Columbia S^ttitJersftp Coaege of mv^itmm mh BnxQtom Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2010 with funding from Open Knowledge Commons http://www.archive.org/details/firstbookonanalyOOcutt Fig. FIRST BOOK ON ANALYTIC Anatomy, Physiology and Hygiene, HUMAN AND COMPARATIVE. FOR COMMON AND AND FOR FAMILIES. By CAL ^i t l UUTT Jm , A.M., M.D., 4.UTH0R OF " Second Book on Analytic Anatomy, Physiology and IlYaiENE," " Nkt» Analytic Anatomy, Physiology and Hygiene," and " New Outline Zoological Chaets, Human and Comparative." WITH NUMEROUS ENGRAVINGS. PHILADELPHIA J. B. LIPPINCOTT & CO z' Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1872, by CALVIN CUTTER, A.M., M.D., In the-Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington, Copyright also secured in Great Britain and entered at Stationers' Hall, London, and right of Translation reserved. LlPPlNCOTT'S PRSSS, PHILASEtPHIA PREFACE. This mai ual, designed for Common and Grammar Schools and fo* families, has been prepared with several objects in view. First: To so limit its size, to make its analysis so complete, to secure so natural an arrangement, with so apposite and artistic illustrations, as to render it usable in Common Schools having terms of ten or fourteen weeks, and also to present such topics for consideration as shall interest and profit pupils, parents and the people in the laws of health, which are based upon a knowledge of the laws of physiology. Second : To secure these results, the outlines of the human system are discussed relative to structure, to use and to health, with so much of Comparative Anatomy (Zoology) as is deemed needful to show the analogy that exists between man and the inferior animals, and to appe- tize for more extended study in the science of life. The treatment of some of the common ills of life, of wounded, poisoned and asphyxiated persons, is briefly discussed in their appro- priate chapters. Another object in view has been to make the style clear, concise and adapted to the references made to illustrative figures, to teach the pupil the correct word, though it may be a technical term, believing it is best to use those terms which express the ideas that are peculiar to the study. As the study of objects is more simple and impressive than mere words, and as illustrations are more instructive, particularly to children, than written sentences, this work has been so arranged as to be used advantageously, with object study and topical instruction, especially with Outline Anatomical Charts, both human and comparative. As use is the test oi f. text-book, this manual is respectfully sutmitted \o teachers and to patrons of schools. CALVIN CUTTEK, Waerbn, Mass., July, 1872 1* 5 ANALYSIS OF CONTENTS. BECT. 1. CHAPTER I. GENERAL REMARKS. PAGE 7 DIVISION I. MO TOBY APPARATUS. CHAPTER II, THE BONES. 2. Anatomy of the Bones 13 3. Physiology " " 20 4. Hygiene " " 22 6. Comparativo Osteology 24 CHAPTER III. THE MUSCLES. 6. Anatomy of the Muscles 36 7. Physiology " " 39 8. Hygiene " " 42 9. Comparative Myology 48 DIVISION II. NUTRITIVE APPARATUS. CHAPTER IV. THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 10. Anatomy of the Digestive Organs.... 51 11. Physiology " " " .... 57 12. Hygiene " " " .... 59 13. Comparative Splanchnology 65 CHAPTER V. ABSORPTION. 14. Ana+omy of the Absorbents 75 35. Physiology " " 78 16. Hygiene » " .- 80 CHAPTER VI. THE RESPIRATORY AND VOCAL ORGANS. 17. Anatomy of the Respiratory and Vocal Organs 82 18. Physiology of the Respiratory and Vocal Organs 86 19. Hygiene of the Respiratory and Vocal Organs 90 20. Comparative Pneumonology 96 6 CHAPTER VII. THE SKIN. SECT. PA68 21. Anatomy of the Skin 102 22. Physiology " " 107 23. Hygiene " " 109 CHAPTER VIII. THE CIRCULATORY ORGANS. 24. Anatomy of the Circulatory Organs 115 25. Physiology " " " 121 26. Hygiene " " " 122 27. Comparative Angiology 124 CHAPTER IX ASSIMILATION. 28. Assimilation, General and Special. 129 DIVISION III. SENSORIAL APPARATUS. CHAPTER X. NERVOUS SYSTEM. 29. Anatomy of the Nervous System... 134 30. Physiology " " '• ... 140 31. Hygiene " " « ... 142 32. Comparative Neurology 148 CHAPTER XI. SPECIAL SENSES. 33. 34, 35. Sense of Smell 154 36, 37, 38. Sense of Sight 156 39,40,41. Sense of Hearing 162 42,43. Sense of Taste 167 44. Sense of Touch 168 APPENDIX. CHAPTER XII. Care op the Sick 171 Treatment of Wounds 176 " OF Burns and Scalds 178 " OF Frost-Bite and Chil- blain 179 " OF Persons apparently Drowned 180 Poisons and their Antidotes. Ibl Glossary 185 Index 195 Anatomy, Physiology and Hygiene. CHAPTER I. GENERAL REMARKS. \ 1. The Human Body and a Machine Compared. — Division of Objects in Nature. Definitions of Terms. Cells — Tissues — Mem- branes. Life of Organized Bodies. Great Divisions of the Body. 1. However complete a machine of human invention, none can be more perfect in structure, beautiful in appearance, or harmonious in action than the " house we live in." A WATCH, for instance, contains beautiful wheels as well as delicate springs, all of which are surrounded by well-fitted cases. Yet the human body contains parts more beautiful, organs more delicate, enclosed in cases more perfect in con- struction. The watch has not within itself the power of making or applying the oil necessary for its movable parts, but God in his goodness has so made the parts of the human body that they make and apply as they need their own oily fluid. The form and size of a watch do not of themselves change ; but in form and size man varies from his cradle to his grave. Growth and decay are constant in the human frame. If a watch is injured, it has not power to repair or mend itself. Not so with the human body: you may bruise it, and the injured part possesses a power that is generally able to heal it. 2. All objects in the material world are divided into Or- ganiCj as, animals and plants; and Inorganic, as, minerals, earths, water and air. Questions. — State the comparison between a watch and the human body — The oiling of the parts — The form and size contrasted. What is constant in the body? Stale the comparison when injuries are received. How are all objects in nature divided? 7 S ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 3. Every organized body is composed of various parts or Or'gans. A collection of organs so arranged that their com- bined actions shall produce a given result is called an Appa- ra'tus. The definite, peculiar use of an organ or apparatus is called its Function, as, the digestive apparatus consists of the organs — teeth, stomach, liver, etc. — whose combined func- tions result in the digestion of food. 4. The description of the form and position of these organs is called Anat'omy ; * the description of their functions, Physiol'ogy; t the examination of the conditions most favor- able to their health, Hy'giene. J 5. Anatomy, Physiology and Hygiene may be considered as of two kinds. Human and Comparative. The first pertains to man, the latter to the inferior, or other animals than man ; as the horse, the whale. 6. The greatest variety prevails in the organization of dif- ferent animals. In some the functions are simple. In others they are complex, and generally the more varied the functions are in any animal, the more complex will be its structure. Fig. 2. 12 3 4 Fig. 2. An Ideal Cell. — 1, Cell, with its wall, fluid, nucleus and its nucleolus. 2, Th« same divided into two, 3, The same divided into four cells. 4, The same divided into many cells. The dark portion, the fluid; the white spot, the nucleus; the inner small circle, the nucleolus. Magnified. Observation. — A good example of a simple animal cell on a large scale is an egg; the lining of the shell is the cell-wall or sac; the white ia the contained fluid ; the yolk is the nucleus ; and its germ-spot is the nucleolus. (Fig. 2.) • What is an organ ? An apparatus ? What is function ? Define Anatomy — Physiology — Ilygieno. How may Anatomy, Physiology and Hygiene be considered ? Of what doec Human Anatomy treat? Comparative? What is said of the organization of different animals? What is the earliest form of any living thing? * Gr., ana, through, and tome, a cutting. f Gr., phusis, nature, and logos, a discourse. X Gr., hugidnon, health. GENERAL REMARKS. 9 7. The earliest organic form of any living thing is a Cell; and cells differently combined form Tissues. 8. A Simple Cell consists of a delicate sac containing a fluid, in which is another very minute sac, called the nu'eleus,^ which contains yet another sac — the nucleolus or little nucleus. (Fig. 2.) Very minute particles or granules are also seen. 9. The Tissues, which, combined in various proportiona, make up the organs of the body. The principal tissues of animals are the Muscular^ Nervous and Cellular, Fig. 3. FW. 3. DiAOBAM EXHIBITING THE RELATIVE POSITION OF THE ELEMENTS OP SEEOUS ANB Mucous Membranes. — ^1, Epithelium, composed of nucleated cells. 2, Basement layer. 3, Fibrous layer, in which the arteries and veins (4) terminate in a capillary network. Magnified. 10. The simplest of all the tissues, resembling a film of transparent gelatin (jelly), is called Basement membrane. (Fig. 3.) Upon it, in various parts of the body, are imbedded minute epithelial'\ cells. Other membranes are called the Se'rous, Sy no' vial and Mucous. The Serous Membrane is that portion which lines the walls of certain closed sacs or cavities. It secretes a fluid called Serum. The Synovial Membrane closely resembles the Serous as regards structure. It secretes a fluid called Synovia. The Mucous Membrane opens to the surface. It secretes a fluid called Mucus. This membrane varies in thick- ness in different parts of the body.--^ 11. All organized bodies have a limited period of life, and AYhftt does a combination of cells form? Of what does a simple cell consist? What builds up the organs of the body? Name some of the tissues. What is Basement Mem brane? Serous? Synovial? Mucus? * L., 7iid. t Gr., epi, upon, and tliell, a nipple A* 10 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. this period varies with every species. The duration of some planis is limited to a single summer, while several kinds of Fig. 4. Fig. 5. Fig. 4. A SiDt. View of the two Qkeat Cavities of the Body and their Organs. — 1, 3^ 3, The loiver cavity. 1, The mouth. 2, The thorax. 3, The abdomen. (6, A salivary gland. 7, The oesophagus. 8, 8, The trachea and lungs. 9, The heart. 10, The liver. 11, The stomach. 12, The colon. 13, The small intestine. 14, The lacteals. 16, The thoracic duct. 16, The diaphragm.) 17, 18, 20, 20, The walls of the lower cavity, com- posed of houes, muscles and skin. 4, 5, 6, The upper cavity and its organs. 4, The brain. 6, 6, The spinal cord. 19, 20, 20, The walls of the upper cavity. 20, 20, The spinal colniru. Fig. 6. The Position of the Organs of the Mouth, Thorax, and Abdomen. — 1, 2, 3, Sa- livary glands. 4, The larynx and trachea. 5, The oesophagus. 6, 6, The lungs. 7, The heart 8, 8, The liver. 9, The stomach. 10, The pancreas. 11, The spleen. 13, 13, 13, The small intestine. 14, 14, 14, The large intestine. trees live many hundred years. Some animals live but a short time, while others live more than a century. What is said of the limit of life in plants and animals ? GENERAL REMARKS. 11 12. The life of man is shortened by disease ; but disease is under the control of fixed laws — laws which we are capable of understanding and obeying. How important, then, is the study of Physiology and Hygiene ! 13. To understand the structure or use of a machine, it is necessary to examine the different parts separately as well as combined. The same is true of the animal frame, so "fear- fully and wonderfully made." 14. The human body has two great Cavities : the Lower and the Upper. (Fig. 4.) The same division is applied to the horse, to birds and to fishes. The Lower (Anterior) Cavity contains the parts of the Mouth, Tho'rax (Chest), and the Ahdo'men. The Upper (Posterior) Cavity encloses the Brairi and the Spinal Cord. These great cavities are protected by walls built up of bones, muscles (lean meat), and the whole is cov- ered by the skin. How is life usually shortened ? The importance of the study of Anatomy, Physiology and Hygiene, Name the two great cavities of the hody. What does the lower cavity contain ? The upper ? SYNTHETIC TOFIC^^L REVIET^T. GENERAL RKMARKS. GENERAL ANALYSIS. Cells, Tissues, Organs, ^ppax-atus. Divisions '-'.« LIBRARY '\ ■'/mGT0H>3: DIVISION I. MOTORY APPARATUS. 15. In every movement of the body certain organs are brought into action, which, taken collectively, constitute the MoTORY Apparatus. The parts of this apparatus are the Bones and Joints, the Muscles and the Nerves of Motion. CHAPTER II. THE BONES. 16. The bones are firm and hard, and of a dull white color. \ In all the higher orders of animals, among which is man, they Fig. 6. Fig. 6. Bones of the Head. — 1, Frontal bone. 2, Parietal bone. 3, Temporal bone. 4, Occipital bone. 5, Nasal bone, 6, Malar bone. 7, Upper jaw. 8, Os unguis. 9, Lower jaw. are in the interior of the body, while in lobsters, crabs, etc., they are on the outside, forming a case, which protects the movable parts from injury. Name the organs of the Motory Apparatus. Give the structure of bones. Where are tbey found in man? In lobsters? 12 THE BONES. 13 § 3, Anatomy of the Bones. — Number and Classification of the Bones. Bones oj the Head — Of the Trunk — Of the Lower Extremities — Of the Upper Extremities. The Joints — Definition and Classification. Im- movable Joints — Mixed — Movable. Cartilage. Synovial Membrane. Jjigaments. Formation of Bone. Periosteum. 17. The number of bones in the human body exceeds two bundled. These, for convenience, are divided into four parts: Ist The bones of the Head. 2d. The bones of the Trunk. 3d The bones of the Lower Extremities. 4th. The bones of the Upper Extremities. Fig. 7. Fig. 8. Fig. 7. The Spinai, Column'. — 1, 2, 3, Vertebrae. 4, 5, The sacrum and coccyx bones of the pelvis. 6, 6, Processes. F»3. 8. The Chest and Pelvis. — 1, 1, The hip-bones. 18. The BONES OF the head are divided into those of the Skull, Ear and Face. Tlie SKULL is formed of eight bones. These are joined to- gether by ragged edges, called sutfures. (Fig. 6.) In each ear are three small bones, which aid in hearing. How many bones in the human body? How divided? Name the divisions of th« bones of the Head. What is said of the Sknll-bones? The bone.s of the Ear? 14 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. In the FACE are fourteen bones. They support the softer parts outside of them. (Fig. 6.) 19. The Trunk has twenty-four Ribs; twenty-four bones in the Spinal Column (back-bone); the Sternum (breast-bone); four in the Pelvis, and one at the root of the tongue. (Fig. 8.) The Ribs are slender bones joined to the spinal column at one extremity, and to the sternum at the other by means of a fielding substance called Ca/tifage (gristle). The seven upper ribs are united to the sternum by separate cartilages, and are named true ribs. The next three are remotely con- nected to it by long cartilages ; these are called false ribs. The lowest two are only joined to the spinal column ; these are the floating ribs. The ribs, sternum and spinal column form the Thorax (chest). This cavity encloses the heart and the lungs. The shape of the chest is conical ; the lower part or base should be broader and fuller than the upper part. The Spinal Column has twenty-four short pieces of bone {Verfebra), with sharp projces^ses or spines, placed one upon another like a pile or column. Between each vertebra is a thick piece of cartilage that is elastic like India rubber. This yielding substance not only unites the vertebrae, but also allows considerable freedom of motion. (Fig. 7.) The processes are so arranged that an opening is formed in each vertebra. These bones, coming directly over each other, form a bony canal, in which the Spinal Cord is lodged. The Sternum is situated in the middle line of the front of the chest, and is held in place chiefly by the ribs. (Fig. 1.) 20. The Pelvis is composed of the Innominatum (hip- bones), the Sacrum and the Coccyx. (Fig. 8.) The Innomiis^atum is irregularly shaped. Each hip-bone presents the largest surface of any bone in the body. Within The bones of the Face ? State the number and names of the bones of the Trunk, De- scribe the Ribs. Distinguish between true and false ribs. How is the Thorax formed? Wliat is said of the lowest two ribs? Of what is the Spinal Column composed? What of the arrangement of the processes? Where is the Sternum situated? Of what is the Pelvis composed ? Describe the Innominatum. THE BONES. 15 these bones are deep sockets, lined with cartilage, for the re- ception of the head of the thigh-bone. (Fig. 8.) The Sacrum is a wedge-shaped bone between the hip-bones. It is the basis of the spinal column. (Fig. 7.) The Coccyx, at the lower extremity of the spinal column, varies at different ages. In infancy it is cartilaginous ; in after life it becomes bony. 21. The LOWER EXTREMITIES Contain sixty bones : the Fe'mur (thigh-bone) ; the Pa-tel'la (knee-pan) ; the Tih'i-a (shin-bone) ; the Fib'u-la (small bone of the leg) ; and the bones of the Foot. The Femur* is the strongest and long- est bone of the body. It supports the weight of the head, trunk and upper ex- tremities. (Fig. 1.) The Patella t is a small chestnut- shaped bone, placed on the front part of the lower extremity of the femur, and connected with the tibia by a strong lig- ament. (Fig. 13.) The Tibia J is situated at the fore and inner part of the leg. It is triangular in shape, and forms the sharp ridge which may be felt on the front part of the leg below the knee. (Fig. 1.) The Fibula § is smaller than the tibia, and of similar shape. It is firmly bound to the tibia at each extremity. (Fig. 1.) / 22. The Bones of the Foot are the i Tar'sus (instep), Metatar'sus * and Pha- lan'ges (toe-bones). (Fig. 9.) The Sacrum. The Coccyx. Give the number aud naines of the bones of the Lower Extremities. Describe the Femur. Patella. Tibia. Fibula. State the names of the bones of the Foot. * Lat., thigh, f Lat., Utile dish. X Lat., a flute. | Lat., a clasp. Fig. 9. The Upper Sur- PACE OF THE Bones of thh Foot. — 1, The surface of the astragulus or ankle- bone, where it unites with the tibia. 2, The body of the astragulus. 3, Calcis or heel-bone. 4, The sca- phoid. 5, 6, 7, The cunei- form. 8, The cuboid. 9, 9, 9, The metatarsal bones. 10, 31, The phalanges of the great toe. 12, 13, 14, The phalanges of the other toes. 16 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. The Tarsus is formed of seven irregular bones, which are BO firmly bound together as to permit but little movement. (Fig. 9.) The Metatarsus consists of five bones. The tarsal and metatarsal bones form a strong arch toward the inner and lower surface of the feet. This structure conduces to the elas- ticity of the step, and the weight of the body is transmitted to the ground by the spring of the arch in a manner which prevents injury to the numerous organs. The Phalanges * of the toes have fourteen bones ; each of the small toes has three ranges of bones, while the great toe has but two. In man the great toe is not opposed to the others ; in a well-formed foot the second toe is the longest. (Fig. 9.) 23. The Upper Extremities contain sixty-four bones : the Clav'icle (collar-bone) ; the Scap'ula (shoulder-blade) ; the Hu'merus (arm-bone) ; the Ra'diuLs and Ul'na (fore-arm) ; and the bones of the Hand. (Fig. 1.) The Clavicle,*!" shaped like the italic/, is attached at one extremity to the sternum, and at the other to the scapula. (Fig. 1.) It braces and thus prevents the shoulders from falling in toward each other. The Scapula, a flat, thin, triangular bone, is situated upon the upper and back part of the chest. It lies upon muscles by which it is held in place and moved in different directions. (Fig. 30.) The Humerus is a long, cylindrical bone that extends from the shoulder to the elbow. (Fig. 1.) The Ulna J is the small bone of the fore-arm, and occupies the inner side. It articulates or joins with the humerus at the elbow, forming a perfect hinge-joint. (Fig. 1.) The Radius § is placed on the outside (the thumb side) of the fore-arm. It is larger than the ulna, and articulates with it, both at the elbow and at the wrist. The radius also unites Describe the Tarsus. The Metatarsus. The Phalanges of the foot. State the number and give tlie names of the bones of the Upper Extremities. Give the form of the Clav- icle, state its use. Describe the Scapula. The Humerus. What is the Ulna? With what does it articulate? Where is the Radius placed? Give its articulations. '^ Gr., row. f Lat., clav^is, a key. J It., a measure. | Lat., a spoke. THE BONES. ' 17 with the first row of the bones of the hand, forming the wrist- joint. 24. The Bones of the EEand are the Ca'/pus (wrist); the Metacar'pus (palm of the hand) ; and Phalanges (finger- bones). Tlie Carpus has eight bones, arranged in two rows, and so firmly bound together as to permit little movement of the wrist. One row articulates with the fore-arm, the other with the bones of the palm of the hand. (Fig. 1.) The Metacarpus * has five bones, upon four of which are placed the first range of finger-bones, and upon the other the first thumb-bone. This bone of the thumb is the shortest, and it is also opposed to the other finger-bones. (Fig. 1.) The Phalanges of the fingers have three bones, while the thumb has but two. The fingers are named, in succession, the thumb, the index, the middle, the ring, and the little finger. (Fig-l-) Observation. — The wonderful adaptation of the hand to all the me- chanical offices of life is one cause of man's superiority over the infe- rior animals. This arises from the size and strength of the thumbs and the different lengths of the fingers. y^ 25. The Joints are formed by the ends of bones, usually enlarged and variously united. Generally, one surface is somewhat convex or rounded and the other concave or cup- like, the two pai'ts being beautifully fitted to each ofher. All the Articulations or joints are distributed into three groups, the Immovable^ the Mixed and the Movable. The Immovable Joints have the ends of the bones placed near each other, without intervening cartilage ; as, the bones of the skull and some of the bones of the face. The Mixed Joints have the bones united by cartilage; as, the bones of the spinal column. The Movable Joints are the most perfect articulations. Name the bones of the Hand. How are the wrist-bones arranged ? Describe the bones of the palm of the hand. The finger-bones. How are Joints formed ? Name the groups of articulations. Describe a Movable Joint. Give examples. What are Mixed Joints? Give an example. What is said of Movable Joints? * Gr., metaj after or leyond, and karpos, wrist. 2» 18 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. The bones are covered with Cartilage^ and this surrounded by Synovial membrane. Outside of and connected with this membrane are the special ties, or Ligaments^ as the joints of the upper and lower extremities. (Fig. 11.) 26. Cartilage is a smooth, pearly-white substance. Upon the convex surface of the bones that form a joint, the cartilage is thickest in the centre, and that which covers the concave surface is thickest around the edges. (Fig. 10.) Fig. 10. Fig. 11. 1 Fig. 10. A Diagram of the Relative Position of tub Bone, Cartilage and SynoviaIi Membrane. — 1, 1, The extremities of two bones, to form a joint. 2, 2, Tlie cartilage that covers the end of the bone. 3, 3, 3, S, The synovial membrane, vi'hich covers the cartilage of both bones and is then doubled back from one to the other, represented by the dotted lines. Fig. 11. A Vertical Section op the Knee-joint. — 1, The femur. 3, The patella. 6, The tibia. 2, 4, Ligaments of the patella. 6, Cartilage of the tibia. 12, The cartilage of tho femur. * * * *, The synovial membrane. The Synovial Membrane is a thin, flexible skin that se- cretes a fluid called Synovia (joint-oil). It is the most perfect lubricating substance known. (Fig. 11.) The Ligaments are strong fibrous bands, more or less elas- tic, that bind together the joints. (Fig. 11.) 27. In all animals when very young the framework (Skel- eton) is cartilaginous or animal matter; soon the pieces of cartilage become charged with a mineral substance — lime — by which they are made firm and somewhat brittle. This stage of development forms the bony skeleton. Define Cartilage. What is the arrangement of Cartilage in joints? Describe Sjnovial Membrane. What is said of Synovia ? What are Ligaments ? What is said of the Skel- eton of young animals ? * Lat., ligo, I bind. THE BONES. 19 Fig Observation. — To show the lime without the animal matter, burn a bone in a clear fire, and it becomes white and brittle, the animal part having been consumed. To show the animal matter without the lime, immerse a slender bone for a few days in a weak acid (one part muriatic acid and six parts water), and it becomes flexible, the earthy matter having been removed. 28. The bones of the Skeleton vary in form. Some are long, others are short or broad. The long bones are hollow, or have an arched form com- pact upon the surface, and spongy within. This open texture increases toward the ends, which it entirely fills, ^excepting the very thin, hard wall. The hollow cavity is filled with a yellowish fat called Medul'la (marrow). The flat bones, as those of the skull, have an outside and an inside layer of bone, with an intervening spongy texture. The bones of the spinal col- umn and those of the wrist are less spongy than the ends of the thigh-bone, but less com- pact than the surface of the shaft. 29. The bones are covered with a dense membrane called Perios'teum.'^ This fibrous membrane invests the skull, and is called Peri' cranium. ^ Fia. 12. Longitudinal Section op thk Extremity op the Femur, exhibiting the arrangement of the spongy substance. — 1, 2, Positions in which the compact sub stance appears to resolve itself into a se- ries of arches. How can the existence of animal and earthy matter be proved ? Mention the different forms of bones. The structure of long bones. Of flat bones. The bones of the Sj iual Column. What is Periosteum? What is this membrane called when it covers tha ekull-bones ? * Lat., peri, around, and os^ a bone. 20 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. g 3. PiirsiOLOGY OF THE BoNES. — Adaptation of their Structure to their Uses. General Uses of the Bones. Skill as shown in the union of the Skull with the Spinal Column. The Uses of the Joints. Classification of the Joints. 30. The Bones determine generally the size of the body. They support all the soft parts, as the flesh and vessels, and likewise afford a firm surface for the attachment of the liga- FiG. 13. Fig. 14. Fig, 13. Thk Right Knee-Joint, laid open fro.a the front. — 1, Articular surface of the femur. 2, 3, Ligaments. 4, Insertion of one of these ligaments into the tibia. 6, 7, In- ternal and external cartilages. 8, Ligament of the patella. Fig. 14. Front View of the Right Knee-.]oint. — 1, Tendon of the extensor muscle. 2, Patella. 3, Ligament of the patella, or tendinous insertion of the muscle just men- tioned. 4, 4, Capsular ligament. 5, 6, Internal and external lateral ligaments. ments. In their adaptation to their several offices they ex- hibit a perfection of mechanism worthy the infinite mind of the Divine Architect. The use of the various bones is different. Some protect organs, as those of the skull and chest ; some for support, as the pelvis ; while others are used for motion, as those of the extremities and spinal column. The bones of the upper ex- tremities exceed all others or any instrument of art in the variety of motion and uses to which they can be put. The union of the spinal column with the skull exhibits one of the most ingenious contrivances to be met with in the body. Give the us'^s of the bones. What is said of the union of the Spinal Column with the Skull? THE BONES. 21 1st. It permits the backward and forward movement, as in bowing and nodding the head. 2d. The motion which is made in turning the head from side to side. This admlTable piece of mechanism affords great protection to the spinal cord at the top of the neck, this being, perhaps, the most vital portion of the whole body. Injury to it or pressure upon ifc is instantly fatal. Fig. 15. . Fig. 16. Fig. 15. Position when the feet are supported. Fig. 16. Position when a seat is too high. 31. The Joints. — The uses of the joints are to enable the body to sustain greater weight, to diminish the force of blows or shocks, to afford freedom of movement, to modify the di- rection in the action of muscular power. , 32. For simple union without movement, we find the Im- movable joint; for great strength and little movement, the Mixed joint ; and for full freedom of movement, the Movable joint. Of the movable joints for motion in one plane and two directions, we find the Hinge-joint, as the knee and elbow joints; and for free rotary motion, the Ball-and-Socket joint, as the hip and shoulder joints. (Figs. 1, 6, 13.) ■ ^ Enumerate the uses of the Joints. Statf the purposes of tlie dilTurent Ivinrls of Jcinta. 22 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. g 4. Hygiene of the Bones. — Effect of Exercise upon the Bones 0/ Children. Effect of Compression — Of Stooping. Treatment of Frac- tures — Of Sprains — Of Felons. 33. The health of the bones is promoted by regular exercise. The kind and amount of labor should be adapted to the age, health and development of the bones; neither the cartilaginoua bones of the child nor the brittle bones of the aged man are Fig. 17. Fig. 18. Fig. 17. A Deformed Thorax and Spinal Column. Fig. 18. A Chest Fashionablt Deformed. adapted to long-continued and severe exercise. While pro- tracted exercise in childhood is injurious, moderate and reg- ular labor favors a healthy development of the bones. 34. The lower extremities of the very young are not adapted to sustaining much weight; hence, to induce a child to walk, or to stand by chairs, while the bones of the lower limbs are imperfectly developed, is productive of serious injury; **bow" *egs are thus produced. The benches or chairs for children What is the influence of exercise on the health of the bones? To what are the lowM extremities of the very young not adapted? THE BOXES. 23 in a school-room should permit the feet to rest upon the floor, otherwise the weight of the limbs below the knee may cause the flexible bone of the thigh to become curved; the chairs should also have suitable backs, and the child be allowed frequent change of position. (Figs. 15, 16.) 35. Compression of the chest should be avoided. In youth the ribs are very flexible, and a small amount of pressure will increase their curvature, particularly at the lower part of the waist. By tight or *'snug" clothing the ribs are drawn down and the space between them lessened, so that in some instances the anterior extremities of the lower ribs are brought quite together ; hence, the apparel should be loose and sup- ported by the shoulders, both for children and adults. 36. An erect position both in sitting and standing should be carefully maintained. The spinal column naturally curves from front to back, but not from side to side. The admirable arrangement of the bones and cartilages permits a great vari- ety of motions and positions, the elasticity of the cartilages always tending to restore the spine to its natural position ; but if a stooping or a lateral curved posture be continued for a long time, the compressed edges of the cartilages lose their power of reaction, and finally one side becomes thinned, while the other is thickened. These wedge-shaped cartilages pro- duce permanent curvature of the spine, which is often at- tended with disease of the spinal cord. (Fig. 17.) Observation 1. — The student, seamstress and artisan frequently ac- quire a stooping position by inclining forward to bring their books or work nearer the eyes. The desk of the pupil is often higher than tlie tlbow as it hangs from the shoulder at rest; consequently, in drawing, writing and often in studying, one shoulder is elevated and the other depressed, distorting the spine. In tlie daily employments of life chil- dren should early be taught to use the left hand and shoulder more freely. Distortions of the chest necessarily accompany deformity of the spine, and disease of the heart and lungs follows, compared to which the loss of symmetry is a minor consideration. What is Raid of the height of benches and chairs? Why should compression of the chest lie avoided? Whj- should an erect position be maintained? IIow are distortion! produced ? 24 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 2. — EDiinent physicians both in this country and Europe state that, among the fashionably educated, not one female in ten escapes deform- ities of the shoulders and spinal column. The student, to prevent aa well as to cure slight curvatures of the spine, should walk with a book or a heavier weight upon the head. Porters and laborers of some coun- tries bear very great burdens upon their heads, and walk at a rapid pace with comparative ease. Such persons, in general, have erect forms. 3. — Fractured or diseased hones and ligaments shoidd receive special atte^i* iim. In fractured bones a surgeon's care is not only needed to adjas* {] e parts, but for several weeks to watch the reunion, that the limb may not be crooked or shortened. In sprains the ligaments are not usually lacerated, but strained and twisted, causing much pain, and afterward inflammation and weakness of the joints. To effect a cure there should be absolute rest for days, and perhaps weeks, using tepid bathing and prolonged moderate friction. More persons are crippled from ill-cared- for sprains than fractured bones. Persons enfeebled by disease, partic- ularly scrofula, cannot be too assiduous in adopting an early and proper treatment of injured joints, to prevent the affection called "white swelling." 4. — The disease called "Felon" is an inflammation that commences in or beneath the periosteum. It is attended with severe, throbbing pain, and the unyielding structure of the parts prevents much swelling. The only successful treatment of this painful affection is an early, free opening through the periosteum to the surface of the bone. The earlier the incision is made, the less the risk and the suffering. The same treatment must be adopted in inflammation of large bones. ^ 5. Comparative Anatomy (Osteology). Classification of Animals according to their structure. General Characteristics of Vertebrates and In- vertebrates. Classification of Vertebrates. Compare Bones of the Head of Vertebrates. The Vertebral Column— The Thorax — The Extremities. Characteristics of Annulosa — Mollusca — Radiaia — Protozoa. 37. In minute structure and chemical composition all ani- mals are essentially the same, but the different functions and habits require special conformations. 38. Animals may be separated into two divisions, Verte- bra' ta (Vertebrates) and Invertehra!ta (Invertebrates). These What statement by eminent physicians? What is the prevention and cure for slight »urvatures of the spine? Give observation respecting fractured bones. Sprains. Felons Hame the divisions of the Animal Kingdom. THE BONES. 25 are subdivided into five sub-kingdoms,* namely, Verifebrata (Back-bone), An'nulosa (Ring), Mollus'ca (Sac), Radia'ta (Star), and Protozo'a.'\ Fig. 19. Fig. 20. ♦ ... .... g I .^ Fia. 19. Diagram of a Transverse Section of a Vertebrate. — ^1, The walls. 2, The sligestive organs. 3, Circulatory organs. 4, The ganglia. 5, The spinal cord. 6, Spinal column. Fig. 20. Diagram of a Transverse Section of an Invertebrate. — 1, The walls. 2, The digestive organs. 3, The circulatory organs. 4, The ganglia. 39. If a Vertebrate is divided transversely, or cut in halves, two separate cavities are found; the upper cavity contains the main mass of the Nervous System (Brain and Spinal Cord). The lower cavity contains the Digestive and the Circulatory Systems. (Fig. 19.) If an Invertebrate is similarly divided, only one cavity is exhibited; this contains the Digestive and Circulatory Systems, with the Gan'glia (centres or enlargement of the nerves). (Fig. 20.) 40. The Ganglia of Vertebrates are placed on the upper (dorsal) side of the cavity, and the circulatory organs on the lower (ventral) side. In Invertebrates the Ganglia are found state the Sub-kingdoms. Give the distinctions of the two divisions. What are Gan- glia? Where are they found in Vertebrates? * The brief outlines of Zoology introduced in this work are arranged into two divisions, from Lamarck. Writers on Natural History, as Liu- iiseus, Cuvier, Edwards, Nicholson and others, have adopted different Bub-kingdoms numerically. I have chosen to arrange them into five tnib-kingdoms. t Gr., protos, first, and Zoon, an animal. 3 B 26 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. Oil the lower and the circulatory system on the upper side. (Figs. 19, 20.) 41. Vertebrates have an internal skeleton, generally com- posed of bones ; some few are cartilaginous. In vertebrates the spinal column is never absent. A distinctive character- istic of vertebrates is that the brain and spinal cord are shut Fig. 21. Fio. 21. Skeletox of the Cow. — 1, Frontal bone of the head. 2, Upper jaw (superior maxillary). 3, Lower jaw (inferior maxillary). 4, Cervical vertebrte. 6, Dorsal verte- brae. 6, Lumbar vertebrae. 7. Sacral vertebrae. 8, Caudal vertebrae. 9, Scapula. 10, Huiuerns. 11, Radius and ulna. 12, Carpus. 13, Metacarpus. 14, Phalanges (toes). 15, Femur. 16, Tibia. 17, Tarsus. 18, Metatarsus. 19, Phalanges. In this figure the Eame terms are used as for the corresponding bones in mau (seo Fig. 18). The common names vary. off from the general cavity of the body. In this sub-king- dom are classed Mam!mals, Birds, Bep'tiles, Amphib'ians and Fishes. Mammals include Man and all the ordinary quadrupeds. This class are characterized by having special glands that secrete milk, by which the young are nourished after birth. Birds are oviparous,* vertebrate animals, with a double circulation, and covered with feathers. In Invertebrates? Give a characteristic of Vertebrates. State the classes of this sub- kingdom. What animals ar« included in the class Mammals? Name the characteriM. t'cs of Birds. * Lat., ovum, egg, and pario, to produce. THE BONES. ' 27 Reptiles comprise a class of vertebrates with incomplete circulation, breathe air from birth, and are generally covered with scales or plates. Amphibians are so formed as to live on land, and for a long time under water. Their distinguishing characteristic is that they invariably undergo some kind of metamorphosis or change after birth. At first the general conformation of the body resembles fishes ; at this stage they breathe by gills ; subsequently they change form, and in their adult state pos- sess air-breathing lungs. The skin is generally naked. Fishes are oviparous, vertebrate animals, and breathe by gills. They differ in the form of the bodies, but the outline is simple. They are usually covered with scales. 42. The Bones of the Head of other Mammals resemble, in many points, those of man. In some quadrupeds, as the Horse and Cow, the frontal bone of the skull is in two pieces. In the Elephant the skull-bones unite in early life, and thus form but one bone. In the Hog the parietal bones of the skull are united in one bone, while the frontal bone has two pieces. The great majority of Mammals possess teeth, which vary and constitute most important characters for separating the orders of this sub-kingdom from each other. The structure of the jaw also varies. In those animals provided with tusks there are two small bones (Intermaxillary) between the two upper jaw-bones. In the Horse, Hog and Cow the lower jaw consists of one bone. (Fig. 21.) In Birds the bones of the head, in number and position, resemble Mammals, but they are early united, leaving no trace of the sutures. The upper jaw of the bird is so artic- ulated with the skull as to admit of motion independent of the lower jaw (which never occurs in mammals), and the lower jaw, instead of being articulated directly with the skull, is connected through the intermedium of a distinct bone called the Os Quadratum. (Fig. 22.) Of Reptiles. Of Amphibians. Of Fishes. What is said of the bones of the head in Mammals? Birds? 28 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. In Reptiles the head-bones are irregular in form, and greatly vary in number. In Fishes the bones of the head are numerous and irregular, and their study is a matter of much interest in «,cquiring a full knowledge of Natural History. (Fig. 24.) 43. The Vertebral Column of other 3fammals, with slight modifications, is like that of man. The number of cervical Fig. 22. Fig. 22. Skeleton of a Bird. — 1, The head. 2, Cerrical vertebrae. 3, Dorsal and lum- bar vertebrse. 4, Scapula. 5, Clavicle. 6, Coracoid bone. 7, Sternum. 8, Ilumeius. 9, Radius. 10, Ulna. 11, Carpus. 12, Metacarpus. 13, 13, Phalanges (fingers). 14, Fcmui-. 15, Tibia. 16, Fibula. 17, Tarsus. 18, Metatarsus. 19, Phalanges (toes). vertebrse is almost invariably seven ; the dorsal average thir- teen ; the lumbar or loins, from three to seven ; the sacral, usually four ; the caudal or tail, from four (the number of the coccyx in man) to forty-six. The length of any part of the column seems to depend not so much upon the number of Reptiles? Amphibians? Fishes? Compare the vertebral column of Slammala. THE BONES. 29 the vertebrae as upon their length; thus we find seven cer- vical vertebrae in the long-necked Giraffe and in the short- necked Mole. In Birds the flexibility of the neck enables any part of the body to be reached by the beak. This is owing to the ball- and-socket articulations and to the great number of cervical vertebrae, which in the swan are twenty-four. The dorsal vertebrae vary from seven to eleven, and are generally consol- idated into one, but in birds that do not fly they remain dis- tinct and movable. The last caudal vertebra has a large, strong process, shaped like the letter V, for the support of the large feathers, which act as a rudder in flight. lu Reptiles the vertebrae vary in number from some twenty- four to four hundred, as in the Python. In Amphibians the vertebrae may be hollow at both ends, or rounded in front and hollow behind. In Frogs the spinal column is short and the dorsal vertebrae are very long. In Fishes there are but two kinds of vertebrae, the dorsal and the caudal, and these vary in number from twenty to two hundred. The vertebral bodies present a conical, cup-like depression on each side, which contains a gelatinous fluid having the same use as the elastic cartilage between the ver- tebrae in Mammals. 44. The Sternum of Mammals is long and narrow in shape, flat and destitute of a keel or ridge. In Birds it is much extended, and forms the largest bones in their bodies. It has upon its anterior surface a ridge re- sembling the keel of a ship, for the support of the muscles of the chest used in flying. The size is proportioned to the powers of flight; hence in the little Humming-bird, which is on the wing most of the day, it reaches the maximum of de- velopment. Of the Reptiles, Serpents have no sternum ; but in Turtles it has an extraordinary development, and extends from the base of the neck to the commencement of the tail, forming What is said of it in Birds ? Reptiles ? Amphibians 1 Fishes ? Speak of the stern am •f Mammals. Birds. Eeptiles. 30 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. Fig. 23. the ventral or belly part of the shell-covering. Fishes have no sternum or breast-bone, properly so called. 45. The Ribs are much alike in Mammals, generally in twelve pairs; in the Horse, however, there are eighteen pairs. In Birds the cartilage that unites the rib to the sternum is bony, giving solidity to the chest. In some Reptiles, as Lizards and Crocodiles, the ribs are more numerous than in Mam- mals and Birds, and protect the abdomen as well as the chest. In the Turtle the ribs are ex- panded, forming the dorsal part of its shell, or the roof of its portable dwelling-house. In Ser- pents the lower or anterior ex- tremities of the ribs have no car- tilage ; they aid in progressive movement or crawling, as under the skin their ends can be placed on the ground like feet. Among Amphibians Frogs and Toads have no ribs. In Newts they are rudimentary. In some Fishes the ribs are wanting ; in others they are very complete, and surround the trunk; in still others they are connected with a chain of bones representing the sternum. 46. The Clavicle maintains the shoulders apart ; hence, in quadrupeds, where its presence would be a defect, it is wanting, as in the Horse and Cow. The clavicles of Birds are peculiar ; they unite at their an- terior extremity, forming a forked bone called fur'cula (wish- FiG. 23. Skeleton op a Tortoise. — 1, Cervical, 2, Dorsal, 3, Lumbar vertc- brie, 4, Scapula. 5, Clavicle. 6, Cor- acoid bone. 13, Humerus. 14, Ulna. 15, Kadius. 16, Carpus. 17, Pha- langes (fingers). 7, Femur. 8, Tibia, 9, Fibula. 10, Tarsus. 11, Metatarsus. 12, Phalanges (toes). Fishes. Describe the ribs in the different classes. Why not a clavicle in the ox? Describe the clavicle of Birds. THE BONES. 31 bone). In birds of powerful flight, as the Eagle, the clavicles are very strong; in others, as the domestic Turkey, they are weak. Connecting the scapula to the sternum is the cor'acoid bone, which is placed side by side with the furcuia, and is the main source of support to the wings in flight. In some Reptiles, as the Tortoise, both the clavicle and the coracoid bone are found, while in others, as Serpents, both are wanting. In Fishes the true clavicle is wanting, but in some species there is a modified form of the coracoid bone, free at its lower extremities, which may, perhaps, subserve the purpose of the clavicle of the higher animals. (Fig. 24.) Fig. 24. Fig. 24. The Skblkton of a Haddock 47. The Scapula is present in Mammals, Birds and most Reptiles and Fishes. In the Horse and Cow it is an essential bone. In Birds the scapula is long and narrow. Reptiles, Amphibians and Fishes have, in general, the scap- ula, but variously modified. 48. The Upper Extremities in Mammals are never want- ing. In animals that swim or burrow the humerus is short, thus enabling the fore limbs to be used with force; where swiftness is required, this bone is long and slender. When Reptiles. Fishes. Describe the scapula in Mammals. Speakof the upper extremities »f Mammals. 32 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. the hand is used for support instead of prehension or seizing, the radius loses its power of rotation on the ulna. The hand varies according as it is used for seizing food, swimming, flight or walking on ground more or less firm. The wrist is formed of two rows of bones ; the number varies from five to eleven. The Metacarpal bones vary ; in the Horse there is but one bone, called canon. The fingers are never more than five. The Cow has two. The middle finger is the most persistent, being the only one left in the H<^rse. Fig. 26. Fig. 25. Fig. 26. Diagram op an Annulosa. — 1, Haemal or vascular system. 2, BigestiTe orgaust 3, Ganglia. Fig. 26. Diagram of the External Structure op an Insect. — ^1, The head carrying the eyes and antennae. 2, First segment of the thorax with the first pair of legs. 3, The second segment of the thorax with the second pair of legs and the first pair of wings. 4, The third segment of the thorax with the third pair of legs and the second pair of wings, 5, Abdomen without legs. In the "Whale the upper extremities are converted into swim- ming paddles. In Birds the bones that form the limb proper or wing are modified to suit the special function of flight, but essentially the same parts are present as in the upper extremities of Quadrupeds. In Reptiles the fore limbs are generally wanting or rudi- mentary. 49. The Lower Extremities in Mammals are sometimes absent, as in Whales and Dolphins. In quadrupeds, as they Birds. Reptiles. Speak of the lower extremities in Mammals. THE BONES. 33 are used mainly for support and progression, they are less modified than the upper extremities. In Birds the femur is short and straight. The tibia is the chief or longest bone of the hind limb. The fibula is united to the tibia at various distances down the leg. The ankle- joint is placed in the middle of the Tarsus. In some Reptiles, as the Tortoise and Lizard, the limbs are composed of bones which in number, form, position and func- tions much resemble the corresponding ones in Mammals and Birds. In the Serpent tribe the limbs are wanting. Fig. 27. Fig. 28. Fig. 27. Diagram of a Mollusca. — 1, Alimentary canal. 2, Heart. 3, Cerebral gan- glion. 4, Pedal ganglion. 5, Ganglion of digestive organs and muscles. Fia. 28. A Species of Snail. — 1, A round mouth. In Amphibians the limbs are well developed. In Fishes the extremities are rudimentary, being represented by fins. 50. The Annulosa* are numerous, embracing animals having an external skeleton made up of segments or rings arranged along a longitudinal line, and consisting mostly of hardened skin. This sub-kingdom is separated into two di- visions, which include many classes and orders, and embrace Beetles, Weevils, Bees, Wasps, Butterflies, House-flies, Fleas, Millipedes, Centipedes, Spiders, Scorpions, Lobsters, Crabs, Worms, Leeches. (Figs. 25, 26.) 51. Mollusca f are mostly soft-bodied animals that are Birds. Reptiles. Amphibians. Fishes. Describe the sub-kingdom Annulosa. Th« Mollusca. ^ Lat., Annulus, a ring. f Lat., Mollis, soft. 34 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. Fig. 29. Fig. 29. Diagram of a Radiata. — The Star-fish. 1, Mouth. usually protected by an external skeleton or shell composed of the carbonate of lime. The Mollusca are separated into two divisions, each of which is divided into classes and or- ders, embracing the Nautilus, Cuttle-fishes, Snails, Limpits, Whelks, Mascles, Oysters, Scallops, Seamats, etc. (Figs. 27, 28.) 52. The Radiata embrace animals whose organization is much less complete than that of most other animals. 58. The Protozoa forms the lowest division of the animal kingdom. They are generally of very minute size, and are com- posed of a jelly-like substance. Most of them are only seen by the aid of the microscope. They abound in the air, are largely found in water, and are popularly called "animal- culse," or " parasites." Some few attain a large size, as the sponge. Observation 1. — The joints and limbs of domestic animals when in- jured or sprained should have immediate and absolute rest, particularly with the noble horse, if permanent lameness would be prevented. To allay inflammation, apply warm and even hot water, attended with rubbing or friction. If hot fomentations are not adequate after three weeks' trial, then apply a blister to the diseased part. 2. — The varied structure of the four lower sub-kingdoms of animals is replete with interest and instruction, but the necessarily limited space of this elementary school-book entirely precludes their consideration. Allow us to advise all, who can command the leisure, to extend this study to the beautiful and wonderful works of creation as seen in these parts of the garden of the Lord. The Badiata, The Protozoa. How should injured joints be treated? ObserratioD 2. THE BONES. 35 Fio. 30. Fio. 31. SYNTHETIC TOI>ICA3L. REVIE^V. OSSEOUS SYSTEM, HUMAN AND COMPARATIVE. Classes, SnlD-kingd.oms, Divisions. State the Anatomy, Physiology and Hygiene of the Osseous System, Human and Com- parative, from tableaux drawn on the blackboard or outline anatomical charts. CHAPTER III. THE MUSCLES. 54. All the great motions of the body are caused by the movement of some of the bones which form the framework of the body ; but these, independently of themselves, have not the power of motion, and only change their position through the action of other organs attached to them, which by con- tracting or shrinking draw the bones after them. In some of the slight movements, as the winking of the eye, no bones are displaced or moved. These moving, contracting organs are the Mus'eles (lean meat). Fig. 33. Fig. 34. I 2 3 4 Fig. 33. — 1, A Representation of the Direction and Arrangement of the Fibres in a spiudle-shaped muscle. 2, In a radiated muscle. 3, In a peniform muscle. 4, In a bi peniform muscle, t, t. The tendons of a muscle. Fig. 34. Development of Muscular Fibre from Cells. — a, Simple cell. 6, A pair of cells fused together, c, Three cells fused and their contents assuming the striated cha- racter, d, A muscular fibre exhibiting its original composition of cells. ^ 6. Anatomy of the Muscles. — Analysis of a 3fuscle. Sheath of a Muscle. Tendons. Number of Muscles. Classes of Muscles. The Muscular Current. 65. A Muscle is separable into bundles of fibres called Fas- dculi, each fasciculus into fibres, each of the fibres into a mul- How are all the great motions of the body produced ? Of what are muscles composed ' 36 THE MUSCLES. 37 Fig. 35. titiide of filaments or fibrillce (fibrils), and each filament into cells arranged longitudinally. 56. Every filament, each fibre, all the fasciculi, and every muscle is surrounded by a thin, tough membrane called Fascia (sheath). At the extremities of the mus- cle the sheaths that cover the smaller fibres and the membranous covering of the whole muscle unite and form a firm inelastic cord or band called Ten- don (sinew). (Figs. 35, 36.) 57. In some muscles the fibres run in straight lines, others spread like a fan, while others converge to one or both sides of a ten- don, running the whole length of a muscle, as the plume of a feather. A few muscles that enclose cavi- ties have the muscular fibre running in a circular direction. 58. Tendons vary in shape. Some are long and slender, others are short and thick, while some are thin and broad. They serve to fasten the muscles to the bones or to each other. Observation^ — The different parts of a muscle, the tendon, fascia and bundle of fibres, can be seen by examining a leg of beef. 59. In general, the muscles form about the bones two lay- ers, called the superficial, or external muscles, and the deep- seatedj or those nearest the bone. There are more than four hundred muscles in the human body. To these, and a yellow Fig. 35. A Transverse Section of the Neck. — The separate muscles, as tliey are arranged in layers, with their investing fascia. 12, The trachea. 13, The oesophagus. 14, Carotid ar- tery and jugular vein. 28, One of the bones of the spinal column. (The figures in the white space represent fascia ; other figures, muscles.) By what is each muscle surrounded ? Describe Tendon. Give the arrangement of the fibres in diffei-ent muscles. Give the different forms of Tendons. Observation. What names have been given to the layers of Muscles? 4 Sd ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. substance called fat, that surrounds and fills the spaces in the muscles, the child and youth are indebted for the roundness and beauty of their limbs. Muscles are classed as Voluntary or Involuntary. (Fig. 35.) 60. The Voluntary Muscles are those that act when we Will or wish to use them. They are striated^ or have beauti- ful parallel wavy lines, which run around the fibres in a cir- cular direction, as the muscles of the arm and foot. The Involuntary Muscles act independently of our wishes, and are not striated, or striped, as the heart. Some Fig. 36. 2 4 Fig. 3G. Diagram of the Third Kind op Lever. — 1, Hiimerns. 2, Ulna. 3, Biceps muscle. 4, Its attachment to the nlna. 5, Its attachment to the humerus. 6, Triceps muscle. 7, Its tendon. 8, The ball to be moved. 9, 10. 11, Direction of the ulna and ball when the biceps (3) muscle contracts. When the triceps (6) muscle contracts, the fore arm is extended. muscles are both voluntary and involuntary, as the muscles used in breathing ; they act with regularity when the atten- tion is withdrawn from them, but can be controlled somewhat by our wishes. This mixed muscular action is highly import- ant to the elocutionist and to the singer. 61. The chemical composition of muscles cannot be pre- cisely known, because of the difficulty of detaching the fibres from their membranes, blood-vessels and nerves blended with them. What is the use of fat among Muscles? IIow are Muscles classed? Describe Vol un- tarj' Muscles. Involuntary. Mixed Muscles. What is said of the chemical composition »f Muscles? THE MUSCLES. 39 62. In muscular action there is an increased activity in the blood-vessels in proportion to the amount of exercise per- formed, and also chemical changes by which heat is produced. The electrical current known as the "muscular ewTent," is probably a result of chemical action. In the entire muscle its path lies along the outside toward the tendons. The direc- tion of the total current of the body is from the head down- ward. Observation. — In friction, or rubbing the body with the hand, the di- rection of the current should be followed ; otherwise, irritation is pro- duced rather than the soothing influence desired. This direction is of special importance to nurses and watchers in caring for the sick, par- ticularly nervous patients. The eflect of friction is sometimes improved by moistening the inside of the hand. I 7. Physiology of the Muscles. — Belalive Uses of the Bones and Muscles. Characteristic Property of Musdes. Uses of Tendons. 63. To give a clear idea of the relative uses of the Muscles aiid Bones, we quote the comparison of another: "The Bones Fig. 37. 2 Fig. 37. Metacarpai, and Phala.ngeal Bones of the Fingers, with their Tendons and Ligaments. — 1, Metacarpal bone. 2, Tendon of the superficial flexor. 3, Tendon of the tieep flexor passing through a perforation (*) of the superficial flexor. are to the body what the masts and spars are to the ship — they give support and the power of resistance ; the Muscles are to the bones what ropes are to the masts and spars." 64. The characteristic property of the muscles is contractil- ity. Each fibre of the several muscles receives from the brain, through the nervous filament appropriated to it, a certain in- fluence called nervous fluid, or stimulus. It is this that in- duces contraction, while the suspension of this stimulus causes Name some of the changes attending muscular action. What is said of the muscular current? Observation. State the relative uses of Bones and Muscles. What is the cha- racteristic property of Muscles ? What induces contraction of Muscles ? 40 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. relaxation of the fibres. During contraction the muscle shortens in the direction of its length, and enlarges in the direction of its thickness. 65. Muscles remain contracted but a short time ; then they relax or lengthen, which is their rest. When the muscles are in a state of contraction they are full, hard, and more prominent than when relaxed. The muscles passing over to straighten a joint are usually called Extensors, because they serve to extend the part beyond the joint, while those lying in front of the joint are, for the opposite reason, called Flex- ors. (Figs. 38, 39.) Observation. — The alternate contraction and relaxation of the muscles may be shown by clasping the fore-arm about three inches below the elbow, then open and shut the fingers rapidly, and the swelling and relaxation of the muscles on the opposite sides of the arms, alternately with each other, will be felt corresponding with the movement of the fingers. While the fingers are bending, the inside muscles swell and the outside ones become flaccid, and while the fingers are extending, the inside muscles relax and the outside ones swell. The alternate swelling and relaxation of opposing muscles may be felt in all the movements of the limbs. 66. Tendons serve to convey the contractile power of muscles to the bones ; they are in themselves passive organs, possessing no contractility. In them the evidence of care and skillful arrangement is beautifully exhibited. Wherever muscular action is wanted and the presence of muscle would be inconvenient or mar the harmony of proportion, or where great strength is needed, there we find the small, dense, con- ducting tendons ; the slits in the short tendons of the second joint to allow the long tendons from the muscles of the fore- arm to pass through to the last bones of the fingers afibrd the best conceivable arrangement for compactness, delicacy, beauty and utility. (Fig. 37.) What the relaxation of muscular fibre? When are Muscles called Extensors? Flex- era? Observation. State the oflBce of Tendons. THE MUSCLES. 41 Fig. 3S. Fig. 39. Fig. 38. A Front View of the Sdpekficial Muscles of the Body. — 1, The frontal swells of the occipito-frontalis. 2, The orbicularis palpebrarum. 3, The levator labii superioria alteque nasi. 4, The zygomaticus major. 5, The zygomaticus minor. 6, The masseter. 7, The orbicularis oris. 8, The depressor labii inferioris. 9, The latysma myoides. 10, The deltoid. 11, The pectoralis major. 12, The latissimus dorsi. 13, The serratus major anticus. 14, The biceps flexor cubiti. 15, The triceps extensor cubiti. 16, The supi- nator radii longus. 17, The pronator radii teres. 18, The extensor carpi i-adialis longior. 19, The extensor ossis metacarpi pollicis. 20, The annular ligament. 21, The palmar fascia. 22, The obliquus externus abdominis. 26, The psoas magnus. 27, The abductor longus. 28, The sartorius. 29, The rectus femoris. 30, The vastus externus. 31, The Name the Muscles from Figs. 38 and 39. 4 ^ 42 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. rasliis internus. 32, The tendo patellie. 33, The gastrocnemius. 34, The tibialis anti* ••us. 35, The tibia. 36, The tendons of the extensor communis. Fig. 39. A Back View of the Superficial Muscles op the Body. — 1, The temporalis. 2, The occipi to frontalis. 3, The complexus. 4, The splenius. 5, The masseter. 6, The Bterno-cleido mastoideus. 7, The trapezius. 8, The deltoid. 9, The infra spinatus. 10, The triceps extensor. 11, The teres minor. 12, The teres major. 13, The tendinous portion of the triceps. 14, The anterior edge of the triceps. 15, The supinator radii longus. 16, The pronator radii teres. 17, The extensor communis digitorum. 18, The extensor ossis metacarpi pollicis. 19, The extensor communis digitorum tendons. 29, The olecranon and insertion of the triceps. 21, The extensor carpi ulnaris. 22. Tlie auricularis. 23, The extensor communis. 24, The latissimus dorsi. 25, Its tendinoua origin. 26, The obliquus externus. 27, The gluteus medius. 28. The gluteus magnus. 29, The biceps flexor cruris. 30, ^fhe semi-tendinosus. 31, 32, The gastrocnemius. 33, The tendo-Achilles. Practical Explanation. — The muscle 1, Fig. 38, by its contraction, raises tho eyebrows. Tlie muscle 2, Fig. 38, closes the eyelids. The muscle 3, Fig. 38, elevates the upper lip. The muscles t, 5, Fig. 38, elevate the angles of the mouth. The muscles 6, l^ig. 38, and 5, Fig. 39, bring the teeth together. The muscle 7, Fig. 38, closes the mouth. The mus- cle 8, Fig. 38, depresses the lower lip. The muscles 9, Fig. 38, and 6, Fig. 39, bend the neck forward. The muscles 3, 4, Fig. 39, elevate the head and chin. The muscle 22, Fig. 38, bends the body forward and draws the ribs downward. The muscle 11, Fig. 38, brings the shoulder fi)rward. The muscle 7, Fig. 39, draws the shoulder back. The mus- cles 10, Fig. 38, and 8, Fig. 39, elevate the arm. The muscles 11, Fig. 38, and 24, Fig. 39, bring the arm to the side. The muscle 14, Fig. 38, bends the arm at the elbow. The muscle 10, Fig. 39, extends the arm at the elbow. The muscles 16, 18, Fig. 38, bend the wrist and fingers. The muscle 19 bends the fingfers. The muscles 18, 21, 23, Fig. 39, extend the wrist. The muscle 23, Fig. 39, extends the fingers. The muscles 26, 27, 28, Fig. 39, bend tlie lower limbs on the body at the hip. The muscle 28, Fig. 38, draws one leg over the other (the position of a tailor when sewing). The muscles 27, 28, Fig. 38, extend the lower limbs of the body at the hip. The muscles 29, 30, 31, Fig, 38, extend the leg at the knee. The muscles 29, 30, Fig. 39, bend the leg at the knee. The mus- cles 34, 36, Fig. 38, bend the foot at the ankle and extend the toes. The muscles 31, 32, 33, Fig. 39, extend the foot at the ankle. ^^ 8. Hygiene of the Muscles. — An Essential Muscular Law. Im-* portance of using Muscles in Pure Air — In Light. Of Exercise. Con- ditions to be observed, in Muscular Exercise. Education of Muscles. Proper Muscular Tension. 67. The muscles should he abundantly supplied with pure blood is the first and essential law. A pure state of the blood requires that the digestive apparatus should be in a healthy condition ; that the vital organs should have ample volume ; that the lungs should be plentifully supplied with pure air ; that the skin should be kept warm by proper clothing and clean by bathing, and that it should be acted upon by air and sunlight. Give the practical explanation of Figs. 38, 39. What is essential in possessing healthy muscles J THE MUSCLES. 43 68. The muscles sJiould he used in pure air. The purer the air we breathe, the longer can the muscles be used in labor, walking or sitting, without fatigue and injury; hence the benefit derived in thoroughly ventilating all inhabited rooms. Observation. — It is a common remark that sick persons will sit up longer when riding in a carriage than in an easy chair in the room where they have lain sick. In the one instance they breathe pure air; iu the other, usually, a confined, impure air. 69. The muscles should he exercised in the light. Light, particularly that of the sun, exercises as great an influence on man as it does on plants. Both require the stimulus of this agent. Students should take their exercise during the day rather than in the evening, and the farmer and the me- chanic should avoid night toil, as it is much more exhausting than the same effort during daylight. Illustration. — Plants that grow in the shade are of lighter color and more feeble than those that are exposed to sunlight. Persons that dwell in dark rooms are paler and less vigorous than those who inhabit apartments well lighted and exposed to solar light. 70. The muscles should he used and then rested. When the muscles are exercised, the flow of blood in the arteries and veins is increased, hence the muscular fibre increases in size and acts with greater force ; while, on the contrary, the mus- cle that is little used receives little nutriment from the slug- gish blood, and decreases in size and power. Illustration. — The muscles of the blacksmith increase in size and be- come firm and hard ; those of the student, if not used in gymnastics or otherwise, decrease in size and become soft and less firm. 71. Exercise should he regular and frequent. The system needs this means of invigoration as regularly as it does new supplies of food. It is no more correct that we devote several days to a proper action of the muscles and then spend one day inactively, than it is to take a proper amount of food for several days and then for a season withdraw this supply. 72. Every part of the muscidar system should have its appro- priate share of exercise. Some employments call into exercise Why should we work in pure air? In light? How does exercise promote the health of muscles? Illustration. 44 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. the muscles of the upper limbs, as shoemakiug ; others the muscles of the lower limbs ; while some the muscles of both upper and lower limbs, with those of the trunk, as farming. Fig. 40. Fig. 41. Fia. 40. — 1, A perpendicular line from the centre of the feet to the upper extremity of the spinal column where the head rests. 2, 2, 2, The spinal column with its threo natural curves. Here the head and body are balanced upon the spinal column and joints of the lower extremities, so that the muscles are not kept in a state of tension. This erect position of the body and head is always accompanied with straight lower limbs. Fig. 41. — 1, A perpendicular line from the centre of the feet. 2, Represents the un- natural curved spinal column and its relative position to the perpendicular (1). The lower limbs are seen curved at the knee, and the body is stooping forward. While standing in this position the muscles of the lower limbs and back are in continued teu- si on, which exhausts and weakens them. Those trades and kinds of exercise are most salutary in which all the muscles have their due proportion of action, as this tends to develop and strengthen them equally. What kind of exercise is most salutary to muscular action 7 THE MUSCLES. 45 73. The proper time for exercise should he observed. As a general rule, the morning is a better time for exercise than the evening ; the powers of the system are greatest at that time. Severe exercise should be avoided immediately before or after a meal ; the vigor of the system is then required for the digestive functions. The same rule should be observed regarding mental toil, as the powers of the system are then concentrated upon the brain. 74. The erect attitude lessens the exhaustion of the muscles. A person will stand longer, walk farther and do more work when erect than in a stooping posture, because the muscles of the back, in stooping, are in a state of tension, or stretch- ing, to keep the head and trunk from falling forward. In the erect position the head and trunk are nicely balanced and supported by the bones of the spinal column, and the muscles of the back are called but slightly into action. Observation. — The attitude of children in standing has been much neglected both by parents and teachers. Let a child acquire the habit of inclining his head and shoulders, and the chest will become con- tracted, the muscles of the back enfeebled, and the deformity thus ac- quired will progress to advanced age. 75. Muscles should he rested gradually when they have been vigorously used. If a person has been making great muscular exertion, instead of sitting down to rest, he should continue muscular action by some moderate labor or amusement. Observation 1. — When the skin is covered with perspiration (sweat) from muscular action, avoid sitting down " to cool " in a current of air; rather put on more clothing and continue to exercise moderately. 2. — In cases when severe action of the muscles has been endured, bathing and rubbing the skin over the joints that have been used are of much importance. This will prevent soreness of the muscles and stijShess of the joints. 76. A slight relaxation of the muscles tends to prevent their exhaustion. In walking, dancing and learning to write there will be less fatigue and the movements will be more graceful state the proper time for exercise. Why do the Muscles require erect position of the body ? What attention should be given to children and youth ? Give the treatment and illnstrations of Muscles that have been vigorously used. 46 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. when the muscles are slightly relaxed than when rigidly con- tracted. The same principle applies to most of the mechan- ical employments. Observation 1. — When riding in cars and coaches the system will not suffer so severely from the jar if the muscles are slightly relaxed. Wlien riding over uneven places in roads, rising slightly upon the feet diminishes the shock occasioned by the sudden motion of the carriage. The muscles, under such circumstances, are to the body what elastic springs are to a carriage. 2. — In jumping or falling from a carriage or any height the shock to the organs of the body may be obviated in the three following ways : Fig. 42. Fig. 42. Superficial Mdscles of a Cow.— 1, Occipito-Frontiilis. 2, Orbicularis Palps©- brarum. 3, Masseter. 5, Sterno-cleido-Mastoid. 6, Trapezius. 7, Latissinaus Dorsi. 8, Pectoralis. 9, 10, External and Internal oblique muscle. 11, Opening of the mammary artery and vein (milk-veins). 12, Glutei!. 13, Rectus Femoris muscle. 1st. Let the muscles be relaxed, not rigid. 2d. Let the limbs be bent at the ankle, knee and hips ; the head should be thrown slightly forward, with the trunk a little stooping. 3d. Fall upon the toes, not the heel. 77. Repetition of muscular action is necessary. To render the action of the muscles complete and effective they must be called into action repeatedly and at proper intervals. This education must be continued until not only each muscle, but every fibre of the muscle, is fully under the control of the Will. In this way persons become expert penmen, singers, and skill- ful in every employment. Observation. — It is exceedingly important that correct movements be insisted upon at the commencement of any muscular training, as it is very ^ ^" ■ ■ ■ — — -— — ■ 1 Why should muscular action be repeated ? Observation. THE MUSCLES. 47 difficult to change a movement which has been long practiced. If a child holds his pen improperly during his early lessons, he will probably never become an easy and elegant writer. 78. The date of the mind affects muscular contraction. A person who is cheerful and happy will do more work and with less fa- tigue than one who is peevish and discontented. Illustration. — A sportsman will pur- sue his game miles without fatigue, while his attendant, not having any mental stimulus, will become weary. 79. Relaxation must follow con- traction, or rest must follow exer- cise. Exercise too long contin- ued produces exhaustion, and in the exercise of exhausted muscle the loss of material exceeds the deposit; also lon^'^-continued ten- sion enfeebles, and at length de- stroys, the contractile property. Illustration. — The effect of over- work may be seen in the attenuated frames of over-tasked domestic animals, as the horse, or in the diminished weight of the farmer after the hurry of harvest- time. The effect of continued tension is seen in the restlessness of children at school after sitting for a time in one position. The necessity of frequent re- cesses is founded upon the organic law that relaxation of muscle must follow contraction. The younger and feebler the pupils the greater is this necessity. 80. Change of employment often Fig. 43. Fig. 43. Superficial Muscles op a Hawk. — 1, Occipito-Frontalis. 2, Or- bicularis Palpaebrarum. 3, Temporal. 4, Masseter. 5, Sterno-cleido-Mas- toid. 6, Trapezius. 7, Latissimua Dorsi. 8, Pectoralis. 9, Deltoid. 10, Biceps. 11, Triceps. 12, Gluteii. 13, Levator Caudae. 14, Rectus Femoris. 15, Gastrocnemius muscle. affords the required rest, as State the effect of the mind on muscular contraction. The relation tetween relaxa- tion and contraction c f muscles. lUustratiou. What effect has change cf employment? 48 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. it brings into action a new set of muscles ; hence, the person of sedentary occupation is rested by general muscular exer- cise, while the person of active occupation is rested by that of a sedentary character. Illustration. — The needlewoman exhausts the muscles of the back and arm ; a brisk walk or some active household employment affords rest. ^ § 9. Comparative Myq-logy.— Compare Muscles of other Mammals with those of Man. Muscles of Birds— Of Reptiles— Of Fishes. 81. In all Mammals the Muscles in their general plan re- semble those of Man, the modifications in number, form, po- ' Fig. 44. Fig. 44. Muscles of the Fish. — a, b, c, and 1, 2, 3, The zigzag arrangement of the flakes. sition and relative size being only such as adapt them to the habits and necessities of the particular species. The color of the muscle is deepest in the Carnivora (flesh-eaters), and palest in the Rodentia (gnawers). 82. In Birds the muscular system is remarkable for the distinctness and density of their fibres, for the deep-red color of those employed in vigorous action and their marked line of attachment to their tendons, which are of a pearly- white color and have a peculiar tendency to become bone. What is Baid of the muscles of Mammals? Of their color ? For what is the muecular system of Birds remarkable ? THE MUSCLES. 49 83. In Reptiles the muscles are pale in color, and the fibres are tenacious of their contractility ; the energy of their con- traction in some instances and on some occasions is great, but it cannot be continuously exercised. The muscles of the trunk reach the highest development in Serpents and the lowest in the Tortoise. 84. In Fishes the muscular tissue is usually colorless; sometimes it is opaline or yellowish, but it is white when boiled. The chief masses of the muscular system are dis- posed on each side of the trunk in a series of plates or flakes corresponding in number to the vertebrae. Each flake is arranged in a zigzag manner. Observation 1. — In a very large portion of the four lower sub-king- doms of animals (composing the Invertebrates) the muscles are so mi- nute that they cannot be so well demonstrated, yet it is probably true that in structure and in varied use they may be as complete and won- derful as those of the Vertebrates. 2. — Among all domestic animals, as the horse, ox and fowl, the same hygienic laws relative to protection, food, air, light and exercise are equally applicable as to man. Speak of the muscles of Reptiles. Speak of the muscles in Fishes. What is said of the D'lnuteness of the muscles in some animals? What of the application of hygienic laws? SYNTHETIC TOFIC^L RE3VIETV. MUSCULAR SYSTEM, HUMAN AND COMPARATIVE. Classes, Sub-kin gdoms, DiArisions, A-natomy, P»h.3rsi- olo^y aix