nnl HOMEMADE CONTR / FAN CES For FARM and GARDEN, DAIRY and WORKSHOP How to Make Over 1000 Handy Appliances and Labor-Saving Devices Needed on the Farm or About the Buildings Including racks, mangers, stanchions and troughs ; vehicles/ rollers, small tools, barn appliances, wells, pumps, stump pullers, etc. Useful conveniences for making easier all kinds of work about the farm, in garden or orchard, with live stock, etc. zfj2 Illustrations ORANGE JUDD COMPANY Chicago, Ill. New York, N. Y. Springfield, Mass. I9°5 (.Frontispiece .) A MILKING SHED.—SEE PAGE 210 FARM CONVENIENCES A PRACTICAL HAND-BOOK FOR THE FARM. TWO HUNDRED AND TWELVE IT-LUSTRATIONS NEW YORK: ORANGE JUDD COMPANY 1906 Sintered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 18 '4, by Cu. ORANGE JUDD COMPANY, in the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington AT zys- 07 PREFACE. Skill in the construction and use of simple labor- saving devices is of vast importance to the farmer, and any aid to the development of this manual dexterity is always very welcome. The volume, herewith presented, abounds in valuable hints and suggestions for the easy and rapid construction of a large number of home-made contrivances within the reach of all. It is an every-day hand-book of farm work, and contains the best ideas gathered from the ex¬ perience of a score of practical men in all departments of farm labor. Every one of the two hundred and forty pages, and two hundred and twelve engravings, teaches a valuable lesson in rural economy. “Farm Conven¬ iences ” is a manual of what to do, and how to do it quickly and readily. CONTENTS PAGE Bin for Oats.0 Fastenings for Cows. 10 Nests, Movable, for Hens... 11 Straw, How to get Hid of.. 13 Bulls, Young, The Management of... .•. 15 Ice-Hook, A Convenient... 17 Workshop, Hints for the... 17 Barrel-Header, A. 19 Boats, Building Ribless. 21 Tug, To Mend a Broken... 24 Hay Racks. 27 Mired Animal, Extricating. 29 Grinding Tools. 33 Hanging Hogs, Method of. 34 Bog Spavin, Relief for. 35 Tool Boxes for Wagons. 36 Hinge, Making a......... 38 Shelter for the Head. 40 Level with Square and Plumb Line. 41 Cattle, Keep under Cover. 42 Watering Places for Stock. 43 Shaving-Horse, A. 44 Milking-Stool, A. 45 Trap, A Locust. 47 Manure Spreading. 49 Tools, Putting Away. 51 Doors, Self-Closing. 52 Ventilators for Fodder Stacks. 53 Corn Marker for Uneven Ground. 55 Harrow, A Home-Made. 56 Land Clearing by Blasting. 57 Losses, Preventable on the Farm. 62 Cradle for Drawing a Boat. 64 Feed Rack for Sheep. ..... . 65 Night-Soil, How to Manage. 66 Trough, A Water and Feed. 69 Stalls, The Construction of. 70 Hog Killing Implements,—Ringing. 72 Cement, How to Mix. 74 Bulls, Ringing and Handling. 78 Sled for Removing Corn Shocks. 81 Trough, A Tagging. 82 Lime and Lime Kilns .... 82 Corn, Unloading. 87 Stone Boats. 88 Dump Cart, A.. 89 contents. PAGE Washing of Hill-Sides, To Prevent. 90 Mink-Trap, A Log. 92 Plowing From Inside of Field.„ „. 93 Wire Fence Tightener. 95 Planting Corn, A Marker. 96 Feed Trough and Halter... 99 Scow, How to Make a Fishing. 101 Flood Fence. 107 Clearing Slough Land.107 How to Dress a Beef... 109 Farm Cart....Ill Gate Post Braces. 113 Whipple-Trees for Plowing Com.114 Fastening for Mill Leg.116 Hitching a Crib-Biter. 119 Vegetable Matter, How to Increase in Soil.120 Open Links. 121 Trap for Sheep-Killing Dogs... 123 How to Use a File Properly. 126 Manure Harvest, The. 130 Fastening Cattle with Bows. 131 Nest for Egg-Eating Hens. 135 Plowing Gear for a Kicking Mule.136 Fork, A Leaf.137 Nail, Horse-Shoe, How to Drive. 139 Screw-Drivers. 140 Prevent Cows Sucking Themselves. 142 Hay Rack and Manger. 145 Basket, A Barn.145 Cows Kicking, Treatment of...146 Boat-House, How to Build.147 Waste Lands, Make Them Useful. 149 A Rat Guard.150 A Crupper-Pad for Horses. 151 Dam for a Fish Pond. 152 A Wagon Jack. 154 Brace for a Kicking Horse. 156 How to Save Liquid Manure. 157 An Open Shed for Feeding. 159 Shade for Horses’ Eyes.160 A Field Roller.163 Portable Slop Barrel. 163 Where and How to Apply Fertilizers... 164 Mill for Crushing Bones. 165 Farm Wheelbarrow.168 Balling of Horses’ Feet, To Prevent. 169 Cattle Throwing Fences, To Prevent. 170 Feed Boxes. 171 A Cattle Tie.173 A Beef Raiser...174 Cedar Stem Soil-Stirrer.. .. 175 CONTENTS. PAGE Hint for Pig-Killing. 176 Mending Broken Tools. 176 A Large Feed-Rack. 178 Barn Door Fastening. 179 Fork Stable Scraper.180 Caring Hay, Method of. 181 Granary Conveniences. 182 Non-Slipping Chain for Boulders. 184 Pitchfork Holder. 185 Hog Loader, A Convenient... 186 Land Scraper. 187 Bag-Holder, A Home-Made... 189 Egg-Carrier, A Safety... 190 Brush-Holder, A... 192 Brood Sow Pens. 193 Rabbit-Trap, A. 194 Wooden Stable Floor. 195 Holder or “ Grip ” for Rails. 197 Grindstone-Box and Hangers. i . 199 Corn Loader. 200 Drains, Protecting Outlets of. 201 Log Boat, A. 202 Wagon Seats, Cheap. 203 Bag-Holder on Platform Scales.204 Drains, Making Board. 206 Place for Tools. 207 Water-Spout and Stock-Trough. 209 Shed, A Desirable Milking. 210 Wear Plate for Harness Tugs. 211 Fence, Portable Water. 212 Ditch Cleaner and Deepener. 212 Dam, How to Build. 214 Hop Poles, How to Drive. 215 Grain Box, A Convenient.216 Road-Scraper, A. 217 Root Crops, Aids in Digging. 218 Swinging-Stall Fronts. 221 Corn Fodder, Save All Everywhere... 222 Brush Rake, Improved. 223 Muck and Peat, Digging. 225 Cleaner for Horses’ Hoofs. 226 Shelter for Stock in Cold Weather. 226 Troughs, Good Stone. 227 Lambs, Artificial Feeding of. 229 Bailed Box, A Convenient. 230 Cart, Cheap Ensilage. 232 Hurdle, A Revolving Sheep. 234 Nest for Setting Hens. 236 Barn-Yard Economy...237 Shed, A Cheap Manure. 238 Rack, A Sheep... 239 FARM CONVENIENCES. A CONVENIENT BIN FOR OATS. The usual receptacle for oats, corn, or mill feed, or other grain for domestic animals, is a common bin or box about four feet in hight. It is difficult to get the grain out of such a place when the quantity is half or more exhausted. To obviate this inconvenience, there may be affixed, about one foot from the bottom on one side of the bin, a board, ( B ) figure 1. This is nailed so as to project into the bin at an angle sufficient to allow the filling of a measure between the lower edge of board B and top edge of the opening at M. The opposite lower side of the bin is covered with boards, as indicated Fig. 1 . —A BIN FOK OATS OK OTHEK FEED. by the dotted line at R, for the purpose of placing the contents within easy reach. The top can be completed with hinged cover as well as the delivery space. By 1* JO FARM CONVENIENCES. using a bin of this form, tlie last bushel is as easily re¬ moved as the first one. FASTENINGS FOR COWS. Although stanchions are really the safest fastening for cows, yet some persons object to them because the animals are held in a too confined position, and one which is supposed to be painful, or otherwise objection¬ able to the cows. Most owners of valuable cows consider safety to be the first requisite in their management, and the question as to what the cow would like as of minor importance. Stanchions have the valuable recommen¬ dation that one always finds his cows in the morning just where they were left at night, if they have been properly secured. Nevertheless, for those who dislike stanchions, there are other safe ways of fastening cows. For some years we used the method shown in figures 2 and 3. In Fig. 2. —FASTENING BY SLIDING KING ON A POLE the first a strong smooth pole was inserted through the floor and “ stepped 99 into the beam beneath and into the floor above. It was also fastened by an iron strap bolted through the front of the trough. A steel ring to which FARM CONVENIENCES. 11 a steel chain was attached was made to slide up and down upon the post, and a leather neck strap, or, in some cases, a leather head stall, was attached to the chain by a suitable ring or loop. The ring could not fall so low as the floor, being held by the edge of the feed-trough, and the cow’s feet could not, therefore, be entangled in the chain by getting over it. This is the chief danger in the use of neck straps and chains, but it may be avoid¬ ed in this way. Another plan is to have an iron rod bolted to the feed-trough, upon which the ring may slide. This is equally secure, and gives more room for move¬ ment to the cow. With these ring-ties it is best to have Fig. 3. —FASTENING ATTACHED TO FEED-TKOUGH. short stalls to prevent the cows interfering with each other, else one of them may step on to another as it is lying down. The teats are sometimes injured even when stanchions are used, but the danger of this is greater with chain ties. MOVABLE NESTS FOE HENS. Hens, as a general thing, are remarkably self-willed and obstinate. Perhaps an exception may be made as 12 FARM CONVENIENCES. regards the Brahmas, which are very docile and easily managed. On account of this general peculiarity of fowls, many people who possess a somewhat similar dis¬ position, find no success in keeping them. Their hens will not lay in the nests provided for them, or after sit¬ ting a few days upon a nest of eggs, leave them and never return. The consequences are, either no eggs at all, or nests hidden where they cannot be reached ; no chickens, and time and labor lost. This may all be avoided if the owners will only study the habits and in¬ stincts of their poultry reasonably. One of the most inveterate habits of hens is that of hiding their nests, or seeking them in retired, shaded places. Those who would have plenty of eggs must make their arrangements ac¬ cordingly. A very cheap and convenient nest is shown in figure 4. It is made of pieces of board eighteen Fig. 4. —A MOVABLE HEN’S NEST. inches long, nailed endwise to three-sided cleats at the top and bottom. The box need not be more than eight¬ een or twenty inches in length. Some corner pieces are nailed at the front to make it firm, and the back FARM CONVENIENCES. Vd should be closed. These nests may be placed in secluded corners, behind sheds, or beneath bushes in the back yard, or behind a barrel or a bundle of straw. The nest egg should be of glass or porcelain, and every even¬ ing the eggs that have been laid during the day should be removed. A little cut straw mixed with clean earth or sand, will make the best material for the nest. This should be renewed occasionally, for the sake of cleanli¬ ness. When a hen has taken possession of one of these nests, it may be removed at night to the hatching-house, without disturbing her. Before the nests are used, they should be thoroughly well lime-washed around the joints, to keep away lice. HOW TO GET RID OF STRAW. Many farmers in “ the West,” and some in what we call “the East,” are troubled as to what they shall do with the piles of straw which lie about their fields. "Upon the same farms with these nearly useless straw piles, many head of stock are kept, and many more might be kept, which could be made useful in reducing the straw to a condition in which it would serve as manure. If the already urgent necessity for manure upon the western and southern fields were realized, there vould be little hesitation in taking measures to remove die difficulty. The chief obstacle is, that these involve either personal or hired labor ; the first is objectionable to many, and the second cannot be had for want of the money necessary to pay for it. The least laborious method of using this straw and making it serve the double purpose of a shelter for stock and a fertilizer for the field upon which it has been grown, is as follows : Some poles are set in the ground, and rails or othei 14 FARM CONVENIENCES. poles are laid upon them so as to form a sloping roof. This is made near or around the place chosen for thrash¬ ing the grain. The straw from the thrashing-machine is heaped upon the rails* making a long stack, which forms three sides of a square, with the open side towards the south* and leaving a space beneath it in which cattle may be sheltered from storms. In this enclosure some rough troughs or racks may be placed, from which to feed corn. Here the cattle will feed and lie, or will lie at nights under shelter* while feeding during the day upon corn in the field. As the straw that is given them becomes trampled and mixed with the droppings* a further supply is thrown down from the stack. The accumulation may be removed and spread upon the field to be plowed in when it is so required* and the stakes pulled up and carried to another place* where they may be needed for the same purpose. Such a shelter as this would be very serviceable for the purpose of making manure* even where straw is scarce, as in parts of the Southern States. There pine boughs may be made to serve as a covering* and leaves, pine straw* dry pond muck, swamp muck, “ trash ” from cotton fields, corn stalks, or pea vines, and any other such materials may be gathered and thrown from time to time beneath the cattle. Cotton-seed meal, straw* and coarse hay would keep stock In excellent order, and although there may be little snow or ice during the winter months in those States, yet the animals will be very much better for even this rude but comfortable shelter. In many other places such a temporary arrangement will be found useful in saving the hauling of straw* stalks, or hay from distant fields, and the carting of manure back again to them. It will be found vastly easier to keep a few young cattle in such a field, and go thither daily to attend to them during the winter when work is not pressing, than FARM CONVENIENCES. 15 haul many loads of hay or straw to the barn at harvest time, or many loads of manure in the busy weeks of spring. THE MANAGEMENT OF YOUNG BULLS. Many farmers want a method of disciplining bulls so that they may be made more docile and manageable. To do this it would be advisable to work them occasion¬ ally in a one-horse tread power. They should be used to this when young, and thus being made amenable to restraint, there will be no “ breaking ” needed afterwards and consequently no trouble. We have used a Jersey bull in a tread-power in which he worked with more steadiness than a horse, and twice a week he served a very useful purpose in cutting the fodder for the stock. Nothing more was needed than to lead him by a rope from the nose-ring into the tread-power, and tie him short so that he could not get too far forward. He was very quiet, not at all mischievous, and was a very sure stock bull; and besides this, the value of his work was at least equal to the cost of his keep. Where there is no tread-power, a substitute may be found in the arrange¬ ment shown in figure 5. Set a post in the barn-yard, bore a hole in the top, and drive a two-inch iron pin into the hole. Take the wheel of a wagon that has an iron axle, and set it upon the top of the post so that it will turn on the pin as on an axle. Fasten a strong pole (such as a binding pole for a hay wagon) by one end to the wheel, and bore two holes in the other end, large enough to take the arms of an ox-bow in them. Fix a light-elastic rod to the wheel, so that the end will be in advance of the end of the larger pole. Yoke the bull to the pole, and tie the nose-ring to the end of the elastic rod, in such a way that a slight pull is exerted upon the ring. Then 16 FARM APPLIANCES Fig. 5. —MAN NEK OE EXERCISING A BULL. FARM CONVENIENCES. 17 lead the bull around a few times until he gets used to it; he will then travel in the ring alone until he is tired, when he will stop. Two hours of this exercise a day will keep a bull in good temper, good condition and excellent health. A CONVENIENT ICE-HOOK, A very handy ice-hook may be made as shown m fig¬ ure 6. The handle is firmly fastened and keyed into a socket; at the end are two sharply- pointed spikes, one of which serves to push pieces of ice, and the other to draw them to the shore, or out of the water, to be loaded and removed. It may be made of light iron, horse-shoe bar will be heavy enough, and there is no need to have the Fig. 6 .—ice-hook. points steeled; it will be sufficient if they are chilled, after they are sharpened, in salt and ice pounded to¬ gether. HINTS FOR THE WORKSHOP. A grindstone is very seldom kept in good working or¬ der ; generally it is “ out of true,” as it is called, or worn out of a perfectly circular shape. A new stone is fre¬ quently hung so that it does not run “true,” and the longer it is used, the worse it becomes. When this is the case, it may be brought into a circular shape by turning it down with a worn-out mill-file. It is very difficult to do this perfectly by hand, but it is easily done by the use of the contrivance shown in figure 7. A post, slotted in the upper part, is bolted to the frame. A 18 FABM COHVEKIEKCES. piece of hard wood, long enough to reach over the frame, is pivoted in the slot. This should be made tw r o inches wider than the stone, and be pivoted, so that an opening can be made in the middle of it, of the same width as the stone. This opening is made with sloping ends, so that a broad mill-file may be wedged into it in the same manner as a plane-iron is set in a plane. At the opposite end of the frame a second post is bolted to Fig. 7.— TRUEING A GRINDSTONE. it. A long slot, or a series of holes, is made in the lower part of this post, so that it may be raised or lowered at pleasure by sliding it up or down upon the bolt. If a slot is made, a washer is used with the bolt; this will make it easy to set the post at any desired height. It should be placed so that the upper piece of wood may rest upon it, exactly in the same position in which the file will be brought into contact with the stone. A FARM CONVENIENCES. 19 weight is laid upon the upper piece to keep it down, and "hold the cutter upon the stone. When the stone is turned around slowly, the uneven parts are cut away, while those which do not project beyond the proper line of the circumference are not touched. A Grinding Frame to hold tools is shown in figure 8. Fig. 8.—HOLDER FOR TOOLS. It is made of light pieces of pine, or hard wood. The tool to be ground is fastened to the cross-piece. A sharp point, a nail, or a screw, is fastened to the nar¬ row end of the frame, and, when in use, the point is stuck into the wall of the shed, which forms a rest. A NON-PATENTED BARREL-HEADER. Not long since we saw in operation a useful contriv¬ ance for pressing the heads of apple or egg barrels into place. Both apples and eggs require to be packed very FARM CONVENIENCES. £0 firmly to enable them to be transported in barrels with safety. Apples loosely packed in a barrel will come to market in a very badly bruised condition, and if the packing around eggs is not very firmly compressed, the eggs and packing change places or get mixed up, and it is the eggs, and not the packing, which then suffers. A barrel of eggs properly packed, with layers of chaff oi oats an inch thick between the layers of eggs, and three inches at each end of the barrel, will bear to be com¬ pressed as much as three inches with safety; without this compression, eggs are almost sure to be greatly damaged. A barrel of apples may fill the barrel to about two inches above the chime, and will bear to have the head brought down to its place. When barrels containing these perishable articles are thus packed they may receive very rough usage without injury to the con¬ tents. The header referred to con¬ sists of a bar of half-inch square iron rod, with a large eye or loop at one end, and at the other end two diverging hooks which grasp the bottom of the barrel. The bar is bent to fit the curve of the bar¬ rel. When in use, the hooks are placed beneath the lower chime of the barrel, one end of a short lever „ is placed in the eye, and the lever Fig. 9. —BARREL-HEADER. r ^ . rests upon a block, whicfi is set upon the head of a barrel properly placed in position. A strap or cord, with a loop or stirrup at one end, is fastened to the other end of the lever. The foot is placed in the loop or stirrup, and the weight of the body thrown upon it brings the head of the barrel into its place; the hands being free, the hoops can be driven down tightly without the help of an assistant. Without the FARM CONVENIENCES. 21 use of the cord aud stirrup, two persons are required to head barrels, but with the aid of these the services of one can be dispensed with. BUILDING RIBLESS BOATS. A method of building boats, by which ribs are dis¬ pensed with, has recently been brought into use for coast, lake, and river crafts. These boats are light, swift, strong, and cheap. They have been found to be remarkably good sea boats, and to stand rough weathei without shipping water. By this method of building, fishermen and others who use boats can construct their own at their leisure, and in many cases become inde¬ pendent of the skill of the professional boat builder. The materials needed are clear pine boards, one inch thick, a keel of oak or elm, a stem and stern-post of the same timber, and some galvanized iron nails. For small boats the boards and keel should be the whole length of the boat intended to be built; for boats over sixteen feet in length, splices may be made without injuring the strength, if they are prop¬ erly put together. The materials having been pro¬ cured, a frame or a set of tressels are made, and the keel is fitted to them in the usual manner, by means of cleats on each side, and wedges. The stem and stern- post are then fitted to the keel in the usual manner, the joints being made water-tight by means of layers of freshly-tarred brown paper laid between the pieces, or by the use of a coating of thick white lead and oik Previously to being fitted together, the sides of the keel, stem, and stern-post are deeply grooved to receive the first strip of planking. The boards are then ripped into strips one inch, or an inch and a half wide, according to the desired strength of the boat. Por rough work, FARM CONVENIENCES, FAKM CONVENIENCES. 23 such as fishing with nets, or dredging, an inch and a half would be a proper width for the strips. The rip¬ ping may be done with one of the hand circular sawing machines, or at a saw-mill, with great rapidity. The first strip is then nailed to the keel, a coating of tar or white lead having first been given to the groove in the keel already prepared for it. The broad side of the strip is laid next to the keel. A set of molds, corre¬ sponding to the lines or form of the boat, are cut out of inch boards, and tacked to the keel in the manner shown in figure 10, with the help of cleats upon each side. Then one strip after another is nailed to each preceding- one, and the shell of the boat is built up of these strips. Each strip is trimmed down at the ends in a proper manner, with a drawn knife, or a plane, and as each one is nailed to the preceding one, some of the tar or white lead is brushed over it, to make the joint tight and close. A sufficient number of nails is used to hold the strips firmly together, and the heads are driven down level with the surface of each strip. The work proceeds in this manner, forming the strips as each is fitted, bending them to the shape of the molds, and nailing one alter¬ nately upon each side, so that the molds are not dis¬ placed by the spring of the timber. When the sides of the boat are completed, the fender and gunwales are fitted, and bolted to them to strengthen them, and cleats are bolted inside for the seats to rest upon. The molds are now removed, and the boat consists of a solid shell an inch and a half thick, with not a nail visible excepting on the top strip, and conforming exactly in shape to the model. To give extra strength, short pieces of the strips are nailed diagonally across the inside, from side to side, and across the keel. In this manner a great deal of additional stiffness and strength is given to the boat. A boat of this kind is easily repaired when FARM CONVENIENCES. 24 injured, by cutting out the broken part and inserting pieces of the strips. For a larger boat, which requires a deck, the strips are wider and thicker, or a diagonal lining may be put into it; knees are bolted to the sides, and the beams to the knees, the deck being laid upon the beams. The method is applicable to boats of all sizes and for all purposes, and its cheapness and con¬ venience are rapidly bringing it into favor. If the material is ready for use, two men can finish a large boat in two weeks, and a small one in one week. These boats being very light and buoyant, considerable ballast will be necessary to make them steady enough in case sails are used. TO MEND A BROKEN TUG. No one should go from home with a buggy or a wagon without a small coil of copper wire and a (i mul- tum in parvo ” pocket-knife. This knife, as its name implies, has many parts in a little space, and, among other useful things, has a contrivance for boring holes in leather straps. In case a strap or a leather trace breaks, while one is on a journey, and at a distance from anv house, one would be in an awkward “ fix ” if with- out any means of repairing damages. With the copper *rire and an implement for boring some holes, repairs can be made in a very few minutes. The ends of the broken strap or tug may be laid over each other or spliced; a few holes bored in the manner shown in fig¬ ure 11, and some stitches of tfire passed through in the way known among the ladies as “back stitching.” The ends of the wire are twisted together, and the job will be finished almost as quickly as this may be read. If it is a chain that breaks, the next links may be brought to¬ gether and wire wound around them in place of the FARM CONVENIENCES. 2S broken link, which will make the chain serviceable until home is reached. In fact, the uses of a piece of wire are almost endless. Nothing holds a button upon one’s working clothes so securely as a piece of wire, and once put on in this manner, there is never any call upon the women of the house at inconvenient times for thread Fig. 11. —REPAIRING TUG. and needle to replace it. The wire will pierce the cloth without any help, and nothing more is needed than to pass it through each hole of the button and twist the ends to secure them, cutting them off close with a knife. There is scarcely any little thing that will be found of so great use about a farm, or a workshop, or in a mill, or even in a house, as a small stock of soft copper wire. BUSINESS HABITS. There is probably not one farmer in ten thousand who keeps a set of accounts from which he can at any mo¬ ment learn the cost of anything he may have produced, or even the cost of his real property. A very few farm¬ ers who have been brought up to business habits keep such accounts, and are able to tell how their affairs pro¬ gress, what each crop, each kind of stock, or each ani¬ mal has cost, and what each produces. Knowing these points, a farmer can, to a very great extent, properly de¬ cide what crops he will grow, and what kind of stock he will keep. He will thus be able to apply his labor and money where it will do the most good. He can weed out his stock and retain only such animals as may be kept with profit. For the want of such knowledge, 2 26 FARM COKYENIMCES. farmers continue, year after year, to feed cows that are unprofitable, and frequently sell for less than her value one that is the best of the herd, because she is not known to be any better than the rest. Feed is also wasted upon ill-bred stock, the keep of which costs three or four times that of well-bred animals, which, as has been proved by figures that cannot be mistaken, pay a large profit on their keeping. For want of knowing what they cost, poor crops are raised year by year at an actual loss, provided the farmer’s labor, at the rates current for common labor, were charged against them. To learn that he has been working for fifty cents a day, during a number of years, while he has been paying his help twice as much, would open the eyes of many a farmer who has actually been doing this, and it would convince him that there is some value in figures and hook ac¬ counts. It is not generally understood that a man who raises twenty bushels of corn per acre, pays twice as much for his plowing and harrowing, twice as much for labor, and twice as great interest upon the cost of his farm, as a neighbor who raises forty bushels per acre. FTor is it understood that when he raises a pig that makes one hundred and fifty pounds of pork in a year, that his pork costs him twice as much, or the corn he feeds brings him but half as much as that of his neigh¬ bor, whose pig weighs three hundred pounds at a year old. If all these things were clearly set down in figures upon a page in an account book, and were studied, there would be not only a sudden awakening to the unprofita¬ bleness of such farming, but an immediate remedy would be sought. For no person could resist evidence of this kind if it were once brought plainly home to him. If storekeepers, merchants, or manufacturers kept no ac¬ counts, they could not possibly carry on their business, and it is only because the farmer’s business is one of the FARM CONVENIENCES. 27 most safe that he can still go on working in the dark, and throwing away opportunities of bettering his con¬ dition and increasing his profits. HAY-RACKS. We here illustrate two kinds of hay-racks, which have Fig. 12.— HAY-RACK. 4 been found more convenient in use than some of the old Fig. 13. —RACK FOR GRAIN. kinds. That shown in figure 12 consists of a frame made 28 FARM CONVENIENCES, Fig. 15.— EXTRICATING A MIRED COW FAKM CONVENIENCES. 29 of scantlings, mortised together, and fitting upon the wagon after the box has been removed. Cross-pieces,, which project over the wheels, are bolted to the frame, and to these one or two side-boards are bolted. A few short, sharpened stakes are fixed into the sides of the frame, which help to hold the load, and prevent it from slipping off from the rack during the loading. A strong rack of this kind may be made to carry a very large load of hay. We have seen over thirty hundred-weight loaded upon one of them, and more might have been easily added to the load. The plan of building this rack is readily seen by studying the engrav¬ ing. At figure 13 is shown a rack made to fit upon a wagon body. When grain is hauled, much is sometimes lost through the rack, by shelling. This is almost always the case in hauling ripe oats, and always in drawing buckwheat. To avoid Flg ‘ 14 -~ SUI,pORT roR this loss, we have used a strong wagon-box of rough planks, fitted w 7 ith iron sockets, bolted securely to the sides. Into these sockets were fitted head and tail racks, as shown in the engraving. For the sides we procured natural crooks, shown in figure 14. HOW TO EXTRICATE A MIRED ANIMAL.] An animal mired in a swamp gets into a worse pre¬ dicament the longer it struggles. The effort to extricate it should be made in an effective manner, so that the ani¬ mal may not be encouraged to exhaust itself in repeated ex¬ ertions, which are useless, and only sink it deeper in the mire. The usual method is to fasten a rope around the FARM CONVENIENCES. ammal’s horns or neck, and while this is pulled by some of the assistants, others place rails beneath the body of the animal for the purpose of lifting it out of the hole. This plan is sometimes effective, but it often is not, and at best it is a slow, clumsy, and laborious method. The materials needed for the method here referred to are all that are required for a much better one, which is illus¬ trated in Figure 15. This is very simple, and two men can operate it, and, at a pinch, even one man alone may succeed with it. A strong stake or an iron bar is driven into the solid ground at a distance of twenty-five feet or more from the mired animal. Two short rails, about nine feet long, are tied together near the ends, so that they can be spread apart in the form of a pair of shears, for hoisting. A long rope is fastened around the horns or neck of the animal, with such a knot that the loop cannot be drawn tight enough to do any injury. The rope is cast over the ends of the rails as they are set up upon the edge of the solid ground, and carried to the stake or crow-bar beyond. The end of the rope is fast¬ ened to a stout hand-spike, leaving about a foot of the end of it free. This end is laid against the bar or stake, and the other end is moved around it so that the rope is wound upon it, drawing it up and with it drawing the animal out of the mire. The rope being held up by the tied rails, tends to lift the animal and make its extrica¬ tion very easy. HOW TO SAVE AND KEEP MANURE. There is no question more frequently or seriously con¬ sidered by the farmer, than how he shall get, keep, and spend an adequate supply of manure ; nor is there any¬ thing about the farm which is of greater importance to its successful management than the manure heap EAKM COKYE^IEKCES. 31 Fhere are few farmers now left who pretend to ignore this feed for the land; and few localities, even in the newer Western States, where manure now is thought to be a nuisance. We have gradually come to the inevitable final end of our “ virgin farms,” and have now either to save what is left of their wonderful natural fertility, or to restore them slowly and laboriously to a profitable condition. We have reached the end of our tether, and are obliged to confess that we have trespassed over the line which bounds the territory of the locust, or have improved the face of the country so much that, the pro¬ tecting timber being removed, the water supply is be¬ coming precarious, and springs, brooks, and rivers no longer flow as they did heretofore. To some extent the tide of emigration, which has flowed westward so many years, is now eddying or even ebbing, and the cheap, worn lands of the East are finding purchasers, who un¬ dertake to bring them back to their former condition. At the same time Eastern farmers are discovering more and more certainly that they must increase their crops, and make one acre produce as much as two have hereto¬ fore done. The only way in which either of these classes can succeed, is by keeping sufficient stock to manure their farms liberally ; to feed these animals so skillfully and well that they shall pay for their feed with a profit, and in addition leave a supply of rich manure, with which the soil can be kept in a productive state, and to save and use the manure with such care that no particle of it be lost. It is not every farmer who can procure all the manure he needs ; but very many can save what they have, with far greater economy than they now do ; and this, although it may seem a question secondary to that of getting manure, is really of primary importance ; for by using what one has to better purpose, he opens a way to increase his supply. We have found this to be 32 FARM CONVE^IEN tJES. the case in our own experience, and by strict attention to saving and preserving every particle of manure in its best condition, we have succeeded in so enlarging our supply of fodder that the number of stock that could be fed was largely increased each year, and very soon it was necessary to go out and buy animals to consume the sur¬ plus. To bring a farm into improved condition, there is no cheaper or more effective method than this. The ordinary management of manure, in open barn¬ yards, where it is washed by rains, dried by the sun’s scorching heat, and wasted by every wind that blows, is the worst that is possible. In this way half or more of the value of the manure is lost. By figuring up what it would cost to purchase a quantity of manure equal to what is thus lost, the costliness of this common method would be discovered, and the question how much could be afforded to take care of the manure would be settled. When properly littered, one cow or ox will make a ton of manure every month, if the liquid as well as the solid portion is saved. Ten head would thus make one hun¬ dred and twenty tons, or sixty two-horse wagon loads in a year. A pair of horses will make as much manure as one cow, or twelve tons in the year. A hundred sheep, if yarded every night and well littered, will make one hundred tons of manure in the year, and ten pigs will work up a wagon load in a month, if supplied with sufficient coarse material. The stock of a one hundred $cre farm, which should consist of at least ten cows, ten head of steers, heifers, and calves, a pair of horses, one hundred sheep, and ten pigs, would then make, in the aggregate, three hundred and sixteen tons of manure every year, or sufficient to give twelve tons per acre every fourth year. If this were well cared for, it would be, in effect, equal to double the quantity of ordinary yard manure ; and if a plenty of swamp muck could be pro- FARM CONVENIENCES. 33 cured, at least six hundred tons of the best manure could be made upon a one hundred acre farm. If this were the rule instead of a rare exception, or only a possibility, what a change would appear upon the face of the coun¬ try, and what an addition would be made to the wealth of the nation ! GRINDING TOOLS. The useful effect of many tools depends greatly upon the exact grinding of their edges to a proper bevel. A cold chisel, for instance, requires an edge of a certain Fig. 16.— DEVICE FOR GRINDING MILL-PICKS. bevel to cut hard metal, and one of a different angle for softer metal; the harder the work to be cut, the greater should be the angle formed by the edge, and the softer the material, the more acute the edge. The same rule 2 * 31 FAKM CONVENIENCES. is to be observed in wood-cutting tools. But there are no tools which require more exact and careful grinding than mill-picks, and the first business of a miller is to know how to grind his picks. Upon this depends the dress of the stones, and the quality of work turned out by them. Figure 16 represents a small grindstone for sharpening picks, which is run by means of friction wheels covered with leather, and provided with a gauge for setting the pick at a variable angle to the stone. This gauge, shown in the engraving, is so serviceable as to be well worth a place in any farm workshop. It con¬ sists of a series of steps raised upon a slotted plank, which is screwed upon the frame of the grindstone. By means of the slot and a set screw, seen below the pick, the gauge can be set for tools of different lengths, and each step causes the tool set in it to be ground at a dif« ferent angle. _ A METHOD OF HANGING HOGS. An easy method of hanging a hog or a beef, is by the use of the tripod shown in figure 17. It is made of three by three oak scantling, six feet long, connected at one end, in the manner shown, by means of an iron bar one inch thick, passed through a hole bored in each piece. The two outside pieces are fastened together by two cross-pieces, bolted to them, so that they are spread at the bottom sufficiently, which would be about three feet. A hook is fastened to the lower cross-piece, upon which the hog is suspended. Fig. 17 .— tripod set up. p an g ^j ie ] 10 g the frame is laid upon the ground with the hog between the outside FARM CONVENIENCES. 35 legs, the third leg being drawn backwards. The hog is hooked by the gambrel stick to the cross piece, the frame is lifted up, and the hinder leg is spread out so as to sup¬ port it, as shown in figure 17. The frame may be lowered easily when the hog has to be taken down, and as the frames are cheaply made, and occupy little room, it will be well to have several of them. They may be made to serve other useful purposes. RELIEF FOR BOO-SPAVIN AND THOROUGH-PIN. Bog-spavin, and thorough-pin, which are in reality the same disease, differing in position only, and that very slightly, may be considered as incurable. But like many chronic disorders, they may be very much relieved by proper methods. They are caused by an inflammatory condition of the synovial membrane of the hock joint, and are chiefly located in the vicinity of the junction of the bones of the leg, or the capsule between the tibia and the astragalus. This inflammation may be primarily caused by sudden shocks, or by continued strains from hard work, and the troubles are common among those horses which are of a lymphatic constitution, soft boned, or hereditarily subject to scrofulous or inflammatory con¬ ditions. They are also found lower down the leg, in which case they are the result of inflammation of the sheath of the tendons. They do not always cause lame¬ ness, except when the horse is first brought from the stable, and after a short time the stiffness may pass away. At other times there is great heat and tenderness in the parts, and the animal is decidedly lame. The best treatment is by cold applications and pressure upon the part. Blistering, which is sometimes resorted to, generally increases the trouble, and may cause a perma¬ nent thickening of the tissues, and a stiff joint. Pres- 36 FARM CONVENIENCES. sure is best applied by a sort of truss, or strap, provided with a single pad m case of spavin or wind-gall, or double pads in case of thorough-pin, which is sim¬ ply a spavin or wind-gall, so placed that the liquid which is gathered in the sac or put! may be pressed be' tween the tendons or joint, and mad* 1 to appear on the opposite side of tho leg. In this case it is obviously necessary to apply the pressure upon both sides of the leg, and a double pad strap will be needed, of the form shown in figure 18. A com¬ mon broad leather strap, lined with flannel, or chamois leather, to pre¬ vent chafing, is used ; pads of soft leather, stuffed with wool, are sewn to the strap, and the exact spots where the pressure is to bear, disks of several thicknesses of soft leather or rubber are affixed. The pads must necessarily be made to fit each individual case, as success will depend upon their properly fitting the limb. The pads should be worn continually until the swelling disappears, and meanwhile, at least twice daily, the parts should be bathed for some time with cold water, and cloths wetted with cold water, with which a small quantity of ether has been mixed, should be bound around the parts, and the pads buckled over them so tightly as to exert a con siderable pressure. Absolute rest is necessary while the animal is under this treatment. Fig. 18.— SPAVIN PAD. TOOL-BOXES FOR WAGONS, ETC. To go from home with a wagon without taking a few tools, is to risk a break-down from some unforeseen acci- FARM CONVENIENCES. 37 dent, without the means of repairing it, and perhaps a consequent serious or costly delay. Those who do busi¬ ness regularly upon the roads, as those who haul lumber, wood, coal, or ores of different kinds, should especially be pro¬ vided with a set of tools, as a reg¬ ular appurtenance to the wagon, and the careful farmer in going Fig. 19.— wagon box. to market or the mill, or even to and fro upon the farm, should be equally well provided. We have found by experience that a break-down generally happens in the worst possible place, and where it is most difficult to help one’s self. The loss of so simple a thing as a nut or a holt may wreck a loaded wagon, or render it impossi¬ ble to continue the journey, or some breakage by a sud¬ den jerk upon a rough road may do the same. It is safe to be provided for any event, and the comfort of knowing that he is thus provided greatly lightens a man’s labor. At one time, w r hen we had several wagons and teams at work upon the road, we provided the fore¬ man’s wagon with a box such as is here described, and it was in frequent use, saving a considerable outlay that would otherwise have been necessary for repairs, besides much loss of valuable time. It was a box about eight¬ een inches long, sixteen inches wide, and six inches deep, divided into several compartments. It was supplied with a spare king-bolt, a hammer-strap, wrench, some staples, bolts, nuts, screws, a screW-driver, a hammer, cold-chisel, wood-chisel, punch, pincers, a hoof-pick, copper rivets, a roll of copper wire, a knife heavy and strong enough to cut down a small sapling, a roll of narrow hoop-iron, some cut and wrought nails, and such other things as experience proved to be convenient to have. The shape of the box is shown in figure 19. The middle of the top is fixed, and on each side of it is a lid 38 FARM CONVENIENCES. hinged to it, and which is fastened by a hasp and staple, and a padlock or a spring key. The box is suspended to the wagon reach, beneath the box or load, by two strong leather straps with common buckles. Being only six inches deep, it is not in the way of anything, and is readily accessible when wanted. MAKING A HINGE. A gate with a broken hinge is a very forlorn object, and one that declares to every passer-by, “here lives a poor farmer.” If there is one thing more than another worthy of note and a cause of congratulation in this one hundredth year of the existence of the United States, it is the infinite number of small conveniences with which we are supplied, every one of which adds to the sum of our daily comfort. More than this, the majority of these little things, which are in use all over the world, are the inventions and productions of Americans. So plentifully are we supplied with these small conveniences, that we cannot turn our eyes in any direction without coming across some of them. It is these small matters which enable us to have so many neat and pleasant things about our homes, at so little cost of money, time, or labor. One of the greatest of the small conveniences around the farm, or the mechanic’s rural home, is the small forge. To make a gate-hinge with the help of this portable forge is a very easy thing. We take a piece of half-inch square bar-iron, as long as may be needed, and heating one end, round it for an inch or two ; then, heating the other end, flatten it out gradually to a point for the same length, and bend it over a mandrel, or the nose of an anvil, into the shape shows FAKM CONVENIENCES. 39 in figure 20. We then cut off a piece of round half-inch bar, about two inches long, and drive it into the loop, tightening the loop around it as much as pos¬ sible. The loop-end is then brought to a welding heat, and the joint closed around the pin, and neatly worked smooth with the hammer. Another piece of square iron is then taken, and worked at each end the same as the first one, the loop, however, is worked open upon a piece of cold |-inch round bar, so that it will be large enough to work easily upon the pin of the first piece. A thread may now be cut upon the round ends, or they may be riveted over a piece of iron plate, or a large washer, when they are driven through the gate-post and the heel-post of the gate. It is best, however, to have a screw-thread and a nut, using a washer under each nut, to prevent the wood from being crushed. The whole then appears as at figure 21, and is a hinge that cannot easily be broken or worn out. In boring the holes for a hinge of this kind, a bit or an auger of only half-an-ineh diameter should be used, so that the edges of the iron should cut their own way into the wood, and when the hinges are driven, a piece of hard wood should be laid upon the ends that are struck, so that they will not be battered by the hammer. Care must be exercised to have them driven in squarely, so that the gate may swing without binding on the hinges. For lighter hinges, the same sized iron may be used, but the ends should be hammered out to a point, and the edges should be notched or bearded with a cold-cliisel, as shown at figure 22. These may be driven into a post Fi £- 22 - very readily, if a hole smaller than the iron be bored to 40 FARM CONVENIENCES. lead the way, and when driven in, will not be easily drawn out. When it is necessary to draw a hinge out of a post or gate, that has become rusted in, or that has been very tightly driven, it may easily be done by boring a hole above it, or on one side of it, or beneath it, a little larger than the iron, and then forcing it into the hole by means of a wooden wedge driven close to it. It will then be loose, and may easily be taken out without difficulty. SHELTER FOR THE HEAD. Many a severe headache, and a restless night after an exhausting day’s work in the harvest field, might be prevented by the use of some simple precautions. The sun beats down upon the head and neck with great force, when the thermometer marks ninety degrees and over in the shade, and the scorching effect of a heat of one hundred and twenty degrees in the direct sunshine is both uncomfortable and dangerous to the health. protected in such cases by wearing a straw hat, or one of some open material, with a broad brim, and by placing a leaf of cabbage or let¬ tuce, or a wetted cambric handker¬ chief in the crown of it. The very sensitive back of the head and neck is best protected by means of a white handkerchief fastened by one border to the hat-band, figure 23, and the rest made to hang down loosely over the neck and shoul¬ ders. The neck is thus shaded from the sun’s rays, and the loosely flapping handkerchief causes a constant current of air to The head should be Fig. 23. —NECK-PRO¬ TECTOR. FARM CONVENIENCES. 41 pass around and cool the neck and head. We have found this to be a most comfortable thing to wear, and its value as a protector to the base of the brain and the spinal marrow is so well known in hot countries, that the use of a similar protection is made imperative in armies when on the march. HOW TO LEVEL WITH SQUARE AND PLUMB-LINE. The common carpenter’s square and a plumb-line may be made to serve as a substitute for the spirit level for many purposes on the farm or elsewhere, when a level is not at hand. The manner of getting the square in position to level a wall, for instance, is shown in figure 24. A piece of board, three feet in length, having one end sharpened, is driven into the ground for a rest; a notch is made in the top of the stick large enough to hold the square firmly in position, as shown in the en¬ graving. A line and weight, held near the short arm, and parallel to it, will leave the long arm of the square level. By sighting over the top of the square, any irreg- 42 FARM CONVENIENCES. ularities in the object to be levelled are readily discovered. A method to find the number of feet in a descent in the ground is illustrated by figure 25. The square is placed as before directed ; then a sight is taken over and along the upper edge of the square to a pole or rod placed at a Fig. 25.— MEASURING A SLOPE WITH A SQUARE. desired point. The point on the pole which is struck by the line of sight shows the difference between the levels of the two places. This method will be found ap¬ plicable in laying out drains, where a certain desired fall is to be given to the ditch. KEEP THE CATTLE UNDER COYER. Even now, in some of the newer regions of the West, the easiest way to get rid of the manure is considered the best. The English farmers have long been obliged to feed farm animals largely for the fertilizers they yield, and this has proved that covered yards are the most economical. These covers are not so expensive as might be supposed at first thought. Substantial sheds, large enough to accommodate a hundred head of cattle, may be built at a cost all the way from $1,000 to $1,500, FARM CONVENIENCES. 43 ficcording to the locality and price of labor and lumber. The roof may be made with three ridge poles resting upon outside walls, and two rows of pillars. There should be ample provision for ventilation and the escape of the water falling upon the roof. The original cost will not be many dollars per head, and the interest on this will represent the yearly cost. If this should be placed at two dollars for each animal, it will be seen that this outlay is more than repaid by the increased value of the housed manure over that made in the open yard, and exposed to the sun and drenching rains. The saving in food consequent upon the warm protection of the animals has been carefully estimated to be at least one-tenth the whole amount consumed. In the saving alone, the covered yard gives a handsome return upon the investment. WATERING PLACES FOR STOCK ON LEVEL LAND. It is frequently the case that there are underdrains of living water passing through level fields, in which there is no water available for stock. In such a case, a simple Fig. 26. —TAKING WATER FROM UNDERDRAIN. CD plan for bringing the water to the surface is shown in figures 26 and 27, in which is indicated an underdrain of stone or tile; a pipe of two-inch bore of wood or tile, and about 15 feet in length, is laid level with the bottom of the drain, and connecting with a box one foot or more square sunk into the ground. If the soil be 44 FARM CONVENIENCES. soft, the box is surrounded with stones as shown. A low place or small hollow at some point along the drain is selected for the watering box, or, should the land be Fig. 27.— THE WATERING PLACE. nearly level, then with plow and scraper an artificial hollow is soon made at any point desired. Two fields may be thus easily watered by making the box two feet in length, and placing it so that the fence will divide it. A SHAVING-HORSE. The shingle-horse, shown in figure 28, is made of a plank ten feet long, six inches wide, and an inch and Fig. 28. —SHAVING-HORSE FOR SHINGLES. a half thick. A slot is cut through this plank, and & lever, made of a natural crook, is hinged into it. A wooden spring is fixed behind the lever, and is fastened FARM CONVENIENCES. 43 to it by a cord. This pulls back the lever when the foot is removed from the step beneath. The horse may have four legs, but two will be sufficient, if the rear end is made to rest upon the ground. Figure 29 is made of a plank, six feet long, ten inches wide, and two inches thick. Four legs, two feet long, are fixed in inch and a half holes, as shown below. A bench, eighteen inches Fig. 29. —HORSE FOR GENERAL USE. long, eight and a half inches wide, and an inch and a half thick, is fixed upon the horse. A slot, eight by one and a half inches, is cut through the bench and the plank, and the lever, two feet eight inches long, is fixed in this by means of a pin passing through the bench. Some extra holes are made in the lever, by which the height of the head above the bench may be changed to suit different sizes of work. A head is put upon the lever, six inches square each way, but bevelled off at the front. The foot-board, five by ten inches, is fastened to the bottom of the lever by a strong pin. A MILKING-STOOL. The front of the stool (figure 30) is hollowed to re¬ ceive the pail, which is kept in its place by a wire, fixed as shown in the engraving. The front leg has a pro- 46 FARM COKVENIEKCES. jecting rest upon which the bottom of the pail is placed to keep it from the ground, and also from breaking Fig. 30.— A MILKING-STOOL. away the wire by its weight. The milker may either sit astride of this stool, or sideways upon it. HOW TO TREAT THRUSH. Thrush is a disease of the horse’s hoof, quite common in this country. It results oftener from neglect in the stables than from any other cause. The symptoms are fetid odor and morbid exudation from the frog, accom¬ panied with softening of the same. A case recently came under our observation. A young carriage horse, used mostly on the road, and kept in the stable through the year, showed lameness in the left fore foot one morn¬ ing after standing idle in the stable all the previous day. On removing the shoe, and examining the hoof, a fetid odor was observed. The stable was examined, when the sawdust used for bedding was found to be saturated with urine. The stable was cleaned immediately. Dry saw¬ dust was placed in the stall, and a few sods packed in the space where the horse usually rested his fore feet. The lameness diminished without medical treatment. FARM CONVENIENCES. 4? and in ten days disappeared altogether. A bedding of sawdust or earth, covered with straw or leaves, promotes the comfort of the horse, but it needs watching and systematic renewing. The limit of the absorbing power of the driest soil, or sawdust, is soon reached. If a horse is kept most of the time in the stable, his bedding soon becomes wet, and unfit for his use. It is all the better for the compost heap, and for the horse, to have frequent renewals of absorbments of some kind, that fermentation may not be in progress under his hoofs. The proper place for this fermentation is in the compost heap. Too often the care of the horse is left to a servant without experience in the stable, and the result is per¬ manent disease in the hoofs and legs of the horse. This is most certainly one of the cases in which “ an ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure.” A WESTERN LOCUST TRAP. A great many devices have been used for the destruc¬ tion of the locusts in those Western States where they have done so much mischief for a few years past. Whether the locusts are to remain as a permanent pest to the Western farmers, or not, remains to be proved. It is certain, however, that through some effects of the climate, the attacks of parasitic enemies, their consump¬ tion by birds and other animals, and by the efforts of the farmers themselves, the locusts have of late been greatly reduced in numbers, and their depredations have become almost inconsiderable. Many methods have been adopted for their destruction. Rolling the ground ; plowing fur¬ rows, and making pits in them in which the insects are caught; burning them in long piles of dry grass ; catch¬ ing them in large sacks, and upon frames smeared with 48 EAEM COKVEKIEKCES. gas tar, and upon large sheet-iron pans containing burn¬ ing fuel; all these have been tried with more or less success, as well as the negative means of diverting them from their course by means of thick smoke from smoth¬ ered fires of prairie hay. A most effective method is one invented by a woman in Minnesota. This consists of a large strip of sheet-iron, figure 31, from ten to thirty feet long, turned up a few inches at the ends and one side ; a wire is fixed to each end, or at proper places in the front, by which it can be drawn over the ground by a pair of horses or oxen. A light chain or rope is fixed so as to drag upon the ground a foot in advance of Fig. 31. —TRAP FOR CATCHING LOCUSTS. the front of the sheet-iron, by which the locusts are dis¬ turbed and made to jump, and as the machine is moving on at the same time, they drop upon it. A thick coat of gas-tar is smeared over the surface of the iron, in which the locusts are imbedded and stick fast. The vig¬ orous kicking of the trapped insects helps to keep tli6 mass stirred up, and present a sticky surface. When the trap is full, the locusts are raked off into a pile, and set on fire and consumed. This machine can be drawn over young wheat without injury, as it is not heavy enough to break it down, and being flexible, conforms to the surface of the ground it is passing over. The en¬ graving shows the manner of preparing the sheet-iron for this purpose. The season when the locusts have FARM CONVENIENCES. 49 formerly damaged the newly sprouted wheat is in the spring, and it will be useful for many Western farmers to know of this cheap and effective method, which is not patented, and for which they may thank a farmer’s wife of more than usual ingenuity and habits of observa¬ tion. SPREADING MANURE. The winter is a good season for spreading manure. It is immaterial whether the ground is covered with snow or not, or whether it is frozen or soft, provided it is not too soft to draw loads over, and that the ground is not upon a steep hill-side, from which the manure may be washed by heavy rains or by sudden thaws. We have spread manure upon our fields several winters, and always with advantage, not only in saving labor and time, but also to the crops grown after it, more espe¬ cially to oats and potatoes. In spreading the manure, it Fig. 32.— WAGON WITH KAISED BOX. is the best to drop it in heaps, leaving it to be spread by a man as soon as possible afterwards. This maybe done most readily by using a manure hook, wfith which the manure is drawn out of the sled or wagon-box. Sloping 3 bo FARM CONVENIENCES. wagon-beds are used for hauling various heavy materials, and why should they not be used for this, the heaviest and most bulky load a farmer has to handle ? A wagon, having the box raised (figure 32), so that the forward wheels could pass beneath it, would be very convenient on a farm. It could be turned in its own length, and handled with vastly greater facility than the ordinary farm wagon, which needs a large yard to be turned in. Such a wagon could be unloaded with great ease and Fig. 33. —MANNER OF SPREADING. very rapidly by the use of the hook, and in case it was desired to spread the load broadcast from the wagon, that could be done perfectly well. But to do this keeps the horses idle the greater part of the time, and is an unprofitable practice. Two teams hauling will keep one man busy in the yard helping to load, and another in the field spreading; the work will then go on without loss of time. In dropping the heaps, they may be left in rows, one rod apart, and one rod apart in the row • each load being divided into eight heaps. This will give twenty loads per acre. If ten loads only are to bespread, the rows should be one rod apart, and the heaps two FARM CONVENIENCES. 51 rods apart in the rows. In spreading the manure, it should be done evenly, and the heaps should not be made to overlap. If there is one heap to the square rod, it should be thrown eight feet each way from the centre, covering a square of sixteen and one half feet, as shown in figure 33. One heap then is made to join up to another, and the whole ground is equally manured. There is more in this point than is generally supposed by farm¬ ers, many of whom are careless and wasteful in this re¬ spect, giving too much in some places, and too little in others. The consequence is uneven growth over the field, rusted grain, or perhaps laid straw in some places, and in others a half-starved crop. Another important point in spreading is, to break up the lumps, and scatter the fine manure. Unless this is done, the field cannot be evenly fertilized. There is work about this, which would tempt some hired men to neglect it, but it should not only be insisted upon, but looked to, and its per¬ formance insured. PUTTING AWAY TOOLS. The wearing out of farm implements is, as a rule, due more to neglect than to use. If tools can be well taken care of, it will pay to buy those made of the best steel, and finished in the best manner ; but in common hands, and with common care, such are of little advantage. Iron and steel parts should be cleaned with dry sand and a cob, or scraped with a piece of soft iron, washed and oiled if necessary, and in a day or two cleaned off with the corn-cob and dry sand. Finally, paint the iron part with rosin and beeswax, in the proportion of four of rosin to one of wax, melted together and applied hot. This is good for the iron or steel parts of every sort of tool. 52 FARM CONVENIENCES. Wood- work should be painted with good, boiled, linseed oil, white lead and turpentine, colored of any desired tint; red is probably the best color. Keep the cattle away until the paint is dry and hard, or they will lick, wfith death as the result. If it is not desired to use paint on hand tools, the boiled oil, with turpentine and “liquid drier,” does just as well. Many prefer to saturate the wood-work of farm implements with crude petroleum. This cannot be used with color, but is applied by itself, so long as any is absorbed by the pores of the wood. SELF-CLOSING DOORS. A self-opening, rolling door is shown in figure 34. A half-inch rope, attached to a staple driven into the upper edge of the door, passes parallel with the track, and be- Fig. 34.— SELF-CLOSING SLIDING DOOR. yond the boundary of the door when open, over a small grooved pulley and thence downward; a weight is at¬ tached to its end. The door is shown closed, and the weight drawn up. As the door is a self-fastening one, when the fastening is disengaged the weight will draw the door open. By a string or wire connected to the FARM CONVENIENCES. 53 fastening, the door may be opened while standing at any part of the building, or if one |i end be attached to a post outside, 1 near the carriage way, the door may be opened without leaving the vehicle, a desirable plan, espe¬ cially during inclement weather. The weight and pulleys should be located inside the building, but are shown outside to make the plan more readily understood. By attaching the rope to the op¬ posite side of the door, it may be made self-closing instead of self¬ opening, as thought most convenient. The manner of closing a swing-door, as in figure 35, is so clearly shown as to need no description. Fig. 35. —swin G-Dooii. VENTILATORS FOR FODDER STACKS. The perfect curing of fodder corn is difficult, even with the best appliances ; as usually done, the curing i Very imperfect. The fodder corn crop is one that merits not only the best preparation of the ground and the best culture, but it is worthy of special care in harvesting and curing. The French farmers are giving much attention to this crop, and by good culture are raising most extraordinary and very profifc- Fig. 36.— frame. able yields. Seventy tons per acre is not unfrequently grown by the best farmers. We do not average more than eight tons per acre, yet with 54 FARM CONVENIENCES, us the corn crop may be grown under the most favorable circumstances. In a few instances, a yield of thirty tons per acre has been reached by one farmer, but this is the highest within our knowledge. One of the most prom¬ inent defects in ordinary American agriculture is, the neglect with which this easily grown and very valuable crop is treated ; and one of the most promising improve¬ ments in our advancing system of culture is, the attention now being given to fodder corn. A drawback under which we labor is the difficulty of curing such heavy and succulent herbage; this, however, will by and by be removed, both by the adoption of the French system of ensilage, and by better methods of drying the fodder. On the whole, the system of ensilage offers by far the greatest advantages; the fodder being preserved in a fresh and suc¬ culent condition, and the labor of preparing the silos, cutting the stalks, and properly protecting them from the atmosphere, being actually no more than that of dry¬ ing the crop in the usual manner, storing it in stacks, and cutting it afterwards for use when it is needed. It is impossible, however, that even the best improvements can be introduced otherwise than slow¬ ly and with caution; the old sys¬ tem, although it may be less effective and profitable than the Fig. 37.— ventilator, new, will be long retained by many; and even in the old methods improvements are being made from season to season by the ingenuity of farmers. We recently saw a very simple but useful ar¬ rangement for the ventilation of stacks, and mows in FA11M CONVENIENCES. 55 barns, which is applicable to the curing of corn fodder. It consists of a frame, figure 36, made of strips of wood, put together with small carriage bolts. The strips may be made of chestnut, pine, or hemlock, the first being the most durable and best, two inches wide and one inch thick. The illustration shows how these strips are put together. The length of the section shown may be three or four feet. In figure 37 is seen the manner in which the sections are put together. A small stack may have a column of these ventilators in the centre ; a large one may have three or four of them ; in a mow in the barn, there may be as many as are needful, two or three, or more, as the case may be. When made in this shape, they are so portable, and easy to use, that the greatest objections against ventilators are removed. In stacking fodder corn, it is safest to make the stacks small. Three of these sections, placed together in one column, are sufficient for a stack containing three tons, and which would be about fourteen feet high. The sheaves should be small, and the stack somewhat open at the bottom, so as to freely admit currents of air. The top of the stack should be well protected to keep out the rain ; a hay cap fastened over the top would be very effective for this. If a quantity of dry straw could be thrown in between the bundles, and on the top of each layer of them, the perfect curing of the fodder would be then secured. CORN-MARKER FOR UNEVEN GROUND. The corn-marker, shown in figure 38, is so construct- ed that it will readily accommodate itself to uneven ground. It consists of two pieces of plank, these form the middle set of runners. Upon these pin two straight pieces of two by four scantling, with each end project- 56 FARM CONVENIENCES. ing over the runner six inches ; through these ends are bored holes for a four-inch rod. Two other pieces of plank, like the former, are procured, and one end of two other pieces of scantling are pinned to each runner ; then these beams are connected to the middle pair by the Fig. 38. —FLEXIBLE CORN-MAKKEli. bolts, as seen in the engraving, so that, while one runnel is on high ground, the other may be in the land furrow. In turning around, the two outside runners may be , turned up against the seat. A HOME-MADE HARROW. The harrow, figure 39, is a square one. The teeth are set twelve inches from centre to centre, each way. There are four beams in each half, and five teeth in each beam. These beams are four feet eight inches long, mortised into the front piece, which is three feet seven inches in length. The rear ends of the beam are se¬ cured by a piece of timber, two by one and a half inches, halved on to the beams and then bolted. The harrow is made of two and a half by two and a half-inch scant¬ ling, using locust wood, because of its great durability and firmness. There is nothing particularly new about this harrow, except that it is larger than common, and the novel way of hitching to it by which it is kept steady. £arm conveniences. 57 The teeth can be made to cut six inches or one inch apart. The manner of hitching is shown in the engrav¬ ing. The draw-bar is made of three-eighths by one and three-quarter iron, three feet four inches in length. Fig. 39. —AN EXCELLENT HARROW. The chain is attached to this by a hook at one end, the other being fastened to the harrow by a staple. The chain is about two feet long. The entire cost is about twelve dollars. CLEARING LAND BY BLASTING. The explosive used is dynamite or giant powder. It is a mixture of nitro-glycerine with some absorbents, by which this dangerously explosive liquid is made into a perfectly safe solid substance, of a consistence and ap¬ pearance not unlike light-brown sugar. It is not possible to explode dynamite by ordinary accident, nor even by the application of a lighted match. A quantity of it placed upon a stump and fired with a lighted match, burns away very much as a piece of camphor or resin would do, with little flame but much smoke, and boils and bubbles until only a crust is left. There is not the least danger, therefore, of igniting the pow- 3* FARM CONVENIENCES. 58 der dangerously, until properly placed for the 61ast. In this respect it has a very great advan¬ tage over ordinary blasting powder, which may be exploded by a spark. The powder, as it is manufactured, is made into cartridges about eight inches in length, and of any required diameter. The cartridges are wrap¬ ped in strong parchment paper, cover¬ ed with paraffine, and the true form is shown at figure 40. They are fired by a cap (also in figure 40), which is inserted into the end of the cartridge. The fuse, which is of the common kind, is inserted into the open end of the cap, which is pinched close upon it with a small pair of pliers, so as to hold it firmly. The cartridge Fig. 40. Fig. 41. is then opened at one end, the cap with the fuse at¬ tached inserted, and the paper tied tightly around FAEM conveniences. 59 fuse, with a piece of twine. The cartridge ready for firing is shown at figure 41. Our first operation was upon a green white-oak stump, thirty inches in diameter, with roots deeply bedded in the ground. To have cut and dug out this stump with axe and spades would have been a hard day’s work for two or more good men. The shape of the stump is shown at figure 42. A hole was punched beneath the stump, as shown in the figure, with an iron bar (figure 43), so as to reach the centre of it. Two of the cartridges were placed beneath the stump, and were tamped with some earth ; a pail of water was then poured into the hole, which had the effect of consolidating the earth around the charge. The fuse was then fired. The result was to split the stump into numerous fragments, and to throw it entirely out of the ground, leaving only a few shreds of roots loose in the soil. The result is shown in figure 44, on the next page ; the fragments of the stump in the engraving were thrown to a distance of thirty to fifty feet, and many smaller ones were carried over one hundred feet. The quantity of powder used was less than two pounds. A portion of the useful effect produced by the explosion, consisted in the tearing of the stump into such pieces as could easily be sawed up into fire-wood ; by which much after-labor in breaking it up, when taking it out in the usual man¬ ner, was saved. This test was perfectly successful, and proved not only the thorough effectiveness of this method, but its economy in cost and in time. Several other stumps were taken out in the same man¬ ner ; the time occupied with each being from five to ten minutes. Smaller stumps were thrown out with single cartridges, and in not one case was anything left in the ground that might not be turned out with the plow, or 1 = 5 = Fig:. 43. Fig. 45. —THE ROCK AS IT WAS. «hown in figure 45. A hole was made, with the bar, in the ground beneath the rock, and three cartridges were one hundred and fifty cubic feet, weighing about ten tons. The shape of the rock before the explosion is 60 tARM COKVEXTFtfCES. that would interfere with the plowing of the ground* The explosive was then tried upon a fast rock, of about Fig. 44. —THE EFFECT OF BLASTING THE STUMP. FARM CONVEKIEKCES, 61 Inserted and exjoloded. To have produced this result (shown in figure 46), by the ordinary method, that was here done in a few minutes by one man, would have occupied, at least, two men, with drills, sledge, etc., two or three days. The application of this method is seen to be of great value where the saving of time is an object. An acre of stumps or rocks may be cleared in one day by one or two men, and the material left ready Fig. 46. —THE ROCK AFTER BLASTING. for use as fire-wood, or as stones for fences or buildings. The cost in money is also reduced in some cases very considerably, and almost absolute safety to the careful operator is insured. It would be generally advisable to secure the services of an expert, and that the parties who have work of this character to be performed, should jointly engage such a man, who could either do the whole work, or do it in part, and instruct a foreman or skilful FAKM COXVEKIEKCES. S3 workman sufficiently in a day to perform the remainder: The most favorable seasons for operating upon stumps and rocks are fall and spring, when the ground is saturated with water. It should be explained that this explosive is not injured by water, although a long-con¬ tinued exposure to it would affect some qualities of it. PREVENTABLE LOSSES ON THE FARM. It is a “penny wise and pound foolish” system, to breed from scrub stock. There is not a farmer in this region who has not access to a pedigreed Shorthorn bull, by a payment of a small fee of two to five dollars, and yet we find only one animal in ten with Shorthorn blood. It is a common practice to breed to a yearling, and as he is almost sure to become breechy, to sell him for what he will bring the second summer. Many farmers neglect castrating their calves until they are a year old. We think ten per cent, are thus permanently injured, must be classed as stags, and sold at a reduced price. Fully half the calves so stunted never recover. With many, the starving process continues through the entire year. They are first fed an insufficient quan¬ tity of skim milk ; then in July or August, just at the season when flies are at their worst, and pastures driest, they are weaned, and turned out to shift for themselves, and left on the pastures until snows fall, long after the fields yield them a good support. They are wintered without grain, spring finds them poor and hide-bound, and the best grazing season is over before they are fairly thrifty. The keeping of old cows long past their prime is an¬ other thing which largely reduces the profits of the far¬ mer. We have found quite a large per cent, of cows. FARM CONVENIENCES. 63 whose wrinkled horns and generally run-down condition show that they have long since passed the point of profit. A few years ago, these cows would have sold at full prices for beef, now they will sell only for Bologna at two cents per pound. Thus cows have, in a majority of cases, been kept, not because they were favorites, or even because they were profitable, but from sheer carelessness and want of forethought. Another fruitful cause of loss to the farmer is, attempting to winter more stock than he has feed for. Instead of estimating his resources in the fall, and knowing that he has enough feed even for a hard winter, he gives the matter no thought, and March finds him with the choice of two evils, either to sell stock, or buy feed. If he chooses the former, he will often sell for much less than the animals would have brought four months earlier, and if the latter, will usually pay a much higher price for feed than if it had been bought in autumn. Too often he scrimps the feed, hoping for an early spring, and so soon as he can see the grass showing a shade of green around the fence rows, or in some sheltered ravine, turns his stock out to make their own living. This brings one of the most potent causes of unprofitable cattle raising ; namely, short pas¬ tures. The farmer who is overstocked in winter, is al¬ most sure to turn his cattle on his pastures too early in the spring, and this generally results in short pasture all summer, and consequently the stock do not thrive as they ought, and in addition, the land which should be greatly benefited and enriched, is injured, for the development of the roots in the soil must correspond to that of the tops, and if the latter are constantly cropped short, the roots must be small. The benefit of shade is lost, and the land is trampled by the cattle in their wanderings to fill themselves, so that it is in a'worse condition than if a crop of grain had been grown on it. From all these 64 FARM CONVENIENCES. causes combined, there is a large aggregate of loss, and it is the exception to find a farm on which one or more of them does not exist, and yet without exception they may be classed as “ preventable,” if thought and prac¬ tical common sense are brought to bear in the manage¬ ment. A CRADLE FOR DRAWING A BOAT. When it is necessary to draw a boat out of the water, a cradle should be used. This is very easily made out of some short boards and a piece of plank. The boards are cut so that when three thicknesses are bolted to¬ gether, the joints shall be broken and not come opposite each other, as shown in figure 47. The cradle should be made to fit the boat tightly, midway between stem and stern, so that when it rests upon it, the boat will be evenly balanced and firmly held. The cradle is mounted upon two wheels, which may be made of hard wood plank. A piece of two-inch plank may be sawn out for the axle, and the upper part of the cradle firmly bolted to it. Such a cradle as this may be made light or heavy, and if desired may be furnished with iron wheels, so that FARM CONVENIENCES. 65 it will sink in the water. It can then be run clown under the boat, and that be drawn upon it. By hauling upon the ring-bolt in its stern, the boat can be drawn up out of the water, and easily moved on land. When it is desired to lift a boat out of the water, and suspend it in a boat-house, all that is necessary to be done is to fix two strong hooks, or rings, in the top of the house, and a ring-bolt at each end of the boat. A pair of double-sheaved blocks is provided for each end of the boat. The blocks are hooked to the rings in the house and to those in the boat, which is then drawn up, one end at a time, alternately, until high enough. If two persons are in the boat, both ends may he hauled up at once. The loose end of the rope is fastened to the ring of the boat, or to a ring or a cleat at the side of the boat-house. Then the boat remains suspended in the boat-house. FEED-BACK FOB SHEEP. The rack, figure 48, is made of poles for the bottom Fig. 48 — FEED-RACK FOR SHEEP. and top, and cross-bars fitted into them. The bottom bar slides loosely in brackets, which are fixed to the wall 66 FARM CONVENIENCES. of the shed, and the upper bar is secured by a cord, which passes over a small pulley in a hole in the wall above the rack ; a weight being attached to the outside end of the rope, serves to keep the rack always against the wall. When the hay is put in the rack is drawn down, and, when filled, is pushed back against the wall, holding the hay closely, and being kept in place by the weight. This prevents the hay from being pulled out too freely by the sheep or cattle. It is recommended that the grain-trough be placed beneath a rack of this kind, so that the chaff which falls from it may be caught in the trough and saved for use, instead of being trampled under foot. HOW TO MANAGE NIGHT-SOIL. The fertilizing properties of night-soil are well known. The principal reason why this valuable material is ne¬ glected and permitted to go to waste, is the difficulty of handling it. If improperly handled, it is disagreeable and difficult to apply to the uses to which it is best adapted. There are many cases in which it could be made use of very conveniently, if rightly managed. In country towns and villages it is difficult to dispose of it, and it becomes a serious nuisance to householders, and a detriment to the public health, when it ought to be turned to profitable uses. In some other countries this refuse matter is eagerly collected and carefully used by the farmers. The methods employed in England, Ger¬ many, and France might very well be adopted by us, and a large quantity of fertilizing material be gathered. By the methods there in use, the night-soil is easily handled and prepared for distribution upon the land, or for mixing in composts. Arrangements are made with persons in towns and villages who wish to have the soil FARM CONVENIENCES. 67 removed, and the time being fixed (this is always in the night, from w r hich circumstance the name given to the material is derived), wagons with tight boxes, or carts, are sent to the place. Carts are mostly used, as indeed they are in Europe for most of the farm work. The carts, or wagons, carry out a quantity of earth, chopped straw, ashes, or such other absorbent as may be conven¬ iently procured, and some sheaves of long straw, or else the ashes or other absorbent used, which is frequently the sweepings and scrapings of streets, is prepared upon the ground or near by. This material is then disposed Fig. 49. —PREPARING NIGHT SOIL. in the form of a bank enclosing a space of sufficient size to hold the night-soil, as shown in figure 49. A reserve heap is kept to be mixed with the night-soil as it is emp¬ tied into the place prepared for it. Wheelbarrows with tight boxes are generally used to convey the soil from the cesspool. When the whole has been removed from the cesspool, the cut straw is mixed in and the banks of earth are turned over upon the pile, which can then be han¬ dled with shovels or forks, and is ready to be loaded into the wagon. Some of the long straw is laid in the bot¬ tom of the wagon-box, and the mixed mass is thrown upon it, layer after layer alternately with straw, until the top of the wagon-box is reached. It is most con- 68 FARM CONVENIENCES. venient to have a rack, or flaring side-boards, to confine the upper part of the load, but this is not necessary if the loading is properly done. The manner of loading the top is as follows : a bundle of straw is spread so that half of it projects over the side or end of the load. A quantity of the mixed stuff is forked on to the straw, the loose projecting ends of which are turned back onto the load when more is laid upon it. The doubled straw holds the loose stuff together, which might else be shaken off the load as it is carried home. In this manner the load is built up until it is completed, when it appears as Fig. 50— MANNER OF LOADING NIGHT-SOIL. shown in figure 50. Loads thus made are carried many miles without losing anything on the journey, and the mass, which would seem to have no coherence, is kept solidly together. Carts are sometimes loaded to a hight of two or three feet above the side-boards, and are made to carry a load for three horses. By this management, this material is no more disagreeable than ordinary ma¬ nure, and the work of moving it is rendered quite easy. THE USE OF LIME IN BLASTING. There are some forces, apparently insignificant, which act with irresistible power through short distances. The FARM* CONVENIENCES. 69 expansion of water in freezing is a force of this kind. The increase in bulk in changing from the liquid to the solid state of ice is only about one-tenth, yet it exercises a power sufficient to break iron vessels and rend the hardest rocks. Every one who has slaked a lump of quicklime by gradually pouring water upon it, has observed that the first effect of the contact between the water and lime is to cause a swelling of the lump. It generally expands and takes up considerable more room than before. This expansive force has recently been successfully applied to coal mining in England. Pow¬ dered quicklime is strongly compressed into cartridges about three inches in diameter, and each has running through it a perforated iron tube, through which water can be forced. These cartridges were used in a coal mine in place of the usual blasting charge, water was forced into them, and the expansion of the lime threw down a mass of coal weighing about ten tons, with little of the small coal made with the usual blast. The exemption from danger and the avoidance of smoke, have caused coal mine owners to regard this new method with favor. Some of our ingenious reapers may find a useful hint in this. A WATER AND FEED TROUGH. A supply of water in the cow-stable is a great con¬ venience ; a simple arrangement for furnishing it to the cows in their stalls may be made as follows : Sheets of galvanized iron are bent to form a trough, and fitted into the floor joists under the feed-box, as indicated in figure 51, making a trough three inches deep and six¬ teen inches w T ide. The flanges on each side are nailed to the joists, and the sheets of iron riveted together at the 70 F.ARM CONVENIENCES. ends, and made water-tight by cement. The trough runs the entire length of the feed floor, and is supplied with water from a pipe, pump, or hose; a pipe at the other end carries away the surplus water and prevents overflow, and another pipe with a faucet is provided for emptying the trough. The feed-box is built over the water trough, a part of its floor being a trap—indicated by dotted lines in the engraving—by which admission to the water is gained. Before opening this trap, the manger is swept clean ; and if there were no other advan¬ tage than this compulsory cleansing of the mangers after each feeding, it would be sufficient to pay for the cost of constructing such a watering arrangement. THE CONSTRUCTION OF STALLS. It is rare, even in these days of progress, to see a well- arranged stall in a farmer’s barn. No horse stall should be less than six feet in width, nor of a length less than FARM CONVENTEHCES. 71 nine feet. This affords room for the animal to lie down and rise comfortably without bruising hips and limbs, and also for the attendant to pass in and out. The partition between stalls should be of sufficient bight to prevent playing, biting, and kicking. Racks of iron are neat and serviceable. The horse eats its food from the ground, and because many first pull out a greater portion of the hay from the rack, we shall dispense with the rack as commonly used, and substitute a single manger which serves for both hay and grain. Whatever may be the foundation of the stall, whether of brick, stone, cement, clay, or wood, it should have inclination enough to carry off all fluid. Over this place a flooring composed of strips of plank, four inches in width by two inches in thickness, with an inch inter¬ vening between each strip. This need not extend more than half the length of the stall, the upper portion being compact. The essential point is that the horse shall stand with an equal weight upon all the extremities. This custom of confining a horse to a sloping stall, in one position sometimes for days, is a cruel one, and very detrimental to the limbs and feet, as it brings about, sooner or later, serious affections in these parts. A loose box is far preferable to the stall, wherever practi¬ cable. Every stable or barn should be provided with one at least, in case of sickness or accident. By the arrangement of a floor as just described, the bedding is kept dry and the animal clean and comfortable. Litter should be always kept beneath the animal; it gives an air of comfort to the place and invites to repose of body and limbs by day and night. Stalls for both horses and cattle should be of sufficient hight, as also all door and passage ways about a barn. Formerly, it was the cus¬ tom to build in such a way that no horse, and not even a man of respectable hight could enter a door-way with- 72 FARM CONVENIENCES. out danger of knocking his skull, and inflicting serious injury. There are stalls in country barns so low that a horse cannot throw up his head without receiving a blow against the beams above. Animals undoubtedly acquire the trick of pulling back, or of making a sud den spring when passing a door-way, from having been obliged to run the gauntlet of some narrow, low, ill- contrived passage-way. The man who should now be guilty of building in this way would deserve to have his own brains knocked, every time he passes in and out, as a gentle reminder of his folly. All barn-dcors should be high, wide, and, when practicable, always slide. The common mode of securing cattle in the barn, especially milch cows, by placing their necks between stanchions, is not to be advocated, especially when they are confined in this way for many hours at a time with¬ out relief, as is often necessary in the winter season. A simple chain about the neck with a ring upon an upright post affords perfect security, while it gives the animal freedom of movement to head and limbs—and conduces to its comfort in various other ways. Animals should not be overcrowded, as is too often the case in large dairy establishments—a fact which will make itself evident sooner or later in the sanitary qualities of the milk, if in no other manner. We cannot deny the fact, if we would, that everything, however trifling, that contributes to the welfare of our domestic animals is a gain to the owner of them pecuniarily, and what touches a man’s pocket is generally considered to be worth looking after, at all times and in all places. HOG-KILLING IMPLEMENTS—RINGING. The stout table on which the dead porkers are lain to be scraped and dressed after being scalded, is made wiib FARM CONVENIENCES. 73 its top curving about four inches in a width of four feet* and consisting of strips of oak plank* as represented in figure 52. This curved top conforms to the form of the Fig. 52. — A DRESSING TABLE. carcass, and holds it in any desired position better than a flat surface. For scrapers* old-fashioned iron candle¬ sticks are used ; the curved and sufficiently sharp edges Fig. 53.— HANDY MEAT CLEAVER. at either end serving as well as a scraper made for the purpose, and its small end has an advantage over the latter for working about the eyes and other sharp de¬ pressions. A cleaver for use in cutting up the pork is shown in figure 53; it has a thirteen-inch blade, three inches wide at the widest part, and one-quarter inch thick at the back. This is a convenient implement, easily and cheaply made by a good blacksmith, if it cannot be 4 74 FARM CONVENIENCES. had at the stores ; any mechanic can put on the wooden handle. In figure 54 is represented a home-made hog¬ ringing apparatus. The blacksmith makes an instru¬ ment resembling a horse-shoe nail, of good iron, about three inches long, three-sixteenths of an inch wide, and one-thirty-second of an inch thick, tapering to a point; the “ head ” is merely the broad flat end curled up. Fig, 54.— HOG-RINGER AND KEY. Just before using, this needle-like instrument has its corners rubbea off on a file ; it then is easily pushed through the septum of the pig’s nose. A key with its tongue broken off and a slot filed in the end, is used to curl up the projecting end, and the ringing is done. The “rings” cost about seventy-five cents a hundred, and are effective and easily applied. HOW TO MIX CEMENT. The article to he used is the Rosendale cement. This is nearly as good as the imported Portland ce- FARM CONVENIENCES. 73 ment, and much cheaper. The cement is made from what is known as hydraulic lime-stone—that is a rock which contains, besides ordinary lime-stone, some clay, sil¬ ica, and magnesia. Pure lime-stone contains only lime and carbonic acid, in the proportions of fifty-six parts of the former to forty-four of the latter in one hundred. When this stone is burned, the carbonic acid is driven off by the heat, and pure or quick-lime is left. When this is brought in contact with water, the two combine, forming hydrate of lime ; during the combination, heat is given out; the operation is called slaking. When the water is just sufficient to form the combination, a fine, dry powder is produced, which we call dry slaked-lime. When the water is in excess, the surplus is mixed me¬ chanically with the lime, and forms what is called the milk of lime, or cream of lime, according to its consist¬ ence ; it is this pasty substance which we mix with sand, to form building mortar. But when we have clay mixed in a certain proportion, either naturally or arti¬ ficially, with the lime-stone, and this stone or mixture is burned in the same manner as ordinary lime-stone, we get what is known as hydraulic lime, because it combines with a much larger proportion of water than pure lime, and in combining with it, instead of falling to powder, like ordinary lime, it hardens into stone again. This hardening takes place even under water; the hydraulic lime combines with just so much water as is required to “ set ” or harden, and leaves the remainder. It pos¬ sesses this property, also, when mixed, with sand in pro¬ per proportions, and when so mixed, the cement will adhere very firmly to the surface of any stone to which it may be applied. This property is made available in constructing works of concrete, which consists of broken stone mixed with such a quantity of cement, that, when it is packed closely, the surfaces of all the pieces of 76 FARM CONVENIENCES. stone are brought into contact with the cement, and the spaces between the fragments of stone are filled with it. That there may be no more cement used than is actually needed, the mixture is rammed down solidly, until the fragments of stone are brought into close contact with Fig. 55.— BOX BOR MIXING CEMENT. each other. The composition of the impure or hydraulic /ime-stone, which behaves in this useful manner, is, in the case of some of the Kingston stone, as follows : Car¬ bonic acid, 34.20 per cent.; lime, 25.50; magnesia, 12.35 ; silica, 15.37; alumina (clay), 9.13; and peroxide of iron (which is useless or worse), 2 25. On account of this difference in character between lime and cement, a dif¬ ferent treatment is necessary for each, and each is put to different uses. The cement makes a much harder and more solid combination with sand, and is therefore chosen when great strength is required. Its rapid setting, when mixed with water, also requires that it be used as soon as it is mixed, and renders a rapid mixture necessary. The cement and sand should, therefore, be mixed to¬ gether dry, and very thoroughly. Four parts of sand FARM CONVENIENCES. 7l to one part of cement are the proportions generally used. These may be mingled in a box of suitable character, and the mass is so spread as to have a hollow in the cen¬ tre, into which water is poured. The sides of the heap are gradually worked into the water, with a common hoe, in such a way as to prevent the water from spread ing about, and as it is absorbed more water is poured in, until the whole is brought to a thin semi-liquid con¬ dition. A box very suitable for this operation is shown in figure 55. This is made of pieces of plank, prepared as follows : The side pieces are shown at figure 56. The end pieces are made with tenons, which fit in mortises in the side pieces, and the frame thus made is held to- Fig. 57. —MACHINE FOR MIXING CEMENT. gether by keys driven into the holes seen in the tenons. The bottom planks are fastened together with cleats, so placed as to receive the frame and fit snugly. Iron bolts are put through holes in the cleats, and through the holes in figure 56, and by means of nuts with washers under them, the whole box is brought firmly together. Such a box, after having been used for this purpose, will be found very useful for mixing feed in the barn, or for many other purposes, and may, therefore, be well made 73 EAliM CONVENIENCES. at the first. When the mortar is mixed, the broken stone may be thrown into it, beginning at one side, and the whole is worked up thoroughly with the hoe, so that every piece of stone is coated with the cement. A machine, that is easily made, may be used for this mix¬ ing, and is also very useful for mixing ordinary mortar for building or plastering. It is shown in figure 57. It consists of a box set upon feet, with a smaller box at¬ tached at the rear end, having an opening at the bottom where the mortar is seen escaping, and a shaft, having broad, flat arms on it, placed at a somewhat acute angle with the line of the shaft, so that they will operate as a screw to force the mass along the spout and out of it at the opening. A crank handle is fitted to this shaft, and if a fly-wheel can be borrowed from a feed-cutter, or a corn-sbeller, and attached to the shaft as shown, so much the better. The materials to be mixed are thrown into the box, and by turning the handle, the whole will be thoroughly incorporated with great rapidity and ease. KINGING AND HANDLING BULLS [Now that more attention is given to improving farm stock, a bull is kept upon nearly every large farm. The high-bred bulls are spirited animals, and are exceedingly dangerous if the utmost caution is not exercised in man¬ aging them. Experienced breeders are not unfrequently caught unawares, and unceremoniously lifted over the fence, or forced to escape ingloriously from one of their playful animals, or even seriously injured by the vicious ones. It should be made a rule, wherever a bull is kept, to have him ringed, before he is a year old, and brought under subjection and discipline at an early age, while he can be safely and easily handled. Some time ago we as¬ sisted at the ringing of a yearling bull, which severely FARM COKYEKIEKCES. 79 taxed the utmost exertions of six persons with ropes and stanchions to hold him. A slip of the foot might have caused the loss of a life, or some serious injuries. To avoid such dangerous struggles, a strong frame, similar to that in figure 58, in which to confine the bull, may be used. The frame consists of four or six stout posts set deeply in the ground, with side-bars bolted to it, forming a stall in which the bull can be confined so that he cannot turn around. The frame may be placed in the barn-yard or a stable, and may be made to serve as a stall. At the front, a breast-bar should be bolted, and the upper side-bars should project beyond this for eight¬ een or twenty inches. The forward posts project above the side-bars some inches. The ends of these posts, and the side-bars, are bored with one-inch holes, and at the rear of the frame there should be tenons or iron straps to receive a strong cross-bar, to prevent the animal from es¬ caping should the fastenings become broken or loosened. Fi s- 59 .—strap. The bull, led into the frame, is placed with his head 60 FARM COKYEKIEMCES, oyer the breast-bar, and the horns are tied with ropes an inch in diameter to the holes in the bars and posts. He is then secured, and his head is elevated so that the trochar and cannula can be readily used to pierce the cartilage of the nose, and the ring inserted and screwed together. Before the ring is used, it should be tested to ascertain that it is sound and safe. When the ring is inserted, the straps shown in figure 59 should be used, for the purpose of holding it up and out of the way, so as not to interfere with the feeding of the animal until the nose has healed and become cal¬ loused. The straps may be left upon the head perma¬ nently, if desired, when the front strap will offer a con. -A- venient means of catching him by the staff, when neces¬ sary to do so in the field. The staff is a matter of the greatest importance. This should be made of the tough¬ est ash or hickory, and not less than five feet long. With a staff of this length, the herdsman can check the wild¬ est bull, and by resting the butt-end of it upon the ground, can throw the ani¬ mal’s head up, and prevent him from approaching too near. The hook of the staff is shown of two kinds in figures 60 and 61. One is fur¬ nished with a spring, by which it is closed. A metal bar attached to the spring and passing through a hole in the staff, prevents the ring from slipping along the spring. The other is provided with a screw by which it is closed. f'AEM CONVENIENCES. 81 SLED FOR REMOVING CORN-SHOCKS. A sled used for moving corn-shocks from a field which is to be sown with winter grain is shown in figure 62. It is simply a sled of the most ordinary construc¬ tion, and which any farmer can build. It is made of two joists or planks of hemlock, though oak might be better ; say three inches thick, a foot wide, and four¬ teen to sixteen feet long, rounded at one end and con¬ nected by three strong cross-pieces, being in form just Fig. 62. —SIDE OF SLED. such a sled as a farmer boy would make to use in the snow, with the addition of cross braces before and be¬ hind. The under edge of the runners should be rounded off to the extent of one and a half to two inches, to turn more easily. There should be also short standards be¬ fore and behind. The runners may be four to five feet apart, according to the length of the corn. A side view of the runner with the standards is given in figure 62, and a top view of the complete sled in figure 63. First, cut off the corn and put it in shocks in the usual way, making the shock smaller than usual. Let it stand thus 4* 82 FARM CONVENIENCES. a few days to dry, then a pair of horses are hitched to the sled, which is driven alongside the shock. The shock is pushed over on to the sled, and so one shock after another until the sled is full. The load is then driven to an adjoining field, where the shocks are set up on end again, and about four of them made into one and tied at the top, or reared against a fence. The particular advantages of this plan are : First, that by use of the sled and method of loading and un¬ loading the shocks, all actual lifting of the corn is avoided, and the labor and expense reduced more than one-half. Second, by permitting it to dry a few days, its weight is greatly reduced, and the handling much lighter. Third, the corn being partially dried, it can be put together in larger shocks the second time, and will keep better. By this method one man can clear two acres or more in a day, according to the weight of the crop. A TAGGING TROUGH. Sheep should be tagged in early spring, and a table for this purpose is shown in figure 64. The sheep is placed on this table feet upwards, in which position it is perfectly helpless, and will not struggle. Then the soiled wool about the hind parts, the belly, or the legs is clipped off with great ease, less than a minute being needed to tag a sheep. Half time will serve for some shearers to do this. In large flocks these tables will be necessary, and those who have small ones will find them very useful. LIME AND LIME KILNS. The periodical use of lime as a fertilizer is necessary to good culture. In the best cultivated parts of the FARM CONVENIENCES. 83 country, lime is used once in every rotation of five crops, the usual rotation being two years, grass, corn, oats, wheat, or rye, seeded to grass or clover again. The lime is applied to the land when it is plowed for the fall grain, and is harrowed in before the seed is drilled, or it is har¬ rowed in with the seed, sown broadcast. The quantity used is from forty to fifty bushels per acre. The effect of lime is both mechanical and chemical; it opens and Fig. 64. —THOUGH FOR TAGGING SHEEP. loosens heavy clays, and consolidates light, loose, sandy, or peaty vegetable soils ; it has the effect of liberating potash from the soil, and of decomposing inert organic matter, and reducing it to an available condition. But while it is beneficial, it cannot be used alone without exhausting the soil of its fertile properties. This is evi¬ dent from what has been said of its character ; at least this is true, so far as regards its effects beyond affording directly to the crops any lime that they may appropriate from the supply thus given. All the benefits received beyond this is a direct draft on the natural stores of the soil. It is therefore necessary, to good agriculture, that 84 EAfUI CONVENIENCES. either a thrifty clover sod should he plowed under, at least once in the rotation, or that a liberal dressing of manure he given, or both of these. In those localities where the benefits to be derived from the skilful use of lime are best known and appreciated, this method is practised ; a heavy sod being plowed under, after having been pastured one year, for the corn, and a good coating of manure being given when the land is plowed for fall grain. Under such treatment, the soil is able to main¬ tain itself and return profitable crops. It is not where Fig. 65. —IMPROVED LIME KILN AVITH ELEVATED TRACK. this course is pursued that complaints are prevalent of the unprofitableness of farming. The use of lime is spreading gradually into the Western States, where the competition of the still farther and fresher western fields is being severely felt. The experience of Eastern farm¬ ers is now being repeated in what were once the West¬ ern States, and every appliance of scientific and thorough agriculture is found to be needed to maintain those Western farmers in the close contest for a living. This kiln, figure G5, is intended to stand upon level ground, and is furnished with a sloping track, upon which self- JFAKM CONVENIENCES. 85 dumping cars containing fuel or lime may be drawn up by horse-power with a rope and pulleys. The body of the kiln may be twenty feet square at the bottom, and thirty feet high, with a flue above the stack of ten to twenty feet. The stack may be built of stone or brick, but should be lined with fire-brick or refractory sand¬ stone. The arch is protected by the shed under the track. At B, B, are two bearing bars of cast-iron, three by two inches thick, which support the draw-bars, 0. These are made of one and a half inch round wrought iron, having rings at the outer end, and of which there are four to the foot across the throat of the kiln, which is four or five feet in diameter. The rings serve to ad¬ mit a crow-bar, by which the bars, or some of them, are drawn out to let down the charge of lime. The open space, D, is intended for the insertion of the bar to loosen or break the lime, should the throat become gorged. A cast-iron frame, with an aperture of three by twenty- four inches, is built into this opening. It also serves to kindle the kiln, and is closed by an iron door. The car should be made of wood, and lined with sheet-iron ; it is hinged to the front axle, and hooked to the draft-rope, so that when the fore-wheels strike the block, E, at the mouth of the kiln, the car tips and dumps its load. The iron door, F, which closes the kiln, is raised or lowered by means of the rope and ring, G, which passes over a pulley fixed upon the side of the flue* A covered shed will be needed to protect the top of the stack, and a gal¬ lery should be made around it, for a passage-way for the workmen. This kind of kiln is suited only for the use of coal as fuel ; when wood is used for burning the lime, common pits or temporary kilns are to be constructed. 86 FARM CONVENIENCES. FALL FALLOWING. The old practice of summer fallowing, or working the soil for one year without a crop, for the purpose of gain- inga double crop the second season, is now, very properly, obsolete. While some may question the propriety of this opinion, there can be no doubt as to the value of fall fallowing. The constant turning and working of the ground during the fall months cost nothing but time and labor, at a season when these cannot be otherwise employed, and so, in reality, cost nothing. But the benefits to the soil are very considerable. Especially is this the case with heavy clay soils, and less, in a descend¬ ing ratio, through the gradations from heavy clay down to light loams—at least it is so considered by many ; and it is reasonable to suppose that if the atmospheric effects upon the particles of a clay soil serve, to some extent, to dissolve the mineral particles, they may easily do the same service for a sandy soil, and help to set loose some of the potash contained in the granitic or feld- spathic particles of such a soil. The mechanical effects of the fall working are certainly more useful upon clay than a light loam ; but there are other purposes to serve than merely to disintegrate the soil, and mellow and loosen it. There are weeds to destroy, and the forward¬ ing of the spring work by the preparation of the ground for early sowing. These services are as useful for a light soil as a heavy one, and as it is reasonable to look for some advantage from the working in the way of gain in fertility on light as well as heavy soils, it is advisable that owners of either kind should avail themselves of whatever benefits the practice affords. Fall fallowing consists in plowing and working the soil with the culti¬ vator or the harrow. This may be done at such inter¬ vals as may be convenient, or which will help to start FARM CONVENIENCES. 87 some weeds into growth, when these may be destroyed by the harrow or cultivator. Heavy soils should be left in rough ridges at the last plowing, with as deep furrows between them as possible, in order to expose the largest surface to the effects of frost and thaw. Light soils may be left in a less rough condition, but the last plowing should be so done as to throw the furrows on edge, and not flat, leaving the field somewhat ridged. A very little work in the spring will put the ground into excel¬ lent order for the early crops, and for spring wheat, especially, this better condition of the soil will be of the greatest benefit. When thus treated in the fall, the soil is remarkably mellow, and is dry enough to work much earlier than the compact stubble land which remains as it was left after the harvest. As to the time for doing this work, the sooner it is begun, and the oftener it is repeated, the better. It is not too late to finish when the ground is frozen or there is an inch of snow on the ground UNLOADING CORN. Every little help that will ease the troublesome labor of transferring the corn crop from the field to the crib is Fig. 66. —BOARD FOR UNLOADING. gratefully accepted. We have used both of the contri¬ vances here shown (figures 66 and 67), to help in getting 88 FARM CONVENIENCES. the ears out of the wagon-box. At the start it is diffb cult to shovel up the corn, and until the bottom of the wagon-box is reached, the shovel or scoop cannot be made to enter the load. But if a piece of wide board is placed in a sloping position, resting upon the tail-board of the wagon (figure 66), the shovel can be used with ease Fig. 67. —UNLOADING ARRANGEMENT. at the commencement of the unloading. Another plan is to make the box two feet longer than usual, and place the tail-board two feet from the end, figure 67. When the tail-board is lifted, the ears slide down into this re¬ cess, from which they can be scooped with ease. STONE BOATS. For moving plows, harrows, etc., to and from th fields, Fig. 68.—PLANK STONE BOAT. and for many other purposes, a stone boat is far better than a sled or wagon, and is many times cheaper than FARM COHVEKIEKCES. 89 either. Two plans of construction are illustrated. The boat shown in figure 68 is of plank, six feet in length, one foot at one end being sawed at the angle shown. Three planks, each one foot in width, will make it of about the right proportion. A railing two by three inches is pinned upon three sides, while a plank is firmly pinned at the front end, through which the draw- bolt passes. That shown in figure 69 has some advan- Fig. 69. —STONE BOAT WITH RUNNERS. tage over the former, a cheaper quality of wood and of shorter length can be used, and when one set of runners is worn out, others can be readily attached without de¬ stroying the frame. Oak or maple plank should be used for the best boats, and when runners are used, the tough¬ est wood at hand should be selected. Don’t think be¬ cause it is only a stone boat it is not worthy of being taken care of. A DUMP-CART. The dump-cart, figure 70, is a handy contrivance, a good deal used in some parts of this State, and is simply an ordinary ox-cart, the tongue shortened and fastened by a king bolt to the forward axle of a wagon, as shown in the engraving. It can be turned very short, as the wheels have a clear swing up to the cart-tongue, and is very convenient for hauling anything that is to be dumped: such as stones, earth, wood; manure, etc. 90 FARM CONVENIENCES, The seat of an old mowing machine is fastened to the Fig. 70.— IMPliOV-ED DUMl'-CAKT. cart-tongue, on which the driver sits. Horses or oxen may be used. TO PREVENT WASHING OF HILL-SIDES. Much damage is done by the washing of hill-sides into deep gullies by heavy rains. Where sloping ground is cultivated this is unavoidable, unless something is done to prevent it. In some cases deep plowing and loosen¬ ing the subsoil will go far to prevent washing, as it enables the water to sink into the ground, and pass away without damage, by slow filtration. But where the sub¬ sod is not very porous, and when the rain falls copiously and suddenly, the water saturates the surface soil in a few minutes, and the surplus then flows down the slope, cutting the softened earth into many channels, which by and by run together. Then the large body of water I'Altti CONVEKlEHCES. 91 possesses a force which the soil cannot resist, and carries the earth down with it, often doing serious and irre¬ parable damage in an hour or less. Of the many plans which have been suggested and tried to prevent this washing, the most successful is the terracing of the slope. This is done by plowing, with a swivel plow, around the hill, or back and forth on the slope, com¬ mencing at the bottom and throwing the earth down¬ wards in such a manner that a flat terrace is formed, which has a small slope backwards from the front of the hill. When this terrace has been formed, the plowing is commenced ten or twelve feet above, and another terrace is made in the same manner. This is continued to the top of the slope. If thought desirable, the inner furrows on each terrace may be made to form a water channel, and this maybe connected with the channel on the next slope lower down, in some safe manner, either by a shute of boards or of stone, to prevent washing of the soil at these points where the fall will be consider¬ able. This, however, is a side issue, which does not necessarily belong to the main work. The arrangement of the hill-side is shown in figure 71, in which the Fig. 71. —PROFILE OF A TERRACED HILL. original outline of the hill, and the arrangement of the terraces, which are cut out of it, are given. When a heavy rain falls upon the terraced hill, the effect will be to throw the water backwards from the outer slope, into the channels at the rear of the terraces ; and there, as well as upon the broad surface of the terraces, there is 92 FARM CONVENIENCES, abundant means of escape by sinking into the soil. If not, and the amount of water is too great to be thus dis¬ posed of, it may be carried down the slope, uy arranging the furrows as drains in the way previously indicated. Hill-sides of this character should be kept in grass, when the slope is too steep for comfortable plowing, after it has been thus arranged ; or it may be planted with fruit trees, vines, or timber, upon the slopes, leav¬ ing the terraces to be cultivated, or the slopes may be kept in grass, and the terraces cultivated. But in what¬ ever manner the ground may be disposed of, it would be preferable to leaving it to be gullied by rains, barren, useless, and objectionable in every way. A LOO MINK-TRAP. A mink-trap is made by boring a two-inch or two and Fig. 72.— MINK-TRAP. a half inch hole in a log, four or five inches deep, and into the edges of this hole drive three sharpened nails, so that EARM CONVENIENCES. 9a they will project half an inch or so inside, as shown in figure 72. The bait being at the bottom, the mink pushes his head in to get it, but on attempting to with¬ draw it is caught by the nails. Musk-rat is good bait for them, and a highly praised bait is made by cutting an eel into small bits, which are placed in a bottle and hung in the sun, and after a time become an oily and very odorous mass. A few drops of this are used. The above simple mink-trap may be made by using any block of wood, or a stump of a tree, large or small, and the same plan may be made use of to trap skunks, or, by using a small hole and some straightened fish-hooks, it will serve to catch rats or weasels, enemies of the rural poultry yard, which may be thinned off by the use of this trap. PLOWING FROM THE INSIDE OF THE FIELD. There is but one reason why plowing should not be done from the inside of the field, and that is, the imag¬ inary difficulty in “ coming out right. ” There are sev¬ eral points in favor of this method : When a field is plowed, beginning at the outside, there is always a dead furrow running from each corner to the centre ; besides this, the team is obliged to run out, and turn upon the plowed land at every corner, making a broad strip which is much injured by the treading, especially if the land is clayey and rather moist. By beginning at the middle, all this is avoided; the horses turn upon unplowed land, and the soil at each plowing is thrown towards the cen¬ tre of the field, as it should be. There is no difficulty in finding the centre of the field from which to begin the plowing. Suppose we have a rectangular field like the one shown in figure 73 ; any person who can meas¬ ure by pacing, is able to find the middle of the ends. 94 FARM CONVENIENCES. A D and B C; the points K and L. From K, pace towards L } a distance equal to one-half A D, which gives the point E. Also the same distance from L, towards K , giving F, and the work of fixing the central point is done. Kun a furrow from A and D to E, and from B and C to F; these define the corners and assist in the turning of the plow. The plowing then begins by back- Fig. 73. —PLAN FOIi RECTANGULAR FIELD. furrowing from E to F; plowing on the ends as soon as possible. After the work has progressed for a time, as far as indicated, for example, by the dotted lines, G, H, /, J, pace from the furrow to the outside (see dotted lines), at or near each end of the furrow, as a correction, and, if necessary, gauge the plow until the furrow on all sides is equally distant from the boundary. When the field is of irregular shape, it is not difficult to begin in the centre and plow outward —in fact, this system is of Fig. 74.— PLAN FOR IRREGULAR . . ' . , . field. most importance here, be¬ cause all the short turning in the middle of the field, FARM CONVENIENCES. 95 incident to the irregularity of the field, comes on un- piowed ground. In figure 74 we have a piece of very irregular shape. From a point on A D, at right angles to B, pace the distance to B, and place a stake at the middle point, B. In the same way, determine the point F on the line N D. In a line with E , F, measure from K a distance equal to M E (one-half the perpendicular distance across the end of field), and also in like manner determine the point F —which gives the central line, E F. The plow should be run from the four corners, as in the first case, to make the corner lines. The plow¬ man will use his judgment, and plow only upon the lower portion at first, until the plowed land takes the shape 6r, //, I, J, when the correction is made. From this time on the furrow runs parallel with the boundary, and the work continues smoothly to the end. A WIRE-FENCE TIGHTENER. Having occasion recently to tighten some wires in a trellis, we made use of the following contrivance. Into a small piece of wood a few inches long we put two screws about three inches apart, and near to one end one other screw, leaving the heads projecting about half an inch. By placing the wire between the two screws, and turning the piece of wood around, the wire was drawn tight; and by engaging the head of the single screw upon it, the tension was maintained. The operation of 96 FARM CONVENIENCES. the contrivance is shown at 1, and the method of arrang¬ ing the screws or pins appears as 2. By using a strong piece of wood two feet long, and strong iron bolts, fast¬ ened with nuts upon the back side, this device may be used to tighten fence wires. PLANTING CORN—A MARKER. What would be thought of a mechanic who should rip his boards from a log with the old-fashioned whip saw and plane them or match them by hand, or who should work out his nails on the anvil one at a time by hand labor ? He would hardly earn enough to find himself in bread alone. Yet in an equally old-fashioned, costly, and unprofitable way do thousands of farmers plant and cultivate their corn crops. The ground is plowed, har- Fig. 76. —EUNNER AND TOOTH FOR MARKER. rowed and marked out both ways, either with the plow. or sometimes by a quicker method, with a corn marker. The seed is dropped by hand and covered by hand with a hoe; the crop is hoed by hand or plowed in the old method, leaving the ground ridged and deeply furrowed, so that in a drv season the corn suffers for want of moist' «/ are. All this costs so much that the farmer’s laboi FARM CONVENIENCES. 9 ? brings him about fifty cents a day, upon which he lives, grumbling that “farming does not pay.” This method would be ruinous in the West where corn is a staple crop, and that it is not so in the East is simply because it is not grown to a large extent. But there is no crop that may be grown so cheaply and easily in the East that pro¬ duces so much feed as corn. Fifty bushels of corn and four tons of fodder per acre contain more dry nutriment than thirty tons of turnips or mangels, and may be grown with less labor and less cost, if only the best methods are employed. Now, with the excellent implements and machines that are in use for planting and cultivating corn, no farmer can afford to work this crop in the oid- f'ashioned method. There is no longer any need to plant in squares, for the crop may be kept perfectly clean when planted in drills, if the proper implements are used. There are several corn planters by which the seed may be dropped and covered at the same time in single or double drills, at the rate of eight to twenty acres per day. By using the Thomas harrow a few days after planting, every young weed will be killed, and the crust, which so often gathers upon the surface, will be broken up and the surface mellowed. The harrow may be used without damage until the corn is several inches high. Then anyone of the many excellent horse hoes may be used by which the weeds may be cut out of the rows close 5 FARM CONVENIENCES. 9b to the corn until the crop is so high that farther working is useless. This method of cultivation may cost two dol¬ lars per acre, or less, as the ground may have been kept free from weeds in previous years, while on the old-fash¬ ioned system it may cost ten dollars per acre, or more, as the weeds may have been allowed to get further ahead, Nevertheless, there are farmers who will still work on the hand-to-mouth plan, and will still mark out their crops by a marker and drvp the seed by hand. For these it will be convenient to have at least a good marker. It will mark uneven as well as level ground ; it can be set to any width between rows ; any farmer or smart boy can make it, and the inventor, w T ho is a farmer in Can¬ ada, does not propose to patent it. The marker is made of two by four scantling, one piece being eight feet long. In this five holes are bored, one for each of the runners, one and one-eighth inch in diameter. The runners are also of two by four timber, and eighteen inches long. Holes one and one-eighth inch in diameter are bored through the runners, in which are placed hard wood pins fourteen inches long. These are driven in from the bottom, the ends being left broad, so that they may not pass through the holes, and projecting an inch and a half. This is shown in figure 76. The small pin which passes through the larger one serves to connect the run¬ ner with the principal timber, and by shifting the large pin from one hole to another, the runners may be brought from four feet to one foot, or even six inches apart, and made to mark rows of widths increasing by spaces of six inches up to four feet. When one of the markers meets with an obstruction it is lifted by it, as seen in figure 77, and passes over it. A guide marker is fixed by a binge to one of the outside runners, and carries a scraper which is held in place by a pin, by moving which the distance ol the next row may be regulated. A pair of light shafts FARM CONVEKIEKCES, 99 may be attached to the marker, and a pair of handles by which it may be guided. FEED TROUGH AND HALTER. The trough rests on the floor and is four feet long. A, A, are inch auger holes; a rope, four feet long, is put through them and tied. Another rope, D, has a ring Fig. 78. —FEED TROUGH AND HALTER. spliced on one end, and a “snap hook” on the other. The longer rope passes through the ring, B, and when the rope, D , is put oyer the neck of the cow, the “snap,” C, hooks into the ring. This allows the animal to stand or lie down with comfort. THE HORSE-SHOE AND ITS APPLICATION. Any excess of growth at the toe renders the pasterns more oblique, and, as a consequence, throws undue weight upon the “back sinews,” whereas, too great height of heels has a similar effect upon the joints cf the extremities, by rendering them too upright. Tak¬ ing as our guide the foot of the animal that has never been brought to the forge, and which, in consequence, must be considered as a correct model, let the external 100 FARM CONVENIENCES. wall of the hoof be reduced by means of the rasp to a level with the firm unpared sole. If there is no growth of the external wall beyond this level, then there is nothing to be removed. In the selection of a shoe for the healthy foot, we must bear in mind the object in view, which is to pro¬ tect the parts from excessive wear. This protection is to be found in a metallic rim of proper size and shape, securely adjusted. Almost every shoe in common use meets this end more or less satisfactorily, and we have already remarked that the proper preparation of the foot that has been previously shod is of vastly more impor¬ tance than the particular kind of shoe to be adopted. At the same time, there are faults in the shoe most com¬ monly employed, which had their origin in its particular adaptation to the foot after this had undergone more or less severe mutilation at the hands of the farrier, and which have been retained more through custom than through actual necessity, as we have reason to hope. The most prominent of these faults consists in extreme narrowness of rim with a concavity upon the upper or foot surface, in order to prevent the sole from sus¬ taining least weight or pressure, which it is perfectly unfitted to do after being pared down to a point of sensi¬ tiveness. In a state of nature we know that every por¬ tion of the foot comes to the ground and sustains its share of weight, and in the shod state it should do the same, as far as practicable. Hence, the shoe should be constructed with its upper surface perfectly flat, and with a breadth sufficient to protect a portion of the sole, and to sustain weight. It should be bevelled upon the ground surface, in imitation of the concavity of the sole, and not upon its upper surface, where the space thus formed serves as a lodging place for small stones and other foreign bodies. In shape it should follow the ex- FAEM CONVENIENCES 101 act outline of the outer wall, being narrowed at the heels, but continued of the same thickness throughout. The lateral projection at the quarters, and the posterior one at the heels are unsightly, of no benefit, and should never be allowed where speed is required. HOW TO MAKE A FISHING SCOW. Boat-building should be done during the winter, when in-door work is more agreeable, and leisure is more ample, than in the summer. A boy who can handle tools, may make a very handsome boat or scow, such as is shown at figure 79, at a cost of five dollars or less, in the following manner. Procure five three-quarter or half-inch clear pine boards, twelve feet in length and eight inches wide ; four boards ten feet long, one inch thick, and one foot wide, and three strips ten feet long, one and a quarter-inch thick, and three inches wide. Plane all these smoothly on both sides, and have them all free from loose knots or shakes. Cut two of the one' inch boards sloping at each end to a straight line for two feet, and then slightly rounding the middle of the board. Cut two pieces of the one and a quarter-inch strips into lengths of two feet ten inches, and nail them to the ends of the side-boards, as shown in figure 80. If strips of soft brown paper are dipped into tar and placed m FARM COKYENIENCESo between the joints, they wull be made closer and more water-tight. Cut the eight-inch boards into three feet lengths, and nail them across the bottom, as shown in figure 80 ; where the bevel ends, the two bottom boards must be bevelled slightly upon one of their edges, so as to make a close joint. Then take two of the one and Fig. 80. —PUTTING ON THE BOTTOM. a quarter-inch strips, and make cuts in each on one side with the saw, one inch deep, as follows : measuring from one end, mark with a pencil across the strip three feet six inches from the end; then mark again across the strip one inch and a half fronTthe first mark, and score between these marks with an x. Then measure three inches and make another mark, and then an inch and a half and make still another mark, and score as before between these last two with an x. Then do precisely the same on the same side of the strip, measuring from the other end. Then on the edges of the board score with gauge or make a line with a pencil exactly one inch from the marked side. Then make the cuts on the pencil lines down to the score on the edge, just one inch deep, but no more. Cut away the wood in the places that were marked with an x, leaving four slots one inch and a half wide, one inch deep, and with three inches be¬ tween them upon each strip. Nail these strips with the cut side inwards, to the upper edge of the side-board, on the outside of the boat, as seen in figure 81. The spaces left in the gunwales are for the rowlocks. The FAM CONVENIENCES. 103 strips should be well nailed near the rowlocks, and if a quarter-inch, flat-lieaded, counter-sunk carriage-bolt were used on each side of them, it would be very much better than so many nails. A thin washer, or burr, should be used beneath the nut of each bolt. The row- lock pins should be made of hard maple or oak, in the shape shown at a , figure 81. They are one inch thick, one and a half inch wide at the lower part, which fits into the slot, with a shoulder of half an inch, and the top is bevelled off neatly as shown. The seats, of which Fig. 81. —INTERIOR OF BOAT. there are tw T o, are made ten inches wide. The cleats tor the seats, one inch thick, one and a half inch wide, and ten inches long, are nailed three inches below the upper edge of the side-board. The middle seat goes exactly in the centre of the boat, with each edge four feet seven inches from the end of the boat. The end seats are 104 FARM CONVENIENCES. placed with the backs two feet from the ends of the boat, leaving eight inches between each seat and the edge of the rowlock nearest to it. There are cleats for three seats, hut only two seats are used at once. When one seat is used, the rower sits in the centre, and he can use either of the rowlocks, the boat being double-bowed. When two seats are used, one person only rows at one time, but either can row without changing seats, and one always faces to the direction in which the boat moves. This arrangement of seats is very convenient. Eighteen inches of each end is closed in, and makes a locker for holding fish-lines, hooks, or the “ painter,” which is a light rope for tying up the boat when not in use. This may be fastened to a ring-bolt or a hole bored in one of the locker covers. The long bottom- board, seen in figure 81, eight inches wide and half an inch thick, is nailed as shown, by wrought nails driven from the outside and clinched on the inside. The seat cleats are nailed in the same manner, as are also the side strips. Every nail is counter-sunk and the hole filled up with putty. The seams are puttied or filled with a strip of cotton sheeting pushed in with the blade of a dinner knife. If the joints are made as well as they may be, this is not needed, but two coats of paint will make all tight. The inside should be painted lead-color, made by mixing lampblack with white paint to a proper shade. The outside may be painted white or a light- green, with the gunwale of a light-blue. A few days will be required to harden the paint before using the boat. None but seasoned boards should be used. CROWS AND SCARECROWS Probably there is no point upon which a gathering of half a dozen farmers will have more positive opinions FARM CONVENIENCES. 105 than as to the relations of the crow to agriculture. It is likely that five of these will regard the bird as totally bad, while the minority of one will claim that he is all good. As usual, the truth lies between the extremes. There is no doubt that the crow loves corn, and knows that at the base of the tender shoot there is a soft, sweet kernel. But the black-coated bird is not altogether a vegetarian. The days in which he can pull young corn are few, but the larger part of the year he is really the friend of the farmer. One of the worst insect pests with which the farmer, fruit-grower, or other cultivator has to contend is, the “ White G-rub,” the larva of the “May Beetle,” “June Bug,” or “Dor-Bug.” It is as well established as any fact can be, that the crow is able to detect this grub while it is at work upon the roots of grass in meadows and lawns, and will find and grub it out. For this service alone the crow should be every¬ where not only spared, but encouraged. We are too apt to judge by appearances; when a crow is seen busy in a field, it is assumed that it is doing mischief, and by a constant warfare against, not only crows, but skunks, owls, and others that are hastily assumed to be wholly bad, the injurious insects, mice, etc., that do the farmer real harm have greatly increased. Shortly after corn is planted, the crows appear, and are destructive to young corn. Some assert that the crow pulls up the corn plant merely to get at the grub which would destroy it if the bird did not. How true this may be we do not know, but as the corn is destroyed in either case, it may be as well to let it go without help from the crow. The first impulse of the farmer, when he finds his corn pulled up, is to shoot the crow. This we protest against. Even admitting that the crow does mischief for a short time, it is too useful for the rest of the year to be thus cut down in active life. Let him live for the good he has 5* 106 FAKM CONVENIENCES. done and may do. It is vastly better to keep the crows from^ pulling the young corn, for two or three weeks, and allow them all the rest of the year to destroy bugs and beetles in astonishing numbers. The corn may be protected by means of “ scarecrows,” of which there are several very effective kinds. Crows are very keen, and are not easily fooled; they quickly understand the or¬ dinary “dummy,” or straw man, which soon fails to be of service in the corn-field. It has no life, no motion, and makes no noise, and the crow soon learns this and comes and sits upon its outstretched arm, or pulls the corn vigorously at its feet. A dead crow, hung by a swinging cord to a long slender pole, is recommended as far better than a straw man—as it, in its apparent strug¬ gles to get away, appeals impressively to the living crow’s ser of caution. But the crow may not be at hand to be tuns employed, and if it were, the farmer cannot afford to kill it. Better than a dead crow is a glass bot¬ tle with the bottom knocked out, which may be done with an iron rod. The bottle is suspended to an elastic pole by a cord tied around its neck ; the end of the cord should extend downward into the bottle, and have a nail fastened to it and within the bottle, to serve as a clapper. If a piece of bright tin be attached to the cord extending below the bottomless end of the bottle, all the better. A slight breeze will cause the tin to whirl, and, in the motion, cast bright reflections rapidly in all directions, while the nail keeps up a rattling against the inside of the bottle. An artificial “ bird,” to be hung in the same manner, may be made from a piece of cork—one used in a pickle-jar—into which a number of large goose or chicken feathers are fastened so as to roughly imitate a dilapidated bird. A rough head maj 7 be carved and put on, to make the deception more complete. As this “bird” catches the wind, it will “fly” here and there FARM CONVENIENCES. 107 in a peculiar manner not at all enticing to the corn loving crows. FLOOD FENCE. The weak point of a fence is where it crosses a stream ; a sudden freshet washes away loose rails, and a gap is Fig. 82. —A FLOOD GATE. /eft through which trespassing cattle soon find a passage. Many devices have been used. The one shown in figure 82 is self-acting: when water rises high enough, it opens, and when the flood falls it closes again. It may be made of rails, bars, or fence strips. CLEARING SLOUGH LAND. In clearing up land that is covered with tussocks of coarse grass and a tough sod, and digging out ditches to drain such land, much useless labor may be given that could be spared by skilful work. The spade is commonly used for this purpose, but, as in digging dry ground, this slow tool may be replaced to very great advantage by the plow and the horse-shovel. In work- 108 FARM CONVENIENCES ing m swamps these more effective tools may be made available in many cases. To cut off the tussocks with grub-hoes, while they are tough in the summer time, is very hard and slow work ; but if a common horse-scraper is used they can be torn up, or cut off, with the greatest ease. The scraper should be furnished with a sharp steel-cutting blade in the front, which may be riveted on, or fastened with bolts, so that it may be taken off and ground sharp. If there are wet and soft places the scraper may be drawn by a chain of sufficient length to keep the horse upon dry ground, as shown in figure 83. This plan has been tried by the writer with success, and with a great saving of time and expense ; the digging of a pond twenty feet wide along the edge of a swamp, was performed with one man, a boy, a team, and a horse- shovel, as quickly as ten men could have done it with spades. In cutting tough swamp, the plow may be used to break up the surface when the horse-shovel will re¬ move the muck very fast. If the swamp is wet, and FARM CONVENIENCES. 10b water flows in the excavation, the digging may still be done with the horse-scraper by adding to the length of the handles and using planks upon each side for the man to stand upon, and planks upon the inner side of the excavation for the scraper to slide upon with its load of muck. The muck maybe thrown in heaps on the side of the pond or ditches, and it will be found convenient to leave it upon one side instead of in a continuous heap, as this will greatly facilitate its final disposal in what¬ ever way that may be. HOW TO DRESS A BEEF. There is a way of slaughtering that is not butchering, and it may be done painlessly by taking the right course. The barn floor or a clean grass-plot in a convenient spot Fig. 84.— THE PROPER PLACE TO STRIKE. will be a suitable place for the work. To fasten the an¬ imal, put a strong rope around the horns, and secure the head in such a way that it cannot be moved to any great distance, and in a position to allow a direct blow to be easily given. The eyes may be blinded by tying a cloth around the head so that there will be no dodging to 110 FARM COMYEMIEMCES. avoid tlie stroke. The place for the stunning blow is the centre of the forehead, between the eyes and a little above them. The right place is shown at a , figure 84. The best method is to fire a ball from a rifle in the exact spot, and this may be done safely when the animal is blinded, by holding the weapon near to the head, so that a miss cannot be made ; otherwise a blow with the back of an axe made when the striker is on the right side of the animal, and the head is fastened down near the ground, will be equally effective. So soon as the animal falls, the throat is divided with a cut from a long, sharp knife ; no jack¬ knife should be used, but a long, deep, sweeping stroke Fig. 85.— RACK FOR A CARCASS OF BEEF. which reaches to the vertebras as the head is held back. This divides all the blood-vessels, and death is almost in¬ stantaneous, but at any rate painless. When the carcass has been freed from blood, it should be turned on its back, and the skin divided from the throat up the brisket, along the belly to the legs, and up the legs to the knees, where the joints should be severed, taking care, how¬ ever, to cut off the hind feet below the hock joints FARM COHVEKIEKCES. Ill about two or three inches. The skin is then stripped from the legs and belly, and as near to the back as may be by turning the carcass. The belly is then opened, and the intestines taken out; the brisket is cut through, and the lungs and gullet removed. It is now necessary to raise the carcass. This is done on the rack, the for¬ ward legs of which are placed on each side of the car¬ cass, and the gambrels are placed upon the hooks shown in figure 85. The legs of the rack are then raised as far as possible, and as the carcass is lifted, the hinder leg is brought up to hold what is gained until the carcass is clear of the ground ; the hide is then wholly removed, the carcass washed and scraped from anything adhering, and then divided down through the backbone, leaving the sides hanging. As a matter of safety from dogs or other dishonest animals, it is well to have the work done in the barn, laying down a quantity of straw to protect the floor, if thought necessary, as the beef should re¬ main at least twelve hours to cool and set. A FARM CART. While there are different kinds of farm carts, we have not yet hit upon the cart— i. e ., one that meets with general approbation. The writer, having much work for a cart, has designed one which is intended to do all the work of the farm more easily than a wagon or any other cart. For the carriage of manure, of fodder-corn, green clover, or other soiling fodder, for hauling roots and such work, a cart is needed with a low body, that can be turned around in its own length to back, or even turn in a manure cellar or on a barn floor. All this can be done with this cart, and when hay, straw, or green fodder is to be loaded, the fore and hind racks may be 112 FARM CONVENIENCES. put on, and greatly increase its capacity. With four-inch wheels, this cart can be drawn, when loaded, over plowed ground or muddy roads, and scarcely sink below the surface. The cart body consists of a frame eight feet long, three and a half feet wide, and fourteen inches deep, thus holding, when heaped, about a cubic yard and a half of manure, or as near as possible one ton. The frame is made of three by four timber for the top, and two by three for the bottom, sides, and cross-bars, and is covered with bass-wood or willow boards on the bottom, the front, and the sides near the wheels. The rear end is closed when desired by a sliding tail-board. The axles are fixed to the frame, as shown in figure 86, and pass through the ^middle side posts under the upper slide bar and a wide iron strap, Fig. 86.— axle fast- embraces the top of the ENING. ill frame, and passes under the bot¬ tom, as shown in the engraving, being screwed by bolts to the timbers. The wheel is the same size as ar ordinary wagon wheel, viz., four feet ; this brings the bottom of th§ cart body to within one foot of the ground, and in loading, the lift is only a little more than two feet from the ground. The saving of labor and the effect of work are thus greatly increased, a man being able to load twice as much with the same force, into a cart of this kind, as into a wagon-box four feet high. The rear end of the cart may he provided with a roller, fitted into the rear posts, which serves to ease the unloading of the cart when it is tipped, the rear end then easily moving over the ground as the cart is drawn over the field when unloading manure. But as the cart body is so low there will rarely be any need for tipping the cart. To enlarge its capacity, there FARM COHVEXIEHCES. 113 are movable racks fitted before and behind, as shown in figure 87. The cost of two of these carts is not more than that of a wagon, and may be less, if economy is exercised in making them. The shafts may be bolted to the sides and so arranged that the cart can be tipped over when the load requires it. BRACES FOR A GATE POST. On the side of the post, and near the surface of the ground, spike an inverted bracket, made of a two-inch plank of white oak, or other hard wood. The bracket Fig. 88.—BRACING A GATE POST. should be not less than six inches wide, and a foot long. There should be two of these braces, one on the gate 114 EAKM CONVENIENCES. side of the post when the gate is shut, and one on the gate side when open. Under the bracket place a flat stone firmly settled in the ground, on which the bottom of the bracket is to rest; a piece of plank, as long as it lasts, will do instead of the stone. The hang of the gate can then be exactly adjusted by putting a thin stone or piece of wood between the bot¬ tom of the bracket and the flat stone or plank. This is a simple and effective method of supporting a post, where there is no other convenient way of bracing, and even in almost all cases, it gives additional firmness. If the lower end of the post is of good size, and is well put in, this method of bracing will hold a very heavy gate. WHIPPLE-TREES FOR PLOWING CORN SAFELY. We have found it beneficial to cultivate our corn crop until the rows become impassable for a horse, or until it was foar feet or more high. But to do this with the wide whipple-tree, the ends of which project beyond the traces, and break down the stalks, is impossible. It may, however, be done by using a whipple-tree spe¬ cially provided for it. This is made as follows: a piece of oak timber, two inches thick, three wide, and twenty inches long, is rounded at the corners, and deeply grooved at the ends, so that the trace-chains may be entirely imbedded in the grooves. A small hole is bored through each end. into which a small carriage bolt is inserted, being made to pass through a link of the trace-chain, and it is then fastened beneath with a nut. Fig. 89. —WHIPPLE-TREE. J?ARM CONVENIENCES. 115 The trace-chains should be covered with leather where they will rub against the corn, and a flap of leather should he left to cover the front corners of the whipple- tree, as shown in figure 89. A ring or an open link is fastened at the part of the chain which is attached to the clevis, and one at each end by which it is hooked to the traces. With this arrangement one may cultivate his corn without injury, and the same method may be applied to the whipple-trees, for plowing or cultivating amongst trees in the orchard or garden. WHAT TREES TO PLANT FOR FUEL AND TIMBER. The attention of our people in the older States is being very properly turned to planting rocky ridges and worn- out pastures with forest trees. This work is done by those who have no expectation of cutting the timber themselves, but with a view to improve their property for future sale, or for their heirs. These old pastures now are worth $10, or less, per acre. Forty or fifty years hence, covered with heavy timber, they would be Worth three hundred dollars, or more, per acre. Two elements may safely enter into this calculation of the profit of tree planting : the steady growth of the trees, and the constant increase in the price of fuel and tim¬ ber. There is great difference in the price of the varie¬ ties of wood, but still more in the rapidity of their growth. Hickory grows more rapidly than white oak, and in most markets is worth a quarter more for fuel. Chestnut grows about three times as fast as the white oak, and for many purposes makes quite as good timber. It is in great demand by ship-builders, and cabinet¬ makers. The chestnut, the tulip tree, and the hickory attain a good size for timber in twenty to twenty-five 116 FARM CONVENIENCES. years, and the spruce and pine need about fifty years. The maples grow quite rapidly, and are highly prized, both for fuel and for cabinet purposes. On light sandy land, the white pine will grow rapidly, and cannot fail to be a good investment for the next generation. As a rule, the more rapid growing trees, if the wood is valua¬ ble, will pay better than the oaks. TO STEADY PORTABLE MILLS. Figure 90 shows a contrivance for steadying portable mills, which has been used for several years. It is an iron rod of suitable size, about a foot long, fastened by iron brack¬ ets to the leg, or post of the mill. Three or four inches of the rod is a screw, and fits one of the brackets through which it runs, and can be turned up or down. The lower end of the rod is pointed, and the upper end squared, that it may be turned with a wrench. The rod is fastened Fig. 90— leg of mill, firmly to the side of the post (one on each of the forward posts), and turned down so that the point shall enter the floor sufficiently to hold it firmly. SPLITTING RAILS AND POSTS. Autumn is the best season for cutting timber, as many farmers have learned by experience. The season¬ ing process is much more perfect, because there is no layer of growing sap wood. Insects do not work in autumn cut timber, as in that cut in the spring or sum¬ mer, and the wood does not “powder post.” It is best to split the logs into rails or posts at once, and not wait FARM CONVENIENCES. 117 until tlie timber lias become seasoned in the log. The logs will split easier, tlie rails will season quicker, and be more durable. The splitting of rails is a work that requires good judgment, otherwise much timber will be wasted. Some persons will make rails that are large at one end, and gradually tapering to a sliver at the other, and are worthless for fencing purposes. Set the wedge at the top end of the log, after first “check¬ ing ” with the axe, by driving with the beetle, so as to divide the log into two equal parts. Now drive in two wedges, as shown in figure 91, both at the same time. Next use a wooden wedge or “glut,” either in the end of the log, or on the top a little back from the end. After halving the log, quarter it, and then proceed on the principle that a rail should be about three by three inches. The size of the log.will determine the number of rails be made. For example, in figure 92, six rails are made by first halving the quarter, then splitting off the inner part half-way from the centre, and afterwards halving the outer part. Should the logs be larger, twelve rails are made from each quarter, as shown in figure 93, —or forty-eight rails from the log. In split¬ ting logs into posts, a broad and smooth side is to be sought. Suppose we have the same, sized log as the one split into forty-eight rails, or twelve rails per quarter, figure 93—the splitting would be, in each case, from the centre to outside with cross splitting mid¬ way. The number of posts would be determined by the size of the posts desired. If the logs are of the size of the quarter, shown in figure 92, there is no cross split¬ ting, unless a small piece for a Fig. 91. —POSITION OF WEDGE. 1X8 FARM CONVENIENCES. 3 take is taken from the centre. When the logs are only large enough for four posts, and a broad surface is de¬ sired, as in bar posts, they may be split by first “slab¬ bing/’ and afterwards splitting through the centre ; all the split surfaces to be parallel. If still smaller, three Fig. 92. Fig. 93. posts can be made, by splitting off two slabs on opposite sides, as in the case above, and not divide the heart, and finally when the log will make only two, it can be halved. A MIXTURE OP GRASSES, It is a well-known fact that mixed crops are more pro¬ ductive than those sown singly. Thus one acre sown to oats and barley, or oats and peas, will yield as much, or nearly as much, as two acres sown singly to either crop. So in grass lands, Clover and Timothy, mixed, will pro¬ duce nearly twice as much as if the ground were seeded to one of these alone. It is also a well-known fact that our grass lands are not so productive as we could wish, and the reason of this may be, and probably is, that we have but one or two kinds of herbage in them. If we examine an old, thick, luxuriant sod, in a pasture or a meadow, it will be found to consist of a variety of grasses and other plants, each of which seems to vie with the other in occupying the soil for itself. This is the result of natural seeding, and gives us a lesson which we may well profit by. There is another reason why grasses should be mixed; this is that the periods of greatest FARM CONVENIENCES. 119 vigor of different varieties occur at different times. We can therefore secure a succession of herbage for a long season by sowing a variety of grass seeds. To give examples, we might mention that a mixture of Orchard Grass, Red Clover, Timothy, and Kentucky Blue-Grass will produce a pasture which will be in good condition for grazing from April, when the first mem tioned grass is in fine condition, up to October, when the last is in its most vigorous state ; the Clover and Timothy serving to fill up the interval. With one of these alone there would be but one month of good herb¬ age, and that coarse, if given the whole field to itself. In like manner, a quantity of Rye Grass added to a meadow would help to furnish a quick growing herbage which rapidly and constantly recuperates after cutting or eat¬ ing down. The fact is, that we make much less of our advantages in regard to our meadows and pastures than we might. On the average, seven acres of pasture are required to keep one cow through the pasturing season, when by the best management one acre, or at the most two* ought to be sufficient. This is due in great measure to the prev¬ alent fashion of seeding down with but one variety of grass, with clover added sometimes, a fashion which, hereafter, experience teaches us should be more honored in the breach than in the observance. HITCHING A CRIB-BITER. Those persons who have a horse that is a crib-biter and windsucker, and which practices his vice wheu hitched to a post in the street, is recommended to try a hitching- rod, such as shown in figure 94 It consists of a piece of hickory, white oak, or tough ash, about twenty-four 120 FARM CONVENIENCES. or thirty inches long, thickest in the middle, where it may be an inch in diameter. A ferule with a ring is fast¬ ened to each end; in one ring a common snap- hook is fixed, and a short leather strap is passed through the other, by which the stick is fast¬ ened to the post. The horse thus hitched can¬ not possibly reach the top of the post, to seize it with its teeth. In the stall such a horse should be hitched with two straps, one at each side of the stall, and of such a length that he cannot reach either side to take hold of the rail or partition of the stall. If a swinging feed-box is used, the crib-biter will be forced to suspend operations, as he cannot draw in the air or “ suck wind,” unless he has some projecting object * that he can lay hold of with the teeth. Fig. 94. HOW TO INCREASE VEGETABLE MATTER IN THE SOIL, The amount of vegetable matter in the soil may be increased by various methods ; one is by large applications of barn-yard manure, say fifty cords to the acre. Eut this would be very expensive, and is out of the question in com¬ mon farming. It may be done by putting on peat or muck, when these are near to the fields. But this involves a considerable outlay for labor in digging the peat, and a still larger expense in carting it, whether it first pass through the yards and stables, or be carted to the fields for composting or spreading upon the sur¬ face to be plowed in. On some farms this may be tho cheaper method of supplying vegetable matter to the soil. But on others the most economical method is the raising of clover, to be fed off upon the land, or to be FARM CONVENIENCES. 121 turned in. If a ton of clover may be worth nine dollars, as a fertilizer, the growing of the plant is a cheap method of improving the land. Two tons for the first crop and a ton for the second is not an uncommon yield for land in good heart. The roots of clover also add largely to the vegetable matter in the soil. The first crop may be pastured, waiting until the crop is in blos¬ som, and then turning in cattle enough to feed it off in three or four weeks. They should be kept constantly upon the field, that the whole crop may be returned to the soil. This will, of course, help the second crop, which maybe turned in with the plow soon after it is in blossom. If the equivalent of three tons of dried clover hay, and one ton of roots have been grown to the acre, about thirty-six dollars’ worth of manure have been added to the soil, and it has been distributed more evenly than would have been possible by any mechanical process. There has been no expense for carting and spreading peat, or for composting. On the contrary, there has been the equivalent of two tons of clover-hay consumed upon the field, worth, as fodder, twenty-four dollars. This will more than pay the cost of seed, of plowing twice and other labor. This is generally admitted to be the cheapest method of increasing the vegetable matter and the fertility of soils in common farming. And this, it will be seen, requires some little capital. OPEN LINKS. An open link, shown in figure 95, is made of three- eighth inch iron rod, and when used to connect a broken chain, is simply closed by a blow from a hammer or a stone. There being no rivet, the link is not weakened in any way. Figure 96 shows another link, made of malleable cast-iron, in two parts, which are fastened together 6 1&& FARM COKYEKIEtfCES. by a rivet in the centre. A few of these links may be carried in the pocket, and are ready for instant use in case of an emergency. The last-mentioned links are Fig. 95.— common link. Fig. 96. kept for sale at the hardware stores ; the first named may be made in a short time by a blacksmith, or any farmer who has a workshop and a portable forge. CARE OP THE ROOT CROPS. Sugar beets and mangels, if early sowed, will need little care. They ought not to stand too thick, how¬ ever, and it would certainly pay to go through the rows, thinning out all superfluous plants, whether beets or weeds, leaving the plants six to eight inches apart. If the leaves are not so large as to forbid horse-hoeing, this should be done and the crop “laid-by.” No root crop should ever be left after horse-hoeing, without a man going through it immediately after, to lift and straighten up any plants which may have been trodden upon, covered with earth, or injured in any way. Ruta¬ bagas, and any turnips in drills, need the same general culture. One of the great advantages of the introduc- FARM CONVENIENCES. 123 tion of roots into tlie rotation is that, when properly treated, no weeds ripen seeds. Even red sorrel and snapdragon succumb to two or three years’ cropping with mangels or Swedes. This advantage is often lost by careless cultivators, and nothing offers surer evidence of heedless farming. The crop itself may be very fine, but if kept clear of weeds it would be enough better to pay for the trouble, and the weeds would then be where they will make no more trouble forever. Turnips may be sown as late as the middle of August, but the land should be in good heart, and good tilth. Swedish turnips (rutabagas) sowed as late as the first of August, will usually make a crop delicious for the table, and, though small, bring a good price. Thus they are often used to follow early potatoes by market gardeners, though by them usually regarded as a farm crop. TRAP FOR SHEEP-KILLING DOGS. In many places the losses by dogs are so great as to prevent the keeping of sheep altogether ; thus this profit¬ able and agreeable industry is made impracticable over the greater portion of the country; unless such pre* cautions are taken as will add greatly to its trouble and cost. With small flocks only, this extra cost and trouble are too onerous, and it is only where sheep are kept in large flocks that it will pay to employ shepherds to con¬ stantly watch them, or take other necessary precautions. In several of the States—West Virginia and Tennessee more particularly—very stringent laws have recently been enacted for the protection of sheep against dogs, which will go far to encourage the raising of flocks. In other States, where the influence of the owners of dogs is of more weight than that of sheep-owners, these latter FARM CO^VEXIEXCES. 1^4 are obliged to look out for themselves, and protect their sheep as they may be able. For such the contrivance here described and illustrated, may be useful. It is made as follows : In the meadow or field, where sheep are pastured during the day, a small pen, eight feet square, is made, and fenced strongly with pickets or boards. This pen is divided into two parts (A, B, figure 97) by a cross-fence. The pen is wholly covered over Fig. 97.— TliAP FOli SHEEP-KILLING DOGS. on the top with strong lath. Two gates [a, b,) are made so that they will swing open of their own accord, and remain so, unless held closed or fastened. The gate, a , is furnished with a latch, by which it is fastened when closed. This gate is intended to admit the dog into the FARM CONVENIENCES. 125 part of the pen, A, when he is attracted to it by a sheep confined for the purpose in the other part of the pen (B). In the part of the pen. A, is a heavy board, reaching across it. One edge of this board rests upon the ground against two pegs, which keep it from slipping backwards. The other edge is kept up by means of two shaky slender supports. A rope is fastened to the upper edge of this board, and to the gates, so that one half of it, when the board is propped up, allows the gate, a , to swing open, and the other half holds the gate, b, shut, and thus keeps the sheep confined. The trap is now set. A dog, prowl¬ ing in search of mutton, finds the sheep, and seeks an entry into the pen. He finds the open gate, and rushes in, over the board set upon its edge, and knocks this down. This closes the gate, a, which is at once latched and fastened. The gate, b, is allowed to swing open, and the sheep is liberated, and, of course, proceeds home¬ ward without delay, while the dog is imprisoned. We need not suggest any method of dealing with the pris¬ oner, as there are many, more or less effective, which will suggest themselves. We think it would be an im¬ provement upon this plan, if the sheep be confined in the pen, where it can be seen by the dogs, and an addi¬ tional apartment, if not more than one, made, in which other dogs could be trapped. Sheep-hunting dogs usually go in couples, and if only one dog were trapped, the sheep escaping from the pen would be caught by the other before it could reach home. With two or three traps all the dogs could be caught, and in a short time the locality would be rid of them, or, being identified, their owners could be made responsible for their tres¬ passes. It would be necessary to have the pen made very strong, so that the dogs should not tear their way out of the trap, or into the pen in which the sheep is confined. Stout wire-netting would make a safe fence. 126 FARM CONVENIENCES. So far as regards what are called dog-laws, it would be well if these should provide, amongst other things, that every dog must wear a collar, bearing its owner’s name ; that the owner of any dog which is caught in pursuit of sheep upon the property of any person other than the owner of the dog, should be held liable for damages for the trespass, and that any dog caught trespassing, and being without a collar bearing its owner’s name, should be destroyed by the person capturing it. As any citizen has as much right to keep a dog as another has to keep a sheep, without being taxed for it, and can only be held liable for what damage his dog may do, it does not seem just that any tax should he levied upon dogs. The only just claim that can be made by a sheep-owner is that he shall be protected in the enjoyment of his property, and that the person by or through whom he is injured should recompense him. In the case of irresponsible owners of dogs, from whom no recovery can be made, the dogs should be destroyed by a proper officer. If the right of persons to keep dogs, when they wish to do so, without being taxed, is recognized in this manner, much of the opposition to the enactment of what are called “dog- laws,” would be removed, and the protection of sheep made much less difficult, and productive of much greater profit. HOW TO USE A FILE PROPERLY. The file is very frequently used in such an imperfect manner as to greatly reduce its value as a mechanical tool. The chief difficulty in using a file is in keeping it in a perfectly horizontal position as it is moved over the work, and in maintaining an equable pressure upon the work meanwhile. Perhaps the most difficult work in filing, and that which is most frequently ill-done, is FARM CONVENIENCES. 12 ? in sharpening saws. The hearing of the file upon the work is very narrow, and unable to guide its direction, and unless the file is held very carefully the direction varies continually, so that the saw tooth is filed round- Fig. 98. —IMPROPER USE OP THE FILE. ing instead of flat, or sloping instead of horizontal, or at exact right angles with the line of the saw, as it should be in a mill-saw oi a rip-saw. When the file is held as shown in figure 08 (a very common manner of holding it), it is almost impossible to do good work upon a saw. When the file is pushed on to the tooth, the weight or pressure of the right hand is exerted upon the longer Fig. 99.— ANOTHER WRONG WAY OF FILING. portion of the tool, making it act as if it were the longer arm of a lever, and thus depresses that portion below the horizontal, as at a. When pushed forward, the pressure is then exerted upon the longer portion of the file, which is carried from the horizontal in the contrary direction. The work is thus made round. Or if the pressure of the left hand is guarded against, that of the right hand 130 FARM CONVENIENCES. building renders a mitre-box very necessary in the work¬ shop. In the one here described, a bevel of any angle may be cut. At the rear of the box is a slotted post, which works in a socket, so that it will turn readily in any direction. From the post, lines are laid out upon the bottom at various angles. At the termination of each line is a round hole, into which a pin may be fitted. The pin is used as a guide for the saw in cut¬ ting a mitre-joint, as shown in the illustration. THE MANURE HARVEST. In the midst of the harvest of grain, and grass, and tubers, we must not forget the compost heap, in which we garner and store the unsowed crops of a future season. The saying that 4 ‘anything that grows in one summer will rot before the next,” is a safe guide in collecting vegetable matter for the compost heap. When sods, muck, and weeds form a part of the heap, it is not alone the material which we are assiduous in collecting, and put into the heap, that constitutes its whQle value. The fermentation induced by the dung and liquid manure, and the action of the lime or ashes added, work upon the earth, adhering to the roots of the weeds, and forming a considerable part of both sods and muck, and develop an admirable quality of plant food. Hence this element of the compost heap, which is generally overlooked as possessing any special value, should never be wanting. It has, moreover, its own offices to perform, in pro¬ moting decay, in the formation of humus, and in pre¬ serving, locking up, and holding on to valuable ingre¬ dients of plant food. The compost heap should always be laid in even layers, and each layer should go over the entire heap, FARM CONVENIENCES. 131 for thus only can final uniformity be had. We do not mean special-purpose composts, but those made for general farm crops. It would be well if every particle of dung, liquid manure, straw, litter, leaves, weeds, etc., could be worked together into uniform fine compost, and there is really no substantial reason why this should not be done. The gardener would plead for certain special composts. It might, perhaps, be well to make a special hen-manure compost for corn in the hill, and taking the general compost as a basis, to make one for turnips, by the addition of a large percentage of bone- dust. All this may be done—establish once the rule to compost everything of manurial value, and we have in prospect an abundance of farm-made fertilizers at all times and for all crops—victory over weeds, a good place for decomposable trash of all kinds, a sacred burial ground for all minor animals and poultry, whose pre¬ cincts need never be invaded. There will besides be no stagnating pool in the barn-yard, for all liquids will go to the tank, to be pumped over the compost heaps—no nasty, slumpy barn-yard, for everything will be daily gathered for the growing compost heap, and the harvest¬ ing of the manure crop, and its increase day by day, all the year round, will be a source of constant pleasure to master and men. FASTENING CATTLE WITH BOWS. Everything connected with this method of fastening cattle in the stable, by means of bows, is so simple in construction, that it is within the reach of every farmer. It requires no outlay, as each one can make all the parts for himself. The bow, figure 104, passes around the animal’s neck in the same manner as an ox-bow, and is made of a good piece of hickory, by bending a strip m FAKM CONTENTEitCES. of the right length, and three-quarter inch in diameter into the bow form. After the bow-piece, A , is made of the right size and shape, with one end left with a knob, to nrevent the clasp from slipping off, and the other cut Fig. 104.— BOW AND CLASP. as shown in front view in figure 104, G , and side view at F y to fit into the slot, in the clasp, it is carefully bent until its ends are brought together, fastened, and left so for a considerable time, when it will take its form and Fig. 105.— BOW AND ATTACHMENT. be ready for use. The clasp is shown at B , D, and con¬ sists of a piece of hard-wood—hickory is best—three- quarters of an inch in thickness, and long enough to hold the top of the bow well together. A round hole is bored in one end, F, through which the bow passes as far as the knob, the other end is cut with a hole for the FARM CONVENIENCES. 133 passage of the other end of the bow, and a slot, (7, irto which its narrow neck springs when the bow is secured about the creature’s neck. A smooth, stout hickory pole, two and a half inches in diameter, reaching from the floor to the beam overhead, serves as a stanchion to which to attach the animal, by means of a small bow, and stationary clasp, figure 105, or an iron ring, A. If a little more room is desired for young stock, a link or two of chain, B , can be inserted between the bow and Fig. 106. —STABLE SHOWING BOW AND STANCHIONS. stanchion ring. In fastening the cattle, the bow is raised when it passes around the neck, and the clasp is brought on, and the end of the bow is sprung in place. When the animal is to be let loose, the end of the bow is pressed in, the clasp slips off, the bow falls, and the work is done in less time than it takes to describe it, and everything is out of the way. Figure 106 show’s a stable arranged for this method of fastening; aside from the manger, there is but the stanchion poles, one for each animal. There is sufficient freedom of movement of IU i'AUti CONVENIENCES. the liead, but not an excess ; the animal can stand or lid down with perfect comfort, as the bow moves with ease the whole length of the stanchion. After a week’s practice, the animals will take their place with their heads by the side of the stanchion, with a precision that is remarkable. Having used the method, here illus¬ trated, for several years, the writer has found it inexpen¬ sive, easy in application, and safe. THE PRESERVATION OP WOOD. It is known that the decay of timber first begins through the fermentation of sap within the pores, and that it is continued after this by the absorption of water. The neutralization of the acids in the timber by the use of lime, has been made use of to preserve it from decay with success; but the most effective methods have been to saturate the pores with oils or mineral salts. Creosote and petroleum have been used successfully, but few persons are aware of the enormous absorptive capa¬ city of timber for these liquids. Cypress wood, when dry, will absorb thirty-nine pounds, or five gallons of oil per cubic foot, and California redwood and pine ab¬ sorb twice their weight when perfectly dry. But it is not necessary for perfect preservation that timber should be fully saturated. One gallon per cubic foot, for the most porous woods, will be fully effective, and a coating of one and three-quarters of a pint per square foot for weather boards, or half as much for shingles, will render them perfectly water-proof. In some careful experi¬ ments recently made, dry spruce absorbed, during two days’ soaking, nearly two per cent, of its weight of water, and but one-tenth as much when treated with oil; dry pine absorbed sixteen per cent, of its weight, and oiled FARM CONVENIENCES. 135 pme absorbed none that could be ascertained by careful weighing. Pine has proved to be the most easily water¬ proofed of any timber. Those who wish to preserve shingle roofs, will be able to draw their own inferences as to the usefulness of coating them with crude petroleum. A NEST FOR EGO-EATING HENS. In the winter season hens frequently acquire the habit of eating eggs. Sometimes this vice becomes so con¬ firmed that several hens may be seen waiting for another one to leave her nest, or to even drive her off, so that they may pounce upon the egg, the one that drops it being among the first to break it. In this state of affairs there is no remedy, except to find some method of protecting the egg from the depredators. The easiest way of doing this is to contrive a nest in which the egg will drop out of reach. Such a nest is shown in figure 107. It consists of a box with two sloping false half- floors ; one of these being depressed below the other sufficiently to make a space through which the egg can roll down to the bottom floor. A. door is seen in the side of the nest, through which the eggs can be removed. The sloping half-floors are shown by dotted lines. Upon the back one, close to the back of the nest, a glass , • « , -i i Fig 107.— SAFETY-NEST. or other nest-egg is fastened by a screw or by cement. The false floors may be covered with some coarse carpet or cloth, and the bottom floor with some chaff or moss, upon which the eggs may roll without danger of breaking. If the eggs do not roll 136 FARM CONVENIENCES. down at once, they will be pushed down by the first attempt of a hen to attack them. PLOWING GEAR FOR A KICKING MULE. Below is presented a plan for hitching a mule which has a habit of kicking when harnessed to a plow, but which goes very well in shafts. Kicking is a vice which sometimes belongs to horses as well as mules, and the following expedient has been found effective in Fig. 108.— PLOWING GEAR FOR KICKING ANIMALS. curing it. Take a pair of light shafts from a wagon, or make a pair, and fit to the end of it a bent strap of iron, as shown in figure 108. When the mule or horse is hitched into the shafts the end may trail on the ground, and the beast may be exercised with the shafts alone. When used to these, the bent bar is fastened to a plow by means of a clevis, and any difficulty there will soon be overcome. This device has been used, not only for plowing, but for drawing a stone boat, railroad cars, and other similar vehicles. A LEAF FORK. A useful plan for making a fork to gather leaves is shown in figure 109. The fork is made of tough ash, with ten teeth, similar to the fingers of a cradle, three feet long, and slightly turned up. The head into which FA KM CONVENIENCES. 137 the butts of the teeth are inserted, is thirty inches long. A light cross-bar of tough wood is fastened to the teeth, about eight inches from the head, by means of coppei Fig. 109. —FORK FOR GATHERING LEAVES. wire and a light screw to each finger. A handle is pro¬ vided and fixed in its proper place, being flattened some¬ what to keep it from turning in the hand. The handle should be braced by two strong wires. With such a fork leaves may be loaded very easily and rapidly. PREPARATION OF THE WHEAT GROUND. Wheat demands for its perfect development, among other favorable conditions, besides showers and sunshine, depth and richness of soil, thorough tilth, and freedom from excess of moisture. Soil that will yield good clo¬ ver will bear good wheat. Wheat follows corn very well, but this involves rather late sowing. Where there is a market for new potatoes, which, as they are intended for immediate use, may be freely manured, the potato ground —well plowed and harrowed with a dressing of bone- dust, superphosphate, or, if there is much organic mat¬ ter in the soil, with a dressing of lime—forms an admi¬ rable seed-bed for wheat. One of the best rotations, including winter wheat, is corn on sod, early potatoes, wheat, clover and timothy, the grass to be mowed as long as it is profitable—the manure being applied in the 138 FARM COHVEXIENCES. hill for corn, and put on broadcast very liberally for the potatoes. Winter wheat follows none of the usual root crops well, for it ought to be sowed and up before the middle of September, although it often does well sowed nearly a month later. When wheat follows clover, a crop of clover-hay is often taken off early, and a second crop allowed to grow, which is turned under about the first of August for wheat. In case we have very dry weather in July, the growth of clover will be meagre. If, however, the clover stubble be top-dressed at once, as soon as the early crop is cut, with a muck and manure compost, or any fine compost, “dragged in” with a smoothing harrow, the second crop will be sure to start well, while none of the manure will be lost. Lime, or ashes, if they can be ob¬ tained, are to be spread after plowing under the clover and manure, and thoroughly harrowed in. Forty bush¬ els of ashes to the acre is about right, and where hearths of old charcoal pits are accessible—ashes, charcoal-dust, and baked earth, are all excellent—they form a good sub¬ stitute for ashes and for lime. Sixty to one hundred bushels of evenly dry-slaked lime is a usual application, which, if it could have been mixed with an equal quan¬ tity of soil or sods during the slaking, would be all the better. The soil, and particularly wheat ground, is not well enough tilled in this country. We plow fourteen to six¬ teen-inch furrows, and use a skim-plow; this leaves the surface so mellow, and covers the sod so perfectly, that we think it hardly needs harrowing at all, and only smooth it over with a harrow, and let it go. The skim plow is a great advantage, but we should take narrow furrows. The following practice, on heavy land especially, is excellent: Turn under the first crop of clover as deep FARM CONVENIENCES. 139 as possible, just before it is in full blossom ; cross-plow the first or second week in August; then put on seventy- five bushels of lime, or more, and harrow it in lightly. Sow early after a soaking rain, and apply at the time of sowing two hundred and fifty pounds or more of super¬ phosphate to the acre. HOW TO DRIVE A HORSE-SHOE HAIL. Most farmers hesitate to attempt to fasten on a loose shoe for fear of injuring the foot by driving the nail in a wrong direction. It is such a saving of time and money to be able to put a shoe upon a horse in a hur¬ ried busy time, that every farmer ought to learn how to do it. He may practice upon a piece of soft pine wood in a rough way, when he will find how easy it is, by properly preparing the nails, to make the point come out in exactly the proper place. To prepare the nail it should be laid upon the anvil (which every workshop should have for such work as this), or a smooth iron block, and beaten out straight. The point should then be bevelled, slightly upon one of the flat sides, and the point also bent a very little from the side which is bevelled. It will then be of the shape shown in figure 110. In driving such a nail into a piece of soft wood, or a horse’s hoof which is penetrated easily in any direction, if the bevelled side is placed towards the centre of the hoof and away from the crust, the point will be bent outwards, and will come out lower or higher on the crust as the bevel and curve is much or little. A little practice will enable one Fig. no. to cause the point to protrude precisely at the"~ NAIL ’ right place. By turning the bevel outwards, in driving the nail, the course will be towards the centre of the 240 FARM CONVENIENCES. foot as shown by the line b, in figure 111. The nail is sometimes started in the wrong direction by careless blacksmiths, and the horse is lamed in consequence. If the mistake is discovered, and an attempt made to draw out the nail, a piece of it may be broken off, and at every concussion of the foot the fragment will penetrate further, until it reaches the sensitive parts, and great suffering will follow. Many a horse is supposed to have navicular dis¬ ease (because that happens to be one of those obscure affections of the foot which has no outward sign), when the trouble is a frag¬ ment of nail broken off by a bung¬ ling shoer. We have examined the foot of a horse which was killed be¬ cause of an incurable lameness, and Fig.Ill.— DKIVING NAILS. . , . „ „ , ... . found a piece of nail thus bedded in the centre of the foot, surrounded with an abscess which had eaten into the bone. The torture suffered by this horse must have been intense, and it was supposed to be a case of navicular disease, while the real cause was un¬ suspected. In driving nails into the hoof, great caution should be exercised. The hand, or the thumb, should be held over the spot where the point of the nail is ex¬ pected to come out, and if it does not appear when it should do so, the nail must be withdrawn. Use no split or imperfect nail, and have the point very carefully prepared. The course taken by a nail properly pointed and driven is shown by the lines curved outwards at a, a , in figure 111. SCREW-DRIVERS. To drive a screw with a screw-driver, as it is usually pointed and handled, is a disagreeable task. If the FABM CONVENIENCES. 141 screw goes in with difficulty, the driver slips out of the groove, or it cuts the edges of the groove so that the screw is' use¬ less. This is because the point of the tool is not ground properly. It should be ground with an even and long bevel, at least an inch long in small tools, and two inches in large ones. The sides of the bit should be kept straight, and not tapered oh nor the corners ground off or rounded. There should be no sharp edge ground upon the end of the tool, and the grinding should be lengthwise, or from handle to point, and not crosswise. The edge should be slightly rounded. The degree of roundness given may be such as would make it equal to an arc of a circle ten to twelve inches in diam¬ eter ; for small tools this may be lessened considerably. The shape of a well-pointed screw-driver is shown in figure 112. Flat handles should be abolished as a nuisance ; after an hour’s use of a driver with such a handle, the hand will be stiff and sore. The handle should be round. Screw-drivers are used more frequently than necessary. We Fi(r 112 _ have driven hundreds of screws in all sorts sorew-dkiveb of timber, hard white oak even, with the hammer, just as nails are driven, without the use of a screw-driver, and found them to hold perfectly well. This, of course, can be done only with the sharp taper-pointed screws, and if any one uses the old blunt-pointed kind, he is too far behind the times to be much of a mechanic or farmer either. P 142 FARM CONVENIENCES. TO PREVENT COWS SUCKING THEMSELVES. There are many devices to prevent cows from suck¬ ing themselves. A spiked halter is shown in figure 113. A buckle at the upper part, behind the ears, makes it quite easy to detach it. Figure 114 shows Fig. 113. —SPIKED HALTER. Fig. 114.— MAKING THE HALTER. how the spikes are secured. The spikes should not be over two inches in length. They are best made of wrought nails, which are sold at the hardware stores. They are placed in an iron vise and the heads flattened as much as possible by pounding with a hammer; they are then driven into a piece of thick leather, and secured by sewing or riveting it upon another piece of leather, as shown at B in figure 114. ABUSE OF BARN CELLARS. A great change has come over the farm during the last thirty years, in all our thrifty farming districts, in tha general use of barn cellars. Formerly such an arrange¬ ment of the barn was a novelty, and farmers have slowly learned its great advantages—the greater com¬ fort of cattle, the cheaper cleaning of stables, the more convenient watering of stock, the larger use of peat, muck, and headlands in the compost heap, and the greater value of the manure made undercover. Now the cry is raised of damage to fodder and stock from the barn cellar. Almost any good thing can be perverted FARM CONVENIENCES. 143 and become a nuisance, and it were strange if men who do not read much, and think less, could not abuse the barn cellar, which is the stomach of the farm. The same kind of men not infrequently abuse their own stomachs, and suffer grievously in consequence. “If you make your barn cellar tight, carbonic acid gas and ammonia are thrown off and injure the quality of hay stored in the rooms above, and the health of the cattle in the stables. If you turn your pigs into the cellar to make compost, and keep them from the air and the light, they become diseased, and you put bad meat into your barrel to breed disease in your family.” These are not uncommon complaints, circulating in our agricultural journals. Well, suppose we admit these things to be true, what of it ? Is there any necessity for having a barn cellar without ventilation ? If you leave one end open towards the south, you certainly have ventilation enough—and the gases that are evolved from fermenting manure are not going through two-inch stable plank and the tight siding of the barn when they have the wind to carry them off. If a barn cellar is properly managed, and seasonably furnished with absorbents, the ammonia will be absorbed as fast as it is formed. There will be no odor of ammonia that the nostrils can detect. If the pigs do not do the mixing fast enough, the shovel and the fork, the plow and the harrow, can be added. The making of compost under the barn is nice work for rainy days in winter, and is more likely to pay than any work exposed to the storm. The keeping of pigs under the barn is a question of two sides, and however we may decide it, barn cellars will stand upon their own merits. Any farmer who makes a business of raising pork for the market will find a well-appointed pig-sty, with con¬ veniences for storing and cooking food, a paying invest¬ ment. If he sees fit to utilize the labor of his pigs by 144 FARM CONVENIENCES making compost in a well-ventilated barn cellar, their health is not likely to suffer from the wholesome exer cise, or that of his family from the use of the flesh. Swine, furnished with a dry sleeping-apartment and plenty of litter for a bed, will keep comfortably clean, and not suffer from overwork in the compost heap. If anything is settled in the experience of the last thirty years, it is the economy of the barn cellar. Our most intelligent farmers, who can command the capital, in« Fig. 115. —HAT RACK AND MANGER. vest in them. A nice appendage to them is a watering trough fed by a spring or a large cistern in the em¬ bankment, to catch all the water, and bring it out by a faucet upon the stable floor above. This works admir¬ ably. EARM CONVENIENCES. 145 HAY-RACK AND MANGER. A cheap and convenient hay-rack and manger is shown in figure 115. The front of the manger should be of oak or other hard wood plank, two inches thick, and one foot wide, the lower edge of which is placed about two and a half feet from the floor; the bottom should be one foot wide. The side of the hay-rack is one foot wide, the front is eighteen inches wide; the top and bottom being of the same width, so that hay will not lodge. The bottom is made from one and a half inch hard board, and is placed one foot above the top of the manger. Two guards, one inch in diameter, and one foot in length, are placed in an upright position across the opening. At the front of the manger is a swinging door, which is shown partly open. This opens into the feed-passage. The manger may have one end partitioned for feeding grain. All corners should be smoothed and rounded off, and to make it durable, attach a thin, flat bar of iron to the upper edge of the manger by screws or rivets. A BARN BASKET. Figure 116 shows a home-made basket or box for use in the barn or in gathering crops. It is made of two pieces of light board, twelve inches square, for the ends, fastened together by laths sixteen, eighteen, or twenty inches long, for bottom and sides. These are securely nailed. The handle consists of a piece nailed to each end, and connected by a light bar. This box is quickly made, and will be found very handy for gathering many crops in the field, as it may be made to hold exactly one bushel, half a bushel, or any other definite quantity, by changing the size. To hold a bushel, which is two thousand, one hundred and fifty cubic inches, the box 7 / 146 FARM CONVENIENCES. mav be scant twenty inches long, twelve inches wide, and nine deep, or scant eighteen inches long, twelve inches wide, and eleven inches deep. For half a bushel. Fig. 116. —CONVENIENT BARN BASKET. scant eighteen inches long, ten inches wide, and six deep ; or fifteen inches long, nine inches wide, and eight inches deep. For a peck, ten inches long, nine wide, and six deep ; or eight inches square, and scant eight and a half inches deep. THE TREATMENT OF KICKING COWS. It is safe to say that a kicking cow is not naturally disposed to this vice, but has been made vicious by some fault of her owner. There are few men who possess suf¬ ficient patience and kindness to so manage a cow, from calfhood until she comes to the pail, that she will be kind and gentle under all circumstances. There are nervous, irritable cows, that are impatient of restraint, which are easily and quickly spoiled when they fall into the hands of an owner of a similar disposition. One who is kind and patient, and who has an affection for his animals, is never troubled with kicking cows, unless FARM COMVENlEHCES. 147 he has purchased one already made vicious. Unfortu¬ nately, few persons are gifted with these rare virtues, and, therefore, there are always cows that have to be watched carefully at milking time. Cows sometimes suffer from cracked teats, or their udders may be tender from some concealed inflammation, and they are restless when milked; so that, now and then, in the best regulated dairies, there will be cows that will kick. Many devices have been recommended to prevent such cows from exercising this disagree¬ able habit; Different methods of securing the legs have been tried. The best plan that we have heard of, or have tried, is shown in figure 117. This fetter is fastened to the cow’s near leg, by means of the strap in the centre, the curved portions embracing the front of the leg above and below the hock. It will be perceived that, while the cow can move her leg to some extent, and is not hobbled, as when the legs are tied together, yet she cannot lift it to kick, or to put her foot in the pail. We have seen this “ fetter” tried upon a cow that had very sore cracked teats, and that kicked furiously when milked, but with the fetter she was unable to kick or hinder milking. HOW TO BUILD A BOAT-HOUSE. Any kind of a house that is large enough maybe used, if provided with the needed fittings named below. Where the level of the water is liable to little change, the house need not be raised much above the surface of 148 FARM CONVENIENCES. V the water, but the floor may be made so low that one can easily step out of the boat to the floor. Of course there should be a channel made in the centre of the house, deep enough to float the boat when loaded. The plan of the floor is shown in figure 118, with the boat in the centre. The floor should be protected by a light railing around it (see figure 119), to prevent accidents from Fig. 118. —PLAN OF HOUSE. .. , , in • . slipping when the floor is wet Where the watei level changes, the house should be raised on posts, or bents, as may be necessary, to keep it FARM COHVENIENCEA 149 above high water. A hanging ladder, that may be drawn up, is provided for use at low water. WASTE LANDS—MAKE THEM USEFUL. Waste land abounds everywhere. It is fenced, and has the appearance of farm-land, but the owner, if a farmer, would be better off without it than he is with it. No one locality seems to be better or worse than another in this respect, unless it be that the Southern States have the most waste land, and the Eastern States come next in this respect. There are rocky fields, and fields covered with loose stones ; swamps and wet ground, and land covered with wretched brush and small timber, and in the South, especially, barren and guUied hill-sides. It is true, that to clear up these lands, and make them fruitful, will cost in labor, if the labor is valued at the current rates, more than the land would bring if offered for sale. But this is not the right way to look at this matter. In reality, it will cost nothing to clear these lands, because their owners may do it by working when they would otherwise be idle. The way to do it is tc> set about it. To clear an acre or two at a time, of those fields that can be cleared; and to plant with timber, of some valuable sort, that ground which is too rough for the plow, instead of permitting it to grow up with use¬ less brush. In many cases, the worst trouble that farmers suffer is, that they have more land than they can care for, under their present system of management. Hundreds of farms are worked as grain farms, that are not well suited for any other use than dairy farms, and ground is plowed that should be kept in permanent grass. In some cases, the owners of land have discovered their proper vocation, as in the dairy district of Central 150 FARM CONVENIENCES. New York, in the fruit and grain farms of the western part of that State, in the pasture farms of tae blue-grass region of Kentucky, and in the corn-growing and pork¬ raising prairies of the West. If the system of culture in these places were changed, the farmers would be poor instead of being rich, and one sees very little waste land in these localities. There are districts where the surface is hilly, and not so well suited for arable purposes as for pasture, but where, instead of grass and cows, side-hill plows and poor corn fields, washed and gullied by rains, are to be seen. Here are waste lands in plenty; and their owners show every sign of poverty and want of thrift. It is not easy to change these circumstances quickly, but it is easy to begin—just as it is easier to start a stone rolling down a hill, than to throw it down bodily; and when it is once started, it goes slowly at first, and may need help, but it can soon take care of itself, and speedily reaches the bottom. It is just so with such improvements as are here referred to. They are necessarily begun slowly, but when one or two acres of these waste places are reclaimed, the product of these adds to the farmer’s resources. He is richer than before by the increased value of these acres, and he is better able to reclaim more. When these in their turn are improved, the means for further improvements are greatly enlarged ; the ambition of the man to excel in his vocation is excited, and he speedily becomes a neater, better farmer, and necessarily his circumstances are improved. Thus the rough waste lands, which give a disagreeable appearance to the landscape, and are a stigma upon its character and that of our farmers, in the eyes of our own citizens and of foreigners, might in a short time be improved and a source of profit. FARM CONVENIENCES. 151 A RAT-GUARD. To Keep rats away from anything that is linng up, the following simple method may be used. Procure the bot¬ toms of some old fruit-cans, by melting the solder which Fig. 120.— GUARD AGAINST RATS. holds them upon a hot stove. Bore holes in the centre of these disks, and string a few of them upon the cord, wire, or rope upon which the articles are hung. When a rat or mouse attempts to pass upon the rope by climb¬ ing over the tin disks, they turn and throw the animal upon the floor. This plan, shown in figure 120, will be found very effective. A CRUPPER-PAD FOR HORSES. Many horsemen desire a method by which to prevent a horse from carrying its tail upon one side, and from clasping the reins beneath the tail. We cannot advise the operation of “nicking,” which consists in cutting the skin and muscles upon one side of the tail, and tying it over to the cut side, until the cuts heal, when the skin, being drawn together, pulls the tail permanently over to that side. A different form of the operation causes the tail to be carried up in a style that is sup¬ posed to be more graceful, and prevents the horse from 15 % FAEM CONVENIENCES. clasping the reins when driven. As a preventive of both of these habits, the pad shown in figure 121 is often used by horse¬ men, instead of the cruel and un¬ necessary operation of “nicking.” This appliance is made of leather, is stuffed with hair or wool, and is about three inches in diameter at the thickest part, gradually taper¬ ing toward each end, where it is fastened to the crupper straps. It should be drawn up close to the roots of the tail, and by exerting a pressure beneath it, the tail is carried in a raised position, and is not thrown over to one side. If it is, a few sharp tacks may be driven into the inside of the pad. A DAM FOR A FISH POND. In making a fish pond, by placing a dam across a stream, it should be borne in mind that success depends upon the proper construction of the dam, whether it be Fig. 122. —STAKES ANI) BRUSH. large or small. Any defect here will make the whole useless. The main point in the construction of a dam is, to have a complete union between the earth of the bed and that of the dam. This cannot be done by FARM COXYEKIEKCES. 153 throwing the earth upon an old surface. A new surface must be made, solid and firm, to receive the new earth. In addition, there should he a central core of some strong material, that will serve to strengthen and bind the new construction. In making a dam or embankment to re¬ tain or exclude water, the beginning should be to dig a shallow ditch, removing sod or uneven ground, or if the earth is bare, to disturb it thoroughly with the pick, so as to provide binding material to unite with the bottom of the dam. A line of stakes is driven into the ground, and filled with brush woven in, or wattled, as in figure 122. In building the dam, all the sods and vegetable matter should be placed on the outside, where these will root, and bind the surface together ; the rest of the earth should be well trodden, or rammed down firmly, and ii the soil is puddled by admixture of water in the process of ramming, the work will be better for it. The water¬ way in the stream should be tightly boarded or planked. Three posts may be driven or set on each bank of the stream, and boards nailed, or planks spiked for a larger structure, so as to retain the earth of the embankments on each side, figure 123. A timber is fitted as a mud¬ sill, to the front and rear posts, and one to the central posts; the latter at such a height as will raise the water to the desired depth. The spaces between these timbers are boarded and planked, and maybe filled in with earth, well rammed, and mixed with straw and fine cedar brush, under the covering. If it is desired to raise the water to a greater depth, loose flash-boards may be fitted with cleats, on the centre of the waste-w T ay, or a wire-gauze fence may be placed there, to prevent the escape of the fish. If freshets are apt to occur, a sufficient number of these waste-ways should be provided to carry off the surplus water, and prevent overflowing and wasting of the dam. The dam of a fish pond should always be 7 * 154 EAKM CONVENIENCES. made high, enough for safety against overflow, and to guard against percolation, and washing away by under¬ mining, it should be made three times as wide as it is high, with slopes of one and a half foot horizontal on each side, to one foot in perpendicular height. Iff any plants are set upon a dam or embankment, they should be of a small, bushy growth, such as osier willow, elders, etc., but nothing larger, lest the swaying caused by high winds should loosen and destroy the bank. A WAGON JACK. In figures 124 and 125 is shown a most convenient home-made wagon jack, in constant use for ten years, and has proved most satisfactory. The drawings were made with such care, the measurement being placed upon them, that the engravings tell nearly the whole story. Figure 124 shows the jack when in position to hold the axle, at a . When not in use, the lever falls down out of the way, and the affair can be hung up in a handy place. Figure 125 shows the “ catch-board,” and the dimensions proper for a jack, for an ordinary wagon, buggy, etc. It is so shaped and fastened by a din be- Earm conveniences. 155 tween the upright parts of the jack, that it is pushed in position, d , tty the foot at c, when the axle is raised; and falls back of its own accord when the lever is raised a trifle to let the wheel down. All the parts are made of inch stuff, the foot board, catch, and lever should be of hard wood; the upright hoards between which they are placed can be of pine or other soft wood. Persons who see this simple and convenient wagon jack fre¬ quently say, “Why don’t you get it patented ?” but the inventor thinks that such simple things, which any one can make, ought to be contributed for the common good, and in the same spirit we commend it to any who may be in need of a good wagon jack. WILL YOU FEED HAY OR WOOD? A great deal has been said and written about the proper time of cutting hay. The best time, all things considered, is to cut the grass just after it has come in*"» 154 PAKM CONVENIENCES. made high enough for safety against overflow, and to guard against percolation, and washing away by under¬ mining, it should be made three times as wide as it is high, with slopes of one and a half foot horizontal ok Fig. 123. —WASTE-GATE FOli POND. each side, to one foot in perpendicular height. Iff any plants are set upon a dam or embankment, they should be of a small, bushy growth, such as osier willow, elders, etc., but nothing larger, lest the swaying caused by high winds should loosen and destroy the bank. A WAGON JACK. In figures 124 and 125 is shown a most convenient home-made wagon jack, in constant use for ten years, and has proved most satisfactory. The drawings were made with such care, the measurement being placed upon them, that the engravings tell nearly the whole story. Figure 124 shows the jack when in position to hold the axle, at «. When not in use, the lever falls down out of the way, and the affair can be hung up in a handy place. Figure 125 shows the “ catch-board,” and the dimensions proper for a jack, for an ordinary wagon, buggy, etc. It is so shaped and fastened by a din be- fARM CONVENIENCES. 155 tween the upright parts of the jack, that it is pushed in position, by the foot at c , when the axle is raised; and falls back of its own accord when the lever is raised a trifle to let the wheel down. All the parts are made of inch stuff, the foot board, catch, and lever should be of hard wood; the upright boards between which they are placed can be of pine or other soft wood. Persons who see this simple and convenient wagon jack fre¬ quently say, “Why don’t you get it patented ?” but the inventor thinks that such simple things, which any one can make, ought to be contributed for the common good, and in the same spirit we commend it to any who may be in need of a good wagon jack. WILL YOU FEED HAY OR WOOD? A great deal has been said and written about the proper time of cutting hay. The best time, all things considered, is to cut the grass just after it has come inti 156 FARM CONVENIENCES. full bloom, though many think the preferable time is just when it is coming into full blossom. As it is im¬ possible to always mow every field just at the right mo¬ ment, the general safe rule is, we think, to be all ready to begin at full bloom, and finish before it is entirely past. There is this important fact to be kept in mind, viz., that as soon as grass of any kind has attained its growth, and is full of juices, it begins to change more and more into woody fibre, and that when fully ripe a large part of the stems or stalks differ very little in composition from dry wood. And every one knows that dry wood is neither easily digested nor nutritious. It stands to reason that a stalk of grass cut when it is full of juice containing sugar, gum, and protein compounds, and cured thus, must be more nutritious than if left standing until a part of these constituents have changed into woody fibre. Feeding hay not cut until it is thoroughly ripe, is giving the animals that which is in part only so much wood. The practical lesson is, make a good ready well in advance, now, and have the barns, mows, stack¬ ing arrangements, mowers, scythes, horse and other rakes, forks, wagon racks, in short, all things, in perfect order—and the work planned, so as not to let any hay- field get into the fully ripe condition. Head work be¬ forehand will save hard work and worry, and secure better hay. A BRACE FOR A KICKING HORSE. Those so unfortunate as to own a kicking horse know something of the patience that it requires to get along with it—and will welcome anything which will prevent the kicking and finally effect a cure. The writer knew a horse, which was so bad a kicker that after various FARM CONVENIENCES. 157 trials, and after passing through many hands, and get* ting worse all the time, to be perfectly cured in the course of three months by the use of the device here given. This is a simple brace, which acts upon the fact that if the head be kept up, the horse cannot kick. A kicking horse is like a balance, when one end goes up, the other must go down. The brace is shown in figure 126, and consists of a one-half inch iron rod, which may be straight, or, for the looks, bent into a graceful curve. It is forked at both ends ; the two divisions of the upper end are fastened to the two rings of the bit, while the lower ends fit upon the lower portion of the collar and hames. The upper ends can best be fastened to the bit by winding with wire, which should be done smoothly, so as not to wear upon the mouth. The lower end is secured by means of a strap fastened to the upper loop, and passing around the collar is buckled through the hole in the lower part of the end of the brace. The brace need not be taken from the bit in unhar- 12(5 -— TIIE brace. nessing. Any blacksmith can make such a brace, taking care to have it of the proper length to fit the particular horse. Keep its head at about the height as when “checked up,” and the horse will soon be cured. » * HOW TO SAVE LIQUID MANURE. In ordinary farm practice, by far the larger part of the liquid manure of the stock kept is lost. No effort is made to save it. There is no barn cellar, no gutter be- 158 FARM CONVENIENCES. hind the stabled animals, no absorbents. Analysis shows that the liquid manure is quite as valuable as the solid, or even more so. In 1,000 pounds of fresh horse dung there are 4.4 pounds of nitrogen, 3.5 of potash, and 3.5 of phosphoric acid. In horse urine there are 15.5 pounds of nitrogen, and 15.0 of potash. In 1,000 pounds of fresh cattle dung there are 2.9 pounds of nitrogen, 1.0 of pot¬ ash, 1.7 of phosphoric acid. In the urine, 5.8 pounds of nitrogen, 4.9 of potash. These are the most valuable constituents of manure, and no farmer can afford to have them so generally run to waste. There is very lit¬ tle loss where there is a gutter well supplied with absorb¬ ents, and a barn cellar well coated with dried peat, muck, or headlands, to absorb the liquids as fast as they fall. But barn cellars are still in the minority. Mr. Mechi had a very expensive apparatus for distributing the liquid manure over his farm, by means of tanks and pipes, and thought it paid, but failed to convince his contemporaries of the fact. However that may be, it is out of the ques¬ tion to apply liquid manure in this manner, economic¬ ally, upon the average farm. It takes too much capital, and requires too much labor. By the use of absorbents, it can be done economically on a small or large scale, with very little waste. Some use a water-tight box, made of thick plank, covering the floor of the stall. This is a very sure way to save everything, and the only objection to it is the expense of the box, and the in¬ creased labor of keeping the stalls clean. We used for several years dried salt-marsh sod, cut in blocks eight or ten inches square, taken from the surface of the marsh in ditching. This had an enormous capacity for absorb¬ ing liquids, and a layer of these sods would keep a horse or cow comfortably dry for a fortnight. Kefuse hay or straw was used on top for purposes of cleanliness. The saturated sod was thrown into the compost heap with FARM CONVENIENCES. 159 other manure, where it made an excellent fertilizer. Later we used sawdust, purchased for the purpose at 1 ,70 cents a bushel, as bedding for a cow kept upon a cemented floor. A bed a foot thick would last nearly a month, when it was thrown out into the compost heap. The sawdust requires a longer time for decomposition, but saves the liquid manure. Our present experiment, covering several months, is with forest leaves, principally hickory, maple, white ash, and elm. A bushel of dried leaves, kept under a shed for the purpose, is added to the bedding of each animal, and the saturated leaves are removed with the solid manure as fast as they accu¬ mulate. The leaves become very fine by the constant treading of the animals, and by the heat of their bodies, and the manure pile grows rapidly. It is but a little additional labor to the ordinary task of keeping animals clean in their stalls, to use some good absorbent, and enough of it, to save all the liquid manure. What the absorbent shall be is a question of minor importance. Convenience will generally determine this matter. No labor upon the farm pays better than to save the urine of all farm stock by means of absorbents. These are in great variety, and, in some form, are within the reach of every man that keeps cattle or runs a farm. Stop this leak, and lift your mortgage. AN OPEN SHED FOR FEEDING. A feeding-trough in a yard, which can be covered to keep out snow or rain, is a desirable thing, and many devices have been contrived for the purpose, most of which are too costly. We give herewith a method of constructing a covered feeding-trough, which may be made very cheaply of the rough materials to be had on every farm. A sufficient number of stout posts are set 160 FARM CONVEIHEHCES. firmly in the ground, extending about ten fed above the surface. They should be about six feet apart and in a straight line, and a plate fastened to their tops. A pan of rafters supported by braces, as shown in figure 127, is fitted to each post. A light roof of laths is laid, and covered with bark, straw, corn-stalks, or coarse hay. Strips are fastened from one brace to another, and laths or split poles nailed to them, about six inches apart, to make a feed-rack. A feed-trough for grain or roots is built upon each side. For sheep, the shed and rack may be made only eight feet high at the peak, and the eaves four feet from the ground ; giving better shelter. A SHADE FOR HORSES’ EYES. The most frequent cause of weak eyes in horses is a badly-arranged stable. Foul gases irritate and inflame the tender membranes of the eye and head, and horses brought from dark stables into bright sunlight, or onto glittering snow, are dazzled and blinded. The existing weakness or irritation is intensified, and the poor animal suffers unsuspected torments. The remedy is to purify the stable and give it sufficient light, shaded by blinds, FARM CONVENIENCES. 161 ' from before and behind the horse, or from both sides, avoiding a light from only the front, rear, or one side light. A shade for weak or inflamed eyes may be constructed by fastening wires to the bridle and covering it with oiled cloth in the manner repre¬ sented in figure 128. Thus a soft, subdued light reaches the eves, while the horse can still see the ground immedi¬ ately before him. It will be a timely job to prepare such Fig.138.~To protect the eyes, % shade for use before the snow of winter comes. TEST ALL SEEDS—IMPORTANT. No one can, by merely looking at them, positively tell whether any particular lots of field, garden, or flower seeds have or have not sufficient vitality of germ to start into vigorous growth. Yet it is a severe loss, often a disastrous one, to go through with all the labor and ex¬ pense of preparation and planting or sowing, and find too late that the crop is lost because the seeds are de¬ fective. All this risk can be saved by a few minutes’ time all told, in making a preliminary test, and it should be done before the seed is wanted, and in time to get other seed if necessary. Seeds may not have ma¬ tured the germ ; it may have been destroyed by heat or moisture; minute insects may have, unobserved, punc¬ tured or eaten out the vital part of a considerable per¬ centage. Select from the whole mass of the seed, one hundred, or fifty, or even ten seeds, that will be a fair sample of 162 FARM CONVENIENCES. all. For larger seeds, as wheat, corn, oats, peas, etc.j take a thin, tough sod, and scatter the counted seeds upon the earth side. Put upon the seeds another simi¬ lar sod, earth side down. Set this double sod by the warm side of the house or other building, or of a tight fence, moistening it occasionally as needed. If very cold, cover, or remove to the kitchen or cellar at night. The upper sod can be lifted for observation when desirable. The swelling and starting of the seeds will in a few days, according to the kind, tell what percentage of them will grow—a box of earth will answer instead of sods, both for large and small seeds. Small seeds of vegetables or Fig. 129. —HOME-MADE ROLLER. flowers, and even larger ones, may be put into moist cot¬ ton, to be kept slightly moist and placed in the sun or in a light warm room. For small quantities of valuable flower seeds and the like, half a dozen will suffice for a trial test. With any seed, for field or garden, however good, it is always very desirable and useful to know ex¬ actly how many or few are defective, and thus be able to decide how much seed to use on an acre, or other plot. FARM CONVENIENCES. 163 A FIELD ROLLER. A very good field roller may be easily made in winter, when timber is being cut. Use a butt-log of an oak tree, in the form shown in figure 129. The log need not be a very large one, because the frame, in which it is mounted, enables it to be loaded to any reasonable extent, and the driver may ride upon it, and thus add to the weight. A roller will be found very valuable in the spring when repeated frosts have raised the ground and thrown out the stones. A PORTABLE SLOP BARREL. A barrel mounted upon wheels, as shown in figure 130, will be found useful for many purposes about the farm, garden, or household. The barrel is supported upon a pair of wheels, the axles of which are fastened to Fig. 130. —PORTABLE BARREL FOR SLOPS. a frame connected with the barrel by means of strap's bolted to the sides. The frame may be made of iron bent in the form shown in figure 131, or of crooked tim¬ ber having a sufficient bend to permit the barrel to be tipped for emptying. A pair of handles are provided, as shown in the engraving. When not in use, the barrel rests upon the ground, and may be raised by bearing down upon the handles. The barrel may be made to rest in notched bearings upon the frame, so that by raising the 164 FARM CONVENIENCES. handles, the wheels may be drawn away from the barrel, and the latter left in a convenient place until it needs removal. This contrivance will be useful for feed- - m -— If Fig. 131.— Pi,AN OF FRAME OF BARREL. Ing slops to pigs, or for removing the waste of the house to the barn-yard. WHERE AND HOW TO APPLY FERTILIZERS. It is often difficult to decide—for barn-yard or stable manures, or for any artificial fertilizer—whether to use it in the hill or broadcast it; and whether to apply it on the surface, or bury it deeply. Here is a hint or two. If not strong enough to injure the first tender roots, a little manure near at hand gives the plant a good send- off, like nourishing food to the young calf or other ani¬ mal ; the after-growth is much better if the young ani¬ mal or plant is not dwarfed by imperfect and insufficient diet. Therefore, drilling innocuous hand fertilizers in with the seed is useful, as is putting some well-rotted manure or leached ashes into hills of corn, potatoes, in¬ deed with all planted seeds. But there aro good reasons for distributing most of the manures or fertilizers all through the soil, and as deeply as the plant roots can possibly penetrate. The growth and vigor of all plants or crops depend chiefly upon a good supply of strong roots that stretch out far, and thus gather food over the widest extent of soil. If a flourishing stalk of corn, FARM CONVENIENCES. 165 grain or grass, be carefully washed, so as to leave all its roots or rootlets attached, there will be found a wonder¬ ful mass of hundreds and even thousands of roots to any plant, and they extend off a long distance, frequently several feet—the farther the better, to collect more food and moisture. Put some manure or fertilizer in pl'ace two feet away from a corn or potato hill, or from almost any plant, and a large mass of roots will go out in that direction. So, if we mix manures or fertilizers well through the whole soil, they attract these food-seeking roots to a greater distance ; and they thus come in con¬ tact with more of the food already in the soil, and find more moisture in dry weather. A deeply-stirred soil, with manure at the bottom, develops water-pumping roots below the reach of any ordinary drouth, and the crops keep right on growing—all the more rapidly on account of the helpful sun’s rays that would scorch a plant not reaching a deep reservoir of moisture. A MILL FOR CRUSHING BONES. To save the expense of a purchased bone-mill, one may be made as described below, which will crush them into a condition much more valuable for manure than the whole bones, if not quite as good as if finely ground. Make a circular mould of boards, six feet wide and two feet deep. Hoops of broad band-iron are fitted to the inside of the mould, and secured to it about one inch apart. The mould is then filled with a concrete of Port¬ land cement, sand, and broken stone. Place in the con¬ crete when filling binding pieces of flat bar-iron, to pre¬ vent the mass from cracking when in use. In the cen¬ tre place squares of band-iron, as a lining for a shaft by which the crusher is turned. When the concrete is set and hardened, the frame may be taken apart ; and, as in 166 EAEM CONVENIENCES. setting tlie concrete will expand somewhat, the iron bands around the mass will be found to have become a tight solid facing to the wheel. The wheel is then set up on edge, and a square shaft of yellow pine, six inches thick, is wedged into the central space. This shaft is fitted to an upright post by a loose band of iron and a swivel joint, so that the wheel may be made to revolve around it. Any other suitable connection may be used for this purpose. A hollow trough of broken stone and well rammed concrete is then laid in the track of the Fig. 132. —HOME-MADE BONE-MILL. wheel as it revolves, and the crusher is complete and ready for a pair of horses to be attached to it, figure 132. A crusher of this kind may be put up at a country mill, or as a joint affair by a few farmers uniting their efforts, and thus utilizing a valuable fertilizing material, which is now wasted for want of means to render it available. LIME AND LIMESTONE. In the first place, limestone, marble, calc-spar, chalk (of rare occurrence in this country), marl, and oyster, and FARM CONVENIENCES. 16 ? other shells, are all essentially the same in composition, however they may differ in texture, form, and other par¬ ticulars. They are all different forms of the carbonate of lime; that is, they consist of the alkaline earth, lime, in combination with carbonic acid, and in the case of shells, with animal matter. As a general thing, we only know carbonic acid as a gas. It has a very weak hold of the lime, for if we drop a fragment of limestone into strong vinegar, the acetic acid of the vinegar will unite with the lime (forming acetate of lime), while the car¬ bonic acid, being set free, will be seen to pass off in small bubbles. In this case we free the lime from its carbonic acid, by presenting to it a stronger acid, that of vinegar. But if instead of using another acid to displace the car¬ bonic acid, we place limestone in any of its forms, in a strong fire, the carbonic acid will be driven off by the heat, and there will be left, simply lime. This is called quick lime, or caustic lime, and by chemists oxide of the metal calcium, or calcium oxide. Lime, then, is limestone without its carbonic acid. All the forms of limestone are very little soluble in water; lime itself is more soluble, though but slightly so, requiring at ordi¬ nary temperatures about seven hundred times its own weight of water, yet it gives a marked alkaline taste to water in which it is dissolved. Lime in this condition, as quick lime, or when combined with water, “ slaked ” as it is called, is much employed in agriculture. A small portion of lime is required by plants, but the chief use of lime, when applied to the soil, is to bring the vegetable matters contained in the soil into a condi¬ tion in which they can be used as plant food. This ap¬ plication of lime as a fertilizer has long been followed by farmers, and in many cases with the most beneficial re¬ sults. Within a year or so great claims have been made for ground limestone, especially by the makers of mills 168 1'AILU CONVENIENCES. for grinding it; some of these have asserted that it was superior to burned lime, and superior to nearly all other fertilizers. The question which most interests farmers is, has limestone, however fine it may be, any value as a fertilizer ? To this the answer would be both “ yes ” and “no.” Upon a heavy clay soil the carbonate of lime, or limestone in any form, appears to have a beneficial ef¬ fect ; it makes such soils friable and open, so that water and air may penetrate them. While its action upon the vegetable matter in the soil is far less prompt and ener¬ getic than that of quick-lime, yet its presence, affording a base with which any acid that may be present in the soil may unite, is often beneficial. To extol ground limestone as “the great fertilizer of the age,” to even claim that it is equal to lime itself, is a mistake. Both have their uses. It should be borne in mind by inquir¬ ers about the value of ground limestone, that many soils already contain more lime in this form than can ever be utilized, and need no addition. A FARM WHEELBARROW. The wheelbarrow is an indispensable vehicle on the farm and in the garden. Applied to hard uses it needs Fig. 133.— FARM WHEELBARROW. to be strong and durable. A barrow of the ordinary kind, used on farms, soon becomes weak in the joints and falls FARM CONVENIENCES. 169 to pieces. The movable sides are inconvenient, and the shape necessarily adopted when movable sides are used greatly weakens the structure. It will be noticed at first sight that the wheelbarrow, shown in figure 133, is most strongly supported and braced, that the box, instead of weakening it, greatly strengthens it, and that it is stout and substantial. It is put together at every part by strong bolts, and can be taken apart to pack for transpor¬ tation, if desired, and a broken part readily replaced. TO PREVENT THE BALLING OF HORSES. When the snow upon the roads is cohesive and packs firmly, it collects upon the feet of horses, forming a hard, projecting mass, in a manner known as “ balling.” This often occurs to such an extent as to impede the motion of the horse, while it causes the animal great discomfort, and is sometimes dangerous to the rider or driver. The trouble may be prevented very easily by the use of gutta¬ percha. For this purpose the gutta-percha should be crude, i. e ., not mixed with anything or manufactured in any manner, but just as imported. Its application depends upon the property which the gum has of soften¬ ing and becoming plastic by heat, and hardening again when cold. To apply it, place the gutta-percha in hot water until it becomes soft, and having well cleansed the foot, removing whatever has accumulated between the shoe and hoof, take a piece of the softened gum and press it against the shoe and foot in such a manner as to fill the angle between the shoe and the hoof, taking care to force it into the crack between the two. Thus filling the crevices, and the space next the shoe, where the snow most firmly adheres, the ball of snow has nothing to hold it, and it either does not form, or drops out as soon as it 8 170 FARM CONVENIENCES. is gathered. When the gutta-percha is applied, and well smoothed off with the wet fingers, it may be hardened at once, to prevent the horse from getting it out of place by stamping, by the application of snow or ice, or more slowly by a wet sponge or cloth. When it is desired to remove the gum, the application of hot water by means of a sponge or cloth will so soften it that it may be taken off. As the softening and hardening may be repeated indefinitely, the same material will last for years. For a horse of medium size, a quarter of a pound is sufficient for all the feet. TO PREVENT CATTLE THROWING FENCES. To prevent a cow from throwing fences or hooking other cows, make a wooden strip two and a half inches wide and three-quarters of an inch thick, and attach it to the horns by screws ; to this is fastened, by a small bolt, a strip of hardwood, three inches wide, half an inch thick, and of a length suf¬ ficient to reach downward within an inch of the face, and within two or three inches of the nostrils. In the lower end of this strip are pre¬ viously driven several sharp nails, which project about one-quarter Fig. 134.— cattle check. ^ an j nc ] 1# The arrangement is shown in figure 134; the strip, when properly attached, allows the animal to eat and drink with all ease, but when an attempt is made to hook or to throw a fence, the sharpened nails soon cause an abrupt cessation of that kind of mischief. FARM CONVENIENCES 171 FEED BOXES. In figure 135 a box is sliown firmly attached to two posts. It has a hinged cover, p, that folds over, and may be fastened down by inserting a wooden pin in the Fig. 135. —COVERED FEED BOX. top of the post near n . The one given in figure 136 may be placed under shelter, along the side of a building or fence. One side of the top is hinged to the fence Fig. 136. —HINGED FEED BOX. or building, the bottom resting upon a stake, e . When not in use, the box may be folded up, the end of the strap, b, hooking over the pin, a , at the side of the box. 172 FARM CONVENIENCES. A good portable box, to be placed upon the ground, is shown in figure 137. It is simply a common box, with a strip of board, 7i, nailed on one side and projecting about Fig. 137. —PORTABLE PEED BOX. eight inches. When not in use, it is turned bottom up, as shown in figure 138. The projecting strip prevents three sides of the box from settling into the mud or snow. The strip is also a very good handle by which to carry it. Fig. 138. —PEED BOX INVERTED. Those who now use portable boxes will find the attach¬ ing of this strip a decided advantage. A. very serviceable portable feed box is made from a section of half a hollow Fig. 139. —BOX PROM HOLLOW LOG. log, with ends nailed on, as shown in figure 139. Bv let¬ ting the ends project above the sides four or five inches, it may be turned over when not in use, and easily turned FARM COXYEKIEHCES. 173 back by grasping the sides without the hand coming in contact with earth or snow. All feed boxes and racks should be placed under shelter during summer, or when not in use. A CATTLE TIE. Judging from the numerous stanchions and arrange¬ ments for fastening cattle in stalls, illustrated from time to time in the public prints, the perfect cattle-fastening has not yet been invented. We do not claim perfection for the arrangement given in figure 140, but it will be difficult to devise a cheaper one, and we doubt if any better or more satisfactory one is in use. The fastening consists of a three-fourth inch rope, which is run through the partitions of the stalls, one long rope being used for the tier of stalls, although short pieces may be employed if desired. This rope is knotted on either side Fig. 140.— CATTLE TIE. of each partition, and a good swivel snap for use with a rope, is tied in the rope in front of the centre of each stall. The rope should pass over, very nearly, the front FARM COMVRKIEKCES. m of the manger—from the side of the cattle—and for cattle of ordinary hight, it ought to be about two feet from the floor. When put in, the rope should be drawn up tightly, as it will soon acquire considerable and sufficient slack from the constant strain from the ani¬ mals. With this arrangement each cow must be pro¬ vided with a strap or rope about the neck, the rope or strap being supplied with a free-moving iron ring. When the animal is put in the stalls the snap is fastened in the ring, and if the snap is a good one—none but the best swivel snaps should be used—an animal will rarely get free from it. This fastening, it will be noticed, admits of considerable fore and aft motion, and but slight lateral movement. The cost of this arrangement it is difficult to state accurately, it is so small. The rope for each stall will cost less than five cents ; the snaps will cost ten cents when bought by the dozen, and the time of putting these fittings in each stall is less than fifteen minutes. The rope will wear two years at least. A BEEF RAISER. Two posts are set about fifteen feet high. A deep mortise is cut in the top of each to receive the roller, which is grooved at the points of turning. One end of the roller extends beyond the post, and through this end three two-inch holes are bored. Three light poles are put through these holes, and their ends connected by a light rope. In raising the beef the middle of a stout rope is thrown over the roller ; the ends are drawn through the loop, and after the beef is fastened to the loose ends the roller is turned against the loop by means of the “ sweep,” or lever arms, figure 141. A heavy FARM CONVENIENCES. 175 beef can be easily raised, and may be fastened at any Aight desired, by tying the end of one of tbe levers to the post with a short rope. A CEDAR STEM SOIL-STIRRER. A convenient and quickly-made implement for stirring and mixing manure and fertilizers with the soil, may be Fig. 142. —A STIRRER MADE OF A CEDAR STEM. made as follows : A cedar stem is cut about eight feet long, and the branches cut off several inches from the stem, leaving long spurs on all sides for its whole length, as shown in figure 142. A horse is hitched by a chain 176 FARM CONVENIENCES. to toe butt end, and the driver guides the implement by a rope fastened to the rear end of the stem. By means of the guide-rope the implement may be lifted over or around obstacles, and turned at the end of the field. Such an implement is specially useful in mixing fertil¬ izers with the soil, when applied in drills for hoed crops, A HINT FOR PIG KILLING. Lay a log chain across the scalding trough, and pul the pig upon it. Cross the chain over the animal, aa Fig. 143. —SCALDING A PIG. shown in figure 143. A man at each end of the chain can easily turn the pig in the scald, or work it to and fro as desired. MENDING BROKEN TOOLS. Farming tools, such as shovels, rakes, forks, etc., that are much used, will often, through carelessness or acci¬ dent, become broken, and, with most men, that means to be thrown one side, as utterly useless. By exercising a little ingenuity, they could in a short time be fitted up to do service for several years. The head of hand-rakes often becomes broken at the point where the handle en¬ ters, and not unfrequently the handle itself is broken off FARM CONVENIENCES. 17? where it enters the head. In either case the break is easily made good by attaching a small piece of wood to the head, by small nails or screws, as shown in figure 144. Should the head be broken where one of the bows Fig. 145. —MENDING A SHOVEL. passes through, it may be mended in a like manner, b . Shovels and spades, owing to the great strain to which 8 * 17b FARM CONVENIENCES. they are often subjected, especially by carelessly prying with them, crow-bar fashion, are frequently broken, and usually at the point where the wood enters the blade. This break, bad as it is, should not consign the broken parts to the rubbish pile, especially if the blade and the handle be otherwise in fair condition. Remove the iron straps or ferule from the handle ; firmly rivet a strip of iron, a, figure 145, on top of the handle, and a similar one underneath, to the blade and handle, as shown in the engraving. Other broken tools may be made to do good service by proper mending. A LARGE FEED-RACK. The width of the rack is seven feet, but it can he any length desired; hight, ten feet; hight of manger, two and a half feet; width, one and one-half foot. Cattle can eat from both sides. The advantage of such a rack. Fig. 146.— A LARGE YARD FODDER-RACK. shown in figure 146, is that it will hold a large quantity of feed, and so securely that very little can be wasted by the feeding animals. FARM CONVENIENCES. 179 BARN DOOR FASTENING. One of the best bams in the country has its large double doors fastened by a bar of iron, about six feet long, which is bolted to one of the doors at its middle point. The ends of the bar are notched, one upon the upper and the other on the under side, to fit oyer sock¬ ets or “ hooks ” that are bolted to the doors. One hook Fig. 147. —IKON BAR DOOR FASTENING. bends upward, and the other downward, and the bar moves in the arc of a circle when the door is being un¬ fastened or bolted. The construction of this door fast¬ ening is shown in figure 147. A wooden bar may replace the iron one, and may be of a size and length sufficient Fig. 148. —WOODEN BAR DOOR FASTENING. to make the fastening secure. A wooden bar is shown in figure 148. Such a method of fastening could be used for a single door, provided it needs to be opened and closed only from the inside. By putting a pin in ISO FARM COXVEXlEXCES. the bai near the end that passes by the door-post, so that it will reach through a slot in the door, such a *•'latch ” might be used for any door. A "FORK” STABLE SCRAPER. A very handy stable scrape/ is made of an inch board, five inches wide, and about eight inches longer than the width of a four-tined fork. Bore a hole for each tine a quarter inch in diameter from the edge of the board to about two inches from the opposite edge, the holes passing out upon the side. The lower part of the board is bevelled behind, thus forming a good scraping edge. After the coarse manure is pitched up, the fork is in- Fig. 149.— a “fork” barn scraper. serted in the holes of the board, and a scraper is at once ready for use, figure 149. To store it, nail a cleat on the floor two inches from the wall, and secure the scraper behind this cleat; place one foot upon the board and FARM CONVENIENCES. 181 withdraw the fork. Notches may be cut in the edge of the board opposite each hole, to assist in placing the tines. A METHOD OF CURING HAY. A method of curing hay which has been used for sev¬ eral years with entire satisfaction consists in taking [our slender stakes six feet long, a , a , a , a (figure 150), Fig. 151. —THE SMALL STACK. fastened together at the upper ends with a loose joint similar to that of an ordinary tripod. One end of the 182 FARM CONVENIENCES. fifth stake, b, rests on one of the four legs about a foot from the ground, the other end resting on the ground. The hay is stacked around this frame nearly to the top of the stakes, after which the stake, b, is withdrawn, and then the four upright stakes are removed. This is done by two men with hay forks, who raise them directly upwards. As soon as the legs are lifted from the ground the pressure of the hay brings them together, and they can be removed with ease, leaving a small stack of hay, as shown in figure 151, with an air passage running from the bottom upwards through the centre of the small stack, as indicated by the dotted lines. GRANARY CONVENIENCES. The better plan for constructing grain bins is to have the upper front boards movable, that the contents may be more readily reached as they lessen. But as there are tens of thousands of granaries where the front bin boards are firmly nailed, a portable step, like that shown in figure 152, is almost a necessity. It should have two FARM COHYENIEXCES. 183 steps of nine inches each, and be one foot wide, and two feet long on top. It is light and is easily moved about the granary. Every owner of a farm needs a few extra sieves, which, when not in nse, are usually thrown in some corner, or Fig. 153. —A SIEVE RACK. laid on a box or barrel to be knocked about and often in¬ jured by this rough handling, besides being frequently in the way. A little rack, which may be readily made Fig. 154.— A GRAIN BAG HOLDER. above one of the bins in the granary, as shown in figure 153, is convenient to put sieves out of the way, and keep them from injury. 184 FARM CONVENIENCES. Grain bags are too expensive and valuable to be scat¬ tered about the buildings. A simple mode of securing them is shown, which is at once cheap and safe. In the ceiling over the bins, staples are driven about four feet apart, to which are attached pieces of wire two feet in length. To these wires is fastened a pole five feet in length, over which the bags are thrown when not in use, and they are then out of reach of mice from the bins and wall, as shown in figure 154. A NON-SLIPPING CHAIN FOR BOULDERS. One great trouble in hauling boulders or large stones with team and chain is the liability of the chain to slip off, especially if the stone is nearly round. By the use of the contrivance shown in figure 155, nearly all of this trouble is avoided. It consists in passing two log chains around the stone and connecting them a few inches above the ground by & short chain or even a piece of rope or wire. Connect the chains in a similar manner near the top of the stone. The ends of the draught chains are attached to the whipple-trees in any way desired. In Fig. 155. —METHOD OF FASTENING CHAINS ON A BOULDER. hauling down an incline, or where the ground is very rough, it will be best to wrap each chain clear around the stone, connecting with whipple-trees by a single chain, thereby preventing a possibility of the chains becoming detached or misplaced in any way. FARM CONVENIERCES. 185 A PITCHFORK HOLDER. Having occasion to go into the barn one night, we received a very bad wound from a pitchfork which had fallen from its standing position. This led us to con¬ struct a holder, shown in the engravings. The fork- holder is made of an inch board, of a semicircular shape, with five holes large enough to admit a fork handle, bored near the curved side. This board is nailed to a standing post in the barn. A strap or curved bolt & placed some distance below to hold the handles in Fig. 156 . —front view. Fig. 157 .— side view. place, as they rest on a bottom board fixed for the pur¬ pose. Figure 156 shows the front view of the holder ^ figure 157 gives the side view. 186 FARM CONVENIENCES. A CONVENIENT HOG LOADER. Figure 158 shows the “ loader ” attached to a wagon, with the rack. The bed-piece consists of two pine boards, six inches wide by nine feet long. These are fastened together by three cross-pieces of the same material, of proper length, so that the “bed” will just fit in between the sides of the wagon-box. A floor is laid on these cross-pieces, on which short strips of lath are nailed, to prevent hogs from slipping. At one end the sides are notched to fit on the bottom of the wagon-box. There are two staples on each side by which the sides are fastened on. The “ rack ” is made like an ordinary top-box, with the exception that each side is composed of three narrow boards about four inches apart, and nailed to three cleats (the two end cleats to be on the inside, and the middle one on the outside of the rack), and projecting down the side of the wagon-box. End-boards are made and fastened in like those of an ordinary wagon-box. For unloading the hogs nothing but the bed-piece need be used, which, being light, may be easily thrown on and taken with the wagon. FARM CONVENIENCES. 18? A HOME-MADE ROLLER. Take a log six or eight feet long, eighteen or twenty inches in diameter, and put pins in each end for journals, either of wood one and a half inch, or iron one inch. Make a frame of two by four scantlings, or flat rails three or four feet long to suit the size of the roller. Bore holes for journals a little back of centre, and also inch-holes two mcnes from the back end of scantlings. Fasten these ends together with a chain or rope tight enough to keep the scantlings square with the ends of Fig. 159. —A HOME-MADE ROLLER. the log, figure 159. Fasten the front ends together with a stiff pole or rail, and put a heavy chain across the front, with one end around each front corner. Attach the double-tree at the middle of this chain. The draft chain and the pole will keep the front ends of the frame in position, and the chain behind will prevent the rear ends from spreading. When the roller goes faster than the team, the draft chain will slacken, and the front of the frame will drop and prevent the roller from striking the team. A roller is such a‘valuable implement that there should be one in use on every farm. Even a rough home-made roller is better than none, whether it is used to break up clods, or to compact the soil after sowing. A LAND SCRAPER. In districts where land needs draining, scrapers must be used. A very good one is shown in figure 160. It 188 FARM CONVENIENCES. has one advantage over most scrapers : tlie team can sta* on the bank while the scraper is thrown into the ditch. When the ditch is a large one, fourteen feet or more Jb'ig. lt>0.—A LAND SCRAPER. wide at the top, it is only necessary to lengthen the chain. The scraper consists of two boards, twelve inches wide and three feet long, fastened firmly together by two strong iron plates, figure 161, p, p 9 bolts, and rod-iron nails. The scraper-edge is made of an old cross-cut saw. fastened on with rod-iron nails. Two notches are cut at p 9 p , for the hooks to pass through, also one at n , for a holder for lifting the scraper when necessary. To make the scraper work perfectly, the rod or hook should have the right bend, as shown at a, figure 162, FARM CONVENIENCES. 189 The hook is fastened to the scraper by two bolts, b, b, Fig. 162. —THE HOOK-liOD. figure 162, and small pins, c, when the land scraper is complete. A HOME-MADE BAG-HOLDER. This bag-holder is one of the most useful articles a man can have in his barn. It consists of a post, a , two by four inches, and five feet long, with six one-half inch holes near the upper end, as shown in figure 163. The bar, b 9 passes through a mortise and over the pin nearest Fig. 163. —A HANDY BAG-HOLDER. the bag, and under the other pin. This bar can be moved up or down, to suit the length of the bag. The post, a , sets in a bed-piece, c, two by three inches and 190 FARM CONVENIENCES. two feet long. A board, d, eighteen inches square, fast¬ ened upon the bed-piece, furnishes the necessary rest for the bag. The mouth of the bag is held open by means of hooks placed on the ends of the cross-bar, with an¬ other beneath the main bar. A SAFETY EGG-CARRIER. In figure 164, a represents the bottom-board of the spring-box, near the edges of which are fastened six wire- coil springs or bed-springs. At b is represented a hole made in the board to receive the lower end of the spring, about half an inch of which is bent down for that pur¬ pose. Small staples are driven into the board to hold Fig. 164. —BOTTOM-BOARD OF SPRING-BOX. the spring'? in place. Scraps of leather or tin might be tacked or screwed down, instead of using staples; d, d, are leather straps, an inch or more wide, and long enough to reach from the bottom-board, where each one is fastened by two screws, to the egg-box, after being placed on the springs. Figure 165 represents the side FARM CONVENIENCES. 191 and end boards, which, when placed over the bottom- board holding the springs, forms the spring-box ; screws fasten the side and end-boards to the bottom-board of the spring-box, pieces of tin being nailed around the corners of the box, to give it proper strength, the nails being clinched on the inside. After securing the springs and straps to the bottom^ board, the egg-box should be placed on the springs, and the points of the springs placed in holes previously made in the bottom of the egg-box to receive them. Now put a sufficient weight in the egg-box to settle it down firmly on the springs, and fasten the upper ends of the straps to the box, being careful to have the box Fig. 165. —FRAME FOR HOLDING EGG-BOX. set level. Having done this, take the part, figure 165, and put it down over the egg-box to its place, and make it fast to the bottom-board of the spr'ng-box with heavy screws. The object of the bottom, figure 165, is to keep the springs from being strained to one side in going over rough ground. It should be made one-quarter inch or so larger than the egg-box, that the latter may have the benefit of the springs. Our former custom was to put a feeding of hay in the wagon-box, about midway from one end to the other, place the egg-box on the hay, and drive carefully over the rough places. But more or less 19» FARM COKVERIEKCES. eggs would be broken, the best we could do, whethei they were packed in bran or put in paper “ boxes ” 01 Fl and is somewhat narrower than in front, that it may tilt easily on a pivot at c. A small washer should be placed on each side of the trap at c, that it may not bind in tilting. The distance from b to c should be somewhat longer than from c to d , that the board will fall back in place after being tipped. No bait is re¬ quired, because a rabbit (hare) is always looking for a place of security. The bottom of the box should be even with the top of the ground at the entrance to the top of the barrel. The barrel should be covered closely with a board, as shown in figure 170. Remove the rabbits from the trap as fast as they are caught. WOODEN STABLE FLOOR. Elm makes an excellent and durable stable floor ; the fibre of the wood is tough and yielding. The planks should be secured in position by wooden pins, as they are constantly liable to warp. Any of the soft oaks make a good floor; the hard, tough varieties are un¬ yielding, and, until they have been in use several months, horses are liable to slip and injure themselves in getting up. Both pine and hemlock make good floors, being soft and yielding, but they are not as durable as many other woods. Planks for a stable floor should be two and a half inches in thickness, and not laid until quite thor¬ oughly seasoned, and then always put down lengthwise of the stall, and upon another floor laid crosswise, as shown at b, b , b , figure 171. The planks of this floor, or cross floor, should be laid one inch apart, that they 196 FARM CONVENIENCES. may the more readily dry oft, and offer a better ventila¬ tion to the floor above. Unless the upper floor is of ma¬ terial liable to warp, it should not be nailed or pinned, but made as close-fitting as possible. It is not profitable or necessary to have the stall planks more than eleven and a half feet in length, or extend farther back than the stall partition, as shown at e, e. This plan leaves a Fig. 171.— MANNER OF LAYING A STABLE FLOOR. wide smooth walk behind the stalls at h , so necessary for ease and rapidity in cleaning the manure from the stable. Some horse-keepers prefer a slatted floor, similar to that shown in figure 172. Material of the proper length, four inches wide and two inches thick, is set upon edge, as at h. with a strip three-quarters of an inch thick and one and a half inch wide placed between the slats, the whole made to fit the stall as closely as possible. By this method it is quite impossible for horses to become so FARM CONVENIENCES. 197 dirty as when lying upon a common plank floor, as the space between the slats form a most admirable channel Fig. 172.— A SLATTED STABLE FLOOR. for carrying off the urine. A few days’ constant use somewhat clogs the passages, but they are readily opened by using a home-made cleaner, like that shown in figure 173. Stable floors should have at least one inch descent Fig. 173. —A CLEANER FOR A SLATTED FLOOR. in ten feet, and many make the descent three and even four inches in the same distance, but this is unnecessary. All stabled animals should stand upon floors as nearly level as is consistent with cleanliness. A RAIL HOLDER OR “GRIP.” Drive two posts, b, b, figure 174, three feet long, firmly in the ground, four feet apart, between two parallel logs, a, a . A third post or “jaw,” c, somewhat shorter, is 193 3?ARM CONVENIENCES. mortised in a block placed between tbe logs, and out of line with, or to one side of the posts, b, b , so as to hold a rail, d, between the three. A lever, e, eight feet long, and heavy at the outer end, is mortised into another block, which is placed on the side of d, b, both blocks bearing against the posts. The lever and jaw are con¬ nected by a chain passing around the lever, over its block and through a hole in the jaw. An iron pin through a link couples them just enough apart to hold a rail firmly when the lever is on the ground. To remove the rail, raise the lever and rest it upon the small post, /, at the farther end, which slackens the chain. A CHEAP AND DURABLE GRINDSTONE-BOX AND HANGERS. A good grindstone, well hung, is one of the most val¬ uable aids about the farm or workshop. Those who cannot afford to buy a very neat and handy grindstone frame of the hardware dealers, will find a frame and hangers shown in figure 175, that for convenience, cheap- FAUM CONVEHIEHCES. 199 ness, and durability is hard to excel. The frame con¬ sists of a well-seasoned “ trough ” of pine or other wood, fourteen inches square (or even one foot square), and from two and a half to three and a half feet in length, to which legs are nailed at b, b, four inches wide, an inch and a half thick, and bevelled at the top. Sup¬ ports or hangers, h, ii , are nailed firmly to the side, as indicated ; they should be hard wood, and of a size to correspond with dimensions and weight of stone. The shaft may be of iron or wood; fit a piece of sheet lead, or piece of lead pipe, properly flattened out, in the top of each hanger ; this will cause the shaft to turn easily, and prevent all squeaking for want of oil. The wooden plug at r, is for drawing ofl the water after each using of the stone, and should in no case be neglected. If one side of the stone is left standing in water, it softens, and Fig. 175. —A BOX FOR A GRINDSTONE. the surface will soon wear quite uneven. After the box is completed, give it one heavy coat of boiled oil; then in a few days apply a coat of lead and oil, and with even common care, it will last a lifetime. When the stone becomes worn, it is kept down to the water by simply deepening the groove in the top of the hangers. Always 200 FARM CONVENIENCES. buy a long shaft for a grindstone, for in this age of reap¬ ers and mowers, the cutting apparatus of which must be ground, a long shaft for a grindstone is almost a neces¬ sity, or truly a great convenience. If the grindstone is to stand out-doors, always cover it with a closely fitting wooden box when it is not in use. A “LADDER” FOR LOADING CORN. Take a plank two inches thick, ten inches wide, and eight feet long. Nail upon one side of it cleats, of one~ inch by two-inch stuff, at easy stepping distances apart. At the upper end nail upon the underside of the plank a cleat projecting four inches upon either side, to which attach small ropes or chains, and suspend the ladder from the hind end of the rack, so that one end of the plank will rest upon the ground. This makes a very convenient step-ladder, up which a man can carry a large armful of fodder, and thus load his wagon to its full ca¬ pacity with greater ease than two men could load it from the ground. I find it of great convenience to me when hauling corn fodder alone. The “ Ladder” is shown in figure 176. FARM CONVENIENCES 2Q1 PROTECTING OUTLET OF DRAINS. One of the greatest annoyances in underdraining is the trouble arising from the outlet becoming choked or filled up by the trampling of animals, the action of frost, or even of water in times of freshets. This trouble is quite successfully overcome by the arrangement as shown in figure 177; it consists of a plank, ten or twelve inches in width, and five or six feet in length, with a notch cut in one side, near the centre. This plank is set upon Fig. 178. —LOGS AT END OF DRAIN. edge at the outlet of the drain, with the notch directly over the end of the tile, and is held in position by several stakes on the outside, with earth or stone thrown against the opposite side. This plan is best for all light soils, 9 * FARM CONVENIENCES. 202 while for heavy clay land the one shown in figure 178 is just as good, and in most cases will prove more durable. It consists of two logs, eight or ten inches in diameter, and from three to ten feet in length, placed parallel with the drain, and about six inches apart; the whole is covered with plank twenty inches long, laid crosswise. Flat stones will answer and are more lasting than planks. The whole is covered with earth, at least eighteen inches in depth ; two feet or more would be better, especially if the soil is to be plowed near the outlet. A LOG BOAT. A convenient boat for dragging logs is shown in figure 179. The runners, d, d , are two by six inches and four and a half feet long; the plank is two by nine inches, and three and a half feet long. A mortise is made at Ji for the chain to pass through. The cross-piece, c, is four by seven inches, and three and a half feet long, and worked down to four and a half inches in the middle. Notches are cut into the cross-piece four inches wide and two inches deep, to receive the scantlings, e, e, two by Fig. 179.— A STOUT LOG BOAT. four inches, and three feet long, which are fastened down by strong bolts, as shown at the dotted lines, f. /'. The two bolts in front, 6, b, go through the scantling, plank and runner, while the bolts, g, g, pass only through the plank and runner. It will be more convenient to load the logs by horses. FARM CONVENIENCES. 203 as shown in the illustration, figure 180. The boat is raised with its upper side against the log. The chain is fastened to the cross-piece at a , with the large hook, and the other end is put around the log, under the runner and cross-piece at l, and pulled through between the runner and scantling at c, when the end of the chain, d, is fastened to the whippletree. As the team is started, the Fig. 180. —LOADING THE LOGS. boat tips over, with the log on top. Loosen the chain from the two-horse evener, and pull it back through the runner and scantling at c , and through the hole. CHEAP AND DURABLE WAGON SEATS. It is tiresome to be jolted over rough roads, in a wagon without springs, with a simple board for a seat; but no farmer or cartman need adhere to this practice, when comfortable and portable seats can be so easily and cheaply made. For a one-man seat, that shown in figure 181 is the simplest and most durable, and should be one foot longer Fig. 181. —SPRING SEAT FOR ONE PERSON. than the wagon-box is wide ; the connecting blocks should be four inches high, and placed near the ends. 204 FARM CONVENIENCES. The one shown in figure 182 is arranged for two persons, the connecting block being placed in the centre, the ends being kept a uniform distance apart by bolts, with the nut upon the lower side, out of the way. The hole Fig. 182. —A DOUBLE SPRING SEAT. for the bolt through the lower board should be just large enough to allow the bolt to play freely. In figure 183 is showm a seat a little more expensive, yet far more elastic. Both boards are eight inches longer than the width of the box upon which they rest. At each end of the top-board is mortised or nailed in a strip of hard wood, one inch thick, two inches wide, and about seven inches in length, which is made to pass freely up and down in a corresponding notch sawed in Fig. 183. —A COILED SPRING SEAT. the end of the lower board. At or near each comer of the seat is placed a coiling spring. A pin, passed through the wooden strip near the bottom, keeps the seat-boards from separating. A BAG-HOLDER ON PLATFORM SCALES. Figure 184 shows a contrivance which does away with the need of a second person in filling grain bags, and is both cheap and simple. It is attached to a platform scales for convenience in weighing, and consists FARM CONVENIENCES. 205 of an iron hoop, nearly as large around as a bag. The hoop has four small hooks on it, at equal distances apart, to which the bag is fastened. Attached to the hoop is a piece of iron about six inches long, exclusive of the shank, which slips into a socket fastened to the front of the upright enclosing the rods, that run from the bot¬ tom of the scale to the weighing beam. This iron and hoop are fastened securely together. The shank should fit loosely in the socket, to let the hoop tilt down, so that the bag can be readily unhooked. There is an eye- bolt in the hoop where the iron rod joins it, and a rod Fig. 184. —A BAG-HOLDER ON PLATFORM SCALES. with a hook on the upper end is fastened into it. This rod reaches to a staple fastened above the socket on the upright of the scales, as shown in figure 184. When the hook on the end of this rod is slipped into the staple, it lifts the hoop to a level position, and is of sufficient strength to hold a bag of grain. The hoop should be high enough to allow a bag to clear the platform of the FARM CONVENIENCES. X06 ecales. When filled, a sharp blow of the hand removes the hook of the sustaining rod, and lets the hoop tilt downward, when the bag rests on the platform. The hoop can be swung to one side, and entirely out of the way. We have a sort of hopper made out of an old dish pan with the bottom cut out. It is very convenient to keep grain from spilling while filling the bags. MAKING BOARD DRAINS. On very many farms, wooden drains are used in place of tiles, but mostly in new districts where timber is cheap, and tiles cannot be purchased without much expense. They will answer the purpose well, without much ex¬ pense. Wooden drains, if laid deep enough, so that the Fig. 185.— FllAME FOR HOLDING BOARDS. frost will not affect them, will last many years. We know of an old drain that has been built twelve years, where the timber is still sound in some spots. To make wooden drains, two men are generally required—one to hold the boards, and another to nail them. This mode of con¬ structing board drains can be improved upon by making a “ standard,” which consists of an upright board three feet high, having notches cut into it six inches apart, one inch wide, and several inches deep, to hold the boards firm. The boards b, b , figure 185, are laid into the notches, n, n } when the top board can be quickly FARM CONVENIENCES. m and easily nailed on. Another method, shown in figure 186, consists of two posts, driven into the ground about three feet from a fence, with a board nailed across from Fig. 186. —FRAME BY A FENCE. each post to the fence. Notches are then cut into each cross-board several inches deep, when it will be ready for use. PUT THINGS IN THEIR PLACES. We have in mind an extensive and well-tilled farm, where a large space in the end of a wagon-shed is called a tool-room. The tools are deposited in the barn, wood¬ shed, crib, in the field, hung in trees, anywhere but in the right place. The tool-room floor is covered with heaps of rusty iron, old leather, broken harness, frag¬ ments of tools, and other accumulations of forty years of farm life. The old iron should be sorted over, and any bolts, nuts, rings, hooks, etc., that are good, maybe put in a box by themselves, and the rest should go to the junk dealer. There may be a few straps and buckles of the old harness worth saving. If so, oil the leather and lay it aside ; throw the rest out of sight. Put a light scaf¬ fold near the roof-plates, and pile many small articles upon it; they will be out of the way and within easy reach. Make a drawer in a bench for holding small tools, and a row of pigeon-holes for nails, screws, etc. Across one end of the room, in front of the plate, fasten 208 FARM CONVENIENCES. a long narrow board by pegs, so that a six-inch space will be between the plates and board. Let the pegs be a foot apart and stand out beyond the board some five or six inches, upon which to hang long-handled tools. About four feet from the floor make a similar rack for shovels. Fig. 187. —SECTION OF A TOOL KOOIVL picks, chains, whippletrees, etc. Bring all the tools to this room, except those needed every day in the barn. There should be a paint-pot in the tool-house, to use on a rainy day for painting the tools. Figure 187 shows a section of a well-arranged tool-room. Lay down this law to your man-servant and maid¬ servant, to your son and daughter, to your borrowing FARM CONVENIENCES. 209 neighbor and yonr good wife, to all that in your house abide, and to yourself : “ That whoever uses a tool shall, when his or her work is done, return the tool to the tool-houseand place it where it was found.” WATER-SPOUT AND STOCK-TROUGH. The water-trough for the stock should not be imme¬ diately under the pump spout, but some ten or twelve feet distant, a spout being employed to convey the water. This spout (figure 188) is made of two good pieces of clean white pine, inch stuff. One piece is four inches and the other is three inches wide, nicely planed and jointed. If securely nailed, it will not leak for a long time, but when it does, let it dry, and then run hot pitch down the joint. The trough should be made of two-inch oak, or pine of the same thickness may do, if kept well painted, inside Fig. 188. —WATER-TROUGH. and out. Instead of nailing on the sides to the ends, have the ends fitted into grooves, and use rods, with burrs on them to bring the sides up tightly to their places. When the trough leaks, tighten up the burrs a little with a wrench, and the trouble generally ceases for the time. Even the best trough is by no means very lasting, and its longevity is increased by keeping it thor¬ oughly painted, inside and out, with good paint. Where 210 FARM CONVENIENCES. there are horses that destroy the edges of the trough with their teeth, it is a good plan to rim it all around with thin iron. The spout, where it goes under the pump, can have a strap slipped over the nozzle of the pump. A DESIRABLE MILKING SHED. (See Frontispiece.) We recently observed a peculiarly constructed building used as a milking shed during the warmer portions of the year. It is a common frame structure, thirty-five feet in length and eighteen feet wide, with posts eight feet high. The sides and ends are hoarded up and down with eight-inch stuff, leaving a space three inches wide between the hoards for ventilation, light, etc. A row of common stanchions are placed along each side. A door is made at one end, through which the cows enter. If grain is fed, it is placed in position before the cows are admitted. A small quantity of salt is kept on the floor, immediately in front of the stanchions, thus allowing the cows to obtain a supply twice each day. This manner of salting is an inducement for the cows to enter the building and take their accustomed places ; it also tends to keep them quiet while milking. This arrangement, for cleanliness, ventilation, etc., is far superior to the common basement stables, and is a great improvement over the usual plan of milking in the open yard, where broken stools, spilled milk, and irritable tempers are the rule rather than the exception. No matter how stormy it may be without, this shed always secures a dry place, with comparative quiet. A greater supply of milk is obtained with such a shed. The floor of the stable portion may be of earth, covered with coarse gravel. FARM CONVENIENCES. 311 WEAR PLATE FOR HARNESS TUGS AND COLLARS. In the manufacture of improved harness trimmings, devices are employed to prevent, as much as possible, the wear and breaking of the tugs where the buckle tongue enters them. This is quite an important point with those purchasing new harness. The simple con¬ trivance, such as is shown in figure 189, consists of a Fig. 189.— WEAR PLATE FOR TUG. thin iron plate a little narrower than the tug, and about two inches in length, with a hole for the reception of the buckle-tongue when placed between the tug and the buckle. The strain from the buckle upon the tug is equally distributed over the entire surface against which the plate rests. A harness thus equipped will last many years longer than those not so provided. There is another part of the harness that is the cause of much trouble— mainly, the part where the tug comes in contact with the col¬ lar. The tug and its fasten¬ ings to the hame soon wear through the collar, and com¬ press the latter so much that during heavy pulling the horse’s shoulder is often pinched, chafed, and lacerated. This Pi g. 190.— wear plate . .. , FOR HAMES. is worse than carelessness on the part of the teamster, as the collar should be kept plump at this point, by re-filling when needed ; yet, very much of this trouble may be avoided by tacking to the 212 FARM CONVENIENCES. underside of the hame a piece of leather, as shown in dgure 190. It will be found not only to save the collar, but prevent chafing of the shoulder. POTABLE WATER FENCE. The water fence, shown in figure 191, is one of the best we have ever used, and those who live near or on tide-water will find such an one very useful. This fence is made usually of pine ; the larger pieces, those which lie on the ground and parallel with the “run ” of the fence, are three by four-inch pieces, hemlock or pine, and connected by three cross-bars, of three by four-inch pieces, mortised in, three feet apart. Into the middle Fig. 191. —SECTION OF A WATER FENCE. of these three cross-pieces (the upright or posts), are securely mortised, while two common boards are nailed underneath the long pieces to afford a better rest for the structure when floating on the water, or resting on the ground. Stout wires are stretched along the posts, which are four f eet high. DITCH CLEANER AND DEEPENER. Open ditches require constant attention to prevent their being choked with weeds and accumulations of silt. FARM CONVENIENCES. 213 Keeping them cleaned out with a hoe is a difficult and laborious task, while drawing a log down them is un¬ satisfactory and ineffective. To run a plow along the bottom is not only a disagreeable task, but frequently does more harm than good. In view of these facts we devised the simple and effective implement shown in figure 192. The centre-piece is six by eight-inch oak, eight feet long, and shaped as shown in the cut. The wings, or Fig. 192. —A CLEANER FOR DITCHES. scrapers, are made of oak, or other tough wood ; boards ten inches wide. They ^re attached to the centre-piece at the forward end by an inch bolt that passes through all three pieces. They are connected at the rear end by a strong cross-bar of hard-wood. Twelve or fifteen inches back of this bar the end of the lever is attached to the centre-piece by an eye and staple. A short chain is fastened underneath the centre of the cross-bar, with an eye-bolt passing through it. The chain is attached to the lever with a hook, and may be lengthened or short¬ ened as required. The implement is drawn by two horses, one on each side of the ditch. A man stands on the centre-piece, and handles the lever. If the ditch is narrow and deep, the rear ends of the wings or scrapers will naturally be forced upward to a considerable hight, and the lever chain should be lengthened accordingly. In wide, shallow 214 FARM CONVENIENCES. ditches, the cross-bar will nearly rest on the centre-piece, and the chain must be short. The scrapers are forced down hard by bearing on the lever. If the bottom of the ditch is hard, two men may ride on the implement. Long weeds catching on the forward end must be re¬ moved with a fork. A strap of iron is fastened across the forward ends of the scrapers where the bolt passes through to prevent them from splitting. The horses may be kept the proper distance apart by means of a light pole fastened to the halter rings. HOW TO BUILD A DAM. A form of crib, shown in figure 193, is built of logs, about eight feet square for ordinary streams. The bot¬ tom should have cross-pieces pinned on the lowest logs. The stones that fill the crib rest on these cross-pieces. Fig. 193. —A CHIB FOR A DAM. and hold everything secure. The crib can be partly built on shore, then launched, and finished in its place in the dam. All the logs should be firmly pinned together. The velocity of the stream will determine the distance FARM CONVENIENCES. 215 between the cribs. The intervening spaces are occupied with logs, firmly fastened in their places. Stone is filled Fig. 194. —LOG FRAME FOR A DAM. In between the logs, and the bottom is made water-tight with brush and clay. Adam without cribs, built of timbers spliced together, and reaching quite across the stream, is shown in figure 194. The frame is bound together with tiers of cross-tim¬ bers about ten feet apart. The sides of this framework of spliced logs are slanting and nearly meet at the top. The interior is filled with stone and clay, and planked over tightly, both front and rear. For a small stream ■with an ordinary current, this is perhaps the cheapest and most durable dam made. The engravings fully illustrate the construction of the two forms. DRIVING HOP AND OTHER POLES. The usual method of driving stakes, etc., is to strike them on the upper end with a sledge or other heavy ar¬ ticle ; but in the case of hop or other long poles this mode is impracticable. Hop poles are usually set by making a hole with an iron bar and forcing into it the 216 EA11M CONVENIENCES. lower end of the pole. Poles and other long stakes often need to be driven deeply in the ground, and this may be done quick¬ ly, and without a high step or plat¬ form, by using a device shown in figure 195. This consists of a block of tough wood, one foot in length, four or five inches square at the top, made tapering, as shown, with the part next the pole slightly hollowed out. Take a common trace chain, wind closely about the block and pole, and hook it in position. With an axe, sledge, or beetle, strike heavy blows upon the block. Each blow serves only to tighten the grip Fig. i 95 ^Td riving of the chain upon the pole. In this block. wa y, quite large poles or stakes may be quickly driven firmly in the ground. To keep the chain from falling to the ground when unfastened from the pole, it should pass through a hole bored through the block. A CONVENIENT GRAIN BOX. The box here represented, figure 196, is at the foot, and just outside of the bin. It serves as a step when emptying grain into the bin. The front side of it is formed by two pieces of boards, hung on hinges at the outside corners, and fastened at the middle with a hook and staple. The contrivance opens into the bin at the back, thus allowing the grain to flow into it. When a quantity of grain is to be taken from the bin, the cover is fastened up, the front pieces swung round, giving a chance to use the scoop-shovel to fill bags or measures. FARM CONVENIENCES. 217 The box is a foot deep and sixteen inches wide. Its length is the same as the width of the bin. The first four boards, forming the front of the bin, may be made stationary by this arrangement, as, at that convenient hight, bags may be emptied over by using the box as a step. The cost of this is about seventy-five cents. An improvement has the front piece and ends nailed together. Fig. 190. GRAIN BOXES. Fig. 197. and the whole fastened to the bin-posts by hooks and staples from the end-pieces, as shown in figure 197. Then the whole could be removed by unhooking the fast¬ enings, and the cover could be let down, to form the lower board on the front of the bin, if desired. A ROAD-SCRAPER. A road-scraper is shown in figure 198, which consists of a heavy plank or hewn log, of oak or any other hard timber, six feet long, six inches in thickness, and ten inches wide. A scantling, 5, two by four inches thick and six feet long, and the brace, c, are secured to the log, a , by a strong bolt. The edge of the scraper is made of an old drag-saw, and secured by rod-iron nails. The scantling serves as a reach, and is attached to the front part of a heavy wagon, when in use. When 10 FARM CONVENIENCES. 218 the road is very hard, it becomes necessary sometimes for the driver to stand on the scraper, to make it take better hold. The scraper should be shaped about as e Fig 198. —A ROAD-SCRAPER. shown at d , in the engraving, so as to make it run steady, and cause the loose dirt to slide to one side, and leave it in the middle of the road. AIDS IN DIGGING ROOT CROPS. Figure 199 shows a carrot and sugar beet lifter, made in the following manner : Take a piece of hard wood, two and a half by three inches, and six feet long, for the main piece, a , into which make a mortise two feet from Fig. 199. —A ROOT LIFTER. the wheel end, to receive the lifting foot (figure 200) ; attach two handles, b, b, at one end, and a wheel, c, at the other. This wheel can be set high or low as desired, by the set screw, d , in the clevis, e. Figure 201 shows the lifting “foot” separate from the machine. This is made of flat iron or steel, five-eighths inch thick and FARM CONVENIENCES. 2ls three inches wide, with a steel point and a small w izers, as butcher’s offal, night soil, kainite, ashes, bona dust, fish, rock weed, kelp, and other marine products. Dig the muck when most convenient and have it ready. A CLEANER FOR HORSES’ HOOFS. The engraving herewith given shows a simple and convenient implement for removing stones and other substances from between the frog and the ends of a horse’s shoe. Its value for this and other purposes will be quickly appreciated by every driver and horse owner. When not in use, the hook is turned within the loop of Ylg. 204. —A HOOF-CLEANER. the nandle, and the whole is easily carried in the pocket. The engraving shows the implement open, two and one- half times reduced in size. If horsemen keep this cleaner within easy reach, it will often serve a good turn, and be of greater value than a pocket corkscrew. COLD WEATHER SHELTER FOR STOCK PROFITABLE. Not one farmer in a hundred understands the impor¬ tance of shelter for stock. This has much to do with success or failure of tens of thousands of farmers. Ani¬ mals fairly sheltered consume from ten to forty per cent, less food, increase more in weight, come out in spring far healthier ; and working and milk-producing animals are much better able to render effective service. The loss EAKM CONVENIENCES. 221 of one or more working horses or oxen, or of cows, or other farm stock, is often a staggering blow to those scarcely able to make the ends of the year meet, and the large majority of such losses of animals are traceable to diseases due, directly or indirectly, to improper protec¬ tion in autumn, winter, or spring. Of the food eaten, all the animals use up a large percentage in producing the natural heat of the body at all seasons, and heat enough to keep up ninety-eight degrees all through the body is absolutely essential. Only what food remains after this heat is provided in the system can go to increase growth and strength, and to the manufacture of milk in cows and of eggs in fowls. When heat escapes rap¬ idly from the surface, as in cold weather, more heat must be produced within, and more food be thus consumed. In nature this is partly guarded against by thicker hair or fur in winter. Any thinking man will see that an animal either re¬ quires less food, or has more left for other uses, if it is protected artificially against winds that carry off heat rapidly, and against storms that promote the loss of heat by evaporation of moisture from the surface of the body. A dozen cows, for example, will consume from two to six tons more of hay if left exposed from October to April, than if warmly sheltered, and in the latter case they will be in much better health and vigor, and give much more milk. Other cattle, horses, sheep and swine will be equally benefited by careful protection. GOOD STONE TROUGHS OR TANKS. Figure 205 shows an unpatented stone water tank, or trough, neat, effective, and readily constructed by almost any one. These troughs may be of any length, width 228 FAKM CONVENIENCES. and depth desired, according to their position, use, and the size of stones available. Here are the figures of the one shown : The two side-pieces are flagging stones, six feet long and twenty-seven inches wide. The bottom- piece is four feet ten inches long, two feet wide ; and the two end-pieces, two feet long, twenty inches wide, or high. These stones were all a little under two inches thick. Five rods, of three-eighths inch round iron, have a flat head on one end, and screw and nut on the other; or there may Fig. 205. —A STONE TROUGH. I be simply a screw and nut on each end ; they must not extend out to be in the way. Five holes are bored or drilled through each side-piece, which is easily done with brace and bit in ordinary stone. The middle hole is four to five inches above the bottom edge, so that the rod through it will fit under and partially support the bot¬ tom stone. The end rods are about four inches from the ends of the side-pieces, and stand clear of the end stones in this case so that the dipper handles hang upon them; but they may run against the end stones. When setting up, the stones being placed nearly in position, newly-mixed hydraulic cement is placed in all the joints, and the rods screwed up firmly. The mortar squeezed out in tightening the rods is smoothed off neatly, so that when hardened the whole is almost compact solid stone¬ work—if good water-lime be used. Almost any flat stones will answer, if the edges of the bottom and end- pieces be dressed and a somewhat smooth groove be cut FARM CONVENIENCES. 229 in the side-pieces for them to fit into or against. The mortar will fill up any irregularities. A little grooving will give a better support to the bottom-piece and the ends than the simple cement and small rods. It will be noted that the side-pieces extend down, like sleigh run¬ ners, leaving an open space below. A hole can be drilled in a lower edge to let out the water in hard freezing weather, and be stopped with a wooden plug. Such tanks will keep water purer than wood, and last a cen¬ tury or longer, if not allowed to be broken by freezing. Any leakage can be quickly stopped by draining off the water and applying a little cement mortar where needed. When flagging or other flat stones are plentiful, the work and cost would be little, if any, more than for wooden tanks. They can be set in the ground if de¬ sired. The iron rods need painting, or covering with asphalt, to prevent rusting. ARTIFICIAL FEEDING OF LAMBS. It frequently happens that artificial feeding of lambs is necessary, and to do it successfully good judgment is required. The point is to promote a healthy and rapid growth, and not allow the lambs to scour. The milk of some cows, especially Jerseys, is too rich, and should be diluted with a little warm water. Farrow cows’ milk, alone, is not a good feed, since it frequently causes con¬ stipation. It may be given by adding a little cane mo¬ lasses. Milk, when fed, should be at about its natural temperature, and not scalded. Lambs, and especially “ pet ” lambs, are often “killed with kindness.” Feed only about a gill to a half pint at first. After the lamb has become accustomed to the milk, it may be fed to the extent of its appetite. When old enough, feed a little flax seed and oats, or oil-meal if early fattening is desired. 230 FARM CONVENIENCES. There are various methods of feeding young lambs arti¬ ficially. A satisfactory way is to use a one-quart kerosene oil can with the spout fixed so as to attach a nipple ; the milk flows more freely from this than from a bottle, on account of the vent. Let ewes and lambs have clean, well-ventilated apartments. When the weather is mild and warm turn them out into the yard. If it is not con¬ venient to let the ewes out, arrange partitions and pens, so that the lambs may enjoy the outside air and sun¬ light. A CONVENIENT BAILED BOX. The common box with a bail, or handle, is a useful farm appliance ; it answers the purpose of a basket, is much more durable, and a great deal cheaper. Instead of a flat bail, we would suggest, for heavy work, a green hickory or other tough stick, to be chamfered off where it is nailed to the sides of the box, the portion for the hand being, of course, left round. It will be found use¬ ful to have these boxes of a definite size, to hold a half¬ bushel or a bushel. A legal bushel is two thousand one hundred and fifty (and a fraction) cubic inches. A box may be made of this capacity of any desired shape. Ends a foot square, and side-pieces and the bottom FA KM CONVENIENCES. 231 eighteen and a half-inches long, will make a bushel box. If desired narrower, make the ends eight inches high and fourteen inches wide, with the sides and bottom two feet long. Such a box, shown in figure 206, holds a very lit¬ tle more than an even bushel. It is inexpensive. SAWDUST FOR BEDDING. We have tried for two years dry sawdust in the cows’ stable, and on the whole like it better than any bedding we have ever tried. It makes a more comfortable bed, completely absorbs the urine, and the cow is kept clean with less labor than when any other is used. The ob¬ jection to salt-marsh sods, dried, or to headlands, and dry muck, is that they soil the cow, and make it neces¬ sary to wash the bag before milking. Straw, of all sorts, soon becomes foul, and, without more care than the ordi¬ nary hired man is likely to bestow, soils the cow’s bag also. Dry sawdust is clean, and makes a soft, spongy bed, and is an excellent absorbent. The bag is kept clean with the aid of a coarse brush without washing. A charge of fifteen bushels in a common box-stall, or cow stable, will last a month, if the manure, dropped upon the surface, is removed daily. The porous nature of the material admits of perfect drainage, and of rapid evaporation, of the liquid part of the manure. The saw¬ dust is not so perfect an absorbent of ammonia as muck, but it is a much better one than straw, that needs to be dried daily, in the sun and wind, to keep it in comfort¬ able condition for the animals. In the vicinity of saw and shingle mills, and of ship-yards, the sawdust accu¬ mulates rapidly, and is a troublesome waste that mill- owners are glad to be rid of. It can be had for the cart¬ ing. But even where it is sold at one or two cents a bushel, a common price, it makes a very cheap and sub- 232 FARM CONVENIENCES. stantial bedding. The saturated sawdust makes an ex** cellent manure, and is so fine that it can be used to ad¬ vantage in drills. It is valuable to loosen compact clay soils, and will help to retain moisture on thin, sandy and gravelly soils. There is a choice in the varieties of saw¬ dust for manure, but not much for bedding. The hard woods make a much better fertilizer than the resinous timber. To keep a milch cow in clean, comfortable condition, we have not found its equal. A CHEAP ENSILAGE CART. The adoption by many farmers of the silo method of preserving fodder, has made it necessary to change the manner of feeding live stock. When the ensilage is re¬ moved twenty feet or more from the silo to the feeding rack, it is best to have some means of conveying it in Fig. 207. —AN ENSILAGE CART. quantities of from one to two hundred pounds at a time. This can be done cheaply and quickly by a small hand' cart, one of which any farmer having the tools can make in half a day. A good form of ensilage cart is shown in figure 207, and is simply a box eighteen inches wide. FAEM CONVENIENCES. 233 three feet long, and two and a half feet in hight. A wooden axle, of some tough fibre, is nailed to the bottom, ten inches from the end, and wheels from one to two feet in diameter are placed upon the axle. Suitable wheels can be made from planks, with cleats nailed on to keep them from splitting. Handles and legs are at- tached as shown in the engraving. The axle being near the centre, throws nearly the whole weight of the load upon it while being moved. It will be found easier to handle than a barrow, and not so liable to upset when unequally loaded. It is a cheap arrangement, and may be used for various other purposes as well as for moving ensilage. MILKING AND MILKING TIME. Any one who has had to do with dairy farming knows that there are a great many poor milkers, against a few who understand and practice the proper method of re¬ moving the milk from a cow. It is a well-known fact that some persons can obtain more milk from a cow with greater ease and in quicker time than others. In the first place, there must be an air and spirit of gentle¬ ness about the milker, which the cow is quick to com¬ prehend and appreciate. It is not to be expected that a cow, and especially a nervous one, will have that easy, quiet condition so necessary to insure an unrestrained flow of milk, when she is approached in a rough way, and has a person at her teats that she justly dislikes. There must be a kindness of treatment which begets a confidence before the cow will do her best at the pail. She should know that the milker comes not as a thief to rob her, but simply to ’elieve her of her burden, and do it in the quickest, quietest, and kindest way possible. The next point in proper milking is cleanliness : and it 234 FARM COKVENIEIS'CES. is of the greatest importance if first-class m/lk and but¬ ter are the ends to be gained in keeping cows. No sub¬ stance is so easily tainted and spoiled as milk ; it is par¬ ticularly sensitive to bad odors or dirt of any kind, and unless the proper neatness is observed in the milking, the products of the dairy will be faulty and second-class. Those persons who can and will practice cleanliness at the cow, are the only ones who should do the milking. It matters not how much care is taken to be neat in all the operations of the dairy, if the milk is made filthy at the start; no strainer will take out the bad flavor. Three all-essential points are to be strictly observed in milking: kindness, quickness, and neatness. Aside from these three is the matter of the time of milking. It should be done at the same hour each and every day, Sundays not excepted. It is both cruel and unprofitable to keep the cows with their udders distended and aching an hour over their time. We will add another ness to the essentials already given, namely: promptness. A REVOLVING SHEEP HURDLE. An easily moved feeding hurdle is shown in figure 208. It consists of a stout pole or scantling of any convenient length, bored with two series of holes, alternating in nearly opposite directions, and twelve inches apart. Small poles five or six feet long are so placed in the holes that each adjoining pair makes the form of the letter X. These hurdles are arranged in a row across the field, and the sheep feed through the spaces between the slanting poles. The hurdles are moved forward by revolving them, as shown in the engraving. By using two rows of these hurdles, sheep may be kept on a narrow strip of land, and given a fresh pasture daily by advancing the FARM CONVENIENCES. 235 lines of hurdles. This method of feeding off a forage crop is one of the most effective and inexpensive for en- Fig. 208. —A REVOLVING HURDLE FENCE. nching worn-out land, especially if a daily ration ot grain 01 oil-cake is given to the sheep. LIGHTS IN THE BARN, It is estimated that nine-tenths of all fires are caused by carelessness. Winter is the season when the lantern is frequently used in the barn, and we give a word of caution. Never light a lamp or lantern of any kind in the barn. Smokers may include their pipes and cigars in the above. The lantern should be lighted in the house or some out-building where no combustibles are stored. A lantern which does not burn well should never be put in order in the hay-mow. There is a great tempta¬ tion to strike a match and re-light an extinguished lan¬ tern, wherever it may be. It is best to even feel one’s FARM CONVENIENCES. 236 way out to a safe place, than to run any risks. If the ligiit is not kept in the hand, it should be hung up. Provide hooks in the various rooms where the lights are used. A wire running the whole length of the horse stable, at the rear of the stalls, and furnished with a sliding hook, is very convenient for night work with the horses. Some farmers are so careless as to keep the lamp oil in the barn, and fill the lantern there while the wick is burning. Such risks are, too great, even if the buildings are insured. A NEST FOR SITTING HENS. The nest box shown in figure 209 can be made to con¬ tain as many nests as desired, and be placed in the poultry house or any other convenient place. When a hen is set in one of the nests, the end of the lever is slid from under the catch on top of the box, and the door falls over the entrance to keep out other hens. They rarely molest the sitting hen after she has held exclusive possession three or four days, and the drop may be raised Fig. 209.— box of hens’ nest. again. The box legs should not he over six inches long. The step in front of the nests, four to six inches wide, is a continuation of the bottom of the box. It is a vast FARM: CONVENIENCES. 23? improyemenfc on old barrels, broken boxes, and othei makeshift hens’ nests so generally employed. BARN-YARD ECONOMY. A dark stream, often of golden color, always of golden yalue, flows to waste from many an American barn-yard. This liquid fertility often enters the side ditch of the farm lane, sometimes of the highway, and empties into a brook, which removes it beyond the reach of plants that would greatly profit by it. Mice may gnaw a hole into the granary and daily abstract a small quantity of grain, or the skunks may reduce the profits of the poul¬ try yards, but these leaks are small in comparison with that from the poorly-constructed and ill-kept barn-yard. The most valuable part of manure is that which is very soluble, and unless it is retained by some absorbent, or kept from the drenching rains, it will be quickly out of reach. Manure is a manufactured product, and the suc¬ cess of all farm operations in the older States depends upon the quantity and quality of this product. Other things being equal, the farmer who comes out in the spring with the largest amount of the best quality of manure will be the one who finds farming pays the best. A barn-yard, whether on a side-hill or on a level, with all the rains free to fall upon the manure heap, should be so arranged as to lose none of the drainage. Side-hill barn-yards are common, because the barns thus located furnish a convenient cellar. A barrier of earth on the lower side of the yard can be quickly thrown up with a team and road-scraper, which will catch and hold the drenchings of the yard above, and the coarse, newly- made manure will absorb the liquid and be benefited by it. It would be better to have the manure made and 238 FARM CONVENIENCES. kept under cover, always well protected from rains and melting snows. Only enough moisture should be pres¬ ent to keep it from fermenting too rapidly. An old farmer who let his manure take care of itself, once kept some of his sheep under cover, and was greatly surprised at the increased value of the manure thus made. In fact, it was so 44 strong” that when scattered as thickly as the leached dung of the yard, it made a distinct belt of better grain in the field. The testimony was so much in favor of the stall-made manure that this farmer is now keeping all his live stock under cover, and the farm is yielding larger crops and growing richer year by year. If it pays to stop any leak in the granary, it is all the more important to look well to the manure that fur¬ nishes the food, that feeds the plants, that grow the grain, that fills the grain bin. At this season the living mills are all grinding the hay and grain, and yielding the by-products of the manure heap. Much may be saved in spring work by letting this heap be as small as out-door yard feeding and the winds and rains can make it, but such saving is like that of the economic sportsman who went out with the idea of using as little powder and lead as possible. In farming, grow the largest possible crops, even though it takes a week or more of steady hard work to get the rich, heavy, well- prepared manure upon the fields. More than this, en¬ rich the land by throwing every stream of fertility back upon the acres which have yielded it. Watch the ma¬ nure heap as you would a mine of gold. A CHEAP MANURE SHED. Many farmers waste much of their stable manure by throwing it out of doors to be acted upon by sun and FARM CONVENIENCES. 239 rain. We recently saw a very cheap, sensible method of almost wholly preventing such loss. A board roof, ten feet square, is supported by posts eight feet long above ground, which are connected inside by a wall of planks (or of poles, as the one examined was). Near the post at each end, stakes a, a( figure 210), are set, against which one end of the end-planks rest. This allows the front planks, d, d , to be removed in filling or loading. It is placed near the stable, preferably, so that the ma¬ nure from the stable can be thrown directly into one corner, whence it is forked to the opposite corner in a few days, to prevent too violent fermentation. A fre¬ quent addition of sods, leaves, and other materials that will decompose, will increase the heap, and improve its value, supplying a manure superior to many of the com¬ mercial fertilizers, at less cost. A SHEEP RACK. The dimensions of the rack (fig. 211) are : length twelve feet, width two feet nine inches, and bight three feet. The materials are : ten boards twelve feet long. FARM COXVEKIENCES. 240 eight of them ten inches wide, one seven inches wide, and one eight inches wide; four boards, two feet nine inches long and twelve inches wide; six posts three by four inches, three feet long; sixty-four slats, sixteen inches Jong and one inch square; and two strips, twelve feet long and two and a half inches wide. Nail the two nar¬ rower boards in the shape of a trough, turn it bottom up, and draw a line through the middle of each side. Set the dividers to four and a half inches, and mark along the lines for holes with a three-quarter-inch bit, and bore the narrow strips to match. Set the slats into the trough, and fasten the strips on their upper ends. Nail two of the boards to the posts on each side, as seen in the sketch, and also the short boards on the ends. Fig. 211. —FODDER RACK FOR SHEEP. Lay in a floor one foot from the ground, and set in the trough as shown in the engraving. Fit a board from the slats up to the top of the outside of the frame. The floor need not cover the middle under the trough. FARM CONVENIENCES. 241 A GOOD PICKET POINTER. On many farms a picket pointer might never be of use, but anyone wishing to put up a picket fence a hun¬ dred or more feet long would save time by making one for the occa¬ sion. Pickets may be purchased ready pointed, but true economy consists in doing as much of the work as possible at home. This arrangement does not concern the fancy-topped pickets some¬ times seen, but simply the popular square picket with pyramidal point, which makes, after all, one of the neat- Fig. 212 . — est fences that can be found for the front view. yard. The waste material from build¬ ing or fence-making, and an hour’s time, will suffice for its making. A bit of studding material, 30 inches long, has a hard¬ wood strip three inches wide nailed on each side so as to project half of its width forward, thus forming a groove in which the picket is held, as will be seen later. They extend lower down than the central piece and with it form the front leg. The left strip, instead of extending to the top, however, is there replaced by a broader bit of hardwood board five or six inches long and pro¬ jecting forward three inches, after Flgl 213 *— SIDE view. which the projecting edges on both sides are sawed off at the proper angle for the picket points, say a little lower than 45 degrees. The two rear legs are strips of lath five feet long, fastened near the top of the front leg and braced so that 242 FARM CONVENIENCES. the forward part is not quite vertical. A block or seat 18 inches long is fastened across them 32 inches from the lower end, and so adjusted as to hold them one foot apart at the ground. The clamp by which the pickets are held in place consists of a half cylindrical block suspended by short lengths of strap iron and connected hy a wire on each side to a foot lever, the action of which need he but slight. Measure from the bevel at the top, down just the length the pickets are to be made, and place a block transversely in the groove at that point, for the stick to rest on. The groove should he at least one-fourth inch wider than the pickets, but a small wedge is inserted at the bottom on the left, so that as they fall into position they are crowded over to the right side. To do the pointing, first cut all the pickets in a miter box to the right length, and at the proper angle to fit the water ledge over the baseboard, then place one in the groove of the pointer, thrust it down past the clamp, which it will push out, till it reaches the block at the bottom. Apply a little pressure on the foot lever to hold it in place, and then, with a sharp drawing knife, bevel the top, keeping the blade flat on the guides of hard¬ wood; lift the picket, turn one quarter to the right, thrust down and cut again, and so on until it is finished. With poplar pickets one and one-fourth inches square, I have seen them pointed at a little more than one per minute, which is certainly much better than to lay off each one and cut with a chisel, as I have known a car¬ penter to do. STERILIZING OVEN AND BOTTLE TRUCK. Both oven and truck for milk can be made by any car¬ penter and tinner. Fig 214 represents the sterilizing oven. It is made on a light frame, of matched lumber; the FARM CONVENIENCES. 243 inside is lined with zinc soldered at the joints. The door should be double, with beveled edges fitting loosely and having felt, rubber or asbestos packing all around the outside. No threshold or extra floor is required. Drainage must be supplied, preferably through the floor. Fig. 214.—STERILIZING OVEN. Steam is introduced by a row of jets eight to 12 inches apart in a steam pipe laid on or near the floor on the two sides and back and connected with steam supply, A valve just outside regulates the amount to be used. The pipes at the end just inside the door are capped so that no steam escapes except at the short nipples, or simply 2 44 FARM CONVENIENCES, holes drilled in pipe, which will answer very well. A flue opens out of the top of the oven, made of tin, three or four inches in diameter and long enough to go out at the roof. This flue is closed by a damper just above the oven; except after sterilizing it is opened to hasten the cooling and assist in drying otf the bottles which are in¬ side. Such an oven is never to be used for the heating of milk, but in it may profitably be placed not only bottles, but tinware, stirrers, faucets, dishcloths, in fact, any¬ thing movable that comes in contact with the milk. A convenient method of handling a large number of bottles is illustrated by fig. 215. This consists of shelves Fig, 215.—BOTTLE TRUCK. so arranged that when the bottles are placed on them, necks inside, they are inclined sufficiently for the water to drain out of them readily, and the dust does not as readily enter them as it would if they were in an upright position. The truck is of such a size that when loaded it will readily enter the oven and admit of the door being closed. A good way to mount such a truck is to place it on two wheels in the center, which bear the entire weight. The little wheels, one each at the front and FARM CONVENIENCES. 245 rear, do not quite touch the floor when the truck is level; these latter are also fixed so as to turn around in a socket like a table caster. Thus rigged, the truck may be pushed around wherever wanted to load or unload and saves a vast amount of handling and inevitable breakage. INEXPENSIVE BUILDING CONSTRUCTION. Many farmers would like to put up a small building for some purpose or other but are deterred by the ex¬ pense, the shingling or clap boarding of walls and the shingling of the roof being a large item in the expense account, both for labor and materials. The cut shows a Fig. 216.—BATTENED BUILDING. simple and inexpensive plan that will give good satisfac¬ tion. The frame of the building is put up and covered, roof and sides, with red resin-sized building paper stretched tightly and lapping so as to shed water if any should ever reach the paper. This costs only $1 per 500 square feet. The boarding is then put on, “up-and- down,” and the cracks battened, as shown. Cover the boards and battens with a cheap stain or paint, and they will last for many years. Such a building will not only be inexpensive but it will be very warm, and in later years can, if desired, be clapboarded and shingled by simply removing the old battens. 24 6 FARM CONVENIENCES. COVER FOR SAP BUCKETS. A good cover for sap buckets may be made at a cost of less than one cent by taking a wide shingle (a), sawing off four inches of the tip end and fastening to it a small spring wire, as shown in the illustration. The wire can Fig. 217.—COVER FOR SAP BUCKETS. be made fast to the shingle by little staples, or by using a narrow cleat like a piece of lath. The wire should be about 30 inches long and will cost less than half a cent. When done, spring the ends of wire apart and it will hug the tree firmly. A HANDY TROUGH. For watering or feeding cattle in the barn a handy trough is illustrated, gotten up by a practical farmer. It may be of any desired dimensions, but is usually about four feet long and one and one-half feet wide. If built slanting, stock can eat up clean any feed in it, or the trough can be readily cleaned. It is very handy for watering cattle in winter, as the trough full of water can be rolled down in front of the cattle, and from one to another as soon as they are through drinking. Where FARM CONVENIENCES. 247 running water is handy, it can be let into this tub and quickly rolled in front of the cattle. With wheels made Fig. 218.— A HANDY TROUGH. of hard wood this device will last for vears, and can also •j * be used for a variety of other purposes about the barn. It is one of those handy contrivances that save labor and add to the pleasure and profit of farming. SUBSTITUTE FOR FLOOD GATE. When a flood gate cannot be used, the device shown in the illustration is very desirable; a represents the posts or trees to which the device is attached; b is a piece of iron g &- in the shape of a capital L, the lower end of which is driven into the post. Further up is a small iron with an eye which fits over the upper end of this iron. This is driven in or turned in after the poles, c, have been placed in position. It is best to make the poles or rails, c. of some good timber. Use enough of these to make the <248 FARM CONVENIENCES. fence or gate sufficiently high. These swing around on the rods as the water forces them apart. When the water recedes these can be again placed in position, and there is no loss of fence material. The ends are laid oc each other, as in building up a rail fence. HOOKS FOR SHOP OR STORE HOUSE. A handy arrangement for hanging up articles, as foi instance, tools in the shop, or meats and other eatables ir the storeroom, is shown in the accompanying sketch. This plan is particularly to be commended where it is de¬ sired to get the articles up out of the reach of mice, rats or cats. Suspend a worn-out buggy wheel to the ceiling by an iron bolt, with a screw thread on one end and a nut or head upon the other. The wheel can be hung as high or as low as desired. Hooks can be placed all about the rim and upon the spokes, in the manner shown, giving room in a small space for the hanging up of a great many articles. This arrangement is convenient, also, from the fact that one can swing the wheel about and bring all articles within reach without moving. IMPROVING A PASTURE SPRING. The average pasture spring is apt to be a mud hole because not protected from the cattle’s feet. Where FARM CONVENIENCES. 240 a spring is to furnish the sole supply of water for a pasture year after year, it is worth while to make the most of it. If there is an old iron kettle with a break in the bottom, it can be utilized after the fashion shown in Fig. 221.—A SPRING WALLED UP. tho eut, provided the source of the spring is a little higher than the point where it issues from the ground. With rough stones and cement, build a water-tight wall about the spring, setting the rocks well down into the ground. Set the kettle with the opening in the bottom, so that the water will rise to its top. A pure supply will thus always be at hand for the stock and a permanent improvement made to the pasture. A GENERAL FARM BARN. The ground plan shown in the illustration, fig. 222, provides sufficient stable room for ten cows, three horses, and a box stall, besides a corn crib and a tool house. These are all on the first floor. The building is 40x30, with a feed way running through the middle four feet wide. The building can be made any desired hight, but 20-foot posts are usually most desirable. On the 250 FARM CONVENIENCES. second floor is space for hay, sheaf oats, corn fodder or other coarse food. There should also be on the second floor a bin for oats or ground feed. This is spouted down to the feed way, where it can be easily given out. The corn crib, of course, can be divided, if it is thought necessary, so that ground feed can be kept in a portion of it. There are plenty of windows in front and back, so that the building is well lighted. This barn can be built cheaply, and is large enough for a small dairy farm. HANDY CLOD CRUSHER AND LEVELER. One who has not tried it would be surprised to find how much execution the device shown in the cut will ac- Fig. 223.—CLOD CRUSHER. complish. Insert a narrow plank in front of the rear teeth of an A harrow, and the land will be harrowed, FARM CONVENIENCES. 251 the lumps crushed and the surface leveled, at one opera¬ tion. One can also, by stepping on and off the cross¬ piece, drag earth from knolls and deposit it in depres¬ sions, thus grading the land very nicely. GIVING SEEDS AN EARLY START IN THE GARDEN. The ground is often cold when the seed is put into the garden plot. To get the earliest vegetables, have a few boxes without bottoms and with a sliding pane of glass for a top, as shown in the cut. Let the top slope toward the sun. Shut the slide entirely until the plant breaks ground, then ventilate as one would in a hotbed, as sug¬ gested in the right-hand sketch. A few such boxes will make some of the garden products ten days earlier— worth trying for. A POST ANCHOR. Where temporary wire fences are used to any consider¬ able extent, the corner or end posts may be anchored, as shown in the illustration. The large rock, a, is sunk into the ground as deep as the post is placed and the earth is solidly trampled above it. Place the wire around the stone before it is put into the ground, then pass it around the top of the post. By using a stick, b, the wire can be tightened if there is any tendency to become loose. To move the fence, loosen the lower strand from the posts. Begin at one end and make a coil about two feet across. Boll this on the ground, 252 FARM CONVENIENCES. crossing and recrossing the strand of wire with the roll, about every foot of length on the strand. The barbs will hold it and keep the roll together. When the roll is as large as is convenient to handle, cut the wire and begin again. When replacing, fasten one end to the post where the top wire is to stay and roll along the ground close to the posts. Follow with the second one a little further off, and then the third. Experience has proved to me that this is the easiest, quickest and best plan to remove wire fence, as after some practice it can be done quickly. STONEBOAT FROM TWO BOARDS. Most of the stoneboats in use are made with run¬ ners. I prefer to secure two boards the length desired for the boat, about 15 inches wide . and three inches thick. I then measure 12 inches on top of the board and 18 inches on the opposite side, as shown in fig. 1. Saw through on the dotted line, turn the end of the board over and with four bolts fasten it as shown in fig. 2. FARM CONVENIENCES. 253 Do this with both boards, place them side by side and fasten with strong crosspieces. This makes a good boat, a and in my experience is more desirable than any other kind. They can not only be used for hauling about the place, but are excellent for breaking roads during the winter. _ A HANDY GARDEN BARROW. A great improvement on the ordinary garden wheel¬ barrow is shown in the cut. The wheels have broad Fig. 227.—IMPROVED BARROW. tires, are light and run beneath the body—just in the position to balance the load when the handles are raised. 254 FARM CONVENIENCES. This barrow can be damped from the side, as in the case of the ordinary barrow. It is thus possible to make over one of the old-fashioned wheelbarrows into the style shown, and that, too, at but small trouble and expense. HOMEMADE TRUCKS AND WHEELS. Low trucks are constantly of service on the farm. Now it is a feed car for the barn, or a two-wheel barrow for the garden, or it may be that low wheels are needed for one end of a crate for moving sheep or hogs. The cut shows how to make any of them. With a “key¬ hole ” saw cut circles from inch boards and screw them together with the grain at right angles, as shown. Two- inch hoop iron binds the edges and keeps them from splitting. Large iron washers help to hold such wheels firmly in place on the axles. A ROLLER FROM MOWING MACHINE WHEELS. Cast-off mowing machine wheels may be utilized very readily for making a land roller. Use narrow strips FARM CONVENIENCES. 255 of plank with slightly beveled edges, putting them around the wheels in the manner shown in the cut. Fig. 229.— SIDE VIEW. making slots in the planks to fit the cogs on the rims of the wheels. These strips are held firmly in place by “shrinking on” two iron hoops at the ends, as shown. The frame is attached in the usual manner. MAKING A PICKET FENCE HEN-TIGHT. On many farms the hens could be given free range if the garden fence were a sufficient barrier to the fowls. The cut shows a picket fence with a picket extending upward for fifteen inches every twelve feet. To these extended ends of the pickets is stretched a twelve-inch Fig. 230—PICKET FENCE. strip of wire netting, as shown in the sketch. In the prominence of the pickets the fowls do not clearly notice the netting until they fly against it. After a few trials 256 FARM CONVENIENCES. they will give up the attempt to fly over. Poultry yard fence can be constructed in this way, using ordinary pickets, and above them any needed width of netting, according as the fowls are Brahmas, Plymouth Hocks or Leghorns. BARREL STRAWBERRY CULTURE. Probably many readers have heard of the plan of raising strawberries on the outside of a barrel. If one has only a small city or village lot, or “ back yard,” the experiment is well worth trying. The accompanying illustration shows one or two wrinkles that may help make the experiment a success. First bore the holes all about the barrel, then put inside a drain pipe made of four strips of board, reaching from the top to the bottom. The joints should not be tight. Now fill in’earth about the pipe and set out the Fig. 23i.— view of barrel, strawberry plants in all the holes and over the top. Put the barrel on a bit of plank, on the bottom of which wide casters have been screwed. The barrel can then turned about every few days to bring the sun to all the plants. An ordinary flour barrel will answer very well for trying this interesting experiment. FARM APPLIANCES A PRACTICAL MANUAL. EDITED BY GEORGE A. MARTIN. NEARLY TWO HUNDRED AND FIFTY ILLUSTRATIONS. NEW YORK'. ORANGE JUDD COMPANY* 1907 Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1887, by the O. JUDD CO., la the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington. INTRODUCTION. -*c>« - Inventive talent has completely revolutionized the processes of farming. The work which required the labor of many, under primitive methods, is now better done by one person with the aid of improved appliances. To explain and illustrate some of the most practical and easily made appliances is the object of this volume. They are such as secure greater comfort to domestic animals, provide supplies of wholesome water, economize labor and assist in dispatching much of the important work on the farm. The hints and suggestions herein contained are the result of practical experience. It is believed that every farmer, gardener, householder, in fact every one interested in labor-saving contrivances, will find very much of interest and value in this volume. (3) ' ' [i - 7 Ur.: 1 TABLE OP CONTENTS Chapter I. Racks, Mangers, Stanchions and Troughs.. 7- 34 Racks and Feed-Boxes for Horses; Covered Horse Manger ; Feeding Trough and Hay-Shute : Device for Box-Stall; Feed Box for Extra Stall; Various Cattle Stanchions ; Feeding Crib for Pork Producing Sections ; Sheep-Rack and Feed Box ; A Barrel Rack"; Improve¬ ments in Pig Troughs ; A Plank Trough ; A Protected Trough ; Troughs for the Pasture ; Improved Grain Bin ; Straw Baler ; Watering Troughs for Stock ; A Guarded Horse Trough ; Box for Watering Pails; Home-Made Heating Vat. Chapter II. Vehicles, Rollers, Harrows and Markers___ 35- 56 A Cart for Breaking Colts ; A Home-Made Cart; Ap¬ paratus for Lifting a Wagon-Body ; Jack for Wagon Box ; Serviceable Wagon Jacks; Adjustable Wagon Seat; Lubricating Axles ; A Light Sleigh or “ Jumper”; A Substantial Sled; A Dump Sled ; A Triple Land Roller; A Cheaper Triple Roller; A Double Land Roller ; Stalk Leveler ; Useful Clod Crusher ; A Brush Harrow ; An Improved Harrow Frame ; Land Markers ; Combined Marker and Clod-Crusher ; A Land Leveler. Chapter III. Small Tools and Appliances.... 57- 82 Bag Holders ; Handling Potatoes j Grindstones and Frames ; Tool Holder ; How to Repair a Grindstone ; A Wooden Manger Fork; Home-Made and Useful Chaff Forks ; Stable Scraper and Broom • A Straw or Hay Hook ; Fork for Handling Stones ; Salt Box for Stock ; Safety Single-Tree ; Root Pulpers and Cutters; Root Washers ; Clamps and Stool for Repairing Harness ; A Box Saw-Horse ; Long Saw-Bucks ; How to Tie a Bag; A Home-Made Rake Head; Working Building Stone ; Block for Sand-Paper. Chapter IV. Appliances for the Bam, Pasture and Dairy... 82- 97 Convenient Stable Ventilator ; Light needed in Bams ; Lanterns in the Barn ; Safety Stick for Mare’s Halter ; To Keep a Horse from Jumping; Coupling Horses in the Pasture ; A Simple Tether; Chain Cattle Tie ; An Unpatented Calf-Feeder ; Two Kinds of Milking Stools ; Vat for Deep-Setting Milk; Home-Made Butter Worker; A Convenience for Fly Time ; Reins for Driving Oxen ; Vat for Dipping Sheep ; Sheep-Shearing Bench ; Ear Tag Punch for Marking Animals ; Sewing up Wounds in Animals, 00 VI TABLE OF CONTENTS. Chapter V. Wells, Pumps, Cisterns and Filters.___ Windlass and Tilting Bucket; Well-Curb or Staves ; Hemlock for Well-Curbs; Securing the Well-Bucket; Curb with a Bucket Shelf; Covered Well-Curbs ; Im- S ure Water in W’ells ; Hook for Cleaning Wells; A on-Freezing Pump : Agitation of Air in Wells ; Deep¬ ening Wells ; Digging a \Vell; How to Build a Cistern ; Water in the Barnyard ; Wooden Water Pipes ; Filters for Family Use; Connecting Cisterns ; Build and Dimen¬ sion of Cisterns ; Cisterns with Filters. Chapter VI. Appliances for Handling Hay and Corn Fodder.. Revolving Horse Rake ; Care of Mowing Machines; Sweep for Gathering Hay ; Hauling Hay or Stalks ; Der¬ rick for Stacking; Hay Carrier for Horse Fork ; Hay Barracks; Supports for Stacks; Home-Made Hay Press ; Twisting Hay and Straw'; Standard for Corn Shocks; Ventilator for Stacks; Bench for Husking; Corn-Stalk Band ; Convenient Fodder Carrier. Chapter VII. Stump-Pullers, Derricks and Slings-- Stump-Pullers ; Derricks for Farm Use ; Slings for Hoisting Heavy Objects; Derrick for a Cellar; Lever Apparatus for Lifting ; A Home-Made Horse-Power. Chapter VIII. Preparing and Handling Fertilizers..... Hauling Barnyard Manure ; Implement for Fining Manure ; Muck and Peat; How to Burn Lime; Value of Gas Lime ; Burning Clay and Sods ; Converting Stiaw into Manure; Manure from Marl aBd Shells; Making Fertilizer from Bones. Chapter IX. Appliances for the Garden and Orchard.... Paper Plant Protector ; Muslin-Covered Plant Screen ; Protected Plant Label; Poles for Beans and other Climbers ; Potting Strawberry Plants ; Stand for Berry Baskets; Tube for Watering Plants; Movable Trellis for Grapes ; Tool for Cutting Edgings ; Substitute for Pea Brush ; Trellis for Tomatoes; Tools for Killing W'eeds ; Various Fruit Pickers ; Frait Ladders ; Japan¬ ese Pruning Saw ; Rabbits and Mice in the Orchard; Implements Used in Cranberry Culture. Chapter X. Appliances for Slaughtering Hogs and Curing the Meat- Sticking Hogs; A Better Way; Heating the Water for Scalding; Scalding Tubs and Vats; Hanging and Cleaning the Hogs ; Packing Pork. 97-121 121-143 144-154 154-165 165-184 184-192 FARM APPLIANCES. CHAPTER I. RACKS, MANGERS, STANCHIONS AND TROUGHS. RACKS AND FEED BOXES FOR HORSES. There are various forms of racks, mangers and feed- boxes for horses. One of the worst devices is the old- Fig. 1.— FEEDING RACK FOR HORSES. fashioned liay-rack, extending from the manger high above the head of the horses, which are compelled to reach up for their hay. This is a most unnatural posi¬ tion for a horse, which does not, when out of the stable, take its food like a giraffe from trees, but from the ground. Aside from this, a high rack causes the double peril of getting dust into the lungs and other objects into the eyes of the horses. The above en- 8 FARM APPLIANCES. graving shows an arrangement for hay and cut feed, or dry grain, which prevents waste, and is very convenient for the horse and its owne^. The manger extends across the whole stall (a single one) and is reached through a falling door in the feeding passage. The hay box goes to the bottom, and has a barred door, through which the waste chaff may be removed, if it does not work out. The feed-box is protected by a barred cover, made of half-inch round iron, having spaces through which the horse can feed; but the bars prevent him from throwing out the feed or grain, in the attempt to pick out the best. The halter is run through a hole in the top of the manger, or a ring bolt in the side of the stall, and has a block of wood at the end, by the weight of which it is kept drawn tight, leaving no slack for the horse to get entangled with. When the horses are fed, the feeding door is shut and fastened by a button. COVERED HORSE MAHGER. Horses will get their heads to the bottom of the hay Fig. 2.— IMPROVED HORSE MANGER. manger if they can, and will often throw the hay out, if not prevented. The illustration, figure 2, is taken RACKS, MANGERS, STANCHIONS, ETC. Aom a stable, in which such annoyance is easily and simply prevented. A rack of iron rods, or of wood, is made and hinged to the top of the manger in front, so that it may be thrown up and over the front when the manger is filled, and then turned down upon the hay. The bars or rods are just far enough apart for the horse to get his nose through to the hay, but of course, he can¬ not get his head through. Iron is better than wood, be¬ cause the horse cannot gnaw upon it. The bottom of every manger should be slatted, to let the hay seed and dust fall through—thus averting a frequent source of cough and heaves in horses. — •<>♦- — FEEDING TROUGH AND HAY SHTTTE. To prevent waste of grain and hay, the trough and hay manger may be made as shown in the engravings here given. The grain box (figure 3) is fixed in the front of the stall, a part of it projecting through the partition, into the feed passage, where there is a lifting hinged cover. The trough, of course, opens into the stall. In 10 FARM APPLIANCES. the center of the trough there is an upright division, open only for an inch or two, through which the grain or meal slides down little by little into the front division,, The hay shute is shown at figure 4. It comes from the floor above, where it has a hinged cover, which, if de¬ sired, is left open for ventilation. It increases in width downwards, to prevent the hay from lodging. The front is provided with small iron bars, to prevent the horse from pulling out the hay and thus causing loss. The bottom should be slatted, to allow the escape of dust. DEVICE FOR BOX STALL. For valuable animals it is best to have loose box-stalls. A range of such stalls can be built very cheaply, and as Fig;. 5. —FEED BOX AND HAT BACK IN BOX STALL. the occupants need not be fastened, they can be quickly let out of the building in case of fire. The feeding arrangement for such stalls is shown at figure 5. It consists of a hay-rack in the corner, with a feed box near it. At the front of the feed box there is a falling door in the partition, through which, when it is half let down in a sloping position, the feed of grain, or the cut feed, may be placed in the hox. The same arrangement may be used for the hay-rack, if the front is boarded up to the top ; but if it is boarded only for five feet, the hay may be lifted over the top of it from the feeding passage. RACKo, MANGERS, STANCHIONS, ETC. FEED-BOX FOR EXTRA STALL. There are times when the arrival of friends or other event calls for an extra stall. To provide for such emergencies, a feed box, and the way to use it, are shown in the engravings, figures 6 and 7. The trough, figure 6, is useful anywhere, it being a “ fencetrough” or feed box. Upright pieces with mortises are made of inch stuff, and nailed on each side of the passage-way. Two by three-inch bars are used, entering into mortises on one side and dropping into slots on the other, the middle bar being keyed in. The upper bar is kept in Fig. 6.—FENCE FEED BOX. plao > by a swinging key put on the partition with a stout screw, and given a little play, so that it will drop by its own weight into its proper position. The feed box is made as in figure 6, with elongated sides extending through and beyond the rails or bars, with notches to re¬ ceive the bars as indicated, made by nailing the pieces at the extreme ends across from side to side, as shown. The box being put on the lowest bar, close to the end of it, -md the middle bar being placed in position and keyed, FARM APPLIANCES. IV secures it. When the box is not in use, it is kept in the harness closet with the two lower ba s. The top bar is Fig. 7.— STALL IN PASSAGE-WAY. generally left in place, to prevent horses, that might get loose, going into the carriage house. VARIOUS CATTLE STANCHIONS. In the engraving figure 8, one of the stanchions is shown open, and the other two closed. The pieces d, e, f , g, and h, are immovable, a, b, c, being the movable stanchions. The device consists of three strips, two inches wide, and three quarter inch thick, fastened to one upright piece by means of two bolts, d and b; the length of the strip is regulated by the distance between the stanchions. Bolts are also used at a and c f the bolt HACKS, makcers, stakohiohs, etc. 1*3 at c passing through a small block, two inches thick, which assists in moving the upright piece. A similar block, e , is also placed on the movable stanchion, upon which the block at c rests when the stanchion is closed. The fastening /, and the piece c, are so arranged as to fall in place at the same time. It will be seen that the animal not only fastens herself in place, but she is doubly secured by the pieces / and c. (The block at e may be omitted if desired, and the device be used with the Fig. 8.—SELF-CLOSING CATTLE STANCHION. fastening/only). A badly hooked cow is often the re¬ sult of careless hired men, and such carelessness is obvi¬ ated by the use of the above arrangement. A cow takes her place in the open stanchion, and in trying to get at the feed below, presses against the lever a, brings c to place, and closes the stanchion. The engraving, figure 9, shows how every farmer vho uses stanchions can arrange to close all the cows in at the same time. The two-inch strip g , is planed on all ‘tildes, and made to move easily in the loops e, d , which are of heavy galvanized iron, bent below so as to allow the strip to slide, and are attached to the immovable stanchions by screws. The hard wood pins a, £, c , ex¬ tend about two inches through, so as to catch the mova¬ ble stanchions. A lever is fixed at h, and attached to the movable strip. This device is comparatively inexpensive, 14 EAKM APPLIANCES. and can be attached to all kinds of movable stanchions, generally used for fastening cows. Even after it is put on the stanchions, it need not be used unless desired. It has the advantage in being separate from every stanchion. One, two, or more animals may be closed in by hand and the balance with this device. It in no way interferes Fig- 9.— DEVICE FOR CLOSING CATTLE STANCHIONS. with the necks of the cows, and saves a great many steps. If a person reaches over m front of the cows, to close them in by hand, he is in danger of being struck in the face with a horn. The above device removes this dan¬ ger. It is simple and cheap. The use of permanent neck-chains, locked on around the necks of breeding animals and young blooded stock, affords an excellent means of fastening the animals in their stalls. A chain and snap are attached to the stall, by which, the snap being caught into the ring of the neck chain, the animals are fastened. A better way is shown in the accompanying sketch of a cow stable. Two round stanchions are placed three feet apart for each stall, and are the only indications of subdivisions or stalls in the stable. A chain about eighteen inches long HACKS MANGERS, STANCHIONS, ETC. 15 having a snap at one end, is attached by a ring to each stanchion. Both chains are made fast to the ring in the “ necklace,” and should have very little slack. If the stanchions are of hard wood, and smooth, the rings will / slide easily up and down, but should not come within a foot of the floor. The cows will have free motion of the head to either side, can lie down and get up easily, hut have very little motion forward and back, hence will keep on the platform and keep clean. They are besides kept perfectly devoted each to her own affairs, as she cannot reach over to either neighbor, to quarrel or to steal her forage. The chief objection to the stanchion comes from its rigidity and vice-like grip, and any improvement in it should be in the direction of comfort to the animal, rath¬ er than in handier ways of fastening. The accompany¬ ing engraving shows how +he rigid plan of the neck latches can be in part avoided. The greatest discomfort 16 FARM APPLIANCES. to stock, when stanchioned, comes when lying down. When standing, there is freedom of movement, but when the animal is down and attempts to rise, it is held fast. Stanchions made as here shown, avoid this. The neck- latches a, b, are not fastened at the bottom, but pass through the side block c, which rests on the lower stringer. By making this side block about eight inches shorter than the space between the uprights d and c, a swinging motion is obtained that gives considerable freedom. The bolt through the neck latch a , in the upper stringer, Fig. 11. —STANCHION FOB DAIET COWS. should not be screwed up snug, but leave the latch a chance to play. It is usually the plan to set stanchions in a perpendicular position, and if the upper stringer is pitched over against the manger about eight inches, a great gain is made in the ease afforded the animal when it gets up, as its shoulder by this plan does not strike squarely against the latches, and avoids the necessity of “ hitching back,” to clear the stanchions, and thus pre¬ vents the extra strain and exertion often noticed in per¬ fectly rigid, and upright stanchions. HACKS, MANNERS, STAKCEtJOKS, ETC. 11 FEEDING CRIB FOR PORK-PRODUCING SECTIONS. To construct the crib shown in the illustration, four forked posts are set in the ground at the corners of a nine foot square. In the forks are placed stout poles and on these are laid the floor and is built the crib. The posts make the pen high enough for the swine to pass under it ; hence, any corn that falls through it is eaten. The feeding floor is laid under and around the pen. In the greatest pork producing sections, nearly all the hogs are fattened from October 1st to January 1st, the corn being fed to the hogs as it is husked. In the pen shown fifty to one hundred bushels can be thrown—enough to feed for two or three days-—when it is desired to do other work. It is an easy matter to throw the corn from the crib to the feeding floor, and as the corn will never re¬ main in the crib longer than a week, no roof is required. Set the posts solidly in the ground, for if the weight of the corn should cause the crib to fall, it would kill any fat hogs that might be under it. The hogs cannot pos¬ sibly get into this crib. Rats cannot infest it. The mate¬ rials exist on nearly every farm, and any farmer can make this crib and in a short time 18 FARM APPLIANCES. SHEEP RACK AND FEED-BOX. It is often inconvenient to go among the sheep in feed¬ ing them, and there is always trouble from scattering hay or feed about the enclosure or from the animals getting out by the open doors or gates. Figure 13 shows how to feed from outside. The boarding of the pen for about eighteen inches in width, and about six Fig. 13. —FEED-BOX FOR SHEEP. inches from the floor is removed, leaving the bottom board in place. Then upright slats are nailed across this aperture inside the fold, allowing twenty to twenty-four inches for each sheep. The slats should be nailed so that an opening eight inches wide is left in the centre of this space for the sheep to thrust their heads through. If much narrower they will rub the wool off their necks. A tight feed-box with flat bottom and upright sides is made of boards, and placed on the floor outside of and against the slats, and fastened in place. A horizontal swing door, two feet wide and the length of the feed trough, is attached with hinges to the outside upper edge of the feed box. Chains keep it from falling below a HACKS, MAHGERS, STAXCHIOXS, ETC. 19 proper angle, and a button at the top secures it when closed. The swing door will keep the hay always in reach. With this arrangement one can feed either hay, turnips or grain without going among the sheep, distrib¬ uting it much more easily than when they are crowding round him. He can also clean out the rack and feed box conveniently from the outside. The sheep cannot crowd each other when eating. When they are through eating, or when the rack is not in use, it may be closed up, shut¬ ting off drafts or keeping out dogs. It is desirable to have such an arrangement open under ashed, building or other protected spot, which can generally be provided. It will be found that sheep waste much less fodder and feed than when fed off the ground. The feed trough may be changed so as to come inside the fold, and the rack Fig. 14. —BARREL RACK. made so the sheep can put only their noses through bat it makes the trough inconvenient to reach, and will to increase the waste of hay and grain in feeding. — +o» A BARREL RACK. The illustration, figure 14, shows a rack for feeding hay or straw to calves or sheep. Procure a crockery cask Farm appliances. and oat two thirds of the staves, making holes from which the feed can be obtained. If calves are to feed from it, the holes are made slightly larger than for sheep. The animals feeding from this rack w r aste no food, and the strong cannot so easily drive the weak from it, as from the ordinary rack or manger. Lambs or calves are disposed to fight over their food, and it may be necessary to drive a stake about a foot from the hogshead and op¬ posite the whole staves ; this will effectually prevent the weaker ones being driven from their feed. The rack is easily filled, and the fodder, hay or straw may be fed from it without waste; and if moistened bran or meal are mixed with it, forming a complete ration, it may be fed in an economical manner, and be easily reached. IMPROVEMENTS IN PIG TROUGHS. One of the simplest troughs is shown in figure 15. The end pieces may be as long on one side as on the other, or Fig. 15.— SIMPLE PIG THOUGH. long on one side and shorter on the other, so that the pigs cannot turn the trough over. They may have cross¬ pieces fastened in strongly every two feet, to make it less easy for the pigs to stand in the trough, and the trough may stand in the open lot or in positions near the fence. Where the hogs are confined in pens, a trough is set in the pen as shown in figure 16. This is a fixture. RACKS, MANGERS, STANCHIONS, ETC. 21 must be strongly made, and be set at the bottom, on a level with the floor of the pen. A pig of one humored rfr - Fig. 16. —TROUGH INSIDE OF PEN. ounds weight cannot stand in the trough; the latter can be cleaned out and the feed can be put into it from the Fig. 17. —GOOD FORM OF PIG TROUGH. outside. A good form of trough is shown in figure 17. 22 FARM APPLIANCES. Here the swinging shutter keeps the pigs away from the trough, or admits them to it, at the will of the attendant, and the trough maybe conveniently cleaned out or filled, without any interference by the ravenous herd. Figure 18, shows an improved shutter for the trough last de¬ scribed. The improvement consists of strong bent irons Fig, 18. —IMPROVED TROUGH WITH SHUTTER. securely screwed or bolted to the swinging shutter on the inside above the trough, so that a strong pig can neither get into the trough, nor push others away, and get th lion’s share. Assuming that ground, soaked or cookei food can only be fed out of troughs with advantage, tha pigs will eat and digest well a great deal more cooked food than they will raw, and that the more food a pig eats and digests the more profit there is in feeding him, it is easy to see the importance of good pig troughs. The engraving, figure 19, represents a good trough fo7 rig. 19. —DOUBLE FEEDING TROUGH FOR PIGS, pigs. The sides of the trough are firmly nailed to the end boards. An upright board, which runs lengthwise RACKS, MANGERS, STANCHIONS, ETC. 23 of the trough, divides it into two parts, and keeps the pigs from getting into the trough. Strips, four inches wide, nailed to the edges of the trough, divide the length into spaces for each pig to feed in, and prevent one pig from crowding the next one. There must always be more spaces provided than there are pigs to feed, in order to avoid fighting among the animals. These troughs may be made of various lengths, according to the num¬ ber of pigs to be fed. A PLANK TROUGH. The common V-shaped trough, as ordinarily construct¬ ed, is a short-lived affair. How it may be strengthened and made durable is shown in the engraving, figure 20. The Fig. 20. —DURABLE TROUGH. trough is made of two-inch pine planks, one six and the other eight inches wide, the end-pieces two inches longer than the extreme width of the trough. Side-pieces of inch pine are nailed at each end, with the upper edge flush and level with the top edge of the ends. A strip of inch pine is nailed from the inside edges of the trough to the outside edges of the end-pieces. When the upper strips become worn, they can be quickly replaced, and there is a hog-trough that will stand very rough usage. The trough should be put together with large wood screws, as these hold better than nails. Place white lead on the joints before fastening the trough together, to 24 FARM APPLIANCES. prevent leakage. Good tar, applied hot, will answer the same purpose. Some farmers paint the entire trough with hot pitch or tar, which acts as a preservative. A PROTECTED TROUGH. t Pouring the slop into a trough, with forty hogs crowd¬ ing and squealing about, is behind the times. When the Fig. 21.— DEVICE FOR FEEDING HOGS. slop is throwm into a trough, which passes through the fence to that from which the hogs drink, the stronger ones will crowd together at the conducting trough and get most of the slop. And about every other day a new conducting trough must be made, as the hogs will break it up in crowding for the slop. If it is made to terminate so high that they will not do this, when the slop is poured in, the biggest hog will get directly under it, and the slop, striking on his head and # shoulders, will be deflected off to the ground. These evils are avoided by having a separate pen for the trough, filling it, and then letting the hogs in. But it costs something to have RACKS, MANGERS, STANCHIONS, ETC. 25 an extra pen, and often the space cannot be conveniently made use of. This device, shown in figure 21, is a rack or screen, made so it will revolve on pins driven through the end- pieces and into the posts, as shown by the dotted line. The trough should be just long enough to fit in between the posts, where it is firmly secured. The most of the trough projects into the hog-yard, leaving merely enough projecting on the other side, to allow of the slop being poured in readily. The illustration represents the frame as it is when the pigs are feeding, and should be hooked into place until they are through. Before pouring m the slop, reverse the rack, so it covers the trough, the extra weight of slats on the hog-yard side keeping it in place until the trough is filled, when the rack is raised and hooked into place, giving the pigs access to their food. TROUGHS FOR THE PASTURE. Figure 22, shows a closing trough, nailed against a fence, that is very convenient for feeding bran, oats, corn, etc., to cows, calves, sheep and horses. The bottom is made three inches wide, and the outer side stands away from the other, both being set on the bottom. The end pieces of the trough are hinged to the side next to the 26 FARM APPLIANCES. fence, and the outer side is hinged at the bottom. Strips of leather answer for hinges. A bolt, or strap, passing through the trough at each end allows the outer side to come back just enough to receive the end-pieces, which are held in place by a pin passed through a hole bored vertically through the outer corner of each, and down into the slanting side. To fold the trough up, remove Fig. 23.— A LOW TROUGH. these pins, and fold the end-pieces inward, bring the outer side up against these, and secure it in place with a strap. This trough is very convenient along the side of a shed, as it can be folded up out of the way. Another closing trough is shown in figure 23. The triangular end-pieces are held in place by cleats on each side. It is not necessary to fasten the sides together, but they may be hinged at the bottom. To close the trough, the end- RACKS, MANGERS, STANCHIONS, ETC. 27 pieces are taken out and laid against one side, while the other side is closed against them. The sides are kept from spreading apart, when the trough is open, by the notches cut in the cross-pieces, upon which the trough rests. These cross-pieces rest upon large blocks. IMPROVED GRAIN BIN. A very convenient grain -bin is illustrated in figure 24. The lid or top is raised as usual ; then, when desirable, the front top board, which is hinged at the bottom, and hooked inside at the top, is unlocked and let down. This gives convenient access to the bin both in filling and in emptying—enabling one to take out the last remnants of grain or meal. •O* STRAW BALER. Good, clean oat straw finds a ready market in cities for filling beds, and other purposes. But its quality and Fig. 25. —BOX FOR BALING STRAW. texture are greatly impaired by baling in powerful hay presses, and it is much better, therefore, put up by the aid of a hand press, which preserves the fibre of the straw unimpaired. Figure 25 shows the box and the method 28 FARM APPLIAHCES. of construction. The binding cords are laid cross-wise of the box, resting upon the bottom, as seen in figure 25, and the ends extending through the notches, B , B, B, as shown in figure 26. A small forkful of straw is then Fig. 26. —MODE OF ARRANGING THE CORD. placed at each end, and one in the middle, and so on, until the box is filled and the straw packed down com¬ pactly. The cords are then brought together around the bundle and securely fastened. -•O* WATERING TROUGHS FOR STOCK. A good substantial water trough is an absolute neces¬ sity on every farm, and we here give illustrations of sev¬ eral useful forms. Figure 27 shows one made of planks or boards. The sides should be of one piece, and also the ends and bottom if possible. If made of two pieces each, joint the edges and join them with dowel pins, using the best white lead between the joints before driving the pieces together snugly. The end pieces should be let into the sides about half an inch, and both the sides and ends should be slightly sloping, so that the form secures free- RACKS, MANGERS, STANCHIONS, ETC. 29 dom from danger of bursting in winter. In putting to¬ gether, always use white lead on the joints. Use no nails, but draw the parts together with stout iron rods, having large heads on one end and screw threads on the Fig. 27.— A PLANK WATER TROUGH. other. When this is done, make the bottom edge true, coat well with white lead and securely fasten on with large wood screws. Give the trough a couple of coats of good paint, and when dry, the trough is ready for use. A convenient size is as follows, all inside measurements at the top : six feet long, fourteen to sixteen inches wide and twelve inches deep. This form of trough will be found useful where water is continually runningfrom water logs, and is designed to prevent freezing and overflow. At one end, as in figure Fig. 28. —WATERING TROUGH. 28, a board is fitted across the trough, and goes to within about one inch of the bottom. The water must flow under this to reach the outlet. This portion of the trough has a cover with a hinge. It will be seen that 30 FARM APPLIANCES. with this construction no straw or rubbish can get into this covered portion to clog the outlet, and thus cause overflow. This protection is usually sufficient in the winter to prevent the outlet from freezing. But a plug is inserted in the bottom of the trough, which can be taken out when the trough needs cleaning, or in very se¬ vere weather. Farmers who have never used a covered water trough, and who have not been able to keep the water free from leaves and mud in. summer, and to prevent the trough Fig. 29. —COVERED WATER TROUGH. becoming filled with snow and ice, will be glad of the illustration (figure 29) of a covered trough, which can be used on both sides. It should stand in the middle of a yard, and the best way of supplying it is by a pipe car¬ ried underground from a pump. It is supported on crossed posts set in the ground and pinned together. The trough has a central division, upon the top of which the covers rest. When in use, the covers are let down, and when not in use they rest upon the dividing plank, as shown by the dotted lines, and as soon as the , stock is watered, the plug is drawn to let the w r ater off. This non-freezing trough should be made two feet deep, eighteen inches wide, and fourteen feet long, and constructed out of two-inch oak plank. Figure 30 is a sectional side view of the trough. Over it is fitted a double cover, with four-inch space, which extends to within fourteen inches of the outer end. This part is RACKS, MANGERS, STANCHIONS, ETC. U covered with a single hinged cover, which can be raised and fastened up. The trough rests on the ground, and a bank of earth three feet wide is raised around it even Fig. 30. —SECTIONAL VIEW OF TROUGH. witli the top. At the open end of the trough this bank is eighteen inches thick, and is held up with boards as shown in figure 30. Over all, except the open end, is placed a layer of chaff a foot deep. On the north, west, and south of the well and trough is a tight board fence, one end and side of which are shown in figure 31. Fig. 31. —THE TROUGH AND SURROUNDINGS. Across the open end, just back of the opening in the trough, barbed wires are stretched across to keep stock off the well and trough. Under the end of the trough nearest the well is placed a drain, made of fence boards, 32 FARM APPLIANCES. leading to lower ground. Over this drain is a hole in the bottom of the trough, closed by a plug, which extends through the cover as seen in figure 30, and by which the trough may be emptied into the drain. The trough is filled in the morning, and. the natural warmth of so much water having so small a surface exposed, prevents it from freezing during the day, even in the coldest weather. At night the open end is closed. In summer the water in this trough is always cool, and vastly supe¬ rior for live stock to that standing in open troughs. ♦o* A GUARDED HORSE TROUGH. Chickens have a way of leaving their drinking pens and “fountains,” and seeking the more abundant and fresher water of the horse trough. It is all very well so long as Fig. 32.— FLOATING BOARD IN HORSE TROUGH. the trough is overflowing, but when the water is low, they lose their balance, fall in and drown. Figure 32 shows a board which floats at one end in the water, and rests at the other upon the end of the trough, being held in place by a twenty-penny nail driven through it. The board, being two inches narrower than the trough, floats freely, and there are no more drowned chickens, for, if they fall in, they can get out again unassisted. RACKS, MANGERS, STANCHIONS, ETC. 33 BOX FOR WATERING PAILS. Figure 33 sliows an arrangement for keeping the pails used for watering the horse and cow, assuming that many keep but one or two cows or horses, and that the water is carried to them, from being filled with snow in winter, and from standing in the hot sun in the summer. This plan, as shown in the illustration, is as follows : Have a box standing near the well pump. The size Fig. 83. —BOX FOR WATERING PAILS. )f the box for a single pail should be about sixteen inches square, or twenty inches would be no disadvan¬ tage. Have a cover fastened on with either leather or strap hinges; the latter can be bought cheaply at the hardware store, and are better than leather ones. For two pails, the box should be two and one-half or three feet long. In this way, the pails are always in place and much trouble and annoyance is avoided. The best way to arrange the cover is, to have a strip of board some two or three inches in width to go across the top of the box, forming part of the covering, to which the hinges can be securely fastened. Use a smaller box in the hen-house. HOME-MADE HEATING VAT. Vats or tanks with wooden sides and metallic bottom, have long been used for heating and evaporating fluids. Figure 34 shows an improved method of construe- 34 FARM APPLIANCES. tion, which gives greater strength and simplifies the matter of securing water-tight joints. The sides are of pine, two inches thick, ten inches wide, and six feet long. The lower angles are rounded off, as shown in the engraving. Four inches from each end grooves are cut half an inch deep and two inches wide. Into these are fitted and nailed two pieces of pine, two by eight inches, and twenty-five inches long. They are flush with the top, leaving a space of two inches at the bottom. Two rods of half-inch round iron, each with a head at one end and a screw-thread and bolt at the other, are in¬ serted through holes made for the purpose, near the top Fig. 34. —YAT FOR HEATING WATER. of the cross-pieces and screwed firmly in place. The bottom is of galvanized iron, seven feet eight inches long and twenty-eight inches wide. This is fastened by a double row of three-penny nails to the lower edge of the side pieces, extending around the curves to the top. If desired, it may be cut long enough to turn over at the top, and nailed to the upper edge of the wooden cross¬ pieces. This would give sufficient strength without the iron brace-rods. This vat is set upon an arch of brick or stone two feet wide, so that the wooden sides will project over it. For scalding hogs, a scraping bench is erected close to one side of the vat, and level with the top. CHAPTER II. VEHICLES, ROLLERS, HARROWS AND MARKERS. A CART FOR BREAKING COLTS. Most colts, if taken young enough, and gently, though firmly handled, can be driven as soon as they can be made to know what is wanted of them. Now and then a spirited fellow feels his oats, or is very nervous about the harness, and still more about the wagon, or cart, and rears, and kicks, and pulls side-ways, trips himself up, and goes down in spite our best efforts to prevent it. For such a good, strong breaking-rig is essential. The cart, figure 35, is home-made, except the wheels; for these a pair of strong wagon wheels—either front or hind— will do. The shafts are a pair of seasoned hickory poles, extending about two feet behind the wheels. They are bolted upon the axle-tree, and underneath these is a lighter pair of poles, attached to the shaft in front, and bolted also to the axle-tree by the same clamps that are used to hold the shafts. These extend back as braces, and are mortised into pieces, which are themselves mor¬ tised into the shaft-poles near the end. The object of this arrangement is to keep a colt from rearing. The ends of these pieces will bear'upon the ground, the mo¬ ment he lifts himself up. The same result would be ac¬ complished by having the poles extend far out behind, but this makes turning exceedingly awkward, so that rigs of this kind can only be comfortably used in an open lot. The box, or body of the vehicle, is made with reference to strength, so that it cannot easily be kicked to pieces, nor broken by overturning or being run away with. A strong plank is bolted to the poles in front; uprights, and (35) 36 FARM APPLIANCES. cross-boards of three-quarter-inch spruce, form the dash¬ board, which is well braced. The back and seat are similarly attached. It is important that the seat should be so placed that the driver may at will throw his full weight forward, to bring the bearing of the shafts upon the saddle, or backward, to lift up on the girth or belly- VEHICLES, HOLLERS, HARROW'S AND MARKERS. 37 band. The harness should always be sufficiently strong, and before using the breaking-cart, the colt must be well harness-broken. A HOME-MADE CART. Figure 36 shows a serviceable farm cart, which can be made by any one who understands the use of a saw and hammer. The sides of the box, which is six feet long and four feet wide, are of plank a foot wide, the bottom of inch boards; the end-board is fastened with hooks, so that it can be readily removed when loading the cart. Fig. 86. —HOME-MADE CART. The wheels are those of an old, worn-out reaper, and the axle consists of a piece of gas-pipe, large enough to fit the hub of the wheels. Pins put in holes drilled through the ends of the axle, keep the wheels in their places. The axle is fastened to the wagon by wooden blocks, hollowed out to proper shape ; these blocks are firmly screwed to the side-pieces. The thills pass through the front board and are bolted to the sides of the box. A. single¬ tree is fastened to a cross-piece bolted to the thills close jo the box. Such a cart is very convenient on every farm, and being low, it is easily loaded. 38 FARM APPLIANCES. APPARATUS FOR LIFTING A WAGON-BODY. To lift a heavy wagon-body from its truck is tedious work, if to be done by main force only. The use of pul¬ leys facilitates the operation materially, but not as much as the apparatus shown in figure 37. It is simple, very convenient, and may be easily made by any farmer handy with tools, b, in the engraving, is a wooden rol¬ ler, about three inches in diameter, and resting on the Fig. 37.— APPARATUS FOR HOISTING A WAGON-BODY. joists a, which are o^er the wagon in its shed, d is a rope which winds around the roller, and is fastened at its lower end to the cross-piece e. Through each end of the cross-piece passes a half-inch round iron bar, f, with bar on top of e. The lower ends terminate with square bends of three inches, which hook under the box, and when turned half round will slip off, and may be hoisted up and put out of the way. The handles, c, are four feet long and are mortised into the roller. A man or boy standing on the ground can turn the handles VEHICLES, HOLLERS, HARROWS AND MARKERS. 39 with ease, and raise the box from its bed in half the time four men could do it by hand. -K X - JACK FOR WAGON BOX. A cheap method of removing a wagon box is shown in figure 38. A platform to receive the box is made by driving stout stakes into the ground and nailing cross¬ pieces to them. The platform should be as high as the top of the wagon standards. The lifter consists of a stout piece of timber, which will reach two feet above the wagon box, the top rounded, and a pin, driven into it, which passes through a slot in the lever. Two chains, pro¬ vided with hooks, are fastened at the short end of the lever, and a rope at the other. One arm of the lever is Fig. 38.— JACK FOR WAGON BOX. three feet long, and the other nine feet. The wagon is driven close against the side of the platform. The lifter is placed, as shown in the engraving, on a line midway between the wagon and the platform. The hooks on the end of the chains are caught under the box, or the rod which passes through the rear end of the box, and by pulling on the rope, the box is easily lifted out and swung around on the platform. Then lift the front end over. The jack can be used to return the box to the wagon. The pieces need not be large, and when made of seasoned wood, the jack is easily handled. 40 FARM APPLIANCES. SERVICEABLE WAGON-JACKS. Take a scantling two and a half feet long, one inch thick, two and a half inches wide; rip it with a saw from top, to within five or six inches of the bottom, like a tuning fork, figure 39. One prong is the lever, saw the other prong off at top, one inch higher than the bottom of the hind axle ; then saw it off at the shoulder five or six inches from bottom ; fasten it on again with a hinge exactly where it was sawed off, and it is ready for use. Set it under the axle, lowering the lever enough to allow it to go there ; then raise the lever past the balance, and it will go together of its own weight, and stay there. At the left of the engraving it is seen as lowered, at VEHICLES, ROLLERS, HARROWS AND MARKERS. 41 the right as raised. This jack is very cheaply made, and varies in dimensions according to the weights to be raised. In the one shown in figure 40, the lever a is made of one-inch stuff, and the post b and the bearing-piece c of two and a half by two and a half. The latter two are slotted to admit of the lever working freely in them. The bearing-piece is held to the lever with an iron or a wooden pin, a little behind the post or ful¬ crum, so that when in use the jack will support the wagon without any other fastening. -KX- ADJUSTABLE WAGON SEAT. A six-inch board has slots cut in each end, so as to go between the stakes of the wagon. Another board, one foot wide and three feet long, is fastened to the first in the position shown in the engraving, figure 41. An old seat, from a harvester or mower, is fastened upon the boards, when an easy and satisfactory seat is Fig. 41.— a wagon seat, provided for a agon when in use for purposes of drawing wood, lumber, etc. LUBRICATING AXLES. Many lubricate axles only to prevent wear ; they over¬ look the fact that by reducing the friction they lessen the draft. A well-oiled axle lightens the load. Oil to axles is best governed by the rule of “little and often.” If too much is used it exudes at the ends, gathers dust, and thus the lessening of the friction is not so great, while oil is wasted. In nearly every case where the lubricant 42 FARM APPLIANCES. is wasted it is because it is stuff not fi t to be used, for a good lubricator costs enough to keep the average man from allowing it to w T aste. Oil that “gums” much is unfit to be used. Castor oil is a splendid lubricator for axles, but used alone may gum too much. This is cor¬ rected by the addition of refined coal-oil (that used for lamps), or lard ; the coal-oil is the better. Some wagons are yet made unprovided with metal shields or “thim¬ bles,” being banded with steel; for these some tallow may be used, as it is one of the best of lubricants when iron and wood are brought together. Pine-tar is a good addi¬ tion to the lubricant for wagon axles and is a part of most of the “ axle greases ” sold. Plumbago is another good addition ; its fine particles fill the small irregulari¬ ties in the opposing surfaces, thus making them smooth¬ er. A mixture of lard and plumbago is good for the journals of reapers, mowers, etc. ; we have found castor oil and refined coal oil also good for this use, particularly for use on the “sickle-driver.” For carriages nothing is better than castor oil and a very little lard oil or refined coal oil. Lard oil alone has not “ body” enough for the journals of reapers, mowers, etc.; add a little castor oil, or tallow or plumbago. While the axles of reapers, grain- drills, hay-rakes, etc., will not need lubricating so often during the year as the axles of the wagon, oiling them must not be neglected, as the rough ground the wheels pass over makes the wear on unoiled axles quite rapid. The axles of corn-cultivators require frequent lubricating. For these the best lubricants are those recommended for wagon axles. -- K x - - A LIGHT SLEIGH OR “ JUMPER. ” A light sleigh may be made of hard-wood poles cut and bent into shape, a few bolts, and a light body or box. Figures 42 and 43, made from sketches of a recently VEHICLES, ROLLERS, HARROWS AND MARKERS. 43 constructed “jumper,” will serve as a guide to any one who wishes to provide himself a light sleigh at a trifling cost. Two hickory poles, for the runners, are dressed down, and the small ends bent to the proper curve and fastened until they will retain the bent shape. The posts are mortised into these runners and the bench pieces, which latter are firmly fastened together with bolts. The braces a^d their positions are shown in the engravings. Fig. 42. —a jumper. Fig. 43. —rear view oe jumper. A floor is laid upon the bench pieces, and extends beyond the sides of the box or body. The box may be plain or ornamented in various ways. The one shown in the en¬ graving has the sides and back flaring. The shafts are fastened to the curved end of the runners with eve-bolts. -•O* A SUBSTANTIAL SLED. Figure 44 shows a sled which is principally used in the pineries of Michigan, where a single team will draw on it from two to five thousand feet of lumber in the log. Special roads are kept open to accommodate these broad-track sleds, and when a load of a dozen or 44 FARM APPLIANCES. more logs is under way, it would be perilous for any who should venture to block the road. Figure 44 shows the general construction of the sled. The bunks, a , a , are eight by ten inches and ten feet in length; the sway bars b, b, are four by four inches ; the reach, c, is ten feet between the bunks, the beams, d, d, Fig. 44.— MICHIGAN SLED, are ten by twelve inches, and the track is four feet eight inches long. The particular feature of this sled is the concaves, x,x, made in the beam, F, which fit two con vexes in the block, E, as shown in figure 45. These taper from the top to the bottom, fitting snugly at the bottom, and open one-sixth of an inch on each side at the top. By this Fig. 45. —SLED RUNNER, means slight play is allowed to the runners, which eases the motion considerably on rough ground. A , in figure 45, shows one of the steel shoes which are four by five- eighth inches; the runners, B , are four by six inches, and four feet long ; the blocks, (7, are four by twelve inches, and three feet in length. The iron plates are shown at B, the bolts at G ; the beam, which is ten by twelve inches, at F. VEHICLES, HOLLERS, HARROWS AND MARKERS. 45 A DUMP-SLED. A method of constructing a dump-sled for hauling manure, earth and other substances, is shown in fig- ure 46, and it will be appreciated by many northern Fig. 45. —A SLED ARRANGED FOR DUMPING. farmers. The front bob of a double sled has the framework raised by means of a trestle, and upon this the box is secured by eye-bolts, and a staple and pin. A TRIPLE LAND ROLLER. A great objection to the use of the roller is, that it tears up the ground for a considerable space when it is turned around. Another is, that the weight of the tongue and frame bears heavily upon the necks of the horses, and often causes sores. The roller shown in figure 47 has neither of these objections. It is made in three sec¬ tions, and the hinder section balances the weight of the frame and tongue. In turning, the whole implement moves easily with the side roller as a pivot, and avoids all disturbance of the soil. The center roller is made a little longer than the side ones, and thus secures the complete pulverization of the soil. The rollers are easily made, either of solid logs, or of round discs, to which 46 3?AHM APPLIANCES. narrow bars are spiked. The best roller is the heaviest, and cast iron is the best material ; although much cheap¬ er ones may be made of artificial stone molded in wooden cylinders. The material may be mixed as fol¬ lows : One barrel of good hydraulic cement is well mixed dry with three barrels of coarse, sharp sand. A sufficient quantity of the mixed cement and sand for one section is then wetted and worked up into a thin mortar, and is at once put into the mold ; broken stone, first wetted, may Fig. 47. —A TRIPLE LAND ROLLER. be worked into the center, around a square shaft of oak timber, carefully centered. The whole is well rammed down, and more is added and rammed as it is put in, un¬ til the mold is filled. The ends of the roller should be of clear cement and sand for a few inches, only the inte¬ rior being filled in with stone for the sake of economy and for weight as well. When the mass is dry and solid, the mold is taken apart. Wing gudgeons are fitted into the oak shaft. They run in wooden boxes, bolted to the under side of the frame. In this way a most excellent and useful roller, equal to a cast iron one and quite as durable, may be made for a cash outlay of about three dollars only. VEHICLES, HOLLERS, HARROWS AHD MARKERS. 4? A CHEAPER TRIPLE ROLLER. Figure 48 shows a much simpler form of triple farm roller, made chiefly of wood. It is in three sections, each about two feet long, such a one being much easier on the team than when made solid or in merely two sections. A good oak or maple log, as nearly cylin¬ drical as possible for ten or twelve feet, can be cut in the woods, the bark peeled off, and the log sunk under water for several weeks, when it is to be dried out under cover. If seasoned with the bark on, the worms are apt to work on it. Saw off the pieces the required length, strike a center and work them to a uniform size, and then bore holes for the journals. The best way is to have a pump- maker bore entirely through the pieces an inch and three- quarter hole. Then hang them on a round bar of iron or steel, an inch and a half in diameter, as a loose spindle. The brace-irons can be made of stout old tire by the near¬ est blacksmith, and four of them, securely bolted into place, will be sufficient. Keep under cover when not in use. -K>« - A DOUBLE LAND ROLLER. The cheap home-made roller shown in figure 49 con¬ sists of two sections of a round log, dressed smooth, and fitted in a frame. The frame is made of four by 48 FARM APPLIANCES. four oak, bolted together firmly. The logs are each eighteen inches in diameter, and three and one-half feet long, one being set three inches ahead of the other in the frame. The pins for the rollers are one and a quarter inch thick, round for four inches at one end, and square for twelve inches ; this end is pointed, and is driven into an inch hole, bored in the end of the log. The tongue is braced with strong iron braces, and a seat may be fitted partly over the rear of the frame, and balance the weight of the tongue, and relieve the horses’ necks. STALK LEVELER. The frame, figure 50, is of two pieces six inches wide and two inches thick. They are joined together with Fig. 50.— STALK LEVELER. pieces of old wagon tire, which has been straightened out, and two holes punched or drilled in each end, to hold the spikes. The front ends of this tire-iron are bent or curved, to hold the chain to which the horses are at¬ tached. By using this contrivance when the stalks are stiff and hard with frost, they will break off clear and VEHICLES, ROLLERS, HARROWS AND MARKERS. 49 clean near to the ground, and can then be gathered up and burned, or made into manure. • -- USEFUL CLOD CRUSHER. The illustrations, figures 51 to 53, present different views of a home-made implement to be used as a clod crusher Fig. 51.— CLOD CRUSHER IN OPERATION. or for other purposes. The runners are of oak plank, two inches thick, six feet long and eight inches wide, each rounded off at one end, and notched on the upper edge, as shown in the engravings. The cross-pieces are of similar material, three feet long and seven inches wide, spiked in place. The outer edges of the cross- Fig. 52. —BOTTOM OF CLOD CRUSHER. pieces are faced with band-iron. A staple with ring is driven from the inside of each runner, near the front, and the chain by which it is drawn is run through the ring. In this form it serves a very good purpose as a 50 FARM APPLlAXCRS. clod crusher. If additional weight is desired, large stones may be placed between the runners. To fit it for use as a sled, it is inverted, a box of inch boards made five feet ten inches long, three feet broad, and nine inches deep. The lower edges of the side¬ boards are notched to fit the projections of the cross¬ pieces. Inch boards are nailed across the bottom to close the spaces between the latter. Staples are driven into Fig. 53.— CLOD CRUSHER AND SLED. the sides of the runners to receive hickory stakes, which hold the box in place. For use in winter the thills are attached by iron straps bolted on, as shown in figure 53. When the runners become worn, the bottoms are planed off and strips of oak pinned on. The box may be replaced by a rack for drawing hay or other bulky stuff. .o# A BRUSH HARROW. For the cultivation of various kinds of crops, one of the most useful implements made on the farm, and one which properly constructed, lasts a lifetime, is a smoothing and brush harrow, figure 54. It should be made of rather heavy stuff, so that the weight, as it is dragged along, will be sufficient to break the lumps and level the soil. This harrow can be used with good effect in cover- VEHICLES, ROLLERS, HARROWS AHD MARKERS. 51 mg newly planted seed, and in all cases where a disc or tooth harrow would be too heavy or wide-spread, a brush Fig. 54. —BRUSH HARROW. harrow, like that herewith represented, will be found to be a good substitute. - »o«- AH IMPROVED HARROW FRAME. Figure 55 shows a very cheap and excellent har¬ row frame intended for grass seeding ; also for working 52 FARM APPLIANCES. corn and potato land while the crop is young and small. For this purpose, a harrow should be light, broad, have a large number of fine teeth sloping backward, and should be so arranged that it will draw level and not lift at the front. The owner and inventor of this harrow claims that he has secured all these. The special point of this harrow is the hitching device. This consists of a hookec bar which works in two stirrups, one to draw by and the other to permit the draw-bar or chain to rise and fall, as the harrow passes over the ground that is not quite level. This is an important end to secure. The harrow is not patented, and any farmer is free to make one. LAND-MARKERS. Figure 56 represents a one-horse land-marker, such as is used among the gravel and cobblestone soils of some sections, where it does good service. The lumber should be of well seasoned oak ; the long rails, two by three stuff in pairs; the cross-bar and end pieces the same ; the cross bars, in which the teeth are set, three by three inches square ; the thills one ami a half by two inches at VEHICLES, ROLLERS, HARROWS AND MARKERS. 53 the large ends and tapering beyond the braces. The handles are common straight plow handles, that is, bent only at the grip. Three-eighths bolts are large enough for the frame. The center tooth should be permanently framed in, the outside teeth being adjustable, work in the slot between Fig. 57.— END VIEW OF LAND-MARKER. the long rails, and are held in place by two three-eighths iron pins. They can be moved so as to mark from two feet six to five feet. The rails should have seven six¬ teenth holes bored through them every three inches, commencing at two feet six from center of middle tooth. For shares use old points of shovel plows. The whiffle- tree is held by a bolt which passes through the center cross-bar. Figure 56 shows the adjustment of the teeth, one being set at two feet six, the other four feet, also the position of the thills, the whiffletree, the handles. The cross-rail tenons at ends should fit in the end of slots and be bolted Fig. 58. —MOVABLE TOOTH OF LAND-MARKER. fast with three-eighths bolts. The braces on thills and handles are of iron, a quarter of an inch thick and an inch wide, held by quarter-inch bolts. Figure 57 is an end 54 FARM APPLIANCES. view, showing the pitch of handles and thills, a tooth also, and the mode of fastening the same. Figure 58 shows one end of the pair of long rails which form the slot for a movable tooth ; also the shape of share. This implement is not patented, and can be made by any one with common tools and knowledgeand ingenuity enough to use them. Figure 59 shows a marker with plank runners, so sim¬ ple in its construction and so clearly shown in the en¬ graving that no description is needed. Figure 60 shows an excellent marker for “ check¬ ing” corn ground. The runners are of hard-wood plank two by six inches, and four feet long. They are usually placed three feet ten inches apart. The cross-pieces, of two by four inch stuff, are laid on top of the runners, and fastened in place with square pieces ; or better yet, let into the runners. Pieces of two by four inch stuff run diag¬ onally from the rear corners and meet in front, forming bases of attachment for the pole tongue. Bows of pieces of hoop-poles are fastened in these, through which the rear end of the tongue passes. This is much superior to VEHICLES, ROLLERS, HARROWS AND MARKERS. 55 bolting tlie tongue across the top of the marker, for then every irregularity in the walk of the horses is communi¬ cated to the marker, making short crooks in the checks : and where the marker dips in a depression, its weight is thrown on the horses’ necks. When the tongue is at¬ tached, as shown in the cut, no short crooks are made in the checks, there is neither lateral or horizontal strain on the horses’ shoulders, while the hoops make the marker manageable in crossing deep furrows, etc. The tongue is held in place by a round iron bolt passing through it and the end of the diagonals. The double trees are fas¬ tened just in front of this point of attachment. The driver stands on the two boards on the rear center of the marker. ■•o*- COMBINED MARKER AND CLOD-CRUSHER. In figure 61 is a very clear illustration of a useful marker and clod-crusher, which is made as follows : Fig. 61. —COMBINED MARKER AND CLOD CRUSHER. Three runners are provided, four feet long, eight inches wide and two inches thick ; four two-inch planks of strong, hard wood, eight feet long and eight inches wide, 56 FARM APPLIANCES. are let into the runners four and one-half inches deep , these slope from top to bottom edge backwards, forty-five degrees, so as to draw over the rough ground, and break clods by pressing on them. These runners are let into the cross-pieces one inch, and are fastened together by large screws. A strip of two by four is halved down on the runners in the front, for a draw-bar. The tongue is fitted with hooks, which are attached to rings on the draw-bar, so that it can be removed when the sled is turned over to be used as a clo 1-crusher. A LAND LEYELER. For preparing land for grass seeding, or for corn-plant¬ ing, the three plank leveler and clod-crusher is useful. The planks are held together by a chain, and both with large washers, which pass through links. If short pieces of heavy chain are fastened to the holes in the rear plank they will mark sufficiently plain for corn or potato planting. CHAPTER III. SMALL TOOLS AND APPLIANCES. BAG HOLDEKS. Tliere is an endless variety of devices for holding a bag upright, with the mouth open. One of the simplest, figure 63, consists of a piece of hickory or white oak bent into a half-circle, and the ends passed through a somewhat larger rod of the same kind of wood, and wedged fast. A screw is driven into each end of the rod, and filed to a point. To use it, the mouth of the bag is put through the half circle, and the edge is turned down over the holder, and over the sharp points, which hold it firmly. The bag is then held while it is filled, or it may be hung upon two hooks, or the holder may be fitted in a frame on a stand, so that one can use it with¬ out any help to hold the bags. A very good form is shown in figure 64 for farmers who sack their grain in the granary, one side of the room being used as a passage-way. It is swung by staples to the posts, and can be changed readily from one post to another by having staples arranged in each post. Three- quarter inch round iron is used, all in one piece, the rod (57) 58 FARM APPLIANCES. being bent or welded to make tlie circular shaped open¬ ing for the hopper. The hopper is made of common sheet iron, funnel-shaped, turned and wired on the upper side to add to its strength and to reduce the sharpness of the edge. Four small hooks can be riveted to the hopper, to attach the sack when filling it. When not in use, the holder can be swung back out of the way. If desired, the hopper can be permanently attached to the iron rim or holder by a couple of small rivets passing Fig. 65.— A BETTER BAG HOLDER. through both. This will prevent the hopper from being displaced by the weight of the bag. The holder illustrated in figure 65, has the advantage SMALL TOOLS AtfD APPLIANCES. 59 of being built almost wholly of wood, and can be made by any ingenious farmer. It can also be adjusted to vari¬ ous heights by moving it up or down a notch. The back is of inch board, about one foot wide and of any desired length, from fifteen to thirty inches. The arms are an inch thick and an inch and a half wide, fastened by screws into the notches in the back and supported by wire rods which may be held by screws through the flat¬ tened ends, or may pass through the back and arms and clinch. The cross-piece is of tough wood, three-fourths of an inch square. For holding the bag there is one hook on the back piece, two on each arm, and one under the cross-piece. The whole is supported on two strong spikes driven into the wall of the barn or other building, and projecting far enough to fit the notches on the side. The bag holder shown at figure 66, is portable and may be taken wherever it is to be used. The sack to be filled is brought up inside of the frame and turned over and hooked on the underside of it. The hooks are put here because they are not in the way and the sack is not torn by the weight of the grain, as would be the case if the 60 FARM APPLIANCES. hooks were put on the top of the frame. The frame must be somewhat smaller than the sack. The sack can be tilled to the top of the frame, as the part drawn over will be enough to tie by. - The material used is inch stuff. The length of the legs must be such that when the sack is put on the hooks the bottom will rest on the lloor. Another form of portable holder, shown in figure 67, is so compact and light that it can be carried into the FiG\ 67. —A SIMPLE BAG HOLDEB. o field if desired. The apparatus consists simply of three fight poles about six feet long, and loosely fastened to¬ gether at one end with a small carriage bolt, and three screw-hooks at the proper height for holding the bag when stretched out, as seen in the illustration. -K>» HANDLING POTATOES. Potatoes are best stored in a dry, cool cellar, where the temperature can be kept by ventilation at about forty de¬ grees. The floor should be of planks, raised three inches from the ground, and laid with one-inch spaces between them for ventilation. The bins should be about eight SMALL TOOLS AND APPLIANCES. 61 feet long, four feet wide and deep, made of loose-barred partitions (figure 68), wired together at the corners. A bin of this size will hold one hundred bushels, and with such a one it is very easy to know precisely how much the crop amounts to. The box shown at figure G9 will be found a great con¬ venience in gathering and storing the potatoes. It is made eighteen inches long, fifteen inches deep in the clear at tiie sides, and ten inches wide, all inside measure¬ ments ; thus holding two thousand and seven hundred Fig. 68. —PANEL OF POTATO BIN. Fig. 69. —SLATTED BOX FOR POTATOES. cubic inches, or thirteen cubic inches (about two good- sized potatoes) over a heaped bushel, which is two thou¬ sand and six hundred and eighty-seven inches. These boxes can be set one upon another, and then have a space left between the potatoes, and are thus well adapted for use in storing a part of the crop, or a small quantity for domestic use. The barred sides and bottom secure abun¬ dant ventilation. The bins in the cellar should have a space of four inches between the end and the wall, and between the sides ; this is easily made by placing a short rail between them, or a piece of four by four scantling, and this will relieve the sides from the bulging pressure of the potatoes. It is advisable to have a well-built root cellar, or a cellar under the barn, for storing potatoes; a house cellar should never be used for this purpose. 62 FARM APPLIANCES. GRINDSTONES AND FRAMES. A grindstone, to do good service, should be at least three feec in diameter and two and one-half to three inches in thickness, having a bevel on each side of the face for grinding on. It should be quite free from hard spots of iron pyrites, which are injurious to tools, al¬ though they may be taken out with a sharp-pointed punch. If it is not centered truly it will work out of shape and soon require tracing up. It should run as fast Fig. 70. —GRINDSTONE SET. as possible, as it does its work better and more quickly. To prevent it from throwing water, a piece of bagging should be fastened to a staple fixed across the frame on each end (as shown in figure 70), but not so close as to grind it out; this will catch the excess of water and yet keep the stone wet enough and clean it. The stone should be kept in the shade and never in water, which softens it and makes one side wear faster than the other. The water box should have a hole in it to let out the water and keep the stone dry when not in use. In grind¬ ing, it should mostly turn from the tool, and if used otherwise, great care should be taken by the one who holds the tool, not to gouge the stone. Figure 71 shows a novel style of frame for a grind¬ stone. The frame proper consists of the iron part or bearing of a reaper reel, The arms to which the reel SMALL TOOLS AND APPLIANCES 63 sticks were fastened., are all broken off but one. To this one the crank is bolted, as seen in figure 71. Four holes are drilled through the rim of the reel-wheel, to which Fig. 71. —GRINDSTONE FRAME. is bolted a hard wood board one inch thick, and haying a square .hole half way through, in which the center block fits. A bolt passes through a board block to a «strip of iron, which may be bent to form a crank for Fig. 72 . —cross-section. Fig. 73.— center block. foot-power. A cross-section of the stone as hung is shown in figure 72 ; the center block and board to which it is fastened are seen in figure 73. This frame should be bolted to a post or tree. 64 FARM APPLIANCES. TOOL HOLDER. Many a boy, and his father as well, who has toiled over the grindstone to sharpen tools, will be pleased with the device shown in figure 74, for giving a smooth, even edge to tools, which can be held by the hands, while the stone is turned by a treadle or a horse-power. It is a triangle of wooden bars, put together as shown, having a sharp pin at the point, a clamp for holding the tool at the center, and holes at the sides for tying an axle helve with cords, to keep it firm. The grindstone is near a wall or a post. Fig. 75.— DAMAGED AND REPAIRED GRINDSTONE. and the pin is pushed into this to hold the frame. Tr 5 frame is then held in its proper position by the hands, and if held firmly, will grind an even bevel on any tool. A scythe, ora cutting-bar of a mower or reaper, or a chisel, can thus be ground perfectly and with little labor. ' HOW TO REPAIR A GRINDSTONE. Usually a grindstone is worn out of level, and very irregularly. This is scarcely to be avoided when such a large variety of tools, including scythes, mower sections, axes, hoes, and many other tools are ground. After or¬ dinary use, those who are not careful to preserve the stone SMALL TOOLS AKD APPLIANCES. 65 true, with smooth and slightly rounded face, the stone appears as at a, in figure 75. It is then beyond the power of the owner to repair the damage, unless he is an expert mechanic, when he takes a piece of old stove- plate and grinds the stone down to a slightly rounded or beveled face, like that shown at b. The best way to do this is to take a spade or a shovel, and turning it back upwards, to grind it sharp against the turning of the stone. This will bring the stone into the right shape, and in sharpening the spade, do a useful job at the same time. A WOODEN MANGER FORK. The common method of pitching fodder into mangers vith a steel-timed fork, is often accompanied with harm to animals. They will crowd around the rack or man¬ ger, and frequently receive an accidental thrust in the head or body with the sharp fork. Not infrequently an eye is lost, and with a horse this is a serious matter. The wooden manger fork shown in figure 76 avoids this danger. It is made of a piece of hickory or oak six feet long, an inch and a half wide, and an inch thick. Four feet of its length is shaped round for a handle. The other end is sawed or split into three equal parts, to within a few inches of the rounded portion, where an iron band is placed. The “ tines” are spread apart, and held in position by a wooden brace placed between them. 6G FARM APPLIANCES. The tines are rounded, smoothed, and slightly sharpened at their points. - »o«- HOME-MADE AND USEFUL CHAFF FORKS. Figure 77 represents a home-made fork with tines about two feet long, and having a spread of twenty inches. The teeth are straight above, and curved towards the point. They are fastened by screws to the three-inch hard-wood head, and strengthened by an iron rod near the head, and by a round wooden rod, which passes through them and to which they are tacked fast. The head is strengthened by a similar piece of oak or ash, half an inch thick, screwed upon its edge, and through which the handle passes. This is of ash or hickory, large enough around to give the hand a good hold, and is fas¬ tened by wiring to the top side of the head. Such a fork may be made quite light, and the six tines being SMALL TOOLS AND APPLIANCES. 67 only four inches apart, will handle either chaff or light straw to good advantage. We give, by way of comparison, a simple chaff fork, figure 78, made by first binding and then carefully splitting a single piece of hickory or ash, handles and tines being formed of the same stick, A ring-ferule or hand of wire is placed at the point beyond which the splits may not go, and after the splits are made, the tines are spread apart by wedge- shaped pieces of wood. These forks are easily made and are the very best stable forks that can be used. There is no danger of pricking horses or cattle with them, and if one be carelessly left in the stable, or falls down, neither man nor beast is likely to be hurt. -♦O*- STABLE SCRAPER AND BROOM. The manure gutter is easily cleaned out with the scraper and broom shown below. The scraper, figure 79, is made to fit the width of the gutter, and brings the manure to the trap-door. The broom, figure 80, is then used to sweep the waste matter from the floors into the gutter, 68 FARM APPLIANCES. and from the gutters into the trap-doors, leaving the floor clean and clear for a new supply of litter. -KX- A STRAW OR HAT HOOK. A convenient hook for pulling straw or hay out of i stack for distribution amon sheep or cattle, is shown ir, figure 81. It consists of a s ut pole pointed at one end ; a slit is cut through it and { 100 k is pivoted as shown in Fig. 81.— STRAW OR HAT HOOK. the engraving, so that it will be pushed back when it is thrust into the stack, and drawn forward, when it is pulled out. A strong cord helps to strengthen the hook, When the hook is pulled out of the stack, it brings a quantity of straw or hay with it. FORK FOR HANDLING STONES. The fork, figure 82, for lifting stones will prevent many a back-ache. It should have four prongs, which are curved so as to hold the stones, and a strong handle. By a knack in giving a quick jerk, a heavy stone can be lifted and thrown into a wagon, and without stooping. Having used one of these contrivances to pick up stones, we can speak with knowledge of its usefulness. It i? SMALL TOOLS AND APPLIANCES. 69 made of prongs of horse-shoe iron, welded to a heavier cross-bar, which has two strong straps to receive the handle. SALT BON FOR STOCK. Salt should be given regularly to horses, cattle, and sheep, but it is rarely so given, because a supply is not kept handy for use. The box shown in figure 83 may Fig. 83. he hung in a stable or shed, or to a tree or post in the pasture. The salt is protected from the rain, and if re¬ plenished when necessary, the stock will be supplied with it regularly. - ♦<>• - ■ SAFETY SINGLE-TREE. In plowing among fruit trees or in corn, single-trees having the traces arranged the usual way, will do much injury to the trees or corn. There is a method in ar¬ ranging the traces which will avoid all this, as can be seen in the illustration, figure 84. A knot is made on 70 FARM APPLIANCES. the end of the trace rope, when the rope is passed through the hole made for the purpose, and brought around in the grooved end of the single-tree. To prevent the rope from getting out of place, it is wired or tied with strong cord. If the tree is struck by the end of the single-tree, thus guarded, it slides off without doing much injury. If the trees are young and small, with smooth and tender- bark, it is well to wrap the end of the traces, for about eighteen inches from the single-tree, with old cloth, to prevent the rough, twisted rope from chafing the trees. Always use a shorter single-tree in plowing and culti- fcivating an orchard than in ordinary plowing, and also use a small horse or mule to do the work, as this allows of more thorough work, and with less liability of injury to the low branches or the trunks of the trees. -*>•- ROOT PULPERS AND CUTTERS. Those who feed beets, turnips, carrots and other roots, find it necessary to reduce them by some cheaper method than cut¬ ting by hand with a knife. An excellent machine for pulping roots is shown in figure 85. It may be made by any carpenter in two days, at a cost of about six dollars. The plan of the machine is given in the engraving. It is simply a square or oblong box, with a spiked cylinder Fig. 85. —ROOT PULPER. SMALL TOOLS AND APPLIANCES. 71 fitted in it, the cylinder having a square gudgeon at one end, to which a handle is fitted. To save expense the heavy wheel and handle attached, of a fodder cutter, may be taken off and used on the root pulper, as the two will rarely be used at the same time. The cylinder is closely studded with sharp, chisel-pointed spikes. These teeth are made of one-quarter inch square bar iron, and are three inches long; the sharp edges are worked out on an anvil, and are chilled by immersion in Fig. 86. —HOME-MADE ROOT-CUTTER. Fig. 87. —ROOT-CUTTER SLIDE. cold salt water when red hot, the other end being cut with a screw thread. To secure strength, and to make the machine work with more ease, the cutters are screwed in so far as to leave only half an inch or a little more projecting. A still cheaper form is illustrated in figure 8G. At A is seen the hopper which is without a bot¬ tom. The slide, figure 87, contains a two-edged knife, and runs in the grooves, G G, in the top of the frame, close to the bottom of the hopper. Near the bottom of the frame is a roller, R, into which is fitted the handle, H« This is connected with the slide by the rod, R The FARM APPLIANCES. knife should be about four inches wide and one-quarter inch thick, be placed diagonally in the slide, leaving half an inch space between it and the bottom of the slide. When using the apparatus all that is necessary is to move the handle to and from the hopper. It works easily and prickly, is durable, and with fair usuage is not likely to get out of order. A ready way of chopping a few roots, is to use a spade ground to a sharp edge, and a box in which the roots are quickly reduced to slices. A basket of turnips or ap¬ ples, can be sliced in this way in one minute. For a larger quantity, a chopper may be made as in the engraving, figure 88. It has two long blades, and the roots are hashed up rapidly, and all danger of choking is avoided. A common cast-iron winged gudgeon, having steel strips riveted on the edges, answers as well as one forged out by a blacksmith, at several times its cost. The roots, so cut, may be mixed with meal, and fed to the cows. Apples are excellent for dairy cows when fed in this way, and largely increase the flow of milk, beside? being healthy for them. Fig. 88. root CUTTER. ROOT WASHERS. A convenient washer for potatoes and roots, consists of a kerosene barrel hung in a frame, as shown in figure 89, on next page. Two openings are made in one side of the barrel—a large one, two staves wide, and a small one only one inch wide. The pieces cut out are used for lids, both of which are fastened with hinges and but¬ tons, and are made to fit tight by having thick cloth tacked around their edges. A bushel of potatoes or roots are placed in the barrel, with two or three buckets SMALL TOOLS AND APPLIANCES. 73 of water, the lids are closed and buttoned, and the barrel is slowly turned. If they are very dirty, open the small aperture, and by turning the barrel back and forth allow the water and mud to run out. Add clean water and Fig. 89.— BOOT WASHER. turn again. They will soon be cleansed, when the large aperture may be opened, and the roots or tubers emptied into a basket. The fastenings at each end of the barrel can be made by any blacksmith, and they should be bolted on with one-quarter or three-eighths inch bolts. With this simple contrivance a man can wash a large Fig. 90. —VEGETABLE WASHER. quantity of roots in a day without catching cold or a chill. If kept out of the sun, such a contrivance will last a lifetime. In figure 90 is shown a potato and vegetable washer for household use. The ends of the 74 FARM APPLIANCES. cylinders are cut out of inch board and are twelve inches in diameter. The shaft runs through and has collars, to which the ends of the cylinders are fastened to hold them firm. Strong, tinned wires are fastened from end to end, as seen in the engraving. Five of these are fastened together, and form the lid to the aperture through which articles are admitted. The end of the lid is fastened by means of a loop, which springs over a but¬ ton. The vegetables to be washed are placed in the cyl¬ inder, the box is half filled with water, and by turning Fig. 91.— TUB FOR WASHER. the crank, or by moving it back and forth, they are quickly cleansed. Narrow wooden slats may be used in¬ stead of wire, if desired. An ordi nary tub, or a half bar¬ rel, arranged as seen in figure 91, may be used instead of the box. ■♦O* CLAMPS AND STOOL FOR REPAIRING HARNESS. The device shown in figure 92 combines a stool and a clamp for holding harness work. The bench or stool, £, of any desired size, is supported by two legs near one end. The other end is held up by the foot of the long claw, extending to a convenient height for the operator. A shorter claw, c, is fastened to it by a cross-piece, p, about SMALL TOOLS AND APPLIANCES. 75 an inch thick and three inches wide, passing through a slot in the jaws, in which it works easily but firmly on two iron pins, a little more than half-way up from the bench. In the lower end of the short jaw an eccentric works on a pivot and against a projection on the larger Fig. 92. —A HARNESS STOOL AND CLAMP. HARNESS HOLDER. jaw. Depressing the handle to this eccentric or cam, closes the jaws at the top with all the force desired. A simple holder without the stool is shown in figure 93. Two staves of a flour barrel are sawed off at a con¬ venient length for holding between the knees, while sit¬ ting on a chair. The sawed ends of the pieces are se¬ curely nailed to the opposite sides of a block of wood. A hole is cut through the middle of one side piece, in which a lever is placed for opening and closing the holder. The lever may be readily made of such shape that it will always remain in the hole, ready for use. FARM APPLIANCES. 16 The curves of the staves will furnish sufficient spring to hold the harness. A BOX SAW-HORSE. The novel saw-horse shown in figure 94 is made of a dry-goods box, of inch pine boards, thirteen inches long, eighteen inches wdde, and twenty-four inches in height. Upon the outside of one end are nailed two cleats, and on the inner side three cleats, the position of which i« Fig. 94. —NOVEL SAW-HORSE. shown in figure 94. The curved lever above the box is intended to do the hard work usually imposed upon the sawyer’s left knee, viz., holding the stick sawed in place. The necessary pressure of the lever is effected by means of the treadle and the small rope or sash cord connecting the two. The lever should be so attached to the side of the box that the loose or curved end rests upon the stick, held in place by it, about midway between the center and left diagonal cleats. The treadle should extend, when horizontal, eight inches beyond the left side of the box. In using the horse, raise the lever with the left hand, with the right place the stick to be sawed so that the point where it is to be cut is over the U ; the lever is dropped or pulled down upon the stick ; the left foot is placed upon the treadle ; a slight pressure will hold the stick securely. The sawyer, thus using both limbs for support, and standing nearly erect, will find wood sawing SMALL TOOLS AND APPLIANCES. an easy though vigorous exercise, quite exempt from many of the old-time aches and pains. If the horse is to be used in a wood-house—a room having a floor—it is well to secure it by screws to the floor; if out of doors, it may be ballasted with a few bricks or stones, or be fas¬ tened to a frame. LONG SAW-BUCKS. In cutting fire-wood from long timber or sawing lum¬ ber, it is convenient to have a long saw-horse. Two patterns are illustrated herewith. To make the one shown in figure 95,an oak stick averaging half a foot in Fig. 95.— A LONG SAW-BUCK. diameter, was selected from the wood pile, and a piece five foot long cut off. Two one-and-a-half-inch auger holes were bored near each end, not quite opposite each other, to avoid weakening the timber at one point, and Fig. 96.— A LIGHTER HORSE. four strong sticks from the same wood pile were driven in for legs—a little under two feet long, and standing well slanting outward. Six one-inch auger holes were bored in the top, and split-out pegs, eight or ten inches 78 Farm abpeiahces. long, were driven in, in a position to firmly hold the wood to be sawed. The two pegs of each pair are not directly opposite, but separated far enough for the saw-cut to run down between them. Of the first pair one is four inches from the end, and the other seven inches back. The second pair is fifteen inches back of these, and the othei in the farther end of the horse, these last answering as a support to the long end of the wood to be cut, the other two pairs being used as the saw-horse. When a stick is reduced to five feet or so in length, it is drawn forward and wholly supported on the two pairs of pins nearest together. The other horse, shown in figure 96, consists of an ordi¬ nary saw-horse having a block nailed across its legs on one side, forming a rest for the end of a long stick, which at the other end is fastened into half a saw-horse, a. The piece to be sawed is laid on the three rests thus formed, the end to be sawed being placed at a. As each length is sawed off, a is shoved toward b, the proper dis¬ tance. It will be seen that this saw-horse can be length¬ ened out or shortened up, to suit the length of the stick. HOW TO TIE A BAG. Figure 97 shows a simple and easily made bag-tit? which effectually prevents any slipping, if properly ad- Fig. 97.— BAG TIE. justed. Take any strong cord about eighteen inches long and double it as herewith seen, passing the ends through, making a loop around the mouth of the bag. Now pull as tightly as possible ; then take an end of the SMALL TOOLS AND APPLIANCES. 79 string in each hand and pull again in opposite directions ; pass the string completely around, make a knot, and double or single bow-knot, and the work is done. A very little experience will make one expert, and he can then make sure the bag will not come untied. -»o« A HOME-MADE RAKE HEAD. Figure 98 shows the end view of a hand-rake with the tooth inserted. The head-block should be made of green hickory, free from knots and curls, while the rake-teeth must be of dry, well-seasoned oak or hickory, and having grooved places in them, as is seen in the illustration. The teeth are rounded and are driven snugly into the green head-piece, which latter, in drying, will hold the seasoned teeth so firmly as to effectually prevent them from ever com¬ ing out. In fact, so tightly will they be held, that they can scarcely be driven out when the head-block has become thor- Fig. 98— ADiTR- oughly seasoned, the shrinkage of the able rake. g reen WO od acting as a permanent vise. The same principle might be utilized in other small im¬ plements. -KX- WORKING BUILDING STONE. Stone is the most durable and the cheapest building material where it is plentiful on the farm. By a little management the stone can be brought to a convenient shape for use. The tools required, shown in figure 99, are : a chipping hammer, a wedge and steel feathers, a 80 FAKM APPLIAKCES. striking hammer, drill and a bar for opening cracks in the stone. The clipping hammer has a broad, sharp edge, and acts as a chisel for dressing the faces ; and the sharp edges of the rectangular head, two by four inches, serve Fig. 99. —TOOLS FOR STONE WORK. to dress down the edges and corners of the stones. The wedge is three by one and a half inches, and the feathers are plates of steel as wide as the wedge, which they serve to protect. The striking hammer is three inches square, and six inches long, with a beveled edge around the face. The drill is of one and a quarter inch octagonal steel, and is eighteen inches long, or if there be two, one is twelve inches long. The bar is four and a half feet long, and has a sharp-edged steel point for striking into cracks and splitting the stone, which it is usually easy to Fig. 100.— BREAKING A LARGE STONE. do. A large stone is broken by drilling a few holes in it with a one-inch drill, and chipping a groove across the face along the line of holes, as shown in figure 100. Small round wedges, with small feathers, are placed in each hole, and they are struck one after the other, in rotation. SMALL TOOLS AND APPLIANCES. 81 By this method very large blocks are split with an even face. A small stone is easily split by chipping grooves across it, and then repeatedly striking along upon the groove with the face of the hammer. * 0 * BLOCK FOR SAND-PAPER. Sand-paper is put up by the manufacturers in quires of sheets nine by eleven inches in size. As used by many workmen, nearly a fourth of each sheet is wasted by folding and crumpling over improperly shaped blocks. A convenient block, figure 101, which permits the use of all the sand-paper, is here described. Make a wedge-shaped piece of hard wood, one and a half inch thick, three inches wide, and five and one-quarter inches long, tapering from the head to a sharp edge. Cut a V- shaped hollow across the head. Fit a piece three inches Fig. 102. long, of hard-wood, exactly to this hollow. Insert in the head a wood or porcelain drawer knob seven-eighths of an inch in diameter, fastening it securely by a long screw. Cut a sheet of sand-paper into three equal parts, three 82 FARM APPLIANCES. by eleven inches. Fold one-fourth of an inch at each end of a strip of sand-paper, and slip under the head-piece by loosening the screw. Tightening it will hold the paper fast and smooth for work. A common wood screw may be used in place of the knob, but is not as convenient, af it must be turned by a screw-driver. CHAPTER IV. APPLIANCES FOR THE BARN, PASTURE AND DAIRY. CONVENIENT STABLE VENTILATOR. It must not be supposed that fresh air in the winter is to be excluded from stables for the purpose of keeping the animals warm. Warmth alone is not comfort. An animal may suffer from cold in. a close, damp, impure air, which is really warm, while it will be quite comfort- Fig. 103.— STABLE VENTILATOR. able in fresh, pure air, which is much below freezing temperature. The absence of oxygen in the one case re¬ duces the vital warmth, while its abundance in the other case maintains an agreeable and comfortable feeling. Consequently, ventilation of stables is necessary, even in the coldest weather, to keep the animals in good health and in comfort. But it should be regulated judiciously THE BARN, PASTURE AND DAIRY. 83 by a suitable provision of openings at the upper part of the stable, and these should be made so as to be readily opened and closed. A row of holes cut in the wall near the upper floor, figure 103, and covered with a sliding- board, having precisely the same kind and number of holes to match those in the wall, will afford suitable ven~ 'dilation for the stable at all seasons. The covering board slides back and forth on the pins shown, and covers or opens the holes as may be desirable, according to the con¬ dition of the weather. -*o«- LIGHT NEEDED IN BARNS. Here and there we see an old-style barn, built by our grandfathers, the only window being a single row of panes over the large door. Through this comes all of the light admitted to the barn, except what comes through the open cracks between the boards. When a barn of this kind is filled with hay it is comfortably warm, but very dark; by midwinter the hay, being half consumed, leaves the walls unprotected. With the light come in also the cold wintry winds to chill the cattle. Our fathers built some barns warmer, covering the walls with shingles or the cracks with narrow battens. The light being thus shut out, it was necessary to have windows; so they put in just enough to enable them to see to feed their cattle. It was left for our generation to build barns that are tight, comfortable, and well-lighted. But even at pres* ent many farmers do not realize the importance of light in a cattle barn. Experiments show that a herd of milch cows not only keep in better health and condition by having plenty of light, but they give more milk. Every barn should be provided with abundant light and sun¬ shine on the side where the cattle stand. The practice, which is far too prevalent, of keeping cows in a dark and 84 FARM APPLIANCES. damp basement is not a good one. They can not have the sunshine and pure air so necessary for good health. Windows that are exposed may be protected for a trifling sum by covering them with wire netting. The day of windowless barns has passed ; but some of our new barns would be improved by a few more windows. -Kmi- LANTERNS IN THE BARN. It is estimated that nine-tenths of all fires are caused by carelessness. Never light a lamp or lantern of any kind in a barn. Smokers may include their pipes and cigars in the above. The lantern should be lighted in the house or some out-building, where no combustibles are stored. A lantern which does not burn well, should never be put in order in the hay mow. There is a great temptation to strike a match and re-light an extin¬ guished lantern, wherever it may be. It is best to even feel one’s way out to a safe place, than to run any risks. If the light is not kept in the hand, it should be hung up. Provide hooks in the various rooms where the lights are used. A wire running the whole length of the horse stable, at the rear of the stalls, and furnished with a sliding hook, is very convenient for night work with the horses. Some farmers are so careless, as to keep the lamp oil in the barn, and fill the lantern there, while the wick is burning. Such risks are too great, even if the buildings are insured. -- SAFETY STICK FOR MARE’S HALTER. Figure 104 shows a simple method of preventing colts from getting tangled in the mare’s halter, and so be¬ coming strangled. A piece of wood, eighteen inches long THE BARN, PASTURE AND DAIRY. 85 and two inches wide, is bored with a half-inch hole at each end, as shown in the engraving. The halter is passed through these holes and fastened in the usual Fig. 104. —HALTER STICK FOR MARE WITH FOAL AT FOOT. manner. The wood should be of tough oak or hickory, so that it will not break. It entirely prevents the for¬ mation of loops in the halter. -*o*— TO KEEP A HORSE FROM JUMPING. Figure 105 shows a hopple to restrain a horse from jumping. It consists of a surcingle about the body of the horse, together with two short straps that pass through Fig. 105. —HOPPLE FOR A HORSE. the surcingle and around each foreleg, being buckled so that when the horse stands upright, the strap will fall about half-way to the knees. This arrangement, which allows the horse to walk quite freely, prevents its run- 8G FARM APPLIANCES. ning as well as jumping. A similar plan is to connect the forelegs of a horse by straps secured just above the knee, but those who have tried both plans prefer the one here¬ with illustrated. Some horses are difficult to catch when at pasture, and this device will prove valuable in such cases. COUPLING HORSES IN THE PASTURE. Cut a piece of tough wood two feet six inches long, two inches in diameter; shave off the bark and bore a three-quarter or a one-inch hole near each end ; tie a piece of half-inch rope around each animal’s neck, Fig. 106.— COUPLING FOR HORSES. making a loose collar that will not slip over his head ; take a loop of the rope and pass it through a hole in the bar, and into the loop insert the key, made of a piece of a half-inch oak board, two by three inches, shaped as in figure 106. The board being rounded at the top, will allow the rope to turn easily in the yoke and prevent choking. Always couple the animal that is likely to stray with the one that is not. This contrivance, used frequently on Southern and Western ranges, is approved by some as safe and convenient, and condemned by others THE BARN, PASTURE AND DAIRY. 87 as dangerous and uncomfortable for the animals. We give the illustration and description for what they are worth. A SIMPLE TETHER. Figure 107 shows a tetliei for a horse or cow which obviates the danger of an animal becoming entangled as when staked out in the usual way. It is made as follows: Take a stout piece of timber, a, b , three and one-lialf feet long; fasten a ring at a, and one at c, six inches from the lower end. Take a pole, c, d, making it long enough to extend back of the animal’s heels three or four feet, and fasten a ring to each end. An iron spike, f, with a ring, e, in the end, is driven in the ground. r l he irreg¬ ular line represents a cord of wire of any desired length. 88 FARM APPLIANCES. Fasten the rod, a , b, to the halter at a', with a leather strap, also c, d to a, b, in the same way at c; tie one end of the cord m the ring at d, and the other in the ring in the end of the iron spike. The ring at c, six inches from the lower end, prevents taking up the cord, and thus entangling the animal. The end, b, will slide over it as the animal grazes. CHAIN CATTLE TIE. Various methods have been devised for coupling cattle in their stalls in a more humane manner than by stan¬ chions. The common chain tie passes about the animal’s neck, and slides up or down upon a post or iron rod, attached to the stall or manger. The tie, figure 108, is similar, except that the neck-chain is connected with two posts or rods, upon which it slides. The improve*- ment consists in using rings upon the posts, and con- Fig. 108. —AN IMPROVED TIE FOR CATTLE. necting the side-chain with the neck chain by means of snap-hooks, attached to the central ring as shown in the engraving. This enables one to adjust the tie to any width of stall, say from three to four feet, and have it reason¬ ably taut. The advantage of this method of fastening cattle over any other is, that while great freedom is given the head, so that a cow can lick both sides and lie down with her head upon either side, she has no more back- the barh, pasture akd dairy. 89 ward and forward motion than if she stood in stanchions, hence must leave her droppings in the gutter—if the stall is of the proper length. There is a constant ten¬ dency to give cow stalls too long a floor. Every cow should lie with her rump four to eight inches beyond the floor. The only objection to this is that the cows’ tail will sometimes become wet from lying in the gutter. If, however, this is given a pretty sharp fall and consider¬ able breadth, water will not accumulate, and there will be no inconvenience experbnced on this score. AH UNPATEHTED CALF FEEDER. Undoubtedly calves which take nourishment directly from the cow, do better than those which take it from the pail, unless care is taken to feed them slowly. An artificial udder is shown in figure 109, made of strong water-proof duck in the shape of a cow’s udder, and fur-. nished with teats, each filled with a piece of sponge. The 90 FARM APPLIANCES. mouth of the bag may be closed by means of clamps, figure 110, and the bag bung up in the calf pen. The calf will get its milk slowly and along with plenty of Fig. 110. —CLAMPS FOR CALF FEEDER. saliva, which is an indispensable aid to digestion. It is the want of an adequate quantity of saliva with the milk, which causes so much indigestion in calves that are al¬ lowed to drink milk from a pail. ■ ■ •<>• — TWO KINDS OF MILKING STOOLS. The construction of a very good milking stool is readily seen in figure 111. Upon a hard-wood board, Fig. 111.— MILKING STOOL. Fig. 112.— MILKING STOOL. twelve inches wide, one inch thick, and thirty inches long, fasten at right angles a board to serve as a rest. This should be eight inches wide, and as long as the THE BARN, PASTURE AND DAIRY. 91 width of the back-board. Strengthen the seat with stout braces.. Cut a narrow opening in the long board, to admit the fingers, by which to carry the stool, or hang it up when not in use. The other stool, figure 112, is designed for a man who has a good many cows to milk, and desires to carry his stool around with him, while his hands are left free. The seat consists of the bottom of a peach basket ; the single leg is made of a round piece of wood securely fastened to the center of the seat. The latter may be padded and cohered as one chooses. Leather straps to reach up and around the waist of the milker, as shown in the illus¬ tration, should be firmly attached to the seat. -K » — VAT FOR DEEP SETTING MILK. The advantages of the deep setting of milk at a low temperature can be enjoyed by means of the simple cooler, figure 113. To make the cooler take six pine planks, two inches thick, twelve inches wide, and six Fig. 113.— A COOLER FOR SETTING MILK. feet long, four boards sixteen and a half inches long and twelve inches wide, and construct a box with the ends gained in with a groove a quarter of an inch deep. Place a rubber strip between the boards, and clamp with rods and bolts, to make it as tight as possible. Provide a FARM APPLIANCES. lid to keep out dust aud to shade from the sun. Place a faucet at the bottom, by which to run off the v ater when it has become warm. Set the cooler near the well whence cold water can easily be drawn, and keep the cans of milk submerged in +he water. If there is a supply of ice, the temperature of the water may be still further reduced, and the cooler rendered more efficient. A box of the size given above will have room for twelve three gallon cans. HOME-MADE BUTTER-WORKER. The butter worker, figure 114, is made to stand upon a table or low bench, or when of large size, upon the floor. The lever works upon a rod and can be moved sidewise, an arrangement which we have seen in no other butter- Fig. 114. —A SERVICEABLE BUTTER-WORKER. worker, but which is a very desirable one. The table slopes forward, and has several grooves to carry the liquid down to a pail or a dish placed to receive it. The lever at the under side is leveled to a round or sharp edge, as may be wished. The cost of the worker is a mere trifle ; it should be made of maple, ash or chestnut. THE BARN, PASTURE AND DAIRY. 93 A CONVENIENCE EOR FLY TIME. The comfort which a cow seems to derive from a free use of her tail during fly time, is not shared in any degree by the milker, and various means have been devised to hold the troublesome appendage in place. One of the latest is illustrated in figure 115. Half a dozen six-penny wire nails are driven through a piece of lath, and each point bent to a hook. A brick is sus¬ pended by a string from the lower end of the stick. As the milker sits down beside dhe cow, the hooks are thrust into the brush of her tail, leaving the brick resting in part on the ground or barn floor. After Vi g. 115. — tail- the first futile efforts to swing the brick holder. py tail power, the cows learn to give it up, and the milker is free from a very great annoyance. REINS FOR DRIVING OXEN. Figure 116 shows a method of arranging the reins for a yoke of oxen. Each ox has a spring bull-ring placed in Fig. 116. —DRIVING OXEN WITH REINS, 94 FARM AFFIANCES. his nose, and from these rings small ropes run back as seen in the illustration. Staples are driven into the top of the joke through which the cords pass. It is claimed that with these reins a yoke of oxen can be guided and controlled with ease. The rings are quickly remoTed from the noses when work hours are over. YAT FOR DIPPING SHEEP. Sheep should be dipped twice a year. They suffer a great deal from vermin, which are destroyed by the dip¬ ping. After shearing, the ticks greatly annoy the lambs, upon which they gather from the shorn sheep and prevent Fig. 117.— PORTABLE VAT. their growth. The lambs, at least, should be dipped, to free them from these pests, but it is well to dip the whole flock, as a safeguard against the prevalent scab, and other skin diseases. A very good dipping vat is shown in fig¬ ure 117. It is made of one and a quarter inch tongue and grooved hoards, put together at the joints with pitch, and is furnished with handles, with which it can be moved from place to place. It may be six feet long, three feet wide, and three feet deep. The sloping ends have cleats nailed across them on the inside, by which the sheep are assisted to get out of the vat, upon a draining floor placed to receive them. A good dip is made of one pound of coarse tobacco, and one pound of sulphur, steeped in five gallons of boiling water. It THE BARK, PASTURE AND DAIRY. 95 is most effective when used at a temperature of one hundred and twenty degrees, and the sheep should be left in the dip long enough to have the wool saturated, and the skin well soaked by the fluid. A quantity of fresh dip should be kept in a boiler, to renew the old dip as it is diminished by use. -•<>«- SHEEP-SHEARING BENCH. Shearing benches will be found desirable, as they save the wearisome stooping over the sheep. A bench of this kind is shown in figure 118. It is made of stout strips nailed to curved cross-pieces. These are best bent by steaming them, or soaking them in hot water for some hours, or sponging them frequently beside a hot fire, by which the fiber is much softened and the wood is warped permanently. The legs are about twenty inches long. Any dust on the wool falls through the bars. EAR TAG PUNCH FOR MARKING ANIMALS. A punch, which is struck with a hammer, and even the new belt-punch pattern, now so generally used, in¬ flict considerable pain ; the blow m one case, and the very considerable pressure needful in the other, are both productive of suffering which can just as well be avoided. Some breeders have used with entire satisfac- 96 FARM APPLIANCES. tion a very simple contii vance, figure 119, which any ma¬ chine shop can furnish from the engraving and descrip¬ tion herewith. Take a piece of steel rod, say five inches long and about five-sixteenths of an inch in diameter. Fix this in a d chuck and drill a hole endwise from a to 1 in the engraving, which leaves that end a hollow tube, the walls of which are about one-thirty-second of an inch thick, supposing a one- quarter inch drill has been used Possibly a little smaller hole woula be better. Then file a notch in one side at b, so that it will clear readily. Drill a small hole, c, near the one end, in which to fit a short piece of smaller wire, d, which forms a con- /ig. 119.— ear punch, venient gimlet-like handle. When finished, have it nicely filed to a caper at the hollow end, so as to form a thin cutting edge, which must be kept quite sharp. After being tempered it forms the best tool for its work ever invented. To use the punch, hold in the left hand a large cork, or a small block of wood, and carefully selecting the proper place between the ribs or ridges of the ear, press the punch snugly down, give it a quick, sharp twist, just as one would a gimlet, and the animal scarcely flinches at all, so slight is the pain 0 SEWING UP WOUNDS IN ANIMALS. The winter season is always prolific of accidents, chiefly among horses, which are often badly blemished by cuts which are left to heal imperfectly, without any assistance. THE BATH, PASTURE AND DAIRY. «J? When a horse with sharp calks kicks another, or when an animal falls upon ice, the skin is usually cut in an angu- Fig. 120. —NEEDLE FOR SEWING UP WOUNDS. lar shape and the flap of skin hangs over in an unsightly manner, or in a torn cut the skin gapes open and makes a wound, difficult to heal. As a rule, a horse’s wound Fig. 121. —WOUND SEWED TOGETHER. heals very rapidly under, the simplest treatment. A curved needle, figure 120, is used to sew up severe wounds as shown in figure 121. CHAPTER V. WELLS, PUMPS, CISTERNS AND FILTERS. WINDLASS AND TILTING BUCKET. As ordinary pumps draw water only thirty-three feet perpendicularly, and practically only about thirty feet from the water surface, force-pumps or windlasses are re¬ quired, for wells thirty or more feet deep. The com¬ mon windlass with stop ratchet serves a fair purpose, but requires the bucket to be let all the way down by turn- 98 FARM APPLIANCES. ing the crank backward. Various forms of brakes have been devised. Figure 122 shows the construction and oper¬ ation of one. Two opposite corner pieces, p, extend six feet high above the platform,and a diagonal piece connect- Fig. 122.— IMPROVED WINDLASS. ing their upper ends supports, a grooved pulley carrying the lifting rope. A hook, h, turning on a pivot, is thrown over the lever b, and slid along it far enough to hold the brake against the windlass firmly, when the hand is re¬ moved. A swinging iron rod catches in the small pin on the top of the bucket as it rises, and tips the water into the spout. With these little additions, a windlass and bucket are better than a pump, as the water is drawn fresh, with no tainting from the pump log. The actual force required to raise the same water is less with the windlass than with the pump, as less power is required than is wasted in the friction of the close fitting valves c£ the pump, and the friction of the water against the side of the tube. ■*o*- WELL-CURB OF STAVES. Figure 123 is a very strong and durable curb made of staves. A cooper can make it, setting up the staves. WELLS, PUMPS, CISTERNS, FILTERS. 99 which are one and one-quarter inch thick, as for a barrel, using three iron hoops. The shaft of the windlass is also of iron, to which a wooden cylinder is fastened by a Fig. 123. —A “ BARREL ” WELL-CURB. couple of bolts driven through the wood and iron. In making the windlass, fashion the wood to the right size, and then split open the cylinder, cut a place for the shaft, fit it in, and then drive bands over the ends. »o* ■ — HEMLOCK FOR WELL-CURBS. In many sections of country stone is scarce, and plank is used for curbing wells. Pine lumber gives a dis¬ agreeable taste to water. Hemlock lumber is usually cheaper than pine, and can be obtained at most lumber yards. Five hundred feet of lumber are sufficient for a well fourteen feet deep, three by four feet outside meas¬ urement. The four posts should be four by four inches, and the planks two inches thick, fastened on with heavy spikes. Dig down until there is danger of caving, and then put in the curb, with planks enough on to reach the surface of the ground. Afterwards dig the earth from the inside of the curb, and put on the planks as fast as needed. In some soils that are loose, the weight of the ICO FARM APPLIANCES. curb will settle it down as the work progresses ; should it not, drive on the posts. Such a curb, made of sound hemlock, will last for years, and give pleasant water from the first. - - SECURING THE WELL-BUCKET.- One who has much experience with well- buckets, will find they are often set down outside of the curb, and not always in a clean place. In this manner the water in the well may be fouled with clay, if with nothing worse. Every person should be very careful to avoid anything that may in any degree tend to impair the purity of the water in a well. One way to secure this end is to have the bucket always in a safe place. This may be done by fixing a cord or a chain to the beam over the pulley, or to the stirrup of the pulley, and fastening a hook to its lower end, upon which the bucket should always be hung when not in use. This arrangement for the well-bucket is made plain by figure 124. CURB WITH A BUCKET SHELF. Another device for keeping the bucket clean is shown m figure 125. An iron plate of suitable size is held on the end of an arm fastened at right angles to an upright iron rod. The bottom of this rod rests upon an iron pro¬ jecting from the corner of the curb, and the top is held in place by an eye-rod. The filled bucket is raised high WELLS, PUMPS, CISTERNS, FILTERS. 101 enough so that the plate is placed directly under it. Let up on the windlass when the bucket is secure on the Fig. 125. —A BUCKET SHELF. plate, and it may be swung to one side without straining the back, or danger of slipping when it is icy. ♦o. COVERED WELL-CURBS. Figure 126 is a desirable covering for a well-curb. The upper part of the curb is floored over, except about afoot and a half in the center. Cleats, r, r, are nailed along two opposite sides of the bucket-holes and upon these, at Fig. 126. —A WELL-CURB COVERING. one end, is placed a strip, g. A wide board is made to fit and slide in the grooves formed by the cleats. The 102 FARM APPLIANCES. wooden pins, a , project above the cover, and answer as handles for sliding it as desired. Figure 127 shows a covered well curb, which is safe against worms, frogs and other vermin ; and also against the entrance of surface water, leaves ane\ other objects. The wall of the well is carried up to the surface of the ground, and clean gravel is spread around it and beaten down firmly. A frame of four by four-inch chestnut is then bedded down level with this surface, and a floor of two-inch planks, with matched edges, is laid down, pro¬ jecting a little over the raised gravel, as shown in the engraving. The ground slopes from the floor in all di¬ rections, and should be neatly sodded. The best cov¬ ering, being indestructible, is a large flagstone ; or, it may be made with several pieces and bedded in mortar. The curb is built around the well, large enough to give stand¬ ing room for the bucket at one corner ; it should he no higher than is convenient to reach over it to use the bucket. A spout is fixed to the front, into which the bucket is emptied without lifting it over the curb. The curb is protected on top with one fixed and one hinged wire gauze covered frame. The hinged one is thrown back and rests against a support, if desired, as shown, cr it may fall entirely back upon the other one. This WELLS, PUMPS, CISTERN'S, FILTERS. 103 wire gauze admits air, but keeps out leaves and other trash, which is blown about by the winds. An open curb like this keeps the air in the well pure, the water clean, and in some respects it is preferable to a pump. IMPURE WATER IN' WELLS. It becomes more and more evident each year that much of the sickness prevalent in the country is directly at¬ tributable to the quality of the water. By carefully studying the matter, it is found that in nine cases out of ten typhoid fevers originate in families whose water sup¬ ply is from a well, into which impure water comes. This may be from the farm yard, and quite generally such is the case. For some years the water in a well near the house may be pure and wholesome, but by-and-bye the soil between it and the barn-yard will become so im¬ pregnated with pollution that an unhealthful quality will be imparted to it, and disease will result from its use. This is almost sure to be the case when the distance be¬ tween the two is not great, because, as a general thing, the bottom of the well is lower than the yard, and the drainage from the latter will extend in all directions through the most porous strata of soil, and when it reaches the well, it will naturally flow into it as a reser¬ voir. No matter how pure the water may have been when the well was first dug, sooner or later it will be contami¬ nated by water flowing through the soil from barn-yards and cesspools located anywhere near it. A case is on record in which four children died from diphtheria. An examination by the physician proved that the slops from the kitchen had so filled the soil for a distance of twenty feet between the back door, out of which they were thrown, and the well, that the water in the latter 104 FARM APPLIANCES. was polluted by foul gases, and from the use of it diph¬ theria had certainly resulted. When making a well, have it, if possible, above the barn-yard, and let the drainage be from it rather than into it. Arrange a place for slops with a cement bottom and sides, from which glazed pipes, cemented together, allow the unhealthy matter to flow off and away from the well. HOOK FOR CLEANING WELLS. Every farmer who has open wells, knows how difficult and tiresome a task it is, to extricate articles which have fallen into them, but figure 128 shows a contrivance which has been used successfully. Find the depth of the well and cut off as many eight or ten-foot lengths, four inches wide, of inch boards, as will, when fastened together, reach to the bottom of the well. Sharpen the end of one length to a point, as a in the engraving; bolt or nail a cross-piece ~b, three or four inches above the point a, making one side a little longer than the other, and about three inches shorter than the radius of the well. Fasten upon the cross-piece three pieces of chain, each about ten inches long, at equal distance from each other. Make double hooks out of one-eighth inch wire, or old bucket bails; sharpen the ends, and attach them to the chains. Bolt the lengths of boards together closely ; let the cross-piece and hooks down into the well, tightening the bolt at the end of each length as it passes, until the point reaches the bot¬ tom. Now turn the contrivance, causing the hook to describe several circles at the bottom of the well. The article sought for will probably be caught by the hooks \ WELLS, PUMPS, CISTERNS, FILTERS. 105 besides a good many other things not looked for will perhaps be brought up. A NON-FREEZING PUMP. One of the simplest methods of preventing a pump from freezing is shown in figure 129. The pump is boxed from the platform to six inches or more above the spout, the box being made large enough to admit of a Fig. 129.— PUMP PROTECTOR. packing of sawdust or spent tan bark between it and the pump-stock ; or the pump-stock can be well wrapped with heavy hardware paper and then boxed tightly, which will effectually keep out almost any ordinary de¬ gree of cold. It is well to have the platform double- boarded, running each layer of boards in opposite direc¬ tions, and mounding up well around the platform with earth, to still further protect against cold. •<>•- . - AGITATION" OF AIR IN WELLS. One great objection to the old style of log pump is the non-ventilation of the well. The platform is made as tight and close-fitting as possible, to prevent dirt, vermin 106 FARM APPLIANCES. etc., from getting into the water. By the use of a chain pump there is enough to agitate the air and water and to prevent stagnation in either. By means of a cheap, simple contrivance, shown in figure 130, all wells may Fig. 130. —AGITATOR FOR WELL. have an abundant supply of fresh air. In the illustra¬ tion, h is the wooden or metal tube of a common lift or force pump; a, is the handle to which is attached, three or four inches from where it is hinged to the pump, a small wooden or metal rod, b. If this rod is of wood, it need not be over three-quarters of an inch in diameter, and if a metal one three-eights of an inch will answer. It runs from the handle downward to and along side of the pump-tube, shown at h, passing through two or more closely-fitting staples, and extends to within two feet of the high water mark. It is provided at the lower end with an arm, or more properly speaking, a fan, e } WELLS, PUMPS, CISTERNS, FILTERS. 10 ? which should be of some light material, such as a thin board or piece of sheet iron or tin, eight or nine inches square. It is evident that the act of pumping will move this fan up and down, from three to five inches at each stroke of the handle, producing a movement of the air within the well. By continuing the rod downward for a few feet, and attaching to the end a block of wood two or three inches square, the water will also be sufficiently agitated to prevent stagnation. -KX-- DEEPENING WELLS. Many wells which fail during long drouths, could be made, by deepening a few feet, to yield an abundant and unfailing supply of water. But it is difficult to accom¬ plish this by ordinary means, without endangering the wall with which the well is lined. Figures 131 to 135 show a set of appliances by which the work may be safely done without danger to the wall, even in sandy or gravelly soil. Figure 131 is a sort of well-auger of galvanized iron, five inches in diameter, and of any desired length, from fourteen to twenty inches. Before it is bent in shape, a bias strip is cut from its lower edge, giving it the shape shown in the engraving. The rod by which it is worked is of wrought iron pipe one inch in diameter. A X is screwed on its summit, to receive the handle, of ash, or other tough wood. Figure 132 is a cylinder, also of galvanized sheet-iron, six inches in diameter and two feet long. It is reinforced at each end by iron bands riveted on, and is perforated throughout with thin slits for the admission of water when in position. Figure 133 is the head of the auger. It is of inch board, upon which is screwed a flange with a thread, to receive the lower end of the hollow rod. Figure 135 represents a cross-section of this head-piece. At the lower end of the 108 FARM APPLIANCES. auger-tube is the piece shown in figure 134. This is a circular piece of galvanized iron, tint five inches in di¬ ameter, slitted from one side to the center, and the cut edges bent to spiral or screw-shape. This is soldered Fig. 131. —well Fig. 132. —cylin- AUGER. C DER. Fig. 133. Fig. 135. into the lower end of the auger-tube, as shown by dotted lines in figure 131. A large hole on one side near the top, not shown in the engraving, serves to empty the tube of sand and dirt. To operate this, the cylinder is first pushed down as far as practicable- into the bottom of the well. With the auger the earth is removed from inside the cylinder. As the work of excavation proceeds, the cylinder is pushed down until its upper edge is level with the bottom of the well. If a sufficient vein of water is not then reached, the boring goes on, and a WELLS, PUMPS, CISTERNS, FILTERS. lOO second cylinder follows the first. This makes an addi¬ tional depth of four feet, which is generally sufficient. If not, the process can be continued by providing ad¬ ditional cylinders, and splicing the auger-stem until a permanent water-vein is found. DIGGING A WELL. A hole is dug down and the earth thrown out as far as could be done, and then a ladder is rigged up on three stakes as shown in figure 136. A pulley is at¬ tached to one round, a cord thrown over it and fastened Fig. 136.— DIGGING A DAKOTA WELL. to a pail, the other end of the rope reaching into the well. The pail is filled and drawn to the surface, where it is swung to one side, emptied and returned for an¬ other load. The upper end of the ladder should be elevated about six feet above the ground. HOW TO BUILD A CISTERN. Every part around the surface of a cistern should be made close. The beams which support the floor should be bedded in the wall, or shoulder of the cistern, and HO IF ARM APPLIANCES. covered with lime or cement mortar, leaving a smooth surface all around the first floor. This should then be covered with a second floor, raised eight or ten inches on a frame of two by ten joists, made of cedar or chestnut. The earth should be packed closely against this frame, and the top floor should extend a few inches beyond the frame all around. The cistern is then frost and vermin proof. Another important point is to get rid of the sed¬ iment that gathers at the bottom of every cistern. This is done by carrying the overflow pipe to the bottom of the cistern on a line with the inlet pipe, and thus form¬ ing a current which disturbs the sediment and carries it into the overflow. This is shown in figure 137, also the arrangement of the draw-pipe, which should have a fine wire strainer on the end, and should rest upon a support near the bottom of a fine strainer, at least two feet high. A piece of one-quarter inch mesh of galvanized wire gauze, bent into a pipe a foot in diameter, and covered WELLS, PUMPS, CISTERKS, FILTERS. Ill with thick flannel cloth, doubled, makes a filter for the water. -*o«- WATER IK THE BARK YARD. Water in the barn yard is a great economy and con¬ venience ; by a little management it can be secured with ease. The difficulties in the way, are chiefly in bringing the water down hill, over an elevation midway, and Fig. 138.— CONVEYING WATER BY SIPHON. in bringing it up hill, from a spring or well below the level. In the former case, a siphon must be used, as shown in figure 138. It consists of a pipe, one end of which is under the surface of the water in a well or spring, and carried over a ridge, and down a slope, to a lower level. This method is open to one objection, which nearly always gives trouble. There is more or less air dissolved in water; this dissolved air escapes, as the water is flowing through the pipe, and gathers at the highest point, where it stops the flow. To remove this air, the following arrangement is made. A short pipe, furnished with a stop cock and a funnel, is fitted to the highest point of the siphon. When the flow begins to be obstructed by air, the stop cock at the lower end of the pipe is shut, and that at the top is opened. 112 FARM APPLIANCES. The pipe is then filled with water through the funnel. The water is held in the pipe by a check valve at the bottom of the well pipe. The air is thus driven out of the siphon, and the top stop-cock is shut. The flow is started by opening the lower stop-cock, and all goes Fig. 139. —RAISING WATER BY FORCE PUMP. on again, until the air gathers in the pipe once more, when the remedy is repeated. To draw water up hill, by a pump, the method seen in figure 139 is used : The pipe, having a check valve at the bottom, is laid from the spring, up the incline, and connected with a force pump, in a dry well, at the top. Water can he raised in this manner, from about twenty-eight or thirty feet below the bottom of the dry well, and for a distance of two hundred and fifty, or three hundred feet, or more. The linear distance is not an obstacle, except for the fric¬ tion in the pipes ; it is the perpendicular height alone, which gives serious trouble, and about twenty-eight or thirty feet, is all that can be overcome by means of a suction pump. A force pump is useful to raise the water eight or ten feet more than this, when necessary. This method is shown in the engraving. - »o«- WOODEN WATER, PIPES. For conveying water any distances less than fifteen rods, and where the amount desired is greater than can WELLS, PUMPS, CISTEMS, FILTERS. 113 be supplied by a half-inch pipe, wooden tubing will be found cheaper than iron, lead, or other metallic pipes. Wooden tubing, of from one and a quarter to two-inch bore, may be obtained of all hardware dealers. In pur¬ chasing observe that the ends are iron-banded, to prevent splitting when placed together, and to prevent the tubes from bursting when under a heavy head of water. Be¬ fore the pipe is laid, it is best to give it one or two coats of oil; even crude petroleum will do ; this adds greatly to the durability. In pipes through which there is a constant flow of water, there is little danger of decay ; in fact, some old-fashioned pump logs which have been re¬ moved after nearly fifty years of use, were found sound on the inside. Wooden, as well as other pipes convey¬ ing water, should be laid below the frost line. If the water is intended for drinking purposes, place the pipe at least three feet under ground, and if in sandy, porous soils, to a still greater depth. After the pipe is in posi¬ tion, and before the water is admitted, pour hot coal-tar over it, especially at each joint, which is readily done by using a watering pot or an old tea or coffee-pot. Always test wooden and other pipes after they are laid, by ad¬ mitting water before covering them with soil, in order that a leak, if found, may be easily stopped. ■ * 0 * FILTERS FOR FAMILY USE. Almost every country store is in more or less direct communication with some pottery, where salt-glazed ware is made. Lead-glazed ware should be avoided, but the salt-glazed is both cheap and safe. Any pottery will furnish to order, or they may have them on hand, five or six gallon cylindrical jars of glazed ware, having a spigot hole in the side close to the bottom, and the usual jar lid. A common flower pot of large size should be selected, 114 farm: appliances. which will jflst fit in the top of the jar, as shown in figure 140. This pot is the filter, and it is thus ar¬ ranged : The bottom is covered by a circular piece of Fig. 141. Fig. 140. FARM WATER FILTER. A SERVICEABLE FILTER. thick woolen felt, or two or three pieces of blanket, upon this is placed a layer an inch thick of well-washed sand. Note that the sand, being well washed, the felt or blanket pieces should be so also. Now upon the sand, freshly burned, soft wood charcoal, which should be freshly heated, free from all dust, and about the size of grains of wheat, should be laid in to the depth of six inches more, and upon this an inch of sand, and another pad of felt or blanket to top off with. Fit up two flower pots for each filter, and keep those not in use covered and clean. The water is poured into the flower pot. A clean lump of clear ice, whole or broken up, may be placed in the jar below the pot, and then the water is fit for anybody’s use. The filter shown in figure 141 is made of a stout oak barrel with iron hoops. The head is taken out WELLS, PUMPS, CISTERMS, FILTERS. 115 carefully and a number of boles are bored through it with a half-inch auger, then five or six oaken blocks, about three inches long, are nailed to the under side. It is then placed in the barrel for a false bottom. On this spread a layer of coarse gravel about two inches thick, then another of finer gravel ; on this spread eight inches of charcoal ; then add a six-inch layer of gravel, and on top place washed sand up to within an inch of the overflow pipe. Over this sand fit in the barrel a cover made of inch pine boards. In the center of this cut an opening ten inches square. Then make a low frame a little larger than the opening, cover both sides with cheese cloth, and fasten securely over the open space in the head, but in such a manner that it can be easily removed again. The object of this covering being to prevent sand from escaping into the cistern, it becomes sometimes necessary, after heavy rains, to take up the frame and wash the cloth. The rain water flows into the barrel through a pipe between the real and the false bottom. About four feet above the cask the leader from the roof should enter a tin box, with a partition in the middle that comes within about two inches of the top. This partition separates the pipe that flows into the cask from the waste pipe, and the leader from the roof can be made to discharge on either side, as may be desired. Near the bottom of the barrel should be a large faucet or bung-hole, through which all the water may be drawn off and the filter cleaned. By pulling out the bung or opening the faucet, and, after the water has run out, pouring several bucketfuls of water on the sand at the top, all impurities are washed out and carried off ; in fact, it is best to let out the water after every rain. If this filter is well made, and the cask painted, it will last many years and do good service. 116 FARM APPLIANCES. CONNECTING CISTERNS. When it is desired to connect a new cistern with an old one without loss of water, it can be done as shown in figure 142. Whatever the distance apart, provide a two- Fig. 142. —CONNECTING TWO CISTERNS. inch iron pipe, a, long enough to extend from the inside of the new well to the outside of the old one, and fit upon the right end of it by screw thread the pipe, b, long enough to extend well through the old wall. Build a into the new well, and close its left end with a wooden plug, p. When ready, pump or syphon the water from the old to the new cistern. Then open the old Avail, screw b on to a, and cement around b. When ready, with a rod or bar, knock out the plug, which will float to the top, and the water will stand at a level in both cis¬ terns. A connecting five or six-inch glaze ware or iron pipe, c, should be put in on a level Avith the overflow pipe, o. One pump and one overflow pipe answer for both cisterns. WELLS, PUMPS, CISTERNS, FILTERS. 117 BUILD AND DIMENSION OE CISTERNS. In a stiff clay soil a small cistern of twenty to forty barrels capacity might be safely cemented directly to the earth, but in ordinary soils and for larger cisterns, a good four-inch-wall of hard brick is on the whole the cheap¬ est. It is important to make the excavation smooth, so that the bricks can be pressed firmly against the earth ; otherwise these will be pushed out and the cement cracked, causing a leak. As to the dimensions, a cistern should be about one-fourth deeper below the spring of the arch, than its width inside. By this rule a cistern eight feet wide will be ten feet deep below the arch. At the top is a cast iron ring, twenty inches in diameter, for the man¬ hole, covered with a tight fitting cast iron lid. The ring has a flange two inches wide extending out over the brick. The capacity of a cistern needed to save all the water from a given extent of roof, will depend on the total annual rainfall, its distribution throughout the year, and the regularity with which it is used. A roof ninety feet by twenty feet contains eighteen hundred square feet. This is supposed to be the measure of the building on the ground and not the shingled surface. In the vicinity of New York the average annual rainfall is about forty-two inches, or three and a half feet. This ■would give sixty-three hundred cubic feet of water (1,800 ft. X 3 1 / 2 =6,300). Since in that climate the rain is dis¬ tributed pretty regularly through the year, it would only be necessary to provide storage capacity for about one-third of the rainfall of the year, or twenty-one hundred cubic feet. This divided by four and one-fifth (the approxi¬ mate number of cubic feet in a barrel of thirty-one and a half gallons) gives five hundred barrels, and this quantity of water demands a cistern, thirteen feet diameter, to be nearly sixteen feet deep below the arch, or a square one, thirteen feet across, to be nearly twelve and a half feet 118 FARM APPLIANCES. deep ; or around one, fifteen feet in diameter, would need to be about twelve feet deep. In the far West—in fact, in most places west of the Missouri—the rainfall is largely during the six months beginning with March, and cisterns need a greater storage capacity. CISTERNS WITH FILTERS. Complaints are frequent of the impure water of cis¬ terns. This is inevitable under the careless manage¬ ment of these useful additions to the water supply, and is a fruitful source of what are called “ malarial dis¬ eases.” A roof gathers a large quantity of impure mat¬ ter, dead insects, droppings of birds, dust, dead leaves, pollen from trees, etc., etc., all of which are washed into the cistern, unless some means are taken to prevent it. Even then the water should be filtered before it is used for culinary purposes. One way of preventing foul mat¬ ter from entering the cistern, is to have the leader mov- WELLS, PUMPS, CISTERNS, FILTERS. 119 able, and swing from a waste pipe to the cistern pipe, shown on the left side of figure 143. In dry weather the pipe Fig. 144. —COMPLETE CISTERN AND FILTER. is turned over the waste, and after the rain has fallen for a sufficient time to wash oS the roofs and gutters, it is turned into the cistern pipe. The cistern, figure 143 is provided with a soft brick wall laid in cement, through which the water filters, coming out by the pump per¬ fectly pure, and free from unpleasant odors. Rain water -n_i- Fig. 145. —FILTER FOR A BARN CISTERN. standing for months in impurities and filth, cannot al¬ ways be purified by simply soaking through a brick wall, 120 FARM APPLIANCES. but should be filtered as soon as it falls. The main cis¬ tern, figure 144, is made egg-shaped, to hold one hun¬ dred barrels. The filter is fiat-bottomed. The end of the pipe from the filter to the cistern is built solid Fig. 146. —A HOUSE FILTERING CISTERN. around the end with brick. All water has to pass through the brick. The filter is filled half full with charcoal, sand and gravel in layers—one layer of each— the charcoal covering the bricks, then sand and gravel on top. The water, as soon as it falls, begins to filter and passes into the cistern, where A stands free from impurities. The filter is built to hold twenty-five barrels of water, but is half full of the filtering material. Figure 145 shows a good filter for a barn cistern. The top of it consists of broken stones, with a flat stone to receive the influx, so placed as to prevent heavy rains from disturbing the broken stones. This has a cover, movable in part, to permit it to be cleaned out occasion¬ ally. Figure 146 is a filtering cistern for a house. The inlet pipe is at a, the draw pipe is at c. and this is con- WELLS, PUMPS, CISTERNS, FILTERS. 121 nected with a set of cross-pipes, laid in the coarse gravel in the bottom, and pierced with a number of small holes. Fig. 147.— PIPES FOR HOUSE CISTERN. as seen in figure 147, by which the outflow is made quite easy and abundant. CHAPTER YI. APPLIANCES FOR HANDLING HAY AND CORN FODDER. REVOLVING HORSE RAKE. Figure 148 shows a strong, cheap and efficient horse rake. It is especially useful in raking corn-stalks that have been cut by a mower or otherwise, and tall reeds and other rubbish, which it is desirous to rake into wind¬ rows preparatory to burning. It can also be adapted to the raking of hay and straw, by making the teeth lighter and placing them six inches or less apart. Figure 149 represents the rake and shafts, a being a 6ix by six-inch beam, ten feet long. This revolving rake m FAPM APPLIANCES. can be made longer or shorter as desired, but when more than nine or ten feet long, it is not easily drawn through ordinary farm gates. The teeth are made of some kind of tough wood, well seasoned, two inches square, and the Fig. 148. —BODY OF BAKE. pieces cut about four feet long. They are then tapered slightly toward the ends, and trimmed in the middle to fit in holes bored with a two-inch auger ; thus prepared, they are inserted one foot apart, and secured in place with light bolts. At b, b, the beam is rounded to form journals, and around these the ends of the shafts can be Fig. 149. —BAKE WITH SHAFTS. bent, as seen in figure 149, or pieces of old iron, as the tire of an old wheel, may be curved round and secured to the shafts. Two stout pieces of the same length as the teeth, and at right angle to those, are inserted between the shafts. These rest on the lever, d , when the rake is HANDLING HAY AtfD CORK FODDER. 123 moving, and serve to hold it in position with the teeth pointed toward the ground. The lever is hinged to a shaft at e by a bolt, and by pulling the handle, /, when in motion, the support is taken from the check teeth. and the rake turns, depositing its load, and bringing the other row of teeth to the ground. An implement of the above dimensions is too heavy for one horse; hence the shafts are intended to be hooked to the hind axle of a naked wagon, and thus worked by a team, the driver riding on the wagon and operating the lever whenever the rake is full. The rake can also be made with a pole, so as to hitch a team directly to it, as shown in figure 150. The beam should then have three journals instead of two, and the number of teeth even, so that the pole can be attached at the middle. 124 FARM APPLIANCES. CARE OF MOWING MACHINES. Take up the wear of the boxes by removing the stuffing. If the journals have too much play they cut fast. But if the boxes fit too closely, they will heat. The thickness of newspaper all around each is sufficient play. Examine all the nuts and tighten any that are loose. A loose nut will cause the machine to wear or break; and will lose off in the field, causing a vexatious delay at the least. If any nut is very loose, place a leather washer under it, and sink the nut in. Make quite sure that there is no weak place in the whiffletrees. They always break at the wrong tine, and may allow the machine and the team to mire down in a muddy spot. Mind the sickles. Every mower should have three sickles, so that as soon as one becomes dulled, another may be put in its place. A dull sickle does “ragged’’ cutting, and will increase the wear and draft of the machine one half. Observe if the sickle bar is not warped; and if the points of the sections are in a perfectly straight line. A section out of line will wear fast and increase the draft. Try the sections and tighten any that are loose. A loose section is apt to cause a breakage. A loose guard will produce the same result. See that the tool-box contains claw-hammer, pincers, file, sections, rivets, bolts, wire and nails ; the lack of these will often require a trip from the field to the tool- house. If any journals have rusted, use coal oil, every few minutes, for the first half hour, driving slowly ; and it is well to use coal oil on the track of the sickle, to clear off the gum that gathers from the grass. The machine oil often sold is poor stuff ; it is frequently neces¬ sary to add castor oil to give it body. If too much of the latter is used, however, it will gum. There is nothing more satisfactory than lard (unsalted) with castor oil added to give it a little body. If the lard is taken to the field hot, in the morning, the sun will keep it liqui- HANDLING HAY AND CORN FODDER. 125 fied during the day. It is not economy to be sparing in the use of oil; it should be applied quite often, and but little at a time. When much of it is applied at once, it runs from the journals, and holds dust, increasing in¬ stead of diminishing the wear. When stopping at noon, throw some grass over the sickle and the driver journals, if you cannot drive the machine into the shade. Do not mow too close. It dulls and wears the sickle, and gains nothing—what is gained in hay is more than lost in the aftermath. Drive slowly, but steadily, and thus get the most done with least wear of team and machine. Driving “ in spurts ” for half a day will wear the machine more than steady driving for two days. Keep the edges of the grass straight; in other words, cut the full width of the sickle, for otherwise you cannot do economical work. Using a mower properly lengthens its life and in¬ creases the amount of work it will do in a day. - ■■■ -•<>• - SWEEP FOR GATHERING HAY. The implement shown in figure 151 is made by having two by four inch pieces of twelve feet long for teeth. held together by apiece of two by six inch stuff, sixteen feet long, with a boh through each tooth; two fence strips 126 FARM APPLIANCES. of inch stuff, six inches wide, keep them from spreading. Three or four upright two by four posts, four feet high, with cross fence strips, are set on the main beam. This holds the hay, and is braced at each end, as shown in the engraving. There is on the bottom of each end runner, a shoe one foot wide, two inches thick, and two or three feet long, to give the teeth a downward inclination. The teeth are tapered from the underside at each end, so as not to run into the ground. There is an iron ring at the bottom of each end post, to which ropes are fastened. These ropes are sixteen feet long or more, and a whiffle- tree is attached to the end of each. This contrivance takes up the hay to the stack, and picks up any dropped hay going back. HAULING HAY OR STALKS. Figure 152 shows a device for hauling an entire cock of hay. It is made thus: First, get a pole, elm if pos¬ sible, ten or eleven feet long, and about four inches through at the butt. Peel off the bark, trim smooth, Fig. 152. —DEVICE FOR HAULING HAT OR STALKS. and sharpen to a point. Bore two holes near each other at the butt; pass a short piece of rope through the pole, and tie to the link on a single tree. Bore another hole a foot from the end, and pass through it a long one-inch rope, shorter on one side, and tie a knot on the rope on each side of the pole. When ready to commence hauling push the pole under the liav-cock, then take the long end of the rope, and pass it along side the hay-cock, and HANDLING HAY AND CORN FODDER. 127 under the point of the pole, then through a loop in the short end, and draw tight and tie. By this method, no hay is lost on the way; it cannot roll over, nor get tangled. There is no waste, no time is lost, and the hay is laid at the feet of the pitcher just as it stood in the field. This device may also be used for hauling corn fodder or un¬ husked stooks. — -- DERRICK FOR STACKING. Figure 153 shows a derrick, which is very convenient in stacking hay out-doors. The two side-pieces are mor¬ tised into the sill ; the mast, or top stick, is not fastened, hence it can be taken out when moving any great dis¬ tance. When moving only a few feet, hitch a horse to the sill, and drag it endways without taking it down, to where another stack is to be. The derrick and horse ar§ 128 FAIIM APPLIANCES. on one side of the stack, and the load of hay on the other. The derrick stands at almost forty-five degrees, and is held in place by guy ropes—two opposite to the load, and one on the same side as the load. A solid piece of plank is used for the foot of the mast, which is mortised into it. It is best to put it together with bolts. HAY CARRIER FOR HORSE FORK. Figure 154 shows an ingenious device for returning a horse hay-fork from the hay-mow to the loaded wagon. It consists of a wire rope, C , stretched from the end of the track, A, to a wooden cylinder, B, four inches in Fig. 154.— IMPROVED HAY-CARRIER. diameter and sixteen inches long, around which a few turns are given. Two short stakes, D, D, cut from a four-by-four-inch scantling and driven slantingly into the ground, hold the roller in position. A groove 1 pul¬ ley, F, runs freely on the wire, and from its axis is sus¬ pended a fifty pound weight, F. The rope, G. runs over the pulley, H, which is firmly attached to the lower side HANDLING HAY AND CORN FODDER. 129 of the track. The wire-rope is made of three wire clothes-lines twisted together. When in use, the upper end of the cord is attached to the rope which carries the fork. It is thus carried up with the loaded fork, and brings it back by gravitation when empty. .o.- HAY BARRACKS. Figure 155 shows barracks constructed by setting four posts, of chestnut, or white oak, twenty or twenty-five feet long, straight, partly squared to eight inches through, either three feet in the ground or upon sills. If upon sills, these are hewed upon one side and at the Fig. 155. —BARRACK WITH BOARD ROOF. ends, where they are halved together. In doing this, it is well to pin the ends with two inch oak tree-nails, which should stand up three or four inches above the sills when in place. Then when the posts are set at the corners, the pins will enter holes bored in the center of each post, and hold them in position. They will last as long as the posts and sills. For a temporary purpose, 130 FARM APPLIANCES. the posts may be simply set in the ground, twelve xeet apart; but if permanency is desired, it is best to use sills, set level upon a flat stone at each corner, and sup¬ ported in the middle. The posts must, moreover, be braced to the sills, either by diagonal braces, or straight rails, roughly squared, two by four, mortised into the posts at a height of four feet above the sills, or at a height of six feet, in case the barrack may be intended to be boarded up to make a stable. They make very good Fig. 156. Fig. 157. BARRACK WITH THATCHED ROOF. MANNER OF RAISING. shelter for young cattle or horses, the inside between the sills being filled up level with stones, and finished with a layer of cement concrete. The cover, or roof, must be as light as is consistent with strength and efficacy, and may be of boards, or thatch, the latter being by far the most picturesque, and being lighter, it is easier to raise and lower. Before the posts are set, they are bored with inch holes, either twelve or fourteen inches apart, from the top down, exactly in the middle line, each set per¬ fectly level, and pass through the posts in the :^me di¬ rection. Four pins of three-quarter inch iron, fourteen inches long, turned up a little at one end, and bent HANDLING HAY AND CORN FODDER. 131 slightly downward to prevent rolling, are the roof sup¬ ports. They are put into a set of low holes on the out¬ sides of the posts, and two straight oak rails, sixteen to twenty inches longer than the space between the posts, are laid upon them. Then across the ends of these, and outside the posts, two similar rails are laid, the ends being temporarily bound together at the corners. These form the plates for the roof. One-third pitch is usually given, and the ends extend ten inches, or a foot, beyond the plates. A good coat of paint will make the roof quite durable, and prevent the boards from warping. To make a thatched roof, figure 156, nice, straight, light hoop poles are selected, which, if too heavy, must be split. These are for rafters. If binding poles are used, they must be mere rods, like light whip stocks. The rafter poles are laid up and bound at the ends, and to the cross-poles with tarred rope-yarn, but nailed to the plates. They are placed about eighteen inches apart, but the light split cross poles, about a foot to fourteen inches apart. The straw is laid on in handfuls, beginning at the eaves, and bound with rope yarn to the cross poles, or in courses, and bound down by tying the tough, slender maple rods, to the cross poles. Of course, the straw is kept even, and in courses, butts outward, and trimmed evenly with shears. When laid, the straw must be well evened at the butts, and dampened so as to pack nicely and not break in handling. These covers should be as light as possible, and. be consistent with strength. They are raised and lowered one corner at a time, which may usually be done by one man, though more conveniently by two. To raise the roof, a ladder of suitable length is set under the lower plate pole of one corner, as shown in figure 157, the end of the pole being allowed to pass through between the rounds of the ladder, which is then lifted either by main strength, or by a rail used as a lever, and held in position until some one going up another 132 FARM APPLIANCES. ladder, can lift the pin which supports it. This is, of course, done at each corner, and thus the roof is raised, one peg at a time. It is lowered in the same manner by reversing the operation. -»o» - SUPPORTS FOR STACKS. % In stacking straw or hay, when stock is permitted to feed upon it during the winter, it is unsafe to leave the stack without support. The danger is that the stacks may be undermined, and fall over upon the animals. This will not happen if a stout support is made, as shown in figure 158. A few strong posts are set firmly in the ground, and planks spiked on the side as shown ; the cattle can eat the straw from between the planks, and may eat the stack entirely through without danger of its being buried by over-turning. When the crib thus made is filled, the stack is topped off in the usual manner, being well spread over the eaves to shed the rain, and, as it is eaten out below, the straw settles down gradually. It is quite easy to cover a stack so made with a roof, so as to form a very cheap barrack. In the summer, by a little change, this will make a good calf or sheep pen. Handling hay and cory fodder. 133 HOME-MADE HAY PRESS. The press shown in figures 159, 160, and 161 may be made wholly of wood, hewn to the right size, and put together with wooden pins. The frame, figure 159, is four feet long inside of the posts, and three feet wide. The Fig. 159. —FRAME OF HAT PRESS. height is eight feet. The movable bottom is raised by ropes which pass over pulleys or rollers, if no iron is to be used, and are wound upon the rollers at the bottom. This roller is moved by bars to be inserted in mortises cut in the roller, similar to the manner used in moving a windlass, or a capstan on shipboard. A movable door is made to fit the bottom of the press on one side, for the puipose of removing the bale after it is pressed. The m FARM APPLIANCES. bale is bound with a strong cord, pieces of which ar*> placed on the bottom and others on the top, as shown in Fig. 160. —END VIEW OE HAY PRESS. nmnnnmni (EIIIIIUIIIIM iiiimim iwnimmun iiiiinnminiii • • • » i i • • i « • II ISM tintiii iijinn III immmtmir Ill mimnimiiii ,'f'l •innnnimiin ,n ikmiiiii \\ iiuiiinnimi 1 III iimnmmii ll,l iiiummiiii 'll muimiiiit i\\ iininmiii Ifl imiiiiium f'- [i;i!!Uiini!ii « • • • • • • • 1 l/l 1 1 \! NN Fig. 161. —MOVABLE BOTTOM. figure 159, and the ends are fastened when the bale is pressed as tightly as possible. It is then reduced to two HANDLING HAT AND CORN FODDER. 135 % and one-half feet in thickness, and eight of these bales will make a ton. The hay is easily transported in wagons when baled, and the press can be moved from one mea¬ dow to another as the hay is cut and pressed, or it will Fig. 162. —HAY BALE. be more convenient at times to drive the cattle to the hay rather than move the hay to the cattle. Figure 160 shows the end view of the press, figure 161, the movable bottom, and figure 162, the pressed bale. When the iron can be procured without great expense, it might be well to use the pulleys and slotted wheels as here shown, but otherwise these parts may be made of wood. •o«-* TWISTING HAY AND STRAW. The machine figures 163 to 167, consists of two two-by four bars, nine feet long, figure 163, straight and true, and of even thickness and width. They are bolted to¬ gether at each end, and separated by a block four inches square and two inches thick, at one end «, and a piece of two-by-four stuff, three feet long, at l. A pulley is set at c, about thirty-nine inches from the end a. Fig- 136 FARM APPLIANCES. ure 164 shows frame of back end (A, figure 167), a being a piece of two- by-four, four feet long; b, b, two uprights, one-by-four, six feet long ; c, a two-by-four, three feet long ; d, a one-by-four, three feet long ; they are firmly c Fig. 163. —THE BARS, OR WAYS. nailed together as shown, the upper edge of c, being half way up from bottom. Figure 165 is the same as figure 164, except the lower piece a is only three feet long. The five converging pieces are of some springy wood. They are attached by screws, three to the upper cross-pieces and two to the middle one, and prevent the hay going too fast out of the rack. Figure 166 shows a “ follower’’ (/*, figure 164), a being two-by-four, twelve inches long, b, two-by-four, twenty-six inches long, framed or halved on a ; c is a brace of one-inch board ; d, d , two pieces of board, the lower one eight inches wide, six inches long, the upper twelve inches wide, sixteen inches long ; they are firmly attached to b by nails and screws as shown, and the brace c is then nailed in place. The “ twister ” is made of seven-sixteenths round iron, nine inches long HANDLING HAY AND CORN FODDER. 13 ? from crank to hook, five inch crank, three and a half inch handle. The hook is turned so as to have a twist like a corkscrew, so that it will work in and catch the hay up of itself; two washers are put on that fit the rod snugly and four inches apart, by placing shaft in a vice ; a nick with a cold chisel on each side of shaft on outside of each washer, will keep them in place. This is made fast upon a piece of two-by-four, twelve inches long, the upper end grooved out so that the shaft will set in about half way, then beveled off as shown ; the shaft is fastened in place by a couple of strips of hoop Fig. 167. —THE COMPLETE MACHINE (STRAW-TWISTER). iron, bent over it and nailed or screwed in place ; two strips are screwed on the sides, and a piece of board on the bottom end, as shown, leaving space between the two so that it will work freely on the ways, figure 163, when in place as shown in figure 167. Figure 167 shows the machine complete, A being figure 164, B, figure 165, in their places, c, showing boarding of rack, the edges of which show in figure 164 and 165 ; it is nailed to the upper piece and to the ways. W is a weight to bring the follower, figure 166, forward as fast as hay is used out, and keeps the hay firm and in its place against the wooden springs; the weight may be a stone, or box filled with iron or scraps. In use, draw the follower back, and run the 138 FARM APPLIANCES. pin, /, in hole bored through wavs and follower, fill in the rack from top with hay, just mowed or slightly damp, pressing it in snugly, then draw out pin f, slide carriage g up to rack ; by turning crank the hook will catch up a lock of the hay, then keep turning and drawing carriage away at the same time, and it will twist put a rope of hay, this is doubled, and ends fastened by crowding through loops. If you can get some drawer rollers to set in the follower and on the carriage, it will work much easier. WESTPHALIAN STRAW-TWISTER. Fig. 169. Figures 168 and 169 show a form of straw-twister, which has long been in use in Westphalia, Germany. A board of hard wood, half an inch thick, four and a half inches wide and five feet long, is shaped as in figure 168, \nd has an inch hole in the center. A piece of the same iff, five inches square, also with an inch hole (a in the HANDLING HAY AND CORN FODDER. 139 engravings), is attached to the large piece by means of long wooden pins, and stands three inches from it, the holes in the two exactly corresponding. A shaft of hard wood, b, figure 169, is square at the end, where the crank c, is attached, and round where it passes through the two holes. This shaft is held in place by the pins, d, d , which should be so set as to allow it to turn freely. An¬ other wooden pin, e, passes through the shaft and pro¬ jects an inch and a half on each side. In making the rope, two men are required. The straw having been slightly moistened by sprinkling from a watering can, one takes a bunch and fastens it to the pin e. . The other operator takes the machine with his left hand, at b, fig¬ ure 168, and with the lower end against his foot, turns the crank; he gradually moves away from the other, pushing the machine along with his foot, while keeping the crank in motion, and the other supplies straw as re¬ quired. The latter sits upon a low stool, and his right hand should be protected by a stout leather glove or a piece of leather. When the rope is about a hundred feet long, or it becomes difficult to turn the crank, it is rolled into a ball, and a new one begun. The rope is finally made into balls of convenient size. STANDARD FOR CORN SHOCKS. The best standard is made by bending four hills to¬ gether—two diagonal hills being lapped and twisted to¬ gether. But to such a standard it can be objected, that a knife must be carried along to cut the stalks loose when the fodder is brought in from the fields, and that these stalks cannot be stood straight in the rick. Some prefer a movable wooden standard, of which a very good sort is shown in figure 170. A light pole, twelve or fifteen feet long, is provided with two upright supports ; holes are 140 FARM APPLIANCES. \ bored through the pole about five feet from one end, and through the ends of the uprights, and a bolt passed through the holes and secured by a nut. The holes should be so large that the uprights can be spread a foot apart at the bottom. Midway between the uprights and the end of the pole, another hole is bored, through which a cross-bar is put. In the four angles formed by Fig. 170. —FODDER CORN STANDARD. the intersection of the pole and the cross-bar, the fodder is set. When the shock reaches out to the support, the cross-bar is pulled out, and the pole can be removed. Some prefer to have the supports and cross-bar near to¬ gether, about four feet from the pole. The shock is built around the supports. When done, the cross-bar is pulled out, and as the pole is removed, the supports are brought close together, and do not hinder. -♦<>♦ VENTILATOR FOR STACKS. A large quantity of corn fodder is spoiled for want of proper care in drying and stacking. It is not easy to hit the happy mean, between the sufficient drying of the stalks, and the over-drying of the leaves. But it can be done perfectly in the stack, by the use of the ventilator, figure 171. This consists of three or four poles or bars, fastened together with cross-slats, and made to fit one upon another. Such a ventilator, which may be four or six feet long, is set on the foundation for the stack, and HANDLING HAY AND CO UN FODDER. 141 passes upwards through it, leaving a perfect chimney and air passage in the center of the fodder. More than one can be used if desired. These ventilators are useful in stacks of hay or grain, which may be a little damp. -- BENCH FOR HUSKING. Figure 172 represents a very comfortable and light husking stool f it is made long and wide enough to hold Fig. 172. —HUSKING STOOL. a sheaf of stalk, and is provided with a seat, or may have one on both sides, if desired. If one can procure 142 3?ARM APPLIANCES. some crooks of cedar or other light wood, such as is used in rustic work, they will serve very well for the ends. The seats may be removed when the stools are not required, and may then serve for benches in the dairy or for household purposes. CORN-STALK BAND. Stalks altogether dry or altogether green are not to be selected, as they will break when it is attempted to twist them. Long, slender stalks are desirable. The first stalk is broken at a right angle about two feet from the but ; the but is then forced into the shock as far as the break, when the remainder of the stalk is passed Fig. 173. —CORN-STALK BAND. around the shock, breaking it carefully every eight or ten inches, until the tassel point is almost reached. Then another stalk is inserted in the shock. The top of the first stalk is broken every three inches between the thumb and fingers, and twisted around the second stalk, which is then broken and passed around the shock as in HA KB LING HAY AND COEN FODDER. 143 the case of the first one. This is continued until the last stalk reaches the first one, when it is secured by twisting it as in the case of the others, or by drawing it down between the shock and the first stalk, just in front of the break, forming a loop below, through which a piece of stalk, two feet long, is passed and driven into the shock. In figure 173 is shown the appearance of tne band as it would be, if the shock could be removed after the band is completed. CONVENIENT FODDER CARRIER. On farms where the corn-stalks are left in the field to be carted to the yard as wanted, the use of a convenient carrier saves much work and time. Such a one is shown Fig. 174. —FODDER CARRIER. in figure 174. It consists of the front wheels, axle, bol¬ ster and pole of a common farm-wagon, with the ends of two poles, or a common cord-wood rack fastened to the bolster. The other ends of the poles drag on the ground. A cross-piece, three feet long, is securely fastened to the poles about three feet from their lower ends, and two up¬ right stakes, four or five feet long, complete the arrange- ment of this farm convenience. CIIAPTEB VII.' STUMP-PULLERS, DERRICKS AND SLINGS* STUMP-PULLERS. Figure 175 shows a very powerful machine for pulling stumps. The woodwork is made of well-seasoned oak, the winding shaft being eight inches in diameter and five feet long. The lower block, in which it revolves, is six¬ teen inches square and three inches thick, having a hole cut just large enough to receive the winding shaft, and is fastened securely to the middle brace at the bottom. To prevent the splitting of the winding shaft, two stout iron bands are shrunk immediately above and below where the %j lever or sweep is inserted. An old gear-wheel, with the spokes knocked out, is fastened to the top cross-piece or head-block, to receive the traveling ratchet attached to the shaft. The upright pieces of the frame are of two by eight inch oak, three and a half feet high ; the top cross¬ piece or head-block two by sixteen inch oak, narrowing to twelve inches at the ends, and three feet long. The frame is set on runners four feet long, two by ten inch oak, so the implement can be quickly moved from place to place ; the entire frame is mortised together. The anchor is of one-inch round iron, and attached as shown in the illus¬ tration, and a strong iron pulley-block is used on the opposite side. In pulling large stumps, a chain is more reliable than a rope. A single horse furnishes the motive power at the end of the lever or sweep, which is ten feet long. Figure 176 shows a cheaper and lighter stump-puller. The only expense is for the chain, links of one and a half to two inch tough iron, or tough-tempered steel ; r'ng, ten to twelve inches in diameter, and the hook, all of ( 144 ) FARM APPLIANCES. '46 which any blacksmith can make. The point of the hook must be formed so that it will strike in toward the heart of the stump and not tear loose on partially decayed wood. The lever may be twelve to twenty feet long, its size de¬ pending on the quality of the wood and the force to han- Fig. 176.— a srMPLE stump-puller. die it. A lever twenty feet long on a stump two feet in diameter, would exert a force of ten tons for each one thousand pounds of direct pull by the team. Though many durable, long-rooted stumps would not yield to this, the large majority of ordinary stumps, after decay¬ ing a year or two, can thus be cleared out, with most of the roots. Figure 177 shows a stump-puller used in New Zealand. The thread of the screw works both ways and gradually draws each chain nearer the center, where the screw is Fig. 177. —NEW ZEALAND STUMP-PULLER. turned by a movable bar. One end of the chain is fast¬ ened around one stump, and the other around .a second ; then when the screw is turned, whichever stump is the less firm in the ground is bound to be pulled out. The screw is readily worked by a man, though it will, as a rule, require two persons to work it on heavy land. STUMP-PULLERS, DERRICKS. SLIKGS. 147 DERRICKS FOR FARM USE. Where there is much handling of heavy barrels or sacks, one man, with some Simple, mechanical contriv¬ ance, can easily do the work of two or three, working bv main strength. A boom derrick, figure 178, hung high, so that the weight shall be lifted from the ground ordi¬ narily, when the derrick swings horizontally, is very con¬ venient. A post is banded, and has a strong dowel at each end. The lower dowel is set in a stone fixed in the ground, Those to the building where it is to be used, the Fig. 178. —A BOOM DERRICK. Fig. 179.— ETE-BOLT. upper one in a strong oak cleat, bolted to the building. At the height of about five or six feet from the ground, an eye-bolt passes through the post, and another is fixed at the top. The boom is fastened to the lower eye-bolt by a three-quarter inch hooked iron, attached as shown in figure 179, while the other end of the boom has a band with two eyes. This boom is a spar or pole, stiff enough to bear the strain without doubling up or breaking, and may be ten or fifteen feet long. The end of the boom is raised or lowered by a pair of single pulleys, or by a 118 FARM APPLIANCES. double block tackle, which will exert much greater pow¬ er. When the weight is lifted, as out of a cellar-way, it may be swung around over a wagon and lowered into it. A convenient derrick for raising slaughtered animals, for suspending heavy hogs in scalding, and dressing beeves, and for sundry other purposes, can be cheaply and quick¬ ly made thus : Take three scantlings two by six inches, and fourteen feet long, or any other desired length and strength. Round poles will answer, by hewing flat on two sides a small portion of the upper ends. Bore cor¬ responding holes in the top of each, and insert a strong iron bolt, with large head on one end, and large nut and screw on the other. Let the bolt fit loosely, to allow a little play. These pieces can fold together for storage, and be raised to any desired height short of perpendicu¬ lar. Bore a series of small holes along the upper sides of two poles, for movable iron pins, or larger ones for wooden pins. These may be fastened in, or better, have two loose pins for moving to higher or lower holes. By placing the feet of these two poles against firmly driven stakes, and drawing the third and rear pole inward, the center will be elevated with considerable force, the power required decreasing as the timbers approach a perpendic¬ ular, when a beef carcass, for instance, is nearly lifted from the ground, and hangs more heavily. If desired or necessary, horse power can be applied by using a rope with a clevis or otherwise, attaching it to a double-tree or to a wlnffletree. A single horse will be sufficient for raising a large carcass by means of this tripod derrick. SLINGS FOR HOISTING HEAVY OBJECTS. When one has bags to hoist by a block, or simply by a fall, from the barn floor to the loft, rope or chain slings are almost essential. The simplest sling to operate is STUMP-PULLERS, DERRICKS, SLINGS. 149 formed on the end of the fall-rope, as shown in figure 180. This consists simply of an oak stick, half an inch Fig. 180. Fig. 181.— chain-sling. thick, two inches wide and six inches long, having two three-quarter inch holes bored, one near each end. Through one of these the end of the rope passes, then it Fig. 182.— ENDLESS ROPE-SLING. is drawn through the other and knotted strongly. Trie mouth of the bag being caught in the bight of the loop, 150 FARM APPLIANCES. it may be safely hoisted, for the greater the weight the tighter will be the hold. Next to this, and still more convenient, is the chain¬ sling, figure 181. The fall-rope is terminated by a chain with twisted links, which ends in a ring, and so a loop is made to take the bag, or simply the bag’s mouth. Like the rope-sling, it will hold fast all the bags that it can be made to surround. For hoisting many bags at a time, nothing is more convenient and safe than an end¬ less rope, figure 182, cut eighteen to twenty feet long, and the ends spliced together. This is laid upon the floor, forming a long, narrow loop; the bags are laid upon it, resting evenly on both side ropes, then the ends are brought together, one is passed through the other, so as to act like a noose, and hooked over the fall-rope, which should terminate in a strong hook, as shown in the engraving. DERRICK FOR A CELLAR. The carrier shown in figure 183 is similar to those used for hay, but more simple in construction. Four iron wheels are attached with bolts, which serve as axles, to two-by-four-inch oak blocks. The connecting bars hold¬ ing the blocks together are made of old wagon-wheel tire, and joined together below the carrier by a cross-bar of the same material, bearing a hook. The track is made of a bent two-by-four-inch scantling, to each side of w T hich are bolted oak strips one inch thick, forming a roadway for the wheels. To the outer end of the track is fastened a pulley, over which passes the rope attached to the carrier. When the lead runs into the cellar the rope moves along m the groove under the track. In re¬ moving heavy articles from the cellar, the end of the rope is attached to a windlass, set a short distance from the STUMP-PULL EES, DEEEICKS, SLINGS. 151 cellar door. • When not in use, the carrier may be taken down and laid aside out of the way. This device has Fig. 183.— A CELLAR CARRIER. been used in a cellar, where four hundred bushels of apples and potatoes were stored, and the owner would not part with it, if he could not obtain another. With it one man can place a hundred barrels of apples in a cellar, or remove them, as easily as he could as many pecks with his hands alone. -- LEVEE APPAEATUS FOE LIFTING. The implement shown in figure 184 is very useful for many purposes on the farm. Mortise a post of three by Fig. 184. —CONVENIENT LIFTING APPARATUS. three-inch stuff into a piece of two-inch plank. In the top of this saw a slot, one and a half inch wide, to re- 152 FARM APPLIANCES. Reive the lever of the same thickness, four inches wide, and with the short arm, three feet long, and the long arm, six feet long. To the long arm is fastened a piece of chain, and to the short arm another piece, provided with a hook at the free end. Having the long arm of the lever twice as long as the short arm, one can easily lift a weight twice his own. It is surprising how often there is use for this. It can be used to lift sacks of grain into the wagon ; logs on the sled or saw-horse ; the bed off the wagon ; the mower over an obstruction when putting Fig. 185. —IMPROVED LIFTING APPARATUS. it in the barn ; and for some other things nearly every other day. By making the chain, on the short lever long enough, it can be passed around a log or sack, and hooked very quickly. The improvement shown in figure 185 consists in having the long arm of the lever longer and the short arm a very little shorter, giving a greater advantage. As the short arm of the lever is brought up, the free end of the chain is shortened; hence, it will lift the weight a greater height. With the first device one can lift a weight only three feet conveniently. A HOME-MADE HORSE-POWEKo The worst disposition which can be made of a worn-out farm machine of any kind, is to lay it up by the fence in STUMP-EtILLEBS, DEBBICKS, SLINKS. m the dooryard or barnyard, to be an eyesore for years, and a possible source of danger to domestic animals, or even to persons passing hastily or carelessly near it. The better plan is to take the machine to pieces, set aside any unsound or broken wood for fuel, sell whatever iron is not likely to be useful in its present shape, and carefullv store away in a suitable place the remaining parts, whether of wood or iron, particularly bolts, gearing, etc. With a little ingenuity, and perhaps a slight outlay of money, wheels and shafts from disabled reapers, mowers or other machines may be put together to form a light horse-power, which will be found very serviceable in driving feed-cutter, corn-slieller, or farm-mill. In the construction of a horse-power certain general principles must be kept in mind, otherwise failure, more or less complete, will be the result. The different parts must be sufficiently strong to bear the strain to which they will be subjected ; the bearings need to be true, and the whole so securely braced and held together, that any slipping of cogs will be impossible. The rate of speed must be from seventy-two to one hundred and sixty rev^ olutions of the cutting-box shaft for every one of the horse, the first being rather low for a six-foot, and the second rather high for an eight-foot sweep. Since some portion of the force employed is always lost through friction, the fewer wheels to secure the required speed and direction, the better. Hard-wood boxes are cheaper and are more easily adjusted than those made of metal, and, if they are kept properly greased, last, perhaps, quite as long. An excellent portable-power can be made by taking a bevel-gearing from an old discarded brick-machine, a pair of spur-wheels from an ancient reaper, two or three shafts and a band-wheel from other sources—all odds and ends picked up cheaply here and there—arranging them to suit the purpose, and fitting all but the band- 154 FARM APPLIANCES. wheel and one shaft in a stout frame. The odd shaft extends from the end of the frame some distance, and carries the band-wheel at its further end, above which a feed-cutter stands on a loft, and is run by a belt. From a pulley on the same shaft, power is conveyed to a grind¬ stone and corn-sheller, which require a much lower rate of speed than the cutter. The crown wheel has fifty- four cogs, its pinion, eighteen; the spur-wheel has sev¬ enty-two cogs, its pinion, fifteen; the band-wheel is thir¬ ty-six inches in diameter, and the pulleys on the cutting box, six inches. The number of revolutions of the cut¬ ter-shaft to one of the horse are, therefore, eighty-six and two-fifths. A six-inch leather belt will seldom or never slip; a four-inch belt is quite too light. Two horses, at¬ tached to this power, cut cornstalks very rapidly. The crown-wheel has a tendency to rise and allow the cogs to slip. It must be kept down by friction wheels placed above the rim, or by a collar on the axle, working against the underside of the upper cross-piece, which, in turn, must be kept in place by a bolt or rod at each end, run¬ ning up through the bed-piece, and secured at the top by means of a broad washer and stout nut. CHAPTER VIII. PREPARING AND HANDLING FERTILIZERS. HAULING BARNYARD MANURE. When hauling manure it is usual to drop it in heaps, and leave it to be spread by a man who follows soon after. There are several methods of dumping the manure, but the most satisfactory is to use a manure hook, as shown PREPARING AND HANDLING FERTILIZERS. 155 in figure 186. The bottom of the sled or wagon should be formed of loose planks, each with its end shaved down to form handles. The side and end pieces of the box, though closely fitting, are not fastened together, so that they can be removed one at a time. One side or an end board is first taken out, and with a manure hook a sufficient amount of the load removed for the first heap. The manner of unloading the manure from the box Fig. 187. —A MANURE WAGON BOX. above described, is shown in figure 187. The other side and ends are afterwards taken off, and finally the bottom FARM APPLIANCES. m pieces are raised and the sled or wagon is soon emptied. In dropping the heaps, they should be left, as nearly as may be, in straight rows, and of a size and distance apart determined by the amount of manure to be spread. If they are placed regularly one rod from another each way, and eight heaps are made from a load, there will be twenty loads per acre. In spreading such heaps the manure is thrown eight feet each way, and the whole ground is covered. It is important that the spreading be done in a careful and thorough manner, each portion of the surface getting its proper share of the manure. It is important also that all lumps be broken up. -»o«- IMPLEMENT FOR FINING MANURE. It is often desirable to have fine manure for use in hills and drills ; and it is also at times necessary, when artificial fertilizers are lumpy, to pulverize them for use. A tool for this purpose is shown in figure 188. This is Fig. 188. —IMPLEMENTS FOR FINING MANURE. especially useful in preparing the mixture of poultry manure and plaster. The implement is made of a piece of three-inch hard-wood plank, twelve inches wide, sawed and cut across into notches, and surrounded on three sides as shown, with a strip of sheet iron, or broad hoop-iron band. It is rubbed back and forth over the manure on a floor, and can be used as a shovel, by rais¬ ing the handle, for turning over and mixing the mass. PREPARING AND HANDLING FERTILIZERS. 15? MUCK AND PEAT. Fresh muck contains valuable plant-food, but usually in an unavailable form. There are many instances where muck, applied to land, has proved positively injurious. Muck needs to be exposed to the action of the frost, rain and sun, or, as it is termed, “ weathered,” for a season, before it is fit to be used as a fertilizer. Even after it has thus been subjected to the elements, it is usually best to employ the finely divided muck as an absorbent of liquid manure in the stable or shed, or even the barn¬ yard. In this way the food elements are brought into a better state for the plants to feed upon. If the “weathered” muck and manure can be composted to¬ gether for a time, a still more valuable fertilizer is ob¬ tained. When one has peat or muck in any form upon his farm, it should, of course, be dug when the water is low in the swamps, and the task of getting out muck may Fig. 189.— A BOAT FOR GETTING OUT MUCK. aid essentially the work of reclaiming the swamps. Thus the main ditch may be dug the width of a cart track. By making a narrow preliminary ditch to carry off the water and dry the ground, a horse and cart may be brought into the ditch and the muck carted directly off to dry ground, where it can dry, and perhaps be exposed to a winter’s freezing and thawing, before using in the 158 FARM APPLIANCES. compost heaps or barn-yard. In all such ditching we must begin at the lowest end of the ditch, so that there shall always be a free outlet for the water. A boat, to be used in removing muck from the bed through a water channel to a hill-side, is shown in figure 189. It is of pine boards, nailed firmly to side planks, braced by a cross plank at the middle. If made nine feet long, four feet wide, and sixteen inches deep, it will float a ton of muck. A runner is placed undereach side, so that the boat can be drawn upon the land. A hook or eye should be placed on each side, and others at one end, by which the boat may be drawn. While floating, the boat is moved by handspikes. The place where the muck is heaped to dry, should be as near as possible to the bed from which it is dug. The muck may be very peaty, or the material really may be peat —that is, consisting almost entirely of vege¬ table matter and ash—whereas muck, as the word is ap¬ plied in the United States, is used to mean such as would be of little or no value as fuel, from the amount of soil or sand or calcareous matter in it ; but it is useful as manure. The peaty mucks are greatly benefited by being treated with lime-—in fact it is only by acting upon them with lime or ashes that they can be made rapidly fit for composts or for application to the land. The old rule to slake stone-lime with strong brine, adding only brine enough to dry-slake the lime, is a very good one. Such lime may be depended upon for the best results when composted with muck. HOW TO BURN LIME. The application of lime improves the mechanical tex¬ ture of heavy soils, and this will frequently compensate for its use, if the lime can be obtained cheaply. In many PREPARING AND HANDLING FERTILIZERS. 150 localities, the farmer can burn the lime he needs, and thus obtain it at a much less cost than the market price. It is not necessary to build a kiln of masonry. The cheapest kiln is made by digging an excavation in a bank, as shown in figure 190. If much lime is to be burned, it will pay to line this excavation with brick, and place an iron grating across near the bottom, beneath which the fire is made. Whether the kiln is so made, or constructed only in a temporary manner, it must be banked up in front with earth, after the limestone is placed in it. Where the iron grating is used, it should Fig. 190.— A LIME KILN. project out in front as far as the bank of earth will per¬ mit, while under it is used a sheet iron door, to close the furnace and regulate the draft. A platform is built just above the projection of the grating, to support the earth banked against the rock. The top of the heap is covered with earth, leaving a hole in the center for a chimney. When the kiln is only temporary, an arch of large rocks takes the place of the iron grating, and the sides of the kiln are lined, as the rocks are laid in, with large stones instead of brick. It will take four or five days, with a good fire, to burn the kiln sufficiently. Lime may also be burned by piling the stones in a 160 FARM APPLIANCES. conical heap above ground. Large stones are used to make an arch under the heap, and the cavity below the arch is filled with fuel. Immediatelv above the arch is placed a layer of dry wood,then a layer of lime-stones, next a layer of wood, and so on until the heap is completed. The stones are laid rather loosely, and the entire heap is covered with earth to the depth of at least a foot, to re¬ tain the heat, leaving an opening at the top for the es¬ cape of smoke. It will pay to insert a short sheet-iron chimney in this opening, to increase the draft, as a hot fire is needed. The draft is regulated by opening or closing the doorway under the arch. Do not disturb the heap until it is perfectly cool, and if the lime is not to be used at once, it should be protected from rain by a roof, and from surface water by erecting a low bank about it. Where limestone boulders can be gathered in sufficient quantities, the cost of lime will be very little, and even when the rock must be quarried, burning lime will frequently yield handsome returns when the weather does not admit of regular farm work. -KH- VALUE OF GAS LIME. Gas lime, as its name indicates, is a product of gas works. Quick lime is spread in large boxes, called puri¬ fiers ; the gas passes through these, and coming in con¬ tact with the lime is deprived of its impurities, especially the sulphur it contains. When the lime ceases to act, it is thrown out and replaced by a fresh supply. Gas lime smells strongly of sulphur, and contains the sulphides of ammonia and of lime. These are fatal to plant life, and before it can be used as a fertilizer, the lime must be ex¬ posed to the air for some weeks. When unpleasant odors are no longer perceptible, the gas lime may be used in the same manner as ordinary lime. It still consists PREPARING AND HANDLING FERTILIZERS. 161 largely of quick lime, and contains more or less sulpliate of lime (gypsum or plaster), formed by the conversion of the dangerous sulphide into sulphate of lime. It may be used after exposure to mix with muck, but cannot safely be used in its fresh state. It is an easy matter to expose it before adding it to the muck, and thus be on the safe side. BURNING CLAY AND SODS. Burning clay for manurial purposes, is an old fashion, which deserves renewed notice and practice. Along witn the clay or wnh ordinary soil or swamp muck, may be mingled coarse sods, the scrapings of road-side ditches* Fig. 191.— BUENING CLAY AISfD SODS. the mossy surface and hard tussocks of swamp meadows, rough “ waste wood,” coarse weeds, and other similar matters which slowly decay, and are of no value until they are decomposed. These combustible matters are placed in small heaps over an old meadow, which needs renewal, or any other piece of land. The rough waste matters being gathered, placed, and covered with earth, so that they will burn slowly, in the manner shown in figure 191; care being taken to so arrange them, as to distribute the heat all through the mass and the earth with which it is covered. These heaps are fired and left to burn slowly for several days, when the dust and ashes 162 FARM APPLIANCES. f are spread over the surface. The lime and potash thus made available, both from the waste material and the earth covering, furnish considerable fertilizing matter. •O#- CONVERTING STRAW INTO MANURE. In the West the object is to feed one-third of the straw stack, and convert the balance into manure as rapidly as possible. The straw trampled under foot by the cattle will not thoroughly rot within a year, if left to itself. To rot and fine, it must be stirred about, and the swine can be made to do this work. If the hogs are fed on the straw twice a week, they will move the entire mass, unless quite deep, rooting after stray grains. If their noses do not get to the bottom of the heap, sharpen a heavy stake and prod it through the straw ; then withdraw it and drop shelled corn or oats into the hole. In this way a hole can be made every few feet over the pile, and the hogs will turn the manure thoroughly. A hog’s snout is a very cheap and effective manure hook. The hogs must not be allowed to lie on the rotting straw, as this is al¬ most sure to produce disease among them. They become too warm, and then when they come into the open air contract colds, catarrhal or pulmonary diseases. If the hogs are used as above recommended, straw can be con¬ verted into well rotted and fined manure within six months ; and if the straw stack is put on level ground, not much will be lost during this rapid conversion. When from twelve to eighteen months are required for the rotting of the manure—and this time will be required when deep masses are not disturbed—and the straw is on a side hill, not a little of the value of the manure is lost by being washed down hill PREPARING AND HANDLING FERTILIZERS. 163 MANURE FROM MARL AND SHELLS. Marl is quite abundant in some localities, and in others oyster shells can be had for the hauling. These may be profitably burned into lime for use as a fertilizer. In re¬ gard to this use of lime, it should be remembered that the Fig. 192. —PIT FOR BURNING MARL. larger part of the ash of agricultural plants consists of lime, and that it is thus an indispensable plant food. It is rarely used without benefit, but is most useful when applied in a caustic state, or when it is freshly burned. Enquiries are often made about burning marl and shells. An easy way of doing this is in piles, commonly called “pits,” made as shown in figure 192. A level spot is chosen, and a quantity of small wood is spread over it, either in a square, or better, in a circle. Two or three double rows of stones, covered with other flat stones, are laid as at a , a , to form flues. A layer of shells or marl is thrown upon the fuel, and other alternate layers are added, until a conical heap is made. Chimneys of small wood or chips are made over the flues as the heap is built, and carried to the top. - ■ > o < - MAKING FERTILIZER FROM BONES. It is well enough known that bone, when ground fine, makes one of the best and cheapest manures, especially on lands long in use. The needs of farmers with abund¬ ant capital are well enough met in the commercial fertil- 134 FARM APPLIANCES. /zers. With the Experiment Stations to analyze the samples, there is not much danger of adulteration. The high price of this comminuted bone, two cents a pound and upward, deters many farmers from using it on a large scale, even where there is no doubt that the invest¬ ment would pay. In a limited way, the small farmer has the means within his reach, of reducing several bar¬ rels of bones to a fine powder every year. A solution of potash will reduce bone to a fine condition, and make it available for plant food. Most farmers still use wood for fuel, and the ashes from the fifteen or twenty cords used in a year, if saved, would reduce all the bones ordi¬ narily within reach of the farmer. The old-fashioned leach that used to stand at almost every farmer’s back¬ door for soap-making, was a good contrivance for reducing the bones. But any tight, strong cask or box, will an¬ swer quite as well for this purpose. Water poured upon the ashes makes a lye, or solution of potash, strong enough to decompose the bones. The casks should stand under cover, so that the quantity of water applied to the bone and ashes will be under control. The time it will take to reduce the bone to a powder, will depend upon the amount of potash in the ashes, and attention be¬ stowed upon the process. It is essential that the ashes and bone should be closely packed in the mass, and that they be kept in a moist state, adding water as it evapo¬ rates from the surface. The finer the bone before it is packed in the ashes, the sooner will it be reduced. The process can be hastened by putting into the mass a few pounds of common potash. But this is only necessary to save time. Ashes from hickory or any other hard wood contain sufficient potash to decompose the bone. When the mass is soft enough to break down with a spade or shovel, it can be mixed with land plaster, dried peat, or loam, to make it convenient for handling. It is a con¬ centrated fertilizer, to be used with discretion in the hill, APPLIANCES EOR GARDEN AND ORCHARD. 165 or applied as a top dressing to growing crops in the gar¬ den or field. We are quite sure that any one who uses this preparation of bone and wood ashes, and sees the vig¬ orous push it gives to garden and other crops, will be likely to continue it. But many farmers near seaports and railroad stations, use coal mainly for fuel, and wdll have to resort to a hand or horse-mill to use up the waste bones. Small mills are extensively used by poultry-men, for crushing oyster shells as well as bone, and the ma¬ chine can be adjusted to break the bone coarsely for hen feed. The oil and gelatine of the bones have an alimen¬ tary value, and, turned into eggs, pay much better than when used as a fertilizer for the soil. CHAPTER IX. APPLIANCES FOR THE GARDEN AND ORCHARD. PAPER PLANT PROTECTOR. The most effectual means for protecting young melon and cucumber plants against some of their injurious enemies, is to inclose the young vines in bottomless boxes of some kind. Various more or less expensive and elabor¬ ate forms have been invented and are offered for sale. The principal objection to most of these is their cost. 166 PARM APPLIANCES. Figures 193 and 194 represent a device which is free from this objection. It consists simply of a piece of card-board or stiff paper of any kind, as seen in figure 193. When the ends are brought together, and the slits, indicated in the engraving, made to interlock, a cone, as seen in figure 194, is produced which, when put around a plant, furnishes as complete a protector against insects as the most expensive device. MUSLIN-COVERED PLANT SCREEN. To make the device, figure 195, take four strips, one-haJf inch thick and one inch wide, and twelve Fig. 195. —PLANT PROTECTOR. inches long ; bore a hole in one end of these, through which pass a wire, the ends of which are twisted APPLIANCES FOR GARDEN AND ORCHARD. 16? together, but not so tightly as to prevent the op¬ posite ends of the pieces from being spread apart from eight inches to a foot, making a tent-shaped frame. Cheap muslin is tacked on the frame, spreading the pieces before doing so. The muslin should be brought down to within about two inches of the ends of the sticks, so as to allow them to be run into the ground that distance, when in use. When not in use, the protectors can be closed up and take but little room, and if properly cared for, they will last several seasons. PROTECTED PLANT LABEL. Various devices to prevent the washing off of the names written on plant labels have been invented from time to Fig. 196.— IMPROVED PLANT LABEL. time. A novel one is shown in figure 196. It con¬ sists in fastening, with a small screw, a short piece of label over the name, as seen at M; a cross-section of the 1G8 FARM APPLIANCES. label is shown at TV, and at P the cover is partly raised. This arrangement may be applied to any size of labels. The great difficulty with wooden labels is not that the name becomes obliterated, but that the portion in the ground decays. This may be avoided by using Locust, which is expensive. - »o» ■ - POLES FOR BEANS AND OTHER CLIMBERS. White birches and alders, so commonly used for bean poles, are about the poorest, for they last only one season at the best, and sometimes break off at the surface of the ground and let down the beautiful pyramid of green be¬ fore the pods are ripe. White Cedar from the swamps is durable, and the rough bark enables the vines to climb without any help from strings, but these are not al¬ ways accessible. Red Cedar is much more widely distri¬ buted, and on the whole makes the best bean pole. The wood is as durable as the White Cedar, and young trees, from which poles are made, grow quite stout at the ground, and, if well set, will resist very strong winds. A set of these poles will last for a generation. For bean poles, all the side branches are trimmed off, but for a support for ornamental climbers, these may be left on. A Cedar, six or eight feet high, with the branches gradually short¬ ened from* below upwards, makes an excellent support for ornamental vines. One of these, covered with a clematis, or other showy climber, makes a pyramid of great beauty. It is well to prepare a supply of poles for beans and other plants before the work is pressing. POTTING STRAWBERRY PLANTS. Figure 197 shows a simple method of turning old tin cans into contrivances for potting strawberries. Unsolder APPLIANCES EOS GAiiDEIS AND ORCHARD. 109 the cans, and cut into pieces of about three by seven inches. Turn back one quarter of an inch of each end, so that when the strips are bent around,, they will clasp together, as shown in the engraving. In potting, the contrivance is placed on the bed near the runner, and pressed into the ground with the sole of the foot. The sharp edges allow it to push through the soil easily. A runner is placed in the center of the cylinder, and held by a stick or stone, which also serves to mark the place. When the plants are well rooted, the tin pots are taken up, unclasped, and the ball of earth placed in the new bed provided for it. Fig. 197. PLANT POTTER. STAND EOR BERRY BASKETS. During the berry picking season much time is lost in the field, though the lack of a suitable box or stand for Fig. 198. —BERRY PICKING STAND. transferring the filled baskets to the packing house. Figure 198 illustrates a very convenient and simple stand for this purpose. It may be made to contain either nine, twelve, sixteen, or twenty baskets, as may be desired The handle is made of a barrel hoop nailed firmly to the 170 FARM APPLIANCES. sides. Suitable legs are attached to the stand to raise it irom the ground. TUBE FOR WATERING PLANTS. Figure 199 shows an implement for watering garden plants. It is a tin tube, one-half inch in diameter, eight inches long, perforated near the bottom, and with a conical end. The upper end, b, is in the form of a funnel. In using this device, insert the conical end of the tube in the ground as near the jfiant as convenient, without dis¬ turbing the roots, and turn the water into the funnel. The water will pass out into the soil through the perforations at the bottom. The soil is not baked on the surface when watered in this manner, and the operation is Fig. 199. very quickly done. Any local tinsmith can make the tube at a slight expense. A small flower pot is sometimes sunk in the soil near the plant, and the water, when poured into it, will gradually soak away. - ■ ■ •04 - MOVABLE TRELLIS FOR GRAPES. A grape trellis, possessing several good points, is shown in figure 200. The wooden posts, which need not be fastened together, are of 3 by 4 stuff. If leant against each other, their own weight and that of the vines will hold them in place. They are joined by smooth galvan¬ ized fencing wire. The posts must be braced inside, as seen in the illustration. If it is desired to lav down the vines in the fall, the staples can be drawn and the wires pulled out, greatly simplifying the work. The trellis being double, a row of vines may be planted on each side. Another point in its favor is that it allows the picker to APPLIANCES FOR GARDEN AND ORCHARD. 171 get at the bunches on the under sides of the vines easily and without disturbing the vines. The trellis is as cheap as any, is strong and durable, and does not require the Fig. 200.— MOVABLE GRAPE TRELLIS. digging of holes, while it may be taken out of the way when the vines are laid down, and stored under shelter in a small space until needed again. TOOL FOR CUTTING EDGINGS. No grass-plot, walk, or flower-bed, set in turf, is complete, unless its edges are kept neatly trimmed. The work may be done with a sharpened spade, but it is better to use a regular edging-tool. An old hoe can be taken to the blacksmith, who will straighten out the shank, and round off the corners of the blade with a file, and the tool is an excellent sod-trimmer, and very light to handle. For cutting sods, this makes much easier work than the spade, though that is needed for lifting the turf when cut. Using a board as a guide, the cut¬ ting will be rapidly done. uMmMi-j Fig. 201. 172 FARM APPLIANCES. SUBSTITUTE FOR PEA BRUSH. The best substitute for pea brush is a trellis of galvan¬ ized iron wire. The peas are sown in double rows, six inches apart. A post, six inches in diameter, is set firmly at each end of the row ; it may be round, set three feet in the ground, and of a hight suited to the variety of pea. As soon as the vines are large enough, the wire is made fast to the post, about six inches from the ground, carried to and passed around the post at the other end, and back to the starting point. Here it is made fast; it may be cut off, but still better, two or three turns are taken around the post and another double wire stretched about eight inches above the first, and so on until as many wires as needed are put in place. No. 18 wire, which measures 150 feet to the pound, is suitable. If over 200 feet long, a similar post should be set mid-way of the row. Stakes (plasterers’ laths will answer) are set every ten or fifteen feet along the row, to keep the wires from sagging. These have notches cut in them, in which the wires rest; or the wires may be attached to them by means of staples or cord. When no longer needed, the wire is wound up on a reel, and, with the posts, stored away for another year. Pea-growers for market allow the vines to lie upon the ground, and claim that the crop is not enough larger when brushed, to pay the cost of cutting and placing the sticks. In the garden, neatness, and especially the greater ease of picking, make it necessary to use brush, or a substitute. The chief precaution to be observed is, to have the wires of this trellis so near together that the vines can reach them as soon as a support is needed. -HO.-- TRELLIS FOR TOMATOES. A tomato trellis, which never fails to give satisfaction, is shown m figures 202 and 203. The standards or legs APPLIANCES POP GARDEN AND ORCHARD. 17S are made of one by one and a half inch stuff, three feet long, and tapering slightly toward the top. The slats are selected lath. Figure 202 is an end view of the trellis in position ; figure 203 shows the trellis folded. Wires extend across the top of the trellis, and when in position, they loop over the ends of the stands, and hold it at the proper width. The standards are fastened together where they cross with one-quarter inch bolts, two inches long. Two lengths of the trellis are sufficient for three tomato plants. It may be placed in position when the plants have attained a hight of six or eight inches. At the end of each season, after the crop is gathered, the trellises are taken up, given a coat of paint or crude petroleum, folded and packed away in a dry place. This form of trellis has the advantages of strength, lightness and portability. FARM APPLIANCES. m TOOLS FOR KILLING WEEDS. Weeds are easily killed when they are first seen, and more easily still, before they are seen at all. A heavy rake is better than a hoe for this work, and will do more m ten minutes, than can be done with a hoe in an hour. An implement made as in figure 204, will do this work of weeding in an excellent manner. This is made of a heavy rake head, with a handle attached as shown, and furnished with a number of teeth placed about an inch apart. The teeth may be made of forty-penny nails, or one-quarter inch round iron, the weight of which will bury them in the soil without any effort. It is much more easy to work with this implement, than with a lighter rake. The beds may be cleaned close to the plants, and it should be used as soon as the weeds begin to appear. For killing perennial weeds, a spud is a convenient im¬ plement with which to cut off the roots below the surface. Fig. 205.— SPUD FOR KILLING WEEDS. A good spud may be made from a carpenter’s chisel of large size. This should be attached to a handle sufficiently long to allow it to be used without stooping. By thrust¬ ing this diagonally against the root, that may be cut off as far below the surface as desired. Some weeds, how- APPLIANCES FOR GARDEN AN D ORCHARD. ever, such as dandelion, plantain, etc., are not killed by merely cutting them, but need the application of some destructive liquid to make complete work. In England, oil of vitroil (sulphuric acid) is used for this purpose, but that is dangerous to handle, and must be kept in glass. Strong brine or coal-oil is sometimes applied to the roots to destroy them. We give an illustration of a vessel for the application of liquids, which is attached to the spud, and allows the cutting and killing to be done at one operation. Figure 205 shows the spud, a , with its attach¬ ment, a tin vessel with a tapering nozzle and holding about a quart, at b. At c, is a valve, which covers a small air-hole, against which it is pressed by a spring, and which may be raised by the cord, e. After cutting the root, a pull of the cord will raise the valve, allow air to enter the vessel, and a small quantity of the liquid will pass out and come in contact with the root. VARIOUS FRUIT PICKERS. A good picker is shown in figures 206, 207 and 208. Figure 206 is the picker. The pieces, a and b, are iron, shaped as seen in the cut. They work on a rivet, and are fastened securely to the end of the pole. Holes are punched through a and b , and stiff wires inserted, form¬ ing a cage for the fruit. The toothed end of piece b is sharp, and slides over the end of a, which may be sharp or not. A small hole is bored through the pole, and a notch cut in the front edge for a small pulley, d. A strong cord is attached to the lower end of b, and passes through the hole over the pulley, and down the pole through screw-eyes placed a short distance apart. Figure 207 is a section of the lower end of the pole. Eighteen inches from the end, the pole is squared for about fifteen inches. Over this squared portion is fitted a sliding-box FAllM APPLIANCES. 176 handle. A thumb-stop is fastened to the upper end, as shown in figure 208. The thumb end is held up by a small spring, which presses the upper end into notches in an iron rachet-bar fitted into the pole. A screw-eye is inserted in the upper end, and a cord attached. The pole may be of any desired length. To pick apples, grasp the pole at the lower end with Fig. 206. Fig. 207. Fig. 208. one hand, and by the sliding-box handle with the other. Press the thumb-piece and slide it up, and the weight of piece l opens the jaws of the picker. When the apple is in the cage, draw the slides down until the points of the picker meet on the apple stem. The thumb-stop will hold it secure. Turn the pole slowly without pulling, pushing, or shaking the limb, and the apple will come off APPLIANCES FOR GARDEN- AND ORCHARD. 177 easily. The cage of the picker should be large enough to contain the largest apple, and enough wires may be attached to hold the smallest. The jaws should not be over one-eighth of an inch thick, flattened on the inside, to prevent bruising the ripe fruit. They may be wrapped with cloth, if thought necessary. A cheap and simple picker may be made by bending a Fig. 309. stiff wire into the form of a circle six inches in diameter, with one side of the circle prolonged three inches into a V-shaped projection. Upon this wire sew a cloth bag a foot or so deep, and fasten it on to a pole by the end opposite the V-shaped extremity. This V-shaped projec¬ tion will serve as a corner, in which to catch the apple and pull it off, allowing it to fall into the bag. An excel- 178 FARM APPLIANCES. lent picker, as shown in figure 210, can be made from stiff wire by a tinner. The span across the top should be about six inches, and the depth from eight to ten inches. The wires should not be more than a half-inch apart at their tips. The wires being more or less flexible, the apple is apt to draw through them, if they are not close together. Care should also be taken to have the im¬ plement made as light as possible. A bungling mechanic will probably use too much solder. Another good picker is pictured in figure 209. It is light, durable and pleasant to handle. When, however, an apple, being very short stemmed, lies close to a limb, it is much more easily removed by the former device than by this. A simple, flattened hook, with a thin, almost cutting edge, secured on the end of a pole, figure 211, is often handy for pulling off stray apples. This is the best implement for thinning apples. ■ > o» \ FRUIT LADDERS. The construction is easily understood from tne engrav¬ ing. The method of using deep fruit baskets with a hook attached is also shown in figure 112. The use of a com¬ mon grain bag as a receptacle for picking fruit has some important advantages. One side of the mouth of the bag is tied to the corresponding corner at the bottom, first put¬ ting an apple in the corner to hold the string from slip¬ ping off. The bag is then hung over the shoulder with the mouth in front. The picker has both hands free and can empty the bag by lowering it into the barrel, without bruising the fruit. Another form is shown in figure 213. To make it, select a chestnut pole, eighteen feet long, or of the desired length. At about four feet from the top, or smaller end of the pole, nail on a band of hoop iron, to prevent split- appliances eor garden and Orchard. 179 tiug, and rip up the pole in the center as far as the band. The halves of the pole are spread apart three and a half feet at the base, and secured. JLhe places for the rungs arc then laid out, and the holes b >red 5 those for the lower rungs should be one and three-eighths inch, the upper one inch ; drive them in place and wedge fast. The distance between the rungs is usually a foot ; when farther apart, they are fatiguing in use. A ladder of this kind, on account of its small width above, is easily thrust in among the branches, without breaking them, and is more convenient to use on large trees, than those of the ordinary shape. 180 FARM APPLIANCES. JAPANESE PRUNING SAW. The Japanese use a pull saw instead of a push saw. One of these is quite handy, especially for pruning. The teeth are like those of a rip saw, reversed, and cut when the saw is pulled towards one. One of these saws, made Fig. 214.— PRUNING SAW. as shown in figure 214, and fixed to a pole of convenient size, will be found very useful in cutting branches of tall trees, as in pulling there is no tendency to bend the saw or the pole. — ■ aO»■ — RABBITS AND MICE IN THE ORCHARD. Not the least of the enemies of young orchard trees is the rabbit. He will not injure the trees in summer, when he has an abundance of succulent food ; but in winter the tender bark is to him a dainty that he will partake of, if it is not made distasteful to him, or he is not kept away. Making the snow into a solid mound about the tree will keep away mice, but not rabbits, though it is often said it would. The rabbits will get on the mound and nibble awav. Besides, we don’t have snow half the time during the winter. The best way is to make the bark distasteful to the rabbit. He likes neither blood, nor grease, nor the odor of flesh. When you butcher, take the waste parts of the animals, and with these parts rub the trunks as far up as the rabbits can reach. The rabbits never nibble a tree so treated, while the grease or blood remains. If the rabbits “bark” a tree, the first thing to be done is to examine the extent of the injury. Frequently it is APPLIANCES FOB GABDEN AND OBCHA^D. 181 not so bad as it looks, and the inner bark is not entirely removed. If this covers even a fourth *of the wounded portion, and connects the bark above the wound with that below it, the chances are that the wound will heal, if dry¬ ing can be prevented. The ordinary grafting wax, applied on old, worn cotton cloth, or on paper, as used in graft- ing, should be applied over the injured portion. This, especially on quite small trees, will prevent all evaporation. Another application is the old grafting clay, made by Fig. 215. —MANNER OF INSERTING THE CIONS. thoroughly mixing and beating together stiff clay with half as much cow manure. Apply this over the wound quite thickly, and fasten it in place by wrapping with an old cloth and tying with strings. If the inner bark is completely gone, nothing remains but to bridge over the wound with cions, and thus restore the communication be¬ tween the roots and top. The cions may be taken from the same tree, if they can be spared, or those from another of the same kind will answer as well. The methods of cut- 182 FARM APPLIANCES. ting the cions and inserting them are so plainly shown in figure 215 that description is unnecessary. A small chisel may be used to aid in setting the cions. This method of cutting the ends is better than making the slope on the opposite side. If the wound is low enough, it may be covered with a mound of earth ; if not, employ one of the methods suggested above. IMPLEMENTS USED IN CRANBERRY CULTURE. 4 A turfing axe, shown figure 216, consists of a thin steel blade, hatchet-faced, and about six inches square. This blade is made fast to a stout hickory handle, some two feet and a half long, in the same manner as a common wood axe. In expert hands, this axe does wonderful Fig. 217. —HAULING RAKE. execution upon the tough, interlacing roots, with which the surface of the bog is filled. A hoe, shaped like a grubbing hoe, is the implement used for grading. Every farmer knows what that is ; but the grading hoe, figure 218, should be made of the APPLIANCES FOR GARDEN AND ORCHARD. 183 best steel, and ground to an edge like an axe—the object being to cut all the fine roots to pieces, and get out such Fig 218. —GRADING HOE. O of them as escaped when the trees, stumps, shoots, and larger wood were removed. Fig. 219. —SPREADER. The sand is spread by means of a “ Spreader,” figure 219, made of a piece of one-inch white oak board, about fifteen inches long by three inches wide, and fas¬ tened to a handle. 184 FARM APPLIANCES. A “ Marker,” shown in figure 220, is made of a piece of two by four inch joist, about nine feet long, having teeth eighteen inches apart, and a handle the length of a rake-handle. The teeth are eight inches long, made of white oak, driven through holes bored in the joist for the purpose. The implement is made similar to a common rake with teeth far apart, and the whole made stronger to stand harder usage, by having stays running from the handle to the head, which holds the teeth. CHAPTER X. APPLIANCES FOR SLAUGHTERING HOGS AND CURING THE MEAT. STICKING HOGS. The usual method of killing hogs on the farm is to o o thrust a sticking knife into the throat, severing the large veins. It requires experience, nerve, and skill to do this properly. The hog should be thrown on its back, and held there by an assistant, while the operator gives the fatal thrust. With a keen double-edged knife in his right hand, he feels with his left for the proper place to insert the knife. Having found it, he sticks in the knife, aiming directly toward the base of the tail. If properly done, the large veins are severed, and the hog soon bleeds to death. If the knife veers to either side, a gash is made in one shoulder, the death is slow and painful, and the blood settles in the flesh. -*o«- A BETTER WAY. With a view to avoiding all mishaps, saving pain, and leaving the operator free to sever the veins without em¬ barrassment from the squealing and struggling victim, the SLAUGHTERING HOGS AND CURING HEAT. 185 design called “ The Stunner,” figure 221 has been in¬ vented. It fits over the head of the intended victim, as seen in figures 222 and 223, and a sharp blow on the plate over the forehead drives the pin into the brain, Fig. 223. THE STUNNER ADJUSTED. causing insensibility instantly, and death will not be long delayed. The use of such a mask is made compul¬ sory in many countries of Europe. Such a contrivance is not only convenient, but humane, and appeals to the better nature of every man who is under the necessity of killing a dumb beast. As soon as the animal is struck, the throat is cut to insure free bleeding. - 90+ - HEATING THE WATER FOR SCALDING. For heating scalding water and rendering lard, when one has not kettles or cauldrons ready to set in brick or stone, a simple method is to put down two forked stakes firmly, as shown in figure 224, lay in them a pole to sup¬ port the kettles, and build a wood fire around them on the ground. A more elaborate arrangement is shown in figure 225, which serves not only to heat the water, but as a scalding tub as well. It is made of two-inch m FARM APPLIANCES. pine boards, six feet long, and two feet wide, rounded at the ends. A heavy plate of sheet iron is nailed with rod nails on the bottom and ends. Let the iron project Fig. 224. —HEATING THE WATER. about one inch on each side. The ends, being rounded, will prevent the fire from burning the wood-work. They also make it handier for dipping sheep, scalding hogs, or Fig. 225. —HEATING AND SCALDING VAT. for taking out the boiled food. The box is set on two walls eighteen inches high, and the hind end of the brick-work is built into a short chimney. -* 0 *- SCALDING TUBS AND VATS. Various devices are employed for scalding hogs, with¬ out lifting them by main force. For heavy hogs one SLAUGHTERING hogs and curing meat. 18 * may use three strong poles, fastened at the top with a log chain, which supports a simple tackle, figure 226. A very good arrangement is shown in figure 227. A sled is made firm with driven stakes, and covered with planks or boards. At the rear end the scalding cask is set in the ground, its upper edge on a level with the platform, and inclined as much as it can be and hold sufficient water. A large, long hog is scalded one end at a time. The more the cask is inclined, the easier will be the lifting. Fig. 226. —TACKLE FOR HEAVY HOGS. A modification of the above device is shown in figure 228. A lever is rigged like a well sweep, using a crotched stick for the post, and a strong pole for the sweep, a white oak stick—such as every farmer who can do so, should have laid up to season. The iron rod on which the sweep moves must be strong and stiff. A trace chain is attached to the upper end, and if the end of the chain 188 FARM AIPLIAKOFS. has a ring instead of a hook, it will be quite convenient. In use, a table is improvised, unless a strong one for the purpose is at hand, and this is set near the barrel. A noose is made with the chain about the leg of the pig, Fig. 227. —SCALDING CASK ON A SLED. and he is soused in, going entirely under water, lifted out when the bristles start easily, and laid upon the table, while another is made ready. Figure 229 shows a more permanent arrangement. It is a trough of plank, with a sheet iron bottom, which can be set over a temporary fire-place made in the ground. The vat may be six feet long, three feet wide, and two and one-half feet deep, so as to be large enough for a good-sized hog. Three ropes are fastened on one side, for the purpose of rolling the hog over into the vat, and SLAUGHTERING HOGS AND CURING MEAT. 18.9 rolling it out on the other side when it is scalded. A number of slanting cross-pieces are fitted in, crossing each other, so as to form a hollow bed in which the car¬ cass lies, with the ropes under it, by which it can be Fig. 229, —SCALDING YAT. moved and drawn out. These cross-pieces protect the sheet-iron bottom, and keep the carcass from resting upon it. A large, narrow fire-place is built up in the ground, with stoned sides, and the trough is set over it. A stove-pipe is fitted atone end, and room is made at the front by which wood may be supplied to the fire, to heat the water. A sloping table is fitted at one side for the purpose of rolling up the carcass, when too large to han¬ dle otherwise, by means of the rope previously mentioned. On the other side is a frame made of hollowed boards set on edge, upon wdiich the hog is scraped and cleaned. The right temperature for scalding a hog is one hundred and eighty degrees; and with a thermometer there need be no fear of overscalding, or a failure from the lack of sufficient heat; while the water can be kept at the right temperature by regulating the fuel under the vat. If a spot of hair is obstinate, cover it with some of the removed hair, and dip on hot water. Always pull out hair and 190 FARM APPLIANCES. bristles, shaving any off leaves unpleasant stubs in the skin. Gambrels should be provided of different lengths, if the hogs vary much in size, like figure 230, or in other convenient shapes. These should be of hickory or other tough wood, for safety, and to be so small as to require little gashing of the legs to receive them. HANGING AND CLEANING THE HOGS. Figure 231 shows a very cheap and convenient device for hanging either hogs or beeves. The device is in shape much like an old fashioned “ saw-buck,” with the lower rounds between the legs omitted. The legs, of which Fig. 231. —RAISING A SLAUGHTERED ANIMAL. there are two pairs, should be about ten feet long, and set bracing, in the manner shown in the engraving. The two pairs of legs are held together by an inch iron rod, five or six feet in length, provided with threads at both SLAUGHTERING HOGS AND CURING MEAT. 191 ends. The whole is made secure by means of two pairs .of nuts, which fasten the legs to the connecting iron rod. A straight and smooth wooden roller rests in the forks made by the crossing of the legs, and one end projects about sixteen inches. In this two auger holes are bored, in which levers may be inserted for turning the roller. The rope, by means of which the carcass is raised, passes over the roller in such a way that in turning, by means of the levers, the animal is raised free from the ground. When sufficiently elevated, the roller is fastened by one of the levers to the nearest leg. Skill and practice are needed to take out the intestines neatly, without cutting or breaking them and soiling the flesh. Run the knife lightly down, marking the belly straight, cut to the bone between the thighs, and in front of the ribs and below, and split the rear bones with an axe carefully, not to cut beyond them ; open the abdomen by running the hand or two fingers behind the knife with its edge turned outward. Little use of the knife is required to loosen the entrails. The fingers, rightly used, will do most of the severing. Small strong strings, cut in proper lengths, should be always at hand to quickly tie the severed ends of any small intestines cut or broken by chance. An expert will catch the entire offal in a large tin pan or wooden vessel, holding it between himself and the hog. Unskilled operators, and those opening very large hogs, need an assistant to hold this. The entrails, and then the liver, heart, etc., being all removed, thoroughly rinse out any blood or filth that may have escaped inside. Spread the cut edges apart by inserting a short stick between them, to admit free circulation of cool air. When dripping is over, or the hanging posts are wanted for other carcasses, remove the dressed ones, and hang them in a cool cellar or other safe place, until the whole flesh is thoroughly cooled through. Removing the lard from the long intestines requires expertness that 192 FARM APPLIANCES. can only be learned by practice. The fingers do most of this cleaner, safer and better than a knife. A light feed the night before killing leaves the intestines less distended and less likely to be broken. PACKING PORK. Pack closely in the barrel, first rubbing salt well into all exposed ends of bones, and sprinkle well between each layer, using no brine until forty-eight hoars after, and then let the brine be strong enough to bear an egg. After six weeks take out the hams and bacon and hang in the smoke-house. When warm weather brings danger of flies, smoke a week with hickory chips, avoiding heating the air much. If one has a dark, close smoke-house, as the writer has, the meat can hang in all the summer ; otherwise pack in boxes, putting layers of sw T eet, dry hay between. Long experience has convinced me that this method of packing is preferable to packing in dry salt or ashes. Much lard is injured or spoiled by overheating and burning some portions ; the smallest quantity scorched gives a bad flavor to the whole. A bucket of water in the rendering kettle prevents this, if the fire is kept from rising too high around the sides. The water is easily separated at the bottom, if not slowly evaporated off dur¬ ing the rendering. Cutting the leaf, etc., fine with a sharp hatchet or cleaver, facilitates the free extraction of Hie lard. mmmsm j 1 '^ 1 if. < < w > ¥ 1L i-}- ^;;€»s 2 M 8 ? Illlllife S£E1SI0@ gigllf siiir H- y A MNte&'ttkr • ggpllili MpMl