MASTER NEGATIVE NO. 92-80642 MICROFILMED 1992 COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY LIBRARIES/NEW YORK as part of the "Foundations of Western Civilization Preservation Project" / Funded by the NATIONAL ENDOWMENT FOR THE HUMANITIES Reproductions may not be made without permission from Columbia University Library COPYRIGHT STATEMENT The copyright law of the United States - Title 17, United States Code — concerns the making of photocopies or other reproductions of copyrighted material . . . Columbia University Library reserves the right to refuse to accept a copy order if, in its judgement, fulfiHment of the order would involve violation of the copyright law. AUTHOR: CLYDE, JAMES TITLE: GREEK SYNTAX, WITH RATIONALE OF THE ... 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Beside the tnain topic , this hook also treats o/ Subject No. On ^agi Subject No. On page ^1^^ from the last date I,/ GREEK SYNTAX WITH A RATIONALE OF THE CONSTRUCTIONS, BY JAMES CLYDE, LL.D. ONE OP THE CLASSICAL MASTERS IN THE EDINBURGH ACADEMy; AUTHOR OF 'ROMAIC AND MODERN GREEK, COMPARED WITH ONE ANOTHER AND WITH ANCIENT GREEK.' WITH PREFATORY NOTICE BY JOHN S. BLACKIE, PROFESSOR OF GREEK IN THE UNIVERSITY OF EDINBURGH i .1 THIRD EDITION. EDINBURGH ; OLIVER AND BOYD, TWEEDDALE COURT. LONDON: SIMPKIN, MARSHALL, AND CO. 1865. LEIPZIG, PBINTED BY B. G. TEUBNEB. '• I r~! \ < 05 -r PREFATORY NOTICE. BY JOHN S. BLACKIE PROFESSOR OF GREEK IN THE UNIVERSITY OF EDINBURGH. J think it right to say a single word by way of pre- face to this book, not from the conceit that a work from the pen of the author of the admirable treatise on ^Romaic and Modern Greek'* requires any recommen- dation from me; but because, the Avork haying been undertaken at my request, and for the use of my classes in the University, it seems natural that I should state my rea^^OnS for having' wlslied ib proJueilon, and tke manner in which I intend to use it. The natural method of learning languages is by hearing and speaking, which the invention of letters, and the multiplication of books, have supplemented by reading and writing. The best method of acquiring a foreign language, whether dead or living, will of course * I am glad to see that Lord Broiighton, in the last edition Of his Travels in Albania &c. (vol. 2. p. 4?T;), speaks of this work in the following- terms of well-deserved eulogy: "Pro- fessor Blackie's lecture, amongst other benefits conferred upon the students of Greek literature, has given occasion to a treatise, which appears to me to contain, on the whole, more valuable information and sound criticism on the subject in question, than any which has hitherto come under my notice. The title-pjlffe of the pamphlet is as follows: 'Romaic and Modern Greek, compared with one another, and with ancient Greek, by James Clyde M. A. ' " 5187 IV PREFATORY NOTICE be that, in which the greatest amount of hearing, speak- ing, reading, and writing can be compressed, in well graduated lessons, into a given amount of time. Some minds will profit more by one of these elements of complete indoctrination, and others by another 5 but the greatest progress will unquestionably be made by him who knows to avail himself of the resources of all the I our. In our schools and colleges, from causes that cannot be detailed here, the important exercise of speaking Latin and Greek has fallen into disuse, and, till that be resuscitated, the importance of the element of >vrit- ing, which supplies its j)lace, can scarcely be over- rated. Writing indeed, even if the practice of speaking were in full play, could in no wise be dispensed with; for, though inferior to speaking in ease and flexibility, it is superior in accuracy and architectural massiveness. As matters now stand however, writing must be plied w^ith double vigour; otherwise the learner will never get command of the language in a masterly way, as a fencer has command of his foil, hut can only know it passively, as brutes stand in i-elation to sensuous im- pressions, which they receive and recognise, but can- not use. HoAv then is the writing of language to be practis- ed? Plainly as speaking is practised in the natural method; and, as this proceeds on the foundation of hearing — of which indeed it is but the reflection — so writing must be conducted by a Avell-calculated appli- cahon of mo maionals presented \y reaS.\ng. Now, in the 'exercise-books' often used by teachers, for incul- ■cating the elements of Greek and Latin composition, BY PROFKSSOR BLACKIE. Y this very obvious principle is disregarded. The learner reads one thing in a book, and in another book writes another and an altogether different thing. The evil consequences of this are manifest. The great mass of the materials, presented by the reading, lies as a dead Store never called into service, and the scholar, know- ing that he will never again have to employ what he reads, gets Into the habit of passing it over in a perfunc- tory way, and throwing it aside, as a lawyer does those facts of the case he is pleading today, which contain no principle bearing on the case he may be pleading tomorrow; while the written exercises present a wholly new set of words, j)hrases, and instructions, which are either given into the learner's hands' without any de- mand on his memory, or contain problems too difficult for solution by a tyro of the most limited experience. The proper course to be taken, instead of this slo- venly and insufficient method of 'exercise-books', is quite obvious. The teacher must himself write out exer- cises formed upon the model of the reading-lesson, so that whatever is V^acl today will certainly he required tomorrow, or next day, for the performance of the written exercise. This is the way in which I have al- ways proceeded in my junior class; and, in order to make the original impression, received from reading, be repeated as frequently as possible — in the fre- quency of Avhich repetition the great trick of learning languages consists — I have insisted that the exercise, after having been made by the student, and corrected publicly by the Professor, be carefully transcribed into a book, subject to the inspection of the Professor, or the class-tutor. VI PREFATORV KOTICE In such exercises, there are obviously two things to be attended to, viz. the mere furniture of words, and their scientinc disposition, or o^^ntax. 1 he hrst pre- sents no difficulty. That teacher must be extremely dull and stupid, who cannot take the materials presented by the reading, and put them into some new shape, that shall try at once the memory and the wit of his scholars. But the management of the Syntax is more delicate. The mere words may be used as they occur, but the Syntax should be proceeded with in an orderly fashion, so that the progress may be, as much as pos- sible, from the simple to the complex, from the obvious to the subtle. The teacher must therefore take special care not to confuse his scholars, by giving sentences implying a curious knowledge of the respective func- tions of the ftutjunehvG and optative for example, 1)g- foi'e the formation of the simple independent sentence has been mastered; and he ought to make notes, in the margin of his book, of the points of construction v/hich, as thej^ occur, he helps the scholar gradually to evolve from his reading. Afterwards, to nail the whole down surely, he may compose notes, and dictate them to the students, with distinct reference to the several exercises, by which the most important principles of •Syntax are gradually "worked into the living conscious- ness of the learner. It is manifest however that, with the greatest care, it will be difficult for the teacher to elicit a systematic >vliole of syntactical doctrine merely out of the mate- rials presented by the reading, especially if, as in the meagre way of the Scotch universities, he sees the greater part of his students only for one short campaign •^1 BY PROFESSOR BL.ACKIE. VII of five months. To remedy this defect, it seems expe- dient that he should have at hand a good manual of Syntax, concise, but scientific and complete, to which he may constantly refer the student, and which, in point of bulk, shall be so manageable as to be easily mastered by a diligent youth in the course of a single session. Not finding any work of this kind that exactly suited my views, I might have been forced to put together something of the sort for my own use; but, having happily met, in Mr. Clyde, with a gentleman in whom, from liis skill as a teacher, and his Labit of philoso- phical analysis, I had the greatest confidence, I have been enabled to get the want supplied without inter- rupting the course of more important studies. I have only to add that, though I read a consid- erable part of the manuscript, I am not entitled to the slightest degree of praise for any of the good things that this work will be found to contain. As little can I be blamed for whatsoever spots the sharp-eyed critic may discover in a body otherwise fair. Had I not known, from the most sufficient experience, that Mr. Clyde is a man able to fight his own battles against any grammarian in Christendom, I should never have asked lum to do th^ WAl*k. Edinburgh 1. September 1856. JOHN S. BLACKIE. AUTHOR S PREFACE. IX M - I AUTHOR'S PREFACE. In opposition to the German school of philoso- phizGi'S npon Greek Syntax, founded by Hermann, and continued by Matthise, Buttmann, Thiersch, Kriiger^ and Kiihner, has arisen of late years the Danish school of positive canonists, with Madvig at its head. With these the pendultira is now oscillating towards the other extreme ; for, while the Germans, with boundless dar- ing, undertook to explain everything, the Danes, as if in scientific despair, explain almost nothing. In the following work, I have endeavoured to steer a middle course, not only classifying, hut, wherever it couhl be done with any probability, accounting for the facts of Greek Syntax; the object being to furnish the student, not only with a vade mecum of rules, but also with a guide to principles. As cram is to culture, so are rules to principles; and it is only when the rationale of phenomena, whether in language or in nature, is in- (^[uired into, that the study of either becomes an instru- ment of eiilhti'e; fof cultni«e, in so far as it affects the relation of the mind to objects of thought, may be said to consist in the continual elimination of the accidental from the necessary, and to result in the reconciliation of all thinsjs by the discovery of a few first principles. Besides, the manifold character of Greek constructions,, arising from the preservation of ancient synthesis by an extensive inflection of the declinable parts of speech. \\ on the one hand, and from the admission of modern analysis, on the other, by an extensive use of the ar- ticle , and of prepositions , renders an investiption of principles peculiarly necessary, and peculiarly instruc- tive in Greek. To enumerate all the works which I have consulted in the preparation of my own, would look like parade, for, great and small, they number about a score: but I have derived so much assistance from Jelf 's edition of Kiihner, from Madvig, and from Asopios rceql EXXfjvi- Kfjg ZvvTa^scog^ TlBQLodog TlQmvi^ sv 'Ad'iijvaig, 1853, that 1 cannot lorbear mentioning them. ihese authors, ana many others, are referred to throughout the work, wher- ever I have borrowed from them anything important, or when they furnish details, the statement of which did not comport with my plan; and the frequency of these references may be taken as the measure of my obligations to each, except in the case of Asopios, to whom I have not referred at all, because there is pro- bably not a copy of his work in this country, l)esides my 0"VN'n, and that in the Library of Edinburgh Univer- sity. I take this opportunity therefore of stating that my obligations to him are great, as elsewhere, so parti- cularly in regard to the classification of verbs, according to the case or cases which they govern respectively. In one respect, I have derived exceedingly little assistance from any quarter, viz. in the illustration of Greek idioms by modern instances. These however lie on iho siufaQe^ patent to erery obseryerj and they have been admitted into the present work — to what extent, may be judged from the enumeration under the word 'Parallels' in Index I — because, in actual X AUTHORS PREFACE. teaching, I have found them to be not lees useful than interesting to the learner. The saying, 'that is Greek to me', used of what is hopelessly iiiiiutcUigible, often exercises so depressing an influence on the mind of the English student, that he does not even Iry to enter into the spirit of the Greek idiom, when different from his own; at best he tries to remember its dead form. \o\v this abject lentinciation of the highest en- deavour is fatal to success ; but I have always found it yield to the charm of a modern parallel. If such can be found in our own language, so much the better: if not, then the less removed from our own, by time and place, the more effectual ■ for place, as well as time, is an ele- ment of Strangeness, and a cotemporary illustration from Paris begets more courage, and lets in more light than a cotemporary illustration from Athens. Even when the learner is ignorant of the language referred to, the mere enunciation of the fact, that living men in a neighbouring country use an idiom coincident with the Greek, reconciles the mind to its strangeness, and removes that prejudice which, hy stopping sympathy, prevents understanding. Another important object will be gained if, by these parallels, it appear that the study of the modern languages , instead of being, as manjr presume, antagonistic, is ^m\my tO tlldt Of the ancient. I have not hesitated to supplement, in several in- stances, the history of classic forms and constructions by reference to Romaic and Modern Greek: because, if the past shed light upon the present, it is ecjually true that the present reflects light upon the past, and it seems unreasonable to ignore either. I.- AUTHORS PREFACE. XI Wherever, in parts II and III, the rationale is not added to a rule, it is either because the rationale will readiljr occur to the student who has mastered the prin- ciples developed in part I, or because I had no pro- bable explanation to ofl-er. In many cases, the ratio- nale is assigned conjecturally, as appears from the language employed; and wherever mj statements are not exhaustive, I have endeavoured to make them at least suggestive, knowing that the clear exhibition of a problem, even without a solution, is an important ser- vice rendered to the student. As the examples adduced in the following work were not selected from the originals, but from gram- mars, I felt bound to verify the references; and in doing so, I have not unfrequently been obliged, in order to get a true reference, to take a new example. In a very few instances of false reference, I have al- lowed the exami^le first selected to remain, because I could not meet with another equally suitable, but have in that case given merely the 7iame of the author. Examples of Greek constructions form, to a great ex- tent, a common stock, on which all grammarians , from Copenhagen to Athens, draw; and, even if every writer were to go through the drudgery of verification, «ome Of the numbers might still be falsified by mk. prints : the author's name however may always be de- pended on. It has been a still greater disappointment that, in the case of abnormal constructions, where in- dubitable authority is most desiderated, manj^ examples are rendered suspicious by vailous readings. It is of course a question for critics whether, in such cases, the various readings are to be ascribed to the abnormal XII AUTHORS PREFACi:. if constrnction, or the abnormal construction to tlie va- rious readings. Two instances of this kind are noticed, §. 44. t §. 56. Obs. 2.*. For the sake of those who are not yot familiar with Gveok, all tlie examples Lave teen translated, and that as literally as consisted with in- telligibility. The indexes are intended to serve the double pur- pose of aiding those who maj wish to consult the work on any particular subject, and of enabling the student to examine himself on its contents. As the whole work in general, so especially the Greek Appendix has been drawn up at Professor Ulaekie s request, for tlie purpose of assisting those who may wish to make the experiment of conducting the grammatical analysis of Greek authors in the Greek language. Within these narrow limits at least, it is cjuite possible for teacher and pupils to converse in whatever language they may be studying together 5** and the advantages of a worthy attempt, which can hardly fail to be successful, are very great. It is not the acquisition of a Greek terminology which is import- ant, but the Inwrought consciousness of t/ie power of lingual forms, obtained by the employment of them for the expression of living thought, and obtainable, easily . The tactual limits are wider, V12. tho extent of tLe rea J- ing lessons. Provided these are of moderate length, and at first they can hardly be too short, there is nothing to hinder the teacher and his pupils from talking together every dav, on the matter, and in the words read; and, by judiciously minglin- repetitions of the old wirti the new lessons, a perfect command may thus be acquired over a whole book. The Greek lau^-uajTe lias been so kugkt for years In Br. Haixschild's GesPmmt- Irymnasmm, Leipsic, where also the grammatical analysis of Orreek authors is conducted in the Greek language. AUTHOR S PREFACE. XIII and surely at least, in no other way. An uneducated foreigner who, by residence in England, has acquired the facult;^' of expressing himself intclligiblj ill Euglisll, is nearer the heart of the English language, however distant from the penetralia of its literature, than the foreign scholar who, by reading, has mastered the li- terature of England , but to whom nevertheless the ex- pression of a single Aougkt in English, except In the way of quotation, would be a laborious process, instead of a spontaneous act. This however is precisely the sort of phenomenon presented by our students of Greek; for although, on leaving the University, they areac' quainted with the grammar, and with certain authors, those namely which they have been required to get up, and although , as is often the case, they may be able to pass an examination on these with more eclat than even the cotenaporarles of the Greek authors thcm- selves could have done , who spoke the language of the originals, but had not made of them a special study, yet, from having written Greek little, and never spoken it at all, they have m m^r om ih Imwnm Hsdf. li may be doubted whether, with this merely theoretical knoAvledge of the language, any honest admiration of Greek literature as such i. e. in respect of its Greek form, can be felt. Most probabljr it is the thought translated into English, and not the Greek expression of the thought, which Is admired; and if this be so, then are the best means of acquiring a practical familiarity with Greek of the last importance. Since the thought of the GrOek Wnt^rS In Ii§ essence Is accessible In trans- lations , and since an equally good formal culture can be had by studying other languages, it is manifest that, XIV AUTHOR'S PRErACE. n professional aims apart, the peculiar claims of Greek to stand in the programme of a liberal education are now restricted to that one particular, in which it is confess- edly preeminent, viz. the geethetie. This liowever Is preclseljr the element which, because it defies expression in a formula, eludes both the grammarian and the lexico- grapher. The language must live for him who would appreciate its beautjr: but it cannot live for him, UllleSS it live in him i. e. unless he use it for the expression of his own living thought. In this regard, speaking is even a more important exercise than writing; for, as in read- ing the student is chiefly passive, so in writing he is only mediately acilve, now seeking an example, now calling to mind a rule by which he may be guided, but in speaking he is, at all events by speaking he becomes directly active, sending forth his thought completely equipped at once in the foreign prb. To the writing exercises then, which are already practised in our bes^ schools, it is proposed to add the speaking of Greek ; and it is hoped that those who may be willing to make a beginning, by conducting the parsing lessons in the Greek language, will ^nd the re(iuisite materials in the Greek Appendix to this work. Let me briefly state on what principle this Appen- dix has been composed; for it is simply impossible that a modern, faithful to liis own thono^hts, .houhl wrUe on Greek Syntax as an ancient grammarian would have done. To the general difficulty of fitting any foreign, and particularly any ancient language to one's OWn ideaS and thoughts — a difficulty which is realised just in proportion to the resthetic susceptibility of him Avho en- AUTHOR^ g PREPA/^E. XV I counters it — is to be added here the particular diffi- culty arising from the fact, that Syntax is precisely that department of grammar which the ancient, and even the medieeval Greeks almost entirely neglected. An ancient nomenclature, therefore, suited to modern syntactical doctrine , is simply not extant ; * and it becomes abso- lutely necessary to draw from quite recent sources. In the Modem Gi*eek wevk of Asopios already mentioned, I found a nomenclature suited to my pvirpose, and I have adopted it the more readily because, instead of being invented by him, or by any individual, it has grown up gradualljr, as the genuine Greek expression of the modern ivdictd-Eiog loyog^ on the subject of Syntax. At the same time , whoever may take the trouble of ex- amining the Appendix minutely, will find very fewworda indeed used in a sense, or rather with a reference , not Justified ty Stcphanl Thesaurus. X. consideration m^n of what an ancient Greek, not with his ivdca^srog koyogy but with mine, would have written, is the principle on which I have proceeded: for the rest, I have aimed at perspicuity and grammatical correctness. In connexion with the final revision of the Appen- dix, I have much pleasure in mentioning the name of Aristides Kyprianos, who was my fellow-student at Athens under Asopios in 1853, and has since amply * To take only one example; until quite recent jears, ail Greek grammarians fonowed the ancients in regarding the parts of speech as eight, viz. 6vo\ia, gfiyicc^ hszoxtJ , ag^gov^ dvToavvfiLa, Tzgod^BCLg, snCggriaa , cvvdsa^pg. the substantive and adjective being comprehended under ovofici, the relative pronoun unAer .uq^qov (g. 1*), and the interjection under sniQQtjfiu (§. 52). To present the parts of Greek speech under this classification to British students, would merely be to in- troduce confusion, where order previously existed. "S^^pJW^^S'-" 2 !>«■ .■" XVI AUTHOR s FKBFACE fulfilled the promise of distinguished scholarship which Je the g,,,. Hi« .suggestions were st,ch as to dL„ "h both the „.o„oton^, which beset, the giaminarian's stv ticular. Had I adopted all his su"-ffestions ,>„* • , Keo.Gr.cisn. would have remai„:! 1°^! deT. "!f prefer a Neo-Gr*cism short and ,.. '^"^'^"'^''^y only confirmed, viz th-^t fr. „ , /puanos reffardin„ cj , '° '"''l'''''^^ modern thought 4:e!:;rc;:ris-^^^^^^^^^ Biacri:,;7hfe:x:;tr'°"^' ^''-^ ^'•"^-^- Notice, regarding t:^!^^ :o wf' T I cannot hope to We fuWiied- /"'^^''^"^g'^"^-^!, however, according to my ab it ', "«^« ^^^deavouvod, indeed by a conscLsness of^S anir ' '' '' tlmt the matter contained in t le^ r • ^ ' persuasion I'ave been both ;.,.r ! following pages would -e. : ::l;' ™^f ,«nd ^timula.., . „,..,, uucuL on tne benches now occuniVrl >.,r +1, for whom ihU w^^t. i ^ ^'-'-upiea by those I am emlMenedt r 7""'""^' ^^'^P<'-'^' "-' «ideration of the Jearrer"' " " ''" ''"^''^^'^ ^^ EWKBUBGH 1. SepUmter 1866. JAMES CLYDE. t CONTENTS. lNTR<^BtrCTi6N PART I. MATERIALS OF SYNTAX. The Article Substantives Adjectives Pronouns . Verbs Adverbs Prepositions Conjunctions Interjections PART II. SYNTAX OF W Concords Government of Substantives . Oovermnent of Adjectives Verbs governing- the Genitive . Verbs governing the Dative Verbs governing the Accusative Verbs with a Double Regimen Government of Passive Verbs . Government of Verbals in riog ORDS PAGE 1—5 6—21 21—41 41-44 44—53 53-9-2 92—99 99—100 100 — 101 101—102 103- 1-20- 123- 129- 134- 135- 110- 145- 146- -120 -1-23 -129 -134 -135 -140 -145 -146 ■147 i/nl XVIII CONTENTS Infinitive after Verbs Government of Adverbs . Government of Prepositions Government of Conjunctions Government of Interjections PART III. SYNTAX OF^EOTE^!OTa. Order of AVords in a Sentence . . . • Coordinate Sentences Subordinate Sentences ..•••• Interroptive Sentences ...••• Oratio Obliijua Greek Appendix hdU I . Index II PAGE 147—148 148—140 149— 1C6 166— 1G7 167—168 169 — 172 172—18-2 182—192 192—195 195_19G 197—205 207—216 217 — 221 CRT^EK SYNTAX. WITH A RATIONALE OF THE CONSTRUCTIONS. INTRODUOTION. 1. Definition of the Subject. Language is the articulate expression of mind; and, as the furniture of the mind consists of ideas, combined, according to tlie vMm\^ pM'coivod to exist Jimong tliem, into thoughts, so the materials of language consist of words, combined into sentences. The object of this work is io investigate the laws ivhich regulate the combinatio?i of words into sentences, so as to express thought, in the Greek language. Obs. 1. The Simple Sentence. The student is supposed tO know that the simplest thought involves two ideas, viz. a subject and a predicate, and that it consists in the mental reference of the latter to the former (§. 56): consequeiuly, that the simplest sentence must express, or at least involve, iwo words, viz. a subject and a predicaiG, find, in addition, some liaijual contrivance by which the latter is referred to the former. This lingual contrivance is also often a separate word, as in 'Croesus was rich', where Croesus is the subject, rich the predicate, and ivas the copula, i. e. the word referriiii? the predicate to the subject. In Greek, as in English, the substantive verb is generally the copula (§. 54), and, when so used, aU tlie persons of the pros, indie, of dai, except the 2d pers. smg., may be encHtic. * When, however, the prctlicate Itself ASSlinieS thG * The difference between diiC as a verb denoting ex- istence, and as a mere copula, appears ^markedly ^ in (feopn. Oed. Co1.393)ot' oux ^'r' bIiill, rr]VLyiavt' ag ft> avriQ=i *\Vhen I no longer eaist, then forsooth I am a man '. t 2 INTRODUCTION. S. 2. '11 vey^l al ^orm, tlic copula is involvoJ in Uie termination 01 that ver- bal form, as in the Greek of the above Kqol60Q B7rXovTr]G$. All three indeed may be involved in a single verb, as nXovtco = 'I am rich'; the subject, as well as the copula, being here implied in the verbal ending, while the body of the word supplies the idea of the predicate. Ob§. 2. The Compound Sentence. ^YIlcn tlicre is but one finite verb in a sentence, it is called simpie , when there are seve- ral, compound; and the simple sentences, which make up the compound one, arc called its clauses. Thus 'Crcusus amassed riches, that he might secure happiness ' is a compound sentence con- sisting of two clauses. In this example the second clause, being final ^ is subordinate to the former: but in the following, 'CrcEsus amassed riches, and lived to see the vanity of them , the second clause is coordinate with the former; and, as there are many forms of coordination and subordination among clauses, so there are va- rious kinds of compound sentences (§. 83). In sentences, whether simple or compound, the subject and predicate are seldom stated alone. Even in the simple sentence any amount of descriptive matter may accompany tlic subject, provided it be conveyed by adjectives or adjectival phrases; and not only may the verbal predicate be accompanied by an object similarly described, but any amount of circumstantial matter, for instance as to time, place, and manner, may be grouped around it. The simple sentence is not therefore necessarily short, nor the compound necessarily long; but, whether long or short, a sentence is simple if there be but one finite verb in it, compound if there be more than one. §. 2. Method of the Work. The laws of Syntax are commonly cliviclcd into those of Concord, and Go- vernment. But it is important to observe that Govern- raent is not here opposed to Concord, as if it implied a discord: on the contrary, Government in Syntax is a form of Concord. Thus in anix^iiaL olvov = T abstain from wine', aneyokicci, is said to govern ol'vov in the geni- tive: in reality however a:r£;ijo^itfa is attended by the geni- tive because of a congndtif subsisting between the force of the genitive case-eiidmg (^vhlch denotes the relation from'), and the meaning of «7r£;(;o*itcvt (I keep myself /rom). Sometimes the underlying congruity cannot be so dis- tinctly traced as in the above instance, but it must ever be presumed to exist; and not till it has l)een traced, is ^he principle oi a consK'uction discovered. Ihe syntax S. 2. Obs. 1. INTRODUCTION. 3 of a language being tlms dependent on the inherent pow- ers of words, and of their grammatical forms, it is pro- posed to review these before investigating the laws of Syntax themselves, which will be treated of separately, as they relate to words, and as they relate to sentences. The whole work therefore is divided into three parts viz. Fart I. The Materials of Syntax. Fart II. The Syntax of Words. Part III. The Syntax of Sentences. Obs. 1. Irregularities in Greek Syntax. Although the preliminary review above announced will illustrate the rationale of most Greek constructions, the student must not expect that it will solve every tUlficulty. The analysis of language proceeds on the supposition that it is the articulate expression of mind; but then it is an imperfect expression : thought is often too subtle, passion too strong, conversation too rapid for language; and hence its ellipses, idioms, and manifold departures from tbenorm, which are often only confessions of weakness, or actual down- breakings on the pan (5f lailf^HiagO in its ftttempt to render fully, or to keep pace with thought. In other words, the metaphysical, tJiough the chief form- ative and conservative element in language, is not tlie only one to be taken into account: the rhetorical and euphonic*, for example, have also their part; and indeed, to express the whole truth at once, * A familiar instance of the po-wer of mere sound, in deter- mining the use of lingual forms, is the ine of the Scotch dialect for/ emphatic, or the moi of the French for Je emphatic. Thus 'Moi! je lie ferai rien do la sorte ' = 'Mel I' II do nocht o' the kin". The corresponding forms moi and me, in these examples, are not copies of each other: both have come into use as em- phatic nomJliativOi?, beOftUgO the ordinary nomhmtives, I'r^m their mode of pronnncication, — jc, and the Scotch /bein^ both obscure sliort sounds — were incapable of receiving and trans- mitting the full volume of sound required by emphasis. Accord- ingly in English, German, and Italian, where the ordinary no- minatives /, ichy 10, are so pronounced as easily to admit of vocal emph.'isis, no forms are used parallel to the French mQ\ and the Scotcli me. It thus appears Avhat a petty matter in its origin classicism sometimes is: tlint which is classical ixiFrench and .Scotch isunclassical,aiid in fact nngrammatical in English, simply because kindred forms hai)pen to be pronounced ore ro- tundo in England*, and between the teeth in France and Scot- land. For an example in Greek see §. 40. Obs. 2, and in Komaic 1=^ \ INTRODUCTION §. 2. Obs. 1. the lan-uage oP a people at Any pmod 15 tllO prodllOl Of tllQ IiatlOll- al history, in the wlilest sense oF that term, not alone ot the na- tional mind. Accordingly, syntactical irregularities occur in all lan- ffUd'-es; and, from special causes, they are particularly numerous in G^eek. From the variety of dialects, and the long duration of the classic era, throughout which the analytic forms of language were mwrn up by the side of the synthetic, wUhom however suppiam- ui'^ them, i\\Q totality of Greek appears not so much a continent of tixtures, as an ocean of moving forms: and even in one dialect, and at one period of its history, that rigid uniformity of construction which the Latin ohserved, is not found in (Ireek. This comparative lawlessness seems to have arisen partly from the liberty of the indi- vidual who, in endeavouring to translate his own mindinto language, did not so much conform to Au ohj^etivo modol, ft*; obov thfi lorma- tive powers within him; and partly from the agility ot the fi reek mind, which regarded itself, in respect to the same Operation, nOW as receptive, now as active, and in respect to the same event, now as an immediate witness, or even a participator, and now as a dis- tant reporter. It is impossible however, by means of these, or of any Other COIlbideiatioas, to explnln all anomalies. Under §.832 Jelf justly remarks in regard to some of Kiihner's explanations of the optative with av: "Fn this, as in many, if not most constructions in Greek, it seems to be unreasonable to try to bind down writers to laws, for which no reason can be given, and which they evidently did not always observe. It couhriiardly fail to be more profitable if admitting the exceptional passages, we endeavour to catch the c;hf\do4 of nh^ftiiliio: which are conveyed by the more or less usual construction". * the distinct statement of these more or less usual * Whoever believes in absolute laws, or expects uniform practice in language, must be prepared for continual disap- pOiUtment and perplexitj-, unless indeed he be fanatical enough not to perceive the discordance of facts with nis theorj'. Let the following sentence from Macaulay's letter of resignation, addressed to^the citizens of Edinburgh from London, on Jan. 19. 1856, serve as an illustration: "Had oven ca small number of my constituents hinted to me a wish that I would vacate my seat, I should have thought it my duty to comply with that wisb.^' The \muUl in this sentence has been found fault withj and a great deal might be said for and against it. But the pertinent reflection is, AVhy should scholars, who have no ab- solute code for the use of certain verbal forms in their own living language, insist on framing one for the use of all verbal forms in a'^phase of Greek which has long since passed away? The very pretension to universality would be a ground for suspecting limited observation, anJ liasK' generftllSahon. I ( §. 2. Obs. 2. INTRODUCTION. constructions is what the student has a li^iit to require; and be must remember that the prevaidng usage in any construction is an absolute law to foreigners, particularly learners. Obs. 2. Order of Review. In reviewing the materials of Syntax, the usual classification of the parts of speech into the Ar- ticle, Noun, Adjective, Pronoun, ^'erb, Adverb, Preposition, Con- junction, and Interjection, will be followed. Not that this classilica- tion is perfect; for, however sharply distinguishea Irom one another these different parts of speech at tirst sight appear, they do never- theless imperceptibly pass into one another. Thus the noun passes into the adjective (§. 20), aiul the adjective into the noun (§. 6, h); and indeed almost every part of speech into several others. But the common classification is probably not more imperfect than any otlier that nii2;ht be invented, since in thought, as web as in lan- guage, there are no boundary lines, but only bordei-tcrritorics j audit has the great advantage of being already familiar to the student. c S. 3. L -f^ PART I. MATEKIALS OF SYNTAX. rn THE ARTICLE, A weak (lemojistraiive Pronoun. §.3. 'O // TO Demonstrative. In English the is onl}- a weaker form oithat; and the numerous forms of the definite article in the Romanic languages of Europe are all derived from the Latin demonstratives. In Homeric Greek 6 tj ro was so strongly demonstrative that it can seldom he regarded there as an article at all, and is consequently much more s^^aringly used than in Attic Greek, where its character, as an article, was fairly established. In particular, it was demonstrative Avhen foUoAved by the particles yd^., yij (■'^^^t ^^' .nl so called: ^o„ the other h.ml .n iSovs ^o"t in the i, en nf t '^"«^- sP'^.'^'fication, which in.lividuallses the Idea of the substautive, is often expressed bv -i kiHed" tT' T ""'" "^ ""'■'■" ^'"' ^ol'lmetXi:: tl e conte^ : T '"■'• "'* *'^P'-<^««ed, it mnst be such as he contex , or the circumstances of the discoursp M«ii,r suggest, otherwise the whole sentence is alSouf''^ most'?nue",nive.nZ„°nrF"r^f?"*'" ^" ■" «"« A^iole. The to give n es fo' he se nf"/^ •' '".'""■•■".V'^""''''' ""-' » ""possible composition rises Tfs nil. '^^ '" ''"=""'' ^'<='=^»^'=> as the style of th9i..;„oe Us ftu,c.ior3 1 'Llil ",'•• I" Senei'il. 't may b. saM sitlons which .n m a"^ m^r.n'!!' ' " ^'^l'?""!"- wqnired !,, compo- "se o'f d /iri as an le er?.''f ■ ""Pr?"'''' '« S"'" ™l-- f"'- «l.e than tiicLiglisl, Besides ?hrcf'T^''"S """ ""»'« "'^""staiu Obs. 1, itis evid^^nttl, r 'b ''°"*"*^'-«"»'>s mentioned in §. 2. ".ent, on the oth^^^Srin't-ti.^^rr.o'r " : X^X t^lt. V M S- S. Obs. 2—4. THE ARTICLE. 11 omitted. In general, the later the aiuhor and tlie less poetic the style, the more frequent is its use. Obs. 2. Tie Article with Sinsular Sanns. Tlie use of tl,e article to individualuse its substantive, i. e. to introduce or alliule to a specilication shewing what particular individual, or individuals are meant, is precisely the same in Attic Greek as in Englisli: but not so its use in generalising the substantive. In English, classes are denoted, or, to speak more accurately, the type of a class is signified, by prefixing the article to the sinj-ular substantive, as 'the Pox', 'the lawyer' &;c. with the single exception of ma/z, who, in his singularity among living beings ' " " is regarded as one; and hence w^e say 'man*, not 'the man', just as we say 'God', not 'the God*. In Greek this exception does not exist; and, to express such generalisations , the article may always be used before the singular noun, but often is not. Tims we find in Plato, iiinBri o avd'Qcojtog 9im limi^ aoi'ciofc=:'sincG man partook of a divine demont't and again ccv&QcoTtog ^ecoxocrov i^usqc6t(xt6v t8 ^mov yiyvsGd'cci (pUei:= 'man is usually the divinest and gentlest of animals'. Obs, 3. The Article with Plural Nouns. With plural nouns the Greek article, when not referring to an individualising specifica- tion, has a decided power of expressing the sum total of the entities indicated by the substantive. Thus ot iv^^innoi = 'men' uni- versally, whereas ccv&^cotcoi, = 'some men'. The English article has this power only with adjectives, as 'tlie rich' = ot nlovaiOl. Hence the use of the Greek article with nouns of multitude, as in English, 6 driiiog = 'the people'. Obs. 4. The Article with Proper Names. Proper names, as denoting individuals, do not require the article, not even with the demonstrative (§. 7, a) as C)vtoG\ ATtarovQiog = 'thJ^ Apaturios hero'. Accordingly, it should not be prohxed to them, except when the bearer of a particular name is to be distinguished from all his namesakes, either as being in himself pre-eminent, or as having been previously mentioned. Thus I ZcoKgdrrjg is admissible, either as referring to the famous sage, as we say 'the Chisholm', to distin- guish the head of the clan; or as denoting some particular Sociates already spoken of. =^ Sometimes however proper names arc accom- panied by the article without any particular emphasis, which is only * The force of the article with proper names may be illu- strated hy the German usage , according to which the definite ariiele is prefixed to the names of inferiors, whose position in the household Is-Avell known, as T>ex 3cl)ann fcU baS ^ferb Ininoieu = 'John is to bring the horse'; but in German the article alludes to the understood specification tc/io is our coachman. 12 THE ARTICLE. §. 5. Ol)P. 5—7, §. 6. THE ARTICLE. 13 ill one example of tlie law by uhicli lin-ual usa-es extend, In the course ot time, beyond the cases to which they are lo-icallv appropriate The sumniin- up power of the tireek article (Obs. 3) hokk with* proper names also as ot 'Ellrjvi? in opposition to oi ^KQ^agoL. Obs. 5. Tlie Article with Quasi-Proper Names. Tliere are many nonns, snch as names of strikini^ natnral objects, of occupa- tions, arts, and sciences, of virtues and vices, of near relatives and' of familiar places, the ideas expressed by which are either peculiar to one Object, as the sun, or eapablo (sf^m porsonlileJ and so regarded as one agent, as in the case of tJio virtues and vices \ll such nouns become for the nonce proper names, and, like them wff^ be used uiiho.it the article, particularly when governed by a preposition, the prepositional construction being favourable to the omission of the article. Most of these usages are paralleled in Eng- lish. Ihus the English poet can sin- of ''ocean's roar", and of sun, moon fintl stars " without the article, and we may ask a child, WJiat does lather say to tliis?' /«Mer being, in the cjiild's lan- guage, not the name of a class, but the name of an individual i e a proper name. So also we talk of a man beinj;- *on •Chan-e'' ' or \^t chiHTir or 'jn town', which are precisely parallel expres.i'ons to the (jreek hv ccgtsl, h dyoga y,. r. X. Obs G. rormulae for tlie Noun and Article in Concord, a) ^Vhell the article and the noun are unaccompanied by any attributive the article precedes the noun (§4*.), and may be separated from it onii bj a particle, b) When the article and noun are a specification in appositioiL thev may either precede or follow the principal sub- stantive, as Zco-AQccxrig « ^iloGocpog, or 6 cpiUco^pog Zco^gazrig. But, 111 the case ol rivers, the name and the designation are t.sua ly put tO|ethcr after the article, thus 6 Evcpgarrjg TtoraaSs = 'the river Euphrates', c) When several substantives are connected by KCCL the hrst only takes the article, unless each is to be made ernphat.e^; as «^ ^^^^^yol y.ccl Xoxayoc =. 'the generals and cap- has t'^; ^* ^^^^? ^^^^"^l8- '^^ The Gorman JeAnltc article has, at the present day, the same tlirce-fold use as the Greek- thus ^r^Jiv'^W^ t'a^'Vr''^^ J? en (relative) icT) betrcuubete, ©crCdemon- ft • k\ T.^^'^ ^ ^'^ -'*•" T. ^^'^ "'^" ^'^'^'^ I befriended, he has done of* the R P^'^"«'"'"al force ^Une survives in the detinite articles Ot the Romanic langnages; le,la, les, for example, in French meaning lam, her, it, them, as well as in other connexio,/^e J)] The anCiOnt tliroo-fohl use oP ^ ^ .o' has been preservedTn Moae^u Greek: as^an article proper, passim; then as a demonstrative, e - Mg roy oarcg ^sXricy = 'To him who shall be willin-'- and a^i a relative, m antiquated expressions, borrowed from 'the Ro- maic or vulgar dialect, as r« cpegvH rj 'Sga, 6 Xq6voTsIv r.>'v y5t*= ' What an hour brings, that a year brings not'. Compare this with (II. I. 125.) tec asv noXCcov s^eTtQoc^oasvj ra dsdaavcci = * Ivhal we pillaged out of cities has been distributed'. Obs. 8. Greek Substitutes for the English Indefinite Article. These is no indefinite article in (ireck. Like the definite article, the English indefinite sometimes generalises, and sometimes individual- ises its substantive, but both indefinitely i. e. it defines neither the extent of the generalisation, nor the exact reference of the indivi- iliialisaiioii. Thus in the sentence 'A woman can often do what a man cannot', the indehnite article generalises tlie substantives, and in (^reek may be either translated by the definite article, or not trans- lated at all. Again in *Who told you this? A woman', the indefi- nite article individualises its substantive, and must be rendered in Greek by the enclitic rt?, as, TCq col sins rovro; yvvrj ZLg, 'a woman' here meaning 'a certain woman'. §.6. Substantival Phrases formed by the Article in Concord. The (Ireek article converts a) the infini- tive into a noun, which is translated by the English gerund, as to aiiagravELv = 'sinning'. Exactly so, in Italian, 'il peccare'. 6) Also adjectives and participles as ot, TToxAoi = 'the many", ot oXlyoL = 'the few' i. e. ir political language, 'the mobocracy', and 'the oligarchy', o/" l';jer @utc = 'the (rood man', ©ie 9{cijeubcii= 'the travellers', ®cr ©etobtetc = 'the person killed', ^a3 (53ute = 'the good' absohitely, ^a§ (i^eid)ebeue == 'what has hajipened'. u THE ARTICLE. g. 6. Obs. 1, 2. nouns are formed in the same way, especially from ad jectives in ixog^ as to svavrtov = 'the encniv', to ttoXi the citizens , ro vavr^jcoi/ = 'the naval force' TIKOV c) Adverbs, mostly in the plural, as oi Tiavv = 'the elite\ TCi ipd-aSs = 'the at!airs here', d) Trcpositional phrases,^ as to in' ifiOL =: 'what is in my power', ol 'Jim 'AUiavSoOV — ^ll^xander and Vis suite', o/ ^^ = on the whole TO |i;aMy ( TO STCLTiccv =^ in all TO kOLTCOV \ r ^i r i » - , > = tor the luture TCC A.oi7ia ) xaXXcc = for the rest TCi TioXXd r=z plerumque T(p navTL •= in every respect TO %li(sy j _ f^^. ^^^^ ^^^^,^ ra TtXsLca S ^ TO fi^yiaTOv =i for tbe greatest part TU fiocXiGTU ::::= lu the highest degree TO euov ] m c^r cfi c V =3 for my part TO 87C fttf TO m eitot , TO ■KCC'd' tccvTOv = for his or one's own part TO tcqCv = of yore TO ngb TOVTOv= in former times TO vvv or TK vvv = now TO ano tovSb ■= from this time fortli. §. 7. The Article with Pronouns, a) When the (lemonstrativos ovxog^ innvog^ odf, are accompanied by nouns, these nouns take the article in Attic nrose: but tlicy arc frequently found Avithout it in the poets, j>ar- ticularly after odf. The article sustains the demonstra- tive force of the adjective pronoun, but belongs to the Jioim^ for the order is o uv&Qconog ovxog or ovTOg o civ- ^QCOTCOg^ the article being prefixed to the noun, and the demonstrative either preceding or lollowmg both. \\ hen however an adjective or adjectival expression accompan- ies the noun and article, the adjective or adjectival ex- pression is commonly included between the article and the demonstrative, the noun coming last, as // Grevrj uv- f)] oJo^ = 'tlilg narrow WAJT'! Lui tlio AvHelo anrl (lo- nionstrativc may keep their normal position too, as avrr] rj Ctevi] odog^ or i] Grevi] oSog avT7]^ the adjective and the noun being regarded as making one complex notion. b) The article frequently accompanies the possessive pro- iiouiis, as in Italian, an idiom introduced for the sake 16 THE ARTICLE. S. 7. of emphasis, but wiuch uk.matelj became a mere usage Imt wrath of thinP ■. The formula o ^«„)„ S „„', ;, also usea (§. 26) ; and in both this and the preceding example ,t may be noticed, from the collocation of the words, that the article belongs to the possessive prououn rat ,.r |l,a„ to tU noun. .) The arttf.e also acLmpan es the intorrogat.vo adjective pronouns, when the ques- tion regards something, which has been already men- t oned, as r« ™r« = 'whaf? i. e. 'of what sort are the things you have just mentioned', as we say 'the whafV m requestiiiL^ the repetition ofaw-orJ .-lih .e i.av; Cs f^T^ ^f ' ""■ •" -P-''-t-S something which W. t , ''■"'' '^ ^"''"'""- Here also the article be- Prefv 1 I 1"'''J»"""' --"yl immediately precedes it. d) i lehxed to To^ovToc, rowadi, zoaomog, rijUxovtog, t,J. - e, the article miiisles the deraonstiitivo ,4 111 qunhtative or quantitative meaning of these words, e) usesTt iS' H ''' """' T."'^, '^' = '''S"'" '- '■ Horned uses It n the sense of both ipse and idem without the guished by the collocation of the article flitll it, tllUS' I ..ro, !i.&, = .,ue eumc man', but cJOr " 5 pounds w th the article denote a sum total (all etl^'lT °"* ''' *'"'^ ^'•'='' '^ distributive (ev ry," each). Ihus «m ^c„. - < every day', but ul^ ZTP\'&' = .the .-hole da,-:'w,L'<„r= ten of each , but ra jra.-ra Siy.c. = .ten in all'. In the n H^ol '.""T"' ''y^" :*l'e» the sum total is meant, the ait cle IS often omitted. The usual formulae of col oca- Uon are ^«a« ,, rtohc, and ,} n6hs niac< ; but n^g, and still more f.;equentl y O^o;, take nko tlio ordinary- collocation IJ tlie attributive adjective, as n n^auScy.M,,. go alsoa^oc, nMn j;a,4>« meaning 'the rest of the country', whereas r4 '' r",^ •',"'".''''" •^''^'^^^y- ^) The artide inten! sihes the distributive force of huu^o; and ty.uoiOi, the S. 8. THE ARTICLt:. 17 latter of wiiidi hou-^ver is oPton f 1-1 is "'- "..all ,0. d wuh t;:,';^'!.;^^-:*- ") ^' 10 a substantive followinr do , m.nt , ""'J'' »'' '" •'•Pposition translation so„,e,i„,es^. cpe, s on\ t "" •'^^' ""'^ "'^ "''"'"^^s "I.c-re tl,e demonstrative, heiif^ToiT.ei TT. ■, -^ ",''"'= ""* '^'-idiei-', accompanied by tbeatticl'e; l>ui%o JrL /.A '^"''?'-' '»-""■ '""'". i^ bave this man m a teacher', wl" e /?,, .f"''''''^^ W"'''-«' = 'tl.oy Mant.vely in apposition to t he no. ,t a'd iZf^"'""'^ ^'"'"J' ^"l*- So rorurs "ToAoy/a yprr«, -'ll',, "1 'P'^fore wants tlie article. "lonstrative beini^'atflaed „W I lie r'pml T,"" ""'^^'' ""^^e- «! notion, we mifjhrV.avc c" .ecu^ r to h • "V^P'"'^'"?" e«^""- «;ecU article sttpplfes'^tbe^pC^^,,, "J*""'^^' ^~» Th^e wherever. Com the nature of the staen-Jnf T'''^*'''''^ pronoun, possessive reference is alread obv «„, Tl', ' ™™ "" ""'"=^'- ""- t« i«m='pareiits \m al e ; T^ "' ^-"^f^ ''"ovo»'*'<"' "»' •'een pronoun, or some other phrase „„.t'° ' T"' "'<="» Possessive whose tliev were. The FreL 1; i^ " ''*"'» "sed to indicate sidctable extent, pi tt I v i f el:?,':? """ 'K''''''''^ '" « - pave him m,/ hand' = ' je l, i i" , ^.f / " P","*."'^ "'<> '""^v. as : • [ 1-, ij^eif f dis'^rib:: ■:rr:.'T"iire 'ure*,M''*- ^''^ «-•' --■« ••'"d Italian, and sometitnes i E,,i|i-|f ''',""\'""''^'« '" «erman general y prefers the itnlefi^Mte a,,ide Vl " i '" '■■"^'"*'' "'io'" 3U'C,m.t ben 3JIc„at, = 'due volte 7 Ise'- f}'- '°^ """"^ = *; the K„g,i..„, rS41l'^^"!!:-%;;-l corresponds Agreeably to this for,n„io . 7~ ^ ^"°d man'. * Wtween t\e art ie and ' '-. '' ''^'^' '"^•"""'^"'^ "^■■vc; and, in til? 7 T '" ^ ^'^'^' ^ttnli- '"•>• "'l-p'''« and i.reposifional thes:iS;::;'i:-;^{y'-afje^ fios fisyas = 'great fear' h, t tl"i j'- ''^.«*}'«? fo'/Jo?, or w6- ^vi'cn placed first. ' "'•"'•"■'= ''^ more eniplia^ic r IS THE ARTICLE. §. 8. Obs. 1—2. tr^' arc cpiiycrtcd by tlin nrtiel. Int.. ...jj.,,;,..., anxpiesMon, of tunc or placo, may be so trpatod ns- l>,S,r^a^.S='th. present favonv'; o ,u.z.|™' - 'i^.iaye7in tC.T;-^;;:;;^""'" '^f ''--'••'■>• -■•i-"> 'I- principal substa-n : e a 4^7, nnv -^rl^T '^'" ""''''^ "■"' sta.ul, an.l ,lu,s several irLu^^TJI ^^ .iltr Initue genitives may .-.Iso the genitive ol i ,1 l' ,»^'T f '" ""^^'""^ "''''« »'«'•''• ''> »<• p.o„o„„1n concord « 26. T,'?. f!.'"""!'" /"P''^^'""- ■•>" "Jjec.ive Mantiveh in.l reflex e" 6 ^V^r^^^ ' "• ''™"'"''',"'r« "*«l s"'^" :r«r^p f«„ro5 ' '^^'"' '"'''«', o ^f.rr)? 6 Uvvov, an.l 1.1 a semeiile !l,!n'^mw,,," """""«" '" » Becmring Noun, tive requires to L only oL: ^Jn'r^T ^"'«'''""i^''. tl'«t s..bs.a„- t» fir .1™, fcS„h "i"'""'' "' ' "■•"" Mill's m „ = .cl[.J S. fh THE ARTICLE. Jf:^?.:;:;:;:c-^;,'rf;\Sj£f--'T "I'-.e, v., Tbe proMonn ^ao 'Y ,,r'P;"'='» ''■«>• as s,,ch. (§.5. sp'-clicaiion, as: ot >ld>} 2«9.f= 'the present favour 'j d ,«fr«gO ro'.TOc = 1.0 >n>enne,l,-ate place ' ; »J ;rj,6j '^»,;.„s odoj = ' the >v«y fonnnla e„.i,ba.sizes the a.ljective, o u,,4 6 c;,.«»oc:* Jl.i* onllirr nTl ""'V'T'""*^"'.^'" '•r'''^'-'" ''"^ ■">'•» i« often it.ye fonmda is most fre.(ucnt, when the sul,joi„ed pe- cihcntion consists of moro than a .\n,\. ..J,\. (Tb!!. >^..d«.o«ff;,..o^,.,,j= .„„ account of the valour andzoal displayed in those dangers' Resimen ^- ,\»™"'J*.f»'-S''b«tantive. and Substantival Pronouns in ntliAr ao. ^ - ' »" jiiMLitb leieiiing to these mav succeed nii*» tive requires to be only once mentiono.l t .1 • i ' ^"'^stan- elscwliprp ic- 7T«7 ' J'j«^t; mentioned, the article represent uff it eIbt^^nele, as. llolv KQSittcov sgtIv 6 trie ^i,v?,c, A' A ^«r ^ '® Jl> ^. He,e .I,e ,.en,o„s,ra,ive p.nver of tllC ailiclo Cle.lHv tp,! vl. * The German has also this apnositive formnl-. i.». ^ ji. y. THE ARTICLE. 19 dinate iumortanc. an I i. J ; .V -^P-'^^ations arc of coor- ^^^- 6, CO T r n;o 1 M t;';V • ; ''^'P^-^^^nt tliem as such. (§.5 ;-st of the sohliers^W^Ai'os \.:^.?:re7re::^^^ ^ '^'^^ times, one of the specificafi,.ns folinu ?! '. '^ar^-'y^ Y^'t some- tlie article bein^- i4eater th r^.r.' P''?''^^''' "'^''''' ^^■'^'^"'it tion of the tyrants out of (^rcecc \ ^'^'^^^"^ ^ '"^fter the destrtic- •uticlo .n '"'''"^''^^'y t''^ •''^i^JJf'ct 111 a seutoiice lias the T^j::^^^s:^\^^- ;^'''"- ^-^-^^ ^-'-;" ■"-"^^^i^Lui' . — tile Avretchod l>^»o<>-.,,. l. /• , not «cc !;c^,,rt: so (John T l \ «i** ' J"'"-'"" " '""*=' ^o>oj is the subio.-t in- , ' ''" " '^"^"^ ^vhero,; uyJoc htCi t' ' ''"i- *''f l"-<^'"'''^«'- Hence 1>et.veL thZa'i.Vt.riSr.^i ""--jr^ ""''^^T'' .»..».im.,,i,,.to,C "1,'°; !' i" ''."!'■'; ""•■ "■"' "•idc i, olla „„, „,„„ 7™ , T? "■;'■ ""= ^t,,„*;-,._ /IT 1 / ^1" *'J' •sucii, Dxit i\ .stroiiii' (lemon- mcttrativepronou ,?« ; Ob' 'T. " t^'""' '' f '''^■ 2* i 20 THE ARTICLE, §. 9. Obs. 1—3. i)"^^.- 1- Anarthrous Subject. Of coarse, if the suhiect is e n.e . .t..if, a, p,,per iiaiiit'S, a 5. Ul)^. d, 6.) ^..JJ J not, and, ,f .ntcMletl to be iiulefinite, may not accuinpauy it Obs. 2. Kinds of the Predicative Formula. The studenf "vr(f8Tf:,;',,i.r'"T'r''"*^' .i,ep,...,ic..,n.e(§. 9) „:„, re.:,nt ! i.ve (§. »| loimulii.. Tims not only in of Xovoi tbevSeCs elai l.ni .S»..lea as makn.g „p „„e „o,ion Willi tile veib. Bv naH=;i " "f, . I.e noun, aaj pro„o„ndng tla- a.lj.-ctive ,111(1 Verb in one ln'en(ir i ' T> ','',^"'«''; '»'», "f Greek idiom. These are tlieexam, I™ w'e b> Dm„l,l,on (Greek firammar §.404.) of what he call" ,7™, r! secondan, ^u, terliory pre,lieates respectively, tlu »r „L™ bei f^ ose ,,, whid, ,|,e aajeetive oeeurs in'.he uomi.,tiJy^ua^^^^ Hl.t. till' Hmndmj those in uMel, It ooonrs In ,1... no„,i . . 2. Obs. 3. The Predicative Formulae in Oblique Cases a) K.mo tb. adjective, except when, as in Donaldson's /.; Lrn cdic.t i makes up one notion with a transitive ver,. a^n^H m tt pi e' ^i'"!^''!^.^'' ^r^'^"d or reason. Th.^W^^ S^^l!^ ioi inzujs, const qientlj a ;>er/«^;ie«/ distinction: thefonuer which i Wpredieative foniiula, denotes a particular CUIKlid ,niS n S-eiUMal. consequently a te,npo,L,, di^tinctLn a, 1 ustieclf,",- f5te^an.-b:^:='«::rt:=fc^^S^ beet niemlo odT^t? ov.„s) Had a ;>e™«„en. or esse.Z t^^^ Lrn^a o n '' *' «"'''""l^'' Onimla ni.lS. Imve keen u.e.1. I) He,! belong ai,o tl,o,e desenptivc clauses in whieli «ome feaiuio m- ,-;.. Hete';";^ rea Vtiof.^: J: ^%T\tl't = ''''■ '"'■^ " "'.^'""■"-"' mi-an tlie same tliin-.-. i'' -fP'' i*', ^X^' ^^Y^ ^o aroaa wouhl ii^(H So also i'vi^^' ' *i,"i'''^''\?^ ^''^' predicative formnhu may be n^u . ^0 also ^^a roi; o|yy neUyivv = Mic lias the sin.n qv .' sharp (distllletlon ol conditions in tbe same ax,l TI„.J.l! „■' En "iTsh ?dionr"'°"'^ r"'"-^ predicates r,rs;i. I sn ; tin ' the" i^"dittt,Te;eio'i;?,: ^d'^^n.rr ,r,""°"'' (§• ^- •^■''- ^•)- -■ •'- §. 10. SUBSTANTIVES, 21 OIJS. 4. The PrediCfttire Formulae with Participles R ^■5^':j^^^^;^^n!;dS?^^-;;,;i-r'.£5^'-— ? Engli h so" in f;r:ekT:'u"pr ?"'"'' '"» A-arthrou.. As in of -he p,ra'.e:i; hieJiT; Z'ia ';: ;hrE,'%i'ih i^r ¥, <"■ p."« y«9 avr;^ ft^ytar,? 6rj TOcV'EUriGLv ^V^^fro- C'tl is u n ^^^ ? liic greatest movement to (am..n-) the Jreeks"^ u-1. - ' '"'^''?^ of the mountain '-T^' ^ f^^^ov to oqos ^ 'the utmost pari P acV £oo?cVn^^ "^''?" f*f^(^^ = Mhe middle part of th. mati^t- c?>.e«r = 'along tlle very etL^. ,V e oot'' h, T"'" "^ ■^"^"'' ;;dje.ive a,'o„!rs tt't S ^C al ^"Jt b^^h'^.^L:'' '"u ^:oeK^d^i;;: ^; ;;S;i;!--;-".nsh idio:.:;x; .1^ SUBSTANTIVES. The noun or subslunUve denotes an cntiUj^ rati W idfuL om'L tfe'^'"'" "V"* Substantive. The .It.al, which .1. noun, of he Anglo-Saxo,, , as woU a., i,, Gifek '^ .>U OI.IPI- form Ot tl.A plur„l. The a„.l a„.I plural 1 II 22 SL'BSTAXTIVES. § 10. 0»js. 1— y of ov ol ?; .liffer fioiu each other not uu.re f hnn om.i- alent tonus often ,lo in kin.hvd dialecb; and k rcmarkahlo that, whcrcns the pluralS of f.w a, <1 ^t' contam no trace of nos a„,l «,., those Lnt!, forms .te vory d.soern.hle in the Greek .luals r,i and a,,^ '1^ e or.ginal i-h.ral was probably of a dual nature denoti-t -or of nuUvz, „aU, ,,roviflea their division into tlor two.s,_be nnphed. The .an. ren.ark. a,.),. to ,1.;.';^,:;, wllen"a5•plnr«?^''''"f,'"•' '''"°- -""^ """"'«■' - Singular '11,0 ,;i,„le funned by tla i li i | vL'- Im '''Ti '''^' % ^"'^'' '' '•• Mnu."::::,f: ro"r'„f^:. „1T/"v ';v p""";-^- ""• •''•""' '^ -- ".<• plural i' a fen.al.' (§ 55 rt" b 1 "^^'7^-'-"" "'^■^"'■'' ^^ •^^"-;;;"- -'>■ " ' ■' "'"■:. :;:e^^r.:f i,';l^i;":;',' ,;,:,„r '"•• •"" * Fo fo e r an^i„<,.enioiis hypothesis as to hou- certain antiquated e< "y Cyclopnedia. nri;" VV?.^ ^? ^^^ ^e«trictc(l to the dual sense "titled 'Dual Xiimber- in the Penny Cyeloil^d see the article S. n. SlnSTANTIVES. 23 = 'llWI'ks of favour'- „<../„/- Mi r, V'"'"^^ f "'"'im #at = ' „l,oa,, l,a,le.\ i„ ,„„.s,es'. '<"■"""}. •'••' 7CVQ01, y.g,. Obs. 4. Number of the Descriptive Accusative ui, <-'al persons a,e .liaravloiised will, ,rff.e„« ,o !,, ? "''' afacbj oftl,en,in,l, or pa,t o I e ,! h ' ■ " P'""^;"'^'' >"' ' j;oo,i of /«„,,, .'„ ci;;:r::cu;i':7(7:r7:';.).'''"''''''''- '•■'"■ -""■i-i'i-^ 15.11. Casesof the Substantive. The case-eudin-s < cnote nV«.«,.. of the entity expressed by tl.e M.bs it n -...r f yocat.ve, nor the nominative denotes ; ; ) relation, and they are therefore not properly cases llu; relafons of ;,,«., «. being- the »i,n Jlcst ai (1 S Abvious, were i...,,b.nUj- the firs? observed, a u the t^rs <>xi,re.ssea,- „„a to the principal of the.se the 1 ree Greek *ases, „. mo.t of their applications, eorrespon.l theGet e denofng 'Ao,« what place', the iccu^S? "^ ^^ l..at place , and the Dative 'al what j.lace' Accord inSly thO.^0 <.fl«0« aro eapallo o/'e..pre.s.i,... t e reiaHo.. place, without the ai.l of prepos/tions. Vl s t t e ne an.l accu.satn-e may accompany any verb of mo- on to md.cate, the forn.er „./.■„.., and the latter ^^L' ,- the motmn proceeds; and the dative may accom, anva ' -n! 't! STr^'tf" ^'^'''' f^'- *'- o eratio?::r: t.ons which are construed with each case .txclusivel v 'nms .. and «;ra bring o„t the from relation of the gen hive "^ -er;pt-;r:;-ir^::^:;;:i^:;^;r--^^ 1 ; Tf- r ^"""'""^' --<^«>"Pa"ied by a >repisitiln «aj.s. Ihe hnest dlustrat.ou of the pniuniy locil forCfi 24 SUBSTANTIVES. 8. 1: of the Greek cases is lurnislied by the triple construction of .TfKpa, tliG mdical mGaniiiL^ of wliicli h hnkh: iUn. TtciQCi Tov ^ciOLlicog = 'from l>osiae the king'; naga rov fiaatXia z= '• fo beside tlie king'; Ttagcf t(o (SaGiXei = ' they are eight viz. Nomiiiative, Accusative, histnunental, Dative. .\blativt', (iohiiiw, Imiww mid \m{\\\\ It would appeui' thut language did not connuencc with a determinate number of cases, but that siguilicant particles u ere appended to nuuns !or tlie purpose «)t' denoting relations, just as they occurred and solicited expression, ami that these were gradually consolidated into a case-system, more om of connection^ and a fnnn of sepa- ration : for, when one thing proceeds from another, tliat other — tlie origin or source whence — may be regarded either as having possessed it, or as now deprived of it; and the former view implying connection with, gives rise to the possessive genitive (of, or belonginf-' toj^ as 'the * In this table the case-names are used, not in their con- ventional sense, which varies with every language, according- to the development of the case-system* in each; but in their strict etymological sense. 26 SUBSTANTIVES. 8. 14. «ou of I e. Yrm a father'; while the latter, iinplyino' separalmi from, giv^^vha to th(^ prfv^itive or a hi ah' ve^onC tivC^ It Is important to observe that the from of sepa- ration api)ears chiefl}- in acchkntdl or temporary process- ions, as when a tile falls from a house-top- whereas the from ofconneciion oUaliKs ill all the j;reat proce^sioihs (if nature, as, the rain falling- />-o//i heaven, tlie wind blow- in- from the nortli, the stream flowinji: pom the lake, the fruits growing from the earth c^e. In all these cases the fro7n of observed procession implies, and is indeed the only evidence for the of of origin; so that the rain, Avhich lall.s from heaven, is also, and for that reason, the rain of heaven dc. Accordingly, in some languages, the o/" and from relations are confounded in one M-ord, as in the French de , and the German vcu. Neither in Greek are they distinguished by separate prei)ositions 11115' moro tlian \)y separak^ case.'^; Ia anJ Irto, wlileh arc the proper expletives of the genitive case-endino^, an- swering sometimes to the one, and ^metimes to the other.^ Thus (1. John 2. 19.) f j ?J,aa3i^ fi})l^ov , cdV ovy. i](5av f'l ?5aa}y := 'they went out from us, but they were not Qfm\ Sometime.^ al^io in Enolish, of = from ovon In a strictly t^enitival sense as ynwii^slc iy, JioQ==^horix />/ Jupiter'. §. 14. Development of the Genitive. The genitive has received various names, according to its various AplUlCAhAns, as iha jyossosslve, e. g. eavrov eJvai = 4o be his own master', the material, e. g. ty.TCio^a %x}kov = * a drinking cup ©/"wood', the privative, e. g. ikev&SQOg q)6^ov = 'tree from fear', the partitive (Obs. 1.), the local (Obs. 2.) and the temporal (Obs. 3.). Farther, pro- cessiou or ori;;'in fnnn h clearly akin tu the cause jvlmwe * The student must familiarise himself with the derivation even of opposite relation from the same radical one; and he may illustrate to himself the process hy the history of particular words. Thus GvuCpogd = 'a concurrence', hence either 'a disaster' or 'a §uccc55'. feiiiiihuly ill ItaHaii /(jf/i/z/r/. §. U. Oljs. 1, 2. SUBSTANTIVES. 27 (fx), or ofi account of ii-^tich (owey.a^ y^ciQi,v\ ; hence the causal genitive (Obs. 4.), under which may be classed the genitive of the ^/^^v^/, interpreted by fx, d/(v, nuQ^, TtQOg^ VTto. Tbe fro7n of connection is also generalised into the genitive oi concern, interju'eted hyn^QL as: (De- niosth. \\. 11). f).) XOVtldV OvxL wv oo^ rov vmlqov tov IL ySLV = 'I do not see the present to l)e an opportunity for speaking of these things'' = de his. As this genitive is chiefly used with adjectives and verbs denoting mental aftections (§. GO, (L §. b4, d) it may be called the metaphy- siad, Finally there i.^ the aimjimitivc ^^-enitive niuler various nujdiucations, as the genitive of snppn'ority or in- feriority interpreted by ttqo, uvtl^ the genitive o^ equival- ence interpreted by ccvtC^ and the genitive of congntity interpreted by ngog (Obs. 5.). Neither iz nor c^Tto is ever found with these comparative genitives, and the radical meaning of tt^o', arr/T, tt^o,, wliich are found with them, >\ould indicate that the from notion had here passed into that of in front of. These relations are naturally con- nected; for, when one oliject is in front (/another, it is not sujiposed to be in contact with, but at some distance from that other object. Tims, in single combat, the par- ties move from, in order to take up i)ositions in front of each other; and, for illustrations sake, the relations of comparison may be paralleled Avith those of coml)at, since they decide the same results viz. superiority, in- f(n'i(\i'ity, (u« o(ini\lity. Obs. 1. Partitive Genitive. The case-ending of tlie partitive gcuiuvc answers exactly to the Fiencli ft?;/, dc la, des j as ic^Ui y.QBcov = *il mange de la viaiule' = Mie eats (some) meat'. \Vith substantive verb this genitive is usually preceded by Ix or oltco , as 6 ^dvaxog {h) T(ov ^syiCicov kky.cov iativ =: 'death is (one) of die greatest evils . Obs. 2. Local Genitive. The where of an object as well as the whence (§. 11) is denoted by the local genitive. If an object move away from my right, its direction is given, and! know that it is now somewhere on my right. Accordingly ds^iag, and similar adjectives, at^reeing; with ;fft^oV expressed or understood, are so useil with or without f|. b nuiy sooni straiij^e that a case-ending. 28 SUBSTANTIVES. §. II. Oljs. 3. u liicli pi'dperly denotes whence, should liave come to mean where; but tills is neither more nor less strange than that where in English should have come to mean whither (§. 76. Obs.). The fact is Hiat, apart from the looseness of popular u>age, position where may be indicated both by the direction whence =^ from there to here, and by the irucctiou xL'fdth^r = from here to there, As iu Latin ub oriaUe ^ve/si/s orientem = 'in the east', so iu (iicek nQO^ VOZOV = 7100^ voTov = '^'ui tlic south'; and these two constructions are inier- chaiigcd eveu iu the same seutence (Herod. IF. 121. o, 6.). The transition of the whence into the where relation appears on a large scale in the use of the local adverbs with the whence snftix -^'fv, f(»r the corresponding adverbs with the where stifhx ^i."^ The numerous prOlininillHl g(.M)itiVN in (Ireek, wllioli became adverbs c^Uvhere , as ov, nov (§. 49), shew that the power of expressiuij^ that local re- lation was early conceded to the genitive; and aeeoidingly, not only such genitives as daltag, in which the transition ham whence to where can by traced, but words defniing place however exactly, even najnes of/'jwiis were^so used: as (Od. XXI. 108.) ovts Uvlov h- Qrjg, ovz' "Agysog^ ovts MvKrjvrig = 'neither at sacred Pylus, nor at Arg-os, nov at Mycen.Me': this iis«- uf the gouitive liowevcr is cliieny poetic. Wlien the place is not a spot Init a «listiict, the geuitlvc of ivhere is better translated by oyer than at, as (II. IV. 244.J; noliog nsdioio ^hvaca = 'running over a great plain': (Acts 19. 26.) ov uovov 'Efpiaovy dlld ax^dov iiriGrjg trjg 'Aaiag = 'not only at Kplu'sns, but over almost all Asiii'. Obs. 3. Temporal Genitive, a) The relations «d' place are na- turally transferred to time, as appears from tJie frequent iutercliange of ivhere and tvhen iu Kiii,-lish. ;iiid from the Latin uhi and the Greek onov denoting butli where and when. Accordingly the temporal gen- itive denotes the whence of time as (Herod. W. 40.) xqCt(a tikvyaQ fte'C Tovtcov Zy.vd-ag icpevys = 'for in the third yearYmw this lU' (-Miltilhks) lied fVom beftire the Scythians', in whleh pass.-.-e the years are counted backwards, so that '/row this' = ^before this': but the years might be counted forwards, and then ^from this' = aftev this , Also the where of t'.me i. e. tvhen , as: rov sagog = 'in the spring-time' (§. 18. ()bs.5, f): ami the /?oj6- /ow^^ of time, cor- responding to the over of place, as noLOv xoovov, = 'how long?' ov^Ha>iQOv = 'not a long- time'; (Plat. Synip. 1?2. c) noUm STcov = Mnr'ino many years' (§. 18- Obs. 5, {j;). /jJ Traces of the ^ The same thing is illn.'^trated in Italian, whenever the prepositions t« = 'by night'. So in English, 'o/'late', 'o/*old'. There are similar traces of the geuitival how long, as in old English, 'o/'a Ion:? time', and in German, feit lander 3cit= '*<»•■ ^ long time', where, tlumgh with a diffi'iviit case, vd time ]\m long \^ ^'xpivi^sod by sinc^ i.^e. by the from relation, the from indeed sug-j^ests not oidv a sttn-tijig- poM ill time, but continunnce after it. as may be seen in the English phrases from the first, from the hepbunngl wliich do not express i>\\w\iU' iUnejvhen, like tiu- Italian da prima = V/Mirst', and the Greek dgxriQ = ''at the beginning', but time extended iudehnitely from a given origin, c) The ^^enitive of time whence is UeUcrnllY a^eeompaiued by sy. or ccTto ; and of time ^vheii or hoxv lo7iq by by. (XTto, did, or, with proper names, by int, as inl Kvqov = 'in the tinu" of Cyrus '. Obs. 4. Causal Genitive, o) In English, from denotes only the antecedent cause, as: 'From what I learn, we had better &c. ' ' But in (jreek, particularly in Attic with negative infinitival clauses, the genitive denotes also the ^m«/ cause , or aim, and even tlie simple result. The natural connection between the aim and the result appears from their coincidence ui the Eatin nt , and the Greek onmg = 'in order tliat' (aim), and^'sothat' (result). Thus the antecedent cause, as ae evduLfiovC^co tcov Xoymv zfjg dvv(X}ie(og = '\ congratulatcyoii because of the power td' your words': the linal cause Oi' aim as (II, sill. 2S2,) rji m d]']'iUfji m' ¥ Uv9(5 ; = 'or liiist tliod come to me foi the sake of some auuouncement ' i. e. 'to tell me something'? as if ' from tliat as a spring of action'; (Mark. 4. 3.) i^rjl^sv 6 GTtsiQcov xov GTtSLQac = 'the sower went out to sow': and the simple result, as (Rom. 7. 3.): eXsv&SQa sariv dno roi voaov rov ixr} slvai avzijv iioixaUda = 'she is free frt.m the law, so that she is not an adulteress'.* — ij The genitive of the agent eOmes under the head of the r/??^W genitive, because the agent is .just the personal cause, or the cause personified, as: fis&Za&els tov rfXTa90g=' intoxicated bi/ nectar': (Soph. Phil. 3) KQaviarov TtatQOg EXXrjvcov rQCi(p£Lg= Seared % the mightiest sire amouo- theGreeks '. Of theprepositions enumerated in §. liasaccompanyiu"- the genitive of the agent, vno is the one most commonly used. Ohs. 5. Comparative Genitive. a) The -enitival orlj-in of the comparative fornnda' appears more or less in some modern lan- * In accordance with a Hebrew idiom, tlie genitive of the article with the-infinitive is frequently used in the Septuagint mv -:^ MVHH^ 30 SUBSTANTIVES. J5- 15. j^^ua^es, as: O oiiios ovzo^ -AuXXt'cov ty.ecvov taziv=^= ,iJii» liousc is more boaiuif'iil i/ian that' = '(luosfa casa o piii htlla di })h^r^h)j pAS« mio one anotlier, when transferred ^roni external ohjects to metaphysical discourse: thus a mans attention can he engrossed in a thing, with n thing", or by a thing, and this intercliangeahility may havo aided in the coalescing of the instrumental and locative cases witli the (Ifttiye in Grook («ooTa1i1o iJ.llOl...), suppos- ing that in Greek, as in Sanscrit, there were once se- parate forms for these. The more numerous the original case -endings, the more nearly wouhl some of them resemble others, and the more easily would such coalesce on euphonic grounds ah^ne.=^ The SailSClIt loCdtivC 111 U ■^ The influence of mere sound on the usa^e, and even the existence of cases appears very clearly in Romaic. The perit- tosyllabic form of nouns having become obsolete, nothing distin- guished the dative from the accusative but the filial V ^i\]\K) lat- ter. In mGdla3val Orcek however that consonant ceased to be S. 10. SUBSTANTIVES. 3i for instance, might easily coalesce with the Sanscrit da- tive in ai. §. 10. Development of the Dative. At, which im- plies juxtaposition, representing the radical force of the ^Intivr, that ca^e Is iisful to doiioto n) niiy ciroiimghmoe whatever accompanying a transaction, and is then call- ed the circumstantial dative. The circumstance, ex- pressed by the dative, may bo of any nature whatever: e. g. the circumstance of (tifference is put in the dative as: vnodEiGxEQog oA/^'co ^Mnierior hj little'; oVo) ^m^Qv Toaovrco '^c^keTTo^re^ov == ^ thv greater the more difficult'- and therefore the rule which says that "the cause, man- ner, and instrument are put in the dative", includes only the principal uses of the circumstantial dative. To this dative the prepositions fV, STtl^ avu^ uua are occasionally prefixed (Obs. 1.). ?j) When the cirenm- stance is one of jdace, then the dative is locative: but its poAver is restricted to denote the place ?vherc , as "A&ri- vriGL = 'at Athens'. This dative is sometimes accom- panied by ava and fiezd in poetry,- and very generally in prose by ^0110 nf tho fVdlAwing iv, a^rpi, ^.^/, U, nciQCi, TTQOQ, Vfto. When locality is defined with relation pronounced, just as, even before the classical era, it had ceased to be either pronounced or written in the accusative of most PGrittOSylhlbie nOnng (for V ;« understood to have been the prnnitive termination of all accusatives sing-nlarinGreek) • and jnst as the corresponding: m dropped out of mediaeval Latin whence arose the all but universal termination of Italian adiect- lyes mo. When the dative and accusative thus became undis- tinguishable by the ear in mediaeval Greek, the dative, as the less iiulispensablecaseof thetwo, slipped out of use altOlTetlier. lini the most curious result is that, althotx^-h generally thC da- tive so lost was resolved into e^s with the accuSatiVC, the esta- blished habit ot usnip a dative case sought satisfaction in the nse ot the genitive, particularly of pronouns, in a datival seuse. thus rov Etna zccvza = 'I told /lim these things', is good Ko- maic. These pronominal genitives are universal in Romaic for tlic (lativc Ot piienl roforonooj and were not aho^cthor nn- known in the ancient hing-uagre (§. .59. Obs. 4.). I 32 SrBSTANTIVES, 8. 16. Obs. 1. §. 16. Obs. 2. SUBSTANTIVES, 33 !t +o persons, nio aahve is uosi: roiuUn'od by a»Ut)){j, AS ^V ccvO^Qco7roig = 'ainon<^ nion"' . c) The where ol* plaet» l^ecomes the tv/icn of time^ and the dative is the proper case for a point of time. In the genitival exi)ression of time 7r/ien there is an element of duration, witnessing to the primi- tive wkncc relation — from tliere to here — , a» vvm^ = '])j' nig'ht': thoreforo in precise dofinitions of time 7vhe7i ^ the dative must l)e used, as t>} to/tj; (oqu = S// the third hour', and even t?] TQlTrjr]fiiQc< = ' o?i the third day'. Frequently in poetry, and generally in prose iv k prefixed to thi^s dative j sometimes also im and c?ft«. €?) At where^ considered in relation to persons, and when the object is not to designate locality by means of them, naturally gives rise to what has been called the dative of general reference (Obs. 2.) as: r/ 6i fxoi, ; = 'what is it /o meV i. e., in the most general sense, 'in relation to me '. \\ hat Is related t«) me ho\vever may l)e either beneticial or injurious, and hence the dative ^)i advantage or disadvantage, e) The dative proper, or Iransmissive dative is merely a particular case of the general refer- ence, as didovca xi tlvl = *to give something to some one'. JieKveen io and al Hiere is a niarkecl aishnchon m English usag:e , thoiigh In .some cases they are equi- valent, as in the phrases at the left, and to the left: but the transition from the one to the other is not so much as felt in those languages which express both by one lirppositioii. as tlio Germjin by jii, tlio Froncli by r/, the Latin by ad^ and the later Greek by iig% and it must be remembered that kindred relations coalesce more readi- ly in case-endings than in prepositions, the former be- longing to the synthetic or pregnant, and the latter to the analytic or expanded state of language, in which eveiy thing is sacrilied to precision. Obs, 1. Instrumental Dative. The insti ununtal dative afTortJ.s several ilhistrations of die remark in §. 12. that the same rehitioii may be denoted by different case-endings. Thus 'the material of which anything is made, may be regarded as the instrument, and is accordingly .sonu'timos found in the dativo, jnsf Ai=; in Enj?liglj we &jiy \ *a Willi biilli Willi \mh \ \\^ well as \i wall bnilf o/bhcks'. So tho price may be regarded as the instrument of purchase, as well as the equivalent of the tliiuu; purchased, and is tlien put in the dative Again, the cause may be rcj^arded as the instrument as TiduvBlV ro/ me', as 1„ Pronch ^c'est IVion dit a vons' = *if is well gaid by you'. After verbals in rdoc the agent is always in the dative (§. 72, <1). Obs. 2. Dative of General Reference, a) The dative of o, T^ av ^ovlr], iv avr tj jitaxaotoj ?V=: S'OUr mother allows you to do wlmtever you please that you may he ^^r happy son'.* In offers of meat and drink this dative is used to indicate politely the pleasure which the acceptance of the offer * The Greek dative here does not imply a relation so inti- mate as that of maternit;y' or possession ill any SCUSC, aiUl WOllld be employed even were the parties no otherwise connected than by the one deriving enjoyment from witnessing- the happiness of the other. The older English classics contain numerous examples of the true dativus eiJiicns , as this dative of general reference is called. Thus in the 'Two Gentlemen of Verona' Act IV. Scene 4: 1 came no sooner into the dinino'-ehamber' but he Steps mt to lier trencher, and stejils her oapon's leg'- and ag^ain: 'He thrusts me himself into the oompany of three or four gentlemanlike doofs' . 8o in the 'Merry Wives of Wind- sor', Act V. Scene 5: 'With trial-Hre touch me his finger-end' Similarly in German: 'Gg lief mir ctit .C>unb iibcr ben 2Sea' = ^riiere ran me a dog across the way' ; and in Latin: 'Quid mihi Celsus agity The only idiom still extant in English COnver .«;ftilOn, which approaches the Greek is the use of ' for you ' in the sense of 'yon being judge', or 'I warrant you', which the Germans express, like the Greeks, by the simple dative, as ®a?^ u;ar Sbnen ein ^^^afe = 'That was fun foryoti\ ^a ctab cs Cnicf) €iu epcftafel = 'There was a row for you\ The German use of the dative, to denote the party chiefly concerned, runs parallel with the Greek in nouns as well as in pronouns. .9 :u SUBSTANTIVES. §. 17. would give to the offerer as (Horn.) clXlcc fiot io&isfiev x«l Ttivi- li^v = 'hnt do, 1 pM)) )jou, out nnd tlriiik'. hj Horo bolonnr tho du- tivpg ol' participles exprosjsing will, pleasure, hope, and tlio adjoctivc uGyiivctj, with the sul)staiitive verbs slvai, yiyvscd^ccL, denotinj^ tliat something is an object of will, pleasure, or hope to the party uamed iu the dative. Thus (11. XI\', 108.) suol Ss nsv (XGfisva £iri= 'to me it would be welconie'; (Thuc. H. 3.2.) tw yag nli^d'SL tatvUXa- TWtwy ov dovloaivco riv tcov 'Ad'rivcctcov cccpLazccGd^cct, = 'for the mass of the Plata^aiis \veie not disposed to secede from the Atheni- ans': hence st col ^ovloixdvat taxLV = 'if you please'. The dative pai'ticiples avvrsuovxLy gvvsXovxl, with or witliout slnstv follow- ing, to deuote 'in brief, probably belong here, as if 'for' or 'with reference to one cutting short, abridging'. So also the adverbs i%ovxi = 'willingly', as^ovzC = 'unwillingly', c) This dative of <,^eiieval reference is also used wiili participles in defining the sitiia- tion of an object, as when it is saitl that any object is situated fjr KQiGtSQCi ianlsovrL = 'to the left as you sail into (tlie harbour)', literally 'with reference to one sailing ^c.' §. 17. Development of the Accusative, a) To where is the primary local force of the accusativ^e, as (Soph. Oo(l. Col. 643) : n ^w wiltns\ i} 66iiovs (Jnftay (aoi'c; = 'what dost thou wish then? to go to my palace V* (§, 11). But the relation w/iither, developed into f?^om here to there^ gives the idea of extension 5 and hence the accusative is also used to denote how far \\\ space, as "EmGOi^ aTci'/ei ccno Za^decov r^ioov rjfie^cov o 6ov = 'Ephe- sus is distant from Sardes three days' Journey ; and, by analogy, how long in time,* and hofv much in quantity. It thus appears that the value of a thing may be put in any one of the three Greek cases; in the genitive, when regarded as a price given in exchange, in the dative Avbeii regarded as tlie instrument o£ purchase, and in the accusative when regarded simply as a quantity: thus Tcoaag ^viag dvvazai, to zakapiop; = 'how many minae is the talent worth?' Place where and time 7vhe?i are some- times denoted by the accusative, but with an element of ^xt^nfiiAn in i\\o Ano caso, Mul (\( flnvAtion in tho Atliov, * "With an ordinal number in a deiinition of time, tlie ac- cusative denotes how long ffffo^ as (Aeschin. III. 77.) e^ do urjv d' rj^sgav trig -^ryarpoj avzm rerfA6i;r;^-/trta5='liis daughter having died seven days ago'. g. 17. Obs. SUBSTANTIVES. 35 as (Soph. Ocd. K. 1134) : rifio^^ tov Kt^ai^mo^ xojioi' ^= 'when, in the rej^ion of Cithicron', i. e. 'wandering oi'cr it' as shepherds do: so in definitions of time when, with reference to a space, not a point , of time, as ncckaiou ;|rpoVot';=:' anciently', b) The to ivhere force of the accus- ative marks it out as the objective case i. e. the case in which the immediate object of all transitive verbs must thing to be given is in the accusative, and the dative de- notPS moi'oly tlio pov.yonal at where of {he giving, not therefore the j)roper object of the verb at all. c) The accusative is a frequent accompaniment of intransitive as well as transitive verl)s, of adjectives, and of substant- ives used adjectivally, not however to designate the object properly so called, but to descrilip tlip scm of tlio opm^- ation or quality. This is called the descriptive accusative, and may be accounted for partly by the idea of extension which pervades the accusative, and partly by its adverb- ial character in the neuter (§. 18. Ubs. 1, b). Thus in KCiXhGiiVH za on^aza = 'she has particularly beautiful eyes', the accusative describes the scene of the beauty s manifestation. So TtvQLzrjg zi]v zixvt]v = 'a smith by trade'. This accusative may follow even transitive verbs in addition to the accusative of the object, as ^le enkrj^s Tt]v 'KS(fCiXt]vr='\iQ struck me on the head'. (§. 10. Obs. 4.) Obs. Prepositions defining^ the Relations of the Accusative. To the t.niporal accusative uihotv long the prepositions dia, dvci ■ncixcc, vno are frequontlj prefixed. In exact delluitioiis oi' hoiv }nuc/i Tcaga often precedes the .-jccusatlve: in approximative stg, inC, cmcpt, 7t&Qt\ -naxcx, Trpo's" are used. The descriptive accusative is usually explained by yiatcc = 'as to'; and not only Tiazd, but eig iiiul TiQQ^ alMi are actually fomid with it. Wliynovor it 6mm Jiow- cvtr witiiout a preposition, the siiidein is not to suppose tlmt one of ilicbc lias slipped out; on the contrary, whenever they are express- ed, he is to consider tjieni as mere expletives of a relation already indicated hy the accusative, and most frequently conveyed in classic Greek by the accusative alone. To tliis descriptive accusative ex- plained hy ytazd may he referred such adverbial accusatives as xriV 3* 36 SUBSTANTIVES. S. 18. ciQXT]v^'dt first'; rslog = 'finally'; trjv raxiotriv {odov) = m.o quickesi (wav)' i. 0. *)is soon ;i^ m\W' (i 49j. §.18. The Genitive Absolute. The genitive is pre- eminently the absohite case in Greek, i. e. the case for the ab.solute construction of a nonn and participle in apposition. As this construction is eniployeil to introduce some Infiiieiitial circumstance, the genitive was probal)ly Xviiivcov = 'The crews perished from the following cause .... from lh/> 6ml6)^S hmtj dill hff iy tllO OflVAliy when at a distance for fire-wood', where it will be ob- served that the genitive absolute is expletive of Sia rods, a tnil}' causal phrase. But other circumstances may be expressed by the genitive absolute , as time , ifiov fc5i/- Toc ==: Mil my lifetime', or a coiulitioii, ^m ^ilovTos= *if frodwiir. To bring out the poculiar force of the case absolute, various words are employed, as \\ ith parti- ciples in general (§. 47. Obs. 1.). Note particularly the use of cog with the genitive absolute for an indicative clause with m as (Xen. An.I. 3. G.) wj ifiov lovrog^ 07ti] ccv y.ccl vfA,ec£^ ovrco t7jv yvca^iiv s^ers = 'be mcU as- sured t/iat I go, wheresoever you do'. The genitive ab- solute so used generally precedes the principal verb; and this use of it is most frequent l)efore elSivca, imaraO^ca^ vosiVj e'xsLV yvc6}ir}v^ 6iciy.H6%cii Tr]v 'yvc6^ut]v^ cpQovxi^eiv^ more rarely before Xsysix'. Obs. 1. Other Cases taken Absolutely, a) The Greek daiivc, being die ciix'iimstautinl casr, is also sometimes used in the abso- lute construction as: KvQog s^sXavvsi cvvtstayiisvco r(0 GtQatsvfiati navxi = * Cyrus was marcliing with his whole armif drawn up i?i order'''., chiefly liowever in definitions of time, as: ■jrsQi'CovTL r

vhicli die Greek was privileged to undcigo with unexaiupletl slowness. Examples are tccvxcc S% yavo,u-fr« = 'these things having taken place', xvpco-Q-fZ' Ss ovSiv= 'nothing having been determined ' : So^avTCi xavza, and also So^civ TcevTCi=^ 'these things having been . Peculiarities of the Case Absolute in Greek. The Greek genitive absolute differs from the Latin ablative absolute ill the following respects, a) The noun is sometimes omitted, but only when it can be easily supplied from the context, or when, if the participial were changed into the indicative construction, the subject wmild lioi, Of at leiiM ileal not be expret^^'d j^. 50. obsO), as qv- tcos tx6vicov^==^ 'such bring the ca^e', nQOiovicov =,/«^ ''»^y •**^"" vanced', aaX7ii^0VT0g=^- \h(i trumpeter irnmpeiing', vovTOs = '\t raining', ft) The participle of the substantive verb is liardly ever omitted, as in Latin it necessarily always is: hence ie pitero = aov ncadog ovtog. c) In consequence of the (ireek verb possessing active participles of past time, the absolute construction is less fre- quently employed than in Latin: thus, ^ Cyrus Lroeso mclo Lvd'tS sibi subjecit' = 6 Kvqoq xov Kgotcov vi-nrjcue "aatBGrgsipato tovg AvSovg. d) The noun in apposition with the genitive abso- lute may be also the'subject of the principal sentence, as zavx' sC- novtog ciVTOv, i'do^s ti Xsysiv rat 'Aatvccysi = ' when he had so spoken, he >eemed to Ast>,ages to say something worth while'. 38 SUBSTANTIVES . §. IS. Ohs. 3, 4. But tills Is rai>e, ailtl not iCt l>e UUltak'J. (ClU'hl\ij' Gi'6<>k Gl'ftmmAl' ^. 585.) 01. s. 3. The Cases without an accompanying Participle used Absolutely. That the eoastnictiou of all the oblique cases, without any accompanying^ participle is often really absolute i. e. independ- ent of any otlier word, may be seen at large in Obs. 5. The nomi- Ililfivc tUO, SOnuiimcs ?tand$ mkH IVqui the general syntax, mere- Iv to briu^jf into nioniiueiice the main sul>ieci of discourse, as (11. VI. 395.) AvSgofxccj^ri J ^-vyccxriQ fjLByccXriTOQog Hsxicavog, Hsxlcov og t'vOLSv K. T. X. = 'Andromache, daughter of the great-hearted Eetion, Eeiion who dwelt' &c. And the construction of the vocative, for which the nominative is often used, is, from the very nature of the case, absolute. OIk. 4. Summary of Case Development. Tlio following tahlc represents at one view the develupmeiit of the cases, with the pre- positions most characteristic of their several applications. These prepositions do not always accompany the cases; and in regard to them, as in regard to the article (§. 5. Obs. 1.), it holds that, the later the author and the less poetic the style, the more frequently are they used. When no preposition stands opposite a case-develop- meut, it is because, pro hetc vice, no preposition is used \vith tlie case in classic Greek. Possessive Material Privative Partitive {g. U. Obs. 1.) Local (g. 14. Obs. 2.) Temporal (g. 14. Obs. 3.) Causal (§. 14. Obs. 4.) Metaphysical Comparative Genitive (whence) : ano tXTtO Je. J ' If, » et , CiTCO , Old If. i > c. t t I f§, ano^ Ota, vno TCEQl cw TtQO, CCVTl , TtQOS Dative (where) : Circumstantial (§. 16. Obs. 1.) Local Temporal General leference (§. 16. Obs. 2.) Of advantaj^e or disadvantage Traiismissive BV , em, TtfQl, TtCiQU, TtQOg, I'TTO ' 1 ' Local Temporal Quantitative Objective Descriptive Accusative (whither) : dia, ai/a, xara, vno nagcc, stg, stcl, TtSQL, y.ara, Trpog ' ' ; \ §. 18. Obs. 5. SUBSTANTIVES. 39 Ohs. 5. Formuls of Specification. The rt>uli§ of iliii!! in- vestigation, so far ;»s regards the absolute or adVL'rl)ial use of tlie vases, are here subjoined for the practical guidance of the student: a) Place where y by the dative with fv, sometimes without fv, particularly of the Attic demi: by the accusative with y.ccxu in some phrases, as xar' oI'y.ovs ftfrfir = 'to remain in the house': by e !,^L'lli[iVC ill Hit: Olllcr pon^ [% 11 ^M^ S.), The voiTOpoiuknt adverbial forms are okl datives as of'xot * = 'at liome', MsyccQOL = 'atMegara', old genitives as ccXXuj^^ov = 'elsewhere', and those witli the suflix Q-t^ as avrd^t = * there'. b) Place whence^ by the genitive with «x or dno in prose, and in the older poets by the genitive alone. The correspondent adverbial forms take the suffix -^-fv, as ol'v.o^iv, 'A^r]vr}d-sv. C) Place xvhitUery hy the accusative witli etg, Tr^og, tTti in prose, and in poetry by tlie accusative alone. The correspondent adverbs take the suffixes at, ^f, de, as iyietcs, ;|;aaa^e, neSiovbs, d) Place through or over, by the genitive with dta in prose, and by the genitive alone in the older poets; by the accusative with Ttara, as yiocta y^v xal ^dlaGcav = 'by or over sea and laud'. e) Place hoxv fciT, V>y the accvisatlve. f) Time xvhefi, by the genitive for ycneral specification, such as are the natural divisions of time, as rvxTds = 'in the night-time', x^i- |u,coj'OS = 'in the winter-time' : by the dative for ;jrecisespeciiications, as iirjvos e-Kzrj qp'9-tVovros^='the 24th or 25th of themonth', accord- ing as the month is hollow or full: ^"^ by the accusative sometimes AS rglrnv vh imktiv = 'the day hefore yestm\l;iy',,i. e. 'three days ago' (§. 17.'''): by the accusative with jrfpt, djicpC, when the definition of time is merely approximative, as nSQi dsD.rjv z=: 'about dusk', cc^cpl fisaag nco vvyttag =: 'somewhere about mid- night g) Time how long, by the accusative, of an action which has last- ed all ihe lime m mlvv igmv hfirnvn = *i i>»ve fasted a lon:^ while': l>y the genitive with or without dta, or by the dative with iv of an action whicli has or lias not taken place at some time tvithin a period, as noXXov yccg ccvxovg ov^ tcoQccacx tico x^ovov =^ *I have not seen them for a long time'. * The dative singular of ohog must have been written oi'- -KOi till about B. C. 450 — 400, ^vhen at was Introdviced. mio ine Attic alphabet. The ^>o.sr/scriptlon of final t too is of course more ancient than its 5«//scription, which latter could not have arisen till final t in the dative of parisyllahie nouns slipped out of the pronunciation. ** The use of the cardinal uia in the New Testament to donoto tlio fml day of th(^ week DIark. XYI. 2.) is a Hebraism. \ 40 SUBSTANTIVES, §. 19. cr O r leii h) Quantity y by tlie accusative, as appears in the hovv much of place and time: by the dative for the how much of difference, as sviuvxco TtQsa^vtSQOg = 'older by a year': by tlie i^euiiive for the how much of price: hy the adverbs ana^ <&c. aud those eiidin in (XTiLg, when how much = how often. i) In tvhai reftpe^i, l>y the AOCiieAtlve wltll M wltllOiU f/^, «06Q "A-cixci, fts SsLVOQ ^cix^^ = ^ ^^^^^'^'^^^^ ^'1 battle': by the dative whei not the scene but the meanti of a ([uallty's manifestation are in ques- tion, as a^a^ot yial rrlrj^s^ Kort nXovrco = ' unfit for war in respect of both men aud money'. J) Cause, hy tlie dative alone; the final cause l)y the dative with m, as ok klt?p))?jio(^«, wgd/ifitoupyojMit^W? ^^l' ini TicudtCu ^ ' uui witli a view to the crai't, but with a view to culture, you have learned to be an architect'; also by the accusative with TtQOg, and the genitive with j(^ce interchan'»'ed with the o'enitive of a cognate noun. Thus o /5«ve also might, bnt more gene- rally insert too or rather before the adjective, as : okCyoi ia^tev ag iynQarsLg slvai avtcov = Sve are (too) few to master them ' ; to vSo^^q ijjvxQov iaicv ware Xovaccad^aL = 'the water is (too) cold for bathing' (§. GO. Obs. 2 — 9.). Obs. 1. Comparative for Positive, and vice versa. In othei- cases the Greeks \ised the eomparative, where our idiom requires the positive. This oeeurs with neuter comparatives, chiefly of ffood- ness aiul badness, a> ^iXxiov. j^slqov^ -KccXXtov, also vscotsqov, and ehietly with a negative, as (Plat. Pha-d. 105. A.): JJccXiv dh dva- ^iLiivrjGyiOV' ov yccg xelqov noXXccMg dyioveiv = 'Once more re- memher: foi« It 1ft nd{ A lad tImiA' t^ llOfll' ot'tOll'.^ Ill tllO NiHV Tti- * It is one ofDr.Hodgrson's many acute observations that better in the Scotch dialect is, in regard to health, equivalent to well; 'he is better now', said of one who has been ill, meaning not simply- , as iu Eno^lish, that he is better now than he was some time ag-o, but that he is now ivell. The phrase 'He is f/mie hettev again' == 'He is quite tvell aS. Obs. 3.) PRONOUNS. Pronouns indicate allusively entities (personal pronouns), or iksmim imitttr fmljccim pmwufuy. §. 24. Personal Pronouns. alcv = 'two thalers and a half. 4 4G PRONOUNS. §. 26. meaning might be tlie same, Liit tlie infinitival clause would then be framed from the Athenians' point of view, not ironi the speaker s. Uv is most ii-eqiiently an iii- tlix-ect reflexive, i. e. refers not to the subject of* its own, but to that of the principal clause, c) The plural of i^avTOv, asavTOv, is formed by decomposing them into their elements, as rj^av avrcov z. x. A. The plural of kvwi may be formed in tlie same way, agrwy amm 'A. r. A., but it has also a regular plural savrcov x. t. X. as if E were alike applicable to both numbers. This seems indeed to have been the ease, for (II. I. 236.) we read Ttegl yag qcc s = 'for round // (the sceptre)', and alsQ (Hjmii to YeiuiJ? Y. 207.) uj^ivij H i m,h}]Q'mw == 'but f/tese they call temples'. Farther, iavrov^ par- ticularly in the plural, is used for the reflexive of the flrst and second persons, as well as of the third, as if originally ov had had a gcfieral reflexive power, the precise personal reference of which was to be j^atlierea Irom the context. J he great resemblance between the duals of Gv and ov countenances this sup- position ; and GcpLQiv is actually used for I'lHiy by Ho- mer (II. X. 398.), acpiac for v^ag by Herodotus (III. 71. 24.). The form do = ov is also found for i^ov (Apoll. KhodJI. G3S.). (|.^G.0W1.) ro- noun and the genitive of the personal being, in the g-reat ma- jority of instances, equivalent, they are sometimes interchanged even when not really convertible in sense. 48 PRONOUNS. §. 27. as (Od. XI. 202.) oog ts Tcod-og . . . Odvaaev = 'longing for thee . . . O Ulysses', and (Tliuc. I. 33. 3.) (jro/Jw tcJ v^sxi^co = 'tliroui;'li fear of you' ; where the person, so far from beini^ the possessor of the desire or the fear, is the object of both. Sometimes, but more rarely, the possessive pronoun is put even for the dative of the per- sonal, as (Soph. Oed. Col. 1413.) rrjg i(A.ijg V7tovQ}'iag = 'from your good offices to me\ In tragedy^ and occa- fciloiially ill prose, an netiter possessive pronoun >vltli tlie article has a personal force, denoting a comprehensive ego, as to sfiov or raficc = 'I and all belonging to me'. Obs. 1. Ov of all Persons. In confiiniatiou of §. 25. c it may be stated that sog, og and 6(fST8Q0gj the posscssives from ov, GcpSLg, also occiii- 111 tlie ^sel»se of' mine, thine, our ^ youi- (Nev' C^atyln^s pp. 237 — 8. Jelf ^. 654, 2.e.). ALso, the dual po.ssess.'^ive ccpcotxBqois refers j^encrally to tlie second person, but sometimes to tlie third. Obs. 2. 2^(p izegog is excUibively reflexive, and, like the personal reflexives, refers either to the subject of its own. or to that of tlie prineipal eiau<;e. Thus in X^yovGiv (og ov dCyLcciov xovg ()(p?T?0OD5 IviifikoK vm ^W^to-'fliey say tliat it is not right lor \ou to receive f/ieit allie^', ccvTciv , substituted for GtpareQOVSj would not necessarily imply that the allies are those of the speakers, which GcpeTtgovg does. Obs, 3. Emphatic Formulae. Tlie geniti\e oi' ccvrog is some- times aihled to the possessive pronouns, to intensify tlie reference. Thus 6 eiiog avrov and 6 cog avtov are sometimes found in the sense OI O tuavrov, o esavro'V i .iimI fhis usairt' is frequent witli til.' rellexive Gq)£X£QOg as, avrcov yuQ ccpsrsgrjCtv ctxciaQ-ccX^rjaiv oXovTO = 'for by tljeir own follies tliey perished'; so in Latin '^st/a ipftorum temcritate'. §.27. Demonstrative Pronouns. The personal predi- Istpers.ode* :::^liic ::::questo lection of tlie Ciroek 2d ,, ovvog = iste = cotesto demonstratives 3d ,, £'/frvog = ille =quello shewn in the is ac- companying table. Just as an Italian would call the city where he writes, qitesta citla (city of the ego), that where ^- OSl and ovTOGL are forms more intensely deinonstrative than ode, ovrog' they are frequent in comedy, and were doubt- less borrowed from the colloquial style. I %. tl. EHONOUNS. 49 a friend addressed resides, cotesta citta (city of the Ui), and that where some third party resides, qiiella citta (city of the illc^ : so in Greek a man may say of liimself (Eur. Or. 380) od' etfi' 0^iavi]g = '/tcre (demonstrative of the ego) I Orestes am'; of another who is addressed, ovrog XL noLelg; = ^ you there (demonstrative of the /w) what are you doing?'* and of any third party iKstvog (de- monstrative of the ille). Hence at the bar ode or o6 ccviq^ == ^the pleader and his client', ovrog = 'the opposite party'. So also (Soph. Antig. 43) si xov K^ov ^vv zride y.ovcpLSLg ;jj£pt=: 'if, along with t/iis he e and {of mine), thou wilt raise the corpse'. More generally o6e points out what is immediately under one's eye bodi- ly ov menial; oufO^ what is not so dir^^etly in view, as at the side or behind one^ eoi-ecvog ^vhat Is far removed, out of sight as it were. Hence in a discourse ode gener- ally refers to what is about to be said, as St,' aixlav rrivSe = 'for the follojving reason', ovxog to what has just been said Jilready: and the same distinction holds between roidads , zoGoode , TfjUKoade^ on the one hand, and roLOVTOg^ Toaovrog^ trjlixovTOg on the other; as also between the adverbs ovrcog and coSs. Of ovrog and ixel- vog the former generally denotes the nearer, or, failing that, the more important object j the latter the remoter^ or, failing that, the less important object. In combi- nation with one another, as zom iasi^vo, rod' iy,elvo^ they indicate a double reference viz. an immediate and a re- mote : thus, introducing a proverb ixei^vo means 'that pro- verb which you all know', and zode 'that proverb which I am going to mention'. So (Soph. Oed. Ool. 1.9S) oS SKcLvog iyco = 'Here I am {oS iyco), the very man you have been talking about' {i^eivog), said by Oedipus to the wondering chorus. * Hence ovxog, rarely ccvxrj, came in Attic Greek to be used as a vocative, or rather as a mere interjection, like the Latin heus, as (Soph. Aj. 89) oj ovtog, Ai'ug, dsvzEQOv gs nqoanuX^ = 'Holloa, Ajax, a second time I call thee'. 50 FRONOUNSt §. 28. Obs. Demonstratives as Antecedents. ''OSs is seldom the an- tecedent to a relative, ovrog otteii: but the demonstrative antecedent is frequently omitted, especiallv Avhen it would stand in the nomina- live or aceiisaiive. It is by a similar omisbiou of iiie demonstrative antecedent that oui tvhat has become a compound relative =^ 'that which'; and in all such crises of omission, the Greek relative is, for the nonce, as trulj compound as our ivhai.*^ Thus (Xen. Conv. 4, 47.) Ols 7^9 u,cckLarcc ra ndQOvxa ctq-nst, rj-ntGra xcov aXXozQLCov ogiyovtCiL =.^ ' Theif who are most content with what they have, are least desirous of otlier men's goods'. The omission of the de- monstrative in tlie phrase imv oi =: mnt qui. resulted in the iii- detinite fWoi='some' : SO i'ativ OTf became £i/tOT6='someiime& . But it is quite classical in Attic to write mot in its ori-inal elements throughout all cases, as (Thue. III. 92. 5.) TtlrtV y Icovcov xal 'Jyofi'cov %wl S6TLV av allcov e^vwv = 'except lomans and \chiuans, and so?ne oilier nations'. A preposition may intervene as (ThUC, I. 23. a.) iOUV TTttf' ofj^'wiih some'. This decomposed form is sometimes interrogative (Jelf ^. 817. 8.J. §. 28. Relative Pronouns. The relative construc- tion is in its nature attributive, being really equivalent to an adjective or participle in^^ concord with the ante- cedent, as TtagZcSTigTtXovtSL^^SrAOQknV^ZTtdQ'KlOV' at, OS Cid^KOs iov^v (§. 4. *) • ctY'Os and odvig are frequently interchanged, yet there are differences between them. ''O^ properly refers to ^definite antecedent, RsZsvgog iopoga Ttavra = 'Jupiter who beholds all things '5 oGrig to an Ue finite anieeeclent, AS mmOS 0(111? oMaV tdl VQVV I'^g^ ^^ 'happy he who has means and mind'. From such phrases as these, where the relative clause defines the antecedent, and gives it all its importance instead of merely adding an accidental circumstance, may have arisen tlie power of oartg -Nvith future indicatives, to ex- press fitness, or the party whose business it shall be to do a thing as (Xen. Anab.1. 3. 14.) /;yf.iiov« dixHV KvQOV * Who is also sometimes a compound relative in EngUsh as t'whom ike Lord loveth he cha§teneth'\ where 'whom' ^ 'him whom'. The elhpsis of the relative, so common in the Enghsh objective case, as. 'The books (which) I want are here', never occurs in Greek. g. 28. PRONOUNS. 51 ooxLQ {riiictQ) dui cpiXCaQ Tfjg xcogag anolGZL'^' :=i 'To ask of Cyrus a guide who shall lead us back through a friendly country', or, in more idiomatic English, 'to lead us back'. Akin t6 tllis llSAg^ is 0()n^ = (/uipp^QUt, assigning a reason, as (Aristoph. Nub. 1377) Ovy.ovv Scxaicog (as eTcaxQi^ov) oGrig ovk EvQi7tlSr]v STtacvscg -= 'Did I not (beat thee) justly, ?vho i.^e. masmuch as thou praisest not Euripides'. Og occurs also in the sense of olog^ re- sponding to Totovrog, as Tomiu Uyu^ « QvM<; h g???- otuv dv^QoiiKoy = 'you say such things as no man would say'. When ovtco precedes, oarig^ and, sometimes also, og answer to it in the sense of ware as (Soph. Antig. 220) OVK S6TIV OVTCO ^coQhg og davetv iga = 'there is no one so foolish as to desire to die', b) OIoq^ the relative of qiiality, answei'S to xocoade and roiovrog in the ante- cedent clause, as ctj»V TOio vTog olog iaz Lv='-heingsuc/i as he is'; but these antecedent words are seldom ex- pressed, and we have ovdsv olov x6 uvxov igcorav instead of ovdev xoLOvxov olov zo avxov EQcoxav = 'there is nodiing Jzke asking kimself. Pai-tlier, b^ the omission of the demonstrative antecedent, and the attraction of olog^ into the case of the omitted antecedent, a form olog 6v ccvi^Q is obtained, which is declinable throughout, as '&ap = I ain writing at ^ ^j^^ ^^^^^^ Future yga^jco = I shall write after > ^^.^^^ 'Perfect yiygcicp a = I have Avritten before ) Historical or Indeterminate Tenses. Historical, bocftuse vefmYiiiA; 16 the pA^t;^ Ind&iQTmiMte be- cause, the past not being, like the present, ii moment, and a moment determined by the act of speaking, but a space of time, they do not make a complete sense of themselves, and require someseparatespe- cification of time, expressed or understood, to define tlieir reference. ^ „ „ T -x- i incompleted Imperfect £^?«.pov =Iwaswntingj ^^^^jj^^ ^^ completed action in some > past time. Aorist eyQCi\\)(x = I wrote -r^, n 1 ' Ti 1 -ii^ i completed Phxperfect ,yzYQcccpuv=.l had written Ij^^ti^jf before g. 91. Pi*6fiAiit Indicative. TIia Gvoek present lias all tlae uses of the KiigUsli present, Lotli in tlie simple form of the latter, 'I write', and in the compound 'I am writing'. Thus, as habit, or recurrence can he expressed by 'I write', so hj ygacpoi: as universal propositions, mflxiffis, and proverbs are expressed liy tlie present in English, so in Greek, the present contemplated by the mind being coextensive with the existing order of things: as in English past events are often narrated and future ones predicted in the present for the sake of vividness, so in Greek, But the following are peculiarities in the use of the Orcek present, as compared with the English. a) The Greek present, expressing an incompleted opera- simply future, if it be considered that every past, as such, is capable of being used potentially (Jelf §. 858, 1. 2.). '^ Wlien tlie present tense is used in tlie representation of past events (§. 34) if is called the historic present, and takes rank with the projierly historical tenses in all applications of the law for the sequence of tenses (§. 40). 6i VERBS. §. 35. Obs. 1. tion, often denotes tlie attempt or purpose to do a thing, which we also denote by the present, but with the aid of a preposition, asacpaLQScg xcc Sfia xsLfxrjXia = 'you ar^ for Uikmj awai) my JGwek'. h) With mlm, or somo similar word, {\\o Greeks used ilie present where -wg use the perfect as tcccXccl tovto ■Q-eao^cct =: / have been look- ing at this a long time'. The French have the Greek idiom, as 'je le regarcle depuis longtemps'. Obs, 1, Preseats for Pasts. The \m of ihc pi'c&ciU for the past is sometimes bold, beyond English usatre in Greek poetry, as (t,ui'. iJaccli. 2) jdtowaog ov Tt-nrei. Ttov rj Kcxo^ov -ko^tj = *Bacclms, whom tlie daughtei- of Cadmus erewhile bore*. But ^^ome presents have uniformly a past meaning, as oi'^o^ccL=^ 'I am gone'; 71^,03 (a new present from the perfect 7yxa)!=:*l am come'. The pre- sent state expressed by these forms Greek and Eiiglisli viz. gone and come, implies the aiitt'CiidGiit action of comimj or goino: and thoy may therefore be expressed by the perfect forms 'I have gone', 'I have come\ Obs. 2. Presents for Futures. In verbs of going, tlie em- ployment of the present for tlie future is more than rhetorical; it arises from their meaning, and is common to all languages. In English even the continuative present of such verbs has a future toi'ce . as *Ia for *I sliall i^o &c. ' ; but we cannot say '1 am writing- a letter tomorrow' for 'I shall write &c. '. So in Greek sl^ij livaij Icov are both present and future. §. 35. Future Tense. The Greek future answers exactly to the English with shall and 7vill. See §. 28, a, wliore tlie peculmr force of shall appears in tlie future indicative with oartg:^ so also in prohibitions, ov (povsv- CT7yfica== I possess , yis7iTvoouai, = 'i shall possess'. In other cases also it has the force of a simple future, the place of which it even usurped in some verbs, as in yiontco, navco, nntQda%(o, particularly m Attic. §. SA. Perfect: T^nfid. Tlio GvGek povfoct IS fairly represented by tlie EngUsli wltk have, denoting a trans- action at some time before tbe present, Avltli tbe colla- teral idea often of its contimiancc, by repetition, or m its effects, to tlie moment of speaking. Thus 'He has a^Ays pvoteotPd tliG just' may not k said of a monarch deceased, but may of one living, and would imply that the monarch's protection of the just continues up to the moment of speaking. In regard to a monarch deceased the has must be left out, and the verb then becomes mmt .• by ^vhich it appears that the difference between the perfect and aorist tenses is mainly tbis: tbe perfect is a past connected with the present, the aorist a past severed from the present (§. 38. Obs. !.)• Obs 1 Perfect for other Tenses, a) As some presents may be translated by perfects, so some perfects may be translated by ^mm, ftS mnmi ^ '1 liaVC acquired , hence ^I possess ;xs- yLlnuaL = 'I have been called', hence 'I bear the name ; ^f^ov- keVUdL = 'I have taken counsel with myself, hence ^I am deter- mined'. (For otlier examples, see Jelf §• 399. Obs 2 ) This usage is sometimes empirical as ra^c-^Va^a^^' I wonder ', just as m Italian ho canito = '1 understand', b) The perfect .s also sometmies rhe- torically used for the future, as (Soph. Phil. 75) stjis ro^cov syyiga- .^,, .Ll^.src., llu.U^% while master of his weapons, he shall perceive mo. 7 ^/m WW^/0??e'. , i„«.«« Obs 2 Compound Form. The form ^avyi^aaa^ tx(o denotes the contlnuauon of what was be-un iu the past down to the present, and in the present, more markedly than the simple perfect and means ^ I keep wrmdering'; so driaciaag f';t^t=: 'he keeps dishonouring^ . tracing the influence of both these elements in all the meanings of this tense. \ % 37. Obs. 1. VERBS. 67 §. 37. Imperfect Tense. The Oreek imperfect corresponds to the compound form of the English tense so called, as iygacpov = 'I was writing', and expresses coutinuatiyc action at aom^ pa^t time ^vliicli mUNJt bc specified separately. ^Ylien that specification is made by another verb, that other verb is also in the imperfect, if its time coincide with, but in the pluperfect or aorist, if its time precede that of the principal imperfect. Like the present, and for the same reason (§. 34, a), the imperfect often denotes the attempt oi* disposition to do a thing-, as (Aeschin. 3. d3.)'^^6vi^r](joi' idCdov^ 6 de azcr^- yd^ei'f lir] lciii^dviivz=z '(Philip) was for giving Halonne- sus, bnt (Demosthenes) would not let it be accepted'. Also, because its force is continuative, the imperfect is Wfi^d in V\v\A fl^S^^vipti^ns of {lie pasi auJ is ilion called the descripiive tense, as (Horn.) ot u.ev ctg olx>ov e lllg yov Evi y.QTixri^GL jcat vcco^. oi ds k. t. I. = 'some fvere mix- ing wine with water in goblets, others &c.' Farther, repetition being one form of continuance, the imperfect Ims an iterative force; and in this sense it has a pecu- liar termination in the Ionic dialect viz. oymv, wliich is also the Ionic termination of the iterative aorist (S. 38. Obs. 3.). Ohs. 1. Imperfect and Aorist contrasted. When of two past events mentioned together one has in it tlic elenicni of duration, and tlio otliLT not, or uiioii oiio of thorn lias it to a ^mi&\^ Lccv^^ than tlie other, it is common, particularly in Herodotus and Thucydides, to denote that one which has in It tlic clement of duration, or Avliieh and they fought on\ {$. 38. Obs. 1. §. 40,a.)* * How deeply rooted in the Greek mind was this distinction between recurring- or continuative, and single or tiansient action appears by the formation of two futures founded upon it in post- classical Greek. Thus in Romaic 'I shall write tomorrow to mj parents' = Avqiov d^a yqdipco etg rovg yovscg iiov but 'I shall write daily to 'my paronts' r^Qii utit^t^ v.ai*' mUta^ sCs xovs yovei? aov. For an explanation of the particle &'cc, see the author's 'Romaic and Modern Greek' p. 17. 5^= k 68 YERBS. §. 38. ** Obs. 2. Imperfect used Potentially. According to §. 33.= the imperfect, being an aui^memed iciisc,* is capable of being used potentially. This is particularly the case with verbs denoting neces- sity or obligation, as idei = *it would be necessary^ (so in Latin oporiebat)] Yofiv='h would be one's duty'; etyiog ?^v=*it would be riirlit'. The potential use of the imperfect however occurs iii other verbs also, as (Herod. VII. 220.) usvovxt 8% ccvrov ^isya ytXiog iXeiTtero = '(he thought that) nrreat glory awaited him, if he remained there', where the English idiom exactly agrees with the Greek, 'awaited' being the statement, not of a fact, but of a pre- sumption. This idiom however is sometimes used in Greek where it wAuld b^ iiiadmig^ihlo in Eiigli^li, as (Eur. Baccli. 612) uf m W Xah, riv, SL 613 Gv^q)OQdg rvxoiax, l^at fie Sutiu» (Scifar in i()rer .^eimatt> aiif cjef ud>t, unb in iencn %clb~ 'ifiuyn ubcrtvunbcn= 'After this had been accomplished by long and severe struggles, did Julius Caesar seek them out in their own homes, arid subdue them in those campaips' ". It is obvious that the English perfect would here be inadmissible in the translation. 70 VERBS. §. 38. Obs. 3. \vhich he may have expressed before, but still entertains, as (Soph. Phil. 1434) yial aol Tccvr\ 'AxiXXicog Tf'xror, Tcccgrjvsccc = 'and that is my advice to you, o son of Achilles' i. e. 'that is what I have ad\ised and still advise'. So iyslccacc, rjveGa^ rjad-riv, dni- Ttzvoa, ids^d^riv. Tiiis usage is probably due to the usus ethicus; fni' tilt} fdm of a mmmi rogiiriliiig one's self is less obtrusive, when made in a purely past tense like the aorist, than when made by the perfect which in Greek is always a present past.* It is in this way that Latham accounts for the aorist ought being used as a pre- sent in English (Eng.Lang. §.473). The second person again of the Greek aorist is constantly useil with rt ovv as a perfect, to express a command interrogatively, as tlovv ovv. sls^ug |Ltot; = 'Why then have you not told me?' i. e. 'Tell me directly', h) In like manner, and still more frequently the aorist was used for the pluperfect, as (Xen.) ^aqSLOs Kvqov ^szaneiMTiSTCCt. ccrco rrjg ccQXVS VS ^v- Tov GaTQCCTtTjv STtotrjGs =3 'Darius sends for Cyrus from the government of which he had made him satrap'. In particular, the aorist is constantly emploved for the pluperfect after the conjunc- tioiis mi, miSi k (wlieii). m, m, dm^ ^iv {Qv-%m}\ and when it is considered that these are the conjunciions which na- turally introduce tlie pluperfect, it will become evident that that tense was to a great extent supplanted by the aorist even in classical Greek. The aggressive tendency of the aorist appears in the fact that, at the present day, while the ancient perfect and pluperfect have no exist- ence, the ancient aorist remains intact in the daily speech of the Oreek race, and often, as in ancient Greek, supplies their plftOe. c) Like the present (§. 34) and perfect (%. 36. Obs. 1, b), the aorist is also rhetorically used of future events. Obs. 3. Iterative Aorist. The aorist is employed, like the present, to denote what is wont to happen, as tag tav cpavkcov 6vv- * The Latin perfect represents both the perfect and the aorist of the Greek verb; and it is interesting in this connexion to observe the correspondence of such forms as mordeo momordiy tango ieiigi^ with tvtttco zetvtpu on the one hand, and of such others as vivo vixi, seribo scripsi, ygdcpo) sygaipa on the other. It would seem that, although the Latin future contains no trace of the Greek one, yet some of the Latin perfects were formed ou the same type with the Greek perfects, viz. by a reduplication, and others^ on the same type with the Greek first aorists, viz. by the assumption of a sibilant into the final syllable of the present; and this fact satisfactorily explains the twofold meaning of the Latin perfect, so that we can say both veni ut videam = 'I have come that I may see , and veni ut viderem =■ I came that I might see '. §. 39. VERBS. 71 oveCag oXCyoQ xqovoq SL^lva^v=^*a. short time destroys the friend- ships of the bad'. Jelf (§. 40*2. 1) would explain this, which is a usage of the aorist contrary to the general character of that tense, by supposing a reference in the speaker's mind to all the j) as I in- stances of his statement, as we might say in English 'A short time ever destroyed the friendships of the bad'. This however would still be using the aorist, not as aorist, but instead of the perfect ; for the time contemplated would evidently be all the past tiji to the moment of speaking. Besides, the aorist is so used in connexion with the present tense, as (Pla . Rep. VIII. 566. D) T^^' ovv siTtov, ov raig fisv TCQCoTaig i^asQaig xs xal XQ^'^^t TCQoaysXa rs -ncil acna^sraL Tcdvxag co dv TCSQixvyxdvr], -aal ovxs xvQccvvog cpr]6i,v sIvciL, moGivdmi T^'jiolla mi Idia ml di|uo(Jta, xomy zefjUv' ^^QCOGS yicil yfjv dLSV8L^.8 drjacp %at xoCg Tttgliaviov^ nai ncLGiv i'Xmg ts xal ngaog slvai Trpoff Trot ft ra/ ; = ' Well then, said I, does not (a tyrant) for the first few days smile upon and salute all, whomsoever he meets with, not calling himself sovereign at all, but making many promises both publicly and privately, yea releas- ino people from their debts , apportioning land to the public and to his own attendants, and affecting to be gracious and gentle towards all ' ? This iterative force of the aorist is more nearly aUied to its natural meaning as the past of the future (§. 33. **c) i. e. to its potential force. In the passage cited. XQ^dtv ts '^ksv&SQCoas might be trans- lated, ^ would /ree" them from their debts too', without .violence either to the sense or to the English idiom, for the would formula is often used to denote habitual action.^ Thus (Xen. Cyr. VIL 1. 10.) onczt 7tQ00^Uy}Sii'^^ XLva itov iv xcctg ra^eat, xoxs (isv elnsv av H. T. I. =: 'whenever he saw any of those in the ranks, then he would sajj &c. ' i, e. 'was wont to say '. "Av., the sign of potentiality, is here employed, but all the augmented tenses of the Indicative are used potentially also without av\ and it is because they have an inherent fitness, by being pasts, to express what would take place on certain conditions being iullilled, that civ AceompaniGS them SO often, and the unaugmented tenses never, except indeed, but very rarely, the future (§. 44. '^*). 39. Pluperfect Tense. The Greek pluperfect *) When the idea of constant recurrence, especially of a natural necessity, is to be strongly brought out, cpiXstv or &e- XeLV = solere, is employed with the infinitive. *"*" IlQ0O^Xei{^eL6 is here au example of what has been called the Optative "of indefinite frequency". It is used without dv after temporal conjtmctions, relative words, and £^ = 'as often as', wkfi ih^ hdiM veA is in a past tauso, to denote recur* ring actions. 7^ nnss. la corresponds to tlie Engllsli. For the aorist as its substi- tute, see §. 38. Obs. 2, b. When the perfect has the sense of a present, the pluperfect has that of an imperfect, as r.mrimi:='I possess', mKX7J^riv = 'l possessed'; H(o9ct = 'I am wont', eico^elv :=: 'I was wont'. §. 40. Subjunctive and Optative Groups. «) In briefly stating the nature of the Greek moods (§. 32), mention was made of the Subjunctive mood, none of the Op- tative, the term Subjunctiye having hoen piirpo.^ely used to include both.* To understand the difference between the groups of verbal forms in Greek, called respec- tively Subjunctive and Optative, the stiident must discard the notion that they are distinct moods ^ and learn to regard them merely as two tenses of the same mood ^ the group of forms called Subjunctive being present forms, and the group of forms called Op- tative being past forms of the Subjunctive Mood. It is found difficult to take this view because of the many * To avoid confusion in the sequel, when the term Subjunc- tive is meant to comprehend all the forms commonly called Sub- junctive and Optative, the word Mood will be added to it; but Subjunctive simply, or Subjunctive Group will be used to denote the forms commonly called Subjunctive, apart from those called Optative. Many recent writers, who inchide both under the name Subjunctive, caH the Subjunctive Group, for distinction's sake, Conjunctive J a term which I decline 5 because, while it has the disadvantage of being an innovation, it has not the recommen- dation of being appropriate. It is supposed to be justified by the fact that the so-called Conjunctive is usually introduced by con- junctions; but this is also the case with the Optative, so that there is no ground of distinction \\m. Farther, it seems t6 have been overlooked by the patrons of this innovation that the con- junctions in question are only those which serve for the subor- dination of clauses, and which might therefore be called sub- junctions, in contrast with the conjunctions proper, the copula- tive for example, which serve for the co-ordination of clauses. The nomenclature proposed in the present work accommodates the ola-estaDlisnea nomenela'ture to the real ^acts o^ the case, by calling the Subjunctive and Optative respectively Groups, and both together the Subjunctive Mood. I iiO. VEUBS. 73 forms in each Grroup, called tenses, and named accord- ing to those tenses of the Indicative with which they are evidently cognate. Here again the student must de- liver himself from the tyranny of names , and beware of transferring what has been said regarding the tenses of the Indicative to the Subjunctive and Optative forms called after them. The Subjunctive and Optative forms, called perfects, are still seldomer used than the perfect and pluperfect indicative:* and the future Optative is used only in the oratio obliqua^ and that but seldom, as the representative of the future indicative (§. 43), so that the only Subjunctive and Optative forms in general use are those called present and aorist. Now, when these are taken in the proper sense of the Subjunctive Aiooa, I.e. as denoting contingency ^vlth suboramation, they are distinguished not by a difference of time , but by this, that the present, whether Subj. or Opt., repre- sents the operation denoted by the verb with the acces- sory idea of recurrence or continuance , and the aorist, whethoi' Siihj. or Opt., with the aocefifioi'y idon nf .Qing- leness or momentariness. In short the difference between them is the same as that between the imperfect and aorist indicative (§. 37. Obs. 1. §. 38. Obs. 1.). In regard therefore to the so called tenses of the Subj. and Opt. groups, time-notions must be got quit of as between tense and tense,** and retained only as between group and group. 6) The forms of the Subjunctive group are entitled to be called presents of the Subjunctive mood, and those of the Optative group to be called pasts of the * The perfect of the Subjunctive Group is used only after lay, temporal conjunctions with «V, asorav, and relatives with «V, when something is to be marked as past and completed, as (Plat. Rep. II. 376. A) ov d' av yvmQi^ov (i'drj 6 -kvcov) ccgtccc^e- rat, -Kccv firjdsv tkotiots vn' avxov dyccd'ov 7tE7c6vd'rj = 'The dog salutes an acquaintance, when he sees one, though he inay never nave received any benefit trom Lim. ** In the oratio obliqua the Optative forms are really tenses i. e. indications of time, but only there (§. 43). u VERBS. §. 40. Obs. 1. Subjunctive mood, because tlie forms of the Subjunctive group express contingency on presetit circumstances, and those of the Optative, contingency on past circumstances. Hence the law for the sequence of tenses in dependent clauses viz. that the vei-b in the dependent clause mtist be taken from the Subj. or Opt. group, according as the tense in the leading clause is a principal tense, and consequently (§. 33) relates to the present moment, or a historical tense , and consequently relates to a past mo- ment. Tims CTtovhutca ivtt (lav^avcd or ^fc gefagt. ; Pres. Opt. for Pres. Indic. (Time. II. 13. 1.) O. R. ^Agxidccuos ^tv iaoi ^svog tozCv = 'Archidamus indeed is my guest'. 0. U. IleQLyilTjg . . . ngorjyoQSve . . . otl'Aqxl^cc^os fiev at ^svos sirj == 'Pericles declared that Archidamus was his guest'. Pres. Opt. for Imperf. Indic. (Xen. Hell. VII. 1. 38.) O. R. owe ovo-nrivovv ri ■& s ^ e v iu,ot. uevce ts TIeXoTtLdov TcdvTU i^ovXsvsTO = 'he refused to live in the same tent with me, and taid all his plans in concert ■with Pelopidas'. O. 0. inel d\ cccpi-aovzo at nQta^aig ty.ccGxog ol'y.ade^ xov fiEV Ti- ficcyOQCcv tpa = 'ii messenger came saying that bvcnnesis Md left the heights'. Pres. Opt. for Imperf. Indic. after historic present (Xen. I. 1. 3.) 0. R. en b^ovXev B ccvxoi = '■he teas ploiiinq against him (his O. O. TiGacccptQvrjg dia^dllti tov Kvgov ngog rov ddtlcpov ag int^ov KevoL avxta = 'Tissapliernes accuses Cyrus to his brother, to the effect that he was plotting against him '. The optative forms represent in the oratio obliqua not * This is the least common suhstitittiou of all. 6 82 VERBS. g. 43. ()h>. 1, 2. only die LuUcailvo of tl\o, loadiiig okiiSG ill tlift orntiu recta, but also tlie Inclicatlve and Subjunctive- (when the latter is introduced by ca relative or a conjunction with av) of the accessory clauses in the oraiio recta, except when the verb in these accessory clauses is in the im- porfoct or iiorist iiulicativG. Thus 6m a dui/ijaoftca, and ScSaco « av £VQco become, in the oratioobliqua, eKsyev ore Scoaoi a dvvipOLxo, and sUysv on dcoCoLa fvpof respect- ively 5 but h'Sco'/M a elypv merely Elsysv on Sob] a. Ei%£. Obs. 1. Indicative for Optative. The nice distinction ex- preSSed by the use Ol' the Optative in the oratio obUqua^ that namely between a tranbaciion viewed as -a face and the same transaction viewed merely as a conception, was not uniformly observed even by the Attic writers, and still less so by those wlio preceded and folloNv- ed tliem. In Homer on is not once found with the Optative; and in the NewTestament there is not a single instance of the Optative being used in consequence of tlie oratio ohliqua (Moses Stuart's Orammar §. ISl. 5. Kote 3.). Ill Att'lC thoy are gGmohm^^^ inter- changed as (Xen. An. II. 1. 3.) '^Xsyov on Kvgpg filv ts&vr]- -nsvy 'AQiatog ds n scp svy tag slrj iistcc twv all(ov ^ciQ^agcov = 'they said that Cyrus was dead, and that Aria'us had fled witli the other barbarians'. Here, as often, the more important, or more certain event is stated in the Indicative, the less important or less certain in the Optative. "^ Obs. 2. Tenses in the Oratio Obliaua. Whatever mood be used in the oratio otAiqua, the student nnist not be misled as to the tense by that English idiom, which puts a past tense in the decla- rative clause, whenever the leading verb is past. ^ Thus^an English orator, repelling- a charge tantamount to tlie Sslvo. noi^i of Aesehi- lieSf niii^ilt StlY) 'the honourable gentleman exclaimed that I did ter- rible thuie,:^ ' ; but Demosthenes retained the present, a ^ o cc a ^ccaycce- VOS OVTOS ore Ssivcc ti o l to ^= 'this detestalde fellow eocclaimed * In German also either the Indicative, or the Subjunctive mood may in general (§. 100. *) be used in the oratio ohliqua, and with much the same (listiiictioii a« in Greek viz. that the use of the Indiccitive implies the certainty of the event in the speaker's vicAV, while the use of the subjunctive mood implies no such guarantee. Thus cv fac\t, ev in cjctaUeu = 'he says he has fallen', implies that the speaker believes the saying true, whereas er !vl^]t, ev [ct C^cfalleu, which cannot be translated otherwise into English , leaves the truth or falsehood of the statement an open question. §. 44. VEKBS. 83 that / do terrible things'. The rule in Greek is to retain in the in- u direct statement, ^vhatever tense was in the direct one. Thus, in the fourth example of tliis section, the English of the z/irfiVec^ statement would suggest the pluperfect, but that of the corresponding direct statement shews that the aorist must be used. §. 44. "Av with the Finite Verb. "Av is supposed to 1)0 co^'iifito with im, niul it^ Epit! Gquivaknits 'fi. v.u with VMia ., both in tho sense of 'according' to' : at all events this derivation agrees with their force, which is to represent the operation denoted by the verb , with which they are joined, as taking place or not according as certain conditions, expressed or understood, are ful- lillcd or not,^ as (Flat. Crorg. p. t^lO. E) ei iioav ccvdgeg aycid'oi, ova av ttots ravta STtaCxov = 'if they were good men, they would certainly not be suffering these things', as if 'm that case they suffered them not\ "Av became the established sisjn of potentiality in Greek.* and in this capacity is found ^vitli all the tenses of the Indica- tive, except the present and perfect,*"^ and with all optative forms. As the imperfect and aorist, however, are the past tenses In most frequent use at any rate, so especially they are the tenses with Avhicli av is most fre- qiienHy round. Jl.ven ^vlHlout civ iheso Senses in the In- (Hcatlve are sometlnaes potential (§-«*^7. Obs. 2.^ ^ but this is a quasi-rhetorical usage, and they \)G{:x)m.{^ formally so with av. The optative, as expressing contingency on past circumstances, has an inherent fitness to express Iintontiality, and ynmotimo.^ dAa.a sa mi\m\t m^ h\{ only in poetry, as (Moschus I. 6.) iv sI''ao(ji ttuCc ^la&oig i'£V-j-= 'among Avliole t^venty you might (could oi' Avould) ^'t^v, the sign of potentiality, may be distinguished from av=*if' by this, that, whereas the latter introduces its clause, the termer, except m snort parentheses, as ccv xcg cpatr] = ^one might say', never does. ** Av is hardly ever found Avith the future indlcatlv^e , but the Epic Hf very often, not as adding anything to the sense of the future, but as U mere expletive coinciding with it. f In Hermann's edition, instead of ^d&oig viv stands ftof- ftotc w Init lie says in a note "Libri a#o[c viv'\ 84 VERBS. §. 44. Ol.s. 1—3. know him'. The English correspondents of the Greek potential forms are as follo^'s : TJ^iaQvaveg cLadv. ^. 117, a. Rem. 1.) Obs. 2. ^'Av with the Optative. Whilst the potential indica- tive cannot be used except in connexion with some condition ex- pressed or understood, the potential optative may be used absolutely, like what is called the CoJiditional in the French and Italian verbs, but with a more extensive range of signification , to denote what is conceivable or possible. It may be translated, according to circum- stances, by any of the auxiliaries of the English potential, as xovro yivQiX «V = 'tliis niii^ht be'; ovx aV yhoi^xo xovzo = 'this could'nt be ' ; xccvra ei'Ttov xis <^»' = * one would say so'; rjSscog cxv -Q-saaciturjv zrjv A-iiQ07toXi-v = ''\ slioubl like to see the Acropolis'. So in politequestions, j4qcc t'd'sXr-aaisv av r'agytag tjulv SLCiXi^x^fj' vccl; = 'Would Gorgias desire to converse with us? ' The potential sense is more nearly allied to that of the Indicative than to that of tbe Subjnnctive mood, as clearly appears from the optative potential forms being used ahmlutehj (§.48. ()bs. l,c). Often indeed tlieif only difference from the Indicative is^in giving a modest or polite turn to the expression, as ^ovXoiarjv o:v 6s igcoTccv rt, instead of ^ovXo- [icii, just as we say 'I should like to ask you something' instead of directly 'I wish to &c. ' It is no wonder then that the optative poten- tial forms should be used for the future indicative, even when the assertion intended is really very positive, as ov% civ 93fvyot5 = 'you ^vould'nt escape 1. e. ii you attempted it. hence 'you sha nt escape . Obs. 3. ^'Av in Subjunctive Clauses. In Siibjuuctive clauses av refers, not to the verb, but to the conjunction or relative wliich introduces the verb. Accordingly, whereas in Optative clauses it is usually associated with the verb, in Subjunctive clauses it is usually associated with the introdnctorv conjunction or relative, in some t §. 45. VERBS. 85 cases indeed lias coalesced with the conjuuctigUj as £«y = ft kVi It affects their meaning very much as the to wliich it is oxav = ore av h. t. X. English sufllx ever affects the meaning of the \vord appended, as ore = 'when', oxav ;= 'whenever', 05=' who', og av = ' whoever'. Now eccvj and all temporal conjimctions with av, whether ccv be attracted into the conjunction, as in ozav, or separat- ed from it, as in f'tog av, and all relative words with aV, whether declinable as oc iv, or indeclinable as c^rov m, uniformly take verbs of the Subjunctive ^roup,'^ expressing contingency on present circumstances. Hence o ^yivcxo = ' what came to pass ', but o av ysvrjraL = ' whatever may or shall come to pass' ; ors nagsysvsto = 'when he appeared', but otav naQaysvYirai = 'whenever he may or shall appear', or 'shall have appeared'. Compare OGovg si- dsv = 'as many as he saw' (on some one occasion), oGov^ l'Soi,= 'as many as he might see (1. e. saw on lecurrlng^ occasions; Opt. of indefinite frequency §. 38. Obs. 8.**), oaovg av i'Sy=^as many as he may or shall see' (on some future occasion). How nearly allied con- tingency on present circumstances, as expressed by the subjunctive, is to the futurity of the indicative, appears again in these examples. §. 45. The Imperative Mood, and its Tenses, a) All commantls necessarily regard tlie future; and that distinction 1)etween the in'esent and aorist, which is in- dependent of time (§.-iO, a), recurs in the Imperative as (Dem.) ka^e Tag (lagrvQcag y,al avay lyv coay.e ■■=. Hake the testimonies and read them': the takina is momentary, and therefore in the aorist, the reading continuative, and therefore in the present. Often liOAvever they are con- founded, and Xa^\ xag [nagxvgiag Y.al avdyvfohi also oc- curs. 6) The perfect denotes either an impatient com- mand, or a desire that a thing should remain as it has been done: so xavtu r^^iv XsXsx^co = 'let these things have been said by us' i. e. 'let them remain as they have been said', and xi&va&t, =: 'lie dead'."'* c) In prohibitions '■^- III the poets the relative, evenAvithoutcTi/, is taken indetin- itOly, anil COn.i^tlMlod with iU .^uljnneKvo, as (Sopli. Oel Ool. 395) ysQOvxa d oq&ovv, cpXavgov, os vsog Tr^'dr; = 'but it is a poor thing to raise a man up when old, who feU when young'. ■"*) Tlie use of a perfect form to express a command, Avhicli necessarily regards the future, may be illustrated by the use of the German past participle, with the ellipsis of course of a finite verb, to denote the same, as [tin|)C]U\ubeu = 'stand stilP, jugc= 86 VERBS. §. 46. with (.n], the aorist Subjunctive is commonly used instead of the aorist imperative: the hatter occurs now and then in the 3d person with (ii'j^ hardly ever in the 2d. Ohs. Oratio Variata. The singular phrase otGd"' o dgcicov may tjc iioticd liere, Liierally it means, 'Kuowcst tliou whatr - do \t' i. e. 'Kuowest thou what thou must do?' It is ideally a case of oratio vaJiata^ with which compare (LukeV. 14.) v.ccl ccvrogTrciQTiy- ysiXsv fxvT a firjdsvl slnscv^ aXX utieXQ-cov Ssl^ov csav- rov xco iSQec = 'and he commanded liim to fell no man, but to go and sh'eiv himself to the priest', (lit.) 'but go and sheiv thjseir . §. 4G. The Infinitive and its Tenses. The future infinitive always retains its force as a future; hut the other tenses are related precisely as in the Subjunctive group, i. e. the perfect is seldom used, while the pres- ent and aorist are either confounded, or distinguished as in§.4U, a. Afterverbs iMmmli c( saitimlilimmx^ the Infinitive forms are in general really tenses i. e. in- dications of time. When a past tense of such verbs in- troduces the infinitive, the present, the perfect or ao- rist, and the future infinitive are used respectively to denote what was present, past , or future at the time of the verb cleclara?idi et senticndi. ks ovk £vcn= 'clrivG on' 1. e. let soniG^lune' be JoiiG fliftt sliftU I'GSlllt in the states expressed by these past participles. \ i 46. Obs. 2. VERBS. 87 a purpose, or anything akin to a purpose, not only a present and an aorist, but even a perfect may be used, so weak is the time-no- tion, as (PI. Rep. 3. 406.) 'O ^.d^vcov u^lol . . . CLTtYiXXax^ciL xov voaj]^azog = 'The sick man cLiims to be delivered from his dis- ease', b) In some passages, verbs oi hoping iiwH promising , which naturally and usually take the future intiiiitive, are found witli the \mmC and sometimo^ eyeiMvitli tlie aorist, as (Time. V. 109.) ovY. eCyiog ig v^auv ye avtovg, -^aojv voivkqcctoqcov ovtcov, nt- Qaioj^^vUL = ' it is not likely that they (the Lacedtvmonians) ivill cross over to the island, while we (the Athenians) are masters of the sea'; and (Xen. M. S. I. 1. 3.) kccltol ye ovdt nconozs vnEOxero diddayiccXog eIvccl tovtov= 'although indeed he never promised to be a teacher of this', iu wliich last example the Greek and English Idioms agree. These auonialies are quite inexplicable, it we insist on regarding the tenses of the Infinitive as always ieiises properly so called i. e. indications of time. But they are easily explicable, if we simply acknowledge the fact that the so-called tenses of the In- finitive were used as verbal substantives, like the P^nglish gerund. In this way ov% eUoq . . . avzovg TrfpojiwO-^vat^' their crossing over is not liMy'; and Jio (?M/JJiffflTO = 'dcliveraiia'. Obs. 2. Potential Infinitive. It has been said (§. 32) that the Infinitive is not itself properly a mood: with ccv however it be- comes potential. It is not certain that the future infinitive is ever found with av in Attic: the common forms, and their force are thus represented: ypaV«r«r ., =scrip,u™m esse ( ^ ^J^^j ^y, y^ypaqpEvciit av = scripttirum tuisse J '^ ^ Examples are the following, and, as the aorist is used in both of them, it will be seen how wide is the raiige of that tense in the in- finitive, as in other moods: fj^aXicra olfiUL ccv gov Ttv&sc&ai ion 7cv&0Lfir]v civ) = 'I think that I might {could, tvoidd or should) learn best from you'; KvQog, at i§LCOGEv, aQicxog ccv"^ * Notice the position of «v here. Usually it stands beside the word Avhich it qualifies, but often it is attracted, as in the above instance, into juxtaposition with the most empliatic word standing at the liead of the clause. Grammarians add that it is sometimes transferred from the optative in the dependent clause, to which it really helono'S, to tho indioAtlve verb ill tho principal clause, particularly when that principal clause is ovv. oJSa, as (Eur. Med. 941) ovvi olS' civ d Tt^icaiui, Ttsigci- cd'cci Ss XQ^I = 'I flon't know if I shall succeed in persuading, but I must try'. Instead of any such dislocation however, it seems more natural to regard av as really aff*ecting olda^ and forming with it a modest dubitative expression, simihir to our o>vu 'I should say so', politely used for 'I say so'. 'l 88 VERBS. s. iSi yijs. ij, 1. do'uSL ccQX(ov ysvs6&aL {olfxat ott av ay f vf to) = 'It seems that Cyrus, had he lived, would have proved an excellent ruler'. The object of the above parentheses is to illustrate the ride, that av is used with the infinitive , only when, if the infinitive clause were turned into one with a finite verb, av would still be in it. Obs, 3. Elliptical Infinitive, a) The Infinitive is occasionally used for the Imperative of the second person , and, in the most an- cient Greek, for the third as well, as (Horn.) naida d' iiiol Ivcat TB (pClriv, td t' dnoiva dsx^cd'ai = ''give up to me my dear child, and accept the ransom'. It is even interchanged with the Im- perative, as (11.280—4) 'if, on the one haudj Alexander slay Mene- laus ', ccvTog btcsl^ EXiv-qv e j^ d t co = 'then fet him keep Helen ... if, on the other hand, Meaeh^iis slay Alexander', T^mag STCSt-Q' EXsvr]v ciTt o S ov V c£i = ' then lei the Trojans restore Helen '. The Italians have the same idiom, but coniined to the 2d person sing, of the imperative iisod negatively, as ?ion dir qiiesto = *do*nt say so*, nan credere cfo = 'do*nt believe that'. The usage is explicable by an ellipsis, like the salutation xcuqslv, as t6v"l(ova xulqhv (xf- /IfVQ) understood) = 'Good morning, Ion': so nan teinere=^'(S.o'wi fear', is explained by non devi temere. b) The Inliuitive is also used to express necessity or duty, and that in reference to all the three persons, dft or xgri being understood, as (Herod. VIII. 109.) vvv alv iv Tij EXldSi y.ciTausLvavrsg rj^^cov xs avricov inLfisli]- d'vvcit Tied T(ov OLTiStscov = 'uow then having settled in Greece, tve must tciTce care of ourseKes and onr domestics . c) Fai-tlier, Avlth ul yciQ, or sl'&s, the Inliuitive denotes a wish as (Od. \TI. ,811 and sqq.) at yccQ . . . TtatSa x s^rjv ix^fi^v = '()h that I had my daughter', wqpfAov, -sg, -s being understood: but this is scarcely found except in the Odyssey, d) Lastly, the lufinitive stands for the deliberative subjunctive of the first and second persons, some such word as ngim being understood, as (Herod. 1. 88.) « 0mkv y.6t£qov liysiv nQog oh zd voiav xvyxdvco^ fj oiydv iv rw naQtovxi ;|^9oVw=' king, whether shall I say what is now in my mind, or be silent for the present'. Obs. 4. Adverbial Infinitive. The infinitive appears in a nimiber of adverbial phrases, as Ixcav f Irat = 'to be willing' i. e. 'williiiSl);', like onr 'to be mt] = *s.iirely'. Tlins (Time. IL 89. 8.) xov 6s dymvci ovti iv x cvi^nc i.\ji j'^I'^l , xv/vcix I temporal, is7]8r) = 'now', 'already', as (Thuc. III. 95. 1.) Y.evoiv i]8ri ouoqoq in Boicoz^a jattV == *I3oeotia is exactly * The force of zvyxdvo)i^ often best rendered by our 'just' ; for, like theEnglish 'happen', it denotes coincidence ormeeting with, as well as chance. A common equivalent for 'just', local and ^(oy.evOLv riOrj ouo^o^ rj coiiterniinous with tlie Phoeians'5 r^dri ccTtrjX&e = 'he is Just goue'i rjdj] dneXevasTCii = 'he will be going Just notv\ After pronouns and conjunctions, ^?}, which seems to be only a short- ened form of r/d/^, has the same force, as i'va 8t^= \}usi that'; ovzog drj = ''Just he '. ** cp&dv(o ==i 'I anticipate' often takes the accusative of the \^^nm anticlpnfod, as (Horod. VL 115.) iSouloufl/fll ^^Tivai zovg 'A&rjvciLOvg dnr/.ousvoL fig zd dazv = 'Avisliing to anti- cipate the Athenians by reaching- the city'. 92 ADVERBS. §. 48. Ubs. 1. g. 48. Obs. 2. ADVERBS. 93 =: 'I am of tliose who would gladly be convinced' (rjSdcog av sXsy- X&SLJjv with a tiuite verb). Obs. 8. Omission of a v. As av, with wliatever part of the verb associated, is sometimes omitted, so it is sometimes repeated: ill eitlier case tlie difference is not one of meaning, but of perspicuity or emphasis. Thus (Thuc. I. 118. 3.) eTcrj^coTcov zbv d'sov ft {av- Totg) 7t o Xs^o vGLv cc^sivov ^Gxcci, =3 'they ini|uired uf the ti^od if, should iJiey make war ^ it would be better for tlieni ' , would cer- tainly liave been more perspicuous with kv ^ as tl (avzocg) Ttols- aovGLv civ ciusLvov eaoLTO. ADVERBS. The adverb is an mdeclinable )vord, expressing some cir- cumstance affecting the adjective or the verlj. i9. Primitive Adverbs. The most important of tlie primitive adverbs, syntactically considered, are the negatives oi; and iiii?, and their compounds ouJf, iir^hk &c. Avhich have the same nature respectively, as ov and ^r/. Ov and fti/ differ froiii each other as (lo the ln(lioai:ive and .Subjunctive moods (§. .0-)), ov Leiug the no of* fact, (tt>/ tlie 7io of conception : hence ov is the in- variahle accompaniment of the Indicative used as such, i. e. as the at'lirming mood, [iy\ of the Subjunctive mood used as such i. e. as expressing contingency with sub- ordination; tlius oijz a7tozpiVo^a«t iva [u\ opj^/cia) ODtAoy uv- dQCi=2 ' I do not answer that I may not ano-er my friend'. Why is the Greek for nonentity, ^i]Siv^ not ov^Vv? Be- cause nonentity i. e. absolute nothing is a mere con- ception. Uljs.l. Oil witHtHeSulJjMtiveMoofl. The case^ iiiwiiieli ou IS found witli forms of the Subjunctive and Optative groups, and ^1] with the Indicative, serve only to set the above distinction in clearer evidence. Ov is found a) with forms of the Subjunctive group in Homer, when these have the sense of a future indicative (§.41, a), b) With forms of the Optative group in the oratio ohliqua 4 representing knixviov in the oratio recta, c) With the potential forms of the Optative (§. 44), the affinity between which and the forms of the Indicative mood appears from the fact, that they may often be expressed by a circumlocution with the Indicative, as ovv. av yivoLXO xavxcc = ovk fart ysvsa&at zavtcc = 'these things may not (wo'nt) happen'. Ubs. 2. Mi] with the Indicative. Mi^ again is found with the Indicative, a) In (juestions, expecting a negative answer, as ccXXci fit] dQXLT^-iiTCJv ^ovXbl ysvsGd'aL: = Mmt you do'nt want to become an architect, do you?' In all questions however the verb denotes of course, not a fad, but a coJweptio7i. b) In wishes, as ^rjTtoz^ ^(filov hnuv wv £)iv^ov == 'Oh that I hail never left ScyrosI' But in wishes too the verb denotes a mere ro?icepfio?i. c) In conditional clauses, as st /tt?} cpvXcc^sig (jlc-hq" cxTcoXscg tcc fi.ft^ovoi = ' If you do'nt take care of littles, you will lose the great'. In every conditional clause, however, the verb, even when represent- ing a fact, represents it not as such but as a conception. At the same time, since the view of it as a fact may prevail in the mind, notwith- staiidin<»' tho cuiiditional conjiiiu'tioii employt'd, ov k ako found with the indicative in conditional clauses introduced by ^t, particularly when two clauses are contrasted by ^sv and 8s. (Madv. §. 202. a. Rem.) How these two aspects mingle in conditional expressions ap- pears from this, that, as often in English if= since, so sometimes in (ireek st = ort, the very word, which properly raises a doubt, being used to introduce an assertion, El has constantly this sense after ^txvfJ,oc^co and the like, and then the verb which it introduces takes ov , not /tt/^, because in this cnse the Indicative is used in its proper sense, as the aflirming mood; thus ^avucc^co st ravra ov noLSig == M wonder that you do'nt do this' (§. 91. Obs. 2.), d) In final clauses with the future indicative (§. 35, Obs. 1.), that tense being used in a truly Sidjjunctive sense, as Ti^oy.Qarrjg totg novrj- QOiQ, oitm lii) dmovGi div.rjv, odoi^dsf'iti^Mii^r^ 'Timocrfitos shews to bad men a way by which they may escape punishmont'. e) In clauses introduced by a relative, whether declinable as og. or indeclinable as 0X8, when the relative clause, instead of being merely attributive, introduces the reason, aim, or result of the principal clause, in other words, when the relative answers not to qui or ubi. but to qitalis or (^uare. Thus Ovv oou^ wj cwaXeoov eaxi, to. a ftr] oiSs TLg, Tccvrcc XsysLv y.ixY tzqccxtslv, = ' Seest thou not how mistaken it is to say and do what one does not understand? ' The contingency in cc imt] olSs rtg is obvious: it means not particular thing.^ whicJi, but sttch things as, and would be rendered in Latin by quae nescias. In civriQ ov ovv. slS&g = 'tlie man whom you saw not^', the relative^clause is purely attril)utive, and theiefore takes OV, Aiiiuji in ^ iiQv jahnm^; av wv; cillovg itEiOaiiii dv^QoSnovs .... oxe ye ^i]^' vudg dvvauKt. 7tei^fiv===^\cnmu\\ 94 ADVERBS. S. 48. Obs. o. I shall persuade Other men With SUUie lllftlCuliy .... wllOll I aill not able to persuade you', ot£ is obviously etiiuvaleiii not to at the time icken, but to seeing/ that, in Other words introduces not a laet as such, but the conception of a fact, as a reason. ^ Compare^ with this riv note XQOvoq ore dsol (isv rjcav, d'vriTa Ss ysvr] ova, r}V = 't]iere was once a time when there were iiideed gods, bnt no mortal generations', ^viierefc, memUng ^mctij M;Ae«; and intro- ducing a fact viewed as a fact, takes ov. It must be noted however, that in actual Greek there is the same liesitancy between ov and firi in relative as in conditional (c) clauses, and for the same reason; bin the guiding- principle remains viz. thaU when the relative clause is merely attributive to the antecedent, ov shoidd be used, and in all other cases iii]. f) There is often a peculiar force and beaiity u\^ri with the Indicative, as (i^opll. El. 379) iiHU^dl ^UQ 6^ i:VtaVm TtsaipaL, sv&ci i^n mox rj^lov cp^vvoQ TtQOGOipSL = ' f Of tliey are .-oino- to send thee, where thou slialt never see the light ot the sun : an hi this relative clause indicates the gloom of the place as the reason of its selection; ov, though equally good in grammar, would be inferior rhetorically, by representing the gloom merely as a tact cliaracterisiic of tlic place. Obs. 3. Imperative, Infinitive, and Participles, how negatived. The use of ov and fj.7] respectively with the other moods is i'l '^^•- cordance with the distinction already drawn between them, a) flius ^rj, never ov, is used with the imperative, because that mood, as coiitemplating future contingencies, is more nearly allied to the Sub- lunetive mood thftu to tliG liiilicativo. b) The Infinitive again is ne- o-atived by urj , except after verbs cleclarandi et seniiendi, bctause Then the ini'initive clause is ecinivalout to on with ilie indicative, as ouoXoy^ ov ytara MsXrjtov vml'Avvxov uvea e/jTCop^'I aeknow- led^e that I am not an orator after the fashion ol Meletns and Any- tus"^, where ov slvai = on ov% d[ii. In other cases the inlinilive lake^ J^/Jj as dkmi coi a^ n^^io^uv siis anoXlvasvov : — ■ 'I pray tliee not to siand by, and see me perish', where fj,T] with the innnitive = £Va ft// with the Subjunctive. ^Be it noted however that, even after verbs declarandi et sentiendi, fjir] is also found, some- times perhaps through the mere force of syntactical attraction (§.26 **), and sometimes to mark more distinctly the subordination ot the infinitive clause to that of the principal verb. Thus scpri tavta on owftte h^LV, and hv mvxa urj omm miv i^i'c both fouml; and, though the same in meaning, dilTcr in turce,^ as do t^n ore tavta ovx ovtcog h%^i, and '^(pr] oxi xaijxa ovx ovxmg txot (§.^3. Ohs.l.). Hence the form with ^17] is more polite, bnt the toim with ov, as being more decided, is always preferred in the antithesis of in- tinitival clauses, as ^uons 8' ovxa'tt loinov vnsg Ttslayovgnoda My«fr, (iU^ w^'^^^^ f'^^ 7^$=' lie swore never more henceforth to set foot over the sea, but to remain on land', c) In like manner With §. 48. Obs. 4— (J. ADVERBS, 95 1 I pariiciplcs, when they are employed attributively i. e. are resolvable into a relative \\itli the Indicative, ov is used, otherwise (i,rj. Thns liyco iv ov% sCdoOLV — 'I speak among people who are xgno- rant'\ bnt xiQ av noUqvnb urj nsid^o^evav alocrj;^ 'what cit; ty conld bTtaken T)y men who should not dbey'i ' where the participle expresses a contingency. The guiding principle is still the same; but here as in conditional (Obs. 2, c) , relative (Obs. 2, e) and m- tinitival (b) clauses, the fact Is sometimes stated as a conception 1. e. with yurt, and the conception as a fact i. e. with ov. Madvig observes (§. 207. Rem. 2.) that later writers,^ as Plutarch, Lucian^, Arrian,^ nse ari in accessory sentences with ort , cog (that), and oti, BitBi (l)ecause), and with participles, much more frequently than the older writers This is probably due to the advance of the usus ethicus, which prefers the mild foi-m of indirect negation with firj, to the bolder with ov. Obs. 4. Negations in Subordinate Clauses. When the finite verb, though a verb declarandi et sentiendi, on which the intinitival or participial clause depends, is itself in a form, which woidd require HA/j to negative it, e. g. in the imperative, then the inUnitive or par- tieiple in like iiiaiiiier lakci i^i Thus ydjitje ftijd^b dvai ^^v av- •d-QCOTtCvcoV ^i^aiOV = 'consider that nothing himian is stable , where the inUnitive takes (jltj simply because the governing vo^i^f^^ is in the imperative, which can be negatived oidy by ^rj. So oi^at GS, sdv TL al'o^Tj GeavTOV (irj etdota, ^rjrscv rovg sTtiGxa^isvovg =''! suppose, if you feel yourself ignorant of anything, that you seek those who do know about it', where the participle takes ^rj because of the conditional fovm lav aiG^v), On which it depends. Obs. 5. Alto Trig "^ Negations. By the much used Xttprrje of the Greeks, whereby more is meant than meets the ear, ov and jLtiJ, particularly the former, often combine with a word, so as to express not a mere negation of something, but^ an assertion of the opposite. Thus ovx V'^'^Gxa — iiaXiGxa, ovx dcpavrig = tvSo^og, 6k m - '\ liiiulor', lo all wliicli we have Eii;;lisli iilioms alun. But theUreeks carried the4r;itTdr77S much fartliei-, and saul ov cprjy,t, = 'I deny', ovx VTtiGxvoviiai == 'I refuse', ov 'Aelevco == '1 for- bid', ov arf9yw = 'I hate'.' In such combinations ov is often a per- manent adjunct, which cannot under any circumstances be changed into fi7]; llence ov cpcofiev = Met us deny', ov really formin- one word with (priULUi all its indexions, just as «7ro with ayoqevco m ^TrccyoQSvco. Many of the Instances In which OV Is fcuud, wlierC fjLT] might have been expected, are explicable on this principle. Obs. 0. Negations with Substantives and Adjectives. The distinction between ov and ^rj appears also in their tise with sub- stantives, as yqdipag tijv rav yEcpvQOJV ov SluXvolv = 'having communicated by letter the non-destrnction of the bridges', said of a Aw, xv\\m 6i Siiihsiv - m OV Sidv&m^iv, Ijiit Shvov d I 96 ADVERBS. §. 4S. Obs. 7, 8. §.48. Obs. 9— 11. ADVERBS. 97 Idflv r) uYj la7t^L0Lcir= \mx^m^\w \i a tonMblo^ thing', g.iid of a cotiception , wliere ?} fir] ifiTiEiQia = eC (.nj Tig iaxiv ifinsigog. So with adjectives, as dvrjg ovy. svdaiucov = 'an uniiappy man', avr]Q fiTj BvdaCucav = 'a man, if he were uniiappy'. Obs. 7. Repetition of the Negative. Two negatives belong- ini^ to different predicates cancel one another, as in English; thus oUm o6tiQ ov ysylc^(J?rat=*tliere is none wlio will not laugh' 1. e. 'every cue will'. But, when they belong to the sameprt'dic.ite, they strengthen one another, as fir} lavd^avixco al firjdt zovro = Met not even tliis escape your notice'. Hence the indetinites awj one, any- how, ajiy-where, at any time, in an English negative sentence, when the most emphatic negation is intended, must^ all be translated by Greek negatives, as (Plat. Rep. p. 495) carAou cpvcig ovdsv iiiya ovoSTtOTS ovotva ovTS Co LCOTTjv, ovTS Tco/.LV OQoc^^^ a petty nature never makes anything: y:reat, wljetlicr a state or an iiidh Idnal'. Hence in ov8\ TtoXlov ^ft after a negative sentence, ovdfaetuaMy strength- ens the far from it, as if it were no; far from it. When emphasis is not an object, the English indefinites above mentioned may be translated by Greek indefinites, as (Xen. Mem. IV. 8. 1.) ovSBlg %6%Qii mlliov ^dvaxov rjVe yjjfv ij 2mgdTri<;=^' not one ever met death more nobly than Socrates', wliere noiTtoveiQ less empha- tic than ouTrooTrorf* would haven been. Such instances as (Dem. 19. 77.) LLT} ovv . , . pLT} 66x03 di-Arjv = 'let not Aescliines escape punishment', where the two negatives, though referring to the same predicate, cancel one another, fire explained by Obs. 5, the iijj, im- mediately preceding dotco, making up one notion with it, firj dotco = 'escape . The ncij^atives repeated in connrmation or tlie lu'st must all be of the same kind with it i. e. either ov or /i,jf; and this law explains some instances of ov with the infinitive where firj might lia\e been expected, as 6 ro'aog ovy, sa sjaisvca, ov av t] 6 tsts- J.svxrjy.cog , ovdsfiiav yvvcd'Aa cckkrjv tj x. t. A. = 'the law does not allow any woman to enter the house of one who has died, ex- cept' &c.** 01)5. 8. Mr] expletive witli Infinitive. After verbs of (fe- nying, refusing. forOidding, hindering, refraining from, acqididng. * Ov7t(o and ovTCconors generaHy refer to past time ; ovnors nndoi'^fTrOTf to the futurcj or that absolute present which com- prehends all time (§. 34). ** It thus appears that the English vulg-arlsm '7 c/o7i't Jcfioiv nothi7iff = '/ don't know a7ii/t?ntig\ is classical in Greek, ov yivcocyico ovSiv. It is equally so in Italian, and, what is more to the purpose, it -was so in Anglo-Saxon: historically therefore it is not a corruption of pure English, but a surviving fragment of the primitive dialect. \ i dmginy one's iimd, m\ ilic like, tiiej themselves not being ac- r companied by a negative ,/>.as ^rj , which cannot be translated mtocA. v-.<^>^^'**' English, is added to tlie infinitive as r^QvovvTO ^ ») TCSTtrfo-nsvcct == ^ *they denied that they had fallen'. The student can enter into this idiom by considering the inlinitive clause with jlitJ as an expression, not simply of the thing prohibited, but of the prohibition itself; and he may easily do so by understanding coata = 'to the effect that' aiW the prinelpal verb, thus: Ti\i6%m'AQio^aQtAvH aniyvGi fit] ^orj'^SLv^^T. refused A. assistance' i. e. refused to the effect that he would not assist'. This ^rj however is sometimes omitted, particularly after xmAvw, and its compounds. With dvxUiyco, HE- rayiyvcooiico, avaxL^saai, the omission of ^r} gives a different sense, as lu-fraytyvcocxo) iiri noinv Tt=' I change my mind to the effect that I shall not do so and so', but ^sxciyLyv(o6y,(o noisiv xl = * I change my mind to the effect that I shall do so and so . Obs. 9. Ov expletive after rj. In like manner after com- paratives with 7], ov, sometimes used to repeat a preceding nega- tion, cannot be translated in English, as (Herod. IV. 118.^15.) rjyisi yccQ 6 WgGrjg ovdiv tl ^aklov BTt' rjusag, rj ov nccl enl v^sag = 'for the Persian is come not more against us than against you'. Also when no negative precedes ,^as (Thnc. 111.^^6. i.) ^,^TtlV0LCi rig sv&^vg tJv avrOLg . . , tcoXlv oXr]v SiciCpS'BLQCa fiallov 7] OV Tovg cilTtovg = 'immediately a certain repentance came upon them tor destroying a whole city rather than the guilty '. Compare the French Ml n'ecrit pas mieux cette annee-ci qu'il new laisait I'annee passee', and 'il faut plus d'esprit pour apprendre une mm, m\ /I'eii lain pour s'l'ii iiiuiiiia"'. Obs. 10. Mij = Lest. Mr] has this meaning after verbs of considering, doubting, and fearing, and may be followed not only by the Subjunctive or Optative, according as the leading verb is in a principal or a historical tense (§. 40. Obs. 2, a), but by any tense of the Indicative. The Indicative is used when the object of anxiety is believed io exist, the Subjunctive or Optative, when its existence ..»,v i.xio^vv* ^v.. , ^r^ ccTroiravrj ^ ^ he die' i.e. 'that he U'i7/ r/je', and negatively dsSoi-Ku {atj ov-k dno^dvr} = 'I fear lest he die not' i. e. 'that he will not die'; for the aoris't in tliis construction has a decidedly future force (§. 92. Obs. 11. M T] o V. After a principal verb either directly ne- gative, or negative by being put interrogatively, also after Selvov, ccIgxqov, aiaxvvT], dv6r}xov, noXlrj avoid eaxiv, and atGxvvo^ai, all which words imply 'a negative notion, viz. disapprobation, the inlinitive is generally negatived by aij ov, as nollri avoia aij ovx'' sv TS Hal xccvxov riySLGd'CiL x6 ml naGL xoCg ccouaGi -AaXlog = 98 ADVERBS. §. 49. §. 50. PREPOSITIONS. 99 * it is a great folly not to consider beauty in all objects as Olie aiul the same thin;-'. In the first mentioned case i. e. when the principal verb is rf Prepositions with Accent thrown back. IlaQU, I'^rt, asra, niQV. vno, ."r^ , which dilTer from the simple preposuio,.s only in accentuation, represent respectively napBari ^ ^n^eri k, "Ava paroxytone is an imperative, or sort ot interjection = up then!' ^= ctvccGxri^Ti. (§• ^O.J ^ 51 Conjunctions. Conjunctions denote purely metaphysical relations, i. e. the relations In which ideas and thoughts stand to one another, Avhetheras coordinate or Slll)nrdiliatC, anil then liow coordinate or subordinate. It is proljable that, in the primitive state of language each thought was enunciated independently, and that coniunctions arose when the connexion and dependence of thoughts came to be more clearly perceived, and the advanta-e of indicating that connexion and dependence to be more strong^ felt (§. I). The copulahVA AUd disiUUCtive COlljUnetionS seem to have been the most ancient in all languages, and no reliable etymology of §. 5-5. INTERJECTIONS. 101 'KuC, Tf', n can be given. Most of the others however are clearly traceable to pronominal words, like our ov^wihat = 4n order that'. Thus the adversatives [liv — di are connected with the first two numerals,* and mean pri- marily 'first — second', hence 'on the one hand, — on the other hand'. ^AXXa again differs from the neuter nlural of c^Uog only in accentuation, and means pri- cisely the same, accentuation apart, as that of aocptag to 60(p6g: thus oocpog = 'a wise person', aocpag = 'in a Avise way', og = 'what person', wg = 'in what way', from which its meanings 'so that' and 'in order that' may be easily derived. Or, to take an illustration fl'Om English, cog and ore are related to og exactly as 'how' ancf 'when' to 'who': similarly ojKog and OTrore. Donald- son (NeAV Cratylus §. 139) derives el from the dative of r(old nominative of ov) = 'on this condition', hence i;P; and ;W -_-:= 4n oi'dor thnt', which ucciirs as a local adverb = 'where', seems also to have a pronominal origin, probably from a relative form corresponding to the interrogative r/g. ' §. 52. Interjections. These denote moral states, i. e. the passions of the speaker, and are for the most part mere instinctive cries Aviitten down. Hence the simplest of them are common to all languages 5 par- ticularly the sound 0, as the outcry of grief or of wonder. Interjections were classified with adverbs bj. =* It is remarkable that the feminine only of the cardinal unit should bcfrin with (i, especially when the correlate word pLOvog is considered; then in tlie Iliad (IV. 437.) ice occurs for tttttj which countenances the supposition that,^/x having been aroisped at a. still eaHler period Aom the mascyiUne and neuter, the nominative of the cardinal unit was originally (l^cQ, [iLCi, Uiv: si is connected with HvOy S/g (§. 86). 102 INTERJECTIONS. §. 52. the ancient Greeks, and ^vere first treated of separately l)y the Koman grammarian.s, who invented the name w- ierjec/ioy apparently- In contrast to ^^^^^^^^osttio • l)ecan.se, as po?iere aptly characterises our nse of prepositions, which is deliberate, sojacere aptly characterises onr use of interjections, which is impulsive. 103 PART 11. SYNTAX OF WORDS. §. 53. Concords in general. For the purpose of marking the coincidence of one entity with one another, or of a quality or operation with some entity, it was a natural device to make tlic word denoting the subordinate en- tity, the quality, or the operation, agree grammatically, as far as its nature Avould allow, with the word denot- ing the principal entity. Hence arose the concords i. e. the agreement in case of substantives in apposition, the agreement of an adjective svith its substantive in gender, number, and case, of the verb Avlth Its snbject m niiiar- ber and person, and of the relative with its antecedent in gender, number, and person. Be it observed that the magistral word in all these concords is a substantive, that one namely which expresses the maiti subject of dis- course. Vov the nature of governmeni: in SyntAX, ft^A ^. i. §. 54. Concord in Case , of Noun with Noun, call- ed Apposition, a) Substantives denoting the same entity agree in case, as JrjfioG&ivEg 6 q}Jtcoq = 'Demosthenes the orator': and this concord holds even though a verb intoiTono. Verbs wliicli may intervene are called appo- sitiofial, and are divided into substaJitive verbs as livai, ylyusa&at^ vtccc^X^lv^ (pvvai^ rvyxavsLV^ Xayxav£LV^\, f%ar, %VQUv, Ttikead-aL (the last two poetic)^ verbs o£ seefjiing as (pciLVOiiaL, dozico, solym, passive verbs of naming, elect- * Acecially perSonS, Uie ad- =*= For orreater precision, the verbal reference may be made to agree wfth the mental, by adopting the appositive formuhi,^ thus" TO v civdQa v-al yvvcccyia aycc^ovg ovTccg evdaifiovag sivcu wriaL^ or by repeating the adjective with each substantive in the attributive foi-mula. ^ ,. , ** There are indeed two exceptions In the predicntive foi-mula viz. where one of the substantives is pre-eminent as in the above example, -nal yvvat-AU being really a parenthesis, so that not only the attributive aya^ov^ but also the predicative BvdaCiJiOva^ is regulated by avSga-^ and where the predicative w6i'd takes its oonoord from tlie substantive next wliicli It stands, as (II. Y. 891.) Alel yccg xol tgig rs cparj , nolsfiOL rs, fxaxciL Tf = ' for contention is always agreeable to thee, and wars and battles'. §. 55. CONCORDS. 107 jective takes their gender, If they have one in common, as t] ftrjr>^9 Ticcl y] ^vyccxi}Q at v.cdcd = 'the beautiful mother and daughter' ; or, if they be of different gend- OrS, tlieiMSClllinepiTfcmbljtOthefcmiuiue, and the feminine preferably to the neuter, as yvvcclKsg y.ca rtcci- Sia yMd'ijfisvai, = Svomen and children sitting' : if how- ever the substantives denote thi?igs, the adjective is al- ways neuter, if they be of different genders, and neuter preferably even when they are both masculine or both feminine, tllC (/im^S being in fact regarded as gender- less; thus Tagaxal %c(l oiccaeLg oAe^^m xccl^g nolsoiv = 4roubles and seditions are ruinous to states'. Even persons may be regarded as things e. g. merely as sub- jects of discourse, and then they take a neuter adjective, as (Plat. Hop. VIII. Ui) t? ^aWldtVlJyh ^Y^ { h^\ % kixelcc T£ xori o v.ciXXLaxog civy\^ XoLTtcc ctv tjfxtv £17] disld-ELV = 'the best political constitution then, said I, and the best man, are, I presume, topicij remaining for discussion by us' : so also civd^QcoTtot y,ccl y,vcov c(yQLc6xaxaz= 'man and the dog nro most savao'o tilings'.* c) Wlieii tlierc arc several adjectives to one substantive, they may be re- garded as coordinate, and are then either separated from one another by a conjunction, as ooq)6gTe r.cd ccycc- ^OQ v.cil YMXog av7]Q^ or arranged thus 6oq)6Q avi']Q^ aaXog, m^rJ-' Often liowevcr, wlicii there t^rc only t^vo ad- jectives, one of them is subordinated to the other as in TO ttqcStov yaXov TTQayixa. where xofAov ngciyua mi\]s.QS one compound idea, of which Tr^wroy is the attribute. But nollol^ even when subordinate in sense, is usually coor- dinate in form, as nollu v^al ymIu tgycc, which simply means 'many noble deeds'. =^= When there are several antecedents to one relative, the relative is subject to the same laws as the appositive or pre- dicative adjective referring to several sidDstantives. "*=* The student must therefore beware of copying into Greek the EngUsh icliom, which places a conjunction only be- fore the last in a series of adjectives, as 'the wise, brave, aftd noble man '. ±0^ CONCOKDi^. giS.Ok.l. Obs. 1. Exceptions in Gender, a) Owing to the hesitancy of the language in distiimui^hiug, by separate terminations.^the mascu- line and feminine r/«rt7 oi* the article, and of avxog, ovrog, Sfiog, aovog, da(p6x8QOL, udtcaog, a^Log, many apparent exceptions oc- cur wltli th^so words, particularly in Attic poetry , tlicir masculine dual bein"- joined with feminine nouns. Since however some ad- jeetives, as cumvloq, have two complete forms for the feminine, one according to the first declension, and another according to the se- cond, it is better simply to recognise the fact that the feminine dual of the words enumerated fluctuated between the form in a and the I'Urm in W. in llliS >VUy the apparent discord is removed, b) The ^w#'n;««^i'"-/vr»--^»'--- , --;# •! ,.1 I'll 1 there are two governing and leading ideas, which we tollow where- soever they lead'. The Usa are here personified, and the key to this anomalous construction probably lies in the fact, that it is particularly common with duals kmm Mrsoiis, the peiuliarity ol";;enaer be- ing lost in the dominant idea of personality, sex m humanity. This principle clearly appears in the tragic churns, where a w oman may speak of herself in the masculine singular; and in tragic compo- sition generally, w here a single woman may speak of herself in the plural masculine, much more several women (§. 10. Obs. 2.). c) Such instances as (fcXe riv,vov = 'dear boy', in the attributive rormula, t« riXrj Ticrc^Avrccg (Thuc. lV.15. 1.) =- ^he magistrates having descended', in the appositive, and KOvcpov r] vSOtrjQ — 'youth is a giddy thing', in the predicative, are explicable by the sense-schema (cx^ac^ ■'^citci avvBCtv). In the first two cases, regard is had, not to the grammatical gender of the word, but to the real •--ender of the persons; and in the last, the object is, not simply to ascriho the dualitv of uiddiness to youth, ^vluch would be done by 7) vsoTTiQ 'AOV(pr} , but to represent subsiamivcly the essence of a certain class of objects : this is effected in English by adding to the adjective the word thing iXQWii, Ttgdy^a, xt^ua), in Oicek by using simply the neuter singular of the adjective, as aa^Bvaaxsgov yvvrj avSQog = ^\\onmn is a weaker thing than man'. Ihis neuter singular of the adjectivemaybeemployed even when thenoun to which it refers Is plural, as ot Ttat^sg siclv «Vta^OV — ^l)OyS are ft hOl't^ . The same general i?n?2g-nouon accounts for the neuters a^cpox^gov, daq^oTsga , ovd'srsgov, ovSsrsga in the predicative fornuda, as (PL Rep. 1.349.) I'ctL Sa yf, I'cpriv, cpgovifiog xs^al aya^og o aJixog, o 81 StyiaLog ovd£xsga = '^i that rate, said 1, the unjust man is both wise and good, the just man neither', d) Note particularly that, in using the adjectives enumerated in §. 22. Obs. i. , the English wiii not always SUU^ijest the idiomatic gender of the Greek. Thus (Thuc. 1.93.2.) Y.cci dTJKri r\ oiAodo^LCc I'xi y.ccX vvv tanv oxt xar« OTtov- dr]v iybvSTO = 'and it is manifest even now that the budding (ot §. &&. Ob^ 2, 3. CONCORDS. 109 ^ This Englisb would sug- the walls) was accomplislied in haste'. -... <;, ^ ^ ^^ o^est ■accl d^kov sgxlv f'rt kccI vvv oxi Ticcru GTtovdrjv eysvero r] oUoSouiaj which would be good Greek too, but not idiomatic like the other. For discords of gender attributed to poetical license, or to carelessness see Jelf §. 390. 1, c. Obs. Obs. 2. Exceptions in Number. Dual nouns are occasionally found with plural adjectives as oaas qpafiva = ' brilliant eyes , and still more frequently with plural participles, as (PI. Euthyd. 273. D) iyelccaccxriv ovv ajtcpw ^Xitpuvxeg dg aAArjAovg^* both laughed then as they looked to one another'. So also a plural noun is some- tinio^ foiiiiii Willi a dual iiiiiiieral, as (^cn. ;\n. lY. 1. 22.) qw ^vq avdgag. These irregularities meiely illustrate the subordinate cba- ractcr of the dual as" a kind of plural; and one has only to multiply them in imagination to sec how the dual might gradually slip out of use altogether, as it eventually did in Greek, and invariably does in the transition of a language from the synthetic to the analytic state (§. lO;. Obs. 3. Exceptions in Case, a) Adjectives which, by limit- ing the reference of their nouns, have a partitive foi'Ce, OfteU as- sume the partitive construction , and this is esteemed an elegance with plural adjectives, whose own proper meaning is not partitive. Thus otnalcaol xmv noirixociv , ot xgriGxoX twv avd-gcoTro^v are more dejani expressions than oinc^lc^mnoirixaC^ ot j^^r^axoi av- ^Qconoi. This construction is common in Attic witb the paititives rjfiiGvs, 7to?.vgj and with numerals, comparatives, and superlatives. ~ ' ? following yiouns, as o riuiGvg TIOXX^ T7]g Tl£k07TOVV7]GOV = )g xgSLg xcov Scc-axvXcov 8ic. The more common cons'truction, however, in all dialects, particularly wliLMi not numhor hut d6i))'&^ is in auostioii, ijii to put tlie pariitive in the n&vt^r singular, and the whole in the <,rcnitive, as (Time. T. 1.2.) sTtl TtXsiGxov (xv^gconcov =:' (imoivr the greatest part of mankind'. (Time. I. 118.2.) snl asyajxcogjicav Svvau£a)g== 'they rose to a great pitch of power', ngog rovxo XGrtpou^=:'to this point of time', elg xoGovxov xvcpov^=^in tantum superbiae (§. 59. Obs. 1.) There are eVCU examples of a neuter plural taken partitively with a masculine or feminine noun in the genitive, as (Soph. Oed. C 923) cpcoTcov (x&Xicov L-HT^QLCC = ' wrotchcd mortals who are supplicants'. So Horace vilia rerum. But this is rare, especially in prose (Xen. Cyr. VnT.3.41.). b) There is a whole class of apparent discords, ov ana- coloutha, in which a participle occurs in the nominative, thonghrefer- ring to a noun in some obli(iuc case, as 8o'ASl uol 6g(ov, where mere grammar would reauiro QQmn. Such instances are to be explained by the sense-schema; for the speaker is often more intent on the thouglit itself, than on the form of the thought, and, in the mind. no CONCORDS. §. 55. Obs, 4— (j. ooy.st ixot = rjyovucii.' ogtov therefore follows the construction of the thought yyovfiai. This anacoloiithon is frequent in Thiicydides. The nominative absohite may often be explaineil on the same prin- ciple, as (Thuc. IV. 23. 2.) Kca r« tcsqI UvXov vn dacpozsQcov yiata yigarog inoXsfiSLto (= diicpor^QOL inoXsfiovv) Ad-rivaioi ^v . . . . rp 1/^aoj/ Tiimlmm x. 1. 1 = 'and tlio war ai Py- los was vigorously carried on by both, tlie Athenians on the one Jiand sailintj round the island &c.' The accusative of the participle occurs in a similar auacolouthon as (Soph. EI. 479) vneaxL ^lOt, &Q being a siase jj^XSTTdg aiul douAos referring to tbe nominative m the pnne.pal Obs 2 Subject ol the Infinitive Omitted. NYlien the sub- iect of the infinitive is also the objce, oC a principal verb govenung {he -eniUve or dative, in the fom.er ease it appears only as the ob- £S principal Ktb, i.t ...e latter it may appear ctther as the object of the principal vorb, or in the accusative as the subject of the infinitive. Thus only Sioiiai gov ^W^lv:= 'I be^,^ you to come'; but either ava^ovlsvco aol 6(ocpQOvsLV=: 'I advise you to be prud- ent', or 6v^^ovl£V(o 68 ococpQiJVELV =^ 'I ad\ ise that you be priul- ent' indifferently. Obs. 3. Case of Attributives in the Infinitival Clause, a) When an attributive word or phrase, referring to the subject of the iiiliiiitiv9, follows, tluu aitribiitivi* word oi- plimtjt] gonortilly aoreos with the subject of the inhnitive in whatever case it may have been expressed (§. 54, c); nor does mazs. introducing tlie infinit- ival clause, inteifere with tlie attraction of the attributive into con- cord Aviih the subject of the principal verb, when that is alt^o the understood subject of the inhnitive, as (Time. 1. 12.1.) ri ^E.}.Xccnx!isovat = 'a Persian sword tvmeJi they call ciyiivciitr]$ . o) ^s lo number. A plur.il relative may have a singiUar antGCedeut, when the mind contemplates a whole class, one individuals of which is denoted by the antecedent, in other words when og = olog as (Plato) ^rjaccvgoTtOLog dvrjg ovg drj snaivsi zb nly^og := 'a money- making man, such as of course the multitude praise'. Also oart^aiid og dV, witli the Subjunctive, may, in virtue of their iudefiuite force as meaning ant/ one whatever of a multitude., have a plural anteced- ent, as (PI. Rep. VIII. 566. D) ccgtccc^stcci, nccvrccs co ccv ttsqi- xvyxdvri = 'salutes all whomsoever he may meet' : navxES oixcvss is never found, but nccvxsg oaoL, or oaxiq. c) As to Person. The relative to a vocative antecedent may take a verb in the third person instead of the second: for example see a). Obs. 2. Implicit Antecedents. The antecedent is soinetii-nes involved In a possessive pronoun, as (Soph. Oed. Col. 730) xrjg ifjirjg stcslcoSov ov iiiqr' 6y.v£lx£ y.. x. X. = 'the approach of me, \\ horn neither fear (ye) &c.'; and sometimes in an adjective, as (Thuc.) s^ 8\ jLtf dft xal yvvaiv.hiagxi dgsxrjg, oaai vvv sv xiqgsCa k'aov- zaij ^vrjad'^vaL = 'if I must also say something of the virtue of the women who will henceforth live iu widowhood'. Obs. 3. Attraction, a) Examples are found of the relative attracted from the nominative and dative into the case of the ante- cedent, but they are very rare. Such are (PI. Pha^d. p. 69. a) xov- xo d' ofiOLOv laxLv co vvv Srj sXiysxo =^^\h\s is like what was just now said'; and(Xen. Cyr.V. 4.39.) i^'y fro Ss -nal xmv savxov^ tcov T? nmm ok fjSm, ul wi/ (for mivm ok) ptara nollovi = *and he led with him many of his people, both of the loyal iu whom he tlelighted, and of those whom he distrusted', b) Attrac- tion is inadmissible wlien tlie relative depends for its own proper case on a different preposition from the antecedent, or on the same preposition in a different sense. Thus slfit. nccg siistvovg nag av k'Xa§£g x6 dgyvgiov = 'I am going to those from whom you received the money', could not suffer attraction. I 120 GOVERNMENT OF SUBSTANTIVES. §. 59. §. 59. GOVERNMENT OF SUBSTANTIVES. 121 Obs. 4. Inverse Attraction, a) This occurs when the substan- tival antecedent is attracted into the propor case, as well as into the clause of the relative. It most frequently happens when the snb- stantive's own case is the nominative or accusative, as (Soph. Oed. C. 1150) Xoyog 8^ og iu7tt7tto3'ii£v dgticog suol atsCxovti Ssvqo {tovtov) ava§c(Xov yvcoarjv = 'apply your mind to the tale which m^i me Ifitoly a^ I oaniG hither'. So in Latin (Aeii. 1. 512.] urbm quam statuo vesCra est. The place vacated by the noun m this in- verse attraction is often actually supplied by a demonstiiUive, as shewn by the parenthesis of rourou. b) The phrase ovSelg oaxig ov (§. 56. Obs. 7.) is attracted both ways, hiversely which is very common, as (Pl.Menon 70) ovdevl oxco ovv, dno-HQLVsraL = 'there is no one to whom he does not answer', the antecedent being attract- ed into the case of the relative: and^dlreetly ,^ which Is rare^, AS (Xen. Cyr. I. 4. 55.) ovSbvu ^'cpaGav ovtlv' ov SwUQVOvt ano- arQScpsad^cii = 'tiiey said there was not one who did not turn away weeping', the relative being attracted into the case of the antecedent; for the normal construction would be ovdiva k'cpciGav ocrig ov da- yiQVCOV a7t06TQS(f0LT0. Ohs. S Omission of Kelative. In the case of two clauses connected by a copulative or adversative conjunction, the relative which introduces the first is seldom repeated in the second, even when, were it repeated, its case would have to be changed; but either it is simply omitted, or its place is supplied by a personal or demonstrative pronoun, as (Od.I.llO.) aa^^^oi arrf cpegovaLv oi- VOV eqioxd^vlov v.ai {ci(i)6(fiv diog oupgog af |ft = 'vines which bear the clustering grape, and (wliich) the rain of Heaven makes rrrow for them (the Cyclops)', where the second relanve is simplj omitted: and (Plat.Rep. VI. 505. E) o S^ 8lcov.sl jttfv anaGU ^vxrjy yiccl TOVTOV svs-ncc Ttdvxa 7r9arTfi = 'whicli every man hunts al- ter, and does all things on account of it\ where the second relative is replaced by zovxov, §.59. Government of one Substantive by another in the Genitive. When a compound idea is to be ex- pressed by t^vo siibstantives, not denoting the same en- tity (§. 54), the secondary or attributive one is put in the frenitive, as 6 xov divd^ov x«^7ro5 = ' the tree's frult\ -VN'here xor^rroj is the principal substantive, devdgov the secondary or attributive one. How tliiscon-structioncame to prevail, even when the relation between the two en- tities is one that cannot be derived from any develop- ment of the genitive case, whether as genitive proper iaf), ov as aLlailve (from), lias leon ^XplftluOtl III §. if}^^ . Accordingly it must not be supposed that the translation of the Greek genitive in this construction by of or from^ much less by o/' alone, will always give the sense; for the relation denoted by it is often that of belonging to in the most general way, 7vith respect to, and the particular re- lation OV rcspoot intoiulod must ho gntliovoJ from tlio context. The following examples will shew this, and put the student sufficiently on his guard: dnoaxciGLg tcov A&tjvcclcov = revolt from tlie Atlienians STri.'ilovQrjiicc rfjg xi^ovog = shelter /^ro/w the snow (nQog) to MsyagecDv ipr]cpia^a=thedecreeregardingi\\e.^{e^iiiciinii (nEQi) s^fxovT] TOv yiciyiov = persistance in evil {s^ybsvsiv tco v.o.'a.m) Ttiv xrjQ AlTcoXiDig ^vyLq^oguv = the mishap {?i Aetolia.* Some of these expressions are quite capable in them- selves of another meaning than that which their context requires. Thus to MsyaQScor^ ipt^cpio^ia might mean, in an- otlier passage, the decree o/tlieMegareans, mlhmm^ T(dv ^A^rivaiwv 'the revolt or secession of the Athenians'. So, according to circumstances, 7]SovciL ri-nvcov = pleasures of ov in** children aXyog STaLQCOv = grief* o/* or /or** comrades (pgovtlg nciiScov = anxiety of or for** children (^diay I'x^QCi rtx/0? = fricndsliip, enmity of or towards any one 6 T^v noltiiiiov (fo^ois =^ our tear of the enemy, or (/leirs of us dycKTtrj xov UccxQog = our love to the Father, or If is to us f dQoivwv Tigaxog = the power o/" males, or over males tt noivr} natgoKloLO = satisfaction given or taken by Pairoelus, or taken by another for him, wliicli last it actually means in Homer. * These phrases, in the sense assigned to each, will be found in Thuc. VIII. 5. 1. Xen. An. IV. 5. 13. Time. I. 140. 3. PL Georg. 479. D. Thuc. III. 114. 1. ** The periphrasis arising fro??ij which is truly expletive of the g^enitive, would bring out these second relations. •f- In the former sense the g-enitive has been called objective, because it denotes the object of love ; and in the latter subjective, because it denotes the subject of love, i. e. in whom it resides. fj- The latter of these nieaning-s occurs in Eur. Hec. 883: xai. TtGig yvvai^lv aQGtvcov eaxaL Jt^arogj = 'and how shall women have power over males?' f I 122 GOVERNMENT OF SUBSTANTIVES. §-59. Obs. 1-6. §. 60. GOVERNMENT OF ADJECTIVES. 123 (Ms 1 NeuUi' Adiective with Genitive. A neuter adjective sometimes conforms to the government of substantives, as u^rna- vov svdaLiiOVLag = 'an inconceivable pitdi of happiness ; but this is rare except in the case of expressly quantitative words (^. 55. Obs 3, a), and especially rare in any other than the accusative case. Here however is an example of the dative: sv navTc -aa-aov HVCii = 'to be in all manner of ills*. Obs. 2. Compound Regimen. Theoretically, any number of substantives may be combined by means of successive genitives, so as to express one compound idea; but convenience and uitelhgibihty limit The number to three, as ij rov ZcoyiQUxovs aocpLag s7tLd-v[iLa = 'the desire of (for) Socrates' wisdom'. In this example the two genitives depend on one another, express in fact by themselves a compound Idea, wliieli is fihll M^ comDOiiiuled witli mi^vm There may however be two irenitives not depending on one another, but both on the principal substantive, as (Thuc. \ II. 34:. 6.) ^i-a re riiv Tov ccvmov cctkoolv avzav ig zo nelayog = by the wmd s driftin-^-- of tlicm (the wrecks) to sea', where both genitives depend on anmiv. Cases of four substantives so combined i. e. of one sub- stantive with three successive genitives (11. Cor. IV. 4.) are rare. Obs. 3. Article in Regimen. Generally when the genitive has the article, so has the principal substantive, but, when one of the two substantives is to be specially distinguislied, it only has the article. In poetry the article is used often only with the genitive. Note particularly the genitive of a country or district with the name of a particular point in it, as (Thuc. I. 111. 1.) A^tjvcclol eaxQa- .s.au. A, Q^.c6AU ln\ U^ttilts^ r^ Mhe Atlieiiians made an expedition to Pharsalns in Thessaly'. The genitive of the well known district, by which the spot is defined, has always the article, the spot itself never. Obs 4 Genitive for Dative of General Reference. The gen- itive of a personal pronoun, used for the dative of general refer- ence a 16. Obs. 2.J, may be separated from the noun on^ which it depends by several words, as (PI. Phaed. p. in. B) eojs ccv gov ^OLQOg iv ZOCg O-nileai, yevrjZCCl, = 'until weariness come upon 7/our limbs ' ijiVtK} = 'for my soul'.^ The dnlidus mnmodi p/ mommodi k tlio Obs. 5. Omission of Governing Substantive. "^Vitli the prepo- ions sig and h, oUCa, or some similar word as Uqov, on which enitive depends, is commonly omitted (§. 55. Obs. 6.). Thus h^o., IJUJov, J, Uuc^^ulov, doJlhrnvaQ, just as we sitio the g say 'at Oliver and Boyd's', or 'in bt. Paul s , Obs. 6. Dative after Nouns. In poetry, and sometimes in prose, the dative is put for the genitive. We ourselves can say of a man that he is son^o oroAuch another. Personal pronouns are more often so converted than substantives, and hardly any other dative but theirs stands for the possessive genitive, as (Xen.) T\yuq\ioi gift to you' . It will be observed that several of these datives distinct- ly bring out a meaning which the genitive would but obscurely con- vey, and that they are in a manner necessitated by the verbal mean- ing of the principal substantives on which they depend. On this f round a noun may take both a genitive and a dative, as ^ ttoXbcov TtL^L^ia n6X£6LV= 'the uitercourse of states with states'. In such cases it is not correct to say that the dative is put for the genitive, since the relation expressed is truly dative, and not genitive at all. Obs. 7. Hebraism. The use of a genitive under the govern- nieiii of a substaiiiive, instead of an adjective in eoncord witli it, is to be found in the poetry of all lang:ua|;^es , but its frequency in the New Testament is a Hebraism. (Luke IV. 22.) xoUg koyoig zfjg xd- Qixog = 'at the words of grace' i. e. 'at the gracious words'; (Luke XVI. 18.) ot-aovo^og x^g a.dt,Y.Cccg = ' the steward of injust- ice ' i. e. 'the unjust steward'. §. GO. Adjectives gfoverning' the Genitive. ** Tliese are adjectives denoting a) appropyHation or segregation^ h) plenty or deficiency^ c) participation or privation^ and * Here and elsewhere in the text, to secure intelligibility. and out or aexerence to the conventional language of gramma- rians, one ease is said to be put for another, i. e. where another is more generally found. It must be remembered however that, as no word is the perfect synonyme of another, so neither is any ease in any connexion the perfect equivalent of another. For instance, in the example adduced, ^o^ is really the dative of general reference, and the whole phrase 7? yap jitot ^vfi], strictly translated, means 'for in my case the soul'. ** The question, what case should follow an adjective in Greek, corresponds to the question what preposition should fol- low it in English; and the English preposition is generally a safe guide to the Greek case, provided the meaning of the ad- jective be expressed by a neuter form in English. This condi- tion IS necessary, because, trom the paucity ot adjectives pro- per in Eng-lish, and the substitution of participles passive for them, the aspect of the adjective in English is often that of a state produced, not that of a resident quality, which is the proper adjectival aspect. Thus, if '■ experienced in a^fiaivs' he turned into ^having experience o/" affairs', the Greek case w^ill be sug- gested, F^msiQO^ TtQCcyaccTcov, I 124 GOVERNMENT OF ADJECTIVES. §. CO. §.60. Obs. 1-3. GOVERNMENT OF ADJECTIVES. 125 d) some mental affections, as carefulness, mindfulness, skill capacity, and their contraries 5 also ej all partittves, f) comimratives, superlatives, and adjectives iinplymg comparison, cj) wltli some others, as a) rOTtog UQOj zov jjg = ' a phace sacred to Jove', where the genitive is that of the possessor; ovdhv aXk6xQL0v noLcov rr^g eccvrov 7raro/dos=' doing nothing alien ^rom (notlilng W wliat made for the) interest of his couiatry ', where the genitive is truly ablative, h) nokig i^ioxi] b^tzoqcov = a city tuli of merchants', ivden? XQW^t:^^ = 'scarce of money , where the genitive is that of material, c) ^eroxog aQBr^g = ^a slxarer of vlvhiG ' , mcivk ^(5031/ = 'bercft ot children'. Such adjectives are hardly distmoiushable from those of the preceding class. Most of those denot- ino" deficiency and privation are compounds with « pri- vative, almost all of which are construed with the pnvat- mg 1 '-n m»^ This is the metaphysical genitive i. e. the gen- itive of that about {neq[) which the skill, care, &c. are concerned. To this class belong adjectives in i^og denot- ing capacity for a thing, as 7rc.^«cyxev«ar.xos rcov ejg rOV 7rd>lfaov=' capable of providing the necessaries of war . e) ohyoi t^v TtoXlc^v = 'few of the many', fj vwug to Qiy^v KoetzTov Uxiv xov XaXstv = ' for youth silence is better than talking', Ta5v JtaXai, oocpcixaTog o HcoxQc^ryjg = 'Socrates was the wisest o^Le anclonk'. IdjOrflVeg implyins: comparison are mxdtiples in adiog, as dLTtXaGlOlQ ai^Ttdi/ ^dx0VTC;|uaTa)i/ ova covrjxi] == 'glory is not to be bought iov money'. ^) Siieh are tliose denoting sticcess or failure {snt-rvx*]?^ ^t^'^XVS^') profusion or parsimony {ci(pEL8r\g^ fpEiScoXog) , guilt or ifinoccnce (ccVxiog^ avaLViog)^ and various local relations, as (Jiioog, ccvxlog^ ivccvxlog^ av- xioxQOQpog, naQdTtXriaLog, also agatog, as aQaia ycc^ov := 'ripe for marriage'. Obs. 1. Variations, a) ^Yhcnever tlie notion of advantage or disadvantage is attached to any of the above adjectives, they take the dative, e. g. oUUog = 'well inclined to', and dlloxQiog = ' nnfavonrablc to',^ as (Deni.^) ?} SctGog x6x8 AccasdaLfioviOig ^i8v oliiiia, rj^tv d' dXXoxqCa ^v = 'Tliasns was then friendly to the LacedaMuonians, hostile to n.s'. Also ivavxiog, when it means not simply opposite to, but opposed io, takes the dative: so also vTtrj- yioog, when the obedience is regarded not simply as belonging, but as subservient to another, b) Sometimes adjectives of plenty, par- ticularly dacvg, are found with the instrumental dative, as Saavg dsvdgcov or davSgoLg = 'thick with trees', in the latter of which constructions the trees appear not as the material out of which, but as the means bjf whicli a place is filled, (§, 04. Obs. 2.) Obs. 2. Forms of Comparison. Not only are ngo and dvxC sometimes prefixed to tlie comparative genitive, but instead of it the accusative witb jtcc^ct* or Ttgog \s sometimes used, or the compari- son is made by the conjunction rj with the same case after it as be- fore it. Thus 'the father is^ bigi^er than the son' may be rendered 6 TtCCXTjg llBl^COV xov ViOV 01' ,, ,, „ 9ttlptlf6v i)LOv lliore are instances ot the or,, ,, ,, rj 6 VLog comparative genitive itself be- ing accompanied by ij. Obs. 3. H after Words implying Comparison. Besides compa- ratives, words implying difference may have the followim? genitive * riccQci with the accusative, which Is rare after compara- tives in classic Greek, is the dominant formula of comparison in the surviving- dialect. I 126 GOVERNMENT OF ADJECTIVES. §• 60. Obs. 4—8. TtQoad'Sv = 'half the former allowance of com' ; dtcccpsQei rcc xov igWVXOS ^ "^^ ^^^ a77=' there is a difference between the relations of him -vvho loves, and of lilm who loves not ; TtXsiaTce r] ccXXrj Tcccacc ;^cop7^ = 'more than any other country'. So, ficiXXov being omitted, after ^ovXscd-ai, as (II. I. 117.), ^ovXo^' syco Xaov Goov ^iiasvai rj anoXBad-ai == *I would rather that the people were safe than that thej( perished': and after dUaiov icrt,, as ovtco ovvrj^ccg dC%aiov k'xsLV to ETSQOv ^isgog rJTteg 'A^rivaCovq = 'thus it is right that we should have the other pan rather than the Athenians'. Here, as often, nsQ is joined to rj. (§. 96. Obs.*.) Obs. 4. Comparison of two Properties belongiag to the same Entity. If two properties of the same entity are compared in degree, the Greeks commonly used two comparatives , where we use only one, as ^dzroov rj aocpcorSQog fart = Mie is more hasty than wise'. Sometimes however two positives are used, as (Soph. Aj. 966) iftol TtcyiQoe Ts^vrinsv rj usIvotQ ylvu-vQ = Miis JeatK was more bitter to me than sweet to them'. Obs. 5. Comparison of an Entity with itself. If an entity at one time is compared with itself at another, in respect of^any quality, the genitive of the reflexive pronoun is used with auTog, as dvvarcoTSQOi, avzol ccvzcjv =^ 'they were migthier than them- selves' i. e. 'they surpassed themselves'. And in the like case, when the very highest degree is to be marked, the superlative is similarly used as SstvozKrog accvzov rja&cc = 'you quite excelled yourself. Obs. 6. Comparison of Entities Incommensurate. When the object of the comparison is to declare two entities incommensurate, out of all proportion to one another, rj xorra, and more rarely rj 9t06Q {Qmm m in Lfttin) with the ucongfttive are ucied, some- times 7] fTTi with the dative, as i/fxpo? iiiC^oiv rj naz' dv&gaTiov = 'a corpse larger than comports with the normal size of the hu- man body', 'of extraordinary size for a man'. Tlie same construc- tion occurs with infinitival clauses, as GocpooreQ' rj Ticcz' ardgcc ova^aXeCv k'nri = 'sayings wiser than that a man can understand them '. Obs. 7. Equivalent Forms. In such phrases as Xoyov (jlslqoov = 'too big for expression', bXtzlScov -hqblGGcov = 'too good for hope', the genitive nouns are equivalent to the intinitive verb with yj caaxs (§. 90. Obs. 3.), or to the potential with rj cog, as BCtt, yag tist^co rd-KSLVcov sgycc 7] cog xt a iT. \Vhen it is de- noted by' o/iOtog, i'aogy TtaganXTJOLOSj 6 avxog, that two entities have the same or a similar thing in common, there is the same illo- «-icality in the use of tlie dative as in the compendious foi'm oP com- parison (§. 60. Obs. 8.), as oftotav yvcofi,7]v aol s'xco =: '1 have the same opinion with you', literally *1 have an opinion like you', but it should be Mike yours', thelikeness being between opinion and opinion. This illogical construction, which is frequent enough in Greek, is however commonly avoided by coupling the two entities b\' mL and leaving the ailjective without regimen; xaniiaj in such cases be transhited into English by os, thus o^otccv yvcofirjv e^co 71 al avc='I liave the same opinion «*you'; vouog Sa toVgl Acc-as- duLUOVLOcci, . . . (hvTog -mxl xotGi ^ccQ^aQOiai.— ^ the Laceda-mo- nians have the same law as the barbarians'. With i'aog and o av- To's, cos and coGTtSQ are also found, especially in Attic prose writers: and this is precisely our modern formula,^the same as^ = t6 ccvto n COGTt S Q. §. 62. The Accusative after Adjectives. This i.s always the accusative denoting in what respect, for Avliicli see §. 18. Obs. 5, i. §.03. The Infinitive after Adjectives, a) This con- struction is most freci^uent after adjectives denoting abil- ity or the want of it, whether physical, mental, or moral (i. 0. inclination), also agiog and avagiog, as 0e^L6TO7iXrig iKdvcoratog rjv Binnv^ nal yvcovai, aal nga^aL = *Tlie- mistocles was capable in the highest degree of speech, re- solution, and action' . Homer uses this construction with all sorts of adjectives as 0-eleiv ccve^ocdiv ofA.oioi==^ 'like the /Q-og, the root being yccd' corresponding to our own good, God, and the German cjut. Englisli parallels are squii^e and esquire, Gad and Enad. %. 64. VERBS GOVERNING THE GENITIVE. 129 winds for runnina^ jtifc'p Jtat ioaofievoLai, nv^iod'cci, = * great too for posterity to hear of, b) To denote more distinctly the effect or aim, eoare may be prefixed, as (Xen. Cyr. IV. 3. 11.) IIorSQci naidig h6l (ppovL^couQOL coCte fxadetv xa (pQa^ofJiEva aal dsLTivvfisva i] avdQSg = * whether are children or men the more capable, so as to learn -what Is said and shewn. Obs. 1. Voices of the Infinitive. As ia English sometimes, so and still oftener in Greek, the infinitive active is employed, where the infinitive passive might be expected, as dvrjg x^^^^^g av^^v = *a man difficult to live with', TiaXog oq&v = 'lair to see or to be seen', ^av^doiov dnsiv =^ 'wonderful to tell or to be told'. Thucydldes uses both active and passive infinitives after a§iO$, as (II. 40. 1.) TTiv TtoXi-v a^tocv slvai &av[icet^sad'cii = 'that the city is worthy to be admired', and (I. 138. 3.) a^iog d-avfidaat, in the very same sense. (§. 73.) Obs. 2. Subject of the Infinitive. Especially after adjectives denoting adaptation, and after comparatives, tlie understood subject of the Infinitivo may be different from that to which the adjective refers: in all the above examples it is the same. Tlius (PI. Menex. 239. B) 5 T8 XQOVog §qccxvs d^t'cog &i,rjyiJGcca&cci = 'and the time is short for worthily recounting (what happened)', where XQ^^^f^ to which the adjective refers, is of course not the narrator. So ipvxQOV TO vScnQ acts Xovcaa&aL == 'the water is (too) cold for batbing'. The best English of tbis infinhive is by for with the gerund. §, 64. Verbs gpoverning the Genitive. These are verbs signifying o) participation or abstinence ; b) fulness or deficiency; c) cojnjnenceme?it or cessation; d) certain mental affections, as mindfulims, cunfulncss^ conlmpt^ desire, enjoyment, and their contraries; e) the manifesta- tions of desire, as aitnijig at, hitting or tnissing, holding by: also f) those denoting difference or comparison, whether in the way of superiority or inferiority : and g) the opera- tion of the senses. Thus a) a^elvovog ^ol^ag ^sxaXa^^cx- 'to share a better fate', cpelSso tcov vT^coiv = 'spare. rctv the ships 'ifi'y yi^io^ev e Ajrtdwv = ' we are full of hopes': c) (JLvd^cov i]QX£ TcarrjQ civdQav^=:' the father of men began a speech', ov Atj^ro &Qrivcov:=^ *I shall not cease from la- mentations': d) tav ovo^axcov £7r/A«i^O'aVo|Ltoft = 'I forget 9 130 VERBS GOVERNING THE GENITIVE. §• 64. Obs. 1-3. §. 64. Obs. 4. tliG names', tov avficpigovrog imfie^£i^o9cci, = ' to t3.^e care of one's intorost', y.QVOvs Kdl ^dlTiovg o^oCwg KccTcc(pQOvel = 'lie despises cold and heat alike ', iTtid-v^^ Tijg OOcpCag = 'I desire Avisdom', GxoXiig anoXavoiisv = 'we enjoy leisure' : e) Oxom^o^iai xov OY,07tov=^'lsium.i the mark', TlllCfig XVyXOiViiV = 'to obtain honour % xoZxo rig Xsycov OVK av ccudoTOL xdkr]^iog = 'any one, who should say this, would not miss the truth', xat jLtot snov ixo^ievog 1% iXalivSog = 'and follow me holding on hy my cloak '^: f) diawioHV TWV :roAAa5i/ = 'to differ from the multitude^, L«Vra,v Le^e^!"v = Uo l>e xxiasler of all', V^tm^S W ud'/ris = 'lie came too late for the hattle ' : g) aTtrsd&ai xiJQ ^f^^og = 'to touch the hand'. Obs. 1. Verbs of Participation. A great many verbs of par- ticipation are compoumls Nvitli^sra and 6vv, as fifTf^ftv, avUa^- ads.^ Tbe genitive after them is trulv pai'titive: aiid accordingly, wben yilgog, or any word implying it, as 160V imog) accompanies such verbs, it is put in the accusative, as (Tiiuc. M. 40. 1.) toov tista6xBt:v = 'to obtain an equal share', because the whole I'aov aSQog is taken. Obs 2 Verbs of Plenty and Want. After verbs of fulness, particuiari/e,^..., th. iioiiitive is somotinios replaccd by the dat- ive the relation whereof \miis changed, as otteu m tngH^^h, una wherewith (§. 60. Obs. 1, b). To tbis class belong verbs deuotm^ satiety, as dacca^ai, -^OQioaO^av. Tbe verb d6a> = 'I am m want^ occurs impersonallv in a number of adverbial phrases as TtoXXo^ ^s£'= 'far fiom it\ cUyov, ^ly^Qov du = 'almost It .s used also personally, as noUov, olCyov, dm - ' I am far from, wulnn a little of; and in statements of nnmber, as TQtciy.O(}rov ttOQ £VOQ Sdov= 'tbe tbirtietb vear wanting one' i. e. 'the twenty-ninth I dvotv diovrsg nBvzny-ovxa ^vSqbq = 'fifty men wanting two i. e. * forty eight'. Obs 3 Verbs denoting Mental Affections, particularly verbs of rmmkring a„d MetUr,^, hesitate between "- Seni"ve antl accusative, inclining rather to tbe accusative, where ihinffS, nOt per- sons, are 'remembe'red or forgotten. Mental afTeCtlOUS haVC HI faCt a twofold aspect. Remembering, for example, may be regarded as eidier voluntary or involuntary: in the former case it is an act logi- cally requiring the accusative, and in the latter a mcmixX sensation appropr atelyliking die genitive of that whence it arises. The double ILruction'ofthe corre^poiKliiis verbs in Latin points to the same distinction, and our own language recognises it, recollect and re- i ! I i r I VERBS GOVERNING THE GENITIVE. 131 me7nber denoting respectively, accordingf to synonymists, voluntary and involuntary memory. The distinction is not indeed khvays ob- served; yet It clearly appears in this, that, wben recoiled is used Of involuntary memory , it may take of the sign of the genitive after ' / ^hairtlx'\n''''^i '^"V-^ don't recollect ofW is oSen said, but 1 Shall tri to recollect of\{\ or imporatively < recollect o/this' never; ni the last two examples, where the will is ener4tJc oP must be omitted. The genitive after such verbs then is pdma'rily the genitive of ong.n or cause, denoting the whence of the mental affection; but when, men came to regard themselves, rather as ,11??/'''" '^ ""'"'^ ^'^ I". '^'''' "^^"^^^' '-^ffc^-tions, the accusative ?ir Sn"rl A '^''"- "^'^;" ^'"^P'^'-^^-' - f«»»9. 6, 6. ibBvdsG^d'ai in the sense, not of 'missing' and 'mistaking , but of 'sDcakino- falsely', take the accusative. It is important to consider verbs of Siis class as manifestations of desire, for, when that idea is absent; they take a different construction : Ums rvyxavco, anavta,, JvviT^co, when they mean simply to meei Jlil Or appVdaOll 10, U'ltll- oul any' notion of desire or aim SO tO do, take, the tirst the accusa- tive and the last two the dative. As confirmatory of the connexion in lani?uage between desire and its manifestations, U ma> be men- tioned that sometimes the same root supplies verbs for both, as in Latin kavere = Ho wish', and habere = ' io \mye 5 cwpio -- I desiiV, and capioz=2^\ take'. Verbs of holding by (^.75. obs.i,b. . p. 152.), as KttULddvOiJi.C(t, and its compounds with STtc, ccvr, avv, also iroaav and dvtixofiav, must not be confounded with directly transitive verbs, sisuifying to lay hold of. These take an accusative of the Object seized with a genitive of the part, as Xa^scv xiva vovvcov, 'tc6vr}g = 'to seize one by the knees, by the girdle ; Xv^ov Itbv Stcov x^atd) = 4 hold a wolf by the ears'. Hence many con^ slder the genitive after tke mlJrlUs Ufl^mbmi, flOtttTO.Ufift A^C 10 be partitive; and MatthiiB (§. 331) alleges that, whenever the whole of a thing grasped &c. is meant, the accusative, and not the gcnmve, ^^ "^Obs 5 Verbs implying Comparison. The genitive after these verbs denotes the standard of comparison, not the particular wherein the dilTerence consists. That is put in the dative (§. le, a) with or without eV, int, or in the accusative with slg , ^axcc, and in poetry without anv preposition. All verbs of governing as y.QCC- T£tv, xvoavvsiv] dwaarevei^v belong to this class. A dative is Often found with them in poetry, especially in Homer with avaa- CSLV, as (II. XII. 242.) og ndai ^vrjzoLai, xat a^avutoiaiv avcca- asL = 'who ffoverns all mortals and immortals'. The rule maj be maintained by Uterprehng till. datU'P ftfi lOCltl , ^Vlll) FllleS ««(/ , whereas the translation of the i^^enitive would be 'who rules over , conveying the idea of superiority. Obs 6 Verbs denoting Operation of the Senses. Verbs of seeino almost nniformly take the accusative, and, regarding verbs 0^ hearing, it generally holds that they take the accusative of the sound heard, and the ^^cnitive of that which produces it. The rea- son of this is important. These verbs denote primardy sensations, not acts of the subject, and in this view naturally take the genitive former, withdrawing from it as it were, and then action is taken in the line selected, so as to reach or hit the object. 1 he gen- itive would seem b mmi the preliminary process ot taking aim from an object; while the English prepositions used with these verbs are more appropriate to the action consequent thereon. §. 64. Obs. G. VERBS GOVER>IJ^Ct the aENITIVE. 133 of the object whence the sensation arises. But that which is in some circum-stances chiefly a sensation is in others chiefly an act, and this latter aspect, winch desiderates tlieaccusatival construction, gained ground m proportion as the Greek mind ill jjeucral IXCCdcd frOH] lIlC .^ttitude o^ receptivity, and took up that o^ activity. (§. 66. Obs. 1.) farther, the Greeks distinguished between the sonsuous perception ltsell(at<>^77C. T A. = 'hastened on the way those &c. ( rhuc. 1\ . 60. 2.) xfiQ dgyfig . . . nooy^onxovxtov ly^eCvovg = 'furthering their progress to dominion'. (S- 75. Dbs. 2, b.) Compare with these examples the German idiom jeiuev ^ecje ^cl^eu = 'to walk off . §. 65. Verbs governing the Dative. These are verbs denoting a) agreement ; b) likeness ; cj proximity ; and dj the various forms of advantage or disadvantage, as obedience, assistance and opposition: as a) oiiovosLV aXlnXoig = 'to agree wUl one anoAor'-. O^olO^tt 60l r^ 'I agrPG Wltll you': b) TtcccSl soly.s = 'he is like a child': cJ o^iOLOv S^oc'co cchl 7teAa^5*='llke always draws to like' : dJ TtSld'- cIqibIv 7tarQl=: 'to obey one's father', ^or^^Elv xoig cpi- Xoiq = 'to assist one's friends', TroAffierv xivv = 'to war with any one'. (§. 63. Obs. 3.) Obs. 1. Dativus Commodi et Incommodi. Verbs of pleasing and being anqry xvith belong to class d), but uqsg^co and anags- GXO) are found with the accusative also. To the same class belong verbs oUrusting, and rolfowing, but with the latter the dative is otteii preceded by avv, ftata, «>«. hist^^d of the ^^^^^^^^J^^^.'^l^ verbs of fighting, the dative wltll fi^fCl IS tOlind, ft8 (11. AV 11. iW.J f.ugvuad'a, fist' avSgdaiv = 'to tight with men , but more fi^- quontly TtQOS or ini with the accusative. W hen the root of verbs con- denoting subserviency, and in that regard taking the dative ^ tains thl idea of inferiority, as v7triQexeCv = (Vvt.) 'to be an under- rower' they may take the genitive, because comparison m the way of inferiority is imphed. On the other hand, verbs implying super- iority are found with the dative, when the idea of advantage pre- vails in their signification or use, as ^yrjfiovsvsiv xlvl — tO be one's guide'. S.66. VERBS GOVERNLVa THE AOCUfllTivc. 195 Obs. 2. Dative of General Reference. The dative of general reference (§. 16. Obs. 2.) has a very wide range witii substantive verbs, as vfj^g ovv. sialv i^^Cv — 'we have no sliips', where sivai with the dative = 8;|;«. nagvaaiLg tj fiijrrjg vnr,gxB r« Kvgco = Parysatis was motiier to Cyrus' ; no^hv ai Sm^olai m amai vf- 3/ovaw ^o^ov = 'I build a building', the accusative Is o^ the cognate subsknhv^, in difico c}vaoiTOQa^=^ 'I build a palace', of the equivalent notion, palace being only a particular kind of building. dj The large class of accusatives, denoting the result of the verbal operation, are either of the cognate substan- tive, as yQa ^OvKm^ KvQOS riliLV i^i^a^cL ; = * in what respect (for what purpose) does Cyrus wish to employ us?' ccvxcc ravrcc y.al vvv r'laco Ttaga (Jf = 'in respect of these very things (for this very reason) am I now come to you'. Obs 1 Transitive Verbs. The distinction between transitive anA intvansitlve ve.U 1. UnmLdllkoablO, RIKI 111 ftll laHgUageS UIll" form, in extreme cases, as to put and to go; but there is a large class of verbs (most ot those in §§. 64. 65.), wliich may be regard- ed either as transitive or intransitive, or more accurately as transit- ive directly or indirectly, and, in regard to these, usage vanes with every lanirna-e. Hence the strangeness of Greek constructions to us has Ofteiui merely local origin, many of them which appear unnat- ural to us appearing quite natural to other moderns the idiom 01 whose language happens to coincide with the Greek. 1 hus that di- C^uvoual iiii^vraiac, and &av(ia^co shoidd govern the genitive, appears quite natural to a Frenchman, because he himsell says S a- percevoir de\ 'se souvenir de\ 's'etonner de quelque chose ; and ihai doTi&sCv, agicyiuv, TtsC^BaQai, %ns6^ai should govern the cUtlvo m^'AH (luite niuural to a German, because he liiniselt says 'cinem bclfcn, c^etallen, Ciel)ovcf)eu, !oU3eu'. The pi^vaience of the hidirect regimen in Greek, and of the direct m the modern languages g. 60. Obs. 1. VERBS GOVERNING THE ACCUSATIVE. 137 arises from a difTerence of mental attitude, receptivity having been the mental attitude of tlie primitive Greek mind, whereas activiiv is that of tlie modern. In tiie isolation and indolence of patriarchal life, it was natural for man to regard himself chiefly as the subject of impressions, because he really was so; even a modern imagina- tion may realise llOW small anJ weak tliese ancient shepherds must have felt themselves to be, in presence of heaven and earth, and their majestic phenomena. But when, by association and accumulated ex- perience, man came to recognise in himself the sovereign of the world, he gradually learned to regard himself less as the receiver of im- pressions than as the producer of effects; and this latter aspect has, in the busy modern world, almost entirely supplanted the Other. Hence hearing, remembering, desiring Si.c. which were to the prim- itive Greek mind impressions passing from without inwards, are in our case acts proceeding from within outwards; there is no violence done to nature in either case, and, in both, the syntax of language has conformed to the h8ia&exog Xoyog. It is probable too that Christianity, which invigorated man's sense of responsibility, by tollinSr llim that lie is not the sport of Fate, anJ neeJ not U tlie sport ot his passions, but may become master of both, has contrib- uted not a little to the substitution of the modern for the ancient mental attitude. At all events, however produced, a change has taken place in the form of thought, and consequently in the form of lan- guage; and the main point of the change appears in the following contrast of idioms, (8oph. Phil. 646j oxov ae ^^sia ml no^os fi-«AKyT^;Uft== 'any thing, need and desire of which have thee partic- ularly' i.e. 'which you particularly need and desire'; (Soph. Oed. Col. 1142) ^cxQog yocQ rjuag ovShv s-a rovrcov h'^st, = 'for no dis- pleasure on this account has us' i.e. 'we have no displeasure on that account'. Anciently the feeling had the man , now the man has the feeling; and that because the attitude of the mind was receptive then, (iiid is mm ms^ Accordingly if, as in tlio case of adjectiv^e (§. 60.**) the English verb, when apparently transitive, be put into a neuter form, the true Greek construction will often naturally appear, as *I desire' =- * I am desirous of\ 'I remember' =i 'I come in * In English more uniformly than in any other language, is activity the mental attitude represented. Thus the Germans say not only id) bcreuc=: 'I repent', but also e§ rent mic^ which we can translate only by a periphrasis, 'I am overcome with remorse'; not only id) bebaueve= 'I pity', but eS bauert mid)= |it moves me with compassion' ; not only id) tounbeve mid), which IS already a less active form than the English 'I wonder', but e^ ivuubevt mi] = 'it makes me wonder'. Has this peculiarity of the English idiom any connexion with the extreme develop- ment of outward activity in the Anglo-Saxon race? i 138 VERBS GOVERNING THE ACCUSATIVE. §• 06. Obs. 1. >» tt mind or, *I assist' = '1 am helpful to' &c.^ A good Lexicon however is the only perfect guide to the construction of particukir verbs- and the above views are useful, not as superseding the study of syntactical irregularities in detail, but as accounting for two broad and puzzling facts which meet the student at the very outset viz that SO many verbs, directly transitive in English, are indirectly so in Greek, and that almost all Greek verbs, generally construed as indirectly transitive i. e. with the genitive or dative, are also some- times construed as directly transitive i. e. with the accusative. The difference of mental attitude accounts for the former, and the grad- ual transition from the attitude of receptivity to that of activity ac- counts for the latter. Sometimes indeed (§. 64. Obs. 4.) a difference of signification will account for the difference of cases! thus, ■noooQUv xiiv noXsaov = 'to foresee the war', the notion of seeing prevailing: rov noliyiov = 'to take thought about the war', the notion of concern prevading: TW noliuo) = 'to provide for the war% {\\Q notion oi' subserviency ^Yc\'i\\\m§, But very often verbs are employed in precisely the^same sense with different cases, as ccQeayiaLv, dita^tayiSLV, cocpeXsiv, svox^stv, ^t- XocpQOVOVfiai, IvfiULVOficci., with the dative and accusative, aia^a- vea'&aL and lay xccvco with the genitive and accusative.'^'^ An ingen- ious person might indeed try to account for this diversity of con - ^ Ui 4he skulent mate this experiment with ^milm ctgatrjva, dlXotQLOvyiaL, nlrjgovfiat,, ye>aj, fisrexjo, ozt^oficct., STtL'd^vacJ, iniaelovfiaLy dfjLslcd, (pgovTi^to, oUyco^co, fj,sfi,vrj[Mcci, iTtilavd^dvo^at,, (psidoaai, dicc(psQ{o, naXXtazsvco, which govern the genitive, and with ravri^oficci. , ouoLovfiai, laov^ai, gvim- cpavoj, oiioyvcoaovdi, ^lyvv^dL, 6ai,X(b, nXrjaLa^co, evvoaj, ffo??- /^w, aviiua^oj^ j^^r^atafvo), 'cvavxiov\Lai, nsL^o^ai, ccTcst^oy, Tttaxsvco] a^^o^SL, 7tQ£7t£c, whlch govern the dailve. He Will observe that each of these verbs is resolvable into the copula and a Greek adjective governing the same case as the corre- sponding verb; which is another proof of the primary non- transitive character of all verbs governing the genitive or da- tive, since no adjective is properly transitive. 'J^^ Had the dominion oftheancientliteratureoYcrtheGreek race never been interrupted, many of the indirect constructions mio-ht have survived, as in other living languages, spite the change of mental attitude, which would have been no longer in harmony with them; but, that dominion having been interrupted for more than a thousand years, the indirect constructions have all but disappeared, and an almost universal accusative , with or without a preposition, now follows the verh in tho moderil dialect. %.66. Obs. 2-4. VERBS GOVERNING THE ACCUSATIVE. 139 structioii, even when the sense remains the same by alleging a di- versity of aspect. He might say e. g. that dgsayisiv tivC means 'to be pleasing to some one', and that dQiav.Eiv zivd means 'to make some one pleased'; and no doubt the rationale of the diversity lies in this direction. Butsuchremarks would only be applicatious in detail of the general principle, that thedirect replaces ihe indirect construct- ion just as the mental attitude changes from receptivity to activity. Obs. 2. Omission of the Accusative, a) A demonstrative pronoun in the accusative, and sometimes even in the dative, is con- stantly omitted after a vefb , when not particularly emphatic, as (Thuc. VIl. 3. 4.) ftf'^off 8s xl nifiipccg ngog z6 cpgovgLov atgSL = *and havmg sent a detacliment to the fortress, he takes (it)'; (Xen.) k fj 8' m fm (J)DlidV nhktbl ^6lv tlvSgL^c^taTOi LcarovaLv ot noXCzai = 'in whichever of the tribes are the most heroes, (that) one) the citizens praise'. In short, as the pronominal subject, so the pronominal object, is generally omitted in Greek, wher- ever the context can supply it to the mind, b) On the other hand verbs ot knowing and saying , where in English they have a whole clause for their object, often take also a personal object in Greek, as (Luke VI. 34.) ot^cc as xcg sT = 'I know thee who thou art'; where Mee Is due to the literalness of tlie translation, not to the Eng- lish idiom: so ticcc ^oi, rov viov elns si fisacc&rjyis rrjv T8yvriv=^ *and tell me whether my son has learned the craft'. The demon- strative TOUTO is often employed in this way before ort, and tva, particularly in the New Testament (Acts IX. 21: XX. 29: I.Tim. 1. 9.). Obs. 3. Intransitive Verbs. Some vorhs. the Enn-lidi emn^e. spondents of wlucli are intransitive, uniformly take an accusative after them in Greek, which cannot be called the descriptive, as dno- SiSQaa^oj Segtcottiv = *I run away from my master'; eCaigro- fiai, yQcccpr]v= 'I enter an accusation'; ixXscTtEL fie ^ tXnCg = 'hope fails me'. So Xccv&dvco = 'I escape the notice of; evXcc- PovficcL = *I am cautious of; d'aggw = 'I dare'; cpvXdzxoiioci. = 4 am on my guard against'; and ^OQvq>OQStv tivcc= ^to be spear- bearer for one'.^ The poets especially use great liberties in this way, as xogsvm d-fov =. M dance in honour of a god'; (Eur. Hipp. 1339) zovg svas^stg d'sol d'vrjcyiovzag ov xaCgovaiv = 'the gods take no pleasure in the death of the pious'. Obs. 4. Verbs compounded with Prepositions, a) A great many intransitive verbs of moiioii becoiiie transitive t)y \)mi com- j>ounded with a preposition, especially with dvd^ jLtfTCC, nagd, Ttegt, VTtSQy vTtOj and take the accusative, as dia^txCvoi tiozccllov = 'I cross a river'; Ttagcc^aLVCO vofiov = 'I transi^ress a law'; die^sg- XO^at, X6yov=H go through a discourse' &c> b) Other verbs again * Similarly in 'German einem 23riefe autnjortcu and eincu ffirief beantlDOrtCn; cand in French ^Ourir au marche, and 2yar- courir I'Asie. 140 VERBS WITH DOUBLE REGIMEN. §. 67. S. 68. VERBS WITH DOUBLE REGIMEN. 141 sometimes become intransitive from transitive, bybeingcompounded with a preposition, as ivdidovai = 'to give in' i. e. ' yield % from didovai = *to give'; nQOHoitzeiv = 'to advance*, from xoTrrftv = 'to cut'; dLCCCpSQSiv = 'to differ', from (pigo) = 'to bear'; ia- ^dklBLV, ipLpdXXsiv = 'to flow or fall into', used of rivers, from paUftv = 'to throw'. §. 67. Verbs governing' tlie Accusative and Genitive. These are verbs of a) filling and emptying : b) separating^ excluding, hindering or making to cease, freeing and receit;- ing; c) of wondering at, congratulating, praising, blaming, accusing, prosecuting, condemning and accjuitting; d) ex- changing, buying, selling, valuitig, and preferring, the ac- cusative being that of* the object emptied, separated, praised, valued, &c. and the genitive the material of which that object is emptied, the whole from which it is separated, tlie cause on account of wliicli it is praised, the price at which it is valued &c. Thus a) ^evyt] gltov y£(ii6avT£g = * having filled waggons with corn': bj iyco 6s TiavGco rov ^QaGovg = 'I shall make you cease from your boldness': cj enaLvElv tlvk rrjg ceQBxrig ^= Ho praise any one on account of his virtue': dj nkdaxov tl^uv rt = 'to value any thing very highly'. Obs. 1. SijQgle and Double Regimen. Tlie distinction be- tween verbs oi filling and verbs o)l fuhiess (§. 64, b) is obvious: the former alone are capable of a double regimen. There are not ahvays separate words, as yi^(o and ys^i^co, where a like distinction exists, and the same word may i\\m have sometimes a single and some- times a double regimen; as ngoaneld^oj = 'I approach', and 'I make to approach', hence the constructions TrpooTrtAa^co rtvt (§. 65, c), and ngoGTreld^a) ttvcc rtrt (§. 68.). Obs. 2. '/igrjyco and dfivvco. ^"nh \evhs o£ u^arding o/f, which belong to class b), the genitive of the person from whom an evil is w arded olf, may be turned into the dative of the person bene- fitted by the evil being warded off, and this Is generally die case with aQTjyco and cefiwca. Thns ayLvvca rovSs col is more common than afjivvco rovSs cov. The directly transitive notion of warding off an evil is often so far lost in the indirectly transitive one of assisting a person , that these two verbs are frequently found with a single reginnen viz. the dative (§. 65, d). Verbs of receiving, which al^o belong to class 6), generally take %m with the genitive, wlicther the thing received be a material substance, or information, as vfj,£tg (nccQ ) suov cc-novasa&e Ttocaav zinv d/Lii^eiav == * vou shall hear the whole truth IVoni me'. Obs. 3. Peculiarities, a) Verbs of wondering at have a single regimen in two cases. When only the person wondered at is men- tioned, and not also the cause, the person is usually put in the gen- itive, the cause being often added by a participle in concord , as ^t^VlitlQCd dOV IpyOVTOQ TOLCtVTCi := 'I wonder at you saying such things When however there is no question of a person, bnt onK of a thing, and that without any specitication of the particular qua- lity or circumstance exciting the emotion, the thing is generally in the accusative, as (Xen. Cyr. TV. 2. 28.) oi yLiv i&ccv^a^ov xd dpoi- ^iva = 'these wondered at what was done', b) Verbs of accits- ing and condemning, when they are compounds of xara, as mzr}- yoQa, TiazayiyvcoGHco, xarofdtxa^aj,xara>iptVco, yiKTOcy;T}(pi^Ofi(xi, take the accusative of the crime, and the genitive of the person ac- cused, as ^cczayLyvcoGTiSLv cpvyrjv xlvos = 'to condemn a man to exile*. All others follow the rule, taking the accusative of the crime, and the genitive of the person, as in English; so yQd(pofiai ^lXlutcov cpovov = *I impeach Phihp of murder'. The preposi- lions n^oi and mM often aeeompany ihese genitives, ospeolally after verbs of prosecuting and sentencing. On verbs of blaming- see §. 68. Obs. 2. Obs. 4. Verbs of Exchanging. With verbs of exchanging the genitive often takes dvxC, or is replaced by the accusative with ngog. Verbs of requiting and revenging also often take dvti before the genitive, and belong to the same dass, as involviiiii: the notion of a quid jjro quo, as (Herod. III. 145. 17.) TOVg ijCLHOVgOVS xLfMcoQrjaoficci rrjq sv&dds utti^los ^=! 'I shall make the auxiliaries pay for this incursion'. Verbs of wagering take the genitive of the stakes, as TtsgiSoa&aL z^g ^stpccXrjg = 'to wager one's head', (lit.) 'to make a wager of one's head'. In all these cases the gen- itive can baldly be said to depend on the verb, any more than the descfiptive accnsative (i 66, e}.^ §. 68. Verbs governing the Accusative and Dative. These all involve, more or less distinctly, the idea of ^0 more than two oases are ever really dependent on a verb, because no more than two are ever required as comple- ments to Its meaning; bnt a greater number of cases may ac- compauy it, as t^i; aocpLav dgyvgiov ra^ovXofisvconcoXsL'j'^T]- vjiOLv = 'he sells wisdom for money to whoever will at Athens', where the accusative denotes the thin^ sold, the dative the part;^' to whom, the genitive the pi'icc fOf WllICll, ml mlUl dative the place Avliere it is sold. ■B 142 VERBS WITH DOUBLE REGIMEN. §. 69. g. 69. Obs. 1. VERBS WITH DOUBLE REGIAIEN. 143 transmission, an d take ill© accusalivf' of tll6 tiling im\\&- mitted, and tlie dative of tliat to Avliicli it is transmitted. Such are verbs of giving, bringing, declaring, promising, enjoining; of adapting, opposing, and comparing or likening one thing to another; and of mixing one thing with ano- ther: as 6mi m 9m msiv^: 'to bring gifts to the gocV; (Sol sTtitarta o,tl av doncd aya^ov ftvofi==:' I enjoin upon you whatever I think proper'; TCgoOag^oSsLV S'AaCtOV iKcc6Ta3= 'to adapt each to each'; toovg taoiat noXefiloig avrLrL&£Lg= 'opposing equals to equals as enemies': ilkl 9m Qh mmv = 'he did not liken me to a god'j KOTIQOV xfi yrj ^tyvvvcci> = 'to mix dung with the land'. Obs. 1. KsXsvto. In the strict sense oi ordering, v.bXsv(o with the dative is doubtful in Attic prose; the accusative with the infinitive is the common construction. Hence we can say, either xf- Xsvco col rovzo = 'I recommend this to you', or ytsXsvco as tovzo miimi r=:'l order you to do this', ^'otice here that the dative belongs to the weaker meaning of the verb, and the accusative to the s>tronger. Obs. 2. Single Regimen, a) Verbs of blaming (§. 67, c), in single regimen of the person, are found with the dative, die trans- mis'sion of blame beinc: tlie idea, as (Time. IV. 61. 5.} ovtoCg ag- mv dovlouivoi^^ dXkcc tor? vTtawvsLV koLiionQOLgovaiv^^'i do'nt blame those who wish to rule, but tliose who are too ready to obey', h) Verbs of opposing and mixing in the indirectly transitive sense o'L making opposition to and viingling with, take of COurse Only a single regimen, and that die dative, as sgi't^LV tlvl == *tO strive with any one', ad-gooL ngoasai^av toCg i^ccg^dgOLg = 'in great numbers they mingled with die barbarians'. Obs. 3. Latin Parallels. Like circvmdo and dono in Latin, TtBQLpaXXoficiL and Scogho^ccL have a double construction, thus nsgL- ^dXXo^ciL TSLXog tij itoXu = 'I throw a wall round the city', or nsgi^ccXXoiidi trivnoXiv ziCxBi = '\- surround the city with a w^all': Sagsici^cii zoiov hdazcp = *to present a bow to each', or dageC- Gd^ai To'f 0) i%a6zov = *to present each with a bow' (Geddes* Gram. §.33). '■ §. 69. Verbs governing^ Two Accusatives. Verbs of asking, teaching, reminding, persuaditig, speaking or doing good or ill, concealing, clothing and stripping take two accusatives, one of the person, and another of the thing; as dxy\mQ vsciQ s^SopniiWVTCi xok 'A^nvaiovg = 'having flfikod tlie Itlioniflnfi fov sovnnty gliips^! fio si M/^a?^^ Ty]v 6zQdz}]yiav; = 'who taught you generalship?' ava- pvrjGoy v^jiceg nai rovg tcov ngoyovcov xivSwovg = '1 shall remind yon also of our ancestors' dangers' 5 eTcei^e rovvo Tovg Ocoxcciiag = *he persuaded the Phoca^ans of this'; m^ ug TO yvvatamv cpvkov Kctm tcoU' a/opeve^^ 'every one says much ill of the female sex'; (irj oigvipyg lijv ^vyaxsQU xhv ^dvaxov xov civdgog = 'do'nt conceal from your daughter the death of her husband'; rrjv eGd^^rcc djtiSvoav avzov = 'they stripped him of his garment'. Obs. 1. Verbs of Praying^, a) With verbs 0^ prauino. the ob- jeet addressed is sometlnaes in the transmissive dative, as (Eur.) ytQOasv^OfjLsS-a xotci cotg ccyciX/J-ccci = 'we shall pray to tliine im- age' ; and sometimes in the genitive as the party /V-om whom some- thing is asked. In this way Sso^cci, as containing the notions bodi of entreaty and need, is found with a double genitive, as (Herod. I. 59. 23.) idhzo zov Sjjfiov cpvXayirjg ZLVog = Mie requested from tbe people a i;iiard', where drjfiov seems to depend on the notion of entreaty, and 9?i;/la>t^s on that of need. /-')Thesanctioninj^powers» in the case of a prayer or vow, are always in the genitive,* as (tie- rod. VI. 68. 10.) syigcczov cazLvog ijd'sX' syiaazog=: 'it pleased Uiem to pour out unmixed wine in whose honour soever each wished' i. e. to fill up a bumper to him'. ^ The sanctioning' powers are in the accusative after oi[ii;ii- (At, and iniognsco, an uuvv^l, iniog-niw zovg ^eovg =^ 'I SAvear, swear falsely by the gods', ^similarly aCaxvvoaca, as (Xen. An. II. 8. 22.) cciaxvvouaL -d^eovg Kvgov ngodovvaL= 'I am asham- ed before the gods to betray Cyrus', where the infinitival clause represents another accusative; for, without the sanctioning powers, the construction of alaxvvoaai is still the same, as at- GxvvoactL CiVTOv == ^I am ashamed o^ hImV The particles o^ adjuration are f»? or vaC, used only in affirmative sentences, with or without ^id to strengthen them, as vr^ zov /JCa or vai fid zov di'a = 'truly by Jove'; and fid itself, which is used without vai when the-adjuration is negative, as ov fid zov Jlcc = 'no by Jove', or fid zov Jta, ovk 8gs(o='^o by Jove, I shall not teir. VERBS WITH DOUBLE REGIMEN. §. 70. §. 71. GOVERNMENT OF PASSIVE VERBS. 145 U4 T^i ^ nr^netrnrtion of others among these Obs. 2. Variations. The 2"^«^X,.eposUions. Thas <5r«- ^erbs is varied, p^an.calads by t^e^ ^ «',,P ,F,omethins',, occurs: „iH,,50«fir T..-" ""O* "Z.-Ho deprive one of sometl.ing', « '^•'" "; ^51° -Icousllive of the thing, as Ttpoxaia.- a»a^, «eo'e^«/'''v"';'y;*iL?[,r «) Tl.e accusative of the .lung, Obs. 3. Adverbial Accusative, aji adverbial, as .vith "erbs oisayiug and '"'7,''?"^;;,'^i)' J^ x"ls .gc. II. 2. 9.) "r^, f;;;"^''.^ \he actors in the drama iiXX^Xo., r^ ""'^"^"JKotll^-; hence the pl.r«sesa^,>.««<05, .av the uttermost agamst 016 anothet . .^1 r ^^^_.^ or deed', x/ya>r, «o.«> "''«=/„V,ie petson, ,vlule that of the th.ng IS Jvi being tlte ac<'"*f"^f°f''l.|?e student must not suppose that, represented by the adverbs. 6) ^1^= f »"= ^,. ^11 verbs of bene- because there is ^''«''"«^„^n,af case oT.he contrary, verbs expressing tUese not.on, relf'.ivtofihe patient, and only .nose (2a«(5, t?).^^^" '^y '''" "fu were to actual benefit or injury .ako is, cliieftv poet\C. J rf>"-arA to some 01 tuftSfi Obs. 4. Descriptive Accu=«.«. in re -d ^^ ^^^^ ^^^.^^^ verbs, it .nay be ^fl»^^."°." ™"" l' „o hing else In the case of verbs „ny other than the descnptve ™?Wes, one of the who e, and of dividing, winch take "° "'^„\";'';\,. I 13.) 6 Kvgos to azpa- another of the parts, as (^^'j;^^?!: .^, ,„3 divided his anT,j'..nt<, i:^r4/= '".-■f'"V ^r'Tlike mann " b^ tb'e addi.rou of a de- and ^,pa-«i^ovs the pnrt- 'n 1 Ve "^^"^ ,;„/fo„„d with one case. sometimes occur with two, as poTjirfi..' »-^t^"r'vSif governing the Genitive ani ^atlv. i to^tov=Hlus - my concerr^ ' rSX^'I ba- „ol TOi)TOV='tIiis is my concern , ^'3^ ^ >i i,avo ^I repent me ot lolly , Tr^oor/ ^ yowua- l« meiit Avitli some one*; iTtsisiul nvi 'ent of things to denote the iiicaiis, as mlM 9miiiha wh tccT^ocs ev^rjvrac = 'many remedies have been discov- ered by physicians'; ol niamnjg . . . r« circo iTtili. novTi iiXLilovxo = 41io Plata^ans were hard 'pressed by their store of grain failing'. The accusative after passive verbs is descriptive, as (Herod. VI. 38.) nlll- y^vru ryp, xfqp«A,;v TteXiy.sC = Struck with an axC On the head'. n^ni?.^"" ^®"°°^^ Construction. In Latin, only those verbs can be thplniv''th ?' '" tlie passive voice, which take an accusativeiu m h r ' ? «^^^'"sative becoming the nominative of the passive: b t . Greek the xm^, ,, more free. Not only tlio mxxJv,, u also tho gcuuive and dativ,- after active verbs, governing a Single 10 '4 146 GOVERNMENT OF VERBALS rso£. S. 73. INFINITIVE AFTER VERBS. 147 case mav be turned into the nominative of these same verbs m the pa'^sive as (PL Rep. VIII. 551. A.) danSLXCiL drj to ael TLiKOfiEvov, aaslsltdL ds to cltL^at6fisvov='\\\mi is uniformly honoured is cultivated, and what is dishonoured neglected', where m the active aaxetV ^\OUld £,^Overn the accusative, and ccfi,sX£iv the ^genitive; (Thuc. IV. 61. 1.) o£ svocTiot %v^i,TcavTsg uev STti^ovXsvous&a = 'all we, the inhabitants (of Sicily), are bein- plotted against', where in the active ini^ovlevEtv would govern the dative. In the case of verbs governing the accusative and genitive, only the accusative may become the nominative of the passive used personally, but in that oP verbs governing the accusative aud dative, either may be so employed; it is however more elegant in Greek to invert the da- tive of the person than the accusative of the thing, as (Time. I. 126 11.) ot Tdjv'A&rjvceCoav inizstgcc^fievoc xriv cpvXayiriv=\\\ose oi the Athenians who had been entrusted with the watch', the con- struction of the activebeingfTrfT^fi/^ttv avTotg xriv cpvXay.riv. Like- wise in the case of verbs governing two accusatives, thai ot the person becomes the nominative oP the passive, as O dVYiQ VftO Acill- 5roov f^o^ocyc^t. i^ucSsT^^t] = 'the man was tau|ht miisie by Lamprus'; the construction of the active being tOV avOQaAaa^TQOS snciiSsvcs [MOvGiyirjv. §.72. Verbals in r£o^-. «) When these are formed iVorx^ cKrecily h-au^Ulv^ vGvk i. 0. voi'bs o'overiiiiig tllC acc^^satlve, they are personal or impersonal ; when per- sonal, tliey agree with their suhject in gender, number and case, as rj «^fr^ ciGy.r]xia saxtv = 'virtue is to he practised'; when impersonal, they stand in the neuter, and their subject becomes their object in the accusative, as a6'Ar]xiov sGrl Ty]v agsirjv. b) When derived from other than directly transitive verbs, they are always used im- personallv, and govern the cases proper to the verbs from which they are severally derived, as ini^sXt^tsov tcov ^Onrj^mm = 'the cattle must be cared for '5 incxsLQij- ziov tW £^793= 'the work must be undertaken '. c) When derived from verbs which assume a new sense in the middle voice, and with it a new construction, these ver- bals take both senses, and the constructions correspond- ing to each, as neiGxiov iarh avxov = 'he must be persuadecV, from Ttsl^co = 'I persuade \ whlch gOVPmsJ the accusative-, and TtEiaxeov eaxlv avxta = 'he must be obeyed', from ndf^ouai = 'I obey', which governs the dative, d) Witli all verbals in x^og the agent is put in the dative, as em&v^,^xiou iazl xoig ^vd-Q^noig xrjg aQ€T7Jg = virtue IS to be desired b;^ men ' ; ^o,^,;r£0. ioxi xfl mkl v^rv = the state must be aided by yuU ' ; LXiov il'uLV = we must be gone', which last is an example of a 'verbal that can have no proper regimen of its own, and also of the omission of the copula, which is very common With verbals in rfoc. 01)^. 1. iecusfttive of ike Agent. lu Attic, the ai^ent is some times expressed by the accusative, which is anom^IoL in Ci vu respect to tJie grammatical form, but in perfect correspondence to tlie thouglu the force of the verbal being that of ^a/with the accusative and following infinitive. Thus (Pal Gorg. p. 507 D .]" Obs. O Number of the Verbals. When used impersunallv these verbals are often in the neuter phtral, instead of The nS singnlar The same holds of adjectives^n general, when p.edicZd of an .nhn.tival clause particularly of th?se in roc, x\LT/aov people rule, vt is impossible but thcU ahuses should arise ». leii tlie § 73. Infinitive after Verbs, aj The infinitive after verbs IS as common and, in its force, as varied in Greek a« '"English * Thus it frequently denotes a purpose, (§■ 46. Obs. 1.), as (Thuc. VI. .50. 4.) Sk. SI rJ..^ f^a»ai « X. r. X. = 'they (the Athenians) sent ten of then- ships ^o .«,7 to the great harbour (of Syracuse), and observe if&c.' (Soph. Oed.Col.l2) (lav^ivi^v dnouev f^TJ """" = '^^c Strangers arfi come to Uam .f (you) citizens'. t>J Even when the subject of the principal verb, or, as in the case of adjectives S.CS.Obs.l , when the noun in concord with the adjective, is the real object of the action denoted by the infinitive, that infinitive is which fa'TrvL'-^F* *''<'*°tinitive is used as in English, in L.i!- . * , ~ *'"'«^«'. as ovn ixm Xiynv ovSsv = 'I have nothing to say •, or ' I am not able to say anything ' 10* 148 GOVERNMENT OF ADVERBS. §. 74. ^> ith rare exceptions, in the active form in Greek, as, (P Gore;, p. 489.0) na^ixn^ (l«fTO.) coa«£o rf^var .« ;L. :fj = 'to ofl'or (l>;m..lO as invore to be liack- ed and cauterised l.y a pl.y'^Ieian'; (Xen. Hell, IV 4. dJav = 'they (the Phliasii) gave up hoth the c. y and the' citadel to them (the Lacedajmonians) to guard , i. e. 'to Le gUftvdcd'. spis woi-thy of the state'; ofioAujuvfis-u^s -„ -r-i- -.. 'to nvc agLaUy to natuvo'. U E.COpt «1I0, «))?, ff^lK) , he .uniformly take the dative, all others capable of government, a.fd these arc chiefly the adverbs denotm^ ol^n age', .e',,. ..1, .,V..o. ^'untiHoday (hence the conilinctional forms fc^Vs ov cjcptj ot,. l.ke *»? "^ — 'ns'kr as until', §. 94, d), n^og tov ovy.ov = neai the -- 'nnknoAvn to the state'. Adverts gover„>ng a ease, ;;cept those derived from adjectives, are called .mproper prepos^'0"S^ ^.^^^ following Ijowovc- arc ,^om«™- » In English we sav 'far A<"«' hut 'near to\ because, in l-e- carrtin "distance under-the aspect of remoteness, our language f ont mpUtes a traveller going fro.n a place whereas mreg.rd traveller ffoinff tmfards a place; accora.ngl.y if "<^"' •'<= t"'"«° into itreonivalent «or /-ffr, A™"' ^"""^^ nat"--"";- n"^'- '»■ 1" §. 75. CfOVERNMENT OF PREPOSITIONS. 149 theGreck noun may be observed passing into tllC picpositional State, j^iist as the English gerund in coiicernim,, refjardimj, toiichinq. c) With fVfH« the genitive is sometimes not causal, Out tliat of concern , as .,,, , - ^^'h'^ ^y^ — JL 15 no oiner man mv \\ lien used prGpO^ltiOnally, It takes tKe privative genitive. U1)S. 2. EX(0 with an Adverb and a Genitive. The senidval const^nictiou oradverbs along u itli ^co is a Irequent Idiom, as ^us- Im tXHv TLVog =: ' to be negligent of sometl.ing', o^x olSa nai- duaq 07C(og n^i^ai dLiiaL06vvrjg = n do'nt know hou (or what) he IS in respect oflearning and justice', cog ttoSc^v eiyov = 'as fast as they could run Sometimes abo witJl Uim Ml flXffl, a^ 7} 'in regard to taly and Sicily, Corcyra lies well I'or a coastintr voy- age where there is even a double genitive: eZ ^\scv XQW^Jy = 'to be well off for money'. ^^ '^ §. 75. Goverament of Prepositions. Contrary to ^iiat their name ^vould indicate, prepositions do not always stand Ijcfore their cases; certain of them fre- quently tollow after, especially In poetry, as (Eur.Med. J2jy) rs'Avcou rcovd swovfxiuri ni^L = 'thinking of these clnltlren' : in composition however they ahvays precede the other element of the compound word. Advcrbs gOYCm- iiig- cases are never used in composition, and that IS the grand distinction between them and prepositions proper- ly so called. (§. 74, b.) Ugo however never folW Its case, nor avrl, dia, ava, aiicfi, and h only in Epic: but the others may follow their cases, the accent bein- thlVKVn hack as In the ahove example not TcsoC. = 'pr^s de\ and 'far from' = 'loin dc\ The Italians use every Idiom possible in the case^ thus 'presso j alia torre' ah mean Siinply '\\m the {lSm,\^ By iU .yr^U^al ir.etlo. of the ref found w-tl^'t'. ^i^^^.^.^«' ^Vhieh usually takes the dative U ;;;i^hts' ^^''' ' sommets'.= 'they approached the 150 GOVERNMENT OF PREPOSITIONS. S. 75. (§ 50. Obs. 2.) When a preposition governs a substan- tive and an adjective in concord, it may stand either before both or between the two, as b t« px^« nou^^ = 'in the long war', ^ccxrj eVt nvdtc^vsl^ri = ^n the ^lo- rious ficrht', ^oag snl vrjag = 'to the swift ships.' There are ei-hteen prepositions of which four govern the gen- itive viz. cm6, iy. or £|, avrl, 7tQ6- tNvo the dative sv, Oyv one the accusative «V * ^^^ the dative and accusative, avu • three the genitive and accusative dic€ , y.ccra , tjyrf p * and seven the genitive , dative , and accusative, ccucpc, TtSQi, STtt, ftfra, TtciQCi, TtQog, vno* * If it appear strange to the English student that many and diverse, somGtimes indeed opposite meanings, should be- lonty to the same Greek preposition, it is merely because he has" not studied the development of prepositions in his own lano-uage. A few hours devoted to the imperial Dictionary would reconcile him to the manifold character of these words, and indeed throw not a little light upon the Greek prepositions themselves. Take for instance by and xvith. hoth ot which start fron. the same local Idea viz. proximity, Under tllO ftSPGCt of mere juxtaposition In the former, under that ot consociation in the latter; it is very instructive to notice where they coincide, and where they diffef in their derived applications, as follows: By = near = along ^on =: before = during = according to Farther, by denotes the agent, the instrument, tke manner, distribution, adjuration, With denotes along with, among, n »> immediately after, ,, on the side of, ,, in opposition to, ,, as 'I have a cask of wine by me' 'I shall walk by the riverside' 'battles % sea and land' '■by this time the sun had risen' ',J 'by tlie space of forty years' ^ ^by his own account he acted nobly . 'the Iliad was written by Horner'^ 'the cities were destroyed by fire' 'ke entered h)j force' 'day by day', 'to sell by the pound 'No I by Heaven I' 'I walked with him a mile' 'with the ancients suicide was not a crime' '^tvith this he pointed to the stars and exclalmea 'Fear not, I am tvith thee ^ 'the Allies fought xvith the Russians 11 11 »» 11 11 §. 75. Obs. 1. GOVERNMENT OF PREPOSITIONS. 151 Obs. 1. Ano and Iv. or /|.* Tliese both denote rewoya/Z-ro/w or position away from, but witii this difference, that ccno == 'from the surface or edge of a tiling', h = 'from the interior' Hence ano = from simply, ex = out of. Ill tlie causal sense m6 denotes the more remote, ex the more immediate cauSC. a) 'AHO The from relation is often preserved in Greek by duo , U here tlie Ell'^Usll uhom employs some other, as cicp* tnnmv fidxea&at = 'tO fl'^ht on (ht. from) horseback', the English expressing the warrior's po- n'r vVJ","' t? ^'"i^K'^'f "'r''t of his darts from that position: so 'r i*/t^ -^ """^ /Jtoro TTf^pi^fv = 'slew ^^itll (lit. from) the bow'! and (Time. . 17. 1.) L,4^^ „ ^J .J.cS. oJ<^^. iw- cc^Loloyov=^ 'and by (lit. fromj tliem nothing of moment uas ac- comphslied . Hence the adverbial phrase cog dn' oaudrcov = 'as by eyesight the tneans being represented in Greek as the source of judgment. ^Vhen, in a deHnition of time, only the prior limit of an interval is mentioned, ano = 'after', as and dstnvov = * after snpper . Both the from of coimection, and the fwu of Separation (^§.13) appear markedly in different uses oi dno ' the former ill OL , - -' -;/ — -^ "i»wiiciv.iv unurmeu \\i iiie City , a iisajxe wlHch seems to have arisen from such phrases as ano^ %aldocn<; OLyiSLv = 'to dwell far from the sea', b) 'Ek or i|. The use of this prepoMtioii WHli verbs of m/ to L^i, position ..... u^., tUu.^h found m Herodotus, is chiefly Epic, as *x ^sXscov == ' om of gun- shot (as we should say). Its distinction from dno, as denotin- more y.c.c u,unaucuc<^ successiou IS the idea: so Sn deiZVQV ^ 'imme- diately alter supper'. By denoting the tv/ience , like dnd , it may introduce the cause, as £h tpvascog = « by (lit. out of) nature'; but ;;5J,!f, 7//\!i^^/f "'!'7 ""^ '^':r ^Sein'.s almost entirely Ionic, as (Herod. Ill 62. 4.) ra ivrsraXfi^va U rov Mdyov = Svhat was commanded by the Magus'. In all phrases implying dependence the Instrument, as 'to write tvith pen and ink' the manner, „ 'he acts with precipitation'. ^.L!^^^'"''*"'^ i*?/'"''^. distinctions, a still greater variety of ftiT.^^r^^'^ ^^ ^^^^^.^l but the above a?e unquestionable. Let them be compared with those of nagd and uara, which ZIT^^^V" '^'\Y^\f'^''^^^-V'''r.t, are the Greek coWespou: ^eiits Of 'by' and 'witb' respectively. ^ ^nd ! ^^ is not difficult to recogrmse In these the'Latin ab back'^' '^ ^^ represented by the Homeric ^V = 152 GOVERNMENT OF FREPO.'3ITIO^'S, 75. Obs. 2. 75. Obs. 3, 4. aovEK^MENT or fkepositions. 153 i e hanqinq from, W i^ the preposition tO be USed,* ^ ^,i^^lV ^r, rivtJrnoLv = 'to carry at the girdle i. e. suspended from u^, (Herod III 19.13.) na, h^o.vUcov VQtrjw bvavniio^ azQazo, ^ 4h,-naval arniameiil wliolly dependca on the Phanuaans we. '"^ "oC 2 '^ r r / and « e o' (Latin ante, pro, and pr«e). These hoth mean before, but with this diiTerence tliat avxv denotes exact tTnZ,facelo ace, as the poles of a globe, whereas "PO mca s (illy La,-.. L wl.en we .ay timt 'a cart is kfoK the aooi . hZo! \„ their development, ttl^tlimplies oppOsmoB. espccmlK m CO, position, as ^.-t/zB = 'I resist', but Ttpo rfe/fe«ee, as oU- cTrnol n6Um=-mourir pour la patrie. Cotnpare ,joxc<^,o^«» - "to moteel', with praesiriium. They govern the getnttve because, ;;i,e nothing is lefore another,, they a.e suppo^-d to be at some distance /M each Other, noi.a j«xtaposi.,on. -^> "» - »;;^ nveference to- 'in oxclmnge or return for', and 'instead of, aceord- ^ :t the eom xt may rlqnire. Hence the adverbial express.ons ^v9'oi dv»' av = 'in return for which' = 'wherefore' = be- came' as ,4 . ooi oisa, «.*' -,^^^^'= :;:; ^T'^inT voa -K-e come'. In the S!\mO SlinSt! JTOO WVSi IS UbCll. fl) AVVl- tl, Vprepos",!,-,,, never refers to time: btwis used in adjurat.ons, as IvrWcUScov ™^«f = 'by these children', .(lit.r.n.heu- prcse..ce . i) nod This preposition is used of time, hke the English befoie , aid o'ft;« answ^ers^o ago, as n,6 noUov == ''-S »S» ; ^ ^. mev and the tragedians it lias often a semi-adverb.al sense in leia S to place, as"/;i.d*. n^6 = 'forwards ftWrroj-Wl" "PO y,. * This fvt is probably the true expletive of the genitive with verbs of holding by (§. 64. Obs. 4. j. ** AVe say 'independent o/' , but 'dependent on , an irregu- larity which Lnnot be admitted i.to ^^-]^ - ^^^ ^^ S opf fo tl^ analogies, leads to changes of consmietion The analogy of the sense often prevails, even Xre the etvmoloiry has not been lost, but only enfeebled. Thus^4 yapL =^I put the hand to', properly governs the ^^11 Z'Z .rapJc onkboiohln^ of the haiKlfo a thing. whYch 'stao-gestedUie indirect regimen, was at length forgotten, rn^reSafed by the abstract idea of undertake i.. wh.ch sense U is sometimes found with the accusative in later wrxters. skavvoacii = '1 hurry forward from land to land', ^roo ^Sov ivd- vovTO= they were forward on the way'. This nQ6 is doubtless, tile expletive ot the local genitive noticed in §. 64. Obs. 7, b. Farther ^jo denotes the internal cause, as n^Q im^m^muUo^ MOV ^yreube = 'lorjoy', where the Latin and German exactly repre- sent tJio Greek, ^vhereas the Engrlish does so only in form, because for never means before. .hl.tu-^^ ^* i^^-' ^V'P^'^^^S'. *''^ ''^"^ ftV/Epic (Latin in witli the ablati\e), and 6vv, ^vv in old Attic, Doric, and Ionic (Latin cum) as denoting the former intraposition in, the latter juxtaposition togckr wit/u iiaiurally take the dativo, the cas. cF the place\.A..e — vvith haste ; and of the instrument, as dgaG^ai iv 6(p^aXuote = to see with the eyes', aw de vs(p8866L -^cclv^sv yaiav=.'^.ml With clouds he cove^-cd the earth'; but iv only is used of moral -f!»f«^ oo Jt » : V — v«..» , ^yui ci/ uijiy IS useci 01 moral > tate., as ev ogyri etvai = 'to be angry '; h rjdovy fiot ictiv = u IS pleasing to me', a) Ev, With WOrds indicaiiiJ- place It'to'^ ^^..^^^ __ „,«a//^ jiic-u , sv ciQiGtSQu = 'o« the left hand'. It temporal use is post- Homeric, as h^. (xQovco) = * whilst'.* 0) Zvv. This preposition never refers to time. With the name of a siipenor being it signilics 'with the help of, as avv Gs6 = Svith ood s help ; .a relaiioii to men, 'on the side of, us ev'. .... a.'- xeo^uc^ 'to n^ut on one's .ide'; with an abstract duality, conform- tty, as avv to, dtxatw xriv ^fjcpov ZL^ea&uL = 'to vote accoid- ing to justice . Obs. 4. £^5, is in Ionic and old Attic, and in the poets for the sake of the metre, (Latin in with the accusative)^ 'to, into' an- propriately takes the accusative, the case of the place whither. With tlle name Ot a D^'SOn a Is often equivalent to Ihe French o7.e. , as esMevelaov== 'to Menelaus' (tent)'; and, when .notion to hL a ho.t le .n ent, u means againsf, as iargdrsvaav Ss rrjv'Jrrc.rjv = thej made an expedition into or against Attica'. Temporally it may ^ In Findar (Pjth. IL 11. , h occurs with thC aCCUSative signifying motion to a place; and, on the other hand e'^is Said to occur with the dative In Inscriptions. These irregularities as also he use of h with the accusative for iv with the dative Which oeeurs^in Herodotus, (as (VIL 239.) i, r6 xQr^ar^^ovr^ 'L ^^^'''^^^^'''^'^'''' = ''^'^y «^^* t^ t^^« oracIe^•iz.^o the one ../Delphi ) is trequent in the N. T., and ultimately prevai ed th^ expulsion of^alto^etherfromth.gpoknkn^ however a twofold construction. '^ ^^ "" 154: COVEK.>.'MElS:X or PREPASITIOKS. §.aObs,6,6. deUO.e the U,nU of ..me as ''-/^.^^- «";fL*4n>^.e'l'i^'"o 'on/' |f,e = 'up .0 my time' : so di ^"'''^'t'^-T, Jiw^ = 'at the third power': also ^point otnme, »\7« J'^^^^^.'/^l.Xr a year'. With Lttr'; or duration of t.me, ^ , ;« f ^ """"^ ^ tag "tpaKOO.as „„„.be..s 1. denotes f^J^'l'^^'^'''^ ' 'f '' ^* S iJ"L<« J», as st, the Netv Testament the ,;««/ , a= («»" • '• 2";) ^^^ ^ , ^ ,,,„ „eneral CLTana aT4s in tl.r:-e of motion Z. U ,S ntost common in -^"'^cfhTl' "l^;:;'"i:'.hre"pie"ann;ric poets, and in t.te chor.i nf'.h; trt^edia s dva=on is found with the dafve, as ^9"" songs of "'S'-'S^f^'t' "f^nupn stair': elsewhere it governs tlie aecusative and in tl"^«S!'"«» = "PP^^te ia."r'..n through', tive, the former "S'"!!^? "^, '';:"?" ^JiJ .i. „„r«aoV= 'down as ava tov notafioi'- «p "'^"^" '1"! . „,„,:„„ „„ or down. or ■HCCTOC TOV ^ or >c«rc^ crrp^rov = ' tlll'OU^r„uui lie «w-j , ^' ^ ',caov rovTOv = 'thrOUgllOUt tllis ^^ ai - «v« ' =. ' in Te comse of time ' (Heroa. Ml. 10. 6.) and on the j^QOvov=^ n rFnr Ton 8301 Willi numbers aWhas sometimes spur of moment (Lur.lon.85Uj. _^^/;' Sp-^ilv' and sometimes an a distribtuive force, as ava ^"^"^^^J^^f^^'about two-hundred approximative, as ava ^^^^o^/" *^^''^''',T;- Hpmdotus Z\.\ in Which latter sense it ^^.^^^'^^^r-^.w ' ^a -th th. Obs. 6. ^ta, ."^S"^^^^T\^\^"° -„;","„:^,.h the midst Latin dis, which also imphe. divx.,ion "^^_^'f '{ll^'Xmon^ one's of, as in the phrase d.a X'^?''\lf'Z^J,l,l"^^^^^^ hands', and governs the genrnve ^ ^^J,^^^ !^;/;\4' , ^^^ a whence through may be regarded with Xl^^^^roften implied not only and a whither, a) J.a r^^ ^.^.^•^r f/ .Trnn.Oi; 71?.^£V hm *throug :f'r:tKia:nr:;;.;i.^'-asdtaco,ttoi}^/.^e.fyr^ * Hence the adverbs avco, xarco in r-\f ^^^ *; i^rlwe denote, the former the ^J^^^^^^l^jf^^^^^^^ gion. The force of aya ^^^ ^^^^^^'l^l^l^^^^^ ^vco y^atco KomaiC word avamTOV Kings', where the EnRlish idiom tlH 1'/^ "^Z "r'^'i'^" of origin, not that of instrumentality; so the 7nate7>ralas S, sXsrpc.vros = 'of ivory', the manner as did zcc- XOVg=.Uinwk\Y\ and the value as ^.' o^asvog noieCG&ac = 'to count for nothing': but in ^'nQsns $c<-- 'T^.^'^r-toXflhe? i"e"via,««; 'excuse' ; also. ge„«.»l «rajroXoy>itous_= »0 tiiai lucj c,„.,,jgn, :„ every respect', fls, reference, as ^QOv.liog ik navta- H"^'^ [^^ louco\vei of as for f/8, is used only With Ff ^';;„i: 'ti 1" fu InUW.ants aro ^^i^ li«^\n UrHre Sn .. U is .ost con,n,on iu songs of ll.e.trasedmns «.c<-0" . fo-d t ^^^^ .^ ,^^,_^^ ^^^^ cv«_<-.«ji3".v. . >.-, _ i „ tt^.-z-wiioli ' tne latter mcxc" iiii.'-'"o" ' tlve, the former meaning ^P '^''^'if ;^^!^l ^^^ ^orauo'r^ Mown XeoVo. = ''"^j;- -'- "sU'^V" numbers riWhas someumes spur of moment (Eur.Ion._»du;, ,, . , . ^„i sometimes an a'distribntive force, as ccva '^"r"''*^^,^^'^-' about two-hundred approximative, as avcc «''J«.°''.'«""^/"i ,,,. Herodotus, suidia', in whicli latter sense it >%« " V'^^i'^J ".„, aud «itli the ou. e. Jt«, cognate \vitlii^fO^',.;!lJ,„„H .^e ™Ust Latin dis, wl.icli also implies ->■";'»"; -!^"f^/^'^::=„„o„g one's of, as in the phrase Sta ^eie^r ^Z»»^ — '^ because motion hands', and governs the S«.";"^^,f "'' ^ f^fm „s" 1 a"' ng a u-/,e«ce -'= 'through the ^ 155 — the spear went tlirough the shouUler, aud eame out on the other Mde : hence it came to denote the extreme limit of a tran:.ition Whether in place or time, as (Thuc. II. 29. 3.) Sc^ roao^Tov-Z[ so great a distance' ; (Herod. IV. 181. 6.) sd SUu 7P,7:rl6o% — ^ at the distance of ten days journey '; (Herod. VI. 118. 13 ) A,' mm Hmt := 'after twenty years', m nature of the verL ulliv uui.cates whether d.« denotes the space, local or temporal, p^sed hrot.^h, or the term arrived at on the tran..ition being completed, a. S.^ noXloy i^^ovov) ^X&e = ^ after a long time he came' bu Scu noUov sf^ccxovro = 'tliey fought during ix lonj? time' Tl e temporal ..A^er gave rise to the distributive force of°^ cj as Sd Veai 1. 'every hve years, or every fifth vear'; and so of other thiiip, as Thuc. III. 21. 3.) Stu S^.u Sh iWA|.«.= Wr^- temh n?H f'd'hv;/ ^^"^i-^^Jf"^^^ Of .J..' with the lenitive ma7brri vccg t7C0Lr)G8v='b^' wnom aiso lie made the worlds' ; Slu Buv.Atwv ..^„K..a. == 'to be .p,„„g from kings', where tlie Eiiffy. i ol aJ,m,» only .he relHt on of o.igiu, „ot°,hat of mstrumeTualit ; so mate,,a/^^S, sU.pc^Tos = 'of ivorj', the ,nar>ner ns dtS ra- S = quickly' and U,<, value as St' o^Ssvog noci[a9ai. = 'to 'uU c^"'i,Z''"fn.= a'-'" ^''^*-^*- ---" = 'he was distin! F r'';™r,l' •,/„'". ''/f.l^"-,"^ "-' .'«-' f"-.. That same the mate — .; « , \' '^""'J ^«rms with one , dia udyriS sovs- of ^nr^r 7." ^'^^'i T^' '"^' '"^'' ^^^^^^'^ the mind is concdi^ed c!//^/ Tl f ^^7"^^^^'^. State in question, b) /ltd with the accu- ^^l^~ 'by, means of, ^.«' with the accusative = 'on accounfof', as, 6lCl T0V5 ad tyicos TtoXtT svo!xsvo^,g iv ^^ oXLyccQj^c'oc arjuoyiQazi'a house, and out at the other side': Sl' U is exactly paraHel to the hnglish throughout' in form, but not in sense, for it means not tk^ughouU but out through. Thm k how.v.. . 'aJLZZ' exactly ana ogous to this Compound notion of dtd^ in the Ent sh preposx xoa 'by' which properly means 'near'/ but in many connexions 'near and away again'; as when we say 'he we^t?v x^rjf ^awlv^''^"^^\.^' " r'' ^^J'^"«^ '^ a verb this mean' P fr.se 'to nnt ''T^'r,'^ ^".^^^^^ ^^^^^^^ *^ '^3'', as in the phrase to put a thing Ay' i. e. 'away into its proper Dlace till it lUmM T-' -^-^^ - ^^e En^lLh o. the icolS^Pto put 156 GOVERNMENT OF PREPOSITIONS. Obs. 7. yCyvbzai = 'democracy arises on account of those who aaininistei- the n-overnment unjustly under oligarchy'; el ^rj Sue rovrov s'(pv- )V civ = 'but for liim I should have tied': hence Sio , originally yoy SV = 'on which account i. e. wherefore', and dtort = on tiiat account i. e. because', ^itx may also denote the /inal cause (witll a view to). In regard to time, Sta with the accusative is SOmetilTlGS equivalent to Sid with the genitive, as Sia vv%xa = Hlirough the night'; and in poetry there are instances of this same equivalence in''regard to the local and instrimiental through, as(Aesch.) qpfvyftv Sia yiva ccXiov == 'to escape through the salt wave': (Od.) vi-ati- etn Si^'A^mv n 'to coiuiiier liy means of Minerva'. Obs. 7. Kcixcc (Obs. 5.). I" the sense of 'down /Vow ', this preposition naturally takes the genitive, as ^rj Ss -nar OXvuTtOLO yiagrjvcov = ^ and he went down the heights of Olympus ', m the sense «d" down along the accusative, as xw-d-' odov =: 'down along the way', a) Kara ivith the gemtlve. Contrary to what might have Leen expected, tho pi'6Vftiliiig suii^G of mxA wltli tlic geiiitive 'h not down from but down to or on, as xara i^ovo^ v^acaajtij^ai. — 'to tiv the eyes down to or on the groiuur; * avgov yiccxa xfis yi£- (pal^S v.azciihHV— 'to pour perfume down on the head'; and that too with the collateral idea of opposition, as loyos x«r« xivog =: 'a speech against some one', but not always, as(Aeschin. Ctes. 60. 36.) of X«T« J/jUOatfVoi'S 'inaivoi = 'the praises of Demos- theues' : so with verbs of aiming at and hitting, as v.cixcc G-nOTtOV ro^svscv=^ 'to shoot at a mark' (§.64. 01)5.4.). In Attic it is used also of the person or thing sworn by, as if the swearer laid his hands down upon it. b) Katd with the accusative (Obs. 5.). With verbs of motion it sometimes denotes direction toicards, but its prevailing force is along, according to, or, more generally, \cith respect to. par- tioiilarly in adverbial phrases. Tlius mm w u rM UUmav 7tOQ8V8a&aL= 'to travel by land and ?ea';^ ov x«Ta nvu =^ 'a man's coteiiipoiaries'; y,arcc yvcoariv riqv eu/fv = 'according: to my opinion '; ov Kdza Mtz^adcixriv := 'not after the fashion of Mura- ... — - -j_| — (JvyTUj|;t^v='by V..CW.VV , , ^.." ^ ^. , ^^ ^^ t;^j gt,me respect^ v.axu TtuvTCi = 'lU every VeSpOOt ', 'iitlt oiS£v = ^\\\ no respect'. Ir is also used distiibntively as v-uzu {ifiva =:'per month'; 'AU^' ^a£pav='daily '; 'h%a^' £V='one by " and to indicate the latitude or longitude of one place by the one =^ Our own \mn presents a similar incongruity, for we can say 'to cast the eyes upon the ground' ; and au etymologist maj one day ask why, seeing the whole operation is dorvriwards, the element up should be admissible at all. §. (5. Oljs.8, H, GOVERNMENT OP PREPOSITIONS. 157 mention of another, as v.aza. ZivcoTtrjv = 'on the same parallel or meridian with Sinope'. Obs. 8. 'Ttzsq (super) lias the same elements of sound, and the same meaning as the English over, a) With the genitive of motion or rest in epac^, as o vjhos vn^o r^fitdv ucti fcdv Cr^yMV noQ^voii^voQ = 'the sun travelling over us and the roofs' : in behalf of, the protector being conceived of as standing over the protected, as ficcxsGd'ai vitsg tfjg TtatQidog = 'to light for one's country'; hence on account of , as vnlg nsv&ovg dno^avsi'v = 'to die o(^ grief. It seldom denotes the final cause as in (Dem.) vnlg zov uri na^tiv %cawj V7t6 ^di7tnov= 'in order not to be iU treated by Philip '. b) With the accusative it means ot^er to i. e. beyond as "UTLBQ EXXrjGTtovTOv oChslv = 'to dwell heyond the Hellespont', Tovg v7t\Q TQtay.ovTcc ^TY} yfyovorofg = 'tliosc ie//o«^ thirty years of ago*, vnsQ rjudg rovg cikXovg = aii-dessus de nous aidres i. e. ''beyond our comprehension'. ()bs. 9. 'Au(pL and mqC. These differ less in sig^nification than in the extent to which they are used. Properly ccfi^tptj as con- nected with cir;u.qpco, means 'on both sides', and Trap/ 'all round'; but this distinction is not maintained. Ap,(p( is mostly confined to the Ionic dialect and poetry, and, as its use was limited in classic times, so it is the only ancient preposition which has not survived in the modern dialect, a) With the genitive. The use of cxiicpL for the local about is post-Homeric, as (Herod.) of ml mvm oimvm no^tos = 'the dwellers about iliis city': nsgC in this sense witli the tjenitive is poetic, ami rare. Both are used for the metaphysical about i. e. 'concerning', jis ^cx.-j^BG%-a.L ccfxcpl or tzsqI 7t(Pfc, which means properly 'on both sides of. Should be used of the instrument, is no more strange than that our with should be used in the sense of by. g. 75. Obs. 11,12. GOVER^JM£NT OF PREPOSITIONS. 159 Itcl TLVL = 'to laugli at anything'; (Mrcumstance, as sn\ tzsiqcc = 'by way of experiment', inl xwxvrcS = 'with waiHng'; and witii names of persons 'in the po\ver of. c) With the accusative. 'EnC !=<5« Id, as tivtl^dLV^Lv itp Ln9eovr=zHo mount on horseback'; and, when hostility is implied, oQainst, as GZQaz^vsGQ'aL inLAvSovQ= *to make an expedition against the Lydians ' : also on in the sense of over, as nleCv iitl 7t6vTOv=i^io sail over the deep*. Temporally it denotes sometimes durinc), as inl noXXccq ?7|atpa5 = 'during many days'; sometimes imtil^ as sn* ?Jaj=:'until morning'. With numbers up to^ as ml xoiriY-oGicx, = 'up to three hundred': and in military language, as ^vith the genitive, te-cccy&ccl SttI tzoXXovq = 'to be ranked many men deep'. Obs. 11. MsTce. (German mit = with) seems to be connected with fi£Gog, ami means primarily with all cases in the midst, as fiSTa rcov vsyigmv = 'among the dead', fisr avSgaCL = 'among men\ fista x^t^QCiS s'xslv = 'to have among one's hands, or on hand'. More particularly a) With the (jmtm, it Amom niono with in various ways; conformity, as (jl€zcc zov vd(iov dia-HLvdv- vS'VSLV=''\.o encounter danger with i. e. while acting in conformity with the law' ; on the side of, as fisrd ZLVOg fj.txj^sa'&cci, = 'to tight on one's side'; and circumstance, as fisr agsz^s ttqcotsvsiv = ^io excel in virtue', b) With the dative it occurs only in poetry, chiefly Epic, and always in its primary sense, c) With the accusative it means tnio the tmdsl, as cclGCcov fjLSxci x^i'*"^S == rushing in among geese'; ^rjvctL ii^ra Nidroga = 'to go and. join Nestor': after in a variety of senses, as ordinally Mcclliczos fisrci IIi^XsLcavci = 'handsomest after Pelion'; temporally, iisza tavza = 'after these things', ^8zd ZoXcova otx6^,svov = 'after Solon's departure', a participle usually accompanying proper names, ^sd"' riybiQCLv = 'after ilay-lii^ht'/aml hence 'by daj'; afitv, as an object of pursuit, TtXecv fjiSTcc j^ccX->iov = 'to sail after copper* i. e. ad aes peteyidnm; after in the sense of conformity , as (jlstcx gov y.ccl SfJLOv "H-rjg = 'after your heart's desire and mine'.* Obs. 12. TIciQCC has for its general meaning beside, a) With the genitive '/V-o/n beside', as fiav&ccvSLv naga. zivog := 'to learn from somfe one' ; sometimes also with passive verbs before the geni- tive of the agent, by. b) With the dative, ^at heeide', (kifiModi ftth i;aMi=*at the ships', nao' ruitv = 'among us ', nag' siiol=: 'in my opinion', c) With the accusative 'to beside', chieny of persons, as Civai nagd KgoCaov = 'to go to Croesus' ; then alongj as nagcc zov nozaiiov = 'along the river'; throughout y as nagd ndvza zd * The with of (if ta with the genitive is less intimate than that of Gw with the dative, -which usually Implies Juxtaposi- tion; and the after of fxsrd. with the accusative is less intimate than that of sx with the genitive, which means ''immediately after'. 160 GOVERNMENT OF PREPOSITIONS. S. 75. Obs. 13, 14. tav dv&QConcov nQCiyiiata = 'throughout all human affairs'; and temDOrallY fpObt-Homeric) na^^ rbv 7toleuov= throughout i. e. aurmif the war'; Oet/ond, as 7r«^' ilTtc'acc = 'beyond expectation Ttagdrd alia %^u wOTteQ &eol o^ av&Qco7toL^LOTSvovai.= beyond other animals men live as gods', and hence after comparatives^(§.bO. own ca.elessne.J; tlUtnluihvely. ft^ ItUm ?im^'^W^ ^ ^m five ships' : and successively, as T]iiiQa nag rjfitQav— day by uaj , nlvvhv nagd 7ikrjyr]v = 'blow upon blow'. , ^ . , . , , Obs. 13. Uqos (TT^ort, ttotl in Homeric and Doric) is related to 7190, and has the same radical meaning with all cases, viz. before or in front of, as yvwiiriv inccp&ovov ngog nXsovcov = a senti- ment OtUous to (in presence of) most', and in adjuration, ngog &sa)v *bY (in presence of) the gods', TCQog xotg yiQLrciLQ = u\ pre- sence, of tlie judges'; hence with nil cases ioivards \. e. the SSpeCt fvoinins,as7tQogfisasa^Q/r}goruBG8a^QLr]V AQCi§LT^saTLV^ Ar^hm lies towards the south', TtgoQ scnsga or s67tSQav = tovvards evening'. More particularly a) With the genitive, against \. e. tront- in«^ as a barrier, cpvlayiciL ^ciTS6Tr}6av ngog Ald'Lonaiv —'guards wire Stationed against the Ethiopians'; on Ik mk of, i. e. fronuiig as defence, alvai noog rtvog^'tobe on one's side'; and piocession from before in various ways, as descent tt^os fj,rirQog= Miy the mo- ther's side', of qualities and actions consonant with their origin Trpog SUrig iatc'v = 'it is right' (§. 14. Obs. 5, c), ngog rcov sxovt(OV voaog = 'a law for the rich': sometimes simply from, and hence, after passive and intransitive verbs, by, with the genitive of the a.^ent: also on account o/, as (Sopll. kx\(\&. 51) ^fOOS ti\l%]Mtmti' ^^^ ^ propter fac'inora. b) With the dative, in addition to, as ngog zovtoig = ^moreover', c) With the accusative the notion to in front o/prevails; as, in tiie sense oi against, uccxea&ca ngog xiva = 'to fi"lit against one'; of the party addressed, loyC^^a^ai ngog 8avt6v^= 'to consider with one's self; and of the object in view. %m OWtUQtaV = 'for safety'. Also on account^ of^ as ngvs ravta = 'for this reason'; according to, as tt^os touto to ot/^^wy^i-o: -_ 'according to this proclanaation' ; with respect to, as TfAftOff nQOq aofTTjV = 'perfect in respect of virtue': and for in tiie comparative sense, as (Thud. 10.) ngog to ^Xsog civt^v= '/or i. e. compared with their glory', '^8ovdg ngog ridovag yiaTaX)MtTS69cci= to ex- change pleasures for plensnies'. Ok 11 'Tito (^iib) - Smtler'. a] Willi the genilive from under, as vs)lqqv vn Ai'avTO^ bqvhv = 'to drag the corpse from under Ajax i. e. out of Ids power'; simply under, m which sense the tlaiive is moie usual, except with verbs of hiitmg (§. 6-1. Obs. 4.), as tOV Pdl' vnb yva^^lOiO = 'struck liim under the jaw bone ; also of the mental cause, as vno diovg == T'om fear', as if under §. 76. GOVERNMENT OF PREPOSITIONS, ICl the influence of fear', similarly vtc' avlov yo^f vft7' = 'to dance to the llute'; and of tlie agent, as nsncadFvasvo^ vno rivoj = Mu- sti-ucted bf/ some one', b) Witli the dative, position niider, as t57r* T/Lt/^c><7&j='underHymettns i. e. at the foot of it'; tisqcov vtt' otSua- €iv = 'passing among the billows', they being conceived as over- hanging the passenger; noLScv xi vno xlvl =3 'to subdue anything under one'. In poetry, vno with the dative sometimes denotes the agent; and in such phrases as vn^ avXov xogsvSLV, the dative may roplai'G tho geniiivo. c) With tho aoou^ativo Uo iiii(lor\ a^ nmlv XI vno xLvcc = 'to subdue anything under one' (§. 76, b); simply lo with verbs of approaching, the object approached being conceived of as lofty, V7t' "iXiov ril^ov =^ 'tliey « ame to Troy'; under in the sense of beneath, as tm vno yrjv Xsyofisvat slvcci, ^sco == *to the god said to be under the earth': under in the sense of protection, as (Herod.) vno xov ns^ov (*r^c«;ro'i'=: binder the protection of the in- laiitry' : also vtto ti, as we say Minder some point of vle^v'. Tempo- rally it denotes approximation, as vtto vv-ura = stub noctem; into TOV VTqbv •aaTCfUCiivTCi = 'about the time the temple wai» burnt'; aiul sometimes during, .'is vno ty\v nctgOLXoasvrjv i'vyrof= Muring the past night'. §.T0. Pregnant Construction Of Frepositions. (/jTliis occurs when a prci^osition witli tlic dative accompanies a verb implying- motion to, or wlien a preposition with the accusative accompanies a verb implying; motion or rest in. In the former case the state of rest, in which the motion results, is regarded ; in the latter the state of mo- tion, w'lilch preceded tlie state of rest. '"Pliixs in P^iiolisli we say, not only 'to put ifito the hands of a person', but also 'to put in his hands', which latter exactly cor- responds to the Greek ndEica iv xsqolv^ or the Latin po- nerc in manibiis, and implies putting into the hands, and lornng* vcniam there. In no language ho^vever is it logi- cally corroct, .slnco putting implies motion to or i?ito. So (I1.XW277.) i(pc(i'tj Ar^^''^ ^- \* none 110 one knows i. e. >vhithcr he is gone, and where he now is , the verb implvlng motion to, ami the adverb rest in a place. (An- stoph. Av. l)onoi yrjg laaiv = ^vbere are we i. e. whither hax e we come and where are we? " tlie adverb in.ply.ng motion ^o and the Verl} rest in a place. So proleptically (Anstoph. Pint. 220 rovro ^ome one of those from within take and carry in this bit of meal , where I'vSo&sv implies that the people avcivithm, by indKaimg that ihey mnst come out, in order to do what they are reqnested. ^.77. Adverbial Phrases formed by Prepositions. Ill acltlitioii to those enumerated iii ^. ij- UnS. 6., Ol* Ad- dllCed as eXcamples of prepositional government, the fol- lowing may he useful. It ^vill be observed that, when the adverbial phrase is formed from an adjective, it is the exact equivalent of the adverb formed from the ad- jective, as k c'.r9otf^oyjirou= fJ?r00{)(50X)jrQ?rr 'llllOX- T>ecteciiv ^no rov TtQOcpavovg = openly 'Aara to iGXVQOV ) ^ violently ano6x6acixogliynv=^i0^^^h^nQ0gpLCiv ) l,^..^j.^' %az oUyov = m a small degree ia hoiiiov -= promptly xarci TroAt; == in a great degree g. 78. GOVERNMENT OF PREPOSITIONS. 103 iff &cp eccvxov y r ntxQ tY, itccidcov = from childhood iy, xov c * ' ' 11 "^ B7C cif.LcpoTe^u = botli ways BTiL xcc ju.«>tpOTfpor = lengtliways iTCL TCQOcpciCLOq = ou pretence in' civtoepcoQCp = in the very act fr ^SQSL, clvcc piSQog = in tnrn dvot loyov = proportionally Jttioti noSoQ = on the spot TtQOQ dvdyy.rjv = necessarily. §. 78. Force and Government of Prepositions in Composition. Though the pre2)osltion always adds some element to the meaning of the simple verb, it by no means al^vays affects its coiistriactioii (see TT^oooav §. 66. Obs. 1.): but, when the meaning- of the simple verb is not merely intensified, or slightly modified, but changed by the preposition, so that the prepositional element be- comes the principal one, then the preposition determines ilie construction ol the verb. Tlins e'xco = 'I have' gov- erns the accnsative, but (xere^co = 'I share' the geni- tive. It will be satisfactory to go through the preposi- tions in detail. Ohs. 1. Jtco denotes separation, and hence completion, as <^9ff(>y«h^'&«i= (lit.) 'to work off', l.eiue ^to complete'. The idea of separation appears even in verbs of giving? and receiving-, ns dnodidovai, dnolcc^^dveiv, hut does not prevail: wherever it pre- vails however, the compounds govern the genitive, as noaov dn^xco nolecog; = *how far am I fjcnn townY' Obs. 2. 'Eyi=ou(, as h^dlUiv, hence completeness, orahin^h ilt'^iec, by tlie .same analogy w liidi aicoiiiits for tli^ m\m\ mm\m of ummi^ the superlniive of out; thus i^onU^ta^di z^ 'to fiunisli out i. c, to tiioronghiy arm'; inu(xv\tdv£iv^^"io learn ilioroughly', hut c(7toucree, and is in this sense opposed to -Aazd (Obs. 10). thus VTro'/lfuxog == Svhitish', vnoni- xpo? = 'bitterish'. Obs. 19. Tmesis of tlxe Proposition. In f Tomer, HeiodotUS, and tlie tragic chorus, the preposition is often separated by some words from the verb to which it belongs, or by a panicle from its case. In Attic prose and later Greek, the tmesis of the preposition from the verb with which it is compounded, does not occur. The following is a rare instance of the preposition separated from its Msejiy sqvml worJs. (Time. VI. 7fi. 1) ^.pl ^1 ol ^Av acpUv alia iiri rK8LV(p yiaTadovlc6oscog = 'somc for the sake of subjnga- tion under themselves, but not under him i. e. that they might be their own masters, not his slaves'. §. 79. Omission and Repetition of Prepositions. In a series ot substantives coimectecl bv >t«t, re, the prepo- .sltloii may be eltliei' repeated before every one, or pre- fixed onlj to the first: in poetry, however, it is sometimes omitted before the first, and placed before the second, as (Eur. Hec. liG) all' I'd't vaovg , I'^i TtQog ^(o^ovg = 'but go to tllO tempkg, go to die aUars'. In IhIc, espe- cially in prose, the preposition before the antecedent Is seldom repeated before the relative, as (Xen. Symp.IV 1.) fvro XQOvcp cj v^ii^v «5covw = 'in the time during which I hear you'. (lbs. CdrnpAUnd WorJs. When a verh, componnded with a preposition, is to be repeated, either the verb Is omitted, and the preposition alone repeated, as (Heroil.lX.5.15.) xar« asv Usvaav avzov xriv yvvaCua, -AaTa d\ ta Tfx^a = 'they stoned to death both his wife and his children': or the preposition is omiitetl and the verb alone repeated, as (Plat. Phicd. p. 59. B) -rtaQriv ^al 6 Critobulus was present, and his father. .. Ctesippus too was there'. §. 80. Government of Conjunctions. All that can r l^t&l,-*'* §. 81. GOVERNMENT OF INTEKJECTIONS. 1G7 be posited, in regard to the government of conjunctions, is that, although a without aV,in the sense of?/, is found, in the Ionic and Doric poets, with the Subjunctive, it is never so ^onnd in Attic, except m the choral odes, and archaic phraseology of the law (Madv. §. 125. Rem. 2.), but always with the Indicative, or Optative, according to the sense; on the other hand, lav^=^if, ozav=^ whenever^ and the like (§. 44. Obs. 3.) are found only with the gntjimctive: fai'tlior oqdo«, (B,^ mm.iva = '\\\ order that', require forms of the Subjunctive and Optative groups, the former when the principal verb, on which the final clause depends, is in a principal tense, the latter when it is in a historical one. Obs. "ivcc "With, the Indicative. When tlie four last nientioneil conjnnctions are found with the Indicative, they maj be Knglislied ^in which case', as (Soph. Oed. T. 1:^87) aXX* st xfjg ayiovovarjg f t' ijv nrjyrjg Si* utvcav fpQayiioc, ova dv taxoarjv zu iir] TCO-aXst- cai rovfiov ccd-ltov Ssaag, tv' ^v rvrplog te kul -Alvayv ^r]Ssv = Mint, were stoppage possible of that fountain of hearing by the ear, wlueli Is still open, I should not rofi'Aiu from eWwvr up thig wroteli- cd body of mine, in which case I should be both blind and /leaf. See also Aristoph. Vesp. 961: I'va iiri ... iviygcccps x. t. l/'Onm however does occur with tin; future indicative in the sense of 'in order that', as (Soph. Oed. T. 1518} yrjg ^' oncog itsfiipng dnoi- %ov := 'in order that you may send me from the land a banished man', This coiismictiou confimis the alleged affinity between the aspect of the verb in the future indicative, and its aspect lu the Subjunctive (§. 35. Obs. 1). §._81. Government of Interjections. The interjec- tion fo, Avhen simply vocative, takes of course the voca- tlVC Ctase , a» W Avpe ^«i oc cyonder, exultation ^^c. but, as it is impossible to define satisfactorily the shades of ifioughl denoted by the Greek particles, so it is impossible to detine satisfactorily the shades of passion denoted by the interjections. Often indeed the same interjection refers to ojiposlte passions, as ol'^ot Tc^Xag = ' wretched me ' , oiy w^ ijdofiai = 'O how I ani delighted'! Obs. ^Position of w. When tlie vocative is accompaniea by an adjective, w may be citlicr prefixed to botb, or place.l between tbeni, tbatoneofthetwo wbicli i.s tlie more emphatic takin- precedence ot tlie other. A form^ of adjuration may also stand between w and t^^e^^-e, a. co n^o^ diQ^ MihU = '0, by JoVC, ^Idillis'! * Both OLiioi and wiioi would seem to be merely natural fr^'ol^i'w''''"^ prefixed to the dative of general reference (loC, IGO PART III. SYNTAX OF SENTENCES. §.82. Order of Words in a Sentence. The standard order of collocation was the same in Greek composition as it is in English, viz. the logical order, according to which the subject, with all that belongs to it, stands first, and then the predicate, with all that belongs to it. ±he emphatic positions in a sentence being tlie beginning and. end, particularly the former (except in a flight of oratory, where the concluding words are often the most emphatic of all), this logical order is often inverted even in Eng- Linrl, foi*ilio purpose of convoying, not only tlio tlionglit but the mode of its conception, in other words, for the purpose of expressing, not only the logical, but the rhe- torical element. Thus we perceive a difference between "Great is Diana of the Ephesians", and "Diana of the Epliesians is great"; and although these sentences differ only in collocation, yet they so ditter, that the latter if> merely a proposition, while the former is an outcry of passion as well. In English however, as in all languages where the declinable parts of speech have a limited in- flexion^ the poorer of yarying the cnllocatiou of words in a sentence is comparatively small : juxtaposition, and set forms of collocation, are necessarily resorted to, for the purpose of shewing how the words are related to one another. Thus "you love the children'', differs from "the children love you" only in collocation; yet they express \wo different thoughts, and the collocation could not be changed in either case, without damage to tlie jierspicuity of the expression. But in Greek, these sentences ov c it connects, and immediately after sitigle ?vorils^ when it Gonnocts thpse; if however it connects a phrase made up of two words in concord or in roo'lmen, it^ stands be- tween them, as (II. I. 5.) c/vrovg Sh sXcoQia tsvx^ y.vvB6GLV OLcovotat, Tf TcaOL = Mie made them a prey to dogs and all birds'. Kal^ on the other hand, frequently begins a sentence. I^^ote the formula m .^ . . tc . . . ^^j = 'And besides . . . and', as Kcci ijdi] tc ifv afAcpl oiyo^ccv Ttkrj^ov- oav, y.ccl nli]6L0v rjv 6 0Ta&fx6g='And besides it was now about the time of full market, afid the station was near'. This introductory Tial . . . rf is always followed in Attic prose by another x«/, Obs. 1. Ts snffixed. Tn Epic frequently, but i-arely in Attic, rs Is joined to conjunctions and relatives, probably from the old practice of expressing subordinate clauses as coordinate, before, that is to say, the force of these conjunctions and relatives was fairly consolidated. From this practice arose such combinatioiu in Attic as kn, and panieiihiiiv oik t? ^(at =: 1 am able'. (§. 28. Obs. 2.) Obs. 2. KccL SiS Adverb, Xoct'is also an adverb in tbc sense of i'rt, (Latin et), as orvrcc y£ rcivra xal ot &£ol nsnovQ^ctaiv == * these very same things the gods too have suffered'; yiccl av Bqovts = *to quoque Brute'. So always after (ogtieq, and hi the phrase h'tibq zig v.al aXlog, as 6 Zco-ngdrrjg tccvx' sle^sv ojWfp ■it etc OL ceXXot = ^ these thini^ji &aid teoci-ates even as the others ; d EcoyiQccrrjg d'nsQ rig -nal aHos = 'Soerafes too if any other man', a form which, according to the tlivok iLtotriQ , really means 'So- crates more ilian any other man'. Obs. 3. Kai = OTf. Thus (Thnc. I. 50. 5.) ^ "Hdiq ds i]v o'lps ... "nal 01 KoQLvd'iOL s^aTtLVTjQ TtQviivav hgovovw = 'aiitl it was now late, when the Coiiiiiliiaii.^ suddenly bacKed water'. This usage is an example of tbe s;ubordinate sentence in the coordinate form (§. 4). On the same principle cog . . . -ncct^ and ocficc . . . ticcc ^= sinmlac, the elements of Avhich. it will be noticed, are precisely the same as those of otaa. . . . -actL Thus (Thuc. IT. 93. 4.) tog 8\ i'So^Ev civtoig, %al ix^Q^V^ svd-vg = ^ simulac decretum est ah lis, continue discesserunt' : a^ia dioclloctTOvtccL yial xrjg I'x^Q^S IviicivB-avovTc/t r= ^as .?60?2 ^5 tlioy are reoAnciloJ, they forj^V^t their enmity'. K(xl = (o(J7t$Q, after 6 civtOQ, oiioiOQ, and the liko, belongs to tlie same primitive use of the copulatives. Obs. 4. KaC in N. T. The frequent use of -AaC in the New Testament, particularly in the writings of Matthew and Peter, to con- nect sentences really adversative i. o. in the sense of but^ is a He- 174 SYNTAX OF SENTENCES. §. 85. InaUrn. Thus (Maltli. XI. 17.) rjvlrjaaaev vfiiv nal ov>t oQxfiocc- Ci^t = 'we have piped unto JOU, Out ye have not danced . (Matth. X. 39. XII. 35.)* §.85. Incressively Copulative Sentences. These are connected by ov ^ovov . . . ciUci -/mi = 'not only . . . but also'. The addition of xor/ is not neccssaiy, but U marks the connected clauses as of equal Aveight. ^^ynonymos for ov tiovov, in this construction, are ov jiovov or*, ovx or ^it] OIL, ovx or ^V oncog, ovx ^lov ,^ ovx c^'?,ov, the con- struction beiiia- elliptical Avherever otl or oncog is used. Thtis ol ^ovov ore Lv^Q£g cAka^aL yVvaL'AlQ 07tU[dVttll = 'non onltj men hut Avomen loo are arming', as if 0V% iQcS on y.. x.l. 'I shall not say that men, — but women too are arming'. For their interpretation the foUowmg is important. When the latter clause is augmentative oftbeformms m ou and its synoiiymes^ signify 'not only', as In the above oxamplo , and in ovx on liQeaev aAr e(pvy6v = 'not that he trembled, but he fled' l. 0. 'he not only trembled but fled'.^* ^ When, however, the two clauses are really opposed, oix on si-nilies 'not only nol\ ftS oil OU km «^^' ^m^^^ ^ '^^^'^ ^^'^^ he tied, but he contiuered' i. e. 'not only did he not flee, * Sometimes coordinate sentences succeed each other with- out any conjunction to connect them. This is called asyyideton, and occurs chiefly- in the poets and orators: it contributes to di^nitv in the Epic style, and to i»asslon In iliG LyHG. BGlorG ra rot«vT« and uXXog, v.al Is commonlv omitted, aS (1 Kit. bOT^. p. 503. E) si ^ovXsi ISstv rovs ^(oygacpovg, rovg pL'/.odojiovg, xovg vavTcriyovg, tovg liXXovg Ttdvtag driUiovgyovg := it you wish to see the painters, the architects, the ship-budders, ami all the other artists'. The phrase idonsL ravxa is always ap- pondGd witlioiit y.ca', as (Xen. An. III. 2. 36.) ^mi d. o.da? dvxiliyev^ elnSV "Ox(o aoTiac xccvxa, ccvccxBivax^ TTIV XS,.QCC "Edo^e xavxcc = 'and, when no one made opposition he t^aid: AVhoever is of this mind, let him hold up his hand. iSo) these things were determined on'. ^ . ** Exactly so, in Italian, nan cite = non solamente , as n- spetto non c/^e ad una parte del tutto, ma a tutte le cose insieme = ^respect not only to one part of the wliol^ hui tO ftll tllG tllingS too-ether'. ►'^ee non che in the "Vocabolario della Cnisca . v^ g. 86. SYNTAX OF SENTENCES. 175 Ijut lie conoiiered'. Here flight and victory are oppositcs^ not so flight and fear in tlie foi-mer example. Accord- ingly, whenever the second clause is negatived by ovSe = 'not even', because that implies opposition between the two clauses, ovx oth ^^^^ its synonymes, must be h-anslaied ^noi only mo/', as liy} OfttdQ OQ^nG^ai iV ^U%M, txXX ovS OQ^ovcS^cii ^jSvvciC&s = '' tiot Only could you f2o/ dance, but you could not even stand tipright'. Obs. Ovxonoag. Another positively incrcssive formuht is I'cpvysv ovx OTtcog I'xqsgsv, the iucres.sive verb standing first, ovx oned$ toiiig joinod u'itli llio soOOlld olnlis^O, find tllld Olllittod al- together. In this case ovx oncog, witli the weaker verb, maybe translated not to say, not to ?neniion, let alone, as in the English of the above example, *he fled, 7iot to mention his tienibling' i, e. 'not only he trembled, l)ut he fled'. Similarly with nouns, as ccxQrjGrov yial yvvai^t, (iXf oxl av^Jpaat^ 'useless to women even, let alone men'. * It will be observed that dicsc Creek formuhr represent the I^atln nedum , for which u-rixoivs Sri ^ firj xt ys orj, and cxoXv ys are also used, as ow. fvi avxov ccgyovvrce ovot xotg cpLKOig fTrt- raxTSLv VTC&Q avTOv xl Ttoistv, iirj xt ys Srj xotg d^sotg = 'he who is liimself idle may not require that his friends, tfiuch less that th e gods, should do anything for him'. §. Pd. Adversative Sentences. The parhcles fisv . Si := 'one . . . two' (§. 51.*) i. c. 'on the one hand. on the other hand', are the chief instruments in the for- mation of these. The adversative, or, as some call it, the distributive force of y.iv and Si^ appears markedly in the following! STtsixa ds = at flrst indeed . . but afterwards . . ixsi ^f = here indeed . . . but there Ttoxh (5£*'^ = sometimes ... at other times ore ^£** = now . . . ai>:ain TT^COTOl' (XBV . Bvxav&ci fxev noxe (.liv . . . OTS fifV . . ml lUv . . . XQU di ** = at one time ... at another time * The Italians have this idiom also, as 'i fortissimi uomlni, non che le teiiere donne, hanno gi;\ molte volte viuti' = 'the strongest men, not to mention the delicate ladies, have already many a time conquered'. See non che in the Vocabolario della CruscH. =^* These three are reaUy synonymes, and arc dlfferentljr 176 «VKTAX OP SEKTEXCES. §• 8«- 0'>s. >, ^■ 5 „,V 5 « = 1.0 here . . he tl.evo i. this man . . that requires a negative in l.ngii'h. ^«^ f"; .P ?. ,-i, ^J L^^a (5V= Svitb Avhom on the one hand. ^ ^^Mth these xavira vt ; ^i.^ro /rwZ?y' In Homer how- :r;iVue : ;i":t;v\e-;!rthe';a4 thi„.. a„a .W e^er f«£>' u l,olon<''S tO a protasis, and the it is repeated, the tllfct ,UfV IH lUli^s | 1 follo.vius f..V ... ^i to an apodos.S (II. XX. 41 47). their wonls . , , 01,s 2 Substitutes for 8i. Ku.' «, responsive '"/"^ ?j'r .nflcr uegunve doilSOS,, ailll '"i^J'^ft", • ~ „,«p^„ « L 'I l,«ve .,o o.,uve asftoyvoiovll«''OOT. fXra, K'lil ^"^° J5l^ ou' asVoi gaiiN f , «i» "v/ V > viK.^ii, -il forms :ire ou fJ-riv aKka, ov Hbvxuv mtof^O Jll'^Va"'.';:-'.::.,.... U. .^u.^ «,> ot.mo,n.can translated in the text, merely ^-^^-::::^;ti ^S, r^^rfir rerra'u4ri'^^«.ute ,ori=;eve., -at aa. time', not like the Interrogative TTOT?;— ^^llen . // l.i §. 86. Obs. 3. SYNTAX OF SENTENCES. 177 no indeed.' but, or simply yet, as (Xen. Cyr. 1.4.8.) o t'TtitOQ TtLTtxEL ^Ig yovcitce, xat fii-ngov -aa-KSLVov hh,STQa%riXL6£v' ov iirjv dXX' S7tBpt,£Lv£v o KvQog fioXig ncog =3 'tlie horse came down upon its knees, and almost tJirew him over its neck; yet Cyrus stuck on. though with some difticulty', wliere the full construction would seem to kovMv ItmnriUa^v dll' t r. I The cpiitrast, indiciitGd bv 'TAX OF SENTENCES. §§. 87. 88. §. 89. SYNTAX OF SENTENCES. 170 naoayivov uiv, « ^' og, rfy ^c^xv^ = '^^^^^^ ^^V ''^"'^^ present, ?d he at the battle?' In both these examples, as ui every oxpros- skm of' mcredulitv and surprise, the thong it is somewhat atlvcr.- uive thus the former, 'to others perhAps credible but not to me'rand in'the latter, 'Uid not think you had been at the battle, '" ^- ^'^ :5f Ul^:^ II sv. Likewise d^ is often found with- out u preceding iisv, as a mere copulative. Its advcrb.al torce :;;; I i^ o^s,^a^^s = 'also not% 'not even', und n.j.Js senunted except in Epic, bv the contrasting word) = and too tVTLvvovOL dl lh0VTSg = 'and they swear it loo The :;r;^;5 eOnHeCliOU of d£ with 6V0 Clcadj appears in us adverb- ial meaning '""i «'*"0' ^ 87 Positively Disjunctive Sentences. Positive disjuuctiou i« effected by Ij . . .J, == -either . ov_ the fomer of wlucl., in Greek asjn Enghsh, may be o,mtto< . Homer sometlmOS acUls T£ tO )j lliaklllg JjT£ (^, 84. Obi>. l-)- In Attic, ro/ is often added to the first J), mailing '/yw, 'arely to the second; and this Attic ,)to. must be dist- inguished from the Epic, ^vhich merely asseverates ^vitli- out disjoining. . . 01.. 1. 'Hniv . . . m- in Epic. «.'«! ^«""r-".l'? ' L' n .In effective mo.nins. bnt merely ill tlio aspect 111.. «■ conjunction. „ -, Obs.2. Hypothetical Disjunctives. TIk:^^ <^e m . e.« .o.o,;mos fffs . . . i and 111 poetry rj . . • «" ^ 5"^' si? ioyo.a.r HT ''er'^'Ir;,?-^ 'wUe°Wr ins.lv or ..o.'. 'Ear t£.. . but are ahvavs «se.l with tlic Snbjnnetive. 88 Negatively Blsjt.nctiv6 SentenOflS Oi!t£ . . • _ °, '„ ^ 'neither ... nor', are the Oliposites §■ of T£ . . . r£, the ju.»^ form being used M'lierever the nature of the sentence avouIcI req^uire negation hj fjirj , not ov (§. 48) , as ft?) dco^sv avroig O'/olrjv /i(?^'Tf povXevoaoi^cu^ l^iijxE 7taQa6'/,cVCi6aG&c(i, aya&ov savroig ^irjdsv = 'let us giV6 tliom no loisiir^ eitlier ^o JeKKerate , or to x^i'ovicle tor themselves any good thing*. There occur also ou . . . „!.__ ^ Q^ (both chiefly poetic) : ovds . , . ovxe^ in OVXS^ OWE which ov6i connects its clause with what precedes; and ovre . . . oi;d£= 'neither . . . nor yet', di in ovds h imply- . . . Tf. All affirmative clause nla^ lie added ing opposition. Obs. 1. OvTf to a negative by ovre . . . Tf (seldom ticcl), as ovzE zcclla oiaccL ■Kccyiog slvat, ccv&^conog, cp&ovs^og zs fjyiiaz' ccv dvd'gcoTZcovF^ 'I do'nt think myself a bad man in other respects, and I should take myself to be least of all men envious'. Also by ovzs . . . da, when the second clause is opposed to the first. Obs.2. OvSe, fjLrj$s= 'but not', 'and not', 'not even'. They denote a) Opposition, and, in this sense, are always used when the same notion is expressed lirst in a positive, and then in a negative form, as SoXo) ov8l ^iiqrpiv = 'by frand, not by force'. h) Mere conyiexion, as ov8 aga zcoys IScov yTq%'ri6sv'AxLXXBvg = 'and trnly. seeing these two, Aehilles did not rejoice', c) A ncqathe mtinuatm wilh un inlmm fom, as (Time. 1. U2. 7.) mo Sn avdges ybcogyoly,cii ovJd-cc?,cKGOioi, Tial ngoaszi. fir] dh (ielezfjaai tccGoiievov . . . cc^iov ccv xl dgcosv, = 'liow indeed should men, accu.stomed to agriculture and not to the sea, and who besides shall not even be allowed any opportunity of practice . . . perform any exploit?' d) Ovda . . . ovS&, and firjSs . . . firjSe, are not ex- actly the same as ovzs . . . ovzs, and firjzs . . . iirjzs; for the first Ov6£ ov fj,r]0£ is always continuative, r/lso not, whereas the first OVtS or iirizs makes no reference to what precedes. A negative clause may be subjoined to a positive by zs . . .ovSs, and a positive to a negatjve by ov8s . . . ts or kkl. ^ From ovSs = 'not even', are derived ovSsig = ' not even one\ ovd' ag = 'not even thus', jxtid the like. §. 89. Causal Sentences. In these, one clause as- signs the reasofi of a statement contained in another, and yccQ = 'for' marks the former. This yag is compouuded of ^f--^ 'verily'*, and aga = 'therefore'; and, in some oure. ixijis * The sim^ile ye usuaUy stands after the word which it em- phasizes, as ovrag /£ = 'he, I say': often, however, it Stands 12 •• 180 SYNTAX OF SEKTENCES. 8. 90- S. 60- Obs. I — 3. SYNTAX OF SENTENCES. 181 of its uses, Ae meaning of y£ prevails, aS in ««f 7«? = Hnd in fact', introducing a seutouce, and alia yag-^ 'Ml t ei ', i producing an adversative clause, as (Pla ;l«t«i5tr air on«9 f .''AT "Ti e tM !! ■ edly even I myself would be proud, if I knew these things , ittthJn I don-t kno^' tliem'. So in sl>ort adresses, w.slu., orders and questions, where the force of y«9 is con- The meaning of «?« prevails m j-«9 = for . r« ne^ ci begins its clause, but .tands generallj. --"^J "^ j ^* >*^ > ^'^Q.^^ . ' cimiV for voii know'. Very orteii, especially in Herodotus, tl.c ydo clause precedes that con^ tafning the statement for which a reason is assigned; and n Scase, if the Greek or^l^^^epreserved in he ra^^^ atien r«o must bo renJere.1 'Ucause' ihUS UlOlUd. X = 'and, 6ec«».e Marathon was the most suitable place in Attica for entering with cavalry, Hipp.as landed at tills part ot it . ^ , , - x.A^. Ohs Because is properly rendered in Greek by OTl, ^lOTt, ^ ' %i aTIZ the first being the u'eakest, and the hast two the ^^nT.'e^ frms The exp^ns ion 8.a rovto ou certainly represents strongest foims ine ^^pa formation, as if TOU- the meaning of Slotl, but not the "J^^^ " , .^i, ^f^er ,0, having once been "^^.^%^^^| ;^^^^^^^^^ means ^on preeUUn anJ mpk^^ ^ .., acconnt of , \ as mrewy p »- " . ^j^^ Romaic ri ;:^i;^'L:'':^e;.\L?r wtr:tH '"-^ed .o st.e„glhe„ a trun- cated form of l-voc, exactly as in 5.d« it strengthens on. S 90 Dlative Ssntences. These consist of two clauses one of which is related to the other as a C'^«clu- Ko%t?preniisses. The illative cla-eis^arW ^^^^ 'therefore', by whatever other word they may be txans- sitton ana Its cas6 Ot Mwm 1)16 afticle and between a preposition ana its case, ux uy^i^i^ its substantive. I J/ lated in different passages, as ovtco tcocvov n a^cc J(^cc^k Kccl kvTvy dciTiQvcc ioxLv = 'tlius then tears are common to joy and grief'. Ovv. aga, and tolvvv never stand iirst, but generally second, in tlie illative clause; tOLycxQ gen- erallv begins its clause, and TOLyd^roi, always, as TOiyaQ ___ ^tliereiore 1 snail STDeaW SyCOV £Q£CO speaJ The illative force of neither of Obs. 1. Ovv and "Aga. these was fully developed till after Homer, a) He, as well as Pin- dar, uses ovv chiefly after pronouns and conjunctions, to fortify their own meaning: thus, after oattg, ovv has the same force as the Latin cunquG in qukunque, Notice the difference between ovnovv = 'no then', and ovkovv, = 'is there not then?' i. e. 'therefore'. In both, ovv is iUative, btit the accent is on that element which gives character to the word: ovkow is always negative;* ovkovv again, by being interrogative, is always positive, as ovkovv vtzoXoltcov SovXsvsLVj =3 'does not then slavery await us?' i. e. 'therefore slavery awaits us', b) In Homer aga answers to our 'just' = 'ex~ ,11 <1 ) 7f /• ] ) ) y ^ I'P , A .1 aetly ', as or apci = 'just when , ft ixt] aga = 'it nOt eXftOtiy , often in an ironical sense, like ?iisi forte in Latin. Hence it is often used, in Epic narrative, as a continnaiive particle, like our 'namely', 'to wit'; and, in Ionic and Attic prose, in the sense of 'straight- way', as tavxcc d-aovoas 6 Kvgog inaCaccxo ccga xov ^rigov = 'having heard these things, Cyrus /br^Aw/^A struck his thigh'. Note that, in the lyric, tragic, and comic poets, the lengthened cc^cc^ which is properly interrogative, occurs sometimes for the illative ccqcc. (Jelf §. 789. Obs.) Obs. 2. N vvj the Latin ?m?ic, is also illative, like the English 'now', as (Soph. Phil. 1224) ft vvv iucGtco = 'if then thou know- est'. The enclitic vvv is a weaker iUative found only in poetry, where also it has sometimes a temporal force; and the enclitic v v of Hom^r, iisotl In afeyevoiAtion with snniGwliat of irony, is ftilOtlior form of the same. The temporal vvv occurs with all the unaugment- ed tenses, as does also the demonstrative form vvvC. It occnrs also with the imperfect denoting an immediate past, as (Eur. Hec. 1144) iv cpTceg vvv iy.ccavo^sv = 'in which (evil) we were jm5^ now invoUed'. Obs. 3. '^iiare. The result or effect is introduced by coarSj rarely cog. Slavs is used with the indicative and infinitive, to intro- * It is a peculiarity of Herodottis, to introduce a negative notion by ovy.cov coordinately with its consequences, as (IV. 118. 10.) ov%cov noLriaex8 xavza\ rj^etg . . . rj iyiXeciponsv zriv xcogrjv It. T, /I, = 'will you not do these thing:)? , . , (i. e. if jou don't^ then) -we shall either leave the country &c,' 182 SYNTAX OF SENTENCES. §. 91. §. 91. Obs. 1, 2. SYNTAX OF SENTENCES. 183 duce the actual xesuh ; but. as tUe Indicative mako. a UOU' S^LMltOtlCO (& 1 Obs. 2.), and the infuiitive merely adds a complemem to t it principal one the eonstiuction ol" &CXB with the iuUmttye is the more compact, and to be preferred in the case of immed.ate or ne- cessary results. The inhnitive should also be used whenever wtfrF includes the notion of an aim, or means on condition tkat,^a^ (Uem. VOV^ V7ta-.0Ve,V^C.oUeC=-n boia^^ allovvea them to vule over the other Urecks, provided that (as ^ve say , _50 nhoays that) iheij themselves are subject to the king': or when it follows ^^^^^ the, as (Herod. III. 14. 42.) c3 nat ItvQOv, ta fiBV oCyirjia r]V aiico YMyid, ^ iSore dva-^laUvv=^ '0 son ot Cyrus these domestic ills ari greater than can he tvept aloud for , more k loma- tleally ^.re ioo oreai for loud hm^niltlM. fldf? 1^ OlllV CXP CllVe of a force which the inhnitive itself possesses: it occur:,^only tw.ce in Homer, and both times with the infinitive, ^yhe^ cocrre intro- duces a result dependent on conditions, it takes the potential form with av (§. 44.)' ^>ut sometimes also the optame withom av, as (Xen. Oee. I. 1.3.) ^i xiq %q^to tfi aQyvQtcp,^ coaxB . . . y-a-Aiov to 'if any one used money , .. t^uU his body should be the worse for it, how would the money be any lo.tj,^er of use to him > Insteatl Ol the potential indieative forms with ^v, ayazB may take the lllhUltlVe pjeetra, tliou wast kfii cf ti moiHil fatlier , and Orestes wa.^ mortal, so then (jrieve not over-mucir, literally so that . . grieve not OVer-mucir- the construction would be regular with exsvsLv for OTSve* § 91 Declarative Sentences. These are introduced by the conjunctions otl, wg ; and, in respect to mood and tense, aH that has been said of the oratio obilqua in gen- eral (§. 43) applies to them. "Wherever a dash oi uncertainty is to be given to the dechnration, «?/«;o be preferred to or^ as (Thuc.IV.88.3.) vo^i^ovOi 6,ol zy.ii- vn av^QcoTtoL . . . (^g o"Hcpai6Tog xcdy.svsL ^ 'the men in * ^'SlGTS an with the infinitive is often a good formula for translating 'without' with the English gerund :^thus (>oph. Phil. 340) oiuai ahv aQ'Astv 6ol yf xal ra aa . . . aXyrjliuta, wdrf a n xu \^v ^nilag ctivstv = 'I think yoti have ills enough of your own to deplore, without lamenting those of your neigh- bours '. tliat vo^mx tliink {\m{ Vnloan works a« a Kmitli'. TKe declarative clause is really object to the leatUng vorb, for it ansAvers to the question tv/iat after it; thus, in the above example, 'the men think — M'hat?' ag o'Hqpaiarog Xaky.evsi,: hence they are called by some objective sen- tences. It accords with this viov that, instead of w? or ort Avith the finite verb, the infinitive, with or without an accusative for its subject (§. 57), may be used. Some- times indeed, by the oj^atio variata, the finite verb is in one clause, and the iniinitlve in another, a^ (Thuc. III. 3. 3.) iQ)])yil%)\ yao aviot^ cjg ^hi'Ajiolliovo^ . . . eo^r^i, ijtec-^^ivrag eTttTteaeci^ or'gpi'oo = 'and it was told them that there rvas a festival of Apollo, which the 3Iytilena?ans celebrated in mass, and that there ?vas a chance, if they made haste, of falling suddenly upon them'. The de- clarative clause may also be expressed hy means of a j>articlple (§. 47. Obs. 2.V Obs. 1. '^'Oti Redundant. As in Eiitilish often, so in Greek sometimes, the eonjniRtion, oil or (og, may be omitted, as (HtM-od. IV. lSb.9.)7CQ0cpci6L0g trjads drjXadrj, avtog (jlIv gvv tm v.a^'aQco m aroaroi) m^fimMi nilloi wici M9m =:''iiiider tlio following pretext, viz. (that) he was going to attack tlie Scythians \vith the flower of the army". On the other Iiand, ort is used in in- troducing actual quotations, ANhich is never the case in English; it may then be translated 'as follows': thus (Thuc. I. 137. 4.). with regard to the famous letter of Themistocles to Artaxerxes, iS^iov S* ri ygcccpr} on "(9fUi(TT0xA/}g rj-nco Jtagc/ (Tf" x. t. X. = 'and i\ie \eiier ran as follotvs , '' 1 Tlieniistocles am come to thee" &e.\ This oecnrs even when the quotation is in the inip<^rative mood, as (Plat. Crit. ji. 50. Cj lacogclv sitzoisv (ol vo^ol) ort, "cJ Zlcoy.Qa- TSg urj d'av^a^s ta Isyoiiiva^^ = 'perhaps the laws might speak thus, "0 Socrates wonder not at what things are said"\ (Mattli. II. 23: V. 31: XXI. IG: Acts XI. 3.)* Oy. 0. El = "OTi. (I m. OLs. Q, c.) Tl.e frequent u.e of fL for on is dne to Attic politeness, which avoided direct assertion. Accordingly, though it may occur after any verb expressing mental * Similarly in French, 'il dit que oui', 'il dit que nou' = *he said, Yes\ 'he said^^o^ 184 SYNTAX OF SENTENCES. §.92. Prnotion it is most common after those which Imply ^(^^'-^PP^'^^j^^liO"/ tins way I cannot say wliat 1 tlUUk . S 92 Final Sentences. These are Introduced by vlth the Subjunctive or Optative according as the verb in the leading c ause is ■J a principal .or Kistoricd touse. Fov all account of this ::i;'.lth ^hevarktlons from it, and for example, see S 40 andS.40.0bs.2. All that was said, m§. do. UDS. i., ^aboSislS-iththe future indicative, applies also to o^cos fui, and in Herodotus to a? and cog fii). as is ahvaya aone w„c„ a fl„ue 7;;^,— -^i,,^;;V;,So„ is amb- snv bv the serund as 'I lear liis coming . xiii=> f fo^r that posidve one when Interpreted by ih^ feaV Of dlSllie.JSO^^^^^^^^^^^^ Usue i e the desired, or tllO disliked Olie, may bt^ contemplated b^ liT^ind in^e^y case of fear, it is a priori l;;;^^^l^^-!:f::^ them be stated in the clause succeeding the Ncib ^^ t^^^'"-^ t e opposition of idioms under consideration arise, from tl^ /«c^> im in English the said clause always expresses .^1-;-- f ^^^^^^^^^^ n Greek Latin ami Freiich, always the issue desu.d. ^^^Yf ;p7 will u>pear e ually justifiable from their respect'ive pOllUS Ot MfiU ;} lH; Tove example, and the following modern parallels be exam- ined in the light of this remark: §. 93. SYNTAX OF SENTENCES. 185 Issue desired Issue disliked , . . ) = I fear that you will for- Je crains que vous ne m abaudonniez > ^^^^ ^-J^^ Je crains qu'elle soit heureuse := I fear that slie is not happy. * §. 03. Helative Sentences. Tkeoroiieally, i\\(^ ante- cedent to every relative , declinable or indeclinable , is a demonstrative : thus og answers to ovrog or STiSLvog, onov to exer, ore to xoxe, oniog to ovr(og &c. (§. 28, where also examples of relative clauses will be found) 5 but, in actual language, most of these antecedents are omitted, except in cases of empliflsis. Tho relatives oIoq^ oqoq^ as having the force of wJrf, are generally followed by the infinitive, as (Soph. Oed. T. 1295) Qla^a 6' bIo6\\jsl xaya xoiOvzov olov Kccl OTvyovvT iTtoiKxlacci, = 'and thou shalt speedily see a sight such as would draw pitj even from an enemj^'. In like manner, £9?' care = 'on condition that', is more commonly followed by the infinitive than by the indic- ative future. For the relative with ccv, see §.44. Obs. 3., but the relative without ai^ is never found in prose (§. 44. Obs. 3."^) with a verb in the Subjunctive, except in a final sense, as (Thiic. VII. 25. 1.) y.ccL avrcov (xia ^sv sg UekoTCOVviiOov o)-^£zo, Tt^eG^scg dyovacc oiTteQ rcc xs Gcps- XEQCi g)QCiOcoOLi' = 'and one of them (the ships) went to the Peloponnesus, conveying ambassadors who should declare the state of their own affairs'. Even in this sense Lowev^.r die future inJIcAtlve is mere enmmon. Owino* to the participial resources of the Greek verb , OS is by no means so frequently used as the Latin qui: e. g. whereas the latter often connects indej)endent sentences, by its understood resolution into et e>, the former never does. Hence quum quae dixisscnt, which is a common form of beginning a Latin sentence , and marking its * This explains also how the negative ^rj should he equi- valent to onr 'lest' after verbs of fearing (§. 48. Obs. 10.), for, if tlie examples be examined, it will be found that all which follows the verb oi fearing, inchiding- /Lt?f in its proper negative sense, expresses the issue desired. 166 SYNTAX OF SENTENCES. g. 04. connection Avitli tliat wliicli precedes, woiiUl be renaered in Greek rccvra 6s elnovTSs. §. 94. Temporal Sentences, a) If time rvhen is to be marked i. e. a point of time, tlie.se are expressed by ore {sirs Epic), oTtSts, MQ {a67t£Q, and oxwg in Herodotus; oncog in Attic poetry), ^vma, Avltli tlie indicative, as ots iadkmy'^e, ^^o'^ccvro rijg iit«;^t/c = Svhen the trumpet sound- Cd, tliey kgaU the battle'. &) If time ?vhile is to be marked i e. a space of time, they are expressed by sV^ «, ecog [bcpoci poetic), also witb the indicative, as x?V<^f^ox^S eveyy^e sm%CL^Bv6H=^%Y\\\'l^ forth the oracle, Avhile he sleeps'^ but e(og av == ^as long as', and in this sense, like all conjunctions with f^is it takes the subjunctive, as (>i&)- nars ^cog uv ^u^e-dSr^ = 'be silent as long ftS ll6 sliall sleep', the action denoted by the principal verb lasting as lono' as that of the verb in the temporal clause, which need not be the case with i'w? = 'while', c) If time whenever is to be marked, i. e. recurrence, they are ex- pressed by orf, o^or^ «^, O^ttC Wltll tllO UptatiVO, 111 reference to past events, aS TOy nXuzf^Va \]%OVE OTtOTE tV ^AQ-^vaig SiaxQi^oi = 4ie attended Plato, whenever he stayed in Athens', and by these same conjunctions and «v, with the subjunctive, in reference to present and future events, as me 6i oxav a m tto^ijj, evzv'i^etQ = 'then truly, whenever you do what you ought, you are happy\ and rOtf 5»i, Orav tf %Qn 1tOLt]6lJQ, iVrvmOeLg = 'then truly, Avhenever you shall have done what yoU ouo-ht, yon will be happy', d) If time until thai is to be liurrkcd, i. e. the limit of duration, thejr are expressed by €W5, £(Og OV {ricog in post-Homeric Epic writers, and sometimes in Attic prose), ecg o^, eave , f^i/o^? or «xp^? OV, ^sxQLgdxov, [liiQi {cixoi, 6>?« poetic), with the in- dicative in reference to past events, as tov (pUov ecpv- Xa'^a ecog am&avsv ^-^ 'I tended my friend till he died'; but with «V and the subjunctive. In reference to futuVft events, as (Psalm CX. 1.) "cog « v ^« rovg sx^qovq anv vnoitodLOV rm' Ttodcov oov = 'till I shall Jiave inade thine §. 01 sv.vta:^ op semtenoes. 187 enemies thy footstool'. Sometimes, especially in poetry, £cog occurs with t\\Q subjunctive without av. e) If time after that is to be marked, i. e. the posteriority of some event to that of the tjpuiporal clause, the); arc expressed b}' i'XEi^ iitsidt], f| ou, ii orou, i^ (av, aqp' ov generally with the indicative, as iTtSLdij dcpUovzo ol Gv^^axoi^ k'cpv- yov 01 TtoXsfiiOL = 'after that the allies arrived, the enemy fled', f) If time before thai is to be marked, i. e. the ])riority of some event to that of the temporal clausejthey are expressed by yr^tt/, tc^iv ?^, Trocf r^ oze ^vitli the in- dicative, in reference to past events, as (Thud. 132.5.) ovde ij^Lwoocv vecoieQov tl tzoluv eig ccvtov . .. tcqCv ye d?}... 6 ^iskkcov , . . rag STiLOiolccg Y,o^iL£LV ii)]vvi)]g yiyvExaL:= 4ior did they resolve to do anything additional against liim, before (or till) he, Avho an as going to bring the letters, became informer', Avhere ytyvercn, is the historic present 5 with civ and the subjunctive, after negative clauses, and principal tenses, in reference to future events, as (Soph, (^ed. Col. 1040) ovyl navao^aL nglv civ ae tc5v ocov v,v- oiov (ifY}6(A tUvcav = 'I slmll not doyifit h(}fd)'^ (or /;//) 1 make you possessor of your own children'; in poetrj^ i^v may be omitted: with the optative in the oraiio obliqua after negative clauses , and historical or optative tenses in reference to past events, as (Xen. Cyr. I. 4. 14.) ait)]- ydpeue ^}]Qi\'u ^dUcLV Ttglv Kvgo; iiiithfio^chi ^tjgm = 'he forbade any one to shoot before {till) Cyrus ?vas satiated with sport' ; (Soi^h.Phil. 961) oXolo ^}] Ttco tcqIv fxw&OL fiL X. T. X. = 'may you not perish yet, before 1 have learned (Jtc.'^* and by ixgiv Avith the intinitive, with the present for the commencement of an action, as noiv decTti'ecv = 'before sitting doAvn to supper', Avith the aorist for the conclusion of an action, as tc^Iv dcinvijacct, * The substitution of the Subjuncti\^e for the OptatiA-^e is exceedingly common with tcqlv, as (ThucVIlI. 9. 1.) 01 Ss Ko- ^Lvd^iOi . , . ov nqovd^var^Q'r^GCiv ^viinXeCv ttqIv td: Jad-uicc . . . SteoQTocacoGcv = *but the Corinthians Avere not tlisposea to sail along with them, be/ore (till) they had celebrated the Isthmian games '. 188 SYNTAX OF SENTENCES. §. 95. = 'before having finislied supper', and with the perfect for tlie time immediately succeeding tlie completion of an action, as ngiv dedsLTtvrjKsvaL = 'before having risen up from supper'. Obs. Causal Force of Temporal Conjunctions. As in English so in Greek, the temporal conjiuictiuus have olien a causal force, the reason beini? conceived of either as coincident with the principal verb in wliich case or?, OTfotf, (QQ are used; or as anteceaent, in which case insC, insidij arc used, all in the sense of the English 'since* = 'seeing', the conjunction 'since' itself being both tem- poral and causal. Thus (II. XXI. 95.) inj ^e yirecv' in si ovx ofto- ydatQiOg^'EyitOQOg el[ii = 'slay me not, since {ov for) I am not the same mother's son with Hector'; (Plat.^Prot.^p. 335. D) dtpuai QVV nv na^aijiHvai ruitv, toj iyc^ ovS av avog ^Siov u-kov- acciuc ij aov = 'I pray you to remain with us, since there ls» UOt any one, to whom I would listen with more pleasure than to your- self. The temporal conjunctions are used causally only with the Indicative mood, and the potential forms. §. 95. Conditional Sentences. These are intro- duced by the conjunctions £t, Avliicli may take either the indicative or optative, and idv, av, Avliich uniformly take the subjunctive, all = 4f\ Et, with all the tenses of the Indicative, expresses a supposition regarded simply as possible, and besides, with the augmented tenses , a supposition regarded (is hnpossibie; with the optative it expresses a supposition regarded, sometimes as improb- able, sometimes with the subordinate notion of recur- rence, and sometimes merely as a supposition, without any subordinate notion whatever.* '£«V with the sub- junctive expresses a supposition regarded as probable. The English verb Is cj^iilte capable o^ conveying- the mam distinctive force of the three Greek formulae, thus : EL kiyei TOVTO = if he says this iav liyi] rovxo = if he say this si Uyoi xovxo = if he should say this. * In the oratio obliqua, si with the Indicative, is always re- presented by el with the optative: so is lav with the subjunc- tive, when a historical tense precedes; otherwise the subjunc- tive remains. \ g. 95 Obs. SYNTAX OF SENTENCES. 189 The neutral character of the indicative mood in supposi- tions, and the greater improbability expressed by the optative as compared \v\{\\ the SUb)Unci:iVG, appear lU these translations ; and these are the main distinctions ■which can be posited. Obs. Protasis and Apodosis. So much for the conditional clause, which is called the protasis, in contradistinction from the apodosis, or clause containing the statement, the truth of which de- pends on the fuliilment oP tlie condition. The form of the ftpodosls is regulated by the meaning intended to be conveyed, for the same protasis may have different apodoses in different passages: thus bI Tovto TtOLSLg ciuuQtdvsig = if you do this you err ccaagrdvoig av = „ „ „ „ you would err ccTiOVGOv td 8^^g = „ ,, „ „ hear what I am going to say, The potential form, in Greek as in English, expresses the apodosis less directly, and more politely than the Indicative. Notwithstand- ing this variety, there are certain forms of the apodosis appro- priate to certain forms of the protasis , and tliese may be repre- sented as follows: a) The indicative is used in both protasis and apodosis, or the indicative in the former, and the imperative in the latter, when tlie fuHihiient of both IS implied, as d ^PoovfTjGi %Cil -^'(yrpai/jf = ' if it thundered, it lightened too' (subiut. but it did thunder, therefore &c.); hence this formula Is used in reasoning about actual things, as st ^sog sate, k'azL Ticcl tgya a-eor^'ifGod is, there are also works of God (subint. but God is, therefore &c.). b) The indicative of the historic tenses is used in both protasis and apodosis, ih tlie former without, and in the latter with av^ when the non-fullilment of both is implied, as si rov ^iXfTt-rtov ■tec ^l-ucclcc TtQCCTXOVTCX. BCOQOaV, GCpOOQCi CCV ^CiV^CCGtOV TjyOVfJLTJV CtVTOV = It I saw Philip acting justly, I should consider him worthy of the high- est admiration' (subint. but I do not see Philip acting justly, there- fore &c.): dni^avov dv d fi^ i} rav TQidv,ovta dgxi] xatsXvd-ri = 'I should have died, if the government of the thirty (tyrants) had not beon destroyed' (subint. but is was destroyed, therefore &c.): d tovto (biiokoynro fj^Cv, gadim civ dtetta;i:o>e^a='if this were granted us, we should easily continue the controversy' (cubint. but it has not been granted, therefore &c.)*. c) The subjunctive is used * In the first two of these examples, the same tense is in both protasis an J apoJosis; this howfiVGr IS iiot nccesfiary, and depends entirely on the sense, the imperfect indicative with av answering to the Latin imperfect subjunctive used potentially, and the aorist and pluperfect with dv to the Latin pluperfect subjunctive used potentially. Thus st zors i^orj^Tjaccusv, ovx 190 SYNTAX OF SENTENCES. §. 96. in the protasis, and tlie principal tenses of the indicative, or the imperative in tlie apodosis. when tlie probable fulfihiient of both is Implletl, as av m TiciQ^lrilv^im iLvwovmjg, aiiBivov ntgl tcov a£U6vT(0V ^ovlBvasL= 'if you call to mind the past, yuu will devise better regarding the future'. Here the aoriai sub- junctive may be often^ranslated by the future perfect, as vios av 7iovj]a7jg y^Qag ^ug svd-aXsg = 'if you shall have laboured when younii\ you will have a flourishing old age', d) The optative is used 111 both piota&is and apodosis, in the former without, and in the latter with av , when tlie improbable PuHilment of both IS im- plied, as si' Tt I'xot, SlSolt} av = 'if he should have any thing, he would give it'. This form of the apodosis, as referring to coiulitions, by containing: av, and asserting a conclusion indirectly and politely, by containing the optative, is by far the most common, and majj be used with any protasis whatever; but it is seldom found with a pf otasis of class b), g. 06. Concessive Sentences. Tlieso are introdneotl by ft (iav) Y.ccl = 'altliougli ' , wliere v.al belongs to tlie clause, or by r.ui d (iav) = 'even If, where xa/ belongs to the conjunction, the former being used of concessions tliRt are possible, and may l)e real, tlie latter of conces- sions that are not real, and may be impossible : o,awg ^= 'yet' is the proper sign of the adversative clause folloAv- ing, but is often suppressed. Examples are (Soph. Oed. T. 302) TtoUv fA.Ev, el Kal .at; ^IsTtsig, cpoovelc 6 o^w?, ola voOio '^vveazLV = 'blind though you are, yet you per- ceive in Avhat an evil case the city is'^ avO^^wjro^, y.ac EL 1}V dd-dvaiog, ovn av ti't] ivdaiycoi^ = 'man, even if he were immortal, would not be happy'. The concessive clause is sometimes introduced by ei alone, by SLTceg = 'if indeed', and in Plato by zav ft (Prot. 328. A). The av riv(6xlBi vvv 6 ^Lkinnog = 'if we had given ovir aid, then Philip would not now be molesting us'; et ccvraQ-arj ^rjcptGuara rjv. ^OuTCTtog ncc/Lcct ccv idsdco-asi, dr^rjv = 'if decrees were of themselves sufficient, Philip woujd long ago have paid the pen- alty'. That the imperfect with av is sometimes used of an en- during past, appears from the example In §. -44. Obs. 1., and m like manner, the aorlst Avith av, may be used for the imperfect with av, in regard to a viomeiilary present, as hi zig 6\ rjQStO, ti av aTrs-nQLva) ', = 4f any one asked you, what would you answer'?' §. 97. SYKTAX OF SENTENCES. 191 force of the moods and tenses is precisely the same in these as in the conditional sentences, of which indeed the concessivo are a species. Ohs. other Concessive Forms. By reference to §. 47. Obs. 1., an example will be iound of the eoncessive chiu.se expressed by a partieiple with v.aC neg. Tlic partieipial Indeed is tlie most common way of expressing concession, and for this purpose it may be used ^vitliuiu mi%^^ and in poetry wiili zrep'^ alone, as "jivvm^ Treg icov = 'noble tliougli lie be'. The participle is also extensively used in the expression of causal, temporal, linal, relative, and con- ditional clauses (§. 47. and §. 47. Obs. 1.). §. 97. Comparative Sentences. These are intro- duced by ojc. oiarf, m:\iQ. inm. and in Epic ?lt;'rf , sel- dom ivzE. They are really i^clative clauses, as appears from these conjunctions, the relative character of which is betrayed both by their etymology, and by their cor- respondence to the demonstrative adverbs ovT(og^ co^e. Either the indicative, or the subjunctive may be used; the Optative nevci-. Thus (II. XV. 383.) coare ^iyoi y.V(xcc 'O-akcfGGi^g . . . I'ljos vtteq rocycov r.ccra^TJaerccc... wg X. r. A. = 'as a great wave of the sea shall dash over a ships bulwarks, so&c' (II. II. 474.) war' ainolia itka- rf c(iym> ainoloL civd^Ec qslcc diaKQcvcoOLV^ btccl y.s vo^co f4Ly£co6ii'j cog 5c. T. A. == ^ as goatherds iTiay easily divide tlieir immerous flocks, after they have been min- gled in the pasture, so &c. ' The English 'the . . . the', in a parallelism of comparatives, is rendered ])y oaco . . . roaovra^ as (Thuc. VIII.84. 1.) oaa ^alioici yml eXevd-egoL * 111 other constructions tlian tlie participial, nsg intensifies the meaning- of tlie word after which it stands, just as the Latin pcj' intensities tlie meaning'- of tlie word to whicli it is prefixed, as TCQmov n^Q ^ ' the very tirst ', ahot ittg (11. X. 70.) ~ ' we ourselves'. It was always so in Homer; but, witli relative words, 7t£Q intensive became in Attic neg distributive; thus bantQ = 'just who' in Homer, but 'whosoever' in Attic; 6&ev ttsq = 'just wlience' in Homer, but ' whcncesoever' in Attic. SYNTAX OF SENTENCES. §. 98. 192 a^hv cJ«^to..= 'the more free the sailors were, the Ze bokUy they demanded the.r pay . « c,« Direotly Interrogative genteilCeS. O) himple §. 98. Directly ^"^^ » miaway between afhrm- Interrogation. I"t«"°S"7" '" T'^/^f the interrogat- ation and negation; heuce=ometorms ^^^^^^^ ive sentence prepare for an ^f^'^'^^l JLed to either, for a negative one and others are ahke adapted Of the particles oi., ,-«»r''' X'^g', S^, the firk two are used wiien an ,,,ewpr is expected, and the next three when a -S^^';; ^^^^.^^.^^f'EU.nat.' ; the last in either case, ^ence ot.^ 77 ,^^ = .he spealc. G^eek, does lie ft ;/l!e7ie- and ^ --'■^ = V;.:^.r-'C^i?e"SakG-rr- certain ^Oeyy^Ta. ^^^^^"f "1-,^°^'' ressly interrogative, as rl pronouns ancl adve hs ^ye ^J^P^e J 6 _^^^ ^^^,, Ai^gg ovTfc, pa^p«^ytfe v.oi^.arians'^' &) Compound «hall we \^^'^^%iXJ:,,lf(Tlern.tL is asked, Interrogation. The decision o ^^^ in Homer, and .on.e.n.e.-^ __ ., _ generally m A"ic oy y _ ^ ;„ the same sense, 'whether - or ; '^^^'^ J "^. ^ f J^^r of these particles As in English, so in Greek, tl^« °^^^ interrogative is often omitted: tcozeqou may '^t'^°7„'^/" ' "h^oI. III. Sentence wkh n.ore than tWO menJlC «, aj^ compound (question be negative, t/ w « i. 98. Obs. 1—3. SYNTAX OF SENTENCES. 193 negation applies to the verb, t] jlhJ wlien it applies to any otlier word: thus (Plat. Rep.V. 473. A) aXXa av itotSQOv o^oloyetg ovicogj t] ov ; = ' well then , whether do you consent thus rar, or notr' and (Plat. Phaedx-. p. S63. O) 2 1 ovu ; rov xLqcotcc TtoxEQOv Obs. 2. Elliptical Forms. Sncli are tl Srit av^, for tl Srjt av sl'noLQ, as (Aiistoph. Nub. 154) tl d^r' av, stbqov st nv- ^OLO I^coyigatovg q)g6vTiafJia; = 'what would you say to hear an- other of Socrates' bright ideas?' and alXo zi rj = nonne, a sense whicii may be easily derived from the literal translation, when the ellipsis of the substantive verb is supplied, 'is it anything else than?' Thus (Xen, An. IV. 7.5.) a A Ao xi rj ovdtv hooIvbl na^iivai'^ = ''does anything at all hinder from passing along?' Tliis formula is very frequent, and occur.s also without ij. Obs. 3. Responsive Formulae. The Greeks used a great va- riety of adverbial combinations in affirmative answers, besides the simple vat, as ndvv filv ovv ^ navzocTcaai iihv ovv , yiOfju^dy (iev ovv^ ndvv ye.navTcHnaoiys^ ocpod^cc ye, iiaUozd ye, ndvxcos^rjj •Ttccvxcog Srj Ttovj Ticcl uccXtx^ ^diXvGxcc. These all answer more or less exactly to our 'certainly', 'to be sure', 'unquestionably', 'of course' &c. and the last of them is still in the mouth of every Greek, as a strongly affirmative answer. The verbs g)r]^L, ^'ctLj and sarca are also forms of assent. A common mode of answering affirma- tively, is to repeat the emphatic word of the question, with or with- out jU-^i^TOifiihUeJ), or yug subjoined, as fyw ytiq piiii nT(d%6s\r=t *Am I poor then?' nzcoxog ^fi/rot = 'yes, poor indeed'. Negative^ answers, even when, as usually liappcns, the question is put l^y firj (§. 98, a), are made by ov , ov drjxa^ ovSaamSj ^yiiaxcc ys , with 13 SYNTAX or SENTENCES. §. 99. 194 case of compound '"^T^.^whenX contrary is not indicated. ivfpirinK to the second clause, ",'"="' i _/],y ^^Se ij ciy ,0 keep silence' , . ^^^^^g Sentences. «) Simple s«e §. 30. Even in the same «<'°'^";'; ^^'^^j^^, t^tli used, directly intfivrt.gative pronouns axe -'^;t;^^, as (Plat. Crlt. p. 48. A pt;« .«?«•,; 3''';'; 5 i„„Z^ „e,l Jo.,rli,ov<^^r ?^/:T-'Z%tLVo be so careful TfflV aa«iW ««' «<5'«"^ - ;® 7 f ,3ut as to what .. to ..«t the -l^;;;^y;Xn'u;l W^en things just, he shall say,. who ^^.^^ ^^^^^y interrogative prononns and things unjust . T^^ J^^l'^^^^ ^ repeating a question are, ho.vever, '^'^^^^''^.f^l^l^ I = 'but who are before answering ., - ^^^ ^^l^^^ «,„ /. a good YOti then?' oar.s; noUt-yiO ^vll»''^'; T^.gjaes tlie form- ^iti.en'. W Compound mterrog^^^^^^^^^^^^ Kuowiug also „,. of ^^'^--^r sileri or'!* and »'« - elVe, are used £t ^ , , , inaicates more mark- ,.Meh is ^'^'}yZ^ti^::oZ.es, as (Soph,, edly tl.e equal impOltance 01 .^^.^ijs „i-.««') = 'y^'i ^''" .^"'^''1^ tWenerate from the nature is noble like yo- toth ^ ^^^]^^ ,, _ ,rxa ffood stock'. In poetry ^t-re - V- n m also found, all m the same sense. --7^.Uh the IndioaUWe and optative^^and^_i«^ subjunctive, »«%""'\*,"rnaUve is always implied, interrogation, bt. an alternative ^^^^)^ ^^.^^^^ ^ av "WitH the pie indirect inte S. IV junctlve, often mean '^"Y^^t '^i;;;;"irnplied, as (Xen M ,vi,eil.er this pleases thee more 'X ^^^^^, . jj^^er an alternative in indirect tnterrog.auon," ^^^ ^.^^^ Attic. §. 100. SYNTAX OK SENTENCES. 195 Obs. a) In interrogation, the moods and tenses are used as in the answers, i. e. as in ordinary affirmative or negative discourse, except when, in indirect interrogation, the question is introduced hy a historical tense; in that case the verb in the interrogative clause IS usually In the optative, as (Herod. III. 64. 14.) sI'qsto o KayL^v- GrjQ o, Tt Ttj TtoXt ovvouci sl'rj = 'Cambyses asked what was the name of the city'. This is in fact an instance of the oratio ohliqua. b) The student must not be misled by the Latin idiom which takes the Subjunctive after all indirectly interrogative words, as ne me in- terroges quis sim =- 'do'nt ask me who I am': in Greek this would be m /i' ^vhl) W diiL The Greek subjunctive occurs in indirect interrogation only when it would also occur in the direct form, as ^ovXevofAocL TTcoj ah anoS^oi = 'I am devising how I niay escape thee', because in direct interrogation 7tm,,, »«««?, «? JJlOt doyiei, OTi,* mansQ oidk y^msyoU ccgyov oyiiv 0(psi.0i, ov- tOQ ovd's azQC/tmov agyov ovdiv oVeAos ilvc<,== you say, quoth he, O father, as seems to me, that, as there is no use of an idle husbandman , so neither is there any use ot an IJle general'. But thMfi anUCOlOUllKl AK hOt tU UC imitate a. * That which was an exceptional irregularity i^^ tjie^^^^ of declarative infinitival clauses in Greek, ^^ <^^ ^^^'^^^^ in the case of appositive infinitives m I rendu Compare ^c'e'talt un crime gue Ton ahandonjiat les eutans que d' abandonner les enfans ** " owe r«6fl«(/ow ties enfans'. 1? >> »> a nAPAPTHMA EAAHNIKON 7(q6s cocp^XsLav TC3V SLdaGndXav, rcjv ra tfjg EXXccSog yXcoCGr^S ^EXXyivlOtI Tta^adidovat TtQoQ-v^ov^dvoiv. A. OPOI rPAMMATIKOI. a. yloyog ovoficc^eTcci. ccO'^otaLS Xd^scov tx'us^cctov drjXovacc Sicc- voiccv J olov '' ot Eklrjvss eiodpccXov sCg rijv 'Aatav.'' Tu dh Tov loyov GtoLXHCi liyovzai ads, ccg^'gov, ovo^a, snC- p. \L ov ovofA-ccTog av rc-ccoasLg ovoftccgovTtxL o q -ir r] rj ovofjvcc- GTfKr], Y ev t -nrj y Sox ctitj y cc ir t. cct l-ht] , nKij x t -k ij • xcc 6e T^tcc yevrj cc^GevtTioVy ^ r^X v -no v ^ o v d sv s qov. T^c- Tclovg d' tarlv (baavzas o ccQL^fiog, drjlccdrj frtxog, dvC- v.og, nlYi^vvxLv.6q. Tov snid'stov ot §a^nol Xiyovzai ^srt^tog, GvyMQLT LV-o Q, vns qS' £t tyi o g. nad'rjZLTii^v, xal iv iyiccozrj dia^iati nivze dia-HQCvovzai iyaliGSig, cov zscaagsg iisv Ttags^cpazLKaij 6 ql cz Lytrj , vno- zayiz LKT} , sv y.ziy.T] y 7t go 6 z wnz^'ni] , [iLads anccg 8^- qpCitOQ' fltQOQ Of rOt> QYllltirOQ ^Gtt V-dl 7J fi^rOiif]. Ul XQOVOL TOu (yriyLUTOQ Xsyovrat (oS^' £ v £ Gxco g , TtUQCiTCiXL- ■KO g y fi£}.Xcov y a. o Q LGx o g y 7t cc Qcm £ ifi£ vo g , v7C£qgvv- X sXlho g. Jgtbov 8 cog ol iihv avav^rjxoL ^govoL agyixL- Hol, 01 Se 8i* av^T^aeatg iGxri^axiGfitvot, nag (axT](iEV0L S. 'Tnoyis Lpisvov Xsyszca to Ttsgl ov 6 Xoyog , y,cil ^azr]- y ogov yL£v ov , tj "ncix^yogriyLa xo -naxa xov v7toy.£L^£vov XsyouEvov. dice fiovov xov grjuazogj ycal xccvxcc ys 7tccg£fi- (pazLTiov Gxrjlicizog , KCCZJiyogsLzaL zl' od'sVy onov ccv nagrj ^flliii Mig^ii^fjmm, ndgmi ml ioyos, ml Imv pparog nagefKpcczLnov , eize iyiq)ego^tvov , si'zb hvoov^bvovy Xoyog ovx iGzazcii. 198 nPOSAIOPIZMOI. B. nPOSAIOPISMOI iu olg, £>7r,oo^£rot i] aTt^S^eroi, imQQmauTi^g xi^^vxca c y.oycp, olov 'U Aa-AiSaCiiovog' 7} 'ano Zvgccyiovawv t^svysLv' • iangod-srov Ss rs yiul angod'^ov Ttaga XOtg agxaU ^ovai TTOtTjrars, olov {Socp.) ' st ^^ rovS' uyoivro viiGOV TTJadsyO TOTlog, di' ov ■AivBtzai rt, U^igBxca Slu yBvt^rjg, mi^mmtm^^^^^^) Ofor 'd^' ov^avov no^,v^xai\^ ango^ixov, olov C'O^-) ' movtai nedCoior 'OXg6vog, oTtots yivBtaixi, pLakiaxcc y h xoiaiadB xgovov SiatgiGBGiv ifxrpaivoasvog, ag av of ctv^gconoL ^vvd-s^svoi Ttomv noLdiai^ htpegBxai doxL^ifj ango^kco, olov 'xgtxrj cog^\ '^T]vbs S%xrj (f&ivovzos'- tTcl Sh tSv ^8ri yaysvrialvcov «x- (^ignai y^al aCuaxiyifj dngoQ^ixay, rfj r« cJ^ri rod ^sgl ov o l6yog Gvapdvxog mQi xov vvv nagtWovxa xgovir.a dvccGxri - fiaxa Siu xci^xiyiov dgL&^riXi%od 6v6 uax og drilovcr] , iG^ oxs xov ijdri nagBvxLd-Biisvov, olov 'xgntp rjSr^wigccv ans- &ccvav o nccTrjQ\ To ^f Xglvot^ ^cc^drrj^ia, S V M^ yiV^ftiL Tl, iTicptgsTcct yevcyiyj sI'tb uTtQO&artp, uXX^grs yicil Inl X(OV CpV- OEi vnagxovadiv xgovov SicciQaaacov, olov ^ol Xccya> r^s vv- yLxbg VBiiOVxaC, bVxb t^ngoQ^ixco, ngortQ^s^evrig Ul ^av^ivgi'cov ovoadxmv xrjg tnl ngo^io^m. olov 'tnl BnoBcog^ 'Inl Kv- Qov ^a6ihvovf(i^\ fd d' alia TiQon^mm r^S ^t« ^9^' B-iaaayg, olov ' Sia noXXov civtovQ ovx ^(OQd'Aa: SlGavxcoj ivicpegexccc ro Xgovov Siaaxrifiu, Iv ^ ylyvBxaiXl, SlU dOTtX^S iisxcc xfjs iv ngo&Baacog, olov ^Iv s^So^rj^ovxcc s'xs6lv ovy. nPOSAIOPISMOI. 199 I av slg Xdd'OL novrjgbg mV. O Xgovog, onoxs ag ^7 7^^ ex a. yLVBxui xl, iyKpegsxai di' aLXLCiXLtiijg ^sxd xrjg nsgi rj a awl Ttgod-BOBcogy olov ''nsgl sxt] ficcXiaxa nsvxs nal s^ri- r.ovTCc''. ''aucpt ftaaccg nco wy.Tccg\ O Xgovog^ on o a ctv-i g yiVBxaC xi^ iiKptgsxcci^ dice yevtytrjg ccngo^^irov^ olov 'o onXi- xrjg dgcixiir}v iXd^pccvs x^g ij fit gag'. To Tloabv xonov, XQ^''^^^'^ ^''^- ^- sy-ff^g^xat 8l* atxiaxLyirjg ccngod-BxoVj olov ^duBXBi rj TLXaxaLa xwvQri^cov cxaSiOvg i^So^r]^ovTC£\ '•TtoXvv xQovov auccxovTO^ • * r] -ndL ftsrtx xdSv txvcc. -nccrccj tzccqcc TtQO^aaacov, olov '"ccva TtccGccv vqv yfiv"^. '■Tiara r) nagcc ndvra rov noXsfiov.^ ^rjXov S ovv (og x6 xov xgovov nXrjd-og yavinfj xe v,al aixLccxi^fj i-ufpagsxaL • tvsaxL 8' iv haxiga dicccpogcc rjSs. Jici fisv xrjg ysvinrjg vtcccl- vlaa^tciL 6Y)iinov n xQovov h m nlri^n vmQXOV, mf' 6 iyavsTO rj nQa'iig , Sia 8\ xrjg rnxLCixm^g a nag 6 XQOVOQ xa^' ov 8i.T]gyi£GB jJ ngd^Lg SrjXovrat. TsXog, xo IloGov sni ccvxaXXccymVj dr^Xadrj x6 xl^tjv 8rjXovv, v.axd yevL-nrjv xc^sxcct, olov ^xcav 7t6v(ov tkoXovglv ri\iiv itdvzcc xdyu^' oi Oeot.'' To Alxiov, oftoiovSYjmf^ av I, Hmoowivov Srj tov nil- xov a^TLOv, nagdxolg noLY]xmQ 8lu ysvL-a^Q UTtQO&kov, ovvrj- &cog SeSid ysvmrjg ^srci xr^g vno ngod-&6Ba>g B'UCpsgBXCiL, olov ^ d8i--n£tG&at vno xtvog''. yisiad-ca 8s xovxo n OLr]x i-aov ccl- XLOV mxgccdBLyiia. To ngox gsnxLV.6v rj ccvaynaoxi %6v aimv Ml did domfig k(piQbm dnQo^kov^ olov '90 (3 « TtQdxxsLV XL-' '^'^ ngog d8 dC atxLaxi-nfjg ^txd xfjg did ngo- &B6BC0S, olov ''XsyovTUL 'Ad'rjvciLOL did UsQL'ulia pBXxiOvg yByovBvcii.'^ TginXrj B'ACpsgBxaLxo xbXl'hov al'xiov, 8r]Xa8r} Sia yeviyifjg ^Exd xov x^gt^v 7] BVB-Kci ngoO^BxiyiMg s^Xa^^avo- (|£W, olov ' r^0la%mvOt^v tvSTia d^jv^iov'- rj 8id 80- T(.x^«j fterd; xfjg inl ngo&iaetogj otov '■ aTtl yaXtaxi.'' • 17 St. * TLoXXcc T(ov xo IJoGo V SrjXovvxcov aniQQr]fJiaxo3v ovu aXXo XL iaxLv rj enCd-Bxa ov8Bxsga -aax' citxiaxL%^v, olov oXiyov, noXv ^ ^iya 71. X. X. ^ , , ***'£:' « «V mri^ tccvz' t^HV ^cita noXlrjv riGvxLUv'. ^. To'Ogyavov, Si ov yivizai ti, Sia donyirjghcp^QBTCii, rjanQO- %ixov olov ^ovSeIs hTtaivov riSovaig lyir7]6ato\ 7] ^Sta xfjg iv Ttqod-eceag, olov 'iv robots SLaycovi^eG^c^L^ ' ^tgog Ss 6(f'&C(/Lflcov 6^dv\ 'lazsov ort x6 no gov ^ ajg o^yavov ^sto- Qovuevov, ^diiGzcc ye to dLcccpoqag (lar^ov driXovv, v-axa So- TL'ArjV TL&STdL ccTtQO&ETOV^ OLOV ' bviavxco n^EO^vxeqog'. ^. To yicitd XL Sl' akLarLnrjg kKCptQStccc, diiQO&izov fiev za nolla^ olov ' 8bivo\ naxn'^\ '«^y« ^^v^ nodccg'' moze 6h Tial fisra^ raiv -hccxk, nqog, si 9 nQO^tCBCov, oiov ^ IciV^OQ^ Ticuci xriv ■ndy.riv' , ' oocpos Tt^ds xt,"* , <- evSo^og sig xa noXs- HlY,d. 'H 6£ dozLTiil, zr^v x«r« rt Gxiciv cos o^yocvov Srj- lovGd, zid-BZdL KTiQO^izcog, olov 'a^axoi >tal nXr^^ei, >t«l nXovzcp, xal zBXvy], vmI Q(6^r]\ r. KANONES ZTNTASE52S, 01 KTFI.^TEFOI. a, 'Ovonciza, xa ^Iv nQog x6 uvxo Tt^oGtonov ^ TiQayfta avacps- QOiitvci, buoioitzcozcog zLd^evzcic, olov 'zi/^^fioa^tV/^s 6 ^^t^tco^'' tovzo 8s 6vo^cizcov Ttgoo^SGig yiaXsCzai. Tec dt ngog did- g^oQc, ^XXay lYXo inoxaGCitm Inl ymm, ohv 'b tOV to- ooov -Kccq-Jtog . 6, To 'EnC^txov >tal 17 Mexoiri cv{it^tats tcov iv Ty ttXtjO^vC VTtonBL^ivcov vo^zai, xal to qfifia xa-S- i^dcxov xovxoav y.cizrjyogf}zcii., olov C^fi.) '(og cpdcav rj nXrj&vg' • dXXcog de, tov vno-nBLiLBvov wff ttTtA^s Bvddog voov^svov, TiagazCd'Bzai yicA TO Qrjyiu yia^ svi-nov ccQi^yLOV, olov ^ avc^QtS'firjXOg ^GZLV -h 7tXrj&vs\ 'Ev TOVTOig te -nciv xotg k^rig TtccQuSsLyuciGL ^ dvTjg avv naidl ndgtiOi\ '■ dvriq Y.al yvvri ndqsiGL'*^ xo •ACizd GVVBGIV L6XVSL GXVP^a. TIXSLOVCOV 6' ovzcov zwv zov CCVTC01 * .Svvij'd'cog fi.hv 7taqcc?^SL7tovTCCt. cct vTroTteifxavov SrjXo-uaccL tVVfJ.L(XL, olov '' (xXyCO TTjV ■KSfpCiXrjV ^ ' TO yCCQ TtQOGCOTtOV OLCC xrjg ticiTaXfj^scog ccvtov tov QrjixccTOg SrjXovTCii. E{icpciG£cog OS XCCQLV l-Kcpsgovxcii, olov 'ovx avTOg, ccXX sycoy szoX^r}6Ci zov Ttozaaov Slcc^^vccl •Kg^zog\ 202 KANONES STNTASESiS. ^jjfiarog vnoHSiasvcov xal CT^QOJtQOacoitOiV, TL^StaL TO p^/ltt x«Ta TO iTti^QuxsGxaQOv, viy^a. S' asl xo 7tQ(^xov x6 SsvtSQOV TtQoaconov, xal tovto to T^tTOV, olov ' ^v^cpcovoviisv €y(6 TS yiccl viiHg\ 'ov 6v [lovoq, ov8t ot aol cpCXoL TtQatoL xal tt^co- Tov xavtriv x^v 86lav n^ql ^i^v scxsts\ 'Alia xal xara av ^, xL^^tai xo grjua, olov 'iy(o liyco xal ^ev&ns xcc civxu\ 'IvUiov olxoL OL ^f'voi, ytai tj^elq ^sx' 8yisCvcov\ ^ 6. Trjg ccnaqeacpccxov xo vno-nsi^svov xl&sxccl y.cix' c£lxiccxL^r]V, olov 'ndvxaq xovg dv&Qconovg cciiccQxdvsLv dlrjd-ag'. 'Eav Olim to avzo i'xr] vno%BiiiBvov ij dna^BU(paTog xal ncc^siKpa- tL'HOV Tt Q^tia t^'ov i^aQZdzat rj d7tC(Qt}ioiiaaxi'Kr]v, olov '(pr]6l avtog rrjv imoxolrjv yeyQucpivat,,^ f. 'n dva^Q^^^ AeyOf^eVrj dvTCovv^iCi cvii^covsL t^^ savrrjg rjyovaevco ticcxu yivog v.al d^i^^ov y,ul nqoatonov, olov 'Zsv? og hogd ndvxa\ To) avvTaxTtxw ds axrju.cd8, 'iqixtiicii xoig dya^oig olg h^\ ^y^al, ^sxa^t- Oti xov rjyov(jievovj 'x9^{^"' ^^^ ^'^" ayc^d-otg\ UvriGxQOcpoiQ 6' tad-' OTS Ticcl 7] dvziOVvaCa U-ASi xo usvccze&eLusvov ^yov- ^svov, %al 8r} to 'ovtog krlv o dvriQ 6v tldsg' ^iSxapdllexaL tig xo ^ovxog laxlv ov slSsg ccv8Qa\ c. rsvi)irj Gvvxdaaovxai em'd'exa xal Qri^axa, xd nlriQcoaecog, fjLB&e^scogj ifi.7tsiQLixg,s7ti.{jL£XBLccg,iJ.vr]fir3S, i 'Jt L - XVX^^S-, cp£i,dovs GrjfJLCcvTLyid, y-ccl ra rovroig svccvriu- Ttgdg 68 H X(bv tm^ixcov xd eCg txo's Irjyovxaj xd iy. rod a GxsQrjxiyiOv Gvvdsxa, xal xd n ccg ad' 8X LTid, xd avyyiQi- xiTid drjladii yialv7tEQd'£xiyid,yiccl xovxag dvdloya, olov ^s^TBQOs, ^^QLffOQ' k 81 mv Qrjmcov m apztxci Ticcl VTtccqx'^^^y ^« Irdqlacos ^ If] ^ ^ CO Q CYiUaVXL'Ha, '/ttl xd x(ov aiod rjaecov, nlrjv xov ogto. J. JoxLTirj cvvxdaaovxaL im&sxa %al grjuaxa, rd ofiOiOTij- xog,dvaloyLag,ngoa£yyLG8cog, jut'lfcog cr]^avxr^a, ror rf KANONE2 STNTASE<^S. 203 ttTTfp, GvvxoiiLiag x^Q^'^i nsQinoiriT md ml dwine^L- noLTjtL'nd vnb xwv ygapiiiaxiyi(ov zalovvxai' ngbg ds xd dngd ccona Isy6(i8va grjaaxa. 7}. Alnatt%fj avvxdoaovxaL xd IdLCog i] dfiiacog fiBxa^axL-aa grjfiaxa. M8xapaxiyid %alovvxai xd grjaaxa xd xoluvSe didcpogov xov VTCO-KEi^ivov , xo nagd ygufi^aziTiocs dvxi- V.BLIIBVOV Isyo^Bvov, ii8xa§aLV8i. n. X. did xov xgix^iv SrjlovxaL ^Bv ivegysia, all' insl avxoxsUg xi SMcpaivsL, ovds Tcgog av^nlTjgcoaiv x^g sccvxov hvoiccg avxi-naifievov sniSixE- TUij insTCC^atiTidv OV leystai' xd di Gcpdzxeiv, im- dvfieiv, tTCeadcct,^ ^jl ex cc^ur l-ku Xsyovroci. ^r^^ccrUj ccts in alio XL iiEza^aLVOvarjg t/Js di' avzmv drjlovfiivrjg iveg- ysLccg, olov iv xoig ^ccpaxxcn xov §ovv\ Hmdvyico 60(pLag\ '•dtianeG^ai tc5 rjysuovi.'' ^LULgsxiu Sa sv xovxoLg xa tSicog jj d^8a(og ii8Ta§aTLyid xdiv Epi^kcov nszapaziyiav grjiidxcov ' tveaxv y^Q SLCccpo^a tj^s. Tec t^ cCLXLCcvi'nr] GWruGGOa^VO. QTj^ccTCiy cpvaat d^ccGrL-acaTsqcc , E^rpccLVOvat tcccl ftBzcc^olr]v xiva XOV avxi-KELfiEVOv, dio xal CdLcog nq d^aGfog ^axa- ^axiv^d Kalovvxai' xd ds yBViyifj 7] doziy.fi ovvzaaoonEva, ^ovtiv xTjV XOV vno-KSL^BVOv Sidd-BGLV hdrjlovvxa, xov d8 av- TiMuiiivov ovSm^v iL^rai^oXriv, snji^GcoQ liSTaPaxLyia vno rcov yQa^^ccrtyioov -ncilovvTCiL. EvLCC grj^ccxcov BLOY] OL- nlov daovxai avxi-nai^avovj cov to nvgcov^ Ttgog o ISlcc rj xov gri^azog 8V8gy8La (p8g8zaL, v.az' aixiaziyLriv xi.&i^evov, d^e- 6 0V layBxai, xo Sb nax' dllrjv xivd xmv nlayCmv , 7] Tial u9^ hmv dmmiiv, ti^ikt^ov. U. J. iv w 'X^mmov dlr]&ivov 80XL xoig itBLVtoai dgzov didovat'' , xo dgxov, xo ^ara^olTjv xLva, &sG£cog drjlovoxL, vcpLGxdfisvov , y.al v.ax' (xtxiaxL-nrjv xc&afxavov dvxL'naLfiavov, afisGOV Xayaxcci, xo os TTftvcodt, 8^it8aov. J Cu X (OX a 8a xavxa 01 yga^iLccxLy,ol TialovvxBg 8ia-KQLV0V0LX(bv loLTtcoVj d ^ovoTtxaxa hhivoi covo^ccaav. ^. AlzLccTLy(,yj xal yavi-arj GvvxdoGovxaL xd nlriQcaxL'if.a 'Aai TiBVCOXL-nd, olov ^ ^Bvyi] -KCil vno^vyici glxov yaiiiGccvxag\ ''oliiai xavx)]g dnalldh,8i.v 68 x^g 6q)d-aluLag^ ' xd ^vri^o- y f r T t X (i , olov ''dvaai.uvriaY.Biv xivd xivog ' • xa avxal- 204 nEPI AnO^ATIKSiN M0PI5iN. nEPI AnO^ATIK5>N M0PI£2N. 205 X. ?.. XEX I. Amj one, anyhow, and the like, when to be translated by Greek 118- AmisTlndtcaUve 38: connexion of with future 33. ^^', used for perfect 38. 2. a: for phiperfect 38. 2. b: of first attainment 33. h b' iterative 38. 3: subjunctive in prohibitions 41. c: 45. c: in- dicative of accessory clauses retained in oratio oMiqua 43. Apodosls, forms of 95. Obs. Apposition of nouns 54. Appositional verbs 54. . ..,• Article, as demonstrative in general 3: as demonstrative in Attic ' 3 2: as relative 4: as article proper 5: with singular nouns 5. 2: w'ith plural nouns 5. 3: with proper names S.i! Wltll aUaSl-PrOper names 5. 5: with nouns in regimen 59. 3: with prOllOUUS 7: when used with interrogative pronouns 7. c: as distingmshmg subject from predicate 9: distributive force of 7. 3: as substitute for a noun 8. 2: as anticipatory nominative 3. 1 : more or less frequent use of 5. 1 : omission of 5. 6. c: repetition of 8. 3: not necessarily t if. ^s^ dYeiMmrepresented in apposition of Greek nouns 54. 3. a: when rendered by )iat 61. 3: 84. 3. Asyndeton 84. 4. *. • e \ aa ^ AtUtude, the mental, affecting the constrnction of verbs 66 1. Attraction, of the relative 58: 58.3: ^^'^^^^ "^^^^>^^^f »'^^,"J^;. ^.^ inverse 58. 4: of the demonstrative pronoun, used substantively, Into the gender of the nOUn witll wluch it SlftUds 111 aPPOSUlOn T. 1 \ of the nominative into the vocative 55. 3. c: syntactical 26. . Attributives, case of, in infmitival clauses 57. 3. Au-mentatives of the comparative and superlative 23. 2. 28. 2. Be, English prefix, Greek correspondent of 78. 10. Because, bow rendered 89: 89. Obs. Burnouf's tbeory of the tenses 33. '^'^. a. Case-development, summary of 18. 4. Case-endings, coalescing of 15. • .o ai - . ^-.ir^r^nf Cases, primary local force of 11: in Sanscrit 12. Obs. different, with different prepositions, may express the same ^'elations 12: aU used absolutely 18. 3: adverbial nse of 49: never more than two a.penaent on tliB same verb 61 4. ^: after passive verb. 71. Causal, genitive 14. 4: sentences 89. Cause, how expressed 18. 5. j : 16. i. Chiasma 82. 2. i/» .. u^t^v^pn Coincidence, of meaning, in different case-endings 16. i^betueen the fut. indie, and the subjunctive forms 28. =^: 3o. i . 41. 4*. i- 80. Obs.: between a.a and H«ra 75.5: of Greek and Latin verba forms 38. 2. *: of Cxreek and English vcrhal formS. 37. 4. . 01 origia in sis, ^v, and the Latin in 75. 4. *. Collective nouns, formed from adjectives 6. b: construction of 10. L L>TEI I. 203 Comparative, genitive 14. 5: degree how augmented 23. 2: for pos- itive 23. 1 : sentences 97. Comparison, forms of 60. 2. 7: of two properties belonging to the same entity 60. 4: of an entity with itself 60. 5: of incommensu- rate entities 60. 6 : of derivative adverbs 49. Compound, perfect 36. 2: relative 27. Obs.: sentence 1. 2: 83. Concessive sentences 96. Concord, rationale of 53.' of noun with noun 54: of adjective with noun 55: of verb with its nominative 56: of relative with its ante- cedent 58. Conditional sentences 95: how negatived 48. 2. c. Conjunctions, origin and natiirt^ of 51: introducing wishes 42. l! government of 80: temporal passing into causal 94. Obs. Conjunctive , why not admitted into tlie nomenclature of the verb 40. *. p. 72. Connexion between aorist and future, Jiypothesis regarding 33. *'^. c. Construction of one verb with another in the infinitive, true nature oPe. 1. Coordination of sentences the primary structure of language 4. Copula, nature of 1. l: concord of 56: omission of 56. 7: 72. d. Copulative sentences 84: 85. Curtius* theory of the tenses 33. **. b. Dative, radical force of 15: develoDment of 16:' instrumental IG. l : 65.3: transmissive 16. e: 17. b: of the agent 16. 1 : 71: 72. d: of general reference 16. d: 16. 2: 65. 2: of advantage and disad- vantage 65. l: resolved by a preposition and the accusative 61 «> • in regimen with nouns 59. 6: with adjectives 61: with sub- stantive verbs 65. 2: absolute 18. 1. a: adverbial 49. Declarative sentences 91. Deliberative, subjunctive 41. b: optative 42. c. Demonstrative pronouns 27: when without the article 7. 1: how they acquire a relative force 4: as antecedents 27. Obs.: their attraction into tlie gender of the noun with which they stand in apposition 7. 1 : 54. b. Deponent verbs 31. c Descriptive, lucusative 10. 4: IT. c: 18. 5. i: 66. e: tense 31: 71. Difference between, genitive and dative as expressions of time when 16. c: attributive and appositive use of the demonstrative pro- nouns 7. 1: subjunctive and optative groups, as tenses of the Subjunctive Mood 40: subjunctive and optative in deliberative sense 42. 2; indicative and optative potential forms 44.2: in- dicative and optative in oratio ohliqua 43. 1 : aorist and imperfect 37. 1: 38. 1: aorist and perfect S3. **. b: ^^'. 38. i: aorist and historic present 38. 1: aorist nnd present in the Subjunctive Mood 40. a: aorist and present imperative 45. a: infinitive and 14 210 IKDEX I. enc, in respect o t .e a t.ue 3. c ^^^^ ^^^^ ^^.^^^^ ^^^^^^.^ he ^.tiX '»i vUl, aiul ^a, witllOUt tl.e article 7. f: o ««- '>8 a- oc attributive, and og ca.isal 4H. 2. e. Off aiiu t^i. /Y n ^rss" d°"olJo.t a. i o,;°oSr90.?a: .uoVos adjecival ami :feiis»"ra'';y^vr"i :s fit. 1«Tn the s4nse of «A«r 75. 11. *: :ta9« and '"'?« ^0. 2. pirl;; ■:« rnrrprutaflO^'sS. .-. n^scuime for fenV„uue 55. 1. a: ill concord with plural 55. 2: 06. 4. ,:„;p.U. of pe..onal prOllOlUlS as MlbjCCta of the vei-b 21- o |e sSbjeet of Ihe linue «' -'VIh^U^J, '50. ;= oV. .= of k.- c ,.,; ak r b • of^^' Xo;. 46 3 : t of ngine. 46. 3. d : of the copula m •• r kfi ^ 72 d ot demonstrative pronouns, as anteced- particnlar 56 .. ^^ j" ' »' 'I'oT b • of the relative itself 58. 5: ol ents to the relative 27. Obs.. -». "•"■"' . gg 2. a: of the demonstrative pronouns, as objects »f .'''^"'%"'V,- ;■ » I'bstantive 55. 6: 59. 5: of the prepOSltlOI. 79: of aV 47. S. vinnl <5pntences 92: how ueii:atived 48. 2. d. , o. r;A. Fl'i. verbri".Uspensable To the formation of a sentence 1. 2. 56. INDEX I. 211 8. 1: for otos i" concord 28. b: for the enumeration of adjectives 55. c: for predication 9. 2 — 4: potential 44: conditional 95: for answering questions 98. 3. Future 35: resolved by fiill(o 35. 2: by &sl(0 35. 3: of the Greek indicatlve = Latin subjunctive 28. a: 35. 1: 48. 2. d: perfect 35. 4: middle 31.2: sole use of in optative 40. 1 : only tense of infinitive, which always indicates time 46: only participle expressing pur- pose 47. Gender, of adjectives used partitively 55. 3. Genitive, development of 14: for dative of general reference 59. 4: various force of in regimen 59: governed by adjectives 59. 1: 60: after verbs of motion 64. 7: of the agent after passive verbs 71: absolute 18: adverbial 49. Government, nature of 2: of verbs, reason of anomalies in 66. 1. Herodotus, style of 4: 50: 89: 90. !. *. Historical, tenses 33: present 33. '^. p. 63. Homer, style of 3. 1: 4: 7. c: 10. 3: 25. a: 31: 40. 2. b: 41. a: 50: eis: 71:S7:00. 1. Hyperbaton 82. 2. Illative sentences 90. Imperative mood 32: its tenses 45: its sense, by oncog with fut. in- die. 35. 1 : by the subjunctive 41. c : by the optative 42. b: how negatived 48. 3. a. Imperfeot indicative 37! retained in the acoessory clauses of tlie oratio obliqiia 43: used potentially 37. 2. Impersonals, subject of 56. 6. Indefinite, pronouns 29: words, position of 82. 3. Indeterminate tenses 33. Indicative mood 32: for optative in oratio obliqua 4S. 1. Intinitival clauses in geniiive, denoting aim or re&ult 14. 4, a. Inlinitlve mood 32: its tenses 46: used for deliberative subjunctive 46. 3. d: for optative 46. 3. c : for imperative 46. 3. a: for verbals in xbog 46. 3. b: after verbs 73. a: after adjectives 63: potential with av 46. 2: used substantively 6. a: 6. 1 : 26. **: 46. 1. b: ad- verbially 46. 4: how negatived 48. 3. b. Instrument how expressed 18. 5. 1. Instrumental dative 16. 1 : with adjectives 60. 1. b: with verbs 65. 3. Interjections, nature of 52 : government of 81. Interrogative, pronouns 30: sentences 98: 99: Intransitive verbs, with the accusative 66. 3 composition with a preposition 66. 4. a. Irony how expressed 37. 2. *. IvregulaiitieSj in Sptaxj reosou of 2 ed for 31. 2. Jsh. English suffix, Greek correspondent of 78. 18. 14* how negatived 48. 2. : made transitive by 1 : in the Greek veib^ account- <^19 INDEX I. It is, a Si-n of the anarthrous infiniiive 6. l: represented by the personarconstniction in Greek 22. K^ Iterative, aorist 38. 3: optative 38. 3. J^/5^how rendered in Greek 47. 5. *: 90. 1. b: 96. Obs. *. Local genitive 14. 2. Manner, how expressed 18. 5. k. •*• ^ir , Material, nouns plural of 10. 3: genitive 21: dative for senni>e 16. .. May how translated into Greek 40. 3: 90. 1. b. Middle voice 31. 3: precision obtained by using ^51. 4. MiQfit how translated into Greek 40. 3. Moods 32: conversion of tlie, in orattO obliqua iL Multiples in ccCLog, government of 60. f. Narrative tense 38. r^Qoo-AAo Negations 48: repetition of 48. 7: redundancy of 48. 8. 9. 60. 9. Neuter forms used of persons 6. b: 26. •.;,.. r7i. Nominative, without a verb following 55. 3. b ^^^^^^^f^^ ' several to the same verb Sfi S: omiSglOll Ol 56. b! aU^O'^^^ l^.J' 5' N. T.,%%Ie of 3: 14. 4. *: 18- 5. ** : 20. *t 23. 1 : 40. 2. b: 59. . : 66. 2. b: 82. 4: 84. 4. Objective genitive 59. f. 0/" and /row relations cognate 13. if^^^iA. nri.rin oLml Group, the past tense ^ '\^^YT1^^^^^^^^^^^ of its forn.s 40. 1 : used, exceptionally. (OV tlh? Slll^lUnCtUe 4U. i. C . po entfal even without «r 44: with Sv , for the future .ndicauve 4^2: for a gentle imperative 42. b : elliptical m the truly op at e sense 42 a : for the indicative in the oratio obliqua 43: of indefin- ite frequ'ency 38. 3. **: 94. c: its ^^^j^f.^" f^'.^..^- . q, . 95 '^ Oraiio obliqua i^i 57: 95.*: 100: variataAb. Obs.: 90. 3. 91. 9o. . Order of words in a sentence 82. ^^ Ordinal numbers for cardinal 17. *: 24. obs. . Parallels illustrating, the influence of pronunciation on h"/"^^ fo^;}]^ 9 1 ^ D 3- 15 *: 26. *:40. 2. c: how og became o f 2. tue indeteminat'e element in Syntax 2. 1. *. p. 4: ^en--trative orce of the article 3.**: demonstrative origin of the article 4. . antici il; m of tlie article 3, i: the uae of the -de .nt po^ names 5. 4: its omission ^vith quasi-proper "'-^"^^^^-./f^^*'"!^; fold force 5. 7: its use with possessive pronouns 7. »» ■ '*« jise toi the English possessive pronoun 7. 2: its , of veDvesented bv possessive pionouns 2b. Place M'/?ewce 18. 5. b . u/?ere -ij*. - ^c. ; hnw far VI a: 16. 2. c : ^/iroM^A 18. 5. d: yvhither 17. a: 18. 5. c. Aom; /ar i<. 18. 5. a. Pluperfect tense 39. Pkiral for singular 10. Q. Positive for comparative 23. b: 23. 1. , „^ „ trpnitive of the Possessive pronouns 26: how emphasized 26. 3. — genitne oi tne personal 26: 55. 5. Potential formnUc 44: 46. 2. Predicative formulae, Idiomatic i^se of 9. o^ particular tmesis of 78. 19. *,.,^qi •> Present indicative 34: for past 34. 1: for ['^ .n.e 34. 2. Price, genitive of 14. 5. b: expressed by dative 16. 1. Prouunci^tion, influence of, on hngual foims 2. 1. . p. 3. 15. Prop;i*nom;s!';iural of 10. 3: refusing concord of case 54. 2. a. Propriety, or congruity, genitive of 14. 5. c. f ~: Sift;.!'::; «„. .^ .^ ;n,V,t;v« IL . . by no por- ticiple except the future 47. Quantity, how expressed 18. 5. h: speeificaiions of, in concord 54. 2. b, Halkr, with the adjective, how >-e_ndered 23. TJprpntivitv the ancient inentai attitude bb. i. . Reflexh4?pVono«ns 25: verbs 31: 31. 3. 4: forms used recproctlly 31 3. P..(rimen of verb, single and double 67. i: 68. 2. R r "^ pro^onns 28^: when omitted 58. 5: ^^^^^'^'^l^JZ subjunctive 45. *: clauses ■= adjective or participle 28. sentences 03: liow negatived 18. 5. ft. Schema, Atticum 56.^1 :^Donaldson;s -^l\^^^f^\f frk^'^'J'^aTa rirum 56. 2: xc.-^' olov >c«l ^isgog 54. 3. b: 56. 3 . 69. 4 . H«Ta Gvveaiv 55. 1. c: 55. 3. b: 58. l: 60. 1. a. INDEX I. 215 Secondary tenses, origin of 31. l. *: neuter signification of 31. 1. Sentences, simple 1. l: compound 1. 2: 83: in apposition 54. 1: taken substantively with the article 6. e: kinds of, see under co- pulative &c. Sequence of tenses 40. t). Subject, when anarthrous 9. 1: omission or, see elhpsis. Subjective genitive 59. t- Subjunctive Mood 32: 40. Subjunctive Group, the present tense of the subjunctive ^foodAO: origin of its forms 40. 1: deliberative 41. b: used for future in- dicative 41. a: for imperative 41. c: 45. c: for the optative 40. 2: not tised in the oraiio ohHqua 100.*. Subordinate clauses, not belonging to primitive language 51: how negatived 48. 4. Substantival, phrases formed by article in concord 6: in regimen 6.2: infinitive, how far still a verb 6. J. Substantive, the magistral word in concords 53: government of 59: adjectival m of 20. a. b: participial m ol 20. c; riieioricai use of 19: passing into the prepositional state 74. 1. b: iiow negativ- ed 48. 6. Superlative, how augmented 23.2: absolute, when anarthrous 9. 5. Tautology 31. 4. b: 60 *: 66. 2. b. Temporal, genitive 14. 3: sentences 94. Tenses, of the Indicative 33: of the Subjunctive Mood 40: of the Optative, really tenses only in the oratio obliqua 43: ride for using them 43. 2: of the Infinitive, when not tenses 46. i: rule for irsing them 46: of the Imperative 45. Time when 14. 3: 16. c: 17. a: 18. 5. f: 94. a: while 94. b: how long 14. 3: 17. a: 18. 5. g: 94. b: how long ago 17. '^: 75. 2. b: whenever 94. c : until that 94. d : after that 94. e : before that 04. f. Tmesis of the preposition 78. 19. Too with adjectives, how rendered 23. Transitive verbs used intransitively 31. 1 : made intransitive by com- position with a preposition 06. 4. b. Vsus elhicus 48. 3. c' Value how expressed 17. a. Verbals in ziog 72 : number of 72. 2. Verbs governing the genitive 64: the dative 65: the accusative 66: the accusative and genitive 67: the accusative and dative 68: two accusatives 69: the genitive and dative 70: of participation 64. 1 : Qfpknlij and want 64. 2: denoting mental affections 64. 3: ope- ration of the senses 64. 6 : of aiming at 64.4: implying compariso7i 64. 5: of wondering at 67. 3. a: of accusing and condemning 67. 3. b: of blaming 68. 2. a: of CiJccJianging 67. 4: of benefitting and 216 INDEX I. injuring 69. 3. b: of praijing 69. l. a: of hoping and promising, w^thf infinitive 46.1. b: o^ knotving m^ expenencing ^.^nh par- ticiples 47. 2: of coming and going, with the future participle 47 : of moving and changing, with cpSQCOV 47. 4. Vocative, position of 82. 3. TVelh translated by aXXd 86. 2. a. Whether . . . or, how translated 87. 2. n^Mlst, renderecl hy |it£v . . - O^ ob- ' • Wishes, possible 42. a: impossible 42. Ubs. 2. b. . . , .« W>7/A rendered by Greek participle 47. , nn o 't WithouL with Endish gerund, how translated 9U. 3. . WordTiii a sentence, normal coUocation of 82. l: rhetorical coUo. cation of 82. 2. how negatived 48. INDEX II.* A privative distinguished from a collective, intensive, and euphonic 61. 1. **: adjectives compounded with 60. c: 60. *: 61. 1. b. OC16XQ0V ov, and the like 18. 1. b. aloivvoauL construction of 69. i. *. dlkd adversative 51: 86. 2. a: 98. i. alio XL n elliptic 98. 2. ^XXoi almost always a separate specification 8. 3. aXXog and ttsgog, difference between 29. b. cnnvvco, construction of 67. 2. , , . dawC 75. 9: in composition 78. 12: ot aincpl TlXarcova, various iTieanlugs of 6. <1. «v potential, etymology of 44: with the indicative 44. i: with the optative 44. 2: with the infinitive 46. 2: with participles 47.7: in subjunctive clauses 44. 3: position of 44. *♦: 46. 2. ^: omission and repetition of 47. 8. 4XVCC 75. 5: in composition 78. 8. ixvTJQ in apposition 54. 2. c. dv&' cov explained 75. 2. dvti 75. 2: the only preposition ever used with anarthrous infinitive 6. 1 : in composition 78. 3. ano 75. 1: proleptic use of 76. c: in composition 78. 1. €CQa 78. l: 90. 1. b: 98. l. d^rjyco construction of 67. 2. ^cfisvcp, an^ dative participles of kindred meaning IG. 2. b. • t' ^oXXoc\ always a separate specihCatlOn 00. 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From the Report of the Jurors of the International Exhibition. "The Jnry have been interested in observing that a somewhat bohl experiment of the Messrs Gordon of Edinburgh has been tried with great promise of success. These Publishers have rGprinted, under tlie name of the ' School and lIomG S6neS, some of the most Popular Tales for Children, including, hesides Hobinson Crusoe and LamVs Tales from Shalcespeare, the most attractive stories of Fairies and Giants. They have not attempted by annotation or abridgement to make their books look like treatises, but have been content to rely on tlie fascination of the stories themselves, as the best means of overcoming the mechanical dilhculty of reading." The Child's Story Book. Illmtratid. Cloth, Is.; or, extra gilt, for Prizes, Is. 6d. Also, in 8 parts, 2d. each, viz. : — 1. Jack and the Bcnn-Stalk. Cinderella ; or, The Little Glass Slipper. Little Red Riding-Hood. The Babes in the Wood. 2. Tom Thumb. Little Jack Horner. Puss in Boots. 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With Illustrations. 4c uH ^^^H^l0^^^lS m^ffi m^^^^m^ 1 ii tMStSMnfiAW^^SSi SH ^ ^R ^1^ ^^ ^^^^ ^^ ^ jE^n^^ ^^i^^^n SI 3 ^P ifijtS'-* B^^jf;j^> "li ' ^^i^gg^ j^fTfffc ?*^^"^"^