RAPID-TRANSIT SUBWAYS IN METROPOLITAN 
 
 BY 
 
 MILO R. MALTBIE. 
 
 FROM THE SMITHSONIAN REPORT FOR 1904, PAGES 759-771, 
 
 PER\ 
 
 /ORI 
 
 {^o. 1647.) 
 
 WASHINGTON: 
 
 GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 
 1905. 
 
1 
 
 lEx IGtbrts 
 
 SEYMOUR DURST 
 
 When you leave, please leave this hook 
 
 Because it has heen said 
 "Sver'thing comes t' him who waits 
 
 Except a loaned hook." 
 
 Avery Architectural and Fine Arts Library 
 Gift of Seymour B. Durst Old York Library 
 
RAPID-TRANSIT SUBWAYS IN METROPOLITAN 
 
 CITIES. 
 
 BY 
 
 MILO R. MALTBIE. 
 
 FROM THE SMITHSONIAN REPORT FOR 1904, PAGES 759-771. 
 
 WASHINGTON: 
 
 GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 
 1905. 
 
Digitized by the Internet Archive 
 in 2013 
 
 http://archive.org/details/rapidtransitsubwOOnialt 
 
EAPID-TRANSIT SUB\V^\YS IX METROPOLITAN CITIES.^ 
 
 By MiLO R. Maltbie. 
 
 The problem of urban transportation is largely one of rapid com- 
 munication between business and residential districts, and has grown 
 increasingly difficult as population has become more and more con- 
 centrated. Street-car companies have tried every conceivable kind of 
 motive power, but they have not been able to keep up with the rapid 
 growth. Steam railroads, which have proved so successful as inter- 
 urban means of communication, have been excluded from most centers 
 because of the noise, smoke, and ugliness of the trains. Horse traction 
 is not sufficiently rapid, and the cable for the same reason has given 
 way to electricity. 
 
 However satisfactory surface lines ma}" be for short-distance traffic, 
 their inadequacy to deal with suburban traffic became apparent almost 
 half a century ago in the larger urban centers. The steam roads 
 undertook to solve this question by lowering fares and b}^ greatly 
 increasing the number of trains. London went a step further and 
 built underground roads connecting most of the depots in the metrop- 
 olis. Other cities, such as New York, Chicago, Boston. Liverpool, 
 and Berlin, have constructed elevated roads, but these are unsightly, 
 find within the last few years they also have proved or are proving 
 inadequate to deal with the vast throngs who daily leave their homes 
 to seek work in other portions of the cities in Avhich they live. And 
 now, as the last resort, electric subways are proposed, and systems 
 have been or are being built in Paris, Budapest, Glasgow, London, 
 Boston, and Xcav York,^ while other cities are considering the ques- 
 tion. 
 
 a Reprinted, by permission, from Municipal Affairs, New York, Vol. IV, No. 3, 
 September, 1900, whole No. 15, pp. 458-480. 
 
 i Short sections of Berlin's elevated road are underground, but it has not 
 been included in this article because so small a portion will be below the street 
 level. 
 
700 KAPID-TRANSIT SUBWAYS TN METROPOLITAN CITIES. 
 
 Owing to the eiiorinoiis cost of constructinir iiiulerirrouiul roads, a 
 large daily traffic is essential to successful operation. This condition 
 appeared first in London. AVhen railroads were invented and their 
 utility generally recognized, London was already a city of consider- 
 able size (population in 1851, 2.303,274). Its ancient streets were 
 considered too sacred to be polluted by a noisy monster, and the im- 
 portance of rapid communication between the centriil portion of the 
 city and suburban areas was not yet recognized. Thus the first steam 
 railroads were halted at the threshold of the inner city and made to 
 build their terminal stations some distance from the center of pom- 
 mercial activity. With the growth of the city and the giving over of 
 certain portions almost exclusively to business, some means of com- 
 
 munication between the A'arious depots became necessary. Steam 
 surface roads were out of the question : electricity and cable traction 
 had not been invented, and horse cars were too slow. Underground 
 steam roads seemed the only alternative. 
 
 For years the construction of these lines went on, until at i^res- 
 ent there are 300 miles and upAvard of 270 stations within a 6-mile 
 radius of Charing Cross. These railways probably canw over 300,- 
 000,000 passengers annually, and, including the omnibus, tramway, 
 cab. and steamer passengers, the total approaches ver}^ nearly to 
 1,000.000,000 persons annually. 
 
 The unpleasant features of travel in the " underground " — the 
 dingy entrances, the dark tunnels, the dirty, crowded, and dimly 
 lighted cars, the sulphurous fumes from the engines, the dirt-laden 
 air — were appreciated from the start and grew worse as the traffic 
 increased. The lines were mostly near the surface, and openings 
 were provided at short intervals to permit the smoke, steam, and 
 
 KAI'U) TRANSIT IX LONDON. 
 
 Fig. 1. — The Central Loudon tuuuel. 
 
KAPTD-TRAXSIT SUBWAYS IX METROPOLITAN CITIES. 761 
 
 gas to escape, but they very inadequately performed that function. 
 The manag-ers. with the characteristic English sIoaaiicss to adopt 
 new methods and the desire to make large profits, reminding one 
 of the Xew York Manhattan EleA^ated Eailroad Company, refused 
 to adopt electric traction, and until 1890 there was no method of 
 rapid transportation in London other than the steam roads. 
 
 In that year the City and South London Electric Railway was 
 opened, about 3J miles in extent, extending from near the monument, 
 in King AVilliam street, only a few blocks from the commercial cen- 
 ter of the metropolis, to the suburban district of Stockwell, upon 
 the south side of the Thames. The success of this road and the 
 desire for access to the heart of the city led the Southwestern Rail- 
 way — one of the most important English roads — to construct a 
 short electric line between its Waterloo station and the Mansion 
 House, opposite the Bank of England. This line is very short, only 
 miles in length, but it does assist in solving the problem of urban 
 transportation in that it brings the suburban districts reached by 
 the Southwestern into closer connnunication with the business por- 
 tion of the city. 
 
 The Central London Railroad, the latest, largest, and best equipped 
 of all London subways, most nearly resembles, from the point of 
 location, the Xew York subway. It runs from the Bank of Eng- 
 land, under Cheapside, Xewgate, ITolborn Viaduct, and Oxford 
 street, past St. Paul's Cathedral, Hyde Park, and Kensington Gar- 
 dens to a station in the suburban district of Shepherd's Bush, a total 
 distance of CU miles. There is a large traffic toward the Bank of 
 England in the morning and to the West End in the evening, and 
 the only means of transportation until lately was by omnibus or 
 carriage or a roundabout route via the underground. Xo tram- 
 way has been pernutted to occupy this main artery, and the new 
 underground road will greath^ add to the transportation facilities 
 of London. 
 
 Various other electric underground lines have been proposed, and 
 within the near future the Metropolitan and the Metropolitan Dis- 
 trict railways, now operated by steam, will adopt electricity as a 
 motive power. Bids and plans have already been called for. 
 
 CONDITIONS IN BUDAPEST. 
 
 After London, Budapest was the first city to build a subway. 
 Here it was the outcome of various plans for joining the central and 
 business portion of the city with the park, a favorite rendezvous some 
 2^ miles distant. X^othing definite was proposed until the spacious 
 and handsome Andrassystrasse was laid out, which offered a direct 
 and attractive route for a street railway. Application Avas made for 
 permission to build a horse-car line, but the plan met with strong 
 
76^^ KAPID-TKANSTT SUBWAYS TN METROPOLITAN CITIES. 
 
 opposition chiefly upon a*sllietic grounds. Several years later, after 
 a shoi-t experiment ill elect i-ie line had i)roved a success, the scheme 
 was aoain resurrected, electricity being the motive power. This 
 j)roposal met a fate similar to its predecessoi's and led to the con- 
 struction of the subway. In 1894 the concession was granted, and two 
 years later the line was opened to the public. No other project is at 
 present being considered; the transportation problem is not so serious 
 as elsewhere, and the tramway system is very efficient, giving satis- 
 factory service. 
 
 THE (JLASGOW SUBWAY. 
 
 The Glasgow subway was started several years before that in 
 Budapest, but being much larger in scope and more difficult to con- 
 struct, owing to the great amount of tunneling necessary, it was not 
 opened until the latter part of 1896. Even then it did not remain 
 open, for the traffic was so much heavier than anticipated that it was 
 necessary to close the line for a few weeks and improve the facilities 
 for handling croAvds. 
 
 The first definite project for an underground road culminated in 
 J 887, when a bill was introduced into Parliament to authorize such 
 an undertaking. The local authorities opposed it, because they 
 feared that tunnels under the Clyde would render any further deep- 
 ening of the river impossible and thus seriously interfere with the 
 commercial development of the city. However, in 1890, a bill was 
 passed; these objections did not seem of sufficient importance to 
 counterbalance the need for rapid transit. Short sections of the 
 steam roads, similar to those in London, had been operated for some 
 time below the surface, but they reached only a few suburban dis- 
 tricts. The new subwa}^ connects the business portions of the city 
 with the residential areas to the west and northwest. Its eastern 
 extremity is in the heart of the city, from whence the line makes a 
 broad swing to the west, some 7 miles in circumference. 
 
 As yet there seems to be no competition betAveen the subAvay and 
 the municipal street railways. The latter do not reach many of the 
 suburbs served by the subway, and the long-distance traffic does not 
 use the surface lines because they are slower. Even with the pro- 
 posed extensions, there will be abundant traffic for each system. 
 
 boston's SUBWAYS. 
 
 The Boston subway was opened in 1898. It is entirely unlike 
 every other line, not being a separate and distinct system, but merely 
 affording to the surface lines a means of reaching the business dis- 
 tricts without using the surface of the streets. Prior to its con- 
 struction the street car lines from the many suburban districts 
 around Boston all met on Huntington avenue, Tremont and Boylston 
 streets, or at Scollay square. Between Scollay square and the junc- 
 
BAPID-TRANSIT SUBWAYS IN METROPOLITAN CITIES. 763 
 
 tion of Trenioiit and Boylston streets the congestion was so great 
 that traffic was ahnost wholly impeded during the busiest hours of 
 the day. Various solutions of the problem were proposed from time 
 to time. An elevated road was rejected by a popular vote, and the 
 proposed Avidening of the streets involved so great an expense as to 
 be impracticable. The only comprehensive scheme seemed to be a 
 subway in the congested district, and in 189J: an act was passed author- 
 izing its construction. The results have been most satisfactory. The 
 streets are not nearly so crowded as before, and there is a great saving 
 to the passengers of the time necessary to reach the central portion of 
 the city from almost any suburb. The total length of the subway is If 
 miles, and contains over 5 miles of track. Several additional lines 
 are under consideration. 
 
 TUE COMPREHENSIVE SCHEME FOR PARIS. 
 
 The problem of rapid transit w^as first agitated in Paris almost 
 half a century ago, and as early as 1870 the municipal authorities 
 began seriously to study various solutions. In imitation of other 
 
 Fig. 2.— M;ip of Piiris, showing subways in operation and umicr construction. 
 
 cities an elevated road was proposed during the eighties, but the 
 esthetic Parisian would have none of it. The beautiful boulevards, 
 streets, and public places, laid out by Baron Haussman at great 
 
7(U RAPlD-TRANSIt SUBWAYS TN METROPOLITAN CITIES. 
 
 exponse, must be presorvcMl at every cost. And true to French 
 custom no i)lan would be a])prove(l until a comprehensive scheme 
 for the whole city was formulated. This had been accomplished 
 by 189(), an electric subway havin<r been decided upon. The street 
 trallic liad become so congested that no more surface lines or omnibus 
 routes could be added. 
 
 The ext(^nt of the Paris metropolitan subway is indicated by the 
 above map. When it is entirely com])leted the system will be nearly 
 40i miles in length, will cost the city $:](),000,Oob, and the operating 
 company about $10,000,000 more for equipment.'^ At present, only 
 one section and parts of two others have been completely constructed 
 and put in operation, namely, the line running from the Yincennes 
 gate in the east, past the Hotel de Ville, the Louvre, and the Tuil- 
 leries, down the Champs Elysees to the Place de I'Etoile, from which 
 three lines operate — one to the Trocadero, one to Porte Dauphine. 
 and one to Porte Maillot. The total length is some 8 miles, and the 
 cost about $7,000,000 for construction alone. 
 
 PUBLIC CONTROI. IX GREAT BRITAIN. 
 
 The relation of the municipality to the subways varies greatly from 
 city to city. In no instance have the city authorities undertaken 
 operation, but in Paris and Boston, as in New York, the public owns 
 the subway, having constructed it at public expense. 
 
 The extent of public control is least in Great Britain, there being 
 a marked diflerence between street railways — surface lines — and 
 underground roads. The former are subject to strict control, and 
 the municipality may take over a line twent3'-one years from the 
 time when the franchise is granted, or may construct or purchase 
 the tracks and rent them to a private company. But no underground 
 road is municipally oAvned or operated, and no public authority has 
 the right under the act granting the franchise to purchase a line. Of 
 course the local authorities may regulate to a moderate degree, but 
 beyond a somewhat restricted exercise of the police powers they may 
 not go. The most important provision found in any of the acts, ex- 
 cept clauses protecting avowedl}^ private interests, such as are to be 
 found in acts creating steam railroads using private property prin- 
 cipally,^ is one requiring workmen's trains to be run each day, morn- 
 
 aThe city has planned for two more sections, making eight in all, bringing the 
 total lengtli up to 4.S..5 miies, and the cost up to between $45,000,000 and $50,000.- 
 000. ^ These last two sections have not yet been authorized by the central gov- 
 ernment. 
 
 * The restrictions imposed upon private companies relate principally to the 
 amount of capital that may be issued, the extent to which loans may be nego- 
 tiated, location of the road, the property purchased, the indemnities paid, the 
 maxinmm fares charged, the number of trains run, the motive power used, etc. 
 
EAPID-TEAXSIT SUBWAYS IX METROPOLITAX CITIES. 
 
 765 
 
 ing and evening, at a fare not to exceed 2 cents for the whole or any 
 part of the journey on the Central London Eailway. Of course Par- 
 liament knows no higher law than its own will, and may impose any 
 restrictions or may order compulsory purchase at any price, but all 
 such proceedings are without the realm of probability. 
 
 This difference between underground and tramway lines rather 
 surprises one at first, for British cities have gone as far in the direc- 
 tion of municipal socialism as those of almost any other country. The 
 explanation is a very important fact, viz, that municipalization in 
 (xreat Britain is not so much an economic movement as the expression 
 of the desire that the local governments keep control of the streets. 
 The underground roads, in so far as the}' cross or pass under the 
 streets and public places, are using public property, to which the 
 
 Fig. 3.— a station on the Central London Railway. 
 
 public authorities have as clear a title as that of a private individual 
 to the ground under his house. The law knows no limit either above 
 or below the surface. Yet no demand has been made upon the under- 
 ground lines for payment or for the reservation of the right to take 
 over the line. It is to be borne in mind, however, that the under- 
 ground roads, especially those constructed since the movement for 
 municipalization became strong, are some distance below the surface,'^ 
 that their construction and operation necessitates very little disturb- 
 ance of the street surface, and that instead of increasing the street 
 tratTic they relieve it. Further, they do not promise to be exceedingly 
 remunerative, and without public aid either through subsidies or free 
 grants to use the ground below the surface of the streets many of 
 
 « The a^■era^?e depth of the Gh^sgow subway is 29 feet, and the Central London 
 Raihvay is everywhere, except at the western terminus, which is on private 
 property, at least 30 feet below the surface of the streets. Only the Metro- 
 politan and the Metropolitan District Company are near the surface and have 
 open subways, These are the steam roads, which got their powers years ago. 
 
76() RAPID-TRANSIT SUBW AYS IN METROPOLITAN CITIES. 
 
 lluMii would not li;n'c Ihhmi built. Both London and Glasffow have 
 rec'()u:ni/AHl those facts, and have not opposed the companies when 
 they liave aj^pealed to Ptirlianient for power to use the ground below 
 the streets. 
 
 PRAXnilSE IX BUDAPEST. 
 
 Tlie nearest approach to British conditions is to be found in Buda- 
 pest. There the city has invested nothing; the subway has been 
 built, equijDped, and operated by a private company. But the city 
 has reserved the jM-ivilege of taking over the line in 1940, when the 
 concessions for the surface lines expire, provided announcement is 
 made of its intention two years previous. Otherwise the franchise 
 runs ninety years from 1896, or until 198(). The maximum fare is 
 fixed at 10 kreutzers (5 cents) during the first fifteen years, after 
 which the cit}' authorities may require a reduction. The city w^ll 
 receiA'e from the gross revenues an amount to be calculated on the fol- 
 lowing scale : 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 During' the first ten years following a period of twenty years, 1916-1926 1 
 
 During the second ten years following a period of twenty years, 1926-1936_ 2 
 During the third ten years following a period of twenty years. 1936-1946__ 3 
 During the fourth ten years following a period of twenty years, 1946-1956- 4 
 From this time to the end of the concession. 1956-1986 5 
 
 During the first twenty-five years the cit}^ can not grant any other 
 concession for the establishment of a system of transportation of any 
 kind between the center of the city and the park. And for the first 
 fifteen years the company is exemj^t from taxation. The city, of 
 course, possesses in addition the usual j^olice powers, and the conces- 
 sion contains many provisions specifying how the subway was to be 
 built and how it is to be operated. 
 
 TEK.^rS OF THE PARIS CONCESSION. 
 
 The position of the Paris subway is the result of many compro- 
 mises between the municipal council and the central government 
 whose approval was necessary for the execution of the project. The 
 central authorities insisted that the subway be connected with the 
 railroads in order that trains from the country might be run right 
 through to the center of the city and a suburban traffic thus de- 
 veloped. The municipality feared that the railroad companies 
 would get control of the subway and that a large portion of the popu- 
 lation would be induced to leave the city and live in the suburbs, 
 thereby decreasing the city's revenue from octroi. A compromise 
 w^as finally efTected. and in the early part of 1898 the act was passed, 
 which fixed the gauge of the road, over Avhich there had been so much 
 disjDute, at the standard width. But the city, in order to prevent 
 the railroads from ever sending their cars over the subway, has built 
 
KAPID-TRAXSIT SUBAVAYS IX METROPOLTTAN CITIES. 7^7 
 
 the tunnels so narrow that only those cars can be used that are 
 especially constructed for the subAAay. 
 
 Another ])oint upon which the nnniicipal council and the central 
 government did not agree was as to Avho should operate the lines. 
 The council wished not only to own but to operate the road. The 
 central authorities objected, but finally compromised upon municipal 
 ownership and private operation. This plan offers many advantages. 
 According to a general law passed in 1842, a private company gets a 
 franchise for seventA^-five years if it builds a railroad; but if a public 
 authority constructs a line it may shorten the period to thirty-five 
 years. Further, under private ownership, a company would find 
 considerable difficult}^ in raising sufficient capital to build and operate 
 the wdiole system. Paris could borrow the money easily, and not only 
 easily, but at a lower rate of interest than a private company. This 
 saving would be no small factor and ^\\\\ enable the road to lower 
 fares ultimately. 
 
 The contract between the municipality and the operating com- 
 pan}^ is most interesting. The franchise runs for thirty-five years, 
 but at any time within seven years from date of construction the city 
 may acquire the lines. The company agrees to maintain the highest 
 degree of efficiency, to give to its employees an annual vacation of 
 ten days with full salary, to give them full pay during military 
 instruction and sickness, to insure them against accident, and to pay 
 the city 2 cents for every first-class ticket and 1 cent for every second- 
 class ticket sold, with the added provision that when the annual 
 passenger traffic exceeds 140,000,000 persons, this sum shall be 
 increased, reaching at the highest mark 2.1 cents for each first-class 
 and 1.1 cents for each second-class ticket. As the concession fixes 
 the rate for a first-class ticket at 5 cents and for a second-class ticket 
 at 3 cents, and for school children with teacher at a uniform rate of 
 1 cent, about one-third of the entire receipts will go to the munici- 
 pality and two-thirds to the company. As the cost will be about 
 $35,000,000 for the lines thus far authorized, an annual revenue of 
 $1,100,000 will be necessary to pay the interest, sinking-fund charges, 
 and incidental expenses; operating expenses are paid by the com- 
 pany leasing the subway. Thus, if the entire system should carry 
 only 125,000,000 passengers annually, the city would more than pay 
 all expenses. As this is considered a very low estimate and as it 
 seems almost certain that the traffic will far exceed this number, the 
 city will probably find the subway a paying investment. The roads 
 in London, Berlin, and Xew York carry nearly 5.000,000 passengers 
 per mile per year; the Paris subway ought easily to reach the nec- 
 essary 3,000,000 per mile per year. 
 
 The entire system of subways is not to be constructed at once, but is 
 to be divided into six sections (two mox'e have not been approved by 
 
768 RAPTD-TRANSIT SUBWAYS IN METROPOLITAN CITIES. 
 
 the central goveriinieiit) , Avhich are to be opened from time to time as 
 specified in the act, nntil by lOlG every line will be in operation. All 
 are to be operated by the present leasing company and upon the same 
 terms as given above. The thirty-five-year period — the duration of 
 the franchise — is to run from the date of opening each line, and to 
 prevent any inconvenience Avhich might arise from franchises for 
 dijfferent sections falling in at different dates, the concession pro- 
 vides that the compan}^ may retain possession of all until the termi- 
 nation of the last franchise, and shall pay 45,000 francs per kilometer 
 per year ($14,000 per mile) for every line whose lease expires pre- 
 vious to that time. 
 
 CONDITIOXS IX BOSTON LEASE. 
 
 Like Paris, Boston owns its subway and has rented it for twenty 
 3'ears to a private company — the West End Elevated Railway Com- 
 pany, which has subleased it to the Boston Elevated Railway Com- 
 pany. The rental Avill ne^ er be less than 4J per cent of the cost of 
 the subway, and if this sum does not amount to 5 cents for each car 
 using the subway, it shall be made up to this sum. The income will 
 pay the interest on all outstanding bonds and provide a sinking 
 fund to extinguish them at maturity — forty years hence. All oper- 
 ating expenses are paid by the operating company, and at the ex- 
 piration of the lease the city Avill pay the fair value of all rails, pipes, 
 wires, etc., which are affixed to the subway. 
 
 COMPEXSATIOX. 
 
 Comj^aring the various methods of securing compensation, it is 
 evident that in no instance have large profits been secured. Buda- 
 pest undoubtedly receives the most, considering the fact that it has 
 invested nothing, for even the expense of rearranging sewers, water 
 mains, conduits, etc., was borne by the subway company. Paris may 
 make the most, for if the traffic greatly exceeds 125,000,000 persons 
 annual the net profit will be more than 5 per cent of the gross re- 
 ceipts, as the rate is about 33 per cent of the gross receipts. How- 
 ever, if the traffic should fall considerably below this figure, the 
 municipality will need to make up the deficit from other sources. 
 There seems to be little risk in this direction, and Paris has followed 
 its usual course of exacting large payments from municipal monopo- 
 lies rather than of requiring loAver prices and increasingly better serv- 
 icer London and Glasgow are at the other extreme, and Xew York 
 and Boston are not far distant, for the payments are not large, barely 
 exceeding for the present the interest on bonds issued for the cx)nstruc- 
 tion of the subways and sinking fund charges to wipe out the debt. 
 
 Considerable variety exists also as to the basis for compensation. 
 Budapest uses gross receipts^an easily ascertainable basis and freed 
 
EAPID-TRAXSIT SUBWAYS IN METROPOLITAN CITIES. 7B9 
 
 from much adverse criticism by the requirement that the rate in- 
 crease as the years pass, or. in other words, as the road becomes more 
 remunerative. Paris has adopted an even shnpler basis, receiving a 
 certain fixed sum for each ticket sold. An attempt has also been 
 made to vary the amount with the traffic, but not quite so success- 
 fully as in Budapest. In Boston and New York the cost of con- 
 struction is used as a basis, and the payment to the city is a fixed 
 sum, n'o matter what the profit or the loss to the private company or 
 the size of the traffic. 
 
 MOTIVE POWERS. 
 
 An examination of the roads themselves reveals a great ditference 
 between those recently constructed and the underground lines in Lon- 
 don built many years ago. Steam as a motive power has given way 
 to electricity. Every London line constructed since 1890 — the date 
 when the City and South London road was opened — has adopted the 
 third-rail electric system, as have also Paris and New York. The 
 Budapest and Boston subways use the overhead trolley. Glasgow 
 clings to cable traction, which is largely accounted for by the con- 
 servatism of the Scotch and the fact that in 1890, when the work was 
 begun on the subway, electricity had not yet clearly demonstrated its 
 efficiency. Cable traction Avas much cheaper, and upon the steep 
 grades the car going down will help to pull up the car going in the 
 opposite direction. The act of Parliament imposes no conditions 
 except that steam can not be used. The Glasgow subway is unique, 
 in that it is the only underground cable railway for passengers in the 
 world. Thus far it has worked very well. 
 
 TRAVEL A PLEASI RE. 
 
 All the modern subways, even that of Glasgow, have adopted elec- 
 tric lighting, and the cars and tunnels are in marked contrast to 
 those of the steam lines in London, which are dimly lighted, dirty, 
 and forbidding. Glazed tiles have generally been used, especially at 
 the stations, and in every Avay the comfort and pleasure of the pas- 
 sengers haA'e been administered to. The entrances in Boston and 
 Budapest particularly are very artistic, and instead of being repel- 
 lant, because of their dirt and ugliness, e^ en add to the beauty of the 
 streets and public places in which they are located. The London 
 electric lines, being situated many feet below the level of the streets, 
 have provided spacious elevators, which counteract the disadvantages 
 of deep-level travel. The Paris, Budapest, and Boston subways do 
 not need them, being located near the surface of the streets. The 
 Glasgow company has one. in Kelvinbridge. where the road is 115 
 feet below the crest of the hill, and New York will liave a few when\ 
 the road is far below the surface. 
 SM 1904 i9 
 
770 RAPID-TRANSIT SUBWAYS IN METROPOLITAN CITIES. 
 
 In the construction of the subways, plans nuicli the same have been 
 followed e^'elTwhere. Where the road level is near the street level, 
 an open ditch was made, steel framework inserted, and the street pave- 
 ment replaced. AVhere this w^as impracticable, tunnels were driven ; 
 and in a few instances short viaducts were erected. The Budapest sub- 
 Avay is everywhere just below the street level, and consists of two par- 
 allel lines at the same level, separated only by steel pillars, station 
 platforms, or thin walls. The Paris subway likewise consists of two 
 parallel lines and alwaj^s at the same level, except where one section 
 crosses another and a dip is made to avoid crossing at grade. Some 
 of the distance the lines run side by side in a single tunnel; in other 
 portions each line has a separate tunnel, uniting only at stations. 
 The Glasgow road consists of two distinct tunnels throughout, except 
 at stations, as is true of nearly all the London electric lines except the 
 Waterloo and City road, which has only one line almost all the way. 
 The Boston sllb^^'ay has from two to four lines, usually at the same 
 
 Fig. 4.— Budapest stations. 
 
 level, except where it is necessary to raise or lower one to avoid grade 
 crossings. The Xew York line is the only one that has tracks for the 
 special purpose of running express trains; and with the Central Lon- 
 don road is unique in raising its stations above the level of the road. 
 Each tram on its departure thus is accelerated by the force of 
 gravity, and as it ap2:)roaches is checked by the same force. This will 
 greatly increase the rate of speed by reducing the time required for 
 stopping and starting. 
 
 Most of the modern subways are adopting the American style of 
 car. with an entrance at each end, in place of the old-style compart- 
 ment coach. Even the London roads are making the change, and the 
 Glasgow line introduced them at the start. The Paris car is a 
 ]iy])rid. having two doors on each side, one set being used for entrance 
 and the other for exit. The train idea seems also to be s])reading, 
 as l)eing more economical and better adapted to handling large 
 crowds. 
 
EAPID-TEANSIT SUBWAYS IX METROPOLITAN CITIES. 
 
 771 
 
 There is one marked difference between foreign and American 
 lines. ^lost of the former have first and second-class compartments 
 or cars; the latter charge the same fare for every one. The Glasgow 
 subway maintains only one service and the tendency elsewhere is in 
 this direction. Some London roads have already made the change. 
 
 The uniform fare, regardless of distance, is also more common 
 with us than abroad. In Paris and Budapest it is in vogue, but the 
 lines are so short as to render a graded system unnecessary. The 
 Glasgow company intended to adopt it. but as the cars run continu- 
 ously around the circle, one avouIcI be able to ride indefinitely for one 
 fare. To prevent this, a zone system was adopted. A penny ticket 
 (2 cents) allows one to go as far as the fourth station from where 
 he enters the car, or about 1^ miles — one-fourth the circumference 
 
 Fig. 5.— a Central London Railway car. 
 
 of the road. A 2-penny ticket (l cents) entitles one to travel any 
 distance, but not more than once around the circle. A ticket is 
 given each passenger, which he gives up upon leaving the station at 
 his destination. Any one who has ridden farther than his ticket 
 indicates is thus found out and required to pay. 
 
 That the subways of London, Paris, Budapest, Glasgow, and Bos- 
 ton were needed and are performing a useful social service is shown 
 by the large number of passengers carried. Their influence can 
 only partially be estimated, but undoubtedly the effect upon social 
 conditions, especially housing and overcrowding, is considerable, 
 not to mention the saA^ng of time in going to and from work. Doubt- 
 less rapid transit will not solve either the housing problem or trans- 
 form our cities into Utopias, but it will alleviate social conditions 
 and prevent what otherwise would be unbearable evils.