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Author: 
 
 Thompson, Eliza Bailey 
 
 Title: 
 
 Silk 
 
 Place: 
 
 New York 
 
 Date: 
 
 1922 
 
"JJii ' . ' IJl l | ' ..J^.... JU Ji.i.- 'lW !TWW»F ! J ' 1^1 W .HW>r.'. J" TCW M ^Tr^BWWP^l'WI 
 
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 PRESERVATION DIVISION 
 
 BIBLIOGRAPHIC MICROFORM TARGET 
 
 MASTER NEGATIVE # 
 
 ORIGINAL MATERIAL AS FILMED - EXISTING BIBLIOGRAPHIC RECORD 
 
 T372 
 
 Thompson, Eliza Bailey, 18G4- 
 
 ... Silk, l)y Eliza B. Thompson ... New York, The 
 Koiiald press company, 1922. 
 
 xvili. 232 p. front., plates, dia^rs. 19-". ( Nf erchandise manual series) 
 "Books for reference": p. 203-204. 
 
 1. Silk. 
 
 T,il»rary of Congress 
 Copyright A 677768 
 
 r\ 
 
 22-16553 
 
 IIK54r.I.M4 vol.9 
 
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 MERCHANDISE 
 
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 MERCHANDISE MANUAL SERIES 
 
 SILK 
 
 BY 
 
 ELIZA B. THOMPSON 
 
 Instructor in Salesmanship, High School. New Haven. Conn.; 
 
 A°'?*®lJ^ *°'® Teacher, Stem Brothers, New York City, and 
 
 A. I. Namm & Son, Brooklyn, N. Y.; Instructor of Textile 
 
 Merchandise Courses, New York University 
 
 NEW YORK 
 
 THE RONALD PRESS COMPANY 
 
 1922 
 
INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE 
 
 MERCHANDISE MANUAL SERIES 
 
 SILK 
 
 BY 
 
 ELIZA B. THOMPSON 
 
 Instructor in Salesnianship, High School, New Haven. Conn.; 
 
 A T®xl^ Store Teacher, Stem Brothers, New York City, and 
 
 A. 1. Namm & Son, Brooklyn, N. Y.; Instructor of Textila 
 
 Merchandise Courses, New York University 
 
 NEW YORK 
 THE RONALD PRESS COMPANY 
 
 1922 
 
3^ 
 
 i:^ 
 
 p-' 
 
 ^ 
 
 \A^\JU>- 
 
 Copyright, 1918, by 
 The Ronald Press Company 
 
 Copyright, 1922, by 
 The Ronald Press Company 
 All rights reserved 
 
 tE^fiisi benefit ii Sebtcateb 
 
 to Mrs. H«iry Ollesheimer, Miss 
 Virginia Potter, and Miss Anne 
 Morgan, who desiring to give 
 greater opportunity for advance- 
 ment to commercial employees and 
 believing that all business efficiency 
 must rest upon a solid foundation 
 of training and education gave 
 years of enthusiastic service to the 
 testing of this belief. 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
EDITOR'S PREFACE 
 
 MERCHANDISE MANUAL SERIES 
 
 EDITOR OF SERIES 
 
 BEULAH ELFRETH KENNARD, M.A. 
 
 Formerly Director of Department Store Courses, New York 
 
 Umversjty ; Chairman of Committee on Merchandise Courses 
 
 for New York City Public Schools; Educational Director, 
 
 Department Store Education Association 
 
 CONSULTING EDITOR 
 
 LEE GALLOWAY, Ph.D. 
 
 Professor of Commerce and Industry, Head of Department 
 of Management, and formerly Director of Training School 
 for Teachers of Retail Selling, New York University ; 
 formerly Educational Director, the National Commercial 
 
 Gas Association 
 
 As "Department Store Merchandise Manuals** these 
 books were originally written for salespeople and were 
 designed to give them reliable information concerning 
 the sources and manufacturing processes of the mer- 
 chandise which they handle. When it was necessary 
 to deal with scientific or historical material it was 
 treated as simply and concretely as possible and the 
 point of view taken was that of business rather than 
 that of the school or laboratory. In this form they 
 have proved their practical value not only to the de- 
 partment store salesperson but in the specialty shop. 
 It has been pointed out, however, that the material has 
 a wider scope than that of sales manuals alone. 
 
 As reference books, librarians will find the short, 
 clear statements and full indexes invaluable. 
 
 As an encyclopaedia of merchandise the series con- 
 tains scientific information in a simple, compact form 
 which makes it available for children and others to 
 whom the subjects treated are unfamiliar. 
 
 As textbooks they are adapted for use in commercial 
 schools, high schools, night schools, settlement classes, 
 and by teachers of household arts and domestic science. 
 
VI 
 
 EDITOR'S PREFACE 
 
 As source books for practical story-telling, kinder- 
 gartners, primary and vacation school teachers will 
 find in them an abundance of interesting material for 
 short "true" stories on the various industries and crafts, 
 the manufacture of household articles, such as pins 
 and needles, as well as the making of pottery, 
 glass, and steel. These manuals contain just the 
 material often hunted for in vain by teachers and 
 librarians. 
 
 As household helps and shopping guides the young 
 housekeeper will find the manuals her best friends be- 
 cause they not only describe the manufacturing pro- 
 cesses but tell her how to distinguish well-made articles 
 of good materials from the inferior and badly made. 
 They also tell her how to care for the clothing or 
 household goods which she has bought. 
 
 For salespeople and storekeepers they supply the 
 general and specific information about their merchan- 
 dise which is indispensable to efficiency, yet very 
 hard to gather from the scattered sources upon which 
 they now depend. 
 
 These changes should enlarge the usefulness of the 
 manuals without losing any of their specific value in 
 the field of salesmanship. 
 
 The subjects of color and design are of great im- 
 portance in the treatment of many kinds of merchan- 
 dise. To avoid any confusion arising from varied 
 
 EDITOR'S PREFACE 
 
 vu 
 
 statements of principles the editor has put the material 
 into a standardized form approved by the authors of 
 the manuals in which these chapters appear. 
 
 We wish to express our grateful appreciation to the 
 manufacturers and experts who have given us such 
 valuable counsel and cordial co-operation. 
 
 Beulah Elfreth Kennard. 
 
V 
 
 AUTHOR'S PREFACE 
 
 The salespeople in the Silk Department should know the 
 main facts about the production and manufacture of silk, 
 the making of pile fabrics, and the various finishing pro- 
 cesses. But while this knowledge is of primary im- 
 portance to those who sell merchandise it is also valuable 
 to the consumer. The manual is therefore planned so that 
 it may be of use to students of household arts and home 
 economics both in the schools and in the home. 
 
 The author is indebted to the editor of the series for the 
 chapters on the principles of color and ornament and de- 
 sign ; to Cheney Brothers for the valuable glossaries in the 
 Appendix and also for reading the manuscript ; to Mr. E. 
 M. Barlow, Stehli Silk Corporation, for reviewing certain 
 chapters; and to Mr. Albert Blum, United Piece Dye 
 Works for valuable information on dyeing. 
 
 For illustrations thanks are due to Belding Bros. & Co., 
 Mrs. Ellen McGowan (author of "Textiles"), to the 
 Macmillan Co., and to Robert M. McBride & Co. 
 
 Eliza B. Thompson. 
 
 CONTENTS 
 
 CHAPTER 
 
 I The Silk Department 
 
 Description of Department 
 
 Location 
 
 Arrangement 
 
 The Silk Yard Goods Department 
 
 Other Departments in which Silk Fabrics are Sold 
 
 II Sources and Cultivation of Silk . . 
 
 Branches of the Silk Industry 
 
 Source of Silk 
 
 The Silkworm 
 
 Life of the Silkworm 
 
 Silkworm Diseases 
 
 Spinning and Making the Cocoon 
 
 Whole Cocoons 
 
 Pierced Cocoons 
 
 Reeling the Silk from the Cocoon 
 
 The Process of Reeling 
 
 Wild Silk 
 
 page 
 I 
 
 VUl 
 
 III Raw Silk and Spun Silk 
 
 Raw Silk 
 
 Conditioning 
 
 Silk Throwing 
 
 Sorting 
 
 Soaking 
 
 Drying 
 
 Winding 
 
 Doubling and Twisting 
 
 Stretching 
 
 Spun Silk 
 
 Sources of Spun Silk 
 
 ix 
 
 14 
 
X 
 
 CHAPTER 
 
 CONTENTS 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Processes in the Preparation of Spun Silk 
 
 Removal of the Gum from Waste Silk 
 
 Beating and Opening 
 
 Combing 
 
 Inspecting 
 
 The Spinning Process — Drawing and Doubling 
 
 Twisting and Winding 
 
 Gassing or Singeing 
 
 Uses of Raw and Spun Silk 
 
 IV Weaving 25 
 
 Woven Silk 
 
 Warp and Weft 
 
 Antiquity of Weaving 
 
 Raw Material Used in Ancient Times 
 
 Origin of the Loom 
 
 Hand-Looms 
 
 Parts of the Hand-Loom 
 
 Power- Looms 
 
 Warping or Placing Silk Upon the Loom 
 
 Beaming Off 
 
 Movements of the Loom 
 
 V Silk Weaves 35 
 
 Varieties of Weaves 
 
 Plain Weave 
 
 Rib Weaves 
 
 Twill Weave 
 
 Satin Weave 
 
 Gauze or Leno Weave 
 
 Double-Cloth Weaves 
 
 Pile Weave 
 
 The Process of Pattern -Weaving 
 
 Antiquity of Pattern-Weaving 
 
 The Draw-Loom 
 
 Improvements upon the Draw-Loom 
 
 Jacquard 
 
 The Jacquard Loom 
 
 Mechanism of the Loom 
 
 The Cards 
 
 Varieties of the Jacquard Loom 
 
 Figured Velvets 
 
 CONTENTS 
 
 CHAPTER 
 
 VI Dyeing Silk 
 
 Classes of Dyed Silk 
 Yarn-Dyeing Processes 
 Boilmg-Off. Scouring, or Stripping 
 Process of Boiling Off 
 Weighting of Silk 
 Weighting Materials 
 Process of Weighting with Tin 
 Results.of Weighting 
 
 Classification of Dyes 
 
 Modern Dye Stuffs 
 
 Mordants 
 
 Yarn-Dyeing 
 
 Stretching 
 
 Black Silk 
 
 Piece -Dyeing 
 
 Printing 
 
 Machine Printing 
 
 Ways of Printing 
 
 Antiqpity of Vegetable and Animal Dyes 
 
 Art of Using Dyes Regained in Europe 
 
 Growth of Industry in France 
 
 Decrease in Cost of Dyes 
 
 American Dyes 
 
 Mineral Dyes 
 
 Coal Tar Dyes (Aniline Dyes) 
 
 Growth of the Industry 
 
 VII Finishing Processes 
 
 Variety of Processes Required 
 
 Lalendering 
 
 Stiffening 
 
 Breaking 
 
 Tentering 
 
 Gassing 
 
 Moire Finish 
 
 Shower-Proofing 
 
 Permanency of Finishes 
 
 VIII Artificial or Fiber Silk 
 
 Reason for Making Artificial Silk 
 Difference Between Real and Artificial Silk 
 
 PAGE 
 52 
 
 67 
 
 72 
 
Xll 
 CHAPTER 
 
 CONTENTS 
 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Kinds of Artificial Silk 
 
 Manufacture 
 
 History 
 
 Characteristics 
 
 Uses 
 
 Names of Materials 
 
 Laundering 
 
 Vegetable Silk 
 
 IX Mixtures, Imitations, Adulterations, 
 
 AND Tests for Silk 80 
 
 Mixtures — Silk and Wool 
 Mixtures^Silk and Cotton 
 Imitations 
 Adulterations 
 ^ Characteristics of Silk 
 Burning Tests 
 Microscopic Tests 
 Chemical Tests 
 Other Miscellaneous Tests 
 Weaving Tests 
 Tests for "Feel" 
 
 X Principles of Color 89 
 
 Importance of a Knowledge of Color to the Sales- 
 person 
 Combinations of Colors 
 The Spectrum 
 Standard Colors 
 Primary Colors 
 Secondary Colors 
 Characteristics of Primary Colors 
 Characteristics of Secondary Colors 
 Luminous and Somber Colors 
 Broken Colors 
 
 Absorption and Reflection of Color 
 Complementary Colors 
 Properties of Color 
 Hues 
 Values 
 Color Scales 
 Intensity 
 
 Color Harmonies 
 Color Under Artificial Light 
 
 CONTENTS • 
 
 CHAPTER 
 
 XI Color in the Silk Department 
 
 xm 
 
 PAGE 
 
 103 
 
 Necessity for Knowledge of the Laws of Color 
 Harmony 
 
 Colors Best Suited to Different Types of Women 
 
 1 he Fashionable Color 
 
 Conditions Affecting Color 
 
 Effect of Various Lights on Colors 
 
 Effect of the Material on Color 
 
 Colors for Household Decoration 
 
 Suggestions for Color Schemes 
 
 XII The Principles of Ornament and De- 
 sign . . • „o 
 
 Definition of Design 
 Kinds of Designs 
 Pattern Design 
 Sources of Pattern Design 
 Motives of Design 
 Material of Pattern Design 
 Planning a Pattern 
 Value of Line in Patterns 
 Forms and Spaces 
 
 XIII Designs for Silk 
 
 Varieties of Design 
 
 Elements of Design 
 
 Qasses of Patterns 
 
 Rectangular 
 
 Step-repeat 
 
 Drop- repeat 
 
 Turn-over 
 
 Turn-around 
 
 Process of Designing 
 
 Dress Goods Patterns 
 
 Suitable Patterns for Dress Goods 
 
 Drapery Silks 
 
 Values of Designs That "Take" 
 
 History of Designs for Silk 
 
 Italian Art 
 
 French Skill 
 
 Jacquard Weaves 
 
 119 
 
XIV 
 
 CONTENTS 
 
 CHAPTER 
 
 XIV Silk Yard Goods 
 
 Classification 
 
 Armure 
 
 Batiste 
 
 Bolting Cloth 
 
 Brocade 
 
 Broche 
 
 Cachemire de Soie 
 
 Changeable Silk 
 
 Charmeuse 
 
 Chiffon 
 
 Chiffon Taffeta 
 
 China Silk 
 
 Chine Silks 
 
 Qoth of Gold 
 
 Q-epe 
 
 Crepe Charmeuse 
 
 Crepe de Chine 
 
 Crepe Meteor 
 
 Damask 
 
 Dresden 
 
 Eolienne 
 
 Epingle 
 
 Faille 
 
 Faille Frangaise 
 
 Foulard 
 
 Gauze 
 
 Georgette Crepe 
 
 Glace 
 
 Grenadine 
 
 Gros de Londres 
 
 Grosgrain 
 
 India Silk 
 Jacquard Silks 
 Japanese Silk 
 Jersey Cloth 
 Kikai 
 
 Liberty Satin 
 Louisine 
 Marquisette 
 Matelasse 
 Merveilleux 
 
 PAGE 
 
 127 
 
 CHAPTER 
 
 XV 
 PAGE 
 
 CONTENTS 
 
 Messaline 
 
 Moire 
 
 Moire Antique 
 
 Mousseline de Soie 
 
 Organdie 
 
 Ottoman 
 
 Peau de Cygne 
 
 Peau de Soie 
 
 Pekin Stripe 
 
 Plush 
 
 Pongee 
 
 Poplin 
 
 Rep 
 
 Satin 
 
 Shantung 
 
 Shot Silks 
 
 Silk Serge 
 
 Surah 
 
 Taffeta 
 
 Tulle 
 
 Tussah, Tussur, or Tussore 
 
 Velour 
 
 Velvet 
 
 Voile * 
 
 Novelty Silks 
 
 XV The Velvet Department 146 
 
 Varieties of Velvets 
 
 Plush 
 
 Qualities of Velvets 
 
 History 
 
 Centers of Industry 
 
 XVI The Ribbon Department ..... 150 
 
 Varieties of Ribbons 
 
 Materials 
 
 Weaving 
 
 Finishing, Dyeing, and Printing 
 
 Designs 
 
 Qualities and Lines 
 
 Uses 
 
 Avoiding Remnants 
 
XVI 
 
 CONTENTS 
 
 CONTENTS 
 
 xvii 
 
 CHAPTER 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Importance of Color 
 History 
 
 CHAPTER 
 
 PAGE 
 
 XVII The Umbrella and Parasol Department 159 
 
 Materials Used in Umbrellas and Parasols 
 
 Divisions of Stock 
 
 Frames of Women's Umbrellas 
 
 Covers 
 
 Sticks and Handles 
 
 Manufacturing 
 
 Folding Umbrellas 
 
 Parasols 
 
 Men's Umbrellas 
 
 Frames of Men's Umbrellas 
 
 Covers of Men's Umbrellas 
 
 Sticks and Handles of Men's Umbrellas 
 
 Children's Umbrellas 
 
 Suggestions as to Care of Umbrellas 
 
 History 
 
 XVIII The History of Silk 170 
 
 Discovery in China 
 
 Silk Culture in Japan 
 
 Chinese Silks 
 
 Japanese Silk 
 
 Silk in India 
 
 Silk Production in Europe 
 
 Early Attempts in the United States 
 
 Centers of Raw Silk Production 
 
 European Centers of Silk Manufacture 
 
 Manufacture of Silk in Great Britain 
 
 Liberty Silks 
 
 The Manufacture of Silk in the United States 
 
 XIX Suggestions to Salespeople and Pur- 
 chasers 181 
 
 Arrangement and Display 
 
 Backgrounds 
 
 Variety in Arrangement 
 
 The Information Needed by the Salesperson 
 
 How Much Material to Sell to a Customer 
 
 Quality and Values 
 
 Reasons Why Silk Is More Expensive Than 
 Other Textile Materials 
 
 Knowledge of Manufacture 
 
 Values of Different Kinds of. Silk 
 
 Matching Samples 
 
 Effect of Natural and Artificial Light on Match- 
 ing Colors 
 
 Effect of Surface of Fabric on Matching Colors 
 
 Effect of Dyes in Matching Colors 
 
 Effect of Adjacent Colors 
 
 Tone of Color 
 
 Accurate Measurement 
 
 Laundering and Care of Silk 
 
 Laundering of Ribbons 
 
 Cleaning and Steaming Velvet 
 
 XX Classification of the Stock of a Ty- 
 pical Silk Department 194 
 
 XXI Classification of the Stock of a Ty- 
 pical Ribbon Department .... 200 
 
 Appendix 203 
 
 Books for Reference 
 
 Leading Silk Manufacturers in the United States 
 Glossary of Terms Used in the Silk Industry 
 Names Descriptive of Characteristics of Fabrics 
 
 Index 225 
 
 III 
 
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 
 
 KcufE^^^^""^ Leaves and Feeding Silkworms . . Frontispiece 
 
 1. Life-size Silkworm Ready for Molting *'^, '**^5 
 
 2. Silkworm Beginning Cocoon g 
 
 3. Moth Escaping from Cocoon 5 
 
 4. Reeling Silk into Skeins 12 
 
 5. The Warping Room . , 32 
 
 6. Workers Passing a Single Warp Thread Through the 
 
 Heddle Eye of the Harness 36 
 
 7. A Weaver at Work ^ 
 
 8. Detail of Jacquard Loom (on page) 48 
 
 9. Dyeing Silk ^ 
 
 10. Diagrani Indicating Primary and Secondary Colors 
 
 with Their Hues, Tints, and Contrasts . (on page) 98 
 
 11. Arrangement of Rectangular and Drop- Repeat Patterns 
 
 (on page) 121 
 
 12. Umbrella Fittings jfy 
 
 13. Raw Silk Bundled and Baled 178 
 
 xvui 
 
 SILK 
 
 Chapter I 
 THE SILK DEPARTMENT 
 
 Description of Department 
 
 In all modem stores the Silk Department is one of 
 the largest and most important. It is a very exten- 
 sive department including portions of the stock in 
 many other sections of the store. 
 
 Silk is a staple fabric and is used in making many 
 articles in the ready-to-wear and other departments, 
 which are listed at the end of the chapter. 
 
 Location 
 
 The location and arrangement of the silk yard goods 
 department are of primary importance. In nearly all 
 stores the silks are wisely placed on counters under 
 the windows where the light is good. The evening 
 silks are in a special section lighted by electricity. 
 These precautions are really necessary, as it is almost 
 impossible to match fabrics for daytime wear by arti- 
 ficial light, or for evening wear by daylight. Some- 
 

 2 SILK DEPARTMENT 
 
 times the Silk Department is moved to the second floor 
 to secure better light and more space. 
 
 Arrangement 
 
 Next to a favorable location, a pleasing arrange- 
 ment of the silks is the chief consideration. The sales- 
 people in the department are usually experienced and 
 capable, and the display rarely fails to be tempting in 
 its beauty, color, and variety. 
 
 The Silk Yard Goods Department 
 
 In most large stores the Silk Department proper is 
 divided into sections. The plan differs in various 
 places, but the typical arrangement is somewhat as 
 follows : 
 
 Plain Silks (either in colors and white or with 
 
 white silks in separate section) 
 White Silks 
 Black Silks 
 Novelty Silks 
 Foulard and Wash Silks 
 Evening Silks 
 Pongee Silks 
 Velvets 
 Chiffons 
 
 In these different sections both foreign and domestic 
 silks are usually sold. They are classified as to color 
 and prices. 
 
 INTRODUCTORY 3 
 
 Other Departments in which Silk Fabrics are Sold 
 
 Besides the department where only silk yard goods 
 are sold, materials made of silk are found in many of 
 the other departments, as for instance : 
 
 Linings 
 
 Ribbons 
 
 Laces, Veilings, and Nets 
 
 Neckwear — ties, scarfs, collars, etc. 
 
 Trimmings — principally artificial silks 
 
 Art Needlework — embroidery silks, silk materi- 
 als, and articles 
 
 Notions — sewing-silk 
 
 Buttons — silk-, velvet-, or plush-covered 
 
 Handkerchiefs 
 
 Hosiery 
 
 Underwear 
 
 Corsets 
 
 Ready-to- Wear — suits, coats, dresses, blouses 
 
 Millinery — hats and flowers 
 
 Gloves — silk gloves 
 
 Shoes — slippers 
 
 Bags — silk and velvet, silk linings 
 
 Umbrellas and Parasols 
 
 Drapery and Upholstery, all-silk and part-silk 
 materials 
 
Chapter II 
 
 SOURCES AND CULTIVATION OF SILK 
 
 Branches of the Silk Industry 
 
 The silk industry may be divided into four general 
 branches : 
 
 I. The raising of the silkworms and production of 
 
 the cocoons. 
 2*. The reeling of the long silk fiber from the whole 
 
 cocoons (from which a continuous thread 
 
 may be drawn). 
 
 3. The manufacture of spun silk from the pierced 
 
 cocoons and other forms of waste silk. 
 
 4. The manufacture of cloth from both raw and 
 
 spun silk. 
 
 The first two branches of the industry are carried 
 on in Asiatic or European countries where labor is 
 cheap. The last two branches are carried on exten- 
 sively in the United States, which has the most mod- 
 ern machinery. 
 
 Source of Silk 
 Silk, the strongest and most beautiful of the four 
 
 SOURCES AND CULTIVATION OF SILK 5 
 
 leading textile fibers, is the filament spun by a silk- 
 worm, a sort of caterpillar, in making its cocoon. 
 
 There are between three and four hundred moths 
 that produce silk cocoons; the one best-known and 
 most widely cultivated is the Bombyx mori. 
 
 Silkworms may be divided into two classes : 
 
 1. The cultivated silkworm is carefully raised and 
 fed on mulberry leaves. The color of the cocoon 
 varies from white to different shades of yellow and 
 sometimes has a decidedly greenish cast. It is raised 
 in Japan, China, Italy, France, Spain, Austria, India, 
 Russia, and the Levant. 
 
 2. The wild silkworm is found in India, Japan, and 
 China. These worms are not cared for and usually 
 feed upon oak leaves. The tannin and the iron salts 
 in the oak leaves affect the quality of the threads and 
 must be removed before the silk can be properly dyed. 
 The cocoon is a light brown or tan in color, and the 
 threads, which are tan-colored also, are coarser, 
 harsher, and more uneven than the silk from the cul- 
 tivated silkworm. Three varieties of silk are made 
 from the wild silkworms — pongee, shantung, and 
 tussah. 
 
 The Silkworm 
 
 The silkworm has a small head and relatively large 
 jaws. Inside the body and on either side are the silk 
 glands which terminate in small orifices or spinerets 
 
6 SILK DEPARTMENT 
 
 under the jaws. The silk filament emerges from the 
 spinerets as a gummy liquid and hardens immediately 
 when it is exposed to the air. 
 
 The silkworm has sixteen legs or pads. The six 
 front legs differ from the ten back ones and are used 
 for catching the leaves for feeding. The back legs are 
 thicker and shorter. The worm has twelve rings 
 around its body and there are nine black spots on each 
 side of its body, which are holes for breathing. 
 
 Figure i shows a life-size silkwo«-m. 
 
 The silkworms live but two months during which 
 time they pass through four stages of development : 
 
 1. The egg. The eggs are laid once or twice a 
 year, 300 to 500 at a time. They take about ten days 
 
 to hatch. 
 
 2. The worm. The worms hatched from these 
 eggs live one month during which they grow from 
 % of an inch to 3 inches in length. 
 
 3. The chrysalis. The worm spends three days in 
 spinning the cocoon and then changes to the chrysalis 
 form, in which it remains for 20 days. 
 
 4. The moth. The moth emerges from the cocoon, 
 lives three days, lays its eggs, and dies. 
 
 The silkworm eggs are so small that 30,cxx) or 
 40,000 weigh only one ounce. From this ounce of 
 eggs, cocoons weighing from 100 to 140 pounds may 
 be expected, and these will produce from 9 to 12 
 pounds of silk. 
 
 Figure i. Life-size Silkworm Ready for Molting 
 
 Figure 2. Silkworm Beginning Cocoon 
 
 Figure 3. Moth Escaping from Cocoon 
 
 Courtesy of Belding Bros. & Co. 
 
INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE 
 
 6 SILK DEPARTMENT 
 
 under the jaws. The silk filament emerges from the 
 spinerets as a gummy liquid and hardens immediately 
 when it is exposed to the air. 
 
 The silkworm has sixteen legs or pads. The six 
 front legs differ from the ten back ones and are used 
 for catching the leaves for feeding. The back legs are 
 thicker and shorter. The worm has twelve rings 
 around its body and there are nine black spots on each 
 side of its body, which are holes for breathing. 
 
 Figure i shows a life-size silkworm. 
 
 The silkworms live but two months during which 
 time they pass through four stages of development : 
 
 1. The egg. The eggs are laid once or twice a 
 year, 300 to 500 at a time. They take about ten days 
 
 to hatch. 
 
 2. The worm. The worms hatched from these 
 eggs live one month during which they grow from 
 % of an inch to 3 inches in length. 
 
 3. The chrysalis. The worm spends three days in 
 spinning the cocoon and then changes to the chrysalis 
 form, in which it remains for 20 days. 
 
 4. The moth. The moth emerges from the cocoon, 
 lives three days, lays its eggs, and dies. 
 
 The silkworm eggs are so small that 30,000 or 
 40,000 weigh only one ounce. From this ounce of 
 eggs, cocoons weighing from 100 to 140 pounds may 
 be expected, and these will produce from 9 to 12 
 pounds of silk. 
 
 MK" 1 
 
 
 
 ■ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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 ^^^^^^H^^^uii^L:, '- -^^^1^^ ^h. 
 
 |MB|# 
 
 
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 ^^1... 1 
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 ^^^^^B 
 
 
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 Figure i. Life-size Silkworm Ready for Molting 
 
 Figure 2. Silkworm Beginning Cocoon 
 
 Figure 3. Moth Escaping from Cocoon 
 
 Courtesy of Belding Bros. & Co. 
 
SOURCES AND CULTIVATION OF SILK ^ 
 
 The excellence of the silk depends largely upon the 
 mulberry leaves upon which the worm feeds ; the white 
 mulberry is considered the best. For the first few 
 days the small worm sucks only the juice from the leaf ; 
 then it begins to eat the tender part. 
 
 The frontispiece shows Japanese workers preparing 
 the leaves and feeding the silkworms during the first 
 week. 
 
 Life of the Silkworm 
 
 The worm has four molting seasons. At the end 
 of the first week it stops eating for a few days while 
 it sheds its skin or molts for the first time. When it 
 begins eating again it is very hungry and eats rapidly. 
 When many worms are eating the noise sounds like 
 falling rain. 
 
 After about four days the silkworm sheds its skin 
 a second time, about four or five days later a third 
 time, and ^vt or seven days afterwards a fourth time. 
 Whenever it molts it stops eating for a couple of days, 
 raises itself on its hind legs, and remains quiet. The 
 skin begins to crack above the nose. The head comes 
 out first, and then the whole body. As soon as the 
 worm has cast oflf the old skin it is ready to eat and 
 grow again. It consumes an enormous quantity of 
 leaves between the third and fourth molting. Each 
 time it sheds its skin the worm becomes lighter in 
 color. 
 
 i 
 
 I 
 
8 
 
 SILK DEPARTMENT 
 
 Silkworm Diseases 
 
 There are many silkworm diseases. At times the 
 rooms where the silkworms are kept are infested with 
 the germs of contagious diseases and the worms die 
 before they are ready to spin. These diseases are the 
 result of domestication; the wild silkworms are less 
 subject to them. 
 
 The silk growers must constantly watch for these 
 diseases and any carelessness may cause the loss of all 
 the worms. 
 
 Spinning and Making the Cocoon 
 
 When it is ready to spin the cocoon from the silk 
 which is secreted in its body, the silkworm loses its 
 appetite, shrinks a little, is restless, and moves its head 
 constantly from side to side. Finally it raises itself 
 on its hind legs, reaches up and attaches itself to a 
 branch which is placed conveniently near. It first 
 throws out guy lines of silk, attaching itself to the 
 branch in this way. These guy lines, which are of in- 
 ferior quality, are used later as waste for spun silk.^ 
 
 Figure 2 shows a silkworm beginning its cocoon. 
 
 During the time it is spinning the cocoon, the silk- 
 worm eats nothing. In spinning the cocoon the head 
 of the worm is thrown back and forth and the silk is 
 
 1 In rearing large numbers of silkworms it frequently happens that two 
 worms spin one cocoon which envelops them jointly. These cocoons are 
 known by the trade name of " duppions." The silk is inferior as it can- 
 not be reeled in an even thread. 
 
 SOURCES AND CULTIVATION OF SILK 9 
 
 formed like a figure 8 in regular rows up and down. 
 The length of the usable cocoon thread varies from 
 400 to 700 yards, seldom reaching 1,000 yards. 
 
 While it is spinning, the silkworm gradually dimin- 
 ishes in size and the inside thread, which is the last 
 spun, is thin and weak, so that it is treated as waste for 
 spun silk. 
 
 The parts of the silk filament are : 
 
 1. Fibroin, which is the silk thread and insoluble 
 
 in boiling water. 
 
 2. Seracin, which is the gum or glue holding the 
 
 two silk threads together as they come from 
 the spinnerets below the mouth of the silk- 
 worm. This seracin is soluble in boiling 
 water. 
 
 The silkworm changes to a chrysalis while in the 
 cocoon and if it is not killed it will, after a certain 
 time, emerge as a moth from one end of the cocoon. 
 After leaving the cocoon the moths, which are small, 
 whitish, and have no mouths, live only a few days, 
 during which time the female lays from 300 to 400 
 eggs. 
 
 Only a comparatively few moths which are needed 
 for reproduction are allowed to escape in this way. 
 The majority of them are stifled before it is time for 
 them to leave the cocoon. Two kinds of cocoons are 
 the result. 
 
 \ !i 
 
.{ 
 
 1 
 
 lO 
 
 SILK DEPARTMENT 
 
 Whole Cocoons 
 
 In the whole cocoon the chrysalis, or moth, has been 
 stifled so that it cannot force its way out. The stifling 
 is eflfected by placing the cocoons in a hot oven. From 
 the unpierced cocoon a continuous length of silken 
 thread may be reeled, and the threads of several co- 
 coons reeled together produce what is called raw or 
 reeled silk. 
 
 Pierced Cocoons 
 
 The cocoons from which the moths have escaped 
 are called pierced cocoons. In coming out of the 
 cocoon the moth breaks all the threads at one end ; con- 
 sequently a long thread cannot be reeled from the 
 cocoon. 
 
 Figure 3 shows a moth escaping from its cocoon. 
 
 Reeling the Silk from the Cocoon 
 
 The reeling of the silk from cocoons is generally 
 done by women and girls, and most often in the 
 country in which the worms are raised. It is done 
 either in the homes of the people or in the small fac- 
 tories called filatures. There are three methods of 
 reeling silk : 
 
 I. Primitive. Silks reeled by this method are called 
 Tsatlees. It is a hand-process and the thread is ir- 
 regular in size, that is, it has knots and bunches. The 
 skeins are frequently of different sizes. 
 
 SOURCES AND CULTIVATION OF SILK II 
 
 2. Rereels. By this method the silks reeled in the 
 primitive way are reeled over again and the result is a 
 smoother and more reliable silk. The rereeled silk 
 comes from China and Japan mostly. 
 
 3. Steam filatures. This is a system of machine- 
 reeling. The silk is smooth and sent out in a much 
 better condition than in the hand-process. It runs 
 better when used for making silk fabrics in the high- 
 speed machines. It also brings a higher price and is 
 worth it, for it causes less trouble in weaving. 
 
 The Process of Reeling 
 
 1. The cocoons are sorted for quality and color, 
 each color and quality being kept by itself. 
 
 2. The outside loose silk, by which the worm at- 
 taches itself to the branches, is first taken off the 
 cocoon and saved and used for spun silk. 
 
 3. The cocoons are soaked in warm water to soften 
 the gum which holds the silk together. 
 
 4. The cocoons are then brushed while floating in 
 the water, until a continuous fiber is obtained, that is 
 the loose fibers are caught in the straws of the brush 
 and unwound until all of the outside threads of silk 
 have been taken off the cocoon and what is termed a 
 long end is found. Then the threads from four or 
 more cocoons are united and twisted to form a single 
 thread, because the thread from a single cocoon is too 
 fine to use. 
 
^ 
 
 12 
 
 SILK DEPARTMENT 
 
 The threads are wound on a reel, a wooden frame 
 with arms. To form a compact and rounded thread 
 and to keep the threads from tangling as they come 
 from the cocoons, each cocoon thread is passed through 
 a ring before the several threads are finally brought 
 together to form the one thread. This completed 
 thread when made up into skeins becomes the raw silk 
 of commerce. 
 
 Figure 4 shows the threads being reeled into skeins. 
 Great care is necessary in reeling, as the threads 
 from cocoons are not all of the same thickness; the 
 silk as spun by the worm is heavier at the beginning 
 of the cocoon and much finer and poorer at the end, 
 varying more or less throughout its entire length. 
 The person who has care of the reeling must try to 
 keep the silk thread uniform, by adding a cocoon 
 thread from time to time, whenever the thread being 
 reeled grows thin. The thread must also be watched 
 carefully to avoid any breaks. 
 
 The form in which the reeled silk is shipped varies 
 in different countries. In China and Japan the skeins 
 are taken off the reels, twisted together, and made 
 up into packages, called " books," which weigh from 
 4 to 10 lbs. each. These are packed in bales varying 
 in weight from 100 to 140 lbs. In European and other 
 countries the skeins are made up into bales without 
 being put into " books." These bales weigh about 200 
 
INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE 
 
 ^ 
 
 12 
 
 SILK DEPARTMENT 
 
 The threads are wound on a reel, a wooden frame 
 with arms. To form a compact and rounded thread 
 and to keep the threads from tangling as they come 
 from the cocoons, each cocoon thread is passed through 
 a ring before the several threads are finally brought 
 together to form the one thread. This completed 
 thread when made up into skeins becomes the raw silk 
 of commerce. 
 
 Figure 4 shows the threads being reeled into skeins. 
 Great care is necessary in reeling, as the threads 
 from cocoons are not all of the same thickness; the 
 silk as spun by the worm is heavier at the beginning 
 of the cocoon and much finer and poorer at the end, 
 varying more or less throughout its entire length. 
 The person who has care of the reeling must try to 
 keep the silk thread uniform, by adding a cocoon 
 thread from time to time, whenever the thread being 
 reeled grows thin. The thread must also be watched 
 carefully to avoid any breaks. 
 
 The form in which the reeled silk is shipped varies 
 in diflFerent countries. In Qiina and Japan the skeins 
 are taken off the reels, twisted together, and made 
 up into packages, called " books," which weigh from 
 4 to 10 lbs. each. These are packed in bales varying 
 in weight from 100 to 140 lbs. In European and other 
 countries the skeins are made up into bales without 
 being put into " books." These bales weigh about 200 
 
 1 
 
 I 
 
i 
 
 
 SOURCES AND CULTIVATION OF SILK 13 
 
 lbs. each. Figure 13 shows the raw silk bundled and 
 baled for shipment. 
 
 Wild Silk 
 
 Tussah silk cocoons are softened with an alkalin 
 substance and are reeled in this damp gummy condi- 
 tion without being floated in water ; consequently the 
 filaments do not cohere so well. The coloring matter 
 is in the fiber and it is hard therefore to bleach this 
 variety of silk. 
 
 Silks made from the cocoons of the wild silkworms, 
 as already stated, are usually of a poorer quality than 
 those from the domesticated worm ; they are uneven 
 in texture, harder to bleach, and do not take dyes so 
 well. But on the other hand they are often more dur- 
 able than the ordinary silk fabrics, probably because 
 they are not heavily weighted. 
 
 These silks are cheaper because no care is taken of 
 the wild silkworms, while the domesticated worms re- 
 quire constant attention. Much time, however, is con- 
 sumed in collecting the cocoons. The finishing proc- 
 esses are less expensive because the silk is more often 
 used in its natural color. 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
I 1 
 
 Chapter III 
 
 RAW SILK AND SPUN SILK 
 
 Raw Silk 
 
 When cotton, flax, or wool arrives at a factory the 
 fibers are matted together and must be separated, 
 combed out, and twisted into a continuous thread by 
 a complicated process of spinning. 
 
 The silkworms, however, have spun their own 
 threads and when the delicate filaments have been 
 reeled from the perfect cocoons, the raw silk appears 
 in long fine skeins which are not only easier to manu- 
 facture into yarn, but are stronger, than any spun 
 thread of the same weight. 
 
 Waste silk must be spun like the other fibers, but raw 
 or reeled silk is "thrown" in order to prepare it for 
 weaving. The manufacturers of yarn from raw silk 
 are called throwsters. The term throwing is used only 
 in raw silk manufacture. 
 
 Conditioning 
 
 Since silk is sold principally by weight and because 
 it is necessary to determine the amount of water it has 
 absorbed, its weight must he accurately ascertained. 
 A certain amount of moisture, about ii per cent, is 
 allowed in commercial practice, but silk will hold' as 
 
 RAW SILK AND SPUN SILK 
 
 IS 
 
 much as 3 per cent without appearing damp, and can 
 be made to absorb an even greater amount. Too much 
 moisture aflFects the strength and elasticity of the silk. 
 The process by which the moisture is reduced to the 
 required standard is called "conditioning." Official 
 conditioning houses are established in all the large 
 centers of the silk trade. 
 
 When the bales containing the books of raw silk 
 reach the manufacturer, they are opened and the skeins 
 are weighed accurately. They are then dried thor- 
 oughly in ovens, weighed again, the difference in 
 weight noted, and the dry weight of the full bale 
 worked out by proportion. The conditioned weight 
 of the bale is based on this dry weight plus the allowed 
 regain of moisture — 11 per cent. 
 
 Silk Throwing 
 
 ^^ The series of processes included under the term 
 "silk throwing," consist of: 
 
 Sorting 
 
 Soaking 
 
 Drying 
 
 Winding 
 
 Doubling and twisting 
 
 Sorting 
 
 When necessary the skeins are Sorted according to 
 color, size, and quality, and laid in piles. 
 
 
i6 
 
 SILK DEPARTMENT 
 
 Soaking 
 
 In the process of throwing some of the skeins are 
 soaked to soften the gum before winding. In this 
 case lukewarm water is used, which has in it some olive 
 or neat's foot oil, and olive oil soap. Other silks are 
 thrown " bright," that is, they are not soaked, but are 
 wound without softening the gum. 
 
 Drying 
 
 The skeins of silk which have been soaked are either 
 dried in a hydroextractor, which revolves rapidly and 
 throws the moisture from the skeins, or they are hung 
 on poles in a small steam-heated room or closet. 
 
 Winding 
 
 The process of winding prepares the silk for the 
 doubling and twisting. 
 
 The skeins are placed on a series of reels on the 
 front of the winding machine, the end of each skein 
 passing through an eyelet to the bobbin. The silk is 
 wound up and down the length of this bobbin. The 
 thread passes through two fixed plates which remove 
 irregularities and knots. The machine is fitted so 
 that it stops immediately if a thread breaks or anything 
 is wrong. One worker can manage several machines. 
 
 Doubling and Twisting 
 The silk from the skeins is so fine that several 
 
 RAW SILK AND SPUN SILK 
 
 17 
 
 strands must be put together and twisted in order to 
 make a thread heavy enough for weaving. This 
 process is called doubling and twisting. 
 
 In the doubling several threads from as many bob- 
 bins are put together to form one thread, which is 
 wound upon a new bobbin. The doubled thread is 
 then twisted on another machine and again wound. 
 In some modem machinery these two processes are 
 combined. 
 
 The number of threads and the twist are deter- 
 mined by the future use of the silk. 
 There are three varieties of yam. 
 Singles are single strands of reeled silk ; they may be 
 twisted or not. When they are hard-twisted they are 
 used for making gauze and chifiFons. 
 
 Tram is used for filling or cross threads. Two or 
 more strands of raw silk are put together and twisted 
 slightly to form one strand and then wound on bob- 
 bins. A poorer quality of silk is generally used for 
 tram, as strength is not required. Hard-twisted tram 
 is used for the filling of crepes. 
 
 Organsine is used for warp or lengthwise threads, 
 and must be strong. It is made from the better grades 
 of silk. A single thread is twisted with a right-hand 
 twist, then two or three of these are put together and 
 twisted with a left-hand twist, and so made into one 
 strong thread and wound on a bobbin. 
 
 The luster is greater when the threads are slightly 
 
 i 
 
 r 
 
i8 
 
 SILK DEPARTMENT 
 
 twisted. Tram therefore has considerable luster, 
 while the luster of organzine varies according to the 
 amount of twist used. 
 
 After twisting, the silk is reeled into skeins contain- 
 ing from 500 to 2,500 yards according to the size of 
 the thread. It is now ready for the dyeing and weav- 
 ing processes. 
 
 Sewing-thread, or sewing-silk, is made by combining 
 two strands of twisted thread into one hard-twisted 
 thread. (See manual for " Notions Department.") 
 
 Machine-twist is composed of three strands of 
 twisted threads united into a hard-twisted thread. 
 
 Stretching 
 
 This is a process usually employed only for sewing- 
 silks. The twisted thread from the bobbins is passed 
 through water and over rollers which stretch the 
 thread. Any uneven parts are drawn out, making the 
 thread a uniform size. Silk that is stretched in the 
 gum has great brilliance or luster. 
 
 Spun Silk 
 
 Raw or reeled silk was the only silk used to any 
 considerable extent until about sixty years ago, when 
 the process of spinning by machinery, which had been 
 applied to the other textile fibers for nearly a century, 
 was found to be equally practical for silk which could 
 not be reeled. 
 
 RAW SILK AND SPUN SILK 
 
 19 
 
 By this process short and broken silk fibers are made 
 into one continuous thread. They are not long and 
 strong, like the reeled silk, and the yarn is not so 
 lustrous, for it must be twisted more ; consequently it 
 makes an inferior and usually a cheaper silk. The 
 best spun silk yarns are largely used for filling, or 
 weft, for silk dress goods or for half-silk goods. 
 The lower grades are used for poorer dress materials 
 and for knitting. 
 
 Waste silk has been utilized only since the perfect- 
 ing of spinning machinery during the last century. 
 Before that time the short fibers were useless. 
 
 The first patent for the carding and spinning of 
 waste silk was obtained in England in 1671 by Ed- 
 mund Blood, although the spinning of waste silk into 
 thread did not become a large industry until recent 
 years. Silk was probably never spun by the old 
 method of spindle and distaff. 
 
 Sources of Spun Silk 
 The sources from which spun silk is obtained are : 
 
 1. Pierced cocoons, from which the moth has been 
 
 allowed to escape. 
 
 2. Floss, which is silk of an inferior quality, in- 
 
 cluding that spun first by the worm in fasten- 
 ing the cocoon to the branches, and the silk 
 from the inside of the cocoon, the last to be 
 spun. 
 
 i 
 
20 
 
 SILK DEPARTMENT 
 
 3. Silk waste, which comes from the different 
 
 processes of manufacture. 
 
 4. Wild silk cocoons, which cannot be reeled. 
 
 5. Double cocoons, where the cocoons of two 
 
 moths are fastened together. 
 
 The waste silk is imported in bales and is received 
 by the factories in this form. Some bales may contain 
 all pierced cocoons. Other bales may be made up en- 
 tirely of long tangled waste from the reeling of the 
 raw silk from the cocoons. These long tangled cords 
 are known as frisons. 
 
 The bales are opened and the contents examined 
 carefully, in order to remove as much dirt and foreign 
 substance as possible. 
 
 Processes in the Preparation of Spun Silk 
 The processes are : 
 
 1. Removal of the gum 
 
 2. Beating and opening 
 
 3. Combing 
 
 4. Inspecting 
 
 5. Spinning: 
 
 Drawing and doubling 
 Twisting and winding 
 
 6. Gassing or Singeing 
 
 Removal of the Gum from Waste Silk 
 As waste silk must be spun it is necessary to remove 
 
 RAW SILK AND SPUN SILK 
 
 21 
 
 the gum before it can be handled. This is done by 
 boiling, maceration (or schapping), or chemical de- 
 gumming. 
 
 1. Boiling off. The silk is put in open-mesh bags 
 and pulled up and down in boiling soapy water for 
 three or four hours. The softened gum passes out 
 through the meshes. The silk is then transferred to a 
 washing machine containing cold water. 
 
 2. Schappe qr fermentation method. Schappe is 
 French for spun silk. In this process the waste silk 
 is put into a tank of warm, soapy water and left for 
 two or three weeks until fermentation sets in and the 
 gum is loosened. If the silk is not taken out at the 
 right time the fiber is weakened and the silk loses some 
 of its luster. 
 
 3. Chemical degumming. In this process waste silk 
 is degummed by soaking in an alkali or in an acid solu- 
 tion. 
 
 The silk loses about a quarter of its weight when the 
 gum is taken out. It is next washed in hot water 
 for about five minutes, then in cold water for a longer 
 period, and dried. 
 
 Beating and Opening 
 
 The silk is put into a machine which removes the 
 dirt and foreign matter, such as chrysalis shells, sticks, 
 etc., and opens up the fibers and makes them more 
 flexible. 
 
 ► * 
 
 I: 
 
22 
 
 SILK DEPARTMENT 
 
 Combing 
 
 In the next machine the silk fiber comes in contact 
 with revolving rollers upon the surface of which are 
 fine needles. These needles comb and straighten out 
 the longer fibers and pull off the shorter fibers. The 
 silk comes out in the form of sheets or ** laps " which 
 may be combed several times. 
 
 The short fibers which are combed out are known as 
 noils, and may be used over again for an inferior 
 quality of silk. Uusually these are made into goods 
 which have no luster; they are used mostly for uphol- 
 stery. 
 
 Inspecting 
 
 The laps or rolls of silk fibers are carefully inspected 
 and any impurities are removed by hand. The work 
 of inspection is done in a dark room upon a table of 
 glass lighted from below, so that impurities are easily 
 seen and removed. 
 
 The Spinning Process — Drawing and Doubling 
 
 The drawing machine further combs and straightens 
 and also draws out the fibers and forms them into 
 continuous strands called slivers, which are like soft, 
 loose ribbons. These pass through other drawing 
 machines, into which several of the strands are fed 
 at one time, and come out as one continuous strand, 
 the same size as one of the original number. In the 
 
 RAW SILK AND SPUN SILK 
 
 ^3 
 
 last process the slivers are wound on bobbins ready 
 for the roving frame. 
 
 Twisting and Winding 
 
 In the roving frame the yarn is drawn from the 
 bobbins at the top of the frame, then twisted as it 
 passes from the bobbins to the spindle, and then wound 
 on spindles at the bottom of the frame. 
 
 Gassing or Singeing 
 
 The finished yarn is often roughened by lumps 
 which are smoothed off by a process called gassing or 
 singeing. The yarn is run through a gas flame at so 
 high a speed that the flame will not bum the thread, 
 but will burn off all the loose ends. 
 
 In the last process the thread is wound from the 
 bobbins into skeins ready for dyeing. 
 
 Uses of Raw and Spun Silk 
 
 Raw or reeled silk is used in the manufacture of fine 
 silk materials (called broad silks) and fine sewing- 
 thread. 
 
 Spun silk is used in making coarse broad silks, knit 
 goods, hosiery, braids and bindings, embroidery, and 
 crochet silks. It is not so strong as reeled silk and it 
 does not have as much luster, because it is twisted 
 harder than reeled silk and also because there are many 
 short ends projecting from the surface of the yam. 
 
 I 
 
24 
 
 SILK DEPARTMENT 
 
 The two kinds of silk are often combined in the same 
 material, the raw silk being used for the warp and the 
 spun silk for the filling. 
 
 . 
 
 Chapter IV 
 
 WEAVING 
 
 Woven Sak 
 
 If a piece of plain silk is imraveled, many length- 
 wise threads are found placed side by side and inter- 
 laced by one continuous crosswise thread. This cross- 
 wise thread, which has been introduced in some man- 
 ner from edge to edge, holds the lengthwise threads 
 together and in position, forming a material which 
 will be more or less durable according to the strength 
 and fineness of the threads and the way in which they 
 are interlaced. 
 
 The simplest weaving consists of two sets of 
 threads: (i) the lengthwise threads, which are ar- 
 ranged first in order and are called the warp threads, 
 and (2) the crosswise threads, which are called the 
 woof, weft, or filling threads. 
 
 The filling threads as they are interlaced across the 
 warp threads are carried over one and under one; in 
 the next row the threads alternate — under one and 
 over one — just as in darning. Each row is pushed 
 up close to the preceding one so that the doth may 
 be firm. 
 
ppi 
 
 26 
 
 SILK DEPARTMENT 
 
 Warp and Weft 
 
 The lengthwise, or warp, threads must be placed in 
 position first. Since the strain on these threads is 
 greater and they need to be strong, each thread is made 
 up of two or more strands firmly twisted together, 
 making a heavier thread than the weft. The weft is 
 only slightly twisted into soft, thinner threads which 
 can be closely pushed together. (See Chapter III on 
 organzine and tram.) 
 
 For the durability of the silk and for the good ap- 
 pearance of the material, it is of great importance in 
 weaving that the difference between the warp threads 
 and the filling threads should not be too great. For 
 mstance, if the warp thread were very strong and 
 heavy and the filling thread fine and weak, the silk 
 would not wear well. 
 
 Antiquity of Weaving 
 
 Weaving is one of the oldest of the handicrafts and 
 seems to have been practiced by all primitive people. 
 In the more backward countries today there is hardly 
 a savage tribe which has not in some way discovered 
 the art of making thread and weaving it into cloth. 
 They follow the same methods and use the same ap- 
 pliances as those of very early times, so that it can be 
 seen how directly all the modem improvements in 
 weaving are based on early discoveries. 
 Weaving was carried to a high degree of perfection 
 
 WEAVING 
 
 27 
 
 by the great peoples of ancient times in Egypt, China, 
 India, Greece, and Rome. This perfection was 
 reached, however, not by the use of complicated 
 machinery, as at present, but by patient hand-labor. 
 The multitudes of warp threads were stretched on 
 simple looms and each thread was picked up in its 
 turn and the weft inserted. 
 
 All ancient people seem to have known two sorts of 
 weaving, which differ only in the way the weft is car- 
 ried across the warp. In one kind the warp is tight 
 and the weft is carried across with a sufficient tension 
 to pull it straight and warp and weft show in equal 
 proportion. In the second way the weft is left slack 
 as it is carried across and the result is that all the warp 
 is covered by the weft. 
 
 Raw Material Used in Ancient Times 
 
 The rav/ material used by the ancient weavers de- 
 pended on the natural products with which they were 
 familiar and the inventive skill which they used. 
 
 The simplest of these raw materials for weaving 
 were the long grasses and the leaves of any plants 
 which could be split into strips, but the principal textile 
 fibers were also used by ancient peoples. 
 
 The Egyptians used flax and produced the first linen ; 
 the people of India used cotton, as the cotton plant 
 grew plentifully in that country, and their fine cottons 
 were a marvel to the other nations ; the pastoral tribes 
 
28 
 
 SILK DEPARTMENT 
 
 V : 
 
 used the wool and hair which was shorn from their 
 flocks; while the Chinese had the monopoly of silk, 
 and their silk fabrics were the admiration of all who 
 could buy them. 
 
 An account of the development of the art of weav- 
 ing cannot fail to be of interest to those who handle 
 woven fabrics, and the principles of weaving and the 
 power-loom of today will be better understood if the 
 more simple parts of the hand-loom are described. 
 
 Origin of the Loom 
 
 Where only the grasses and rushes were used, as in 
 the weaving of mats and baskets, they could be held 
 in place easily, but as soon as any length was required, 
 it was necessary to plan some kind of frame to hold 
 the warp threads tight while the weft was interlaced 
 across them. This frame was universally called a 
 loom and was improved from time to time according to 
 the needs and ingenuity of the weaver. 
 
 Figure 6 in the manual for the " Cotton and Linen 
 Departments " shows a primitive loom. 
 
 Looms have been represented in the paintings and 
 sculptures of ancient artists. The early poets allude 
 to the loom and the operations of weaving and needle- 
 work. Illustrations of looms have been found in some 
 of the ancient tombs in Egypt, and looms also appear 
 in some very old paintings. These looms are in dif- 
 ferent positions; in one picture the warp is stretched 
 
 WEAVING 
 
 29 
 
 on the ground, and a figure appears to be weaving a 
 mat, while others show upright frames. 
 
 Although weaving was without doubt a domestic 
 occupation in Greece and Rome, there are fewer illus- 
 trations of the art than are found in Egypt. On two 
 ancient Greek vases the looms of Penelope and Circe 
 are pictured; these are both represented as upright 
 looms, differing somewhat from those of Egypt. 
 
 Nothing very definite can be learned from these pic- 
 tures as to the methods by which the ancient peoples 
 procured their fine and beautiful results. However, 
 these references prove that the occupations of weaving 
 and embroidering were carried on extensively in the 
 ancient world and were held in high esteem. 
 
 An interesting drawing in a London museum proves 
 that the Chinese had looms for plain weaving and that, 
 by adding various contrivances, they made pattern- 
 weaving looms on which they wove beautiful silk 
 fabrics. 
 
 Hand-Looms 
 
 In the most primitive looms the lifting of the threads 
 of the warp for the intersection of the weft was done 
 by the fingers ; this was slow work, and very early in 
 the history of weaving a device was used by which 
 the weaver could lift the threads with his feet by 
 means of treadles attached to the heddles through 
 which the warp threads were inserted. 
 
if 
 
 30 
 
 SILK DEPARTMENT 
 
 It is not known when this improved loom was first 
 used, but it is probable that the Chinese were its orig- 
 inators, because silk is so fine that it would be most 
 difficult to pick up the warp with the fingers. 
 
 From the first attempts at weaving until the devel- 
 opment of power-looms, all sorts of devices were con- 
 stantly being added to the loom, not only that the 
 weaving might be made easier, but also that more com- 
 plicated weaving might be done and more beautiful 
 fabrics woven. 
 
 Parts of the Hand-Loom 
 
 The hand-loom consists of the following parts : 
 
 Frame 
 Warp beam 
 Cloth beam 
 Heddles 
 Harness 
 Reed or batten 
 Treadles 
 Shuttle 
 
 The frame holds the parts of the loom. 
 
 The warp beam, upon which the warp threads are 
 wound before weaving, is at the back of the loom. 
 
 The cloth beam is at the front of the loom. The 
 warp threads, after they have been carried through 
 the heddles and reed, are fastened to the cloth beam 
 and the finished cloth is wound upon it. 
 
 4* 
 
 WEAVING 
 
 31 
 
 The heddles are either wires or cords having a hole 
 or eye in the center through which the warp threads 
 pass. 
 
 The harness consists of two or more sets of heddles. 
 These sets of heddles are suspended from a beam 
 which is attached to the loom at about the center of 
 the frame. 
 
 The reed or batten is composed of a large number of 
 wires set in a frame-work. These wires, which re- 
 semble a comb, may be set near together or farther 
 apart. The warp threads pass between the wires and 
 the fineness of the cloth depends upon the width of the 
 spaces between the wires. The reed is also used for 
 pushing up the weft, so that the threads may be close 
 together and the cloth firm. 
 
 The treadles which are connected by cords to the 
 heddles or harness, are worked by the feet of the 
 weaver and move the heddles up and down. A 
 ** shed," an opening through which the shuttle passes, 
 is formed when a series of alternate threads is lifted 
 at one time by the heddles. 
 
 The shuttle holds a bobbin, upon which the weft 
 thread is wound. The shuttle is passed by the weaver 
 back and forth between the two series of the warp 
 threads made by the shed. 
 
 Power-Looms 
 The power-loom was invented in 1785 by the Rev. 
 
32 
 
 SILK DEPARTMENT 
 
 Edmund Cartwright, an Englishman. It was first 
 used in the United States in 1815. 
 
 In the development of the power-loom the hand- 
 loom was used as a basis so that the parts of the loom 
 and the principles of weaving are practically the same. 
 So many contrivances have been added to the power- 
 loom, however, that operations which were once per- 
 formed by hand are now accomplished automatically. 
 Among these are devices for holding a number of 
 shuttles at the side of the loom and for sending each 
 in its turn across the warp with its own particular 
 color; empty bobbins are automatically replaced by 
 full ones, and the loom is made to stop instantly if any 
 thread breaks. Special devices are provided also for 
 the weaving of complicated patterns. 
 
 Warping or Placing Silk Upon the Loom 
 
 The great looms of our modern silk factories must 
 be prepared for weaving, just as the hand-looms were, 
 by first stretching the warp threads on the loom. This 
 process is called " warping " and each warp thread is 
 called an " end," while the crosswise threads are 
 known as " picks.'* 
 
 Bolts of cloth as they come from the loom vary 
 greatly in length. Each individual warp thread must 
 be as long as the finished cloth. 
 
 If the silk is to be very wide and of rather fine 
 quality, from 3,000 to 6,000 ends will be required — 
 
INTENTIONAL SECOND EXF^OSURE 
 
 32 
 
 SILK DEPARTMENT 
 
 Edmund Cartwright, an Englishman. It was first 
 used in the United States in 18 15. 
 
 In the development of the power-loom the hand- 
 loom was used as a basis so that the parts of the loom 
 and the principles of weaving are practically the same. 
 So many contrivances have been added to the power- 
 loom, however, that operations which were once per- 
 formed by hand are now accomplished automatically. 
 Among these are devices for holding a number of 
 shuttles at the side of the loom and for sending each 
 in its turn across the warp with its own particular 
 color; empty bobbins are automatically replaced by 
 full ones, and the loom is made to stop instantly if any 
 thread breaks. Special devices are provided also for 
 the weaving of complicated patterns. 
 
 Warping or Placing Silk Upon the Loom 
 
 The great looms of our modern silk factories must 
 be prepared for weaving, just as the hand-looms were, 
 by first stretching the warp threads on the loom. This 
 process is called " warping " and each warp thread is 
 called an " end," while the crosswise threads are 
 known as " picks." 
 
 Bolts of cloth as they come from the loom vary 
 greatly in length. Each individual warp thread must 
 be as long as the finished cloth. 
 
 If the silk is to be very wide and of rather fine 
 quality, from 3,000 to 6,000 ends will be required — 
 
WEAVING 
 
 33 
 
 that is, from 3,000 to 6,000 single threads lying side 
 by side. 
 
 Silks which are eighteen inches or more in width 
 are called by the manufacturers " broad silks," to dis- 
 tinguish them from ribbons, which are made on nar- 
 row fabric looms. (See Chapter XVI for informa- 
 tion on ribbons.) 
 
 In the preparation of the warp the silk is wound on 
 spools, one for each warp thread. These spools are 
 put on a rack or creel. The thread is passed from the 
 creel through a coarse comb and from there to a finer 
 comb or reed. Then after passing through a still 
 finer reed the warp threads are passed on and wound 
 around the warping frame which is a large wheel, or 
 reel, eight yards in circumference. As the reel re- 
 volves it draws the threads from the spools in such a 
 way as to cause them to lie parallel upon its surface. 
 These reels may be seen in the view of the warping 
 room, Figure 5. 
 
 Beaming Off 
 
 From the frame the warp is wound on the warp 
 beam of the loom, which is afterward placed in the 
 back of the loom. Care must be taken in this opera- 
 tion that all the threads are kept at an even tension 
 as they are wound on the warp beam. After this is in 
 place in the loom the threads must be drawn through 
 the heddles and through the reed; this is usually a 
 
r i* 
 
 34 
 
 SILK DEPARTMENT 
 
 hand operation. Figure 6 shows workers passing a 
 single warp thread through the heddle eye of the 
 harness. 
 
 Movements of the Loom 
 
 Three principles underlie the art of hand-weaving 
 and they are also most important in modern power- 
 weaving : 
 
 1. Shedding, the raising of part of the warp 
 
 threads at one time to form an opening 
 through which the shuttle passes. 
 
 2. Picking, the throwing of the shuttle back and 
 
 forth through the shed. 
 
 3. Battening, pushing the weft threads close to- 
 
 gether after the picking, in order to make a 
 firm texture. 
 
 In addition to the preceding movements two others 
 should be mentioned: 
 
 4. Letting off, unrolling the warp from the warp 
 
 beam to furnish thread for the forming of 
 new cloth. 
 
 5. Taking up, winding the cloth which has just 
 
 been woven onto the cloth beam to make room 
 for the weaving of more cloth. 
 
 I 
 
 Chapter V 
 
 SILK WEAVES 
 
 Varieties of Weaves 
 
 The fineness of the silk fiber and its beautiful luster 
 have made it suitable for many varieties of weaves. 
 Those most used are: 
 
 Plain 
 
 Rib 
 
 Twill 
 
 Satin 
 
 Gauze or leno 
 
 Double-cloth 
 
 Pile 
 
 Pattern 
 
 Plain Weave 
 
 The plain or tabby weave, as it is sometimes called, 
 is the simplest and is used for the largest number of 
 materials. Among the silks made with this weave are 
 China silks, India silks, and taffetas. 
 
 Two harnesses are ordinarily used in the loom in 
 making plain weaves, but in the plain-weaving of silk 
 four or more are often used. In this case the silk 
 
 35 
 
36 
 
 SILK DEPARTMENT 
 
 yam is threaded through the different harnesses so that 
 they will act as two. Half the threads or all the odd- 
 numbered threads are raised at one time by machinery, 
 the shuttle carrying the weft or filling is sent quickly 
 through the shed thus formed, and the weft thread is 
 beaten back against the cloth ; then the alternate threads 
 — the even-numbered threads — are raised and the 
 shuttle is sent back again, and so on. 
 
 Rib Weaves 
 
 The rib weave is the plain weave with a rib or 
 corded effect made by varying the size of the threads 
 of either warp or weft, or by the use of a heavy filling 
 over which the silk threads pass. As these heavy filling 
 threads are often cotton or worsted, the weave of the' 
 materials made in this way is not always satisfactory, 
 for the silk threads covering the filling may wear off 
 and show the cotton underneath. 
 
 Some of the materials woven with the rib weave are 
 bengalines, poplins, grosgrains, ottomans, failles, reps, 
 moires, and others. 
 
 Rib weaves are of two kinds : 
 
 1. Warp rib, in which only the warp yarns which 
 
 make the ribs are seen. In this case the ribs 
 run across the fabric and are formed by the 
 weft passing twice through the same shed. 
 
 2. Filling rib, where only the filling yarns which 
 
 make the ribs are seen, and the ribs run 
 
 II 
 
INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE 
 
 36 
 
 SILK DEPARTMENT 
 
 yarn is threaded through the different harnesses so that 
 they will act as two. Half the threads or all the odd- 
 numbered threads are raised at one time by machinery, 
 the shuttle carrying the weft or filling is sent quickly 
 through the shed thus formed, and the weft thread is 
 beaten back against the cloth ; then the alternate threads 
 — the even-numbered threads — are raised and the 
 shuttle is sent back again, and so on. 
 
 Rib Weaves 
 
 The rib weave is the plain weave with a rib or 
 corded effect made by varying the size of the threads 
 of either warp or weft, or by the use of a heavy filling 
 over which the silk threads pass. As these heavy filling 
 threads are often cotton or worsted, the weave of the 
 materials made in this way is not always satisfactory, 
 for the silk threads covering the filling may wear off 
 and show the cotton underneath. 
 
 Some of the materials woven with the rib weave are 
 bengalines, poplins, grosgrains, ottomans, failles, reps, 
 moires, and others. 
 
 Rib weaves are of two kinds : 
 
 1. Warp rib, in which only the warp yarns which 
 
 make the ribs are seen. In this case the ribs 
 run across the fabric and are formed by the 
 weft passing twice through the same shed. 
 
 2. Filling rib, where only the filling yarns which 
 
 make the ribs are seen, and the ribs run 
 
SILK WEAVES 
 
 37 
 
 lengthwise of the fabric. The ribs are 
 formed by passing the filling over two 
 and under two warp threads, passing once 
 through each shed. 
 
 Twill Weave 
 
 The twill weave is known by the diagonal lines 
 which run across the cloth. Some of the silk mate- 
 rials made with the twill weave are plain foulards, 
 surahs, or silk serges. 
 
 The diagonal lines are formed by the way in which 
 the filling thread intersects the warp. Each filling 
 yarn passes over one and under two or more warp 
 threads, but not the same set of threads each time. 
 Each row begins one thread in advance of the preced- 
 ing row ; the result is that diagonal ridges are formed. 
 
 Satin Weave 
 
 In the satin weave the weft passes in succession over 
 one thread and under a group of warp threads, a com- 
 mon number being seven. Each time the weft crosses 
 the warp it passes over and under different warp 
 threads until it has been back and forth seven times ; 
 then the first row is repeated and each row of this next 
 group of seven repeats the first group and so on. 
 
 In this way nearly all the warp is brought to the sur- 
 face and nearly all the weft is left underneath, and 
 the ties, as they are called, (that is, the single threads 
 
38 
 
 SILK DEPARTMENT 
 
 crossed by the weft), come at a different place each 
 time and are hardly perceptible so that the surface has 
 the smooth and shiny appearance characteristic of 
 satin. After the finishing process of calendering, or 
 passing between heated rollers, this surface reflects the 
 rays of light completely. 
 
 Satins are not always woven on seven or eight 
 threads ; there may be almost any number from five to 
 twenty-four, but seven threads, the repetition coming 
 in the eighth row, seem to be used most commonly. 
 The number of threads indicates the number of hed- 
 dles required in the loom, and satins are designated as 
 five-heddle or eight-heddle satin, etc. 
 
 In weaving satins the wrong side of the satin is on 
 top and the face down. This makes the process of 
 weaving easier, as only one heddle need be raised for 
 the filling thread to pass through ; whereas if the fabric 
 were woven with the face up eight, ten, twelve, or more * 
 heddles or shafts would have to be raised, according 
 to the number of warp threads to be skipped. 
 
 Although there is no record to show when satin 
 weaving was invented, the Chinese were doubtless the 
 first to devise this method. It is particularly adapted 
 to the silk fiber, because the luster of the silk shows 
 much more than in plain weaves. 
 
 The satin weave is the foundation of all modern 
 pattern-weaving, as the satin ground shows to ad- 
 
 SILK WEAVES 
 
 39 
 
 vantage the silk and gold embroideries which the 
 Chinese have always been so skilful in working. 
 
 Gauze or Leno Weave 
 
 Gauze or leno weaving produces an openwork effect, 
 such as is found in grenadine and marquisette, which 
 are firm and yet at the same time thin and open 
 fabrics. 
 
 A special loom carrying two warp threads is required. 
 The regular warp thread is placed as usual. The 
 extra warp thread twists to the right and left around 
 the regular thread. The filling threads pass over and 
 under the two warp threads, binding them tightly 
 together and forming a wavy appearance. 
 
 Double-Cloth Weaves 
 
 Double-cloth weaving is the process of weaving two 
 cloths at the same time to form one fabric. It is found 
 in broad silks or ribbons where: 
 
 1. Both sides are of different color. 
 
 2. One side is velvet and the reverse side satin. 
 
 3. The figures are different on each side. 
 
 The weave is also used in silks which are made 
 heavier by being backed, that is, the back may be of 
 wool and the face of silk or satin; and in cravats or 
 neckties which are made in tubular form. 
 
 I. The two cloths may be woven separately and 
 
 I 
 
40 
 
 SILK DEPARTMENT 
 
 joined only at the two edges; in this case a tubular 
 fabric is formed, such as is used for men's neckties or 
 cravats. 
 
 2. The two cloths may be woven in two separate 
 pieces, each having its own warp and filling, but the 
 threads are interlaced at certain regular intervals, fas- 
 tening the two pieces together to form one material. 
 This is the method used for double-faced ribbons and 
 silk materials which are backed to make them heavier 
 and stronger. 
 
 Pile Weave 
 
 Velvets and plushes are known as pile fabrics. 
 There are two methods by which the pile may be pro- 
 duced. 
 
 I. Velvets are usually woven by the double-cloth 
 method — two pieces of cloth face to face. There are 
 two sets of warp threads; each warp has its own weft, 
 and in addition extra pile threads pass up and down 
 from one set of warp threads to the other. The dis- 
 tance between the two sets of warp threads determines 
 the length of the pile. 
 
 Two shuttles go back and forth across the cloth, 
 carrying the filling for each set of warp threads and 
 at the same time binding in the pile threads. As the 
 weaving proceeds, a knife travels in the same direction 
 as the shuttles and a short distance from them, cutting 
 the pile threads between the two pieces of cloth. 
 
INTENTIONAL SECOND EX.dOSURE 
 
 40 
 
 SILK DEPARTMENT 
 
 joined only at the two edges; in this case a tubular 
 fabric is formed, such as is used for men's neckties or 
 cravats. 
 
 2. The two cloths may be woven in two separate 
 pieces, each having its own warp and filling, but the 
 threads are interlaced at certain regular intervals, fas- 
 tening the two pieces together to form one material. 
 This is the method used for double-faced ribbons and 
 silk materials which are backed to make them heavier 
 and stronger. 
 
 Pile Weave 
 
 Velvets and plushes are known as pile fabrics. 
 There are two methods by which the pile may be pro- 
 duced. 
 
 I. Velvets are usually woven by the double-cloth 
 method — two pieces of cloth face to face. There are 
 two sets of warp threads; each warp has its own weft, 
 and in addition extra pile threads pass up and down 
 from one set of warp threads to the other. The dis- 
 tance between the two sets of warp threads determines 
 the length of the pile. 
 
 Two shuttles go back and forth across the cloth, 
 carrying the filling for each set of warp threads and 
 at the same time binding in the pile threads. As the 
 weaving proceeds, a knife travels in the same direction 
 as the shuttles and a short distance from them, cutting 
 the pile threads between the two pieces of cloth. 
 
 i 
 
SILK WEAVES 
 
 41 
 
 These threads after being cut stand up straight and 
 form the pile or nap of the velvet. Two pieces of vel- 
 vet are thus woven at the same time. As they come 
 from the loom the two pieces are wound on separate 
 beams. 
 
 2. Another method of weaving velvet, which is not 
 much used now, is done with two sets of warp threads, 
 one set being for the pile. The pile is raised by in- 
 serting wires into the shed under the pile thread and 
 across the warp threads. When the wires are pulled 
 out, a small knife on the top of the wire cuts the pile 
 loop, leaving the ends standing straight, or in the case 
 of uncut velvet, the wires have no knife on top but 
 are pulled out, leaving the loops uncut. The inserting 
 of the wires and the pulling out of the same is all done 
 by machinery. 
 
 In this method one piece of cloth is woven at a time 
 and the loops forming the velvet are on top and in 
 sight. The warp and filling threads may be either of 
 silk or cotton. These form the back of the velvet. 
 The pile thread which forms the face of the velvet is 
 always of silk. 
 
 3. Another method is used in making corduroy and 
 velveteen or cotton velvets. Two sets of filling threads 
 are used to one of warp. The extra filling thread 
 forms the pile on the face of the cloth, and as the weav- 
 ing proceeds it is cut by hand with a special kind of 
 knife along the length of the material. 
 
I 
 
 42 
 
 SILK DEPARTMENT 
 
 The Process of Pattern- Weaving 
 
 When designs or figures are wrought into a fabric 
 while it is being woven, the process is called pattern- 
 weaving. 
 
 Whether the warp is placed in a simple frame and 
 the weft put in by patient hand-labor, or whether the 
 work is done on a complicated loom so constructed 
 that the warp threads are lifted automatically for the 
 weft or filling to intersect, the principle is the same. 
 Even in the most intricate patterns the effect is ob- 
 tained by only the warp and filling threads intersecting 
 each other at intervals which differ according to the 
 design. 
 
 A simple pattern may be made by striping the warp, 
 that is, putting in threads of different colors when warp- 
 ing the loom, so that when the filling is carried across, 
 the contrasting colors will appear at regular intervals. 
 Still other effects may be obtained by weaving the fill- 
 ing also in stripes. Some of the old Egyptian patterns 
 were made by striping the weft or filling. In other 
 cases gold, silver, and brightly colored threads were 
 added to the weft at certain intervals. 
 
 Antiquity of Pattern- Weaving 
 
 Pattern-weaving by mechanical means seems to have 
 been unknown to all the ancients except the Chinese. 
 The Egyptians had some methods of weaving in rich, 
 colored patterns which are unknown to us, though 
 
 SILK WEAVES 
 
 43 
 
 examples of their workmanship are to be found in 
 museums today. They also applied designs with the 
 needle or by stenciling the fabric after it was woven. 
 Their materials were elaborately decorated, as were 
 those of Babylonia and eastern countries, but we have 
 no evidence of a mechanical contrivance to produce 
 patterns. 
 
 The Draw-Loom 
 
 The origin of the draw-loom is not known, but the 
 earliest record of it comes from China. As silk was 
 first woven in China it is almost certain that the loom 
 for pattern-weaving was invented there and passed, 
 with silk manufacture, to Western Asia and then into 
 Europe. 
 
 The principle of the draw-loom is the same as that 
 of the most elaborate Jacquard loom of the present 
 day. It simply provides a mechanical contrivance for 
 the irregular lifting of the warp threads. 
 
 In the draw-loom vertical cords were attached to 
 certain threads of warp so that they might be drawn 
 up separately according to the pattern which was to be 
 woven into the fabric. 
 
 The loom had two mountings : one, the usual shaft- 
 mounting needed to form the cloth, and the other a 
 harness, called the " draw boy mounting/' by which 
 the separate threads were lifted to form the patterns. 
 The old-fashioned draw-loom also required two op- 
 
44 
 
 SILK DEPARTMENT 
 
 erators: one to attend to the throwing of the shuttle 
 across the warp, and the other, called the draw boy, 
 to draw up the threads as previously arranged. The 
 draw boy had a position near the top of the loom, from 
 which he could manipulate the harness assigned to him. 
 
 Improvements upon the Draw-Loom 
 
 The first improvement upon the loom was made in 
 1604 by M. Simblot, a Frenchman, who connected a 
 separate series of cords, called the " simple/' with the 
 neck of the harness. This arrangement enabled the 
 draw boy to handle the cords while standing at the side 
 of the loom. 
 
 During the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, in 
 both England and France a number of patents were 
 taken out for devices by which the threads could be 
 manipulated by the weaver without the aid of the draw 
 boy. As early as 1687 Joseph Mason invented a 
 "draw boy engine" which could be worked by the 
 weaver. 
 
 In 1728 M. Falcon made a chain of perforated cards 
 through which the hooks lifting the warp threads 
 would need to pass, thus controlling the design auto- 
 matically, and in 1756 M. Vaucanson made a cylinder 
 over which a perforated paper band was passed, secur- 
 ing the same result. This system of controlling the 
 threads not only made the draw boy unnecessary, but 
 reduced the number of harnesses and greatly increased 
 
 SILK WEAVES 45 
 
 the range of patterns which might be produced If 
 patterns are woven on the draw-loom more harnesses 
 are required, and as one loom cannot carry more than 
 about thirty harnesses, only small patterns can be 
 woven. 
 
 The various inventions of the eighteenth century 
 remamed meffective, however, because weavers could 
 not use them. It was M. Jacquard who combined the 
 mventions and secured their practical use. The mod- 
 ern pattern-weaving loom is therefore called bv his 
 name. ^ 
 
 Jacquard 
 
 Joseph Marie Jacquard was born at Lyons in 1782 
 It is impossible to say how much of his work was orig- 
 inal and how greatly he was indebted to his prede- 
 cessors, but he succeeded in perfecting a practicable 
 machine which was adopted by the weavers 
 
 His first attempt to use the machine was in 1804 
 
 when he introduced it into his own factory. The silk 
 
 weavers were opposed to him, and his machine was 
 
 taken to the public square of Lyons and burned. On 
 
 that same square today a statue is erected to his mem- 
 ory. 
 
 In spite of persecutions, the machine was later set 
 up again in France and in 1820 some were secretly set 
 up in England At first they were used chiefly as 
 substitutes for the draw boys on the hamess-looms 
 
 i3 
 
46 
 
 SILK DEPARTMENT 
 
 During the nineteenth century Jacquard's invention 
 was considerably altered by British mechanics and was 
 adapted to the power-looms. At present its use is 
 general over nearly the whole of the textile industry. 
 
 The Jacquard Loom 
 
 The patterns which can be woven on the ordinary 
 harness-looms are limited in number, but the Jacquard 
 loom admits of four hundred or more changes in pat- 
 tern. The cost of working on the Jacquard loom is 
 greater than on the plain looms, but the results are so 
 varied and satisfactory, that its use is general through- 
 out the textile industry, especially in the weaving of 
 silks, velvets, and fine laces. 
 
 The principal difference between the Jacquard loom 
 and the plain harness-loom is that the shedding in the 
 former is controlled from above the harness, whereas 
 the shedding in the harness-loom is effected by treadles 
 worked from below. By means of the Jacquard at- 
 tachment to the loom, each one of the hundreds or 
 even thousands of warp threads may be operated sepa- 
 rately, without disturbing any other thread on the 
 loom, and they may be lifted in the right order for the 
 formation of any design. 
 
 This wonderful invention governs all the operations 
 of the loom. It makes the pattern and ground of the 
 fabric, it changes in proper succession the shuttles 
 carrying the different colors of the design, and it ad- 
 
 SILK WEAVES 
 
 47 
 
 justs many other details — all by means of holes which 
 have been punched in certain order in a set of cards. 
 
 Mechanism of the Loom 
 
 The attention of the visitor in the weaving room will 
 be attracted by the almost countless cords which rise 
 perpendicularly from the warp threads in the loom to 
 the attachment overhead. Near the top of the loom 
 is a series of perforated cards, tied together at 
 the ends. These cards are in constant motion and 
 by means of them the design is woven into the 
 cloth. 
 
 The mechanism which brings the cards in contact 
 with the threads is most ingenious and rather com- 
 plicated. It may be easily understood by a careful 
 study of the diagram, Figure 8, in connection with the 
 following explanation of the essential parts of the ma- 
 chine and their relation to one another. 
 
 Each cord (A) is fastened at its upper end to a 
 hook (B). This set of hooks controls each individual 
 warp thread by raising the harness cords. These cords 
 have "mail eyes" (C) near the lower ends, through 
 which the warp threads pass, so that when the cords 
 are drawn up the warp threads rise also. The cords 
 are pulled back into place by v^eights called lingoes 
 (D). 
 
 The griffe, or hook lifter (E), consists of a series 
 of bars or blades which lift the sheds. The hooks 
 
SILK WEAVES 
 
 
 From " Textiles," by Woolman and McC.owan (The MacMillan 
 Company), by courtesy of the authors and publishers 
 
 Figure 8. Detail of Jacquard Loom 
 
 A~Neck Cords. B— Hooks. C— Mail Eye. D— Weights or Lingoes. E— 
 Gnffe or Hook Lifter. F—Needles. G— Spring Box. H— Needle Eye. 
 I — Cyhnder. K — Catch of Needles. 
 
 48 
 
 49 
 
 work vertically and have a catch (K) at one end which 
 passes over the griflFe. 
 
 The needles (F) work horizontally. They are bent 
 back at one end so that each needle may come in con- 
 tact with the spring in the spring box (G). There is 
 an eye in the center of each needle so that the hooks 
 may pass through. The needles control the hooks. 
 
 The hollow, four-sided, revolving cylinder (I) 
 makes one quarter of a revolution with each pick of the 
 pattern, thus placing one of its four sides in contact 
 with the needle. 
 
 The cards pass over the cylinder, coming in place 
 alternately and showing the pattern by pressing back 
 those needles not needed to raise the shed. 
 
 The Cards 
 
 The use of the cards may be better understood by 
 comparing them to the perforated paper roll of the 
 mechanical piano-player. Just as the tune played on 
 the piano is cut in the strip of paper, so the design to 
 be woven in the loom must be cut in the series of cards 
 of the Jacquard machine. 
 
 The design for the woven silk is first drawn in color 
 on paper which is ruled for the purpose. The ruling 
 is in straight, vertical, and horizontal lines across the 
 paper, forming small squares; the pattern is carefully 
 planned to fit into certain numbers of squares, like de- 
 signs for cross-stitch embroidery. 
 
so 
 
 SILK DEPARTMENT 
 
 The paper on which the design has been drawn is 
 placed in an upright position on the machine used for 
 the perforation of the cards. Only about an inch of 
 the pattern shows at a time, and the line to be cut is 
 indicated by a scale bar placed across the face of the 
 design ; the spaces on this scale bar are numbered from 
 left to right and the numbers on these spaces apply to 
 the warp threads in the loom, the cards in the harness, 
 and their connecting hooks, rods, etc., as well as the 
 corresponding spaces in the pattern card. Each card 
 controls the motion of the loom for one pick, that is, 
 the raising of certain warp threads while the shuttle 
 passes once through the threads which form the shed. 
 The card cutter places a card in the machine and 
 by pressing certain knobs, holes are perforated in the 
 cards ; these holes correspond to the spaces occupied by 
 the design on the line which he is copying. The scale 
 bar is then adjusted for the next line of warps and 
 the next card is cut, and so on until cards have been 
 cut for each line of the design. The cards are then 
 laced together in their right order to form an endless 
 chain. In weaving an elaborate pattern the expense 
 is increased by the use of many thousands of these 
 cards. 
 
 Varieties of the Jacquard Loom 
 
 There are many varieties of Jacquard looms and 
 these may vary in different particulars. Some aim at 
 
 
 SILK WEAVES 
 
 51 
 
 economy in cards, others at reducing the number of 
 needles and hooks. Modern ingenuity is constantly at 
 work to find better and less expensive methods. But 
 after all, the essential principles of the machine remain 
 practically the same. If the warp threads are to be 
 lifted, then some form of hook or cord, or some simi- 
 lar device must be used, which in turn must be directed 
 by either a card cylinder or some other appliance 
 equally effective. 
 
 Figured Velvets 
 
 Figured velvets are also made on the Jacquard loom. 
 Only such threads of the pile are lifted for the inser- 
 tion of the wires (see " Pile Weave " above) as are 
 needed to form the figure, and other threads are left 
 to be woven into the ground. 
 
 As the pile threads are used in different proportions, 
 they cannot all be placed on one warp beam, but are 
 wound each on its own bobbin. These warp bobbins 
 are spread on frames, each bobbin being separately 
 weighted and each acting independently, so that the 
 number of threads used varies with the figure. 
 
 When pile figures appear on otherwise plain fabrics, 
 the figures are generally woven in a sort of a face 
 filling effect and then cut with a knife as already de- 
 scribed. 
 
DYEING SILK 
 
 53 
 
 Chapter VI 
 DYEING SILK 
 
 Classes of Dyed Silk 
 
 The processes of throwing (see Chapter III) and 
 dyeing are usually carried on in different mills by 
 entirely different concerns, but some of the larger mills 
 complete all the processes. 
 
 Dyed silks are divided into two classes : 
 
 1. Yam-dyed goods, which have been dyed in the 
 
 skein before weaving. 
 
 2. Piece-dyed goods, which are dyed after the silk 
 
 has been woven into cloth. 
 
 Yarn-Dyeing Processes 
 The processes in yarn-dyeing are: 
 
 Boiling-off 
 Weighting 
 Dyeing 
 
 Boiling-Off, Scouring, or Stripping 
 
 The raw silk is thrown " in the gum '' and the gum 
 IS now removed by the boiling-off process. The skeins 
 
 52 
 
 of silk are immersed in boiling soap suds made from 
 olive oil soap. This process softens and removes the 
 gum and leaves the silk soft. As much of the color 
 is in the gum, the silk, which may have been yellow, 
 green, or white, comes out white and glossy. The 
 hardness of the gum varies in different kinds of silk; 
 that from Japan has the softest gum of all. 
 
 By one process of making gauze or crepe materials 
 the silk is not boiled off or scoured. The gum is left 
 in, as it is then easier to give the required hard twist 
 to the silk, and the removal of the gum later gives the 
 desired crinkled effect. For dyeing with certain colors 
 the silk is half -scoured. Crepe is also made by varia- 
 tions in the weaving process. 
 
 Process of Boiling Off 
 
 The skeins of silk as they come from the throwing 
 mill are opened, a stick is passed through a number of 
 them, and the ends of the stick are rested upon the 
 sides of a vat of boiling soapy water. The skeins 
 hang from the stick. In this way there is no danger 
 that skeins may become tangled. They are constantly 
 moved over the stick so that all parts of the silk may 
 He in the boiling water for the same length of time. 
 This process not only removes the gum but puts the 
 silk in a better condition to receive weighting, which 
 is usually the next process, though some silks are un- 
 weighted. After the skeins have stayed in the bath 
 
 II 
 
54 
 
 SILK DEPARTMENT 
 
 from a half-hour to three hours, they are taken out and 
 dried or whizzed in a hydroextractor which removes 
 all the moisture in a very short time. If the silk is to 
 be "pure dye/' that is, if nothing but the color is to be 
 added, it is dyed next and the silk is then washed, 
 dried, stretched, and finished. 
 
 Weighting of Silk 
 
 The removal of the gum from either raw or spun 
 silk in the boiling-off process reduces its weight about 
 25 per cent and leaves it very soft and light. One 
 pound (i6 oz.) of silk will weigh 12 oz. after boiling- 
 oif. As silk is sold by weight this loss is a serious one 
 to the manufacturer, and it is perfectly legitimate to 
 make up the 25 per cent. Sugar of lead, which is 
 harmless, was once used; today salts of tin and iron 
 in solution and other injurious substances are used, 
 and often much more than the original loss of 25 per 
 cent is added. A pound of silk can be made to weigh 
 40 or 50 oz. or even more, and the manufacturer gains 
 by this process and puts on the market an inferior 
 quality of silk. The result is that while a cheap silk 
 can be made, it will not wear well and soon splits and 
 cracks under its weight of tin and iron. 
 
 This weighting is usually done before the silk is 
 dyed, but it may be put into the dye bath. A manu- 
 facturer who wishes to deceive can add as much as 300 
 per cent extra weight by the use of chemicals. 
 
 DYEING SILK 
 
 55 
 
 Weighting Materials 
 
 By using different chemicals, silks of all colors can 
 be weighted. Some of the weighting materials are 
 salts of tin, iron, sodium, magnesium, chromium, and 
 barium. Sugar, gelatin, glycerin, glucose, and paraf- 
 fin are also employed. Those most commonly used 
 are tannin, tin, iron, and sugar. 
 
 Process of Weighting with Tin 
 
 The silk is put into a bath of salts of tin; this treat- 
 ment does not affect its color. After remaining in 
 this bath for several hours it is taken out, washed, and 
 dried. It is then passed through a solution of phos- 
 phate of soda, again washed, and dried. From this 
 process the silk has gained about 2V2 oz. to the pound 
 of raw silk. The silk may be passed several times in 
 succession through these two baths ; each time it gains 
 in weight. 
 
 Next a bath of silicate of soda is given; this adds a 
 little to the weight and is claimed to add luster and 
 strength to the goods. A final washing is given the 
 silk and it is ready for the dye bath. Dark-colored 
 silks can stand more weighting than light-colored ones, 
 and salts of iron are used for dark silks, while salts of 
 tin are used for light-colored silks. 
 
 Results of Weighting 
 Weighting which is not properly done weakens the 
 
 
56 
 
 SILK DEPARTMENT 
 
 strength of the fiber so that the silk will not wear well. 
 Many people cannot understand why a silk petticoat 
 is in shreds when it has been worn very little. Heav- 
 ily weighted silk cracks and splits after a short time 
 whether it is used or not. Perspiration often unites 
 with the chemicals in the silk and causes it to fall 
 apart. 
 
 Silks made many years ago before there was such 
 excessive weighting would wear for years and many 
 an heirloom gown is in better condition than a last 
 year's dress. 
 
 Wild Silk 
 
 The wild silks (tussah) are difficult to dye. For this 
 reason the genuine wild silks are usually sold in the 
 natural unbleached color. 
 
 Classification of Dyes 
 Textile fibers are divided into two large classes: 
 
 1. Fibers of vegetable origin, as cotton, linen, jute, 
 
 etc. 
 
 2. Fibers of animal origin, as wool, silk, fur, etc. 
 Colors that will dye the animal fibers will not dye 
 
 the vegetable fibers, and vice versa. Colors that will 
 dye one animal fiber will dye all other animal fibers, 
 yet today there are dyes for each fiber, whether animal 
 or vegetable, as silk dyes, wool dyes, cotton dyes, linen 
 dyes. This is sometimes an advantage in dyeing 
 
 DYEING SILK 
 
 57 
 
 mixed silk and cotton goods; the silk takes the dye, 
 the cotton does not, and the result is that if a white 
 stripe of cotton thread is put in a silk fabric the cotton 
 will remain white after the silk has been dyed. 
 
 Silk was originally dyed by means of vegetable col- 
 oring matter, such as logwood. Brazilwood, and mad- 
 der; and animal products, such as cochineal. 
 
 Modern Dye Stuffs 
 There are two classes of dye stuffs for silk : 
 
 1. Basic or substantive colors 
 
 2. Acid colors 
 
 Basic or substantive colors will combine directly 
 with the silk fabrics without the aid of a mordant. 
 Acid colors will not combine with the fiber unless a 
 mordant is used. The acid colors are now widely used 
 because most of the silk is weighted with tin, which 
 acts as a partial mordant for the acid colors. 
 
 Mordants 
 
 A mordant is a chemical substance which unites with 
 the fiber and with the coloring matter, fixing the color- 
 ing matter on the fiber. Silk is usually dyed in a 
 bath containing the "boiled-off liquor" from the 
 scouring in which the gum was boiled out. A little • 
 acetic acid is put into the bath to neutralize it. 
 
58 
 
 SILK DEPARTMENT 
 
 Yarn-Dyeing 
 
 In the dye room are long vats filled with the steam- 
 ing hot dye mixture which has been prepared accord- 
 ing to the desired color. The skeins of silk yarn are 
 immersed by being suspended over sticks which rest 
 on the edge of the dye vat. These sticks and skeins 
 are moved constantly so that the dye may penetrate 
 every part. The depth of color depends upon the 
 length of time the silk is in the dye. After it is taken 
 from the vat it is immersed in water to remove the 
 loose color and then dried. 
 
 Figure 9 shows the process of yam-dyeing. 
 
 If a light-colored silk is required, bleaching must 
 precede the dyeing. The skeins of silk are either 
 bleached with peroxide or put in a sulphur chamber. 
 
 Stretching 
 
 After the silk is dyed it may be placed over a peg 
 in the wall and twisted, pulled, and stretched until it is 
 soft and glossy. A still greater luster may be ob- 
 tained by stretching the silk by machine. In this 
 process the skeins of silk are laid between damp cloths. 
 iWhen the silk has become thoroughly moistened the 
 skeins are placed over two steel arms, which are then 
 screwed apart, thus stretching the silk and holding it 
 tight. Dry heat is then applied. Although this 
 process diminishes the elasticity of the silk it adds 
 much to its brilliancy and luster. 
 
INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE 
 
 58 
 
 SILK DEPARTMENT 
 
 Yarn-Dyeing 
 
 In the dye room are long vats filled with the steam- 
 ing hot dye mixture which has been prepared accord- 
 ing to the desired color. The skeins of silk yarn are 
 immersed by being suspended over sticks which rest 
 on the edge of the dye vat. These sticks and skeins 
 are moved constantly so that the dye may penetrate 
 every part. The depth of color depends upon the 
 length of time the silk is in the dye. After it is taken 
 from the vat it is immersed in water to remove the 
 loose color and then dried. 
 
 Figure 9 shows the process of yarn-dyeing. 
 
 If a light-colored silk is required, bleaching must 
 precede the dyeing. The skeins of silk are either 
 bleached with peroxide or put in a sulphur chamber. 
 
 Stretching 
 
 After the silk is dyed it may be placed over a peg 
 in the wall and twisted, pulled, and stretched until it is 
 soft and glossy. A still greater luster may be ob- 
 tained by stretching the silk by machine. In this 
 process the skeins of silk are laid between damp cloths. 
 When the silk has become thoroughly moistened the 
 skeins are placed over two steel arms, which are then 
 screwed apart, thus stretching the silk and holding it 
 tight. Dry heat is then applied. Although this 
 process diminishes the elasticity of the silk it adds 
 much to its brilliancy and luster. 
 
DYEING SILK 
 
 ' h 
 
 59 
 
 Scroop or rustle is given to silk by soaking it in 
 dilute acetic acid. 
 
 Black Silk 
 
 Black silks are treated separately and differently 
 from colored silks. Either salts of iron or salts of tin 
 are used in the weighting, but more often the iron salts 
 are used. The silks may pass through a weighting 
 solution several times, each time coming out heavier 
 than before. The silks must be washed thoroughly 
 after each process. Logwood is used in dyeing black 
 silks. 
 
 Piece-Dyeing 
 
 Piece-dyed goods are woven with the gum in the 
 silk ; this gum must first be boiled out of the goods and 
 then they are either dyed in the piece or prepared for 
 printing. 
 
 Piece-dyed goods are practically all pure dye and 
 very little attempt is made to weight them. 
 
 Printing 
 
 As a rule silk printing is confined to fabrics woven 
 of pure silk and dyed in the piece, though it is possible 
 to produce designs on weighted skein-dyed silks. 
 
 The most primitive method of printing and one still 
 employed by the Chinese and Japanese is done by the 
 use of stencils. 
 
 w 
 
 % M 
 
 i . 
 
fi 
 
 60 
 
 SILK DEPARTMENT 
 
 Block printing was the next method employed and it 
 is still much used in Europe. In block printing, the 
 pattern is worked out in relief on wooden blocks, and 
 the color is taken up by pressing the block against the 
 
 pad on which the color has been previously prepared 
 
 one color on each pad and one block for each color. 
 Good results are obtained in this way but the process 
 is slow, for the pattern is put on the silk by placing 
 one block at a time in its place on the fabric. A blow 
 from a mallet prints the color on the fabric. 
 
 Machine Printing 
 
 Most silk goods are now printed by machine. The 
 design is engraved or etched on copper rollers; there 
 is one roller on the machine for each color. If there 
 are eight colors in the pattern there must be eight 
 rollers on the machine. The color, which is thickened 
 with gum, is in a trough at the bottom of the machine 
 and is supplied to the cylinders by rolls which turn 
 in the color trough and against the cylinder. Any sur- 
 plus is scraped off by a knife blade which is called a 
 " doctor." This leaves the color only in the engrav- 
 ing and this is taken up by the cloth, as it passes next 
 to the cylinder. In order to set the colors, the cloth 
 is steamed after printing and it is then washed in order 
 to remove the gum used to thicken the colors for 
 printing. 
 
 li 
 
 DYEING SILK 
 
 61 
 
 Warp printing is done by printing the pattern di- 
 rectly on the threads of the warp with rollers or 
 blocks. This gives the effect of an indistinct design 
 on the silk fabric, because the filling threads, as they 
 cross the warp-printed threads, cover small portions 
 of the design. Dresden and chine silks are warp- 
 printed. 
 
 Ways of Printing 
 There are three methods of printing patterns : 
 
 1. Application or direct printing. This is the print- 
 ing of the pattern on the cloth, all of the colors being 
 printed at once by means of engraved rollers as just 
 described. 
 
 2. Extract or discharge printing. In this case the 
 silk is first dyed and the pattern is printed upon the 
 dyed fabric by chemicals. The cloth is then subjected 
 to heat and moisture. This causes a chemical reaction 
 to take place which either removes the color of the 
 material where the design was printed, leaving it white, 
 or produces a new color by chemical combination. If 
 a light color is required, a bleaching agent is put into 
 the chemical. The material is then washed and dried 
 to prepare it for the finishing processes. 
 
 3. Resist printing. By this method the pattern is 
 first printed on the goods with wax or some chemical 
 which will resist the action of the dyestuff. The fab- 
 
 ♦j 
 
 
A 
 
 ■.'* 
 
 If 
 
 62 
 
 SILK DEPARTMENT 
 
 ric is then dyed and washed in benzine or some agent 
 which dissolves the wax or chemicals and brings out 
 the design. 
 
 Antiquity of Vegetable and Animal Dyes 
 
 Methods of extracting colors from plants, fruits, 
 and bark of trees, and their use in the dyeing of tex- 
 tiles were known in prehistoric times. Dyeing was 
 practiced in China in a most primitive way at a very 
 early date. Later the manufacture of colors and 
 methods of dyeing became known in India, where they 
 were much improved. The printing of textiles was 
 also practiced. From India the art passed to Babylo- 
 nia and Assyria; thence to Egypt, where mummy 
 cloths have been found which were dyed with indigo 
 and madder. The Phoenician merchants imported 
 Oriental dyestuflfs and others of their own manufac- 
 ture into Greece. Tyrian purple was the dye most 
 used by the Phoenicians. It was obtained from several 
 varieties of mollusks which are found in tropical seas. 
 The purple murex was the most common of these. 
 Green and blue dyes were also obtained from shell fish 
 of the murex family. Little is known of the methods 
 employed by the Greeks and Romans. 
 
 Art of Using Dyes Regained in Europe 
 
 With the fall of the Roman Empire the art of dye- 
 ing was lost to Europe, but it began to flourish in 
 
 DYEING SILK 
 
 63 
 
 Arabia and Turkey and was brought back to Europe 
 by the importation of Oriental products. Then Ven- 
 ice became famous for dyes and dyed goods. 
 
 In the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries Florence 
 reached the zenith of her power and among her other 
 arts and handicrafts famous dyed silks were produced. 
 The art passed on to Germany, France, and Flanders, 
 and from Flanders to England. 
 
 Growth of Industry in France 
 
 In France the fostering of the industry was due to 
 Colbert, a famous statesman who lived during the 
 reign of Louis XIV. Two centuries before, in 1456, 
 Gilles and Jean Gobelin had established dye-works in 
 Paris. During the next century their descendants 
 added a tapestry manufactory to the original works. 
 There the Gobelin tapestries, famous for their beauti- 
 ful, rich, and peculiar colors, were made. The most 
 beautiful of the dyes was a greenish-blue, which is now 
 known as Gobelin blue. In 1662, at the instigation of 
 Colbert, the factory became the property of the state 
 and Gobelin tapestries were produced in much larger 
 quantities. 
 
 Early in the nineteenth century Chevreul, a great 
 French chemist who had a profound knowledge of the 
 science of color and the dyeing industry, perfected the 
 vegetable dyes and discovered how to produce many 
 more color combinations. 
 
64 
 
 SILK DEPARTMENT 
 
 Decrease in Cost of Dyes 
 
 Dyed goods were great luxuries and prohibited to 
 most people because of their exorbitant price, but the 
 invention of the steam engine and steam weaving ma- 
 chines in England led to mechanically driven apparatus 
 for extracting dyestuffs and preparing them for use, 
 and this lessened the expense. The most important 
 dyes were indigo for blue and madder for red. Cutch 
 was used for brown. Persian berries were used for 
 making extracts of different yellows. These colors 
 were used direct, in a few instances in connection with 
 mordants, such as salts of iron, copper, and aluminum 
 in the form of sulphates. 
 
 American Dyes 
 
 After the discovery of America new colors were ob- 
 tained — reds from Brazilian redwoods ; blues and 
 blacks from logwood; cochineal, a scarlet extracted 
 from female cochineal insects, exported from Mexico. 
 Safflower, or false saffron ; fustic, or yellow-wood ; and 
 many other extracts from West Indian and South 
 American plants also came into general use. 
 
 Mineral Dyes 
 
 Dyes made from various mineral compounds have 
 been largely used. The most important is Prussian 
 blue, discovered in the eighteenth century. It is made 
 
 DYEING SILK 
 
 65 
 
 from iron salts in combination with potassium ferro- 
 cyanid. 
 
 Coal Tar Dyes (Aniline Dyes) 
 
 The most important of recently developed dyes are 
 those made from coal tar. They are derived from a 
 substance which results from the burning of coal in 
 making illuminating gas. With the development of 
 the gas industry, which began about 18 14, there came 
 a by-product known as gas coal tar, which is obtained 
 from soft coal when it is baked in closed retorts. The 
 tar is condensed as the gas passes off. It is a black, 
 heavy mixture, resembling pitch and was formerly dif- 
 ficult to get rid of, since it was considered of no value. 
 
 Chemists began experimenting with the product and 
 as early as 1834 aniline dyestuff was discovered, al- 
 though it was not at first known by that name. In 
 1 84 1 the same product was discovered by another 
 chemist and at this time called aniline. The year 1856 
 can properly be called the time of the discovery of the 
 coal tar dyestuff when Professor W. H. Perkin, an 
 English chemist, produced the first aniline dye which 
 was manufactured for commercial purposes. The 
 manufacture of coal tar dyes is now one of the largest 
 and most scientific industries in the world. 
 
 Growth of the Industry 
 Although the industry originated in England, in a 
 
i 
 
 i 
 
 66 
 
 SILK DEPARTMENT 
 
 short time France was leading in the production of 
 anihne dyes; then Germany and Switzerland became 
 interested and developed aniline dyes to the highest 
 degree of efficiency. Germany practically held the 
 monopoly of the manufacture to 19 14, when the war 
 began. The other countries, including America, were 
 dependent on Germany for the finished raw materials 
 called intermediates from which their dyes were made. 
 Immediately following the outbreak of the war the 
 industries in this country were handicapped and the 
 only solution seemed to be to wait until the end of the 
 war, for it was thought that only Germany could send 
 the dyes. But as time passed American capitalists and 
 chemists and others have worked over the situation 
 until America is turning out dyestuflfs which are said 
 to be equal to those of Europe. 
 
 Many people think that the colors and the perfumes 
 obtained are extracted directly from the coal tar. 
 This is not the case, for coal tar is a mixture of a 
 great many products which are separated from each 
 other by distillation. These products are carefully 
 treated, and combined chemically with other chemicals 
 that are not present in the coal tar. The combination 
 of substances produces new chemical compounds 
 known as intermediates. These intermediates, treated 
 with other intermediates, or heavy chemicals, produce 
 such substances as dyes, explosives, etc. 
 
 Chapter VII 
 FINISHING PROCESSES 
 
 Variety of Processes Required 
 
 Silks, after being dyed and woven, or woven and 
 dyed, are measured, weighed, and examined. The 
 woven pieces are usually about seventy yards in length. 
 A process, called picking, follows. The pickers, 
 usually women, open the bolts of silk, pass the material 
 over an upright board in front of them, and watch 
 closely for small lumps, loose threads, or anything 
 that may harm the smooth appearance of the silk. It 
 is then examined again and sent to be " finished.*' 
 
 Silk finishing is not usually done in the factory 
 where the material is woven, but by a special " fin- 
 isher '* who puts the manufacturer's mark upon it and 
 starts it on its way through the different machines. 
 
 Good silks require very little finishing, but those 
 which are rough and uneven, heavily weighted, or thin 
 and sleazy, must have these defects concealed by gum- 
 ming, steaming, rolling, pressing, and other processes 
 to make them salable. 
 
 If a moire, or watered, effect is desired in the silk 
 this also is produced in the finishing. 
 
 67 
 
II 
 
 68 SILK DEPARTMENT 
 
 The principal finishing processes are : 
 
 Calendering 
 
 Dressing or stiffening 
 
 Breaking 
 
 Tentering 
 
 Gassing 
 
 Moire finish 
 
 Calendering 
 
 Calendering is practically ironing the silk. Even 
 the best silk goes through this process. The material 
 is run between heavy rollers, usually heated by gas or 
 steam. As heat always takes some of the stiffness 
 from the silk, there is also a cold process in which very 
 heavy rollers are used. Calendering not only smooths 
 the silk, but adds gloss or luster. 
 
 Stiffening 
 
 Silk which is too soft or sleazy is passed through a 
 machine having coils of steam pipes which send a j^t 
 of steam and glue across the goods. The glue falls 
 upon the material in a fine spray and adds the neces- 
 sary stiffness. Manufacturers have different stiffen- 
 ing agents. Some use a mixture of glue, cocoanut oil, 
 and glucose. 
 
 Breaking 
 Silk which has been stiffened artificially is put later 
 
 FINISHING PROCESSES 
 
 69 
 
 through a breaking machine which has rollers with 
 buttons or small knobs of brass fitted in spirally. As 
 the silk passes between the rollers the spiral knobs draw 
 it on the bias first to one side and then to the other, 
 breaking up the glue and making the material soft. 
 
 Tentering 
 
 The tentering machine is usually a very long one. 
 As the silk may have shrunk a half inch or more in 
 width during the previous processes, it is put on this 
 machine to stretch it to its original width. The silk 
 is caught by its edges and held tightly while moving 
 slowly first over steam and then over dry heat from 
 many gas flames. 
 
 Gassing 
 
 The process is somewhat like that used in treating 
 the yarn referred to in Chapter III. The silk is run 
 swiftly through a machine which may have gas jets 
 burning on both the top and bottom, or only on top. 
 As the material passes over or under the flame the 
 fuzz, or short ends of the silk, is singed off and the 
 surface is left smooth. The speed of the machine is 
 so great that the flame burns off the loose fibers with- 
 out injuring the silk. 
 
 Moire Finish 
 The moire or watered effect can be obtained only 
 
 I 
 
iii 
 
 70 
 
 SILK DEPARTMENT 
 
 upon silks woven with a cord, and materials with a 
 pronounced cord show the effect the best. There are 
 two ways of doing this : 
 
 1. The two selvages of the silk are folded together 
 and the silk is then submitted to heavy pressure be- 
 tween heated rollers. Wherever the cords come in 
 contact with each other they become flattened so that 
 when the light falls upon the surface of the fabric it 
 is reflected differently at these points. The result is 
 the wavy, watered effect. 
 
 2. By the other method the silk is run under pres- 
 sure through two heated rollers which have a grain 
 engraved upon them exactly corresponding to the grain 
 of the silk. By drawing the silk to one side the grain 
 of the roller crosses the silk grain and crushes it when- 
 ever it strikes. 
 
 Shower-Proofing 
 
 Shower-proof silks are put through a secret process 
 which prevents them from being spotted by water. 
 This process does not injure the fabric nor affect its 
 feeling or appearance. 
 
 Permanency of Finishes 
 
 An artificial finish upon any fabric tends to disap- 
 pear when the material is in use. The gloss wears 
 off, stiffness is lost, and goods made smooth by pres- 
 sure become roughened by wear. 
 
 FINISHING PROCESSES 
 
 71 
 
 When silk has been finished it is inspected for im- 
 perfections, measured and folded by machine, wrapped 
 in paper, and finally is carefully packed for shipment. 
 
7 
 
 Chapter VIII 
 
 ARTIFICIAL OR FIBER SILK 
 
 Reason for Making Artificial Silk 
 
 Silk is the most costly, as well as the most beautiful, 
 of the textile fibers. So much hand-labor is required 
 for the raising of silkworms and the gathering of the 
 raw silk from their cocoons, that the product must 
 always be expensive. For this reason many experi- 
 ments have been made whereby an imitation or substi- 
 tute for the silk fiber might be produced by chemical 
 processes. 
 
 These experiments have succeeded to such an extent 
 that several varieties of artificial or fiber silk resem- 
 bling silk very closely are now made and are used in- 
 stead of true silk for many purposes. 
 
 DiflFerence Between Real and Artificial Silk 
 
 The fiber of silk differs from that of cotton, linen, 
 or wool in both its length and its structure. The 
 length of all these may be measured by inches, while 
 silk is many yards long. The other fibers when viewed 
 under the microscope are composed of tiny cells whose 
 
 72 
 
 ARTIFICIAL OR FIBER SILK 
 
 73 
 
 walls make the firmness of the fiber, while silk has no 
 such cellular structure. 
 
 The spinning of silk by the worm from the gummy 
 substance in its own glands, and the hardening of this 
 substance on exposure to the air has suggested to 
 chemists that they might first produce a substance simi- 
 lar in composition to the silk in the body of the silk- 
 worm, and then force this substance through tiny tubes, 
 corresponding to the mouths of the silkworms. 
 
 Since fibroin, or the silk fiber, is animal fiber, ex- 
 periments have been made with various animal sub- 
 stances, but even if they had been wholly successful, 
 they are too costly to be practical. The substance 
 which is the basis of all the artificial silk used in com- 
 merce is called cellulose, and is of vegetable origin. 
 Cellulose can l^e best obtained from either cotton or 
 wood pulp, though it occurs in the other vegetable 
 fibers. 
 
 Kinds of Artificial Silk 
 
 The three kinds of artificial silk which have been 
 commercially successful are : 
 
 1. Nitrocellulose or pyroxylin silks 
 
 2. Cuprammonium silks 
 
 3. Viscose silks 
 
 The first two of these are made from cotton waste, 
 while the third is made from the pulp of the spruce 
 
 ii 
 
74 
 
 SILK DEPARTMENT 
 
 ii 
 
 tree. Pyroxylin silks are the oldest, but viscose silks 
 are the cheapest and practically the only ones made 
 and used in the United States. 
 
 Manufacture 
 
 There are a number of agents used in dissolving the 
 cellulose, such as ammonia, alcohol, ether, and caustic 
 alkalies. 
 
 To produce pyroxylin silks nitrocellulose is dissolved 
 in a mixture of alcohol and ether. Cuprammonium 
 silk is produced by dissolving cotton cellulose in a solu- 
 tion of ammonia and cupric oxide. 
 
 For viscose silk the wood of the spruce tree is 
 chopped and finely ground.* It is then treated with 
 caustic soda and water, which causes the fiber to swell. 
 
 The solution is next exposed to the action of carbon 
 disulphid -and the fibers continue to swell until they 
 are like a jelly, which easily dissolves in water. The 
 solution is viscous, or of the consistency of molasses. 
 For this reason the name viscose is given to the arti- 
 ficial silk product. 
 
 The sticky mass is forced through exceedingly fine 
 tubes of glass or platinum, which terminate in water 
 containing ammonium sulphid or ammonium chlorid. 
 
 * It is said that the wood of the mulberry tree has been experimented 
 with, and when reduced to cellulose gives the best basis for the making of 
 artificial silk, but since the mulberry is needed for the silkworms, it can- 
 not be spared for other use. It has also been found by further experiment- 
 ing that any soft wood will answer, but the wood of the spruce tree seems 
 especially adapted to the purpose. 
 
 U ': 
 
 ARTIFICIAL OR FIBER SILK 
 
 75 
 
 Upon touching the water it hardens into delicate fila- 
 ments which are drawn out, slightly twisted into a 
 thread, and wound upon bobbins or spools. While the 
 filaments of artificial silk are very fine, the average 
 number being about eighteen to a thread, they are not 
 nearly so fine as true silk. 
 
 History 
 
 The first attempt to produce an artificial fiber resem- 
 bling the filament of the silkworm was made as long 
 ago as 1734 by a Frenchman named Reamur. He 
 used a sort of varnish which he forced through very 
 small holes; this hardened like silk, but it was never 
 practical. 
 
 It was not until 1855 that another attempt was re- 
 corded. This was made by a Swedish chemist, Ande- 
 mars. Cellulose pulp was used, made by dissolving 
 the inner bark of the mulberry tree in alcohol and 
 ether. This formed a sticky substance, which when 
 drawn out into threads, hardened in the air like real 
 silk. Although he took out a patent on the process, he 
 was not successful in putting it on the market. 
 
 In 1883 J- ^- Swan, an Englishman, experimented 
 with threads macle from a solution of nitrocellulose. 
 This composition is like gun cotton and very inflam- 
 mable, but he overcame the difficulty by denitrating the 
 threads with ammonium sulphid. 
 
 Chardonnet, a Frenchman, was the most successful 
 
76 
 
 SILK DEPARTMENT 
 
 ARTIFICIAL OR FIBER SILK 
 
 77 
 
 • t 
 
 of all the inventors. He took out his patent in 1885. 
 He used cotton dissolved in alcohol and ether. In or- 
 der to carry on his work a factory was opened at Be- 
 sangon. Others who took out patents were Du Vivier 
 in 1899, Lehner in 1890, Pauly in 1897, and Stern in 
 1898. Many other processes have been tried. 
 
 Characteristics 
 
 Artificial or fiber silk has a very high luster and is 
 far more brilliant than real silk. It takes dyes readily 
 and many beautiful colors are easily obtained. It is 
 not soft like silk, but harsh and stiff to the touch. As 
 a material it does not drape nor fall in graceful folds. 
 When wet or submerged in water it feels like a gelati- 
 nous substance. 
 
 It is neither as strong nor as elastic as true silk. 
 When wet it loses much of its natural strength, but it 
 regains this when dry. A single yarn of artificial silk 
 is usually made up of from fifteen to twenty filaments, 
 twisted very little. Artificial silk can easily be detected 
 by unraveling a thread and noticing the many filaments 
 of which it is composed. These readily separate and 
 do not have the twisted appearance of real silk. 
 
 Uses 
 
 From artificial silk are made dress trimmings, 
 passementerie dress braids, hat trimmings (many of 
 which look like straw), neckties, hosiery, sweaters, 
 
 scarfs, many beautiful embroidery silks, draperies, and 
 many of the silk stripes, figures, or patterns in fancy 
 mixed goods, or so-called " part-silk " goods. 
 
 It is found in cotton-and-silk mixed goods, where its 
 high luster makes a very good effect. Artificial silk 
 has not as yet been woven by itself into a strong, firm 
 dress material, but is woven with a cotton warp. It 
 has, however, been knitted into satisfactory materials. 
 
 At the ribbon counter may be found ribbons made 
 with a satin weave ; the warp is of cotton and the long 
 threads of the satin weave are of fiber silk. This does 
 not at present seem very satisfactory as the artificial 
 silk threads become roughened and lose their smooth 
 appearance. 
 
 Artificial silk has recently been woven into a very 
 beautiful gauzelike material, which has a metallic look 
 like gold or silver. In light colors this is most at- 
 tractive. 
 
 Experiments are constantly being made and artificial 
 silk is coming more and more into favor. The cost of 
 production is about one-half that of silk, but much of 
 the material sold by the yard is as expensive as silk. 
 
 Fiber silk sweaters are very much less costly than 
 silk sweaters; fiber silk stockings are less expensive 
 than silk stockings and wear better than a cheap silk 
 stocking. 
 
 Many hat trimmings are made of artificial or fiber 
 silk ; some of these are run through gelatin which sticks 
 
78 
 
 SILK DEPARTMENT 
 
 the fibers together and makes weaving unnecessary, 
 giving a finish which resembles patent leather. This 
 treatment with gelatin is a quick process. 
 
 Sometimes millinery silk tulle or maline is made by 
 pouring the paste or pulp over a flat surface, rolling it 
 out thin, and marking it with rollers which are en- 
 graved in such a way that the maline has the appear- 
 ance of having been woven. This material is satisfac- 
 tory because it is good-looking, its cost is low, and it 
 will last if it is not wet. 
 
 Names of Materials 
 
 Some of the names given to very attractive materials 
 of artificial fiber silk are: 
 
 Baronet Satin 
 
 Fan-ta-si 
 
 Khaki-Kool 
 
 Kumsi-Kumsa 
 
 Satin Supreme 
 
 Sport Crepe 
 
 Tricolette 
 
 Laundering 
 
 Artificial silk will not stand a high temperature and 
 it must be handled carefully when washed or ironed. 
 Hot water or hot irons injure real silk and are even 
 more injurious to artificial silk. 
 
 
 ARTIFICIAL OR FIBER SILK 
 
 79 
 
 Vegetable Silk 
 
 Some plants and trees have seed hairs or fibers at- 
 tached to the seeds. Among these is one which bears 
 a pod, somewhat resembling the milkweed pod but 
 larger in size. When the pod is ripe it bursts open 
 and is found to be filled with thin, transparent silkhke 
 fibers, less than one-half inch long. EflForts have been 
 made to spin and weave these fibers into cloth. It has 
 been found more satisfactory to combine them with 
 wool or cotton. 
 
 These fibers are known as " kapok." The trees are 
 found in India, South America, and the East Indies, 
 and they are called ** cotton trees," or " silk cotton 
 trees." The best use for kapok has been as filling in 
 the manufacture of mattresses and pillows and in up- 
 holstery. 
 
i 
 
 I 
 
 '4.' 
 
 v;' 
 
 ^1 
 
 Chapter IX 
 
 MIXTURES, IMITATIONS. ADULTERATIONS 
 AND TESTS FOR SILK 
 
 Mixtures— Silk and Wool 
 
 Silk is mixed with wool and with cotton in making 
 many materials. 
 
 Among the silk-and-wool mixtures there are those 
 which have a silk warp and worsted filling, as : 
 
 Gloria ^ 
 Henrietta cloth 
 Lansdowne 
 Bombazine 
 
 Mohair is sometimes made of a combination of silk 
 with hair from the angora goat. All these materials, 
 however, are usually sold in the Wool Department. 
 
 There are also corded " silks," in which the heavy 
 filling for the cords is wool, but where the silk warp 
 threads completely cover them, as bengaline and poplin. 
 
 Mixtures — Silk and Cotton 
 
 Silk is also combined with cotton in such materials, 
 
 as: 
 
 80 
 
 MIXTURES, IMITATIONS, TESTS 
 
 81 
 
 
 Voiles 
 
 Shantungs 
 
 Foulards 
 
 Cotton-back satin 
 
 Velveteens 
 
 Silk muslins 
 
 Silk ginghams 
 
 Upholstery materials 
 
 In most cases the mixture is apparent, as the mate- 
 rials do not have the same luster as all-silk fabrics. In 
 others the fabric may be easily taken for all silk, par- 
 ticularly when mercerized cotton is used with the silk. 
 
 Cotton is also used for the cords in such corded 
 material, as : 
 
 Poplin 
 Eolienne 
 
 Sometimes silk-faced fabrics are backed with a 
 material of another fiber, for example wool, to make 
 them heavier. ( See Chapter V for " Double-Cloth 
 Weaving.") 
 
 Imitations 
 
 Because of its value, silk has more imitations than 
 any other fiber. The principal imitations are : 
 
 I. Mercerized cotton, where a permanent silky fin- 
 ish has been given to cotton. This is some- 
 times used as a substitute for silk. (See 
 
I 
 
 82 
 
 SILK DEPARTMENT 
 
 pages 36-38 of manual for "Cotton and 
 Linen Departments.") 
 2. Artificial silk, manufactured from cellulose. 
 (See Chapter VIII.) 
 
 Silk-surfacing is a method of treating cotton yam 
 to make it look like silk. This is done by soaking 
 smooth cotton yarns in a solution of pure silk made by 
 dissolving silk remnants and other silk waste in some 
 acid. 
 
 Before being placed in the silk bath the cotton yam 
 is soaked in a metallic acid solution, which causes 
 tlie silk solution to be more readily taken up. The 
 yarn is then dried, run between heavy rollers, gassed, 
 and polished. A fine silklike appearance is the result. 
 The cotton yarn is covered with a thin layer of true 
 silk, but it has little durability and can be used only 
 for goods which will have little wear and no hard 
 washing. 
 
 Many mercerized cotton fabrics are given names 
 which lead inexperienced persons to think that there is 
 some silk in the article. Some of the names of these 
 cotton materials which suggest the presence of silk 
 
 are: 
 
 Near silk 
 Silkaline 
 Farmer's satin 
 Sateen 
 
 MIXTURES, IMITATIONS, TESTS 
 
 83 
 
 Adulterations 
 
 Silk is adulterated in many ways to lessen its ex- 
 pense, as: 
 
 Weighting with metallic salts (see Chapter VI) 
 
 Adding spun silk 
 
 Adding wild silk 
 
 Adding artificial silk 
 
 Adding mercerized cotton 
 
 Adding cotton 
 
 Characteristics of Silk 
 
 Intelligent use of the tests here given for distinguish- 
 ing real silk depends largely upon a definite knowledge 
 of the characteristics of true silk. 
 
 Its most individual qualities are as follows : 
 
 Strength. Before the gum is removed silk is the 
 strongest for its size of all the textile fibers. Weight- 
 ing decreases its strength. 
 
 Luster. Silk has more luster than any of the other 
 fibers. Its luster is increased by special treatment, but 
 weighting and careless laundering decrease it. 
 
 Elasticity. Before the boiling-oflf process silk is 
 very elastic. Weighting decreases the elasticity. 
 
 Cleanliness. Silk fabrics may be said to " shed the 
 dust," that is, dust does not accumulate quickly nor do 
 germs increase rapidly on silk. 
 
 Softness. Silk is unusually soft after the gum is 
 removed. 
 
84 
 
 SILK DEPARTMENT 
 
 
 i 
 
 f 
 
 Endurance, Silk if not heavily weighted will last 
 for years. 
 
 Weight Silk is the lightest in weight of all textile 
 fibers. 
 
 Absorption. Silk absorbs water and will take a 
 great deal of moisture; this quality makes it good for 
 umbrellas, underwear, etc. It may be soaked in water 
 without impairing its strength. It is the only fiber 
 which is proof against mildew. 
 
 Burning Tests 
 
 Pure silk burns slowly, with an odor of burning 
 hair, and the flame goes out quickly, leaving a gummy 
 substance. It is sometimes more satisfactory to pull 
 out threads from both warp and filling and apply a 
 match to them, as both threads may not be of silk. 
 The silk thread will swell and boil, and a little ball 
 will form on the end; if there are any cotton threads 
 they will burn quickly. 
 
 Weighted silk is easily detected by the burning test. 
 When a match is applied to the sample the silk will 
 burn away and leave an ash which retains the shape of 
 the sample. This ash is the mineral weighting, which 
 will not burn. Another form of this experiment is to 
 place a sample of the silk on a small dish and leave it in 
 a very hot oven for about an hour ; then the silk will 
 be consumed and the weighting left. 
 
 Another simple experiment for weighted silk is to 
 
 MIXTURES, IMITATIONS, TESTS 
 
 85 
 
 place a sample in a glass bottle or test tube and with a 
 pair of pincers or a twisted wire hold the tube over ft 
 gas flame. The silk will gradually be consumed and 
 the metallic weighting left in the bottom of the bottle. 
 
 Microscopic Tests 
 
 Silk fiber under the microscope will be seen to consist 
 of two threads held together by gum. 
 
 Silk with the gum boiled off will appear smooth, 
 cylindrical, lustrous, and transparent. 
 
 Wild silk has a broad filament which is irregular in 
 diameter with many lengthwise lines. 
 
 Spun silk is difficult to distinguish, but the fibers are 
 irregular in form. 
 
 Artificial silk has a glassy, metallic look. The fiber 
 is wider than true silk and looks something like a glass 
 tube with flutings. Real silk fiber is always twisted ; 
 artificial silk is seldom twisted, but consists of a num- 
 ber of parallel strands. 
 
 Chemical Tests 
 
 Cultivated silk is destroyed in two minutes in a 40 
 per cent solution of hydrochloric acid, but tussah or 
 wild silk is not much affected. 
 
 When a sample of wool-and-silk mixture goods is 
 put into a cold 10 per cent solution of caustic soda the 
 wool is destroyed at once and the silk is affected more 
 slowly. 
 
86 
 
 SILK DEPARTMENT 
 
 The presence of cotton or wool may be discovered 
 by placing a sample in a 40 per cent solution of hydro- 
 chloric acid. The silk will be destroyed in two minutes 
 and the other fiber will remain untouched. 
 
 Artificial silks in cold 10 per cent caustic soda are 
 destroyed in about two minutes and true silks not so 
 quickly. 
 
 Other Miscellaneous Tests 
 
 Silk mixed with cotton or wool can often be detected 
 by the use of the magnifying glass. 
 
 Whether the silk is reeled silk or spun silk can be de- 
 termined by untwisting the fibers and seeing whether 
 they are long or short. The threads of spun silk also 
 draw apart and break more easily than reeled silk. 
 
 A good silk has " body '* to it and will snap when 
 shaken. 
 
 Weaving Tests 
 
 Press the two thumbs together on the fabric and pull 
 tight, both warp-way and filling-way. If the material 
 is not strong it will pull apart — fray out, or tear. 
 
 To find out if the material will pull away at the 
 seams, see if the threads can be moved by pushing with 
 the finger nails. If the threads push apart easily the 
 material is not strong. Soft silks, otherwise good, 
 will sometimes draw in the seams. Consequently they 
 
 MIXTURES, IMITATIONS, TESTS 
 
 87 
 
 should be made up so that there is as little strain as 
 possible. 
 
 Tests for " Feel " 
 
 A person may be trained to recognize by look and 
 feel the qualities of pure silk, its adulterations and im- 
 itations, and hence the values. The good or best qual- 
 ities should be studied, so that the cheaper qualities may 
 be judged by comparison. 
 
 Artificial silk is easily recognized by its high luster 
 and coarse threads, and by the fact that it is woven 
 with another material, usually cotton. 
 
 Weighted silk can often be detected by its stiffness. 
 Good silk is soft to touch. 
 The best of silks will wear shiny. 
 A test for elasticity is made by wrinkling the mate- 
 rial in the hand and shaking it out. If the wrinkles 
 stay in, the material will quickly become crushed and 
 wrinkled when worn. A good silk when crushed in 
 the hand will, upon being released, spring out again. 
 
 Crepe de chine and other silks with closely twisted 
 threads wear better than the soft silks, but are not so 
 lustrous. 
 
 Taffetas crease easily, for they are stiff and often 
 heavily weighted. 
 
 A very stiff silk will soon crack. 
 The old test to see if a silk had body enough to wear 
 well was to lift it slowly up and down in the hand. If 
 
88 
 
 SILK DEPARTMENT 
 
 it felt heavy it was considered a superior quality, espe- 
 cially in a black silk. 
 
 This test cannot be depended on now, for the silk 
 may be weighted with 50 per cent or even 100 per cent 
 of tin or iron and glue weighting, which will give it 
 body so that it will feel heavy, look lustrous, and seem 
 good to most people. 
 
 Experience in handling silks is one of the best tests. 
 One can learn to know a good silk by the feel of it. 
 
 Chapter X 
 PRINCIPLES OF COLOR * 
 
 Importance of a Knowledge of Color to the 
 Salesperson 
 
 Color is a matter of very great importance in connec- 
 tion with many varieties of merchandise. In order to 
 judge textiles, china and glass, art embroidery, draperies, 
 rugs, ready-to-wear garments, millinery, and many 
 other varieties of merchandise intelligently, some fun- 
 damental knowledge of color is essential. The ac- 
 cepted theories of color and color combinations are 
 therefore given here briefly. 
 
 Combinations of Colors 
 
 There are two ways of combining colors which pro- 
 duce quite different results. They are : 
 
 The combination of colored lights. 
 
 The combination of colored pigments or dyes. 
 
 When different colored lights are combined, the re- 
 sult is a combination of the two colors. When colored 
 
 This chapter, containing the essential principles of color, was prepared 
 by the editor and appears in several of the manuals of this series 
 
 89 
 
90 
 
 SILK DEPARTMENT 
 
 pigments are combined, one color seems to absorb or 
 counteract the other. One explanation of the differ- 
 ence is that the pigments are never perfectly pure, that 
 is, they contain elements of other colors and therefore 
 cannot give the same result as a combination of the 
 similar colored lights. 
 
 All colors are produced by the effect of light upon 
 the nerves of the eye, and as the eye sees them, colors 
 are contained within the light itself, forming when 
 united a white or colorless light, as in sunlight. It is 
 only when part of the light rays are in some way ab- 
 sorbed or intercepted that we see the remaining rays 
 as distinct colors. 
 
 The Spectrum 
 
 Nearly everyone has seen the band of beautiful 
 colors which is formed by a beam of sunlight passing 
 through a prism. The same effect is produced when 
 the sun's rays pass through the raindrops and we see 
 the beautiful band or rainbow of colors in the sky. 
 
 The theory is that as the beam of sunlight passes 
 through the prism, it is separated or split into the ele- 
 ments of which it is made up and forms a band of 
 colors instead of a white light. This band of colored 
 light is called the spectrum, and the colors, whether 
 seen through the prism or in the rainbow, are known 
 as the spectrum colors. They are red. orange, yellow, 
 green, blue, and violet. But when we see these colors,' 
 
 THE PRINCIPLES OF COLOR 91 
 
 either in the rainbow or through the prism, there is 
 every gradation from one color to the next so that the 
 change from one color to the other is almost imper- 
 ceptible. For instance, the red changes through the 
 different degrees of red-orange to orange, and this 
 changes through the orange-yellows to yellow ; the yel- 
 low changes through the yellow-greens to green; the 
 green changes through the green-blues to blue ;' the 
 blue changes through the violet-blues to red. 
 
 Standard Colors 
 
 The colors of the spectrum are accepted as the nor- 
 mal or standard colors: red, orange, yellow, green, 
 blue, and violet. 
 
 These normal or standard colors are represented in 
 each case by the greatest intensity of the color. For 
 instance, the standard red is the most intense red, the 
 standard blue is the strongest blue, and so on. 
 
 While the spectrum has six colors which seem to be 
 of equal importance in the ray of light, we find that in 
 mixing pigments or dyes they fall into two classes 
 called primary and secondary colors. 
 
 Primary Colors 
 
 The primary colors are so individual that they can- 
 not be produced by any mixture of other colors. They 
 are red, blue, and yellow. 
 
92 
 
 SILK DEPARTMENT 
 
 Secondary Colors 
 
 Secondary colors may be made by mixing two of 
 the primary ones. They are : 
 
 Orange, made by mixing red and yellow. 
 Green, made by mixing yellow and blue. 
 Violet, made by mixing blue and red.* 
 
 Characteristics of Primary Colors 
 
 Of the three primary colors, yellow is the most " ad- 
 vancing," that is, seems to stand out from its back- 
 ground. It is nearest to white and possesses the 
 greatest power of reflecting light. It imparts bril- 
 liancy in a greater or less degree to every compound 
 into which it enters. 
 
 Red is the most positive. It represents warmth as it 
 is brilliant and cheerful, and it appears to advance 
 somewhat. Red expresses vibration, action, and 
 warmth. 
 
 Blue is the most " retiring " of the primaries and 
 represents coldness, appearing to recede from the 
 eyes. It imparts coldness in various degrees to 
 every color or hue into the composition of which it 
 enters. 
 
 • There are several theories concerning the number of primary colors in 
 light, but they do not alter the fact that blue, red, and yellow cannot be 
 made in pigments or dyes by combining other colors; while the tints, 
 shades, and hues of all other colors except blue, red, and yellow may be' 
 made by means of such combinations. 
 
 THE PRINCIPLES OF COLOR 
 
 93 
 
 Characteristics of Secondary Colors 
 
 Of the secondary colors, green, composed of the pri- 
 maries blue and yellow, is cool or warm as it inclines to 
 blue or yellow. Yet in general it is cool, cheerful, and 
 refreshing. 
 
 ^ Orange, composed of yellow and red, is the most 
 " advancing " of the secondaries. It is composed of 
 two luminous colors and is considered the warmest and 
 most powerful of all the colors. It should therefore 
 be used sparingly. 
 
 Violet or purple, composed of red and blue, is the 
 darkest of the secondary colors and is related most 
 nearly to black. It reflects very little light and looks 
 still darker in a declining light. It is a retiring color 
 and, although red enters into its composition, it cannot 
 be classed as a warm color except in its redder hues 
 In yellow artificial light, such as gaslight, it appears 
 brown. Next to green, purple may be considered the 
 most pleasing of the secondary colors and has almost 
 universally been considered the royal or imperial color. 
 It IS probable, however, that the Tyrian purple, of 
 which we have heard so much, approached a crimson or 
 red, rather than the deep and subdued color known as 
 purple today. 
 
 Luminous and Somber Colors 
 Colors are also described as: 
 
1^ 
 
 u 
 
 p 
 
 94 SILK DEPARTMENT 
 
 Luminous or warm : 
 Yellow 
 Orange 
 Red 
 Light green 
 
 Somber or cold : 
 
 Blue 
 
 Violet 
 
 Dark green 
 
 Broken tones of luminous colors 
 
 Broken Colors 
 
 Tertiary or broken colors are not found in the spec- 
 trum, but may be made by mixing two secondary 
 colors. They contain all three primary colors in un- 
 equal proportions and are named according to the pre- 
 dominating color : 
 
 Russet, orange plus purple — red predominating. 
 Olive, purple plus green — blue predominating. 
 Citrine, orange plus green — yellow predominat- 
 ing. 
 
 Besides the compound colors called tertiaries, there 
 are many other hues into which the three primary 
 colors enter. Among these the most characteristic are 
 brown, maroon, and gray. 
 
 Brown requires black for its basis, with a mixture 
 
 THE PRINCIPLES OF COLOR 
 
 95 
 
 of citrine and olive. It is a retiring and sedate color, 
 but not dismal nor depressing. 
 
 Maroon is formed by a mixture of russet and olive, 
 with an excess of red. 
 
 Gray is always restful to the eyes. A perfectly neu- 
 tral gray which forms the perfect background for other 
 colors, is a combination of black and white. Besides 
 the neutral gray, there are many others, as blue-grays, 
 olive-grays, and green-grays, formed by adding other 
 colors. 
 
 Black and white make gray in whatever combination 
 they are used. 
 
 Absorption and Reflection of Color 
 
 The color of any object is due to its power to absorb 
 certain colored rays in white light and to reflect others. 
 An object which looks red reflects only the red and 
 has absorbed the other colored rays. A blue body re- 
 flects the blue and absorbs all other rays. 
 
 White substances reflect all the rays of light; black 
 substances absorb them all. For this reason black is 
 said to be the absence of all colors, as white is the 
 presence of all. (However, no mixture of colored 
 pigments will produce white. The theory is true only 
 of light rays. Mixtures of colored paints will produce 
 gray.) 
 
 By its absorption of light rays, black lowers the tone 
 
96 
 
 SILK DEPARTMENT 
 
 of any color placed next to it. Some colors, such as 
 yellow, it " impoverishes." 
 
 By its reflection of all light rays, white heightens or 
 brightens the tone of any color which is placed close 
 beside it. 
 
 Complementary Colors 
 
 The color rays absorbed by any substance "comple- 
 ment,*' or complete, the ones reflected in making white 
 light. Therefore, they are called the complementary 
 colors. 
 
 The complementary color of: 
 
 Blue is orange, or red plus yellow. 
 Red is green, or blue plus yellow. 
 Yellow is violet, or red plus blue. 
 
 In the diagram (Figure lo) the complementary col- 
 ors are found by following the various lines across the 
 circle to the opposite outer edge. 
 
 These colors are sometimes supplied by the nerves 
 of the eye itself which are wearied by looking too long 
 at one hue. This may be proved by a simple experi- 
 ment. 
 
 If a circular piece of red paper is placed on a white 
 background and looked at steadily for a time, and then 
 the eyes are turned toward a white surface, a green 
 circle exactly corresponding in size to the red one first 
 
 THE PRINCIPLES OF COLOR 
 
 97 
 
 seen will appear. A blue or a yellow circle will pro- 
 duce their complementary colors in a similar man- 
 ner. 
 
 This exhaustion of the nerves of the eye also causes 
 a color to appear duller after one has looked at it a 
 long time. If the nerves are rested by another color — 
 especially the complementary one — they will become 
 normal again. 
 
 When the complementary colors are reflected from 
 another color rather than a white background, they 
 change the hue of that color. 
 
 To eyes which are fatigued by looking at blue, red 
 will appear like an orange-red, yellow will be more in- 
 tense, and green will appear as a yellow-green. If red 
 has been looked at, blue will appear as a green- 
 blue, yellow as a green-yellow, and green will appear 
 blue. After green, red will have a violet appearance, 
 yellow will be more like orange, blue will be a violet- 
 blue, and orange a red-orange. These are matters of 
 great importance in the display of merchandise. The 
 following rules should be remembered : 
 
 Red near blue seems yellower. 
 
 Red near yellow seems bluer. 
 
 Red near green seems purer and brighter. 
 
 Red near black seems duller. 
 
 Red near white seems brighter. 
 
 Red near gray is not changed. 
 
98 
 
 SILK DEPARTMENT 
 
 THE PRINCIPLES OF COLOR 
 
 99 
 
 RED 
 
 rom "Color Harmony in Dress" by Audslev hr 
 courtesy of Robert M. McBride & (fo/*"^*'*^' ^^ 
 
 Figure lo Diagram Indicating the Primary and Secondary 
 Colors with Their Hues, Tints, and Contrasts ^ 
 
 Other colors are affected in similar ways. 
 
 These effects are produced by the natural tendency 
 to see the complementary of any color, which in the 
 case of green intensifies the red and in all the other 
 cases changes its color by mixing their complementary 
 color with it 
 
 Properties of Color 
 
 Colors may be distinguished according to their hue, 
 their value, and their intensity. 
 
 Hues 
 
 The word hue may be used in three ways. 
 
 In writings on the science of color hue signifies the 
 property which distinguishes one color from another. 
 
 In common speech it is employed to mean a particu- 
 lar shade or degree of color. 
 
 The word is correctly used when applied to the mod- 
 ification of one color by the addition of another color. 
 Thus, red-violet and blue-violet are hues of violet made 
 by the excess of red or of blue. In the diagram the 
 hues are found between the primary and secondary 
 colors. Still further divisions are possible. 
 
 Values 
 
 The value or tone of a color is the gradation from 
 light to dark by the addition of white in the lighter 
 tones and of black in the darker ones. A tone lighter 
 than the standard is properly called a tint, and one 
 darker is called a shade, but many people call both 
 tints and shades " shades." Rose color is a tint of red, 
 while crimson is a shade. 
 
 In the diagram the concentric circles represent the 
 tints produced by adding varying amounts of white; 
 
100 
 
 SILK DEPARTMENT 
 
 THE PRINCIPLES OF COLOR 
 
 lOI 
 
 the numerals above the line represent the parts of 
 color; those below, the parts of white. 
 
 Color Scales 
 
 The scale of any color, whether it be a pure color or 
 a hue, consists of all the tones from the lightest tint 
 to the darkest shade. There are, for instance, scales 
 of green-blue, purple-blue, and gray-blue. 
 
 Intensity 
 
 Intensity is the strength of a color. The normal or 
 standard colors are in full intensity. The intensity of 
 a color is reduced by "graying" it with its comple- 
 mentary color. By the addition of orange to blue, or 
 of green to red, the color may be subdued to half-in- 
 tensity or quarter-intensity, and so on. If a large 
 amount of the complementary is added, the original 
 color will be reduced to a dull gray. 
 
 Color Harmonies 
 
 Harmony in the combination of colors may be of 
 two kinds : 
 
 1. Harmony of contrast. 
 
 2. Harmony of analogy or likeness. 
 
 Harmony of contrast is between colors which are 
 most unlike each other. It is perfect when the colors 
 are complementary. Blue and orange, or red and 
 
 green, are perfectly harmonious, one of the reasons for 
 the pleasant sensation being that each one deepens 
 the color of the other and makes it purer. The true 
 contrasting color of any color may be found by fol- 
 lowing the cross lines in the diagram. The har- 
 mony of complementary colors is very bright if the 
 colors are in full intensity. Grayed or broken tones 
 make a quieter harmony. 
 
 Harmony by contrast may also be secured with the 
 hues on each side of the complementary color, as blue 
 with red-orange, or yellow or red with blue-green or 
 blue-violet. 
 
 The harmony of analogy or likeness is between 
 colors of the same or related color scales. They may 
 be: 
 
 1. Different shades or tints of the same scale, as 
 
 light red and dark red. 
 
 2. Different hues of the same color, as blue-green 
 
 and yellow-green. 
 
 The first is sometimes called a mono-chromatic or 
 self -color harmony. The tints or shades combined 
 should have enough variety to be distinct, but should 
 not be so different as to lose their likeness and form a 
 harmony of contrast. On the diagram these har- 
 monies are shown along each line from the full color 
 to white. 
 
 A dominant harmony may be formed by the use of 
 
 
 •i 
 
I02 
 
 SILK DEPARTMENT 
 
 a number of hues of the same color, as yellow-green 
 gray-green, and blue-green, which blend because green 
 IS dominant. 
 
 Color Under Artificial Light 
 
 All colors undergo more or less change under arti- 
 ficial light. 
 
 Under gas or lamplight, which is much yellower 
 than daylight, purples and violets often appear brown. 
 Some of the darker hues are almost destroyed. 
 
 Blue is darkened. 
 
 Brown is made warmer in hue. 
 
 Green is yellower. 
 
 Red, orange, and yellow are all brightened. 
 The inverted gas mantle gives a somewhat less yel- 
 low light, and therefore these effects are somewhat less 
 pronounced. 
 
 The incandescent electric light gives a violet hue to 
 blue, and a reddish hue to brown. It seems to add 
 some red as well as yellow to colors. 
 
 The arc light and Welsbach gas mantle have an 
 excess of blue, which is imparted to colors. 
 
 -mmmmm 
 
 Chapter XI 
 
 COLOR IN THE SILK DEPARTMENT 
 
 Necessity for Knowledge of the Laws of Color Har- 
 mony 
 
 It is desirable that all who sell fabrics should possess 
 sufficient knowledge of the laws of color harmony to 
 enable them to understand not only how to display 
 goods to the best advantage by artistic grouping, but 
 also to give helpful advice to customers. 
 
 The suitability of colors and color harmonies to the 
 purpose of the customer depends in great measure on 
 whether the material is to be worn or used in house 
 decoration. This applies particularly in the Silk De- 
 partments, because dress materials and drapery silks 
 are often found at the same counter. 
 
 Colors in full intensity and striking contrasts are 
 more suitable for the subdued light of the house than 
 for the bright sunlight, and in the selection of dress 
 materials the question of suitability or becomingness 
 to the wearer is very important. 
 
 Colors Best Suited to Different T3^es of Women 
 
 A gown may be satisfying as far as lines are con- 
 
 103 
 
I04 
 
 SILK DEPARTMENT 
 
 cerned, but colors may add or detract from its becom- 
 ingness. 
 
 For women with red hair black is the best color, al- 
 though they can wear very dark blue, blue gray,' or 
 brown. 
 
 For middle-aged women — especially those whose 
 hair is gray — black, gray, mauve, and some of the sil- 
 very greens, are the most becoming. 
 
 Stout women look larger in white, and smaller in 
 black, dark blue, dark green, and dark brown. 
 
 A tall, thin woman should not wear black nor very 
 dark colors. 
 
 There are so many variations in the color of people's 
 complexions, hair, and eyes, that it is hard to give 
 general rules. Each one should be studied to see what 
 colors bring out the best points and neutralize the less 
 favorable ones. For instance, green is usually becom- 
 ing to blondes because it harmonizes with the yellow 
 in their hair (by analogy) and brings out the rose color 
 in the complexion. 
 
 The brunette's skin, on the other hand, has more 
 orange in it. Some shades of green may be worn by 
 brunettes, but the greatest care should be exercised in 
 the selection of the proper shade of green, because the 
 brunette's complexion contains a great deal of orange, 
 and the green, acting upon the red of the orange, may 
 readily produce a brick-dust appearance. Green there- 
 fore is a risky color for the brunette ; and so is violet. 
 
 COLOR IN THE SILK DEPARTMENT 105 
 
 which would neutralize the yellow of the orange and 
 heighten the red. 
 
 The Fashionable Color 
 
 Fashion usually dictates the color, as well as the 
 kinds of fabrics, for each season and how they should 
 be used. Every season has its new and so-called 
 " fashionable color," which is designed only to increase 
 trade. Most women in order to be fashionable adopt 
 these new colors, for the simple reason that they are 
 new and are what other people are wearing. 
 
 Everyone must know that color has its effect upon 
 the appearance of the complexion. Not all com- 
 plexions look equally well in the same color. Some 
 may be improved, while others may look very badly. 
 Yet although the majority of women know this, they 
 continue to select the " fashionable color." 
 
 If women were only willing to take the advice of 
 someone, perhaps the salesperson, capable of giving a 
 reliable opinion, then the manufacturer or the dyer 
 would not be able to decide on any one color, but would 
 produce materials giving a choice of colors. 
 
 Conditions Affecting Color 
 
 Since it is by light that colors are produced, the 
 color of a body is affected in various ways. 
 
 I. By a change from daylight to artificial light, or 
 the reverse. 
 
io6 
 
 SILK DEPARTMENT 
 
 2. By the properties of the material, as the bright- 
 
 ness of the color varies according to the na- 
 ture of the fabric, i.e., silk, wool, etc. 
 
 3. Different individuals do not see color in the same 
 
 way; some people are "color blind," that is, 
 their eyes are not sensitive to a particular 
 color and they cannot distinguish red from 
 green or rose from mauve. 
 
 Effect of Various Lights on Colors 
 
 Some colors which are becoming by daylight are not 
 so under artificial light ; and others — like green, yel- 
 low, and some shades of red — are more becoming at 
 night, as well as much more suitable. The effect is 
 especially noticeable with dyed fabrics. 
 
 Colors selected for clothing should be first of all be- 
 coming and also suited to : 
 
 The season of the year. 
 The time of day. 
 
 The function at which the dress is to be worn. 
 General use. 
 
 Colors for evening wear should always be shown 
 under artificial light ; for day wear, under daylight. 
 
 Effect of the Material on Color 
 
 The weave and the finish of silk change the appear- 
 ance of the colors, and luster is often added in the 
 
 COLOR IN THE SILK DEPARTMENT 107 
 
 finishing process to enhance the brightness of the color. 
 
 The manner in which the warp and filling threads 
 intersect each other, and also the frequency with which 
 they intersect make a difference in the brightness of the 
 color, as well as in the smoothness of the surface of the 
 cloth. In a plain weave where every thread of the 
 warp and filling intersect, the luster is not nearly so 
 bright as in the satin weave, where the warp threads lie 
 on the surface in almost unbroken lines. A twill 
 weave or a cord produces a still rougher surface than 
 the plain weave and is consequently less lustrous. 
 
 A good, smooth finish adds luster to cloth, because 
 it increases the reflecting power of the material, and 
 the brightness of the color is thus enhanced. 
 
 In the case of the raised fibers of velvet the light 
 penetrates the material and becomes saturated with the 
 color before being reflected, and the color appears soft 
 and subdued ; but when these raised fibers are pressed 
 flat in one direction, as in mirror velvet, the light re- 
 flects from the surface and the color appears brighter. 
 
 The luster of the fabric has much to do with its be- 
 coming appearance. Hard, bright surfaces like satin 
 are more trying than the deep, rich colors of velvet; 
 with many colors — such as bright blue, pink, and 
 blue white — which bring out any defect in the texture 
 of the skin, it is advisable to separate them from the 
 skin by lace or tulle which grays and softens the effect 
 
II 
 
 io8 
 
 SILK DEPARTMENT 
 
 Colors for Household Decoration 
 
 In selecting colors for a room it should be borne in 
 mind that everyone is more or less sensitive to the in- 
 fluence of color. Each color has a distinct effect upon 
 persons and produces different sensations in different 
 moods. All intense colors, moreover, need to be modi- 
 fied. 
 
 In deciding on color combinations for a room the fol- 
 lowing facts must be considered : 
 
 The size of the room. 
 
 The number of windows. 
 
 The size of the windows. 
 
 The location of room — whether north, south, 
 east, or west. 
 
 The kind of room — whether living room, bed- 
 room, etc. 
 
 Effect of adjoining room. 
 
 One should remember also that : 
 
 Yellow and its varying tones will give light and 
 warmth. It is not needed where a room has 
 plenty of sunlight. 
 Red will appear to give warmth. Pure red is ex- 
 citing. 
 Blue will appear to diminish the size of the room. 
 Color harmonies in draperies or furniture-coverings 
 may be very vivid, especially if the room is not bril- 
 liantly lighted, but it is usually more satisfactory to 
 
 COLOR IN THE SILK DEPARTMENT 109 
 
 have one dominant color with harmonies of likeness 
 prevailing, and only touches of the brilliant harmonies 
 of contrast. 
 
 If broken tones or colors of half -intensity are used, 
 the harmony of contrast may be more evenly distributed 
 between the two colors. 
 
 Suggestions for Color Schemes 
 
 If a good color scheme is desired, there are three 
 reliable sources from which suggestions may be 
 gained : 
 
 Nature — among the flowers, the autumn leaves. 
 
 the mosses and lichens, the birds, the shells and 
 
 minerals, the sunset. 
 Museums — where there are wonderful collections 
 
 of old tapestries, embroideries, etc. 
 Pictures — especially among the Japanese prints, 
 
 where color is simply but daringly used with 
 
 unusual beauty and quality. 
 
 -omNNM 
 
ORNAMENT AND DESIGN 
 
 III 
 
 1 
 
 i 
 
 i 
 
 P! W, 
 
 'i h 
 
 Chapter XII 
 
 THE PRINCIPLES OF ORNAMENT AND 
 
 DESIGN ' 
 
 Definition of Design 
 
 Men are not satisfied with making things that are 
 merely useful. They are also trying always to make 
 useful things beautiful, and are often willing to sacri- 
 fice usefulness entirely, if the thing is beautiful. A 
 vase was originally a vessel to hold water, but many 
 ornamental vases would be quite unfit for their original 
 purpose. 
 
 There is some attempt at ornament in nearly all 
 manufactured things. Even the dust-pan has a pat- 
 tern on it, and the kitchen stove and sink have orna- 
 mental brackets. The desire to ornament, or make 
 things beautiful, leads to design. 
 
 A design may be merely the plan for anything, but 
 when we speak of " design " we usually mean an orna- 
 mental or beautiful plan. 
 
 Kinds of Designs 
 Designs may be of two kinds : 
 
 iThis chapter, containing the essential principles of ornament and de- 
 sign, was prepared by the editor and appears in several of the manuals of 
 this series. 
 
 110 
 
 1. The form or shape of an article, such as a vase, 
 
 a chair, a dress, or a hat. 
 
 2. Surface-decoration or pattern design, such as 
 
 engraving on metals, or the woven or printed 
 designs in textiles. 
 
 Patterns, or flat designs, may also be divided into : 
 
 1. Structural, those which are produced by the 
 
 method of manufacture, such as mosaics in 
 jewelry, or woven designs in textiles. 
 
 2. Applied, those which are put on after construc- 
 
 tion, as painting or embroidery. 
 
 Pattern Design 
 
 In structural design the form of an article must be 
 regulated first by its use ; and beauty must nearly al- 
 ways be secondary to usefulness. But in pattern de- 
 sign the artist has much more freedom. Yet there are 
 limitations and laws which must be observed if the pur- 
 pose of decoration or ornament is to be secured. 
 
 Lewis F. Day, one of the well-known writers on 
 pattern design, says, " The art of pattern design con- 
 sists not in spreading yourself over a wide field, but in 
 expressing yourself within given bounds," that is, the 
 beauty of a design does not consist in its elaborateness 
 or bright colors, but in its obedience to the laws of 
 design. 
 
 Some of the most satisfactory kinds of patterns are 
 
I\ 
 
 112 
 
 SILK DEPARTMENT 
 
 produced by the methods of manufacture. To plait 
 grasses together, to weave cloth, is to make patterns 
 which may be of almost endless variety. 
 
 Sources of Pattern Design 
 
 Nature has been called the source of design, but we 
 do not know whether men first made patterns just for 
 the pleasure of seeing repeated lines and color contrasts, 
 or whether they were trying to imitate what they 
 saw around them. If we look at the decorations on 
 early pottery or basket-weaving, which were probably 
 the first forms of pattern design, we shall be led to be- 
 lieve that the first instinct was ornament and the imita- 
 tion of nature was second. The Greeks, who have 
 never been surpassed as artists, imitated nature very 
 little in their patterns, which usually consisted only of 
 beautiful proportions and perfectly balanced repetitions 
 of graceful lines. 
 
 Motives of Design 
 
 The motives, or elements of design, may be either 
 natural, conventional, or abstract. 
 
 Natural designs imitate nature as much as the mate- 
 rial will permit. 
 
 Conventional designs suggest nature, but are simpli- 
 fied and adapted to the purpose of the ornament or the 
 pattern. 
 
 Abstract designs are made up of repeated lines and 
 
 ORNAMENT AND DESIGN 
 
 "3 
 
 patterns which have no intentional resemblance to 
 natural forms, though sometimes it is hard to draw a 
 clear line between very much conventionalized nature 
 and abstract patterns. 
 
 Material of Pattern Design 
 
 Pattern designs are made up of lines, forms, and 
 spaces, which must be arranged in an orderly manner. 
 There must be points of emphasis, rhythm, symmetry 
 or balance, and harmony of all the parts. 
 
 Points of emphasis are those features of the design 
 which attract the attention. If all the elements were 
 equally prominent, the design would be weak and in- 
 effective. The points of emphasis are given prom- 
 inence by striking outlines, bright color, or contrasted 
 features. 
 
 Rhythm is the result of an arrangement or repetition 
 of lines or units to form a continuous and related 
 movement. Borders are an example of rhythm. 
 
 Balance is the result of the arrangement of the parts 
 of the design so that one part will not be much more 
 prominent than another. 
 
 Harmony is the fitness to purpose, the unity of all 
 the parts, such as fine proportions, values, and color. 
 
 Planning a Pattern 
 
 It may be supposed that a pattern-designer chooses a 
 beautiful figure, such as a rose, and simply scatters it 
 
f 
 
 t; 
 
 114 
 
 SILK DEPARTMENT 
 
 I 
 4; 'if 
 
 over the space it is to cover, making such changes as 
 he wishes and repeating it at his pleasure. This is 
 far from the case. If he used that, kind of freedom, 
 the design would be sure to have irregular lines, awk- 
 ward spaces, and confusion. It would lack all the fea- 
 tures which make it design and not accident. 
 
 On the contrary, the designer bases the structural 
 lines of his patterns on geometrical spaces, such as the 
 square, the triangle, or the diamond; circles or other 
 curved figures are merely modified squares, etc. The 
 square or diamond is the customary basis of Western 
 design, while the far East has always preferred the 
 triangle. 
 
 The size and repetition of the design depend upon 
 the space it is to fill, and the problem of the designer 
 is to make a plan which will fill the space perfectly. 
 He decides where the masses and lines shall go, where 
 the points of emphasis shall be, and indicates the bal- 
 ance and harmony of the composition, but does not 
 work out the detail. The size of his space determines 
 the number of repetitions, as for instance the width of 
 a textile material. When he has blocked out the pat- 
 tern the designer sketches in the lines, and gradually 
 the perfect pattern appears. 
 
 In repeated patterns it is necessary to observe cer- 
 tain rules which are less important in a single composi- 
 tion. Repeated patterns should be: 
 
 I. Conventionalized — the established forms are 
 
 ORNAMENT AND DESIGN 
 
 IIS 
 
 more pleasing in repetition than the more 
 temporary ones. 
 
 2. Well-balanced — the balance good enough for a 
 
 single composition is not always good enough 
 for repetition. 
 
 3. Modest — repeated patterns should not be too 
 
 obtrusive. There is greater freedom when 
 the pattern is self-colored. 
 
 Value of Line in Patterns 
 
 We have spoken of lines, forms, and spaces as the 
 material for pattern. Most of the great artists have 
 been masters of line, yet it is often little understood. 
 " Line " does not mean the outlines of the figures, but 
 rather an effect of lines along which the eye is uncon- 
 sciously carried, whether the line is boldly given or 
 only suggested by shadows and masses of color. We 
 may observe the effect of line in a pattern at a distance, 
 although it may not be so clear when we study the 
 details. Walter Crane tells us that line is a language. 
 For example, "Vertical lines express exalted feeling 
 while bowed or bent lines show dejection and de- 
 spair." 
 
 Lines may be firm, rough, ragged, or smooth and 
 flowing, rectangular or curvilinear. These differences 
 affect the impression which the design makes upon us. 
 The lines may also radiate or spring outward from a 
 central point; they may be spirals or scrolls turning 
 
 Iw 
 
■J :i|)I 
 
 ii6 
 
 
 SILK DEPARTMENT 
 
 back in a mounting, circular fashion ; they may inter- 
 lace, as in strap work, or fret or key patterns, such as 
 the swastika. 
 
 The direction of the line should harmonize with its 
 character. Straight lines steady a pattern and curv- 
 ing lines give it grace and freedom. 
 
 One of the problems of the designer is the "composi- 
 tion of line/' This may be described as the arrange- 
 ment of the prominent lines to give a pleasing, restful, 
 and harmonious impression. 
 
 Forms and Spaces 
 
 The forms of the pattern are the units of the de- 
 sign, as a natural or conventionalized flower or a 
 geometrical figure. Line and form have a close con- 
 nection, though they do not mean the same thing. If 
 lines are flowing, the forms should be graceful; if the 
 lines are angular and bold, the forms should incline 
 more to the geometrical — that is, the lines of the 
 figures and the lines of the composition or design must 
 harmonize. 
 
 Two variations of pattern forms have come to us 
 from the far East. 
 
 I. Diaper patterns, in which squares, circles, or 
 other spaces are filled tightly with patterns like 
 stars, daisies, spots, or fernlike traceries 
 which usually make a background for another 
 more prominent pattern. 
 
 u 
 
 ORNAMENT AND DESIGN 
 
 117 
 
 2. " Inhabited " forms, large figures, often flowers 
 or leaves, which are covered all over with 
 smaller patterns. Persian figures of the pal- 
 metto, for instance, may be made up of tiny 
 roses and leaves. The difficulty of detail in 
 large forms is thus solved. 
 
 Spaces in a design are as important as the forms. 
 The beauty of a pattern may be ruined by awkward and 
 irregular spaces. If the figures are crowded or ill- 
 balanced, they cannot be seen to advantage. If they 
 are too far apart they lose in eflFectiveness and the 
 design is not well bound together. The spaces form 
 the setting of the units of design and are as much a part 
 of it as the forms. 
 
 Borders form a very important part of most de- 
 signs. The border is the framework and binds it to- 
 gether. " A good designer is known by his borders." 
 If the body of a design is elaborate, the border should 
 be simple; if the filling is simple, the border may be 
 elaborate. 
 
 Borders are only repeated lengthwise and are con- 
 fined within fixed marginal lines. The pattern of the 
 border may run along the margin or "stand steady," 
 that is, the units of design may be distinct and separate. 
 These are called " stop," " block," or " turn-over " pat- 
 terns. Sometimes the two types of borders are com- 
 bined. 
 
n8 
 
 SILK DEPARTMENT 
 
 Block or panel designs may be placed at certain dis- 
 tances apart with a flowing pattern between them. 
 Blocks or panels are often used to help the designer 
 turn a corner without deforming his flowing pattern. 
 
 •mmmtm 
 
 Chapter XIII 
 
 DESIGNS FOR SILK 
 
 Varieties of Design 
 
 Designs for textiles are either woven in with the 
 threads or applied by printing or other means after the 
 cloth has been woven. In silk materials every known 
 method for applying design may be found. The gloss 
 of satin threads, the deep pile of velvet, and the com- 
 pound weaves, are all used to produce patterns, as well 
 as yarn of different colors and surface-decoration with 
 printing and embroidery. 
 
 Elements of Design 
 
 The elements of the designs consist of natural, con- 
 ventionalized, or abstract figures which must be ar- 
 ranged in an orderly and effective manner according to 
 the space to be filled. For yard goods the pattern is 
 determined by the width of the material, as the length 
 may be indefinitely extended. 
 
 Classes of Patterns 
 
 Patterns consist of figures in repetition and may be 
 
 divided into five classes : 
 
 119 
 
 J- 
 
I20 
 
 SILK DEPARTMENT 
 
 
 
 -. ! 
 
 1. Rectangular 
 
 2. Step-repeat 
 
 3. Drop-repeat 
 
 4. Turn-over 
 
 5. Turn-around 
 
 Rectangular 
 
 Rectangular patterns are the simplest. In these the 
 figures run across the material in a straight line. 
 
 Step-repeat 
 
 Step-repeat patterns have every other figure a 
 " step " lower, the first, third, and fifth figures would 
 be on one line and drawn across the material, and the 
 second, fourth, and sixth on another. 
 
 Drop-repeat 
 
 Drop-repeat patterns do not move up and down, but 
 each succeeding figure is a little lower than the one to 
 the left or right. Lines touching corresponding parts 
 of the figure would run diagonally across the cloth. 
 This is a common variation; it gives more freedom 
 than the rectangular or step-repeat. 
 
 Turn-over 
 
 Turn-over patterns are made by doubling the pattern 
 over on a vertical line so that the sides meet exactly 
 opposite one another. With a turn-over pattern there 
 
 DESIGNS FOR SILK 
 
 121 
 
 is usually a center space in which the design is not re- 
 versed. This keeps it from being too stiff and formal. 
 Turn-overs reduce the cost of weaving, as the same 
 cards, reversed, may be used for both sides of the pat- 
 tern. 
 
 Turn-around 
 
 Turn-around patterns are made by placing the de- 
 sign in different positions. It may be turned half or 
 three-quarters around, or upside down. 
 
 The advantage of these methods may be seen by 
 studying the accompanying diagram (Figure 11), in 
 
 Figure 11. Arrangement of Rectangular and Drop-repeat Pat- 
 terns 
 
 which the design which will repeat exactly on a mate- 
 rial 21 inches wide is seen to be limited to a three-inch 
 triangle, while a design io34 x 6 inches may be used in 
 a drop repeat. The large diamonds represent the 
 space filled by each unit of a pattern with a drop- 
 
122 
 
 SILK DEPARTMENT 
 
 repeat, the small diamonds the space filled by a rec- 
 tangular pattern. 
 
 Process of Designing 
 
 The design is first drawn as it will look in the fin- 
 ished goods. It must be suited to the weaves and tex- 
 tures for which it is to be used and the colors in which 
 it will be developed. It is then transferred to " point " 
 paper, which is very finely ruled in each direction. 
 The pattern is enlarged on this paper so that every 
 space represents a thread of warp or filling. This is 
 highly skilled work, as the working design must repre- 
 sent the actual threads and does not suggest the finished 
 pattern to an untrained eye. 
 
 Designs for silk should bring out the beautiful sur- 
 face of the material, the depth of color in velvet, and 
 the clear color due to the luster of the fiber. These 
 characteristics will make effective patterns in silk, al- 
 though in cotton goods the same patterns would be 
 dull and ugly. 
 
 Dress Goods Patterns 
 
 Designs for dress goods are usually much conven- 
 tionalized or abstract. If natural flowers are used 
 they are very small. Otherwise, unless the pattern is 
 self-color it is too pronounced. In ribbons much more 
 freedom may be allowed, as they are used in small 
 quantities for decoration. Warp-printed patterns may 
 
 DESIGNS FOR SILK 
 
 123 
 
 be less conventional and abstract, as their outlines are 
 hazy and not aggressive. 
 
 Suitable Patterns for Dress Goods 
 
 Diaper or cill-over patterns after the oriental fashion 
 are very good, especially in self-colored designs. 
 
 Dots, stripes, checks, and plaids conform to the re- 
 quirements that patterns should be " modest," espe- 
 cially for clothing, but rich and varied patterns are 
 suitable to rich materials, such as brocades. 
 
 Brilliant patterns, which would be very inappropriate 
 and tiresome if worn where they would be constantly 
 seen, may be used for linings. 
 
 Elaborate borders are also in good taste for hand- 
 some materials, as they contrast well with a plain satin 
 or velvet ground. 
 
 Sport silks usually have conventional designs, often 
 developments from Egyptian or Greek motifs, some- 
 times from Chinese or Japanese, all of which are effec- 
 tive in the bright colors and strong contrasts of these 
 goods. 
 
 Drapery Silks 
 
 Drapery silks have a much wider range of pattern 
 than those for dress goods. They often have festoons 
 or baskets of flowers, fruits, and figures, especially of 
 birds. They are often made with turn-over designs. 
 Many draperies have Persian patterns with large fig- 
 ures " inhabited " by smaller ones. 
 
124 
 
 SILK DEPARTMENT 
 
 Values of Designs That " Take " 
 
 Designers for fine textiles are trained artists who re- 
 ceive large salaries. Some of the finest artistic talent 
 in France and England is employed in this way. A 
 pattern that " takes " may mean a forttme to the mill 
 that produces it. 
 
 The mills, therefore, have their own pattern-makers 
 and guard their designs very jealously. These designs 
 cannot be protected by patents, and mills copy the de- 
 signs of their competitors until foreign manufacturers 
 have complained that American mills appropriate their 
 patterns as soon as the goods are placed on the market. 
 As the copies are made in inferior cloth the pattern 
 is cheapened and is no longer popular in the more 
 expensive goods. This accounts for many heavy 
 losses in novelty materials. 
 
 Some agencies in Paris and other fashion centers 
 of Europe make a business of supplying the new pat- 
 terns to American manufacturers who subscribe for 
 them by the year or by the hundred. It then is a mat- 
 ter of business shrewdness to place the pattern on the 
 market early enough to supply the season's trade, but 
 not soon enough to give competitors a chance to copy it. 
 
 History of Designs for Silk 
 
 The fact that silk lends itself so readily to artistic 
 treatment was taken advantage of long ago. Each 
 historic period since the twelfth century, when the 
 
 DESIGNS FOR SILK 
 
 125 
 
 Arabian weavers first worked their looms in Sicily, has 
 produced its distinctive style of design, which may be 
 studied and more or less imitated by modern designers. 
 
 Italian Art 
 
 In the fifteenth century Italian art reached the high- 
 est degree of perfection, both in design and technique, 
 and the influence extended all over Europe. The beau- 
 tiful Flemish tapestries and figured and brocaded vel- 
 vets show the influence of the Italian silk textiles. 
 
 French Skill 
 
 The early French silk damasks can barely be distin- 
 guished from those of Italy. Soon, however, the 
 French showed an individuality of their own. Their 
 designs were of a delicate, lacelike character, with 
 sprays of foliage and bouquets gracefully intertwined 
 with trellis-Hke forms. During the seventeenth cen- 
 tury a wavy ribbon was a feature of French design 
 and with it stems and flowers were mingled, sprays 
 and garlands of flowers were gracefully arranged, and 
 the French convention of the rose was first developed. 
 
 About this time came the exodus of the most skilful 
 French silk weavers to England, and they carried with 
 them this type of design. On that account the English 
 and French woven silks of that period are much alike. 
 
 During the eighteenth century, French artists pro- 
 duced in their designs not only flowers, birds, butter- 
 

 II 
 
 126 
 
 SILK DEPARTMENT 
 
 flies, but also figures and even landscapes. Toward 
 the end of this period, however, the heavy brocades 
 and damasks were superseded by soft, gauzelike fab- 
 rics and simple classic designs were used. 
 
 Jacquard Weaves 
 
 In the early nineteenth century came a change in the 
 technique of silk weaving, the power-loom was intro- 
 duced and the Jacquard machine for silk pattern-weav- 
 ing took the place of the hand-loom. Art in silk weav- 
 ing seems to have declined and began to revive only 
 when a general system of education in design was es- 
 tablished. 
 
 By the end of the century Great Britain was fore- 
 most in the design and manufacture of fabrics for 
 house decoration, but France is now, and has been for 
 three centuries, the leader in designing and manufac- 
 turing the most beautiful and costly dress fabrics. 
 
 Chapter XIV 
 SILK YARD GOODS 1 
 
 Classification 
 
 Some of the silks mentioned in this chapter are little 
 used at the present time, but many of them may still 
 be found among old possessions and as most of them 
 have given good service in times past it is well to have 
 their names appear here. Oftentimes silks which have 
 not been used for a number of years return to style 
 again. 
 
 Armure 
 
 This is the French word for armor, a name sug- 
 gested by the style of weaving, which produces a fine 
 pebbled surface, or small diamond-shaped figures. 
 The weave is an imitation of the armor of feudal times, 
 •which was made of metal plates overlapping each other 
 like fish scales, allowing the armor to conform to every 
 movement of the body. 
 
 Batiste 
 
 This is a fine, sheer fabric, sometimes made of silk, 
 
 1 See glossary in Appendix for pronunciation of French words not given 
 in this chapter. 
 
 127 
 
 4 
 
128 
 
 SILK DEPARTMENT 
 
 but more often of cotton or linen. (See manual for 
 the "Cotton and Linen Departments.") It is some- 
 times woven with small dotted effects. 
 
 Bengaline 
 
 The name of this fabric comes from Bengal, India. 
 It is a plain, heavy, corded fabric with silk warp 
 threads. The cord is formed by weft threads, some- 
 times of silk, but usually of worsted, running across 
 the cloth. These are entirely covered by the silk warp 
 threads so that none of the woo! is exposed and the 
 fabric shows only silk threads on its surface. 
 
 Bolting Cloth 
 
 This is a fine, open-mesh silk cloth of which bolters, 
 or sieves, for sifting flour are made. It is also used 
 for fine fancy work. 
 
 Brocade 
 
 This is a rich silk fabric, having raised figures of 
 flowers, foliage, or other designs. These designs are 
 often woven in gold and silver. Brocades may also 
 be woven of any material or combination of colors. 
 
 Brocades are classed as : 
 
 Gold-thread brocades 
 Silk-damask brocades 
 
 Gold and silver threads are prepared in different 
 ways. In olden times a flat, gilded ribbon was used 
 
 SILK YARD GOODS 
 
 129 
 
 over a silk thread which was of a color as near that of 
 the metal as possible. Skill was required to wind the 
 metal around the silk so that the edges would lie as 
 close as possible without overlapping. In Milan, Italy, 
 a secret process was used whereby the thread was 
 golden on one side only. Flat threads of copper were 
 also made. The Chinese used bands of gilded paper 
 upon the silk thread. 
 
 At first the name brocade was given only when the 
 flowers or ornaments were of gold or silver, but later 
 it was used even when no metallic threads were em- 
 ployed. 
 
 In the thirteenth century brocades were manufac- 
 tured in Lucca, Italy. The manufacturers were driven 
 out of Lucca by the governor and went to another 
 place, where they built a new factory and invented a 
 modification of the brocade, which they called damask. 
 
 Japan has for centuries taken the first place in the 
 production of figured silks of all kinds, including bro- 
 cades. 
 
 Broche 
 
 This is a French term for brocade. 
 
 Cachemire de Sole 
 
 (French; pronounced "cashmeer de swah.") This 
 • silk fabric has a fine twill and is finished to look like 
 cashmere. 
 
 vi 
 
 I.! 
 

 130 
 
 SILK DEPARTMENT 
 
 Changeable Silk 
 See " Glace/' below. 
 
 Charmeuse 
 See " Satin charmeuse " under " Satin/' below. 
 
 Chiffon 
 
 ( French. ) This is a thin, sheer, transparent, open- 
 mesh, plain-weave material. Both warp and filling are 
 hard-twisted single threads. It is piece-dyed, some- 
 times printed in dainty patterns, and given a soft finish. 
 
 The word chiffon when used with other materials 
 signifies light weight and soft finish, as *' chiffon taf- 
 feta," and " chiffon velvet/* 
 
 Chiffon Taffeta 
 See " Taffeta, chiffon " below. 
 
 China Silk 
 
 This is a plain-weave silk with a beautiful, natural 
 luster. It is supposed to be made on the hand-looms 
 in China and is easily recognized by imperfections 
 which are always found in hand-spinning and hand- 
 loom weaving. 
 
 The name China silk has been used in the United 
 States for a class of machine-made silks, usually in 
 plain colors, although sometimes printed, made in im- 
 itation of the genuine China silks. 
 
 l -i l iUJilUli,-! 
 
 SILK YARD GOODS 
 
 131 
 
 Chine SUks 
 
 In these silks the design is somewhat faint and in- 
 distinct, due to the fact that the pattern is printed on 
 the warp threads only. 
 
 Cloth of Gold 
 
 Cloth of gold has a golden effect from being heavily 
 interwoven with tinsel. This splendid fabric is first 
 mentioned in Exodus 39; 3, "and they did beat the 
 gold into thin plates and cut it into wires to work it in 
 the blue, and in the purple, and in the scarlet, and in the 
 fine linen with cunning work." 
 
 In the early weaving of cloth of gold both round 
 wires and flat strips of gold were used. The flat 
 strips were wound around silk threads. The cloth was 
 generally woven by using a thread of silk and a thread 
 of gold, although there were instances where it was 
 made entirely of gold thread. 
 
 Although cloth of gold was formerly used almost 
 exclusively by the nobility and by the church, it has in 
 recent years been made of cheaper material and is more 
 generally worn. 
 
 Crepe 
 
 Crepe is a French word derived from the Latin, 
 crispus, meaning curled. It is a thin, light-weight, 
 crinkled fabric. 
 
4 
 
 132 
 
 SILK DEPARTMENT 
 
 Crepe Charmeuse 
 
 This soft, rich, piece-dyed fabric has a dull luster 
 and a glovelike feel, h is made with a satin weave. 
 
 Crepe de Chine 
 
 This is a soft, light-weight silk with a finely crinkled 
 effect. It is plain woven with raw or thrown silk warp 
 and with the filling of alternating twists of hard-twist 
 tram. It is piece-dyed and often printed. This silk is 
 popular for underwear and also for waists and dresses. 
 
 Crepe Meteor 
 
 This is a smooth, lustrous sik fabric with a fine twill 
 face. 
 
 Damask 
 
 This is a figured silk in which the figures and the 
 ground are of contrasting weaves. It is usually made 
 with a satin ground, the figures being woven in by 
 means of the Jacquard loom. 
 
 Dresden 
 
 See " Chine," above. 
 
 EoHenne 
 
 This is a sheer, finely corded fabric of silk, silk and 
 wool, or silk and cotton. 
 
 Epinglc 
 This is a French word meaning a slender pin or 
 
 SILK YARD GOODS 
 
 133 
 
 wire. It is a firm fabric woven with fine cords forming 
 cross ribs. Sometimes it is woven with single cords 
 at regular intervals and sometimes there are two or 
 three cords together in groups at uneven distances 
 apart. This silk is used for ribbons and cravats. 
 
 Faille 
 
 (French; pronounced " fy-e.") This is a plain, 
 soft, ribbed silk with small, flat ribs. 
 
 Faille Frangaise 
 
 (French ; pronounced " fy-e frong-saize.") This is 
 a faille silk made in France. It has two or more picks 
 in a shed ; these are held in position by a special binder 
 warp. 
 
 Foulard 
 
 Foulard is a French word meaning silk handker- 
 chief ; the silk was originally used for handkerchiefs 
 only. It is a soft, thin dress fabric. It is usually a 
 two-and-two twill weave, although it is sometimes 
 plain. It is piece-dyed and usually printed. The de- 
 signs are large or small according to the prevailing 
 style. 
 
 Gauze 
 
 This fabric is said to have had its origin in Gaza 
 in Palestine, an important cloth-weaving center in an- 
 cient days. It is a thin, transparent silk fabric woven 
 
 ^t 
 
134 
 
 SILK DEPARTMENT 
 
 by the gauze or leno weave. Gauze is dressed or sized 
 while it is stretched and then dried. 
 
 Georgette Crepe 
 
 This is a thin, sheer silk having a fine crepe eflfect in 
 the weave. 
 
 Glace 
 
 This French word, meaning glazed, is often ap- 
 plied to silks made of two tones, that is, with the warp 
 of one color and the weft of another. These are 
 sometimes called " shot " silks and sometimes ** change- 
 able " silks. 
 
 Grenadine 
 
 This is a plain or figured, open-mesh dress fabric 
 with gauze or leno weave. Grenadine may also be 
 made of worsted and cotton as well as silk. It some- 
 times has stripes of satin. 
 
 Gros de Londres 
 
 (French; pronounced " gro de londr," meaning 
 grain of London.) This is a silk dress fabric with 
 cross ribs, either with alternating coarse and fine ribs 
 or ribs of two different colors. 
 
 Grosgrain 
 
 (French; pronounced *'gro-gran.*') The name of 
 this fabric comes from the French gros, meaning a 
 
 SILK YARD GOODS 
 
 135 
 
 thick grain. It is firm, close-woven, fine-corded or 
 grained, and finished with only a slight luster. 
 
 Habutai 
 
 This is a pure silk fabric made in Japan. 
 " Japanese Silk " below.) 
 
 (See also 
 
 India Silk 
 
 This name is given to the plain-woven silk manu- 
 factured in India on hand-looms. It has a beautiful 
 natural luster and resembles China Silk and Japanese 
 silk. 
 
 Jacquard Silks 
 
 Silks which have figures woven by means of a 
 Jacquard loom are sometimes called Jacquard silks, 
 although they are better known as brocades. 
 
 Japanese Silk 
 
 This is a plain-woven, smooth, soft, lustrous silk 
 manufactured in Japan. It may be dyed in plain col- 
 ors or printed, but a great deal of it comes as white, 
 glossy, and shimmering. The name covers a variety 
 of Japanese silks, but is most customarily applied to 
 habutai. (See also " Kikai " below.) 
 
 Jersey Cloth 
 
 Silk jersey cloth is a very soft, knitted fabric. It is 
 
136 
 
 SILK DEPARTMENT 
 
 used for dresses, undergarments, and especially for 
 gloves. 
 
 Kikai 
 
 This is a Japanese silk, not so fine nor of so good a 
 quality as habutai. 
 
 Liberty Satin 
 
 This silk takes its name from Liberty and Company 
 of Paris and London. It is a soft, satin fabric, made 
 on 8 or 12 shafts, having raw silk warp and spun silk 
 filfing. It is piece-dyed. 
 
 Louisine 
 
 This silk fabric has a coarse, uneven surface made 
 by weaving two or more warp threads together in a 
 plain weave. 
 
 Marquisette 
 
 This sheer, plain-weave fabric has an open mesh 
 made with a gauze or leno-weave. 
 
 Matelasse 
 
 These silks have a raised pattern. They are usually 
 of one color and have a rich flowered pattern showing 
 only by its slight relief or embossed appearance. 
 
 Mervcilleux 
 See " Satin merveilleux " under " Satin '' below. 
 
 SILK YARD GOODS 
 
 137 
 
 Messaline 
 
 Messaline is a fine, light-weight, S-shaft satin, very 
 soft and brilliant. The back also has a luster. 
 
 Moire 
 
 This is the French word for clouded or watered 
 silks. As explained in Chapter VII, corded silks are 
 the only ones which can have the moire or watered 
 finish. 
 
 Moire Antique 
 
 In making moire antique the pattern is engraved on 
 a brass roller and the material passed under great pres- 
 sure between it and another roller which has a plain 
 surface. This is sometimes called " long moire." 
 
 The same method is also applied to moire ribbons. 
 
 Mousseline de Soie 
 
 (French; pronounced " moo-sel-een de swah.") 
 The name comes from the city of Mosul near the site 
 of Nineveh. It is a sheer, soft fabric of silk, similar 
 to chiffon, but of more open weave. 
 
 Organdie 
 
 This is a light-weight, transparent, somewhat stiff 
 silk material. 
 
 Ottoman 
 The name of this fabric comes from the Ottoman or 
 
138 
 
 SILK DEPARTMENT 
 
 the Turkish Empire. It is a heavy, plain dress fabric 
 with large cords extending from selvage to selvage. 
 The filling or cords may be of silk, wool, or cotton. 
 
 Peau de Cygnc 
 
 (French; pronounced " po de seen"; meaning 
 swan's skin.) This is closely woven, satin-weave 
 .fabric of soft, lustrous finish. 
 
 Peau de Sole 
 
 (French; pronounced " po de swah " ; meaning silk- 
 skin.) This soft-finished, satiny dress fabric has a 
 dull luster and somewhat grainy appearance. It comes 
 in plain colors. The best grades are double-faced, 
 that is, they are finished on both sides alike, while the 
 cheaper grades are single-faced, finished on one side 
 only. 
 
 Pekin Stripe 
 
 This fabric has strong contrasting stripes which are 
 usually of satin and grosgrain alternating. 
 
 Plush 
 
 Plush is a pile fabric with a much longer pile than 
 velvet. The pile may be silk, worsted, or mohair. 
 Silk is used in the seal-skin plush, an imitation of seal- 
 skin. 
 
 SILK YARD GOODS 
 
 139 
 
 Pongee 
 
 This is a thin, soft, washable silk fabric woven from 
 the natural-colored silk of the cocoons of the wild silk- 
 worm which feeds upon oak leaves. Formerly the 
 entire supply of this silk was imported from China and 
 Japan, where it was woven on the hand-looms, but it is 
 now produced in the United States. 
 
 The finest kinds, which are bleached, dyed, or printed 
 after importation, are known in the trade as China 
 silks. 
 
 Pongee may be a mixture of wild and cultivated silk. 
 
 Poplin 
 
 This is a soft, light-weight fabric with a fine cord 
 effect. It is made with a plain weave and has a silk 
 warp and a cotton or a wool filling. 
 
 Rep 
 
 Rep is a corded fabric and its name is a corruption 
 of the word ribs. The cords sometimes run crosswise 
 of the fabric, when only the warp is seen, and some- 
 times lengthwise, when only the filling which makes the 
 ribs is seen. 
 
 Satin 
 
 This is a silk fabric having a high luster. The man- 
 ner of weaving (see Chapter V) is the principal reason 
 for the luster, which is enhanced : 
 
I* 
 
 140 SILK DEPARTMENT 
 
 1. By the quality of silk used — better silk pro- 
 
 duces a better luster. 
 
 2. In the finishing process — the pressing of the 
 
 fabric between hot rollers or the calendering 
 process adds a finishing luster to the material. 
 
 Satin is the typical representative of the satin weave. 
 
 It is said that satin was made first in China, but it is 
 known to have been made in England in the thirteenth 
 and fourteenth centuries and was probably made in 
 France and Spain before that time. At this early time, 
 probably because of its high price, it was little used, 
 but by the eighteenth century it was in more general 
 use. 
 
 There are many varieties of satin. Among these 
 
 are: 
 
 Satin charmeuse is a light-weight, piece-dyed, lus- 
 trous satin having a hard-twisted warp and usually a 
 spun silk filling. 
 
 Satin, cotton-back is a lining satin with a raw silk 
 warp and cotton filling, piece-dyed. 
 
 Satin damask has elaborate designs, sometimes in 
 velvet. 
 
 Satin de chine is a soft satin with a crepelike finish. 
 
 Satin de lyons (French; pronounced " de lee-on ", 
 meaning satin of Lyons), is a fine quality of satin made 
 at Lyons, France. It is all-silk, skein-dyed, and very 
 lustrous. Another variety of the same name has a 
 
 SILK YARD GOODS 
 
 141 
 
 V"! 
 
 twilled back, is much cheaper, thinner, has less luster, 
 and is used to some extent for fine linings. 
 
 Satin, double-faced is a heavy, reversible satin, that 
 is, both sides alike, made by having a back warp as well 
 as a face warp. 
 
 Satin duchesse (French; pronounced "doo-shess") 
 is a rich quality and heavy grade of all-silk satin dress 
 fabric, originally made in black only and without a 
 pattern. 
 
 Satin faqonne has a Jacquard pattern on a satin 
 ground. 
 
 Satin merveillenx (French; pronounced " mair-vay- 
 yeh " ; meaning marvelous satin ) is a fine, close-twilled, 
 satin- faced silk dress fabric having a glossy finish. 
 The twill is very imperceptible. 
 
 Satin regence (French; pronounced ** ray-zhans") 
 is one of the most costly of silk dress fabrics. It has 
 a rich satin surface with fine sunken lines extending 
 across from selvage to selvage. 
 
 Satin rhadame (French; pronounced " rad-am "), is 
 a satin the surface of which is broken by fine twilled 
 lines which extend diagonally across the surface ; it is 
 made with silk or cotton-back. 
 
 Satin royal is a very fine and expensive dress fabric 
 made of pure silk and having a satin finish on both 
 sides. Each face has fine twilled or sunken lines ex- 
 tending diagonally across the surface of the material, 
 as in satin rhadame. 
 
142 
 
 SILK DEPARTMENT 
 
 Satin surah is a medium heavy dress material with a 
 twilled surface and a satin finish. 
 
 Satin taffeta is a fabric with a satin weave on one 
 side and a taffeta weave on the other. 
 
 Shantung 
 
 This silk is named from the province of Shantung, 
 China, where it is made. It is a rough plain-weave 
 fabric made from tussah, or wild silk. It is a heavier 
 grade than pongee. 
 
 Shot Silks 
 See " Glace " above. 
 
 Silk Serge 
 
 This has a twill weave and is similar to surah. 
 
 Surah 
 
 This fabric is named from Surat, India, where it 
 was first made. It is a light, soft, twilled silk. 
 
 Taffeta 
 
 The word taffeta is derived from the Persian taftah, 
 to spin. This is a thin, glossy silk fabric, either plain- 
 woven or cross-ribbed, with cords so fine as to appear 
 plain-woven. It is made of skein-dyed silk. The 
 name was formerly applied to all plain silks and is 
 supposed to be an example of the first kind of silk- 
 weaving known. 
 
 SILK YARD GOODS 
 
 143 
 
 Besides the plain taffetas there are checked and 
 flowered taffetas, the style of which changes with the 
 season; other kinds of taffetas are : 
 
 Chiffon taffeta, a taffeta of good quality which is 
 subjected to much heat and pressure in the fin- 
 ishing process so that it is very soft and lus- 
 trous. 
 
 Glace taffeta, a taffeta in which the warp and fill- 
 ing are of contrasting colors, giving a " shot " 
 effect. 
 
 Tulle 
 
 This fabric is named for the town of Tulle, France. 
 It is a plain, fine, silk net, with a small mesh. 
 
 Tussah, Tussur, or Tussore 
 
 Tussah silk is a tan or light brown (natural) colored 
 silk made from the cocoons of the wild silkworms. 
 
 Vclour 
 
 This is a velvety material made of coarse wool yam 
 and silk, woven like plush with a coarse, stiff pile. 
 
 The name velour is the French for velvet and is ap- 
 plied to a great variety of fabrics which have a velvety 
 finish. 
 
 Velvet 
 
 The name comes from the Italian velluto, meaning 
 

 inll 
 
 
 144 
 
 SILK DEPARTMENT 
 
 shaggy. This fabric has a short, soft, thick pile face 
 and a plain back. It may be all-silk or silk-and-cotton. 
 A great deal of spun silk is used for velvets. (See 
 also Chapter XV.) 
 
 Voile 
 
 This is a sheer, semitransparent, plain-weave fabric 
 of silk, wool, or cotton, sometimes ornamented with 
 stripes or figures. 
 
 Novelty Silks 
 
 New silks with new names or old silks with new 
 names are constantly appearing. Often different 
 manufacturers have different names for the same silk. 
 Among some of the new names are: 
 
 Will o' the Wisp 
 Crepe Kokette 
 Samara Prints 
 Crepe Velour 
 Mayflower Prints 
 Boiling Prints 
 Satin Finish 
 Satin Arcadia 
 Taffeta Soiree 
 Satin Majestic 
 
 Model silks may be seen in the shops each season, 
 bearing the label of some famous French dressmaker, 
 who has used and in many cases designed that silk. 
 
 ^ 
 
 SILK YARD GOODS 
 
 Some of the names frequently seen are : 
 Callot 
 Cheruit 
 Jenny 
 Paquin 
 Worth 
 Bulloz 
 
 145 
 
i ■ 
 
 I} 
 
 Chapter XV 
 
 THE VELVET DEPARTMENT 
 
 Varieties of Velvets 
 
 The Velvet Department is usually a part of or near 
 the silk yard goods department. Although velvet fab- 
 rics are used to some extent all the year round, they 
 are in most demand in the colder months and their 
 popularity also depends upon fashion. 
 
 In this department are found all pile-woven fabrics, 
 namely : 
 
 Velvets 
 Plushes 
 Velveteens 
 Corduroys 
 
 These materials range in width from 1 8 to 45 inches. 
 
 Uncut velvet is velvet made with a looped pile which 
 is left uncut. 
 
 Mirror velvet is velvet which has had the pile pressed 
 down flat. 
 
 Panne velvet is a light-weight velvet with the pile 
 
 flattened down. 
 
 Chiffon velvet is also pressed between rollers, but not 
 
 146 
 
 THE VELVET DEPARTMENT 
 
 147 
 
 ! 
 
 so flat as mirror velvet. The pressing gives it a beau- 
 tiful shaded luster. 
 
 Cotton velvets or velveteens, which are made en- 
 tirely of cotton, are very little affected by pressure, and 
 after a time the pile springs back and resumes its plain 
 appearance. 
 
 Behring seal is the name of a pile fabric suitable for 
 
 cloaks and suits. 
 
 Velvets are also made in a variety of fancy patterns, 
 as stripes, shot effects, and various embossed and fig- 
 ured designs. 
 
 Plush 
 
 The difference between plush and velvet is in the 
 length of the pile. If the pile is longer than one-eighth 
 of an inch, the fabric is called plush. 
 
 Tussah silk is very largely used in plushes and the 
 longer pile fabrics because of its strong elastic fibers, 
 lustrous quality, and softness. It is especially suited 
 to the imitation of seal and other furs. Even the dyed 
 and tipped effect of the genuine seal may be produced. 
 
 Some American manufacturers who have been im- 
 able to obtain a sufficient quantity of tussah yarns from 
 England have erected their own spinning plants. 
 
 Wool and cotton are also used in the manufacture of 
 imitation furs. Artificial silk has been successfully 
 woven into pile fabrics. 
 

 148 
 
 SILK DEPARTMENT 
 
 Qualities of Velvets 
 
 All inexpensive velvets have a cotton back, but if the 
 pile is thick the back does not show. A cheap velvet 
 with a thin pile will show the back; 
 
 Velvet with a silk back is expensive. It has a glossy 
 finish, is stiffer than the cottonrback velvet although 
 lighter in weight, and the foundation does not show on 
 the right side if the velvet is folded so that the pile 
 separates. 
 
 It is often better to use a good velveteen of fine luster 
 and close pile than a poor velvet which has a thin pile. 
 
 History 
 
 Nothing is definitely known of the country from 
 which velvet first came nor of the people who were in- 
 genious enough to plan the method of weaving velvet. 
 It may have come from Central Asia or perhaps from 
 China. It was not until the fourteenth century that 
 any historical mention is made of the fabric. 
 
 Its earliest uses were for royal and state robes, eccle- 
 siastical vestments, and splendid hangings. The mate- 
 rial was especially fitted for these purposes because of 
 its rich depth of color and its soft and graceful folds. 
 
 In medieval times the Italian velvets were among 
 the most magnificent. Different effects were produced 
 in these velvets by changing the length of the pile on 
 the same fabric, that is, by having piles of different 
 lengths; by brocading with plain silk, with uncut pile, 
 
 < 
 
 U'' 
 
 THE VELVET DEPARTMENT 
 
 149 
 
 or with gold tissue; and also by varying the color of 
 the pile. At this early period the most expensive vel- 
 vets were made in Genoa, Florence, and Venice. 
 
 The first velvet mill in America was built in 1865, 
 but since the enterprise was unsuccessful it was given 
 up after a short time, and until comparatively recent 
 years velvets used in the United States have been of 
 foreign manufacture. 
 
 Centers of Industry 
 
 Genoa from medieval times to the present day has 
 produced vast quantities of rich velvets. 
 
 Crefelt and Lyons are the modem centers of manu- 
 facture. 
 
 In the United States velvets are now made in Con- 
 necticut and in New Jersey. 
 
Chapter XVI 
 
 THE RIBBON DEPARTMENT 
 
 Varieties of Ribbons 
 
 In the Ribbon Department may be found all the 
 combinations of color and weave seen in the Silk De- 
 partment and some additional varieties. The weaves 
 and styles of ribbons comprise: 
 
 Taffetas 
 
 Moires 
 
 Glaces 
 
 Satins 
 
 Satin-and-failles 
 
 Gauze 
 
 Ottomans 
 
 Velvets 
 
 Grosgrains 
 
 Velours 
 
 Double-faced satins 
 Velvet-and-satins 
 Shot or changeable silks 
 Yarn-dyed 
 Piece-dyed 
 
 Dresden or chine (warp- 
 printed ) 
 Jacquard designs 
 Surface-printed 
 
 Materials 
 
 Ribbons may contain cotton, they may be weighted, 
 and they often have tinsel threads woven into them, 
 but the principal material is silk, and the quality used 
 
 ISO 
 
 THE RIBBON DEPARTMENT 
 
 151 
 
 is generally raw silk. Artificial silk, mixed with cot- 
 ton, may be found in novelty ribbons. 
 
 Weaving 
 
 Ribbon looms are made to carry several ribbons, 
 often from twenty to thirty, with a separate shuttle for 
 each one. These shuttles are carried back and forth, 
 from one side of each narrow warp to the other, by 
 means of a special mechanical device. 
 
 Taffeta, moire, satin, and many other ribbon weaves 
 are exactly like the broad silks from which they are 
 named, but there are many double-faced ribbons which 
 do not correspond to any broad silks. Double-faced 
 satin, and velvet-and-satin are the most popular of 
 these. Most of the broad velvets used are cotton-back, 
 but the best velvet ribbon is satin-back. Cheap grades 
 are always cotton-back. These are all woven with a 
 double-cloth weave. 
 
 Velvet-and-satin ribbons are sometimes made with 
 contrasting colors on the opposite sides ; for example, 
 black or navy blue ribbons may have scarlet or yellow 
 backs. 
 
 Finishing, Dyeing, and Printing 
 
 Ribbons are sometimes piece-dyed, but more gen- 
 erally yarn-dyed. Changeable silk ribbons are made 
 with warp and weft of different colors. Sometimes 
 there are two colors in the warp and one in the weft. 
 
152 
 
 SILK DEPARTMENT 
 
 Each weft or filling thread is called a pick ; the average 
 number of picks to the inch range from 80 to 100. 
 Satin ribbon has about 90 picks, while taffeta has 
 about 120. 
 
 Ribbons usually have some weighting material in the 
 dye to give them body, and some receive a large amount 
 of glue or other sizing in the finishing processes. 
 Soft taffeta ribbons require very little finishing. 
 Satin ribbons are calendered to increase their luster. 
 Gauze ribbons are made from " schappe " silk or silk 
 in the gum. 
 
 The less expensive fancy ribbons are surface-printed, 
 but finer varieties are either warp-printed or woven on 
 the Jacquard machine. 
 
 For warp-printed ribbons the warp is first beamed 
 and then printed on rotary presses. They were for- 
 merly block-printed, when the warp was caught to- 
 gether by an occasional weft thread, then spread out on 
 a table, and the block designs imprinted on it. After 
 this it was put back in the loom and woven. Warp- 
 printing gives a soft, uncertain outline to the pattern 
 because the plain weft threads cross it at so many 
 points. Dresden or chine effects are given in this 
 way. 
 
 Jacquard designs in one or two colors are easily 
 produced, the design being simply reversed on the 
 wrong side; but if floral or other designs in several 
 colors are to be woven, there are apt to be long, loose 
 
 THE RIBBON DEPARTMENT 
 
 153 
 
 threads on the under side. These may be cut off after 
 the weaving is finished, but this involves extra expense. 
 
 Designs 
 
 Designs in ribbons change with every season, but the 
 tendency of fashion has turned from the definite floral 
 patterns to more conventionalized ones, and especially 
 the oriental designs. Chinese, Japanese, Persian, In- 
 dian, and Russian motifs have been popular, especially 
 in sport ribbons. In the latter we have seen Egyptian 
 and Hawaiian patterns. While there will be fluctua- 
 tions, the probability is that conventionalized and 
 oriental patterns will continue in favor as the East has 
 always been the source of the patterns which are best 
 suited to textile manufacture. 
 
 The fancy varieties which vary in popularity from 
 year to year are the plaid, striped, and dotted rib- 
 bons. Silver and gold threads are woven or used in 
 silk ribbons in embroidery or stripes. 
 
 Qualities and Lines 
 
 Ribbons are usually bought with their ornamental 
 value in mind and therefore customers are not so 
 apt to ask about quality if the ribbons are attractive 
 in design and color. But a soft, unweighted silk will 
 show its beauty when gathered up or looped in bows, 
 and even if intended for only one season, the better 
 quality is almost always a wiser choice. 
 
154 
 
 SILK DEPARTMENT 
 
 It 
 w ■ 
 
 The diversity of staple lines which must be carried 
 in a Ribbon Department is greater than in almost any 
 other. One writer in the magazine, Silk, has made 
 the following estimate of the stock of ribbons which 
 is necessary: 
 
 " Taking as a basis six staple weaves which, to 
 meet consumer requirements, must be carried from 
 number two through all the intermediate numbers up 
 to one hundred lignes, in say one hundred colorings, 
 if one takes up a pencil and pad and figures it out, it 
 readily can be seen the bulk of these staple stocks alone 
 assumes formidable proportions. Then if you pile on 
 to this bulk from twenty-five to fifty numbers of fan- 
 cies, the various lines of wash ribbons, and a dozen or 
 so novelty effects, the demand for which comes with 
 the season, some idea can be obtained of what a poor 
 ribbon year means to the house doing business in that 
 end in the matter of piled-up stocks." 
 Broken lines are always hard to clear off. 
 
 Uses 
 
 Ribbon is a material, however, which adapts itself 
 readily to a great number of uses and an ingenious 
 saleswoman can suggest new fancies. Hairbows and 
 girdles, camisoles, boudoir caps, bags and cases, collars, 
 novelties for the traveler or the home decorator, can 
 be made of ribbon; if these fancies are displayed on 
 the ribbon counter, they add much to interest. 
 
 THE RIBBON DEPARTMENT 
 
 155 
 
 Ribbon is used for all kinds of trimming, but in mil- 
 linery it is quite indispensable. Ribbon bands, scarfs, 
 quillings, bows, cabochons, rosettes, and sport caps are 
 some of the many ways in which ribbon may effec- 
 tively be used. 
 
 Avoiding Remnants 
 
 Customers like remnants in these days of ribbon 
 fancy-work. Losing even half a yard on a bolt of 
 ten yards makes a loss to the department. Such losses 
 should be avoided. The usual way, when less than a 
 yard is left, is to offer that short length to the customer 
 at half price. Such a sale is a loss. A yard or more 
 should be put on a fresh bolt ; any amount under that 
 length should be put in the remnant box, and at least 
 once a month the remnants put on a table. Customers 
 will buy them eagerly. One large retail house in New 
 York keeps two remnant boxes on the counter the year 
 round ; one contains plain, the other fancy ribbon rem- 
 nants, each with a ticket giving the price and quantity. 
 People are attracted, and usually either buy remnants 
 or take the regular goods. 
 
 Importance of Color 
 
 The decorative character of ribbons makes color and 
 color combinations of the first importance. The proper 
 grouping of ribbons on the shelves of a department 
 will make a truly artistic effect, while the wrong group- 
 
156 
 
 SILK DEPARTMENT 
 
 i 
 
 I- 
 
 ing will confuse and offend the eye, making a good 
 selection difficult for the purchaser. 
 
 A fine color sense is equally important in the use 
 of ribbons. The modern demand for vivid contrasts 
 is often expressed by means of ribbons of very bril- 
 liant hues. If the color combinations are correct they 
 may be the perfect finishing touch to a costume, if they 
 are not the effect is crude and unpleasant. Narrow 
 ribbon of the color complementary to that of the dress 
 may be used in full intensity (see page lOo) with 
 excellent effect when a larger amount of the same 
 tone would be bizarre. 
 
 Bright color either in dress or in household decora- 
 tion must be employed with a nice balance of daring 
 and discretion. Fancy ribbons from good manufac- 
 turers will help to train the eye as the combinations 
 are usually made by artists and at the present time 
 they seem to exhaust the possibilities of the color scales. 
 From the delicate, soft shading of the warp-printed 
 chine patterns to the gay Batik effects they illustrate 
 almost every principle of color combination in a charm- 
 ing and convincing way. 
 
 History 
 
 Ribbons were not used as such in Europe until the 
 sixteenth century. Before that time they were woven 
 on the bands or borders of garments and were narrow 
 like a rib, hence the name "ribband." 
 
 THE RIBBON DEPARTMENT 
 
 157 
 
 When first manufactured they were frequently made 
 of gilt, interwoven with threads of gold and silver, and 
 were expensive. Consequently the English parliament 
 passed an act forbidding their use by tradespeople and 
 reserving the right to wear them to the nobility. 
 
 In the seventeenth century quantities of silk ribbons 
 were worn, especially by the men. The pictures of 
 that time show men wearing loops of ribbons in great 
 profusion all over their costumes. 
 
 Ribbon was sometimes used on men's and women^s 
 costumes in strips from neck to waist and also on the 
 sleeves. The material to which it was attached was 
 usually gathered and puffed out. In other cases the 
 strips were attached to the garment only at the ends. 
 In recent revivals of this classic fashion sleeves and 
 the upper parts of bodices have been made wholly of 
 strips of ribbon. 
 
 The terms " blue ribbon " and " red ribbon," which 
 are given as marks of excellence, originated in Eng- 
 land. The blue ribbon designated the Order of the 
 Garter, which is the oldest order in England, and the 
 red ribbon designated the Order of the Bath, which is 
 the next highest order. 
 
 Ribbons vary in width from 34 inch to 12 inches. 
 The custom of numbering ribbons originated in Eng- 
 land and was governed by the thickness of the English 
 penny, which was nearly the size of our silver dollar. 
 A number one ribbon was the width of one of these 
 
158 
 
 SILK DEPARTMENT 
 
 pennies set up on edge ; a number two ribbon was the 
 width of two of the pennies set up edgewise ; a number 
 seven ribbon was the width of seven pennies; and so 
 on. 
 
 V. i 
 
 w4 
 
 Chapter XVII 
 
 THE UMBRELLA AND PARASOL 
 DEPARTMENT 
 
 Materials Used in Umbrellas and Parasols 
 
 Umbrellas and parasols are reckoned among the silk 
 departments, but they are made of many materials: 
 cotton, wool, silk, or mixtures, for the covers; and 
 wood, steel, brass, and leather for the frames ; besides 
 the ornamental mountings which may be of gold, sil- 
 ver, ivory, mother-of-pearl, tortoise shell, or celluloid. 
 
 Divisions of Stock 
 The department may be divided into three sections : 
 
 Ladies' umbrellas and parasols 
 
 Men's umbrellas 
 
 Children's umbrellas and parasols 
 
 The women's umbrellas may be divided into three 
 grades : first, second, and third quality. 
 
 Frames of Women's Umbrellas 
 
 The frames of the best umbrellas for women have 
 fluted or hollow steel ribs with ball tips; they are 
 japanned black and the joints are covered with fine 
 
 159 
 
;f '< 
 
 I I 
 
 i6o 
 
 SILK DEPARTMENT 
 
 leather or silk. The mountings are all very fine. The 
 runner (the circular piece that slides on an umbrella 
 stick and carries the connections) is of brass, either 
 japanned or bronzed over. 
 
 The second quality is of the same materials with 
 somewhat lighter brass and mountings less highly 
 finished. 
 
 The third quality has solid steel ribs, small self -tips, 
 the joints covered with cotton, an iron runner, and a 
 zinc notch, japanned black. 
 
 Covers 
 
 The covers of the best umbrellas are of strong 
 twilled silk ; in the next quality they are a mixture of 
 materials: silk-and-wool, gloria finished, or silk-and- 
 cotton, or some fine mercerized or schreinerized cotton. 
 The cheapest are of soft-finished cotton materials. 
 
 Sticks and Handles 
 
 The sticks should be light and strong. They are 
 made of many kinds of wood. Sometimes the handle 
 is a part of the stick, as when twisted roots are left or 
 the wood is soaked in water and bent. When the 
 handle is to be of metal or some fancy moimting, steel 
 tubes are often used. The mountings may be of any 
 degree of luxury. Engraved gold and silver, carved 
 ivory, and inlaid mother-of-pearl are often found. 
 
 UMBRELLAS AND PARASOLS 
 
 l6l 
 
 Manufacturing 
 
 The sticks, now usually made of steel tubing, are 
 first cut to the required length, then the springs are 
 fastened in. The slots for the springs are drilled by a 
 small circular saw and the springs riveted in place. 
 The framework is then adjusted. The frame of a silk 
 umbrella consists usually of 8 or lO ribs and the same 
 number of stretchers. Cotton umbrellas sometimes 
 have 14 or 16 ribs. 
 
 The runner and ferrule (the small metal cap at the 
 end of the stick) are slipped on the stick and the ribs 
 and stretchers are drawn into place by wires which 
 pass through the eyes at the ends. The ferrule is then 
 riveted to the stick, small pieces of leather or cloth 
 are fastened over the joints, and the frame is ready for 
 the cover. Some umbrellas have no ferrule. 
 
 The silk for the cover is first hemmed, then the pieces 
 are cut in batches and sent back to the machine-room 
 to be stitched together. The completed cover is 
 slipped over the frame, sewed to the ribs, and the cap 
 or metal top-piece attached. 
 
 The various small umbrella fittings are shown in 
 Figure 12. 
 
 Folding Umbrellas 
 
 Umbrellas which are designed to fold so that they 
 may be packed in a suitcase, or trunk, have a collapsi- 
 ble end which, when the spring is pressed, sinks down 
 

 162 
 
 SILK DEPARTMENT 
 
 into the steel rod. The hinged handle then folds over, 
 making a compact bundle the length of the ribs. An- 
 other variety has hinged ribs also. 
 
 The mechanism of these folding umbrellas is apt to 
 get out of order, though some people find them en- 
 tirely satisfactory, and they are a great convenience to 
 the traveler. 
 
 Parasols 
 
 Parasols may be divided into two classes: those 
 which can be used for both sun and rain, and those 
 which are so small or so fanciful that they can be used 
 only for the sim. 
 
 The best parasols have fluted steel ribs which are 
 sometimes brass- or nickel-plated or gilded and have 
 tips of the same color. The runner is of brass. The 
 joints are covered with silk. 
 
 Those of a medium grade have solid steel ribs which 
 may be plated with brass, and the runner is of light 
 iron. Since parasols are smaller than umbrellas and 
 are not intended to resist wind, the frames need not be 
 made so strong. The more expensive ones differ from 
 those of medium grades chiefly in their finish and 
 ornamentation. 
 
 The parasols intended for both sun and rain may 
 have ribs 21 to 23 inches long. The more ornamental 
 ones are 20 to 21 inches. Covers are made of many 
 varieties of material. Plain silk in green, blue, brown, 
 
 
 Figure 12. Umbrella Fittings 
 
! 
 
 I 
 
 11 
 
 J 
 
 ' 
 
 i 
 
 [ii 
 
 H\ 
 
 UMBRELLAS AND PARASOLS 
 
 l<^3 
 
 ecru, or black and white may be found in the larger 
 ones. They are also dotted and striped, sometimes 
 with a satin stripe following the outer edge. 
 
 Fancy parasols are made in every hue, with large 
 and small patterns and sometimes trimmed elaborately 
 with quilled ribbon, fringe, or lace. Satin-faced cov- 
 ers are usually made with a silk weft on a cotton warp. 
 
 Pongee, linen, and cotton parasols are also much 
 used, especially at the seashore or summer resorts. 
 The pongee or linen is either natural color or bleached, 
 but the cotton covers are of every shade to imitate silk. 
 
 Some parasol frames are made so that different cov- 
 ers can be used to match summer dresses. Each cover 
 has little clips to fasten it to the frame. 
 
 Parasol sticks are more elaborate than umbrella 
 sticks and are often very fragile. At one time they 
 were like shepherdess crooks with bows of ribbon; at 
 another they represented golf sticks. They may be 
 very costly with ornamentation of gold, silver, ivory, 
 or inlaid jewels. 
 
 Men's Umbrellas 
 
 Men's umbrellas differ in quality rather than in 
 style. They are built for strength and service rather 
 than beauty, and are seldom much ornamented. 
 
 Frames of Men's Umbrellas 
 
 As the man's umbrella is larger it must have a 
 
i64 
 
 SILK DEPARTMENT 
 
 stronger frame than that for a woman. The first- 
 quaHty frame is similar, except that joints are stronger 
 and the runner is of hardened brass. The joints are 
 covered with cotton. 
 
 The medium-grade umbrella is also strong and flexi- 
 ble, but has a steel runner and somewhat heavier ribs. 
 The joints are covered with silk or leather. 
 
 Inexpensive grades are made with solid steel ribs, 
 which are necessarily heavy if strong and have a 
 japanned iron runner. 
 
 Covers of Men's Umbrellas 
 
 The best silk covers for men's umbrellas are made in 
 England. If made of pure, unweighted silk the cover 
 is expensive, as it must be heavy to be completely 
 water-proof. 
 
 Mixtures or union goods, consisting of wool and 
 silk or cotton and silk, are much stronger and more 
 satisfactory than the cheaper grades of silk. An 
 Egyptian cotton warp and good silk weft makes a 
 handsome and strong cover. The yam-dyed mixtures 
 are imported. 
 
 Mercerized and schreinerized cotton is used for the 
 less expensive covers. A dull-finish cotton, however, 
 will look better than the schreinerized material after 
 it has been worn some time, because the finish soon 
 wears off. ( See manuals for " Cotton and Linen De- 
 partments " for cotton finishes. ) 
 
 UMBRELLAS AND PARASOLS 
 
 165 
 
 Sticks and Handles of Men's Umbrellas 
 
 So many kinds of wood and cane are used for sticks 
 that a list is given. 
 
 Name of Wood 
 
 Acacia 
 
 Ash 
 
 Bakow 
 
 Bamboo 
 
 Bay Tree 
 
 Beefwood 
 
 Birch 
 
 Blackthorn 
 
 Black tork 
 
 Boxwood 
 
 Briar 
 
 Carob 
 
 Carolina reed 
 
 Cedarwood 
 
 Cherry 
 
 Chestnut, Spanish 
 
 Coffee 
 
 Cork 
 
 Crab-apple 
 
 Date-palm 
 
 Dogwood 
 
 Ebony 
 
 Elm 
 
 Eucalyptus 
 
 Fullers' teazle 
 
 Furze 
 
 Gru-gru 
 
 Guelder rose 
 
 Hazel 
 
 Holly 
 
 Hornbeam 
 
 Lancewood 
 
 Loya cane 
 
 Where Grown 
 
 Africa and Australia 
 
 British Isles, Europe, and America 
 
 Singapore 
 
 China and Japan 
 
 Algeria 
 
 Cuba 
 
 Great Britain and Northern Europe 
 
 British Isles 
 
 West Indies 
 
 Persia and West Indies 
 
 West Indies 
 
 Algeria 
 
 China 
 
 North America 
 
 Austria-Hungary 
 
 France 
 
 West Indies 
 
 Spain and Algeria 
 
 British Isles 
 
 Algeria 
 
 England 
 
 Ceylon and Macassar 
 
 England and Central Europe 
 
 Algeria 
 
 England, France, and Germany 
 
 Scotland 
 
 West Indies 
 
 Balkan States 
 
 British Isles and Europe 
 
 England 
 
 England 
 
 South America 
 
 Australia 
 
il 
 
 
 1 66 
 
 Name of Wood 
 
 Malacca cane 
 
 Maple 
 
 Medlar 
 
 Midgen 
 
 Mountain ash 
 
 Myall-wood 
 
 Myrtle 
 
 Nana cane 
 
 Oak 
 
 Olive 
 
 Orange 
 
 Palmyra 
 
 Partridge cane 
 
 Partridge wood 
 
 Penang lawyer 
 
 Pimento 
 
 Pomegranate 
 
 Rajah cane 
 
 Rattan 
 
 Snakewood 
 
 Thistle 
 
 Tonquin cane 
 
 Whangee 
 
 Whitehorn 
 
 SILK DEPARTMENT 
 
 Where Grown 
 Siam 
 
 Europe and America 
 France 
 Australia 
 
 England and Northern Europe 
 Australia 
 Northern Africa 
 Algeria 
 England 
 Algeria 
 
 Spain and Algeria 
 India 
 China 
 
 West Indies 
 Penang 
 West Indies 
 Algeria 
 Borneo 
 
 Eastern Tropics 
 Persia and Brazil 
 British Isles 
 China 
 Japan 
 British Isles 
 
 Some of these woods are used in their " natural '* 
 finish, while others are colored and finished in many 
 different ways. 
 
 The simplest handle is bent or curved by steeping 
 the wood in water until it can be given the desired 
 shape. Metal tops with flat disks or handles of horn, 
 bone, or ivory are also used, sometimes with a hollow 
 steel tube instead of a stick to connect the handle with 
 the runner. 
 
 UMBRELLAS AND PARASOLS 
 
 167 
 
 The handles of both men's and women's umbrellas 
 are sometimes made of carved ivory, gold, and other 
 costly materials, even set with the semiprecious stones. 
 Such umbrellas or the handles alone may be found at 
 jewelers' shops and in the jewelry department. The 
 most expensive ones are made so that they may be 
 unscrewed from the stick and removed for safe-keep- 
 ing when the umbrella is not in use. 
 
 Umbrellas for men range from 26 to 30 inches. 
 
 Children's Umbrellas 
 
 Children's umbrellas and parasols are made in a 
 number of grades. The best ones are similar to those 
 made for women, but are smaller. The cheaper ones 
 are often very fragile and, though bright and pretty 
 when bought, soon lose their freshness. 
 
 Suggestions as to Care of Umbrellas 
 
 Umbrellas and parasols should never be left tightly 
 rolled as the silk will cut on the edge of the folds. 
 A wet umbrella should be spread out, so that it will 
 dry evenly and quickly, as dampness rots the silk. 
 
 A good umbrella frame will outwear several covers 
 and will often justify a new cover. Parasols can be 
 made with adjustable covers to match different cos- 
 tumes. 
 
 History 
 
 Umbrellas are now regarded as a protection from the 
 
i 
 
 i68 
 
 SILK DEPARTMENT 
 
 rain, but that is a comparatively recent use. Umbrel- 
 las were first designed as a protection from the sun 
 and the word umbrella comes from the Italian om- 
 hrella, meaning " a little shade.*' 
 
 In Asiatic countries the umbrella has been for many 
 centuries an emblem of royalty; kings and princes 
 have walked or ridden under its protection from pre- 
 historic times. 
 
 The time assigned by the Chinese to the advent of 
 the first umbrella antedates by 5,000 years the Mosaic 
 date of the creation of the world. 
 
 In India there is a legend that Vishnu was shaded 
 by an umbrella when he visited the inferno. 
 
 The Greeks introduced umbrellas into Europe and 
 the Romans carried very elaborate ones made of skin 
 or leather. They were introduced in England about 
 the seventeenth century, but they had been fashionable 
 in Venice and Florence and in France before that 
 
 Jonas Hanway in 1780 was the first man in England 
 to use an umbrella as a protection from the rain. 
 Hanway had traveled in the far east and brought his 
 umbrella from Persia. For a long time it was consid- 
 ered effeminate for a man to carry an umbrella, though 
 women had been using them for sunshades. 
 
 At one time huge umbrellas were kept in the halls 
 of country houses and were carried over the heads of 
 the ladies as they went from the house to the sedan 
 chair or carriage. These umbrellas had frames of 
 
 UMBRELLAS AND PARASOLS 
 
 169 
 
 whalebone and were covered with thick cloth. Para- 
 sols jvere often very elaborate and costly with fine 
 whalebone frames, silk tassels, and fringes. They 
 were often jointed so that the top could be turned to 
 a vertical position and used as a fan or to shade the 
 eyes. The handles were sometimes made of carved 
 coral or ivory and were jointed with a metal slide cov- 
 ering the hinge. When not in use the handle could be 
 folded over and the parasol carried under the arm. 
 
 I 
 
Chapter XVIII 
 
 THE HISTORY OF SILK 
 
 Discovery in China 
 
 The most beautiful textile fiber, silk, was first dis- 
 covered by the Chinese. The silkworms were a nat- 
 ural product of China and the cocoons were plentiful. 
 
 According to Chinese records, the silkworms ap- 
 peared in the garden of Hoang-Ti, who was the Em- 
 peror of China, 2700 B.C., and the emperor's wife, Si- 
 Ling-Chi, who became interested in the cocoons, her- 
 self discovered a way of reeling the silk from the co- 
 coons and of weaving the fine thread into cloth. She 
 is even now worshipped throughout the Chinese Em- 
 pire as the ** Goddess of Silkworms." 
 
 The secret source of the silk fiber was guarded for 
 many years, and although the silk was imported from 
 China, no one, under penalty of death, was allowed to 
 carry eggs of the silkworm to another country. 
 
 Silk Culture in Japan 
 
 Silk-weaving was known in Japan long before the 
 
 Christian era. About the third century a.d. a large 
 
 number of Chinese emigrated to Japan where they 
 
 170 
 
 1 
 
 THE HISTORY OF SILK 
 
 171 
 
 were given a section of the country in which they 
 might practice the Chinese method of silk-weaving. 
 Later they were ordered to settle in different parts of 
 the empire and to rear silkworms, as well as to weave 
 the raw product into cloth. 
 
 For centuries the Chinese weavers led in silk culture 
 and promoted the industry in Japan. The silk-produc- 
 ing sections of the empire were required to pay annual 
 tribute of silk fabrics to the Emperor. 
 
 Japan and China have shared the honor of being the 
 greatest silk-producing countries in the world. 
 
 In 1874 the Japanese Empress Shoken established 
 sericulture (silkworm culture) in the imperial palace 
 and ever since that time it has received the fostering 
 care of the royal family. A rearing house has been 
 constructed, mulberry trees planted, and one chief ex- 
 pert and ten assistants are employed. Great care is 
 used in the selection of these experts, most of whom 
 are graduates of local agricultural or sericultural 
 schools. 
 
 Chinese Silks 
 
 Not only were the Chinese the first to domesticate 
 the silkworm, but they invented looms and appliances 
 by means of which they carried the art of weaving to a 
 high degree of perfection. They planned twills and 
 satin weaves, whereby the lustrous quality of the silk 
 was particularly displayed, and their arrangements for 
 
172 
 
 SILK DEPARTMENT 
 
 
 ornamental pattern-weaving have never been sur- 
 passed. The most approved modem looms are in all 
 essential points exactly the same as the compound 
 draw-loom for pattern- weaving which is shown in an- 
 cient Chinese pictures. 
 
 China has always continued to be the greatest pro- 
 ducer and consumer of silk fabrics. 
 
 Japanese Silk 
 
 The Japanese, who were apt pupils of the Chinese, 
 are the only ones who have ever approached them in 
 excellence. The Chinese do not make any great point 
 of exporting woven silk, but the Japanese have for 
 years contributed largely to the world's markets. 
 Japan's export of manufactured silk recently amoimted 
 to $7,500,000 in one year. Great improvements have 
 been made in machinery and weaves. Japanese crepe 
 de chine and georgette are made for the American, 
 European, and Australian markets, and in the first 
 three years of the war seven thousand pieces of silk 
 were sent to the Allies for air-ships which require a 
 well-woven fabric of unusual strength. 
 
 Strict responsibility about filling orders has not al- 
 ways been shown, however, and the great demand and 
 high prices have caused an inferior raw silk to be sent 
 abroad. 
 
 A Chinese organization called the General Guild of 
 the Silk Trade of Shanghai has taken up the question 
 
 THE HISTORY OF SILK 
 
 ^73 
 
 44 
 
 I 
 
 of improvements in the methods of silk production. 
 For ceremonial garments the Chinese and the Japa- 
 nese have always used heavy silk inwrought with gold 
 and silver as rich and costly as could be furnished. 
 Recently the Japanese have used for their brocade a 
 gold paper cut into narrow strips and spun around a 
 silk thread, twisted into a thread of itself and woven 
 with the fabric. The fabric made in this way looks as 
 if it were inwrought with genuine gold, but it is much 
 cheaper and more flexible than gold. 
 
 Silk in India 
 
 Silk has been manufactured in India in very large 
 quantities and has been excellent in technique and de- 
 sign. Silk was carried to India from China about the 
 third century and manufactured there. 
 
 Silk Production in Europe 
 
 Aristotle, the first ancient writer to mention silk, 
 writes of Pamphilia, a lady of Cos, as wearing a trans- 
 parent silk gauze, so fine that it was called " woven 
 wind." It is evident that this tissue was fashionable 
 at that early period. The cloth was probably woven 
 of thread unraveled from a Chinese fabric. 
 
 In ancient times Chinese silks and embroideries were 
 exported, but not the silk thread. Plain woven fabrics 
 were bought and unwoven in other countries, to obtain 
 the thread which the Chinese made very strong and 
 
ll:l 
 
 174 
 
 SILK DEPARTMENT 
 
 dyed in beautiful colors. It is said that the Saracenic 
 and Spanish weavers, whose beautiful work may still 
 be found in the museums, obtained their silk thread in 
 this way. Raw silk was not exported from China 
 until centuries later. 
 
 At the beginning of the Christian era raw silk was 
 one of the most valuable imports into the Roman 
 Empire. Although it had been used for centuries the 
 people had no idea of its source. They imagined that, 
 like flax and cotton, it might come from the trees or 
 flowers. 
 
 The silk which the Romans used was sent from 
 China overland through Persia. The long journeys 
 were made by caravans and many months were con- 
 sumed in the transportation, but the price obtained 
 more than covered the expense of the journey, and 
 brought a good profit to the merchants dealing in the 
 silk. 
 
 In the sixth century a.d., when the Roman Emperor 
 Justinian engaged in war with Persia, the entire sup- 
 ply of raw silk was cut off, so Justinian determined to 
 find the source of the raw material. By paying a large 
 sum of money, he induced two Nestorian monks to go 
 to China and to learn the mystery of the whole silk 
 process. 
 
 These monks traveled on foot through Persia and 
 India to China, where they succeeded in learning the 
 secret. Although anyone who carried silkworms* eggs 
 
 THE HISTORY OF SILK 
 
 175 
 
 out of China could be punished by death, the monks 
 hid several thousand eggs in their hollow bamboo staffs 
 and escaped with their booty. 
 
 In 555 A.D. they returned to Constantinople, the capi- 
 tal of the Eastern Empire. They presented the eggs 
 to Justinian and he afterward placed the monks in 
 charge of an industry which he established. By rais- 
 ing the price of silk he added much to his imperial 
 treasury. After his death the monopoly ceased and 
 the industry spread to other countries. 
 
 In the tendi century the Moors started silkworm 
 culture in Spain, where it later developed into a most 
 important industry. 
 
 By the twelfth century it had spread to Greece and 
 Italy, and in the thirteenth century France was raising 
 silkworms and manufacturing silk. 
 
 In the sixteenth century, Flemish weavers went to 
 England and started the industry, but the climate did 
 not seem suited to the raising of the worms. From 
 time to time attempts have been made to introduce seri- 
 culture in England, but they have always failed. 
 
 Cloth of gold was used in England from the reign 
 of Edward I to the time of Henry VIII, that is, from 
 the thirteenth to the sixteenth century. The wearing 
 of this cloth was prohibited except to people of the 
 nobility. 
 
 Silk was first introduced on this continent through 
 the Spanish conquest of Mexico in the sixteenth cen- 
 
176 
 
 SILK DEPARTMENT 
 
 1; ! '• ' 
 
 tury, and plans were made to establish sericulture in 
 Mexico. Although silk was exported to some extent, 
 the industry did not last long. 
 
 Early Attempts in the United States 
 
 A few years after the settlement of the Virginia 
 colony in 1620 skilled men were sent for by the Eng- 
 lish to start the raising of silkworms, but with little 
 result. 
 
 The most successful attempt at silk culture in the 
 American colonies was in Georgia, but even there the 
 industry was never a commercial success. Pennsyl- 
 vania and Connecticut each tried silk-raising until, with 
 the outbreak of the revolution, the silk industry was 
 suspended. After the war it was revived principally 
 as a household industry. 
 
 Silk culture has been tried in this country from 
 Maine to Florida and to California, but for various 
 reasons all efforts have failed. The principal obstacle 
 has been the cost of labor which is so much higher here 
 than in Europe and Asia. 
 
 Between 1837 and 1840 there was a speculation in 
 mulberry trees throughout the country. So great was 
 the excitement that fruit trees were cut down to make 
 room for the mulberries and enormous prices were 
 paid for the trees, but a severe winter set in and killed 
 most of them and put an end to the short-lived specu- 
 lation. 
 
 THE HISTORY OF SILK 
 
 ^77 
 
 Centers of Raw Silk Production 
 
 It has been proved that raw silk can be produced 
 commercially only in those countries where lajx)r is 
 cheap and abundant. China, Japan, and Italy furnish 
 four-fifths of the world's supply. China is first in the 
 amount produced, but in quality it ranks third. There 
 are two ports in China from which the raw silk is 
 shipped: Shanghai and Canton. The best Chinese 
 silks come from Shanghai and are known as " steam 
 filatures." The wild silk comes from the northern 
 part of China. 
 
 Japan is second in the amount of raw silk produced, 
 and second also in quality. The greatest market in 
 Japan is Yokohama. The color of the silk from 
 Japan is pure white. 
 
 Italy is third in the amount of raw silks produced, 
 but the quality is the best. The color of the Italian 
 raw silk is bright yellow. 
 
 Figure 13 shows raw silk bundled and baled for 
 shipment to this country. 
 
 European Centers of Silk Manufacture 
 
 France produces the largest number of manufac- 
 tured silks and also the highest grade of materials. 
 Lyons is the center of the trade and is noted for the 
 many beautiful Jacquard weaves — velvets, embroi- 
 dered tulles, gauzes, mousselines de soie, and chiffons 
 woven in the factories. Other cities renowned for 
 
178 
 
 SILK DEPARTMENT 
 
 ] w 
 
 ,J 
 
 silk-weaving are Calais, Paris, Tours, and Avignon. 
 Most of the beautiful French ribbons are made at St. 
 Chamond and St. Etienne. 
 
 Italian silk is the finest next to that woven in France. 
 The city of Milan ranks after Lyons in silk manufac- 
 ture, while Naples and Como are also thriving centers 
 of the industry. 
 
 Russia, Austria, Spain, and Switzerland also engage 
 in the manufacture of silk. Switzerland is chiefly 
 famous for the fine ribbons and knitted goods pro- 
 duced at Basle and Berne. 
 
 Manufacture of Silk in Great Britain 
 
 It is probable that the early silk fabrics in England 
 were made and used as the background for the em- 
 broidery for which England had been famous since the 
 middle ages. In the middle ages the raw silk was no 
 doubt obtained at great cost from the East and made 
 into silk threads for the embroidery. 
 
 In the seventeenth century a large number of Prot- 
 estant refugees from France — many of whom were 
 skilled weavers — went to England and founded an 
 industry, the center of which was at London. Since 
 that time silk-weaving has continued to be an impor- 
 tant branch of the textile industry in Great Britain 
 and of late years some of the most artistic decorative 
 furniture silks have been produced there. 
 
 At the present time the United Kingdom manufac- 
 
INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE 
 
 178 
 
 SILK DEPARTMENT 
 
 silk-weaving are Calais, Paris, Tours, and Avignon. 
 Most of the beautiful French ribbons are made at St. 
 Chamond and St. Etienne. 
 
 Italian silk is the finest next to that woven in France. 
 The city of Milan ranks after Lyons in silk manufac- 
 ture, while Naples and Como are also thriving centers 
 of the industry. 
 
 Russia, Austria, Spain, and Switzerland also engage 
 in the manufacture of silk. Switzerland is chiefly 
 famous for the fine ribbons and knitted goods pro- 
 duced at Basle and Berne. 
 
 Manufacture of Silk in Great Britain 
 
 It is probable that the early silk fabrics in England 
 were made and used as the background for the em- 
 broidery for which England had been famous since the 
 middle ages. In the middle ages the raw silk was no 
 doubt obtained at great cost from the East and made 
 into silk threads for the embroidery. 
 
 In the seventeenth century a large number of Prot- 
 estant refugees from France — many of whom were 
 skilled weavers — went to England and founded an 
 industry, the center of which was at London. Since 
 that time silk-weaving has continued to be an impor- 
 tant branch of the textile industry in Great Britain 
 and of late years some of the most artistic decorative 
 furniture silks have been produced there. 
 
 At the present time the United Kingdom manufac- 
 
 PQ 
 
 c 
 (t 
 
 -o 
 
 c 
 OQ 
 
 Pi 
 
 be 
 
THE HISTORY OF SILK 
 
 179 
 
 tures dress goods, ribbons, laces, and embroideries. 
 Leeds is noted for the production of fine sewing- 
 silks, and Coventry is famous for the ribbons woven 
 there. 
 
 Liberty Silks 
 
 A very specialized silk industry grew up at London 
 during the last century. The house of Liberty, from 
 which are obtained the Liberty silks famous for their 
 quality and delicate artistic coloring, was founded in 
 1875 in a little shop on Regent Street, London, by 
 Arthur Lasenby Liberty. Arthur Liberty (who is 
 now Sir Arthur) began almost at once to imitate the 
 weaves of the Orient ; the silks and brocades of China 
 and Japan, the soft woolen fabrics of Cashmere, the 
 filmy gauzes of India, and many other exotic materials 
 were one by one paralleled and in many instances sur- 
 passed. The Liberty silks have always been very soft 
 and beautiful for draperies. Liberty colors are known 
 all over the world for their delicacy and permanence. 
 They are dyed only with vegetable dyes. 
 
 The Manufacture of Silk in the United States 
 
 The raw silk used in the United States is imported 
 from foreign countries where labor is cheap. The 
 work of raising the worms and reeling the ^ilk from 
 cocoons must be done almost entirely by hand. Since 
 silkworms may be raised in the United States only 
 
i8o 
 
 SILK DEPARTMENT 
 
 with the greatest care and cost, the industry is not a 
 profitable one and has practically died out. 
 
 The raw silk exported from China and Japan comes 
 to New York, the distributing point for the country, 
 by way of San Francisco and Seattle. The raw silk 
 from Italy and France comes direct to New York. 
 
 Before 1880 silk manufacturing in the United States 
 was a small industry. Since that time it has grown 
 and developed rapidly. At present the United States 
 leads all other countries in the volume of silk manu- 
 facturing. 
 
 Silk manufacture is carried on in many states, but 
 most extensively in New Jersey, Pennsylvania, New 
 York, and Connecticut. The center for the manufac- 
 ture of goods from raw silk is Paterson, N. J. The 
 largest amount of waste silk is sent to Hartford, 
 Conn., and Boston, Mass., whence it is shipped to the 
 New England mills, which lead in the manufacture of 
 sewing-silks. 
 
 A list of the leading silk manufacturers of the 
 United States will be found in the Appendix. 
 
 Chapter XIX 
 
 SUGGESTIONS TO SALESPEOPLE 
 AND PURCHASERS 
 
 Arrangement and Display 
 
 An appreciation of the beauty of the Silk Depart- 
 ment not only makes the sales force enjoy their work, 
 but also makes them more effective with customers ; the 
 bright, interested person will sell twice as much silk 
 and be twice as valuable to the store. 
 
 Much can be done in the arrangement of the Silk 
 Department to make it attractive. 
 
 Color and color combinations should form an inter- 
 esting study for the salesperson in this department. 
 Many striking and pleasing effects may be obtained by 
 a careful student of the laws of color harmony. 
 
 The lustrous quality of silk aids immeasurably in 
 the arrangement. When silks or velvets are displayed 
 over fixtures on or above the counter, their beauty is 
 much affected by the way in which the light strikes the 
 glossy surface of the silk or the rich pile of the velvet. 
 
 The colors of silks are also very much changed in 
 their appearance by the proximity of other silks. 
 Salespeople should understand the laws of color har- 
 monies, and return to the shelves, or fold up, silks, the 
 colors of which detract from those tmder considera- 
 tion. 
 
 x8i 
 
1 82 
 
 SILK DEPARTMENT 
 
 Backgrounds 
 
 The background against which the silks are dis- 
 played is another most important factor in the arrange- 
 ment of the Silk Department. A list of colors suit- 
 able for backgrounds is given herewith. It was com- 
 piled recently for the use of window -dressers, but it is 
 equally valuable for the department display. Caution 
 must be observed, however, if the department is 
 lighted by artificial light instead of daylight, because 
 some colors are brightened, some dulled, and some 
 changed in hue. 
 
 Other Suitable 
 
 Background 
 
 Colors 
 
 Purple, red, blue, green, brown, 
 
 gray 
 Brown, blue, purple, orange, red 
 Yellow, buff, cream, orange, 
 
 light gray 
 Olive, blue, white, light pink, 
 
 yellow 
 Black, blue, white, dark brown, 
 
 rich green 
 Yellow, white, pale blue, red 
 Purple, olive green, black, white 
 White, yellow, orange, brown, 
 
 pink 
 Lavender, orange, cream, pink 
 Green, yellow, cream, white, 
 
 gray 
 Red, brown, cream, white 
 Brown, purple, dark blue, dark 
 
 gray 
 Yellow, green, blue, maroon 
 Maroon, orange, red, purple, 
 
 white 
 
 Color of Goods 
 
 to be 
 
 Displayed 
 
 Comple- 
 mentary 
 Color 
 
 White 
 
 Black 
 
 Gray 
 Black 
 
 Black 
 White 
 
 Red 
 
 Green 
 
 Yellow 
 
 Purple 
 
 Blue 
 
 Orange 
 
 Green 
 
 Orange 
 
 Blue 
 
 Red 
 
 Purple 
 Brown 
 
 Yellow 
 Sage 
 
 Olive 
 Lavender 
 
 Maroon 
 Cream 
 
 Pink 
 Sage 
 
 Straw 
 Brown 
 
 TO SALESPEOPLE AND PURCHASERS 1 83 
 
 Variety in Arrangement 
 
 Variety and new ideas of arrangement attract cus- 
 tomers in any department, but they are especially de- 
 sirable in selling silks and velvets, and it is easy to 
 obtain new effects because of the beauty and richness 
 of color which suggest almost endless combinations. 
 The arrangement of the department should be changed 
 frequently and practical suggestions from salespeople 
 should be encouraged. 
 
 The Information Needed by the Salesperson 
 
 Salespeople should know the names of the different 
 silk materials which they are selling, and the names of 
 the colors, especially the most fashionable or new 
 colors. Lists of terms commonly used in the silk in- 
 dustry are given in the Appendix. 
 
 Knowledge of the prevailing styles and the uses for 
 silks will help the customer, provided the salesperson 
 knows what he is talking about. One young sales- 
 man was heard to tell a young woman that all gathered 
 skirts were made from " silk cut on the bias ! " She 
 expressed her astonishment, but he insisted that it was 
 so. 
 
 The salesperson should know the difference between 
 domestic and imported silks. Knowing the names of 
 the best manufacturers is often an aid in selling. 
 
 The difference between pure silks and artificial silks 
 should be easily detected, because of the high luster of 
 
1 84 
 
 SILK DEPARTMENT 
 
 the artificial silk, and also because close-weave fabrics 
 of artificial silk contain another fiber, usually cotton. 
 
 How Much Material to Sell to a Customer 
 
 The salesperson should also know approximately 
 how much material is needed for a dress, suit, coat, 
 waist, sleeves, or vest. Often the fact that silks are 
 2^ inches or 40 inches wide means little to a customer, 
 and she is apt to purchase too little or too much and 
 be greatly inconvenienced. 
 
 Since the styles of costumes and the patterns of silks 
 change every season, it is impossible to give any per- 
 manent and definite rules for the amount of material 
 that should be sold. The experienced salesperson can 
 often judge from the way the pattern runs on the silk 
 whether more or less material will be needed. The 
 size of the customer is another factor which must be 
 considered. The ability to judge the amount needed 
 is a sure test of knowledge of style and design and 
 also of the salesperson's power of observation. 
 
 Quality and Values 
 
 In buying and selling silk its use and the service 
 which will be demanded of it must be considered, be- 
 cause the value of a textile lies in the service it will 
 give, whether for appearance, wear, or style. 
 
 If the silk is needed to serve only a short time, a 
 cheap quality will answer. If, however, long, hard 
 
 TO SALESPEOPLE AND PURCHASERS 1 85 
 
 wear is required a good quality must be purchased for 
 a fair price. 
 
 On the silk counter are fabrics varying in price 
 according to the quality of the silk. If the customer 
 asks why one piece of silk is better than another, the 
 unsatisfactory answer in many cases is, " Because it 
 costs more," instead of the answer that " The quality 
 is better because of —'' followed by an adequate ex- 
 planation of the reasons. 
 
 It is well for the salesperson to know the true rea- 
 sons for the high price of some silks, because such 
 reasons are all clear and convincing and really answer 
 the inquiries of the customer. 
 
 Reasons Why Silk Is More Expensive Than Other 
 Textile Materials 
 
 The cost of silk, as compared with other textiles, 
 depends upon: 
 
 I. The cost of raw material. This includes the 
 care and feeding of the worms, gathering the cocoons, 
 and reeling the silk from the cocoons. The quality of 
 the silk depends largely upon the care taken in these 
 processes. 
 
 2. Cost of transportation. There is practically no 
 raw silk in this country. 
 
 3. Cost of dyeing. The cost varies according to 
 the dye used and the treatment of the silk. 
 
 4. Cost of manufacture. The differences in the 
 
i86 
 
 SILK DEPARTMENT 
 
 ("^jip 
 
 price of silks produced in this country depend largely 
 upon the nature of the twist; a heavy quality of silk 
 requires more threads twisted together and more proc- 
 esses in twisting. The wearing qualities of silk de- 
 pend not only on a good fiber, but on the equal weight 
 of warp and filling. A silk in which the threads are 
 well-twisted wears better than one with little or no 
 twist. 
 
 Knowledge of Manufacture 
 
 It is important for the salesperson to know all the 
 characteristics of the silk fiber — its difference in feel, 
 appearance, strength, luster, etc., before manufacture 
 and after. 
 
 The general processes of manufacture for standard 
 fabrics should also be known. 
 
 If the salesperson also understands substitutes and 
 adulterations used, it will be an aid in detecting 
 them. 
 
 The following brief outline gives the essential points 
 upon which the information should be founded. 
 
 Values of Different Kinds of Silk 
 
 I. Quality and value depend upon: 
 
 (a) A suitable proportion of warp and weft. 
 
 (b) The care taken in the various processes 
 
 of preparation for weaving. 
 
 TO SALESPEOPLE AND PURCHASERS 1 87 
 
 (c) The excellence of the weaving itself. 
 
 2. If ornamental, the value depends upon: 
 
 (a) The beauty of the design. 
 
 (b) Its suitability to the material. 
 
 (c) The color scheme. 
 
 (d) The adaptation for the purpose for 
 
 which it is used. 
 
 3. The quality of silk thread depends on : 
 
 (a) The evenness with which the several fila- 
 
 ments are reeled from the cocoon. 
 
 (b) The care taken in all the various proc- 
 
 esses in the throwing mill. 
 
 (c) Careful boiling-off and skilful dyeing. 
 
 (d) The presence or absence of artificial 
 
 weighting. 
 
 Matching Samples 
 
 In selling silk to harmonize with or match woolen, 
 velvet, cotton, or other silk materials, the salesperson 
 should realize that color is greatly affected by several 
 conditions. 
 
 The most important ways in which it may be 
 changed or influenced are by: 
 
 Light 
 
 Surface of fabric 
 Adjacent colors 
 Tone of color 
 
i88 
 
 SILK DEPARTMENT 
 
 Effect of Natural and Artificial Light on Matching 
 Colors 
 
 Daylight is usually accepted as the standard light 
 under which to match colors. There is some differ- 
 ence of opinion in regard to this standard, however, 
 since daylight is subject to many outside influences. 
 The morning light often casts a pinkish tinge, while 
 afternoon light is purplish; smoke and dust in the air 
 give a reddish cast to the light; and it is somewhat 
 altered by the shadows of clouds, buildings, and foli- 
 age. Under clear, noon sunlight colors appear 
 warmer; under a north skylight they are colder. Be- 
 cause of these conditions mafiy tones of color are more 
 satisfactory vmder artificial light, because the proper- 
 ties of gas and electricity may be chemically analyzed 
 and depended upon. 
 
 In general, it is easier to match somber colors — 
 blue, violet, dark green, and all shades of brown and 
 gray — in the daytime. The pale tints and luminous 
 colors — red, yellow, orange, and light green — usu- 
 ally appear to better advantage by artificial light. A 
 great deal depends, of course, on whether the gown in 
 question is for morning or evening wear. Many grays 
 which look normal at night have a brown or green tinge 
 in the daytime. A violet-blue, which is bright in the 
 da)^ime, looks very somber and dull under artificial 
 light. It is hard to distinguish some of the tints of 
 
 TO SALESPEOPLE AND PURCHASERS 1 89 
 
 blue and green at night, because of the yellow tinge 
 given by the artificial light. 
 
 Effect of Surface of Fabric on Matching Colors 
 
 If the surface is porous the light penetrates more 
 deeply, suffers more internal reflections, and reaches 
 the eye quite pure in color. Wool and silk fibers which 
 are animal fibers, are translucent ; therefore, the colors 
 seem more brilliant than in linen and cotton, which are 
 relatively impervious to light. 
 
 The nap of some fabrics causes them to show 
 changeable colors. If it ends toward the light, the lat- 
 ter penetrates to a considerable depth and is deeply 
 colored by multiple reflections. If the nap ends away 
 from the light, there is more reflection and less pene- 
 tration; therefore, there is also less change in color. 
 
 Effect of Dyes in Matching Colors 
 
 Materials dyed with aniline dyes may be matched 
 better in the daytime because many aniline dyes have a 
 fluorescent appearance; that is, they possess the prop- 
 erty of giving off under some kinds of light a color 
 different from their own and from the light in ques- 
 tion. 
 
 Effect of Adjacent Colors 
 
 In accordance with the law of complementary col- 
 ors, many shades and tints are affected by the proxim- 
 
190 
 
 SILK DEPARTMENT 
 
 ity of other colors. This is especially true when neu- 
 tral or grayed colors are placed near colors of full in- 
 tensity. For instance, a black pattern on a red ground 
 looks blue-green, and white surrounding green looks 
 pink. For this reason the salesperson should be care- 
 ful to put away all- silks except the materials that the 
 customer is considering. 
 
 Tone of Color 
 
 Colors at their full intensity are less affected than 
 either the lighter or deeper tones under artificial light ; 
 but daylight is sometimes needed to bring out the full 
 beauty and richness of shades of color; most pale col- 
 ors and tints are warmed and heightened by artificial 
 light. 
 
 Accurate Measurement 
 
 In selling yard goods accurate measurement is nec- 
 essary. An example may be noted where four short 
 pieces of silk were bought, each one supposedly a quar- 
 ter of a yard in length. The silk pieces, besides being 
 cut unevenly, each measured from three to four inches 
 over the nine inches, in which case the loss to the store 
 was fully three-eighths of a yard of silk. 
 
 Salespeople should avoid making new folds and 
 creases in displaying goods on counters and in putting 
 them away on shelves. When wrapped for delivery, 
 goods should be so folded as to avoid creases which 
 
 TO SALESPEOPLE AND PURCHASERS 191 
 
 cannot be smoothed out. Rolling the silk is the best 
 way to prevent creasing. 
 
 Laundering and Care of Silk 
 
 Wash silks or silks which are so light in color that 
 they soil easily are often ruined by improper handling 
 in laundering. 
 
 Heat, whether hot water, a hot iron, or hot sun- 
 shine, yellows silk. Therefore the water and the irons 
 used in the laundering should be medium hot and the 
 silk should be rolled, while wet, in a heavy cloth and 
 allowed to remain until it is dry enough for ironing. 
 
 White soap should be used, which should be dis- 
 solved in the water, and not rubbed directly on the 
 silk. Strong soaps have a tendency to turn silk yel- 
 low and to destroy the gloss. Silk should be handled 
 carefully while in the water; it should be squeezed, 
 and not rubbed and twisted. 
 
 All rinse waters should be of the same temperature 
 as the first water. A little bluing may be used if 
 desired, the bluing water being also of the same tem- 
 perature. For the last wringing, silk may be wrapped 
 in a heavy towel or cloth and wrung, instead of being 
 twisted, by itself. 
 
 Laundering often takes away the little dressing 
 which was originally in the silk. A new appearance 
 or a redressing may be given the silk by using gum 
 arabic in the last rinse water. Gum arabic comes 
 
192 
 
 SILK DEPARTMENT 
 
 either in powdered or lump form. If the powder is 
 used, one or two teaspoon fuls should be dissolved in a 
 quart of warm water and then strained for use. If 
 in lump form the gum should be put in boiling water 
 and the water kept hot until the gum is dissolved. A 
 quarter of a cup of this solution should be used to a 
 quart of water. Too much gum arabic stiffens the 
 silk. 
 
 When ironing silk on the right side the safest method 
 is to place a thin cloth over the silk. This cloth may 
 be dampened if parts of the silk dry before ironing. 
 Sprinkling might spot the silk. Silk may also be 
 ironed directly on the wrong side. Silk well laundered 
 will be soft like new. 
 
 Mixtures of silk and cotton, or silk and linen, and 
 any material with silk embroidery should be treated 
 as silk. 
 
 Laundering Ribbons 
 
 The best way to launder ribbons is to wet and 
 stretch them on a clean table, then rub them with a 
 
 » 
 
 soft brush and neutral soap suds until clean. Rinse 
 in a clear water, never wrinkling the ribbon, but keep- 
 ing it smooth and straight. If the hand is run down 
 the ribbon, some of the water can be pressed out. 
 Stretch the ribbon on the table again, rubbing the 
 hand over it to make it very smooth, and allow it to 
 dry in this position. It is better to pin the ends or 
 
 TO SALESPEOPLE AND PURCHASERS 
 
 193 
 
 weight them, to keep the silk smooth while drying. 
 When laundered in this way the ribbon will look like 
 new. 
 
 If a salesperson has been careless in putting the 
 ribbon in an envelope and it has become wrinkled and 
 creased, it may be wet thoroughly and stretched on the 
 table. When dry it will be smooth like new, whereas 
 if ironed it usually becomes flimsy and looks old — ^the 
 crisp new look has been taken from it. 
 
 Cleaning and Steaming Velvet 
 
 Velvet may be cleaned by sprinkling thoroughly with 
 magnesia or cornmeal. Let it stand for twenty- four 
 hours and then brush off with a soft brush. The 
 process may be repeated a second time with still better 
 results. 
 
 All velvets may be freshened and folds taken out 
 by steaming, as follows. Place a hot iron on end; 
 over the bottom of it place a wet cloth. As the steam 
 arises from the cloth hold the wrong side of the velvet 
 next to the cloth. The steam passing through the 
 velvet will loosen the pressed down nap and a light 
 brushing afterwards with a soft brush will raise the 
 nap. The steam from a teakettle may also be used, 
 but this does not furnish so broad a surface. 
 
11 
 
 Chapter XX ' 
 
 CLASSIFICATION OF THE STOCK OF A 
 TYPICAL SILK DEPARTMENT 
 
 Divisions 
 
 A. Staple Silks 
 
 1. White 
 
 2. Black 
 
 3. Plain Colors 
 
 4. Evening Shades 
 
 B. Novelty Silks 
 
 1. Fancy 
 
 2. Foulards and Wash Silks 
 
 3. Pongees 
 
 C. Chiffons, etc. 
 
 D. Velvets 
 
 A — Staple Silks 
 
 I. Materials 
 Armure 
 Batiste 
 Bengaline 
 Bolting Cloth 
 Brocade 
 
 Brocaded Taffeta 
 Cachemire de Soie 
 Charmeuse 
 China Silk 
 Chine Silk 
 Corded Silk 
 Crepe 
 
 194 
 
 CLASSIFICATION OF STOCK 
 
 Canton Crepe 
 
 Crepe Charmeuse 
 
 Crepe de Chine 
 
 Crepe Meteor 
 
 Damask 
 
 Eolienne 
 
 Epingle 
 
 Faille 
 
 Faille Frangaise 
 
 Glace Silk 
 
 Gros de Londres 
 
 Grosgrain 
 
 Habutai 
 
 India Silk 
 
 Japanese Silk 
 
 Jersey Cloth 
 
 Kikai 
 
 Liberty Satin 
 
 Louisine 
 
 Matelasse 
 
 Messaline 
 
 Moire 
 
 Organdie 
 
 Ottoman 
 
 Peau de Cygne 
 
 Peau de Soie 
 
 Pekin Stripe 
 
 Rep 
 
 195 
 
 Sat 
 Sat 
 Sat 
 Sat 
 Sat 
 Sat 
 Sat 
 Sat 
 
 n 
 n 
 n 
 n 
 n 
 n 
 n 
 n 
 
 Brocade 
 
 Charmeuse 
 
 (Cotton-Back) 
 
 Damask 
 
 de Lyons 
 
 (Double-Faced) 
 Duchesse 
 
■n 
 
 196 SILK DEPARTMENT 
 
 Satin Faqonne 
 
 Satin Merveilleux 
 
 Satin Regence 
 
 Satin Rhadame 
 
 Satin Royal 
 
 Satin Surah 
 
 Satin Taffeta 
 
 Silk Serge 
 
 Surah 
 
 Taffeta 
 
 Voile • 
 
 2. Weaves 
 
 Plain 
 
 Twill 
 
 Rib 
 
 Satin 
 
 Brocade 
 
 Double Cloth 
 
 Jacquard 
 
 3. Colors 
 
 Black 
 
 White 
 
 Street Shades (Normal and Grayed Tones) 
 
 Changeable 
 
 Evening Colors 
 
 Luminous Colors 
 
 Tints 
 
 B — Novelty Silks 
 I. Fancy 
 
 I. Materials 
 
 Printed Silks 
 Crepe 
 Taffeta 
 Japanese Silk 
 
 IL 
 
 CLASSIFICATION OF STOCK 1 97 
 
 Brocades 
 
 Satin 
 
 Metal 
 
 Crepe 
 
 Charmeuse 
 Striped Silks 
 Plaid Silks 
 Silk Ginghams 
 Cloth of Gold and Silver 
 Radium Silks 
 
 2. Weaves 
 
 Plain 
 
 Twill 
 
 Rib 
 
 Satin 
 
 Brocade or Jacquard 
 
 Double Cloth 
 
 3. Colors 
 
 Normal 
 Grayed 
 
 All Tints and Shades 
 
 Combinations of Color with Black and 
 White 
 
 Foulards and Wash SUks 
 
 1. Materials 
 
 Foulards 
 
 Crepe de Chine 
 
 Japanese and China Silks 
 
 Habutai 
 
 Fancy Stripes, Plaids, Checks 
 
 2. Weaves 
 
 Plain 
 Twill 
 Jacquard 
 
198 SILK DEPARTMENT 
 
 3. Colors 
 Normal 
 Grayed 
 
 All Tints and Shades 
 White 
 
 III. Pongees 
 
 1. Materials 
 
 Pongees 
 Rajah 
 Tussah 
 Shantung 
 Monk's Cloth 
 
 2. Weaves 
 
 Plain 
 
 3. Colors 
 
 Natural 
 
 Plain Tints and Shades 
 
 White 
 
 Black 
 
 Printed Figures 
 
 C — Chiffons, Etc. 
 
 I. Materials 
 
 Plain Chiffon 
 Chiffon Cloth 
 Crepe Chiffon 
 Georgette Crepe 
 Marquisette 
 Mousseline de Soie 
 Grenadine 
 Tulle 
 Gauze 
 
 A '> 
 
 CLASSIFICATION OF STOCK 
 
 2. Weaves 
 
 Plain 
 
 Gauze or Leno 
 
 3. Colors 
 
 All Tints and Shades 
 
 Black 
 
 White 
 
 Printed Figures 
 
 199 
 
 D — Velvets 
 
 1. Materials 
 
 Chiffon Velvet 
 Corduroy 
 Mirror Velvet 
 Panne Velvet 
 Uncut Velvet 
 Velveteen 
 Plush 
 Velour 
 
 2. Weaves 
 
 Pile 
 Jacquard 
 
 3. Colors 
 
 All Tints and Shades 
 
 Black 
 
 White 
 
 Stripes 
 
 Embossed and Figured 
 
 Shot Effects 
 

 Chapter XXI 
 
 CLASSIFICATION OF THE STOCK OF A 
 TYPICAL RIBBON DEPARTMENT 
 
 Divisions 
 
 A. Ribbons by the Yard 
 
 B. Made Goods 
 
 A — Ribbons by the Yard 
 
 1. Kinds 
 
 Taffeta 
 
 Moire 
 
 Satin 
 
 Glace 
 
 Messaline 
 
 Grosgrain 
 
 Dresden or Chine 
 
 Brocade 
 
 Washable 
 
 Tinsel 
 
 Gauze 
 
 Novelty 
 
 Velvet 
 
 2. Materials 
 
 Real Silk 
 Artificial Silk 
 
 200 
 
 CLASSIFICATION OF STOCK 
 
 201 
 
 Cotton 
 
 Cotton-and-Silk Mixtures 
 
 3. Widths 
 Taffetas 
 Moire 
 
 % to 12 in. 
 
 Messaline 
 
 Satins 
 
 Grosgrain 
 
 Velvet 
 
 Lingerie 
 
 Fancies 
 
 Brocades 
 
 Tinsel 
 
 « K 
 
 tt t( 
 
 (t €t 
 
 It tt 
 
 H 
 
 tt 
 
 tt 
 
 tt 
 
 tt 
 
 tt 
 
 tt 
 
 tt 
 
 Vs to 12 in. 
 
 % to 12 in. 
 
 % to 12 in. 
 
 I to 12 in. 
 
 % to 12 in. 
 
 4. Styles 
 
 Hair Ribbons 
 
 Sash 
 
 Hat Bandings 
 
 Beltings 
 
 Lingerie 
 
 Fob and Watch Guard 
 
 Millinery 
 
 Tinsel 
 
 Decorative 
 
 5. Designs 
 
 Conventional 
 
 Floral 
 
 Stripes 
 
 Checks 
 
 Dots, 
 
 Persian 
 
 Dresden 
 
 Printed 
 
 Painted 
 
 Picot Edge 
 
 "~niii)g 
 
202 
 
 SILK DEPARTMENT 
 
 Black, White, Gray, Red, Blue, 
 Green, Yellow, Lavender in 
 Tints and Shades 
 
 B — 
 
 6. Colors 
 
 Taffeta 
 
 Satin 
 
 Grosgrain 
 
 Moire 
 
 Velvet — Same 
 
 Washable — White, Tints of Pink, Blue, and 
 
 Lavender 
 Tinsel — Silver and Gold 
 Gold and Silver on White and Black Satin, 
 
 Moire and Taffeta backgrounds 
 Novelties — Dresdens and Stripes in Colors 
 Two Toned 
 Self Colors 
 
 Made Goods 
 
 I. Articles 
 Sashes 
 Girdles 
 
 Lingerie and Tailored Bows 
 Table Decorations 
 Sport Hat-Bands 
 Ribbon Sachets 
 Flowers 
 Bags 
 
 ^.i 
 
 Appendix 
 
 Books for Reference 
 
 Textiles 
 
 Silk Manufacturing and Its Problems, James Chittick. 
 
 James Chittick, New York City. 
 Silk, Its Production and Manufacture, Luther Hooper. Sir 
 
 Isaac Pitman and Sons, London. 
 Silk — Its Origin, Culture and Manufacture. Corticelli Co. 
 Silk, the Real vs. the Imitation. Brainerd & Armstrong, New 
 
 London, Conn. 
 Skinner's Silks and Satins — Their Romantic Story. Wm. 
 
 Skinner & Sons, Boston, Mass. 
 The Story of a Silk Mill. Belding Bros. Co., Boston, Mass. 
 A Short Description of Silk and Silk Manufacture. Cheney 
 
 Bros., Boston, Mass. 
 A Glossary of Silk Terms. Cheney Bros., Boston, Mass. 
 Textiles, Woolman and McGowan. Macmillan. 
 Textiles, Paul H. Nystrom. Appleton. 
 Textiles, Wm. H. Dooley. D. C. Heath & Co. 
 The Story of Textiles, Perry Walton, J. S. Lawrence. 
 Household Textiles, Charlotte McGibbs. Whitcomb and 
 
 Barrows. 
 Wool, Cotton, Silk, Posselt. Posselt, Philadelphia. 
 Textile Fibers, Their Physical, Microscopic, and Chemical 
 
 Properties, J. M. Mathews. Wiley. 
 The Chemical Aspect of Silk Manufacture, R. L. Fernbach. 
 
 Van Nostrand. 
 
 Weaving 
 
 Hand Loom Weaving, Luther Hooper. Macmillan. 
 Origin of Inventions, O. T. Mason. Scribner. 
 Woman's Share in Primitive Culture, O. T. Mason. Apple- 
 ton. 
 
 203 
 
 "■"fcEaia. 
 
204 
 
 SILK DEPARTMENT 
 
 Home Life in Colonial Days, Alice Morse Earle. Macmil- 
 
 lan. 
 
 Color and Design 
 
 The Principles of Harmony and Contrast of Color, M. E. 
 Chevreul. G. Bell & Sons, London. 
 
 Color Harmony in Dress, G. A. Audsley. McBride, Nast & 
 Co. 
 
 Color Instruction, L. Prang. Boston. 
 
 Everyday Art, Lewis F. Day. B. T. Batsford, London. 
 
 Bases of Design, Walter Crane. G. Bell & Co., London. 
 
 Textile Design and Color, W. Watson. Longmans, Green & 
 Co., London. 
 
 Nature in Ornament, Lewis F. Day. B. T. Batsford (Lon- 
 don) . 
 
 Pattern Design, Lewis F. Day. B. T. Batsford (London). 
 
 Design. The Prang Co. 
 
 Design in Theory and Practice, E. A. Balchelder. Mac- 
 millan. 
 
 Dyeing 
 
 Dyes and Dyeing, C. E. Pellew. McBride Nast & Co. 
 Manual of Dyeing and Textile Chemistry, J. M. Mathews. 
 
 Wiley. 
 Dyeing of Textile Fabrics, J. J. Hummell. Cassell. 
 
 Leading Silk Manufacturers in the United States 
 
 Astoria Silk Works, Long 
 Island City, N. Y. 
 
 American Silk Spinning Co., 
 Providence, R. I. 
 
 Augusta Silk Works, Pater- 
 son, N. J. 
 
 Belding Bros. & Co., North- 
 ampton, Mass. 
 
 Brainerd & Armstrong, New 
 London, Conn. 
 
 Silk plushes, broad and lining 
 silks, velours, velvets 
 
 Spun silk yams (Schappe), 
 silk noils 
 
 Wide and narrow ribbons 
 
 Plain and fancy, broad, dress 
 and lining silks, sewing and 
 embroidery silks 
 
 Embroidery, sewing, knit- 
 ting, and crochet silks, 
 dress silks, linings 
 
 APPENDIX 
 
 205 
 
 Champlain Silk Mills, Brook- 
 lyn & Whitehall, N. Y. 
 
 Cheney Bros., South Man- 
 chester, Conn. 
 
 Corticelli Silk Mills, Nono- 
 tuck Silk Co., Florence, 
 Mass. 
 
 Doherty & Wadsworth Co., 
 Paterson, N. J. 
 
 Duplan Silk Co., Hazelton, 
 Pa. 
 
 Doherty Silk Co., Henry, 
 Paterson, N. J. 
 
 Dundee Textile Co., Passaic, 
 N. J. 
 
 Empire Silk Co., Paterson, 
 N. J.; Carbondale, Pa. 
 
 Eagle, J. H. & C. K., Sha- 
 mokin, Pa. 
 
 Gallia Silk Mills, Bethle- 
 hem, Pa. 
 
 Hand & Sons, John, Pater- 
 son, N. J. 
 
 Hamlet Textile Co., Woon- 
 socket, R. I. 
 
 Klots Throwing Co., Carbon- 
 dale Pa. 
 
 Lehigh Valley Silk Mills, 
 Bethlehem, Pa. 
 
 Maliinson & Co., H. R., Long 
 Island City, N. Y. 
 
 Spun silk yarns (Schappe), 
 silk tops, silk noils 
 
 Spun silk yarns, thrown silks, 
 organzine, trams, broad, 
 dress, lining and tie silks, 
 cotton - and - silk mixed 
 goods, cravats, plushes, 
 velvets, decorative silks, 
 ribbons, upholstery goods, 
 handkerchiefs, mufflers, 
 hat bands, dress and coat 
 trimmings, silk for insulat- 
 ing 
 
 Machine twist, sewing, em- 
 broidery, and knitting silks 
 
 Plain and Jacquard dress 
 
 silks 
 Plain and fancy piece-dyed 
 
 silks 
 Broad silks 
 
 Plain and Fancy silks, silk- 
 mixed goods 
 
 Plain and fancy dress and 
 tie silks 
 
 Broad silks and commission 
 throwing 
 
 Plain and fancy broad silks 
 
 Ribbons, dress and tie silks 
 
 Plain and fancy dress lin- 
 ings, silks 
 Commission throwsters 
 
 Commission throwsters 
 Plain and fancy dress silks 
 
2o6 
 
 SILK DEPARTMENT 
 
 Meyer Silk Mills Co., John 
 H., Northampton, Pa. 
 
 New London Wash Silk Co., 
 New London, Conn. 
 
 Paragon Silk Co., Paterson, 
 N. J. 
 
 Phoenix Silk Mfg. Co., Pat- 
 erson, N. J., and Allen- 
 town, Pa. 
 
 Portland Silk Co., Middle- 
 town, Conn. 
 
 Rossie Velvet Co., Mystic, 
 Conn. 
 
 Skinner & Sons, Wm., Hol- 
 yoke, Mass. 
 
 Susquehanna Silk Mills, 
 Marion, Ohio 
 
 Schwarzenbach, Huber & Co., 
 W. Hoboken, N. J. 
 
 Stewart Silk Co., Easton, Pa. 
 
 The Viscose Co., Marcus 
 Hook, Pa. 
 
 Plain and fancy broad silks 
 
 Knitting, crochet, and em- 
 broidery silks 
 Broad silks 
 
 Dress, lining, and tie silks, 
 ribbons 
 
 Plain and fancy dress and 
 
 lining silks 
 Silk velvets 
 
 Silks, satins 
 
 Broad, tie, lining and 
 
 printed silks, upholstery 
 
 goods 
 Plain and fancy broad and 
 
 dress, tie, lining, umbrella, 
 
 and thrown silks 
 Plain and fancy dress silks 
 
 and throwing 
 Artificial silk 
 
 APPENDIX 
 
 207 
 
 Glossary of Terms Used in the Silk Industry* 
 
 Accordion Pleating. Narrow pleating, similar to that of an 
 
 accordion. 
 Advance Samples. Short lengths of patterns on which business 
 
 has been done, furnished in advance to buyer to be cut up 
 
 into sample cards. 
 A La Mode. (French.) In fashion. 
 Alizarine Dyes. A series of very fast colors. Alizarine is the 
 
 coloring principle in the madder root. 
 Anglais. (French; pronounced "Ong-glay.") English. 
 Aniline Dyes. Colorings prepared from benzole, one of the 
 
 1 This list is used by courtesy of Cheney Brothers. 
 
 constituents of coal tar. The name is from anil, the indigo 
 plant, as aniline is a substitute for indigo. 
 
 Appreteur. (Fr. ; pr. "ah-preh-teur.") A finisher. 
 
 Artificial Silk. Cellulose (wood-pulp, cotton, etc.) chemically 
 transformed into a gummy solution, threads of which, after 
 being hardened, present a glistening, white, silky appearance. 
 
 Atelier. (Fr. ; pr. " ah-tel-yah.") A workshop. 
 
 AuNE. (Fr. ; pr. "oan.") Same as Ell — which see. The iJ4- 
 
 yard folds of silk goods are called aunes. 
 Aureole. (Fr. ; pr. "o-ray-ole"; a halo.) A ring or line which 
 
 appears round the place where a spot has been cleaned on 
 
 a fabric. 
 
 Automne. (Fr. ; pr. "o-tom.") Autumn. 
 
 Back-Reed. A reed, made of a frame with threads or movable 
 wires, set in behind the true reed, and which serves to open 
 up the warp threads and to hold back lint, etc. 
 
 Bale. European-silk bales weigh, net, 100 kg. = 220% lbs. : 
 Japanese and Shanghai bales are 133H lbs.; and Canton 
 bales are 106^ lbs. 
 
 Batten. The lay or lathe of a loom for striking the weft 
 threads home. Ribbon battens are divided into spaces. 
 
 Bave. (Fr.; pr. "bahv.") The double silk filament emitted by 
 the silkworm. 
 
 Bias. Goods cut diagonally (usually at 45 degree angle) are 
 said to be cut on the bias. 
 
 Bleaching. The process of bleaching, generally done with sul- 
 phur or peroxide of hydrogen or sodium for silk. Chlorine 
 is the principal agent in bleaching cotton ; sulphur in bleach- 
 ing wool. 
 
 Block Printing. The printing of fabrics or warps by means of 
 blocks with patterns worked on their faces. This is all 
 hand-work. 
 
 Blotch Grounds. Printed patterns, in which the ground is 
 
 printed in black or color, instead of being left white. 
 Bobbin. A spool upon which yarn is wound. 
 Boiled-off Silk. Silk with the gum discharged, but undyed. 
 
 BoiLiNG-OFF. The process of degumming silk threads or goods 
 by boiling in soap and water. 
 
 Bolt. A roll or piece of goods, of definite length, as it comes 
 from the maker for sale. 
 
 E 
 
 M 
 
iiii 
 
 'm 
 
 208 
 
 SILK DEPARTMENT 
 
 BoNNAz Machine. A small machine for embroidering figures 
 on woven goods. 
 
 Book. A bundle of Asiatic silk. Japan books weigh, generally, 
 about 4 to 4J^ lbs., each containing about 50 to 60 skeins. 
 China and Canton books are heavier. 
 
 Box. The receptacle on the loom in and out of which the shuttle 
 passes. 
 
 Box Work. Goods in which two or more colors or materials are 
 used in the filling. 
 
 Calendering. The smoothing and pressing of goods between 
 ponderous rollers. 
 
 Carton. A pasteboard box. Ribbon boxes are called cartons. 
 
 Catty. A Chinese weight fixed by treaty at i^ lbs. Also 
 known as " Chin." 
 
 Chafe-Marks. Whitish marks in piece-dyed goods, due to 
 roughening or displacement of fibers. 
 
 Chaine. (Fr.; pr. " shane.") Warp. 
 
 China Curlies. A variety of waste made in reeling China raw 
 silk. 
 
 Chop. The brand used to identify any make of Asiatic raw silk. 
 
 Chrysalis. The pupa of the silkworm, enclosed in the cocoon. 
 
 Cleaning. A treatment given to raw silk to remove nibs, slugs, 
 
 etc. The removing of spots, stains, etc., from woven goods. 
 
 Coal-Tar Colors. Brilliant coloring matters, extracted from 
 coal tar. 
 
 Cockling. A damage in silk goods from irregular shrinkage of 
 the filling. 
 
 Cocoon. The silken covering that the silkworm spins about 
 itself. 
 
 Conditioning. The exact determination of the weight of silk 
 on the basis of its normal condition, i. e., absolute dry weight 
 plus II per cent. The term is also loosely used to cover 
 tests for size, boil-off, etc. 
 
 CoRDONNET. (Fr.; pr. " cor-don-nay.") A silk used for braid- 
 ing, knitting, etc., with a cable-like twist Several raw-silk 
 threads are doubled and loosely twisted in one direction and 
 three of them are joined and smartly twisted in the reverse 
 direction. 
 
 Count. The number of a yarn, indicating its jrardage per pound. 
 
 Couturier. (Fr. ; pr. "coo-toor-jray.") A dressmaker. 
 
 APPENDIX 
 
 209 
 
 Craquant. (Fr.; pr. "crah-kong.") The "scroop" or crunch- 
 ing sound produced by twisted silk. 
 
 Crepe de Chine Twist. Tram, hard-twisted for crepe de chine 
 work. Usually 30 to 75 turns per inch. 
 
 Crepe or Chiffon Twist. Thrown raw silk 20 to 100 turns per 
 inch more or less, for use in making crepes, chiffons, etc. 
 
 Crows' Feet. Wrinkled places in goods, when they have been 
 allowed to dry in a crumpled and creased condition. 
 
 Cut. Any standard length of goods. Broad-silk cuts are usu- 
 ally 60 yds. ; ribbons, 10 yds. 
 
 Cut Selvage. The edge where pieces have been separated when 
 two or more widths are woven together. 
 
 Dbgumming. The boiling-off or discharging of the gum, or 
 sericin, from silk. 
 
 Denier. A French coin, used as a weight for determining the 
 size of raw silk. It weighed 24 Paris grains, equaling 
 19.6728 English grains. The weight now used, called " de- 
 nier," weighs .05 grams, and the number of these weights 
 required to balance a skein of 450 meters, is the denierage 
 or size of the silk. Dividing 4464,528 by any denierage 
 gives its yardage per lb. 
 
 Design. A pattern, or sketch, to be worked out in the goods. 
 
 Dessin. (Fr. ; pr. " des-san.") Design. 
 
 Diaper Pattern. A small-figured effect, usually made in a dia- 
 mond shape. 
 
 Direct-Printing. Patterns printed direct on a cloth from the 
 rollers or blocks. 
 
 Discharge- Printing. The printing on a dyed fabric with chem- 
 icals that strip or discharge the color when printed. Same 
 as extract printing. 
 
 Discharging. The degumming or boiling-off of silk. 
 
 DoBBY. A mechanism of limited scope for raising and lowering 
 harnesses in weaving, somewhat after the idea of a Jac- 
 quard machine. 
 
 Doctor-Marks. Smears made on a printed fabric, from bits of 
 lint being caught under the " doctor blade." 
 
 DouBLE-AND-TwiST. Threads doubled together and then twisted. 
 Usually of different colors. 
 
 Double Ends. Where the warp ends are drawn in two together. 
 
 DouBLE-ovER. In weaving, when extra picks equal to 50 per cent 
 
 
 n 
 
2IO 
 
 SILK DEPARTMENT 
 
 
 !JU 
 
 \>v 
 
 fTfflr 
 
 of the ground are woven in to form small figures. Much 
 used in the tie-silk trade. 
 
 Double Scale. An arrangement of Jacquard harness where two 
 ends work together, producing an enlarged pattern. 
 
 Double Warp. A warp in which there is both a face and back 
 warp. 
 
 Doup Weaving. The twisting of warp threads around the fill- 
 ing picks by employing special heddles or loops called 
 " doups." 
 
 DoupioN-DupioN. (Fr. doupion; It., doppioni.) A rough ir- 
 regular raw silk, reeled from double cocoons. 
 
 Dram. The He of an ounce. The dram system is used for the 
 counts of thrown silk. It is based on i,ooo yds. to the dram, 
 or 256,000 yds. per lb., for the size of No. i. Dividing 
 256,000 by any dramage gives its yardage per pound. 
 
 Drap. (Fr.; pr. "drah.") Cloth; also wooden cloth, etc. 
 
 Drawing-in. The passing of the warp threads through the 
 eyes of the heddles in the harness. 
 
 Dyeing. The coloring of silk and other textile materials, in- 
 cluding the boiling-off, weighting, and other processes. 
 
 Dynamited Silk. Silk weighted with tin salts. 
 
 Echantillon. (Fr.; ph. " ay-shon-tee-yong.") A sample. A 
 pattern. 
 
 Ecru Silk. (Fr.; pr. "ay-croo"; unbleached.) Thrown silk 
 with but a trifiing amount of the gum discharged from it 
 
 Ell. An ancient measure of variable length. The ell (or aune) 
 on which the denier-aune system of silk measure was based, 
 measured 46.79 English inches. 
 
 Embossing. The imprinting of raised designs on fabrics by 
 passing them under pressure between suitably engraved 
 heated rollers. 
 
 End. a warp thread. 
 
 End-and-End Warp. A warp made of alternate threads of two 
 kinds or colors of yarn. 
 
 Essay. A small experimental sample of a fabric or design. 
 Exf. (Fr. ; pr. "ay-tay.") Summer. 
 
 Etoffe. (Fr.; pr. "ay-toff.") Stuff. Fabric. Cloth. 
 
 Etoile. (Fr. : pr. ** ay-twoll.") A star. 
 
 Extra-Luster. A brilliancy given to skein silk by stretching it 
 under steam pressure. 
 
 APPENDIX 
 
 211 
 
 Extract Printing. The printing upon goods, previously dyed, 
 with chemicals which extract the color. Same as discharge 
 printing. 
 
 False-Reed. Same as back-reed. 
 
 Fibroin. The insoluble part of the raw silk. The silk fiber. 
 
 Filature. (Fr.) An establishment where silk reeling is car- 
 ried on. 
 
 Filling. Material to be used as weft in a fabric. 
 
 Finishing. The various treatments accorded to goods after 
 weaving to improve their appearance and touch. 
 
 Fiske-Yarn. a fancy yarn, generally cotton, with showy 
 " flakes " or bits of untwisted list, at intervals. 
 
 Floats. Weaving imperfections where the filling "floats" over 
 warp threads which it should pass under, or vice versa. 
 
 Floss Silk. A soft silk yarn, practically without twist. Also 
 the loose waste silk emitted by the worm when beginning to 
 spin its cocoon. 
 
 Fond. (Fr.) The foundation or ground of a pattern. 
 
 Foundation Weaves. The three primary weaves, plain, twill 
 and satin. 
 
 Four-Scale. Arrangement of Jacquard harness which works 
 four threads together, enlarging the pattern, but with a 
 coarser outline. 
 
 Francaise. (Fr. ; pr. " Frong-says.") French. 
 
 Prison. (Fr. ; pr. "free-song.") Waste made in a filature in 
 reeling silk. 
 
 Fullers* Earth. A soft unctuous clay, used in scouring and 
 cleaning cloth. 
 
 Gassing. The singeing of the hairiness from fabrics or jrams, 
 usually by a gas flame. 
 
 Genapping. Same as gassing. Named after Genappc in Bel- 
 gium. 
 
 Gram. The metrical unit of weight. Equal to 15432356 Eng- 
 lish or troy grains. 
 
 Grande Faqon. (Fr. ; pr. "grahnd fas-song.") Literally the 
 complete working-out. A method of determining the waste 
 made in throwing. 
 
 Grege. (Fr. ; pr. "grehz.") Raw silk. 
 
 Grenadine Twist. Organzine, hard-twisted to suit it for grena- 
 dine weaving. Twists run from 29^8 to *'%o turns per inch, 
 more or less. 
 
 4 
 
 h 
 
 \-^ 
 
212 
 
 SILK DEPARTMENT 
 
 I 
 
 Grey Goods. Goods for piece-dyeing while still undyed. 
 
 Gum Silk. Thrown silk from which the gum has not been dis- 
 charged. 
 
 Hair-line Stripes. Patterns showing very narrow stripings of 
 sharply contrasting colors. 
 
 Hand. The touch or handle of goods. 
 
 Hard Silk. Thrown silk from which the gum has not been dis- 
 charged. 
 
 Hard Twist. Raw silk, twisted very hard in throwing, suitable 
 for use in chiffons, crepes, etc. 
 
 Harness. A series of frames equipped with heddles, and 
 mounted in a loom, through which the warp ends pass, and 
 which, as they are alternately raised and lowered, open the 
 warp for the shuttle to pass. A Jacquard harness is differ- 
 ently arranged. 
 
 Harness Skips. Weaving imperfections where a row of warp 
 ends *' skips " over filling threads that they should be under. 
 
 Haute. (Fr.; pr. "boat.") High. 
 
 Haute NouvEAUTfe. (Fr. ; pr. " hoat-noo-vo-tay.") High nov- 
 elty. 
 Head Ends. Same as headings. 
 
 Headings. The beginning and ending of a piece of goods, gen- 
 erally woven with some remnant material for filling. 
 
 Heald. Same as heddle. 
 
 Heddle. a thread or wire leash, attached to a harness frame, 
 and having an eye in the center through which a warp thread 
 passes. 
 
 Herringbone. Striped patterns woven in a chevron effect. 
 
 High Pile. A long pile such as occurs in plushes, distinguished 
 from low piles, as in velvets. 
 
 Hiver. (Fr.; pr. "ee-vair.") Winter. 
 
 Honeycomb. A character of weave showing hollows, like a 
 bedspread pattern. 
 
 Jacquard. (Fr. ; pr. "zhah-car.") Joseph Marie Jacquard 
 (born 1752, died 1834), French mechanician, inventor of the 
 Jacquard machine exhibited in 1801. 
 
 Jacquard Card. Long cards, laced together, and punched with 
 holes, which govern the patterns woven on a Jacquard loom. 
 
 Jacquard Design. A pattern produced by means of the Jac- 
 quard machine. 
 
 APPENDIX 
 
 213 
 
 Joseph's Coat. A warp made in stripes to weave small samples 
 of various colors. Same as sample blanket. 
 
 KiBisso. (Japanese.) A name for certain wastes made in raw- 
 silk reeling. 
 
 Kilogram. A metric weight of 1,000 grams equal to 2.2046223 
 lbs. 
 
 Kin. a Japanese weight equals 1.325 1 lbs., commercially fig- 
 ured as 1.3277 lbs., so that 756 kin weigh 1,000 lbs. Japanese 
 raw-silk quotations are in yen per kin. 
 
 Lappet Loom. A loom equipped with an apparatus for weaving 
 embroidered effects upon an otherwise plain cloth. 
 
 Lease. The series of crossings in the threads of a warp, in 
 which each warp thread, in turn, is passed alternately over 
 and under a rod or cord. 
 
 Leash. Same as heddle. 
 
 Leno Weaving. A method of weaving open-mesh fabrics where 
 the warp threads twist around the filling threads, as in 
 grenadine. 
 
 Ligne. (Fr.; pr. "lean.") The K2 of a French inch, used in 
 
 ribbon measures, and which equals .0883 English inches. 
 Loading. The weighting or adulteration of silk. 
 Loom. A machine in which cloth is woven. 
 
 Loom Mounting. Arranging a warp, with its harness, reed, 
 etc., in a loom, ready for weaving. 
 
 Lousy Silk. Silk which, when woven into fabrics, shows many 
 light-colored specks on the surface of the cloth. 
 
 Low-PiLE. A pile fabric in the velvet class, not having as long 
 a pile as in plush. 
 
 Machine-Twist. Thread specially prepared for use on the sew- 
 ing machine. 
 
 Magazine Loom. A loom provided with a lot of wound quills 
 or bobbins, which are automatically introduced into the 
 shuttle. 
 
 Marabout, or Marabou Silk. White silk, well-twisted, and 
 dyed without discharging the gum ; used in making imitation 
 marabout feathers. 
 
 Metallic Dye. An extra luster, given to silk by steam-stretch- 
 ing the skeins. 
 
 Meter. The standard linear measure of the metric system, 
 equivalent to 39.370432 English inches. 
 

 214 
 
 SILK DEPARTMENT 
 
 Metric Count. The numbering applied to yarns, when based 
 
 upon the metric system. 
 MicuiT. (Fr. ; pr. "mee-kwee"; half done.) A silk in which 
 
 about half the gum is allowed to remain when dyed. 
 
 Mill-Ends. The remnants of goods that accumulate at mills. 
 
 MiSE-EN-cARTE. (Fr. ; pr. " mees-ong-cart.") A pattern as laid 
 out on the squared desigfn paper for the card cutter. 
 
 MisPiCK. An imperfection in a cloth caused by a filling thread 
 
 not interlacing with the right warp ends. The omission of 
 
 a filling thread in weaving. 
 MoMMiE. (Jap.) A Japanese weight equal to 57.674 grains; 
 
 one pound equals i2cWoo mommies. 
 Mordant. The substance employed to fix upon the goods the 
 
 color produced by the dyestufF. 
 
 Motif. (Fr. ; pr. "mo-teef"; motive.) Applied to small, dis- 
 tinctive, pattern effects. 
 
 Narrow Goods. Ribbons, tapes, and similar fabrics. 
 
 Noil Yarns. Yarn made from noils, very lumpy and unelastic. 
 
 Noils. Short, lumpy fiber, left after the combing process in the 
 
 manufacture of spun silk. 
 Noshi Ito. (Jap.) A variety of waste made in reeling raw 
 
 silk. 
 Nouveau. (Fr. ; pr. "noo-vo.") New. Novel. 
 Nuance. (Fr. ; pr. " noo-ongce.") A shade or tint. 
 
 One Hundred Per Cent Throwing Method. A method of 
 
 dealing with the wastage made in throwing, by which the 
 
 throwster pays for all waste made, being compensated by a 
 
 proper addition to his price for throwing. 
 Organzine. Silk prepared for warp purposes of two (or more) 
 
 raw silk threads well-twisted both in the singles and in the 
 
 two-ply. 
 Pantograph. An apparatus used for transferring the designs 
 
 for printing from the pattern sketches to the printing rollers, 
 
 prior to etching them. 
 Pari. (Fr. ; pr. "pah-ree.") The weight of gum silk before 
 
 boiling off. 
 Pastel Colors. Shades having a chalky or hazy appearance. 
 Pattern Warp. Same as sample blanket. 
 Pecul, Picul. a Chinese weight of 133% lbs. used in the silk 
 
 trade. 
 
 APPENDIX 
 
 215 
 
 Pesant. (Fr. ; pr. "peh-song.") Weight. 
 
 Pick. A filling thread in a cloth. 
 
 Picking. Removing odd threads, lumps, or similar blemishes 
 from woven fabrics. The movement of a loom as it drives 
 the shuttle across. In cotton or wool spinning, a preliminary 
 opening up given to the stock to prepare it for carding. 
 
 Piece. A length of goods. Broad silks are usually made in 
 60-yd. pieces. Ribbons in lo-yd. pieces. 
 
 Piece-Dyeing. The dyeing of fabrics in the woven piece. 
 
 Pierced Cocoons. Cocoons from which the moths have emerged, 
 being thus rendered useless for reeling. 
 
 Pile Fabrics. Fabrics with pile faces, such as velvets, plushes, 
 etc. 
 
 Plated Yarn. A thread, having as a core a thread of cheap 
 material round which is twisted a superior fiber, as a cot- 
 ton thread twisted round with worsted, silk, or metal. 
 
 Plush. A fabric with a pile face, the pile being longer than 
 velvet. 
 
 PoiL. (Fr. ; pr. "pwahl"; hair, etc.) The silk core yarn in 
 
 a thread. 
 Polishing. A treatment given to goods in finishing to improve 
 
 the luster. 
 Printemfs. (Fr.; pr. " pran-tong.") Spring. 
 Printing. The impressing of patterns on warps or fabrics by 
 
 means of rollers or blocks. 
 Pure-Dye. Silk colored, but unweighted. 
 Quarter-over. In weaving, where extra picks, equal to 25 per 
 
 cent of the ground, are woven in to form small figures; 
 
 much used in tie silks. 
 Quill. The shuttle bobbin on which the silk weft is wound. 
 Quilling. Winding filling onto the quills. 
 Raw (^ds. Fabrics made for dyeing in the piece. 
 Raw Silk. Silk as it has been reeled from the cocoons. 
 Rayon. (Fr.; pr. "ray-ong.") A ray, or stripe. 
 
 Reed. A metal comb, closed at top and bottom, for keeping 
 ing warp threads separate, and fixed in the loom so that it 
 beats up each pick woven into the cloth. 
 
 Reeding. The arrangement of threads in a reed, generally 
 stated as ^, ''94, etc., the first number being the number of 
 
2l6 
 
 SILK DEPARTMENT 
 
 :H|]H| 
 
 dents, or divisions, per inch in the reed, and the second 
 showing the number of threads in a dent. 
 
 Reed-Marks. Streaks in goods due to faulty reeds, or to the 
 use of an unduly coarse reed for the goods. 
 
 Reed Ombr£;. Shaded striped efifects made in weaving by pass- 
 ing the warp threads through the reed in a graduated man- 
 ner. 
 
 Reference Samples. Small cuttings of goods, as those attached 
 to an order sheet. 
 
 Regain. A standard percentage of moisture to be added to an 
 absolutely dried-out textile material to bring it to its normal 
 or "conditioned" weight. This in silk is ii per cent; in 
 cotton, 8^ per cent; in linen, 12 per cent; and in worsted 
 yarn, 18H per cent. 
 
 Resist-Printing. Printing textiles with a waxy or other prepa- 
 ration which resists dyeing. Goods are then piece-dyed and 
 the wax or " resist " is removed with benzine, etc., the fig- 
 ure so made showing white against the dyed ground. 
 
 Reversible. Both sides alike, as a cloth. A reversible pattern 
 is one in which the figures point both ways. 
 
 Ribbon, Riband, Ribband. A narrow fabric made of silk. 
 
 Roller- Printing. The printing of patterns from engraved cop- 
 per rollers. 
 
 RuBAN. (Fr. ; pr. "roo-bon.") Ribbon. 
 
 Sample-Blanket. A short length of goods, made for samples, 
 having sections of different colors in the warp, and shot 
 with a variety of different fillings. 
 
 Schappe. (Fr.; pr. "shap.") Spun-silk yarn. 
 
 Scroop. The peculiar crunchy sound that silk makes when 
 squeezed. It can be artificially produced by an acid treat- 
 ment in the dyeing. 
 
 Selvage, Selvedge. The edge of a cloth, usually heavier and 
 differently woven. 
 
 Sen. a Japanese coin, value one-half cent, U. S. ; 100 sen=» 
 I yen = 49.842 cents gold, U. S. 
 
 Sericin. The soluble gum of the silk fiber. 
 
 Sewing Silk. Silk especially thrown and twisted for use as 
 sewing thread. 
 
 Shaft. A harness frame for a loom. 
 
 Shaft Loom. A harness loom. 
 
 APPENDIX 
 
 217 
 
 Shepherd Plaids. Checks or plaids, as worn by the Scotch 
 shepherds. 
 
 Shoot. Weft, filling. 
 
 Shot Silk. Fabrics with warp and fillings of sharply contrast- 
 ing colors. 
 
 Shower- Proof, or Rain-Proof. Goods treated to resist spotting 
 by water. 
 
 Shuttle. The implement by which the filling thread is shot to 
 and fro in weaving. 
 
 Shuttle-Work. Fabrics in which two or more kinds of mate- 
 rials or colors are used in the filling. 
 Silk-gum Sericin. The soluble content in raw silk. 
 
 Silk Noils. A short, lumpy waste, remaining after the combing 
 of spun silk. 
 
 Silk Reeling. The production of raw silk by unwinding the 
 silk from the cocoons. 
 
 Silk Waste. Wastages in the various branches of the silk 
 industry, including pierced cocoons. 
 
 Singeing. Removing the hairiness from fabrics or yam by 
 singeing, usually done by means of gas flames. 
 
 Single-and-Double Warp. Warps made with an alternation of 
 ends, giving two ends on the face for one on the back, and 
 vice versa. 
 
 Singles. Threads of raw silk, thrown or twisted, in the single 
 thread. 
 
 Single-Scale. The tie-up of a Jacquard loom where each end 
 works singly. 
 
 Single- Weaving. The weaving of warps made of single raw- 
 silk ends, unthrown. 
 
 Sizing. The treatment of warps, or other threads, or goods, 
 with a size to render them firm and smooth. Also the test- 
 ing of 3rarns to determine their sizes. 
 
 Skein Threads reeled into a coil or hank. Usually 45 to 54 
 mches in circumference. 
 
 Skein-Dyeing. The boiling-off, weighting, coloring, etc., of 
 silks, or other skein yarns. 
 
 Slugs. Soft thick lumps in a yarn. 
 
 Smash. Hundreds of broken ends in a warp, where the loom 
 
 has beaten up before the shuttle has passed through. 
 Soft Silk. Thrown silk jram, degummed, dyed, or undyed. 
 
2l8 
 
 SILK DEPARTMENT 
 
 SoiE. (Fr.; pr. "swah.") Silk. 
 
 SoiE Ondee. (Fr.; pr. " swah-ong-day "; literally, "silk undu- 
 lated.") Silk prepared by doubling and twisting together 
 a very coarse and a very fine thread. When used for mak- 
 ing gauze it imparts to it a watered appearance. 
 
 SoiERiE. (Fr.; pr. "swah-ree.") "Silk" in general, i.e., silk 
 goods, silk mills, silk trade, etc. 
 
 SoLEiL. (Fr.; pr. "sol-ay"; the sun.) Often used in connec- 
 tion with fabric names. 
 
 SouPLE Silk. Dyed skein-silk from which but little gum has 
 been discharged. Silk so treated is firmer but less lustrous. 
 Spaces. The openings in the batten of a ribbon loom. 
 
 Split-Edge. Goods woven two or more widths together, being 
 afterward cut or split apart. 
 
 Spun Silk. Silk yarn made from silk wastes, and spun in a 
 similar manner to worsted. 
 
 Spun-Silk Count. Same as the cotton scale of 840 yds. to the 
 number, except that two or more ply yarns are stated dif- 
 ferently; %oo. for instance, in cotton, counting same as ^; 
 while ^00 in spun silk counts the same as Hoo- Continental 
 spun silks are sold on metric counts. 
 
 Steam -Stretched. Silk skeins, smartly stretched under steam 
 
 pressure. This greatly increases the luster. 
 Stripping. Removing the sericin from silk by "boiling off." 
 Surface-Print. A pattern printed on a woven fabric. 
 
 Swatch. A sample or strip of goods cut across the width of 
 the fabric. 
 
 Swift. A light reel on which silk skeins are spread for un- 
 winding. 
 
 Swivel Figures. Figures embroidered on cloth by the use of a 
 swivel batten on the loom. 
 
 Swivel Loom. A loom with a swivel batten adapted for weav- 
 ing detached figures on goods. 
 
 Synthetic Color. A dyestuff compounded chemically to dupli- 
 cate a natural coloring matter. 
 
 Tael. A Chinese measure of value approximately i^ 02. av. 
 of silver, but varying in different districts. There is no 
 current coin of the tael. Value in U. S. gold is approxi- 
 mately .642 for the Canton tael, and .588 for the Shanghai 
 tael, but varies with the price of silver. 
 
 Tartan. A Scotch woolen stuff, woven in the patterns of the 
 
 APPENDIX 
 
 219 
 
 plaids of Highland clans; hence used as a synonym of a 
 clan plaid. 
 
 Teinte. (Fr.; pr. "tant") Tint. Color. Shade. 
 
 Tender CjOods. Fabrics not commercially strong enough for 
 their intended uses, including those made weak by improper 
 dyeing. 
 
 Three-Scale. A method of arranging a Jacquard harness 
 where three warp ends work together, giving a correspond- 
 ing larger repeat than a single-scale pattern, but with coarser 
 outline. 
 
 Throwing. Twisting, and otherwise manipulating, raw-silk 
 threads. 
 
 Throwster. One who conducts a silk-throwing business. 
 
 Thrum. The end of a warp where the threads are knotted 
 together. 
 
 Tinsel. Thread of fine flattened wire, twisted round a silk 
 or cotton core; usually made of copper and finished in gold 
 or silver. 
 
 Touche. (Fr.; pr. "toosh"; touch.) Handle or feel of goods. 
 
 Tram. Raw-silk threads doubled and twisted. Used for filling. 
 
 Traverse. A to-and-fro motion, as in winding silk on a bobbin. 
 
 Trevet, Trivet (Eng.) : Trevette (Fr.). The sliding knife or 
 cutter used in cutting velvets woven double. 
 
 TussAH, TussuR, Tussore. Wild-silk of a brownish color, 
 largely produced in India and China. 
 
 Twisting-in. The uniting of the threads of a new warp to 
 those of one woven out, by twisting the threads together. 
 
 Twist Silk. Silk thread prepared for sewing purposes. 
 
 Type Piece. A sample piece of goods made to represent a 
 
 quality. 
 ViGouREUx Printing. A method of printing textile fibers so as 
 
 to produce a mixture effect in the yarns and goods. Named 
 
 after the inventor. 
 
 Warp. The threads which run lengthwise in a fabric. A very 
 usual length is 300 yds. 
 
 Warping. The process of making warps from silk or other 
 yarns. 
 
 Warp Print. A pattern printed on a warp previous to weaving. 
 
 Water- Proofing. Treatment for rendering fabrics impervious 
 to moisture. 
 
220 
 
 SILK DEPARTMENT 
 
 Weave. The manner of interlacing the threads in a fabric. 
 
 The construction or design. 
 Weaving. The interlacing of the weft with the warp in fabric 
 
 construction. 
 Weft. The crosswise threads in a fabric. The filling. 
 Weighting. The loading used to increase the weight and bulk 
 
 of silk. 
 Winding. Transferring silk from skeins onto bobbins. 
 Woof. Same as weft. 
 Wrong-Draw. An imperfection in cloth, due to a warp end 
 
 having been drawn through the wrong heddle. 
 Yen. a monetary unit of Japan, having a value of 49.842 cents, 
 
 gold. 
 
 Names Descriptive of Characteristics of Fabrics ^ 
 
 French 
 Abbatr6 
 
 A jour 
 
 Appliqu^ 
 
 Appret 
 Barr6 
 Bayadere 
 Bordure 
 
 Bosseli 
 Boucle 
 
 Pronunciation Description 
 
 abat-ray Applied to patterns with 
 
 depressed effects. 
 ah zhoor Open-work effects. 
 
 ap-lee-kay 
 
 »p-pray 
 bah-ray 
 by-ad-air 
 bord-00-ray 
 
 5os-el-ay 
 boo-clay 
 
 As designs made by stitch- 
 ing braiding on the gar- 
 ment. 
 
 The sizing or dressing ap- 
 plied to goods. 
 
 Effects of a cross-over 
 stripe character. 
 
 Broad and lively cross 
 stripes. 
 
 Describes goods with a 
 woven or printed bor- 
 der pattern. 
 
 Patterns made by emboss- 
 ing. 
 
 Applied to goods in which 
 are novelty yarns show- 
 ing curly loops. 
 
 A shirred or rippled ef- 
 fect. 
 
 Bouillonni boo-yon-nay 
 
 1 This list is used by courtesy of Cheney Brothers. 
 
 English 
 
 Depressed — 
 sunken 
 
 " To-day," as " ex- 
 posed to the 
 day" 
 
 Applied — laid on 
 
 Finish — dressing 
 Barred 
 Bayadere 
 Bordered 
 
 Embossed 
 Curled 
 
 Shirred — gath- 
 ered 
 
 
 
 APPENDIX 
 
 221 
 
 French 
 
 Pronunciation 
 
 Description 
 
 English 
 
 Bourr6 
 
 boo-ray 
 
 Effects where the pattern 
 has a stuffed or wadded 
 character. 
 
 Stu£Fed 
 
 Boyau 
 
 boy-o 
 
 A stripe, or edging, of a 
 cord-like character. 
 
 Pipe — hose 
 
 Brillant 
 
 bree-yong 
 
 Shiny. This name is 
 given to a chiffon-like 
 fabric made of un- 
 twisted raw silk. 
 
 Bright 
 
 Brillant^ 
 
 bree-yon-tay 
 
 Something very irides- 
 cent. 
 
 Glittering 
 
 Broche 
 
 broshay 
 
 Showing a certain kind 
 
 Figured — 
 
 
 
 of figured effect. 
 
 stitched 
 
 Brod« 
 
 bro-day 
 
 Figured in a manner sim- 
 ilar to embroidery. 
 
 Embroidered 
 
 Broderie 
 
 bro-de-ree 
 
 
 Embroidery 
 
 Camaieu 
 
 cam-ah-yeu 
 
 Made with different 
 shades of the same 
 color. 
 
 Cameo 
 
 Cam61eon 
 
 kam-ay-lay-ohn 
 
 A three-tone glace effect. 
 
 Chameleon, a liz- 
 ard that changes 
 color 
 
 Canille 
 
 can-eel 
 
 A jointed effect, with 
 
 Cane-like 
 
 Cannel^ 
 
 can-el-lay 
 
 stripes broken at inter- 
 vals by knots or small 
 squares, like a bamboo 
 effect. 
 Narrow fancy broken Fluted 
 stripings. 
 
 Carri 
 
 cab- ray 
 
 Checkered effects. 
 
 Squared 
 
 Carreau 
 
 cah-ro 
 
 A check, or block. 
 
 Square 
 
 Changeant 
 
 shong-zhong 
 
 Shot effects, as from con- 
 trasting colors. 
 
 Changeable 
 
 Charmant 
 
 shar-mong 
 
 Used when something is 
 specially dainty 
 
 Charming 
 
 Charmeuse 
 
 char-meuz 
 
 Applied to a certain rich 
 
 piece-dyed fabric. 
 A crepe- warp satin. 
 
 Charmer 
 
 Chenille 
 
 chen-eel 
 
 V^elvety silk-cord. 
 
 Chenille (Fr.)— 
 A caterpillar 
 
 Chin6 
 
 she-nay 
 
 Blurred, soft, indistinct, 
 as a warp printed effect. 
 
 Colored — ting«d 
 
 Oart* 
 
 dar-tay 
 
 Clear in outline, well de- 
 fined. 
 
 Clearness 
 
222 
 
 French 
 
 Pronunciation 
 
 Color* 
 
 co-lo-ray 
 
 Coquill6 
 
 co-kee-yay 
 
 Coteli 
 
 co-tel-lay 
 
 Craquel* 
 
 crahq-lay 
 
 Crep6 
 Croise 
 
 creh-pay 
 crwoz-ay 
 
 Damass* 
 Damier 
 
 dam-as- say 
 dam-yay 
 
 De luxe 
 
 de looks 
 
 Dentel6 
 
 don-tel-lay 
 
 Dentelle 
 Deux tons 
 
 don-tell 
 deu tong 
 
 Ecossaise 
 £cras6 
 
 ay-cossays 
 ay-crah-say 
 
 Epingl6 
 
 ay-pang-glay 
 
 Exquis 
 
 ex-quec 
 
 PaQonn* 
 
 fah-son-nay 
 
 Fantaisie 
 
 fan-ta-zee 
 
 Festonn* 
 
 fes-ton-nay 
 
 Feutr* 
 
 feu-tray 
 
 Ploconn* 
 
 flo-con-nay 
 
 Pone* 
 
 fon-say 
 
 SILK DEPARTMENT 
 
 Description 
 
 Colored by dyeing or 
 otherwise. 
 
 Made with scalloped pat- 
 terns or edges. 
 
 Having distinct ribs or 
 wales. 
 
 Effect like crackled glass. 
 
 Made with crapy effect. 
 Applied to a velvet 
 
 weave, with a twilled 
 
 back. 
 Figured brocade. 
 A checker-board. 
 
 Something superlatively 
 fine. 
 
 Applied to certain kinds 
 of edges. 
 
 Open work, lacey effects. 
 
 Warp and filling of con- 
 trasting colors. 
 
 Scotch tartan patterns. 
 
 A pattern with a crushed 
 or flattened effect. 
 
 Largely applied to fabrics 
 having ribs of alternat- 
 ing sizes, or colors. 
 
 Of the highest charac- 
 ter. 
 
 Applied to Jacquard fig- 
 ured fabrics. 
 
 Novelty effect, or special- 
 ly high quality. 
 
 Applied to certain kinds 
 of edges. 
 
 Used to describe the 
 furry backs on some 
 satins. 
 
 Fabrics in which appear 
 flakes or tufts of con- 
 trasting colors. 
 
 Thus " rouge fono6 " is 
 liver colored. 
 
 English 
 Colored 
 
 Shell-like — scal- 
 loped 
 Ribbed 
 
 Crackled — lace- 
 like 
 Craped 
 Twilled 
 
 Damasked 
 Patterns of large 
 
 squares 
 Of luxiuy 
 
 Indented 
 
 Lace-work 
 Two-tone 
 
 Plaid (Scottish) 
 Crushed 
 
 Corded 
 
 Exquisite 
 
 Wrought — fig- 
 ured 
 Fancy 
 
 Scalloped 
 
 Felted 
 
 Flaky 
 Deep-colored 
 
 French 
 
 Gaufre 
 
 Glac* 
 
 Pronundation 
 go-fray 
 
 glah-say 
 
 Granite 
 Grisaille 
 
 gran-ee-tay 
 greaze-eye 
 
 Grivel6 
 
 greeve-lay 
 
 [mprime 
 Unce 
 
 ong-pree-may 
 Ion -say 
 
 Lumineux 
 
 loo-min-eu 
 
 Lustri 
 
 loos-tray 
 
 Matelasse 
 
 mat-las-say 
 
 Matte 
 
 maht 
 
 Metallique 
 
 may-tal-leek 
 
 Moire 
 
 mwar-ay 
 
 Monochrome 
 
 mon-o-chrome 
 
 Monotone 
 
 Nacre 
 
 Nacr* 
 
 Natte 
 
 Nouveaute 
 
 Ombr* 
 
 mon-o-tone 
 
 nakr 
 
 nah-cray 
 
 nat-tay 
 
 noo-vo-tay 
 
 ong-bray 
 
 Onde 
 
 on-day 
 
 Ondul* 
 
 on-doo-lay 
 
 Orne 
 
 or-nay 
 
 Ouvr* 
 
 oo-vray 
 
 Fillet* 
 
 pi-yet-ay 
 
 APPENDIX 
 
 Description 
 
 Patterns produced by 
 pressure between en- 
 graved rollers. 
 
 Applied to two-tone col- 
 orings. 
 
 Small granular patterns. 
 
 A black-and-white mixed 
 effect. 
 
 A spotted or mottled ef- 
 fect. 
 
 Any printed effect. 
 
 Applied to special picks 
 used for shot effects. 
 
 Showing glints of color 
 through the ground. 
 
 Finished with special 
 brilliancy. 
 
 A figured effect, well 
 stuffed out. 
 
 Flat, dull finishes or 
 weaves. 
 
 Applied to high luster ef- 
 fects. 
 
 Watered effect of many 
 kinds. 
 
 Different shades of the 
 same color. 
 
 Single-color effects. 
 
 Iridescent, pearly effects. 
 
 Small basket-weaves. 
 
 Applied to anything new. 
 
 Showing graduations of 
 color. 
 
 Having a wavy, watered 
 effect. 
 
 Stripes of an undulating 
 character. 
 
 Specially ornate or deco- 
 rated. 
 
 Figured, stitched or em- 
 broidered. 
 
 Showing small, glittering 
 effects. 
 
 223 
 
 English 
 Honeycombed — 
 puckered 
 
 Frosted — ice-like 
 
 Granite-like 
 Grizzled 
 
 Speckled 
 
 Printed 
 Shot 
 
 Ltuninous 
 
 Lustered 
 
 Quilted — stuffed 
 
 Lusterless — dead 
 
 Metallic 
 
 Watered 
 
 Single-colored 
 
 Monotonous 
 
 Mother-of-pearl 
 
 Nacreous 
 
 Plaited — matlike 
 
 Novelty 
 
 Shaded 
 
 Waved 
 
 Undulated 
 
 Ornamented 
 
 Worked 
 
 Spangled 
 
224 
 
 SILK DEPARTMENT 
 
 French 
 
 Pronunciation 
 
 Description 
 
 English 
 
 Paillette 
 
 pi-yet 
 
 
 Spangle 
 
 Panachi 
 
 pan-ah-shajr 
 
 Showing birds, flowers, 
 fruits, leaves, etc. 
 
 Variegated 
 
 Pass« 
 
 pas-say 
 
 Anything out of style. 
 
 Passed — out of 
 
 fashion 
 
 Peluch6 
 
 pel-oo-shay 
 
 A rough, plush-like effect. 
 
 Shaggy 
 
 Perc* 
 
 pair-say 
 
 Akind of open-work effect. 
 
 Perforated 
 
 Petits pois 
 
 pet-ee pwah 
 
 Small dots, as peas. 
 
 Small peas 
 
 Picot 
 
 pee-co 
 
 A looped arrangement 
 for edgings. 
 
 Purl — loop 
 
 Plissi 
 
 plee-say 
 
 Showing alternate stripes, 
 smooth and puckered. 
 
 Pleated 
 
 Pointilli 
 
 pwong-tee-yay 
 
 Having a pattern with 
 small points or dot*. 
 
 Dotted 
 
 Quadrille 
 
 cad-ree-yay 
 
 Patterns of a squared 
 kind 
 
 Checkered 
 
 Ray« 
 
 ray-ay 
 
 A general name for strip- 
 in gs. 
 
 Striped 
 
 ltelev6 
 
 rel-er-ay 
 
 Figures showing in strong 
 relief. 
 
 Raised — in relief 
 
 Renvers^ 
 
 rong-ver-say 
 
 Patterns which reverse. 
 
 Reversed 
 
 Repousse 
 
 reh-poo-say 
 
 Patterns of a raised char- 
 
 Pushed-back — 
 
 
 
 acter. 
 
 bulked-up 
 
 Revers 
 
 reh-vair 
 
 Turned round. 
 
 Reverse-side 
 
 Rondi 
 
 ron-day 
 
 Figures of a rounded 
 shape. 
 
 Rounded 
 
 Rongeant 
 
 rong-zhong 
 
 As a pattern made by 
 eating out the design. 
 
 Corroding 
 
 Scintilla 
 
 san-tee-yay 
 
 Brilliant and scintillating. 
 
 Sparkling 
 
 Serpcntin 
 
 sehr-pon-tan 
 
 Undulating striped ef- 
 fects. 
 
 Spiral — winding 
 
 Serr6 
 
 sehr-ay 
 
 Compactly pressed. 
 
 Pressed 
 
 Soutach6 
 
 8oo-tash-ay 
 
 Effect of braidings on 
 cloth. 
 
 Braided 
 
 Tachet* 
 
 tash-tay 
 
 Having a speckled effect. 
 
 Spotted 
 
 Teindr^ 
 
 tain-dray 
 
 Dyed; stained; tinged 
 with color. 
 
 Dyed 
 
 Travers 
 
 trah-vair 
 
 Cross-over effects. 
 
 Across 
 
 Traverse 
 
 trah-vair-say 
 
 Crossed by stripes in the 
 
 Traversed — 
 
 
 
 filling. 
 
 crossed 
 
 Velouti 
 
 vel-oo-tay 
 
 Soft, velvety and free 
 from harshness. 
 
 Velvety 
 
 Vdu 
 
 vel-oo 
 
 Rough faced and hairy. 
 
 Hairy 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Adulteration of silk, 83 
 Andemars, 75 
 Aniline dyes, 65 
 Animal dyes, 62 
 Armure, 127 
 Artificial silk, 
 
 characteristics, 76 
 
 cuprammonium, 73, 74 
 
 history, 75 
 
 inventors, 7S 
 
 laundering, 78 
 
 manufacture, 74 
 
 materials, 78 
 
 nitrocellulose or pyroxylin, 73. 74 
 
 reasons for making, 72 
 
 uses, 76 
 
 viscose, 73, 74 
 
 B 
 
 Batten (See " Loom ") 
 Behring seal, 147 
 
 BeNGALINB, 80, 123 
 
 Black silks, 2, 59 
 Blood, Edmund. 19 
 Boiling>off process, 21 
 Bolting cloth, 128 
 Bombazine, 80 
 
 BOMBYX MORI silkworm, 5 
 
 Breaking process, 68 
 "Bright" throwing, i6 
 Broad silks. 33 
 Brocade. 128, 129 
 BROCHfe, 129 
 Broken colors, 94 
 Burning tests, 84 
 
 Cachemirb de soie, 129 
 Calendering process, 68 
 Carding (See "Loom Jacquard") 
 Cartwright, Edmund, 32 
 Changeable silk. 130 
 Chardonnet. 7S 
 Charmeuse. 130 
 Chemical dbgumming. 21 
 Chemical tests, 8s 
 Chevreul, Michel Eugene, 63 
 Chiffon, 2. 130 
 Chiffon taffeta, 130. 143 
 China silk. 130 
 Chine silks. 131 
 Chrysalis, 6, 9, 10 
 Cleaning. 
 
 ribbons, 192 
 
 silk, 191 
 
 velvet, 192 
 Cloth beam (See "Loom") 
 Cloth of gold, 131, 175 
 Coal tar dyes, 65 
 Cocoons, 5, 8, 10, 11, 20 
 
 double, 20 
 
 pierced, 10 
 
 reelmg silk from, 10 
 
 spinning, 8 
 Color wheel diagram, 98 
 Colors, 
 
 absorption and reflection of. 95 
 
 advancing. 92 
 
 affected by light, 102, 106 
 artificial, 102 
 
 affected by materials. 106 
 
 broken, 94 
 
 225 
 
226 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Colors — Continued 
 
 cold. 92, 93 
 
 complimentary, 96 
 
 dress. 104 
 
 harmonies, 100 
 
 household decoration, 108 
 
 intensity, 100 
 
 luminous and somber, 93 
 
 primary, 91 
 
 properties, 99 
 
 rays, 9S 
 
 retiring. 92 
 
 scales, 100 
 
 secondary, 92, 93 
 
 spectrum, 90 
 
 standard, or normal, 91 
 
 tertiary, 94 
 
 values. 99 
 
 warm, 92, 93 
 Combing process, 33 
 Conditioning process, is 
 Corduroy, 41, 146 
 Cotton, mercerized, 
 
 farmer's satin, 82 
 
 near silk, 83, 83 
 
 sateen, 82 
 
 silkaline, 82 
 Cotton velvets or velveteens, 
 
 147 
 Creel, 33 
 
 CRftPE,53. 131 
 
 CrSpb charmeusb, 13a 
 
 CRfiPE DB chine, 133 
 CRfiPB meteor, 132 
 CUPRAMMONIUM SILKS, 73 
 
 Damask, 132 
 
 Departments (See "Silk depart- 
 ment," "Stock classification," 
 "Umbrella department") 
 
 Design, 
 definition, no 
 kinds, no 
 
 Design — Continued 
 pattern, 116 
 
 borders, 117 
 
 definition, in 
 
 diaper, 116 
 
 forms and spaces, 116 
 
 inhabited forms, 117 
 
 material, 113 
 
 motives. 112 
 
 planning, 113 
 
 rules, 114 
 
 sources, 112 
 
 value of line, 115 
 textile. 
 
 classes of patterns, 119 
 
 drapery silks, 123 
 
 dress goods patterns, 122 
 
 drop repeat patterns, 120 
 
 French, 125 
 
 Italian, 125 
 
 Jacquard weaves. 126 
 
 rectangular patterns, 120 
 
 step-repeat patterns, 120 
 
 turn-around patterns, 121 
 
 turn-over patterns, 120 
 
 value of successful patterns, 124 
 
 varieties. 119 
 Designing process. 122 
 Diaper patterns, 116, 133 
 Diseases of silkworms, 8 
 Double cocoons, 20 
 Doubling and twisting, 15, 16 
 Draw boy mounting (See "Loom, 
 
 draw") 
 Draw loom (See "Loom, draw") 
 Drawing and doubling, spun silk, 
 
 20, 23 
 
 Dresden silks, 133 
 Dressing process, 68 
 Drop-repeat pattern, laz 
 Drying process, 15, 16 
 DupiONS, 8 (Footnote) 
 Dyeing. 51 
 
 piece. 59 
 
 yam, processes, 52, 58 
 
 INDEX 
 
 227 
 
 Dyes, 
 
 acid, 57 
 
 American, 64, 66 
 aniline, 
 
 history, 65 
 
 Perkin, W. H., 65 
 animal, 63 
 antiquity, 62 
 basic or substantive, 57 
 Chevreul, 63 
 classification, 56 
 development in U. S., 66 
 intermediates, 66 
 mineral, 64, 65 
 mordants, 57. 64 
 Prussian blue, 64 
 vegetable, 62 
 
 B 
 
 End warp thread, 32 
 Eolienne, 81, 133 
 EpinglS, 133 
 Evening silks. 3 
 
 F 
 
 Faille, 133 
 
 Faille Francaise. 133 
 
 Falcon, M., 44 
 
 Farmer's satin. 83 
 
 Fiber, 5, 23 
 
 Fiber silk (See "Artificial silk") 
 
 Fibroin, 9 
 
 Filament, silk, 5, 9 
 
 Filatures, 10, 11 
 
 Filling, 35 
 
 Finishing processes 
 
 breaking, 68 
 
 calendering, 68 
 
 dressing or stiffening, 68 
 
 gassing, 68. 69 
 
 moir^ finish, 68, 69 
 
 permanency of finishes, 70 
 
 shower-proofing, 70 
 
 stiffening agents, 68 
 
 Finishing processes — Continued 
 
 tentering, 68. 69 
 
 variety, 67 
 Floss, 19 
 
 Foulard and wash silks, 3, 81, 133 
 Frame, loom, 30, 33 
 
 Gassing, 20, 33, 68. 69 
 Gauze, 53. i33, iSo, iS3 
 Georgette cr^pe, 134 
 Ginghams, silk, 81 
 GlacS, 134. 150 
 
 GLACfi TAFFETA, 143 
 
 Gloria, 8o 
 Gobelin blue, 63 
 Gobelin, Jean, 63 
 Gobelin tapestries, 63 
 Gold, cloth of, 131, 17S 
 Grenadine, 134 
 Gros db Londrbs, 134 
 Grosgrain, 134, 150 
 Gum removal process, ao 
 
 Habutai, 135 
 
 Hand-looms. 39 
 
 Hanway, Jonas. 168 
 
 Harmony of color, 100 
 
 Harness (See "Loom") 
 
 Heddlbs (See "Loom") 
 
 Henrietta cloth, 80 
 
 History of silk, 
 Chinese silks, 171 
 ctdture in Japan, 170 
 discovery in China, 170 
 early culture in United States. 176 
 early culture in Virginia, 176 
 Flemish weavers, 175 
 introduction by Moors, 175 
 introduction by Romans, 174 
 manufacture in India, 173 
 production in Europe, I73 
 
 Hyrobxtractor, 16 
 
22S 
 
 INDEX 
 
 India silk, 135 
 Industry, silk, 4 
 Intermediate dyes, 66 
 
 Jacquard, Joseph Marie, 45 
 Jacquard loom (See "Loom, Jac- 
 quard") 
 Jacquard silks, 13s, iso 
 Japanese silk, 13S. 136. 172 
 Jersey cloth, 13s 
 
 Kapok, 
 sources, 79 
 uses, 79 
 
 KiKAi, 136 
 
 Lansdownb, 80 
 Laps of silk, aa 
 Laundering, 
 ribbons, 19a 
 silk. 191 
 Leno weave, 39 
 Liberty satin, 136 
 Liberty silks, 179 
 Loom, 
 
 Chinese, 29 
 draw, 
 
 improvements, 44 
 origin, 43 
 hand, ag 
 Jacqtiard. 
 cards. 47, 49 
 designs, 49, ia6 
 invention, 45 
 mechanism, 47 
 range of patterns. 46, 126 
 varieties, so 
 
 Loom — Continued 
 mechanism. 
 
 battening. 34 
 
 letting off, 34 
 
 picking, 34 
 
 shedding, 34 
 
 taking up, 34 
 mountings, 43 
 origin, 28 
 parts, 
 
 cloth beam. 30. 34 
 
 frame, 30 
 
 harness, 30, 31, 35 
 
 heddles. 30, 31, 33 
 
 reed or batten, 30, 31, 33 
 
 shuttle. 30. 31. 36 
 
 treadles, 30, 31 
 
 warp beam. 30, 33i 34 
 power, 31 
 skid, 31. 34 
 Louisinb, 136 
 
 M 
 
 Marquisette, 136 
 Mason, Joseph. 44 
 Matching samples, 187 
 effect of, 
 
 adjacent colors, 189 
 
 dyes, 189 
 
 natural and artificial light, i87t 
 
 x88 
 surface of fabric, 189 
 tone of color, 190 
 MATELASsft, 136 
 Mercerized cotton (Se« "Cotton. 
 
 mercerized*') 
 Mbssalinb, 137 
 Microscopic tests, 8$ 
 Mirror velvet, 146 
 Mixtures, silk and cotton, 
 cotton-back satin. 81 
 foulards, 81 
 poplin, 81 
 shantungs. 81 
 
 W|g'l|g 
 
 mm 
 
 i 
 
 INDEX 
 
 229 
 
 Mixtures, silk and cotton — Con- 
 tinued 
 
 silk ginghams, 81 
 
 silk muslins. 81 
 
 upholstery materials, 81 
 
 velveteens. 8z 
 
 voiles. 81 
 Mixtures, silk and wool, 
 
 bengaline, 80 
 
 bombazine, 80 
 
 eolienne, 81 
 
 gloria. 80 
 
 henrietta cloth, 80 
 
 lansdowne, 80 
 
 mohair, 80 
 
 poplin, 80 
 MoiRfi, 137. ISO 
 
 antique. 137 
 
 finish, 69 
 Mordants. S7. 64 
 
 MOUSSBLINE DE SOIK. 137 
 
 Mulberry, 5. 7 
 
 Near silk, 82 
 Nitrocellulose silks. 73 
 Noils, silk. 22 
 Novelty silks, a 
 
 Organdie, 137 
 Organzinb. 17 
 
 Ornament and design (Se* " De- 
 sign ") 
 Ottoman, 137, iso 
 
 Parasol department, iS9 
 Parasols (See also " Umbrellas ") 
 
 care of, 167 
 
 coverings, 162 
 
 materials, IS9 
 
 sices. z63 
 
 Tariety, 163 
 
 Patent for spinning waste silk. 19 
 Pattern design (See "Design, 
 
 pattern") 
 Peau db cygne. 138 
 Pbau db soib, 138 
 Pekin stripe, 138 
 Perkin. W. H.. 6s 
 Picks, warping, 32 
 Piece-dyeing, 59 
 Plush, 138. 146 
 Pongee silks. 2, s. 139 
 Poplin, 80, 139 
 Power-looms. 31 
 Primary colors, 9a 
 Printing, 
 
 block, 60 
 
 discharge. 6i 
 
 machinery. 60 
 
 methods, 61 
 
 resist. 61 
 
 warp. 61 
 Prussian blub. 64 
 Pyroxylin silks, 73. 74 
 
 Raw silk, 14. 18, 23 
 
 Reamur. 7S 
 
 Reed (See "Loom") 
 
 Reel, 13 
 
 Reeled silk books, la 
 
 Reeling into skeins. la, xS 
 
 Rebling process, 10, la. iS 
 
 Rep, 139 
 
 Retiring colors, 9a 
 
 Rib weaves 
 
 filling rib. 36 
 
 warp rib, 36 
 Ribbon 
 
 cleaning, 19a 
 
 designs, IS3 
 
 dyeing, 151 
 
 finishing, isi 
 
 materials. 150 
 
 printing, 151 
 
':% 
 
 a 
 
 u 
 
 230 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Ribbon — Continued 
 qualities, 153 
 remnants, 155 
 uses. 154 
 varieties, 150 
 
 weaving (See "Narrow fabric 
 looms" in Notions Manual) 
 
 s 
 
 Salespboplb. suggestions, 183 
 
 accurate measurement, 190 
 
 arrangement and display. 181 
 
 backgrrounds, 182 
 
 laundering and care, 191 
 
 manufacture, 186 
 
 quality and values, 184 
 
 quantity of material, 184 
 
 reasons for cost of silk, 185 
 
 values of different kinds of silk. 186 
 Sateen, 83 
 Satin, 139, 150 
 
 charmeuse, 140 
 
 cotton-back, 140 
 
 de chine. 140 
 
 de Lyons. 140 
 
 damask, 140 
 
 double-faced, 14 1. 150 
 
 duchesse. 141 
 
 Pa^onne. 141 
 
 merveilleux. 14X 
 
 regence, 141 
 
 rhadame. 141 
 
 royal. 141 
 
 surah, 142 
 
 taffeta, 142 
 schappe process, 3z 
 schappb silk, 31 
 schapping. 21 
 Scouring. 21 
 
 Scroop, how obtained, 59 
 Seal. Behring. 147 
 Secondary colors. 92 
 Sbracin. 9 
 Serge, silk. 143 
 
 Shantung, 5, 81, 142 
 Shed (See "Loom") 
 Shot silks, 142, 150 
 Shower-proofing, 70 
 Shuttle (See "Loom") 
 Silk (See also under names of various 
 silks. "Spun silk") 
 adulterations of, 83 
 artificial (See "Artificial sUk") 
 characteristics, 83 
 designs (See "Designs") 
 fiber, 11 
 
 filament, length of, 9 
 ginghams. 81 
 
 imitations. mercerized cotton 
 (See pp. 36-38 of manual for 
 "Cotton and Linen Depart- 
 ments") 
 India, 135 
 industry, 177 
 muslins, 81 
 
 production centers. 177 
 China. 177 
 France. 177 
 Great Britain. 178 
 Italy. 177 
 Japan. 177 
 Liberty silks, 179 
 other countries, 178 
 United States, 179 
 raw, 14. 18, 23 
 reel, 12, 33 
 reeling, 
 primitive, 10 
 process. 11 
 rereels, 11 
 steam filatures, ix 
 serge. 142 
 
 sources and cultivation. 4 
 throwing, processes, 15 
 vegetable (See "Kapok") 
 Tveighting (See "Weighting") 
 wild, 13, s6 
 woven. 25 
 yard goods. 2, 137 
 
 I } 
 
 INDEX 
 
 231 
 
 Silk department, 
 arrangement. 2 
 in various departments, 3 
 location, i 
 
 SiLKALINE. 82 
 
 Silk-surfacing, 82, 150 
 Silkworm, 
 
 chrysalis, 6, 9. 10 
 
 cultivated, 
 cocoon, 5 
 where raised. 5 
 
 description, s 
 
 diseases of, 8 
 
 eggs, 6 
 
 food, 5 
 
 length of life, 6 
 
 molting seasons, 7 
 
 moth, 6, 9 
 
 spinning cocoon, 8 
 
 waste, 9. 14. 19. 20 
 
 wild, 
 
 cocoon, s 
 
 where found, S 
 
 varieties of silk made from, 5 
 Simblot, M., 44 
 Singles, 17 
 Slivers, 22 
 Soaking, 15. 16 
 Sorting, 15 
 Spectrum, 90 
 Spun silk, 8, 18. 23 
 
 beating and opening, 20, 31 
 
 combing, 20, 22 
 
 gassing or singeing. 20, 23 
 
 inspecting, 20, 23 
 
 removal of gum. 20 
 
 sources, 8, 19 
 
 spinning, 20, 22, 83 
 Standard colors, 91 
 Stiffening process, 68 
 Stock classification, 194-202 
 Stretching process, 18, s 8 
 Stripping process, 52 
 Substantive dybs (See "Dyes") 
 Surah. 142 
 
 Surface-printed, iso 
 Swan. J. W.. 7S 
 
 Tabby weave. 35 
 Taffeta, 142, 150 
 
 chiffon, 143 
 
 glac?, 143 
 Tentering, 68, 69 
 Tertiary colors. 94 
 Tests. 
 
 burning, 84 
 
 chemical. 85 
 
 for "feel," 87 
 
 microscopic, 85 
 
 miscellaneous, 86 
 
 weaving, 86 
 Thread, cocoon, s. 9 
 Throwing process, 14-16 
 Throwsters, 14 
 Tram, 17. 18 
 Treadles (See "Loom") 
 Tulle, 143 
 tussah, tussur. or tussore silk, 
 
 S, 13, 56 
 Twisting and winding spun silk. 
 20. 23 
 
 Umbrella department, x59 
 Umbrellas, (See also "Parasols") 
 care of, 167 
 children's, 167 
 folding. 161 
 history, 167, 168 
 materials, 159 
 men's, 163 
 
 covers, 164 
 
 frames, 163 
 
 sticks and handles, 165 
 women's, I59 
 
 covers, 160 
 
 frames, 159 
 
 manufacturing, 161 
 
 sticks and handles, 160 
 
232 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Unitbd Statbs, silk MANUFACTUKE, 4 
 Upholstery materials. 8i 
 
 Vancanson, M., 44 
 Vbgbtablb dybs. 62 
 Vbgbtablb silk (See "Kapok") 
 
 VbLOUR, 143. ISO 
 
 Velvet, 2. 146 
 
 Behring seal, 147 
 
 chiffon, 146 
 
 cleaning. 193 
 
 figured. SI, I47 
 
 history, id8 
 
 industry, 149 
 
 mirror, 146 
 
 pann^. ij6 
 
 qualities, 148 
 
 steaming. 193 
 
 uncut. 146 
 
 varieties. 146 
 
 weaving, 40 
 Velveteens, 81. 146 
 Viscose silks, 73, 74 
 Voile, 81. 144 
 
 W 
 
 Warp, as 
 
 Warp beam (See "Loom") 
 
 Warping. 3a 
 
 Warping frame, 33 
 
 Wash silks, a 
 
 Waste silk (See "Silkworm wast*") 
 
 Watbr-proofing, 70 
 
 Weaves, 
 
 double-cloth. 35, 39, 40 
 
 gauze or leno. 35, 39 
 
 pattern, 35. 43 
 
 pile. 35. 40 
 
 plain. 35 
 
 rib, 35. 36 
 
 satin. 35. 37 
 
 twill. 3S, 37 
 Weaving, (See also "Loom") 
 
 antiquity. 26, 29 
 
 corduroy. 41 
 
 pattern. 
 
 draw loom. 43 
 process. 42 
 
 simplest, 25, a7 
 
 tests, 86 
 
 warp and weft. 26 
 Weft. 2s 
 Weighting. 
 
 materials, S5 
 
 results, 55 
 
 with metallic salts. S5, 83 
 White silks. 2 
 Width of silk. 3a 
 Wild silk, 13, 56 
 Winding, is, 16 
 Wood and cane for umbrella 
 
 sticks and handles, iss 
 Woof, as 
 Woven silk. 25 
 
 Yarn dyeing, 52, 58 
 
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