries of Labor and Indian Affairs, Development and Public Works, Public Education, Public Health and Social Welfare, War, and Agriculture. A radio program, Por tin Peru Mejor (For a Better Peru), was inaugurated in 1962 to arouse the interest of the community and especially of the illiterates. Gartillas (Primers) were printed and distributed throughout the Nation. A leaflet Aprende (Learn) is published weekly for those who have learned to read and write. A series of short trainino' courses in adult education were given to 6,000 teachers and uni\-ersity students who volunteered assistance for the literacy program. Public and private institutions and organi- zations are also participating in (ho literacy campaign. In 1959, <;he University of San Cristobal de Iluamanga began to offer courses for employees, teachers, and craftsmen on an experi- mental basis. In 1960, the university established the Institute of Adult Education, offering evening and night courses for adults, and a program of educational films, conferences, discussions and library services. In 1959, 50 adults were enrolled in the various activities, and by 1960 the number increased to 330 of which 166 were women. In addition, the university has carried out certain community de- velopment progi-ams among the Indians in the rural area of Inkaraqay with the cooperation of the Ministries of Agriculture and Education. The program includes workshops in carpentry, me- chanics, ironwork, forestation, animal breeding, and rural construc- tion, as well as health, literacy, and artistic activities. The Maryknoll Fathers, a U.S. order of priests, inaugurated in 1962 in the Department of Puno a radio school center for Indians 40 EDtJCATION IN PERTT of the southern Sierra. Classes are conducted in the language of the Indians. A total of 800 adult Indians were attending these classes in 1962. Mining, agricultural and industrial enterprises are required by law to maintain adult education classes for illiterate employees be- tween 16 and 40 years of age. These classes are supervised by the Director of Adult Education. A Government report states that in 1962 there were 357 evening schools for adults with a total of 41,497 students and 1,293 teachers, offering courses in basic education, vocational education, and literacy training. The same report indicates that for the period 1957-61, a total of 464,557 adults had been taught to read and write. Part III. EDUCATIONAL OUTLOOK Problems, Trends, and Developments According to the report on the development of edu- cation presented by the Peruvian Minister of Public Education at the 1963 Conference of Ministers of Education in Bogota, Pe- ruvian education is primarily suffering from the lack of a well- defined educational policy directed toward the economic and social development of the Nation. The educational problems are further complicated by an underdeveloped economy, inadequate transpor- tation and lack of communication facilities; the high rate of illit- eracy, and the lack of intf)gration of the indigenous population into the national life ; the si lOrtage of teachers and their inadequate preparation; the excessive centralization of the administration and direction of education; and the lack of financial resources to im- plement a program for the improvement and development of education. However, in his inaugural address to the nation in 1963, President Fernando Belaunde Terry, who previously was Dean of the Faculty of Architecture at the National Engineering University, stated that Peru "will move ahead with a program of social reforms and the distribution of wealth in the Republic." The Peruvian Government is moving forward to mobilize Pe- ruvian communities with a program of self-help in the construc- tion of roads, schools, small irrigation systems, wells, school build- ings, and similar community activities. This community effort will make a significant contribution to the integration of the Indian population into the nation's economic life. Student and Teacher Increase As indicated in table 4, enrollments at all levels of education are growing rapidly in Peru. According to the 1963 Ministry of 41 42 EDUCATION IN PERU Education report, the increase is not due primarily to population increase but to the desire on the part of parents and students for more education. More students are reportedly enrolled in academic secondary schools than in vocational or technical schools. This is largely due to the lack of good vocational schools and offerings, and to the indifference of students toward vocational or industrial training. The Ministry's report indicates as the major problem the fact that vocational schools are not providing a basic education for students to continue studies at institutions of higher learning, nor are they giving the students adequate training in order to qualify for jobs in industry. For these reasons, at the present time, vocational edu- cation graduates encounter difficulty when applying for admission to universities, and when seeking employment.^® Another major problem facing Peruvian educators is the high rate of school dropouts. According to a study ^° on school desertion, based on the 1957 inventory of educational conditions in Peru, of the total number of students who entered elementary school in 1945 only 15.1 percent reached grade 5 and only 5.6 percent entered the fifth year or last year of the secondary school. The greatest rate of drop- outs was in the transition between the first and second grades (45.57 percent) and between the second and third grades (31.72 percent) of elementary school, and occurred among girls at the elementary school age. It may be noted that enrollments have also increased in teacher education, when one compares the enrollment figure of 1,538 for 1956 with the figure for 1960, which is almost 4,000. Although the number of elementary teachers in Peru has been increasing at the rate of 9 percent annually, there is still a shortage of trained teachers for the elementary schools. However, the great- est shortage occurs in the secondary schools where engineers, lawyers, pharmacists, and physicians have been teaching on a part- time basis to help solve the problem at this level. The number of teachers by educational level from 1956 to 1960 is shown in table 5. In 1963, a Government report estimated the total number of public school teachers at 60,000, of which approxi- mately 45,000 were elementary, 7,000 academic secondary, 4,000 vo- cational, and between 2,000 and 3,000 physical education teachers. 19 Ministerio de Educacion Publicu. Iiiforme Sohi'c el DcfjarroUo de la Educacion en el Perd Durante el Afio 1962. P. 66. 30 Angeles, Capriano. "La Desercion Escolar y sus Causas Segiin el Inventario de la Realidad Educativa del Perii." P. 7-31. Table 4. — ^Number of schools and students, by educational level and type of school: 1956-60 Level Number of schools 1956 1957 1958 1959 1960 Number of students 1956 1957 1958 1959 1960 Total Elementary : Subtotal Public Private State supervised— Academic secondary : Subtotal Public Private Vocational secondary : Subtotal Public Private Teacher education : Subtotal Public Private 13,268 12,735 11,214 909 612 362 128 234 150 118 32 21 16 5 13,560 12,944 11,422 901 621 425 152 273 166 129 37 25 19 14,315 13,624 11,799 1,169 650 441 176 265 221 147 74 29 24 5 14,864 14,102 12,231 1,215 656 486 198 288 243 169 74 33 28 5 15,403 14,590 12,700 1,287 603 524 222 302 251 177 74 38 32 6 1,326,577 1,204,701 1,038,322 110,078 56,391 98,032 59,331 38,701 22,216 19,437 2,779 1,538 1,120 418 1,372,602 1,233,937 1,065,990 107,788 60,159 111,191 65,922 45,269 25,460 22,302 3,158 2,014 1,575 439 1,467,176 1,308,305 1,110,742 134,439 63,124 122,221 75,895 46,326 34,410 27,819 6,591 2,240 1,787 453 1,603,064 1.391,952 1,184,107 140,308 67,537 141,062 90,553 50,509 37,249 31,609 5,640 3,281 2,777 504 1,681,299 1,479,100 1,260,400 148,700 70,000 158,900 103,778 55,122 39,359 33,878 5,481 3,940 3,338 602 Source of data ; Ministerio de EducaciSn Pflblica. La Educacidn Actual Peruana. Documents submitted by the Government of Peru to the Conference on Education and Economic and Social Development of Latin America, held In Santiago, Chile, March 5-19, 1962. Lima : The Minis- try, 1962. US' 44 EDTTOATION IN PERU Table 5. — ^Number of teachers by educational level and types of schools : 1956-60 Level 1956 1957 1958 1959 19601 Total 41,478 42,695 47,593 51,733 59,000 Elementary : Subtotal 31,679 32 117 35 258 38,369 41,900 Public 27 112 29,155 32*031 35,200 Private 3,823 3,753 4!731 4^901 5,200 State supervised l!l80 1,252 1,372 1,437 1,500 Acadeniic secondary i Subtotal 6,706 7 007 8,304 8,662 11,300 Public 3^220 3!562 4^325 4,270 6,500 Private 3,486 3,445 3,982 4,392 4,800 Vocational secondary : Subtotal 2,918 3,353 3,806 4,382 5,300 Public - - -_ 2,365 2,881 3,160 3,408 4,200 Private 553 472 646 974 1,100 Teacher education : Subtotal — 175 218 222 320 500 Public - - 140 170 189 259 373 Private 35 48 33 61 127 1 Estimated. Source of data : Mlnisterio de Educaci6n Publlca. La Eclucacidn Actual Peruana. Documents submitted by the Government of Peru to the Conference on Education and Economic and Social Development of Latin Amelrca, held in Santiago, Chile, March 5-19, 1962. Lima : The Ministry, 1962. Reorganization of School System In September 1962, the Military Junta ordered the decentraliza- tion of Peruvian education, and in January 1963, the reorganization and decentralization of the functions of the Ministry of Public Education was initiated. Six regional offices located in Chiclayo (north), Huancayo (center), Lima (coast), Arequipa and Cuzco (south), and Iquitos (east), have charge of supervisory and ad- ministrative matters such as records, application, testing, teacher placement and similar matters. Under the plan, each regional office is headed by a director, under the supervision and direction of the Director-General in the Ministry. The Office of Educational Planning, established in 1958 under the Ministry of Education, co- ordinates the planning of education with the six regional centers throughout the nation. In 1963 under a 2-year contract, 11 advisers from Columbia Uni- versity Teachers College, operating under a grant from the U.S. Agency for International Development, were assigned to work in cooperation with the Peruvian Ministry of Education in planning EDTJCATIONAL OUTLOOK 45 and organizing the national education system. Other plans include the establishment of an educational TV channel, an increase in scholarship awards for Peruvians specializing in education, the preparation and printing of modern textbooks, the improvement of technical and vocational education, and the establishment of spe- cialized polytechnic institutions. Beginning with the 1964 school year, which started in April, students registered under a new law granting free education. The law provides government financing from elementary school through postgraduate university education. Free education would be denied to those students who miss more than 25 percent of their classes, fail to make satisfactory grades, or who are suspended from classes. Secondary and Teacher Education In Peru, as in the United States, England and France, there is apparent dissatisfaction with secondary education. Institutions of higher education, as indicated by the Eector^^ of the University of San Marcos, have found that the preparation of secondary school students is inadequate due to excessive memory work, lack of librar- ies and well-equipped laboratories, poor teaching methods, and lack of correlation between the secondary school and the university. According to the Rector's report, in 1958 only 23.8 percent of the 1,457 applicants passed entrance examinations to the Faculty of Letters at San Marcos University, 18 percent of the 2,923 in sciences, and 30 percent of the 1,227 in economics and commercial sciences. In 1962, less than 50 percent of the applicants gained ad- mission to university study. In view of this situation, the University of San Marcos was planning in 1963 to group the several preparatory programs offered under the faculties of letters and sciences into a new faculty of gen- eral studies. The university is also considering a plan to offer free admission to freshmen and sophomore students in 1966. The plan will be applied progressively to cover all students at San Marcos. The University of Agriculture has established a preparatory de- partment for secondary school graduates who will enroll for an extra year of secondary study before beginning university study. Catholic University is also in the process of organizing a faculty of general study. The University of Huamanga introduced in 1963 a first-year basic course for all students seeking admission to the university. De- 21 S&nchez, Alberto Luis. Im Vniveraidad no e$ una I»la. 1961. 46 EDUCATION IN PEETJ pending on the individual aptitudes, students may delay a whole second year before completing the basic course, wliich is prepara- tory to all programs in the university. Steps are being taken by the Ministry of Public Education in the expansion and redirection of secondary education, with special em- phasis on vocational and technical education to prepare students for an industrial and technical society. The Ministry of Public Education reported in 1963 that three military schools with a capacity for 800 students each were under construction; two grandes unidades to accommodate 2,000 students were completed; and a polytechnic institute with a capacity for 3,000 students was almost completed. The Peruvian Ai-my is now operating industrial vocational train- ing schools in Lima, Cuzco, and Arequipa. Similar schools are planned for Iquitos and Piura. Conscripts receive training during the last 3 months of their 2-year enlistments in such fields as car- pentry, plumbing, welding. To date, 2,139 soldiers have graduated from schools. The Army also hopes to open five agricultural train- ing schools at the same locations as their industrial training schools. A heavy equipment operations and maintenance school is also planned. With regard to teacher education, in 1961 the Ministry of Public Education initiated a 10-year campaign to eliminate the present teacher shortage by reneAved emphasis on the preparation and qual- ification of school teachers through better salaries and improvement courses. In the same year, new Gentros de Oapacitacion y Perfeo- oionamiento (In-Service Training and Improvement Centers) were established and three Gentros de EspeGializacion (Specialization Centers) attached to the regular normal schools were opened. By the end of 1962, 2,470 teachers were taking such courses. In 1963, the Ministry reported that three regional normal schools were planned for the southern (Arequipa), central (Huancayo), and eastern (Iquitos) regions. In the northern region (Piura), a normal school has been established for 750 students. In addition, the Office of Educational Planning had under study in 1963 a 10-year plan to eliminate the present teacher shortage. Under this plan 27,000 teachers for the elementary schools of the natioir are to be trained. A teacher-training section is to be estab- lished in the colegios, comprising a 3-year normal school program for students who have completed the first cycle of the regular sec- ondary school program. This plan is designed to expedite the train- ing of additional teachers for the elementary schools. EDUCATIONAL OUTLOOK 47 Peruvian universities are further faced Avith such problems as part-time students and part-time professors, poor physical facilities and maintenance, student participation in the political arena, lack of financial resources, and the enforcement of the 1960 New Uni- versity Law. It may be noted, as a result of the enfoi'cement of co-gdbi&mo under the 1960 law that the Faculty of Medicine of the University of San Marcos resigned in a body and set up a new, privately supported independent medical school in Lima, known as the Escuela de Medicina ^''Gayetano Heredia)'' (Gayetano Heredia Medical School). This institution, renamed in 1961 as the Vni- versidad Peruana de Giencias Medicos y Biologicas (Peruvian Uni- versity of Medical and Biological Sciences), is headed by the for- mer director of the School of Medicine of San Marcos, thus de- priving the university of its qualified staif in the field. With regard to faculty staffing, it is estimated that only 20 per- cent of the instructional staff in Peruvian universities is on a full- time basis. However, a gradual transition from part-time to full- time professors is taking place in various universities. Today, the medical schools of the Universities of Arequipa and of Trujillo are almost entirely staffed with full-time professors. Improvement and expansion in the area of higher education is also indicated in the growing diversity of offerings within the uni- versity faculties and institutes, and in the establishment of new universities, which is increasing opportunities for higher education in the provinces. The recent trend in the establishment of new universities also suggests a desire toward the decentralization of higher education in Peru, making it more accessible to more students. International Cooperative Assistance Assistance to the development of Peruvian education has been given by the U.S. Government since the early days of the Republic. American educators, at the invitation of the Ministry of Educa- tion, have gone at various times to Peru as advisers in the modern- ization of primary and normal education. In more recent years, the U.S. Government, through various uni- versities and private organizations, is contributing to the national economic, social, and educational development of Peru. In 1954, the University of North Carolina assisted the National School of Engineering to further Peruvian textile education and to help Peru achieve an annual increase in agricultural production. 48 EDUCATION' IN PERU In 1955, the University of New Hampshire began a cooperative program to strengthen and modernize instruction in the Department of Chemistry of the University of San Marcos. A complete new laboratory was installed and three faculty members have received training in the United States. Although some fundamental skills, such as accounting, office organization and management, sales and advertising, were taught at the Institute of Human Relations (now the School of Business Administration) of the University of San Marcos, no formal uni- versity training or any systematic research in the field of public administration was offered in Peru prior to 1959. In that year, as a first step in the establishment of a graduate school of business administration, Stanford University, in cooperation with the Pe- ruvian Management Association, conducted a seminar on the con- cepts and principles of management. In April 1964, the Escuela, de Administracion para Graduados (School of Business Administration for Graduate Students) at the University of San Marcos officially opened. It is now instructing its first class. The faculty is drawn entirely from the Stanford Graduate School of Business. Peruvian instructors will be trained and control of the school turned over to Peru in a 5-year period. The school is a separate entity, but will not grant degrees. Graduates will receive their degrees from the university in which they per- formed their undergraduate work. The major universities in Peru have already subscribed to this system. In 1960, the North Carolina State College of Agriculture and Engineering assisted the National Engineering University in the establishment of a department of textile engineering to train textile engineers for the Peruvian textile industry. In 1963, the University of Agriculture received a grant from the Ford Foundation to be used for research and teaching programs in agricultural economics and rural sociology. Visiting professors from North Carolina State College will coordinate the program and help organize the departments of instruction, research, and extension programs. Students will be selected for advanced training in the United States. The U.S. Department of Agriculture and the National Institutes of Health, and the Eockefeller and Kellogg Foundations have pro- vided substantial donations to Peruvian universities for research purpose. A most promising research program is being carried out by the new Faculty of Veterinary Medicine of San Marcos Uni- versity and the Tropical Altitude Veterinary Eesearch Institute, EDtrCATIONAL OTTTLOOK 49 supported by the United States and the United Nations Special Fund. Educational Centers and Services Cosponsored by the Government of Peru and by various United States and international organizations, the following centers and services help in the development of education in Peru: Comite N orteamericana de Peru (North American-Peruvian Committee), organized in 1961 by a group of the U.S. business community in Lima, gxants scholarships for labor leaders and assists in U.S. Information Service (USIS) projects. Instituto Cultural Peruano Norteamericano (Peruvian-North American Cultural Institute) in Lima and its counterparts in other cities in Peru offer noncredit courses as well as intensive courses in English and Spanish for Peruvians and American students and adults. It provides a 12-week course for Peruvian teachers of Eng- lish upon completion of which the Ministry of Public Education grants the candidate a diploma and certifies him as a qualified teacher in English. In addition, the institute offers cultural and recreational activities, including library services. Instituto de Accion Social (Institute of Social Action) was or- ganized in 1961 by a group of business men in Lima to carry out social development projects, including TV literacy campaigns and the establishment of "teleschools" in Lima. It is also helping in the development of one of Lima's large slum areas, San Cosme. Instituto Interamericano de Planeamiento Urbano y Rural (In- ter-american Institute of Urban and Rural Planning), formerly Instituto de Planeamiento de Lima de la Unvoersidad Nacional de Ingenieria (Lima Institute of Planning of the National University of Engineering) founded in 1960, started functioning in 1962 under the joint sponsorship of the Organization of American States and the Government of Peru to train students and technicians in the field of urban and regional planning. Applicants for admission must be holders of the title of architect, civil, agricultural or sani- tary engineer; doctor of economics or law; or have a degree in a field related with planning. Foreign students are admitted on the same basis as Peruvian students. Instituto Peruano de Fomento Educativo (Peruvian Institute of Educational Development) was founded in 1961 to provide oppor- tunities for foreign study to Peruvian students, promising tech- 50 EDTTCATIOK IN PEETJ nicians, and administrators. It is directed by a board of Peruvian professional men and financed by foreign mining corporations in Peru. Instituto Peruana de Reforma Agraria y Golonizacion (Peruvian Institute of Agrarian Reform and Colonization), created in 1960 to cooperate with other Government agencies in the planning and supervision of the Peruvian agrarian reform. The institute, in cooperation with the University of Iowa and Iowa State University of Science and Technology, was planning in 1963 a nationwide pro- gram of agrarian reform, especially for southern Peru. The pro- jects call for technical and financial assistance to the program of agrarian reform and development. The two universities will pro- vide technicians to serve as advisers and consultants in such fields as agricultural economics, agricultural credit. Servicio Gooperativo Perimno-Norteamericano de Educacion — SECPANE (Peruvian-North American Cooperative Education Ser- vice) , organized in 1944, was designed for the improvement of ele- mentary, vocational and teacher education in the urban and rural areas through the establishment of schools and demonstration cen- ters, and the implementation of techniques and organizational methods. SECPANE's responsibilities were absorbed by the Min- istry of Education in 1962, and all U.S. assistance to civilian education (other than universities) goes to the Ministry. The Escuela Normal Swperior de Ghosica and the Escmla Nor- mal Superior Mixta Urubamba (discussed under the teacher educa- tion section) were built under the Servicio. Servicio Naeional de Aprendizaje y Traiajo Industrial — SENATI (National Service of Apprenticeship and Industrial Training) was initiated in 1962 to provide training for Peruvian youth and yomag adults for trades and industry. Literacy pro- grams are also included. The service is supported by a 1-percent tax on the total monthly payrolls of combined Peruvian industries. As the industries grow in size and scope, the amount of money derived from the tax will increase, thus expanding tlie program. Glossary Spanish English Asistent social Social worker Auxiliar Aide, assistant — enfermero Nurse aide Bachillerato In Peru, The bachelor's degree rep- resents (2 to 5 years of university study) Bibliotecario Librarian Certiflcado Certificate -de oompetencia Certificate of competence — de eduoacion secundaria Secondary school certificate — de primera categorla First class teaching certificate —de segunda categoria Second class teaching certificate Giolo Cycle • — comim Basic cycle — de especializaoion Specialization cycle Glases de transicion Transition classes Go-gobierno Co-government or the participation of students in university affairs Golegio Secondary School — de eduoandas Secondary school for girls Gonsejo Council — universitario University Council Educacion Education — de adultos Adult education — Familiar Family living — normal Teacher-training Escuela School, schoolhouse — de cicerones I School for tourist guides ■ — de primer grado "First Grade" or incomplete elementary school — de segunda grado "Second Grade" or complete elementary school — flscalimda State supervised school — tipo minima One-teacher school — noctwna Evening school — particular Private — primaria completa Complete primary school — primaria incompleta Incomplete primary school — seocional Sectional school i — unidocente One-teacher school — vespertina Evening school 1 Pertaining to the mlcleos. 51 52 EDUCATION IN PEEXJ Spanish English Orado Grade, year or class ; degree Orandes unidades escolares Large school centers Investigacidn Research Maestro Teacher ^ - — intilulado "Unlicensed teacher • — normal Elementary or normal school teacher Malo Poor [on a school examination] Normalista Normal school teacher Nucleos escolares Community center schools Patronatos escolares School patronage ^ Pedagogia Pedagogy, education Pre-escolar Preschool Profesor Teacher-* Rector University president Beproiado Failure [on a school examination] Revalidaoi&n Revalidation or the granting of official recognition Servioio social Social service Soiresaliente Excellent [on a school examination] Tecnico Technician — agropecuario Agricultural technician — en comeroio Business technician — de minas Mining technician • — industrial Industrial technician Tltulo Title; license 2 Generally a teacher in an elementary school. 3 Similar to U.S. parent-teacher's associations. 4 Generally a secondary school teacher. Selected References Angles, Cipkiano. "La Desercion Escolar y sus Oausas Segun el Inventario de la Kealidad Bducatlva del Peru," Eduoacidn, 23 :7-31. Lima : Universidad Mayor de San Marcos, 1960. Baum, John A. Estudio Sobre los NUcleos Escolares Campesinos. Cuzco, Peru : Editorial Garcilaso, 1963. 173 p. Benton, William. The Voice of Latin America. New York: Harper, 1961. 204 p. Chagas, Agnes. Survey of School of Nursing in Latin America, 1959. Wash- ington, D.C. : Pan American Sanitary Bureau, 1962. 68 p. Cohen, Alvin. "ECLA and the Economic Development of Peru," Inter- American Economic Affairs, 17:3-27. Summer 1963. (ECLA — Comisi6n Eco- n6mica para Latino-america — The United Nations Economic Commission for Latiii America) Coz Poma, Fedebico A. "La Aspiracion Vocacional de los Alumnos de Bdu- caci6n Secundaria." Boletin del Institute Psicopedagdgico Nacional, Afios XIV-XV : Tomo I : Nos. 2-S : 78-83. Lima, 1959-60. " CuETO Feenandini, Carlos. "Problems and Issues of the Peruvian Univer- sity Today," Higher Education in Latin America: A Symposium. Washington, D.C. : The Catholic University of America Press, 1961. p. 22-35. Ebaugh, Cameron B. Education in Peru (Bulletin 1946, No. 3). Federal Security Agency, Office of Education. Washington, D.C: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1946. 91 p. Education for Better Living: The Role of the School in Comnvunity Improve- ment. 1957 Yearbook on Education Around the World. Washington, D.C. : U.S. Department of Health Education and Welfare, Office of Education, 1957. 339 p. Bscuela Nacional de Bellas Artes del Peru. Anuario del Ano Acaddmico, 1962. Lima : the Escuela, 1962. unp. . Reglamento y Cuestionario de Admision. Lima : Topografia Santa Rosa, 1964. 31 p. Escuela Normal Superior Enrique Guzman y Valle. Prospecto de Admision. La Cantuta, Chosica, Peru : the Bscuela, 1962. 28 p. Foreign Policy Association. "Focus on Latin America." Intercom, Special Feature, vol. 4, No. 7. New York: the Association, November-December 1962. Gibson, Raymond C. Rural Schools of Pent,. Peruvian-North American Co- operative Program in Rural Education. Washington, D.C. : U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare, June 1955. 23 p. 53 54 EDUCATION IN PERU • . Vniversidad Naoional Mayor de San Marcos: Suggested Changes in Organisation and Administration. Bloomington : Indiana University, June 1958. 62 p. (Mimeograph) Hanke, Lewis. South America. Modern Latin America: Continent in Ferment, vol. II. New York : Van Nostrand, 1959. p. 21-28. Hegen, Edmund B. "The Andean Cultural Frontier." Journal of Inter- American Studies, 5:4:431-36. Gainesville: Pan American Foimdation Octo- ber 1963. Heysen, Luis E. "La Huelga Digital del Peru." Journal of Inter-American Studies, 5:4:423-29. Gainesville: Pan American Foundation, School of Inter- American Studies, University of Florida, October 1963. Institute of International Education. Limited Faotmal Data Concerning Pontificia Vniversidad Catdlica del Peru. Lima : the Institute, Office for Latin America, 1962. 52 p. (Mimeograph) . Open Doors 1963. New York: the Institute, June 1963. 68 p. International Association of Universities, The. International Handbook of Universities, 1959. Paris: The Association, 1959. 214-216. . International Handbook of Universities, 1962. p. 482-486. James, Peeston E. Latin America. (3d. ed.) New York: Odyssey Press, 1959. 942 p. "Peru" p. 160-203. Journal of Inter- American Studies, vol. 5, No. 4. Gainesville: Pan American Foundation, School of Inter-American Studies, University of Florida, October 1963. 564 p. (This Issue of the Journal is dedicated to the Republic of Peru.) Kenneth, Holland. "A Catalyst for Inter-American Higher Education." . Estadistioa Educativa, 1957-61: Complemento del Inventario de la Teachers College Record, 64 :8 :687-692. May 1963. Manduley, Lyn S. Peru. American Nations Series. Washington, D.C. : Office of Public Relations, Pan American Union, 1957. Reprint, 1960. 47 p. Mendoza Rodriguez, Juan. Nuevo Potencial para la Educacion Peruana. Lima : The Ministerio, 1956. 426 p. . Plan de Educacion Nacional del Peru. 1951. 15 p. (Conference) MoNTALvo, Efrain and Castko Harrison, Jorge. "El Plan Nacional de Educaci6n Rural." La Educaoidn, 9 :56-62. Washington, D.C. : Pan American Union, January-March 1958. Pan American Union. Carreras Universitarias, volume II. Titulos que Otorgan las Instituoiones Latinoamerioanas de Ensenanm Superior: Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Venezuela. Washington, D.C: The Union, Division of Education, 1962. p. 41-56. . Constitution of the Republic of Peru, 19S3. 1962. 27 p. ■ . La Educacion. Quarterly. . Estado Actual de la Educacidn Secundaria en la Amdrica Latina. 1957. 206 p. Peru. Ministerio de Educacion Piibliea. Boletln de la Reforma Educativa. Lima : The Ministerio, 1956-58. Ten volumes. EDUCATION IN PEEIT 55 . Caracteristicas Sooio-economicas del Educando Pernano I'rimario del Peru, vol. II. 1063. 101 p. . Estadistica Eduoativa, 1957-61: Complemento del Inventario do la Realidud Educativa del Pern. Lima : The Ministerio, 1903. 74 p. . La Educacion Actual Peruana (Documents Nos. IT and 37). Sub- mitted b.v tlie Government of Peru to tlie Conference on Education and Eco- nomic and Social Development of Latin America, lield in Santia.ijo, Chile, Mai'ch 5-19, 1902. Lima : The Ministerio, 1962. . Informe Sohre el DesarroUo de la Edueaoidn en el Peru Durante el ATw 1962. Lima : The Ministerio, 1903. 101 p. . Inventario de la Realidad Edticativa del Peru. Tomo 1, 1957, 275 p. Tomo II, 1957, 158 p. Tomo III, 1057, 219 p. Tomo IV, 1958, 158 p. (Surve.v of Education in Peru) . Ley Organioa de Educacion No. 9359. Edicidn Oficial. Lima : The Ministerio, 1941. 95 p. . Plan de Aeeion Para 1956. 1956. 21 p. . Planes y Programas para la Educacion Inj'antil, las Clases de Tran- sieion y la Educacion Primaria. 1959. 434 p. . Programa de Educacion Bdsica. 1902. 28 p. Pontificia Universidad Catolica del Peru. Facultad de Edueaoidn: Vade- mecum. Lima : The Universidad, 1900. 28 p. Prospecto de la Escuela de Servieio Social del Peru. Lima: The Escuela, 1959. 16 p. Bens, Jef. The Andean Programme. Eeprinted from the International Labor Review, No. 0, December 1901. Geneva: The Organization, 1901. 41 p. Revista de la Escuela Normal Superior. Nos. 1-2. Lima: Imprenta de la Universidad Nacional de San Marcos, 1960. 114 p. RoDEiGTJEZ MoNTOYA, MoDESTo. "Peru." Reri,eto of Educational Research, 32 :3 :255-260. June 1962. (Educational research in countries other than in the United States. ) Rogers, Feancis M. The University of San Marcos in Lima, Peru. Lima : the University, 1061. 65 p. SANCHEZ, Luis Alberto. La Universidad de San Marcos. Memoria de su rector correspondiente al ano lectivo de 1961. Lima: University Mayor de San Marcos, 1062. 95 p. . La Universidad no es una Isla . . . Un Estudio, Un Plan, Tres Discursos. Lima : Ediciones Peril, 1901. 237 p. Servieio Educativo Nacional de Trabajo Industrial — SENATI. Jjey No. 13771: Estatuto y Otros Dooumentos Gomplementarios. Lima: The Servieio, 1962. 49 p. The State UniversUij of San Cristobal de Iluamanga. Ayacucho, Peru : The University, 1901. 152 p. UNESCO. Basic Facts and Figures. 1959, 1060, and 1901 Editions. Paris : The Organization, 1900, 1901, and 1902. 182 p., 108 p. and 197 p., respectively. 56 EDUCATION IN PERU . Current School Enrollment Statistics. September 1961. No. 8. Paris : The Organization, 1962. 49 p. . International Guide to Educational Documentation 1959-60. Paris : The Organization, 1963. 700 p. Peru, p. 341-47. ■ . La Situacidn Educativa en America Latina. Paris : The Organiza- tion, 1960. 295 p. ■ . Proyecto Principal de Educacidn, Quarterly. Nos. 13 and 18. Paris : The Organization, January-March 1962 ana April-June 1963, respectively. . World Illiteracy at Mid-Century. A statistical study. Monograph on Fundamental Education. Geneva : The Organization, 1957. 200 p. ■ . World Survey of Education: Handbook of Educational Organiza- tion and Statistics. Paris: The Organization, 1955. p. 507-512. . World Survey of Education— II : Primary Education. 1958. p. 836-846. ■ . World Survey of Education — III: Secondary Education. 1961. p. 943-941. . International Bureau of Education. Educational Planning. XXVth International Conference on Public Education (Publication No. 242). Paris/ Geneva : The Organization/the Bureau, 1962. p. 130-132. ■ . . Facilities for Education in Rural Areas. XXIst Interna- tional Conference on Public Education (Publication No. 192). Paris/Geneva : The Organization/the Bureau, 1958. p. 170-172. ■ . ■ . In-Service Training for Primary Teachers. XXVth Inter- national Conference on Public Education (Publication No. 240). Paris/Geneva: The Organization/the Bureau, 1962. p. 115-116. ■ . International Yearbook of Education: 1960 (Publication No. 224). Paris/Geneva: The Organization/the Bureau, p. 308-312. • . International Yearbook of Education: 1962 (Publication No. 250). p. 285-286. • . The One-Teacher School. XXIVth International Confer- ence on Public Education (Publication No. 228). Paris/Geneva : The Organi- zation/the Bureau, 1961. p. 185-186. • . The Organisation of Educational and Vocational Guidance. XXVIth International Conference on Public Education (Publication No. 254). Paris/Geneva: The Organization/the Bureau, 1963. p. 129-131. ■ ■ • Organization of Pre-Primary Education. XXIVth Inter- national Conference on Public Education (Publication No. 230). Paris/Geneva : The Organization/the Bureau, 1961. p. 206-218. • • Organization of Special Education for Mentally Deficient Children. XXIIIrd International Conference on Public Education (Publication No. 214). Paris/Geneva: The Organization/the Bureau, 1900. p. 195-197. • ■ Preparation of General Secondary School Currioula (Pub- lication No. 216). 1900. p. 256-258. EDUCATION IN PERU 67 — . • — . Shortage of Primary Teachers. XXVth International Con- ference on Public Education (Publication No. 256). Paris/Geneva: The Or- ganization/the Bureau, 1963. p. 135-136. Universidad Nacional de Arequipa. Memoria, 1959. Arequipa : The Uni- versidad, 1959. 203 p. Universidad Nacional de Ingenieria. Memoria Anual del Rector. Lima : The Universidad, 1961. 57 p. Appendices : 53. 1962. 190 p. Universidad Nacional Mayor de San Marcos. Boletin Universitario. Nos. 9, 10, 11 and 12. Lima : The Universidad, January-April 1962. . Educaoidn: Organo de la Facultad de Educaoidn. No. 24. 1961. 114 p. . Quia de la Facultad de Ciencias Econdmioas y Oomerciales. 1962. 22 p. ■ : Organismos de la Universidad: Estruotiira y Fmciones. Estudio de la Realiadad Universitaria, No. 4. 1958. 64 p. Vega, Aristides. "Problemas de la Educacion Nacional." El Gomercio (Supplement). Lima; December 31, 1961. p. 6-7. Zavaleta, C.E., ed. Organismos de la Universidad: Estruotura y Funciones. (University Survey Bulletin No. 4). Lima: Universidad Nacional Mayor de San Marcos, 1958. 64 p. Zebedeo Garcia, J., and Diaz Montenegro, Leopold. NUcleos Escolares: Informe scire el Programa de Educaoidn Rural. Lima : The Ministerio de Educacion Piiblica/Servicio Cooperativo Peruano-Norteamericano de Educa- cion, 1949. 51 p. APPENDIX TABLES Table A. — Selected data on the principal universities of Peru : I960 University Pontificia Universidad Cat61ica de Perti (Pontifical Catholic University of Peru). Universidad Agraria 3 (University of Agriculture). Universidad Nacional de Ingenieria (National University of Engineering). Universidad Nacional de San Agustin de Arequipa. (National University of San Agustin of Arequipa). Universidad Nacional de San Antonio Abad del Cnzco. (National University of San Antonio Abad of Cnzco). Universidad Nacional de San Cristobal de Huamanga.^ (National University of San CristSbal of Huamanga). Universidad Nacional de Tru.iillo (National University of Trujillo). Universidad Nacional Mayor de San Marcos. (National University of San Marcos). Location Lima La Molina. Lima Arequipa-- Cuzco Ayacucho. Trujillo— Lima Date founded 2 1917 1902 1S66 5 1825 c 1598 1677 1824 1551 Control Private- State—. do—. do—.. State do do Enrollment i 4,000 800 4,000 3,000 3,000 400 6,000 14,000 1 Estimated. 2 Acquired university status in 1949. 3 Formerly Escuela de Agrictiltura (Scliool of Agriculture) ; acquii-ed university status in 1960. 4 Formerly Escuela de Ingenieros (School of Engineers) ; acquired university status in 1955. 5 Became a university in 1828. c Officially inaugurated in 1696. ' Also linown as the Regional University of Ayacucho ; functioned from 1704-1806 ■ reopened in 1959. 58 EDUCATION IN PERU 59 Table B.- — Peruvian universities recently founded or in the process of organization : 1960-63 University TJniversidad Agraria de la Selva (Agrarian "University of La Selva) . Universidad Comercial (Commercial University) . Universidad de I^ima (University of Lima). Universidad de Santa Maria ( Saint Mary's University ) . Universidad del Paciflco ( Pacific University ) . Universidad Femenina "Sagrado Coraz6n" ( Sacred Pleart "Women's University) . Universidad Nacional de Lambayeque (National University of Lambayeque). "Universidad Nacional de San Carlos (San Carlos National University). "Universidad Nacional de la Amazonia Peruana (National University of the Peruvian Amazon). "Universidad Nacional del Centro del PeriJi (National University of the Center of Peru). "Universidad Nacional San Luis Gonzaga 2 (St. Luis Gonzaga National University). "Universidad Particular de "San Martin de Porres"- (San Martin de Porres Private University). Universidad Peruana de Ciencias Medicas y Bio- ]6gicas 3. (Peruvian University of Medical and Biological Sciences). Universidad Tecnica de Cajamarca (Technical University of Cajamarca). "Universidad Tecnica de Piura (Technical University of Piura). "Universidad Tecnica del Altiplano^ (Technical University of the Altiplano). Location Tingo Maria- Huancayo — Lima Arequipa Lima _do_ Chiclayo Puno Iqultos Huancayo-- Ica Lima do Cajamarca- Piura Puno Year founded 1963 1960 1962 1962 1962 1962 1962 1961 1961 1961 1961 1962 1961 1962 1961 1961 1 Formerly known as Universidad Comunal del Centro del Peru. 2 Being organized as a 4-year liberal arts college with studies leading to a bachelor of arts degree. !i Formerly Itriowi as Escuela de Medicina Oayetano Heredia (Gayetano Heredta Medi- cal School) . For details see part III, page 47. 4 Known also as University of Puno. Table C. — ^Degrees or titles awarded by the universities and number of years of study required for each: by university and faculty t — indicates not given in source] O University Faculty, school or institute Degree or title Number of years of study Pontificia Unlversidad Cat611ca del Peru (Pontificial Catholic University of Peru). Do Do Do Do Do Do Do Do Agronomia (Agriculture) Ciencias Econ6micas y Comerciales (Economic and Commercial Sci- ences). Derecho y Ciencias Politicas (Law and Political Sciences). Educacion (Education) _ Ingenieria (Engineering) Letras (Letters)-* Teologia (Theology) Escuela de Artes PlAsticas ( School of Plastic Arts ) . Escuela de Pedagogia — para Varones (School of Education for Men). Ingeniero Agronomo (Agricultural Engineer)- Contador Publico (Public Accountant) Economista (Economist) Ingeniero Comereial (Gomercial Engineer) Abogado (Lawyer) Bachiller en i)erecho y Ciencias Politicas (Bachelor of Law and Political Sciences). Doctor en Derecho (Doctor of Law) Doctor en Educacion (Doctor of Education )__. Professor de Segunda Ensenanza (Secondary School Teacher). 3 Ingeniero Civil (Civil Engineer) Bachiller en Letras (Bachelor of Letters) Doctor en Letras ^ (Doctor of Letters) Psicologo (Psychologist) Bachiller en Teologia (Bachelor of Theology) — Doctor en Teologia (Doctor of Theology) Licenciado en Teologia (Licentiate in Theol- ogy). Artista Plastico (Plastic Arts Artist) Profesor de Bellas Artes (Teacher of Fine Arts). Profesor de Primera Ensenanza (Elementary School Teacher). Do- Do_ Do_ Do- Universidad Agraria (University of Agriculture). Do Do Do Do See footnotes at end of table. Escuela de Periodismo (School of Journalisra). Escuela Normal Urbana — para da- mas (Urban Normal School for Women). Escuela de Servicio Social ( School of Social Work). Instituto de Estudios Sociales (Insti- tute of Social Studies). Instituto Femenino de Estudios Supe- riores (Women's Institute of High- er Studies). Agronomla (Agriculture) Cienclas (Sciences) Economia y Ciencias Sociales (Eco- nomics and Social Sciences). Ingenieria Agricola Zoot^cnica (Zootechnics) Periodista (Journalist) Certiflcado de Capacitacidn en Relaciones Publicas (Certificate of Competence in Pub- lic Relations). Normalista Urbana (Elementary School Teacher). Asistente Social (Social Worker) Educadora Familiar (Teacher of Family Liv- ing). Doctor en Sociologia (Doctor of Sociology) Experto en Sociologia" (Expert in Sociology) Soci61ogo (Sociologist)* Decoradora (Decorator) Secretaria (Secretary) Bachiller en Agronomla ''^ (Bachelor of Agri- culture) . Ingeniero Agronomo'^s (Agricultural Engi- neer). Certiflcado de Especializacifin (Certificate of Specialization) .9 Bachiller ( Bachelor )tio Ingeniero ( Engineer )'i<' Bachiller (Bachelor)' ^ Ingeniero Agrbnomo'"^ (Agricultural Engi- neer). Bachiller en Ingenieria (Bacheor of Engi- neering) Ingeniero Agricola''" (Agricultural Engi- neer). Bachiller (Bachelor)'' Ingeniero Agrdnomo Zootecnista (Agricultural Zootechnical Engineer)"' Table C. . — Degrees or titles awarded by the universities and number of years of study required for each : by university and faculty — Continued [ — indicates not given in source] University TJniversidad Nacional de Inge- nieria (National University of Engineering) . Do Do Do Do Do Do Do Do Do Do Do Faculty, school or institute Arqultectura (Architecture) Ciencias Fisicas y Matematicas (Physical and Mathematical Sci- ences). Ingenieria Civil (Civil Engineering). Ingenieria de Minas (Mining Engi- neering) . Ingenieria de Petr61eo (Petroleum Engineering) . Ingenieria Industrial (Industrial En- gineering). Ingenieria Sanitaria (Sanitary En- gineering). Mecanica y Electricidad (Mechanics and Electricity). Escuela de Economia Aplicada^ (School of Applied Economics). Escuela Technologica ( School of Technology). Instituto de Estructuras " (Institute of Structui-es). Instituto de Planeamiento de Lima (Lima Planning Institute. ) Degree or title Arquitecto (Architect) Bachiller (Bachelor)" Bachiller (Bachelor)" Ingeniero (Engineer)" Bachiller (Bachelor)" Ingeniero Civil (Civil Engineer) Bachiller (Bachelor)" Ingeniero (Engineer)" Bachiller (Bachelor)" Ingeniero (Engineer)" Bachiller (Bachelor)" Ingeniero (Engineer)" Bachiller (Bachelor)" Ingeniero (Engineer)" Bachiller (Bachelor)" Ingeniero (Engineer)" Bachiller (Bachelor)" Doctor (Doctor)" Ingeniero (Engineer)" Tecnico (Technician) "Magister" de Planeamiento Urbano y Re- gional (Master in Urban and Rural Plan- ning). Do- ■Dniversidad Nacional de San Agustin de Arequlpa (Na- tional University of San Agus- tin de Arequipa. Do_ Do_ Do_ Do_ Instituto del Hierro y Acero (insti- tute of Iron and Lead). Instituto Textilio (Institute of Tex- tile). Ciencias ( Sciences )2» Ciencias Economicas y Comerciales (Economic and Comercial Sci- ences). Derecho (Law) Educacion (Education) Letras ( Letters )24 See footnotes at end of table. Bachiller en Ciencas Biologicas (Baclielor of Biological Sciences). Bachiller en Ciencias Geoloogicas (Bachelor of Geological Sciences). Biologo (Biologist) 22 Doctor en Ciencias Biologicas (Doctor of Bio- logical Sciences). 22 Doctor of Ciencias Geologicas (Doctor of Geo- logical Sciences). 23 Ingeniero Geologo 22 (Geological Engineer) Qulmico Industrial (Industrial Chemist) Bachiller (Bachelor) 21 Contador Publico (Public Accountant) Doctor (Doctor) 21 Economista (Economist) Abogado (Lawyer) 22 Bachiller (Bachelor) 21 22 Doctor (Doctor) 21 Bachiller (Bachelor) 21 22 Doctor en Ciencias de la Educacion (Doctor of Educational Sciences). Maestro Primario (Elementary School Teacher). Profesor de Segunda Ensefianza (Secondary School Teacher). 21 25 Bachiller (Bachelor) 21 22 Bachiller en Historias y Arqueologia (Bache- lor of History and Archaeology). Doctor (Doctor) 22 26 Doctor en Historias y Arqueologia (Doctor of History and Archaeology) .22 Geografo (Geographer) 24 Profesor de Arqueologia 22 (Professor of Archaeology). Soci61ogo (Sociologist) 22 202 4 4 4 6 5 4 5 23 I 5 7 7 23 I 5 23 1 5 4 5 5 5 5 Table C. , — ^Degrees or titles awarded by the universities and number of years of study required for each : by university and faculty — Continued [ — indicates not given in source] University Faculty, school or institute Degree or title Number of years of study Do_ TJniversidad Nacional de San An- tonio Abad del Cuzco (Na- tional University of San Abad del Cuzco). Medicina (Medicine) 2' Ciencias (Sciences) Do- Do- Ciencias Econ6micas y Comerciales (Economic and Commercial Sci- ences). Ciencias Quimicas (Chemical Sci- ences). Medico Cirujano (Physician Surgeon) Bachiller en Agronomia (Bachellor of Agron- omy). Bachiller en Ciencias Biol6gicas (Bachelor of Biological Sciences). Bachiller en Ingenieria Civil (Bachelor of Civil Engineering). Bi61ogo (Biologist) 28 Doctor en Ciencias Biol6gicas (Doctor of Bio- logical Sciences). 28 Ingeniero Agronomo (Agricultural Engineer)-. Ingeniero Civil (Civil Engineer) Perito Agrimensor (Expert Surveyor) Perito Electricista (Expert Electrician) Bachiller en Ciencias Comerciales (Bachelor of Commercial Sciences). Bachiller en Ciencias Economicas (Bachelor of Economic Sciences). Contador Public (Public Accountant) Doctor en Ciencias Econ6micas (Doctor of Economic Sciences). Economista (Economist) Bachiller en Ingenieria Quimica (Bachelor of Chemical Engineering). Bachiller en Quimica Industrial (Bachelor of Industrial Chemistry). Ingeniero Industrial Quimico (Chemical In- dustrial Engineer). Perito Quimico (Expert Chemist) Do. Do Univei'Sidad Nacional de San Cris- t6bal de Huamanga (National University of San Crlst6bal of Huamanga).** Derecho (Law). Educaci6n (Education) Letras (Letters) Departamento de Cleneias (Depart- ment of Sciences). Departamento de Letras (Depart- ment of Letters). See footnotes at end of table. Abogado ( Lawyer )2S BachlUer en Derecho (Bachelor of Law) Doctor en Derecho (Doctor of Law) Profesor de Ensefianza Comercial (Teacher of Comercial Education). Profesor de Ensefianza Prlmaria (Elementary School Teacher). Profesor de Ensefianza Secundaria (Second- ary School Teacher). 30 Doctor en Ciencias de la Educacidn (Doctor of Educational Sciences). Bachiller (Bachelor) 32 Doctor (Doctor) 33 Auxiliar (Assistant )35 36 Bachiller ( Bachelor) 35 se Biologo (Biologist) Certiflcado de Especializacion (Certificate in Specialization ) Doctor en Ciencias Biol6gicas (Doctor of Bio- logical Sciences).^* Doctor en Enfermeria y Obstetricia (Doctor of Nursing and Obstetrics). Enfermero-Obstetriz (Nurse-Obstetrician) Ingeniero (Engineer) 39 Auxiliar (Assistant)35 36 Asistente Social 36 (Social Worker) Bachiller (Bachelor) 35 se Bachiller en Ciencias Antropol6gicas (Bache- lor of Anthropological Sciences). Bachiller en Servicio Social (Bachelor of So- cial Work). 36. Doctor en Ciencias Antropologieas (Doctor of Anthropological Sciences).*" Doctor en Ciencias de la Educacion (Doctor of Educational Sciences). Mastero de Educacion Prlmaria (Elementary School Teacher). Maestro de Educaci6n Secundaria (Second- ary School Teacher). 29 4 295 311 2 312 3 3 5 811 »1 5 5 3 4 3 4 4 311 Sll 3 5 Table C. — ^Degrees or titles awarded by the universities and number of years of study required for each : by university and faculty — Continued [ — indicates not given in source] 05 University Faculty, school or institute Degree or title Number of years of study Universidad Nacional de Trujillo (National University of Tru- jillo). Do Do Do Do Do Do- Ciencias ( Sciences Ciencias Economicas y Comerciales (Economic and Commercial Sci- ences ) . Derecho (Law) Farmacia y Bioquimica (Pharmacy and Biochemisti'y). Ingenieria Quimica (Chemical Engi- neering). Letras y Educacion''^ (Letters and Education ) . Medicina (Medicine) Bachiller (Bachelor)*! Bachiller ( Bachelor )*4*5 Contador Publico ^ (Public Accountant) Doctor (Doctor)'" Gerente de Negocios (Business Manager) Abogado ( Lawyer )*« Bachiller en Derecho^ (Bachelor of Law) Doctor en Derecho (Doctor of Law) Bachiller (Bachelor)-"-"* Qulmico Farmaceutico (Pharmaceutical Chemist) . Ingeniero Quimico (Cliemical Engineer) Bachiller en Educacion-'s (Bachelor of Edu- cation). Bachiller en Humanidades (Bachelor in Hu- manities). Doctor en Educaci6n (Doctor of Education).. Normalista Urbano (Urban Normal School Teacher ) . Profesor de Educacion Secundaria (Second- ary School Teacher )*" 47 Bachiller en Medicina^ (Bachelor in Medi- cine). Doctor en Medicina (Doctor of Medicine) Especialista (Specialist) Medico Cirujano (Physician-Surgeon) TJniversidad Nacional Mayor de San Marcos^s (National Uni- versity of San Marcos). Do Do_ Do. Do. Do. Do Do Do Do Cienclas (Sciences) Clencias Economicas y Comerciales (Economic and Commercial Sci- ences). Derecho (Law) Educacion (Education) Farmacia y Bioquimica (Pharmacy and Biochemistry). Letras (Letters) Medicina (Medicine) Medicina Veterinaria (Veterinary Medicine). Odontologia (Dentistry) Qulmica (Chemistry) Bachiller (Bachelor) so Biologo (Biologist) SI Doctor (Doctor) 50 51 Ingeniero Geologo SI (Geological Engineer) Bachiller (Bachelor) si 52 Contador Publico si ( Public Accountant ) Doctor (Doctor) S2 Economista (Bconomist)si Especialista ^ ( Specialist) Abogado (Lawyer) si Bachiller en Derecho y Cienclas Pollticas (Bachelor of Law and Political Sciences.) si Doctor en Derecho y Cienclas Politicas (Doc- tor of Law and Political Sciences ).ss Doctor ( Doctor )S2 Profesor de Educacion Secundaria (Second- ary School Teacher )s« Bachiller (Bachelor) si 54 Doctor ( Doctor )S2 Quimico - Farmaceutico si (Pharmaceutical Chemist). Bachiller (Bachelor) s' Doctor (Doctor) so 58 Periodista (Journalist) Bachiller en Medicina si (Bachelor of Medi- cine). Doctor en Medicina (Doctor of Medicine) Medico Cirujano si (Physician-Surgeon) Bachiller (Bachelor) si 52 Medico Veterinarlo SI (Veterinarian) Bachiller (Bachelor) si 52 Cirujano Dentista SI (Surgeon-Dentist) Bachiller (Bachelor) si 52 Ingeniero Quimico (Chemical Engineer) Quimico SI (Chemist) See footnotes on p. 68. 03 1 Postgraduate study : tor ahogado the hacMller is required ; for doctor tlie ahogado. 2 Including 1-year preparatory course. 3 In accounting, commerce, liistory and geograpliy, literature and Spanisli, mathematics, philosophy and chemistry, psycho-pedagogy, religion. * Offers 2-year preparatory course prerequisite for admission to the Faculty of Law and Political Sciences. 5 In ethnology, history, literature, philosophy, psychology. 6 For the titles of expert or sociologist, thesis and special project are required. •J The bachelor's degree is awarded upon completion of the program, and the title of engineering is granted upon the approval of the thesis. 8 In farming ; entomology ; phytopathology ; phytotechnics ; forestry and pastures ; horticulture and fruiticulture ; soil. 9 in the field. 10 In botany or zoology ; physics, mathematics and statistics ; meteor- ology ; chemistry — agriculture or broniotology. 11 In rural administration ; agricultural or social economics ; agri- cultural education ; rural sociology. 12 In soil conservation ; agricultural mechanics, planning and rural public works ; Irrigation and drainage ; agricultural technology. 13 In animal production or cattle technology. 14 In the field. 15 In process of reorganization. i« In construction ; engineering — mining, electrical, or industrial ; metallurgy. 1' Postgraduate study. 18 For details see part III, Educational Centers and Services, p. 49. 19 OiTers specialized courses for students in the Faculties of Indus- trial and of Mechanical and Electrical Engineering, but does not grant degrees. 20 2-year preparatory program also prerequisite for admission to the Faculty of Medicine. 31 In the field. 22 Degrees granted simultaneously in the respective field in the Fac- ulty concerned. 23 Postgraduate study. c> 24 Offers 2-year preparatory course called Studium Cfenerale (General °° Studies), also prerequisite for law and education. 25 In Spanish, literature and philosophy ; sciences — biochemical, physi- cal-mathematical ; history, geography and social sciences. 26 In social science ; geography ; philosophy ; literature. 27 The 2-year premedical course is taken in the Faculty of Sciences. 28 Degrees granted simultaneously in the respective field in the Fac- ulty concerned. 29 Includes 1-year preparatory course. 30 With specialization in history and geography ; philosophy and social sciences ; sciences — biological, physical-chemical, mathematical ; Spanish literature. 31 Postgraduate study. H 32 In the field. § 33 With specialization in philosophy ; Spanish and literature. O *4 In addition to the secondary school certificate, 1-year preparatory H course given at the university is required. o 35 In anthropological or biological sciences ; chemical sciences and metallurgy ; educational sciences ; industrial chemistry and metallurgy ; m mining and geology ; rural nursing and obstetrics ; scientific farming ; ^ social work. ^ 36 Degrees granted simultaneously in the same field in the respective si faculty. d 37 In farming, methods of farming, technological farming and ap- plied mechanics ; geology and mining exploitation, geophysics, petro- leum and geology applied to public works and metallurgy ; industrial chemistry, special chemical analysis, and special metallurgy. 38 With specialization in bacteriology ; botany ; clinical laboratory ; ecology ; entomology ; epidemology ; hydrobiology ; genetics ; parsitol- ogy ; phytopathology ; zoology. 39 In chemistry, geology, metallurgy, mining, rural zootechnics. ■40 In archaeology ; ethnohistory ; folklore ; linguistics ; physical an- thropology ; social anthropology ; sociology and social psychology. 41 The Faculty of Sciences offers 2-year premedical and 1-year courses in prepharmacy, predentistry and preveterlnary, prerequisites for, per- tinent programs. 42 Tlie Faculty of Letters and Education offers ttie Bachiller en Humanidades for admission to law, education of letters. •*3 In sciences — biological ; physical-mathematical ; physical-chemical. *i In the field. 45 With specialization in business administration ; accounting ; and economics. 48 Degrees granted simultaneously in the respective field in the Faculty concerned. 47 Postgraduate study. 4« With specialization in Spanish and literature ; sciences — biological, physical-chemical, mathematical ; philosophy and social sciences ; his- tory and geography. 49 University preparatory courses for certain programs oilered in : Faculty of Sciences — 2-year programs in preeducatiou for sciences, and premedical ; 1-year in prepharmacy, preveterlnary medicine, prechemis- try, or predentistry. Faculty of Letters — 1 year in preeducation for humanities, and 2-year prelaw. 50 In the sciences — biological ; geological ; physical sciences and mathe- matics. 51 Degrees granted simultaneously in the respective field in the Fac- ulty concerned. 52 In the field. 53 Postgraduate study. 54 In industrial engineering and management ; personnel and labor relations ; public relations and communications. 55 With specialization in penal sciences ; political sciences ; private law. 56 In Spanish and literature ; sciences — biological, physical-chemical, or mathematical ; philosophy and social sciences ; history and geog- raphy ; English. 51 In art ; ethnology and archeology ; philology and linguistics ; phi- losophy ; geography ; history ; literature ; psychology. g 58 Doctor of psychology, 2 additional years. O Q Source of data : Translated and adapted from Pan American Union, ^ Oarreras Universitarias, volume III, 1962. P. 44-56. 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