THIS COPY OF THE CONTRACTORS HANDY BOOK IS THE PERSONAL PROPERTY OF PRESENTED AT THE REQUEST OF John Shields & Sons Washington.,...Ixswa* WITH THE COMPLIMENTS OF THE LEHIGH PORTLAND CEMENT COMPANY Contractors Handy Book —on everyday concrete jobs LEHIGH PORTLAND CEMENT COMPANY LEHIGH PORTLAND CEMENT COMPANY Offices ALLENTOWN, PA. CHICAGO, ILL. BIRMINGHAM, ALA. SPOKANE, WASH. New York, N. Y. Boston, Mass. Buffalo, N. Y. Philadelphia, Pa. Richmond, Va. New Castle, Pa. Pittsburgh, Pa. Cleveland, O. Baltimore, Md. Kansas City, Mo. Omaha, Neb. Mason City, Iowa Minneapolis, Minn. Mills West Coplay, Pa. Chapman, Pa. Ormrod, Pa. (3 mills) Sandt’s Eddy, Pa. New Castle, Pa. (3 mills) Fordwick, Va. Alsen, N. Y. Birmingham, Ala. Mitchell, Ind. (2 mills) Oglesby, Ill. Mason City, Iowa Iola, Kansas Metaline Falls, Wash. Bath, Pa. Union Bridge, Md. Copyright, 1926, by Lehigh Portland Cement Company Allentown, Pa. Third Edition TABLE OF CONTENTS Plans and Materials for page Barn Approach. 51 Cold-Frames. 81 Curbs, Separate.36—38 Combined, and Gutter. 39 Driveway. 32 Fence Posts. 82- Floor, Porch. 11 Garage. 28 Poultry House. 60 Garage. 28 Garage Drives.19-27 Gutter, Combined, and Curb. 39 Down Spout. 4 Separate. 36 Hog Houses. 65 Hog Runs. 63 Hotbeds. 81 Manure Pits..71-74 Parapets, Lawn.13-18 Piers, Building.75-80’ Post, Hitching. 41 Septic Tank.42-46 Sidewalk. 36 Steps, Entrance. 2 Lawn. 6 Small. 4 Storage Cellars. 54 Walks, Service. 9 Through Lawn. 6-8 Wallows, Hog. 68 ■Watering Troughs. 47 Notes on Aggregates.95-113 Forms. 86 Foundations. 84 Reinforcing Steel. 116 Tables and Data page Areas and Weights of Steel Bars. 116 Bearing Capacity of Soils. 85 Board Feet in Lumber. S9 Colorimetric Test for Sand.108-109 Materials Required for 1 Cubic \ ard of Concrete. 115 Materials Required for Sidewalks and Floors. 120 Proportions for Concrete. 1 14 Sand, Coarse. ^ Fine. I 13 Medium. 112 Stucco. 90 Stucco Textures. 93 Silt Test for Sand. Volume of Concrete. 107 Weights of Aggregates. 106 Weights of Building Materials. 1 19 Weights of Masonry. Weights of Material.117-118 PREFACE 'T'HE publication of this book is tne result of a A realization, gained through our nation-wide con¬ tact with contractors, of the need for information that will assist in securing permanent satisfaction in concrete construction through the combination of dependable materials with competent workmanship. We trust that contractors will find within these covers many helpful ideas and suggestions which will be a real aid in solving problems connected with small jobs in concrete construction. This is not a technical book, filled with scientific data, but is de¬ voted exclusively to presenting practical information for every-day reference. From these actual examples of good design and proper execution, contractors should be better able to demonstrate to customers the superiority of concrete construction with particular reference to its permanence, beauty and economy. The rapid and substantial growth of this company is due in a great measure to the loyal patronage and confidence of contractors throughout the country. To merit this confidence always is our incentive for continuing to produce cement of the highest quality and uniformity. Also our 20 mills—from coast to coast—assure prompt delivery service to contractors in any part of the country. Where perplexing problems are encountered which require additional information, we welcome the op¬ portunity to be of service, and solicit such inquiries. All information given has been carefully compiled and it is presented without guarantee or other obligation. Lehigh Portland Cement Company Concrete Steps C ONCRETE steps are attractive and permanent. Because of their contact with the moisture in the soil, steps should be constructed of a material that will not rot and decay, thus avoiding the neces¬ sity of periodical replacement. Method Tongued and grooved form lumber is preferable, as it makes a much tighter and smoother job. Forms should be completely built and the fill of cinders or gravel well soaked and packed in place before placing the concrete. In the two walls leave the short top boards out until the concrete work is started, they being set in place one at a time as the concrete rises, thus making it possible to spade the concrete well and eliminate the possibility of air holes or rock pockets in the surface. ON EVERYDAY CONCRETE JOBS 3 The concrete should be mixed in proportions of 1: 234: 4, being 1 part of portland cement, 234 parts of sand, and 4 parts of stone or gravel graded in size from 34 inch to 2 inches. It should be machine mixed if possible and water used sparingly. Place it all in one operation. This makes a monolithic structure, eliminating all joints. The treads should be finished rough with a wood float, to make a safe, non-skid wearing surface. Special colored aggregates or bits of abrasive stone may be troweled into the wearing surface as an added precaution against slipping. After the forms are removed all exposed surface should be tooled or rubbed with an abrasive stone which will remove the laitance and all traces of form lines. This treatment will give the completed work a very pleasing appearance. Materials Required for Steps Shown in Plan and Photo 67 cu. ft. of concrete Mixture, 1:234:4 Lehigh Cement.14 sacks Sand, 34 inch an d under.134 cu. yds. Stone, 34 inch to 2 inches.234 cu. yds. Cross-section of steps CONTRACTORS HANDY BOOK 4 Small Steps T HESE very unpretentious steps proved a most economical way of solving the owner’s problem. Simple in construction and very low in cost, they serve as satisfactorily in every way as would a much more orpate and expensive type. They are of rigid and permanent construction, and are neat and pleasing in appearance. The gritty, non-skid texture of the finished concrete provides the safest possible surface for walking, and permits en¬ trance without the necessity of crossing a wet and muddy lawn or walk. The down spout runoff provides a solution to the rain water problem in localities where there are no sewage facilities. This is very quickly and easily built and will last indefinitely. ON EVERYDAY CONCRETE JOBS 5 Method Concrete for the walk and steps should be mixed in proportions of 1: 2^: 4, being 1 part of portland cement, parts of sand, and 4 parts of stone or gravel graded in size from 34 inch to 1 inch. Mix the concrete as dry as possible to permit a workable mixture. Construction joints should be made every six feet in both down spout runoff and sidewalk. The top step should be pitched slightly toward the street, to insure a dry step and walk in all weather. The surface should be finished with a wood float. The concrete for the down spout runoff is mixed very stiff, and in proportions of 1:2:3, using one inch stone. Due to the small section, a rich mixture is essential. Use a steel trowel to make a smooth sur¬ face which will not catch and hold leaves and other debris, thus clogging the runoff. Materials Steps Walk Down Spout Runoff Length. See plan 24' 0" 20' 0" Concrete. 10 cu. ft. 24 cu. ft. 9 cu. ft. Mixture. 1:2M:4 1:234 = 4 1:2:3 Lehigh Cement. 2 sacks 5 sacks 3 sacks Sand, l /i" and under . . i cu. yd. 34 cu. yd. ^ cu. yd. Stone, Yi" to 1". 34 cu. yd. ?4 cu. yd. 34 cu. yd. & Expansion ^oin t I *" Cinder T fill ; T / >W' w/;*7/py/7Fy//±y. 4 m k nr-A ' v 7*6* K 2~*4~ Section T/Wfw/t Cinder V/t-y//?//&/£■'///?/ Cross Section on 4. ■ 3 - 0 - i m • Front Elevation Down Spout Runofp Details of construction for small steps and down spout runoff « CONTRACTORS HANDY BOOK Walk and Steps through Terraced Lawn T HE possibilities of concrete in the improvement of suburban property are clearly demonstrated in this picture. A little thoughtful planning will work wonders on the most modest of estates. First im¬ pressions are usually lasting, and concrete plays a considerable part in making first impressions favor¬ able. Cinder till ON EVERYDAY CONCRETE JOBS 7 Curved walk and steps through terraced lawn 8 CONTRACTORS HANDY BOOK In addition to its beauty and attractiveness, con¬ sider its durability, permanence, and low upkeep. Method The steps must be separated from the walks by expansion joints 34 inch thick; otherwise cracks will develop, due to the difference in thickness. All measurements for the setting of forms for this curved walk should be taken from a center stake set 24 feet from the outside edge of the sidewalk and 20 feet from the inside. The concrete should be mixed in proportions of 1:23^: 4, being 1 part of portland cement, 234 parts of sand, and 4 parts of gravel or stone graded in size from 34 inch to lj4 inches. In scoring the pavement into slabs every four feet, as shown in the sketch, stretch a line from the center stake and take the four-foot measurement on the inside line of the walk. Finishing is done with a wood float only, which pro¬ vides a gritty, non-skid surface, and the completed work should be properly cured for at least a week. Materials Required for a 12-Foot Section of Walk 22 cu. ft. of concrete Mixture, 1:234:4 Lehigh Cement.434 sacks Sand, 34 inch and under. | cu. yd. Stone, 34 inch to 134 inches.. . T 4 cu. yd. Materials Required for Steps, 3 Treads 29 cu. ft. of concrete Mixture, 1 :234 : 4 Lehigh Cement.6 sacks Sand, 34 inch and under.I cu. yd. Stone, 34 inch to 134 inches.. . T 9 7 cu. yd. ON EVERYDAY CONCRETE JOBS 9 Service Sidewalk A CONCRETE service sidewalk provides easy access to the rear of the house, and keeps dirt and mud out even in the most inclement weather. It is the best possible insurance against accidents— people seldom slip or trip on the gritty, non-skid surface of a concrete walk. Method The concrete should be mixed in proportions of 1:23^: 4, being 1 part of Portland cement, 23dj parts of sand, and 4 parts of gravel or stone graded in size from 34 inch to \ x /i inches. Construction joints should be spaced six feet apart and an expansion joint provided every twenty-four feet; the surface should be finished with a wood float 10 CONTRACTORS HANDY BOOK only, and should be kept wet for six days to properly cure the sidewalk. Materials Required for a 24-Foot Length of Sidewalk 24 cu. ft. of concrete Mixture, 1:234 ; 4 Lehigh Cement.5 bags Sand, 34 i nc h and unc i er . 34 cu - yd- Stone, 34 inch to 134 inches. % cu. yd. 4-&-r- h- Cross-section of sidewalk ON EVERYDAY CONCRETE JOBS IX Porch Floor C ONCRETE will provide a clean, sanitary surface for a porch floor. It is quickly and thoroughly cleaned with a hose without possibility of rot or i deterioration. It presents a smooth, even, non-skid surface, that will not be the cause of constant repairs- I in years to come. Method The foundation walls are first poured, using a mix¬ ture of 1:23^: 4, being 1 part of portland cement, 2 J /2 parts of sand, and 4 parts of stone or gravel graded in size from J 4 inch to 2 inches. The floor form is then set rigidly in position and the reinforcing bars are placed either in “chairs "(see note) which raise them about an inch above the bottom of Note: Chairs are formed of heavy wire and can be purchased,, ready to use, along with the order for steel bars. 12 CONTRACTORS HANDY BOOK the slab or else they are raised by placing shovelfuls of concrete under them. They should be carefully spaced properly to carry the load. The concrete for the floor slab should be mixed in proportion of 1:2:3, being 1 part Portland cement, 2 parts of sand, and 3 parts of stone or gravel, graded in size from 34 inch to 1 inch. It should be mixed with as little water as possible. The surface should be finished with a steel float, and can be divided into squares of any desired dimension. The floor should be cured by being kept wet for a period of ten days before being used, and the supporting floor form should not be removed for at least three weeks. Materials Required for Porch Floor Shown in Plan Below Walls, 3 feet deep, 8 inches wide, 17 feet long Concrete, 90 cu. ft. Mixture , 1:2^: 4 Lehigh Cement.18 sacks Sand, 34 inch and under. 1/4 cu. yds. Stone, 34 inch to 2 inches.... 2% cu. yds. Floor, 10 feet x 17 feet x 4 inches Concrete, 56^ cu. ft. Mixture, 1:2:3 Lehigh Cement.14 sacks Sand, 34 inch and under. lyV cu. yds Stone, 34 inch to 1 inch. If cu. yds. ON EVERYDAY CONCRETE JOBS 13 Parapet and Retaining Wall r I A HE use of concrete for the retaining wall around this residence proved the easiest and most eco¬ nomical means of arranging the grounds in an attrac¬ tive manner. The wall brings the lawn to a level where it is easily trimmed, and the precast concrete urn at the corner adds a great deal to the appearance of the property. This wall, built at reasonable cost, will last in¬ definitely. It will require no yearly outlay for re¬ pairs, it will not crack, rot, or deteriorate, but will strengthen with age. Method Forms for the walls and posts must be very care¬ fully set for line and plumb—any deviation will be noticeable in the finished work. At intervals along the wall drain tile should be provided to carry off ground water which will settle behind the wall and perhaps do some damage if not removed. It is a good 14 CONTRACTORS HANDY BOOK plan to run a line of 5-inch tile along the inside wall leading into these offtakes, thereby insuring, at little cost, against injury to the wall, forms should be of tongued and grooved spruce, if possible, to prevent leakage and the resulting rock pockets in the con- crete. In a wall of the height shown in this illustration steel reinforcement will not be needed. Higher walls, however, should be designed by a competent engineer who will place the steel rods to assist the concrete to carry the immense load bearing upon it. Concrete for the wall proper should be mixed in proportions of 1: 2^: 4, being 1 part portland cement, 2}/2 parts of sand, and 4 parts of stone or gravel, graded in size from inch to lHj inches. It should be placed in layers of about six inches and well spaded to insure consolidation of aggregates. Details of wall ON EVERYDAY CONCRETE JOBS 15 When the wall has been poured to the proper height, inch x 18 inch steel dowels should be placed, upon which the precast cap will later be set. A long dowel must be set in the corner post in order to anchor the precast urn in place. Forms should not be removed for at least three days. If a decorative coat is not to be applied, the wall should be rubbed with an abrasive stone to remove the form marks. In the sketch on the opposite page a form is shown for making the precast cap; however, better results will probably be obtained if the work is given to the local concrete products manufacturer, who is expert in the making of such things. This cap should be made of concrete mixed in proportions of 1:2:3, which is 1 part portland cement, 2 parts of sand, and 3 parts of gravel or stone, and reinforced with three steel rods inch in diameter, spaced evenly across the base of the cap, one inch up from the base, and running lengthwise. The use of precast caps serves to bridge over inequalities in the wall and enables it to successfully resist normal strains. When placing the cap on the wall it should be set over dowels previously anchored into the wall con¬ crete, and bonded to the wall by a layer of 1:3 Portland cement mortar, which is 1 part portland cement to 3 parts of sand. The precast concrete urn or flower-pot may be pur¬ chased from most concrete products manufacturers ready to set in place. Because of their attractive appearance and permanence, these concrete orna¬ ments are deservedly popular. 16 CONTRACTORS HANDY BOOK Materials Required for Retaining Wall Shown in Photo on Page 13 and Plan on Page 14 Wall—50-foot length Mixture , 1:23^: 4 Concrete, 167 cu. ft. Lehigh Cement.33 sacks Sand, 34 inch and under. 34 cu. yds. Stone, 34 inch to 1 finches. . 5 cu. yds. Precast Cap—Each 6-foot section Mixture , 1:2:3 Concrete, 2 cu. ft. Lehigh Cement.? sack Sand, 34 inch and un( ier.Ttr cu - y°- Stone, 34 inch to 34 inch. to cu - ) c i- A paneled parapet A very attractive parapet can be made by using a single course of red concrete brick as a panel. ON EVERYDAY CONCRETE JOBS 17 Low Lawn Parapet ^1 A HE use of a concrete parapet wall adds greatly to the appearance of a lawn and eliminates the necessity of a terrace, which is so difficult to care for and which is constantly walked on by passing pedes¬ trians. A low wall, even though it is a simple matter to step over it, serves as a real barrier and assists greatly in keeping the lawn from being trampled upon. Method Forms should be very carefully aligned and braced, as any weaving or deviation will be noticeable in the finished work. End posts should be poured mono¬ lithic with the parapet. The concrete should be mixed in proportions of 1:234: 4 , being 1 part portland cement, 234 parts of sand, and 4 parts of stone or gravel graded in size from 34 inch to 134 inches. The forms should be 18 CONTRACTORS HANDY BOOK filled in layers of about six inches each, and when the top of the straight wall is reached, a batch of very stiff or dry concrete is used to shape the peak, as shown in the picture on the preceding page, a string stretched the length of the form will serve as a guide while this finishing is being done. Upon removal of forms the surface can be rubbed with an abrasive stone to remove the rough edges at the top. Troweling is not recommended, as it will invariably bring too much cement to the surface and upon hardening a thin skin coat will form and later craze or crack. Materials Required for Lawn Parapet Illustrated on Page 17—Plan Below Mixture 1 : 2)4 : 4 50 Feet of Wall One Corner Post 92 1 1834 sacks 34 sack Sand, inch and under. 134 cu. yds. 2'34 cu. yds. 5*0 cu. yd. xV cu. yd. Small retaining wall ON EVERYDAY CONCRETE JOBS 19 Garage Entrance A CONCRETE garage entrance will resist the action of the elements and improve with age. Once built, it stands ready for constant service with no further expense for upkeep or maintenance. Method The forms being set, concrete mixed in propor¬ tions of 1: 23dd 4, being 1 part of portland cement, 23^ parts of sand, and 4 parts of stone or gravel, graded 20 CONTRACTORS HANDY BOOK in size from 34 inch to 134 inches, is placed. In depositing concrete on grades, such as shown in the picture, it is best to start from the lower end; by so doing there is not the possibility of hollow spots de¬ veloping, as would be thecasestartingat the up-hill end. A straight screed or straight-edge is used on the top of the side forms, to bring the concrete to the proper level, and later it is finished with a wood float only. Expansion joints of asphaltic material should be used every 30 feet, and in any case against the curb or sidewalk and at the door-sill of the garage. The strength, life, and appearance of the driveway depend in a great measure on the curing or hardening of the concrete. After the surface has been finished and has been laid for about four hours, it should be covered with earth about 2 or 3 inches deep, care being taken to use no large stones. This covering should be kept wet for ten days, after which it may be removed and the driveway is then ready for use. Materials Required for 30-Foot Driveway, 6 Inches Thick 120 cu. ft. of concrete Mixture, 1 : 234 : 4 Lehigh Cement. Sand, 34 inch and under. . . Stone, 34 inch to 134 inches . 24 sacks .234 cu. yds. .3% cu. yds. ON EVERYDAY CONCRETE JOBS 21 Garage Entrance T HIS type of entrance is meeting with great favor throughout the country. It has many advantages, inasmuch as it provides the safety and permanence of the full-width driveway with approximately half the volume concrete and permits the use of an attractive strip of lawn between the two concrete runways. The greatest point in its favor, however, is the fact that oil, dropping from the crankcase, will not strike the concrete and cause the unsightly black smudge so frequently seen on full-width drives and entrances. 22 CONTRACTORS HANDY BOOK Method Forms should be carefully aligned before placing the concrete, as any deviation will be very noticeable in the finished work. The cinder subgrade if used should be thoroughly tamped in place. Concrete should be mixed in the proportion of l ; 234:4, using stone up to 134 inches in size. Con¬ struction joints should be installed at regular inter¬ vals not to exceed eight feet in each runway, and ex¬ pansion joints should be placed Y$ inch or 34 mch in thickness, not over twenty-five feet apart. This is usually done by setting a board the required thick¬ ness at the construction joint with the division plate, which is removed as soon as the concrete is set enough to permit. The joint is then sealed with hot bitumen. The concrete should be finished rough with a wood float only, and should be properly cured by being kept wet for at least a week before being used. Materials Required for 20 Feet of Double Track Runway Mixture, T. 234 ; 4 Lehigla Cement.6 sacks Sand, 34 i nc h and under. 34 cu. yd. Stone, 34 inch to finches. j cu. yd. ON EVERYDAY CONCRETE JOBS 23 Garage Driveway T HE owner selected concrete to insure entrance at all times of the year. This pavement has been giving service for many years and has not required a penny’s worth of labor for maintenance. Method Build the curbing first (see page 36), and when the forms are removed, draw a line indicating the top of the driveway on each curb. This line will serve as a guide in keeping the concrete to grade. Because of the varying height from driveway to top of curb it is impracticable to attempt the use of a screed, but a straight-edge just short enough to set between the curbs will greatly assist the finishing of the surface. 24 CONTRACTORS HANDY BOOK. Expansion joints of tar or asphaltic material, /4 inch wide, should be installed every thirty feet trans¬ versely, and it is well to provide the same joint on at least one side of the drive against the curbing. The concrete should be mixed in proportions of 1; 23^24, being 1 part of portland cement, 234 parts of sand, and 4 parts of stone or gravel graded in size from 34 inch to 134 inches. To insure the proper curing of the concrete, and to obtain the greatest strength, the pavement should be kept wet for at least a week and should not be used during that time. Materials Required for 100 Feet of Driveway With Curbing Mixture, 1:234 ; 4 Driveway, 100 feet long Lehigh Cement.70 sacks Sand, under 34 inch. 6f cu. yds. Stone, 34 inch to 134 inches. . 1034 cu. yds. Curbing, 100 feet long, varying height Lehigh Cement.54 sacks Sand, under 34 inch. 534 cu. yds. Stone, J4 inch to 134 inches. . 834 cu. yds. Cross-section of driveway ON EVERYDAY CONCRETE JOBS 25 Two-Car Garage Driveway A DRIVEWAY wide enough for a single car, ■L widened at the garage to permit entering either door, conserves space and is economical to build. Such a driveway provides the utmost in service and satisfaction and requires no attention in later years. Method In setting the forms around the reverse curve make shallow saw-cuts about a foot apart in the back of the one inch side form lumber. This will make it much easier to bend the form to the exact measure¬ ments required. Set a straight form on the center line of the wide section, and use this and the outside form as a level to which the concrete is screeded with a straight-edge. An attempt to surface the entire width at one time would be apt to develop hollows in the pavement which would be very noticeable, espe¬ cially after a rain. 26 CONTRACTORS H ANDY BOOK The concrete should be mixed in proportions of !- 214 : 4 , being 1 part of portland cement, 2 34 parts of sand,’and 4 parts of stone or gravel, graded from 34 inch to 134 inches in size. Before pouring the second half of the wide section the form must be removed and a ^-inch asphaltic expansion joint be substituted; also an expansion joint should be used at the beginning of the approach, and at thirty-foot intervals over the entire length. If the concrete is still somewhat soft or green in the first half when the second half is laid, it is well to lay a plank on it and correct the straight edge accord¬ ingly when finishing the surface of the second half. Plan and cross-section of two-car garage driveway ON EVERYDAY CONCRETE JOBS 27 The finish is made with a wood float only. The sur¬ face should be kept wet for ten days or two weeks,, after which the pavement is ready for use. Materials Required for Garage Driveway Illustrated on Page 25—Plan on Page 26 Entrance Mixture , 1:234:4 Concrete 5 cu. yds. Lehigh Cement.27 sacks Sand, under 34 inch. 2f cu. yds. Stone, 34 inch to 134 inches. . 4 cu. yds. Approach, 30 feet long Mixture , 1:234:4 Concrete 3% cu. yds. Lehigh Cement.20 sacks Sand, under 34 inch. 2 cu. yds. Stone, 34 inch to 134 inches. . 3 cu. yds. A concrete driveway on a steep grade will not wash out, and provides entrance in all weather 28 CONTRACTORS HANDY BOOK Garage with Concrete Floor B UILT of concrete or concrete masonry units, a garage will meet the requirements of the most strict and exacting building codes. Garages must be fire-proof, and concrete has proved itself an ideal fire- resisting material. Method of Constructing Foundation and Floor The foundation and footings should extend below the normal frost line, and should be built of con¬ crete mixed in proportions of 1: 2 3^: 4, being 1 part of portland cement, 2} 2 parts of sand, and 4 parts of stone or gravel, graded in size from x /i inch to 1 Yi inches. Spread footings should be used, except in soil that is very firm. After the inside foundation forms have been re¬ moved, the earth subgrade should be well tamped, and if it is earth that will not permit proper drainage of water, it is well to use a layer of cinders or gravel directly beneath the concrete floor. ON EVERYDAY CONCRETE JOBS 29 !Z-0 4 ? r> a 0 0 . , a ^ 0/ ~-o * 0 t ° £. * * a( ? o r: < ° ' fo 0 : °. 0 ,r.rK &Cinder ”r °tP V t /// . t>£, id * rS* 1 ? . . L * * * k ° 7 W/ _J Be/ow frost line The floor concrete should be mixed in proportions of 1:2:33^2, using stone not larger than one inch. All materials should be thoroughly mixed, using as little water as possible. The surface should be finished with a wood float and should be sloped to a drain. If it is proposed to erect a frame structure upon the concrete foundation, bolts should be set in the wall with which to anchor the timber plate in place. Materials Required for Foundations and Floor Foundations, 3 feet deep, without footings Mixture, 1:234^4 Concrete, 13334 cu. ft. Lehigh Cement .27 sacks Sand, 34 inch and under.234 cu. yds. Stone, 34 inch to 134 inches. . .4 cu. yds. Floor, 20 feet x 12 feet x 5 inches Mixture, 1:2:334 Concrete, 100 cu. ft. Lehigh Cement.24 sacks Sand, 34 inch and under.134 cu. yds. Stone, 34 inch to 1 inch.3 cu. yds. Method of Constructing Superstructure When the foundation is completed, work on the superstructure may proceed at once. In fact, this is to be preferred, as it will serve to protect the floor concrete from the heat of the sun while it is curing, and keep off rain, which will mark up the surface of fresh concrete. 30 CONTRACTORS HANDY BOOK Cement asbestos Section elevation ON EVERYDAY CONCRETE JOBS 31 One-car garage with concrete driveway Rough-faced concrete blocks 8x8x16 are used in this plan, and are laid in portland cement mortar mixed in proportions of 1:3, being 1 part portland cement and 3 parts sand. The roof structure is of frame construction. The bed plate is anchored to the concrete blocks by bolts set in concrete poured into the cores of the top course of blocks. Portland cement stucco mixed in proportions of 1:3, and colored to harmonize with its surround¬ ings, will make the garage a source of pride. Materials for Garage Superstructure 8x8x16 concrete block.516 8x8x8 concrete block.42 Sand, inch and under.2% cu. yds. Lehigh Cement.24 sacks Millwork, roofing material, etc., as selected. 32 CONTRACTORS HANDY BOOK Private Drive T HE value of concrete as a road material need not be discussed at length here. Every one likes to drive on concrete because of its smooth riding quali¬ ties, its non-skid surface, and its pleasing appearance. Private concrete roads are quickly and economically built with local labor and materials, are kept in a sanitary and serviceable condition with a minimum of expense, and will last indefinitely. Method The road shown in the accompanying sketch was designed and built for light traffic, and the combined curb and gutter, described on pages 39 and 40, was used. The use of the combined type of curb and gutter shortens the span of the road slab, which is an advan¬ tage. It permits the construction of the curb first. The gutter is later used as a side form, and the screed to strike off the surface of the road is operated from it. The separate curb may either be built first and an offset screed used for the pavement, or it may be ON EVERYDAY CONCRETE JOBS 33 Rad - 6C ° yhaltic paint Symmetrica! about <£. O ° <1 0 Q ^ . O ° -c' 0 * O 53 0 - 18 - - 8 - 0 "- Driveway with combined curb and gutter built after the pavement has been laid. The former method is usually adopted. The concrete should be machine mixed in the pro¬ portions of 1:2:4, being 1 part of portland cement, 2 parts of sand, and 4 parts of stone or gravel, graded in size from 34 inch to 2 inches. Do not use more water than is needed to give a workable mix. Three-eighths-inch expansion joints of asphalt or tar should be provided on each side of the road slab, regardless of the type of curb. Transverse expansion joints should be installed every fifty feet and at the end of the day’s work. Care must be taken to set the joints at right angles to the road surface. 34 CONTRACTORS HANDY BOOK These joints are usually made with the aid of a inch or 34 inch thick piece of steel shaped to con¬ form to the cross-section of the road. This is plumbed and held in place by pins or stakes driven securely into the subgrade. On the side opposite to the pins the joint filler is placed. Concrete is deposited on both sides of the plate, which is then removed together with the pins, leaving the filler in place. The pavement shown is not reinforced. However, on work of this nature marginal reinforcing, consist¬ ing of single j^-inch steel rods, may well be used placed 2 inches down from the top of the slab, and located 4 inches in from the edges, both lengthwise and crosswise of each slab. Bars can be wired to¬ gether in mats of the specified size and set in place as the concrete is poured. Such reinforcement will effectually prevent cracking of the pavement at the edges, and especially at the corners. Combined curbs are usually doweled to the road slab with two-foot iron pins spaced four feet apart. This is done to prevent the widening of the joint and to prevent seepage. The surface should be finished with a wood float only, and should be cured by the use of two or three inches of earth kept wet for at least eighteen days. At the end of the curing period the layer of earth is removed and the pavement is then ready for use. Materials Required for 50 Feet of 15-Foot Roadway Mixture , 1:2:4 Concrete, 1334 cu. yds. Lehigh Cement.82 sacks Sand, 34 inch and under. .. . 634 cu. yds. Stone, 34 inch t° 2 inches.. . . 1234 cu. yds. ON EVERYDAY CONCRETE JOBS 35 Materials Required for 100 Feet of Separate Curbing Mixture, 1:2:4 Concrete, 2 34 cu. yds. Lehigh Cement.16 sacks Sand, 34 inch an d under. 134 cu. yds. Stone, 34 dich to 2 inches.. . . 234 cu. yds. Materials Required for 100 Feet of Combined Curb and Gutter Mixture, 1:2:4 Concrete, 3 cu. yds. Lehigh Cement.18 sacks Sand, 34 inch and under. 134 cu. yds. Stone, 34 inch to 1 inch. 3 cu. yds. The picture below shows a somewhat different arrangement and illustrates effectively the possi¬ bilities of concrete in the adornment of suburban property. Such a treatment provides an attractive, sanitary, permanent drive in all weather. A combination garage entrance and turnstile 36 CONTRACTORS HANDY BOOK Sidewalk, Curb, and Gutter T HIS work can be profitably done at one time, and when finished, it is but another step to the paving of the street itself, and the abutting property owners have no further trouble from dust or mud. Concrete curbing is used extensively in practically all cities and towns throughout the country. It has been found most satisfactory and far more economical than any other material. The concrete gutter is but a part of the concrete street which every one desires and enjoys. The con¬ crete sidewalk has long been accepted as the best type possible, due to its ability to resist wear and its slip-proof qualities. Method The forms for the sidewalk and curb are set to¬ gether and the placing of the concrete in both is done ON .EVERYDAY CONCRETE JOBS 37 at the same time. The curb approaches and the gutter cannot be poured until the forms have been removed from the concrete in the sidewalk and curb. Construction joints should be provided in the side¬ walk every five feet, making five-foot squares; in the gutter they should be spaced not more than ten feet apart. One-quarter inch expansion joints should occur in the sidewalk every twenty-five feet; in the gutter every twenty feet, and in the curb every fifty feet. Expansion joints should be placed at one end of the curb approach slab and should separate the curb from the gutter. This will prevent the curb from tipping. Plan and cross-section of sidewalk, curb, and gutter 38 CONTRACTORS HANDY BOOK The concrete should be mixed in proportions of l;2i^:4, being 1 part portland cement, lYi parts of sand, and 4 parts of stone or gravel, graded in size from 3^ inch to 1 inch. The surface of the walk, curb approach, and gutter should be finished with a wood float only. An edging tool should be used to round the curb edges. The curb can be rubbed with an abrasive stone to remove form marks and improve its appearance. Proper curing of the sidewalk, curb approach and curb will require at least a week, and for the gutter, two weeks. Materials Required for Sidewalk, Curb, and Gutter Illustrated on Page 36—Plan on Page 37 Mixture, 1: 2M : 4 Length Width Thick¬ ness Cu. Ft. Con¬ crete Sacks, Lehigh Ce¬ ment Cu. Yds. Sand Under M in- Cu. Yds. Stone A in. to 1 in. Sidewalk. 20' 0" 5' 0" 0' 5" 42 9 4 1M Curb Approach Curb. 2' 6" 50' 0" 6' 0" 0' 6" 0' 5" 2' 6" 62 1 •> 12 Vs H 1 3 lr% Gutter. 20' 0" 2' 6" 0' 6" 25 5 2^ % ON EVERYDAY CONCRETE JOBS 39 Combined Curb and Gutter r I 'HIS type of construction is meeting with great favor, particularly in residential districts, where its neat and pleasing appearance blends harmoniously with its surroundings. The fact that the face of the curb slopes back proves most satisfactory in that it does not injure tires of cars parked close to the curb. Method Forms are usually used to shape curbs; however, it has often proved advisable to use a very stiff or dry mixture and shape the curb to contour by the use of special wood or steel forms of screeds and trowels. Forms are simple to build and set. An opening is left in the top through which the concrete may be deposited and spaded. The forms should be removed 40 CONTRACTORS HANDY BOOK as soon as the concrete is hard enough, and the sur¬ face should be entirely gone over, all holes filled and troweled to give the curb a uniform appearance. The concrete should be 1:2:3, being 1 part of Portland cement, 2 parts of sand, and 3 parts of gravel or stone graded in size from 34 inch to 1 inch. Expansion joints should be installed in curbing at the location of joints in the pavement, thus pre¬ senting a uniform appearance. Curbs should be cured for at least ten days by being kept wet, in order that the concrete may attain its full strength, and thus withstand the repeated severe shocks to which it will be constantly subjected. Materials Required for 50 Feet of Combined Curb and Gutter Mixture, 1:2:3 Concrete, 100 cu. ft. Lehigh Cement.25 sacks Sand, 34 i nc h and under.234 cu. yds. Stone, 34 inch to 1 inch.3 cu. yds. ON EVERYDAY CONCRETE JOBS 41 Hitching Post T his type of post is usually precast and later set in place and se¬ curely anchored by pouring concrete around it. Forms should be built of white pine, leaving one side open to place the reinforcing and concrete. The reinforcing rods are set in place as the pour¬ ing of the concrete progresses. A round piece of soft pine should be nailed to the bottom form and braced at the top to make the hole. The wood should be bored or driven out after the concrete has become thoroughly cured. The concrete should be mixed in proportions of 1:2:3,being 1 partof portlandcement, 2 parts of sand, and 3 parts of stone or gravel graded in size from 34 inch to 1 inch. After the forms are off the concrete should be rubbed to remove all traces of form marks. The post should not be set up for at least two weeks after the forms have been removed. To attain its greatest strength, the post should be covered with straw and kept wet during that period. CONTRACTORS HANDY BOOK 42 Septic Tank HE sanitary requirements of the modern home A ar e very ably met by the concrete septic tank. Many cities and towns are still without sewerage facilities, and the septic tank has been approved as the most sanitary and satisfactory method of sewage disposal. In farming districts the septic tank is universally accepted, it having proved itself effi¬ cient in its work, easily and quickly constructed, and low in first cost and maintenance. Method A septic tank is a watertight compartment through which a slow current of sewage passes. \\ hile passing through it is worked on by bacteria and most of the solids are turned into liquids and gas. The accompanying plans and sketches are self- explanatory. They indicate method for determining the location of the intake and outlet, and the placing of the baffleboards in slots cut into the concrete walls. Exterior forms are not necessary in firm soils. The ON EVERYDAY CONCRETE JOBS 4S Fig. 1.—Section of tank in operation walls should be at least six inches thick, of 1:2:4 concrete, being 1 part of portland cement, 2 parts of sand, and 4 parts of gravel or stone, graded in size from }/± i nc h to lj /2 inches. “Plums” or large stones should not be used, as they are apt to cause leakage in the walls. The cover is divided into three sections—one form can be made to serve by using it three times. Each cover slab should be reinforced with galvanized ex¬ panded metal lath placed % inch from the bottom of the concrete. Reinforcing is not necessary in the walls. The entire tank should be poured in one operation, the inside form being suspended as shown in Fig. 5. The forms should not be removed until the con¬ crete has thoroughly hardened. This will probably 44 CONTRACTORS HANDY BOOK ij 4 fenf-, TT i 1 • V. j- - ' «•}. i A 1 ■ •• 1 •1 • . i .' A 5. v ‘ - <■ ■*— W/dfft of took — > A- • • : 4 • 4 .4 •.; • 4 - ' • vv '< CROSS SECTION The plans illustrated in this Septic Tank section are used through the courtesy of Pennsylvania State College //vs/or dimensions or SEPr/C TANK No. of persons Dimensions of tank width length 6 or /ess ir S 8 3' 6' / 0 3' 7' 12 3' S' ' t - . . •. ■■■■■■■■■ ■:■■■■* So/tcf | -Tf Perrtecf T- “ 6 *- b b *5% *T . : & Fp: -• ■ ZD PLAN OF TANK Fig. 2.—Detailed drawings of tank take about a week. Fig. 6 illustrates the method of laying the tile for the distributing system. Farm drain tile, 3 or 4 inches in diameter, should be placed within 12 to 18 inches of the surface. The joints should be spaced slightly (}/g inch), with pieces of tar paper over them to keep the soil from working into the tile. In soil containing much sand or gravel ON EVERYDAY CONCRETE JOBS 45 ,li'Moretten inlet grade Fig. 3.—Showing method of locating inlet and outlet grades with a level held against the bottom of the cross-pieces. Stick to measure depth of excavation is also shown. The 5-inch addition at the bottom can be removed and the stick used as a guide in laying the concrete floor Fig. 4.—Form for building tank 46 CONTRACTORS HANDY BOOK i ", ix Y~ ^( f / w ^-\ hi wa i Posts to support form 1 n /( Horizontal cross brace L V — Diagonal cross brace oW> »I I it I Q ^ tyw/$wm n be securely wired together at the lap. The vertical wall rods are set into the footing concrete at least six inches. If the footings are poured before the wall forms are set, these rods should be placed and they then make easy the setting of the balance of the reinforcing, which may be wired to them. Materials Required for Trough Shown Above Mixture, 1:2:3 Concrete, 139.5 cu. ft. Lehigh Cement. . .35 sacks Sand, 34 inch and under.2 T \ cu. yds. Stone, 34 inch to 1 inch. 4 cu. yds. ON EVERYDAY CONCRETE JOBS 51 Barn Approach A SUBSTANTIAL approach is a worthwhile im¬ provement to a barn, because it keeps the soil in place during heavy rains, and the concrete walls always present a neat and attractive appearance. Method Forms should be constructed of one-inch boards and two by four studs spaced not over 18 inches apart, and set on spread footings previously poured of concrete mixed in proportions of 1:2^: 5. The wall concrete should be mixed in proportions of 1:23^2 : 4, and the suspended slab should be of 1:2:3 concrete, with % inch bars spaced 10 inches center to center, and \]/2 inches from the bottom of the slab. This is for an eight-foot span only—larger spans should be computed by an engineer. 52 CONTRACTORS HANDY BOOK Side elevation of barn approach ON EVERYDAY CONCRETE JOBS 53 When the wall concrete is poured, the 1 Yi inch galvanized iron pipe are set in place four feet apart. After the concrete has been cured, these posts may be connected with pipe to make a strong railing the length of the approach. A four-inch curb is provided on the slab. This should be constructed the full width of the wall of the approach, to present a uniform appearance. In the end wall of the approach one or two open¬ ings should be left, four or five inches square, to permit drainage of the earth fill. After the forms are removed ample time should be allowed for the concrete to cure and harden before building up the earth fill roadway. Materials Required for Barn Approach—Plan on Page 52 Footing Mixture, 5 Concrete, 2 cu. yds. Lehigh Cement.12 sacks Sand, K ' nc h and under. Yr, cu. yd. Stone, Y inch to 1 yi inches. IY cu. yds. Approach Walls Mixture, \:2Y'- 4 Concrete, 150 cu. ft. Lehigh Cement.31 sacks Sand, Y inch and under. 3 cu. yds. Stone, Y, inch to 1 yi inches. 4^3 cu. yds. Slab, 8 feet x 16 feet x 6 inches Mixture, 1:2:3 Concrete, 64 cu. ft. Lehigh Cement.24 sacks Sand, Y, inch and under. IY cu. yds. Stone, Y inch to 1 inch. \yi cu. yds. Reinforcement (24 pieces). pi in. x 8 ft. 6 in. Pipe railing Uprights—12 pieces, \Y" x 4' 6"—Threaded one end Railing—2 pieces, \Y" x 20'—Threaded both ends Connections 4 L ells 1 Y inches x 1Y inches 8 T couplings, 1 Y inches x 2 Y inches x 2 Y inches—for sleeve joint 54 CONTRACTORS HANDY BOOK 18 Meta! ventilator 4 '//8Jj(s///-//^'/t7?77F7; j • . Fresh air intake ' =» / with hinged door ° ' o ver opening -18*18' Ventilator f/ue wtt? hinged door !0‘' -'f 'rk Cross-section of small storage cellar Storage Cellars C ONCRETE storage cellars have proved their worth in all sections of the country. The plans on pages 56 to 59 give details of a storage cellar built at Pennsylvania State College. It has been found that dirt floors are most satis¬ factory, and so in this work wall and column footings only were used, they being one foot deep and of concrete, mixed in proportions of 1:2^:4. Walls and columns are of 1:2:4. For this work a double wall was constructed with a movable form. Concrete building units, block or tile, prove satisfactory for this sort of work. The monolithic concrete wall is also used extensively. The roof is of concrete mixed 1:2:3, and heavily reinforced with steel bars, a complete schedule of which is given. A section of a small storage cellar is also shown. This is built of monolithic concrete throughout, the footings and walls being of concrete mixed in pro¬ portions of 1:23^:4 and the roof mixed 1:2:3. ON EVERYDAY CONCRETE JOBS 55 A table giving the necessary reinforcing for roof spans is given, as follows: Reinforcement Required Across the Roof of a Storage Cellar Width of Span Thickness of Concrete Size of Bars Needed Spacing, from Center to Center 8 feet 5 inches K inch inches 9 “ S'A “ H “ 9 10 “ 6 X “ 8 11 “ 6 K “ X “ 7 K “ 12 “ 7 K " X “ 6 13 “ 8 “ X “ 8 K “ 14 “ 9 X “ 7 K “ 15 “ 9K “ A “ 7 16 “ 10 “ X “ 9 The roof should be finished with a slight crown to drain water, and should be troweled smooth with a steel float. The inside walls and roof may be given a coat of portland cement mortar if desired. The deck or roof forms should be left in place for at least three weeks, and the concrete should be kept wet during that time in order that it may gain its maximum strength. Double storage cellar at Pennsylvania State College. Left side shows walls erected. Right side shows forms in place for roof 56 CONTRACTORS HANDY BOOK Plan and section for storage cellar, built at Pennsylvania State College ON EVERYDAY CONCRETE JOBS 57 58 CONTRACTORS HANDY BOOK l$_oor >!Xao ^ciNroeciNG ■3“%^ 10' O' Vcrlleal tech p 'Z^f ' Irorlzonf’fil 9 CC. < ™ Weill Ti«s Waul Section Roof slab reinforcing for storage cellar, built at Pennsylvania State College 70 - ON EVERYDAY CONCRETE JOBS 59 -- i=|ii si-ol|« CP |i »q H'| ^ Q| \ % P| .0 ,Z » 1 , Bill of steel required for storage cellar, built at Pennsylvania State College 60 CONTRACTORS HANDY BOOK Poultry House Floor A GOOD poultry house should provide perfect protection from storms, sufficient sunshine dur¬ ing the winter months, plenty of ventilation without drafts, and uniformity of temperature. A concrete foundation and floor will provide the most sanitary and permanent base at the lowest cost consistent with good construction. Floors of concrete do not rot or disintegrate. They are rigid and safe to walk upon, are quickly and easily built with local materials, and may be kept clean and neat with a minimum of effort. A newly laid poultry house floor should be allowed sufficient time to dry thoroughly before being used, as fresh concrete contains considerable moisture. If time is a factor, it is best to install the floor first and build the superstructure afterward. ON EVERYDAY CONCRETE JOBS 61 Method The footings and wallsof a poul¬ try house should be built first, and after removing the forms, the backfill of earth should be soaked with water and well tamped in place to insure against settling under the floor after it is laid. Drainage must be provided for by using drain tile to carry off ground water, especially on the uphill side of the structure. It is always a good plan to lay a sub¬ floor of cinders or gravel in clay soils. The concrete for the walls should be mixed in proportions of 1:2:4, being 1 part of portland cement, 2 parts of sand, and 4 parts of stone or gravel graded in size from inch to \}/2 inches. Large stones that can be carried in one hand may be used sparingly in these walls, care being taken to keep them from touching one another or laying against the forms. The concrete for the floor should be mixed in proportions of 1:2:33^ and should be at least four inches thick. If possible, the concrete should be machine mixed and the water content kept low. 62 CONTRACTORS HANDY BOOK It should be finished with a wooden float only, and allowed to cure at least a week before being used. It should be kept wet during the curing period, in order that it may attain its full strength. Materials Required for a 20-Foot by 40-Foot Poultry House Floor—Plan on Page 61 Walls, 19 feet x 39 feet inside x 3 feet high Mixture , 1:2:4 Concrete, 177 cu. ft. Lehigh Cement.33 sacks Sand, 34 inch and under. 234 cu. yds. Stone, hr inch to 134 inches. . . 5 cu. yds. Stones, 4 inches and under. . . 2 cu. yds. Floor, 19 feet x 39 feet x 4 inches thick Mixture, 1:2:334 Concrete, 247 cu. ft. Lehigh Cement.46 sacks Sand, 34 ' nc h an d under. 4f cu. yds. Stone, 34 inch to 1 inch. 7f cu. yds. Poultry house with a concrete floor and a rear wall as high as the dropping boards. The two-story building at the far end is a feed house ON EVERYDAY CONCRETE JOBS 6S Hog Runs T HERE is no material superior to concrete in improving the appearance of farm buildings. This picture shows what one man has done with his hog runs. Concrete for this work has eliminated the necessity of constant replacements, and has changed an unattractive and unsanitary yard to a neat, clean run which will last indefinitely with no further expense. Method The walls are built six inches thick, the base being set below the frost line without spread footings. The ~-/i Go/v. Iron P/pe ,T H Be/ow frost line Not Over — 3 - 0 " — -J Elevation of hog run wall <64 CONTRACTORS HANDY BOOK forms should be built in sections, eight or ten feet long, if there is any considerable amount of wall to build. Studs spaced 18 inches apart should provide a rigid wall form that can be set and reset accurately until the job is completed. The concrete should be mixed in proportions of 1:23^: 4, being 1 part of portland cement, 2 34 parts of sand, and 4 parts of stone or gravel, graded in size from 34 inch to 134 inches. The concrete should be machine mixed if possible, to insure uniformity of mixture. The water content should be kept as low as possible consistent with workability. It should be placed in the form in layers and thoroughly spaded. The iron pipe for the fencing should be buried in the soft concrete at stated intervals as soon as possible after the concrete is placed, to insure a satisfactory bond. A tee or union at the bottom of the pipe further insures its stability. Care must be used to set the fence pipe plumb and all the same height. After the forms are removed the surface of the wall may be rubbed with an abrasive stone to remove form marks. Fencing should not be set up until the concrete is at least two weeks old, as the strain on the posts may otherwise fracture the concrete. Materials Required for Hog Run IVall—Plan on Page 63 Hog Run Wall —50-foot section, 6 inches thick, 4 feet 6 inches deep Mixture, 1:234 ; 4 Concrete, 11234 cu. ft. Lehigh Cement.23 bags Sand, 34 inch and under. 234 cu. yds. Stone, 34 inch to 134 inches.. . 334 cu. yds. ON EVERYDAY CONCRETE JOBS 65 Hog Houses C ONCRETE is generally used in building the modern sanitary hog house, plans for which are very nearly standard throughout the country. Method The sketch and picture indicate the layout most commonly used in building a hog house. The foundations and superstructure are similar to those in any other farm building. The floor is laid over a well-tamped earth subgrade, and at each stall there is a small footing built properly to support the heavy pipe posts and wire panel. The floors, panel footings, and feed troughs are all made of concrete mixed in proportions of 1: 23^:4, being 1 part of portland cement, 2}/2 parts of sand, 66 CONTRACTORS HANDY BOOK „9-.£Z "’«S ‘<3 V? WAU^W I N DOW * 'NMOS DOOR _ 4-9 '-P " - Floor plan of typical modern hog house ON EVERYDAY CONCRETE JOBS 67 and 4 parts of stone or gravel, graded in size from 34 inch to 1 inch. It should be machine mixed if possible, to insure uniformity. The water' content should be kept low. Floors should be finished with a wood float only. Set the forms and pour the panel footings and bases first, into which the panel posts are set while the concrete is being placed. After the forms are re¬ moved the pen floors are poured together with the feeding troughs. Materials Required for Hog House Floor—Plan Above One panel footing and base, 5 inches x 9 inches x 8 feet Mixture , 1:2J^:4 Concrete, 234 cu. ft. Lehigh Cement. . .. 34 sack Sand, 34 inch and under. 4o cu. yd. Stone, 34 inch to 1 inch. y£ cu. yd. One floor, 4 inches x 8 feet x 8 feet Mixture, 1: 234 : 4 Concrete, 2134 cu. ft. Lehigh Cement. . .. 4 sacks Sand, 34 inch and under. f- cu. yd. Stone, 34 inch to 1 inch. 34 cu. yd. 68 CONTRACTORS HANDY BOOK Hog Wallows A CONCRETE hog wallow will assist in keeping pigs clean and free from mange and insect pests. Unless a wallow is provided, the hogs will quickly make a disease-breeding mud hole on the hog lot. Method As indicated in the plan, this wallow is built with shallow footings on a well-tamped earth foundation. While it is not absolutely essential that a hog wallow be watertight, it is easily accomplished by suspend¬ ing the inside forms from cross-braces supported by the outside forms. The footings, floor, and walls may then be poured monolithic and consequently watertight. The sketch indicates the top of the wall level and provides for a pitch in the floor to a drain through which the water may be drawn off into a short line of drain tile. The concrete should be mixed in proportions of 1:2:33/2, being 1 part of portland cement, 2 parts of ON EVERYDAY CONCRETE JOBS 69 sand, and 334 parts of stone or gravel graded in size from 3 4 inch to 132 inches. It should be mixed with the least amount of water to give it workability. The floor should be finished with a wood float to provide firm and non-skid footing for the stock. The walls may be plastered with a thin coat of 1:2 mortar to further insure waterproofness, if desired. Materials Required for Hog IVallow Shown Above Mixture, 1:2:3 3^2 Concrete, 93 cu. ft. Lehigh Cement.22 sacks Sand, 34 inch and under. 1% cu. yds. Stone, 34 inch to 134 inches. . . 2J4 cu. yds. Another hog wallow that can be very easily and quickly constructed is illustrated on the next page. In construction of forms, proportion of mix, and method of finishing it is identical with the one just described. The ramp is a decided advantage, how¬ ever, providing easy entrance, and the forms are a bit easier to construct. In this wallow no provision is made for drainage. The pit is filled by means of a hose, and the water is bailed out when it becomes necessary to clean it. Drainage can, however, be easily provided if desired. 70 CONTRACTORS HANDY BOOK Materials Required for Hog Wallow—Plan Below Footing, 2 feet deep Mixture, 1:2:33^2 Concrete, 128J4 cu. ft. Lehigh Cement.30 sacks Sand, 34 inch and under. 234 cu. yds. Stone, 34 inch to 134 inches. . . 4 cu. yds. ON EVERYDAY CONCRETE JOBS 71 Manure Pits T HE old type of combined barnyard and manure pit is rapidly passing because it is wasteful and unsanitary. The value of manure stored in a tight concrete pit as compared with barnyard storage is so great that the pit will quickly repay its con¬ struction cost. Method Pour the footings first, and upon them erect the wall forms of inch boards on two by four studs spaced not over 18 inches apart. The footings and walls should be keyed together to make a tight joint and insure a good bond. After the inside wall forms have been removed, the subgrade should be prepared if the soil is very porous and ground water is present; a line of drain tile around the walls will lead the water away from the pit. The floor should 72 CONTRACTORS HANDY BOOK Side elevation for manure pit y'i Expansion Joint '*? Footinq •' 4 », \o •> Floor 1 c 2 Layers Tarred Felt Provide Keyvray Detail of wall and floor connection ON EVERYDAY CONCRETE JOBS 73 rest on the top of the footings and a slip joint pro¬ vided as shown on sketch for expansion and contrac¬ tion. The floor may be finished with a steel float to present a smooth, non-porous surface. The driveway should be built with an apron or light foundation wall to strengthen it against impact of wagon-wheels, and keep it from sinking in soft ground. Metal sockets or bolts are embedded in the top of the wall to permit construction of a roof. All concrete should be mixed in proportions of 1:234 : 4, being 1 part of portland cement, 234 parts of sand, and 4 parts of gravel, graded in size from 34 inch to 134 inches. It should be machine mixed if possible and the water content should be kept low. Materials Required for Manure Pit Illustrated on Page 71—Plan on Page 72 Mixture, 1:234:4 Concrete, 356 cu. ft. Lehigh Cement. . . .71 sacks Sand, 34 inch and under. 6% cu. yds. Stone, 34 inch to 134 inches. . . 10f cu. yds. Lumber and Roofing extra The plan on the next page shows a much smaller manure pit. It is built in the same manner as the larger one, however, and the same aggregates and mixture are used. Materials Required for Manure Pit Illustrated on Page 74 Mixture, 1:234 ; 4 Concrete, 19434 cu. ft. Lehigh Cement.39 sacks Sand, 34 inch and under. 3% cu. yds. Stone, 34 inch to 134 inches. . . 5 T 9 o cu. yds. 74 CONTRACTORS HANDY BOOK Small manure pit Plan and cross-section ON EVERYDAY CONCRETE JOBS 75 Concrete Piers T O ELIMINATE rotting of sills and under¬ pinning of buildings build them of concrete. Sturdy and strong, they will bear their load indefi¬ nitely and strengthen with age. Method The plans shown here provide for the setting of a steel or timber superstructure. The forms are set and the piers poured in place. In the first plan provision is made for steel anchor bolts; in the second, T-shaped pier, dowels are used' to fasten the rough timber to the pier head. The manner of setting forms for the pier founda¬ tions or footings and the piers themselves are identi¬ cal, as they are both battered on all sides. The most common practice is to build two opposite sides true to line and set them in place, then the two remaining sides are simply boarded up and studs set in place at the corners. The entire form must be rigidly braced from without and the forms tightly wired 76 CONTRACTORS HANDY BOOK Square-head pier ON EVERYDAY CONCRETE JOBS 77 together either by using ties running diagonally from corner to corner through the pier, or by providing collars at stated intervals up the form on the outside. These may be made of several strands of wire or lumber which is tightly wedged in place. Form lumber should be of tongued and grooved material. The concrete in the footings should be mixed in proportions of 1:2:4, being 1 part of portland cement, 2 parts of sand, and 4 parts of broken stone or gravel, ranging in size from 34 inch to 2 inches. The pier or post concrete should be mixed in proportions of 1:2:33/2, being 1 part of portland cement, 2 parts of sand, and 334 parts of broken stone or gravel, graded in size from 34 inch to 134 inches. The placing of the concrete should be done slowly, as large batches deposited suddenly will often spring the forms and cause them to leak. The pier footings should be allowed to set thor¬ oughly before the forms are set for the posts. When 78 CONTRACTORS HANDY BOOK ON EVERYDAY CONCRETE JOBS 79 the footings are poured, set two-foot dowels, as in¬ dicated in the plan. To these the post reinforc¬ ing must be securely wired before the concrete is poured. Iron piping is not good reinforcing mate¬ rial, nor is wire fencing. Use only approved soft steel rods, and take pains to keep them free from rust, oil and dirt, to insure a satisfactory bond with the concrete. In setting anchor bolts a template should be made from which they may be hung. This template must be securely fastened to the wall form at the exact location required, in reference to those on other piers and height above the footing, to insure a fit with the holes provided in the steel or timber super¬ structure. To allow a little leeway in making the fit, it is a good plan to provide anchor bolts threaded to a point which will be eight or ten inches below the surface of the concrete. A nut and washer are placed at this point, and a piece of pipe about twice the diameter of the anchor bolt and long enough to reach to the top of concrete is slipped over it. This will permit the bolt being pried a bit in any direction. The completed piers should be allowed to cure for at least three weeks before the weight of the super¬ structure is placed upon them. The forms should not be removed for a week, and when they are, an abra¬ sive stone may be used to erase the form marks and improve the appearance. The design of foundations of this nature is ex¬ tremely important, and consequently it is best to have the concrete work planned and designed by a competent engineer or architect who will be able to 80 CONTRACTORS HANDY BOOK compute the weight the piers must support and will design them accordingly. Materials Required for Square-Head Pier—Plan on Page 76 Footing Mixture, 1:2:4 Concrete, 16 cu. ft. Lehigh Cement.4 sacks Sand, 34 inch and under. 34 cu. yd- Stone, 34 inch to 2 inches. ... 34 cu. yd. Pier Mixture, 1:2:334 Concrete, 12 cu. ft. Lehigh Cement.3 sacks Sand, 34 inch and under. 4 cu. yd. Stone, 34 inch to 134 inches. . . 34 cu. yd. The reinforcing for this pier may be ob¬ tained from the plans. Materials Required for T-Head Pier—Plan on Page 78 Footing Mixture, 1:2:4 Concrete, 634 cu. ft. Lehigh Cement. 134 sacks Sand, 34 inch and under. tV cu. yd. Stone, 34 inch to 2 inches. | cu. yd. Pier Mixture, 1:2:334 Concrete, 4^4 cu. ft. Lehigh Cement. 134 sacks Sand, 34 inch and under. to cu. yd. Stone, 34 inch to 134 inches. . . | cu. yd. The reinforcing for this pier may be ob¬ tained from the plans. ON EVERYDAY CONCRETE JOBS 81 Hotbeds and Cold-Frames A HOTBED should be located so that it slopes toward the south, and should be protected from cold wind. The standard hotbed sash is 3 by 6 feet, and the size of the bed should be gov¬ erned by the number of sash to be used. The hotbed walls should be 6 or 8 inches thick, and carried down below possible frost penetration. Forms can be easily set up, as shown in the illustration, and roughly sup¬ ported by stakes and braces. A four-foot length of ^-inch rod, bent to reinforce the corner, will prevent cracking. A 1:23^:4 mix is recommended. Plan for concrete hotbed and cold-frame 82 CONTRACTORS HANDY BOOK Concrete Fence Posts C ONCRETE fence posts are a permanent im¬ provement to a property. They are easily con¬ structed, and the work can be done in winter months or when outdoor work is not possible. The various types of commercial post molds on the market are not expensive and will be of advantage if many posts are needed. Molds can also be made with clear, straight-grained lumber. Before using wooden molds saturate them with a mixture of boiled linseed oil and kerosene to prevent the concrete from sticking. Reinforcing rods are placed in the proper position while filling the molds. Jarring or tapping the molds and stirring the concrete while filling will release air-bubbles and work the coarser particles away from the surface, producing a smooth finish. Steel rods, J4 inch to % inch round, must be placed in concrete posts to resist strains. To be most effec- ON EVERYDAY CONCRETE JOBS 83 Six posts can be cast in this mold at one time Place reinforcing rods at points of greatest stress tive, these rods must be correctly placed. In a square post, place the reinforcing near the surface at each of the four corners. Correct positions for reinforcing rods for the various shaped posts are illustrated. A 1:2:3 mixture should be used. Clean coarse sand, ranging from fine particles up to those 34 inch in size, should be used, and the pebbles or broken stone should be graded from 34 inch to a maximum size of 34 inch. The posts, as soon as removed from the molds, should be protected from excessive cold, sun, and dry winds. Harden them by covering with straw, and keep wet for a week or ten days. At the end of this time move them outside and stand on end. Thirty days later they are ready for use. Materials Required for Six Fence Posts 8 Feet Long, 6 Inches Square at Base, 4 Inches Square at Top Mixture , 1:2:3 Concrete, 9 cu. ft. Lehigh Cement.3 sacks Sand, 34 inch and under.34 cu. yd. Stone, 34 inch to 34 inch.34 cu. yd. 84 CONTRACTORS HANDY BOOK Beveled 2"x4" set into footing, when withdrawn, provides keyway Foundations F OUNDATIONS for buildings should extend be¬ low the frost line to eliminate the possibility of movement due to frost action. Attention must be given to the nature of the soil upon which the building is to be erected. To guard against settlement, it is necessary to determine the bearing capacity of the soil. Where soft spots occur » they may be bridged by the use of reinforcement near the bottom of the footing concrete. The table given on the next page will be useful in figuring soil-bearing capacities. Spread footings are advisable in practically all cases. They add greatly to the stability of the struc¬ ture. In basement construction they provide a shelf ON EVERYDAY CONCRETE JOBS 85 upon which to lay the concrete floor. In the erection of wall forms they provide a firm and even base upon which to work, and by the use of dowels or keyways firmlv anchor the base of the wall in place, this giving ample insurance against springing walls under pres¬ sure from without. A simple method of firmly anchoring the wall to the footing is to set one man rocks into the footing, permitting them to project above the footing line; then, when the walls are poured, the concrete will envelop the upper half of the rocks and make a definite key and bond with the footing. Another method is indicated in the sketch. A two by four slightly beveled is set into the footing con¬ crete and later withdrawn, providing a substan¬ tial keyway, which is filled with the pouring of the wall concrete, thus making a tight joint and strong bond between the wall and footing. BEARING CAPACITY OF SOILS Soil Safe Bearing Power in Tons per Square Foot Minimum Maximum Rock, the hardest, in thick layers in native bed. 200 30 Rock equal to best ashlar masonry.. .. 25 Rock equal to best brick masonry. 15 20 Rock equal to poor brick masonry.... 5 10 Clay in thick beds, always dry. 6 8 Clay in thick beds, moderately dry. 4 6 Clay, soft. 1 2 Gravel and coarse sand, well cemented . 8 10 Sand, dry, compact, and well cemented . 4 6 Sand, clean, dry. 2 4 Quicksand, alluvial soils, etc. 0.5 i 86 CONTRACTORS HANDY BOOK General Notes on Form Construction I N THE construction of forms for concrete the primary considerations are watertightness, rigid¬ ity, strength, and salvage value. Experience has proven spruce to be a most accept¬ able and satisfactory lumber for this sort of work. White pine is recommended for small forms for orna¬ mental concrete work. Norway and Southern pine 87 ON EVERYDAY CONCRETE JOBS also may be used with good success. Hemlock, which is so readily available everywhere, does not prove satisfactory, as it splits very easily and has a ten¬ dency to curl. On all form work it is advisable to provide sheathing surfaced one side and one edge (S 1 S 1 E), at least, as it is much easier and faster to work with and presents a much smoother and tighter surface to the concrete. Shiplap, or tongued and grooved lumber, is highly desirable to make the form watertight and to rigidly maintain the correct alignment. Studs should be set opposite to each other to facilitate the wiring of the form and must be spaced close enough to prevent any bulging or weav¬ ing in the form line. It is seldom advisable to space studding more than 18 inches apart when using 1 inch sheathing. Spreaders cut the exact width of the wall are used to space the two forms, and wires (usually No. 9) are run through the walls and about the studs, these are twisted until tight, which brings the entire form into position. It is impossible to set any hard and fast rule for spacing the wire ties, but it is seldom advisable to spread them further apart than three feet. Nails should be used sparingly, and should not be driven completely, for by leaving them out a bit they may be easily pulled when dismantling and salvaging the form lumber. Crude oil applied to the face of the forms greatly facilitates their removal and serves to preserve the lumber. Oil must not be used, however, on the forms of walls which will later be plastered, as it will make impossible a satisfactory and permanent bond. 88 CONTRACTORS HANDY BOOK In all cases where oil is not used the forms should be well soaked with water just prior to placing the concrete. Immediately after their removal forms should be scraped free of all concrete, for while it is com¬ paratively green this is not a difficult matter, and by so doing the lumber is made available for other work. Forms that are built in sections for standard work should be very strongly built of well-seasoned lumber, preferably tongued and grooved. The nails should be securely driven home and holes should be bored big enough to permit pulling the tie wires through with¬ out mutilating the lumber. In butting sections together it is well to use bolts and washers. This method insures correct alignment and eliminates unsightly offsets in the finished work. After the work has been completed the forms should be carefully removed, thoroughly cleaned and repaired, after which they should be oiled and stored under cover, if possible. The forms should be service¬ able for a great many jobs, if ordinary care is used in handling and storing them. Steel forms, which are used a great deal for concrete work, can be purchased ready to use, equipped with pins and braces for their erection. These are very durable and will last indefinitely if properly cared for. They should be cleaned and oiled after removal and when being stored. They should be sheltered from the weather to prevent rust. The table on next page will be found useful in com¬ puting the board feet required in material for forms. Lumber is usually priced per 1,000 F.B.M. One ON EVERYDAY CONCRETE JOBS 89 F.B.M. is a one-inch board one foot long and twelve inches wide, or a two-inch plank one foot long and six inches wide. TABLE OF BOARD FEET FOR VARIOUS SIZES OF LUMBER Size of Timber in Inches Length of Piece in Feet 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 lx 2 i% 2 2% 2%' 3 3% 3% 4 lx 3 2% 3 332 4 4% 5 5% 6 lx 4 3% 4 4% 5% 6 6% 7% 8 lx 5 4% 5 S4 6% 7% 8% 9% 10 lx 6 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 lx 8 6% 8 9% 10% 12 13% 14% 16 1x10 8% 10 U% 13% 15 16% 18% 20 1x12 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 1x14 n% 14 16% 18% 21 23% 25% 28 1x16 13% 16 18% 21% 24 26% 29% 32 2x 4 6% 8 9% 10% 12 13% 14% 16 2x 6 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 2x 8 13% 16 18% 21% 24 26% 29% 32 2x10 16% 20 23% 26% 30 33% 36% 40 2x12 20 24 28 32 36 40 44 48 2x14 23% 28 32% 37% 42 46% 51% 56 2x16 26% 32 37% 42% 48 53% 58% 64 3x 6 15 18 21 24 27 30 33 36 3x 8 20 24 28 32 36 40 44 48 3x10 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 3x12 30 36 42 48 54 60 66 72 3x14 35 42 49 56 63 70 77 84 3x16 40 48 56 64 72 80 88 96 4x 4 13% 16 18% 21% 24 26% 29% 32 4x 6 20 24 28 32 36 40 44 48 4x 8 26% 32 37% 42% 48 53% 58% 64 4x10 33% 40 46% 53% 60 66% 73% 80 4x12 40 48 56 64 72 80 88 96 4x14 46% 56 65% 74% 84 93% 102% 112 6x 6 30 36 42 48 54 60 66 72 6x 8 40 48 56 64 72 80 88 96 6x10 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 6x12 60 72 84 96 108 120 132 144 6x14 70 84 98 112 126 140 154 168 6x16 80 96 112 128 144 160 176 192 8x 8 53% 64 74% 85% 96 106% 117% 128 8x10 66% 80 93% 106% 120 133% 146% 160 8x12 80 96 112 128 144 160 176 192 90 CONTRACTORS HANDY BOOK Portland Cement Stucco T HERE are three important factors to be con¬ sidered in the planning of stucco exteriors. The first is the mixing and application of the portland cement stucco; the second is the obtaining of artistic textures; and the third, the interesting possibilities of coloring stucco to obtain the best architectural effects. Materials used with Lehigh Portland Cement for making stucco should be carefully selected. Fine ag¬ gregates should consist of sand or screenings from crushed stone or crushed pebbles, graded from fine to coarse, to pass through a No. 8 screen when dried. They should be clean, coarse and free from loam. Hydrated lime should be used. Water should be clean, free from oil, acid, strong alkali or vegetable matter. Concrete block for stucco walls should be rough and of coarse texture. The surface should be brushed free from all dirt and loose particles before applying Materials Required for 100 Square Feet of Surface for Various Thicknesses of Stucco Thickness Proportions 1:2. 4 1:3 Cement (Sacks) Sand (Cu. Ft.) Cement (Sacks) Sand (Cu. Ft.) H inch. 1.3 3.2 1.1 3.3> l / 2 inch. 1.7 4.2 1.5 4.4, inch. 2.5 6.3 2.2 6.6 1 inch . 3.4 8.4 3.0 8.8 inches. 4.2 10.5 3.7 11.0 IK inches. 5.1 12.6 4.5 13.2 These quantities may vary 10 per cent in either direction due to the qhar- acter of the sand and its moisture content. No allowance is made for waste or for keys behind the lath. ON EVERYDAY CONCRETE JOBS 91 Portland cement stucco on Portland cement stucco on metal lath concrete block stucco and wetted to a degree where water will not be easily absorbed. The stucco should be applied in two or preferably three coats. All coats should be of the same mix, and the first coat should thoroughly cover the base on which it is applied, and be well troweled to insure the best bond. Before the coat has set, it should be heavily cross-scratched to provide a strong mechan¬ ical key. The second coat should be applied on the day following the application of the first or scratch coat, dampening that coat, if necessary. It should be brought to a true and even surface by screeding at intervals not exceeding 5 feet and by constant use of 92 CONTRACTORS HANDY BOOK Portland Cement Stucco Textures 1. FRENCH TROWEL.— Fin¬ ished with a sweep stroke of trowel. 2. ITALIAN.—Troweled rough cast. r a •.-> ~ . * .f? >. ' V i -v- : ' ' > ; r 4 - ' N* - 'S S? ’ ’ **< • : w* 3. ENGLISH COTTAGE.— Feathered with the edge of the trowel. 'T V - - '4*4. kt*| N. . ’ter Sr <• A /-.V Ut \< 1 t! t 4. MODERN AMERICAN.— Surface torn with float. 5. COLONIAL.—Sanded sur¬ face finished with wood or cork float. 6. CALIFORNIA.—A carpet floated rough cast. 93 ON EVERYDAY CONCRETE JOBS Portland Cement Stucco Textures 7. SPANISH.—Feathered with wood float. 8. GREEK.—A trowel dash or float spotted finish. 9. FRENCH BRUSH —Uneven sand surface effect ob¬ tained by hard rubbing. 10. ITALIAN COTTAGE.—A soft sponge finish on a soft plastic surface. 11. GOTHIC.—A rough torn float finish. 12. ENGLISH.—Spotted by a side stroke of trowel. 94 CONTRACTORS HANDY BOOK a straightening rod. After the second coat has stiff¬ ened sufficiently, it should be dryfloated and lightly cross-scratched to receive the finish coat. The finish coat should be applied not less than a week after the application of the second. Colored Stucco Lehigh Cement (gray) can be combined with mineral pigments to produce a wide variety of colored stucco effects. Only mineral pigments should be used, as other pigments are liable to fade as well as reduce the strength of the stucco, mortar or concrete in a marked degree. Variations in the colors of the materials, including the pigments themselves, are such as to make color formulas only approximate. Table of Colors to be Used in Portland Cement Stucco Amounts of pigment given in table are approximate only. Test samples should be made up to determine exact quantities required for the desired color and shade. Color Desired Commercial Names of Colors for Use in Cement Pounds of Color Required for Each Bag of Cement to Secure Light Shade Me¬ dium Shade Grays, blue-black and black Germantown lamp-black* or K 1 Carbon black* or K 1 Black oxide of manganese* or 1 2 Mineral black* l 2 Blue shade Ultramarine blue 5 9 Brownish-red to dull brick red Red oxide of iron 5 9 Bright red to vermilion Mineral turkey red 5 9 Red sandstone to purplish-red Indian red 5 9 Brown to reddish-brown Metallic brown (oxide) 5 9 Buff, colonial tint and yellow Yellow ochre or 5 9 Yellow oxide 2 4 Green shade Chromium oxide or Greenish blue ultramarine 5 6 9 * Only first quality lampblack should be used. Carbon black is light and requires very thorough mixing. Black oxide or mineral black is probably most advantageous for general use. For black use 11 pounds of oxide for each bag of cement. ON EVERYDAY CONCRETE J OBS 95 Making Good Concrete By J. C. Pearson * AT THE Cement Centennial somebody called ./A. Portland Cement the Magic of Concrete. It’s not far from the truth when you stop to think about it. Limestone and shale are ground together to the fineness of talcum powder, run into an enor¬ mous rotating kiln, where the mixture is burned at hell-roaring white heat until it forms a new chemical substance, discharged from the kiln as a hard clinker, and finally ground again to a gray powder—the finished cement. The making of cement is not a simple nor a small scale process at all stages of its manufacture it is under close chemical and physical control and a plant to make it costs at least a million dollars. Yet in hardly any section of the country does the material cost as much as a cent a pound, and it will set into a hard, stone-like mass when mixed with a little water and six to eight times its own weight of sand and gravel. Because cement will stand a lot of abuse, there is a tendency for users to think of concrete merely as a mixture of cement, aggregates, and water, and let it go at that. It is the purpose of this little talk to mention some of the things that are involved in making good con¬ crete and avoiding poor concrete. It won t interest the technical expert nor the large contractor par¬ ticularly, but it may hopefully be of some use to the contractor or builder who doesn’t have a large c ;„s; b M'r P ^p United States Bureau of Standards at Washington. 96 CONTRACTORS HANDY BOOK organization and who must depend upon his own knowledge and experience to plan and execute the work he undertakes. Of all the concrete troubles that can be traced to materials, the great majority are usually related in some way to poor sand. This matter of sand is so important that it is hard to understand the general indifference among concrete men regarding this par¬ ticular material. Fortunately for our purpose here, it is easier to specify what a sand should not be than exactly what it should be, and we believe that the simple tests described in this book, which every con¬ tractor can use to his great advantage, will serve either as a safeguard against bad sand or as a warning against questionable sand. Sand may be unsuitable in three respects: 1. It may be too fine or otherwise poorly graded. 2. It may contain dangerous organic matter. 3. It may be too dirty. The gradation of a sand is perhaps its most im¬ portant characteristic in relation to its concrete¬ making value. The usual limits for fine and coarse sands are described and illustrated on pages 103 to 105 of this book. A simple recommended test which any one can make to judge the gradation of a sand is as follows: Sift a handful of the dry sand on a No. 30 sieve. If the sand is a first-class concrete sand, this sieve will divide it into, roughly, equal parts, the larger fraction being retained on the sieve. If most of the sand passes through the sieve, it is too fine, and if nearly all is retained on the sieve, it is too coarse. A No. 4 sieve can also be used to ad¬ vantage in case the sand contains any appreciable ON EVERYDAY CONCRETE JOBS 97 amount of gravel, or in case pit-run material is being tested. It is customary nowadays to designate sand particles coarser than a No. 4 sieve as gravel, and the No. 30 sieve should be used on the sand after the gravel has been removed. While the gradation of a concrete sand is said to be its most important characteristic, the presence of organic compounds may be a very serious matter in extreme cases. This is a contamination which comes from the slow leaching of water through de¬ composed overlying vegetable matter, which results in coating the sand grains with an invisible trace of a substance that may interfere seriously with the proper setting of the cement. A method of detecting and roughly measuring the quantity of organic matter in the sand has been developed in the so-called “colorimetric” test, which is fully described and illustrated on pages 108 to 109. This test, like the others here recommended, serves primarily as a warn¬ ing that the sand may be unsuitable. Generally speaking, a very light color means a safe sand, and a dark color a dangerous sand. By dirty sand we mean a sand which contains considerable quantities of clay, silt, or foreign matter, such as leaves, chips, etc. If the dirt is confined to clay and silt, it may or may not be harmful, depend¬ ing upon its quantity, and also upon whether it forms a hard coating on the sand grains or not. Accord¬ ingly, a limit of 3 per cent by weight of the sand is usually specified as the permissible amount of ma¬ terial that may be removed by washing. The field test is a simple volumetric test made as described and illustrated on page 110. This test needs no other 98 CONTRACTORS HANDY BOOK equipment than that required for the colorimetric test described in the foregoing paragraph. Passing on now to the materials that are commonly used as coarse aggregates, it is comforting to know that where such materials as gravel, crushed stone, or crushed slag are furnished separately to a job (that is, not mixed with fine aggregate), they are in most cases safe and satisfactory, provided, of course, they are hard, clean and free from foreign materials. Cinders, however, are always a questionable aggre¬ gate, and there is no general guide by which one can judge their quality, except possibly by previous experience or by making up test blocks in the pro¬ portions which are to be used. In general, the use of cinders for concrete exposed to the weather is not recommended. Good cinder concrete is not very often found out-of-doors, for if it contains enough cement to be durable, it is not economical. Please understand that these statements do not necessarily apply to cinder concrete blocks manufactured under well-controlled plant processes nor to special uses of cinder concrete where quality is assured by suitable tests. As stated above, clean coarse aggregates when delivered separately to the job are rarely a source of trouble in concrete work. But some caution must be exercised in the use of bank-run gravel or crusher- run stone. In the case of bank-run gravel, dirt and contamination are more likely to escape notice than in the separated sand and gravel. The proportion of fine material to coarse is very often too large, and always more or less variable, tending to give weak and non-uniform concrete in lean mixtures. In ON EVERYDAY CONCRETE JOBS 99 crusher-run stone or in stone screenings the fines usually contain an excess of dust, which tends to stick to the larger particles, and if this coating of dust is not thoroughly removed in the mixing process, a weak bond between cement and aggregate results. On the other hand, if crusher-run stone or stone screenings have the dust removed by washing or otherwise, there may be a lack of sufficient fine material, so that harsh, watery mixtures result from their use, giving pockety, non-uniform, and porous concrete. This quality of harshness, so characteristic of stone screenings, makes it difficult to produce good concrete without an excess of cement over what would be required for well-graded sand, and there¬ fore an admixture of fine sand with clean stone screenings makes a better and safer aggregate than crusher-run screenings alone. This brings us to some of the finer points in the art of making good concrete, about which something ought to be said because there is evidence, from the appearance and condition of many jobs, that builders are too often inclined to decide upon a certain pro¬ portion of cement, sand, and stone as being strong enough for the job and then go ahead without regard to what the mixture looks like or feels like or behaves like when the concreting is started. Here is where a good concrete man draws upon his real knowledge of concrete, where he needs to know something not covered in specifications, and which he can know only from his own training and experience. A good concrete mixture, whether lean or rich, must be such that it will go into the forms and fill them 100 CONTRACTORS HANDY BOOK without excessive labor in puddling or spading. We put the word fill in italics because we mean that the forms should be filled with concrete and not with air-holes and pockets. If the mixture is not well graded from cement to coarse aggregate, it will not fill properly, and no amount of water will correct this fault. What a concrete mixture needs to fulfil this requirement is a certain degree of plasticity or work¬ ability, a property which is hard to define, but one which we can illustrate in the following way: Sup¬ pose we make up a concrete mixture by starting with a rich bricklayer’s mortar and adding to it gradually some coarse aggregate. At the start we have the mortar alone, which is very plastic and workable; it spreads easily, it can be made to fill any kind of a mold with little effort, and the water does not tend to separate from the mass. As we add the coarse aggregate these qualities become less marked; the mixture becomes harsher, it spreads less easily, more work is required to put it into a mold without leaving air-pockets, and the water tends to separate from the other ingredients. As a rule, this addition of coarse aggregate cannot be carried beyond a pro¬ portion of two volumes of aggregate to one of mortar without overloading the mixture and cutting its plasticity or workability below what is required for good concrete. On this account concrete proportions have almost always been required to have at least half as much fine aggregate as coarse, e. g., 1:2:4, 1: 2}4 .: 5, etc. This is hardly satisfactory in present-day practice, however, because such aggregates as crushed stone and crushed slag require more mortar to “carry” ON EVERYDAY CONCRETE JOBS 101 them than a rounded aggregate, and a poorly graded aggregate of any kind requires more mortar than a well-graded one. Further than this, the stone¬ carrying capacity of a mortar depends not only upon the richness of the mortar, but also on the gradation of the sand in the mortar. Every one who has mixed and handled concrete knows that coarse sand or stone screenings make harsh working mixtures. We cannot specify a definite procedure that will insure good concrete mixtures under all circumstances. This depends upon the peculiarities of the aggregates available. But when a mixture will not go into place with a reasonable amount of effort and fill properly, there is something wrong with it, and some adjust¬ ment is needed. For this purpose admixtures of hydrated lime and other fine powders are sometimes used, or the desired improvement may be brought about by increasing the quantity of sand. The disadvantage of using admixtures is that additional material has to be delivered to the job, and pound for pound they cost more than cement. The ad¬ vantage of using an admixture, therefore, must, for economy, be weighed in comparison with the advan¬ tage of using a little more cement, with the further thought that an admixture of cement gives added strength as well as increased workability. One of the most serious aspects of this lack of workability is the very common tendency to com¬ pensate for it by increasing the amount of mixing water. One of the most noticeable characteristics of harsh mixtures is that the water separates readily from the mass, and when this happens to any mix¬ ture, either in wheeling or placing in the forms, it is 102 CONTRACTORS HANDY BOOK a safe bet that the mixture is too wet. The improve¬ ment in workability by adding excess water is ap¬ parent only, for segregation of the aggregates is thereby increased, and while the concrete may appear to go into the forms more readily, it goes in less uniformly, and we have in the finished product all the characteristics of poor concrete. We have said nothing thus far about the well- known and well-advertised effect of excess water in reducing strength. Countless tests have shown that the amount of water in a concrete mixture over and above what is actually required for proper hand¬ ling detracts much more from the strength than leaving out the same amount of cement. In other words, the very common practice of overwetting mixtures is equivalent to throwing away some of the money that has been paid for good cement. If a mixture lacks workability, it cannot be remedied by adding more water—this only makes a bad matter worse. It does not seem necessary to say very much about the time of mixing or the amount of mixing which is required in making good concrete. Since one of the first requirements of good concrete is that it shall be uniform and homogeneous throughout, the minimum amount of mixing is naturally that which will evenly distribute the ingredients throughout the mixture. By the time this condition is reached the aggregate will be properly coated with cement. However, somewhat longer mixing is beneficial be¬ cause plasticity or workability is thereby increased. This is due to the gradual absorption of water by the cement particles, a chemical action which con¬ verts the dry cement powder into glue and turns ON EVERYDAY CONCRETE JOBS 103 the mixture into artificial stone when the glue has hardened. To make this artificial stone of maximum strength and durability the cement and sand must be thoroughly distributed and fill the spaces between the coarse aggregates, a result which cannot be at¬ tained if the mixing and placing operations are slighted. A talk of this sort would not be complete without some remarks on the subject of curing. Probably one reason why so little attention is paid to adequate curing is that, if concrete gets reasonably hard in a few days, so that one cannot scratch it deeply with a nail or kick off a corner with his foot, it seems to be satisfactory without going to the trouble of wetting it or protecting it from sun and wind. This is ex¬ ceedingly poor judgment, because the strength and the resistance to wear and all the other desirable qualities of good concrete can be increased from 50 tc 100 per cent by taking proper care of a job for a few days after it is completed. Again we emphasize the fact that cement is a hydraulic material, and that the hydration or hardening is helped enormously by feeding water to it, especially during the first few days and even weeks after being made into concrete. If concrete makers everywhere could be made to realize that the time to use excess water is after the concrete has set and not before, there would be a marked increase in the proportion of good concrete to poor. The essence of curing is to prevent fresh concrete from drying out, and the longer this drying out is prevented, the better. It does not matter so much how the curing is done, whether it be by leav¬ ing the forms in place, by covering the work with 104 CONTRACTORS HANDY BOOK tarpaulins or other protection, by continuous spray¬ ing and wetting, or by a combination of all these things—the one object is to keep the concrete from drying out for as long a time as conditions permit. In conclusion, we should like to make one addi¬ tional suggestion. Every contractor or builder is concerned with progress and development in con¬ crete construction and should endeavor to keep posted on this subject. If you aren’t in the habit of reading books or magazines or articles on concrete, begin now to acquire this habit. Write to the Lehigh Portland Cement Company for its booklets and publications on concrete construction, or ask your dealer to get them for you. Subscribe to one or two magazines in the concrete field and read them. ON EVERYDAY CONCRETE JOBS 105 Concrete Aggregate T HE term “aggregate” is applied to the materials which are used with portland cement to make concrete. These materials, sand and gravel, or stone, comprise a very large proportion of the volume of concrete. This fact alone makes very evident the necessity of a careful inspection and selection to insure a satisfactory result. The general requirements for aggregates are that they be clean, rough, dense, hard, durable, and in¬ soluble. Sand or stone which to the eye is very clean is often quite unfit for use in concrete work, generally due to an excess amount of silt or rotted vegetable matter. The quality of sand can often be determined by conducting a few simple tests, which are explained elsewhere in this book. The other requirements are equally important, but are not hard to meet in any locality. "affie -board, -Zx4 Cleats 77FT. * About 3 1 / - HhhdWPJ 2*3' plan k -7 (Screen 1 ^ 1 |fl ' g x/2 planK •r | <3 A* V) Plan ^ C/eat m-J,—| P <0 § .0 K >0 Small washing plant for cleaning sand 106 CONTRACTORS HANDY BOOK Aggregate is divided into two general classifica¬ tions, “coarse” aggregate being all material retained on a i^-inch sieve and “fine” aggregate that passing through a }4,-inch sieve. Coarse aggregate is gravel or crushed stone. The gravel, pebbles or crushed stone used must be clean, hard, tough and graded in size. The strength of this aggregate will be reflected in the concrete. Fine aggregate is sand. The word ‘sand fre¬ quently suggests, to the inexperienced person, a fine, uniform material. This, however, cannot be recom¬ mended. To make concrete of high strength requires a well-graded sand in size from fine to coarse, as illustrated in plates on pages 111 to 113. The use of a small washing plant, as illustrated on the preceding page, often makes available sand and gravel which, unwashed, would be wholly unfit for concrete. Such a plant is inexpensive to operate. It washes and grades the material in one operation. The following table gives average weights of vari¬ ous aggregates. Commercial sand and gravel com¬ panies usually provide information regarding the weights of their particular product. Their figure should be used in estimating work wherever ob¬ tainable. AVERAGE WEIGHTS OF Material Sand. Limestone. Granite. Trap rock. Crushed gravel. AGGREGATES Pounds per Cubic Yard . 2,700 . 2,400 . 2,500 . 2,700 . 2,800 ON EVERYDAY CONCRET E JOBS 107 VOLUME OF CONCRETE FROM VARIOUS MIXTURES Quantities of materials given in table below have been meas¬ ured loosely without compacting: Materials Volume in Cubic Feet Mixture Stone in Cubic Feet Cement in Sacks Sand in Cubic Feet Mortar Concrete 1:1 H i in 2 to 1:2 i 2 1:3 1 : 13-2 = 3 i i 3 1 3 2 3 2;y 3A 1-2:3 i 2 3 3fo 1:2:4 i 2 4 4J4 1:234 = 4 i 2H 4 44 1:234:5 i 2'A 5 1:3:5 i 3 5 3 5 This table shows very clearly how the sand and cement fill the voids in the large aggregate or stone. Note that in a mix of 1:2:4, being 7 cubic feet of dry material, we get but 4 J^j cubic feet of concrete, water and all. In other words, the addition of 3 cubic feet of sand and cement swells the volume of the large aggregate but a half a cubic foot. This fact makes very evident the importance of keeping the water content as low as possible, not only because it is a space filler which later evaporates, but because of the prime necessity of having the cement and sand fill every void in the large aggregate. Wet or soupy concrete will frequently become rocky, porous concrete. 108 CONTRACTORS HANDY BOOK The Colorimetric Test 1 Sand suitable for work re¬ quiring high grade concrete 2 Sand which may be used in less important work To determine the presence of organic matter in sand obtain a 12-ounce graduated bottle and fill to the 4>£-ounce mark with the sand. Add a 3 per cent solution of caustic soda (one ounce of caustic soda dissolved in 32 ounces of water makes a 3 per cent solution) until the combined volume of sand and solution amounts to 7 ounces. ON EVERYDAY CONCRETE JOBS 109 The Colorimetric Test (Continued) 3 4 Sand of doubtful quality. Use only for minor work when no better material is available Sand which should not be used in concrete Shake thoroughly for a few minutes, and let stand for twenty- four hours. At" the end of this time observe the color of the liquid above the sand. This is an approximate test for the presence of injurious organic matter in sand. It furnishes a warning that further tests of doubtful sand are necessary. Silt or loam should be 2 inches clean sand I less than }/s inch 110 CONTRACTORS HANDY BOOK Test to determine quantity of silt or loam in sand Coarse sand An actual sample, full size Coarse sand Grains separated to show fineness 'his sand is about as coarse as sand should be for use in concrete, t gives good strength, but makes a harsh mixture which requires careful placing in the forms P/.rfP 111 Medium sand An actual sample, full size Medium sand Grains separated to show fineness This sand is almost an ideal concrete sand, containing the same amount of grains of all different sizes Page 112 Fine sand An actual sample, full size Fine sand Grains separated to <^“^fin^rafns and is about as This sand for use in concrete ^ JJ3 114 CONTRACTORS HANDY BOOK RECOMMENDED PROPORTIONS FOR VARIOUS WORK Mixture Maximum Size Aggregate Arbors. 1:2:3 1" Area ways. 1:234:4 134" Barn approaches. 1:234=4 134" Bins. 1:2:3 i 34" Boiler settings. 1:2:4 2" Catch basins. 1:2:3 134" Cellars. 1:2:4 l 34" Cisterns. 1:2:3 1" Cold-frames. 1:234:4 1" Courts—tennis and croquet. 1:234:4 134 " Curbs. 1:234:4 134 " Dipping vats. 1:2:334 i 34 " Driveways. 1:2:4 l 34" Engine beds. 1:2:4 2" Fence posts. 1:2:3 yy Floors. 1:234=4 i 34" Floors, reinforced. 1:2:3 V Foundations—(mass). 1 : 2)4:5 3" Gutters. 1:234=4 134" Hog wallows. 1:2:334 2" Hotbeds. 1:234=4 V Manure pits. 1:234=4 134" Pavements. 1: 2:3)4 234" Piers, house. 1:2:334 2" Retaining walls. 1:2:334 134" Roads. 1:2:334 234" Roofs. 1:2:3 134" Runways. 1:234=4 134" Sidewalks. 1:234=4 134" Steps and stairways. 1:234=4 l" Slabs. 1:2:3 134" Septic tanks. 1:2:4 l" Septic tank covers. 1:2:3 Va" Storage cellar walls. 1:234 = 4 134" Storage cellar roofs. 1:2:3 134" Stucco. 1:3 34" Tanks. 1:2:3 l" Tree surgery. 1:3 34" Troughs, water. 1:2:3 V Walls. 1:2:4 134" Walls subjected to moisture. 1:2:3 134" These mixtures are suggested as correct under normal or average conditions. ON EVERYDAY CO NCRETE JOBS 115 3 O L.UD1C Yard Stone sand © - © rf © © CS CS* © rf © © © ©fO'HO'N CS CS CS ri i-h hCOO'COO' © rf CS © CS 1.21 1.28 1.14 1.02 < > U Cubic Yard Stone CO © rf rf fr. r-> O' CO o © © © © © O t"“ CS t-» 00 oo © co co odd © © ^ © cs O' oo Oj odd © 3 p u 1" Stone Dust Out Cubic Yard Sand fine sand O' © ^ CS CS © © © rf © © © © © © 00 rf O CS 00 rf rf © © rf o © © © © © oo ^ © rf © © rf odd © pi o p Q W 3 p a w p4 cn P Barrels Cement sing very O' © © © © cs © PC r>* cs cs cs *h © rf CS © CS 1.19 1.26 1.11 1.01 Cubic Yard Stone p rf © © 00 © t'-. CO co i"- o © © © © r-4 O' © © fr* CO 00 CO © © © © © © CS © rf oo r-» oo ©odd y Gravel Cubic Yard Sand ©©©©~* © CS O' © t'-; © 00 © O' © fO © 0 ^ h .rH — rH r-l CS CS CS CS CS CS CS © © © | § .. Q i —1 r-t r-l *-1 s ■J C _( r-H rH ^ ^ rH o U 116 CONTRACTORS HANDY BOOK Reinforcing Steel TirORK requiring the extensive use of reinforcing * » steel, such as columns and floor slabs, should be designed by an engineer or architect. His services will assure correct design and remove the danger of failure from insufficient or misplaced reinforcing material. Steel is always sold by weight. The data given below will be of assistance in figuring the weight of reinforcing material needed. In this table the areas and weights of square and round bars are given. Square twisted bars, which are frequently used, have the same weight as straight- square bars. AREAS AND WEIGHTS OF REINFORCING STEEL Size Inches Round Bars Square Bars Area Square Inches Pounds Per Foot Area Square Inches Pounds Per Foot Vs .0123 .042 .0156 .053 V .0491 .167 .0625 .213 Vs .1105 .376 .1406 .478 y 2 .1963 .668 .2500 .850 Vs .3068 1.043 .3906 1.328 ?4 .4418 1.502 .5625 1.913 Vs .6013 2.044 .7656 2.603 1 .7854 2.670 1.0000 3.400 .9940 3.380 1.2656 4.303 IK 1.2272 4.172 1.5625 5.313 iVs 1.4849 5.049 1.8906 6.428 IV 1.7671 6.008 2.2500 7.650 m 2.0739 7.051 2.6406 8.978 m 2.4053 8.178 3.0625 10.413 2.7612 9.388 3.5156 11.953 2 3.1416 10.681 4.0000 13.600 ON EVERYDAY CONCRETE JOBS 117 MASONRY Kind Weight in Pounds per Cubic Foot Kind Weight in Pounds per Cubic Foot Concrete, cinder... • 110 Mortar rubble, sand- 130 Concrete, stone. 140 to 150 stone. Concrete, reinforced 150 Mortar rubble, lime¬ stone . 150 Brick masonry, soft. 100 Mortar rubble, gran- 155 Brick masonry, com- ite. mon. 125 Ashlar sandstone. . . 140 Brick masonry, Ashlar limestone. . . 160 pressed. 140 Ashlar granite. 165 WEIGHTS OF MATERIAL Substance Weight, Pounds oer Cubic Foot Ashlar Masonry Granite, syenite, gneiss 165 Limestone, marble . . . 160 Sandstone, bluestone.. 140 Dry Rubble Masonry Granite, syenite, gneiss 130 Limestone, marble.. . . 125 Sandstone, bluestone.. 110 Brick Masonry Pressed brick. 140 Common brick. 120 Soft brick. 100 Concrete Masonry Cement, stone, sand. . 144 Cement, slag, etc. 130 Cement, cinder, etc- 100 Various Building Materials Ashes, cinders. 40-45 Cement, portland 90 loose. Substance Weight, Pounds per Cubic Foot Various Building Materials — {Con- tinned ) Cement, portland, set. 183 Lime, gypsum, loose. . 53-64 Mortar, set. 103 Slags, bank slag. 67-72 Slags, bank screenings. 98-117 Slags, machine slag. .. 96 Slags, slag sand. 49-55 Earth, Etc., Excavated Clay, dry. Clay, damp, plastic. . Clay and gravel, dry. Earth, dry, loose Earth, dry, packed... Earth, moist, loose.. Earth, moist, packed Earth, mud, flowing. Earth, mud, packed. Riprap, limestone... Riprap, sandstone. . Riprap, shale. 63 110 100 76 95 78 96 108 115 80-115 90 105 118 CONTRACTORS HANDY BOOK WEIGHTS OF MATERIAL— (Continued) Substance Earth, Etc., Exca¬ vated— {Continued) Sand, gravel, dry, loose. Sand, gravel, dry, packed. Sand, gravel, dry, wet. Stone, Quarried, Piled Basalt, granite, gneiss. Limestone, marble, quartz. Sandstone. Shale. Greenstone, horn¬ blende . Timber, U. S. Seasoned Ash, white-red. Cedar, white-red. Chestnut. Cypress. Elm, white. Fir, Douglas spruce. . . Weight, Pounds per Cubic Foot Substance Weight, Pounds per Cubic Foot Timber, U. S. Sea¬ soned— ( Continued ) Fir, eastern. 25 90-105 Hemlock. 29 Hickory. 49 100-120 Locust. 46 118-120 Maple, hard. 43 Maple, white. 33 Oak, chestnut. 54 Oak, live. 59 96 Oak, red, black. 41 Oak, white. 46 95 82 92 Pine, Oregon. 32 Pine, red. 30 Pine, white. 26 Pine, yellow, long-leaf. 44 107 Pine, yellow, short-leaf 38 Poplar. 30 Redwood, California. . 26 Spruce, white, black.. 27 Walnut, black. 38 40 Walnut, white. 26 22 Moisture Contents: 41 Seasoned timber, 15 30 to 20% 45 Green timber, up to 32 50% ON EVERYDAY CONCRETE JOBS 119 WEIGHTS OF BUILDING MATERIALS Kind Weight in Pounds per Square Foot Floors %" maple finish floor and %" spruce under floor on 2" x 4" sleepers, 16" centers, with 2" dry cinder 18 Cinder concrete filling per inch of thickness. 7 12 18 21 23 Ceilings 5 10 Roofs 6 Four-ply felt and gravel. 5'A 1 16 Slate, J4" thick. 9K Kind Weight in Pounds per Square Foot Unplastered One Side Plastered Both Sides Plastered Walls 9" Brick Wall. 84 89 13" Brick Wall. 121 126 18" Brick Wall. 168 173 22" Brick Wall. 205 210 26" Brick Wall. 243 248 4" Brick, 4" Tile Backing . 60 65 4" Brick, 8" Tile Backing. 75 80 9" Brick, 4" Tile Backing . 102 107 8" Tile. 33 38 43 12" Tile. 45 50 55 Partitions 3" Clay Tile. 17 22 27 4" Clay Tile. 18 23 28 6" Clay Tile. 25 30 35 8" Clay Tile. 31 36 41 10" Clay Tile. 35 40 45 3" Gypsum Block. 10 15 20 4" Gypsum Block. 12 17 22 5" Gypsum Block. 14 19 24 6" Gypsum Block. 16 21 26 MATERIALS REQUIRED FOR 100 5 120 CONTRACTORS HANDY BOOK o c/3 Pi O o Q Z < c/3 < £ W Q c/3 . in fc C/3 OW El; u u u. ^ UH o£ oi < > .JI 3V o >* "2 73 S* to 3 -£f £ J? ■Sgs JS" -C E o o ” ctf JS“ QJ « c T? o >» £ 3 U T3 T3 Cfl 3 rG G U