ASTER N GA IV. 93-81323-14 MICROFILMED 1993 COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY LIBRARIES/NEW YORK as part of the . r. • .» "Foundations of Western Civilization Preservation Project Funded by the ^^_ NATIONAL ENDOWMENT FOR THE HUMANITIES Reproductions may not be made without permission from Columbia University Library COPYRIGHT STATEMENT The ropy right law of the United States - Title 17. United States Code - concerns the making of photocopies or other reproductions of copyrighted material. Under certain conditions specified in the 'awjibraries and purpose other than private study, ^7f '^''^h P. ^/^^^^^ . research." If a user makes a request tor, or 'ater f es a photocopy or reproduction for purposes in excess of fair Cse that user may be liable for c p. .ght intnngement. This institution reserves the right to refuse t a-cept a ;Spy Sfder if. in its judgement, fulfillment or tne order would involve vioiat.on of the copyrighi law. A UTHOR: POSTGATE, JOHN PERCIAVL TITLE: DEAD LANGUAGE AND DEAD LANGUAGES ... FI^ CE: LONDON DA I T 1910 COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY LIBRARIES PRESERVATION DEPARTMENT Master Negative # BIBLIOGRAPHIC MICROFORM TARGET Original Material as Filmed - Existing Bibliographic Record 880.7 P846 sssteum'" Restrictions on Use: Postgate, John Percival, 1853-1926. Dead lan^uarre and dead languages with special reference to Latin; an inaugural lecture delivered before the University of Liverpool, by J. P. Postgate ... on Friday, December 10, 1909. London, J. Murray, 1910. 31, ilj p. 2l\^^, 1. Classical education. i. Title. Library of Congress LC1011.P7 ia34bl] 12—9537 fe TECHNICAL MICROFORM DATA REDUCTION RATIO: FILM SIZE: IMAGE PLACEMENT: lA IIA IB IIB DATE FILMED: „-i_?i£A^„ INITIALS^±2^ FILMED BY: RESEARCH PUBLICATIONS, INC WOODBRIDGE. CT LLC V Association for Information and Image Management 1100 Wayne Avenue, Suite 1100 Silver Spring, Maryland 20910 301/587-8202 Centimeter JlLi llllllllllllllllllllllllil 4 5 6 7 8 9 iiilii TTT 10 11 12 13 14 15 mm iMUliiiuillUlllijl^^ I I I I I I I iTTTTT|TTiT| Inches 1.0 I.I 1.25 ilM 2,8 1^ 1^ 32 i^ 1 ^ ' 1^ .. 1.4 1 2.5 2.2 2.0 1.8 1.6 MflNUFRCTURED TO RUM STflNDfiRDS BY fiPPLIED IMfiGE, INC. uu 0.7 f6 w COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY iiiiiiilliii '""" " IL:' III' 0032195400 ;', y \ .jdl m^ ■^^ ^ THE ^ O LIBRARIIS ^ u \ 0Q GENERAL UBRARY 4 DEAD LANGUAGE AND DEAD LANGUAGES WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO LATIN <,'» i ' A, ■■ "IT DEAD LANGUAGE AND DEAD LANGUAGES WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO LATIN AN INAUGURAL LECTURE DELIVERED BEFORE THE UNIVERSITY OF LIVERPOOL BY J. P. POSTGATE, Litt.D., F.B.A. PROFESSOR OF LATIN IX THE UNIVERSITY ON FRIDAY, DECEMBER 10, 1909 ,» » , * » » « •> »«■§•• . • . » » . , 1 • w I ♦ • ! • .• • • * • « t < > • t • > I t • • t » . • » » » •» » , • I * » • > » * « • * 1 1 •' • « - • LONDON JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET, W. 1910 !■ I N Note.— The small type numerals in the text refer to the notes at the end • I > 4. . . » • • •• • . • • < . ♦ • • • • ► DEAD LANGUAGE AND DEAD LANGUAGES Those who reflect but for a moment on the significance of any word which they or their fellows employ will readily discern that there are two parts in it which may be always distinguished — the one what is ex- pressed, and the other what is implied. A single instance will make this clear. When, in our Civil Wars, Roundhead and Cavalier spoke of ' the king,' or of * kings,' the word they used expressed to each the same person, or the same class of persons. But how different to the two was all that the word im- plied, and how different were the consequences which streamed from the implications ! Life, says the most practical and the most compre- hensive of all the ancient philosophers — life is action, not production^; and 'living' and its opposite, 'dead,' are words whose implications are in a high degree * J ^^^,^^^^f,\^^ ^f ^^j.-^^^^, * Xhe branch ERRATA Page 9, line lo. For which read in which. Page 22. lines 8-9. For civilization read circulation. N S /I 3#3/ Note. — The small type numerals in the text refer to the notes at the end » » ♦ • • • • ' * * * • » • « * • • • • • « » • I DEAD LANGUAGE AND DEAD LANGUAGES Those who reflect but for a moment on the significance of any word which they or their fellows employ will readily discern that there are two parts in it which may be always distinguished — the one what is ex- pressed, and the other what is implied. A single instance will make this clear. When, in our Civil Wars, Roundhead and Cavalier spoke of ' the king,' or of * kings,' the word they used expressed to each the same person, or the same class of persons. But how different to the two was all that the word im- plied, and how different were the consequences which streamed from the implications ! Life, says the most practical and the most compre- hensive of all the ancient philosophers — life is action, not production^; and 'living' and its opposite, 'dead,' are words whose implications are in a high degree suggestive and provocative of actions. * The branch is dead.' Cut it off. 'The flowers are dead.' Throw them away. 'The man is dead.' Bury or burn him. By a metaphor, possibly legitimate but just as possibl}^ misleading, the word has been transferred from the world of nature to the world of speech. But its general import was not affected by the transference, and its implications went along with it. And the purport and influence of these implications will claim to-day our most serious attention. Most serious, I say, for if we allow these implications to govern our action, the 5 6 DEAD LANGUAGE AND ancient languages of Greek and Latin will be con- signed to the cemetery and the literatures follow in the following hearse. Considerations of concinnity and a due regard to the limits of your patience have forced me somewhat to circumscribe my subject, and though it is not a little embarrassing to have to separate two studies so long and so intimately associated as those of Greek and Latin, called even in the time of Horace the two tongues,'^ I will confine myself almost entirely to the language which I have the honour to teach in this University, and the knowledge of which is prescribed by our ordinances for all who would graduate in Arts. If, on the one hand, any part of my treatment seem to you to be unduly polemical, blame not me, the defender, but them, the assailants, the bitter and unceasing assailants of our ancient studies. If, on the other, what I have to say appears too trite and familiar, do not visit your tedium upon one who would willingly have spared you the repetition of the obvious, but upon those who cannot learn, however often they are instructed. The most obvious and, I must add, the most super- ficial account of a dead language and literature, one to which I should not refer were I not obliged to take account of anything that might be said, is that it is the speech and writings of dead people, and that in these we living folk have no interest or concern. That the writers of Greece and Rome are defunct is incontest- able. So are their sculptors, their architects, their goldsmiths and silversmiths. But does the death of the artist rob the work of its value ? Take the test of sale-rooms and auctions. Do the continually mounting prices of Raffaels and Rembrandts, of Gainsboroughs and Reynoldses, show that the work of dead artists is dead? If a genuine work of Phidias came into the market, what think you it would fetch at Christie's ? M DEAD LANGUAGES 7 'Oh, but,' it will be said, 'the case is different. To understand a work of ancient architecture or art, 1 need no toilsome preparation. I have my good British eyes, which will at once appreciate its merits.' I doubt, my friend, if artists and archaeologists would consider this enough. But I will be generous and not dispute it. Come, then, a step farther with me. Your good British eyes, let us say, wnll by themselves enable you to appreciate French pictures, but will they by themselves enable you to appreciate French poems? Do you not see that the difficulty which deters you is not that the language is dead, but that it is foreign, and that Latin is but in the same category as French or German, or, indeed, as any language but your own ? The statement, then, that Latin and Greek are languages of the dead we admit to be true ; but we set it aside as unimportant, and as such it gives us no further concern. Another, and this a more plausible, view of a dead language is the view that it is one which has ceased to be spoken or written, and one withal that is incapable of expressing the ideas of modern life. Here are two charges which I must deal with sepa- rately. As to the first, I would say that if a great and world-wide Church uses Latin every day in its ritual and in the converse of its colleges and religious houses, and if newspapers are published in Latin in more than one civilized community,^ then to call Latin dead is perhaps a little premature. But on this I will not greatly insist, because the second charge is much the more serious one. To it I would answer that, so far from believing that Latin is an inadequate vehicle for my modern thoughts, I am convinced that, outside the technical regions of our specialists, and apart from the nomenclature of peculiar products of our civilization, it would be found equal to any demands of expression that we might make upon it, and that I earnestly hope 8 DEAD LANGUAGE AND and trust that there will be nothing in all that I say to-day which it would not be capable of expressing. Colloquial Latin is a side of the language to which few even of the best scholars, at least in England, have devoted a sufficient attention. But there is a little manual of conversation by a German, entitled Sprechen sieLatemisch ?~^ Do you speak Latin ? -which provides the tourist with all the phrases that he will need if he visits an hotel in an up-to-date Latin colony.^ And scholars, such as the late Dr. Kennedy, have amused themselves from time to time by turning modern news- paper advertisements into Greek or Latin verse, with results surprisingly successful. And only last month 1 received from a correspondent with whom I was personally unacquainted, but who is, I understand, the manager of the 'Prana' Sparklet Works, Upper Edmonton, London, N., and who desired to bring his manufacture under my notice, a printed postcard (I have It here) and a covering letter, both written in Latin, of which I will only say this, that if the beverage is as pure and sparkling as the Latinity, anyone in my audience may imbibe it with the greatest security. These achievements of rendering some may think to be mere tours de force. So I will take another and a different test, which all, I fancy, would admit to be fair. And I will say that, if Latin has been found capable of rendering characteristic passages from the novels of Charlotte Bronte, Jane Austen, Stanley Weyman, and even from Pickwick and Martin Chuzzlewit, It is unjust to accuse it of inability to sustain the weight of modern requirements. 'But,' says the unabashed objector, 'you have picked your examples, and I will pick mine. Can you say in your dead Latin, " Shall I telephone for your motor ?" ' I cannot ; nor could you in your living English, had you not taken your verb, telephone, from the one dead language and your noun, motor, from the other. And DEAD LANGUAGES tell me, my friend, can your test sentence be put into Shakespearian English ? and, if it cannot, is the language of Shakespeare also dead and to be despatched to the crematory ? For do not imagine that the dispute on the value of studying a past form of language is limited to Latin or Greek. It arises over every language that has a history. Those who have watched the development of the Modern Language Tripos at Cambridge, a development which in its earlier stages it was my privilege to take part, know that one very great diffi- culty with which it had to contend was the adjustment of the conflicting claims advanced on the one hand by the advocates of the living speech, the German, French, or Italian of the present, and on the other by those who urged the rights of what might have been dubbed the corresponding * dead' languages, but which both sides more properly and, as I think, more pru- dently, denominated the ' medieval ' tongues — that is, the German, French, and Italian of the past. We have now reached a point at which a reclassifi- cation of languages is necessary before we can proceed farther with safety. Avoiding all words now tainted with prejudice, we divide them as follows : A. Native and spoken. B. Native, and not spoken (Past Native Speech). C. Foreign and spoken. D. Foreign, and not spoken (Past Foreign Speech). For an Englishman, A is the English of the present day. Of its claims I need not speak. We cannot ignore them if we would. B consists of a series of huiguages, or stages of language, which stretch away into the past, their distance and differences from present English continually increasing till at last we reach what is variously known as Old English or Anglo-Saxon. Class C includes French and German, but it comprises much beside — Spanish, Russian, Modern Greek, 10 DEAD LANGUAGE AND DEAD LANGUAGES II Chinese, Arabic, Hindustani, and so on, and so on; all as spoken at the present day. Class D is not less numerous. It comprises the earlier forms of most of the languages in Class C. It covers the French of Rabelais and Montaigne, the German of Luther and the I Niebelungenlied,' the Italian of Dante and Boc- caccio, and, in addition, languages, such as Cornish, which have no modern representatives.— It is to this class that Latin belongs. It is over the claims of ^, C, and D that controversy most rages. It is not always observed that the pre- tensions of C to paramount importance are directed both against B and D, The thick and thin supporters of modern French and German regard the serious study of, say, the English of Chaucer with but little less disfavour than the study of the Latin of Cicero. In fairness, then, both to B and D these pretensions of C must be examined That a knowledge of any foreign spoken language is of some practical advantage to its possessor we of course allow. It is of use when travelling in a country ; it is of use when trafficking with the natives. But this utility is both local and relative. It is local. French does not smooth the path of travelling in Germany ; German does not conduce to commerce in Brazil. It is relative. To natives of a small country like Hol- land an acquaintance with one or two foreign languages is a necessity. Not so to a Frenchman, whose speech has an international currency. Far less, and increas- ingly less as the days roll on, to the Englishman, whose following of over 140,000,000 of fellow-speakers enables him to exact the homage of imitation which is ever at the call of numbers. Whether our tongue will continue its onward march towards the linguistic supremacy or even monopoly of the globe it is impossible to say; but of this we may be sure, that no other language will ever hold its own through the vast and still only k. r half- peopled territories of Australasia and North America. These claims of the modern languages are being challenged from another side. It has long been felt that learning foreign languages for the sole object of conversation or correspondence with their speakers was a waste of human energy, and that international communications should be made through international speech. A universal language has, like flying, long been a dream. There is reason to think that, like flying, it will soon be a dream no longer. Failures in plenty there have been. The field is strewn with aerial wreckage. But each linguistic construction has flown farther and flown stronger than any of its pre- decessors. Volapuk did well. Esperanto has done much better. But behind Esperanto, in the modest background, there is waiting another, a not unfriendly but a most formidable competitor. This language, which I rejoice to hear will owe its first formal intro- duction to England to the pen of a Liverpool professor of science, is not the work of philological amateurs or idealists. Its basis is no abstract scheme of what language ought to be, but solid fact and practical convenience. Applying the physical principle that bodies move along the line of least resistance, it recog- nizes that, if it is to be acceptable, its maxim should be the least discomfort of the greatest number. It examines the vocabularies of the Western world, and picks out in every case that word or that form of the word which is intelligible to the majority of actual speakers. This is the only practical and the only scientific method — the only one worthy of the eminent savants who have espoused the project, and amongst them Professor Jespersen of Copenhagen. Ido (for this is its provisional name) has, so to say, not yet come out. It is still being dressed for its debut. But I have examined its structure and vocabulary, and upon 'It. 12 DEAD LANGUAGE AND DEAD LANGUAGES 13 two points I am already perfectly clear. It will be appreciably smoother and easier to learn than Espe- ranto; and if I may trust the numerical tests which I have applied, 85 per cent, of its vocabulary will be immediately intelligible to an Englishman who has a knowledge of . . . Latin. ^ The cleft between aviation and a universal language which my metaphor has spanned is not so wide as it might seem. When the aviaries of our great centres of population send out their flocks of week-enders to glide through the air at fifty miles an hour, think you not that the provision of a language which they can use wherever they descend, in France or Holland, in Spain or Portugal, in Norway or Germany, will be a need of the first practical importance? And when it is satisfied, are not the overzealous advocates of modern languages likely to regret that they did not base the claims of their clients to recognition on the intrinsic merits of those languages rather than on a casual and fleeting advantage ? But our friend has more objections to urge. ' What you say, my dear sir, is all very well in the abstract. But what I want to know is, why I should give my time and trouble to learning a difficult language which I shall never need to use. What can I get through it that I cannot get otherwise or have not got already ? Are your authors worth my pains, and can I not read them in translations ?' These questions must be answered, for they deal with real issues. But first we must lay down some principles. And this to begin with : that a knowledge of some foreign language, ancient or modern, is the bare irreducible minimum for anyone who desires to be educated in any true sense of the term, and that for him who would have a liberal education two are required. Such a one would own the treasure which Ennius, the father of Roman poetry, described when he said, with a grip upon reality not always observable in modern professors of education, that he had three souls, because he could speak Latin, Greek, and Oscan.^ Though from the material side the English, as we have seen, need less than any other people to study foreign tongues, from the intellectual and spiritual side this is by no means the case. The right apprecia- tion of our speech, of its development and its peculiar merits and defects, is impossible if we are ignorant of the languages which throw light upon its character and have gone to its making. To change a word in in the well-known couplet : " What does he know of Enghsli, Who only EngUsh knows ?" In choosing languages for our curriculum, I should agree with our friend in discarding sentiment alto- gether and basing the choice wholly on expedience. Since then Latin, as also Greek, requires more time and trouble for its study than either French or Ger- man, the benefit derived from its study must be cor- respondingly greater. To discover if this is so we must look a little more closely into the nature of language itself. Human speech, like all else human, is by its nature subject to change. The change is sometimes slow and at other times rapid. But one thing it always is : it is gradual and continuous. A language, it is true, may disappear in a cataclysm. The whole of its speakers may be swept off in a deluge of water or fire. They may abandon their speech under the pressure of hostile force or at the promptings of commercial greed. But if the language is left to itself, there is no point in its course of which it can be said, ' Here the old ceases and the new begins.' It is the custom to say that Italian, Spanish, French, are languages ' descended ' from Latin. The metaphor is drawn from the rela- H DEAD LANGUAGE AND tions of parents and offspring, ancestors and descen- dants, and it carries along with it the ideas of separate individuality and interrupted identity. But in lan- guage there is nothing of the kind. The proper com- parison is with a single individual, not with a succes- sion or line of individuals. And if under Latin we include, as we should, the spoken language of Roman times, then Italian, French, and Spanish are not de- scended from Latin, but they are Latin. And you may with equal correctness call these the latest varieties of Latin, or say that Latin is the oldest Italian, the oldest Spanish, and the oldest French. In these circumstances to speak of Latin as ' dead ' should appear a little grotesque. I have the honour to number among my audience some whose age falls within the elastic period known as the prime of life. To these I would say : ♦ You are conscious that you are quite different from what you were twenty or twenty-five years ago. Your powers, tastes, and habits have changed ; there is, maybe, not a single particle in your brains and bodies the same. But tell me, how would you feel if someone took up an old photograph of yourself and laid it down with the words, " My poor friend ! He (or she, as the case may be) has been dead for fifteen years."? The adequate appreciation of our principle makes the claims of the study of the old Roman tongue upon the students of the Romance or Neo-Latin languao-es as they are most properly called, little short of irre- sistible. Of what other language can it be said that it is the key to a trio of languages and literatures as widespread and important as Italian, Spanish, and Portuguese ? Is there anyone who, if he could, would not wish to read Dante in the original ? Well, if he knows Latin, he need only acquaint himself with the not very numerous changes which Latin has under- gone in Italy since the Roman age, and I will promise DEAD LANGUAGES 15 him that he shall be able to read the third canto of the * Inferno' in a day. I will promise it, I say, for I did it in half a day myself This is no exaggeration, for Latin has changed less in the Italian peninsula between the times of Vergil and Dante than English has altered in our island between the times of Chaucer and Tennyson. Yet there are many folk in this country who read the ' Canterbury Tales ' by the light of a glossary and their otherwise unassisted intelligence, and imagine that they com- prehend them. Closely questioned, they would own that they find the Chaucerian metre rather rugged and halting, and the phrases a trifle quaint. The very opposite is the case. Chaucer is one of the most musical poets in the world, and he wrote in vigorous and up to date English — the English of his day. But our modern lay reader approaches Chaucer as if he were a contemporary of Kipling; he thus reduces metre to doggerel, and treats genuine and spontaneous, though no longer current, expressions as if they were the archaising imitations of a modern age. Of the matter of Chaucer there may remain to him some tolerable apprehension, some rough appreciation, but the form and spirit are lost. In the last case it was the semblance of nearness that was mischievous ; but even its reality may do harm. It is possible to be too near. There is nothing so difficult either to acquire or to appreciate as that which differs just a little from what is customary and familiar. Broad differences we can see and render : but the fine shades, the slight nuances escape us. . . . This is why the Scotch and the Irish attain a German accent sooner than an English one. May I illustrate the character of the difficulties that beset us when we would realize a stage of speech a little anterior to our own by the now somewhat un- fashionable method of allegory ? 1 will purposely take i6 DEAD LANGUAGE AND nothing that has life, but choose what has only con- tinuity of existence. Imagine, then, a mighty river, down whose stream a huge ocean-going vessel, upon which we are passengers, is surely, though imperceptibly, drifting Imagme again that we have the power of making excursions for a brief space up this river by means of swift motor launches, but that we must always return to the vessel, our base. Imagine once more that along the sides of our launch runs a high parapet ot glass, painted with the objects and scenery in the neighbourhood of our vessel, and that through this parapet we must peer if we would see anything in our upward voyage. ... Of which part, think you, of the scenery visible from our boat should we have 'the clearer and the truer view ? which could we appreciate with less straining of the eyesight? The near, low- lymg objects on the bank, of shape and colour but a little different from those depicted on our semi-trans- parent screen, or the lofty mountain peaks in the distance, with their wholly diverse hues and dis- similar forms? The comparison is imperfect, but you will see its application. The objects close to the bank stand for the languages or stages of language which are near to our own ; the mountains fol- the remoter ones— those of Greece, for example, or Rome • the parapet symbolizes our own mental constitutions' from which we cannot escape, and which custom and nationality have painted ineffaceably with the scenes of our history and environment. I am here reminded of some discussions which I had with my father many years ago, when I was still at school. He came to the subject with no classical prepossessions, for his knowledge of the classics was confined to some Latin, which he had taught himself in order to qualify for his medical diploma. And he contended (so, at least, I understood him then) that the DEAD LANGUAGES 17 meaning of an ancient book changed as time went on, because the meanings of the words in it changed. I thought this nonsense, though for good reasons I did not say so ; for I could not see how the meaning of any writing could be affected by anything that came after it. But I have since perceived that perhaps he was trying to express the truth which to-day I have been labouring to inculcate that, if there has been no breach of continuity in a language, the older writings in that language will most certainly be mis- understood wherever the meaning of a word or phrase has shifted in the course of its transmission. A passage in the controversy between the early Christian Fathers and their heathen adversaries may be cited in point. By their time the Greek word halfiwv had lapsed from the sense of * spirit ' or * divinity ' to that of 'evil spirit' or 'demon.' And so more than one Christian apologist knows no better than to construe phrases in the earlier writers, where it is used of fate or divinities, as if these were instances of its subse- quent and invidious meaning.*^ This drifting of language has a most serious bearing on the value of translations — these substitutes which we are asked to accept in lieu of the originals. Trans- lation is the servant of literature, and fidelity, its single merit, is the virtue of a drudge. How imper- fectly even this merit is forthcoming, I think everyone is aware. The best of translations are from the first but poor and inadequate reproductions, and from the hour of their making they steadily decline. As the words employed in them change their meaning or pass out of currency, they become first inadequate, next misleading, and at the last unintelligible. And then the translation may be said, without prejudice to truth, to consist of dead language. The words, indeed, are there, but their soul, the sense of which they were the chosen vehicles, has departed; or i8 DEAD LANGUAGE AND DEAD LANGUAGES 19 worse, maybe, in the dead frame has been generated alien and usurping life, the corrupter and the poisoner of intelligence. The gravest case of a translation in such dead language that I know is a translation of a Greek original. It is the Authorized or, as it should rather be called, the Unauthorized Version of the New Testa- ment. The superlative homage still accorded to this translation, and the unequalled influence which it has wielded upon the thought and the expression of all English-speaking countries, make it difficult for many even now to see the truth ; and plain speaking is re- quired. Through the drifting of language which 1 have described, it has now become in many and often most important passages, both in letter and spirit, little better than a falsification of the original. Let me take one of a sheaf of instances.^ In earlier Eng- lish ghost was used, like the German Geist, in the senses oi breath and spirit. The Authorized Version's phrase, * He gave up the ghost,' is still intelligible to many of its readers ; yet it misrepresents the original nevertheless, since it is now a strange and antiquated expression for the simple idea of * expiring' or 'breathing one's last.' But the phrase 'Holy Ghost; for which the American members of the Revising Committee most rightly substituted ' Holy Spirit' throughout, conveys nothing to an unin- structed reader but what is either unmeaning or grotesque. And yet every week, from hundreds and thousands of pulpits and platforms, this version is still read and— save the mark !— expounded, without a word about its true character or the pitfalls with which it abounds. The harm which this rendering of the New Testa- ment now works is intensified by the excellence of its literary workmanship. But against a very large number of translations from the ancient languages no < < Aristotle quoted. 5 Authorized Version of New Testa- ment, dead language in, 18. 29 excellent literary workman- ship of, 29 present mischievous in- fluence of. 18, 30 Avtaiion and international lan- guage, I X et seq. Bohn's 'Classical Library,' 19 Brunot, M., on Latin and modem languages. 23. 30 Chaucer and modern readers, 15 Christian Fathers' misunderstand- ing of dalnuy, 17, 29 Continuity of language, the, 12 et seq. 'Dead,' misleading metaphor as applied to a language, 14 and passim (not spoken) languages: two kinds to be distinguished, 9 •Dead language,' true, 17 Dentistry in early Rome, 21 • Descended from,' a misleading term in application to languages, Dictionary, new Latin, need of. 19 English, past, liable to be misunder- stood, 15 Ennius, * three souls ' of, 13 Esperanto. 11 French and German inferior as educational instruments to I^lin, Horace quoted, 6 ' Humanity,' professorships of, 25 Ido, a new international langucige, II its acquisition easy to those acquainted with Latin, 12 * Implications * of words, importance o». 5 • Johnsonese, ' 20 Language, gradual and continuous change in, 13 Languages reclassified, 9 Latin, an adequate vehicle for modern thought, 7 colloquial, neglected in Eng- land, 8 monumental quality of, 26 native, not an artificial lan- guage, 20 words in English give an arti- ficial effect, 19 Liverpool, University of, 6. 21, 31 Livy on town planning, 21 Livy's description of fall of Alba Longa, 24 Milton's I-Atin poems, 26 Modern languages limitations to utility of, 10 position of, threatened by international language, ir Modern Languages Association, the, 31 Newspapers, modern Latin, 28 Obsolete expressions in Authorized Version, 18, 29 Ovid, quotation from, 25 Propertius, quotation from, 27 Reformed pronunciation of Latin, advantage of, 20 Roman history, its lessons for us, Seneca's financial operations pro- voke a rising in Britain, 30 Similarity in languages, real and apparent, a hindrance to intelli- gence, 15 'Town planning,' Livy alludes to, 21 Translations become • dead lan- guage ' quicklv, 17 can never replace originals, into ancient languages, im- mutable, 26 Westminster Gazette, the, and Greek and Latin verse, 25 - «Mli tfo.^^ ^ AND SONSi LTO.» PftlNTEJtS UVILDFOKO "I " * ' ■ ' =^ ^* ""*!''' , i|j(i_ pad 1 ''V <• .4.^' "> •> ' - ; ■ 4'- , Jri S; tffZ iii • t^ "vt- FA - •-— .JJj / / SOME WORKS BY THE SAME AUTHOR. y CORPUS POETARUM LATINORUM. Ennius to Nemesianus. Two volumes. G. Bell & Sons, Ltd. Each 25s. net SELECT ELEGIES OF PROPERTIUS. (Kiacmillan & Co, 5s. SELECTIONS FROM TIBULLUS. {Macmillan & Co, 5 s. LUCAN PHARSALIA VII. Cambridge University Tress, 2s. SILVA MANILIANA. Cambridge University Press. 2s. TIBULLUS. Text with short Critical Notes. Oxford University Press. 2s. THE NEW I \TIN PKIMER. (WithC. A.Vince.) 31st Thousand. Cassell & Co, 2s. SERMO LATINUS. A short Guide to Latin Prose Composition. ^Macmillan & Co, 2s. 6d. HOW TO PRONOUNCE LATIX. (Third Edition.) C, Bell & Sons, Ltd, is. FLAWS IN CLASSICAL RESEAKCii. {Pro- ceedings of the "British Academy.) Oxford University Press. 3s. 6d. net. ■\ f f '^ Is