MASTER NEGATIVE NO. 95-82388- 1 COPYRIGHT STATEMENT The copyright law of the United States (Title 17, United States Code) governs the making of photocopies or other reproductions of copyrighted materials including foreign works under certain conditions. In addition, the United States extends protection to foreign works by means of various international conventions, bilateral agreements, and proclamations. Under certain conditions specified in the law, libraries and archives are authorized to furnish a photocopy or other reproduction. One of these specified conditions is that the photocopy or reproduction is not to be "used for any purpose other than private study, scholarship, or research." If a user makes a request for, or later uses, a photocopy or reproduction for purposes in excess of "fair use," that user may be liable for copyright infringement. The Columbia University Libraries reserve the right to refuse to accept a copying order if, in its judgement, fulfillment of the order would involve violation of the copyright law. Author: U.S. Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce Title: The men's factory-made clothing industry Place: Washington, D.C. Date: 1916 MASTER NEGATIVE # COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY LIBRARIES PRESERVATION DIVISION BIBLIOGRAPHIC MICROFORM TARGET ORIGINAL MATERIAL AS FILMED - EXISTING BIBLIOGRAPHIC RECORD U, i^. Bureau of forei^^n" and donestic comnorce. • •• The ncn's facf.orv-np.do clotMnr industry, Rey^ort on the cent of production of non^s factory TTxdo clothing \x\ the United Staton, Washington, Govt, print, off., l"ir>. 300 . incl. t'blon. plates.^ 25 en. (Vds- collanoour norios, no. 34) At head of title: Dopt. of coTanorco. Bureau of foroi^3n za-\i\ donestic conncrco. E. T. !^ratt, chief* RESTRICTIONS ON USE: TECHNICAL MICROFORM DATA FILM SIZE: J^ /nr^o REDUCTION RATIO: I'T.yL IMAGE PLACEMENT: lA ^2 IB IIB DATE FILMED '■-tUdm- INITIALS: i^^J TRACKING # : A75i^ O^tZt FILMED BY PRESERVATION RESOURCES, BETHLEHEM. PA. <^ 3 3 ftt cr o > IS M c/) ^-< OOM O 3 3 > o m CD O ^ O O C/) N X ISI ^: > > ^: > ■?■: ■5.: V a'' >/.'^^^> o o 3 3 o 3 3 o o 3 3 \&> ^o ^ O bo o 00 mmi s 1.0 mm 1.5 mm 2.0 mm *BC0fFGHIJKLMNOP><^nopQrstvivwi>y7 1 ?34567890 ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyzl234567890 ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz 12345678^0 2.5 mm ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz 1234567890 L^ ^^ V rX^ ^O i fp ^s. o o 397-L I TJ 2i 0(0 ; m O m ^--^^^ '^.A. 1— » ro Ol o 3 3 3 3 Is Is •< JO OOM VO o Is S •< ^ ChX 00 Nl o DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE BUREAU OF FOREIGN AND DOMESTIC COMMERCE. B. E. PRATT, Chief MISCELLANEOUS SERIES-No. 34 THE MEN'S FACTORY-MADE CLOTHING INDUSTRY OBRAHY REPORT ON THE COST OF PRODUCTION OF ADEN'S factory-ma: C CLOTHING IN THE UNITED STATES WASHINGTON OOVBKNMENT PKINTINO OFFICS a>'360 tfidtnnlita (Bnttien(ft|> LIBRARY School of Business i' .1 !• m V ■^ 0r DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE BUREAU OF FOREIGN AND DOMESTIC COMMERCE E. E. PRATT, Chief MISCELLANEOUS SERIES— No. 34 THE MEN'S FACTORY-MADE CLOTHING INDUSTRY REPORT ON THE COST OF PRODUCTION OF MEN'S FAQORY-MADE CLOTHING IN THE UNITED STATES WASHINGTON GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 1916 I CONTENTS ADDITIONAL COPIES OF THIS PXJBUCATION MAT BE PBOCUBKD VftOM THB SUPERINTENDENT Ot DOCUMKNTS OOYEBNMENT PRINTmO OmCS WAamNQTON, O. C. ▲T 45 CENTS PER COPY V (8 ajmmju/> \ 3 GO u n 2 3 \ Letter of submittal ^ Introduction ® History of the clothing trade ^ The industry during the Civil War 10 Development after the war H Effect of immigration 12 Introduction of task system 12 Insanitary shop conditions 13 Introduction of subdivision of labor 15 Immigration of tailors 15 Introduction of the large inside shop 18 Tailor-to-the-trade houses 19 Decline of the separate trousers businefls 19 Decline of the jobbing business 20 The last important strike 21 Growth of tie industry 21 Scope and method of investigation 23 Summary ^9 Capital, net sales, and turnover 39 Cost and profit, by establishments 41 Cost and profit, by specified units 42 Selling methods 43 Earnings of employees - 44 Imports - ^ Exports 45 Chapter I.— Capital, net sales, and turnover 47 Manufacturing and final profit 47 Percentages of profit on capital and net sales 48 Turnover of capital 49 Profits earned by large and small establishments 50 Chapter II.— Cost and profit by establishments 52 Cost and profit based on net sales 52 Percentages of specified items of cost 56 Percentages of cost and profit, by establishments 56 Profit not dependent on labor cost 64 Cost based on manufacturing and selling expense 64 Manufacturing and selling cost, by establishments 70 Total direct and indirect labor 83 Sales and profits in previous years 85 Chapter III.— Cost and profit by specified units 87 Cost and profit of units sold to retailers 87 Description of units 95 Units sold at a profit and at a loss 106 Cost and profit by grades of garments 107 Cost of materials in units 109 Proportionate cost of various materials 124 Cost of direct labor in unit '^^ 8 % \ 4 CONTENTS. Chapter III.— Cost and profit by epecified units— Continued. Page. Unit cost, including depreciation and interest 138 Cost affected by increased prices of wool 141 Chapter IV.— Manufacturing conditions 146 Principal manufacturing centers 145 Advantj^s of the different centers as to labor 145 Advantages of the principal centers as to market ^ 146 Large and small factories 147 Changes in manufacturing and trade conditions 149 Proportionate value of cloth 149 Importance of styles 151 Manufacturing for orders 151 Mail-order houses and tailors-to-the-trade 152 Specialization 1^2 Manufacturing clothing no longer a staple business 153 Contract shops ^^ Home work 1^^ The efficient clothing factory 160 The factory and its management 160 The wage and task systems 167 The service department 171 Model clothing-factory buildings 176 Improvements in factory construction 176 Inefficient methods of manufacturing 179 Improperly laid out plants 180 Handwork and machine work 180 Shrinking cloth 182 Inventories 1^2 The cutting room 183 Routing 184 Training of help and method of work 186 The office 188 Chapter V.— Working conditions 189 Changes in labor conditions 189 Piecework and time-work ' 1^ Earnings and hours of labor 192 Chapter VI.— Cost-finding and accounting conditions 219 Simplified cost accounting 220 The quantity method 221 The direct-labor method . . '. 222 The prime-cost mcthol 222 The dual method 223 Accounting conditions 226 True costs and how to figure them 229 Chapter VII.— Selling conditions 234 Selling expenses 234 Selling methods 239 Trade abuses 246 Chapter VIII.— Machinery and processes 252 Machinery for making clothing 252 Treatment and preparation of cloth Manufacturing processt^s Coat processes Vest processes Pants processes — - . 261 264 266 270 272 w^-v CONTENTS. %5^ ^ Pag«. 274 274 277 283 286 Chapter IX.— Foreign trade Imports E xports Imports into other countries Suggestions for increasing foreign trade Reports from American consuls... ^^ British Columbia British Honduras China Colombia Coeta Rica Cuba England Germany Guatemala India Mexico Norway Nova Scotia Scotland South Africa Spain Turkey Chapter X.— Glossary ILLUSTRATIONS. (FoUowing p. 300.) Fig. 287 287 288 288 289 289 290 290 292 294 294 295 295 296 296 296 297 298 Fig. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18 Rotary or circular cutting machine. Straight-knife or reciprocating cutting machine. Machine for seaming trousers and other garments. Seam-closing machine. Left forequarter of a coat made on a seam-closing machine. Serging machine. Work done on serging machine. Machine for serging trousers and other garments. Canvas-front making machine. Work done on canvas-front making machine. Two-row stitching machine. Work done on two-row stitching ma- chine. Sleeve-inserting machine. Top of sleeve gathered on gathering machine. Buttonhole machine. Work done on buttonhole machine. Belt loops tacked to trousers by ma- chine. Machine for folding and stitching belt loops. 19. Machine for folding and stitching con- cealed-stitch belt loops. 20. Button-sewing machine. 21. Buttons sewed on by machine. 22. Pocket-making machine. 23. Pocket closed on pocket-making ma- chine. 24. Machine for seaming pockets. 25. Work done on back-pocket-making machine. 26. Machine for seaming outside seam on trousers. Machine for stitching curtains and waistband canvas to French-waist trousers in one operation. Lap-seam felling machine. Pants-flies machine. 30. Fly buttonholes made by machine. 31. Binding machine. 32. Coat front. 33. Undercollar. 34. Coat before it is lined. 35. Front of coat. 36. Inside of coat. 37. Back of coat. 38. Shipping room. 27. 28. 29. tf :v LETTER OF SUBMITTAL. "^ 1. Department of Commerce, Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce, WasJiington, January 5, 1916. Sir: I beg to submit herewith a report on the cost of production of men's ready-made clothing, which is the fifth of a series of reports issued by the Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce regarding the cost of production in different branches of the clothing industry. This investigation was conducted in accordance with the act of Congress approved August 23, 1912. In addition to the cost of pro- duction, the report contains information concerning imports and exports, working conditions, factory equipment, seUmg methods, and other trade conditions of interest m connection with the men's clothing industry, and some practical suggestions with regard to effi- cient factory management based on interviews with manufacturers and on the personal observations of the special agents. According to the Census of Manufactures, the value of men's cloth- ing produced in the United States was $208,960,136 in 1899 and $485,677,493 in 1909, an increase of over 75 per cent. Under the head of men's clothing the Census Bureau includes boys' clothing and such outer garments as overalls, market frocks, butchers' aprons, uniforms, bathing suits, knee pants, and gymnasium and sporting clothing. Of the value of product for 1909, the value returned by regular factories was $439,860,259, the remaining amount, $45,817,234, which is mostiy a duphcation, being the product of the contract shops. The manufacture of ready-made clothing is developed to a far greater extent in the United States than in any other country. The imports of men's clothing into the United States are negligible. The total value of woolen wearing apparel imported for consumption during the fiscal year ended June 30, 1914, not including gloves, hats, hosiery, and knit goods, was $1,633,700. The imports con- sist ahnost entirely of novelty garments, such as overcoats, and golfing and motoring clothes. The computed ad valorem rate of duty on wearmg apparel, composed wholly or in part of wool, varied from 73.10 to 78.49 per cent during the fiscal years 1898 to 1909, and from 74.14 to 77.09 per cent during the fiscal years 1909 to 1913. By the tariff act of 1913 the rate was reduced to 35 per cent ad valorem. The exports of clothing, while very small compared with the domestic 7 . 4'^' . mmmm 1 i 8 LETTER OF SUBMITTAL. production, are larger than the imports. During the fiscal year 1914 the exports of woolen wearing apparel of all kinds amounted to $2,148,235. Most of these exports went to North American countries, principally Canada and Mexico. In the investigation of the cost of production of men's clothing, reports were secured from 64 establishments, located in eight clothing- manufacturing centers — ^New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore, Roch- ester, Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago, and Milwaukee. Some of these establishments were large and some small, but all were fairly repre- sentative of the industry. Their sales of men's clothing during their last business period, usually a year, amounted to $66,947,954. The census figures for 1909, which are the latest available, show that the total production of men's clothing in that year amounted to $485,677,493 in value. The census classification, however, in- cluded many articles of manufacture which are not produced by the establishments covered by this investigation, as is shown on page 21. The concrete results of the investigation appear in the summary of this report, while the detailed information is given in the various chapters. The general conduct of the field work of the investigation has been under the direction of Walter B. Palmer, a special agent of the Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce. In the field work and in the preparation of the report he was assisted by Special Agents David M. Barclay, Joseph Broido, Harry Gell, Thomas Mills, Stanley D. Win- derman, and Charles F. Yaudi. The general direction of the ofi&ce work and the editing of the report have been in charge of Gustavus A. Weber, expert in charge of the cost of production division, assisted by Henry J. Bierman. E. E. Pratt, Chief of Bureau, To Hon. William C. Redfield, Secretary of Commerce* tt V ^.J' ^ THE MEN'S FACTORY-MADE CLOTHING INDUSTRY. INTEODUCTION. mSTOBY OF THE CLOTHING TBADE. • The ready-made clothing industry developed from a need for clothing that coidd be dehvered inmiediately and that could be pur- chased at lower prices than were charged by custom tailors. The industrial revolution and the early establishment of the factory sys- tem in Europe, while the great bulk of the American population was still following agricultural pursuits, created the necessity for coarse work clothes in Europe, which did not exist until later in the United States. Ready-made clothing was unknown in this country before 1825 and its manufacture in factories did not begin until a much later date. Before ready-made clothing was introduced, clothing was made in the home or by a custom tailor, often an itinerant. The cloth was sometimes woven in the home and sometimes purchased. The manufacture of ready-made clothing was probably an out- growth of the secondhand clothing business, which originally supplied me demand for cheap clothing. Keadv-made clothingwas first made up to supply the wants of hurriedly departing New England sailors and of tne Negroes on the plantations, and was probably first pro- duced in New Bedford, and then in Boston and New York. The first systematic attempt to manufacture ready-made clothing in the United States began early in the thirties, and the clothing then produced was of the coarsest materials and workmanship. About 1831 George Opdyke, once mayor of New York, began the manufacture of ready- made clothing in Hudson Street." Some large firms which exist to-day had their beginning and were well estabhshed before the Civil War. The South and the West were the chief consumers of the early coarse ready-made clothing, the consumers being the sailors, plantation negroes, and miners. In these pioneer days the manu- facturer was a retailer also; as there was no retail outlet for his merchandise, the manufacturer had to estabhsh his own retail stores to dispose of his product. Up to the time of the Civil War, the amount of ready-made clothing was not extensive. What little manufacturing was done was in the large coast cities of the East, Boston and New York particularly. Here only, because of nearness to the woolen markets and because of the comparatively large labor supply, was such manufacturing possible. The sewing was all done by hand. The secondhand clothing business had established markets and trade customs that were taken over by the ready-made clothing • The Clothingand Famishing Trade, by William C. Browning, in One Hundred Years of American Commerce, Vol. U, p. 561. 9 i^ i 10 men's factoey-made clothing industry. If manufacturers. Many custom tailors were impressed into the new business as the latter increased, and from them the manufacturers acquired technique. About 1850 the sewing machine, invented in 1846, was put on the market. The machine at first was cumbersome and slow and was usualhr run by foot power. Moreover, the stitch first used very often ripped. About this time the woolen mills had begun to mandractiu'e raw materials cheaply, and they started to manuiacture material for the clothing trade. The invention of the lock stitch and the avail- ability of cheap raw materials greatly increased production. In 1859 there were 4,014 establishments, employing 114,800 wage eamers,^ the principal centers being New York, Boston, Philadelphia, Balti- more, Jlocnester, and Cincmnati. St. Louis became the cnief distrib- utor for the West and New Orleans for the South. In 1860 there were no factories, as we understand the term. Ready-made garments were cut by the manufacturer. The cheapest trades were sent to the country surrounding the principal centers to e made up by the farmers' women folks during the winter months or in any spare time. The better gjrades were sewed by city workers in their nomes, or by custom-tailor employees in the back of the custom shops during the slow seasons. The entire garment was usuallv made by one worker. By some German taUors the work was roughly divided into machine sewing, basting, and finishing, the women of the tailors' family assisting them. THE INDUSTBY DUBINO THE CIVIL WAR. When the Civil War broke out, though a large amount of clothing was bought in Prague and Vienna,* owing to the inabihtv of American manufacturers to meet the sudden demand, and thougn the Govern- ment manufactured some uniforms from purchased cloth, large quantities of uniforms for the armies were oought from American manufacturers. One manufacturer alone received an order for $1,250,000 worth.* The sudden demand for uniforms created an industry devoted to ready-made clothing. The ready-made cloth- ing manufacturers, cut off from their chief market, the South, looked to the Govemnaent to replace their lost business. At first Army uni- forms, like ordinary ready-made clothing, were made in the homes of the workers, but as the war progressed and hurried demands for Army clothing increased, factones devoted to the manufacture of imiforms were established. The war thus created factory buildings, which were used for the manufacture of civilian ready-made clothing when the war was oyer. Without the sewing machine it is hardly probable that American manufacturers could have turned out in time the large quantities of uniforms required. The war had many other beneficial influences on the trade. In the Government work- shops there were some sort of standardization, a greater subdivision of labor, and efficient factory methods, unknown to the clothing manufacturer, all of which were indirectly to influence the ready-made clothing industry. The Government, in furnishing measurements for a See table No. 3, p. 21. * Jesse E. Pope, Clothlnr Industry In New York, p. 9. c The Clothlngand Furnkhing Trade, by William C. Browning, In One Hundred Years of Amerioan Commerce, Vol. II, p. 582. -«»««-u ^ h'? INTRODUCTION. 11 \.'^' ( ^ uniforms, supplied manufacturers with some idea of human propor- tions with wnich to guide themselves in making clothing for civilian use. DEVELOPMENT AFTER THE WAR. The dose of the war in 1865 witnessed the first important develop- ment of the clottdng trade. The requirements of hundreds of thou- sands of soldiers returning to civil hfe and the general need in the South caused the factories that had been established for making uniforms to turn to ready-made clothing. In spite of an increased \ number of factories and of improvements in the sewing machine that ) decreased the time necessary for making a garment, manufacturers were unable for a long time to supply the great demand. ^ For the same grade of work that prior to the war had averaged only $8 to $10 per week for a man and his wife (in this wage being included Eayment for the use of the machine, fuel for heating the irons, thread, uttons, and hght) wages averaged $20 to $25 a week during the period of stimmated manufacturing that followed the war.** The man who used his own machine at home had a better opportunity of securing work than the tailor who worked on a machine rented from or belonging to the manufacturer. In the manufacturer's shop such as they were at this period, the worker paid for thread, sundries, fuel for heating the irons, etc. ^ The seventies and eighties were the days of thepioneers. Rail-\ road construction and extension opened up the West and South- west. Thousands of new communities grew up. Immigration, ever increasing, began to move westward from the ports of entry. The [ J^ demandior ready-made clothing grew by leaps and boimds to sup- ply the demands of the vast numbers of new Americans and tne nome seekers. Chicago, because of the opening up and rapid growth of the West, became an important clothmg center in the seventies. It was not only the important railroad center for the vast territory that was being settled, but was located in a rich and well populated region where there was need of ready-made clothing. The retail establishments that supphed this demand required long terms, which included extra dating and a credit of four months. A man who paid his bills 60 days from date was regarded as a discounter. Manufac- turers required large capital to carry along their customers, so that J big clothing houses were the rule. \J Clothing was manufactured for stock, chiefly of a medium grad^-. \^ The manufacture of stock was not hazardous in this period, as' the \ great majority of customers purchased clothing in quantities, without regard for style, workmanship, or fabric. Blanket orders were fre- I . quent. Slow-selling stock did not remain on the manufacturer's / '^ hands as it does now. The profits of the business were large. In ' each of the large centers there were a number of manufacturers whose annual sales amounted to $500,000 to $1,000,000. A very few had sales up to $2,000,000 or $2,500,000 a year. ^.--^ The supplying of this great demand for ready-made clothing was made possiL • by the introduction of many labor-saving devices and by the type of worker that was coming into the trade. Up to 1870 all cutting was done by shears. Between 1870 and 1875 manu- facturerabegan using the long knife, worked up and down by hand o Report of the Committee of the Senate on Eduofktion and Labor, 1885, Vol. I, pp. 414, 743. 12 MEN S FACTORY-MADE ^LOTHING INDUSTRY. ( through slots in the table and capable of cutting 18 thicknesses of cloth. The cutting machine introduced later consisted of a rapidly revolving circular disk blade, capable of cutting 24 layers of cloth. This machine was crude and dangerous, however, and not much in favor. Sewing machines were still run by foot power. In the early seventies the German and Austro-Himgarian Jews entered the clothing industry. Up to this time the sewing-machine operators were women, and a large number of machines contmued to be nm by women for many years; but many of these German and Austro-Hungarian men began working as sewmg-machine operators exclusively, and they have gradually supplanted the women to a very- large extent. p From the year 1880 mav be said to date the rapid development of the clothmg industry. The small cities and towns of the West and Southwest were firmly established, immigration crowded the ports and the population rapidly increased. With the development of Y other industries, clerks, teachers, small merchants, and other classes who wished to dress well, but were not able to patronize the cus- tom tailor, turned to ready-made clothes. The general demand of the people, whatever their occupation or station, to be weD dressed greatly stimulated the clothing trade. ' EFFECT OF IMMIGRATION. The history of the clothing trade is bound up in immigration and it is necessary to understand the racial factors in a study of the industry. Up to and through the early eighties the Irish and the German? constituted the chief labor supply for the industry, but with the coming of large numbers of Russian Jews after 1882, the importance of the Irish and Germans dedined. The Russian Jews generally settled in New York City, though they later migrated to Baltimore, dhicago, and Philadelphia. They introduced the outside shop and the task system in New York. With the coming of this large Russian Jewish immi- gration began the decUne of Boston, which had been up to this time the chief wholesale clothing center, and New York assumed the lead- ership. These Russian immigrants huddled together, the family keeping many boarders and lodgers, usuaUy relatives or friends from their home towns or the unmarried sons and daughters of such friends and relatives. The lodgers usually entered tne trade of the head of the house, and as the space afforded by the hving rooms became too small for the work, the head of the house rented rooms elsewhere, thus creating the small shop apart from the home. INTRODUCTION OP TASK SYSTEM. In the task system that the Russian Jewish contractor introduced, there was a 'Heam" of three; one did the machine sewing or oper- ating, another the basting, and another the finishing. Originally the operator and the baster were men and the finisher a woman, but later the entire team was made up of men. Though wages were nominally week wages, the pay was on a piece-rate basis, since the week's wage was paid not for labor expended during one week but for the compfe- tion of a certain number of coats. A man who worked a week and ti'W • INTKODUCTION. 13 .%,-*' ^ produced only two-thirds of the weekly task would be paid only two- thirds of the weekly wage. Since the task was a team task, the quickest of the team was constantly speeding up his team mates to keep pace with him. As the system became estabhshed, the tendency was more and more to lower wages by increasing the task required in return for the week's wage. Long hours and driving went with increasing the task. The con- tractor took advantage of the pecuhar characteristic of the Jewish workOT, who was content to work all hours of the day and night, pro- vided his weekly wages were larger. The fact that the task worker earned more weekly than other workers under other systems does not take into account the number of hours worked by each. The task worker earned more per week, but at the expense of sleepless nights, early morning toil, and overexertion, which resulted, in most instances, in making physical wrecks of once robust immigrants. In this system, which was employed among Jewish workers only, the operator did all the machine sewing; the baster, who was the tailor of the team, put the garment together and did the incidental pressing, while the finisher did the less important basting and handwork. The contractor, who was usually more skilled, did the trimming and fitting and the off pressing. The buttonholes at this time were made in special buttonhole shops ; at a much later date, when the size of the snops warranted it, tne buttonhole maker installed a machine in each shop for which he worked. During this period the task system was employed on the "closed** or **bfidloon" made coat. Until the early nineties most of the coats made in New York were made up by tms system. It was not em- ployed, however, in manufacturing trousers or vests. There is some question whether the task system ever got a foothold outside of New York, but it is probable that as the New York task worker drifted to other centers he took the system with him. The Bohemian immigrants came at about the same time as the Jewish. They located in Chicago and Baltimore, where the few men who entered the tailoring trade established family shops. As the necessity arose girls were taken in to do the machine and the less important hand work. The Poles, Hke the Bohemians but unhke the Jews, permitted their women to enter the trade, and the men engaged in it only in limited numbers. The Polish immigrants came in the late eighties and generally settled in Chicago. The Lithuanians, like the Poles, came in the late eighties and entered the industry in Philadelphia and Baltimore. Th& Germans were at this time and have continued to be the chief source of labor supply in Rochester. INSANITARY SHOP CONDITIONS. The period after 1880 is marked by the greatly improved Quality of the product, by factory or shop work superseding home work, by the introduction of steam and of gas, by the use of electric-power machines in the place of the old foot-power machine, by the growth of the con- tract system, sweatshops, and home finishing, and by the discontin- uation of giving out work in the rural districts to be made by the wives and daughters of the farmers. /^ Though the tenement house appeared in New York in the sixties, overcrowding and sanitary conditions were probably at their worst -r \ P 14 in MEN S FACTORY-MADE CLOTHING INDUSTRY. the eighties. The workers, all immiCTants, lived and worked together in large numbers, in a few smafl, foul, ill-smelUng rooms, without ventilation, water, or near-by toilets. They slept on the unswept floors httered with the work, the work table serving as the dining table as well. The following is a description of the shop and the conditions of labor usual at that period: The workshops occupied by these contracting manufacturers of clothing, or "sweat- ers, as they are commonly called, are foul in the extreme. Noxious gases emanate from all comers. The buildings are ill smelling from cellar to garret. The water- closets are used alike by males and females, and usually stand in the room where the work is done. The people are huddled together too closely for comfort, even if all other conditions were excellent. And when this state of affairs is taken into consid- eraUon, with the painfully long hours of toil which the poverty-stricken victims of the contractors must endure, it seems wonderful that there exists a human being that could stand it for a month and live. We are not describing one or two places lor there is hardly an exception in this class of manufactories in all New York.o ' Children have never been employed to a great extent in this industry, as their usefulness is limited to a very few operations, like puUing out bastings. Their chief employment then as now appears to have been acting as carriers of goods from the shop to the home and vice versa. The buttonhole machine was introduced in the early eighties, but the great mechanical advance at this time was rather the improvement of machines already on the market than the introduction of new ones. As the home became too small for the number of people employed, the head of the family rented rooms in a tenement to be utifized as workrooms, or in some instances built small shops in the yards of the dwelling houses, as was usually the case with the Germans. The Jew in New York usuall}r set apart one of his hving rooms for a shop, and here we find the beginning of the sweatshop. The rented shops,' apart from the dweUin^, were unsuited for manufacturing. Tlie large numbere of friendless- immigrants whose only acquaintance might be their fellow countryman who was a tailor, gave such an energetic tailor the opportunity to become a contractor. The number of people employed in the average coat shop in this period was about 20, and in the pants and vest shops, much less. Tlie end of the eighties and the early nineties witnessed the great Italian immigration. The Itahans settled especially in New York, women first entering the industry. Italian women came into the trade in such large numbers that they, at present, do practic^y all the finishing in most centers, and, numencaUy, hold first place in New York and Philadelphia among all women employees. The Italian men entered the trade after the women and to-day are to be found in large numbers in most of the clothing centers. Tlie Italians were as industrious as the Jews, fived even more s^uahdly and in more wretched quarters, were easily contented, and being satisfied to work for prices that even the Jewish worker considered too meagre, gradu- ally supplanted the Jews, forcing them to become contractors, enter business, or seek other centers. • tt"^^ • Second Axmoal Report ol the Factory Inspectors ol New York for the year endioc Dec 1, 1887, p. 2QL .*i) A + INTEODUCTION. mTRODUCTION OF SUBDIVISION OP LABOR. 15 The Tenement House Act of 1892 in New York, which prohibited contractors from manufacturing in their homes, and legislation in other places were the principal factors resulting in the estabUshment of larger shops. Contractors rented shops and lofts built for manu- facturing purposes, installed many machines, and entered into the making of clothes on a large scale. As the contractor's shop grew in size, the contractor looked about for means of lowering his labor cost. To utiUze the labor of women and girls, which could be purchased cheaper, contractors introduced in New York, about 1895, a system of work that had been introduced in Boston by EngUsh tailors. This system employed a greater subdivision than any system previously mentioned ; it did away with the need of the highly skilled tailor, as each person performed just one task that was simple to learn. ^This system was employed chiefly on coats of the better grade, made on what is known as the **open" method. Since the introduction of this system, the subdivision of labor has constantly increased, until some factories now have as many as 150 operations in the mak- ing of a coat. This tendency to increase the number of operations has been de- veloped with the idea of so subdividing the work that each operation can fee taught easily and quickly, and tne skilled tailor and high labor costs will Be done away with. Only a minute subdivision of labor enabled the clothing manufacturer to utilize the hordes of unskilled workers that swarmed to this country after 1880. IMMIGRATION OF TAILORS. The following tables show the number of immigrant tailors admit- ted annually from 1875 to 1914, and the percentage from each coun- try or of each race. The classification from 1875 to 1898 was on the basis of nationality. The year 1896 has been omitted, as there was no nationality classification that year, only the total number of tail- ors admitted, by sex, being given. In 1897 and 1898, though the classification was still based on nationality, Austria-Hungary was subdivided into Hungary, Bohemia and Moravia, Galicia and Buko- wina, and other Austria; these divisions were combined to corres- pond to the classification Austria-Hungary, given from 1875 to 1895. Russia (proper), Poland, and Finland were combined to form Russia- Poland, ana Norway and Sweden, which were given individually, to form Norway and Sweden. In 1899 the immigration classification was changed from nationahty to race or people; therefore the figures from 1899 to 1914 are not comparable with those of previous years. The figures for 1875 to 1898, inclusive, follow. / / \ ) 16 men's factory-made clothing industry. '^''xul^T^^^^^ iV"^ Percentage of TAiLORa op Different Nationalitibs Admitted to the United States During the Years Ended June 30. 1875 to [Data for 1875 to 1880, from the Annual Report of the Superinteadant of Immlijratlan 1892- for iMl to IMA from the Annual fleports of the Suoerlntencleat of ImnUgraticm; for 1897aad 1898 froS the Smuai Reports of the Commissioner General of Immigration.] ' * Annual Years. 1875. 1876. 1877. 1878. 1879. 1880. 1881. 1882. 1883. 1884. 1885. 1886. 1887. 1888. 1889. 1890. 1891. 1892. 1893. 1894. 1895. 1897. 1898. Total. Percent Years. I 1875. 1876: 1877. 1878. 1879. 1880. 1881. 1882. 1883. 18»4. 1885. 1886. 1887. 1888.. 1889. 1890.. 1891. 1892. 1893. 1894. 189.5. 1897. 18W. Total. Per cent — Italy. 44 26 16 19 45 54 156 303 207 148 117 213 219 139 160 347 462 447 459 448 329 1,162 860 6,398 9.3 AuBtria- Hungary. 140 96 47 67 86 251 298 196 216 354 185 315 509 409 338 577 681 413 543 535 432 427 679 France. 7,794 11.4 96 47 44 20 26 26 44 38 33 38 35 10 31 48 42 51 42 47 22 13 26 16 12 Oer. many. 818 1.2 407 295 215 231 296 606 1,374 1.935 1,797 1,506 855 729 070 1,190 952 854 1,172 913 820 620 331 260 209 England. 233 128 87 08 142 262 233 254 216 228 202 201 8S0 300 394 287 324 227 230 158 300 77 82 Scot- land. 28 20 14 18 23 28 M 80 58 48 41 61 85 153 154 108 56 50 61 36 52 22 6 18,627 27.2 5.008 7.3 1.177 L7 Norway and Sweden. 79 71 36 50 82 203 236 206 202 122 119 177 240 238 191 143 198 206 194 125 138 102 98 Russiar Poland. 3,458 5.0 74 73 50 122 83 238 208 335 131 531 410 762 1,086 770 1,240 1,260 2,651 2,750 1,225 1,084 937 1,106 1,589 Switzer- land. 18,742 27.3 17 16 11 12 37 53 103 94 99 73 34 32 37 20 47 35 13 27 16 18 7 7 8 British North America. 825 1.2 102 66 66 09 105 132 197 110 50 67 23 Other countries. («) («) («) (•) («) (a) 1,017 1.5 28 63 33 43 63 67 118 118 107 01 07 105 150 132 142 141 181 164 147 134 140 85 220 2,578 3.8 Ireland. 128 68 40 41 75 125 103 120 124 121 101 68 83 87 140 81 84 70 01 104 175 61 51 2.145 8.1 Total. 1,463 060 668 815 1,062 2,134 3,106 3,748 3,235 8,317 2,228 2,682 3,760 3,405 3,800 3,879 5,864 5,334 3,806 3,184 2,867 3,325 3,826 68,587 100.0 t • Immigrants from British North American possessions not included. . Up to 1882, of the three races that were to play important rdles in the clothing trade, the largest number of tailors came from Ger- many, those from Russia and Italy being comparatively few. Ger- many continued its leadership for a few years after 1882, but the number began to decrease annually from 1891. The Russian hnmi- grants appeared in large numbers in 1884, and this large immigration ^ INTRODUCTION. 17 A > continued down to 1898. The Italian immigration appears to have started in large numbers in 1890, and generally continued to increase, being largest in 1897. The following table shows the number and percentage of immigrant tailors of various races admitted to the United States during the years ended June 30, 1899 to 1914, inclusive: Table 2. — Number and Percentage op Tailors op Dipperent Races Admitted TO THE United States During the Years Ended June 30, 1899 to 1914. [Data from the Annual Reports of tbe Commissioner General of Immigration.] Years. Bohe- mian and Moravian. English. German. Hebrew. Irish. Italian (north). 1899 70 83 106 162 227 332 273 365 371 288 165 218 244 231 .307 229 60 64 76 51 129 175 248 175 224 225 188 303 247 213 238 235 224 270 315 484 786 808 906 940 1,079 821 528 707 689 658 695 770 3,664 7,031 5,981 6,110 9,233 16,426 22,334 18,418 21,779 14,882 6,862 12,552 12,681 12,154 15,408 19,793 51 69 55 74 74 124 177 113 131 136 152 128 147 113 105 92 119 1900 180 1901 157 19(12 178 1903 206 1904 222 1905 239 1906 321 1907 310 i9as 188 1909 81 1910 118 1911 141 1912 172 1913 192 1914 231 Total 3,671 1.2 2,851 0.9 10,680 3.6 205,306 68.3 1,741 0.6 3,055 Per cent 1.0 Years. Italian (south). Lithua- nian. Polish. Russian. r Scandina- vian (Nor- wegians, Danes, and Swedes). Other. Total. 1899 1,061 1,322 1,978 1.934 3,2.W 3,302 2.591 3,998 3.344 1,912 1,151 2,146 2,518 2,490 2,434 2,676 36 74 59. 67 69 106 178 1.56 314 185 97 275 198 183 227 252 163 260 226 391 481 420 589 671 884 618 248 503 500 596 885 691 45 14 11 25 127 110 137 103 187 1% 61 149 184 238 311 353 122 133 184 227 397 412 370 300 299 177 181 285 266 178 170 169 218 399 461 666 i,oa5 1,113 1.224 1,422 1,722 1,107 735 1,317 1,36.S 1.610 1.962 ! 1,912 5,833 1900 9,899 1901 9,609 19(V2 10.369 mx\ 15,992 1901 23, .580 1905 29,266 1906 26,982 1907 30,644 1906 20,735 IWQ 10,449 1910 18, 701 1911 19. 178 1912 18,836 1913 22,934 1914 27,403 Total 38, 115 12.7 2,476 0.8 8,126 2.7 2,251 0.8 3,870 1.3 18,266 6.1 300.410 Per cent 100.0 From 1899 to 1914 the Hebrews constituted the great majority of the skilled immigrant tailors, being 68.3 per cent of all the immigrant tailors admitted to this country during that period. The next largest immigration was the south Itahans, who comprised 12.7 per cent of the total tailors admitted. Together, the Hebrews and south Italians furnished the clothing trade, during this period, with 81 per cent, or slightly over four-filths of all the tailors admitted. The German tailors m this period comprised only 3.6 per cent of the tottj 11914'»— 16 2 18 MEN S FACTORY-MADE CLOTHING INDUSTRY. \ tailors admitted, a very considerable decrease from their position during the years 1875 to 1898. The Russian and Polish immigration, which appeared so large in the 10 or 12 years preceding 1899, droppea to 3.5 per cent in this period, showing probably that most of the im- migration of tailors included as Russian from 1875 to 1898 was classed as Hebrew in the later period. The total immigration of tailors from 1875 to 1898, exclusive of 1896, was 68,587; for 1896 the number was 4,021 ;« and from 1899 to 1914, 300,410; making a grand total of 373,018 tailors admitted to the United States from 1875 to 1914, inclusive. It must be remembered 4)hat during the early years of this immi- gration clothing manufacturers were dependent to a great extent upon this skiDed foreign labor supply. With the introduction of labor-saving devices and a more complete subdivision of labor in which there were few operations requinng the services of the skilled tailor, this dependence lessened and the immigration of tailors became a minor factor in the trade. Though the Hebrew and south Italian immigration of tailors is the largest, it does not show the total number of these peoples in the trade. The peoples of other races did not usually enter the clothing trade unless they had been tailors abroad, but vast numbers of Jews and south Italians who had no previous tailoring experience were brought into the industry when new machinery was introduced and a greater subdivision of labor made possible the employment of inexperienced help. INTRODUCTION OF THE LARGE INSIDE SHOP. r From about 1895 we find the establishment and extension of the large inside shop, with its better light, ventilation, and sanitary conditions, and the introduction of factory methods. Legislation that affected all clothing centers now brought the industry under State supervision. The public demanded finer goods in clothing as well as m other wearing apparel. Manufacturers began to start their lines at higher prices, to show more styles, and to pay more attention to the question of style. In 1907 the production of suits retailing at $20 or more is estimated as being ten times as great as it was in 1897. The manufacturers adopted trade-marks ana began to advertise their products throughout the country. This practice made the large inside shop necessary, for unless the advertismg was backed by a uniform product, which could not result from the em- ployment of numerous contractors, the money expended upon such advertising was wasted. To satisfy the demand for better clothing, better workmanship and closer supervision than could be secured X from the contractor were necessary. The inside shop could get out goods more promptly than if dependence was placed upon several contractors, and the manufacturer with an inside shop had a certainty of production not possible when working with contractors. Inside manufacturing insured that the linings, canvas, hair cloth, etc., would be used as intended and lessened the risk of having the style copied. The inside shop greatly improved working conditions and installed all the labor-savmg special machinery ^at was constantly being introduced about this time. These machines — edge-pressing, serg- ing, collar and lapel padding, various felling, tacKing and ticket- o Annual Report of the Commissioner General of Immieration. 1896. J- te r^'^ P'^ A \ INTRODUCTION. sewing machines — saved time and did away with much hand work. Generally, the contractor was not financially able to install those machines. The big inside shop also installea electric power, while some of the smaller outlying shops and the contractors employed foot or gas power, as steam power, which was originally used, was not adaptable to small shops. The manufacturers who established in- side shops were probably not aware that they were adopting the means, if efficiently handled, of reducing cost and competing with their former contractors. The manufacturers, however, employed these contractors as foremen, superintendents, etc., in the new inside shops, and the foreman brought with him ideas and methods of manu- facturing, which, whUe to an extent successful with small groups where the relationship of employer and employee was intimate and racial, could not but woi^ disastrously when applied to a large factory. Often foremen were hired solely for their ability to procure help-n-om among their countrymen, as the large inside house had difiiculty in securing sufficient employees, there being no employment agencies and newspaper advertising having proved futile. Some of the large successful houses have gotten beyond this point, but even now many large inside houses are run on tne plan of the small con- tract shop, being simply a number of small stops assembled under one roof. The year 1907 was the high-water mark in the history of ready- made clothing, but the pamc of that year dealt the trade a severe blow. Contrary to the previous history of the clothing trade, this panic did not increase the demand for ready-made clothing, and j what appears to be most surprising is that the manufacturers selling / the high grades of merchandise suffered least. Probably their 7 increased advertising held their trade, and possibly many people accustomed to go to the custom tailor for fine suits turned to ready- made clothing. TAILOR-TO-THE-TRADE HOUSES. \ By the year 1907, a new factor, the tailor- to-the-trade house, had arisen in the clothing trade, which was destined to play a very im- portant rdle. These houses originally suppUed the small retailer with specials (out-of-proportion suits) or special styles or fabrics that such retailer could not afford to carry in his ready-made stock. From this beginning the tailor-to-the-trade house grew until it rivaled the largest of the ready-made manufacturers. With its large lines of styles and fabrics it drove the country merchant tailor out of business, and took away from the ready-made whole- saler the business of the small coimtry retailer, usually a general storekeeper. This was especially true of the South, where the/ small merchant took advantage of the opportunity not to carry ai^y stock, substituting therefor tne style and swatch book of the tailor- to-the-trade house. DECLINE OF THE SEPABATE TBOUSEBS BUSINESS. The last 15 years has seen the decline and almost disappearance of the separate trousers business. Years ago a complete suit was a rarity, its symmetry and pleasing effect on the eye being unappre- ciated. The consumer wno still had his prejudice against ready- made cloihing, and there were many, went to the custom tailor for -h \ .r/S. tfMM X 20 men's factory-made clothing industby. his coat, and then to a retailer for a pair of ready-made pants. Dark coats and gray striped trousers were the prevaihng style, hut all sorts of incongruous combinations were frequent. The ready-made trous- ers business in this period was enormous, being a great proportion of the whole ready-made clothing trade.>. As the large houses began to advertise and preach suits, and as the general pubhc began to sub- stitute entire suits for separate coat and pants, the pants busmess dechned rapidly. Where thousands of successful wholesalers once engaged in the business, we find to-day a very few houses making separate pants and these usually make also overcoats, raincoats, Pahn Beach suits, and the hke, to keep up their sales. The number of houses making pants exclusively is very hmited and such few houses, with one or two exceptions, do a small business. They have been aided, however, to a great extent by the present demand for separate trousers for yachting, tennis, and other sports. DECLINE OF THE JOBBING BUSINESS. In the old days, when terms were long, manufacturers needed some customers who would pay their bills shortly after the receipt of the goods. That was the day of the jobber. The jobber bought his goods cheaper than did the retailer, or he received a larger dis- count and often extra long dating, which meant the same thing. This was due to the fact that he purchased in great quantities, usually when the manufacturer's plant was dull, and paid for his goods on receipt or in 10 days. Getting his goods cheaper, the jobber was enabled to resell his clothing at prices that competed with goods sold by the manufacturer to the retailer direct, though often the iobber's price was much higher. The jobber usually sold to the merchants in the small cities, towns, and villages, merchants to whom manuf acturcTS would not extend credit. His salesmen covered places that the manufacturer's salesmen shunned. His headquarters were located usually in the center of his customers' territory, so that these small merchants, at httlc expense, could come in to buy, what they needed. Sometimes the jobber had large stocks on hand of merchandise very much in demand, and large retailers who could not procure the neotlcd clothing from the manufacturers, purchased it from him. Th(^ jobber, selling to the small country merchant, who depended upon liis customers' crops for payment of goods purchased during the season, had to extend very long terms, so that the jobber neces- sarily had to have a very large capital. He was a banker as well as a merchant. , With the rise and growth of the tailor-to-the-trade house whose swatch cards and style books were to be foimd in the stores of the smallest merchants, with the shutting down on long selling terms by manufacturers, which meant that they would not have to carry so many accounts along from year to year, and with the development of a highly organized selhng organization by most manufacturers, the need for the jobber, who in earUer times had really performed a community service, disappeared. \ introduction. THE LAST IMPORTANT STRIKE. 21 The last strike of any importance in the clothing trade took place from December 30, 1912, to March 1, 1913. Though the strike was centered principally against the New York market, it took place to some extent in rhiladelphia, Boston, Kochester, and Baltimore. In Chicago it was very shght. As a result of the strike, wages were increased, generally from 5 to 10 per cent, and there was a reduction in hours of work from 56 to 52 and 53. No formal written agree- ment was entered into with the Manufacturers' Association; the dififerences were adjusted verbally. The wage increase in New York was a minimum of $1 per week for each employee, the amount vary- ing in the different shops. In the case of contractors, in New York, a written agreement was entered into that was to last one year. The principal features of this agreement were the recognition of the union, time-work for coat makers, 50 hours to comprise a week's work, and the installa- tion of electric power. The immediate indirect result of the strike was to wipe out many small contractors who could not, with 50 hours as the basis for a week's pay, work for their former small wages, which was the principal reason for manufacturers giving them the work. These small contractors, moreover, did not have the money to install electric power. After the expiration of the year that the written agree- ment was to run, contractors were not asked to renew the agreement, the union simply sending notices to the contractors that tne condi- tions stipulated in the written agreement were assumed to continue. Through the efforts of the union the task system has been prac- tically aboUshed. It exists nowhere except in New York, and here task shops are few and small. GROWTH OF THE INDUSTRY* The statistics regarding estabhshments engaged in the production of men's clothing pubUshed bv the Bureau of the Census include figures for establishments engaged in the manufacture of men's, boy's, and children's clothing, arid such outer garments as overalls, market frocks, butcher aprons, uniforms, bathing suits, knee pants, and gymnasium and sporting clothing. This classification also includes estabhshments engaged in contract work on clothing where the materials, or the greater part of them, are furnished. The following table is taken from the report of the United States Census of Manufactures for 1909: Table 3. — Growth of the Men's Clothing Industry in the United States, 1849-1909. ^ (Thirteenth Census, 1909, Manufactures, Vol. VIII, p. 398.1 Yean. Number Of establish- ments. Wage earners (average number). Wages. Cost Of materials. Value of products. Value added. .by manufacture. 1849 4,278 4,014 7,858 6,166 4,867 5,729 4,504 5,584 96,551 114,800 108,128 160,813 144,926 120,927 137,190 191,183 $15,032,340 19,856,426 30,746,579 45,940,353 51,075,837 45,496,728 57,225,506 89,644,921 125,730,258 44,149,752 86,794,706 131.363,282 128.846,857 145,218,798 185,793,436 252,522,567 $48,311,709 80,830,555 148,660,253 !Z09,548,460 •251,019,609 276,717,357 355,796,571 485.677,493 $22,581,451 1859 36,680,803 1869 61,865,547 1879 78,185,178 1889 122,172,752 1899 131,498,559 1904 170,003,135 1909 233,154,926 22 MEN S FACTORY-MADE CLOTHING INDUSTRY. The next two paragraphs accompany the table in the census report: Clothing^ men's. — The value of producte of this branch of the clothing industry represented in 1909 nearly one-half of the total value of products for all the clothing industries combined. An important feature of this industry is that many establishments manufacture clothing on a contract basis from materials furnished by others. Many of these establishments are small and often much of the work is done by the contractor and his family. Other establishments working under contract, however, are of considerable size, employing large numbers of wage earners. In order to bring out the extent to which this practice obtains, a segregation has been made of those establishments which manufactured clothing from their own materials and those which worked exclusively on materials furnished by others — in many cases by establishments of the class first mentioned. The following statement shows separate data for these two classes of establishments in 1909: Table 4. — ^Men*8 Clothinq Industry, Regular Factories and Contract Shops, 1909. [Tbirtdentb Census, 1909, Manufactures, Vol. VHI, p. 308.1 Classes. Numlier of establish- ments. Wage earners (average number). Wages. CoPtof materials. Vahieof products. 1 Value added bv manufacture. Regular factories Contract shops 2,367 3,217 126,196 64,987 $56,360,952 33,283,969 $249,690,748 2,831,819 $439,860,259 45,817,234 $190,169,511 42,985,415 Total 5,5S4 191,183 89,644,921 252,522,567 485,677,493 233,154,926 The value of products reported for contract shops consists chiefly of the amount received for work performed for regular factories, which in turn report the value of their finished output, enhanced by the work done on contract. The former value, therefore, in the main represents duphcation. The wages paid by contract shops must, however, be included, to obtain the entire outlay for wages m the industry. On analyzing the data in Table 3, it will be seen that there was a large increase of production in every decade after 1849. By comparison of the statistics for 1879 with those for 1909, 30 years later, it will be noted that the production increased by $276,129,033, or 131.77 per cent; the cost of materials increased by $121,159,285, or 92.23 per cent; the wages increased by $43,704,568, or 95.13 per cent, while the average number of wage earners increased by 30,370, or only 18.89 per cent. The average earnings of the workers during 1879 were $285.68, and during 1909, $468.90. It will be noticed that there was an enormous increase of produc- tion between 1899 and 1909. During that decade the value of the products increased by $208,960,136, or 75.51 per cent. This per- centage of increase was more than three times as great as the increase of population. The population of the United States, exclusive of outlying possessions, was 75,994,575 in 1900, and 91,972,266 in 1910, an increase of 15,977,691, or 21 per cent. The average production per estabhshment was $48,301 in 1899, $78,996 in 1904, and $86,977 in 1909, showing a large increase in the average size of establishments. Table 5, on prges 24-25, shows the number of establishments manufacturing men's clothing, their capital, value of products, and average number of wage earners in 1904 and 1909, by States and cities arranged in the order of the value of their products in 1909. ^ \ 1 INTKODUCTION. 23 From' 1904 to 1909 the value of men's clothing produced in th3 United States increased by $129,880,922, or 36.50 per cent. The piod- uct in New York State in 1909, $230,211,324, was 47.40 per cent of the product in the United States ; the product in Illmois, $86,807,02 1 , was 17.87 per cent. The percentages of increase of production among the States that increased over 25 per cent during the five years from 1904 to 1909 were as follows: Alabama, 149.49; Washington, 85.28; West Virginia, 77.86; Michigan, 59.70; lUinois, 57.25 ; Viminia, 55.29; Maryland, 49.28 ; New Hampshire, 49.04 ; Kansas, 39.77 ; Texas, 39.01 ; Wisconsin, 38.02 ; Nebraska, 37.94 ; New York, 37.71 ; Missouri, 33.00 ; Indiana, 27.43 ; New Jersey, 26.99 ; Iowa, 25.36. The production in New York Qty in 1909, $195,555,371, was40.26 per cent of the production in the United States; the production m Chicago, $83,785,584, was 17.25 per cent. The percentages of in- crease of production among the cities that increased over 25 per cent during the five years from 1904 to 1909 were as follows: Clevdand, 88.88; Chicago, 57.40; Detroit, 56.94; Baltimore, 49.43; New York, 42.63 ; Milwaukee, 31.07 ; Rochester, 26.29. While production in the United States increased by 36.50 per cent, the average number of wage earners increased by 53,993, or 39.36 per cent. , , i^ / Table 6, on pages 26-27, gives the number of wage earners (men, women and children) in establishments manufacturing men s clothing in the United States, and the wages paid to men, women, and chd- dren, in 1904 and 1909, by States and cities, arranged in the order of the value of their products in 1909. On comparing the number of children 14 and 15 years old (2,963> with the total average number of workers (137,190) m 1904, the percentage is found to be 0.22. On making the same comparison for 1909 the percentage of children is found to be 0.18. The average amount of earnings was $417.13 in 1904 and $468.90 in 1909 SCOPE AND METHOD OP INVESTIGATION. This investigation of the cost of manufacturing men's ready- made clothing was imdertaken in compUance with the act of Con- gress approved August 23, 1912, which created the Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce and which contamed the following section providing for investigations of the cost of production of arti- cles dutiable in me United States: Those certaiQ duties of the Department of Labor, or Bureau of Labor, contained in section seven of the act approved June thirteenth eighteen hundred and eighty- Sght that estabUshed the Sme, which especially charged it 'to ascertain, at as eifflv'a date as possible, and whenever industrial chaiiges shall make it essential, ^ cost of producing articles at the time dutiable in the United Stat^, in leading ^untries where such articles are produced, by fully specified units of production, Snd under a classification showing the different elements of .cost, or approximate cost of such articles of production, including the wages paid in such industries per dfl^ week month, or year, or by the piece; the hours employed per day; and the profits of manufacturers and producers of such articles; and the comparative cost of ivine and the kind of Uving; what articles are controlled by trusts or other com- binations of capital, business operations, or labor, and what effect said trusts or other combinations oi capital, business operations, or labor have on prodvction and prices '^ are hereby transferred to and shall hereafter be discharged 'by the Bureau & Foreign and Domestic Commerce, and it shall als<. be the duty of said Bureau cf Foreign and Domestic Commerce to make such special investigation and report on par- ticulS subjects when required to do so by the Resident or either House of Congress. 24 O S m M I M 5 CB & P Q O « o u P3 H < oo o P-i H Si: CO ti H Pt -< a td 00 *^ i4 m -< H 00 O « PQ H A men's factory-made clothing industry. s s a « 03 s 9 as 9 CO hi s r* a a e a e e iQ Q r» •<•• es «D < e«5 S W OS t^ "5 < 1^ w t-l •v >o M < lisSilsSiiismSSSSSgsSSSi S^««oco«»-g;Q-»:S'-S'*^tS2'5t:J2SS 06 CS <0 f lO « o 00 oT to w ^'cvTcf « eo c>r»^ ^^ >^ •-< •-• s 5 u 3 O 3 o e o a n m O u u O a o C8 as Q «4i — — »c S30t2KSlo?5-»SSSM.cao«C'»«3C o c4 = «-"'.* O «^. '«.«-"*.'-. O®. IlJSS5SSS5t!55ffiio!3rie52>rii~aoaoi~Si-»i--«'}0»ao^ac2rt2» tfTari^oTio ^oT^o^owj CO eowc^f^^^ ^^ "^ "^ <^ ^^ "^ 35 ci N e« -< »^ .>. j^ v. . - -J w, >^ -^ ^ 3 ij g fo 2 g e^ • ;ssi > CO i-w — - , IS! ~«o»oc5 &a C4 .-« iC "^ « « ^H 1-1 es o s C8 CO & "2 - a 3 o.£f 3"^ c t; eS Q ?. 3 ^ as .O i8^ o • "^ u, ^ is •s. §•0.1 8 / S C4 \. >H V «ill|ii|i|||p es S OQ £ CO -3 -? j- a 4-> O 3 — *. t .'I « INTRODUCTION. 25 oeotfJOifj'-'coeDQeNiifJoir'* >CC(M!35C^'»'0>QOX»C2 > c- ^ wt QO *-< ( O eg «? "O o>c 1 •^ c^^ Q ■* oo 9c«e>«»H^i-ti-4i-ii-i «r»0'«'e5(N c* -^ CO * "5 a '^ "-^ row c^^^ < I lO I- 00 «o ^ CO oo «o »2f5«^oo»«eo«ocou5'*''«»'eoe< §CO'«I'Q»COCO'»''-oc<>0OAC4C0'Vt-S>0»^rO r^eo"oroo^Vi-r»rrV'?re»^«-'t CO O) cr < - --^^Tcsutaoi-";'-'! i» ; lO >o« e>»eO'^*ooco©iC'cr-eoe>*c>»ao r-» 1(5 es * Q 1^ 1^ r^ CO c d> lO t •* eoi'-«Dcooo«rOieo»o«eoi«o>»^ otTtfj »o i-To oTmj •^'•^eo'c"* e. CO •-« <-"^ c>»ocoeo®-C'«''0^*5''5co>/50 CO — i>-aj'W'rao^'04i'-'-^eot? i-4o69>^aot^coi^t>->cc><<-ioa> tattoo ot^Ob'^cief'^'^nc* g^«4Sr~abvoco CO'*"^'^'^ e« o«'»aDt»c5«i-<«o» I-. »c -^ e* 6i N '^ 3 e o q3 (-. 3 CQQP 4^- 26 s I a e e a: O H O 55 .^ I— » Q 00 H MEN S FACTORY-MADE CLOTHING INDUSTRY. « ^ 3 m a e U 9 o n o £ s o i: 5 eS Q S Eh >g a £ 2 o a a o a e s s OS a o a o 5 CO ^ 25 1 o 22 a <5 ■? 1 « <5 SP "2 ^ <» 5 "* "2 S3 n! — -^ =5 o "^ * -- "? s. M 3 o c>J?o\D «o we* ct »H ^^ »^ ^4 CQ C) Ob 3% t^ u! >i-i^oaoc4'«>iQr»u3Qr>-ooaQ«HiAr«e>4^a>r«aoap'«> >OM'vroa>-^>4oao^QOOooSog»^Mdk O 10 ^ A 00 ••• 10 I ~ -^ h- OO 74 1^ 0> ( S e^--oneo «•♦« «S«S8 eo ^?4OC4'«>r«0>tQ<$9>oOAao7<9>'4a>>ar»r»oaraM9cO'«>t ^eoe>i^pi^t^M»QOWOTOo5ioo«oeoo<»No«N«Q^< S2 t^i©«oeO'«"e>9coe>*ffMO^Q09T'^9' it»rHeoooifte«soo-»«o«otooo*oroOMNoB ) ^ eo eo •-•'-« "-H i-^^H — w^ ; >*■ ' ^ *. ^00 w5iScct--O3>'^00«CQ«Ot^e<5«5Q0S'rw-^'T«^O*^C4«'5^}«'rO-*fr" '«"<-<'i-N«Aooc>i»Sco«oo6r^«o^ooosooa5r-o>ioo«5s-<«oo^ C4 9 s 005>«'roe«5oa»e0'*C4e05'QQ«<5'^a0r0T'^!^50e9Q>C*»«0t^^!0t» oo»3iQf^05Tf«5'co-Hes»i4«fta5eo®t»a»oo»0'^w5woo^«'5»ooN O t^ t^ ti >or» t^ CIO Oeor- * eo "reo N>-«'^^^« e»^H»H ^ -^ g'ore«reo"ci''^i-r t^rH o>0'^Q^ooaQt««H'*5e9'~-'or*e>»»r»eO'vecowt— •SasO'rBj"^ NO-fl<"5»oooooo^u5ooo-«>-Hooooh»oes«3soe4f»(s-^o-H ss ooo>oeo->rcsc«eoeo«»-4i-i»-i^i-t •noo cits «e«ao»e^«»2»c^a»^eo'r'*»»MO eoQroo 'v^C4C4c^ A •-• «5 « ■v e* "I o 00 eo •0»H 3aoe<«QO>Q«^ot^eocQC4«ot-eo><3 ooos»®^t^^^"3•^c*Oi''5e*t^aoa>o^»»Hl<}oo»HW»Noeo^®e*e^o •cio>Sooeoc^oo>-HaoaO'.o^O'vc4Aoo>ot»w>Ae40>ci2Se4e>*>^>^tO'4 10 ■* rH to oeoot*«o»-<«0'-£»Oie>'*«e«'*0»t*e>»u5«t«.r»c« ^A>Mt«<-«iO!>om>ci>-^QOOM)or«>-ioeO'4i-i»4 00 C4r^ r^tooo® e4to veoS ra^^^MvH ^^ ^4 ^4 ^ eo'oe>'eo'Ve«r»H' tn s M ss 0) H H OS a 49 1^ oS 4>^ 3 ill i 3 :«h?JlB| :| INTRODUCTION. 27 5»r*qer^c??2!50cj!>fl'-0'^-^eo I So -"T "5 ir 00 O eo e5.-iQr^oo< o-Ho6eo«o-4 I S2 •o f»*eoeo«oa»rse5 'H'e»ef«-4'»^i-r Oeo»H o^~ 93 < 5S )0 e>«'^«evii'-r-e4ooooe>i^Heoe>4 Qoeo>ooc«aoooe«e«oo 05eo>^eo-r»'*t>.0500'^e>«t^S' t^iOe40s«soeoa>oocDcO'*o»r» c«aftO>u9-«"<*'cooeoooc4t^o»ao c»oO'-oooe^esitO'Vt^'VO«oeo t^»050«o*o>coooooo>eo'«'5oe* ^t«icc4e*oBeo»^tc>'«'»H ■«<«eo«o«e< ox — 16- 34 men's FACTORY-MADE CLOTHING INDUSTRY. Schedules giving the principal items of cost and net sales will be used and a list of topics will be offered manufacturers to suggest ideas which manufacturers think should be brought to the attention of the Government and to the public. As president of the Clothiers' Association, I would thank you to cooperate with the department, which gives us an opportunity to express views regarding the tariff and •^ther conditions. Yours, very truly, „ ^ ,^ (Signed) Harry D. Kohn, President, Clothiers Association oj New York. When this letter was sent out the National Association of Clothiers had 142 members, of whom 72 were in New York City. The information secured during the investigation was obtained directly from the manufacturers and from their books. No data regardmg the cost of production were accepted that the agents did not find recorded on the books of the establishments reporting. From data entered on the establishment schedules the figures were derived which show the various items of the cost of production and also the percentages of profit on net sales and on-the capital employed in the business. . • v j -i The further object of the investigation was to ascertam the details of the cost of manufacturing specified styles of men's ready-made clothing. The following form, called a imit schedule, was prepared for the entry of such data: Confidential. united states department op commerce, bureau of foreign and domestic commercb, washington, Unit Schedule — Men's Clothing. Thp data shown on this schedule should be on the basis of prices and the cost of materials and labor during the summer and fall of 1914 for spring goods, and during the winter and sprmg of 1914-15 for winter goods. Unit : One A unit schedule should be used for each unit, which may l>e one or more either two or three piece suits, one w more overcoats, or one or more separate pairs of trousers. (A) WHOLESALE AND RETAIL PRICES. Price to jobbers. Price to retailers. Usual original re- tail price. Gross price. Usual per cent dis- count. Net price. Gross price. l^sual per cent dis- count. Net price. Style A, $ • 1 S t # - • 1 Style 11, ■• Style C, S Style D,$ 1 btvie t.,9 Style F,$ 1 «4 A ^ INTRODUCTION. (B) DESCRIPTIONS OF COATS OR OVERCOATS. 35 Specifications. 1. Sack, cutaway, Norfolk, dress, or over- coat 2. Single or double breasted 3. Lined, full, half, quarter, or skeleton. 4. Outside pockets, number welted 5. Outside pockets, number with flaps.. 6. Outside pockets, number patch 7. Outside pockets, number bellows 8. Inside pockets, number 9. Sleeves, plain , vent, or cuff 10. Sleeves, basted in or not - 11. Edees, plain, stitched or double- 12. Inside seams, piped, plain, or turned in 13. Bottom, felled or stitched 14. Canvas, made by hand or machine... 15. Collar, padded bv hand or machine. . . . Ifi. Buttonholes, made by hand or machine 17. Method of making, open or closed Style A. Style B. Style C. Style D. Style E. Style F. (C) DESCRIPTIONS OF TROUSERS. Specifications. 1 Pockets, number with flaps 2. Pockets (including fob), number with- out flaps -. 3. Waistbjmd. separate or grown in 4. Tops, stitched or felled 5. Loops, plain, tunnels or none Crotch, whole or pieced Bottoms, plain or cufi - Bottoms, unished or basteJ only Bottoms, finished by hand or machine. Buttonholes, made by hand or machine Top buttons, sewed on by hand or ma- chine v V - - -J 12. Fly buttons, sewed on by hand or ma- chine 6 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. Style A. Style B. Style C. Style D. Style E. Style F. (D) DESCRIPTIONS OF VESTS. Speciflcations. 1. Single or double breasted 2. Collar, with or none 3 Back, lined or skeleton 4' Outiide pockets, number welted 6. Outside pockets, number with flaps fi. Outside pockets, number patch 7. Inside pockets, number v : ; • 8. Edgw, plain, stitched, or double sUtched V --- • 9. Buttonholes, made by hand or macnme. Style A. Style B. Style C. Style D. Style E. Stvie F. Secure swatches of fabric for each style. ^w "^ 36 men's factory-made clothing industry. (E) MATERIALS USED IN UNIT, A- : Speciflcations. Style A, style B, Style C. style D. Style E. Style F. 1 Vahrir ^niitnr rlnth^ commercial name 9 Pftlirip nfir ront nf wool .. ^ TTftKrip wfiifht n«r Yard 4 Fabric width l)efore shrinking •» Ffthric vards iLsed before shrulkinE... 6 Fabric Dricc D©r vard % t 1 1 S t S t t t 1 7. Fabric, gross cost of quantity used 8 Fabric i ^ondon or steam shrunk ..... . $ Q Rodv linin? commercial name . ....... 10 Rodv lining ner cent of wool.......... 11 Rodv Irninc width ......... 12 Rodv linine vards used 13 Rodv linine orice Der vard S S $ » s $ S S t t t 14, Body lining, gross costof quantity used. $ lit RIaava lining commtf cial name .. ifi RIaava lininir cotton satin or silk.... 17 Slpeve linine width Ifi RIaava lining vardor for which contractor was not paid. 0-21 and 29, Including tailors, shapers, ticket sewers, basting pullers, cleaners, garment examiners, and bushelers, but not bushelers for retail store and not mdirect mbor shown at C on the establishment (H) TOTAL NET COST OF UNIT. Summary, Style A, Style B, Style C, style D. style E. style F. 1 Materials (F-16) $ 1 % t S 1 1 t 1 t S s t t t $ S 1 $ s % 1 S s s S 2. Paid contractors (G-2, 7, 15, and 23).... 3. Other direct labor (G-6, 14, 22, and 30 less G-2. 7. 15. and 23) 1 $ 4. Rovaltv expense ( F-17) $ b. Overhead charges, as computed by es- tablishment, not including freight i F-15) or royalty (F-17) s 6. Total net cost ^ 1 1 s $ s s 38 MEN S FACTORY-MADE CLOTHING INDUSTRY. r- Each unit was one suit, overcoat, or separate pair of trousers of a particular style. The amount paid for each kind of material used was ascertained; also the amount paid for each direct lahor opera- tion. These items the manufacturers could easily give. What the trade commonly calls '* overhead '^ was found by computation, according to the ''dual method" explained on page 223, in a section of this report headed ''Simplified Cost Accounting." Many manufacturers were interviewed by special agents of the Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce in regard to subjects relating to the men^s ready-made clothing industry that were not included in either the establishment schedule or the unit schedule, and much valuable information regarding general trade conditions was thus obtained. The statistics regarding wages and hours of labor which appear in this report are reproduced from a bulletin issued by the Bureau of Labor Statistics <* reporting an investigation made in the year 1913. A contemplated investigation by the Bureau of Foreign and Do- mestic Commerce of the cost of production of men's ready-made clothing in European countries was prevented by the European war. • Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, whole number IGl. •* A CI '^^ STJMMAB7. CAPITAL, NET SALES, AND TTTBNOVEB. The 64 establishments for which data were obtained reported capital employed in business amounting to $32,850,950, or an average of $513,296 per establishment. In tabulating the data the establishments were divided into 18 groups, according to method of manufacture, usual factory price of product, location, and amount of net sales. These 18 groups are as follows: Group I. Twelve establishments having no operating contracted. Group II. Thirty establishments havmg part of operating con- tracted. Group III. Twenty-two establishments having all operating con- tracted. Of these, 12 establishments which had no operating contracted, re- ported capital employed in business amounting to $5,040,853, or an average of $420,071 per establishment. Thirty establishments, which had part of operating contracted, reported $20,515,075, or $683,836 per establishment. Twenty-two establishments, which had all oper- ating contracted, reported $7,295,022, or an average of $331,592. The establishments are further divided into groups according to the prices at which the principal part of their product is sold. Group IV mcludes 8 establishments manufacturing suits and overcoats with a factory price under $8; Group V, 37 establishments manufacturing suits and overcoats with a factory price of at least $8 but under $15; Group VI, 11 establishments manufacturing suits and overcoats with a factory price of $15 and over, and Group VII, 8 establishments manu- facturing separate trousers, etc. The establishments are also grouped according to locality. Group VIII includes 4 establishments in Chicago; Groiip IX, 7 establishments in Philadelphia; Group X, 4 establishments in Cleveland and Milwau- kee; Group XI, 7 establishments in Rochester; Group XII, 6 establish- ments in Baltimore; Group XIII, 30 establishments m New York City, and Group XIV, 6 establishments in Cincinnati. The last 4 groups are divided according to the amount of net sales. Group XV includes 27 establishments with net sales under $500,000; Group XVI, 14 establishments with net sales of $500,000 and under $1,000,000; Group XVII, 14 estabUshments with net sales of $1,000,000 and under $2,000,000; Group XVIII, 9 establishments with net sales of $2,000,000 or over. The average percentages of manufacturing profit and final profit of all the 64 establishments reporting were as follows: Per cent of manufacturing profit on capital employed in business, 11.14; on net sales, 5.46; per cent of final profit on capital employed in business, 39 / / 40 MEN S FACTORY-MADE CLOTHING INDUSTRY. A - V 10.47; on net sales, 5.14. Of the total number of establishments re- porting, 6 had manufacturing losses and 7 had final losses; 36 earned 10 per cent or more of manufacturing profit, and 34 earned 10 per cent or more of fin^ profit on capital employed in business. The percentage of manuf acturmg profit on the investment and on the net sales is shown by groups in tte following table: Tablb 7.— Percentage of Manufacturing Profit, by Groups and Combina- tions OF Groups of Establishments. Establishments. suits and overcoats with All establishments reporting. . . . Establishments liaving— No oparatlng contracted Part of operating contracted. All operating contracted. Establishments manufacturing factory price- Under 18 $8 and under $15 $15 and over Establishments manufacturing separate trousers, etc. Establishments located in— Groups. I 11 UI ielpbia Cleveland and Milwaukee Rochester Baltimore New York City Cincinnati Establishments with net sales of— Under $500,000 $500,000 and under $1,000,000. . $1,000,000 and under $2,000,000. $2,000,000 or over VIII IX X XI XII XIII XIV XV XVI XVII XVIII Number of establish- ments. 64 12 30 22 IV 8 V 37 VI 11 7U 8 Manufacturing profit on- Capital employed. 4 7 4 7 6 30 6 27 14 14 9 Per cent. 11.14 12.56 9.79 13.94 15.79 12.65 5.13 9.30 Net sales. Per cent. 5.46 5.66 5.22 6.89 6.07 6.19 2.81 4.37 13.45 7.45 14.22 6.53 9.21 6.33 10.03 5.18 9.07 5.06 12.50 5.01 7.33 3. 43 10.90 4.74 11.87 4.11 9.75 4.67 11.90 0.7$ The profit on capital employed in business was in all instances very much larger tnan the profit on net sales, in most cases being 'over twice as large. Establishments with net sales of $2,000,000 or over show a higher percentage of manufacturing profit both on capi- tal employed in business and on net sales than do establishments with smaller amounts of net sales. For the 64 establishments concerning which information was se- cured there was a turnover of more than twice the amount of capital employed in business. The salaries of active officers and the drawing accounts of partners were included in the cost of production before profits \yere figured. Likewise, in the case of an individual owner of an establishment, the costs, include the estimated amount he would have to pay an employee for service such as he himself performed. Before profits were figured, all expenses for selling were included in the cost of production. Furthermore, depreciation was added as an expense before final profits and losses were computed. It was calculated on the inventoried value of the machinery and fixtures at the uniform rate of 8 per cent for all establishments. While many estabUshments kept no depreci- ation account on their books and did not take it into consideration in figuring profits or losses, allowance was made in each case neverthe- less for oepreciation. , H A a j/ SUMMABY. COST AND PEOFTT, BY ESTABLISHMENTS. 41 The data furnished by the 64 establishments that reported show that their average net sales during their last busmess year were $1,046,061; average manufacturing profit, $57,170; average final profit, $53,762. • j • The manufacturing profit, based on net sales, shows a wide varia- tion in the different estabhshments. Of the 64 establishments 58 show a manufacturing profit ranging from 12.78 per cent to 0.04 per cent, and 6 establishments show a manufacturing loss rangmg from 0.27 per cent to 1.72 per cent. Of the 58 estabhshments showmg a manuf acturmg profit on net sales 2 earned more than 10 per cent; 31 more than 5 but less than 10 per cent; 24 more than 1 but less than 5 per cent; and 1 less than 1 per cent. Three of the establishments showing losses had net sales of less than $500,000. - . , .v, . , i Table 8 shows, by groups, percentages of cost based on the total manufacturing and seUing expense of the establishments. Table 8 —Percentages op Average Costs, by Specified Items, Based on the Total' Manufacturing and Selling Expense, by Groups op Establish- MENTd. Establishments. Groups Num- ber of estab- lish- ments. Per cent of total manufacturing and selling ex- pense. All establishments reporting data Establishments having— No operating contraoted Part operating contracted All operating contracted - . Establishments with factory price of- Under$8 18 and under $15 %Vt and over - — Establishments manufacturing separate trousers, etc Estahlishments located in— Chicago PhUadelphIa Cleveland and MUwaukee Rochester Baltimore New York City Cincinnati •' • Establishments with net sales of— Under $500,000 $500,000 and under II ,000,000 $1,000,000 and under 12,000,000... $2,000,000 and over I II lU IV V VI VII VIII IX x XI XII XIII XIV XV XVI XVII XVIII Raw mate- rial. 64 12 30 22 8 37 11 8 4 7 4 7 6 30 6 27 14 14 Direct latxH*. Indi- rect labor. S2.39 50.89 50.91 56.75 58.73 ■ 52.88 46.68 55.87 47.37 54.15 53.48 51.24 51.89 54.50 52.32 53.23 52.70 50.94 53.08 29.29 28.05 29.92 28.68 28.16 28.61 33.70 25.74 28.95 26.83 20.88 32.48 29.91 29.84 29.81 28.19 30.20 30.47 28.46 3.97 4.20 4.46 2.73 2.56 3.99 4.56 Factory ex- pense 2.41 2.91 2.51 1.84 1.76 2.33 2.83 Ad- minis- trative ex- pense. Selling ex- pense. 3.79 2.73 6.46 3.34 7.66 3.15 2.84 3.13 3.51 33 89 77 36 3.31 1.94 3.20 2.07 2.36 2.17 2.04 2.49 2.33 2.44 2.38 3.49 3.75 3.58 3.11 3.98 3.46 3.37 3.60 .65 .63 .83 .66 3. 4. 3. 2. 3.82 3.25 4.92 4.61 3.78 3.34 3.15 8.46 10.20 8.62 6.89 4.81 8.73 8.86 8.27 10.26 9.11 10.95 8.40 9.18 7.11 7.40 8wl5 7.10 9.04 a 57 The variation in the items of cost may be due to several causes: (1) QuaUty of materials used; (2) waste and loss of materials; (3) special prices; (4) discounts; (5) other items of cost bearing a higher or lower relative proportion to the total cost. It does not follow that because one group or estabhshment had a higher proportion of expenditure for du-ect labor than other groups or estabhshments, it had lower profits. Of the 10 estabhshments showing the highest manufacturing profit, 3 had a higher percentage 42 men's factory-made clothing industry. rv SUMMARY. 43 of expense for direct labor than the average for all establishments and 7 a lower percentage; and of the 6 establishments showing a manufacturing loss, 4 had a higher percentage of expense for direct labor and 2 a lower percentage. It should not be assumed that an establishment whose proportion of expenditure for labor was lower than that of other establish- ments, paid less to its employees than did the others. On the con- trary, the earnings of individual employees might even be greater in the establishment with a low percentage of labor cost, because (a) the employees were more skilled than ordinary employees; (b) better superintendence or superior shop arrangements enabled them to turn out a larger product per worker than could be done by workers in factories less efficiently managed; (c) more expensive materials were used in the goods manufactured; (d) overhead ex- penses were relatively high. , • • The percentages for indirect labor, factory expense, and adminis- trative expense in Groups I to III, decrease in importance as the operating contracted increases in amount, except that indirect labor is slightly higher in Group II than in Group I; in Groups IV to VII, they increase in importance as the factory price of the product rises, witn the exception of administrative expense, in which case they decrease; in Groups XV to XVIII, the percentages for indirect labor show a tendency to increase and those for factory expense and admin- istrative expense show a tendency to decrease as the amount of sales increases. COST AND PROFIT, BY SPECIFIED UNITS. Data regarding cost of production of specific styles of men's cloth- ing were obtained from a majority of the manufacturers who fur- nished information for the establishment schedule. The cost of production of 144 styles of three-piece suits was reported by 43 establishments; of 48 styles of overcoats, by 26 establishments; of 18 styles of separate trousers, by 6 establishments. All manufacturers, even those that are most unsystematic m cost accounting, are able to state the cost of direct labor on the unit, because practically all direct-labor oj^erations except cutting are performed by pieceworkers. Manufacturers also can easily tell the quantity and cost of each kind of material that is used in making The overhead charges on all units specified in this report were computed, according to a uniform method, on the basis of the over- head expenses of the establishment during its last business year, as shown by the establishment schedule. Some establishments have such crude cost-finding methods that they do not know even approximately their profit or loss on certain styles. Such unsystematic establishments may continue for a lon^ time to sell particular styles of garments at a loss without knowing it. Some establishments, however, knowing accurately what a certain style costs, will sell it at a small margin of profit, or even at a loss, for the purpose of attracting custom to more profitable styles. An establishment may also find it necessary to carry a complete line of styles in order to meet the demand of its customers and hold its trade, and may consider it good business policy to sell, at or below '^^r^ cost, old or standard styles to customers who will buy high-priced goods on which a profit is realized. , t j-a . The amounts of profit varied considerably on units of ditterent grades, and even on units of the same grade, and some were sold at a loss. Of 210 units reported, 53, or 25.24 per cent, were sold at a loss. Variations in the percentages of profit on high, medium, and low priced clothing appear in the following table: Table 9 —Percentages op Average Manufacturing Profits on Low, Medium, AND High Grade Garments, Based on Average Net Price per Garment. Low grade, under SS. Medium grade, $8 and under $15. High grade. $15 and over. Qarments. Number of units. Per cent of profit. Number of units. Per cent of profit. Number of units. Per cent of profit. Ciilfq 18 7 all a 151 4.570 a 5. 781 83 31 3.203 5.783 43 10 67 6.724 Ovftrp/vi.t'^ -.---.-..---..••-••••••••• 3. n3.{ 66.721 iTOUSdrs « Under 12.75. b Medium and high grade, $2.75 and over. SELLING METHODS. .>^, Data regarding the selling cost and selling methods were obtained from 64 establishments. Of the total sales of these establishments 98 21 per cent went to retailers and 1.29 per cent to jobbers; 0.21 per cent was sold by mail order and 0.08 per cent by tailoring-to- the-trade, and 0.21 per cent was exported. , . ,. ^ , While there is to a certain extent a uniform scale of discounts and time and dating allowances throughout the industry, yet the scale is not used by all manufacturers. A great deal depends upon the class of trade served and on the character, reputation, and business methods of the manufacturing establishment. Usually, however, the terms to retailers in the clothing trade are 7 per cent, 10 days; 6 per cent, 30 days; and 5 per cent, 60 days, with 6 per cent per annum for anticipa- tion. These terms may be said to be fairly uniform, but the class of merchandise handled, reputation of the house, importance of the ac- count and other conditions enter into the terras of discount, dating, etc. Of the 64 establishments reporting, 14 are national advertisers and 50 are limited advertisers. The total selling expense of the 14 estab- r^ lishraents that advertise nationally is 9.41 per cent, as compared Jii^' with a total selling expense of 6.42 per cent for the 50 establishments that do not advertise extensively. The 14 national advertisers also show a higher percentage of manufacturing and final profit than the 50 establishments doing limited advertising. Of the 64 establishments reporting, the 12 establishments that had no operating contracted had a totalselling expense of 9.76 per cent,( the 30 establishments with part of operating contracted, 8.09 per cent and the 22 establishments that had all operating contracted had a total selling expense of 6.39 per cent. The lower selling expense of the establishments that have all operating contracted is due to the fact that estabhshments of this description manufacture low- grade clothing, which does not require high-priced salesmen, exten- sive advertising, and other heavy selling expenses to put it on the market. \ AitaiaMMAifil 44 MEN S FACTORY-MADE CLOTHING INDUSTRY. 'JNr SUMMARY. 45 Manufacturers of men's factory-made clothing suffer from many trade abuses, which are the cause of many uncertamties and losses affecting the whole industry. The principal evils in the industry, with which the manufacturers seem imable to cope, are as follows: Cancellations, returns and allowances, revisions, inaiscriminate credit, extra discounts and dating, concessions to secure new accounts, con- signment shipments, memorandum orders, and long future deHvery. Data concerning returns and allowances and cancellations were secured from 22 establishments. Returns and allowances and can- cellations amounted to 23.03 per cent of total net sales, returns and allowances being 7.59 per cent and cancellations 15.44 per cent. The estimated losses due to these causes, as based on net sales, averaged 1.57 per cent on returns and allowances and 1.29 per cent on cancella- tions, making a total estimated loss of 2.86 per cent. EASNINOS OF EMPLOYEES. The following table shows the average rate of earnings per hour by employees in factories for the manufacture of men's clothing in the seven cities in which the production is largest. The data in this table were derived from a report of the Bureau of Labor Statistics, Department of Labor," which shows the results of an investigation made in 1913. Table 10. — Avebaob Eabninos per Hour of Emploteeb in Specified Occupa- tions, 1913. Occupations. Male. Funale. Occupations. , Male. Female. Cutters, cloth: Hand fO.4355 .4512 .3450 .2540 Pressers: Coat SO. 2878 .3104 .3360 .2959 .2564 Machine Pants Fitters or trimmers coat .... Vest Basters* SO. 1843 .1659 .2041 .1867 .1989 .2019 .2364 .2065 All Coat Hand sewers: Coat Pants . . . - to. 1776 Vest Pants . 1633 AH Vest .1921 Operators: Coat .2948 .3253 .3627 .3090 All .1767 Examiners, shop and stock room .2978 .2683 Pants Vest Bushelersand tailors All The average hours of labor in 1913 of nearly all occupations were between 52 and 53 per week. For cutters the average was about 49 hours per week. In this industry there has been, during recent years, a considerable increase of earnings per hour and a noticeable reduction in the hours worked per week. Taking the average earnings per hour and the average working hours per week in 1913 as the base, or 100 per cent, the average earnings per hour in 1911 were 86 per cent and the average working hours per week in that year were 105.6 per cent. IMPOSTS. The imports of men's clothing into the United States are almost negligible and are generallv English overcoats, novelty garments, like me Bahnacaan and golfing and motoring clothes. No sack suits • Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics. Whole No. 161. /-'f-A are imported. The people in this country who demand English clothes are few. They reside usually in the seaport cities. New i ork, Boston, etc., and are in touch with England either socially or com- mercially. No complaint about foreign competition was made by any manufactiu-er interviewed during this investigation. The Amer- ican people, except a very few, prefer American stvles, and are satisfied that the workmanship on ready-made clothing is much better in this country than in any other. The improvement in the styles and workmanship of ready-made clothing in the United States has led to an enormous increase in the production during the last 20_years. ,11. / The completeness of the factory equipment, the thoroughness of the factory organization, and the efficiency of the working force, which are noticeable in many establishments for making men's cloth- ing in this countr}^, are not even approached in other countries. The ready-made clothing manufactured in Europe is nearly all of low- grade cheap varieties, and is almost invariably made in small factories, in shops, or in the homes of the workers. During the fiscal years 1898 to 1909, while the Dingley Act was m force, the computed ad valorem rate of duty on wearing apparel com- posed wholly or in part of wool, worsted, etc., varied from 73.10 to 78.49 per cent, and during the fiscal years 1909 to 1913, while the Payne-Aldrich Act was in force, the computed ad valorem rate of duty varied from 74.14 to 77.09 per cent. By the Simmons- Underwood Act the rate was reduced to 35 per cent ad valorem. The statistics of imports do not separately specify the importa- tions of men's clothing, but the imports for consumption of wearing apparel of all kinds, composed wholly or in part of wool, worsted, etc., amounted, in the fiscal year ending June 30, 1910, to $1,353,074; 1911, $1,794,081; 1912, $1,608,156; 1913, $1,481,068; 1914, $1,633,- 700; 1915, $1,317,649. During the period from July 1, 1913, to December 31, 1913, under the old tanff the imports were $901,3B0; during the period from January 1, 1914, to June 30, 1914, under the new tariff, they were $732,320. The production of men's and boys' clothing, as reported by the Census of Manufactures, was $485,677,493 in 1909. EZPOBTS. The exports of men's clothing are insignificant as compared with the production in the United States. During the fiscal year 1914 the exports of woolen wearing apparel of all kinds amounted to $2,148,235; of cotton wearing apparel of all kinds, except corsets, hosiery, and other knit goods, $5,999,887. Most of the exports of clothing before the war began in Europe went to North American countries, principally Canada and Mexico. Ready-to-wear clothing is not commonly worn in Europe except in the cheaper grades. American-made clothing for men was introduced in London, Eng- land, about 1907 or 1908, and small quantities have been sold m other European cities. Though South America offers some field for the exportation of clothing, Europe, South Africa, and Australia offer the greatest opportunity. A comparatively small proportion of the population m South America wear well-made clothing. The South American trade demands long selling terms and liberal credits, which American If 46 MEN S FACTORY-MADE CLOTHING INDUSTRY. ■fv manufacturers have generally been unwilling to extend. High tariff* have been an obstacle to South American trade, but it is believed that a market can be built up for two-piece suits made in the United States. American manufacturers of clothing have made little effort to develop foreign trade except in Canada and, to a limited extent, in Mexico. They have been too much engrossed in the home mar- ket. What little clothing they have exported has usually been sold through a buyer or agent resident in this country. They have not catered to the needs of the foreign market nor considered the styles of clothing that are preferred by people in foreign countries. To extend their foreign trade, American manufacturers must study for- eign conditions, cater to foreign needs and prejudices, and send out ssdesmen who can speak foreign languages. ,--i.^ *> CHAFFER I. CAPITA!. NET SALES, AND TURNOVEE. Data regjarding the cost of production of men's ready-made clothii^ were obtained from 64 establishments, the figures covering their last business year. The establishments were classified into 18 groups, according to their methods of manufacture (amount of contracting), factory prices of products, location of factories, and amount of net sales. MANUFACTITBING AND FINAL PEOFIT. Table 11, which follows, shows the amount of capital employed in business by each group of the 64 estabUshments reporting, at the beginning of its latest business period, the net sales and their ratio to capital, the manufacturing profit, and the final profit. Good will, reported by only 4 e^stablishments, is not included m the table: Table 11. — Capital Employed in Business, Net Sales, and Manufacturing AND Final Profit, by Groups of Establishments. Classification. All establishments reporting Establishments having— No operating contracted — Part of operating contracted. All operating contracted — Establishments manufactur- Suits and overcoats at fac- tory iHice under $8 Suits and overcoats at fac- tory price, $8 and under $15. Suits and overcoats at fac- tory price, $15 and over. . . . Separate trousers, etc Establishments located in - Chicago Philadelphia Cleveland and Milwaukee. . Rochester Baltimore New York City Cincinnati Establishments with net sales— Under $500.000 $500,000 and under $1 ,000,000. $1,000,000 and under $2,000,000 $2,000,000 and over Groups. I II HI IV VI VII VIII IX X XI XII XIII XIV XV XVI XVII XVIII Num- ber of estab- lish- ments. 64 12 30 22 37 11 8 4 7 4 7 6 30 6 27 14 14 9 Capital employed in business $32,850,950 5, WO, 853 20,515,075 7,295,022 1,822,357 22,422,566 6,380,741 2,216,286 5,32:i,036 1,378,355 3,756,576 5,6S1,484 4,676,822 9,989,213 2,045,464 3,96:i,065 3,265,630 9,723,025 15,899,230 Net sales. Amount. $66,947,954 11,185,364 38,507,718 17,254,872 4,741,851 45,818,961 11,668,956 4,718,186 9,612,799 3,005,556 5,473,154 11,003,401 8.376,803 25,102,054 4,374,187 9,101,587 9, 443, 897 20,288,752 28,113,718 Ratio to capital 2.04 2.22 1.88 2.37 2.60 2.04 1.83 2.13 1.81 2.18 1.46 1.94 1.79 2.51 2.14 2.30 2.89 2.09 1.77 Manufac- turing profit. $3,658,893 633,382 2,008,877 1,016,634 287,678 2,837,492 327, 499 206,224 716,026 195,970 345,929 569,864 424,034 1,257,325 149, 745 431,812 387,741 947,809 1,891,531 Final profit. $3,440,808 523,089 1,968,740 948,979 249,780 2,660,496 329,417 201,115 730,987 174,077 353, 192 579, 789 436,953 1,067,3 3 98,447 376,209 336,831 770,832 1,956,936 The manufacturing profit shown by groups in the foregoing table was found by adding tne cost of goods produced, the selling expense, and the cost of finished goods purchased, and from this sum deductii^ any increase in the stock of goods during the year, or adding to this sum any decrease in the stock of goods. This deduction or addition gave the cost to the manufacturer of the goods sold, which figures subtracted from the net sales gave, the manufacturing profit. What is called the final pront was found by adding to the manu- facturing profit the miscellaneous income from real estate, bank balances or investments outside the manufacturing business, and 47 48 men's factory-made clothing industry. > I I deducting income from miscellaneous sources, interest on current loans, and depreciation on machinery and fixtures. No item of expense for investments outside the manufacturing business was reported. Of the 64 establishments, 19 reported no depreciation, but depreciation was calculated on the value of machinery and fix- tures of all establishments at the uniform rate of 8 per cent. Salaries of active officers and the drawing accounts of partners were included in the cost of production before profits or losses were figured. Likewise, in case of an individual owner of an establish- ment, the costs included the estimated amount he would have to pay an employee for service such as he himself performed. Before profits or losses were figured, all expenses for selling were included m the cost of production. As the greater number of the 64 establishments from which data were secured rented their factories, those which did own their build- ings were put on a rental basis. In estimating the rent where the building was owned, the items for depreciation, repairs, fire insur- ance, and taxes relating to buildings were canceled. From the value of the building, as shown on the books of the company, the reserve for depreciation on buildings and the cost of additions and better- ments during the year were deducted. On the remainder 10 per cent was charged against cost of manufacture as rent. PEBCENTAGES OF PROFIT ON CAPITAL AND NET SALES. The percentages of manufacturing profit and final profit, based both on capital employed in business and on net sales, are shown in the following table, by groups of establishments: Table 12.— Average Percentages of Manufacturing Profit and Final Profit ON Capital Employed in Business and on Net Sales, by Groups of Estab- lishments. Classlflcation. Groups All establishments repwting Establishments having— No operating contracted Part of operating contracted All operating contracted Establishments manufacturing- Suits and overcoats at factory price under fS. Suits and overcoats at factory price, $8 and under $15 Suits and overcoats at factory price, $15 and over Separate trousers, etc Establishments located in— Chicago Philadelphia Cleveland and Milwaukee Rochester Baltimore New York City Cincinnati Establishments with net sales— Under $500,000 $500,000 and under $1.000.000. . $1,000,000 and under 12,000,000. $2,000,000 or over I 11 III rv VI VII VIII IX X XI XII XllI XIV XV XVI XVII XVI II Number of estab- lish- ments. 64 12 30 22 8 37 11 8 4 7 4 7 e 30 6 37 14 14 9 Per cent of manu- facturing profit on- Capital em- ployed in business. 11.14 12.56 9.79 13.94 15.79 12.65 5.13 9.30 13.45 14.22 9.21 10.03 9.07 12.59 7.32 10.90 11.87 9.75 11.90 Net sales. 5.46 5.66 5.22 5.89 6.07 6.19 2.81 4.37 7.45 6.52 6.32 5.18 5.06 5.01 3.42 4.74 4.11 4.67 6.73 Per cent of final profit on- Capital em- pl03red in business. 10.47 10.38 9.60 13.01 13.71 11.87 5.16 9.07 13.73 12.63 9.40 10.20 9.34 10.69 4.81 9.49 10.31 7.93 12.31 Net sales. 5.14 4.67 5.11 5.50 5.27 5.81 2.82 4.36 60 79 45 27 5.22 4.25 2.25 4.13 3.57 3.80 6.96 ■^.' .: 4 CAPITAL, NET SALES, AND TUBNOVEB, TUBNOVEB OF CAPITAL. 49 The percentages of profit on capital employed in the business were much larger than those on net sales because, in this industry the net sales each year are considerably greater than the capital employed, and the latter can therefore be turned over several times durmg the year. Thus for the 64 establishments reporting, the manufacturing profit on the capital employed was 11.14 per cent and on the net sales, 5.46 per cent, the former being 2.04 times the latter, as shown in Table 11. The same relation existed between the final profit on the capital employed, 10.47 per cent, and on the net sales, 5.14 per cent. As the capital turnover varies in different establishments, the relation between the profits based on capital employed and the profit on net sales varies accordingly, as may be seen in the preceding table. The profits based on net sales are fully discussed in Chapter 11, Cost and Profit by Eistablishments. Table 13 shows for each of the 64 establishments, as well as for each of the first three groups, the manufacturing profit and final profit based on capital employed in business and on net sales. Table 13. — Percentage of Manufacturing Profit and Final Profit on Capital Employed in Business and on Net Sales. Establishments having— No operating contracted (Qroup I). Total Part of operating contracted (Group 11). rer ceni, oi facturing on- mauu- profit Per cent of final profit on— Establish- ' ment No.- Capital Capital employed Net employed Net in busi- sales. in busi- sales. ness. ness. 1 15.38 12.78 13.48 11.20 2 22.78 4.95 20.47 4.45 8 13.20 6.79 12.93 6.65 4 23.65 6.50 21.68 5.96 6 21.07 5.24 19.04 4.74 « 20.69 4.61 16.08 3.58 7 2.64 1.92 4.32 3.13 8 8.36 3.34 5.48 2.19 9 12.13 7.15 11.00 6.48 10 3.23 1.52 a 6. 89 a 3. 23 11 8.53 5.87 8.34 5.74 12 39.82 8.83 38.82 8.61 t 12.56 5.66 10.38 4.67 13 5.94 2.01 1.44 .49 14 9.02 5.20 7.49 4.32 15 0.73 a. 40 2.13 1.15 16 3.45 2.23 3.16 2.04 17 11.03 5.03 10.98 5.01 18 01.99 a 1.10 2.59 1.43 19 29.40 6.09 28.97 6.00 20 13.26 5.79 11.39 4.97 21 6.09 3.07 5.07 2.56 22 24.45 6.89 22.53 6.35 23 12.96 3.59 12.21 3.38 24 7.96 3.25 7.07 2.89 25 30.29 8.28 29.93 8.18 26 16.62 4.50 13.62 3.69 27 15.09 6.51 10.43 4.50 28 25.70 3.41 20.92 2.78 29 a 1.09 a. 54 a 2. 10 ol.OS 30 8.46 3.11 5.06 1.86 31 3.33 1.07 a 4. 57 a 1.46 32 13.67 7.33 10.02 5.41 • Loss. 11914«— 16 4 50 MEN S FACTORY-MADE CLOTHING INDUSTRY. /-^ Table 13. — Percentage of Manufacturing Profit and Final Profit on Capital Employed in Business and on Net Sales — Continued. Establish- ment Na- Per cent of manu- facturing profit oa— Per cent of final profit OD— Establishments having — Capital employed in busi- ness. Net sales. Capital employed in busi- ness. Net sales. Part of operating ccmtracted (Group II) 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 18.46 6.75 14.80 1.40 a. 26 a 21 3.87 9.09 12.97 26.91 6.91 3.74 4.57 0.77 a. 27 5.41 3.41 6.23 7.68 10.57 15.65 3.96 11.11 4.56 1.36 8.12 6.38 9.78 12.25 26.19 5 86 2.57 3.43 2.56 1.41 5.35 5.62 6.70 7.26 10.29 Total 9.79 5.22 9.60 5 11 All operating contracted (Group III) 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 18.50 a 4. 30 16.18 9.28 22.12 8.96 5.90 13.82 16.12 25.89 4.29 .06 27.66 26.03 13.12 21.82 14.96 10.02 4.51 38.25 4.17 20.77 5.79 1.72 7.04 5.48 4.71 3.80 3.00 6.59 8.19 8.44 2.08 .04 7.20 6.20 S.74 6.40 8.07 7.55 1.30 9.57 2.13 8.68 17.64 a 6. 98 15.51 7.82 18.40 9.60 3.00 12.34 16.95 22.94 3.06 1.67 22.61 25.97 9.31 20.44 13.05 9.93 3.08 33.80 4.90 20.58 5 52 2.79 6.75 4.62 3.92 4.10 1.52 5.88 8.62 7.48 1.48 ol.OO 5.89 6.19 2.65 5.99 7.04 7.49 .89 8.46 2.50 8.60 Total 13.94 5.89 13.01 5 50 « Loss. The foregoing table shows that of the 64 establishments from which data were secured, 6 had manufacturing losses and 7 had final losses. The greater number of establishments with final losses was due chiefly to interest charges. The table shpws that of the 64 establishments reporting, 36 earned 10 per cent or more of manufacturing profit and 34 earned 10 per cent or more of final profit on capital employed in business, the highest percentage of manufacturing profit being 39.82 and of final pront 38.82 (establishment No. 12). The fact tnat an establishment made a very small profit or had a loss may have been due to (a) poor factory management; (b) poor cost-finding system; (c) poor selUng methods; (d) too httle care in extending credits; (e) lack of sufficient capital; (f) too much with- drawn from the business by the owner, partners, or officers. PBOFITS EABNED BY LABGE AND SMALL ESTABLISHMENTS. There is a difference of opinion as to whether large or small factories are more efficiently conducted with reference to economy of produc- tion. In the larger factories efficiency systems have effected certain r\ A. -< 4> r CAPITAL, NET SALES, AND TURNOVER. 51 economies, but in some of these factories the overhead expenses are disproportionately large. The establishments m each group shown in the preceding table were arranged in the order of the amounts of net sales, the establishment with the smallest sales being first and the one with the largest last. An examination of the table shows there were no decided differences in the percentages of profit between the smaller and the larger estab- lishments in each group. The following taole snows the average percentage of manufacturing profit on capital employed in business and on net sales, bv establish- ments making men's factory-made clothing in the several centers of manufacture: Table 14. — Average Percentaqe op Manufacturing Profit by Establish- ments Making Men's Factory-Made Clothing in the Several (Centers of Manufacture. Establishments in— Chicago. 4 establishments, Group VIII Philadelphia, 7 establishments, Group IX Cleveland and Milwaukee, 4 establishments, Group X. Rochester, 7 establishments. Group XI Baltimore, 6 establishments, Group XII New York City, 30 establishments. Group XITl Cincinnati, 6 establishments, Group XIV. Average manufactur- ing pro6t on- Capital employed in busi- ness. Percent. 13.45 14.22 9.21 10.03 9.07 12.59 7.32 Net sales. Percent. 7.45 6.52 6.32 5.18 5.06 5.01 3.42 ^^m i«& I COST AND PBOFIT BY ESTABLISHMENTS. 53 CHAPTER II. COST AND PROFIT BY ESTABUSHMESTTS. The schedules used for the collection of data showed the various items of the cost of production. The principal divisions of costs were for raw material, direct labor, indirect labor, factory expense, admin- istrative expense, and selling expense. Each of the divisions, except that for materials, was subdivided into specified items. The salaries of active partners or officers, or the estimated amounts that individual owners would have paid for services that they themselves performed, were entered under indirect labor, administrative expense, or selling expense, according to the character of the services rendered. In presenting tne data secured from the 64 establishments, the actual amounts of their net sales and of their expenses for a year are not shown by individual establishments, because by such figures some establishments might be identified. The net sales, the items of cost, and the profit are shown by percentages, according to establishments, and by both averages and percentages, according to groups. The 64 establishments were grouped in four different ways: Ac- cording to the extent contract labor entered into the operations (Groups I to III) ; according to the grade or Quality of clothing manu- factured (Groups IV to VIlI) ; according to locality (Groups VIII to XIV); according to the amount of net sales (Groups XV to XVIII). The terms "manufacturing profit" and "final profit" are explained in the chapter on "Capital, Net Sales, and Turnover," page 47. COST AND PBOFIT BASED ON NET SALES. From the data derived from the establishment schedules the table that follows shows, by jgroups of establishments, the average net sales, the average cost of items, and the average profit on net sales per establishment: . So g^ o n 00 1-1 o.^ u 31^ 00 8^ S2 > a a 1 CO H n 00 5*^82^ »5 ■f •^ iC « TO 00 »o t- ■^ CO t» iC u? oH too to esiNoocoa^ Oi "»" MS O-V I t-» •* «0 00 ^"O t^ ■*<■>>»< CI eo » 1^ coc oo« »c •c OS f— ' «c> r-- 1^ CO fie 00 OS 00 O O o «oec iH AOOOiCOtQO fit-eoejooo «Of-H o w t^eo •« •« .^ «^ a^ •« i-c ■^ >«< OB •-< <0 M>Ci-i COt^Qt^« »o t^co w ■^ "0 r^«o 00 co« 1-1 cToo'orcocro' i-tOi-i « MMb c« •§ sals o to" ■•J" o (0 030 ^ c*« !S i-- to MS a>C4 ecto .» a^ 85 '^ 0» 00 CO 'Q OS uj I f-i ^ ■V »o t>-M>-« ( cc o CO o CO CO •-I w «c '" — toco I cj'^ o >SS?t^c^< tO(. t^ 1^ ■^ 05 'T ! i^^^S M t^ ■«»■ -"ti e^ csj ■^ 1-c CC ■V O 00 «0 tC O «■ CO 05 T t>- o» CO «r d f-i OO CO C* CO 00 i-iO i>o 00 8 CO UJOO o»t^ t-iCO |8 ^OJ rS^to COt» Oi-i 00 to" CO'* 00 CO CC Oi 2S S :S8 o c« oSS co^t^ ©CO-* cT •«» CO tO»-< t-i c* 00 »o ^ c» .-I to e^oo M I& in OS 08 ^ > a 1 S 00 • •o OS !>. 00-^ ocr^ ao«c SSS8 eoN sis CO 1-11^ 00 U3 t>.co( »o< "'Site 1-1 1»0 COOSW iOi-li-^ tococ^ ooNcs« CO "ON CO CO to •«< COt^ «0 T 1-1 I^OtO »>o c»c»oo •«• 00 00 ©1-1 c*©«g «Oi-i<0 tOi-iN 1-1 c* 11 00 eo ^ © eo to eo to £ »o to ^ •V coco S8; •o © «o CO to s m bo w S p. 32-9 S P O) n w 5 o btr^ •S 2 5 ft g.bc § B o ^ * 5 •"I 3 C »5 a>— 1 a o ki P. bo a 3 a m § T5 O CO §^ o q cS . 2-2*^ b p 3 J a 3 *M o o <3 O IM P< be .a M 3 a a o § o 3 2 £'45 S H p 2 I. r'^^V / 54 MEN S FACTORY-MADE CLOTHING INDUSTRY. COST AND PROFIT BY ESTABLISHMENTS. 55 a d o 5? H a H 00 n » O « o O n o o H I— t Q i-« U. »>« u H n 1^ o CD Q o o O O H 00 O O H O -*{ OS H > I— I H n < t. It The average net sales of the 64 establishments that reported were $1,046,061; the average cost of goods sold, $988,891; the average manufacturing profit, $57,170; the average final profit, $53,762. These items for aU establishments and for the various groups are shown in Table 16, which follows: Table 16. — Average Net Sales, Cost op Goods Sold, and Manufacturing and Final Profit, by Groups op Establishments. Establishments. All establishments retorting Establishments having— No operating contracted (Group I) Part opM^ting contracted (Group II) All operating contracted (Group III) Establishments with factory price of units— Under $8 (^Group IV) $8 and under $15 (Group V) tl5and over (Group VI) Separate trousers, etc. (Group VII) Establishments located in— Chicago (Group VIII) Philadelphia (Group IX) Cleveland and Milwaukee (Group X) Rochester (Group XI) Baltimore (Group XII) , New York City (Group XIII) Cincinnati (Group XI V^ Establishments with net sales of— Under $500,000 (^Group XV) $50a,(K)0 and under $1,000,(K)0 (Group XVI)... $1,000,000 and under $2,000,(KK» (Group XVII) $2,000,000 and over (Group XVIII) Number of estab- lish- ments. 64 12 30 22 8 37 11 8 4 7 4 7 6 30 6 27 14 14 9 Average net sales. $1,046,061 032, 114 1,283,591 784,312 502,731 1,238,350 1,060,814 589,773 2,403,200 429,365 1,368,288 1,571,914 1,396,134 836, 735 729,031 337,096 674,564 1,449,197 3,123,746 Average cost of goods sold. $988,891 879,332 1,216,628 738, 101 556,771 1,161,661 1,031,041 563,995 2,224,194 401,370 1,281,806 1,490,505 1,325,462 794,824 704,074 321, 103 646,868 1,381,496 2,913,576 Average manufac- turing profit. $57, 170 52,782 66,963 46,211 35,960 76,689 29,773 25,778 179,006 27,995 86,482 81,409 70,672 41,911 24,957 15,993 27,696 67,701 210,170 Aver- age final profit. $53,762 43,591 65,625 43,136 31,223 71,905 29,947 25,139 182,747 24,868 88,298 82,827 72,825 35,579 16,408 13,934 24,059 55,059 217,437 Group III, consisting of 22 establishments which have all their operating contracted, shows the smallest average net sales, indicating tnat the larger establishments generally have their operating per- formed either entirely in their own shops or only partly in contract shops. In the grouping according to character and price of product, estab- lishments are assigned to the groups which most nearly represent their product, even though other grades of goods are produced there. Thus, if the factory prices of 75 per cent of the goods produced are under $8 and 25 per cent are $8 or over, the establishment is placed in Group IV, ''Under $8;" if 75 per cent are $8 and under $15 and 25 per cent are under $8, it is placed in Group V, '*$8 and under $15," and so on. In the third grouping the establishments were classified according to locality. Reports were obtained from establishments in eight cities. A sufficient number of estabhshments was not obtained for either Cleveland or Milwaukee to make a group for each of these cities, and for this reason the establishments in the two cities are combined, so as to avoid disclosing the identity of any establish- ment. While the entire field was not covered in any city, the num- ber of establishments reported may be considered as representative. In both the manufacturing and the final profit it will be found that the groups containing the larger estabhshments show greater average profits than the groups containing the smaller establish- ments. It does not necessarily follow that tne larger estabhshments r'T> » I t It^ 56 MEN S FACTORY-MADE CLOTHING INDUSTRY. earned a greater percentage of profit on net sales or on investment than did the smaller establishments. A more acem'ate way to measm*e the amount of profit for any estabhshment or group is the percentage of profit on net sales or on the investment. PEBCENTAGES OF SPECIFIED ITEMS OF COST. Table 17, on page 57, shows the percentages, based on net sales, for the various items of cost and for the manufacturing and final profit, by establishments grouped according to the amount of con- tracting (Groups I to III), factory prices of products (Groups IV to VII), location (Groups VIII to XIV), and amount of net sales (Groups XV to XVIII). Success in the men's clothing industry depends largely upon the good judgment of the manufacturer in buying his materials. Other factors of success are the possession of sufficient capital, modem fac- tory equipment, efficient factory management, and an efficient selling organization. It is practically impossible to trace statistically the eflfect of each of these reasons for successful business, but a study of the percentages of the items of cost of the product will, at lea^ to some extent, indicate whether or not the general management of an establishment is efficient. Of the total additions to the manufacturing profit, interest received is the most important item, being 0.37 per cent, or more than three- fifths of the total additions. Of the total deductions from the manu- facturing profit, interest paid on current loans is the most important item, being 0.75 per cent, or more than four-fifths of the total deduc- tions. The average manufacturing profit on net sales varies but slightly in the grouping according to method of manufacture. It thus ap- pears that, on an average, the profits are nearly the same whether the contract system is employed or whether the goods are made entirely or in part in the manufacturing establishment. The group of establishments with net sales of $2,000,000 and over shows a considerably larger percentage of manufacturing as well as final profit than the groups of establishments with smaller net sales PEBCENTAGES OF COST AND PBOFIT, BY ESTABLISHMENTS. Table 18, on page 59, shows percentages of cost and profit based on net sales, by individual estaolishments, arranged in tne order of their manufacturing profits, from the highest profit to the greatest loss. ^ \ fr^ 00 5z; H H ao M < c O K P o m O PQ 00 < CQ H H 55 O D M 00 < PQ 00 O OS Q^ Q 00 H H a m >* n oc H 00 o H O H < o 00 H O < H S5 H K H PQ < COST AND PROFIT BY ESTABLISHMENTS. 57 H O .8 Is t S •& Q .a 1% go a "2 > - 5 :8 !8 ^8 is 11- I CO I .a I s S3 . 3 §5 S V)-) I ^8 -8 3sSS'C«o( i^oO'^cieooo gjg«<5?> 00 JO -q^ c4 CO a» 2Sf2888 oJr^cocicot^ ^ s CO 00 s S8^ S s S! Ok 1-100 Cr« ^o> OCi-l s OC0CO «oco3; g s S8 8 t-- •o o I" O £« 9 , Will I null ■go n «fi « V O 2*0 1 2 o 9ll o I o bc a 3 § s a o ?l lis S ►* 2 ts cr a •^ 0/53 o a — 2 ^ 99* •? ^ III U* ^ Ti III s I - •a J r--^ 58 MEN S FACTORY-MADE CLOTHING INDUSTRY. •^ I o I s X3 a « a ■S CO g O Okh .8 t ft, O o H OQ n o Q K O < H H O i s H M 1 i I s i o a SS Pi-l fti ^8 ft, M a Oi_i 0, ^8 fti 9>jD^c4e4a6 r>o<» 0*000 00 A n c4 m 00 a0t«r4«O<^Q ooaorae^racd fti OQ ^•8 S8 ft, ft, t^ CO "^ CO oo *o • ••••• coio>-4oorau3 CO (p CO •-« '4< «d ^H ts. 00 ^ A «0 oorooa oor« i-igoc«c«eo«6 s> go C4 e>« CO 00 r«h.io>ooaQ 00 c> « »^ e4 1^ •2 8 « fl e8 o^-- r^Sc»35eo SC^ t^ CO CO o •s u ft. 8 ■'••o»eo-*»o t • • ■ • • iM »-• ^ lO r»- r» t" I'- a o « ^ cO3S>ococo0> § a • . ; « « «Jr COST AND PROFIT BY ESTABLISHMENTS. 59 60 MEN S FACTORY-MADE CLOTHING INDUSTRY. SR H (3 O o ■-> U e s 00 H >« o PQ •H Q W H o O H S2: << fe: PS H O 00 hJ H < OQ o OS t- h H ^ oc 5z OC en O O o ^ H •< O n Q 00 ;z: M < K K H o oc kJ N OS ^ o O 00 H^ t O b. H o Q n 2 X 31 S o u OS H b. ►H Q H H c o H Oi OQ o 2 >4 H n PS D 00 e (C < o h rj) p s? b, << o s oc H OS O •< h4 H H PS ZH H o h « O 1 Pi 1 Q • 04 00 i-H O H H n3 tB PQ H -< H COST AND PROFIT BY ESTABLISHMENTS. 61 A «h i^. rfik wM 62 00 • Jc'B H S-. (3 n £S iM O ^9 •< fc; H OQ cn u H n o ^4 qW H O o S5 H •< H OS 00 o; H -«1^ ^ O 1 h4 H < o OS (- b H ^ 39 S:; 00 o O c )-) fix O n Q 00 2 H •< 00 n H O 00 )-) H tt ^ O O so 1-4 o o Pi H SO H ki4 < w 00 o M PS H 6h t— ( Q & H h *•* u s Pk H »5 s ^ OS 00 H Of Sb H ft. ss OOQ » H §. I o 55 d d :z; d o 5? o d d o 55 00 d 55 S I d 0] « MEN S FACTORY-MADE CLOTHING INDUSTRY. *N T\^ 1J8 ft,2 TJ8 ft,S ^8 a,2 ^8 ft,2 ^8 ^8 ft,2 ^8 ^8 ^8 ^8 ^8 oi «d "•■' c4 CO M ^ i-ico o ^S; e** r^o r-ao • ••••• 22SSg8S V «•««•« CO od aomcoidot i c>i e^' «d lora s. r^ < «- I 2: o 55 d 55 eo ^ eo d S COST AND PROFIT BY ESTABLISHMENTS, 63 ^8 ^8 ^8 ^8 tJ8 ^8 a,2 ^8 ^8 ^8 ^8 ft,2 ^8 ^8 ft,2 is8 ^8 Sco»HicS« $s^ »flN«^ SP*e3^ JS5© '«>cDr^ao« "f e4 c»i e4 ci oS •«j> Mj c4 p« ■♦ id «oot^co«e>« a> 00 tc CO td 0(5 0»OCOift U9CO od ^ '<|! C< M od coco l^i-l Si XCOIO C>« lO U5 •*• CO w s Q t CO V t^ 8 S eo 8 Sg 00 s M gi s c« S^ S :S o V* 1-4 O 8 8 8 CO s 8S SS $-"* I 9 s l«8 ,•3 4J CO s -a M 55 III ^ z S S • • • eo eo SB lo*2 S o S^ SS So s eo s eo eo»^© r*o ooo 00(0 eo^ >00 coi-i c< °ll ill fc< 3n 3 3 S ♦* « 'mm _ o ai 4^ to "* o 4-> S •9 -a •a « "3 "3 •W4^ o o 00 s *o z C4 eo c4 s o a !!^ R 9 • ^ o o ill Ss3 o h a 60 |s as J 33 rt 3 S^ J- — o *» o S4i> •O'S ■3*3 ■*J4-» o o 8 • ^g:i r 18 •o>. acts c^-' a-o go 88 ^ ^ 3 00 5S I' [8 is ^o >• s c e 6 2 eS ♦J ©Mo ==•5 2 ^ 08 'o 88 r *5. e9 a, 18 '<3 »« 18 S S wop -a SS3 ^ ^ 'c4 S8 CO S?s:sss8::s9 S^sissSSSSS S??2g3SSS25 \ m i s -i^ s 1.19 6.72 .14 • • • • • C>4 sss;^8sss So ^■^ ' ' ' ' wA SB ad SS8KSSSSS .87 5.18 .19 2S855 or ^4 ^S8?JS^8;^ ^ • ' ' '^ ' • 00 o» eo •c^ ; ..... 00 • 8f^8S88o^ CO u CO r-.OC<»Hi-ieo55'*' •wi • • • '^ • CI od »>.S»^eo^o»o5 J2 c4 a d S8S^^SSS8;?^ 5 ej •id • • • vi • 0(5 11^ tfA4P^ Ssl^^ 1 HO ! « o o g 1 I S I J2 "^5 Sr ^ s a 1 1 68 MEN S FACTORY-MADE CLOTHING INDUSTRY. f^ COST AND PROFIT BY ESTABLISHMENTS. 69 i S ■*» s s a s n O g H K i % S 3 M Pi* ^8 §0*09 0«-4 »§8 tills ^'8 88 |ii§ feS ao.^. EC lis i ^■8 ^8 ft, 8 si ?8 ft, ^•8 ^8 ft. ft. h8 88 ft. is Is ft, is ft, 00 ^«aor^Mgoe»>9 • • • « • r:§328S8a5 • • • • • fi3S;gJ3S^!o9 CO CO C9 s CO CO J •CO e « a a 0) III If" .00 2S2 I I SSoMoSSco SU SSS^SSSS!;: CO •«J esss^ssss S';2S^SS8$ 882138:389 A CO 00 CO • ••••••• u5 ^ oiS $g::S98?;S§S ^i!>SSSSSS gggss^s^ 9S •-5 ;ss^^SiSJ to ft od t:« ooc^wr^oo .-< t-i C* CO CO 1-, S3 CO • ••••••• 00 U-i SS2S8SSS SSajSSSS5 Sa<-4C0^^«EoC4 SS::^89S9 r- o> •-< ^ CJ ?3 'a ^ o>'*co^Neo«o^ o5S88^2§39 •-5 • CO s ^ ^8 SSSS9 od s 3 H SooS'-ico'^w CO n *to ■ ' ' 'c6 CI I M 5 8 See 3 O O ^ 03 S . 08^ fl • O. « c> tp "^ oc t ^ o !^ .--hN / 70 men's factory-made clothing industry. J^ cost and profit by establishments. 71 In the classification according to the prices of the products, administrative expense is found to be highest in Group IV and lowest in Group \n[, this being the same order as for raw materials, but the reverse of tne other principal divisions of expense. Salaries of officials, with 1.39 per cent, and bad debts, with 1.30 per cent, in Group IV are considerably above the averages for all estaolishments. The variation in the percentages for total seUing expense from 4.81 per cent in Group IV (factory price under $8) to 8.86 per cent in Group VI (factory price $15 and over) is due principally to the differences existing in the percentages for salaries, commissions, and expense of salesmen, and for advertising. The national advertisers are generally found among the manufacturers of medium and high- grade clothing. Some establishments with a sufficient working capital are in a position to discount all their bUls and some (those purchasing mate- rials in large quantities) are not only in a position to buy at lower prices, but to obtain special discounts as well; whereas the estab- lishments with insufficient working capital are not in a position to discount their bills nor are the smaller establishments in a position to obtain special discounts and special prices. The influence of these factors on the percentages for raw materials can not be shown by estabhshments without disclosing their identity. Chicago, notwithstanding higher freight rates on account of the distance from the producing centers of the raw materials, has, with 47.37 per cent, the lowest percentage of cost for raw materials, and New York City, with 54.50 per cent, the highest percentage. The group, Cleveland ana Milwaukee, with 20.88 per cent, shows the lowest airect labor cost, iand Rochester, with 32.48 per cent, the highest direct labor cost. If the total direct labor and the total indirect labor be combined, Rochester shows the highest percentage of cost, followed in order by Chicago, Cincinnati, New York City, Baltimore, Philadelphia, Cleveland and Milwaukee. manufacturing and selling cost, by establishments. Table 20, on page 72, shows percentages for the items of costs in detail and for the main divisions of costs by individual establishments arranged in the order of their manufacturmg profits from the highest to the lowest profit, and of their manuf actiu-mg losses from the lowest to the highest loss. All the percentages are based on the total cost of manufacturing and selling. For good reasons an establishment may have larger proportionate costs for certain items of expense than another establishment or than the average for the group to which it belongs. This is somewhat dependent on the quauty of the goods that the establishment produces or on the importance tnat some manufacturers give to various items of costs, for some manufacturers have found it profitable to spend more than the average for seUing — that is, to pay higher salaries or commissions to salesmen of exceptional abihty or to pay out large sums for advertising. The same ratio of expenditure for all items will not be found in any two estabhshments, but if the percentages for many items are much greater than the average of similar estab- lishments, the profit will be smaller or there may be a loss. A i^ The total cost of manufacture and selling being used as the base, it follows that all items of cost, expressed m percentages, must add to 100 per cent, but just what the relation to the total cost each item of expense should bear could be determined only in case an establish- ment was efficient in all its departments. One establishment may pride itself upon the efficiency of its sales department and at the same time have inefficient shops, or vice versa; or another establish- ment may be very efficient in ouying its materials and inefficient in other departments. The average percentages for the various groups (which can not be considered as representative of a model factory, because a model factory should be better than an average factory) will afford the manu- facturer an opportunity to compare the percentages for his own estabhshment with the average percentages for the groups in which his establishment is found. If such comparison be made the result will show which items of cost are relatively high. For the 64 estabhshments that reported data there are large varia- tions in the percentages for the various items of cost. Raw-material cost is more than 50 per cent of the total cost in 38 estabhshments, being highest in estabhshment No. 58, with 64.79 per cent, and lowest m estabhshment No. 7, with 41.31 per cent. An enumeration of the percentages for raw materials shows that there are 6 estabhshments with costs between 60 and 65 per cent, 16 between 55 and 60 per cent, 16 between 50 and 55 per cent, 21 between 45 and 50 per cent, and 5 between 40 and 45 per cent. The causes for this vanation are as follows: (1) The quality of the materials used; (2) waste of materials resulting from cuttmg, some of which can not be avoided but which can be reduced to a minimum by efficient supervision and workmanship; (3) waste resulting from cutting cer- tam materials — such as stripes — which must be matched in the finished product, the waste being greater in such materials than in plain mate- rials that require no matehing; (4) loss of materials due to careless handling in tne raw stock room by the employees, or to an inefficient check upon the raw stock taken from the stock room ; (5) the average sizes running higher in one estabhshment than another; (6) discounts; (7) special prices. The percentage of raw material depends, of course, also upon the other items of cost having a higher or lower relative proportion to the total cost in one estabhshment than in another. Direct labor, next to raw materials, shows the largest percentage of the total cost, for 6 establishments show costs between 35 and 40 per cent, 20 between 30 and 35 per cent, 29 between 25 and 30 per cent, 7 between 20 and 25 per cent, and 2 less than 20 per cent. Of the 64 estabhshments, 30 are above and 34 are below the average direct-labor cost of 29.29 per cent. Establishment No. 43, with 38.94 per cent, shows the hignest cost, and estabhshment No. 1, with 13 per cent, the lowest cost. 72 » ^ S QQ w o >* H n 00 » NGED Low < < 93 00 O fa y. (Z) u 00 00 M O o' ^ y fa 3 O •J Q w 2 C/J < c H K 00 «< u o o M p » H U E5 P O S5 4 -< ^ fa U P H 2 P^ «< C/J ^ >H n tf tm 00 n 00 H O Q fa h o C tf CO H H Q O « :?o H S; U H S U H OS Z 0^ 1 oc 1 w 2 s a b3 K O ^j « ►- e -< nw e o 2; d C4 d 55 CO d d o <0 B en MEN S FACTORY-MADE CLOTHING INDUSTRY. COST AND PROFIT BY ESTABLISHMENTS. 73 ^8 -8 s 158 d s§ ^ ti «8 • l§ s ;i8 • o ts 5!; a,S • ^8 d «-s ^z: ft,2 S Ts8 d fcs ^ ft,S • li8 d 3=^ 55 a,2 ^' xi8 d ,^S ^ ft,S • XJ8 d ,^8 Z a,S e>» ^ s .•8 o «o ^ t8 ^8 ^«o C4 00 00 nftO »o ^ S o os«o 00^ «s §f2 00 c4 oo TS8 Si lis S§ is8 C4 OO s 00 oo esco 8 eo e M a B «s bc 9 C « s a B ^ ^ «8 E-) PS ss M •Ol Rg C<5 CI c«ci CO CO St^ 82 I— I eo 8 •♦r* ■ •••••••• ;:s?85&8 3 SmoM ?sss$ eo s e •o coo 2 I s •o eooci sgss 8S s S2 :a88 eo»-<^«o o S28S88 • ■•••• SSS8 •o 882 • • • • OtiCMO ? i I s is I S s >o $:ES8$3S •♦ 00 o •♦ o * »^ eo eo &s oo>r«pc* o<-ieoF>'0 • • • eSSS^So^ ssjsjra SS2 8 Sr^eo w*aO'«< eo uS f-4 C4 '^ eo 00 ^ 4 00 ■* •-ie« S28 8 ss CO 8838: 8 eo »H <-< C« o ^^ a r- 00 to ^8 €0^ O/cc 6c * •— aj g a i S 8 I « s ^•5 3^^:::8 CO eo s >o CO c* at at eS S * M o ^ H o S ►3 •< H « H « H ^ a •- o w « eu Pm s? g OD H OD O o f^ 5e h h4 O •J H OQ O ^ S5 O P H O H H H O P pq o «^ O M o H OQ 6 2: CO d e 5? o Sz: 6 o 55 d o d s d 55 d 55 d 525 {53 'to t»«o tXCO 311 i: :S : :2St3:3 c«w^>oo • • • iCO C400eo • I • 'CO ._ SH SSSSSg :^S »- II •-• :S S C( eo« s ^S5 otoo ^3 e4eo 04 t«-eo coo e4i6 d-«*SS !9 isss^si^sss 3 M a 3 'oo S2 'Mi sss 00 Oft >r»eo»^ t^oo eo» coco CO 'VOO eo S! ^N O eo 00 S c* 3 SS CO a»a» CO « noo . ■*c*^ • • . wo •'«'ff40 • • • SCO ^ 00 » 'Q * • • MOCO -O • • • "•^ n c»oe«'*5i "•• e» 11 ^*oc«oco "-* • •••■•* Oft c* 33SS; :$ :^ S S CO 0*20 a»P40f-i :SS cor«c«cQ :S :J: S SS2S;?«33 ^r» ■Oi-I to<0 'ACOOOO •*»-l • « l-^ « 1-1 •-• ;;is I3S SSSS :S : :;^ c» r*0 •« • CO • o 33SS;S^ :g3S aO'^ tOotOCOO o CO ciaOr-ira«co 'O t^Ok<-«KOO» 'C4 Mao^ i-4«0O^e4OOM «aor«eocoiO -O Mcooeooci -.-I t*'*ooo«j5» >o CO o>-icooo S2S38 04 S04'«i 0^040 ssss 04 04 *6 o 04 i^ 9icoaow;Qa»tcc4 ••^^©«»Hoe4 •CO'«'S50C4 »H4 ^4rH -^sss MS •-« 4B a o •=3 ■ ^ * • • • • o • • ■ • ... .a • . • • o • • • •15 •S •'§1 Ififca :•§£ •ooocoa" ^oc«o 00 eo CO • • • • * : : : :| 5 o « « ^ ■" « S. • sl e o o g s e .a- fiS « g 8 8 M®S ® fi « tfoo«oo 5f 5 76 MEN S FACTOBY-MADE CLOTHING INDUSTET. "^ ~ S oi S ■I' o o B rr" ♦J-^,^ 3 e H ^ *r St» / - - V -^. COST AND PBOFII BY ESIABLISHMENIS. 77 !Or« N^ SS CO Ok 00 CO r^ ococo ss^:!:e^S!gs$ ^t» «ei 9^ SS3 SeSS^ ssssg • ••••••• ♦ ^( •••••• 2S5& S 3S!:; !S 9gSSS iO « p* CO 1-4 o s s 8 lO So S3 Ok 78 A S *< 5 eo o W H a ^ So M H si 2 « hi IB 3 OS o So H O H 00 H H O Eh h e in og O 00 go M /CS o OD*** H 55 (4 e & H OQ In H o« 00 H H Q go's S « 2 « ^ S H ^ O OS* w " w H H S 5 3W d ^2: o o CO 6 6 2; 3 6 o 55 o 55 C4 6 Ji5 o 2; o 55 00 6 55 d 55 d 55 men's factoey-made clothing industry. y COST AND PBOFIT BV ESTABLISHMENItt. 79 4 «§ b8 b8 »8 SI S§ bS b8 r* II 9>0 o 3 cS«{ lO II tsS ^8 a ^8 II tsS II «5^ S3 SI3 00 ■* « ss K90 00 c« 8S •ti s eo ss CO S38 55g gco S3 00 s ? CO $s gs CO 3 ^co i^C ..K 00 3r: co«d ^co ^ -v-^ eo S ^ SSS2;S8SSS S53823 -M III ©00^ •2| lliil ^ S2 *o5 S9 22Sg3 SS:S3 S^^S^ «J '-4 • • • 3 8 c* 8 8 S S s s 2S?$:SS8S sr: p4^ C4 ^ ^ o o g ffSg •a g2sS>S3| I ao« ssssas ss;^8S 8 eo ?2 kO § s t •gig I § 9 ,i 80 A" H " O H ^ u H S 00 b, H O % »• o flO N o H OQ O o |B S o o H H H O o S Eh H O 3 O « « H S s ^ o b A M *« -^ O M w 9 55 O o Hi n Is (0 i-^ o 55 1-4 6 6 55 d f-4 o 5S5 o 5? 6 55 MEN S FACTORY-MADE CLOTHING INDUSTRY. *V f\f' COST AND PROFIT BY ESTABLISHMENTS. 81 ^8 ;i8 ^8 ^8 xs8 ^8 «o S3 ^00 So as C9 CO g «3 si s ^ 00 es 39 « S2 s CO 8 ss cje* •OCT* S ssss :S3::8 3 CD CO ^ o ^ 335:3 S^^ SS23 ^$s?s8ss;3S) SSISSS s:; fiat at'* c* s « C S ss:: gi^sg .s ^3 I i S a « Ii •c 8 n oo c« CO oo CO !d SSS2S 9^^ti^lSS^ ^^^^ZlS g^SSISSS «8&co3So ssas |2!;2{; ■u « c o Z^ »" . bC^ k. « C ^ .j2 o 3 5 ^ P- •^?5 to C rj © ., : ui: d S S I- IS i X 9 ^ 3^5 9 O O > «-■ v> •« O O 9 HO 5 o H e« 8 S 2 S ^ 8SS ssas$ sa^ss \ id • • • •« • '•d ss$s& >^ 9}3ss8;:s^s »-Jid u^ 0> CO ^ CD 9 0> WOO w-^^oeo as8r: ^* 86 1^ «-■•-< oi «w fieo K -< ^ '4^ ^ iSSS OOQCi I I I « « •S 2 •a a o ■-• -S fl & oo s i a a 1 3 o6 {2 q6 00 Oft o «d lOQOQ 11914*>— 16- V' 82 MEN S FACTORY-MADE CLOTHING INDUSTRY. r T COST AND PROFIT BY ESTABLISHMENTS. 83 It should not be assumed that an establishment whose proportion of expenditure for labor was lower than that of other estaolishments pays its employees less than the others. On the contrary, the eam- mgs of individual employees might even be greater in the establish- ment with a low percentage of iSbor cost, because of several reasons: (a) The fact that the employees were more skilled than ordinary employees; (b) better superintendence or superior shop arrange- ments enabled them to turn out a larger product per worker than could be done by workers in fac tones less efficiently managed. Furthermore, if the percentage for overhead were unusually high, it would proportionately decrease the percentage of labor and other expense, without necessarily indicating that lower wages were paid. Selling expense, the next most important item of cost, varied from 15.21 per cent for establishment No. 11 to 1.64 per cent for estab- hshment No. 32. Only one establishment shows a total selling expense of more than 15 per cent of the total cost, 19 establishments show percentages of over 10 per cent but less than 15 per cent, and 34 show 5 per cent or more but less than 10 per cent, and 10 show less than 5 per cent. Of the 64 establishments, 10 show no expenditures for advertising, while 54 report such expenditures ranging from two-hundred ths of 1 per cent to 5.04 per cent of the total cost. Indirect labor, factory expense, and administrative expense vary in importance in the different estabhshments, and no definite state- ment can be made as to which of the three bears a relatively higher proportion of the total cost. In the discussion of Table 19 it is shown what effect the employ- ment of contract labor has upon direct labor, indirect labor, and factory expense, and this factor must be considered in comparing individual establishments. A reference to the details under direct labor in Table 20 will show whether or not an establishment employs contract labor and the extent of such employment. An examination of the individual items of cost imder factory expense will show that only 23 establishments report expenditures for welfare work. If any welfare work is done by the other establishments it is conducted in such a manner that the expenditures are not chargeable to the cost of production. Another item of cost under factory expense not common to all of the estabhshments is that of taxes, owing to the fact that in some States manufacturers are exempt from taxation except on their real estate, and in case a manufacturer owns real estate employed in his business all expenses in connection with such property are eliminated from the costs and a rental charge substitutea. The percentage of bad debts, as is natural, varies greatly, being highest in establishment No. 57, with 4.06 per cent. Establishment^ Nos. 26 and 27 show no losses from bad deots on the year's business. It requires a credit man of unusuai foresight to prevent all losses from this source. Some estabhshments are .so anxious to dispose of their product that they are willing to assume almost any risk to secure orders, and consequently their losses are out of proportion to the amount of their business. Some salesmen, to increase their commissions and to prevent their company from refusing the orders of certain customers, do not always inform the company of all the facts that they may learn relating to y ^j % -^ \ the financial condition of such customers, which, if in the possession of the home office, would result in the rejection of orders. Salesmen sometimes sell a customer more than ms business demands, which may not only result in a cancellation of the order by the customer, but may force the customer into bankruptcj, for should he be a free buyer in other lines he will not be in a position to meet his bills when they become due. Salesmen could ana should be of great assistance to the credit man, and while undoubtedly many establishments require their salesr on to supply additional credit information, there are some estabhsi.ments whose losses from bad debts could be reduced if their salesmen were not interested solely in securing orders regardless of the ability of the customer to pay his bills. TOTAL DIBECT AND INDIRECT LABOR. The table that follows resembles Table 20, in that it shows, by groups, percentages based on the total manufacturing and selling expense. In this table, however, direct labor, indirect Tabor (except salaries of officials), and wages under selling expense are combined; also, separate combinations are made for the items of rent, insurance (except fire), workmen's compensation, taxes, and salaries of office force and office expense. Table 21. — Pebcentages of Averaqe Costs, bt Specified Items, Based on thb Total Manufactubino and Selling Expense, by Gboups of Establishments. Items. Total manufacturing and selling ex- pense Raw materials Labor Salaries of officials Salaries, commission, and expense of stflesmen Rent Power, light, beat Repairs Fii« insurance Insurance, except fire Packing cases, etc Cartage, freight, out ward Salaries of clerks and office expense. .. Collection expense Bad debts , Taxes , Advertising , All other expenses All estab- lish- ments report- mg (64). Establishments ing— hav- Perct. 100.00 52.39 32.85 2.41 5.01 1.29 .32 .13 .22 .07 .21 32 12 .06 .88 .13 1.25 1.34 No op- erating con- tracted, Group 1(12). Perct. 100.00 1 50.89 32.00 2.66 5.55 1.46 .35 .23 .23 .14 .28 .28 1.27 .12 .95 .25 1.59 1.75 Part oper- ating con- tracted, Group II (30). Perct. 100.00 50.91 33.96 2.34 All op- erating con- tracted, Group m(22) Perct. 100.00 56.75 30.90 2.43 Establishments with factory price of units— Under Group IV (8T. Perct. 100.00 58.73 30.33 2.64 5.01 4.63 3.27 5.18 1.34 L04 .99 1.11 .38 .16 .24 .33 .15 .02 .06 .14 .21 .24 .33 .20 .07 .04 .09 .06 .19 .20 .22 .19 .33 .33 .23 .33 1.14 .96 .90 1.09 .05 .06 .06 .07 .78 1.06 1.30 .90 .13 .01 .11 .14 1.60 .25 .01 1.45 L41 .02 .49 1.37 S8and imder $15, Group V (37). Per a. 100.00 52.88 32.12 2.44 S15 and over. Group VI (11), Perct. 100.00 46.68 38.09 2.15 4.76 1.92 .33 .17 .26 .12 .25 .28 1.19 .05 .65 .11 1.39 1.60 Estab- lish- ments making sepa- rate trou- sers, etc., Group Vn(l). Perct. 100.00 65.87 29.01 2.67 6.72 1.51 .25 .05 .24 .04 .26 .48 L35 .07 .87 .05 .21 1.35 84 MEN S FACTORY-MADE CLOTHING INDUSTRY. Taple 21. — ^Pbrcentages op Average Costs, by Specified Items, Based on the Total Manufacturinq and Selling Expense, by Groups of Establishments — Continued. Establishments located in— Items. Chicago, Group VIII (4). Phila. delphia, Group IX (7). aeve- landand Milwau- kee, Group X (4). Roches- ter, Group XI (7). Balti- more, Group XII (6). New York City, Group Xllf (30). Cincin- nati, Group XIV (6). Total numufactortng and sell- ine exoense PercerU. 100.00 Per cent. 100.00 Percent. 100.00 Percent. 100.00 Percent. 100.00 Per cent. 100.00 Percent. 100.00 Raw materials 47.37 35.17 2.08 5.01 1.59 .52 .11 .21 .03 .14 .31 1.26 .05 .48 .18 3.18 2.31 54.15 29. 45 3.06 5.66 1.23 .50 .06 .38 .06 .20 .29 1.23 .17 1.80 .02 .89 .85 53.48 26.87 3.75 5.80 .89 .54 .53 .23 .09 .17 .56 1.17 .09 .68 .46 3.04 1.65 t 51.24 35.36 2.19 4.49 L03 .35 .12 .16 .07 .22 .33 .72 .03 .54 .13 1.53 1.49 51.89 33.01 1.82 5.89 1.05 .34 .16 .18 .09 .20 .21 1.35 .33 L34 .20 .84 1.30 54.50 32.52 2.48 4.55 1.41 .15 .06 .24 .10 .24 .32 1.04 .04 .91 .01 .37 1.06 52.32 Labor 32.85 Salaries of officials 2.39 Salaries, oommLssion, and ex- pense of salesmen 5.86 R«lt 1.48 Power. I ieht. heat .28 Repairs .11 Fire insurance .22 Insurance . exceot fire .03 Packine cases, etc .23 Cartage, freight , outward Salaries of clerks and office ex- pense .25 1.64 C(Mlection exnense .09 Bad debts L21 Taxes .17 Ad vertisinn .27 All other expenses .60 Establishments with net sales of— Items. Total manufacturing and selling expense. Raw materials Labor Salaries of officials Salaries, commission, and expense of salesmen. Rent Power, light, heat Repairs - Fire insurance Insurance, except fire Pack ing cases ,etc Cartage , freight , outward. Salaries of clerks and office expense Collection expense Bad debts Taxes Advertising All otho* expenses Under $500,000, Group XV (27). Percent. 100.00 53.23 30.93 3.10 5.42 1.66 .35 .08 .36 .08 .21 .26 L35 .09 L53 .08 .33 .94 1500,000 and under $1,000,000, Group XVI (14). Percent. 100.00 52.70 33.45 2.78 4.53 1.69 .26 .11 .30 .14 .27 .81 L20 .04 .99 .06 .27 .90 $1,000,000 and under $2,000,000, Group XVII (14). Percent. 100.00 50.94 34.07 1.91 5.34 1.38 .31 .15 .20 .09 .22 .28 1.03 .08 .81 .16 1.60 1.43 $2,000,000 and over, Group XVIII (9). Percent. 100.00 53.08 32.36 2.43 4.79 .96 .33 .15 .16 .03 .18 .38 1.07 .06 .69 .14 1.63 1.56 Table 22, the figures for which were obtained from the Bureau of the Census, shows that in 1909 the total cost of labor, made up of salaries and wages, 25.71 and contract work, 9.31 per cent, was 35.02 per cent of the total cost. The table gives the amounts and percent- ages of specified items of expense and the total value of products in the men's clothing industry in the United States, for the year 1909. t"^f» M COST AND PROFIT BY ESTABLISHMENTS. 85 Table 22. — Amounts and Percentages of Specified Items of Expense for the Men's Clothing Industry in the United States, as Reported by the Census OP Manufactures. 1909. [Data from the records of the Bureau of the Census.] Items of expense. Amonnt. Per cent. Items of expense. Amount. Per cent. Salaries and wages: Officers $3,180,434 3,572,338 16,329,365 89,644,921 0.73 .81 3.72 20.45 Miscellaneous: Rent of factory Taxes $5,391,588 526,128 26,513,817 40,807,991 1.23 Superintendents and mfttifWrArs . .12 Rent of offices and sundries Qo-ks and salesmen. . . Wage earners 6.04 Contract work Total 9.31 Total 112,727,058 25.71 73,239,024 16.70 Materials: 249,440,553 1,789,297 1,292,717 56.89 .41 .29 Total cost 438,488,649 100.00 Value of nr oducts. ........ All except fuel and mill supplies Fuel and power Freight 485,677,493 Total 252,522,567 57.59 SALES AND PEOFITS IN PEKVIOUS YEARS. An attempt was made to obtain from as many estabhshments as possible the amount of their net sales not only for their last business year but also for previous years. The object was to compare the net sales in previous years with those of the fast year. The percentages of sales m years previous to 1914, based on the sales in that year, are shown, so far as data were obtained, in the following table: Table 23.— Percentages of Net Sales of Establishments During Years Prior to 1914, Based on Net Sales During That Year. Establishments. 1908 1909 1910 1911 1912 1913 1914 No 1 59.02 112.01 96.97 89.76 137.32 104.33 175.66 89.01 114.65 101.25 129.92 96.70 142.07 91.24 109.50 41.79 116.54 124.57 82.50 82.72 119.14 94.86 128.75 91.48 93.26 55.62 116.35 115.44 78.02 109.81 109.81 75.79 94.03 103.90 118.79 98.30 126.42 93.74 99.14 74.46 108.68 110.97 94.29 100.58 82.49 73.68 91.32 65.41 95.94 89.16 65.98 118.00 121.42 133.41 118.90 110.76 153.85 117.17 113.15 92.20 116.43 112.83 94.12 97.96 110.28 99.49 101.07 95.30 114. 71 102.96 94.33 114.78 99.73 118.82 112.38 120.29 112.90 100.00 No. 11 100.00 No. 14 100.00 No 15 100.00 ^ No 30 100.00 No 34 . 100.00 No 12 100.00 w No 38 100.00 Ik No 39 100.00 ip No 46 100.00 If No 7 100.00 • No. 13 100.00 No 55 100.00 No. 63 100.00 No 19 . 100.00 No 25 100.00 No 42 100.00 No. 47 100.00 No 49 100.00 No 59 100.00 No 18 100.00 No. 29 100.00 No. 37 100.00 No. 45 100.00 Average, 3 establishments 90.54 110.84 109.26 105.97 104.14 100.21 97.03 94.79 96.80 98.08 98.88 97.56 99.68 99.00 96.82 102.69 108.96 109.83 109.33 109.13 111.39 100.00 A veraee. 6 establishments 100.00 Average. 10 establishments 100.00 Averaee. 14 establishments 100.00 Average. 20 establishments 100.00 A veraee. 24 establishments 100.00 1 -/ • \ f 86 MEN S FACTORY-MADE CLOTHING INDUSTBY. The average net sales of the establishments that furnished data for years previous to 1914 were less in that year than in 1909, 1910, or 1913, but larger than in 1908, 1911, or 1912. The percentages of profit of these establishments based on their net sales during each year from 1908 to 1914 appear in the following table: Table 24.— Percentages of Final Profit Based on Net Sales of Establish- ments Each Year from 1908 to 1914. -Establishments. 1908 1909 1910 1911 1912 1913 1914 No 1 4.42 5.34 .09 11.09 8.73 1.79 7.29 6.67 2.60 8.93 2.92 «1.63 1.93 2.32 1.53 5.17 11.25 9.89 6.53 2.54 4.15 1.47 2.28 3.60 l.l(k 7.70 9.64 5.81 a2.28 3.74 4.04 6.37 1.54 5.16 7.00 4.10 .96 3.40 3.82 9.07 iao8 5.83 7.78 1.72 • 4.34 5.70 4.53 4.54 6.07 9.89 b.51 9.66 6.00 13.14 7.90 4.97 6.57 01.72 4.04 6.60 6.13 3.56 6.89 a5.96 6.73 3.96 1.83 5.19 6.57 7.63 6.58 6.07 6.98 2.01 1.84 2.08 2.32 9.67 No 11 4.90 No 14 1.21 No 15 2.84 No 30 3.25 No 34 2.28 No 12 6.73 No 38 6.76 No 39 l.OB No 46 3.66 No 7 3.08 No 13 1.77 No 55 5.36 No 63 1.56 No 19 6.28 No 25 7.56 No 42 10.39 No 47 . ...... 8.28 No 49 .39 No 59 — -• 2.94 No 18 O1.04 No 29 al.83 No 37 2.40 No 45 4.71 A vetap^ 3 establishments ...•.•...•.. 4.30 9.06 6.87 3.12 2.45 6.28 3.64 2.45 5.13 4.56 6.93 4.95 6.80 6.04 6.75 8.33 5.35 5.60 4.62 5.60 5.21 4.21 Averaee 6 establishments 3.08 A veraw 10 establishments 3.94 Aver-^'^«'>oo-Hoo«oe9i-«cj«e»»oope«e25?«2i2SS52S?S?S SSSS«3aoS«lB«t^»«.-ieo'*<»ooe5ccflO« to 00 >OQO< 1^ fH e>* »H iH fH f^ f^ r^ w^ r^ r^ f* t-t f^ i^ s eoooosc«ooc>ico^QQ«ooe90>ooc2CJi«eo9oqoo«gooo SssSRKS«^»n«ft05?5oec»H«ooec'«rr^oQao»«»'5'ir33 o««o®'*5t^oO'^oi6esoeoo<©Socop<^t^'^»««a5005* — t^ oe4<-o><»«3o>odo6t~«oot>i«or-^«e««3«»o«d«o«o»ojo §^S?3?i?JS888882S2SJiriJ:J5S22222SSS22^ 8888S8g8S8g8SS8gSSSSS8S88888S88 M S S5 % •2 •© -sS -a • -v^So -3 :5 :3 ^g :S5 :Sp5 :6 : :;z;tf5« '- '•^ '^- :o :« :o 5*5 a-i*^ 5-J5 '. S a^|§r'"id>^ "S S2S o « 5 ' « pqpSoSps;z;« :^ QFMli4O< »ceo < t— < OS ^ t» ^^ «o < t> to ab CD 00 M ( S5D-H iO« 8-^ f^i^ •ev^H t-4 a s M O 1 o <0 ^j o o gr*t»«pr^oo»OQO'^»oi>-OQN«rteo50Q-H.-io«oos'*oe*e»»-*r»«De*5r»»«o«Q _3!t*S2S*!52'5^392S3::i'^2«'0«caccfc«c5'«t;t^CNcj tDO>cQCson^3C4r^t^a>Ar«^.cD^i><5'^SSas•oc4.«r^oo«c«»a^Q025»3 9 o > 2 O B P 00 aOraa>(D>OQOQ^4pOOQQQQQCCiOOrOr^QkOQO>0>0 W ^ COCO^^^OOCOW^CO^^^OOCOCOCOC^COCOOOCOOOWOOCO^^^COCOOOCO 1=31 « OS te« « O CIS 52; i^ §i-npa5«OQC«cr~-ot>-oscQC«o»^QC>-'aor>-05i30>-«'0-HOi'^«ocao<-i»Q«oo r«coA«Oi-«C4cocO'vaoc4f-4Ar4ra^aO'^tO'C^9>co^&'«a>mt->cO'«6)>o'« • •••••••••••J •*•••••••••• •••••••••_* rotoot«o^(D>o'Oo«o«o>oiC'««e^Me««e>«e>*«e^cuo- »C CO » CO «5 M • • ee w CO* icc^S f^ . » « . •ooSSOt^ • •SSa' -j^^,HdHo»-JO'-J'^'HO>o>«-^ooo<3>o>o>o»oJo>o>ooooooo»o>o>o>o>as»oio>0300QO<»QOoooa)t^ooeooo rH ^ i-HH i-t ^ i-i 1-1 rt ^ >-« 1^ •-<•-•<-••-• '^•-' "" " • ooo««o»««^«*Me»s»o«0'*>-ir-«??D'*«^«-<©o»ooooSoooOi<-^i-»'C^<-i->*wOOcJcDacr-CQtC«coo^'ec«c>-i»cooi^»'30>-ir»aocQ<-Hci ««€«»«'♦"*««« eo « eo « «e4««c4e4e4e4e6« CO ei««c4c4e4«c4«c4« )co>o tc I ICOO0C>4< aseeoocooi-Hoat»05eo«oi-«oaooeoeooccoot-05XO»«-^'Vf-0>^»o«co5C>»oi^i-HicP»cooJcot--ocujr-Q»c» »coS5ooot-<*oo52"*»»«t-it^Ht-oo«e»«K.^Ni-^oo«««^-*»^r>.eo»H«i-it-NOM 8c5c5S^I2S§SSSSSR2S8SS^2SSSgSSS888888888888S888888288^8 ,_;^^.j.ij^*iij^r4^i-!<-4C>oo<^oe5ooa>o>a3aa>o>a>Ofta>a>afta>a>o>o>aioio>aia>o>a>Aao)00>ooooooao SS§Sgggg888888SS§8888§SS§S?S?SISS8888888888888888888S8888 S2222S2SJ22aa22SS3SSSS22S22222S2S222SS222S 8J2888888888S888S8S888888S588888888888888888888888SS8 ccodaoododocodococo&actfJod'oedtO'C'CiccdictfsiotfJtD'C'CsO'C'O'C I -r .ea*«>cai>a «8><* ^l^k. • • • . • • .-rs • • '-a • • • J * • ■ ' • J • • ■ • "3 • • * fliB e >.» S a I s^sss^^^s9;;s^$3SSS9assss^ssssssj3S^^ssa !S9S?SSSi;SSSS9SSg$«S3e9SS!^ sia;s^K!$9SSSSS77S;?9S§$§$ss 1^ •« 'VCOiO '^eocoS •-:s itm lAaai 92 p OQ K N 00 so O M O o « Q H O s Pm o :3 H QQ O P o K h O 3 CO H •4 MEN S FACTORY-MADE CLOTHING INDUSTRY. f be S«3 ! Si-' • • ^4 kA CO v-4 Q (D m «3 O r^c5c4'* r^ t^ t>^ «D t<^ t>^ t<^ « 00 1<^ r<^ t« «6 <0 « (b « o M3 ^ r<> 00 ^^ CQ v

«on<-iMoooo>o««oS2>eomo«Dt^ii5 >» T^ r^H ^ f-i CQ c« •^1 ;ili§§a§§^§l?g§§isS§§§§§g§ • • • • §OiOOc5«OOOQO»'»"*OOC90Q»'JM?«0«C«Q'*SQT'J? ^-qo>0 >t '-•occcDt>-t^>-i0>ctSoooa>oiaoa> c« c< ci c« 1-4 r-i •-< i-i e4 •-< c4 c4 c4 1-< •-< c« c4 M fi c4 rH 14 ^ r4 1-4 > i-t t>- •-• a> •<•« < O^ 0& k) CO > >>oc>3cO'«cO'w^cocO'v^>cO'«'«eocQcceococoeO'VcccoM « e4OOU3OOOOOOQOQiCi0>0>C>0>COOOOOOOO cco^o^OQOocaOQCc*3cococoo&oo&oDaO'^oot^^coc^coo^a» o >a SSS88888SSSSSSSSS38888SSSS S aoooooocaoaoaooor«t»f>t»t«t^t«t«r*t^t«t»t»t««o«rae^esic>4C^c4e^c4c4c<4C4C4c4e4oooooc4c>ot^(0 /^ c \ r^' I 2 J4 »M U ha ki o o o 03 •^« 45 ••^ All! o. o;z;pL,o?; :fc :^B» : QO.coco )^4 1-4 ICDCO • CO CO ^ Mt»«ooc«2g SCO Cb CO r^ CO • • • • • _j cococtor- <0aba>ao>o • • • • • 3ssssgf2 e«^ §s§giig %n sssg^^^ 00 "^ t~ «^ Q *^ t s^ I 005 "^ OS t— eooo g|Sgi3iSlg§iii§iiii55iliiiSSi?.ip.§J.Sp.S.iiSs^ _s_i • •_? • '^ . • • . • • • ; O t^t->« Ot coooo20'2<2QS t>-r^r»QcS j^ 5 « o if . 9 • * 3. o o © 2 o ^^ 1^ 52 o o o d d^ 6 6 d _ _Bfl - - «3 a Ph OS « 08 o BfefeMp^p^wWWWWWKOQOWQWW^WWftWfMOOomopQOfefeli^fififeOWf^QfiOWW^ t • ■ t t • • ■ • t jiJ;;i^isi^:^J5J^«ii55d^sss?i!;!jss^ss52.ias£5S^ss iik >U(i 94 ti I a g o M O 8 N o D QQ OS H eo 00 O » o 3 OQ ptS QQ o H H 00 men's factory-made clothing industry. g I S ^ £ s s en 8 Ho 2 (^ (^ CQ c<( ci p« ^ c« c« i-J .^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^1 « ^ s OJ9 s 8=i9£ o OS ^ S ^ 1^ ;2S?2 = g8SS5222S o « 2 h-r^tOi-iOkiQeocoeooooaoeceoeoeo 2 -«• CO eo eo M M e« e< n c« M m e« 1-4 f-4 .4^^ 3 «8 o *S 8S8SSgSSg8SS§88a888 ao«d0'WrocoVcoeqcocoMe«e4e4 I o o o e o ^3 ^3 ^3 ^3 ^3 o 6 ©"S b b o d 'A « o o _ s Hoftoo««aafi^w> — " ♦» So a Sc5ooodoooooc>odo'ood ^^ 85 "O "O -CJ "O T3 "O T3 oJ'O'C'O'O'O 08 "O "O "O -O •« T3 -O "O •« XJ -O "O "O "O "O "d •© «» a : ; : : : : :k : : : : : S : :•: : • ■ t • • ff ■ • t • t 1 • •*«i*«a • • ■ • « ...... t««t»e«« • • • •ri indof tchlng. ededge :::::::::.:: :oja : :^ : : :: : '.a^i . :« • •••••••••• .♦'w • 'S • ..■..(.•(.,CQ««..4J ••...a,""'*™ 000000000000"5®0 •« dd edge ? stitch. «5 Biufl d d d Slngl d •0 "O XJ X3 "O -O T3 T) t3 •« "O •© "5 "S,*© C — t "O •« -O "O -O "Sj-O ^O « • • • *^\*S 'a **^M? * • • a ••A • « . . . .MQQ .P^cZ}n GQ . • • a : : :1a "^B i i i i * 5 : : : : : iS i i S : ; ill li : : ; : ? : : • : • : •! : • «9.2.2.2*' w-^t? OOOOOOOOOOOO^jOO S ;«;«:::::: . * . . . . . . . • • . . . . : '.^ • a • • • • • ( '.**'. '.^ I . .^ • t • • • i • • •••!••• is • ••••••• . > . • > . • ► • S • • . • • • • •• • • • •••«»•• • : ',66660 odd 0. .. tion tion • ♦* d dxJTJ-OTS • 5 • • • • 3 Pki . . . .u fl-r-'OTS-oxJTS' 3^9 : : : : : p-o> : : : : ; a d d Plain d Imita d Vent Imita Plain d d •o-c :a 073 • e* • •qoiBd ^ ^ S ne4>^F4fi4p4*Hr4fi4«.4coc4meQMnv4v4p4 •P^19M. "S • • • t t • • • J • <#••< • • • • • • I • • •o d • ***•* :•••:: . • * O-M pen. .do., do., do., losed pen. ft fl ■ 2S000000 c.-o-o-o-o-exji oooooxSoo i d d d d d d si • . .00 til '^0 :::;:; : : : : '.oo : :o :*.:::: :o ■ .... .. •*....■ • t. ! ! ! S S * ••••••••.§.. 1 ■ ••••• =300000 u« : : : : : ..ao... Quarte Full... ..do... ..do... ..do... ..do... ..do.. 066666 • • . a • • • • ! • • • ....i..^*.., 666666600666 •0 "O -0 13 •« Tl x| -O •© -O TJ tj • • • ■ • • • • • . • t t • • • • • • • ■♦* ♦* e • • • t • • ' ' ' fi S ' . • • ^ . «• • t • 1 J • s : : : ^ ^ : o -M • • • • », 8 * * • * 1 00 0000 5 : : : : ic uvercoai. do Sack coat do. .. do. .. do. . . Overcoat. do... do. .. do. .. Spring ov Winter ov Sack coat do... Overcoat. Sack coat do. . . '1 :8 ogoc iiir • • • • . . • • ■ • styles. ?•§ 660666 6V 666666 d-c d d d'S dddddddddddd d— 6*2 66666 i I- dcd.c'Sd ^§P ^ c o o o o c o o 000 w_. 0000 o-S 000000 a » : : : o o 000 ^^ . • • d o o o :§ : :S ^000000 S ''3 "O "O "O "O TS § : tx3 : d O-G COOOOOoOOOO « o o '.X :W :s d • . u d o 03 oooooooooo „ — . — OOcOOOOOOOdOooooo o >j, OOOOOOOOOO 08'O'CO'O'e aS'O'O'O'O'O'O'C OS T3 "O "O "O "O "O "O 08 "O TJ "O "D "O "O "O "C X3 "O :::!!::«:!!!!: ■'5S •• • ^ "C-ts 09 08 JB r.13 000 "rt • « " « .J3 • o _ o teTJ 3 ;o.2xi 3 ^3 o c O QcqQ d • — < . OQ . O O-S • > 3 • • o : :q O 9 O • a • « O o o o P o p p 9 p a> p 6 o o o 9 ;j3 ■§00000 03 "O "O "O "O TJ s 00 ooQQuooioeoooo o S 6016660666 •iS "O "O •CT3 "d T3 "O Id "O 'JJ^'O "O TS "O "3 ?e "O •5J,T3 tS T3 •© TJ "O "O 3 . d eooooooooooooooPpoooocooooooo d 000. ■6'6'd"6T;T3"cs'6T)^TJ*6'6'6'6'O'6'6*6'6'0'6'0"5'5'5'5'5'5S'5'p'S'5'5oS'S'S p o p P 0*j a> P o o o o •— L "O "O "3 "O "3 GQ "2; - 4 o O P o o d "3t3 ^ "d ^ ?^ • * • • p* . . . • P o :cq oododddddddddd ;2;a5 ^. POOP d d d d d O-OCOOOOOCOOOOOO , 'OOOOOOOOO 'Cd'0'3'3'3'3'3'3'3'3'0'3'C"3'3** C'C0'0'3'3'3'3'C3 : m :::''.''''•''' ' c"2 n •3 «.> .^^ O O O O O 0*3 "3 "3 "3 "3 4, O' •3 o =3 « cs 00 CO 00 CO c% c% c«c«c«e>ic«c« -- ! -^ ^^ o o P o o •3^.3 "d "3 MM 0000000 "3 "3 "3 "3 "3 "3 "3 e o e o o T3'3'd'3'3 11 000 "3 "3 "3 * S= 6 O o o 6 ^ _ •3 3 3'3"C'3'0'3 3-3 :&S^ : : : '. : d D.'3'3 O eg «e ©d © S — w'.i./wwwvwwwtooosjj^^ooooooajo-^oOeS 3 "3 "3 "3 "3 "3 "3 "3 "3 "3 "3 "3 "3 "3 3 o 3 "3 "3 "3 "3 "3 "3 3*3 3"3'3 3 *< 3^>«fa . . . : . .o' :fe : .o* • ••a. •■■■■■■■ >a.... 2 © © 6 6 6 3*3 "3 "3 "3 "3 O d IS 9 ^«OQWPMOW'-''<«C>QHfc' o : :j3,4^ V n 8 8 OS 00 CO m OB 8§ o o o o— o :•« booo oooooooooo odd odd Co d d d d d d d d d C o ©odd odd odd d odd go :wa : : : : : : •' : .'Wa «JJ= o 2iox3 • o :q m '.-ziiis^-z-^-zs : : : : *j . M -tJ t«*s v) n* '/I s . . . ,cfl ta>'"ajt/)a/'^o.''/5 • • • OajO'2*!'Tl4''S*"7;a'000 3 Ml .D3'3=*'333W' . • - _ ■ O S O C O^ C C . . o o •o-o o o o o •o-o o o c •©•CO be 43 o 9 •s i^ O O O O O O ® © ©00000000 43 o 43 o 043 8 > GQ 43 03 o U 1 fl .* fl s . • . . ^ •••*»•••• ; -o :«8 :::::•«:::: :| ::• i :• i :: -^ :: ii i :! i i ■Si d"^ d d d d d ♦* d d d d d^ d d d o* d o' ©' o' o' o tr © © © « © © © ©5 W i5 .P3 55 tT^ . . .z . . . . . — :: — : — : — : — : — : : ; i; l '» ; : > '» > '• > '» * '• > > ' '• ' * ' * > '• ' ' ' ' wwwwwww'-ajwwwwwvw<^$0900 O'r' O ® O O O Tj -o -o -o -o -o fa "o Ti'O "O •© "O xJ "O "O -o te "O ■c.'O "O •© -g "O •Si'O -o "O 5- OP- : JJfl o o o o o o •dt3 •s n QQ ■2 :5 PQ . fl : o • *» o o o fl ©©..jOddoooddddddddddtroooooooo+jO •O'Oo'O'O'OTJ'O^'O'O'O'O'O'O'O'O'OTSS'O'O'd'O'O'O'O'Oo'O o d d d o o "O'OtS'O'O'O , a d d d '• d d d d © d •O T) T) 5 -C TJ •« "O -O TJ o © d d d ^3 ^3 T3 T3 T3 C«= oj 9 fl.S - o o eo" eo 43 • Vj ^^ ©"n ®.2 • ©5 :j3 43 o Si ©"5 © ® © : o :a : • M .CO • .•w 43 o — O (D © P © *5 •.•s •.a :'S PQ u •2 T3 • • 3*0 ' • ■ 3 "O • • * OS ® : :53 : : :5 : ® : : :2 eS'd'CJ © 2^^^ ©^ eS^^^ ©^ OS o © o fa*3t:"3t:c • • -fa '2 • 5^Bi2c® : : .-fl^ : dodo •CO "CO c:iCLiOPuu> M • Ufrl on eS e 43 e«CIC«C4C40C4C« ^^^^^^^^r^r^r^w^w^r^r^^^r^f^t-tr^^^r^r-^f^w^e*'^'^'^ • ••!•■•■•#• • ••••t«t*t« • •rt ••••§§••• ©9!S©©©©©©©© ■U © p.'C'CCO'G'O'CTS • ^ w •••••••• :o^ :ncQ(>H fl g OS o S o o o o o © QQ •COS ••***** **$S* oSdddddddddgood • 7? ?€>•• . OS • . . • t t a • *^S. • • • QQ • « a a a • a • • W GQ ■ • • ••■••a«aa n««**«**aaa .X«a«ataa»ia • •Tr«aaaaaa««i o ois OOOO oiss o o • •ffi^ • f • a •NHr'i • • • • ^*^ a a a a a a • ataafta****** • •a«t»taa*«*t a«*«*>aa«*i** fl*f«*|Baaaatt aft«t*«««tatt aaaa*««ttaa«* • ■a*a«a*f*tai • aa'aaaaaaaa* • ••'••••••at* • • • ^ aat«««a*« • ^ • ^2 ••••••••• •03*9********' ■ afiO********* ogooooooooooo •O u "O jrf X) "O *© "O "O "O *0 TJ T* • OJ •*S • • ^•3*** • I jr iflOtttataiaa t^P * CQ •••••aa*a • t • ■ • •••••• i ■s •8 t ' fl • fl • * s * s * • Of * C4 • ddd©dd©ddd©«S©dwdd odd® ©©©OTSddddbdOcoCtnCcnooSoowoooS© •o'O'O'O'o'O'O'O'O'O'o^o S.'O'o^'O'O'O'O'O aTS-oTj^ o.-o-d'O'O'O'O'O^ 5^ stS,"^"^ axco o-O'd'O a^j lOO •' -O .' .* : I iO • '• ''TjO .■ .' .' .' ^ ; JOMCJCOU • -O ." ."U • .* -O M C« CI CI C< C4 M M MClCtCl CI CI M C4 C4 C4 M ,^iHf-4<-4<-lt-lf-4<-lf4i>4^4>-l<-4COCCeOCO'^t-li-l t OQ o' d d d d d d d d o' d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d Ss ©' d s 'OTJ'OTJ'O'O'O'O'O'O'O'O'O'O'O'd'O'O'O'O'd'O'O'O'O fl-CO 3 ifl : :2 : 000©©©©©©©00©000©©0 OS o 000000 ds d d d d d d d ©'"s— * d Ss d 5 o^: © — •OTJ'tJ'O'O'O'O'O^fl'O'O'Osa'Ocda'O'd ■ ■ ' ' 'C .'fa ■ ' 8 ©©©©SO© OOOO XJ "O "O "O "O tS "CO "O "O X! "C TJ "O "O "O "O T) "O '-'O (^"CCCO »« "O >rf "O "O "CO u^'O Ui'O 1^*0*0 • •••■••••••••••*t(*tt • ^^ I 1 ( ■ 9 i ^n • • • • ® TT! • ® • *5 • • • OQ • OCQ :S Si • OQ o § © o o o •■* -s - • il ■ OB < .0 .OQ . § 43 -s CO s "fl 3 •O 3 v 43 ® bo OQ a -••••• • ••••••••••t t««»««a»«««f % ***** ^a ••••■• • •••••taaiifl :§ •tttiC •■•••• *****0S !■*••« • *a«tff****tt • •••t ••••••• S. 9i>>«w*a4D*», •S d d d d-S d d-S d d ' o-S o d^ d-S d d d d d ^ ^ 73 TJ TJ TJ .a TJ TJ X -O TJ "g 3 • • • • lOB • •3 • • a! '^a •§ "^t "^a Q "^a •§ "^a "^a "^a "^a ''^. d o s • • • 'S • 'S • •»£ • ••• •• •• :S : :» :s : : : : : a a* a aaatt d 1 • ■••••«••■•• • ••••aaaaaaa o 1 i-3 •Sill •— <-3 ••■••• "S d d d d d "o o © © © © © © © ©' ©* ©' ©* ©' ©' ©* ©' © so 3I g s . . . .ns • • • • • at* •••• aaaaaaaaaaaa aavaaaaaaaaa aaaaaaaaaaaa H flD p O • • •ff? • • • '^ • ^i* a a '^K • • • a^M * "2 •••waaat ^^ a , '. ',"5 : '. '.a : '. I'Sa 1 a a CO ■ a • ,^j a a a tO ^ 1.3 * a a a«rt a a . a *" . OOOOSOOOO«)OC O O— ? O O O s O O Or? a> «l -- -q -C X5 6 T| TJ T3 T5 -SjTJ TJ TJ TJ •§ TJ -d 00 QQ . a .Pq a a » .QQ a . .n . • .CQ • • .OOD H >« • • a a • a • a * •*^ • a a a a a a a a a n 1 •«:::::::::: o«r H h4 J 03 •gooooooooooooooooooooo o_p 3 "O "O •« 73 T3 -a •« -o ■« "d -o -o "O T) TS ts "d 13 -o -o •« -ts -^s n : ; ; ; : : : : : : : : : :::::::::: ss t3 b O H M s • .aaattaaava :ooo -ooooooc aaa,iaa«,«aa« >00 _000 I'OOO S • • • «3 (■d-d- c -dtJ-d-w fl-d-d-d • • • 0^ • • ■ C3^ • • • ^ ^ : : ;^ : : : ; : : at* » t 9 aaa O • • 'C* 'coco a a . a s •qaiM • •• a aaat • •a a ••>• • • • • aaaa aaa a aaaa • •• • aaaa H 5 X aia a taaa >4 C«Me4 *C« • '(NC^IMWCv ioMC4e4C«r>ic joou ;o 1 1 : : : j H • iJ Tj < S -i d ds:s* o' d d d d d < JOOOOOOOOOOOO iS ^■d'd 08 3 73 "d-d -d-d -d-d -d-d "d-d -d-d "d-d -d-d "d-d h) Ui .' ."Wfa •' • .' I 1 J ::::::::::::? 1. e N ■g s pa 1 o d d S S d d d o o d < : : : :*'' : :"S : : i-s : 5 d d d « d d 8 d d d S d j< w-d-d uj^-d-d-d u^'d'd'd'd'd CTJ-dj^-d-d-d g-d H OQ • 'OaQ • • -Om • : : : :o : :5 : 1 :o : • ^noQ'<0OQ»< HH aaaaaaaa ■a'S «s i — POO^^ooOO S'O g'2'^'O'^ P^-d-d-d o J9 9 M •qo^Bj QQO •dcLi c« c< ea C4 c« CM C4 •9 • • • • t^ a a*S3 ••••.• ii4**"**Maa^»a«a«a Maacaar'aaHaaaaaa »ataaaSaa^aaaaaa_.... g o o o o o go O^OOOOOOOOOOOOOOO 2'd'd'd'd'd U'U'd g'd'd'd'd'd'd'd'd'd'd'd'd73'd'd ^j2 aaaa •^3: • * rH aaaaaaaaaaaaaaa 'PeiI9M eoeocoeoeoeoeo>o>OiOio>oioio«oo>ou3iOM3'OiQio>o>0'«^io>oioio>OiO 9 a '^3v»d I ~ooo-«ooooo^oooo^ooooooosoo-cio©opsop « n s n a nan 6 6 o* d 6 6 o d d d.c d d'S.c d d d'S d d d d d d d d d d C .c d d d d d d d ^1(§;§(5 S OS esl •d«U ^ •« •■* •P^I»M • lOi t>iiat>i>ii*< •S •■■••#•••• ■••• Idddddddddddd d-f • ddddddddddddo o © « © © J ::::::::::: : :3i-} :::::::::::::::•• A *«'•• § § o o o o o o o o o-s 2 o o-T $ o o o •O T3 TJ "O "O "O -O T5 -a 2 .S "O "O S .3 "O "O "O COM • •ClQi-4 • • oooooooooooooooooo 'O'O'COTS'O'O'CO'O'O'O'O'O'O'O'O'C 08*0 "CO n : : :a ddooocooooooo :» : : : :S : : :ns • • H ••••••#••.,,, oqtjooooooooooooo M C4 ■ •"••■♦0* ■*>•*■«'■♦«•*■«••«<•*<•*< ^ •♦•*•* •♦■*•«<•<»'•<«'•* o o o o o •OtJ o o o 'O'O'O o o •CO • fl • QOOoddddod'Sooooooo eS'O'OTJ'O'O'O'O'O'O eSTJXJ'O'O'CO'O tt :::::::: :a : o o o ooooooooooooooo 'O'O'O'O'O'O'O'CC'tJ'CO'O'O'O ©■CO 55 : : ooooooooooooooo *0 *© *0 'O •© 'O 'O 'O 'O 'O 'O T5 T? 'O 'O o o •OTJ '0 • • • • 2 . • • • n So o otj 'O'O'O cfl W : : :a ooocooooooooo •O'O'tJ 3 "O "d "O "O "d •© "d "O "O • • • ^^ •■•■••••• d d d d d d d d d d d d o o o o 'O'O'O'O'O'O'O'O'O'O'O'O^^^" oooooo^ooooooooo ^'O'O'O'O'O cO'O'O'O'O'O'O'O'CO • ••••• ^^ • ■ • • o o TJ-O n o o i-OTJ •o S-co a u o § : : : "S* » d d o CDt-i ' • q5 O O O O'S'O'C'O ;?5 !4 • ••••'•^•••••1 • • • • ■ ' • .53 ••••••-- • • t • • ^3 • ^2 •••••••• ^5 o o o o o c ot^ oooooooocoooo •O-O'O'O'OeS'OaJ'OTJ'C'O'O'O'O'CoS'O'O'O'O W :a ::::::: :a • t • ^ t • • rt • • ■ -^ «••■•■••■•■■■»•■•■■ - * ••■■■•#•#••••••••• ooooooooo 0*0 coooooooooododooooo *0 'O tS T3 'O "O *0 'O T? *0 w o8 ^O T3 *0 T3 'O *0 'O'O 'O "O TJ'O'^ "^ '^ "^ "^ '^ ( ^ HH •• ■j; fl-3 fc-w O C rt Q g 30 O 0(3 'O'O'O 3 ■.•I««f •• d d d-S dss-S d d d d d d d d d d dd d d d-S d d do do ,,,T'.,-'T* • t • • • •/? • • 'a^ • • • • • • s rt rt /-> rt n^^ n ft « -3 o o o o o O O O O O Ot O O 0-3 O O O O O . « . f . ..-' . . •n. • . • • • • ••••• s^ • I • »*i O O "O'O iHOOoooO'3oooooooo(t:-3ooooooooooooo a'O'O'O'O'O'OiS'O'O'O'O'O'O'O'O^^'O'O'O'O'O'O'O'O'O'O'O'O'O O Ai OP^ :ph CO o I o 3 •2ddd|dddddlddddddido|o do odd 8 d d o o d o I^'O'O'O^'O'O'O'O'Or^'O'O'O'O'O'O.S'Of .2^'0'0'0'0'0®'OT3!«'Ot3'0 s : : ;fi^ : : : : :^ : : : : : :^i :;>p-i^ ::.: :(x< ..;?.. . • • • • • ••rt • • • ••••••2*** oocooooooo •O'O'O'O'O'a.w'O'O'O lo o o •O'O o o •O'O ■; ; : ; ; , , , , i i i i • i > > • ' ' > • * ;,.....•• I -S • • • :;,.,.. ,,.....• © • t • I; •» 3*'» S o o o ooocoooo j'O'O'O'O'O'O'O'O • •35***** * *^ ■■••■--«w oooooooooOooooooooo •^ *|Q fl? ^3 "O 'O "O "O "O "^ "O "O "O "O 'O ^3 'O "O "O c^ ;? • . • iOO ■000000000000002 •ooooooo O O o O O O j-o-o fl'O'O'O'O'O'C'O'O'O'O'O'O'O'c Bs^^yyyyyyyy. o^yy. ',', '.a ','.'.'. \ I '>'•'•'''' • 3.2 "S • ; ! I • ,-" t^ftZ «M ! ! ! , , ,pL4 . I . . .c^mh eo • • • o • ■ • • • _• ••S ®_'-:-:-;-:-:«*t)*^o«*«XrtrtOft*oooo IV 03 : o o •O'O o o 'O'O o o •O'O o o "O'O o o O'O o o o 'O'O'O oooooooooooooo •Q ^3 'O ^O ^3 'O *d 'O ^3 ^3 ^3 T3 "^ ^D JO Jooooooos ^»ddd 3'0 fi'O'O'O'O'O'O'O S C g'O'O'O OS mAm :::::: :hSh •o s • •••■••^ I o •O T! o 0) °0 a o i •O 2 SI o o '5) oooooooooooooooooo •OXJ'O'O'O'O'O'O'O'O'O'O'O'O'O'O'O'O ; ; ', : : i , % > > • > > ' «..♦..§ g**J*'''fl'*'*'cS'S:::S:5:'. :5::*'** a 6666666^66666^^0?^ 669 6 go o o | o o o o o o 5 :::::: :o • j • • ;°8o ^ o :«^ : ; :^ : : : : : : 5 : ooooooo.2ooooooooooocoooooo^o.Sooo '0'0^0'0'0^O'0'a5'O'0'O'0'0'O'0'0'0'0'0'O'O'O'0'0'0'0''^'O'a3'0'0'O • •■•••• , ••••■••••••••••••• 4^ I z*' • • ■ Ph CQ .P^ . • • c8 a S**'!r ••■• • h.> oooooo5ooo?oooooooooooooooooooooooooo5o>oooS!5oooo •O'O'O'O'O'O gTS'O'O O'O'O'O'O^O'O^O'O^O •O'O "O'O 'O'O "O'O'O •O'O'O •O'O'O "O'O g<'0 g'O'O'O O'O'O 'O'O'O Icfi ' * * -•_*•• 2 « u o Pk 1p»«d dvu ;;;;;;:;;; • . . . • •■•••§•■■•••••" • ' ? ? ! • •■••• ******** t»»ti«i»»*«***»« • • • • » * * I t * • • ■ • ::::::::::::::::: :«« : : : w .^«-^ . : . : : ::::::::: : ::::;;:• C4 C4 OS o coo "5 •♦■* •*9< •<»< •I»1l»AV ««««»o«o«o«0'0«o«oio«otOio«o»OiONe«i«OiOiOio«oio«oio«oeoio-*w* ■<■> CO IOtO>OiQtCiC>0>OiO>0>AeO'OeO>0>C>CtOO;OCOCOcOcO>OtO>C>C'0'0>C>OiC>0'0>Q>0>OkOiOkO>C •'^0404040 ^noQWfe^noO<;CQOQPWPH-«!m^«Q<{pq-M4B6 « gi d s^ » s;^ s 8 s ss ss 9 9 •9 ■* »o ^ 'T ^^ ri'TTir' "t' 104 MEN S FACTORY-MADE CLOTHING INDUSTRY, >f J 5P>, I -. o o o o o o ooooooooooooooooooe O •t-> a o 00 a: H n 00 •J n H 00 pa of H O H M < O n H OQ Pk O Si: o P6 u 00 N p Q H •J H H Q I e^ H n Eh 8 •s o« u o S a •qjn« : 31 i'l 16 e^MC^ '^|P~ COST AND PROFIT Bi SPECIFIED UNITS. 105 && o o o o PQQQ •♦^^^^^'••'«»^'«"v*«e«e«^^^^ •s oooooooooooooooooo T3 ^5 ^3 ^3 ^3 '^S ^3 "^3 "^O T3 ^3 ^3 T3 ^3 ^3 *T3 *^3 ^3 d —" V «»• ^' * '*' O O O O p; oS B o o o c2 O c o P P 'o'O'O'O'O 0*0 "3 o "o "O ts "O "3 "^ o'^'P'P O : : .' .'S!; •oS^ ■' : : 'o :^ : : : ooooooooooo ^O 'O ^3 'O ^3 X3 "O "O *0 *0 ^3 oooooooooooooooooooo ^3 ^3 T3 ^3 ^O 'O *© "O ^3 ^3 ^3 'O *© 'O T3 "O *0 *0 ^3 ^3 &1 ox 1 pQp-a « Id § oooooooooo T3 ^3 ^3 ^J T3 ^J ^3 ^3 ^3 *^3 I ^3 • t • • t • "^ • < OOOO'oOflOO'uOOOOOOBOOO O-O-OT) a-O oS-OTJ a'O'O'O'O'O'O •B'O'O'O • • • "^ 'hi • '*U • • • • • (M ♦ • 935 ^ o o o o o o Ote-S o rt'OXJ'O'O'O'O'Cs^TJ Ch : : : : : ; lofi^ ' OOOOOPPOOOOO O^ O 0-9 o o o t? *0 tS *0 "O "O *o *0 *P "O "O "O "O 3 *o *o j5 *P *^ "^ U • iHh • • ® o o i s I 8, I goo o H oooooooogo w ^ x3 T3 *0 *0 *0 'O ^ *0 £:::::: :^ • • • • • 2 * * rs * s * ^5 • > • • • • ooooSooPoSo2oPC eg o o o •O'O'O'ojB'O'Or^'o^'Ctr'O'O'O'O rtj'O'o oooooSoJP tf : : ! : : g : j8 ' o o o c * o 2 o o -gig . . s • tf 3 * *iS ~ ' . .H .Ph r» . .A< i-s aOO«^ooooooooooooo .^ '^'tJ'O — '^'O'O'O'O'O'O'O'O'O'O'CJ'O'O'O'j^'O •s ll « I '«l»»BOOOOOOOCSoi>OOOSPsPPPPPPPPPPPPO ft-Oro p'O'O'O'O'O'O'O ^fO O-COTJ CU^ P'OTSTJ C'O'OTJ'O'O'O'a'O'O ca . -o 00 -o • • •«> -O ^eoi-t c»e»NC*c» «'• • •■••••a • •••••■• • ■•••••• ■ •••■•*■ ■ ••••••• ■ <»•>••• I OO •OT3 •^ • I • • po o • "5 . • • • M • • • O^ . . C O O o IC5 • 'Ss • • • i oooooooo 'O'OXJ'tJ'O'O'O'O • • • : ' • S '"O ' o 0*8 o o o o o •CO S-o a-o-OTa :a :k oooooooo ^'O'tJXl'O'O'O'O ^^ "2 iJ i| i ^d!! d «do o 00 •N -co 555 2p2 g^gotsooo ftO CW^ O-o-OTS • i: » .ji '-' "^ ^ OOOOD 'O • c«c«c< •« •P»»I9M «eoco>ocoeoo3coeo>A>o>ococ4>o>oiococo*A'Arao><3toiQiQio>o>o loeqeoraicmiOiO OQ w u rs •« •a M ■« "Q « *t « 3 s s S 3 ^ s ss 3 .Q 3 S S a A « ^ 106 men's factory-made clothing industry. UNITS SOLD AT A PSOFIT AND AT A LOSS. ^ 7T COST AND PROFIT BY SPECIFIED UNITS. 107 Table 28, which follows, shows the number and percentage of units of different garments, for which data are given in Table 26, sold at a profit and the number and percentage sold at a loss: Table 28. — Number op Units Reported, and Number Sold at a Propit and AT A Loss, Classipied According to Kinds op Garments. Units reported. Kinds. Number of estab- lish- ments. Number of styles. Sold at a profit. Sold at a loss. Number. Per cent. Number. Per cent. Three-piere suits: Under $8 14 39 18 18 83 43 9 63 37 50.00 75.90 86.06 9 20 6 SO. 00 $8 to $15 24.10 $15 and over 13.95 Total 43 144 109 75.60 35 24.31 Overooats: Under $8 7 28 9 7 31 10 4 20 7 67.14 64.52 70.00 8 11 8 42.86 $8 to $15 35.48 $15 and over 30.00 Total 26 48 31 64.58 17 35.42 Separate troa«Jers: Under $2.75 6 3 11 7 10 7 90.91 100.00 1 9.00 S2.75 and over Total 6 18 17 94.44 1 S.S6 Grand total 48 210 157 74.76 S3 25.24 Of the 35 units sold at a loss, in the group for suits, only 3 were made by an establishment that showed a manufacturing and final loss on its year's business; and 6 were made in 2 establishments 1 of which showed a manufacturing profit, 1 a manufacturing loss, and both final losses on their year s business. Of the 17 overcoats selling at a loss, 1 was made in an establish- ment showing manufacturing and final losses; 3 were made in 2 establishments with manufacturing profits and final losses, and 3 were made in 2 establishments shewing manufacturing losses and final profits. The number and pre portion of the 210 units sold at a profit or at a loss by estabjishmcmts baring a manufacturing profit or loss on th*^ ir year's business are shown in Table 29. Table 29. — Total Number op Units Reported and Per Cent op Units Sold AT A Profit and at a Loss, According to Establishments Showing a Propit OR Loss on Year's Business. Units reported by — Number of estab- lish- ments. Total number units reported. Units sold at a profit. Units sold at a loss. Number. Per cent. Number. Per cent. Establishments showing a profit on year's business 43 5 183 27 142 15 77.60 S5.S6 41 12 22.41 Establishments showing a loss on year's business 44.44 All establishments reporting 48 210 157 74.76 63 25.24 ) •r . -^ -k The losses on some styles, by establishments shown in the preceding table as having made profits on their year's business, may be explained on several grounds. In the first place, profits on the year's business may be due to increased value of raw materials on hand at the close of the year. Secondly, some establishments knowing accurately what a certain style costs, will sell it on a small margin of profit, or even at a loss, n)r the purpose of attracting customers to buy more profitable styles. An estabhshment may find it necessary to carry a complete line of styles in order to meet the demands of its customers and to hold its trade, and may consider it good business pohcy to sell old or standard styles, at or below cost, to customers who will buy other lines on which a good profit is reahzed. There are, however, a number of establishments which have such crude systems for computing their "overhead" charges that they do not know exactly how much their profit or loss is on certain styles. Such unsystematic estabUshments may continue for a long time to sell particular styles of garments at a loss without knowing it. These estabhshment-s frequently sell standard styles at prices at which the concerns with accurate cost-accounting systems can not do business profitably. The latter are, therefore, practically forced to sell'some of their popular styles below cost, hoping to make up on others. COST AND PEOFIT BY GEADES OP QAEMENTS. Table 30, compiled from Table 26, shows the cost items and the Srofit on high, medium, and low grades of suits and overcoats, and igh and low grades of separate trousers. Table 30.— Comparative Average Costs and Manufacturing Profits on Low, Medium, and High Priced Suits and Overcoats and Low and High Priced Trousers, Based on the Average Net Price Per Unit Sold to Retailers. [NoTK.— The figures in the box headings show the range of gross prices.] THREE-PIECE SUITS. Items. Under $8, 18 styles. $8 to S15, 83 styles. $15 and over, 43 styles. Under $8, 18 styles. $8 to $15, 83 styles. $15 and over, 43 styles. Average net price per unit $6.65 $10.52 $16.54 Per cent. 100.00 Per cent. 100.00 Per cent. 100.00 NAt (YMt of all materials 3.74 1.85 .32 .73 5.41 2.93 .59 1.26 7.73 4.59 1.11 2.00 56.27 27.82 4.86 10.90 51.37 27.87 5.62 11.94 46.76 Diract labor 27.72 TnHirApt labor and factorv exoense • 6.71 Administrative and selling expense 12.09 » Total cost 6.64 10.19 15.43 99.85 96.80 93.28 Manufacturing profit .01 .33 1.11 .15 3.20 6.72 OVERCOATS. Items. Under $8, 7 styles. $8 to $15, 31 styles. $15 and over, 10 styles. Under $8, 7 styles. $8 to $15, 31 styles. $15 and over, 10 styles. Average net price per unit $7.14 $10.89 $15.55 Percent. 100.00 Per cent. 100.00 Percent. 100.00 NAt mMt nf all materials . ................ 4.00 L70 .35 .76 5.72 2.60 .64 1.30 7.78 4.12 1.06 2.03 56.09 23.74 4.92 10.68 52.54 23.83 5.84 12.01 50.02 DirM't labor 26.50 TiiHirAr>t Ifthnr And factorv exoense..... . . . . 6.80 Administrative and selling expense 13.05 Total cost 6.81 10.26 14 99 95.43 94.22 96.37 .33 .63 .56 4.57 6.78 3.63 { 108 MEN S FACTORY-MADE CLOTHING INDUSTRY. Ta^lb 30. — Comparative Averaqb Costs and Manupacturino Profits on Low, Medium, and High Priced Suits and Overcoats and Low and High Priced Trousers, Based on the Averaqb Net Pricb Per Unit Sold to Retailbrb — Continued. SEPARATE TROUSERS. Items. Under •2.75, 11 styles. 12.75 and over, 7 styles. Under •2.75, 11 styles. t2.75and over, 7 styles. A verage net price per unit tl.87 13.45 Percent. 100.00 Percent. 100.00 K«t nnst nt f^]\ inatArials ..,....,. .99 .46 .09 .22 2.07 .70 .18 .27 53.05 24.57 4.77 11.83 59.97 Direct labor 20.25 Indirect labor and lactory expense 5.10 Administrative and selling expense 7.96 Total cost 1.76 3.22 94.22 93.28 Mftniiffv^turinp profit ..... ......... t ..................... . . . .11 .23 6.78 6.72 As shown by the table, the percentage of profit on the three-piece suits for which cost data were secured averaeed 0.15 per cent on the low-priced suits, 3.20 on the medium-pricea suits, and 6.72 on the high priced suits. The proportionate cost for materials decreased from the low to the high priced suits, the proportion for indirect labor and factory expense and for administration and selling expense increased from the low to the high priced suits, while the propor- tionate cost for direct labor was nearly uniform. The percentage of profit on the overcoats for which data were secured averaged 4.57 on the low-priced garments, 5.78 on the medium-pricea garments, and 3.63 on the high-priced garments. The proportionate cost for materials decreased from the low to the high priced garments, the proportion for indirect labor and factory expense and for administrative and seUing expense increased from the low to the high priced garments, while the proportion for direct labor was more in the case of the high-priced garments than in the case either of low or medium priced garments. Table 31 is similar to Table 30 except that the items of net selling price and of profit are omitted, and the percentage of the items of cost of production is based on the total manufacturing and selling expense. Table 31. — Comparative Average Costs op Low, Medium, and High Priced Suits and Overcoats, and Low and High Priced Trousers, Based on the Average Total Cost Per Unit Sold to Retailers. [Note.— The figures in the box headings show the range of gross prices.) THREE-PIECE SUITS. Items. Average total cost p«r unit Net cost of all materials Direct labw Indirect lalxv and factory expense. . . AdminiBtrative and sailing expense.. Under S8. 18 styles. $6.64 3.74 1.85 .32 .73 $8 to $15, 83 styles. $10. 19 5.41 2.03 .59 1.26 $15 and ovw, 43 styles. $15.43 7.73 4.59 1.11 2.00 Under $8, 18 styles. Percent. 100.00 56.35 27.87 4.86 10.92 $8 to $15, 83 styles. Percent. 100.00 53.07 28.80 5.80 12.33 $15 and over, 43 styles. Percent. 100.00 50.13 29.72 7.19 12.96 \ 7 / /^ k. - % ^& COST AND PROFIT BY SPECIFIED UNITS. 109 Table 31. — ^Comparative Average Costs op Low, Medium, and High Priced Suits and Overcoats, and Low and High Priced Trousers, Based on the Average Total Cost, Per Unit Sold to Retailers — Continued. OVERCOATS. Items. Under $8. 7 styles. $8 to $15. 31 styles. $15 and over, 10 styles. Under 7 styles. $8 to $15, 31 styles. $15 and over, 10 styles. Awace total cost oer unit................ $6.81 $10.26 $14.99 Percent. 100.00 Per cent. 100.00 Percent. lOU.OO Net cost of all materials 4.00 1.70 .35 .76 5.72 2.60 .64 1.30 7.78 4.12 1.06 2.03 58.78 24.88 5.15 11.19 65.77 25.29 6.20 12.74 51.91 Direct labor 27.50 Indirect labor and factory expense Administrative and selling expense 7.05 13.54 SEPARATE TROUSERS. Items. Average total cost per unit Net cost of all materials Direct labor Indirect labor and factory expense . Administrative and selling expense $1.50 to $2.75, 11 Styles. $1.76 .99 .46 .09 .22 $2.75 to $5 7 styles. $3.22 J. 07 .70 .18 .27 $1.50 to $2.75, 11 styles. Percent. 100.00 56.31 26.08 5.05 12.56 $2.75 to $5 7 styles. Percent. 100.00 64.29 21.71 5.46 8.54 The variations in this table without an exception agree with the preceding table and cleariy show decreases in the percentages of cost of materials from the low to the high grades, and increases in the percentages of cost of direct labor. These facts are shown for the groups of suits and overcoats. For the group of separate trousers the percentages of material cost increase from tne low to the high and the percentages of direct labor cost decrease. COST OF MATERIALS IN UNITS. Table 32, which follows, shows in detail the cost of the different materials used in the garments, for which the items of cost and profit are shown in Table 26. In this table the establishments are eiven in numerical sequence, and the styles of each establishment in alpha- betical order. The figures in the column showing the total net cost of all materials used in the imit agree with the figures for the same units in Table 26. Where no amount is entered for freight the mate- rials are delivered free to the manufacturer. 110 00 H 55 H u 00 ■J n H 00 >* n & 55 55 1-4 o H 00 00 O 55 H Q 55 -< O 55 H^) H > H . H 00 iJ w GQ 1-4 O 55 CO 55 55 l-J ^ a o w" H O o O ^ 00 O h O 00 ij •< H Q o 55 O 00 H Q H n CO JO a o a CO s a Si M «— 4 08 ♦J en 9 •*^ d « 3 O. J3 3 ••■■4 eS St — >. 15 it 2** si ■"> on *» ♦J £ 9 O a d > d o o m o MEN S FACTORY-MADE CLOTHING INDUSTRY. S 3 2 c9 O s I I I 55 ^ Q 3 u CO s •2 s M H O d> d o o ^1 >. •3 6 S I 1 '1 «K m eS 3 op. 8 00 II Si / rs.7 COST AND PROFIT BY SPECIFIED UNITS. Ill dS 35 SsoMwSS S CO s sis s • • • • CO M ^ ■ • • • • ^ lO t- r~ o> Sep <«■ wS CO «5 s eo s S S S S 8 t» t— t^ •H »H ^ ^ ,j e« ej o o « ^ § S 00 CO »^ «' o o o ^ 3 3 CO xj C4 >* MS ti at eo eo eo •«»< e« M CO 'OOOeOOO'^( ..'A. S§82SSiisiS?i85l8SS85§8!58SS8SSSo§S8^^S8SSS oowSo^SoeoSo Soroa5fO'«'e<,»0»'5c9aoo»ao9eQQor^h»c9Qeoooift-^eooQe5o«"r«-Q<5©»'5S^'='OOC5QOU5PQO«CQOOOOQ«CQOQOOOQOO SSSSS! leo" >iC< )eo< 0060.1 !82 O Wtl-t ,14 r4 ^4 eo ^4 vH CO ^4 1-4 CO ^4 v^ eo rH ^4 ^4 11 ^4 rH ii eo ^4 coii CTCT^He* ^4eoe«« a. ' A ' ""« ! »% ' " ■ei . ' e ! ."" A e!« ' J. A A ' Jc^ ' ff "" ' c^ '< g ' "c; A ' "ff a^ es. e^^co^ co ^ co^ e«Wr-icoMfHcoe«tieoci»-i 9 S'd d£ 09 9 ■=a o c t> SCSboi9®cSfl8fl8 Jj Jj ►Jj Jj r, ri rt £ ® S G C Ad O if t^2 d 2 <=>•* 08"-" gg S?;SSSS5SS5S?SasS§5SS5SS5SS5SSglS??§!g?SSS?S5S??$SS?§JSg5Sg§Sg§ | Jj Jj h3j Jj Jj fafa'&CO 00 a eS o o men's factory-made clothing industry. S s CJ s 00 e 8 :: o S3 ss § § w ^ s i ^4 1-4 1-4 § § § § 00 9 f-l s w CO CO ^ ^ eo ^ •o JJ l>4C«( ozi'-* f— 80 <0S r» 6 lO o 00 OOto iiiii )>OQOO"5-^eoOoaOeoeo»-toot»'*«r-®-Ht^coeo«'5«©' it^ffle5coO«or-«Qe5Qc-4««eo^^QOr-eoeoo-*i>-i?5< !cooao'^>-i^4^<-iio«oo<-i«Oi-ior»f-4^HS<-4C0ai( M CO CO It-ii.'-^c5"«'< •-i»M»-i»^«-(..4C»eo co^ CO 1-1 coi-i eo« cow co« eoc>j eoe*^ coe^ >Qeo*u5eO'*«Oco'«'»oeo^i«5eo'*M5eo*«'5co*«oeo*«oco* a1 •s 1 o 1 1 a S a S . « *- • « . ,- * « .- « « „ « - .. « J J J J Jj J J JJ Jj Jj Jj ►Jj pMeQc6bnaQbna!}U4CQcob4P3oQbCQoobCCcQbCQenfe03a3U4CQeoPMCQaobOCo9 -iZW^' o §0 (O ^ »^ «o § § 10 ^ eo Oft S mm 00 i • Is 8 8 8 S S S S 8 8 c» t» ooMcoocoior^oiA H n H 9 1 COST AND PROFIT BY SPKCIFIED UNITS. 113 8 8 • • 8 .4 ^ 5 1.4 ^ 8 8 00 at to 00 s S ^ 10 CO to s CO o CO <« a c^ So s s e>5 'c5'^«505t^--w^oj«ooo^<-0^--OWi-'C^rHOi0^iiCS«OfC-O^4«PQi000Qi-4'»'QQ-^»5Q'9"t-O«0OQ0CQOi'5O>CQ«0< »qi35Q«»fte<»i--foecsw*»«p^ii5Q»oc5eowe2*«c*eop F4a^>e^•-lr^«oaie4^Cll^cimI■^cora^O'vo5tcae4t^f>4AooM>oooc>cool-4cooa> ct iO ^ eo c< ■♦ "••1.4 cti-t .•<*i-i »Ot^ t^^^ eoc* |CC©©«'50Q'OOOPQ©QQQOQQOOC5«0>CPO'OOQ"5"3«C©< e4ii?5C©t^©i^t-K--^'5^«75^^t-35t75ooNc^esiQocr^eS^csp*90o< iOc<5ifl't"e«5«St^ecesc^'rc>)5C'^'«s'0't>co©»"5-i05C^»-ic ■ «•■•••••■■•■•• _• ••••••••••••••••• I 'C Q © U3 O Q O > t^ Jo © c>» « 35 36 I eo c* O eo c^ t-H w MM^co «-ieo« cow co« COM eoci eoc* cow eoc* eow cow coeoi-tcoeoi-icoci S«eoSeo8Seo8S«oeoSSeoS3coSSeo33eoS3wSeo^Seo5Seo*Seo'«-- O 00 c8 h3j ^^J HI CD -J^i ►^ni :^i4 ^HJ o •2 C-S 0> J4 4 8i8 ►OQ Jj ►CQ ^J' -3 J Jj" H^HJ Jj' ►Jh4 J.4 hJ4 cow $^ eo t3 O ■ ( •« ■•(*• •• '• •• •• •• •• r * ^h4 I 3 "3 I 03 o o S5 i m l-l 03 i 00 -0 « .0 e! CO to to us CO 00 to O to B ■s I s s 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 JS 8 8 8 8 be •< •0 • CO •0 06 • ?3 0(5 .0 06 e4 d d 1-4 S 1 i e H M < n Q » P^ < n Q » P^ -< OQ e a a 11914°— 16 8 114 men's factory-made clothing industry. COST AND PROFIT BY SPECIFIED UNITS. 115 is H m CO » CO U >* A & Q H SD CO o OS o ^ O 6\ 5 « 2^ H H O iJ o H ao O O h O 00 »:> $ H Q fi < Q flO N Q CO H n •2 o s s & hi 3 M S E E § s s >4 d e4 ^ <-i ^ S i!S S M CO 1^ S 8 o g ^PA oe o -< io W f5 ^ • CO '« C« ■^t-4 eo ^ .m, j» m „v^ . ^,.^ .^. ^ . SSSSSSSS5SS9SS?JSSa2SggSg5gg8SSSSSSJ5SSi5 J1 lO Q oo r« r^ 1^ in 1-i a» at lO t- t» F» t" s s s •o e« i-» S t^ s» oi cj ^ 9 o 8 S S S R (D t^ tH CO « CO X g C«ioOC0C0>-i» c»»-i ss§ 3$ e<«r-i •-iOOC)OOCOOOO( •^M«Q>CQ>Oa>SQOQ «u5oeor»^Hest>.i-HCMr^ CO a» (o »^ CO S w ^ ^ S od 0(3 xj «($•/{ (O Jj ^4 Jj Jj - o flS .4> s Era5 lamias CO ^ . O S< ® be B s I u a JhJ ^A Jj ) 1-1 ifj C OS OC OS <-i t~ o «? cp >iS8SSrSicSoe<50oSSQoS«c )»-i«75»»--«ot>-»-iw^ coo «-(»*« ,i5SO'*«S"30»Qe«50 »-i«5»»--«Ot>»»^ •rff-J *^ * CO CO "S" i-l i^ CO 1-1 CO >iCOOO©'0 000'«000000000 )t^^i!5S2fec>- '*© 1^ t>- wco cow CO 8 B "2 3 I bO a QQ g^Q«P»HO«p©Q«DOQ'*OW'^OW«OWW«DWW eo^»5eo*35eo^35eo^'ne%w»cc'5wioeoeO"5coeo ^ . „ ^ - fl - Vi 9 9 ri 9 V vi (o 9 9' ^eoSCB«og^9flS9 J.4 ^HJ J^4 ►Jj oQOcnaaOi Jj •Jj ►Jh4 Jh4 i ^cdcQ(|^nQQU4CQaQps4CQcQbCQcobBQcofoPQadbOQas(I4CQoQP^CQco(MCQaQP^ ^ • ^ a o I I « 8 o Eh §8 i ^ § 8 S^ S i S :j rf ^ 9 CO CO i g § ^ * •• li s^ si' eSW I » to 59 Of. 1 > S r~ O r~ ( ! in o o«o I ) 00-- — < oScs r>.« «< • CO ^ «o Ct COpH • • • • • «?!? « ». > «i«»l < « W l»<. 1.»M<«<««l<»i^ »«• COM COCt COM CtMi-ieO^ IS! 'OO ^oo ;3r38^S8l?i8SS8§ CO CO STc •^( C« COM COM COM COM ss:;fSSS3$Sf39S^9S^9Ss;sss;^s§g$:ss9SS$ss$:ss9 oS-S?" 1 SI* i1 >J§& lis C I be :a « o X3 c A t» 5 aB^^ « 09J5-- a^ « oa.ffl « «9.a ia ►^►4 Jj J.^ Jj' ^J jj S: 1 C Q»^ O CVS o Q>*i O Cb-S o 0.-8 JJ •JJ J J JJ JJ P^ncB^ncQhCQaQEH0QdEi4QQaQ^CQcahnaQbPQdbnadU.CSa6&^naQhCQad § i 2S g lO •o ^ Mi •o 8SS8SSSSSSSS ^ eJ e4 « « M M CO to « n H n . -i_ COST AND PKOPIT BY SPECIFIED UNIT& 117 o s § s •4 »4 i^ fJ 2 S C4 CO M 1-J 1^ OO GO CD O r4^,-4M>H^<-*^M : i s I § »-• tj- « J2 w » 8 S S CO £ CO id to ci ^ lb .»0»CtOOO<0«OOt^cO'*0©eOCOOO»MM-H2Jt>.^^»C>«e2U3»-; ^OOMOO^O©^SOMC50MOO*05'*0 0'«'00«50 0COO uwwwuuwwwuwwuuu I o 2 •s a 01 |iSaG|i|iSRig|§|i|R|§2g§g|||S2|8S|giiiiS||S||S|||S2S OS §OOXSOQQ>OQ>OOOl»|i--i«-gcOi^< )iOto«0>QQOQC< • M.^OCOi-l*'*'-'" ) S i2 1^ § S S S w ra S S S S S 3 M r^ 00 d « if-(M«ooo>o*«^M«^«^eoi^^Heo»^0^00 M <> r i»<« gM'' n& ' r '' a ' J. '''' %r ''co- r ''a' ;t ' J ^A' c!. ' J. 'ci>' ci . J. '.J^' c^ ' ^ '^^ ^ 'cj>^ ' cJ» A' cJ>^ ' c^^ ' c!^ ' ^ SS5S^5g85S85SI25SSSSgS558SS8SSfS$SSSSS?SSJSS5SS5SS??$SS5S?SS i T ^ g i S (O i4 O 9 •-• « lO t« 00 Oft CO t-i th a> f-i ea « o> CO to -a M CO di !>• ^ «o (O r<^ id w I r>:^«>^doMid«DidMf-ic6c6>dtofl •o 9 I* o s 118 MEN S FACTORY-MADE CLOTHING INDUSTRY. ^^' COST AND PROFIT BY SPECIFIED UNITS. 119 a § a I WW 3 -3 •s •a s o o o s c s CO o ao 00 3 S § Sill • • • • #4 «-4 ^ rH S o $ S5 00 -^ g o ^ s s ^ I ^ C4 t» ^ C4 •6 >o ^ 00 § d ^^ CO 00 00 s o 00 s ? « to • •4 •o r» c4 CO s s eo >• co ^ eo CO $ CO ^ ,-1 lO fH r^ to fi ffi lO r-l o O eo 1-4 •* to a cp lO « r^ 9 00 1» t«r-oic coo tixi QQ ^4< t>-OC»»00000 OQ'VW "5^ "St «5* S' 8oooo< V OO'* 0( s ^ CO 8 S fc.T3 C8 IS I **Z3 * s* 5 o ofe i oa * 8S Op, oaooooooo5C®©QooosociQt-<-i©oe>iQcoe^©og?opOMQOocoQ Satl«ft»ftoo»5«o»c^»**oo•*<0'XO>5*c900<©•ft-HQO^^OOeoo>S?^Q»--^e>«a»'-iaoOfHt»o<-«*«5o«o«»'^'^»-'^«OaO'^**-o •» c^ < iOJ'MOieo^deo^^«eo^«iO*.-40'»( Pi iH (H C4 eoc» iM iiw i i-m T ••I' T - •■-' "• '■»— <«•:$• w »if« i w '»»» i * n »i t i n I !■». I coc» COM eoe* eo»H coci com d CO § I g § 00 '« « tdt'iodcJcioHw''*!^'^*^ ©ot^ooS3o'»SoSoo'»©oe4o©eooocoooeooococ5©'TOOc«oc«©o f4 8SiUS«D!-H«i^dcoC6C«i^"5©i^®©eo«©-dcooooc©©000©0»'5©QO©»'?Q©'«C©QQSQQC«'''©SCS2t?Siodado»c5ot5t»'c«t>ic; QQ H H n o u n a H p^ «< « •9 o 9 ■"^•- " 120 i m •3 -a o 8 .3 1 *» o MEN S FACTORY-MADE CLOTHING INDUSTRY. o o o o o Wi 9-^ ■^t r^ W^ o o o o o _• • • • • s 04 3 s *» St § § g gasi «H O fH 3 a s o o 8 u 9 o r~ ■» « Ii ^ to U3 (O o 0OM ' I, II .. * I ii p 8 5 8 § u 8 eS a ^^ CO <»e* !8S888S2S, coc>» «M eoN C»^_^ Si 5?^ So CO V O 741^ O ( OCOOO^OO( r^ «o« ..4aQ^>>oaoo•<^e'^> oocorH(OOMesit..c^i CO ' 'co ii l»iltj l H I » ■! Wi « !■ < 1. .»i « < eo « rt CO c^ ^ eo e* -^ eoc* 2^^:sSJg3:s^$;s^SS§S^S^?:s^9S3$s§^ •2 if CO > « . w . o . . - . . o g g a >> • oti • o -r 09,™ CO . O c8 03 .Cj• • • • • • • • iO lO M iO CO 8v-f to i>4i-i(Ot^ Gross price. S 8 8 d s CO s CO 1.^ 8 8 d 8 • 8 • o 8.00 1.50 1.50 2.00 2.50 Styles. n o O H fri «< pq o < n U ^{BOQ f^T - Tf — r (i^ '■S COST AND PROFIT BY SPECIFIED UNITS. 121 6 ^ 8Si i •O ^ tf» •-< •© o» iO o >o i s s r^ ^ t»^H S Q> U? «oa>r« i-> & dS N S 8 ^ e Q ^H ^4 a> s CO «Q »^ ^H 00 C4 eo CO <-l CO eo ^ CO CO •* c* eo c* eo ^ «o 2J5 2ffl 2i .^ r» T op ^ • eoo ^o 04' ■wa'o'ewa'a'VO'O'a ooe^i^H»o — •^coooo--»cQe>5t--io»n c<5oc/t^r^i-ci--cso5<»'^o«ccoc^ti '♦cooio'^r — ■ —•—-- — - » — ei * "eo " > iC t^ CO < 'ci c>»ooe5«coo! _^ 1^ cOiJS OeOiM O O < MCOI^5aOeOCO?l'*I^Cl'*OCJ'»'i eo 1-i^eo eo M'«< r^NO.-ifi^dscjeoo'*' eo»H coeo"9"»Oi-iesc^oo»ccocoe5< e3looi-ioONOOrHOo»H( >coogi~-Qoo' t>- •* 00 CO "O >S < >C CO i-H '^ to i-i < eo c« eo c^ 8oco«o (M coe* 1 00 CO t^ CO ' * "e4 ■ 88^Sr^oo8QSe^(N§S eoe»-^eoo»i-ici^.-(C.c^««'r^t>.cpN ideo*»«eo*«oeoeo«ONW»c«o«o«ceoeo«eoeo«eo««ccoeo«ceo««OM'*»o ► ,— as • «-- "SI'S* -.2 .— C -t-i ■' o : d2 c3 5-5 c-2.fc c-2-5 a -©is :© 2*j , o Bj o cfi-o ^ c o*j Cc-« =5=2 . D=5 ■ I •s e a «-? .£j 09 CJCQ Jj »-5j' ^►:i »3 w ■jj ^ :W3 .■C tea si tcG-'^ J . CO V OS 03 oi c3 c:r3 Jj J.4 JJ ^HJ ^Jj ^J £■•2 OS ® JJ 2 S Si ca Si ss coco cow s^ eo Q bC/W ^-■^ (b c9. CJCCOQpbQQ ^.4 ^h4 eo( 58 t>.eo eoc^ COM «ceo I O h ^HJ CJ I ai 09 .£3 EO e9 .^^ S « iM «o o l» tp ^ fs •* « t- »H eo «0 r^ eo •s 1 I > « 53 t «> X) 3 o a M fa CQ CQ fa a oa fe CQ OQ fa CQ QQ fa fa fa fa OQ ai fa CQ co fa CQa}faCCcnfaCQQoC>^CQosfaCQc/}faCQQQfaCQo3faCQoofapQc»fapSc» .5 eo CO o r^ o» fs •-• s J^ aS $ •>»< CO eo • •o CO s « S S S S SS8 88SS88S§8S888 a» r-* a> i-tc*'* e^ C4 co eo ^ o «^ c» — • n u Q -j;pao -< n H n n § I a 8 8 122 men's factory-made clothing industry. s 3 « Is "3 w o u i 8 o 3 3 & a § o O *" P.08 •3 S 8 g M J-S ♦»— 3 CO ■SCSI'S jl cs a H a / ^J^ COST AND PROFIT BY SPECIFIED UNITS. 123 o eCO0>0O'0>COQQOQQ«0QOQQQQOOQOinOOOOQOOOQQ S •4 din (A o s s§ CO CO 3 8 3 :s O I" t- »^ co e« CO 9 s C4 1^ 0<-4 >C( oo o< 1-^ CO a a e e >OC0''?C'C'OOO©>'5»CO^«CO0S«C00!0C^i2'5!5S?!2 •o c« t-l CO C« CO CO i-i CO 88S8S28SS§g§S??SS8S5S?,^g8§S^||9S|5S||S|R COC4 COC* COC4 C«CO )^eot-i co»-i co^ c«»H Me!»r«rt^ rt^ co^ S?S5S^5SS5SSSSSS??§S^5lS?S5Sg35S^aS853S^SS5 eo^5 eOC* eoc« eoeoi-icoeo<-ieoco»Hrii-icoc* eoe< com com ^^c^^ Cics S852§?S5S85SSI?3SS3aS?SaSSS?;5SS525l35SSS5SS5Sg??J % •s Jj J.J Jj -'J Jj Jj Jj Jj Jj ( Jj feCQ^i&Jttocfa'«aihCQa2C«i«oDt^CSxfe■«cQfe«aDf«<«a6^^ CO 9 00 s s « •-) dd CO Jj Jj Jj -Jj jj :^j ►^j' 'J^ ••Jhi '^j ^^ni :Jh^ uinodbnajfeCQQdbPQooP^na5fonc»bP^P^nc»pE'CQas(i^ncQP^ •o CO lO CO SSSSSSSSS888 tjr^ooi^oo^cocgej r* o» ^ n n H g s r- CO CO <« OD! CO •-•' CO « o 1.^ CO ■o CO 8 8 • 2 • o ft 13.50 1.50 2.25 7.00 8 8 2 8 S • 8 A *< PQ -< m u fiw -< PQ o P H Ph o 5!; S u 3 OS M « OS 8 124 men's factoby-made clothing industry, pbopoetionate cost of vabious materials. Table 33, which follows, shows by grades of garments the propor- tionate cost of materials entering into all the units for which cost data were obtained. The range of gross prices of these grades appear in this table, but the average price of each grade appears in Table 30. The cost of materials is based on the average total cost for each group. Separate data are shown for the fabric, body lining, sleeve lining, trimmings, and sundries, and cost of freight for defivery of materials. Trimmings and simdries include items such as canvas, haircloth, buttons, thread, wigan, velvet coUars, etc. Table 33.— Proportionate Cost of Materials of Low, Medium, and High Grade Suits and Overcoats, and Low and High Grade Trousers, Based on Average Net Cost of all Materials. [Note.— The figures in the box headings show the range of gross prices.] THREE-PIECE SUITS. Items. Avwage net cost of all materials.. Net cost of fabric (cloth) Net cost of bod}' lininj; Net cost of sleeve linin}^ Net cost of trimmings and sundries. Freight Under 18. 18 Styles. $3,741 2.541 .508 .085 .607 %S to $15, 83 styles. S5.406 3.582 .586 .119 1.111 .008 115 and over, 43 styles. 17.733 5.078 .859 .212 1.558 .026 Under 18, 18 styles. Percent. 100.00 67.92 13.58 2.27 16.23 $8 to 115, 83 styles. Per cent. 100.00 66.26 10.84 2.20 20.55 0.15 $15 and over, 43 styles. Per cent. 100.00 65.67 11.11 2.74 20.15 0.33 OVERCOATS. Items. Average net cost of all materials Net cost of fabric (cloth ) Net cost of body linin'^ Net cost of sleeve linin;4 Net cost of trimmings and sundries. Freight Under S8, 7 styles. $4,002 $8 to $15, 31 styles. $5,724 2.239 .712 .241 .810 3.176 1.138 .460 .934 .007 $15 and over, 10 styles. $7,780 3.822 1.674 .750 1.509 .025 Under $8. 7 styles. Percent. 100.00 55.95 17.79 6.02 20.24 $8 to $15, 31 styles. Percent. 100.00 55.49 19.88 8.19 16.32 0.12 $15 and over, 10 styles. Percent. 100.00 49.13 21.51 9.64 19.40 0.32 ' r?r 1 \ [\\ COST AND PROFIT BY SPECIFIED UNITS. 125 lining cost enter into their manufacture. Suits have a greater per- centage of cost for trimmings and sundries than for body and sleeve linings combined. Overcoats, however, show a larger percentage of cost for linings than for trimmings and simdries. The percentage of fabric cost is highest for the low grades of suits and overcoats and decreases gradually, showing the lowest cost for the high grades. Trousers, however, show a greater cost for the high grade than for the low. COST OF DIRECT LABOB IN UNIT. Table 34, which follows, is supplementary to Table 26. It shows in detail, by place of manufacture, the cost of the different direct- labor operations in making each style for which data were furnished. The cost of the operations of sponging, examining, and cutting is given for the unit as a whole. Data for the three garments of a suit, viz, the coat, vest, and pants, are given separately, wherever possible. The column ''Contract work," shows the total amount paid for the garment if made in a contract shop. SEPARATE TROUSERS. Items. Average net cost of all materials Net cost of fabric (cloth) Net cost of trimmings and sundries Under $2.75, 11 styles. $0,991 .824 .167 $2.75 and over, 7 styles. $2,070 1.816 .254 Under $2.75. ^ 11 styles.^ Percent. 100.00 83.15 16.85 $2.75 and over, 7 styles. Percent. 100.00 87.73 12.27 In suits, the cost of fabric amounts to about two-thirds of the total material cost; in overcoats, to about half of the total cost; and in trousers, to about seven-eighths of the total cost. The high per- centage of fabric cost in trousers is due to the fact that no items of 126 MEN S FACTORY-MADE CLOTHING INDUSTRY. H n H o a o < U H O H 00 O o CO H Q I 5 o a I S a O 00 *a 3 - H 09 a> •^< o. OS «^ h| 9 CO 3 a *^ oS a— ' 9 i I > O e o « o O 9 CO >, < § ,®5 C t- 9 s. o P 5 OS o OS Ml KB o |2 ~eS 2 eS O «® f d U be to 00 OS — f; Si =^ COST AND PROFIT BY SPECIFIED UNITS. 127 !!2»5P R§ffigf3$SSS8S8 ^MCQ I i ■*a 00 i S n H S88 iSi88^SiR§?aR ^ -• -^ -^--^.^^^x-v,-s/-^^^^^,-^^^<-vO oo-^^esioowooNN -. _ _ _ _ _ ^••UVlUUUUVlbUUUU o u w ^ vT^ ttt « w^ t— t»Qr>. .^«« -eo< 5 wwwwwwww ^«0 ^'H«^^5Crt^l~i3JC^oOC0O©»0OO?5 00>SQOCQOOQOaQ ttUUUUUUU •• • • • "_i • ''0^ ' ^>aa^ ^^ CI *H Vi *'32&SQ2SQ9QS9^fi''34S'-*Apco «3^Sp"5'»>p«ft*'oo?»»oe^So^«?««-* VbUUUUWU EiHE- HPHHH 1;^ aoccaJOH>uH>oH>OH>aQeDOQoOQQOH>OE-i>OOoF->oE-'> 888 ^H f-^ v-4 • • • s § § ii§§§ i • • g n CO CO CO ^t* ^ ^ ^ CO 0000 333 S S S S SISSS -■ •• • • • • ■•••• p )»0 8 ) kC >o "5 *J^ I C^ COM CM 9 o n O 00 act- ^P coo 552 •2 co«o "2 CO — o< co< o 52 e o s *=fS J:;'^ « OE-'>OE-'>0CoH>-OH>OF->00oH>OH>OH>0OH>dH>dE->cJH>00(jH>dH> g g gg Si s? be bo a o o. CO bO s s p •« -o •o ts i o o i OS K 9 CO CO CO ^ ^* ^f* ^' — 1 ■»!• -r 00 * ic «c 1CX31C fO C O "O »o of «r>. ^ « C» »H * r22; P -«e>»foco^ «o 8 88 i3 i5 o J2 ci SS S s «c5 o So o s s s s S-WOO C4 «0 O Cl<0 P CO CO CO l-t^H w^ r-t n w*wt w^ iH riM i^ 06 8 p S S8 8 • • • • M t-O P c* t? • • • ^ 9 S5 o •0 o A ^ • »J^ t • • • o >• o o o o ^ t • fl • .§ ■ • t W . . 9 * * * VI P P o « • ' * o • • • ffi •s « m 9 "o K e 128 MEN S FACTORY-MADE CLOTHING INDUSTRY. COST AND PROFIT BY SPECIFIED UNITS. 129 00 H QQ O >: •< CD g H H 00 ea OR n 00 t3 o Pi o n O 00 o o 00 < H H 1" CO H k1 PQ 62 o O ,®iS a *- o 3 >iJ SooiOQQQQQQeoeoydc C« W C«C«COC« CM A -«oo s (1< eS O OOQ 8 ' ' o •Oh-'* CO -* ^ s IS . ^ 9 *" » U O to _eo 3« 3 p eS O ki O I' 09 ® M 9 OS -< ffi2 S^S S2 fit s •Of) o»^ (•o IS •o< o r- •o •2«o OS-- S2 •ocs SS39 ■ 'UbWUWUbUUWWVIVlU ^^^VlVICU«JWW«i«UV»««jO III. WUbUWbUbUUUVlUVl 1— ir-'M0t^35Tl'»'c6t^«OO©«5< 00;D^iO«CeOOcO?^OseOC^«OOt-«0«*CM< • ••••••••••••■••«• «-• •^ 1-1 C4C4^ C4 '•0QCiCOC0CCiC00C'0'CCCCiC'-'OQCOOOOO>'5O( 't-COr^OQCOQOJ^JQC^tQCOCCOOeO'Coe'-rCCoJciJ^C^Sf (N c>« •OiO •15-- -H e*c*»H i I UE-'>OEH>OH>OH>OE-i>Of-'>oH>000of->tJE->dEH>ijH>00 gg CO " OS o s 88 88 {2f38 icoi >o< )^0^0 I •c i>- as f c>» < -H.-< c* (to ;3 i»0 ICO s 2S S s I- C4 00 r- 00 ft 00 11 SS9 C4CdH>dF^df;i^O O dH>,dE-^ o CO •00( «o»o «c5o eo SI •o- o»o •o^ o«o •Cl-H •o< 8S eoe<3 28 i£ a fl c3 d g s •o •o 8 8 § i «o »o »o«o eo •« •« _ eo •c _. *- CJ fl "S O ea ^ 8 S§88223Sg2 osoeooocftoSeo eo*c lo o €3 CO CO CO CO CO ONeo <•• m< «e ^•^ 10 to C4 8 SIS CO C^;0 CO e*c4 o Co. S g S S S 8 8 SSS S S S 8 88 CO c5 CO 'O r^ o toco^oi-ipj to a6 ^ ^oA 8 S 8 {2 S8 s ^ ci 1^ 06 c4o 6 uS S S • • • CO CO CO s si tn 35« S S S S SS S •o eocD *^?5 SCO c« oe* I s a S o 2; S eo o o o o o 000 •ceo J3 is S 8 e •o o _o op •O TJ'w •§ O •§ o o O S5 000 "O ^ TJ o o 00 o 5z: o o OS o 00 •O "OtJ o .25 •4-> rj 3T> O CI !§ o. « fl Is s ® ® w ® o Oo2 §•00 Q n H Pm OM"-t •^ Q HP^ A Q H^ ^ PQ ft H^ -(J pq .< PQ OQ ^ !^ 11914**— 16 ^9 S 130 o 6 00 H ■J O H n 00 3 CO m n H O « O PQ «^ & O 00 O o 00 H Q I CO H n e2 % 3. e men's factory-made clothing industry. s. ^ i es O M) o e ® !^ 2 «8 O .8< <5S i 3 ^ 8 So I § a M H r^i»- COST AND PROFIT BY SPECIFIED UNITS. 131 {S59fi9S9fi9QSOfiQ9eO( •o« «o< .J • •^- • •^- • -^ ' ei • dn^ ' 'e* ' 'ci * "e* ••«••« • 'vi ' 'ei ' «• •OA c* ^ C5 CO ^ JN Qb CO p4 ss; I "S- CO 8 S3 S! o« SS S8 88 8 8S RS 00 S?! O' 18 o s -^ ■»» ci|^d|;^0 O dH>^dh^cJH> 06 95k5 u5 f-4 t-4^H e4 04 § § S g iiil 2 i§g g 3 8S8S § gj CO o«e« o* o< cioi<C.'H>C*H>cjHi*OH>OOo'H>C^H>OH>o'E->OH>OH o; t- f- to t» <•< s S IS 00 www i ei to 00 cd t-( CO ojeo ^ •o S§§iiS2RSJ CO 8 o o do t^ 8 d 8 S 8 c« •o CO 8 d S S8 8 8 t^ (od od oi H) 8 d S 8 CO s ss s s s s g s « c>id o« s • • s s s to S 8 bObo M ? O-H la 2 n o 00 o «< no ^ o •o n o o •O TJ CJ B o •o o •o o o o 9 o O Q -< Q HPk^ •< !9 9 8 e o •o n o •o ■ • • « t • o 00 S Pi Q Hh •< o •o o •o « Jr 3 2 2 «D m5 Teg i o o •o H o o •o o •o o o 5 a A Q » s 132 00 H 02 O < 00 H S5 U n •J PQ < H CD oo" O 0! O PQ < Cd 06 O 00 O O 00 H H o 08 is w o MEN S FACTORY-MADE CLOTHING INDUSTRY. ®^ a !s S ^8-2 3 I 91 If 60 o S ® fe o© i s u 00 *S -lis ^ 8 s |S|§§|§g|§|| 8 • « • • S iiiiiiiiiii§ii§i§S^sisS§s JOggpgOOOQOOj s ioowo! )0< 8 13 99 ;s set 2S S^ t^;;;_>o|^a H > CjH>,0 O cJH>,OH>d^ 8 2 S o o o 2 2 SSgS 22222222 o o oo ooooi-^,.^;::!^ 36 5 t» r« S«H CO ^4 n *H ^4 ,.4 o> do «e« s d s 8 8S 8 * • • • (O •CC4 ^ 8 S S3 § S S § di <^ ^ ^ ^ 8 8 8 8 8 8 S* id MJ cu3^0'4i-'Oi-i<-ioe<9<-ioTO<^o t:-;fct.c«5-*c«0'*e«©u5«SSe«»S ra<^Oco<-<<-<^<-4i-<^it-if-iaOf-ii-o s s '<«> to S5 § i s o CO to u) a 8 i s I Q ra CO CO 4 05 «0 "I oO « ^ r^ ^ ^' c4 •< tj CO SS "S "i *^ « « ^ tS £:; S S S ^dracoco'W'^fiei «o CO «> s 8' S 8 d 8 8 CO 8 to 8 8 8 CO 8 •d 8 8 8 8 d ?< S © pa © e © T3 O © •CO © •o © •o © •o o •o © © •o o Q Ke>« •< S ft • ••••• I ■ I • • I • • • • I ■ • ••••••• • • •••••• t • • ••••••• t • ••••••• • • • • I • • • • • • •••••... 55 ..... . 1K . . . . o . © © •o I © •o © •o o •o © •o H o •o © •o © •o © •o H © •o fa o © •o n o •o I 3 o I a i S, — • W I^J 134 MEN S FACTORY-MADE CLOTHING INDUSTRY. COST AND PROFIT BY SPECIFIED UNITS. 135 t3 O C •^* ■4-2 P o 00 iJ QQ fi 00 H a H 00 »4 n «< H 00 m of O 06 O n H O H Pi O H 00 O O o 00 ««! H Q CO H pq o I is en O k. Q cj 9 !JS "5 O 09 t- " S5 o 2 I 5 a •2j*< § o la o >2 S ® !r 2 OS o 60 M .sa a ^ 8 W U St: 55 Ou CD ! . O o- !8i • ««< ) 35 «555 35< •O ^W'*" I uS Q «; u5 io kri I I * wS « b- r- « < 8SSSSg88S8888g8S§8SSS§Sg^SgS§Sgi?SSg8SSSS8S§Sg8gSS^gS f f-» 1-4 -H W ^ - ^ c< WC^-H -A. OE-'>OE->CjH>QH>006HOE->OE-'>OH>C:)f-'>OH>00oH>OH: s § dH>dH> 6H>OaDcocncr)''H>'>E-i>OOcQaiaj' 'E-">dF->C H>OOc; H>r)H>OOc»EH>oH> tJ u a 03 "So fl o O. bC a •a a OS « 9 "3 a lOOOO © lOOOO CO 8 000Q0 o «2 CO •« t>» CO CO cO o o o SS 8 8 88 ^^^^ a 8 §5 ujoS ^ CO CO CO CO Oi ooooo o at loic >c >c >c ^ «r t> 1— I <— I <—« O OOOOO OlOJ Q §S 2 8 88 ^ o • § OS *» 0« © * / fi S r>. r-r-.o eo In. r. oo o coc*2 oS e o -H CO 1-1 i-i 1^ C4 j^*^'i_; CO CO CO eocie4c« •< § i asass «C eo eo '»«c i-« C» 1-1 0> UJ »C "5 US "5 CO "S" OT -^ 1^ ■— 1 00 U? !>• to «Of< •^ ^O »0 _• •_•••• • N 1-iC* eo CO CO CO CO o* o oo >o f-< QO CO 0> OO © * * * 3 1-1 c 8 ^ O O Sm30 >0 >0 O 00 of i-« C4 ci i>^ o SSgS8 8 8 S S8 8 oi t'^Op-ic^j'^ cl c» eo co'^' • o uS o>o o t>^ ©t^ t^ % Oi I Oh O o o o o o o o o o o o o o e ■o e I o ooooo O O OOOOO o *C *0 "O *v3 *0 ^3 *© o I o o a "CO "S 08 n o o o •O "CO o o a* 9 I a OS M n u Q Wfc'< « Q Uitti < n o-<«oQ -< « oQ-CCOQQOQQ>OOp©OQO'COO©< lu3coC<'C CO (^ 90 CO M ( ) uS — 4 ic S kO O "O M -N r 'h>-'h>0!^>' F->CuH>oE-«>C»H>oE-'>OuE-i>CH>oH>uH> >Q o o o o 8 S iQ •<»••*• ■♦go CO CO o o 3 3 8 s s s i^ 3 I § ^ ^ 8 i-i O O iO«0'-» w « d ej c4<-ie>« c4 co' ai ei t^ 2 S ssssssssss^ssss s s o 525 o o I. o o • T3 t3 O •s •§ •§ X] 04 o 5^ o ^ o W O Q H -< s 3 ie>5Mi'«TO(iCf*co-t«-<'r5«co'»'e<5w«5e<535i'5-<5< •e « « wciw-^eoto-^tccoco »*««•*« CO ^e<5®35c<5®35c0'*5O _A. UE-'>dE-'>OOOaoo6dH>oE-'>rjH> JEh>00 t o M o •o 9 1 T «%»%»«%» r- '•I ao-^oco^ OB •I « ^C^M -^ c« ci i-5»H 8 S eJSSSel 8 r- o r^oeo»HC» r- 8 8 o 8 S8 o o o o o o o ^O ^0 '^S ^3 T3 o o o •o o o o "O "CO I OS 5 a- 0) M ■♦* pq • I 138 men's factory-made clothing industry. unit cost, mcludxng depreciation and intebest. Table 35, which follows, shows the cost of production, selling price, and profit and loss of the units reported in Table 26, including the additional costs of depreciation and interest. The figures in the columns for total cost and net price are the same as the figures in Table 26. Whether to include the cost of depreciation and interest when considering the cost of production of commodities, is a mooted question. These items are shown here for comparative purposes only. Table 35.— Cost of Production, Sellino Price, and Profit and Loss of Units Shown in Table 26, with Additional Cost of Depreciation and Interest. |Tho styles are designated by letters for convenience of reference to other tables. The same letter applied to the product of different establishments does not Indicate identity or even similarity of style.] THREE-PIECE SUITS. / r^ COST AND PROFIT BY SPECIFIED UNITS. 139 Establishment No. 23 15 42 23 24 38 17 9. 3d 42 15 10 9. 39 17 9. 39 15 35 9. 39 42 37 41 84 11 35 23 36 36 10 34 39 15 3S. 37, 17 35 18. 42. 41 30. 47. 36. 35. 36. 59. 59. 42. 22. 14. 15. 38. 41. Styles. Cost, ex- cluding deprecia- tion and interest. D 119. 818 F 21.368 F 21.806 C ia048 A 18.250 F 16.483 D 17.206 D 18.594 E 15.694 E 17.185 E 17.862 c 18.389 C 17.241 D 14.687 C 15.339 B 16.071 c 13.799 D 15.038 F 14.903 A 15.131 B 13.192 D 13.359 D 14.999 E 15.128 D 15.309 c 16.252 E 13.807 B 14.100 D 14.405 B 14. 704 B 15.351 c 14.590 A 12.647 c 13. 477 D 14.196 c 14.367 B 12. 448 D 12.805 A 14.488 C 11.854 D 12.9a5 A 13.507 C 12.. 500 C 12. m) C 12.482 A 12.605 1) 10.843 C 11.016 B 10.740 B 11.301 c 11.591 B 11.700 B 11.855 C 11.989 C 11.994 Additional costs of— Depreci- ation. SO. 041 .087 .017 .087 .034 .013 .021 .041 .012 .013 .031 .042 .088 .012 .019 .036 .011 .026 .030 .034 .010 .010 .022 .008 .013 .082 .028 .029 .029 .030 .035 .012 .010 .024 .029 .020 .015 .026 .050 .009 .007 .019 .013 .026 .026 .026 .012 .012 .006 .012 .018 .021 .024 .006 .025 Interest. $0,097 .163 .058 .086 .119 .014 .019 .240 .013 .047 .130 .820 .222 .012 .017 .210 .011 .114 .218 .196 .011 .038 .058 .058 .288 .054 .206 .063 .197 .197 .676 .280 .010 .101 .147 .055 .014 .193 .265 .035 .053 .181 .176 .181 .173 .136 .136 .031 .055 .151 .069 .128 .048 .128 Final cost of unit. $19,956 21.568 21.883 18.171 18.403 16.510 17.246 ia875 15.719 17.245 1&023 19.251 17.501 14.711 15.375 16.317 13.821 15. 178 15. 151 15.363 13.213 13.407 15.079 15.194 15. 610 16.338 14.041 14.192 14.631 14.931 16.062 14.882 12.667 13.602 14.372 14. 442 12.477 13.024 14.803 11.896 12.965 13.707 12.612 12.832 12.689 12.804 10.991 11.164 10.779 11.368 11.760 11.810 12.007 12.043 12.147 Net price of unit. $23,205 23.'J50 23.250 20.475 20.475 20.460 19. 110 18.428 18.600 18.600 1&600 1&200 17.062 17.205 16.835 16.152 16.275 16.275 15.925 15.242 15.345 15.345 15.345 15. 345 15.345 15.345 15.015 15.015 15.015 15.015 15.015 14.880 14. 415 14. 415 14. 415 14.415 14. 115 14.105 14.250 13.950 13.950 13.950 13.500 13.422 13.195 13.195 12.690 12.690 12.555 12.555 12.555 12.555 12.555 12.555 12.656 Final profit. $3,249 1.682 1.367 2.304 2.072 3.950 1.864 2.881 1.355 .577 2.494 1.460 2.454 1.097 .774 2.132 1.938 • ZOO .151 .974 .823 .384 .084 1.748 .813 .043 1.638 1.061 2.052 .985 .243 . ooty .590 .506 .391 1.699 1.526 1.776 1.187 .795 .745 .548 .512 .406 Final loss. $0,447 1.051 .439 .165 .121 V .265 .998 1.047 .002 .027 ".553 Table 35. — Cost of Production, Selling Price, and Profit and Loss op Units Shown in Table 26, with Additional Cost of Depreciation and Interest — Continued. THREE-PIECE SUITS— Contfaued. Styles. Cost, ex- cluding deprecia- tion and interest. Additional costs of— Final cost of unit. Net price of unit. Final profit. Final loss. Establishment No. Depreci- ation. Interest. 30 B B C B B A A B D B B B B D B A A A C B A B C C B A B C C A D B A A A A A A D B B A B C A A A C A B C A B B C D A B C B B B D C A B A C A B A B A $12. 120 12.532 12.842 12.874 11.727 12.626 10.493 11.377 12.560 12. 195 10.925 11. 101 11. 149 1L289 11. 470 10.823 12.546 10.498 U.440 10.943 1L177 11.346 1L680 9.487 9.688 11. 197 10.095 10.369 10.082 9.034 9.657 9.034 9.070 9.202 9.502 9.535 10. 737 10. 710 8.761 8.870 9.169 9.210 9.647 9.466 9.080 9.094 9.166 9.338 9.379 9.995 10.067 10. 107 8.512 8.879 8.721 10.525 9.921 7.884 8.500 8 674 8.116 8.318 9.785 7. 252 7. 8.51 7.768 6.401 7.201 7.217 7.672 6.505 7.360 f 0.017 .024 .027 .011 .024 .027 .013 .012 .012 .042 .006 .016 .006 .011 .009 .022 .029 .011 .006 .017 .024 .024 .012 .007 .011 .023 .009 .011 .010 .007 .003 .012 .013 .005 .010 .017 .009 .059 .003 .005 .003 .014 .005 .032 .014 .007 .005 .009 .018 .010 .014 .010 .006 .014 .002 .009 .033 .021 .003 .009 .009 .002 .028 .003 .008 .008 .007 .002 .003 .003 .008 .010 .016 $0,163 .044 .108 .236 .168 .052 .012 .089 .074 .221 .006 .044 .044 .169 M15 .156 .512 .082 .106 .134 .096 .096 .177 ,062 .116 .109 .033 .135 .063 .026 .010 .096 .037 .005 .043 .068 .184 .075 .077 .021 .067 .116 .088 .177 .112 .092 .035 .135 .a^'^ .148 .121 .148 .052 .060 .009 .066 .006 .074 .070 .110 .a52 .008 .155 .137 .085 .115 .024 .a53 .062 .062 .098 .087 .058 $12,300 12.600 12.977 13. 121 lL9i9 12.705 10. 518 IL 478 12.&55 12. 458 10.937 11. 161 n.l99 11.469 1L594 11.001 13.087 10.591 11.552 11.094 11.297 n. 466 11.869 9.556 9. 815 1L329 10. 137 10. 515 10. 155 9.067 9.670 9.142 9.120 9.212 9.555 9.620 10.930 10.844 a 841 &896 9.239 9.340 9.740 9.675 9.206 9.193 9.206 9.482 9.430 10.153 10.202 10.265 8.570 8.953 9.005 8.796 10.564 10.016 7.957 8.619 8.735 8.126 8.501 9.925 7.345 7.974 7.799 6.4.56 7.266 7.282 7.778 6.602 7,434 $12,555 12.555 12.555 12.555 12.285 12.285 12.280 12.150 12.610 11.875 1L625 11.625 11.625 11.625 11.625 1L375 1L375 n.2.50 11.760 11.160 11.160 11.160 11.160 10.920 10. 810 10.695 ILOOO 10.780 10.670 10.230 10.010 9.765 9.765 9.765 9.76.5 9. 765 9. 765 9.555 9.800 9.800 9.800 9.800 9.800 9.500 9.300 9.300 9.300 9.300 9.300 9.300 9. .300 9.300 9.100 9.100 9.100 9.000 9.900 9.310 8.820 8.820 8. 73.) 8.190 8.312 8.a30 7.990 7.905 8. 00 J 7. 840 7.840 7.840 7.840 7.350 7.350 $0,255 11 $0,045 54 .422 34 .566 35 .366 23 .420 17 1.762 .672 47 61 .045 18 .583 25 .688 .464 .426 .156 .031 .374 37 41 13 44 35 10 1.712 47 .659 .208 .066 56 14 54 .137 54 .306 49 .709 28 1.364 .995 59 38 .634 5 .863 .265 .515 1.163 .340 .623 .645 .5.53 .210 .145 33 61 42 64 62 37 25 22 15 34 1.165 27 1.289 45 .959 .904 .561 .460 .060 43 50 55 56 18 .175 14 .094 .107 .094 44 41 13 .182 11 .130 49 .853 30 .902 49 .965 28 .530 .147 .095 .204 26 64 47 3. .664 52 .706 45 .863 .2.)1 33 61 .00) 64 .064 18 .181 57 1.595 59 .645 13 .06!) 6. .231 1.384 .574 .558 .062 .748 50 45 45 33 .55 52 .084 ^ J 40 men's factory-made clothing industry. COST and profit by specified units. 141 Table 35.~Co8t of Production, Selung Price, and Profit and Loss of Units Shown in Table 26, with Additional Cost of Depreciation and Interest — Continued. THREE-PIECE SUITS— Continued. Establishment No. 57 57 13 46 30 28 26 50 56 61 62 64 3. 43 3. 3.. Cost, ex- Additional costs of— Styles. cluding deprecia- Final cost of Net price of tion and interest. Depreci- ation. Interest. imit. unit. B $7. 701 SO. 003 SO. 121 S7.825 r.350 A 8.114 .003 .121 8.238 7.350 A 7.090 .007 .101 7.198 6.975 B 7.384 .004 .069 7.457 6.975 D 7.736 .011 .091 7.838 6.975 A 6.185 .004 .034 6.223 6.825 A 6.408 .010 .045 6.463 6.825 A 6 403 .002 .048 6.453 7.105 A 6.624 .003 .062 6.680 6.860 A 6.340 .006 .040 6.386 6.790 A 6 235 .009 .064 6.308 6.510 A 6.358 .002 .006 6.366 6.370 B 7.792 .025 .004 7.821 6.900 A 6.768 .003 .013 5.784 6.370 C 5.126 .016 .003 5.145 4.900 D 4.378 .014 .002 4.394 3.900 1 Final profit. SO. 602 .362 .652 .171 .404 .202 .004 ""'.'586 OVERCOATS. Final loss. to. 475 .888 .223 .482 .863 .921 .245 .494 24 B F F I F F E H E . K E E E G D C E D E E F E E D E F D D C B C D C F F F D D F C E F D D C E E A S18.509 16.668 14.787 14.515 14.073 12.877 15.453 12.913 15.737 14.348 13.642 12.385 10. 879 9.630 11.661 11.980 12. 767 13. 197 11.344 11.394 11.524 11.425 9.694 10.483 11.452 11.943 11.674 8.656 8.737 10.001 10.168 10.168 7.673 9.537 9.516 10.004 8.547 7.485 7.553 6.255 6.797 6.459 6.559 7.704 7.725 7.128 5.577 6.511 {0.034 .037 .018 .025 .011 .027 .085 .022 .022 .030 .030 .026 .013 .016 .022 .011 .018 .028 .024 .012 .012 .039 .011 .006 .009 .018 .027 .007 .005 .009 .055 .055 .011 .009 .014 .018 .005 .002 .005 .002 .002 .010 .003 .017 .007 .002 .006 ;o.iii .219 .016 .114 .288 .063 .655 .101 .053 .179 .172 .112 .013 .089 .044 .018 .163 .108 .052 .om .089 .221 .126 .006 .219 .044 .512 .033 .005 .014 .075 .075 .116 .177 .135 .121 .074 .049 .008 .024 .062 .058 .087 .121 .058 .101 .007 .009 118.654 16.924 14.821 14.654 14.372 12.967 16. 143 13.036 15.812 14.557 13.844 12.523 10.905 9.735 11.727 12.009 12.948 13.333 11.420 11.495 11.625 11.685 9.831 10.495 11.680 12.005 12. 213 8.606 8.747 10.024 10.298 10.298 7.800 9.747 9.660 10.139 8.639 7.539 7.563 6.284 6.861 6.519 6.656 7.828 7.800 7.236 5.586 6.526 S19.110 16. KVi 16.380 16.275 15.345 15.015 14.560 14.415 13.950 13.6E0 13. 195 13.020 12.740 12.555 12.555 12.555 12.555 12.555 12.285 12.150 12.150 11.875 11.750 11.625 11.625 11.625 11.375 11.000 9.765 9.765 9.55.5 9.555 9.800 9.500 9.300 9.300 9.310 8.645 8.190 8.000 7.840 7.350 7.350 7.3.'iO 7.350 6.975 6.825 6.742 SO. 456 9 10 089 17 1.559 1.621 .973 2.048 15 34 23 10. 1 583 15 1.379 37 1 862 36 907 9 640 54 .497 1.835 2.820 .828 .646 17 15 11 63 30 393 54 .778 23 .865 .655 .526 .190 1.919 1.130 47 47 18 59 25 34 065 37 .380 10 .838 5. 2.304 1.018 as es .250 27 743 27 .743 55 2.000 18 247 13 360 30 839 52 .671 1.106 .627 1.716 .1*79 .831 .694 28 64 5. 45 45 55 57 478 52 .450 13 261 64 i.239 .216 63 - - Table 35. — Cost of Production, Selling Price, and Profit and Loss of Units Shlwn in Table 26, with Additional Cost of Depreciation and Interest — Continued. SEPARATE TROUSERS. Establishment No. 4. 53 4. -^ •^ 2. 68 61 46 63 2. 4. 51 53 61 51 Styles. Cost, ex- cluding deprecia- tion and interest. Additional costs of— Final cost of unit. Net price of unit. Final profit. Final lossi. Depreci- ation. Interest. E C D C C B B B D A E A A C A A B D S4.287 3.192 3.710 3.395 2.889 2.853 2.217 1.966 2.291 2.303 1.876 1.851 1.960 1.743 1.259 1.338 1.338 1.438 SO. 003 .002 .003 .002 .004 .002 .003 .001 .002 .001 .002 .002 .001 .001 .001 .001 .001 .001 SO. 006 .023 .005 .005 .009 .004 .007 .014 S4.296 3.217 3.718 3.402 2.902 2.859 2.227 1.981 2.293 2.327 1.881 1.859 1.964 1.744 1.269 1.3:i9 1.339 1.441 S4.500 3.780 3.750 3.500 3.185 2.950 2.502 2.32.T 2.325 2.32.5 2.092 2.047 2.000 1.860 1.395 1.395 1.395 1.395 SO. 204 .563 .032 .098 .283 .091 .275 .344 .032 ( 1 1 .023 .003 .006 .003 SO. 002 .211 .188 .036 .116 .126 .056 .056 .009 .002 .046 i ( Table 36, which follows, compiled from Tables 26 and 35, is intended to show the number of* units sold at a loss excluding the cost of de- preciation and interest, compared with the same units including these costs. Table 36. — Number of Units Reported Sold at a Loss with Cost of Deprecia- tion AND Interest Excluded, Compared with the Number op Units Sold at A Loss Including Depreciation and Interest. Kinds. Number of units reported. Number sold at a loss, depreciation and interest- Kinds. Number of units reported. Number sold at a loss, depreciation and interest— Ex- cluded. In- cluded. Ex- cluded. In- cluded. Three-piece suits: Under S8 $8 to SI') 18 83 43 9 20 6 10 24 8 Separate trousers: Under $2.75 $2.75 and ovOT.. Total Grand total.. • 11 7 1 S $15 and over . . . 18 210 1 53 2 63 Total 144 35 42 Overcoats: Under S8 »8toS15 $15 and over . . . 7 31 10 3 11 3 4 12 3 Total 48 17 19 COST AFFECTED BT INCBEASED PRICES OF WOOL. As shown bv preceding tables, the cost of materials averages more than half the total cost of production of clothing. The cost of the fabric or outer cloth is several times as large as the cost of the other materials. The cost of the fabric made of wool or partly of wool depends on the cost of wool. During the years 1913, 1914, and 142 men's factory-made clothing industry. 1915 there were great variations in the prices of the various kinds of wool, as shown by the following table: Table 37.— Wholesale Prices op Wool and Mohair in United States Markets, January, 1913, to December, 1915. (Prices at Boston furnished by the Boston Commercial Bulletin.] Date. 1913. January 3 Febniary 7 March 7 April 4 May 2 June 6 July3 July 11 July 18 July 25 August 1 Augusts August 15 August 22 August 29 September 5 . . September 12. September 19. 8epteml)er26. Octobers October 10 October 17 October 24 October 31 November?... November 14.. Noveml>er21.. Noveml)er28.. Deceml>er 5 . . . December 12.. December 19.. December 26 6. 1914. January 2 January 9 January 16... January 23... January 30... Februar>'6... February 13.. February 20.. February 27.. March 6 March 13 March 20 March 27 Aprils April 10 April 17 April 24 May 1 Mays May 15 May 22 Wool. Wash- ed Ohio, XX. Cents. 32 32 29 29 27 27 27 28 29 29 29 29 27 26 25 25 25 25 25 26 36 26 25J 25| 25^ 25f 25J 25| 254 26 26 26 26 26| 264 27 27 27 27 27 27 27 27 27 27 27 Unwashed. Michi- gan, fine. Ohio, fine. Ken- tucky and In- diana, J blood. Scoured basis. Territorial fine medium.a Staple. Cloth- ing. B super- pulled. Aus- tralian 64 's comb- ing. Mohair. Choice. Comb- ing. Per poimd. Ceiits. 23 23 22 22 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 30 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 30 20 ?0 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 21 21 21 ?l 21 21 21 21 21 21 21 21 21 22 22 Cents. 24 24 24 23.} 21 21 21 21 21 21 21 21 21 21 21 21 21 21 21 21 21 21 21 21 21 21 21 21 21 21 21 21 21 21 21 21.i 21i 22 22 22 22 22 22 22 22 22 22 22 22 22 22 23 23 Cents. 32 32 30 29 27 25 25 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 25 24i 24| 24 24 24 24 24 24 24 24 23J 23. 23) 23) 23i 23J 23i 23j 23] 23l 23| 23) 23| 23i 231 23) 23) 23l 23) 23) 23) 23) 25 25 25 26 26 27 Cents. 65 63 58 59 56 55 55 55 55 55 55 54 f4 54 54 53 53 53 53 S3 53 54 52 52 52 52 52 51 51 51 51 51 51 52 52 52 52 53 53 54 54 54 54 54 54 55 55 55 55 a5 56 58 58 Genu. 59 58 57 55 53 50 50 5(r 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 P? 4«< 48 48 48 48 48 48 48 48 48 48 48 48 48 48 50 51 51 52 52 52 •52 5^ 53 53 53 53 55 55 Cents. 53 54 f4 47 45 45 45 45 45 45 45 45 45 45 45 43 43 42 42 42 42 40 40 40 39 38 38 38 38 38 38 38 38 38 40 42 42 42 42 42 42 42 42 42 42 43 43 43 43 43 43 43 43 Cents. 82 82 82 82 82 83 82 82 82 82 82 83 82 83 82 83 83 82 82 82 82 82 82 82 82 82 82 82 82 61 63 62 62 62 62 61 61 62 61 62 62 62 62 63 65 65 65 65 65 65 65 67 67 Cents. 36 36 36 37 38 38 38 38 38 38 38 38 38 38 38 38 38 38 38 38 38 38 38 38 38 38 38 :» 37 37 37 37 37 36 36 37 37 37 3« 36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36 Card- ing. Cents. 25 25 25 25 36 26 26 26 36 26 26 26 26 26 36 36 36 36 26 26 36 36 36 36 36 26 26 36 38 38 38 28 28 38 38 38 28 28 33 33 33 33 33 33 33 33 33 33 33 33 33 33 33 « Territorial wools embrace the Dakotas, Idaho, Arizona, Nevada, Washington, Kansas, and Nebraska. » Prices of wool for Dec. 24. , er 3 . . Deceml>er 10. Deceml>er 17. December 24 . Wool. Wash- ed Ohio, XX. Unwashed. Michj- fan, ne. Ohio, fine. Ken- tucky and In- diana, i blood. Scoured bisis. Territorial fine medium. Stajde. Cloth- ing. B super- pulled. Aus- traJlian 64 's comb- ing. Mohair. Choice. Comb- ing. Card- ing. Per pound. Cents. 32 32 32 32 32 32 32 32 32 32 32 32 32 32 33 32 3U 32| 32 32 Centt. 23 24 24 24 24 24 24 24 24 24 24 24 24 24 24 24 25 25 25 25 Oent». 27m 27m 27m 27 27, 27 f 27 27 27 27 27 27 27 27 27 27 27 27 27 27 Cents. 39i 391 39$ 39| 39) 3ni 38 37 37 37 37 37 37 38 38 38 38 3K 38 38 Oenlt. 70 70 70 70 70 70 70 70 70 70 70 70 70 70 70 70 71 72 72 72 Cents. 65 65 65 65 65 65 65 65 65 65 65 65 65 65 65 65 68 68 68 68 Cents. 65 65 65 65 63 63 63 63 63 63 60 flO 60 63 64 64 64 64 64 64 Cents. 72 72 72 72 72 72 72 72 72 72 72 72 72 72 75 75 75 75 75 75 Cents. 38 38 38 38 38 38 38 38 38 38 38 38 38 38 38 38 38 38 38 38 Cents. 35 35 35 S5 35 35 35 35 35 35 35 35 35 35 35 35 35 35 35 35 During the year 1913 there was a gradual decline in the prices of most kinds of wool. During the years 1914 and 1915 prices have increased. The prices of woolen cloths have increased correspond- ingly, and as wages have not decreased the cost of production of clotmng has increased since 1913. V. .» . a i^. .^ CHAPTER rV. MANUFACTURING CONDITIONS. PRINCIPAL MANTJFACTUBING CENTEBS. The principal centers for manufacturing clothing at the present time are New York, Chicago, Baltimore, Phdadelpliia, and Rochester. To a considerable extent clothing is also manufactured in Cincinnati, Boston, St. Louis, Milwaukee, Cleveland, Detroit, Louisville, Syracuse, and San Francisco. New York employs more male help than the other principal centers, which employ female help to a large degree. The females employed in New York and Philadelpliia are mostly Italians. New York, though it manufactures some very fine cloth- ing, is the largest center for cheap clothing. Most of the children's clothing is made in New York. Baltimore and Philadelphia are the largo centers for medium-grade clothing. Chicago and Rochester, though they manufacture medium clothing also, are the principal cities for high-grade clothing. In New York and Philadelphia most of the firms are of medium size or small, the industry in New York particularly being in the hands of numerous small manufactm-ers. In Chicago, Ko.chester, and Bal- timore the bulk of the manufacturing is done by a few large houses. ADVANTAGES OF THE DIFFERENT CENTERS AS TO LABOR. None of the principal manufacturing centers enjoys a decided advantage as to labor. Immigration no longer plays the important r61e in the clothing trade that it formerly did. Years ago New York and the other Atlantic coast cities had a decided advantage. They were the ports of arrival of the foreigner, who usually landed in tnis country unpoverished, and manufacturers in these cities had no difficulty in the selection of help. This advantage, however, has to a great extent disappeared. Foreigners are clannish, and their family and racial ties are closely bound; they five together and work together. The foreigner to-day, if he has money, inmiediately goes to his friends in whatever cities they happen to be located, or if he is brought over by relatives, will natiirally be brought to the city where they have settled. So we find that the Jewish and Italian unskilled laborers whose friends are employed in clothing factories in New York or Baltimore or Philadelphia, go to these phices. The Pole or Bohemian who has friends in Chicago will go there, the German to Rochester, etc. It is due to this fact that the centers outside of New York have sufficient help of the kind they require for their particular product. A great change in the method of manufacture has also wiped out the advantage that the Atlantic coast cities derived from immigra- tion. Formerly, when few operations were performed on a coat, a skilled tailor was absolutely necessary. Immigration furnished 11914°— 16- -10 145 146 MEN S FACTORY-MADE CLOTHING INDUSTRY. I these cities with such skilled help. To-day, however, there is so great a subdivision of labor that the experienced tailor is no longer essential. In the cost of hving, the centers outside of New York and Chicago, especially manufacturing centers such as Baltimore, Cleveland, Cm- cinnati, etc., have a decided advantage. ADVANTAGES OF THE PRINCIPAL CENTERS AS TO MARKET. New York appears to have a decided advantage as to market. It is nearest to the New England woolen mills that supply most of the material for the manufacture of clothing. Every important woolen mill has sales and distributing headquarters in New York in which a complete sample hne of fabrics is always to be seen and from which goods are delivered, without charge, to the New York manu- facturers. Though these mills have salesmen visit manufacturers in every large clothmg center several times a year, these salesmen do not carry complete lines nor do they always come at the most oppor- tune times. As novelties are constantly being introduced, manufac- turers are compelled to visit New York if they are to keep in touch with the market. Retailers or their buyers, instead of visiting the different locaUties for the various classes of merchandise they require, nrefor to go to New York, where in one visit they can see the complete range from the cheapest to the best, this method no doubt aiding judicious buying. Buyers also like to go to New York because of tne many pleasiu-e attractions afforded, which are a very important considera- tion. In previous years distant retailers rarely visited the big markets. At present it is the exceptional retader who does not visit the New York market several times a year. Reahzing these facts, most of the large and medium-sized manufacturers of other clothing centers have established selling and purchasing offices in New York. The factories in New York have in this respect a decided advantage, for they save the large expense incurred in maintaining such separate offices and showrooms. The fact that the salesmen of all manufacturers visit every community does not alter the neces- sity of maintaining offices in New York. Philadelphia and Cincinnati manufacturers complain that buyers will not stop off en route to New York. A Cincinnati manufacturer stated that the merchants of that city had organized and offered to pay the railroad fare both ways and other expenses while in the city, to buyers who would purchase a certain amount of goods. Even this offer was not sufficient to induce buyers to stop off at Cincinnati. Chicago, becaiise of its size, its energetic methods of advertising, and the fact that in manv respects it rivals New York as an attraction center, suffers less than the other cities in comparison with New York. Chicago is centrally located and has great shipping and dis- tributing facilities. In spite of the fact, however, that retailers usually pay the freight and express charges, and thus in many in- stances goods purchased in Chicago would be cheaper than if pur- chased in New York, this item rarely enters into the calculations of the buyer. He continues to go to New York to examine and pur- chase nis goods, though the goods may not be made by a New York manufacturer. MANUFACTURING CONDITIONS. LABGE AND SMALL FACTOBIES. 147 V -A- Census statistics reproduced in the section on "The growth of the industry" show that the establishments engaged in the manu- facture of clothing are becoming larger. The vSue of the products of such establishments reported averaged $48,301 in 1899, $78,996 in 1904, and $86,977 in 1909 per establishment. A number of advantages are enjoyed by the larger establishments. The large manufacturer can usually buy materials on better terms than the small manufacturer, and tne mills that furnish cloth usually make more prompt deliveries to him than to the small manufacturer. The large manuiacturer, whose trade extends all over the United States and in regions where climatic conditions are different, can operate his factory on much more nearly a full-time basis than the small manufacturer, and on that account he is better able to hold his working force together throughout the year. The large manufacturer can effect economies by the division and subdivision of the work in his factory. By distriouting the general expense over a large product the cost per unit of production can j be reduced, but it does not always follow that this will be the result. Indeed, great care and good judgment are required to handle a large organization so as to produce goods more cheaply; for if the organiza- tion is incomplete or too complicated it may be very inefficient. One advantage secured by large manufacturers when practically all of their garments are made mside is that they are enabled to produce goods of uniform quality and to produce, season by season, garments that exhibit distinctive characteristics. Such a result could not be obtained where the garments are made by various con- tractors, especially when they are not produced imder the supervi- sion of the manuf actiu-ing establishment. Another advantage secured by a large establishment that has some or all of its work done by contract is that on account of its size it can furnish enough work to a contractor to make it an object with him to favor the large manufacturer over the smaller one in the way of lower prices and earher dehvery. The large manufac- turer is thus enabled to make earlier deliveries to his customers, which is always important, because a large number of the cancella- tions of a firm are aue to slow deliveries. Moreover, when deliveries are prompt customers are not so apt to ask for extra discounts, and bills are paid earlier and interest cnarges reduced. Where the large manufacturer docs all or the greater part of his manufacturing inside, his advantage in the particular just mentioned becomes stiU greater. / Salesmen are a big factor in building up a business, and the prestige ■ of the larger establishments enables them to attract the best class of ; salesmen. Moreover, the name of a large manufacturer extensively I advertised is an asset to the retail merchant, who prefers to buy goods • from a large, widely known house, because the brand of the house helps to sefl the goods. The medium-sized manufacturer, unless he produces some special j Une which is in demand and which his factory is generally known to I produce, has keen competition from both the large manufacturers and the small manufacturers. He must have an organization simi- lar to the organization of the large establishments and nearly as complete. His overhead cost can not be distributed over so large 148 MEN S FACTORY-MADE CLOTHING INDUSTBY, 4 i U ' a product as that of the large establishments, and the percentage of overhead cost is usually very much larger on this account. To a great extent firms of medium size manufacture through contractors, and hence can not produce the same quality of garments as can be made imder the direct supervision of large manufacturers inside the factory. Almost always medium-sized establishments have a number of con- tractors. This results in a lack of uniformity in the goods sold by the establishment, which is a fault that manufacturers try to avoid and that buyers are quick to notice. Often orders are re- ceived with the specification that the garments must be made up in a certain manner and must have a certain appearance. It is hard for the medium-sized establishment always to produce garments of speci- fied qualities from season to season, or even during one season, for they are made up by a number of contractors who may work for a particular manufacturer only occasionally and hence have not learned what his customers demand, or may not have had the oppor- tunity to teach their tailors how to produce garments for particular customers. An organization requires a long period of trainmg before it is able to produce just what the manufacturer or his customers desire. The very small manufacturer, as a rule, makes low-grade garments; the medium-sized manufacturer, as a rule, makes garments that are of better quality and higher cost, but usually a considerable part of his product is in competition with the output of the smaller manu- facturer. The opinion widely prevails in the industry that the larger houses are becoming larger, that the medium-sized nouses are not growing and that many oi them have gone out of business in the last fifteen years, and that the very small houses are becoming much more numer- ous and are usually very successful. As a rule, the small manufacturer operates on a different basis as regards all the costs entering into his product. He is usually found in a district where rents are low. He engages a cheap class of labor. In many districts where the factories are small the regulatory laws are not enforced, and the employees work under conditions that would not escape the attention of the factory inspectors in more centrally lo- cated districts. The small manufacturer has a minimum of overnead cost. His office force is small, consisting often of only one or two per- sons. For many of these small factories the proprietor is the only salesman. Their trade is almost entirely in the locality of the factory and the cost of selling is very low. Necessarily each manufacturer operating in this manner can not do a very large business, but when they largely outnumber the others in a clothing center, as they do in some of me larger cities, it can readily be seen that they might seriously affect the business of manufacturers who have a larger production. As shown by table? in the chapter on "Cost and profit by estab- lishments," the percentages of manufacturing profit earned, during their last business years by establishments witn net sales of less than $500,000 was 4.74; by estabhshments with net sales of $500,000 to $1,000,000, 4.11; by establishments with net sales of $1,000,000 to $2,000,000, 4.67; by estabhshments with net sales of over $2,000,000, 6.73. V - -i«r> ^ |4 i\ MANUFACTURING CONDITIONS. CHANGES IN MANTTFACTUEING AND TRADE CONDITIONS. 149 .^J. The demand for cheap and medium-priced clothing is increasing. Probably the biggest demand is for medium-priced goods, and a smaller demand for very cheap and very fine clothes. Move fine clothes are sold than formerly, not because those who have been wearing cheap and medium grades demand finer clothes, but because every year more people who formerly wore custom clothes turn to the ready- made. This is largely due to the tireless energy of some clothing manufacturers in working out their patterns and styles to fit indi- viduals who formerly could obtain well-fitting suits only from cus- tom tailors. PEOPORTIONATE VALUE OF CLOTH. Most of the clothing houses and retailers that advertise have in the past laid stress only on the style of the suit, the cut, the shade of cloth, etc. In manufacturing the greatest care has been taken to select novelty fabrics, buttons, etc., but practically no attention has been given to the intrinsic value of the suit, namely, the quality of the cloth. When purchasing woolens, manufacturers have been con- cerned mainly witn the effectiveness of the design as a quick seller. During this investigation many manufacturers, when asked the per- centage of wool in the cloth of their leading numbers, pleaded ignor- ance. They knew nothing of the kind of wool or the dyes used in the fabrics. Some of the large houses that advertise and sell under their own brands go exhaustively into the merits of the materials they use, but the great majority of manufacturers are still purchas- ing materials for their attractiveness rather than for their (juahty. The manufacturing cost, due to ever-changing styles and fabncs, has increased to such an extent that poor-wearing, cheap fabrics are generally used, even in high-priced suits. The two following paragraphs, quoted from the Daily Trade Record of June 2, 1915, give the opinion of well- versed men of the trade on this question of fabrics: That gross iterance of the component parts of fabrics exists to-day in the clothing industry of this country, which can be eliminated by the manufacturers if they would but subject to a thorough test all piece goods purchased by them, and impart to the retailer the accurate percentages of wool and cotton in fabncs, is the opinion of Porter M. Farrell, buyer of clothing for the National Cloak and Suit Co., and who perhaps buys as much clothing as any other individual in the coimtnr. Mr. David o contends the consumer is not getting the value in merchandise that he is entitled to, with special reference to fabric vaJue. He said that the consumer has no complaint to make with regard to the cut, make, and trim of a garment, but there is a distinct lack of value in the piece-goods end, which he believes is the most important end, and for the betterment of the industry should receive the attention of the manufacturers. The following is a concrete example of the tendency of many manufacturers. During this investigation a New York manufac- turer who has a reputation for making good clothing submitted a coat to the agent oi this Bureau as being one of four or five styles that represented his business. The garment was an overcoat selling to the retailer for $13.50 gross; the pifce to the consumer was about $18. The coat was made of 2 J yards of cashmere, at $0.96 per yard; for body and sleeve linings 3 yards of 30-inch silk, at $1.50 • John David, a large retail clothier of New York City. N 150 MEN S FACTORY-MADE CLOTHING INDUSTRY. MANUFACTURING CONDITIONS. 151 / I per yard were used. The fabric upon which depends the dura- bility of the coat cost $2.40, and the hning, which m this case was probably used to enhance the appearance of the coat, cost $4.50. Cloth is purchased from two to nine months in advance of its bemg used, the usual period being about six months. Nevertheless the manufacturer often does not receive his goods in time to cut them up to fill orders. The mill will make up a sample piece and wait until diflFerent manufacturers have ordered enough of Oiat cloth to make its manufacture profitable. Or, if a particular style of cloth is "running big," the mill, being unable to turn out sufficient to fill all its orders on that cloth, will distribute a smaU portion of his order to each manufacturer. Mr. H. p. Kohn, former president of the National Association of Clothiers, in an interview with an agent of the Bureau, said : Manufacturing conditions would be improved if mills would deliver materials in accordance with arrangements made, if quantities of goods could be made in advance, if not so many styles or models of clothing were made, and if orders could be depended on as bona fide. Many economies in manufacturing would necessarily follow, stocks would be disposed of to better advantage, and there would be less left-over material. Trimmings, such as linings, buttons, haircloth, and canvas, are ordered from one to six months in advance, but frequently are pur- chased as needed. The spring-season market begins November 15 and closes May 15. Most cloths for that season are bought in June, July, and August. They are cut into swatches and taken out bv salesmen, who solicit orders in September, October, and November. The manufacture begins in the faU and continues through the season. DeUveries are generally made after January 1, continuing imtil spring, and the reorders are received during the spring. For fall seasons the cloths are bought in December, January, and February, and salesmen go out in March, April, and May. Manu- facturing extends from late in the spring until fall and the bulk of dehvery is from September on. Reorders are received during the winter. In selling clothing long credits are given, so that a manufacturer does not receive payment for his goods imtil six to eight months after he pays for his materials and four to six months alter he pays for the labor. In recent years the clothing trade has experienced constant changes in materials, patterns, and styles. The broad athletic shoulder and peg trousers are no longer visible. Clothes to-day must be of the natural, form-fitting variety. There is evervwhere a marked tend- ency to wear lighter-weight materials throughout the year. In 1900 the standard winter overcoat was made of cloth weighing 30 to 33 ounces to the yard, the winter suits of materials weighing 18 to 22 oimces per yard, and the spring suit of fabrics weighing about 15 ounces per yard. At the present time the weight of materials for winter overcoats is 24 to 28 ounces per yard, for winter suits 13 to 16 ounces per yard, and for spring suits 10 to 12 ounces per yard. The reasons given for these changes in the weight of materials are that the homes and places of business are better heated and ventilated than fornierly and that the general public has come to feel that very heavy-weight apparel of any kind does not necessarily make for better health. The marked changes in materials have taken place ' -I V -i. 14 not only in the weight of the material but in the pattern, color, and kind of the material as well. Blacks and blues as staple suits are no longer in demand. Everything is made in fancy novelty designs, usually of the lighter colors. IMPORTANCE OF STYLES. Style is at present of paramount importance. The consumer is no longer satisfied with a suit. He wants lines, cut, etc. The public has been taught to demand novelties imtil style is the only consider- ation in purchasing a garment. The public has been educated to style by the national advertising campaigns of large manufacturers and tailors-to-the-trade, and the trimmed windows and show cases of enterprising retailers. So important has become the question of style that manufacturers, in their eagerness to show something that will attract the purchaser, are creating new styles constantly. Special styles must be worn at the races, at the baseball game, for golfing, etc. Where formerly a complete set of sizes of one model was cut from a single pattern of cloth, numerous styles now are cut from the same pattern material. One very old firm in New York engaged in manu- facturing fine clothes said that formerly they had two styles of overcoats and one style of sack coat, the changes from one season to another consisting ot shortening or lengthening the coat, etc. For the present season this firm has 19 styles of overcoats and 15 sack coats. This sample line is small; many of the larger houses show hundreds of styles for a single season, the hundreds shown being the selection out of several hundred others that were made up and dis- carded. These changes in materials and styles greatly increase not only the hazard of the business but the cost as well. ?alm Beach or tropical suits have recently come into much promi- nence. Originally they were worn in continental United States at seaside and other summer resorts, as a fad, but their practicability soon became impressed upon the public. At the present time, in the South, the Palm Beach suit takes the place of other kinds of summer clothing and large numbers of people in all sections of the country have adopted it, as the extra suit, if not for regular wear. The de- mand for Palm Beach suits has been growing to such an extent that to-day they are an important factor in the clothing trade. They have made great inroads into the regular summer-clothing business, so that many manufacturers have been compelled to add them to their other products to keep their factories running. Palm Beach suits are not absolutely essential, as there are other forms of summer clothing, but they wear well and wash well, and as long as they remain reason- able in price they will continue to be a factor in the summer-clothing business. MANUFACTURING FOR ORDERS. As the demand for clothing is seasonal, the great bulk of clothing is manufactured for orders taken three to five months in advance. A warm winter, cool spring, unseasonable weather at the opening of a new season, and doubt as what styles and cloths will be in vogue are aU important factors in the trade. N > 152 men's factory-made clothing industry. V A little stock is usually manufactured after the first orders are taken and the manufacturer has some idea what styles and fabrics are going to be popular. This is true only to a Umited extent, for generally a buyer will not purchase a sample just as it is shown. He may select the style shown but with dinerent lining and buttons, or the same style in a different fabric, etc. The manufacturing of stock on a large scale is generally, under present conditions, financial suicide. The tendency toward small orders is due to the retailer going to various houses recognized as being speciaHsts in certain grades of goods. The changes in style and faorics do not permit the retailer to hazard purchasing goods for a long time ahead. There is also a marked tendency on the part of the manufacturer not to overload the retailer as he formerly did, because he has at last recognized that such over- loading is in the long run disastrous to himself as well as to the retailer. Everywhere except in New York, where there is more and more contracting, the tendency is toward larger inside factories. There is no question as to the advantage of the large inside shop over the smaU inside shop. The relative advantages of inside and contract shops are discussed in the sections on ''Contract Shop" and "Home Work." MAIL-ORDER HOUSES AND TAILORS-TO-THE-TRADE. Mail-order houses, which purchase their goods from the manufac- turer, have not disadvantageously affected the wholesale trade. The tailor-to-the-trade houses have, however, very seriously affected the wholesale trade. The tailor-to-the-trade house is a combination of the wholesale manufacturer and the custom tailor, wholesaler in that he manufactures in large quantities, custom tailor in that he gives the purchaser a suit cut to his measure. The tailor-to-the-trade house is a national advertiser, and his agents are the small merchants in every hamlet and town. This agent is given a complete line of fabric swatches, together with photographs of the various styles of garments. He carries no stock. Tne prospective customer reads the advertise- ment of the tailor-to-the-trade house in a magazine, visits the ad- vertiser's agent in his town, selects any style and fabric and has his measure taken on a regularly provided form. The purchaser receives a made-to-order suit in the fabric and stvle he desires, which is not always possible in purchasing a ready-made suit. The retailer makes a profit without the risk of having any stock left over at the end of the year. The tailor-to-the-trade, combining these individual orders, does a wholesale business with its resulting economies. The tailoring-to-the-trade houses have, since 1910, taken from the manufacturers the normal increased demand for ready-made clothing. They will continue to be the chief competitor of the ready-made cloth- ing manufacturer in his bid for increased business. The advantage is all with the tailor-to-the-trade house. What the clothing manu- facturer will do to offset these advantages is a question upon which depends the success of the ready-made clothing business. SPECIALIZATION. There is a marked tendency at present toward specialization. Many manufacturers have become dissatisfied with the waste result- ing from showing complete fines. One house will manufacture pants. MANUFACTURING CONDITIONS. 153 i X { I. 14 raincoats, overcoats, and summer clothing. Within the various grades, good, medium, and cheap, we find certain firms specializing. One will make worsted suits of a certain price, another will manu- facture only suits or overcoats to sell to the retailer at $10.50, and still another wul make overcoats only. Although it is claimed that by making a complete fine a manufacturer does away with the seasonal fluctuations in his business, the cost of getting out a complete set of samples for each of the various lines manufactured, to compete with the man who is manufacturing one fine only, is enormous. The manufacturer who makes a complete fine can not, as a rule, buy his goods as cheap as the specialist, for he does not buy great quantities of particular fabrics, linir^, etc. The possibihty of stock being left over is greater and its distribution more difficult. The salesman must talk several different commodities instead of one. Probably the greatest loss suffered by the manufacturer with a complete line is his lack of concentration on any one. His judgment in the selection of fabrics for one particular fine is not the best. He may have a complete fine that is tair, but the specialist, who buys in quantities, who selects his fabrics with the purpose of manufacturing a particular thing, who adjusts his factory and trains his employees for the production of that particular thing, produces a better article at a lower price. Moreover, as a rule, retailers ahd their buyers no longer go to houses to purchase a complete line but go to one house for their $10.50 suits, to another for their $15 overcoats, etc. If the speciafist is capable and produces, as he should under a sys- tem of specialization, a garment that is the best on the market at the price, and the trade learns to associate him with that particular garment, enough business will result to run the plant during the major portion of the year. In other industries the specialist has been highly successful; the clothing specialist can likewise attain his goal. MANUFACTURING CLOTHING NO LONGER A STAPLE BUSINESS. Showing new styles constantly requires not only a great variety of cloths, much of which is left over at the end of the season, but also an expensive designer, without whose services no house can do business. The cutting of many different styles and the making of numerous samples and swatch books increase the cost of manufac- turing. The manufacturer, as the season progresses, views with anxiety the shelves loaded with novelty materials that can not be used next year, and will cut prices on suits or overcoats made of these materials in order to get rid of them. Manufacturers have, to their own detriment, educated the public to demand more stylish clothes. The woolen mills, in the first instance, were responsible for this condition of affairs. To stimu- late their business they constantly made up new cloths and the mamifacturer bought because the novelty would increase his sales. His competitor, not to be outdone, bought other novelty cloths. The profits derived from the increase of business due to the demand for stylish clothes are usually wiped out by the increased cost of manufacturing, the loss resulting from cut prices on goods of which too much has been purchased, and the depreciation on left- over fabrics at the end of the season. Only the manufacturer whose 154 MEN S FACTORY-MADE CLOTHING INDUSTRY. K purchases have been most judicious and whose manufacturing ability IS of the highest derives any profit from this stimulation of business. The pubuc educated to buy styUsh clothes also buys more ready- made suits than formerly. At first glance this increase in demand would appear to prove profitable to the manufacturer, but this is rarely the case. Formerly suits left over from one season to another could be sold at the original selling price or at a small loss. At present few left-over suits can be sold at any price. In the mad rush of manufacturers to create new st3rles, great Quantities of novelty clothes of all sorts of fancy materials are made up, which have to be sold at any cost during the season in which they are manufactured. Therefore, toward the end of the season we find manufacturers selhng out their stocks at 10 to 50 per cent of the original price, depending upon the desirabifity of the goods and the lateness of the season. These conditions have caused many retailers to purchase for their initial order just what they need for immediate use and to wait before purchasing the remainder. Before long the manufacturer with much novelty cloth on his hands becomes anxious and will sell to this retailer at considerably lower prices than the initial ones. This practice by retailers of waiting until the season is fairly under way before placing the bulk of their orders is increasing, because of the ease with which they can secure the goods they want at lower prices, by holding up their orders until the manufacturers become anxious. This practice not only destroys the value of any cost cal- culations the manufacturer may make, but results also in the ineffi- cient speeding up of the factory and overtime work during a few weeks. The retailers, having placed their orders after the season has opened, insist on almost immediate shipment of goods. The manu- facturer is compelled not only to sell at lower prices but to manu- facture in a few weeks quantities of goods that should have taken months, and this hurried production greatly increases the cost. The retailer's purchase of a small stock at the beginning of the season is made possible by the introduction in almost every store of racks upon whicn the suits are hung. Formerly, when the suits were {)iled up in bundles upon the tables of the retailer, he had to buy a arge quantity at the beginning of each season to make the appear- ance oi carrying a large stock, but with a rack 20 suits can be spread to cover the rack as well as 50. CONTBACT SHOPS. Many manufacturers, the smaller ones especially, contract with sponging houses to examine and sponge the fabric, or outer cloth; some do their own cloth examining and have the sponging done by contract. Most manufacturers let out the sewing-machine operating to contractors. The data regarding contract work collected during this investigation are shown in Table 38, which follows: V -i- l-v ♦ ->. ^' MANUFACTURING CONDITIONS. Table 38.— Extent op Contract Work, by Establishments. 155 Groups. Fabric exam- ining. Spong- ing. Making coats. Making trousers. Making vests. Group I. No operating (sewing) contracted: Establishment No. 1 No Yes No Yes Yes No Yes iJi:::::: No No («) Yes Ye.s No No Yes No Yes No Yes Yes Yes No No Yes No Yes Yes No Yes No No No No No No No No No No No Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes No Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes No Yes No Yes Yes No Yes («) No No No («) Yes Yes No No Yes No Yes No Yes Yes Yes No No Yes No Yes Yes No Yes Yes No No No No No No No No No No Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes No No No No No No No No No No No No Yes Yes Yes Yes No Yes No Yes Yes Yes No No Yes Yes No Yes Yes Yes No Yes Yes No Yes Yes Yes Yes No No Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes No No No No No No No No No No No No Yes No Yes Yes No Yes No Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes No No Yes Yes Yes No No Yes No Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes No. Establishment No. 2 No. Establislimcnt No. 3 No. Estalilishment No. 4 No. Estal)lishment No. 5 No. Establishment No. 6. ., No. Establishment No. 7 No. Establishment No. 8 No. Establishment No. 9 No. Establishment No. 10 No. Establishment No. 11 No. Establishment No. 12 No. Group IT. Part operating contra ted: fJstablishment No. 13 Yes. Establishment No. 14 No. Establishment No. 15 Yes. Establishment No. 16 Yes. Establishment No. 17 Yes. Establishment No. 18 Yes. Estabiislmient No. 19 Yes. Establishment No. 20 Yes. Establishment No. 21 Yes. Establishment No. 22 Yes. Establishment No. 23 •.. Yes. Establishment No. 24 Yes. Establishment No. 25 Yes. Establishment No. 26 Yes. Establishment No. 27 Yes. Establishment No. 28 Yes. Establishment No. 29 Yes. Establishment No. 30 Yes. Establishment No. 31 Yes. Establishment No. 32 Yes. Establishment No. 33 Yes. Establishment No. 34 Yes. Establishment No. 35 Yes. Establishment No. 36 Yes. Establishment No. 37 : Yes. Establishment No. 38 Yes. Establislimcnt No. 39 Yes. Establishment No. 40 Yes. Estal)lishment No. 41 Yes. Establishment No. 42 No. Group III. All operating contracted: Establishment No. 4A Yes. Estal)lishment No. 44 Yes. Establishment No. 45 Yes. Establ ishment No. 46 Yes. Establishment No. 47 Yes. Establishment No. 48 Yes. Establishment No. 49 Yes. Establ ishment No.50 Yes. Establishment No. 51 Yes. Establishment No. 52 Yes. Establishment No. 53 Yes. Establishment No. 54 Yes. Estaolishment No. 55 Yes. Kfrt^bUshmAni No, HR. Yes. Establishment No. .57 Yes. Establishment No, 58 Yes. Establishment No. 59 Yes. Establishment No. 00 Yes. Esta))lishment No. 61 Yes. Establishment No. 62 Yes. Establishment No. 63 Yes. Establishment No. 04 Yes. Total Yes, 36.. No, 26... [a2 Yes, 38.. No. 24... o2 Yes, 43.. No,21... Yes, 44.. No, 20... Yes, 50. No, 14. o Not reported. \ 156 men's factory-made clothing industry. T B£ANUFACrURING CONDITIONS. 157 Contract shops may be divided as follows: (a) Inside shops, more or less under the supervision of the manufacturer and working exclu- sively for him; (6) outside shops, not under the supervision of the manufacturer employing the contractor, who may work for one or more manufacturers, but who usually gives preference to the work of one manufacturer on account of an agreement to that effect: (c) contract shops working exclusively for one manufacturer and more or less under his control. The last, in a sense, may be consid- ered the manufacturer's own shops. In this last class the manufacturer usually selects some foreman or superintendent from his own shops and sets him up as a con- tractor; that is, furnishes him with the machinery equipment and Eays him a stated price per garment for making it, insteaa of paying im a fixed salary for supervision. The contractor, out of the amount received by him for completed work, pays the wages of his employees and all other expenses connected with his shop. The money he earns is the difference between his costs and the contract prices. In case he operates the shop at a loss, the manufacturer assumes the loss and cnarges it to the cost of manufacture. If, how- ever, the contractor should continue to operate the shop at a loss, and the manufacturer should feel -that the contract prices were fair, the latter would seek another contractor to place in charge of the shop. Sometimes the contractor pays only his employees out of the amounts received by him for completed work, the manufacturer paying all other expenses in connection with the shop. It is hardly necessary to state that in the latter case the contract price would be considerably less than in the former case. Some manufacturers prefer to have all garments made under their •own supervision in their own shops, and utilize contract shops only in case of necessity. Some employ contractors for making vests or pants only, others employ contractors for making cheaper grades of coats, ana others send all sewing-machine operating to contractors. The contract system prevails to some extent in aSl clothing centers, and is more common in New York City than elsewhere. Generally speaking, there is a tendency toward less contracting in the making of the better grades of clothing. Where there is contracting for the better grades, the tendency, especially among the larger manufac- turers, IS toward inside contract shops or toward outside contract shops that the manufacturers control. Following are some of the advantages which, it is claimed, accrue to manufacturers who employ the contract system: 1. When the contractor owns his machines the investment of the manufacturer for equipment is small. 2. Manufacturers relieved of labor responsibilities can devote their time and energy to other branches of their business. 3. Contractors, more easily than manufacturers, can secure all the help they require, because the contract shops are usually located where the workers Hve, and because the contractors are personally acquainted with most of the workers in their respective neighbor- hoods. 4. A contractor can make up clothing cheaper than a manufacturer because he pays less rent, according to space, frequently is his own \ — ^fv" ^ f 14 foreman and bookkeeper, and, owing to his close personal supervision, he can get more work done for the same wages than a manufacturer can from his inside employees. 5. Letting out work on contract reduces the overhead costs of manufacturers, because during the two dull seasons of the year sewing machines do not remain idle m the factory, and foremen of machine operators do not have to be paid to hold the working organization intact. 6. The contract system enables the manufacturer to know readily, accurately, and in advance, the direct labor cost of each garment, thus making cost finding easier. Some of tne disadvantages claimed concerning the contract system are the following: 1. The manumcturer having no personal supervision over making the garments in contract shops, the product is lacking in uniformity, and often is inferior in quaUty to the factory-made product. Each manufacturer that lets out work usually has several contractors. The lack of uniformity in product arises from the fact that several con- tractors make tne same grade of garments, that the contractors employ workers of different degrees of skill, and that nearly always work IS more hurriedly done in contract shops than in the factory. Without supervising the machine operating and pressing, the manu- facturer can not emphasize his style features, which are so important in his business. 2. Frequently contractors do not dehver finished garments on time. Where the manufacturer has no wagons, the contractor that has no truck must hire an expressman. The expressman does not work for him exclusively and he often has to wait imtil a trip is made. The failure to include certain parts when the bundles of cut goods are sent out necessitates a return to the factory. Lack of trimmings or wrong trimmings often hold up the work. The contractor's force, recruited • from various sources in the busy season, has no stabihty. As the contractor often works for several manufacturers, and as the work from all of them generally comes at the same time, it is natural for him to make up first the goods of the manufacturer who suppHes him with the largest amount of work or who pays him the highest price. The goods of the other manufacturers wait. Slow ddiveries by contractors often cause the late shipment of goods ordered by cus- tomers of manufacturers, and in many cases such delays* lead to cancellations of orders. 3. Aside from the alleged inefficiency of the system, the chief objection made to contracting is the insanitary conditions under which the work is done. The shops are generally located in poor neighborhoods where the employees can, without hats or coats, get to their work in a few minutes. Despite State regulation, many of the shops are said to l)e filthy, unswept, and unpainted, and to nave neither sufficient fight nor air. From a sanitary standpoint the contract system is claimed to be a menace to the worker and to the consumer who wears clothing manufactured under such conditions. It is generally admitted that a better quality of clothing can be manufactured if all the garments are made up in the factory under the direct supervision of the management than if the work is let out on contract. It is, however, not definitely settled which is the most \ 158 MEN S FACTORY-MADE CLOTHING INDUSTRY. >-T/ MANUFACTURING CONDITIONS. 159 profitable method of conducting business, having no contractors, or letting out part or all of the operating. As will be seen by tables in the chapter on "Cost and profit by estabhshments" (p. 52), the largest average percentage of profit was made by the establish- ments in Group III, in which all operating was contracted, the next largest average was made by Group I, in which no operating was contracted, and the lowest average was made by Group II, in which part of the operating was contracted, but the percentages for the three groups differed so shghtly that the showing is not conclusive. The contract system permits any person with a small capital to become a manufacturer. All that is necessary is to rent a small loft, hire a cutter, and send the work to the contractor. As no plant is necessary except a cutting table, many cutters, salesmen, and others conceive the idea of entering the busmess. Manv such manufacto- ries spring up every season, especially in New York. Their existence is possible only because of the contractor. Such manufacturers often last only one or two seasons, but they nevertheless injure the trade. In their anxiety to get business, which is very diflBcult for a beginner, they are generally compelled, if they are to do any business at all, to sell at prices that the regular manufacturers can not meet. HOME WOBK. The home-work system, a survival of the old household stage of manufacturing, still exists to a large extent. Though the system usu- ally is a part of the contract system and is understood by most people to be connected with that system only, there are many large inside houses that have their work completed in the homes of the workers. Some of these inside houses manufacture the finest grades of gamients. The extent of home work could not be ascertained during this in- vestigation, because many of the manufacturers included the wages paid to home workers in their direct-labor pay rolls, and contractors rarely kept any records at all. Though home work is not increasing, it is a very important problem in the trade, especiallv in New York. Chicago has less home work than New York: m both of these cities this class of labor is utilized to a considerably larger extent than in the other clothing centers. The foUowing is quoted from the annual report of the New York Commissioner of Labor, 1914, page 77: Articles of clothing and flowers still engage the greater number of home workers. Out of a total of 16,849 persona found at work in the home in the whole State, 15,037 persons were employed on these two classes of articles. Dividing the articles of cloth- mg into two grades, custom and factory made, we find 8,200 persons at work on the custom grade and 6,197 at work on the factory grade. Outside of New York the home-work problem is not so important. Most of the concerns are large, and they have some standardization of product. They advertise their products, and since the consumer has a definite idea of the product of a particular house, the cost of the advertising is wasted if one garment is poorer than another. Most of these houses complete their work in the factory. Home work consists principally of finishing, usually felling of various kinds on coats, pants, and vests, buttonhole finishing, and sewing on buttons. The home worker coihpletes the garment after the machine work and basting has been done in the factory or shop. Machine work is rarely performed by the home finisher. f \ I V ^-"^ Although in some instances factory workers in the busy season take home work to be finished, home workers are usually not regu- lar workers in the trade, and are not necessarily in a family working in the trade. Only a knowledge of plain sewing is necessary to do homo work. The possession of such little skill by most immigrant women affords them the opportunity of entering the trade, and gives the users of such help an abundant labor supply. A few of the workers are German and Jewish women, but most of them are Italian. Probably all home workers are foreign born. Home workers are almost exclusively married women with children, and thev do not take in this work, as is so often stated, for "pin money.'^ TTiey go into the work to supplement their husband's meager earning, affected usuaDy by a seasonal trade, in maintaining the lamily. Not able to work in the shops, they work at home. They come from even poorer classes than the regular shop worker, and the work does not stop when the family has established itself in this country. The contractor's shop is located in the center of the home worker's neighborhood, and the home finisher or her children get the work from the shop and carry back the completed garments. The homo worker has no regular hours, but does the finishing in what time she can snatch from her domestic work and care of the children. She works usually at night, as her time by day is usually fully occu- pied with housework. The work is done in the living rooms, with assistance from the children who are old enough to work. There are many advantages to the employers of home finishers. The contractor in the busy season, when his manufacturer ispressing him for deliveries, has not sufl[icient finishers in his shop. Tiie shop employee is not permitted by State regulation to work more than a certain number of hours per day, but a home finisher can work when she will. The State prohibits the employment, in factories, of children under certain ages, but the home finisher's children of any age can assist her if they are not detected. The contractor who is already making the most of his space can not, with the same production and price that he is receiving, afford to rent the additional space neces- sary for a full complement of finishers. The chief advantage from employing home finishers is the low price paid for the work. The home finisher is paid by the piece, the finisher in the shop by the week. As home finishers can not work in the shops, they are dependent upon the contractor or manufacturer supplying them with work. The contractor has taken advantage of this condition to pay the home finisher very low piece prices, which she must accept, or lose the opportunity of earning even that meager pittance. The contractor fosters the home-work system, for its discontinuance would necessi- tate inducing a large number of women to work in the shops, and would result in higher wages. The trade-union is opposed to home work because home finishers can not be organized and because their low wages are held as a club over shop finishers. Home work is a menace to the worker and to the community. The home finisher is usually overworked from her domestic cares. Home work is an extra burden. The home finisher usually has a large family that fully occupies her time by day and early evening. She has no spare time in which to do finismng work, unless the hours after 160 MEN S FACTORY-MADE CLOTHING INDUSTRY. 9 or 10 at night are considered spare time. Children are at work when they ought to be playing in the iresh air and sunshine or asleep in bed. The work is done amid all conditions of filth and disease. Home workers are not properly nourished, and their mode of living and lack of hygienic knowledge make them especially susceptible to con- tagious diseases, which are often not even reported. The Federal Government has recognized this danger from disease, and contracts for military garments now stipulate tnat all work must be done in a reojularly organized factory, and that no part of the work is to be sublet to contractors. Though most States have legislation regulat- ing home work, supervision and inspection are so difficult that the danger to the wearer of a garment finished at home has not been greatly curtailed. The following is quoted from the annual report of the New York Commissioner of Labor, 1914, page 78: The change made in the law, which aims to give the department control over the employment of children in the home under 16 years of ago, is very complicated and most difficult of enforcement, in fact, can not be enforced as it is written. The respon- sibility sought to be placed on the factory owner who employs the parent to do the work in the home can not be made to work out in fact, as was desired in theory. To make this feature of the law really effective, responsibility should be made t-o rest directly on the jierson, parent, or guardian having direct control over the child, who compels or permits the little ones to help with the work. The prohibition of home finishing may, as some claiia, do away with one means of making a family self-supporting. However, the price paid by the worker and the consumer does not warrant its continu- ance. Public-spirited clothing manufacturers have assisted and will assist any attempt to abolish tnis source of danger to the community. The consumer eventually, when sufficiently educated to the point, will demand clothing made entirely imder sanitary conditions. THE EFFICIENT CLOTHING FACTORY. THE FACTORY AND ITS MANAGEMENT. The plant and equipment, the welfare of employees, the stand- ardization of work, and the labor conditions are so important to successful manufactm-ing that the following detailed description is given of one factory that appeared to the investigators to be highly efficient and to have achieved excellent results: The entire manufacturing portion of the factory chosen for descrip- tion is on one upper floor, the inside walls and ceiling of which are painted white. The paint has a high gloss or porcelain finish, and can be washed. As a complementary color a mouse or battleship gray is used for the base of windows, pUlars, etc. This gray color, the result of many experiments, has been found to be a good neutral color. The roof is of the saw-tooth variety, so angled that the north light only will enter the shop. All artificial lighting is overhead and the distribution of the light is even and so arranged as to cast no shadows. All machines are run by electricity. Each employee has a locker for clothing, the men's and women's lockers being separated. Shower baths for men and special shoulder- high shower Datiis for women are also provided. The toilets are sepa- rated from the wash rooms. AH sinks and washbowls are of white porcelain. Sanitary drinking spouts, continuous running water, • >' ^: MANUFACTURING CONDITIONS. 161 [ - -^jr { -■ i-\ liquid soap, and paper towels are conveniently located throughout the factory. The factory is swept every night, the floors are scrubbed every week and toilets every day, and the windows are washed every week. In this factory there are no printed rules. By personal instruction the employee is taught to do the ric^ht thing. A full working force is employed at all times. If an employee leaves, even though another is not needed immediately, the vacancy is nevertheless filled. This serves to hold the organization together and gives the working force equal opportunity. The practice of this firm, whenever necessary, is to put the whole force on part time and not to give part of the or- ganization all the work. The whole plant never works overtime, the management being fully convinced that overtime makes for inefficiency, because it has a deleterious effect on the health of the worker. A well-trained worker Euts forth his best efforts in his regular working hours, and any effort eyond that will affect his productivity the next day. In cases, how- ever, where the '^balance" of production in a section of the factory is out of equilibrium, overtime may be worked by those operators who are behind in their work. In any case the total overtime must never exceed six hours per week. On week days only one hour over- time is permitted. If tnree hours' overtime are to be worked on Sat- urday, which is a short day, only tlu^ee hours can be worked on the other days of the week. The consent of the superintendent and general manager is necessary to work overtime. Except Saturday, which is a short day, the working day starts at 7 a. m. and ends at 4.30 p. m., at which time, or whenever the task for the day is completed, all machines and what goods are finished are covered for the night. The day's work ends at this early hour, so that during practically all the year the work may be done by day- light. Finishing at 4.30 p. m. also permits the employees to take advantage of the various activities arranged b v the service department. The employees are taught to dress in simple fashion, for it has been found that a person can not sit at a machine and work efficiently in clothes that are unsuited for the work done in the factory. The wear- ing of a bracelet, for example, not only hampers the arm movements but is dangerous. This factory is one of the few that has not lost some of its effective- ness because of its size. The personal relation between employer and employee, which is of the utmost importance, is lost in most large factories, where the worker knows only the foreman or superin- tendent, and where the employer is only a name. In this factory the owner knows every employee. He calls them by their first names and knows all their home affairs. On his rounds through the fac- tory he will stop and chat for a few mmutes with Mary about her father's health, with Tom about his savings account, etc. Because of the mutual understanding and good feeling between employer and einployees, assistant foremen have been found unnecessary. The owners of this factory believe that the point of efficiency is not to create tests to discover a good man, but to take the worker who is of the proper timber and tram him to be efficient. A department of trained and expert instructors i? maintained. An instructor will train U914*»— 16 11 J 162 men's factoby-made clothing industry. "green hands" in correct methods and impress them with the impor- taiice of a high quality of workmanship. If necessary, the instructor will call in an expert from the time-study department. Instruction is based upon a scientific determination of the one best way, by motion and time studies and by actual try-outs, which has resulted in maxi- mum production with minimum effort. Recognizing that speeding up is not to be accomplished by driving, but by standardization, this factory insists that the operation must be performed in one stand- ard way and no other. For every operation in the factory directions are printed on a card, which is given to the operator. A copy of one of these cards follows, the time being expressed in hundredths of a minute: Operation, 2 flaps and 1 welt sewed around. Sewing machine. Singer 44-8. Speed, 2,400 R. P. M.; stitches, 8; needle 2. Foot, J gauge; feed, regular. Attachments, trimming knife. Pressing machine. Seat, chair. Height: F., 17^; R., 16i. Table, machine. Height, 29. Work container, tray 28 by 18J by 5, on top of stand 30 by 20 by 16 high, with edge to hold tray. Waste container. Tools, 7-inch shears. Construction material: Panama linen stays cut to designer's pattern, with identifying notches cut therein. 3-line 40 cotton thread. u. E. A 1 B 2 C 3 D 4 E 5 F 6 G 7 H 8 I 9 J 10 K 11 L 12 M 13 N 14 o 15 P 16 Q 17 R 18 8 19 Description. Open up one set flaps and welt, then match welt and stay Sew together^ then pull clear of machine and cut thread with shears Trim welt with hand shears '], Match welt and lining and place in machine '...........'.'..'.['. Sew across top of welt, joining lining .....'. Remove and place in machine again at end of welt ...'.'.'.'.'.'.'. Sew across end of welt '.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'. Remove and place in machine again at other end of welt '....'.'...'.'.'. .'.'.'.'.'.I Sew across end of welt, break thread between two end seams, then pull cleiur oif ina^ chine without breaking thread Match flap, stay , and lining Place in machine , start, depress trimmer, sew together and trim aroimd three sid^, raise trimmer, finish , then pull clear of machine without breaking thread Match flap, stay, and lining Place in machine, stiu-t, depress trimmer, sew together, and trim around three sides, raise trimmer, finish, then pull clear of machine and cut thread with shears Roll one welt and two flaps together and place in tray at left Total operation time, one welt and two flaps Time allowed for— Rethreading needle o. 02 Removing and replacing bobbin 02 Marking batch number and count on time slip and taking away work 01 Getting and opening up new work 01 Unavoidable delays 05 Total time allowed pw unit of production Total operation and allowed time per unit of production Time. 0.09 .04 .04 .04 .03 .05 .02 .05 .04 .07 .06 .07 .07 .07 .74 .11 .85 A record is kept of the earnings of each employee for every week in the year. These records are examined every day to see how em- ployees are doing. The service department does not wait for an employee to make a complaint. If an employee's wages are decreas- ing, he is summoned for an interview, and the causes for the decrease are sought for, found, and eliminated. If promotion is not fast enough, the reason is sought and, when found, eliminated. The service department makes its recommendation to the various super- intendents and foremen and the general manager, and all work together to aid the employee in question. For each employee a ^- L~% X, 1} MANUFACTURING CONDITIONS. 163 sheet is kept showing his record for six months, in fortnightly periods. Following is one of these records for a two- weeks pay period: Name: Mary Smith. Operation: Coats seamed. Class rate: I0.30-$n.24.o No. 142. Day. Monday Tuesday Wednesday. Thursday... Friday Saturday... Monday Tuesday Wednesday. Thursday... Friday Saturday.... January. Hours worked. 11 12 13 14 15 16 7k 8! 4i SI 8 81 8| c9| 4i Daily earnings. S2.383 2.292 2.58 6 2.625 2.428 1.215 703 368 519 6 2.580 2.826 1.206 Cumula- tive earnings. S2.3S3 4.675 7.255 9.880 12.308 13.523 16.226 18.594 21. 113 23.699 26.525 27. 791 Total earnings S27 79 Number of hours worked 93\ Average per hour l.ill!!li.!.!!!!!!!!!!!!!I!!II!I!I!I!I $0 29t a The class rate for this operation Ls from 24 to 30 cents per hour. The emplovee must earn more than 24 cents per hour to work on this operation. * 6 On these days the worker was changed to another operation to help out and was paid the flat rate of her hourly average earnmgs on her regular operation. »««*« e Overtime. By inserting letters next to the number of hours worked, records are kept of tardiness, going home a/ter being excused, etc. The form also stipulates the number of garments returned for correction during the two-weeks period and the number of merit marks received by the operator. This record can be used in making up the pay roll. An employee can be discharged only upon a written recommenda- tion, approved by the proper superintendent and by the service de- partment, and the employee has the privilege of seeing the general manager personally. Employees as a rule are not discharged. If a girl is not suitable for one operation, she is trained for another, until the operation has been found for which she is best suited. An em- olovee may be discharged for drunkenness, lack of cooperation, or lack of adaptabihty to any operation, but in the latter case the factory endeavors to find a suitable position for him before he is discharged. No employee who has been absent can return to work before report- ing to the office. Girls who are absent without having spoken of it previously, are visited by an officer of the service department. Employees are shown that absence or tardiness throws their section behind and causes other employees to lose money. A sheet is sent to the office every day showing the names of returned absentees, the reasons for their absences, the time during which they were absent, and whether or not they were excused; the names of quitters and new employees, and the names and excuses of tardy employees. This factory maintains a time-study and a machine department, each in charge of experts. Together they work out the best speed for every machine used in various operations, decide on the best arrange- ment of the work boxes, attachments, feeds, and all conditions of 164 MEN S FACTOBY-MADE CLOTHING INDUSTEY. ^ > fi> MANUFACTURING CONDITIONS. 165 operation. These departments are also constantly experimenting with old and new machinery. An operator in this factory never oils or cleans a machine, or ad- justs a belt, etc. This work is done by the machine-repair depart- ment. OiUng: a machine reauires a great deal of skill, for too much or too Uttle oiling will cause aamage and waste. The first season that operators in this factory were not permitted to oil their machines, oil spots on goods decreased 75 per cent. Every machine in the shop is oiled twice a day and some machines as often as four times a day. Two or three times a week, at a meeting of all the superintendents, current factory problems are discussed and ideas for improvements are considered. Orders that come in are put in a lot ledger arranged according to the model and style of goods. Orders are so distributed in the lot ledger as to show the customers' numbers and the sizes ordered by each. Cutting orders are made up from the lot ledger, which permits all lots of one kind to be bulked. When the cutting order is returned from the marker, it is sent to the lining department, and the linings are cut from the same order. The plaiming department of the cutting room arranges these orders with a view both to the time in which they are needed for the purpose of filUng orders and to the proper distribu- tion for manufacturing purposes. It might be well to point out that most factories cut their goods when they are ready to make them up, thus often losing the savings of bulk cutting. In this factory the goods are cut and stored, to be taken out and used whenever needed. Every model when originated is analyzed by means of a model analysis sheet, which classifies and values for purposes of manufac- ture the different model variations. These values determine the number of the particular model in question that is to be put into work for the purposes of efficient manufacture. Each moocl sheet has the number of that model to bo put into a thousand units of manufacture. Wlien the cloth, lining, or other parts are cut, they are routed to a particular box by having the box number entered upon the cutting order. In this way all parts are collected and assembled from the various cutting operations and remain in storage for distribution. When the cutting card is finally returned to the planning clerk, a small auxiliary card, known as the shop manufac- turing card, is made out. These are filed with the planning clerk and each represents a batch of garments in the storeroom ready to be distributed for manufacture. With the aid of the model anal- ysis sheet, the planning clerk distributes the work on hand in tJie storeroom, assigning to it both a place andean order of manufacture bv means of a numbering system. The batch or route number is placed on each manufacturing card by the planning clerk for this purpose. When this has been done, tickets are macie out, all part tickets showing the batch number. This enables the proper order to be maintained throughout all processes of manufacture. The issuance of the shop manufacturing card by the planning clerk is not only the basis of making out the tickets, but also constitutes a requi- sition to the storeroom for ordering work out to the factory. The manufacturing card at all times accompanies the goods. When goods are issued to the workshop the card accompanies them to the first route clerk. The route clerk assigns the work to each operator. The ( % ■i^ 1> operator must, however, get up and take the work from a conven- iently-located ledge or table. This is insisted upon by the factory. Sitting at a machme constantly puts the operator on edge and keeps her ''keyed up." This walking a short distance in order to get her work, acts as a relaxation and a relief from fatigue and has been found more effective than definite rest periods. For the same reason an operator must go to a small conveniently located supply room, a sort 01 substation oi the main supply room, for her thread, buttons, and cut trimmings. A girl requirmg a new spool of thread must return the empty one. The arrangement is such that goods pass from one operation to another with the least loss of time. This factor is one that is usually disregarded in the clothing trade and one that to a great extent is responsible for smaller production. The route clerk marlra the number of operations performed by each operator on a specially prepared slip, which is attached to the oper- ator's machine. This sHp is printed and contains 500 very small squares representing the piece price per operation multiplied by the number of^ operations penormed, from 1 to 500. This slip serves as a basis for the pay roll, and at the close of the day's work is handed to the foreman, who turns it in to the office. Descriptive tickets are put on those parts of the garments that are made separately. This ticket by number or letter denotes the batch number, size, shade, single or double stitch, class of trimming, color of thread, hand or machine buttonholes, etc. These tickets are made from the manufacturing card, and are important, as they prevent different shades of cloth being used in the same garment, the using of the wrong shade of thread, etc. Every operating section has a signboard which starts clean every morning. In the office a task is set, that is, so many coats, or trou- sers, or vests, are to be turned out that day. This task is given to the foreman, who in turn set the tasks for the various operations, so that at the end of the day the factory task set by the office will have been accomplished. The foremen chalk up on the various signboards the task for each operation, above whicn the route clerk, when a batch is completed, posts the number finished up to that time. These figures are changed whenever a batch is completed. Thus at any hour of the day the foremen and the workers have always before them, not only what they have to accomplish, but also what has already been accomplished. When the task for any operation has been completed before the general closing time, the employees on that operation are not permitted to remain around the machines, but must leave the factory floor, going to the game room, shower rooms, or home. If one section is compelled to wait for another, which is unusual, the employees of the waiting section must go to the game room, where a woman reads to them, or where they may play games, etc. The setting of the task for the day is a question of keeping the shop "balance." It is known how many units the shop can turn out efficiently in a day, and the task is set to maintain this balance. This assures sufficient work for every day in the year. If there is too much or too httle work at the establisned balance, the balance is changed. 166 men's factoby-made clothing industry. ^T With the manufacturine; card come small red, OTcen, or yellow tickets, which show the lot number, batch number, model, and amount. A red ticket signifies that the goods are to be rushed. This does not mean ordinarily that they will be made up quicker, but that they are given preference; that is, they will be put into work first. Wliere a special rush is required a route clerk remains with the batch and follows up the work from one section to another. The green ticket denotes custom work, which is to be rushed also. This ticket is to distinguish custom work (made-to-order specials for cus- tomers), so that if an inquiry is received from the customer, it will be possible to tell where the garment is by looking at the control board, and to rush it through ilnecessary. The yellow ticket denotes regular work. If for some reason one batch can not follow in its regular order, a blue ticket similar to the yellow one is made out and passed in regular order to the next section. The yellow ticket remains in whatever section it happens to be. A blue card is made out at the same time for the route clerk and the workers, so that they will lose no time looking for that batch. When the cause for the delay has been eliminated, this batch is given the preference. Each department (coats, vests, and trousers) has a large wooden board called a control board on which there is a space for each section of a department. On a ticket at the top of this space is the number of units that have been turned out by this section, and below the number of units still in process. These little tickets hang on hooks, and when a batch is completed, the ticket is taken off, and the amount of it is added to the numoer registered as having been turned out and deducted from the amount registered as being still in work. The ticket is passed on to the next section and hung up, being added to the amount already registered as being work in process in that section. The route clerk, upon the completion of a baton in a section, notified a clerk in charge of the control board, who makes the necessary changes on the board and on the route clerk's manufacturing card. Each section has also two little tickets showing the maximum and minimum amount of work that should be done in that section in order to assure efficient production. From these minimum and maxi- mum cards the flow of work is regulated. Assuming that there are four sections and that the first two are in ''balance, ' and the third is in excess of the maximum, the task of the first two would be reduced so that section three would receive less work. This would continue until section three was again in ''balance." If, however, section two is under "balance" and section one is in "balance," the task would be increased in the first, lowered in the second, and increased in the third section. In the general manager's office is a large control board for the entire factory, a glance at which informs him as to how the factory's pro- duction is progressing. The following chart will show a section of this control board. Tlie figiu-es used do not represent the actual production; V -4.- 1) MANUFACTUETNG CONDITIONS. SACK COATS. spRma 1915. RPRiNa 1914. 167 (A) (B) (C) (D) (E) (F) 26002 34076 ' 20567 28910 5435 5166 210 Daily. 312 Wk. Cu'ml. 1680 . * ' . ' (A) Estimated number to be made that season from orders in the house. These figures are changed every two weeks. (B) Number produced to date. These figures are changed daily. (C) Balance to be made. CD) Number of cut goods in the storeroom ready to be put in work. (E) Finished garments shipped on the given date. (F) Finished garments shipped to date in the current week. A similar arrangement is made on the same board for trousers, vests, and overcoats. THE WAGE AND TASK SYSTEMS. All wage systems are to reward labor for its effort in proportion to that effort over a given period of time. Most systems take into consideration the time period, but do not consider that every worker in an organization expects a reward (sharing of the profits) in pro- portion to his effort and ability. The time method is very simple, so much per week, day, or hour. The two usual methods of reward, daywork and piecework, are' good in some respects and bad in others. The day method, as ordinarily applied, leaves out the question of effort, no additional return for better or greater effort being given. The piecework method, as ordinarily applied, is not based on accurate standards and reduces the piece price to absolute bargaining or guess- work. Piecework, however, has an element of reward for effort. A day rate could be applied accurately and would be acceptable if something were added in the nature of a bonus for effort. This would be a combination of day and piece rates, of which the premium or bonus system is an outgrowth. Whether recognized or not, time 'T*ir 168 MEN S FACTORY-MADE CLOTHING INDUSTRY. is an essential element. The whole wage system, to be fair, necessi- tates a fair return for effort expended over any given time, and as a rule it is because piece rates nave not been considered from this point of view they have failed to give satisfaction. Piecework has that which daywork has not — the mcentive to increase production; but ordinarily the gain in speed, with its rcsidting higher pay, leads to the piece rate being reduced. A wage system, to be fair and sys- tematic, must be direct, simple, and absolutely safeguarded against abuse. What is a fair pay for a fair amount of effort? The factory described has taken tne problem out of the realm of bargaining by applying scientific management and by recognizing not only that food pay is a deserved reward for a good amount of effort, but that a igh rate of pay is an incentive to the best efforts of the worker, and, further, that a high wage does not mean high cost but is a basis for low cost. To take this matter out of the realm of dispute, and to recognize what is, and should bo, uppermost in the mind of the worker — not only immediate earning opportunity but the opportunity to advance — this factory has evolved the following system: AH operations are classified so that operations requiring the same skill, age, and effort fall in the same class. From an investigation of actual time-study records and the experience of efficiency experts, rates have been determined for each class of work. These rates are the best rates paid for each class of work in the best shops doing the same grade of work in that locality. The factory started with these rates as a minimum rate for each class. As a standard rate of pay, 25 per cent more than the minimum rate is paid in each class, as follows; MrniMUM RATE. 32 cents per hour. 28 cents per hour. 24 centa per lioiir. 20 cents per hour. 16 cents per hour. STANDARD 40 cents 35 cents 30 cents 25 cents 20 cents RATE (mTNTMUM RATE +25 PER cent). per hour, per hour, per hour, per hour, per hour. This classification makes a distinct standard for each class of worker. It recofljnizes differenecs in the valuation of skiU, effort, etc., and establishes stages by which a worker can advance. The workers are encouraged to apply for positions in any class. The only remaining question is, What is a fair hour's work ? This is, fortunately, not a question of judgment, for there has been developed in recent years the science of time and motion study, which standardizes conditions of operation. This factory's time- study department, with the experts from the machine department, detemiines the best speed at which to run the machines for each operation, the arrangement of the work boxes, attachments, feeds, and all other conditions of operation. These conditions are studied by the time-study and machine departments with the cooperation of other experts and the operators themselves. Time-study gives accurate proof. These conditions must be maintained by periodic inspections and by a properly organized maintenance and repair department. It is only when conditions .^ I % - i. fl 1/ ■' S MANUFACTURING CONDITIONS. 169 have been standardized, properly recorded, and made a part of the instruction sheet, that time-study relative to the personal effort of an operator can be of value. The chief function of time-study is dividing an operation into its various elements, so that the elements can be accurately studied. This division gives a wide field of comparison, inasmuch as the same element repeats itseff often in the various operations. It eliminates the possibility of a material error. Allowances are made, however, for possibihties of error, delay, fatigue, emergencies, and other factors. This factory also uses a productagraph machine to check the time necessary to complete an element. In the case of the more impor- tant elements the machine is used to test one operator for a week. This machine is used also to make sure that the allowance time for personal necessities is correct, to determine other factors that hinder production, and to discover the causes for fluctuation in production. The use of this machine has, for example, led this factory to purchase wound bobbins, on which the thread is cross wound, so that the tension is uniform. After a time-study it was found that, though the cross-wound bobbin costs 20 per cent more for the material, it saves 50 per cent of the time required to adjust difficulties arising from breaking thread, etc. The nimtiber of units completed by an operator, as shown by the productagraph record, and the number of idle minutes from 7.30 to 11.30 a. m., are given in the following table: Time. 7.30 to 8.30 a. m 8.30 to 9.30 a.m.... 9.30to 10.30 a.m... 10.30 to 11.30 a.m.. Total, 4 hours Average per hour. . , Edges stitched. Units. 16.00 19.00 19.00 25.00 79.00 19.75 Idle time. MiniUes. 12.15 7.69 7.84 5.61 33.19 8.30 To measure and standardize a worker's effort and his reward it is essential that a task bo set. The basis of output in this factory is one hour, and the task is the standard of individual hourly production. In setting the task an operation is analyzed into its easily distin- guishable parts or elements, and an observer then notes by the aid of a stop watch the time, in minutes and hundredths of a minute, re- quired to perform these elements of the operation. The number of observations taken depends on the complexity of the operation and the number of people employed thereon. Usually hundreds of ob- servations are taken, the operation being performed always in the same manner, according to the instruction sheet, which is based on what is considered to be the one best method of performing that operation. These element times are posted on sheets, and the time that occure oftenest or may be said to be common to two or more operators is selected as the standard time for that element. Each element in turn is similarly treated. The only exception to this rule is where the times are very variable, as in some hand operations, in 170 men's factory-made clothing industry. ^ V"^ MANUFACTURING CONDITIONS. 171 u i i which case the best average is used. The time is taken on the best operators in the ordinary course of work, no special inducements being offered or special conditions created for the test. These ele- ment times are totaled and checked with the total time of the opera- tion, which has been taken simultaneously with the taking of the element times. In no case is the task set higher than has been actually accomplished under observation. In addition to the element times, certain allowances are made for rethreading needles, removing and replacing bobbins, taking away completed and getting new work, personal necessities, etc., all of which are based on another series of observations, made on each one of these delays and extending over long periods of time. Excluding the aUowance for unavoidable and other delays, the task is based on a 56.25-minute hour; that is, 3.75 minutes are allowed for various delays in every working hour. For example, let us assume the total of the element and allowance times is two minutes. Dividing two minutes into the 56.25 minute hour we get 28.125 units of this operation to be performed in one hour. The standard task on which the piece price is set is, however, only 90 per cent of this 28.125 or 25 units per hour (for this operation). The standard piece price is the standard class rate divided by the standard hourly task. In the above case, if the standard class rate" was 40 cents per hour, the standard task being 25, the standard piece price would oe $0,016. The piece price, once thus determined, is permanent. After a worker nas established himself in a class he is Kept in that class or put in a higher one, but is never allowed to drop below his class. If nis earnings are below the minimum of the class and the fault is not entirely his, he is paid the minimum rate, his pay being in this case on a sort of day-rate basis. If the fault is entirely his, he must stand his loss and is paid just what he earns. A new hand is started at a certain rate, depending upon personal conditions. There is a minimum for certain beginners, as in the case of a married person, a girl supporting herself, or a girl under 18 years of ago. Each beginner or old hand that is working on a new operation is given an initial allowance or handicap, depending upon the circumstances. Let us assume that the initial allowance is 20 cents per hour. The first week the worker would receive half of the initial allowance, or 10 cents, plus what was actually earned accord- ing to the piece price rate. If this sum is less than the 20-cent initial allowance trie worker would be paid that initial aUowance of 20 cents, and the next week the initial allowance would be the same. Generally the allowance for the second week is only 18 cents per hour, a proCTCss of 2 cents per hour during the second week being ex- pected. The progress during the first week varies with the operator and the operation, but the 2-cent weekly progress, though not defi- nitely fixed, is the usual progress expected, until without the aid of the allowance the operator establishes herself in her class; that is, without the aid of the allowance she earns more than the minimum of her class. The average new hand establishes herself in a class in two months or less. Tne allowance is continued only if the em- ployee puts forth a reasonable effort. If she is lazy, the allowance is cut down or may be discontinued. o See p. 168. \ I ■ y I- t^> Suppose that the factory is short a seamer and that it is necessary to fill this place at once. A hand who formerly did seaming but who is now on a different operation will be used to fill up the vacancy. Her last earnings when seaming were 26 cents per hour; not having been doing this work recently, however, she can not be expected to earn, let us say, more than 22 cents per hour when returning to seam- ing. But her earnings at the other work are 30 cents per hour, so that in this case the hand would be given an allowance of 8 cents per hour plus the actual earnings at the piece-price rate. It is interesting to note the examining method in vogue in this factory, which is probably without parallel in the clothing trade. Inspectors or examiners are paid at a rate estimated on the task basis similar to the regular operations. For a rejection of a garment by the examiner that is sustained by the inspecting foreman, the ex- aminer is paid a bonus, varying from 30 per cent to 100 per cent of the original inspecting price. A rejected garment is returned by the inspecting foreman to the operator who did the work and who receives a demerit mark. The inspecting foreman not only must have the error corrected but is expected to discover the cause and to show the operator how to elimmate that cause. When the error has been corrected the examiner who reexamines the garment is paid for the reexamination as if it were a new garment. An operator who sub- sequently works on goods that are already imperfect and that would affect his work is given a demerit, just as if he had made the error himself. But if, instead of continuing work on a faulty garment, he should return the work to the inspecting foreman and be sus- tained, the examiner who passed the work must repair it on his own time, if possible, and, if not, he loses his price of examming plus one bonus. The operator who returned the work receives a credit mark. These demerit and credit marks are carefully considered when the question of promotion, etc., comes up. the service department. Recognition that the human element is a big factor in manufac- turing, that without proper regard for the interests of the workers the best results can not be attained even in the factory with the fmest mechanical eouipment, has led to the establishment of welfare work. Unfortunately some manufacturers who spend money for this work regard such expenditures as philanthropy and the worker in such a plant is taught that he is receiving something for nothing. The factory described, however, regards welfare work as a cost of run- ning its business, and recognizes that cost of production depends raore upon the ability or inability of the worker than upon any other single factor. It is spending this money with the certainty that it will receive an ample return in the form of more skilled, healthier, happier, and more efficient workers, with a resulting greater production and finer product. 'Since the term welfare work is m a sense repugnant both to the management and to the employees, the work in the factory under consideration is called service. The service work is not performed in a haphazard manner, or from time to time as the fancy of the owner may dictate, but is an im- portant regular part of the factory organization under the charge of a special service department. At the head of this department is a 172 men's factory-made clothing industry. specially trained woman, known as the service superintendent, who has responsibilities second only to those of the general manager. Employment, discipline, dismissal, training, health, all are under the immediate direction of this department. Employment. — When a new hand is to be taken on, the applicant reports to the service department for a personal interview. Ques- tions are asked to ascertain the applicant's attitude toward work and the general fitness of the applicant for the organization. The requirements and conditions of engagement are explained in detail — the debilitating effect of doing outside work, regularity in attendance, and submittal to medical, dental, and ocular examinations, etc. It will be seen that this factory is very careful in the selection of its help, its belief being that with the proper raw material highly efficient workers can be produced under proper guidance and mstruction. A card in the following form, which is kept as a permanent record, must be filled out for every apphcant: APPUCATION RECORD OF SMITH, MART. Applied 5/11/14. Address, . For machine work. Birth date, Aug. 14, 1898. Birthplace. Pittsburgh. Suita1)ility, pood. Immierated, . Parentage, CJerman. Married, . Family, 2 sisters (12, 4), 1 brother (20), father, and mother. Wage contrib., ail. References (in om- employ), Mary Jones, cousin. Previous employment. Time. Capacity. Wage. Why ended. .'ohn Brown & Co lyr ClerJt 7.00 Small wages. Checked, Class, W. P. W. No., 142. Rate, P. W. Operation, coats seamed. Employed 7-23-14, by Locker, ?2.S. Fore, Approved^ . Signature. Qualifications: A 3; M 3; 2 plus G 3. Languages, English and German. Education, Seventh grade, Jones School. Notes.— Fathw a teamster, working in American brick yard; brother doing clerical work. Mary a very good type of American girl, lias done sowing at home. Anxious to work here because her friends are here. This factory maintains an emergency hospital and a well-equipped consultation room, with an examination table, a dental chair and. cabinet, eye charts and lenses, and a nurse's desk and couch. A nurse is in constant attendance and keeps the medical record of each employee. All new employees must oe examined by the nurse. No worker is permitted to go home during working hours without the consent of the nurse, except as has been explained. All absent- ees who have been ill must report to the nurse before returning to work. A physician visits the factory three times a week. Where the ills are slight, he treats them at tne factory. If they are more serious, he treats them at his office or at the employee's homo at special rates. A dentist is in attendance at the factory once a week. He gives pro- phylactic treatment and makes examinations, but does no repair work. He advises and recommends. He does repair work at his office at special rates, or, if an employee wishes to go to his own den- tist, estimates the price that he should pay. Twice a week an oculist calls at the factory. Every new employee must undergo an eye examination. The oculist examines and advises, and, like the den- tist, if employees wish to go to their own oculist, estimates the price to be paid. The factory oculist has an arrangement with an optical company whereby glasses, when necessary, may bo procured at a discount of 50 per cent. r-*;^ k J. -4- MANUFACTURING CONDITIONS. 173 The factory endeavors to have each employee examined by the physician, dentist, and oculist at least once in six months, or more often when necessary. Each employee who needs attention must receive it, and it is a compliment to the spirit of the workers that in no case where such treatment was necessary have they been unwillmg to undergo it. Dining rooms. — There are separate dining rooms for men and women. Each emplojee is assigned a chair, which becomes his per- manent place. Care is taken to place the employee near his friends, or where he will possibly get the most good out of his neighbors. Each table is presided over by a mature man or woman, backed lunches, consisting of crackers, two sandwiches, a relish, fruit and cake, are served at 10 cents for those who do not wish to bring their lunch. To satisfy the tastes of the various nationalities employed, the factory purchases the food and packs the lunches. Hot soup is served at 2 cents a bowl, coffee at 2 cents, and tea at 1 cent a cup, milk at 2 cents, buttermilk or lemonade at 1 cent a glass, and ice cream at 3 cents a plate. The general manager, service superin- tendent, and heads of the various departments all partake of the same lunch. The Bureau's agent, who had the pleasure of sitting at one of these lunch gatherings, found the food simple but wholesome and substantial. The factory last year expended upon this depart- ment more than total the receipts. BanJc and loans.-^The factory conducts a penny bank. An earnest effort is made to interest all the employees in saving. Deposits of 1 cent will be accepted, though the employees never deposit less than 5 cents. To stimulate the interest in saving the factory pays 6 per cent interest. When an employee has saved $100, the money must be withdrawn and deposited with a city savings institution. At the time of the agent's visit, 50 per cent of the employees had bank accounts. The factory has found that habitual savuig increases production; in some cases the earning capacity has increased fully 50 per cent as a direct result. The factory has found that when employees turn over all their pay to the family treasury there is no mcentive for working harder. The service department in such cases endeavors .to make arrangements whereby the employee is allowed to keep a part of his pay for saving. In such cases the employees consider what they deposit as a bonus and work hard to increase it. In connection with the bank the factory has a loan department, from which, in cases of special necessity or emergency, employees may borrow money up to a limited amount, without interest. The loans are usually small, but occasionally have been as high as several hundred dollars. The amount of the loan is deducted from the employee's pay in amounts proportionate to the earnings. The firm has never lost money on these loans. Library. — The factory has an arrangement whereby the city library has estabhshed a branch in the factory. Once a week a delivery of books is made and books no longer desired are returned. An effort is made to encourage systematic reading. Employees may take these books home. A factory library also is being built up, consisting of standard works on efficiency, business methods, etc., and these are frequently borrowed by the foremen and instructors. ♦- i~*^ \ 174 men's factory-made clothing industry. Several business and efficiency magazines are also on file, the items of interest to supervisors being marked. English class.— By arrangement with the board of education of the city, a class m English for foreigners is held at the factory on Tuesdays and Thursdays, from 4.30 to 5.30 p. m. All foreign-born employees must attend these classes until they can speak and understand English. The board of education supplies the textbooks and a pubhc-school teacher. The foreigner at work or in the dining room is placed between English-speaking employees, which assists hun to learn the language rapidly. At first the factory urged the learning of English, but only a few attended; those who had been in this country the longest and knew the least EngUsh and the dullest were the ones who would not attend. Compulsory attendance was then resorted to, but at wesent all the students who attend the classes do so voluntarily. When a man is ready for citizenship he is assisted in being naturalized. The learning of EngUsh makes for greater efficiency. Ability to speak foreign languages is no longer the chief asset of tiie foreman or superintendent, regardless of how poor his other quahfications might be. Ability to speak Enghsh does away with the need of inter- greters and permits the heads of departments to speak directly to the elp. It makes for greater teamwork among tne employees. At first it was noticed that when a foreigner sat among American or English-speaking employees there was a lack of unity, the non- English speaking employee being regarded as an inferior, but that as soon as this employee learned to speak English the others regarded him as one of themselves, and all then worked together with greater efficiency. When one considers that in the clothing trade almost the entire working force is composed of foreigners the great importance of teaching English will be realized. Playground and game rooms.— ^o employee is permitted to remain in the workroom during lunch time. Separate playgrounds are provided for men and women. The girls play baseball, volley ball, etc., and those who do not play sit on shaded seats. The men usually play baseball and quoits, the manager and superintendents playing with the men. Occasionally the girls' team plays against the men's team, and a healthy rivalry is the rule. For those that are not active there are separate game rooms for men and women and a smoking room for the men in which boys are not allowed. Current magazines are provided in these rooms. Dancing.— The factory pays a dancing instructor who once a week, from 4.30 to 5.30 p. m., instructs the employees in modem dancing. Dancing is resorted to on days when the weather does not permit outdoor activity. There is a piano in the building. Every Wednes- day at noon a dance is held for which the shop orchestra furnishes the music. Occasionally the girls when going out to dance in the evening invite the heads of tne service department to accompany them. Choral society.— On Fridays, from 4.30 to 5.30 p. m., a choral club is conducted by a well-known musical director, and annually in May a concert is given, which arouses great interest. The average attendance at the weekly choral meeting is about 150. The mem- bers pay 5 cents per meeting. A visit to the workrooms will find many of the employees smging at their work. This factory believes that the happy worker is the productive worker. MANUFACTURING CONDITIONS. 175 ^Hil* -h Parties. — At intervals parties are given by one or more sections. The arrangements are made by three committees of the employees, the comnaittees being large enough to give most of the employees an opportunity to serve, thus encouraging democracy and good feeUng. Refreshments not to cost more than 15 cents are served. Friends and relatives of the employees are invited and entertainment is furnished by local talent in the form of music, recitations, various national dances, etc. The manager, superintendents, and fore- men, with their wives, mingle freely with the employees at these gatherings, and Americans mix freely with foreigners. Friendliness and good will are fostered and increased. The parties commence after supper, which may be had, if desired, in the factory, and last until 9 p. m. Personal relaiions. — As often as necessary, for example, when the earnings are decreasing, the employee is called to the service-depart- ment office and interviewed. Here frank discussions as to the per- sonal affairs of the employee are indulged in, and causes making the employee inefficient are sought for. The department counsels on all affairs, even the most intimate. It may decide that a change in operation is necessary. If this interview does not accomplish results, the home of the employee is visited. Sometimes it is found necessary to advise mothers of the injurious effects of girls sleeping with several others in one small room, leaving home without break- fast, or doing a heavy washing before coming to work. Often the pay roll of other girls who are earning more money is exhibited. As a rule these home visits bring results. Another feature of this personal relationship is visiting day. On the first Friday afternoon of each month the parents and families of the employ ces*^ are invited to the factory, and a sympathetic cooperation between the service department and the home is established. Recognizing that employees, while they may do things efficiently m their own personal affairs, are not executives, all the foregoing activities are carried on, not by the employees, but by,a capable se'rvice department, to the activities of which 34.11 per cent of the total factory floor space is devoted. The factory comtemplates installintr m the near future a pension and a life-insurance system. '^ Discussion of welfare worJc.— The present standard has not been achieved without a great expenditure of money, time, and energy. The employees originally were opposed to these ''new-fangled ideas."* The greatest fight the factory had was making the employees feel that these innovations were the steps to personal advancement showing them the spirit of the undertaking, making them realize the benefits of cooperation, unity, and teamwork. It was a long, hard struggle, but it was eventually won. All these activities of the service department are instruments to raise the standard of the indi- vidual and make more efficient workers. Every dollar expended is considered an investment, which nets good returns in a more stable and efficient working force. The human factor is raised as is the mechanical factor. While good pay and working conditions are essential, they are not sufficient. Every factor that reacts on the mental and physical well-being of the worker is essential, too. The practical business man will ask. Do these extensive activities previously described, pay? Some manufacturers claim that while 176 MEN S FACTORY-MADE CLOTHING INDUSTRY. they can see tho benefits to be derived from such activities, the expense involved is out of all proportion to tho return. The factory described runs its entire service aepartment with a very few intelli- gent, capable, and conscientious workers, and though the expendi- ture in mone^ is comparatively high, this factory, at any rate, con- siders that it is a good investment and that the returns to date fully justify it in continuing its elaborate service program. MODEL CLOTHINQ-FACTOBT BUILDINGS. Many of the factories in w^hich clothing is made consist only of lofts in tall buildings, which have no special adaptability for any line of manufacturing. Many of the larger lofts have insufficient day- light, unless they are the top lofts and have skylights. IMPROVEMENTS IN FACTORY CONSTRUCTION. During the last decade, and especially in the last five years, a number of admirably constructed clothing factories have been erected. There is perhaps no industry in the United States that has factories better designed and equipped than some of the modern clothing factories. Most of these newer factories have been planned after a careful study of all the features that have proved of benefit to the employees. Some are built in the suburbs, where land is cheaper than in the business sections of the cities. In the suburbs, greater space, more light, and much better ventUation can be obtained. Some of these factories in the suburbs are surrounded by trees and well-kept lawns, and the buildings are attractively designed, so that they look little like ordinary factories. The progressive companies that have built these newer factories desigiied especiallv for the manufacture of clothing have become convinced that efficiency is promoted by comfortable and pleasant factory conditions. Accordingly, in constructing their new buildings, they have incorporated many improvements that make the sur- roundings of the workers far more agreeable than they were formerly. During this investigation it was found that the establishments that had erected these well-designed and well-equipped factory buildings are among those who do the largest amount of business and make the largest percentages of profit. Following are brief descriptions of two modern clothing factories inspected by agents of the Bureau, PACTORY A. The well-being of the workers was given paramount consideration in planning the buildings of Factory A. Tho firm behoves that better clothes can be made if employees are contented and happy. Conse- quently, this clothing concern has spared no expense to safeguard tne health and happiness of the men and women workers in the con- struction of its new shops. It was not done to be philanthropic, but as a matter of sound business. Architecture. — Domestic residential style characterizes the exterior architecture, and the effect is decidedly pleasing. Doorways are inviting, and above them are placed wrought-iron balconies, filled a n MANUFACTURING CONDITIONS. 177 with plants. An unusual feature is that the building covers less than one-half the site, and the rest of the property provides ample space for dayhght to enter every part of the building. Li^^^— Sunshine will travel 25 feet from a window into a room- based on this computation of the architect, the building is only 50 feet wide, making the center of every room 25 feet from a window. The building extends for 250 feet across the site, and another wing runs back from the center at right angles, giving the building the shape of a T. On both sides of the base or pillar of the T are lawns and foU- Effe. Inside the building, large windows fill every waU, and the doors of the four fire escapes on each floor are of glass. Even on gloomy days there is no need of artificial fight, as the walls are lined with glazed white tile, and fight is reflected everywhere. Only on the darkest days and during the hours of late winter twifight is it neces- sary to use artificial fi^ht. The system of artificial fighting is of the most modern electrical type. Special fixtures have been designed to prevent the eyestrain common among clothing makers. Ventilation, — ^A modern ventilating system assures each employee of an abundance of fresh air. At both ends of each floor are placed two large ventilator shafts, which run upward to the roof, where they are capped with large hoods. These hoods are set on ball bearings and respond, fike weather vanes, to the sfightest breeze. The openings of each shaft are therefore facing the direction opposite to that from which the wind comes, the exhausted air rising and escapii^ unimpeded. A ventilator is placed at each window also, just below the sill, through which passes a supply of fresh air, which IS warmed to a suitable temperature on entering the building. The air in the shops is renewed completely every 10 minutes, and is thus always fresh. Cleanliness.— The walls are of glazed white tile, impervious to dirt and dampness, and are easily kept clean. The sweeping is done by a powerful vacuum cleaner. Sweepings and rubbish find their way to a garbage boiler, to be converted from waste products into fuel to produce the plant's hot-water supply. An additional help to keeping the workrooms neat is the system of steel chutes running to each floor, through which cloth cuttings and waste drop into fireproof boxes placed on the first floor. Drinking water.— Thave is fittle chance for germs to exist in the drinking water, which circulates throughout the factory through bubble fountains. The water goes first through a filter, where aU impurities are removed. From the filter it passes through a sterilizer quipped with a generator that sends 5,000 volts of electricity through every drop. Commissary. — The shops are equipped with a modern commissary department. Food is chosen and cooked scientifically, under the direction of an expert, in the great kitchen, which is fitted with every modern apphance. The food is nourishing and makes for health and efficiency. It is sold at cost, and those who desire may also take home cooked food or provisions at actual wholesale cost. Recreation and dining rooms. — An attractive recreation room is located just off the large dining room. It is 80 feet long by 42 feet XX914<>— 16 n V 178 MEN S FACTORY-MADE CLOTHING INDUSTRY. ?^* MANUFACTURING CONDITIONS. 179 wide, and its windows are fitted with lace curtains; large rugs are spread on the floor. This room contains library tables, fitted with reading lamps, and provided with magazines in many languages — Pohsh, Bohemian, German, Scandinavian, and Italian — ^for the em- ployees. These rooms are social centers for the workers and their families, and are used during free hours and in the evenings. On special occasions the collapsible dining-room tables may be removed, allowing abundant room for community entertainments and dancing. Hospital. — A cheerful, sunny room is the factory's hospital. A trainea nm^e is always on duty, ready to care for the sick or indis- posed, and a physician is witnin easy call. All cases of illness or accident receive immediate attention. Welfare. — ^A welfare department has been established with a separate corps of workers for the men and women. Their business is to look after the welfare of every employee, but their work is not limited to the four walls of the factory. They go into the homes of the workers as well, in cases of death, sickness, or trouble. FACTORY B. Factory B is located at a coiusiderable distance from the manufac- tiu*ing section of the city. It has no high buildings on any side to exclude air and fight. The factory building is about 100 feet from the street and is surrounded by neat, well-kept lawns, inclosed by a hand- some iron fence. The building, which is erected around a court so as to insure abundance of light, is of steel and concrete construction, and is as nearly fireproof as possible. On the first floor are locker and recrea- tion rooms, the hospital, restaurant, and kitchen, the power and heating plant, the shipping and freight room, and a storage room for waste material. The room for the storage of waste was designed to be absolutely fireproof, because most fires in clothing factories originate in the waste room. The plant has its own machine shop, in charge of skilled machinists. The company claims that it could almost build its own machines and that all machinery is kept in perfect condition so as to insure the highest production. The lighting in this factory is one of its finest features. Largo windows extend from floor to coiling, artificial light is furnished by large electric lamps, with reflectors, and each machine has an indi- vidual adjustable light. The air is filtered through water, and is absolutely pure when it comes into the workrooms. In summer the air is cooled as it comes into the buUdins: and in winter it is warmed. There are separate locker rooms for men and women. These rooms are large and contain rows of steel lockers, with ample space between, running from one end to the other. Each employee has a key to a private locker. The large limch room is neatly furnished and is provided with a piano. An inspection of the kitcnen showed that everything possible was done to keep it clean. A satisfying lunch is served at the nominal charge of 15 cents. During the noon hour the doors to the work- rooms we locked, so that employees are forced to take the necessary 1 ^ :f time to eat and rest. Before this rule was made, pieceworkers would take off only about 10 miivutes, and would work the rest of the noon hour. The factory hospital room is a picture of neatness. A trained nurse is always on duty during working hours. - In the rear of the building are a baseball field and tennis and croquet grounds for employees. INEFFICIENT METHODS OF MANUFACTUEING. Efficiency has been defined as "the accomplishment of a task as well done as it is humanly possible to do it, with the least expendi- ture of time, effort, and money." " In the clothing industry makeshift methods are stUl used to a great extent. Many manufacturers who in the past have been ighly successful continue their old methods, firmly convinced that a change in policy would result in disaster. Such manufacturers may not be aware of the fact that their former success was not due to the use of now obsolete methods, but came about because many of their competitors- were equally inefficient. This inefficiency of the trade in general was the reason why many of those who entered the business were successful. The methods that were formerly successful in a small factory prove disastrous in many cases when applied to the larger factories of to-day. In many cases factories ar^ now too large to be success- fully managed by one individual. In the old da,ys the owner was a tailor as well as a manufacturer. He knew his business, worked among his people, directed them with his superior knowledge, and maintained intimate relations with them; but the spirit of team work and cooperation were lost as the shop grew in size and the owner delegated to his superintendents and foremen the manage- ment of the labor force. A new generation came into the business, in many cases the college- bred sons of old successful manufacturers. These young men were not tailors. They knew nothing about the manufacture of clothing. Their ideas, when they were at all fitted for business, were those of men of commerce. Tne factory could take care of itself. The fore- men could run that. The all-important thing was the administra- tive end of the business, directing the salesmen, extending credit, etc. The result is what might have been expected. The commercial end of the clothing business to-day is usually competently handled, but generally speaking, the manufacturing side lacks efficiency. The chief difficulty is to convince inefficient manufacturers that the old methods are out of date. The fact that a plant is large, the building modern, and the equipment the best that money can buy, and that high-salaried managers are employed, does not necessarily show that a factory is successfully conducted. The existence of the small contractor, who gets the most out of his humble facilities, who knows his job, and who successfully competes with the big inside shop, indicates that mere size and equipment mean nothing. Efficiency requires experimentation and study, going into all meth- ods thoroughly and exhaustively, with the resulting standardization of the best possible method. 9 Pf^vid K^rschlmum, \ I 2£ 180 ' ' MEN S FACTORY-MADE CLOTHING INDUSTRY. IMPROPERLY LAID OUT PLANTS, /*- ^ As the small clothing firm expanded, the plant was usually enlarged without any definite plan. With the exception of a few of the largest houses, which built modem factories with their product in nund, most of the houses added space and equipment, without regard to changes in the character of the product or business. Consequently, many large plants to-day are constructed so as to make efficient management impossible. A plant that is not properly laid out or that contains antiquated machinery increases the overhead cost and does not permit the capa- ble worker to earn the pay to which he is entitled. The great majority of clothmg plants are not laid out so as to insure the production of a unit in the least possible time. Most of the firms that have built their own plants nave well-planned factories, but others are lacking plants are rented. The fitting of the factory to an inadequate building is especially unfortunate when the factory is located in a section of the city where rents are high. In the larger cities show rooms are necessary and they must be located where rents are high, but the cost of manufac- ture is greatly increased by having the factories in such sections. If the factories are separate from the showrooms and are located where the workers live, lower rents and buildings better adapted for manufacturing can be obtained. The factories located in downtown districts usually have very poor fighting conditions. In many factories the artificial lighting is inad- equate. All kinds of lights, from the large, glowing arc light to the incandescent light, are to be found. InverSjd lights, or lights ar- ranged so as not to cast shadows, are rare. In many factories the walls are not painted in colors that give the best lighting effects. In many factories the chairs, tables, and workboxes are not of the proper size or height to relieve fatigue ; fittle if any attention is paid to the elimination of unnecessary noises, to the proper heating of irons for pressing various kinds of clothing, and tne proper kind of shears to use for various operations. By many manufacturers these things are regarded as fads. HANDWORK AND MACHINE WORK. The wonderful development of the clothing industry in the past was due chiefly to the introduction of time and labor saving machines and devices. In the future any progress that the industry makes will be due to efficiency of management as well as to the more general use of improved machinery. Custom tailors in the past have employed mostly handwork. Their limited business and small establishments did not permit the installation of machinery other than a few sewing machines. Since the best clothing was formerly made by custom tailors, the opinion prevailed that good clothes had to be handmade. Many manufacturers have, therefore, been slow in investigating new labor-saving machines. In many cases the machine does ^veu better r» MANUFACTURING CONDITIONS. 181 ^ - -^ L. ,M work than that performed by hand. A few of the larger houses, recognizing the cost-saving advantages of replacing handwork by machine work, have substituted basting and felling machines for the hand operations. The substitution of machinery for handwork not only insures a uniform product but also permits a greater subdivision of labor. A great subdivision of handwork is not practical or profitable. With a greater subdivision of labor, operations can be made so minute that the employment of inexperienced help is profitable ; and if such help can not be utilized, it is often necessary for the factory to remain in an otherwise unfavorable locality because of the presence there of skilled tailors. Efficiency in the clothing industry is possible only where the manufacturer uses every machine that has proved capable of doing as good work as that performed by hand. The greatest efficiency willcome about when machinery will have entirely superseded hand- work. Many manufacturers do not buy new machinery constantly coming on the market, though in a year the saving from the use of such machines would offset the initial cost. They continue to use old- type machines, which, while doing the work required, are not adapted to rapid production. Some manufacturers know practically nothing about machines, and when purchasing new machines leave the choice to the foremen. In the annual inventories of some manufacturers no account is taken of depreciation of machinery. Of the 27 establishments from which reports regarding their sewing machines were obtained, only 13 stated that they had bought 100 per cent of the machines within 10 years, the general average of the machines bought within 10 years being 58.36 per cent. Table 39 shows the percentage of machines bought within the last 10 years in the 27 estabhshments that reported on this subject: Table 39.— Peecentaqe op Sewing Machines Bought Within 10 Years. Number of establishments nporting. Machines used when establish- ments were in full op- eration. Parent- age pur- chased within last 10 years. Number of establishments repwting. Machines usfKl when establish- ments were in full op- eration. Percent- age pur- chased within last 10 years. 13 878 36 30 247 1.420 9$ 750 100 90 85 75 70 49 33.33 1 30 246 600 25 20 10 1 4 I 1 2 Total (27 cstJiblish- 2 4,335 1 58.36 1 All sorts of motor arrangements are found in clothing manufac- turing plants, from individual motors to one large motor for the entire plant. Few manufacturers have studied the seasonal fluctua- tions of their business sufficiently to determine an efficient arrange- ment of machines per motor that will eliminate waste of power, not only in didl seasons but also when only one section,. or part of a section, is working overtime. f 4 182 MEN S FACTORY-MADE CLOTHING INDUSTRY, SHRINKING CLOTH. It has often been stated that a standard rule to cover the loss through shrinkage can not be formulated, because goods of different character, weight, and construction, and even similar goods under different conditions, shrink differently. This is the excuse given by many manufacturers who take no account of shrinkage except the slight cost of the process, in reckoning the total cost of a garment. Some manufacturers who include their shrinkage, measure their goods before they arc shrunk. At the beginning of a season they lay out the pattern of a new sample on unshrunk goods, and the yardage then recorded is calculated to be the average used in a suit or coat. As previously stated, the same goods will snrink differently under different conditions, especially if they are steam-shrunk on one occasion and London-shrunk on another. This method, then, while it takes care of the shrinking, does not do so accurately or satisfactorily. With the conditions described, there is apparently only one way to take accurate account of the shrinking. The yardage used in a suit or coat varying with each piece of goods, the only proper way is to reckon the shrinkage of each piece of goods. By the following formula the cost per yard of shrunk cloth may be correctly ascer- tained: Number of yards before shrunk X net price per yard -f cost of shrinking ^t x _* j « i. i i xt. 3 J-Tr= — \ 7 J — ji TT^—ip ^=Net cost per yard of shrunk cloth used. Number of yards after shrinking *^ ^ Assuming that a piece of ^oods measures 50 yards before it is shrunk and 48 yards after shrinking, that the net price per yard is $1 and the cost of shrinking is $0.50, we have: Net cost per yard of shrunk cloth used= -^ — '■ — =$1.05. Measuring the goods whenever a style is cut, and multiplying the yardage by the net cost per yard of shrunk cloth used, gives the actual cost of the cloth m any particular style of suit. Such a method, though accurate, requires constant calculating of yardages used, but many manufacturers consider that averages are good enough. Even a study of averages based on a sufficient number of calculations with the foregoing formula would be of some value, especially for those who at present pay little or no attention to losses from shrinkage. INVENTORIES. Few houses keep a perpetual inventory of materials. One big house claimed it had formerly used such an inventory but had dis- carded it as not being worth the time and expense required to keep it. Most manufacturers take an inventory only once a year, and often this is done very carelessly. A few take semiannual inven- tories, and a very few have a system whereby the supply of every kind of cloth or trimming or of every style of made-up goods can be ascertained at a moment's notice. Very few require cutters to deduct the yardage cut from the original yardage marked on the ^ r* MANUFACTURING CONDITIONS. 183 1^ ) Eiece-goods tickets, so that at a glance the remaining yardage may e known. As to the price per yard in calculating the inventory, all sorts of variations appear. Some manufacturers will calculate the value of their goods at market price, others at net cost price, others at net cost price less a fixed depreciation, and still others at net cost price less a percentage of depreciation based on what they consider thegoods will be worth the following season. While most clothing manufacturers charge interest on the capital invested, they rarely charge interest on goods, raw and finisned, that have been paia for and that remain on shelves or racks for months. False economy is responsible in many instances for an inferior product. A manufacturer will throw away 50 cents per imit by mefficiency in his factory and try to make it up by having cloth steam-shrunk instead of London-shrunk, by not shrinking the tapes, linings, etc., by substituting inferior canvas, tapes, etc. — practices that result in deterioration of the product and eventually in loss of business. THE CUTTING ROOM. One of the chief causes of underproduction in the cutting room is the lack in many cases of an adequate system of grouping orders so as to permit the greatest bulk cutting. This statement does not apply to the houses that manufacture the best grade of clothing, where the suits are cut one or two at a time. In many factories cutters work where the dayhght is insufficient and the artificial fighting, conditions are poor. Artificial fight is bad enough, but doubly so when the fighting conditions are inade- quate. (Sten the fights are directly overhead and cast shadows which cause eyestrain. In many factories the floors are not smooth enough for easy walking. In some the cutters walking around the tables strike the table legs, which are not set in far enough. These annoyances interrupt work, lessen the cutter's stamina and endur- rance, and decrease production. To one who has witnessed the great amount of time wasted by cutters in many factories trying to locate a particular pattern from himdreds hung promiscuously on the wall, the need is evident for some system by means of which particular patterns may be easily located. Not only does the cutter waste valuable time, but his annoyance when ne is imable to locate the desired pattern reacts unfavorably on his subsequent work. No doubt the greatest waste of time and effort of the skiUed, highly paid cutter is the shifting around of the pattern so as to secure tne best possible lay. In most houses the marker, or cutter, figures out his lay every time a style is to be cut. The fact that he marks the same pattern many times a season does not help much, for he has such a variety of patterns that the same style recurring at different intervals rarely gives him the opportunity of firmly fixing in mind the proper place on the lay for each pattern. This waste of time could be saved if at the beginning of the season, after the designer or head cutter had experimented with all the styles for the season, there were drawn a perfect lay plan for each style. 184 MEN S FACTOBY-MADE CLOTHING INDUSTRY. H^ MANUFACTURING CONDITIONS. 185 The cutters could be eiven copies of the plan for their ^idance, and thev could make tne best arrangement of patterns without loss of time Dy looking at the model instead of experimenting by shifting the patterns aroimd. Such a scheme would save not only time but cloth as well, and the whole saving during a season would be large. The manufacturer who calculates accurately the yardage in a particular suit does so on the basis of the patterns bemg most economically placed on the lay. Different cutters, however, usually require yardages to cut an order if they are permitted to use their own judgment. In view of the fact that a cutter's ability is generally judged by the amount of goods cut, and that the manufacturer seldom investigates or employs a system whereby only the yardage allowed is cut, the cutters in the rusn of trying to turn out a day s work often use more goods than is necessary. In cutting trimmings there is great waste of material and labor. In the old days whole pieces of lining and other trimmings were sent to the contractor, according to the manufacturer's estimate of what was req^uired for the work in hand. This carelessness as to trimmings still exists, probably because of their relativelv low value. Trim- mings can be cut as exactly as the cloth, but tne great majority of establishments cut trimmings to allow for further cutting in the factory. This method not only is a waste of material, but necessi- tates the employment of a fitter. If the trimmings were cut exactly, the extra material would be saved, the services of the fitter could be dispensed with, and much of the cutting in the various operations would be saved. This inexact cutting of trinunings is probably due to the employment of inexperienced cutters, usually apprentices. It is another case of false economy, based on the manufacturer's idea that he can not afford to pay as much for cutting the trinunings as he can for cutting the cloth. He does not consider that this saving in the wages of the cutter is more than counterbalanced by the extra cost of trimming, the wages of the fitter, and the extra time required to turn out a miit. The chalk required to mark a lay must have a fine edge, and the cutter sharpens chalk many times a day. Cutters are paid by the week and their wages are among the highest in a clothing factory. The loss occasioned by the cutters sharpening chalk is considerable during a season. One resourceful New York manufacturer has in- vented a device for sharpening chalk, operated by a small boy, which not only saves the time of the cutters but makes a better edge and saves much of the chalk as well. ROUTING. The plant should be laid out so that the raw material brought into the building enters the storeroom. Next in order should come the cutting department, trimming department, manufacturing depart- ment, stock department, and finallv the shipping department. The storeroom and shipping room should be located at the freight eleva- tors. The usual plant has no such arrangement. Frequently the cutting department is located where the stock department ought to be, the stock department where the manufacturing department ought to be, etc. Within the various departments all sorts of inefficient '/ ^ 4- i / arrangements prevail, sometimes due to poor management and some- times to the unfitness of the building for the manufacturing of clothing. Routmg is a basic factor of manufacturing success. In most fac- tories there is no calculated efficient production for the factory, nor a balance of production between departments and sections. The goods, instead of continuing in one direction are constantly traveling back and forth, because the route is not properly laid out and the work is not examined after each operation. The success of a routing sys- tem depends not only upon the arrangement of the factory but also upon the scheduhng of the work from a central planning office, such a schedule providing for the completion of a certain unit of work in a specified time. In one establishment an agent of the Bureau noticed that a coat was carried across the factory from operation No. 4 to operation No. 5, and then back across the floor again to operation No. 6. The reason for this extensive traveling was that operation No. 5 reauired exceptionally good light while operations No. 4 and No. 6 did not. The workers on operation No. 5 required a window, and as the windows of this plant were on one side, the coat had to make a roimd trip of about 100 yards. In this case, the waste of time was due to the unsuitabiUty of the building, but in many cases such roundabout routing in factory operations is due to the manufacturer's ignorance of the principles involved in laying out a plant scientifically. This discontinuous order of operations results not only in much waste of time but in other serious disturbances. The floor boy who carries the work often stops to talk, distracting the attention of the operators, and his constant moving. about causes the parts of the garments to get mixed in transit, with the result that frequently orders that should be turned out promptly are delayed. The number of manufacturers who have studied the time necessary for completing a garment is small, and the ordinary manufacturer when given an order can not tell definitely when it will be ready for shipment. With a very few exceptions, an efficient system that would permit a regular service, and a rush service for specials on hurry-up orders, is not to be found in the industry. Usually the attempt to rush an order results in the remaining orders being delayed unduly long. A control board, such as the one described in the sec- tion on *'The efficient factory," by means of which the flow of work in the factory can be regulated, is rarely found. As for a routing diagram, a chart for the routing of work mapped out in advance, most manufacturers have never even heard of it. If the clothing manufacturer managed a railroad or street railway he would appreciate the vital importance of a routing system, but in many cases ne does not seem to realize that turning out an order of clothing without a clearly defined routing schedule takes several days or weeks longer than is necessary. The instaUation of a proper rout- ing system would result in great economies not only in lowermg costs but m preventing cancellations due to late dehveries. The really capable clothing manufacturer now realizes that he must have a fac- tory in which tne physical conditions and arrangement are perfect, combined with a routmg schedule in accord with that arrangement. -»-» 186 mbn's factory-made clothing ikdustry. MANUFACTURING CONDITIONS. 187 TRAINING OF HELP AND METHOD OF WORK. In contrast to other lar^ industries, the clothing trade has no system of industrial training. When a tailor is employed, the only question generally asked is where he has worked last. Usually no examination of the applicant is made, the manufacturer he last worked for is rarely referred to, and after he is engaged little attention is paid to training him for the kind of work for wnich ho is best adapted. Along with this lack of system goes the driving of workers, the only way of speed- ing up with which the ordinary manufacturer is acquainted. It is easy to engage those who claim to be experienced tailors. To train them requires ability, ^energy, time, and money. The following is quoted from an article in the Saturday Evening rost of May 15, 1915: "It is cheaper to experiment with office boys, shop boys, and banners than with sales managers," a well-known efficiency expert declared recently. "The man who hires his cheapest help with as much care as he would use in selecting a department head or a general manager will generally find it unneceseory to pay a high premium to dislodge a big man from the top of a competitor's organization. Every man or boy who is hired to work with his hands should be considered with a view to the fact that he holds promise of being able to work with his head. Hire the right kind of office boys, stocK boys, messengers, and helpers and you will establish an almost automatic supply of good salesmen, superintendente, and executives. "feck your shop boys as carefullv and as intelligently as you would select a high- priced superintendent, and you will ultimately find that, as a general rule, you will not have to go outside your own organization for competent men with whom to fill your positions that command salaries instead of wages. You will, in short, command your own source of supply for all the hi^^her positions in your organization. This takes time, vigilance, and intelligence, and it can not be done in a month or a year; but it is the only solid and permanent basis on which to build. I have seen it worked out to convincing conclusions in scores of cases." After the workers have been carefully selected, a system of training will enable them to utihze their natural capacities in the most pro- ductive way, especially if the training includes such indirect but powerful influences as the stimulation of ambition and the general development of character. Employees should be more or less permanent, for under the present system, by which tailors rarely work in the same shop two seasons, the worker can not, even though he tries, produce his oest. The manufacturer must plan his business so as to make employment steady enough to hold a permanent well- trained labor force. Well-trained workers do not need urging to take an interest in the business or in their work. They realize that the owner's interests and theirs are compatible and mutual. A force of such workers would easily see the fallacy of the statement that increased produc- tion necessarily means less work per employee. The larger the factory the greater the dependence upon the labor that makes the factory possible. The large manufacturer will find the highest success only with a system of training and fair treatment for his employees, because the worker's best efforts are exerted when he gives his energy voluntarily and when he is contented. The best results are obtained when there exists between employer and employee a spirit of cooperation and mutual respect. Manufacturers who contemplate training employees should utilize raw and not experienced help. Experienced tailors can not outgrow their old faults nor can they adapt themselves to the new order of things. Furthermore, having learned their trades under masters of . y /^ i -i i different skill and ideas, they can not, as a group, turn out a uniform product. Raw help is more alert and adaptable. Having no previous settled ideas of how to do a thing nor fixed ways of doing it, they learn the proper method easily and quickly. The skilled tailor can do but one thin^. A worker should not be trained for one operation only, but, starting with the easiest, should be trained gradually in each succeeding, more difficult, operation. This method not only produces a well-balanced worker but provides an opportimity for promotion and better pay, to which the skilled tailor can not look forward. The tailor's wages depend upon the amount of work, not the kind of work. The well-balanced, trained factory employee can be shifted about from one operation to another asVecessi'ty demands. A worker, provided he is oi the proper timber, need not be discharged because he is unsuited to certain operations, but can be tried on all operations until the one for which ne is best suited is discovered. The greatest benefit derived from training help is that it breaks up the dependence upon the skilled tailor. It enables the manufacturer to obtain better help, gives him a wider field for selection, and enables him to establish his factory in any locality of whose natural and special advantages he wishes to avail himself. Other benefits are increase of output, decrease in cost of production, and therefore better paid and better satisfied workers, and better quality and greater uniformity in the product. In a proper system of training help the greatest difficulty will come in convincing the worker that the training is for his best interest. Manufacturers must cease the general practice of doing things simply because other manufacturers do them. A system of training help that would be correct for one plant would be incorrect for another. Each manufacturer must work out a system adapted to his own needs. Welfare work, now generally lacking, should be introduced, not as a philanthropy but as an investment that will yield profitable returns. By the old method, still employed by some manufacturers, the entire plant is made up of units of workers in groups, seldom very large, each group producing a certain number of garments and work- ing independently of the others. The divisions of labor are not very great, one worker often making an entire part. The scientific modern method is to consider all the employees of the factory a single unit. The making of the garment is then divided into a great number of minute operations, each of which certain workers are trained to perform. The operations are not to be per- formed as the workers think best, but the manufacturer, after diligent study and experiment, determines the best methods, which are then standardized. Through written rules and physical demonstrations the workers are taught the standard method for each operation by a corps of expert instructors, who can be utiUzed as examiners or on other work when time permits. With the standardization of operations, there should be time and motion studies, which, except in a very few instances, have not been made in the clothing industry. It is, however, not advisable to undertake such studies until the factory is well organized in all other details. The purpose of these studies should be to increase produc- f > 1*1 188 men's factory-made clothing industry. tion and the opportunity for earnings. In a well-managed factory high wages usually indicate a low percentage of labor cost and a high percentage of profit. If the employees suspect that the object is to lower wages, the time studies become valueless, because the time determined as a standard for a particular operation would be largely affected by the employees' dissatisfaction. The accuracy and value of these studies depend on the employees doing their utmost m cooperating with the management. THE OFFICE. In the office of many clothing factories no reliable and permanent records are immediately accessible. Valuable letters are destroyed or can not be found. When incoming letters and copies of outgoing letters are kept, no adequate numbering or indexing system is em- ployed, and a reference to a letter of the previous month generally requires a long search. The use of stamped envelopes is infrequent, and It IS a usual sight in a large estabhshment to see the bookkeeper or stenographer spending the hour from 5 p. m. to 6 p. m., or, at the end of the month when bills and statements are being sent out, the ^eater part of the day, pasting stamps on envelopes. The telephone IS used for every occasion, the cost per call being so small that the total cost is lost sight of. Often goods for future dehvcry are ordered by telephone when a post card would suffice. There are no printed forms for use on different occasions to facilitate correspondence, such as an acknowledgment of an order, an answer to an inquiry as to date of shipment, etc., but each inauiry or incoming letter requires a typewritten reply. Expensive embossed or engraved stationery is often used for continuation sheets. The usual office does not have proper equipment for efficient man- agement. Dictaphones, adding machuies, and computing machines are rare. Stenographers waste time in sharpenmg pencils which could be pointed more quickly and better by a machine. In many cases the idea that cheap work is economical is responsible for the employment of an office force imfit for the work. This short- sighted policv often leads to the hiring of vomig business-school graduates, who are expected to do at once the fuB work of experi- enced clerks. The new bookkeeper or stenographer is left to grope and do the best of which his theoretical training or limited experi- ence makes him capable. Inadequate cost-finding systems are discussed in a chapter of this report headed **Cost finding and accounting conditions." k ;.,( • i CHAPTER V. WOBKIlfG CONDITIONS. CHANGES IN LABOB CONDITIONS. In the early days, when the industry was small, tho operating was done largely in tne homes of the workers, chiefly Germans, under conditions of their own choosing; that is, so far as they related to the conditions in their own homes. Following this period, and during the time that the contract system was developing, labor conditions were at their worst. The sweat shop, task system, charges for sup- plies and power, dark and poorly ventilated rooms with Uttle or no protection from fire, long nours, and low wages were some of the evils that existed. Partly through the demands of labor and partly through the action of the manufacturers and of the pubhc, laws were passed in the various States which did away witn or greatly lessened these evils in the industry. Conditions were improved not only through legislative action, but by agreements between the unions and manufacturers' associations or between the unions and manufacturers acting independently of associations. Such associations and manufacturers assumed the position that their products would be better made and their output greater if the conditions surrounding the workers were such as would cause few or no complaints. Many manufacturers who believe in looking after the weKare of their employees have not raised their standards to ideal conditions, because other manufacturers, particularly those known in the trade as ' 'pirates," keep their standards low. They consider only immediate pronts and not tne establishment of a permanent business. These ' 'pirates" usually operate only in good years; when there is a period of depression in the industry they suspend operations until a more favorable time. They thus reap the oenefits from good years and suffer no losses in the bad years, whereas the regular manufacturer has to take the bad years with the good, and for this reason some- times hesitates to make the investments necessary to make improve- ments in which he beheves. Sweat shops and the task system have been practically eliminated, the number of contract shops has been reduced, shorter hours with- out a reduction in wages have been granted to employees, and sanitary conditions in tne shops of the manufacturers and in the homes of the employees have been greatly improved. Labor enjoys more privileges, better wages, and shorter hours than formerly, and the clothing trade no longer deserves to be called a "sweated" industry. 189 I 190 MEN S FACTORY-MADE CLOTHING INDUSTRY, PIECEWOSK AND TIME-WOBE. w WORKING CONDITIONS. 191 In the old days, when shops were small, the owner was acquainted with his help, and when manufacturing stock was the rule, time-work was the usual basis for direct labor payment. With the advent of the big shop, in the hiring of whose hundreds of employees knowledge of the worker's abiUty was unknown, and with manufacturing for orders superseding manufacture of stock, the great subdivision of labor displaced the skiUed tailor, and piecework largely supplanted time- work. Manufacturers generally prefer piecework, for several reasons. It ehminates discrimination and favoritism, saves constant supervision and driving of the workers, and weeds out the inefficient workers. It encourages workers to greater production, which lessens the per- centage of overhead expense. It fixes in advance the direct-labor cost of units, which under a time-rate system could be ascertained only after time studies involving expense. The skilled, capable worker usually prefers piecework, as it enables him to take the greatest possible advantage of his skill. The mediocre, unskilled, slow worker prefers, as is to be expected, the time-rate system. The trade union prefers the time-rate system for two reasons: First, because the union seeks the benefit of the mass of workers and not of the individual highly skilled worker, and secondly, to protect the worker against himself. Jews and Italians are the great majority of workers in the clothing trade. Both are tireless, unceasing workers, if they can thereby increase their earnings. The piece-price system gives these workers the incentive to work long nours, on houdays, etc., beyond the hmits of healthy endeavor. To remedy this evil tne union favors the time-work system. It is generally admitted that better work is obtained if the em- ployees are on time-work. Certain manufacturers prefer time-work on their better grades of garments, especially coats, although they may be in favor of piecework on grades that do not require the finest workmanship. The chief argument against piecework is that it tends to the ''speeding up^' of the employees, wnich sacrifices quality to quantity. Examining and sponging the cloth, cutting and trimming the garments, examining, cleaning, and brushing the finished product, and busheling are generally on a time basis, while operating, oasting, and pressing are generally on a piece basis. The general tendency is toward piecework for all occupations which do not require too much attention on the part of the employees and of which the unit of measure can be readily determined. All manufacturers were in accord in stating that wages had increased in the last few years, but varied in their opinions as to the amount of increase and whether or not the relative increase was the same in different localities. Table 40 gives, by establishments, the niimber of employees by age and sex who are doing time and piece work. Data are given for only two groups, representing the extremes in the method of operating — that is. Group I, estabfishments having no operating con- tracted, and Group III, establishments having all operating con- tr^ted. : Thfe establishments having given numbers in this table are not the same as those with the same numbers in previous tables; the num- bers were shifted to preclude the possibility of identification of indi- vidual concerns. Table 40. — Number of Employees Engaged in Direct and Indirect Labor, BY Age, Sex, and Time And Piece Workers, by Individual Establishments. (Each line gives the figures for a separate establishment.] GROUP I.— NO OPERATING CONTRACTED (12 ESTABLISHMENTS). 16 years of age and over. Under 16 years of age. All employees sexes. of both Estab- lish- ment. Male. Female Male.a Female Time. Piece. Total. Time. Piece. Total. Time. Time. Piece. Total. Time. Piece. TotaL No. 1... No. 2... No.3... No. 4... 13f. 210 im 230 110 40 60 46 5 90 (53 16 273 Hi9 256 365 210 170 125 84 95 20 45 2 409 379 416 595 320 210 185 130 100 110 108 18 246 125 151 65 67 97 15 45 5 37 17 9 492 481 340 152 100 92 76 64 95 17 10 48 738 GOfi 491 217 167 189 91 109 100 54 27 57 8 4 2 12 19 5 e' 12 25 5 402 358 318 295 177 140 75 94 10 141 80 25 765 656 596 517 310 262 201 148 190 37 55 50 1,167 1,014 914 812 No. 5... 487 No. 6... No. 7... 2 1 1 402 276 No. 8... No. 9... 2 1 1 242 200 No. 10.. No. 11.. 2 12 12 178 135 No. 12.. 75 Total. 1,166 1,814 2,980 879 1,967 2,846 20 50 6 56 2,115 3,787 5,902 GROUP III.— ALL OPERATING r CONTRACTED (20 ESTABLISHMENTS &). 16 years of age and over.* All employees ( sexes. }fboth Establishment. Male. Female. • Time. Piece. Total. Time. Piece. Total. Time. Piece. TotaL No.l 300 276 120 20 85 63 50 35 31 30 30 25 18 12 14 11 10 11 7 6 60" 3' 300 276 120 80 85 66 50 35 31 30 30 25 18 12 14 11 10 11 7 6 50 49 40 16 12 6 10 8 5 5 4 3 4 5 2 4 3 4" io* 50 49 40 20 12 22 10 8 5 5 4 3 4 5 2 4 3 350 325 160 36 97 69 60 43 36 35 34 28 22 17 16 15 13 11 10 8 64" ig' 350 No.2 32R No.3 1(10 No. 4 inn No.5 97 88 No. 6 No.7 60 No. 8 43 No.9 36 No. 10 35 No. 11 34 Ko. 12 28 No. 13 22 No. 14 17 No. 15 16 15 No. 16 No. 17 12 No. 18 11 No. 19 3 2 3 2 10 No. 20 g Total 1,154 63 1,217 231 20 251 1,385 83 1,468 a No piecewcM-kers. > No data reported for 2 establishments, c No employees under 16 years of age. i 1 I / 192 MEN S FACTORY-MADE CLOTHING INDUSTRY. Group III reported no employees under 16 years of age and Group I reported 76 under the age of 16 years out of a total of 5,902 em- ployees; in other words, those under 16 years of age were less than li per cent of the total number of employees. Of the 76 under the age of 16 years, 20 were males and 56 females, and all were time- workers with the exception of 6 reported by one establishment. The number of pieceworkers in Group III was 63 malea and 20 females, of whom 3 males and 16 females were employed by one establish- ment and 60 males and 4 females by another. The employees under 16 years of age are usually found in such minor positions as errand boys or girls, label pasters, etc., but they are sometimes learners in the more important occupations. In many States laws have been enacted establishing a minimum age at which one can be employed, and it is only through a certificate obtained from some public or school official that a person under the required age is permitted to work. Another marked contrast between these two groups is the sex of the employees. In Group I, the the employees are nearly equally divided between males ana females, while in Grroup III males predom- inate, being over 82 per cent of the totaJ number of employees reported. There is also a marked difference in the manner of payment of wages. In Group I the piece rate predominates, but in Group III practically aU the employees are on a time basis. In Group III the number employed is confined largely to the cutting room, where the time rate prevails, not only in establishments having dl operating contracted but in establishments having no operating contractea; whereas in Group I the greatest number employed is found in the sewing and pressing departments, where the piece rate prevail. For the 12 establishments having no operating contracted, there were reported 5,826 employees 16 years of age and over, of which number 2,980 were males and 2,846 were females. It will be noted that piece rate is more common among the females than the males, owing to the fact that many male workers are found in the cutting room, where few women are employed and where the time rate prevails. The employees under 16 years of age were confined almost entirely to 3 establishments, which reported 63 out of a total of 76. Estab- lishment No. 2, with 29, showed the largest number of such employees, though it was less than 3 per cent of its total employees. The average number of employees per estabUsnment was 492 for Group I and 73 for Group III. SASNINGS AND HOUBS OF LABOB. The tables and other data in this chapter were taken from a report made by the Bureau of Labor Statistics, Department of Labor, on wages and hours of labor in the clothing industry diu'ing the years 1911, 1912, and 1913.« The material for this report was obtained from establishments making men's outer garments — coats, pants, vests, and overcoats — for the trade; or, in other words, what 18 commonly known as men's jeady-made clothing. Special-order and merchant- tailor firms are not included. All grades of ready-made men's clothing from cheap to high grade are covered in the figures presented. 9 PuUetin of the United States Btireaa of Labor Statistics, Whole No. 16}, /' - c; V ^ » '1 -t WORKING CONDITIONS. 193 The information for this report was secured by agents of the Bureau from the pav rolls and time books of the establishments visited. The data are for one pajr-roll period in each year, generally a pay period in Julv or August. With few exceptions, the pay period covered one week. Data were obtained both from clothing manu- facturing ctitablishments and from contractors. In this report are shown the prevailing full-time weekly earnii^, fullrtime hours of labor per week, and rates of wages (or earnings) per hour of employees in the principal occupations yin the manufacture of men's factory-made clothing in the United States. The information herein contained was furnished by representative establishment^ in the leading clothing-manufacturing cities. Figures are given for the years 1912 and 1913. The Bureau could not undertake to collect data from all establishments in the country. Ip selecting the representative establishments from which to collect data, the Bureau sought to represent the cities of the greatest importance in the industry, the measure of importance being the number of employees in this particular industry. The table whicii follows shows the leading cities in the manufacture of men's clothing, the number of employees in the industry in each city in 1910 as determined by the United States Census Office, the number of establishments and shops from which data were collected in 1913, the total number of employees on the pay rolls of such shops, and the number of employees for whom data were taken and shown in this report. Tabl£ 41. — ^ToTAL Number op Employees in Men's Clothing Manufacturing AND Number op Employees in Establishments por Which Data are Shown FOB 1913. Number of employees reported by United States Census Office, 1916. Establishments for which data are shown by the Bureau of I/abor Statistics for 1913. City. Number of establish- ments. Number of sepiu-ate shops. Numbw of employees— On pay roU. For whom data are shown. New York 61,275 32,890 15,090 8,233 7,732 4,769 4,292 2,614 2,560 2,639 2,740 46,349 63 6 i1 5 22 4 89 34 16 28 15 27 12 6,450 7,303 2,885 2,129 2,081 1,270 648 5,359 6,797 2,349 1 752 Chicago Bait imore rhiladelphia Rochester 1,564 952 r jnpinnaH Boston 424 St . Louis Cleveland Milwaukee Detroit Other cities . Total 191,183 117 221 22,766 18,197 Men's factory-made clothing is made almost exclusively in lai^e cities. The table shows 191,1^3 persons employed in this industry in 1910. Of this number 134,281, or 70.2 per cent, were employed in the 7 cities in which data were collected. Other cities in which this industry is of importance are named in the table. Because of the limited resources of the Bureau the inquiry has been limited to representative cities and representative establishments. Data are presented in this bulletin for 18,197 employees in 1913, or 9.5 per cent of the total number of employees in the industry in the United States in 1910. 11914°— 16 13 V t'' 194 MEN S FACTORY-MADE CLOTHING INDUSTBY. ' r t' ■<{ < Table 42. — ^Average and Classified Rates of Wages Per Hour in Men's Cloth- ing Manufacturing in Each Year, by Cities, 1912 and 1913. BASTERS, COAT: FEMALE. |The figures for 1912 and 1913 are for identical establishments, hence all figures for 1913 are directly com- I>arable with those for 1912.] } WOBKING CONDITIONS. 195 Num- T>er of estab- lish- ments. Nu,m- l>erof em- ploy- ees. Aver- age full- time hours week. Aver- age rate of wages per hour. Number of employees earning each classified rate of wages per hour. Year and city. Un- der 7 cts. 7 and un- der 8 cts. 8 1 and un- der 9 ots. 16 2 3 '"'9 3 9 and un- der 10 cts. 9 2 14 5 6 6 1 10 and un- der 12 cts. 12 and un- der 14 cts. 14 and un- der 16 ots. 16 and un- der 18 cts. 18 and un- der 20 cts. 20 and un- der 25 cts. 9 2 108 ""e 6 15 25 and un- der 30 cts. 30 cts. and over. 1912. Baltimore Boston 3 4 5 7 21 7 3 218 21 342 51 104 50 53 58.2 54.0 54.0 53.8 57.0 54.4 54.8 to. 1352 .1273 .1996 .1517 .1306 .1379 .1921 16 6 40 7 13 1 29 9 3 42 5 22 9 20 8 3 37 3 33 16 12 6 7 25 8 6 4 Chicago 1 "'"3 2 1 4 "i 40 13 13 5 10 42 5 4 3 6 43 1 1 1 5 21 Cincinnati New York Philadelphia.... Rochester ••••j Total 50 839 55.5 .1654 20 14 33 43 102 109 114 106 68 146 57 27 1913. Baltimore Boston 3 4 5 7 21 7 3 243 8 333 55 100 94 91 53.0 50.0 52.0 50.9 52.3 53.9 52.0 .1346 .1606 .2254 .1783 .15&4 .1641 .2239 7 10 26 64 SO 2 17 4 21 10 8 32 1 27 7 14 17 9 25 2 35 13 6 17 8 10 3 39 11 T 9 13 17 2 Chicago 1 10 4 15 11 3 86 11 22 11 16 75 5 4 9 14 109 43 Cincinnati New York i • • ■ • 9 8 1 Philadelphia — Rochester 1 1 19 Total 50 924 52.4 .1843 1 8 12 45 107 112 107 106 92 163 63 r o ^- BASTERS, PANTS: FEMALE. 1912. Baltimore . ... 2 2 3 9 4 17 5 107 40 14 55.0 54.0 54.0 56.9 54.3 SO. 1168 .1885 .1880 .1573 .1025 5 4 3 2 9 9 3 2 1 1 1 12 5 1 "*25 4 "RrMtmi 2 13 Chicago 1 1 1 2 1 '■3 2 2 2 11 7 3 16 8 1 1 4 New York Philadelphia — a Total 20 183 54.8 .1682 1 4 9 10 26 23 26 15 18 90 15 6 1913. Tlattiinore 2 a 3 9 4 5 50 51 17 53.4 50.0 52.0 53.1 53.6 .1632 .2137 .1699 .1684 .1365 1 1 1 1 1 6 7 2 1 3 10 3 Boston Chicago. ........ 1 • • • • I .... 1 T 7 1 9 6 7 8 14 3 ' 6 6 2 5 6 New York Philadelphia.... 1 Total 20 127 52.7 .1659 1 2 2 16 23 26 13 16 17 11 r, "! . BASTERS, VEST: FEMALE. 1912. Baltimore 2 3 16 5 28 118 99 29 58.2 54.0 56.6 54.6 $0.1087 .2216 .1605 .1879 3 2 3 3 1 2 10 7 12 3 9 20 1 1 9 13 3 2 9 8 8 9 9 7 1 30 23 10 Chicaco 32 1 13 New York Philadelphia.... 1 2 6 3 Total 26 274 55.4 .1845 4 4 9 6 29 33 25 27 35 64 33 15 1913. Baltimore Chicaeo 2 3 16 6 24 64 90 39 54.3 52.0 53.1 53.5 .1409 .2385 .1943 .2110 • • • • 1 1 1 • • • • 1 6 7 3 10 3 5 13 4 3 8 3 ""4 10 3 1 21 18 31 "yi 13 3 1 10 New York Philadelphia.... • • • • 1 1 10 1 6 TotaL 26 307 53.9 .3041 3 S 17 30 31 17 16 01 83 17 r Table 42.— Average and Classified Rates of Wages Per Hour in Men's Cloth- ing Manufacturing in Each Year, by Cities, 1912 and 191»— Continued. BASTERS, ALL: FEMALE .« Num- ber of estab- lish- ments. Num- ber of em- ploy- ees. Aver- age full- time hours per week. Aver- age rate of wages per hour. Number of employees earning each classified rate of wages per hour. Year and city. Un- der 7 cts. 7 and un- der 8 cts. 8 8 and un- der 9 cts. 24 2 4 '"i5 6 9 and un- der 10 cts. 16 3 17 5 10 8 1 10 and iin- der 12 cts. 12 and un- der 14 cts. 14 and un- der 16 cts. 39 3 58 16 32 10 7 16 and un- der 18 cts. 28 "ei 13 23 13 10 18 and un- der 20 cts. 20 and un- der 25 cts. 25 and un- der 30 cts. 30 cts. and over. 1913. Baltimore Boston 3 4 6 7 37 13 3 263 26 567 51 243 93 53 58.010.1312 54.0 .1390 54.0 .2020 53.8 .1517 56.8 .1472 54.4 .1481 54.8 .1921 19 53 9 29 1 50 12 3 47 5 42 9 47 12 3 8 1 63 5 18 10 6 11 2 163 "33 16 15 6 2 88 1 2 1 5 4 Chicago 2 ""\ 3 3 1 7 2 1 '"'37 "6 Cincinnati New York Philadelphia.... Rochester Total 73 1,296 55.4 .1608 25 22 51 59 27 157 165 58 2 29 4 37 17 8 165 148 111 240 105 48 1913. Baltimore Boston 3 4 6 7 37 13 3 272 12 447 55 241 140 91 53.1 50.0 52.0 50.9 53.8 53.8 52.0 .1357 .1783 .2210 .1783 .1731 .1704 .2239 8 10 36 1 40 7 41 20 9 29 2 43 13 20 21 8 11 4 48 11 24 13 13 19 3 117 11 43 32 16 2 1 Chicago 1 1 1 17 4 32 13 3 97 5 23 11 14 53 Cincinnati New York Philadelphia.... Rochester .... 9 1 3 1 11 10 1 ..... "Vi Total 73 1,258 52.5 .1857 1 12 14 50 140 155 154 136 124 241 152 79 HAND SEWERS, ( COAT: FEMALE. 1913. Baltimore Boston 3 4 5 9 25 7 3 303 47 1,017 216 821 246 238 58.210.1332 52.9 .1522 54.0 .1740 53.4 .1450 56.6 .1361 54.3 .1337 54.6 .1695 15 "io 9 18 8 1 13 2 7 4 32 10 1 21 1 9 6 64 12 2 17 1 55 10 59 21 10 58 10 106 21 181 54 28 55 8 107 60 140 49 35 48 8 151 35 125 32 33 32 5 147 38 81 29 37 22 4 130 11 37 13 29 20 5 194 18 63 15 43 2 3 79 4 16 3 16 Chicago Cincinnati. Now York Philadelphia.... Rochester 23 '■"6 ..... Total 56 2,888 55.2 .1526 61 1 69 3 115 3 173 15 1 15 3 32 18 4 458 29 5 62 10 91 37 18 454 432 369 246 358 123 30 1913. Baltimore Boston 3 4 \ 25 7 3 255 98 845 210 852 245 274 53.6 50.0 52.0 50.5 52.0 53.1 52.0 .1608 .1649 .1924 .1604 .1697 .1748 .1926 38 17 95 34 141 40 34 48 26 105 58 135 40 41 36 18 105 30 140 33 29 33 9 133 30 61 19 38 41 19 191 22 139 29 69 8 3 80 5 64 9 22 Chicago "3 3 1 1 1 3 6 3 1 3 7 14 8 ■"65 6 26 8 17 Cincinnati New York Philadelphia.... Rochester TotaL 66 2,779 52.1 .in6 9 16 35 88 252 399 453 391 323 510 191 112 HAND SEWERS, PANTS: FEMALE • 1912. Baltimore Boston 3 3 % 11 5 3 106 37 506 29 117 67 85 57.6 54.0 54.0 63.9 56.4 54.2 54.3 SO. 1201 .1397 .1646 .1425 .1220 .1198 .1651 9 4 7 6 4 44 1 16 12 3 28 3 48 6 29 10 6 20 3 64 4 22 14 12 18 11 76 10 9 5 14 12 5 70 3 5 4 11 1 1 83 4 8 3 8 1 % Chicago 1 2 8 1 13 11 4 87 19 Cincinnati 4 New York Philadelphia.... Rochester 6 3 1 5 3 3 3 2 20 1 1 4 1 TotaL 35 937 54.7 .1497 20 15 44 86 130 139 143 110 108 112 26 6 • This group is a combkiation of the preceding female coat, pants, and vest basters. 196 men's factory-made clothing industry. -7 r- Ki WORKING CONDITIONS. 197 Table 42.— Averagb and Classifibd Ratbs of Wages Per Hour in Men's Cloth- INO Manupacturino in Each Year, by Citibs, 1912 and 1913 — Continued. HAND SEWERS, PANTS: FEMALE-€ontinaed. Num- ber of estab- Ush- ments. Cam- ber of em- ploy- ees. Aver- fS time hours per week. Aver- age rate of wages per hour. Nnmber of employees earning each classified rate of wages per hour. Year and city. Un- der 7 Cts. 7 1 and un- der 8 cts. 8 and un- der 9 cts. 9 10 and and un- un- der der 10 12 cts. cts. .... 6 2 3 14 46 4.... 3 19 6 9 2 9 13 and un- der 14 cts. 14 and un- der 16 cts. 16 and un- der 18 ots. 18 and un- der 20 cts. 30 and un- der 25 cts. 25 and un- der 30 cts. 30 cts. and over. 1913. Baltimore 3 3 5 5 11 6 3 39 32 461 31 117 54 96 53.4 50.0 52. 50.5 52.1 63.6 53.0 10. 1618 .1511 .1673 .1705 .1547 .1309 .1751 1 1 3 7 6 80 3 23 18 22 4 7 73 9 17 4 8 9 6 74 1 13 7 12 7 1 66 6 9 3 18 110 6 7 86 5 20 3 19 1 "i dilcaco 15 2 4 S Cincinnati New York Philadelphia.... Rochester 1 1 • • • • 2 1 4 4 s 6 1 Total 36 830 52.0 .1633 2 4 13 31 91 168 122 121 145 36 7 HAND SEWERS, VEST: FEMALE. HAND SEWERS, ALL: FEMALE.* a This group is a combination of the preceding female coat, pants, and vest hand sewers. 1912. Baltimcx^ Chicaeo 2 3 4 13 6 3 44 295 23 97 23 88 50.1 54.0 54.0 56.4 64.7 64.4 SO. 1050 .1843 .1266 .1577 .1430 .1617 7 1 1 9 3 2 15 2 2 2 9 13 21 9 10 1 13 5 9 8 14 4 16 4 43 2 21 4 12 3 41 "ie 3 6 1 49 1 9 3 16 93 1 12 4 11 19 8 Cincinnati New York Philadelphia.... Rochester 1 1 3 1 2 5 2 1 3 2 3 Total 30 670 64.9 .1646 9 8 3 1 20 3 32 3 3 67 11 4 7 6 2 10 56 7 13 3 13 6 8 85 5 17 3 8 3 8 67 78 lao 23 5 1913. Baltimore. Chicaeo 3 3 4 13 5 3 44 291 19 91 25 82 54.3 52.0 50.6 52.0 54.1 52.0 .1307 .2089 .1369 .1928 .1758 .1826 1 4 34 6 13 4 47 ■"9 2 13 3 121 1 36 7 13 43 8 Cincinnati New York Philadelphia.... Rochester 3 3 3 9 1 8 5 1 4 4 Total 30 562 53.2 .1921 1 4 13 40 49 43 76 74 170 61 17 ^ M^-^ 1913. Baltimore Boston 3 4 6 18 39 14 6 453 74 1,818 368 1,035 336 411 58.1 63.3 54.0 53.5 56.6 64.4 64.5 $0.1274 .1476 .1730 .1432 .1365 .1316 .1648 31 "ii 9 25 12 2 18 2 10 4 40 13 5 37 1 20 7 82 25 7 35 5 114 13 76 35 32 99 13 175 36 220 66 47 80 11 180 72 176 67 63 70 19 369 47 156 41 59 46 10 258 41 102 36 64 24 5 262 16 54 18 53 30 5 373 19 78 31 74 3 3 117 4 19 4 22 ■ • • - • Chica&ro 39 CincinnatL New York Philadelphia.... Rochester "8 Total 80 4,395 55.1 .1635 90 92 179 290 665 649 660 546 49 23 213 36 166 43 58 432 44 10 246 36 79 34 68 seo 50 36 398 28 185 38 100 172 8 3 138 7 77 10 35 40 1913. Baltimore Boston 3 4 6 18 39 14 5 338 130 1,507 260 1,060 324 462 53.7 50.0 52.0 50.6 52.0 53.3 52.0 .1570 .1615 .1881 .1509 .1700 .1675 .1871 3 1 ■3 4 1 1 6 • » * ■ 3 2 8 4 1 7 1 6 7 IS 13 1 18 3 32 7 38 36 8 45 8 113 17 116 48 37 83 32 188 40 176 64 64 87 33 195 70 160 46 57 Chicaeo ......... 66 Cincinnati New York Philadelphia.... Rochester 7 33 8 23 Total 80 4,161 53.1 .1767 13 24 53 133 383 606 618 588 507 825 378 136 Table 42. — Average and Classified Rates op Wages Per Hour in Men's Cloth- ing Manufacturing in Each Year, by Cities, 1912 and 1913 — Continued. OPERATORS, COAT: FEMALE. Num- ber of estab- lish- ments. Num- ber of em- ploy- ees. Avw- age full- time hours per week. Aver- age rate of wages per hour. Nnmber of employees earning each classified rate of wages per hour. Year and city. Un- der 7 cts. 7 and un- der 8 cts. 6 8 9 10 and and and tm-j un-j un- der der der 9 10 12 cts. cts. cts. 12 and tin- der 14 cts. 14 and un- dee 16 cts. 16 and un- der 18 cts. 18 and un- der 20 cts. 20 and un- der 25 cts. 25 and un- der 30 cts. 30 cts. and over. 191a. Baltimore Boston 3 3 5 9 15 6 3 113 16 514 135 41 67 63 56.2 64.0 54.0 53.3 56,0 54.1 54.6 $0.1322 .1568 .2089 .1605 .1377 .1504 .1897 6 11 7 21 3 23 12 11 5 8 18 5 35 34 5 11 8 15 5 46 16 5 10 8 14 7 8 1 123 22 5 9 16 1 1 86 3 ..... Chicaeo 6 3 1 2 29 6 4 4 4 57 20 3 11 8 52 12 4 10 4 88 Cincinnati New York 1 3 • • ■ • 3 1 5 3 Philadelphia.... Rochester 6 6 8 15 Total 44 949 54.3 .1835 23 54 80 116 104 113 89 183 97 67 U13. Baltimore Boston 3 3 5 9 15 6 3 152 9 627 138 57 74 74 53.2 50.0 52.0 50.6 52 5 53.7 62.0 .1512 .1583 .'JZiS .1831 .1707 .1708 .2073 2 2 • « - • 9 28 34 1 25 13 7 15 5 27 2 58 19 12 9 11 15 4 60 19 7 6 8 16 2 45 21 5 5 7 13 5 1 Chicago 7 2 3 2 2 18 5 6 10 7 117 38 13 16 12 93 11 3 6 14 104 Cincinnati New York 1 2 3 4 1 PhUadelphia.... Rochester 3 3 8 Total 44 1,031 52.1 .1989 3 4 6 26 74 100 138 118 101 209 132 121 OPERATORS, PANTS: FEMALE. 1912. Baltimore Boston 3 3 5 6 15 5 3 117 7 374 67 97 45 99 57.1 54.0 54.0 53.5 56.6 64.1 64.7 to. 1339 .1865 .2013 .1567 .1928 .1579 .1840 7 6 10 7 1 13 2 1 2 4 26 * • • • 25 8 4 9 10 16 2 42 11 7 9 14 11 2 37 17 11 6 11 13 11 10 2 96 7 28 6 26 3 Chicago (Mncinnati 3 1 3 1 1 . . . . 4 33 10 16 3 13 37 10 13 6 7 43 1 8 2 12 41 New York Philadelphia.... Rochester > • • ■ 2 6 1 1 3 )Total 39 806 54.8 .1819 13 7 17 30 81 101 95 86 83 175 68 60 1913. Baltimore 3 3 5 6 15 5 3 115 9 433 69 98 75 92 53.8 50.0 52.0 50.5 52.9 53.6 52.0 .1461 .1707 .2218 .1970 .2212 .1525 .3050 2 8 11 69 1 24 8 10 8 4 4 3 37 11 8 13 13 3 1 64 13 6 7 11 3 3 41 13 10 4 15 15 2 109 9 21 9 24 4 Boston Chicago 2 5 2 2 2 14 2 5 14 5 74 4 21 6 12 62 Cincinnati 7 New York 15 Philadelphia.... Rochester 8 3 1 2 8 Totol 39 890 52.3 .3019 8 8 16 51 124 87 105 88 189 120 94 OPERATORS, VEST: FEMALE. 1912. Baltimore 2 3 4 10 3 47 196 38 54 83 56.9 54.0 53.2 56.0 64.6 $0. 1193 .2493 . 1319 .1941 .1901 4 1 1 6 1 2 1 3 11 4 7 11 14 4 3 7 5 9 11 3 10 3 14 2 6 15 3 13 1 15 15 1 53 Chk»go 32 83 Cincinnati New York * • • • 1 1 19 17 6 9 Rochester 2 4 4 Total 33 40T 54.6 .2068 4 3 8 8 26 39 38 40 47 90 47 57 198 MEN S FACTORY-MADE CLOTHING INDUSTRY. Table 42. — Average and Clas8ipied Rates of Wages Per Hour in Men*s Cloth- ing Manufacturing in Each Year, by Cities, 1912 and 1913— Continued. OPERATORS, VEST: FEMALE-Continued. Num- ber of estab- lish- ments. Num- ber of em- ploy- ees. Avw- fSl- time hours week. Aver- age rate of wages per hour. ^!l^^ Number of employees earning each olatsified rate of wages per hour. Year and city. Un- der 7 cts. 7 and un- der 8 ots. 8 and un- der 9 cts. 9 and un- der 10 cts. 10 and un- der 12 cts. 13 and un- der 14 cts. 14 and un- der 16 cts. 10 and un- der 18 ots. 18 and un- der 30 ots. 30 and un- der 25 cts. 25 and un- der 30 cts. 30 Cts. and over. 1913. Baltimore 2 3 4 10 3 51 204 28 39 75 54.4 52.0 49.9 53.8 52.0 10.1381 .2723 .1526 .2322 .2394 1 1 1 7 2 8 7 2 2 15 5 4 6 7 10 4 8 5 3 13 4 17 3 5 8 5 43 4 15 25 Chicago 48 66 Cincinn.iti New York 14 11 Rochester 1 3 16 Total 22 397 52.3 .2364 — 1 2 9 19 25 25 32 37 92 73 83 OPERATORS, ALL: FEMALE. • 1912. Baltimore Boston 3 3 6 19 32 8 6 277 23 1.083 230 192 112 245 56.7 54.0 54.0 53.3 56.3 54.1 54.6 fa 1307 .1567 .2i:« .1559 .1814 .1534 .1875 16 13 27 16 1 43 11 5 6 10 57 3 52 27 15 14 19 45 7 91 49 15 20 29 31 7 91 44 19 16 29 29 21 19 3 272 29 52 15 58 3 1 161 4 14 2 27 . Chicago 2 2 4 1 2 3 2 5 11 3 4 2 1 104 32 25 14 35 102 23 31 16 26 153 Ohicinn^iti New York Philadelphia.... Rochester 3 6 1 11 Total 76 2,162 64.5 .1873 25 25 48 92 187 256 237 239 219 448 212 174 1913. Baltimore Boston 3 3 6 19 32 8 5 318 18 1,163 235 194 149 241 53.6 50.0 52.0 50.5 52.9 53.6 52.0 .1472 .1645 .2313 .1836 .2086 .1616 .2164 2 3 3 21 47 118 2 54 25 17 23 10 37 4 102 40 20 22 25 22 5 132 37 16 12 31 22 5 103 37 20 9 30 33 2 269 51 49 25 61 9 1 Chicago 3 3 14 4 5 4 2 39 9 13 24 12 215 15 38 11 37 232 Cincinnati New York 1 2 11 16 Philadelphia.... Rochester 8 6 1 5 32 Total 78 2.318 52.2 .2065 3 13 16 50 144 249 250 255 226 490 325 297 RASTERS, COAT: MALE. Number of employees earning each classified rate of wages Num- ber of estab- lish- Num- bwof em- ploy- Aver- Aver- per hour. Year and city. age full- time hours age rate of wages Un- 8 and 9 and 10 and 12 and 14 and 16 and 18 and 20 and 25 and 30 and 40 ments. per der un- un- un- un- un- un- un- un- un- un- cts. ees. week. hour. 8 der der der der der der der der der der and Cts. 9 10 12 14 16 18 20 25 30 40 over. cts. cts. cts. cts. cts. cts. cts. cts. cts. cts. 1912. Baltimore. 3 195 58.8 10.1862 4 3 2 11 17 31 22 23 49 28 5 Boston i 42 301 53.4 54.0 .233A .2490 1 6 5 24 7 23 4 16 11 63 5 81 74 1 Chicago 2 4 5 3 Cincinnati 6 26 7 598 53.8 56.3 .2993 .2113 2 166 2 77 2 69 1 New York 1 5 3 36 41 48 75 74 3 Philadelphia.... 7 180 51.3 .1822 3 3 7 12 18 14 30 28 42 19 4 RochestM* 3 86 54,5 .2413 3 3 4 3 10 28 19 16 Total 54 1,409 55.7 .2151 10 15 12 67 Sdl 126 160 155 361 231 17» 8 Hi WOKKING CONDITIONS. 199 /^ •This group is a oomblnatioa of the preceding female coat, pants, and vest operators. >^ -4^ Table 42. — ^Average and Classified Rates of Wages Per Hour in Men's Cloth- ing Manufacturing in Each Year, by Cities, 1912 and 1913 — Continued. BASTER8. COAT: MALE— Continued. Num- ber of estab- lish- ments. Num- ber of em- ploy- 668* Aver- age full- time hours week. Aver- age rate of wages per hour. Number of employees earning each classified rate of wages per hour. Year and city. Un- der 8 cts. 8 and un- der 9 cts. 9 and un- der 10 cts. 10 and un- der 12 cts. 8 12 and un- der 14 cts. 20 14 and un- der 16 cts. 16 and un- der 18 cts. 18 and un- der 20 cts. 19 '"i2 4 35 31 11 20 and un- der 25 cts. 25 and un- der 30 cts. 30 and un- der 40 cts. 40 Cts. and over. 1913. Baltimore Boston. 3 4 5 6 26 7 3 217 38 266 18 573 254 106 53.8 50.0 52.0 50.6 52.1 53.5 52.0 to. 2188 .2800 .3031 .2245 .2614 .2109 .2618 3 2 3 20 21 1 6 1 42 27 9 54 14 43 5 142 75 18 37 11 62 4 134 41 31 26 10 95 2 137 18 29 4 3 Chicago 2 2 6 8 2 22 30 3 30 Cinclnn • 1 1 9 1 2 1 Total 35 305 56.2 .2120 1 3 1 1 18 19 24 38 29 91 54 24 4 1913. Baltimore 3 5 19 5 3 4 56 58 7 20 54.0 52.0 52.2 54.0 52.0 .1046 .2472 .2721 .1255 .3127 1 1 1 1 1 Chicago 6 1 2 1 4 5 1 1 9 3 14 10 4 6 16 22 2 NewYork 2 2 3 1 5 Philadelphia.... Rochester 2 2 5 5 4 Total 35 145 52.2 .2564 1 5 5 4 10 11 14 26 15 43 11 OPERATORS, COAT: MALE. 1912. Baltimore Boston 3 4 5 5 26 7 3 289 90 160 16 614 139 56 59.2 53.2 54.0 53.8 56.5 54.4 54.6 to. 1996 .3065 .3125 .2078 .2721 .2512 .2863 8 5 3 17 17 1 "i 9 5 1 28 ••••7 4 15 5 22 2 3 3 33 6 1 18 2 4 2 27 7 4 97 19 24 1 154 40 9 62 26 35 4 156 45 15 12 28 53 1 165 23 22 "12 Chicago 1 • • • • 3 31 Cincinnati NewYork Philadelphia.... Rochester 3 1 3 .... 2 1 9 2 38 4 3 Total 53 1,364 56.2 .2615 12 10 6 30 34 59 70 64 344 343 304 88 1913. Baltimore Boston 3 4 5 5 26 7 3 436 53 225 20 647 186 86 53.9 50.0 52.0 50.9 51.7 53.6 52.0 .2176 .3929 .3433 .2918 .3228 .2678 .3467 4 2 10 25 46 29 41 29 90 3 20 3 93 36 7 104 3 33 5 88 49 16 53 28 71 9 242 45 28 3 19 Chicago 4 6 6 S 1 16 11 3 5 1 17 9 72 Cincinnati 1 NewYork Philadelphia.... Rochester 1 1 7 1 8 4 1 6 9 2 12 6 1 157 15 28 Total 53 1,653 53.5 .2948 4 4 18 42 69 54 80 61 252 298 47^ 295 \ 200 MEN S FACTORY-MADE CLOTHING INDUSTRY. I i Table 42. — Average and Classified Rates of Wages Per Hour in Men's Cloth- ing Manufacturing in Each Year, by Cities, 1912 and 1913 — Continued. OPERATORS, PANTS: MALE. Num- ber of estab- lish- ments. Num- ber of em- ploy- Aver- ^- time hours week Aver- age rate of wages per hour. Number of employees earning each classified rate of wages per hour. Year and city Un- der 8 cts. 2 8 and un- der 9 cts. 3 9 and un- der 10 cts. 2 10 and un*^ der 12 cts. 12 and un- der 14 cts. 14 and un- der 16 cts. 16 and un- der 18 cts. 18 and un- der 20 cts. 20 and un- der 25 cte. 25 and un- der 30 cts. 30 and un- der 40 cts. 12 12 31 108 7 1 40 cts. and over. 1912. Baltimore Boston 3 3 5 21 5 3 167 41 137 468 69 8 58.4 54.0 54.0 57.0 54.9 54.4 10.2081 .3064 .2709 .2578 .2135 .2757 8 13 11 14 23 4 7 29 4 47 9 32 109 20 29 10 41 147 14 T 3 6 Chicago 3 10 3 2 15 6 12 1 5 20 6 10 New York Philadelphia.... 2 3 1 3 1 1 14 1 Total 40 890 56.5 .2495 7 7 4 24 36 30 45 67 217 248 171 34 1913. Bftltimnre 3 3 5 21 5 3 39 32 115 440 72 6 53.4 50.0 52.0 52.3 53.3 52.0 .2718 .3666 .3341 .3369 .2528 .3024 2 1 2 12 3 1 4 10 3 14 46 6 9 2 22 2 10 14 41 138 14 4 3 Bostdn 12 Chicacro 1 12 6 2 9 6 3 7 30 New York Philadelphia.... Rochester 5 2 1 1 "2 6 4 131 10 . Total 40 704 52.3 .3253 7 2 2 10 19 20 18 96 79 114 221 180 OPERATORS, VEST: MALE. 1912. Baltimore 2 3 15 5 54 76 68 28 59.5 54.0 56.6 55.2 SO. 1925 .3766 .3067 .3157 5 1 • • • • 7 1 3 3 • • • > • 2 3 3 1 1 18 5 8 3 10 13 14 8 5 26 27 17 ""» Naw York 1 1 3 11 Philadelphia.... ' Total 25 226 56.3 .3041 6 1 8 3 6 4 6 1 ..... 34 45 76 30 1913. Baltimore Chicafiro 2 3 15 5 46 75 73 30 54.0 52.0 92.4 53.5 .2420 .4286 .3641 .3795 1 .... 3 1 3 1 4 1 1 8 3 7 14 6 8 10 19 34 16 1 45 Naw York 23 Philadelphia.... 1 12 Total 25 224 52.8 .3627 1 3 3 4 6 2 18 28 79 81 OPERATORS, ALL : MALE ." 1912. Baltimore Boston . ..... 8 4 6 5 51 14 4 510 131 373 16 1,150 236 64 50.0 53.5 54.0 53.8 56.7 54.7 54.6 $0.2017 .3065 .3103 .2078 2683 .2479 .2849 15 9 5 32 33 1 2 1 25 11 1 43 "is 4 30 6 • • • • • 36 2 10 3 65 12 1 44 6 12 2 57 11 4 162 28 61 1 371 63 9 101 36 80 4 317 67 22 29 40 110 1 300 47 23 3 18 f^hfcwfo , ... - 1 • • • • 6 60 CincinnAti New York Philadelphia.... RiM^liivitAr 6 4 • • • • 4 3 1 3 2 19 5 63 6 8 , Total 87 2,480 56.3 .2610 25 18 10 63 73 96 119 136 605 636 550 161 1913. Baltimra-e DfMtnn 3 4 6 5 51 14 4 521 85 415 20 1,160 288 92 53.9 50.0 52.0 50.9 52.0 53.5 52.0 .2238 .3830 .3561 .2918 .3306 .2757 .3438 5 2 13 26 49 31 1 8 46 34 108 6 37 3 146 42 7 127 5 61 5 164 60 18 73 42 131 9 414 75 32 7 31 Cbicaso . 4 8 11 1 26 17 3 8 1 29 17 147 PfrwiTinAtl 1 New York Philadelphia.... 5 2 ' 2 2 7 3 14 9 1 18 15 3 "5 1 311 37 28 Total 87 2,581 52.5 .3090 12 6 23 54 92 74 104 89 349 440 776 563 • This eroap is a oombinatlon of the preceding male coat, pants, and vest operators. K^, WORKING CONDITIONS. 201 / r i i f ■< Table 42. — Averags and Classified Rates of Wages Per Hour in Men's Cloth- ing Manufacturing in Each Year, by Cities, 1912 and 1913 — Continued. PRESSERS, COAT: MALE. Num- ber of estab- lish- ments. Num- ber of em- ploy- ees. Aver- age full- time hours week. Aver- age rate of wages per hour. Number of employees earning each c per hour. lassified rate of wages Year and city. Un- der 8 cts. 8 and un- der 9 cts. 9 and un- der 10 cts. 10 and un- der 12 cts. 12 and un- der 14 cts. 14 and un- der 16 cts. 16 and un- der 18 cts. 18 and un- der 20 cts. 20 and. un- der 25 cts. 25 and un- der 30 cts. 30 and un- der 40 cts. 40 Cts. and over. 1013. Baltimore Boston 3 4 5 9 26 7 3 255 37 596 96 716 155 172 57.9 53.5 54.0 53.7 56.4 54.3 54.7 10.2077 .2971 .2712 .2411 .2371 2194 2459 2 2 * ■ > • 20 20 33 1 17 4 41 15 17 3 31 5 43 20 7 20 2 35 2 56 15 18 64 10 138 33 212 46 46 55 1 174 40 194 25 85 30 14 181 8 108 20 9 2 6 Chicago 3 2 16 1 2 4 1 30 13 2 13 Cincinnati ...... 1 4 New York Philadelphia . . . 4 8 Rochester 3 Total 67 2,027 65.4 .2441 2 6 8 44 70 111 126 148 549 674 360 29 no. Baltimore 3 4 6 9 26 7 3 309 48 636 91 768 247 186 53.6 50.0 52.0 50.9 52.1 53.6 52.0 .2415 .3207 .3209 .2713 .2987 .2297 .2842 1 17 22 33 1 13 3 19 24 4 31 2 30 2 29 39 9 51 5 93 24 104 72 21 77 17 115 13 172 39 60 61 11 252 40 355 31 78 8 Boston 12 Chicago 11 4 7 19 6 \n Cincinnati 2 1 4 1 1 11 9 • • a> • 2 New York 4 2 56 Philadelphia.... 8 Rochester 6 Total 57 2,274 52.3 .2878 7 17 38 69 96 142 370 493 828 214 PRESSERS, PANTS: MALE. 1912. Baltimore 3 3 6 6 22 5 3 56 21 193 30 237 45 55 57.4 64.0 54.0 53.6 56.8 54.5 54.6 $0.2529 .2922 .2105 2563 .2316 2686 1 8 1 1 1 2 7 3 1 5 4 14 4 29 10 66 11 8 10 7 34 9 73 12 15 3 8 94 10 Boston. ......... 1 Chicago 1 2 4 « ■ • • 6 1 7 1 20 5 4 5 5 16 6 7 18 Cincinnati 1 New York 37 4 19 13 PhUadelphia.... Rochester 1 1 1 1 Total 47 637 65.4 .2706 2 6 18 16 42 43 142 160 165 44 1913. Baltimore 3 3 6 6 22 6 3 29 18 207 32 193 46 61 63.3 50.0 52.0 50.7 52.5 53.3 52.0 .2294 .3909 .3430 .2350 .3139 .2651 .2773 1 3 5 5 3 2 23 8 28 8 18 7 4 18 9 40 9 20 6 6 89 5 61 17 18 Boston 7 Chicago 4 1 2 1 1 3 3 4 1 8 1 9 3 1 4 3 14 3 1 60 Cincinnati 1 1 New York 36 Philadelphia.... 1 Rochester 3 Total 47 586 52.2 .3104 1 1 9 14 27 30 90 107 201 106 PRESSERS, VEST: MALE. ma. Baltimore 2 3 2 16 6 3 25 129 5 70 13 82 58.0 54.0 54.0 56.3 55.2 64.4 10.20(13 3038 .2566 .2513 .3240 .2514 2 4 2 2 5 3 1 4 3 1 2 1 1 7 18 1 17 2 12 1 24 2 26 3 3 1 66 1 14 5 11 1 Chicago 10 Cincinnati New York 1 2 4 4 PhUadelphia.... 2 RochestM* 1 4 . Total 31 274 55.1 .2749 1 3 8 15 8 12 57 59 98 13 202 men's factory-made clothing industry. Table 42. — Average and Classified Rates op Wages Per Hour in Men's Cloth- ing Manufacturing in Each Year, by Cities, 1912 and 1913 — Continued. PRESSERS, VEST: MALE— Continued. it Num- ber of estab- lish- ments. Num- ber of em- ploy- ees. Aver- rX time hours per week. Aver- age rate of wages per hour. Number of onployees earning each classifled rate of wages per hour. Y«ar and city. Un- der 8 cts. 8 and un- der 9 cts. 9 and un- der 10 cts. 10 and un- der 12 cts. 12 and un- der 14 cts. 14 and im- der 16 cts. 16 and un- der 18 Cts. 18 and un- der 20 cts. 20 and un- der 25 cts. 25 and ixn- der 30 cts. 30 and un- der 40 cts. 40 cts. and over. 1913. Baltimore 2 3 2 16 5 3 23 113 5 58 54.2 52.0 50.0 ■;9 Q $0.2695 .3823 .2698 .3164 .3119 .2846 1 2 2 1 ""3 1 2 1 2 1 3 "i 2 5 1 10 3 10 6 20 1 15 1 8 5 37 2 16 9 8 1 44 Cincinnati New York Philadelphia.... Rochester 1 12 16' 53.5 36; 52.0 3 1 4 Totnl 31 251 52.5 .3360 1 2 5 9 g 31 51 77 65 PRESSERS, ALL: MALE .a 1912. Baltimore 3 4 6 17 53 14 5 336 58 918 131 1,023 213 259 57.8 53.7 54.0 53.7 56.5 54.4 54.6 to. 2147 .2953 .2839 .2347 .2425 .2283 .2514 2 3 • • • • 23 32 36 3 23 6 52 18 5 25 3 39 6 67 25 11 28 2 43 8 74 22 26 85 14 185 44 295 59 66 66 8 232 51 293 40 108 24 22 341 19 159 29 39 13 7 r^hi/Hurn 4 4 17 2 2 10 1 37 14 2 41 Cincinnati New York Philadelphia.... Rochester 2 4 1 4 4 21 3 1 Total 102 2,938 55.4 .2527 2 6 11 52 96 142 176 208 748 793 623 86 ins. Baltimore Rout on 3 4 6 17 . 53 14 5 361 66 956 128 1,009 309 283 53.5 50.0 52.0 50.8 52.2 53.6 52.0 .2423 .3399 .3329 .2622 .3026 .2392 .2828 3 10 30 36 37 1 24 5 30 28 7 37 2 37 5 45 42 13 56 7 121 33 142 83 49 90 21 153 23 227 49 88 72 16 378 47 432 57 104 U 10 PhU>5wrk 4 3 13 10 13 7 11 23 8 220 Cincinnati New York Philadelphia — Rochester 1 4 3 3 1 4 1 2 104 11 13 Total 102 3,111 52.3 .2950 9 19 49 88 132 181 491 651 1,106 385 BUSHELERS AND TAILORS: MALB. Num- ber of estab- lish- ments. Num- berof em- ptoy- 66S* Aver- age full- time hours week. Aver- age rate of wages per hour. Emptoyees earning each classifled rate of wages per hour. Year and city. 10 and un- der 12 cts. 3 1 1 3 • • • • 13 and un- der 14 Cts. 14 and un- der 16 cts. 16 and un- der 18 cts. 18 and un- der 20 cts. 20 and un- der 25 cts. 25 and un- der 30 cts. 30 and un- der 40 cts. 40 and un- der 50 cts. 50 and un- der 60 cts. 60 and un- der 70 cts. 70 cts. and over. 1912. 3 5 8 32 7 3 61 136 33 271 70 13 57.3 52.9 53.7 55.1 56.1 54.5 10.2066 .2562 .3252 .2513 .2150 .2878 3 • • ■ • • • • • 7 3 3 3 1 9 1 7 2 5 19 3 10 10 1 18 7 15 42 14 78 46 2 T 55 10 70 9 6 3 23 1 67 2 5 Baltimore Chicago Cincinnati ..... New York Philadelphia.... Rochester > • • • • • • • .... Total 58 574 54.8 .2434 7 12 17 36 46 197 157 101 1 «=■ ( ' V. WORKING CONDITIONS. 203 >• k. .1* \V • This group is a combination of the preceding male coat, pants, and vest presaers. V Table 42. — Average and Classified Rates of Wages Per Hour in Men's Cloth- ing Manufacturing in Each Year, by Citibs, 1912 and 1913 — Continued. BUSHELERS AND TAILORS: MALB— Continued. Num- ber of estab- lish- ments. Num- ber of em- ploy- ees. Aver- age fi3l- time hours per week. Aver- age rate of wages per hour. Employees earning each classified rate of wages per hoar. Year and city. 10 and un- der 12 cts. 12 and un- der 14 cts. 14 and un- der 16 cts. 16 and un- der 18 cts. 18 and un- der 20 cts. 20 and un- der 25 cts. 25 and un- der 30 cts. 30 and un- der 40 cts. 40 and un- der 50 cts. 50 and un- der 60 cts. 60 and un- der 70 cts. 70 cts. and over. 1913. Baltimore ... 3 5 3l 7 3 73 144 28 315 74 10 53.5 51.4 51.5 51.9 55.4 52.0 to. 2532 .2744 .2712 .2774 .2258 .3058 .... 1 11 6 .... 10 6 7 • • • • 13 8 31 22 3 74 48 10 79 14 89 11 6 19 33 9 101 6 4 Chicaeo ...... 2 Cincinnati New York Philadelphia Rochester 10 4 1 Total 58 644| 52.4 .2683 1 3 13 17 34 178 209 172 12 4 1 CUTTERS, CLOTH, HAND: MALE. 1912. Baltimore 3 4 5 7 23 5 3 113 53 551 131 615 136 266 52. 4 to. 3362 3 17 83 2 164 37 83 81 164 10 18 194 74 461 37 15 Boston 48.9, .5751 48.0 .4267 50.2 .3941 13 112 7 57 2 11 18 9 Chicago 59 6 11 12 48 4 Cincinnati 3 4 2 New York .... 48.4 52.0 54.0 .4357 .3831 .3242 1 3 Philadelphia.... Rochester 1 6 5 28 Total 50 1,865 49.7 .4063 6 8 37 153 614 809 191 33 14 19U. Baltimore. ...... 3 4 5 7 23 5 3 114 55 536 149 5.35 127 227 49.2 45.1 48.0 49.4 48.3 50.4 52.0 .3739 .5576 .4573 .4231 .4505 .4196 .3668 90 4 132 29 49 73 150 21 16 213 113 388 43 51 3 13 155 3 96 6 1 Boston . ....... 2 7 4 1 12 25 g ChicaRo 4 Cincinnati New York 1 2 Philadelphia.... Rochester 3 10 15 Total 50 1,743 48.9 .4355 10 29 527 845 277 40 15 CUTTERS, CLOTH, MACHINE: MALE. 1912. Baltimore 3 5 7 22 3 2 16 44 15 62 7 3 53.5 48.0 50.8 50.9 54.0 54.0 to. 2925 .5234 .4150 .4233 .4100 .3766 3 1 2 3 4 2 4 18 1 3 4 12 11 17 5 Chicago 25 5 Cincinnati New York 2 4 1 21 Philadelphia... - Rochester Total 42 147 50.5 .4366 2 1 2 2 8 32 49 46 5 1913. Baltimore 3 5 7 22 3 2 24 43 19 62 12 6 49.7 48.0 50.1 49.0 52.9 52.0 .3591 .5507 .4181 .4488 .3900 .3590 2 1 15 1 6 5 3 4 6 9 12 27 6 1 Chicago 23 1 30 8 2 Cincinnati New York Philadelphia.... 1 1 1 1 Rochester * * Total 42 166 49.3 .4512 3 3 34 61 54 9 2 204 MEN S FACTORY-MADE CLOTHING INDUSTRY. Table 42. — Average and Classified Rates op Wages Per Hour in Men's Cloth- ing Manufacturing in Each Year, by Cities, 1912 and 1913— Cpntinued. EXAMINERS, SHOP AND STOCK ROOM: MALE. Num- ber of estab- lish- ments. Nimi- berof em- ploy- ees. Aver- f^- time hours per week. Aver- age rate of wages per hour. Employees earning each classified rate of wages per hoar. Year and city. K) and un- der 12 cts. 12 and im- der 14 cts. 14 and un- der 16 cts. 16 and un- der 18 cts. 18 and un- der 20 cts. 20 and un- der 25 cts. 25 16 and un- der 18 cts. 25 1 56 8 40 20 8 25 and un- der 30 cts. 30 and un- der 40 cts. 40 and un- der 60 cts. 60 and un- der 70 cts. 70 cts. and over. 1912. Baltimore 3 4 5 7 23 5 4 58 13 113 23 132 44 20 59.1 49.6 52.9 51.4 50.8 54.2 54.2 90.2341 .3621 .3006 .3230 .3032 .2567 .3328 1 4 1 2 10 35 8 66 7 8 Boston 1 2 1 3 Chicago ft 10 3 9 15 Cincinnati New York 1 1 2 4 2 1 Philadelphia.... Rochester ■ Total 51 403 53.1 .2920 — 2 3 8 10 62 158 136 17 7 1913. Baltimore. ...... 3 4 5 7 23 5 4 82 12 128 25 111 42 18 53.8 50.3 51.2 50.5 50.6 53.9 52.0 .2619 .3364 .3114 .3248 .3040 .2626 .3449 1 • ■ • • 2 3 23 40 12 12 52 15 60 6 13 1 Boston Chicago 1 6 1 13 14 2 59 7 21 21 10 2 5 Cincinnati .. New York 3 3 3 1 3 Philadelphia.... Rochester 3 Total 51 418 51.8 .2978 — 3 5 8 59 148 170 21 3 r ^ -r^^ FITTERS OR TRIMMERS, COAT: MALE. 1912. Baltimore... Bostmi Chicago Cincinnati.., New York . . Philadelphia Rochester. . . Total.. 1913. Baltimwe... Boston Chicago Cincinnati.. New York.. Philadelphia Rochester. . . Total.. 3 4 5 9 18 6 3 48 t 9 18 6 3 48 30 10 52 19 45 19 19 194 25 8 46 15 41 26 19 180 57.8 53.0 54.0 53.6 56.2 54.3 54.5 10.2410 .2924 .2959 .2606 .3314 .2925 .2853 55.1 .2915 53.6 50.0' 52.0 50. 7| 51.6 53.5 52.0 .2851 .3729 .3668 .2822 .3860 .3122 .3635 52.1 .3450 04 04 1 2 6 6 1 10 4 6 5 4 35 16 7 2 10 13 8 7 8 64 8 1 8 11 3 11 4 46 5 4 14 17 7 6 53 4 1 21 3 10 7 6 52 17 2 4 12 23 3 8 52 \- a Including 1 whose rate was 9 and under 10 oeiits. Cutting and nearly all pressing are done by men. Hand sewing, which includes felling, finishing, button sewing, buttonhole making, tacking, and other fine needle- work, is done mostly by females. The sexes are about equally divided in sewing- machine operating and basting. The proportion of male and female employees varies materially in the different cities, males outnumbering females in New York, Phila- delphia, Baltimore, and Boston, and females outnumbering males in Rochester, Chi- cago, and Cincinnati. The variation is greatest in New York and least in Ilochester. The full-time hours of labor per week shown in the tables of the report are the regular full-time hours of work of the occupation under normal conditions in the establish- ment. The working time is the hours on duty, including intervals of waiting for work. Tlie full-time hours per week and the relatives based thereon do not in any way indi- -f WORKING CONDITIONS. 205 cate the extent of unemploymcAt. Employees mav work overtime or broken time, or be laid off, or a temporary reduction may be made in working hours, without such change affecting the regular full-time hours per week as presented in this bulletin. The rates of wages per hour appearing in the tables include the wages of Ume workers and the earnings of pieceworkers. AU time rates by the day or week have been re- duced to rates per hour and the earnings of pieceworkers or persons working both at time and piece rates have been reduced to rates per hour by dividing the eanmigs in the pay period by the hours worked. The time workers and pieceworkers of each occupation are combined as one group. Where there was no record regularly kept by the establishment of the actual time worked by pieceworkers, at the request of the agents of the Bureau, the actual time worked was kept for the pay period taken. The proportion of time workers and pieceworkers varies in different shops and m different cities. Cutting is usually time work. In the shops in all the cities con- sidered the work is about evenly divided between time work and piecework, some cities working very largely on time work, others very largely on piecework. A change in the earnings per hour of pieceworkers does not of necessity indicate a change in piece rates. Without a change of piece rates, a change in methods or of machinery, a speeding up, or more steady work resulting from greater volume of business, may increase the hourly earnings; while, on the other hand, changes in methods, slowing down of speed, or a lull in business, may reduce the hourly earnings. Varying intervals of waiting for work while on duty may also affect hourly earnings. The full-time weekly earnings presented in this report are the earnings per week of employees working full time and the equivalent earnings for a full week of employ- ees working broken time. In considering changes in full-time earnings per week, notice should also be taken of changes in full-time hours of labor per week. A reduc- tion in the hours of a pieceworker may reduce his earnings in a week and leave his earnings per hour unchanged; while a reduction of hours for a week worker ¥nll, if his weekly rate remains the same, increase his rate per hour. , , „ . The averages of full-time hours per week, rates of wages per hour, and full-time weekly earnmgs are computed by adding the data for the individual employees and dividing the total by the number of employees. It will be observed that the average full-tipie weekly earmn^ generally are not exactly the same as the result that would be obtained by multiplying the average rate per hour by the average hours per week, owing to the fact that hourly rates for individual employees are based on varying hours per week, which has the effect of changing the relative weighting of the wages of the several employees. Table 43.— Averaob Full-Timk Hours per Week and Average Full-Timb Weekly Earnings, in Men's Clothing Manufacturing, by Cities, 1912 and 1913. rasters, COAT: MALE. City. Baltimore — Boston Chicago , Cincinnati... New York... Philadelphia. Rodiester — Total. Number of estab- lish- ments. 3 4 5 6 26 7 3 1912 Number of em- ployees. 54 195 42 301 7 598 180 86 Avwage full-time hours per week. 1,400 58.8 53.4 54.0 53.8 5&3 54.3 546 55.7 Awage full-time weekly earnings. 1913 Numbw of em- ployees. $10.89 12.40 13.45 16.10 11.89 9.90 13.15 11.94 217 38 266 18 573 254 106 Average full-time hours per week. 1,472 53.8 50.0 52.0 50.6 52.1 53.5 52.0 52.5 Averagv full-time weekly earnings. S11.75 14.00 15.77 11.36 13.60 11. 2B 13.61 13.30 BASTERS, COAT: FEMALE. naUimniti 3 4 5 7 21 7 3 218 21 342 51 104 50 53 58.2 54.0 54.0 53.8 57.0 54.4 54.8 $7.89 6.87 10.78 8.17 7.43 7.61 10.51 243 8 333 55 100 94 91 53.0 50.0 52.0 50.9 52.3 53.9 52.0 $7.15 Boston 8.03 C^\nkffi\ ........... 11.72 dndmiati 9.09 New York 8.14 PhflndAlnbia 8.84 Rochester 11.64 Total 50 839 5S.6 9.16 024 52.4 9.M 206 MEN S FACTORY-MADE CLOTHING INDUSTRY. Table 43.-^veraoe Full-Time Hours Per Week and Average Full-Timb Weekly Earnings, in Men's Clothing Manufacturing, bt Cities. 1912 and 1913 — Continued. BASTERS, PANTS: FEMALE. Number of estab- lish- ments. 191S 1913 City. Number of em- ployees. Average full-time hours per week. Average full-time weekly earnings. Number of em- ployees. Average full-time hours per week. Average full-time weekly earnings. Baltimore 2 a s • 4 17 5 107 40 14 55.0 54.0 54.0 56.9 54.3 $6.42 10.18 10.15 8.96 5.56 ft 4 50 51 17 53.4 50.0 52.0 53.1 53.6 Boston $8.73 Chicapo 10.68 New York 8.84 Philadelphia 8.97 7.31 Total 20 183 54.8 9.20 127 52.7 8.74 BASTERS, VEST: FEMALE. Baltimore t 8 16 5 28 118 99 29 58.2 54.0 56l6 54.6 $6.35 11.97 9.07 10.25 24 64 90 29 54.3 52.0 53.1 53.5 Chicago $7.64 New York 12.41 Philadelphia 10.27 11.27 Total 26 274 55.4 10.17 • 207 52.9 10.76 BASTERS, ALL: FE.MALE.O Baltimore... Bostcm Chicago Cincinnati. . . New York... Philadelph^ Rochester... Total.. 3 4 • 7 37 13 3 73 263 26 567 51 343 93 53 1,296 58.0 54.0 54.0 53.8 56.8 54.4 54.8 55.4 $7.63 7.50 10.91 8.17 8.35 8.07 10.51 9.37 272 12 447 55 241 140 91 1,258 53.1 50.0 52.0 50.9 52.8 53.8 52.0 52.5 BUSHELERS AND TAILORS: MALE. Baltimore... Chicago Cincinnati. . . New York... Philadelphia Rochester . . . Total.. 3 5 8 32 7 3 58 51 136 33 271 70 13 574 57.3 52.9 53.7 55.1 56.1 54.5 51.8 $11.85 13.51 12.09 13.78 12.03 15.69 13.28 73 144 28 315 74 10 644 53.5 51.4 5L5 51.9 55.4 53.0 53.4 CUTTERS, CLOTH, HAND: MALE. Baltimore... Boston Chicago Cincinnati. . . New York... Philadelphia Rochester... Total.. 3 4 5 7 33 5 3 50 113 53 551 131 615 136 266 1,865 52.4 48.9 48.0 50.2 48.4 53.0 54.0 49.7 $17. 62 2s.as 20.48 19.67 21.04 19.84 17.51 20.18 114 55 536 149 535 127 227 1,743 49.3 45.1 48.0 49.4 48.3 50.4 52.0 48.9 • This group is a combination of the preceding female coat, pants, and vest hasten. $7.22 8.91 11.49 9.00 9.11 9.16 U.64 9.73 $13.58 14.08 U.95 14.38 13.46 15.90 14.01 $18.40 35.01 31.95- 20.86 21.74 21.06 19.08 31.23 « '• y k \' r '\ y WORKING CONDITIONS. 207 Table 43.— Average Full-Time Hours Per Week and Average Full-Time Weekly Earnings, in Men's Clothing Manufacturing, by Cities, 1912 and 1913— Continued. CUTTERS, CLOTH, MACHINE: MALE. City. Baltimore. . . Chicago Cincitmati. . . New York... Philadelphia Rochester... Total.. Number of estab- lish- ments. 1913 3 5 7 33 3 3 43 Number of em- ployees. 16 44 15 62 7 3 147 Average full-time hours per week. 53.5 48.0 50.8 50.9 54.0 54.0 60.5 Average full-time weekly earnings. $15.59 25.12 2L00 21.31 22.14 20.33 21.82 1913 Number of em- ployees. 24 43 19 62 12 6 166 Average full-time hours per week. EXAMINERS, SHOP AND STOCK ROOM: MALE. FITTERS OR TRIMMERS, COAT: MALE. HAND SEWERS, COAT: MALE. HAND SEWERS, COAT: FEMALE. 49.7 48.0 50.1 49.0 52.9 52.0 49.3 Average full-time weekly earnings. $17. 82 26.43 20.90 21.99 20.54 18.67 22.19 Baltimore 3 4 5 7 33 5 4 58 13 113 33 133 44 20 50.1 49.6 52.9 51.4 50.8 54.2 54.2 $13.81 17.90 15.86 16.54 15.31 13.91 18.02 82 12 128 25 111 42 18 53.8 50.3 51.2 50.5 50.6 53.9 52.0 $14.09 Boston 16.92 Chicaco 15.94 Cincinnati 16.38 New Mexico 15.32 Philadelphia 14.17 Rochester 17.93 Total 51 403 53.1 15.39 418 5L8 15.37 Baltimore 3 4 5 9 18 3 30 10 52 10 45 19 19 57.8 53.0 54.0 5:j.6 56.2 54.3 54.5 $14.00 15.58 15.98 14.47 18.57 15.88 15.55 25 8 46 15 41 26 19 53.6 50.0 52.0 50.7 51.6 53.5 52.0 $15.29 Boston 18.64 Chicago... , 19.07 Cincinnati 14.30 New York 19.94 Philadelohia 16.72 Rochester 18.89 Total 48 194 55.1 16.05 180 52.1 17.97 Baltimore 3 6 19 6 3 69 36 152 13 35 58.4 54.0 56.3 54.3 54.6 $11.58 13.59 1L75 n.i8 11.69 4 56 58 7 30 54.0 52.0 52.2 54.0 52.0 $5.65 Chicago 12.85 NewYork 14.11 Philadelphia 6.79 Rochester 16.26 Total 35 305 56.2 n.90 145 53.3 13.34 Baltimore 3 4 5 9 35 7 3 303 47 1.017 216 821 246 238 58.2 52.9 54.0 53.4 56.6 54.3 54.6 $7.76 8.01 9.39 7.76 7.70 7.27 9.25 255 98 845 210 852 245 274 53.6 50.0 52.0 50.5 52.0 53.1 52.0 $8.63 Boston 8.24 Chicago 10.00 Cincinnati 8.12 NewYork 8.81 Philadelphia 9.37 Rochester 10.01 Total 56 3,888 55.2 8.40 3,779 53.1 9.25 208 men's factory-made clothing industry. Table 43.— ^Average Full-Time Hours Per Week and Average Full-Time Weekly Earnings, in Men's Clothing Manufacturing, by Cities, 1912 and 1913— Continued. HAND SEWERS, PANTS: FEMALE. City. Baltimore... Boston Chicago Cincinnati... New York... Philadelphia Rochester . . . Total.. Number of estab- lish- ments. 3 3 5 5 11 5 3 35 1912 Number of em- ployees. 106 27 506 29 117 67 85 937 Average full-time hours per 57.5 54.0 54.0 53.9 56.4 54.2 54.3 54.7 Average full-time weekly earnings. $6.88 7.54 8.80 7.68 6.89 6.51 9.03 8.18 1913 Number of em- ployees. 39 32 461 .^1 117 54 96 830 Average full-time hours per week. HAND SEWERS, VEST: FEMAI.E. Baltimore . . . Chicago Cincinnati... New York... Philadelphia Rochester... Total.. 2 3 4 13 5 3 30 44 295 23 97 23 88 570 50.1 54.0 54.0 56.4 54.7 54.4 54.9 $6.19 9.96 6.8.1 8.87 7.82 8.25 9.00 44 291 19 91 25 82 552 HAND SEWERS, ALL: FEMALE. • Baltimore... Boston Chicago Cincinnati... New York... Philadelphia Rochesto'... Total.. 3 4 6 18 39 14 5 89 453 74 1,818 268 1,035 336 411 1,395 58.1 53.3 54.0 53.5 56.6 54.4 54.5 55.1 r.4o 7.84 9.34 7.67 7.72 7.16 8.43 338 130 1,5^ 260 1,060 324 452 4,16^ OPERATORS, COAT: MALE. Baltinyire... Boston Chicago Cincinnati... New York... Philadelphia Rochester... Total.. 3 4 5 5 26 7 3 53 280 90 160 16 614 139 56 1,364 53.2 54.0 53.8 5&5 54.4 54.6 56.2 S11.80 1&33 16.88 11.17 15.34 13.67 15.63 14.63 436 53 225 20 647 186 1,653 OPERATORS, COAT: FEMALE. 53.4 50.0 52.0 50.5 52.1 53.5 52.0 52.0 Average full-time weekly earnings. 54.3 52.0 50.6 52.0 54.1 52.0 52.2 52.1 53.9 50.0 52.0 50.9 5L7 53.6 52.0 52.5 $8.63 7.55 9.00 8.60 8.07 7.00 9.11 8.50 $7.09 10.86 6.92 10.00 9.27 9.50 10.01 53.7 $8.i3 50.0 8.07 52.0 9.78 50.5 8.09 52.0 8.83 53.3 8.97 52.0 9.73 9.20 $11.72 19.65 17.85 14.87 16. 6G 14.33 18.03 15.41 Baltimore - 8 3 5 9 15 6 3 113 16 514 135 41 67 63 56.2 54.0 54.0 53.3 56.0 54.1 54.6 $7.41 8.47 lh28 8.57 7.68 a 13 10.34 152 9 527 138 57 74 74 63.2 50.0 52.0 50.6 52.5 53.7 52.0 $8.04 Boston 7.92 Chicago n.6i Cincinoiati 9.29 New York 8.93 Philadelohia 9.18 Rochester ....-t.^.ttt--t-t 10.78 Total 44 949 54.3 9.95 1,081 S2.1 10l36 • This group is a combination of the preceding female coat, pants, and vest hand sewers. \1 U- i I. ♦ - M y" WORKING CONDITIONS. 209 Table 43. — Average Full-Time Hours Per Week and Average Full-Time Weekly Earnings, in Men's Clothing Manufacturing, by Cities, 1912 and 1913— Continued. OPERATORS, PANTS: MALE. City. Baltimore... Boston Chicago NewYork... Philadelphia Rochester... Total.. Number of evStab- lish- ments. 3 3 5 21 5 3 40 1912 Number of em- ployees. 167 41 137 468 69 8 890 Average full-time hours per week. 58.4 54.0 54.0 57.0 54.9 54.4 56.5 Average full-time weekly earnings. $12. 18 10.54 14.63 14.71 11.73 15.00 14.08 1913 Number of em- ployees. 39 32 115 410 72 6 704 Average full-time hours per week. OPERATORS, PANTS: FEMALE. Baltimore... Boston Chicago Cincimiati. . . New York... Philadelphia Rodiester... Total.. 3 2 5 6 15 5 3 39 117 7 374 67 97 45 99 806 57.1 54.0 54.0 53.5 56.6 54.1 54,7 54.8 r.64 8.45 10.87 8.39 10.91 8.53 10.08 9.95 115 9 432 G9 98 75 92 890 OPERATORS, VEST: MALE. OPERATORS, VEST: FEMALE. Baltimore. Chicago.... Cincinnati. New York. Rochester. Total 2 3 4 10 3 22 47 195 28 54 83 407 56.9 54.0 53.2 56.0 54.5 54.6 $6.78 13.47 7.02 10.87 10.35 11.27 61 204 28 39 75 397 OPERATORS, ALL: MALE.a Baltimore... Boston Chicago Cincinnati... NewYork... Philadelphia Rodiester.... Total.. 3 4 6 5 51 14 4 87 510 131 373 16 1,150 236 64 2,480 59.2 53.5 54.0 53.8 56.7 54.7 54.6 56. 3 $11.89 16.39 16.76 11.17 15.20 13.55 15.55 14.64 521 85 415 20 1,160 288 92 2,581 53.4 50.0 52.0 52.3 53.3 52.0 52.3 Average full-time weekly earnings. S3. 8 50.0 62.0 50.5 52.9 53.6 52.0 52.3 54.4 52.0 49.9 53.8 52.0 62.3 53.9 50.0 52.0 50.9 52.0 53.5 52.0 52.5 « This group is a combination of the preceding male coat, pants, and vest operators. 11914°— 16 14 $14.51 18.33 17.37 17.59 13.44 15.73 16.98 $7.85 8.53 11.53 9.94 11.70 8.16 10.66 10.55 Baltimore 2 3 15 5 54 76 68 28 59.5 54.0 56.6 55.2 $11.47 20.34 17.33 17.43 46 75 73 30 54.0 52.0 52.4 53.5 $13.08 22.29 19.07 20.24 Chicago NewYork Philadelphia Total 25 226 56.3 16.95 224 52.8 19.07 $7.62 14. 16 7.62 12.49 12.45 12.36 $12.05 19.15 18.52 14.87 17.18 14.72 17.88 16.16 I 210 MEN S FACTORY-MADE CLOTHING INDUSTRY. Table 43. — Average Full-Time Hours Per Week and Average Full-Timb Weekly Earnings, in Men's Clothing Manufacturing, by Cities, 1912 and 1913— Continued. operators, ALL: FEMALE.a City. Baltimore... Boston Chicago Cincinnati. . . New York... Philadelphia Rochester . . . Total. . Number of estab- lish- ments. 3 3 6 19 32 8 5 76 1912 Number of em- ployees. 277 23 1,083 230 192 112 245 2,162 Average full-time hours per wv^ ^ r "\ Basters, coat, male. Basters, coat, female. Basters, pants, female. Basters, vest, female. Yeor. Relar tive full- time hours week. Relar tive rate of wages per hour. Relar tive fuU- time week- ly earn- ings. Relar tive fuU- time hours per week. Rela- tive rate of wages per hour. Rela- tive full- time week- ly earn- ings. Rela- tive full- time hours per week. Rela- tive rate of wages per hour. Rela- tive fuU- time week- ly earn- ings. Rela- tive full- time hours per week. Relar tive rate of wages per hour. Rela- tive fuU- timo week- ly earn- ings. 1911 106.3 106.1 100.0 85.6 84.7 100.0 90.8 89.8 100.0 106.1 105.9 100.0 88.7 89.7 100.0 93.8 94.9 100.0 104.4 104.0 100.0 87.4 101.4 100.0 91.3 105.3 100.0 104.7 104.7 100.0 81.3 90.4 100.0 85.0 1912 94.5 1913 100.0 Basters, all, female.^ Bushelers and tailors, male. Cutters, cloth, hand, male. Cutters, cloth, ma- chine, male. 1911 • 105.5 105.5 100.0 86.6 91.4 100.0 91.4 96.3 100.0 104.6 104.6 100.0 90.6 90.7 100.0 74.7 94.8 100.0 101.6 101.6 100.0 93.8 93.8 100.0 95.2 95.1 100.0 103.3 102.4 100.0 97.7 96.8 100.0 99.6 1912 98.3 1913 100.0 Examiners, shop and stock room, nude. Fitters or trimmers, coat, male. Hand sewers, coat, male. Hand sewers, coat, female. uw 102.9 102.5 100.0 94.5 98.1 100.0 97.1 100.1 100. a 106.0 105.8 100.0 83.7 84.5 100.0 88.7 89.3 100.0 107.3 107.7 100.0 77.6 82.7 100.0 83.5 89.2 100.0 106.0 106.0 100.0 84.5 85.9 100.0 89.2 1912 90.8 1913 100.0 Hand sewers, pants, female. Hand sewers, vest, female. Hand sewers, all, female. > Operators, coat, male. 1911 106.0 105.2 100.0 84.3 91.7 100.0 89.0 96.2 100.0 105.8 105.2 100.0 82.7 85.7 100.0 87.0 89.9 100.0 106.0 105.8 100.0 84.0 86.9 100.0 88.7 91.6 100.0 106.9 107.1 100.0 88.2 88.7 100.0 94.3 1912 94.9 1913 100.0 Operators, coat, female. Operators, pants, male. Operators, pants, female. Operators, vest, male. 1911 104.4 104.2 100.0 94.0 92.3 100.0 98.0 96.0 100.0 108.0 108.0 100.0 76.4 76.7 100.0 82.6 82.9 100.0 105.2 104.8 100.0 86.9 90.1 100.0 91.3 94.3 100.0 107.6 106.6 100.0 79.9 83.8 100.0 78.9 1912 88.9 1913 100.0 Operators, vest, female. Operators, all, male.c Operators, all, female.<( Pressers, coat, male. 1911 104.8 104.4 100.0 82.8 87.5 100.0 86.6 91.2 100.0 107.2 107.2 100.0 82.8 84.5 100.0 88.9 90.6 100.0 104.8 104.4 100.0 89.3 90.7 100.0 93.5 94.7 100.0 106.1 105.9 100.0 81.9 84.8 100.0 86.8 1912 89.8 WIS 100.0 Pressor, pants, male. Pressers, vest, male. Pressers, all, male.« 1911 106.5 106.1 100.0 78.0 87.2 100.0 83.2 92.6 100.0 105.3 105.0 100.0 75.4 81.8 100.0 79.4 85.8 100.0 106.1 105.9 100.0 80.6 85.4 100.0 85.5 90.4 100.0 1912 1913 J • This group is a combination of the preceding female coat, pants, and vest basters. • This group is a combination of the preceding female coat, pants, and vest hand sewers, e This group is a combination of the preceding male coat, pants, and vest operators. < This group is a combination of the preceding female coat, pants, and vest operates. • TliJs group is a combinatitHi of the preceding male coat, pants, and vest pressers. I 216 MEN S FACTORY-MADE CLOTHING INDUSTRY. K^ WORKING CONDITIONS. 217 The relative numbers for the several occupations in the above table show a general tendency toward a reduction of working hours and increase in rates of wages and of earnings per full week in this industry. No data are available to show the amount of work afforded employees each year or the variation from year to year. The relative full-time hours per week indicate the change in the hours of labor of employees working full time, but do not reflect in any way a greater or less amount of full-time work afforded. Likewise, the relative full- time weekly earnings are based on the earnings of employees who worked full time and the equivalent full-time earnings of such employees who worked less than full time. A like table of relative (or index) numbers is next shown for the industry as a whole as determined by a combination of the data for the several occupations covered. Data were obtained for the principal occupations of the industry, as before stated, but not for all occupations. Table 46. — Relative Full-Time Hours Per Week, Rates op Wages Per Hour, AND Full-Time Weekly Earnings in Men's Clothing Manufacturing, 1911 TO 1913. (1913^ 100.0) Year. Relative full-time hours per week. Relative rates of wages per hour. Relative full-time weekly earnings. 1911 105.6 105.4 100.0 86.0 88.1 100.0 90.3 92.3 100.0 1912 1913 From the table above it is seen that the relative (or index) numbers for full-time hours per week in the manufacture of men's readv-made clothing decreased from 106.6 in 1911 to 100 in 1913; or, in other words, full-time hours per week were 105.6 per cent in 1911 of what they were in 1913, and in 1912 105.4 per cent of what they were in 1913. The relative number for rates of wages per hour increased from 86 in 1911 to 88.1 in 1912 and 100 in 1913. The increase in full-time weekly earnings was somewhat less than in rates of wages per hour because of the reduction of hours in the industry. Relative full-time weekly earnings increased from 90.3 in 1911 to 92.3 in 1912^ and to 100 in 1913. The relative numbers for each year from 1911 to 1913 for the industry as a whole were computed, not from the relative numbers for the several occupations but from the actual hours, rates of wages per hour, and weekly earnings of all employees in the several occupations. For each year the average hours, rates of wages, and weekly earnings were computed for all employees in all occupations combined, and the average for each preceding year was compared with the average for 1913 to determine the relative (or index) number for the industry. A word of caution is given as to the use of relative numbers. The per cent of increase or decrease from one year to another is not the difference between the rela- tive numbers for the years. Thus, in the table above, the relative rate of wages per hour increased from 86 in 1911 to 100 in 1913, an increase in the relative of 14 over the relative 86, making an increase of 16.3 per cent. The average rates of earnings per hour in the specified occupations in the seven specified cities, as shown in the preceding tables, are also shown in the following condensed table, in which the average earn- ings in each occupation are arranged in the order of cities, with the highest averages at the top and the lowest at the bottom. 1 1^ / ■•v"'"*^ i f * \ ' N Table 47. — Average Rate op Earnings Per Hour, by Occupations and by Cities, in 1913, Arranged in Order op Highest to Lowest Average Rate Per Hour. (Compiled from reports of the United States Bureau of Labor statistics.] Occupation, sex, and city. Average rate of earnings per hour. Occupation, sex, and city. Average rate of earnings per hour. MAUI. Cotters, cloth, hand: Boston $0.5576 .4573 .4505 .4231 .4196 .3739 .3660 MALE-^-oontinued. Operators, all: Bost on SO. 3830 Chicaeo Chicago .3561 New York Rochester .3438 Cincinnati New York .3308 PhiMelphfft , Cincinnati .2918 Baltimore Philadelphia .2757 Rochester. .. . . .. Baltimore .2238 Total Total .4355 .3090 Pressers, coat: Chicago Gutters) cloth, machine: Chica^ .5507 .4488 .4181 .3900 .3591 .3590 NewYork Boston .3207 ripninnatl , , New York .2987 Philadelphia Rochester .2842 Baltimore Cincinnati... .2713 Rochester Baltimore .2415 Philadelphia .2297 Total .4512 Total .2878 Fitters or trimmers, coat: NewYork .3869 .3729 .3668 .3635 .3122 .2851 .2822 Pressers, pants: Boston Boston .3909 Chicaeo Chicago .3430 Rochester New York .3139 Philadelnhia . Rochester .2773 Baltimore Philadelphia .2651 rinninnAti , , , , , Cincinnati .2350 BaltininrA .2294 Total .3450 Total .3104 Rasters, coat: Chicago .3031 .2800 .2618 .2614 .2245 .2188 .2109 Pressers, vests: .3823 .3164 .3119 .2846 .2698 .2695 Boston yzckXB Wf\TV Rochester New York Cincinnati Baltim(M« Tlal f i m nr a Philadelphia Total .2540 .3360 Total Pressers, all: Boston Operators, coat: Boston .3929 .3467 .3433 .3228 .2918 .2678 .2176 .3399 Chicago .3329 Rochester NewYork .3026 CUmco Rochester .2828 NewYork ..' Cincinnati .2622 Cincinnati Baltimore .2423 Philadelphia Philadelphia .2392 T^AJtimnrA Total .2950 Total .2948 Band sewers, coats: Rochester .3666 .3360 .3341 .3024 .2718 .3127 Operators, pants: Boston NewYork NewYork Chicago Philaaelnhia .2721 .2472 ChioBffO Rochester Baltimore Philadelnhia Baltimore Total .1046 .2564 Total .3253 Examiners, shop and stock room: Rochester .3449 Boston ..... ... . 3364 Operators, vest: Chicago .4286 .3795 .3641 .2420 Cincinnati .3248 Chicago .3114 Philadelphia NewYork .3040 NewYork Philadelphia .2626 Bftltlmnre , Baltimore .2619 Total Total .3627 .2978 ■h'l • Jl 218 MEN S FACTORY-MADE CLOTHING INDUSTRY. Table 47. — Average Rate op Earnings Per Hour, by Occupations and by Cities, in 1913, Arranged in Order op Highest to Lowest Average Rate Pj:r Hour — Continued. Occupation, sex, and city. MALE— cont inued. Bushelers and tailors: Rochester New York , Chicago Cincimiati Baltimore Philadelphia Total. lEMALE. .\verage rate of earnings per hour. JO. 3058 .2774 .2744 .2712 .2532 .2258 .2683 Basters,coat: Chicago Rochester Cincinnati.... Philadelphia. Boston New York... Baltimore Total. Basters, pants: Boston Chicago New York... Baltimore Philadelphia. Total- Basters, vest: Chicago Philadelphia. New York.... Baltimwe Total. SO. 2254 .2239 .1783 .1641 .1606 .1564 .1345 1843 ,2137 .1699 .1684 .1632 .1365 1659 .2385 .2110 .1943 .1409 .2041 Basters. all: Rochester Chicago Boston Cincinnati New York . . . Philadelphia. Baltimore Total. Operators, coat: Chicago Roch^ter.... Cincinnati — Philadelphia. New York . . . Boston Baltimore .2239 .2210 .1783 .1783 .1731 .1704 .1357 ,1857 Total. Operators, pants: Chicago New York . . . Rochester.... Cincinnati.... .2233 .2073 .1831 .1708 .1707 .1583 .1512 .1989 Occupation, sex, and city. ncM ALE— cont inued. Operators, pants— Continued. Boston Philadelphia Baltim(x^e Total. Average rate of earnings per hour. iai707 .1525 .1461 2019 Operators, vest: Chicago Rochester... New York.. Cincinnati.. Baltimore... .2723 .2394 .2322 .1526 .1381 Total. .2364 Operators, all: Chicago Rochester.... New York Cincinnati Boston Philadelphia. Baltimore .2313 .2164 .2086 .1836 .1645 .1616 .1472 ;V Total. .2065 .2218 .2212 .2050 .1970 Hand sewers, coat: Rochester Chicago Philadelphia... New York Boston Baltimore Cincinnati Total. — «*»^^ .1926 .1924 .1748 .1697 .1649 .1608 .1604 .1776 Hand sewers, pants: Rochester Cinciimati Chicago Baltimore New York Boston Philadelphia... Total. Hand sewers, vest: Chicago New York Rochester Philadelphia.. Cincinnati Baltimore Total. Hand sewers, all: Chicago Rochester New York . . . Philadelphia. Boston Cincinnati.... Baltimore.... Total. .1751 .1705 .1673 .1618 .1547 .1511 .1309 .1633 .2089 .1928 .1826 .1758 .1369 .1307 ^ .1921 .1881 .1871 .1700 .1675 .1615 • \%WKr9 .1570 .1767 Reference to this table will show that the average earning per hour of the males in most of the specified occupations were highest in Boston, New York, Rochester, and Chicago, and those of the females were highest in Rochester and Chicago. ■ CHAPTER VI. COST-FINDING AND ACCOUNTING CONDITIONS. Mr. David Kirschbaum, who was elected president of the National Association of Clothiers, at its convention in 1915, delivered to the convention an address on "Evil Tendencies in American Trade," in which he said: Industrial experience shows as many failures due to deep price cutting as to any other cause. Unfortunately, these price concessions, in the majority of cases, are not based on exact knowledge as to cost, and this has been so generally true that in many industries the trade associations have found it well worth while to educate the members of their associations as to the exact methods of figuring costs. I haven't the least doubt that it would pay the National Association of Clothiers to employ or recommend a thoroughly expert manufacturing cost accountant, whose services would be at the call of the individual members, and who, at a nominal cost, would render an invaluable servic3 to them and to the entire association. Possibly no industry in the United States has more manufacturers that have so little knowledge ot correct cost accounting as the manufacture of clothing. 1 trust the subject will appeal to the national board as important enough to take up for serious consideration, •nie idea of helping your competitors to figure costs correctly is not new, as stated. It is being done in various lines with most satisfactory results. While some of the largest clothing houses have endeavored to institute accurate cost-finding systems, the trade has a general tend- ency to regard keeping costs as of minor importance. In most instances the costs are handled by the bookkeeper, who usually is not familiar with cost finding. Many concerns satisfy their cost curi- osity by having a certified public accountant draw up a trial balance once or twice a year. These trial balances, if they show a profit, are usually relegated to some drawer and are used onlv to furnish the bank and creditors with figures. In reality the work of the certified accountant is not to find cost, but to check up the bookkeeper and secure figures to be used in getting credit. As goods are usually sold months before they are manufactured, the detennination of a seUing price lon^ before the goods are made up is essential. Therefore, cost keeping is of utmost importance. In order to determine a seUing price that wiU net a profit there should be an estimated cost, based on accurate, reliable, recorded figures of the preceding year, with allowances made, where possible, lor such deviations from last year's business as the manufacturer can accu- rately determine. Together with this estimated cost there should be the actual cost, week by week, to check up the estimated cost and find wherein the estimated cost is incorrect. The actual cost will determine where adjustments are to be made, which styles should be pushed and which discarded. The method of most manufacturers of '^figuring back" is a good one if the component elements are accurately known. Retailers wishing to sell a suit for $20 will not pay the wholesaler more than $13.50 for it. Because of this fact, manufacturers, instead of creating a garment, calculating their cost, and adding a profit to determine the selling price, start with the selling price, which determines the price of cloth and the kind of workmanship. For a $13.50 suit the 219 220 MEN S FACTORY-MADE CLOTHING INDUSTRY. f-^ COST-FINDING AND ACCOUNTING CONDITIONS. 221 ■ 1 manufacturer will determine that the best cloth he can put in will cost, let us say, $1.25 a yard, the direct labor must not cost more than $3.50, etc. This method would be satisfactory if the manufacturer knew accu- rately what his indirect labor ana complete overhead charges are, but in most instances these costs are only estimates. In most cases there is no proper distribution of expense. Indirect labor is often included with airect labor, what one manufacturer classes as over- head another will consider profit, and the general expense usually includes every variety of overhead cost. The yardage in a garment is usually an average; discoimts received and allowed are often con- sidered to take care of each other, though investigation will show that in most instances the total discount allowed K>r any period is much larger than the discount received. SIMPLIFIED COST ACCOUNTINQ.o The object of conducting business is to secure profits. Nothing that relates to manufacturing is of more importance than "costing." Efficiency rules may be applied in an excellently equipped factory, but, unless the proprietor nas an adequate cost-finding system, he is liable to suffer financial loss. If he does not know with a close degree of accuracy what the different articles he manufactures have cost and at what prices he can afford to sell them, he is not in a position to meet competition intelligently, and he invites business aisaster. Under conditions as they existed formerly, he may have been satisfied with the profit earned on his whole line of products, as shown by his annual balance sheet, but in these days there is the keenest competi- tion in almost every line of manufacturing, and the survival ol the fittest is the inexorable law of the business world. Even if a manu- facturer is satisfied with his yearly profit, which his balance sheet shows, he should know on which particular products he is making the most profit and on which he is making only a narrow margm of profit or losing money. Intelligent costing would enable him to dis- tinguish between the profits on different products, to discontinue the manufacture of products sold at a loss, to limit the sales of prod- ucts on a small margin of profit, and to give more attention to the manufacture and marketing of products on which the largest profits are realized. Cost accounting is especially important for manufacturers with small or comparatively small captial, in order that they may meet the severe competition of those who manufacture on an extensive scale. As a rule, the large manufacturers have not only the most improved machinery and most efficient methods of production, but also very accurate cost-finding systems. The comparatively small manufacturers have not been so slow in equipping their factories with up-to-date machinery and in adopting efnciency rules as they have been in planning a system by which they could know the actual costs of their different units oi production. Any investigation of this matter which may be made will show that an amazing number of American manufacturers have practically no costing system, or only the crudest sorts of systems. a This section, written by Walter B. Palmer, special agent of the Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce, appeared in the Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, Septem* ber, 1915, pp. 165-173. •.V ■■'♦tl^" • ^ A A' V Most manufacturers know the cost of materials and the direct labor cost for each unit of production, but do not intelligently distribute the general expenses, or "burden " or, as it is commonly termed, the "overhead.'' Many of them add to the material and labor cost for each unit what they think, judging from past experience, the charge for overhead should be, and fix prices accordingly, but if they manu- facture any variety of products, such guessworK will surely lead to a diminution of profits or to financial loss. In recent years the profession of cost accounting has developed, but the small manufacturers, constituting much the larger numlber, have been much more backward than the large producers in adopting the methods of this branch of efficiency. They complain of the fierce- ness of competition, yet do not avail themselves of a costing system that would show on which articles they could meet competition and on which they could not. Perhaps the principal reason for this back- wardness on the part of the small manufacturers is that they think they can not afford to pay the fees which are charged by efficiency experts for installing cost-accounting systems. A simple, mexpensive and yet accurate costing system is one of the crying needs of the small manufacturers to-day. Uegardless of the expense of the installation of a scientific system by professional cost accountants, some of the systems are so complicated as to preclude their general use, because tney are beyond the grasp of the ordinary small manufacturer. Many small manufacturers employ as bookkeepers men, and often girls, whose accounting experience is so limited that they can scarcely prepare a profit and loss statement or an annual balance sheet, and who woula be utterly unable to figure out an elaborate system of costmg. And yet, simple, practicable systems can be adopted which come within the comprehension of inexperienced bookkeepers, and by means of which a satisfactory knowledge of the costs of different products can be obtained. There are two elements of cost — raw materials and direct labor — which can be ascertained for different units with close accuracy, and these are usually the largest elements. Almost any manufacturer knows just how much raw material is used in any unit, and knows the cost of the direct labor. If he pays his employees on the piece-price basis, he knows the cost of the direct labor per unit exactly. If the direct labor, or part of it, is paid on the time-rate basis, he generally knows, from records of production, the average time required by his employees to produce a certain unit. Knowing the cost for materials ana for direct labor^ the problem is to find the proper burden for general expenses to apportion to each different unit. This is the great stumbling block in the way of a large number of manufacturers. There are three systems of costing, all of them simple, which are more or less used. They may be designated the quantity method, the direct-labor method, and the prime-cost method. THE QUANTITY METHOD. By this method the total general expense during the preceding business period — that is, all expense except for raw materials and direct labor — is divided by the number of units produced, and the \ 222 MEN S FACTORY-MADE CLOTHING INDUSTRY. .-^1 COST-FINDING AND ACCOUNTING CONDITIONS. 223 quotient is added to the cost of materials and direct labor for each unit. This may be expressed as follows: Burden, last period . ^ / u _j TT* — i 7-^ — 7—-^- — J J = Amount of burden per unit. Number of units produced '^ If, for instance, during the last period the entire cost of manufac- turing and selUng were $100,000, and the raw materials cost $50,000, and the direct labor $30,000, the burden amounted to $20,000. If, therefore, 10,000 units were produced during that period, the burden for each would be $2. Of course, the amount for raw materials used in the computation must be the amount actually used during the last business period, and not the amount purchased, which may be more or less, and this requires that there should be inventories of raw materials at the beginning and end of the period. The account for raw materials — that is, materials used in the unit — should be kept distinct from factory supplies. This method of costing is the simplest of all methods, and where only one kind of goods is manufactured it is the most accurate of all systems. A concern that manufactures only one kind of typewriter, for instance, would not need a more perfect system, but oDviously this method is very defective if appUed in a factory where goods of varying values are produced. THE DIRECT-LABOR METHOD. By this method the burden charge is made on the basis of the cost of the direct labor for the unit, in the proportion of the total cost of direct labor to the total amount of burden during the preceding period. This may be expressed as follows: Burden, last period t, * * u _j •* -tt: — -T^r ri=Per cent of burden per unit. Direct labor pay roll '^ If during the last period the total direct-labor cost amounted to $30,000, and the burden to $20,000, a charge of 66.67 per cent of the direct-labor cost of the unit should be made for burden; that is, should be added to the cost of materials and direct labor for the unit. Where units are produced which differ in labor cost, this method is much more accurate than the quantity method, but it is defective where raw materials of different values are used in different units, for the reason that under it the more expensive grades of goods would not carry their proper proportion of burden. THE PRIME-COST METHOD. By prime cost is meant the sum of the cost of raw materials and of direct labor. By this method the burden charge is made on the basis of the sum of the cost of raw materials and direct labor for the unit, in the proportion of the total cost of raw materials and direct labor to the total amoimt of burden during the preceding period. This may be expressed as follows: « Biirden 1^ period ^^_p^^ ^^^^ ^^ ^^^^ ^.^ Raw materials plus direct-labor pay roll V .k -< ^ '1 ^ If during the last period the cost of raw materials amounted to $50,000, the cost of direct labor to $30,000, a total of $80,000, and the burden amounted to $20,000, a charge of 25 per cent ($20,000 -^ $80,000) of the prime cost of the unit would be made for the burden, that is, should be added to the prime cost. This method provides for the distribution of the burden on the unit much more accurately than the quantity method, where materials of different values are used in different units, or where more labor is employed on some units than on others; and this method is more accurate than the direct-labor method, where materials of different values are used. In costing by any method a charge should be made against the cost of the unit to cover the average loss from waste and seconds. Any of the three methods which have been described is easy of application, even by clerks who have little accounting experience. Another method is, however, recommended as more accurate and nearly as simple. For want of a better designation it may be termed the 'Siual method." THE DUAL METHOD. The prime-cost method is accurate for computing the burden on units which vary in the cost of materials and the cost of labor only when during the last business period the value of the products equaled the amount of the net sales. There would be an inaccuracy if the net sales amounted to more or less than the production, because the bur- den for the cost to sell should be computed on the amount of the net sales and not on the production. By the dual method the ratio of burden for the unit is computed on the prime cost, during the preceding period, for indirect labor and for factory expense, because these portions of the burden are related to the amount of the production, but the selling expense is computed not on the amount of production but on the amount of the net sales. The ratio of burden for administrative expense is also computed on the amount of net sales as the base, because administrative expense is perhaps more nearly related te the amount of net sales than to the value of the production, though this may differ in different industries. If, for example, the expenses during the last period were $50,000 for raw materials, $30,000 for direct labor, $4,000 for indirect labor, $3,000 for factory expense, $6,000 for administrative expense, and $7,000 for seUing expense, making a total of $100,000, but if the net sales amounted to $110,000, the percentage of burden for the imit would be computed as shown in tne following illustration: Expenses, last period: Raw materials $50, 000 Directlabor 30,000 Prime cost 80, 000 Per cent of burden for unit. Indirect labor 4,000 5. 00 ($4, 000^180, 000). Factory expense 3,000 3. 75 ($3, 000-4-$80, 000). Administrative expense 6, 000 5. 45 ($6, 000^$110, 000). Selling expense 7, 000 6. 36 ($7, 000-5-$110, 000). Total 100,000 Netsales 110,000 I A, 224 MEN S FACTORY-MADE CLOTHING INDUSTRY. -^ ♦» These percentages are used to find the burden for a unit which is intended to be sold at $10, for instance, and the cost of which for raw materials was $4.25 and for direct labor $2.55, as illustrated below: Raw materials $4. 25 Direct labor 2.55 Primecost 6.80 Indirect labor 34 ^5 per cent of $6.80). Factory expense 255 (3.75 per cent of $6.80). Administrative expense 545 (5.45 per cent of $10). Selling expense 636 ^6.36 per cent of $10). Waste 043 (e. g., 1 per cent of $4.25J. Seconds 068 (e. g., 1 per cent of $6.80). Total cost 8.69 Profit 1.31 (13.1 per cent of $10). Selling price 10. 00 As a matter of fact, most goods are manufactured to sell at certain prices, which are determined in advance, and if the specifications for raw material and for labor are foimd to be too high to allow a fair profit at the determined price, cheaper material or less labor is used. The dual method may be varied by basing the percontage of burden for indirect labor and factorj^ expense on the direct labor-cost in- stead of the prime cost, and it is claimed that for some industries, where the materials used differ but little in cost per unit, this modified method is more satisfactory. In order to compute the burden by the dual method, accounts should be kept for the foregoing mentioned items, and they may be subdivided as follows: Raw materials. Direct labor: Wage? of all employees in manufacturing occupations. Paid to contractors. Paid to home workers. Total direct labor. Indirect labor: Salaries of officials, chargeable to manufacturing. Wages of factory superintendent and foremen. Wages of designers. Wages of employees in sample department. Wages of other general help — macjiinist, clerks in factory (not general office), floor boys and girls, etc. (not Including engineer and fireman). Total indirect labor. Factory expense: . Rent ol space used for manufacturing and shipping departments. Power, heat (or fuel and wages of engineer and fireman), light, and water. Repairs on equipment. Depreciation of equipment. Fire insurance. Workmen's compensation or employers' liability. Welfare work. State, county, township, and municipal taxes. Other factory expense. Total factor>r expense. Gost of administration: Salaries of officials, not chargeable to indirect labor or cost to sell. Salaries of general office force and auditor. Rent of general office. Office supplies, stationery, postage, tel^rams, telephones. Insurance — other kinds than fire. V /' -< COST-FINDING AND ACCOUNTING CONDITIONS. 225 Cost of administration — Continued, Expense of collection and legal service. Bad debts. Corporation tax. Other administrative expyense. Total cost of administration. Cost to sell: Salaries of officials, chargeable to sales department. Salaries, commissions, traveling, and general expense of salesmen. Wages of other employees in saQes department. Rent of showroom. Packing materials. Cartage and freight outward. Advertising. Other selling expense. Total selling expense. Waste and seconds: Loss from waste. Loss from seconds. Total. Such accounts can be kept very easily, if a specially ruled book is used. Some of the items under factory expense might not improperly be entered under cost of administration, their placement being a mat- ter of opinion, but as these items are usually small, the result in computing the burden on a unit would be little, if any, affected by a transfer oi them from one account to another. In computing the proportion of burden for the unit on the basis of production and net sales during the preceding business period, the results would be more accurate if the profit and loss statement were made semiannually instead of annually, and still more accurate if such a statenaent were made quarterly. In making computations by any method it should be borne in mind that the cost of materials and direct labor, while usually the largest elements of cost, are those which are most liable to fluctuation, and in calculating the burden on the basis of the last period, the differences in the cost of materials and direct labor at that time and at the time the computation is made should be taken into consideration. When a manufacturer gets out new styles he must be particularly careful in costing if all or any part of the direct labor is paid on the time-rate basis. In making up samples for salesmen to take out on the road he should make time studies of the several direct-labor oper- ations to ascertain as nearly as possible the direct-labor cost per unit. When the goods to fill the first orders received are manufac- tured, he should check up his first computation by the cost to manu- facture in quantities, and if there is a difference, he should adjust the selling price per unit accordingly. If it should happen that his price for goods of a certain style, as given to the salesmen, is too low to afford a profit, the earlier he checks up his first calculation of the cost for that style the less money he will lose. While all of the methods of costing which have been described are comparatively simple and inexpensive, and while for most factories one of these methods would be found entirely practicable and satis- factory, it is not claimed that for a highly organized factory, with many departments, any of these methods would be as accurate as one which would be adapted to the particular needs of the plant, and which might be devised by cost-accounting experts after a com- plete, careful study of the factory conditions. UGH**— 16 15 ^ 226 men's factory-made clothing industry. In a highly organized establishment the departmental method of apportionmg burden shoidd be adopted. Certain burden charges should be made against the whole production of the factory, certain charges against the production of particular departments only, and other charges in part against the production of the whole factory and in part against the production of particular departments. If a cotton mill, for instance, sells both yam and cloth, the factory expense for the weave room or for the cost of indirect labor in that room should not be made a part of the burden on the product of the spin- ning room. In a printing plant the product that is printed only should not be charged witn the expense for the bindery department. ACCOUNTINQ CONDITIONS. The following table indicates the character of factory manage- ment, the frequency with which inventories are taken, and other data in the establishments that were visited by the agents of the Bu- reau during this investigation. The data regarding the method of apportioning overhead in computing the costs of units and the data regarding the frequency of inventory taking are presented as they were reported by the estabhshments. The statements regarding accountmg methods were made by the agents themselves and were based on meir own observations. Table 48. — Cost-Finding and Accounting Methods. GROUP I.-NO OPERATING CONTRACTED (8 ESTABLISHMENTS, 4 NOT REPORTED). Methods of apportioning overhead. Prime-cost method. Do Do. Total expense per week for each depart- ment K divided by the number of garments produced, and each garment Is chargeci with its share of expense. This plant malces practically only 2 kinds of suits and 2 kinds of overcoats, and employs about the same force all the year. Other accounting conditions. Good. Has ledger accounts for lal)or, rent, power, taxes, insurance, freight in, freight out, stable, traveling expense, disrount, interest, returns, collectton charges, office, bad debts, and other items which are brought directly in- to the profit and loss statement Fair. The main items are included in general expense. Good. Notr^MMTted Unit costs are computed on sales instead of the product Quantity method. Shop and manufocturing overhead are found by dividing the average weekly expense by the average weekly pro- duction. General overhead is com- puted oa the basis of net sales. .do. An auditing concern each year makes analyses of cost and of profit and loss. A daily record of productton and cost is kept. An accounting concern each year makes analyses of cost and of pn^t and loss. Frequency of raw material and geo* eral inventories. AnnuaL Da Semiannual. AnnuaL Not reported. Da Perpetual physical semiannual general inventory. Semiannual AnnuaL .^ > •' r : / rl COST-FINDING AND ACCOUNTING CONDITIONS. 227 Table 48. — Cost-Finding and Accounting Methods — Continued. GROUP n.— PART OPERATING CONTRACTED (27 ESTABLISHMENTS, 3 NOT REPORTED). Methods of apportioning overhead. It Is estimated that the cost of raw ma- terial and direct labor does not exceed 66i per cent of the gross selling price. The cost of direct labor is ascertained bv dividing the monthly summaries ohabor pay rolls of departments by the production of the departments. A theoretical per cent is added for over- head. Prime-cost method. Cutting room and shop expenses ap- portioned by the quantity method. Prime-cost method. Other accounting conditions. 10 pw cent is added to the prime cost for factory burden. An arbitrary per cent is added also for selling cost On the basis of gross sales for the past year, and the gross selling price of the unit Not reported. Shop expense is distributed by the quan- tity method. General overhead is ap- ptMTtloned by a system not explained. Ten per cent Is added to the gross cost of uie unit 12 per cent for factory and 8 per cent for selling expense are added; based on the selling price of unit Departmental method. Not r^wrted. The rate for manufacturing overhead Is found by dividing the total general expense for the year by the value of the product. For other overUead 10 per cent is added. Not reported. Prime-cost method. 16 per cent added to the prime cost. Inadequate. Items are condensed Into a merchandise account, which con- tains manufacturing cost, interest, and discount, and a |;eneral expense ac- count, which covers so varied a list of expense items that accurate data were difficult to obtain. Not reported. An auditing company makes a thorough audit each year. A great many items are bunched under "General "expense," such as rents, office expense, pay rolls, salaries of salesmen, packing, etc. The distribu- tion of costs for various materials used in the garments is good. The gmeral ledger has a fine classifica- tion of accounts, and from it can easily be procured statements showing act- ual conditions. The management can tell at 4 o'clock every evenmg exactly what each department is doing, as compared with a set standard. Has excellent cost record, but the gen- eral books of account are not wdl do- signed to show important information. Good. The general bookkeeping system is very much out of date; ledger accounts are too condensed to be useful for prac- tical purposes. No great detail Ls k^t and accounts re- quire much analysis. Not reported. Good. Much better than the cost-find- ing system. Unusually good. General accounts are too condensed. Merchandise account covers every- thing relating to the debit or credit or sales of material. Good accounting system. Modem accounting method. A very efficient concon Doth in manufactur- iag and office. Very good system of bookkeeping. Has a good general bookkeeping system, with a wkle classification of accounts. Frequency of raw material and gen- eral inventories. Annual SemiannaaL AnnuaL SemiaoiuiaL AnnuaL Da Annual raw ma- terlal; perpetual genwal. AnnuaL Da Da Do. Perpetual raw mate- rial; semiaimual genwal. AimuaL SemiannuaL Da Perpetual raw ma- terial; semiannual general. AnnuaL 228 MEN S FACTORY-MADE CLOTHING INDUSTRY. .-< COST-FINDING AND ACCOUNTING CONDITIONS. 229 II f ; . if Table 48. — Co«t-Findino and Ackjountino Methods — Continued. GROUP II.— PART OPERATING CONTRACTED (27 ESTABLISHMENTS, 3 NOT RE- PORT E D)— Continued. Methods of apportioning overhead. Primecost method. Do. Firm makes one-price garment. The overhead is basea on selling price. Based on cloth cost, as the labor cost on all garments is about the same. 40 per cent is added to the expense for materials, labor, and shop overhead for general overhead and profit. Practically no cost-finding system Direct labor method Prime cost method, but the cost-finding system is inadequate. Not repwted Shop expenses are apportioned on the b^is of production for the different shops. To the cost of materials and labor in the shops, and other shop ex- penses, is added 40 per cent for general overhead and profit. Other accounting conditions. Excellent accounting system employed in the office; splendid stock inventory. Not reported. Good accounting system. Experts installed a cost-finding syston, which is revised from time to time to suit changing conditions. An audit- ing company makes an audit each year and (^ers suggestions io regard to changes. Excellent accounting S3rstem Has a fair set of general books of account Not reported Good general accounts Excellent aooomiting system Separate accounts are kept for many items of general expense which for- merly were grouped under one head. Frequency of raw material and gen- eral inventories. Perpetual. Da Annual. Semiannual raw ma- terial; annual gen- end. Semiannual. AnnuaL Do. Do. Not reported. Semiannual. GROUP in.— ALL OPERATING CONTRACTED (22 ESTABLISHMENTS). Overhead on units is based on per cent of sales during previous year. Using the selling price as a base, it is esti- mated that a profit can be made if the labor and material (prime cost) are SI .50 less than the cost of materials and labor. Thus ifa suit is sold at $8, $6.50 worth of materials is put into it. Overhead charges are not computed on units. For general ova-head 10 per cent of prime cost is added , and for selling 5 per cent, a total of 15 per cent of prune cost. Computed on the selling price 18 POT cent is added to the prime cost Prlm»<»st method Do Do Poor accounting sjrstem The classification of accounts is excellent. Practically the exact classificatton of items of expenditure shown on the Bu- reau's schedule is made in the cash book, totaled for the month, and ac- cumtilated to the end of the period; each item being separately charged off to the profit and loss account in a pri- vate ledger. Has an excellent analysis of accoonts The general accounts are much condensed and give little practical knowledge, but subsidiary records give a certain amount of useful informatfon. Very good accounting Accounts are very much condensed. Ex- penditures are charged to two main ledger accounts, "Manufacture" and "Expense." Good accounting Poor accounting S3^tem Accounting records are of a primitive character. Annual. Do. Do. Do. D^ Do. Do. Semiannual. Annual. > >- \ '^ t Table 48. — Cost-Finding and Accounting Methods — Continued. GROUP III.— ALL OPERATING CONTRACTED (22 ESTABLISHMENTS)— Continued. Method of apportioning overhead. Computed on gross sales. ao per cent is added to the prime cost, 10 per cent for manufuturing, and 10 par cent for selling. Computed on amount of yearly sales Sales for the year are divided by the total expense. Prime-cost method To arri ve at the selling price, 33^ per cent is added to the prime cost. Based on amount of year's sales Baaed <:^ COST-FINDING AND ACCOUNTING CONDITIONS. 231 in spare moments by clerks that were not busily en^^ed in checking and entering three-sheet orders or in sending out monthly statements of accounts. Clothing manufacturers have sometimes told me that at best "cost" figures represented ancient history, that the merchandise sold was sold either at a profit or without one, and that was the end of the matter. It has been more than hinted to me that post-mortems were not the most pleasurable or profitable activity connected with the manufacture and sale of clothing. I therefore take great pleasure in addressing the members of your association upon this subject, and I hope to indicate some phases of "cost keeping" that are so vital to the business success of each and every one of you as to repay you in part for listening to what must be in some ways a most prosaic subject. My ailment for the importance of correct cost keeping in the clothing industiy rests upon the fact that every dollar's worth of ready-to-wear clothing sold to-day is sold far in advance of its manufacture, and that the nulling price of each lot must be determined before the salesmen go out each season. To set these selling prices so as meet competition, maintain quality in mjuiufactured merchandise, ana still realize a reasonable profit upon money invested is the chief end of man, in the clothing industry at least. When the season's orders have all been taken and manufacturing operations have commenced, it is of the greatest importance to know day by day and week bjr week that your actual performance is up to the efficiency standard set by your co.^t estimates upon which selling prices were based. I will grant you freely that a cost system operated without regard to estimates or eflficiency standards is a dead affair, but in the clothing industry at least your cost system should be as interesting as business troubles in a newspaper, and as up to date. Estimated costs show what you wish to accomplish, actual costs tell you what you have accomplished, and the two together point me way toward what may be done in tie future to eliminate wastes, improve the quality of merchandise, and add to you? profits. There is no standing still in the clothii^ industry. You must either go ahead or fall back in the race for supremacy. It is worth your while to use all practicable and tested instruments and methods that can help you to success. In the adventurous days of Columbus, many ships set sail without charts or compass, and some of them arrived in port. You would not care, however, to accept this as a precedent to-day for sailing for Euroi)e on a modem vessel from which cnarts, copapass, and vrireless had been removed. Speed is much more important now than in the old days, the number of passengers and value of the cargo much greater, and any disaster of more consequence. In the same way many a clothing business succeeded in the past, and for a certain time without systems, statistics, or cost figures. Because this has been done in the past is no reason for trying to do it now, in the face of much keener competition, armed with all the modern weapons of efficiency. The elements of a modem cost system from which accurate cost estimates may be prepared and actual costs figured are: First. A systematic and accurate method of predetermining the yardage of piece goods and trimmings used for each suit and overcoat model cut. Second. Some method of collecting the detailed labor operation costs of cutting and making, and of adding thereto the correct amount necess;\ry to take up accurately manufacturing and shop expense. Third. The third element of a modem cost system is a method for determining the percentage necessary to add to this production cost in ortler to cover selling, adver- tising, and general expenses and to provide the necessary profits of the business. Fourth. A fourth element is a system of preparing detailed cost estimates from this information from which the selling prices of the merchandise may be set. Fifth. There must be a system for figuring cutting-ticket costs during the manufac- turing season which will enable the manufacturer to tell beyond the shadow of a Jl. J r-^'-\ L^V the actual efficiency of these departments may be compared with their estimated eflficiency and the necessary adjustments obtained to gross profit and loss figures. The sixth and last element of a modem cost system is a profit-figuring division of the cost department, which will furnish the sales department with monthly sum- maries of profit and loss on all merchandise charged, by merchandise classifications, ranges, and salesmen. It is only through the knowledge gained by such figures of profit and loss that you can plan to meet competition intelligently, tell where you are making your profits, and what salesmen are selling the profit-making merchandise. It is by the use of this machinery of efficiency that you should find the greatest aid in selling your merchandise at a legitimate profit, in increasing the quality of your merchandise, and in adding to the net profits of the business through the eliminaUon of all wastes and inefficiencies. These same elements enter into both estimated costs and actual costs, and the two may be considered together. The sum of materials used, productive labor, and manufacturing expense is called produc|^ion cost. The work of the cost accountant is to predetermine this cost correctly and to prove his figures to be correct by the results of the actual cost system. In the clothing industry materials used are piece goods and trimmings. To these are applied productive labor in the cutting room and shops, and to this must be added the manufacturing expense incurred. I have found so many fundamentally incorrect cost-figuring methods in use in the clothing industry that it is difltcult to enumerate them all. Without doubt the worst and most common practice is that of guessing at each and every item of cost through the use of so-callecl averages. Selling prices of entire lines are set upon figures for piece goods and trimming yardages that must be traditional in the clothing business, they are so old. Like most traditions, they are all wrong. There can be no such thing as an average cost, an average yardage, or an average making price when it comes to cost figuring. To use averages when you can easily get actual figures is to court disaster. If it is true that some clothing manufacturers in the East are satisfied with a profit of 50 cents on a suit, these manufacturers should figure every item of cost out to the last fraction of a cent. It would not take much to convert this profit into a loss which could easily be disastrous. i • • Another bad practice is that of figuring the cost of piece goods and trimmings at list prices, in the hope that the discount you take on these materials will offset the discount your customers take on finished merchandise. The two never will offset one another, as a little figuring will prove. By taking piece goods and trimmings into your costs at list you simply falsify both your manufacturing cost and your general overhead percentage. . The addition of various sums to cover contingencies of one kind or another, or simply to play safe, is another bad feature of cost figuring in the clothing industrv. Every item of cost, including wastes of various kinds, can be predetermined. By adding a little here and there to your costs you simply run them up beyond all reason, confuse everyone who tries to make use of your cost figures, including yourself, and show a smaller paper profit than you actually make, because part of your profit is in these hidden charges. This, too, is a traditional method of figuring in the clothing industry, but it is a poor way, unless you actually hate to know just how much money you are making or losing. "Sometimes I wonder if this may not actually be the case. * * * Onelast point: When we speak of making a profit of 6 percent we always mean a profit of r> per cent on sales. On a million-dollar business this would amount to $60,000 Erofit. A manufacturer who wants to make 6 per cent and who adds this amount to is cost price is making a very bad mistake. The total productive cost of a million- dollar business might be somewhere around $750,000. Six per cent of this amount is only $45,000, or 4^^ per cent on the sales, instead of the 6 per cent figured on. This kind of figuring is hard on the manufacturer who figures on making a legitimate profit, and in the long run harder still on the manufacturer who figures in this way. So long as your selling prices are below your comi>etitor8' you can find a market for your merchandise. Your customer does not care if you give him a suit that cost you $10 for $9, but when you do this you are working to make your customer rich and "going broke" yourself. This may be magnificent, but it is not business, and it is this kind of competition that is the curse of the clothing business. Rather than tell you of the bad practices I have found in cost keeping in this indus- try, I am going to give you my idea as to correct methods, for figuring cost estimates and actual costs. If any of you disagree with the methods here advocated, I will be glad to answer any questions regarding them to the best of my ability. I can not tell you now much money should be spent for piece goods, trimmings, and making in each suit or overcoat range. This is a matter that can only be decided by taking into consideration the line of merchandise you are selling, the demands of i I 232 MEN'S FACTOEY-MADE CLOTHING INDUSTRY. K" COST-FINDING AND ACCOUNTING CONDITIONS. 233 your trade, the eflBciency of your entire organization, and the profits you wish to make. It is difficult to be strong in piece goods, trimmings, and making in every range, although this is certainly the ideal to work toward. When you have decided how much money you can spend on piece goods, trimmings, and making on an average- priced suit and overcoat, you are ready to start getting up your estimate sheets. Make these estimates as detailed as possible. Working from the average-priced suit or overcoat, you will have to decide upon the approximate value that can be given in piece ^oods, trimmings, and making in each selling-price range. You will then get up estimates covering each model in accordance with your general plan. Do not l>e afraid of making these estimate sheets too detailed, and do not let the fact that you can not or need not set your selling prices in exact conformity with the estimated costs deter you from making these estimates as correctly as possible. It is a good thing to realize in advance that you can not make the same profit upon all clasps of mer- chandise sold, and to have some idea in advance just where you are going to make and where you are going to lose. You must take some business at a small profit. On the other hand, you may be able to realize more than an average profit on other classes of merchandise on account of their novelty, attractiveness of design, or other quality which makes them of es])ecial value. One thing is certain about both estimated and actual cost figures — you can not change them to suit your own withes without destroying their value to you as standards from which to work. The cost of piece goods, trimmings, and findings should be always fiigured on a basis of net cost plus the freight. There is no reason in the world for taking these costs at list prices and equalizing the materials bought on a net basis. Get the exact yardage u -ed for each model by having tost lays made of piece goods, coat linings, sleeve linings, vest backs, and vest linings. In figuring the cutting-ticket costs you can obtain the exact yardage used, priced at the exacf net cost per yard paid for the piece used. Have test lays made of all findings, using lays for at least 12 garments and reducing the figures to a cost per garment on the estimate sheets. Do not forget that you may obtain efficient figures on teat lays and very inefficient results in tne cutting and trimming rooms on actual production. This fact should make you very much interested in some method for controlling the yardage used of piece goods and trimmings under actual working conditions. A ceri^u percentage must be added to the cost of all piece goods in your estimates to cover loss in the sponging room through shrinkage. I have seldom found this matter of ^rinkage handlw correctly, and it is indeed a difficult matter to determine what percent^e to use unless you have better records from the sponging department than are kept by most houses. In prepanng cost estimates of cutting and making labor you are preparing figures that must be used in figuring your cutting-ticket costs also, and corrected by the weekly operation reports from the cutting room, manufacturing department, and shops. It would be quite possible to figure from each cutting ticket the cost of the direct cutting-room labor applied on the ticket, but as it is wholly imf)ossible to figure the exact cost of the indirect items of labor applied in the other divisions of the manu- facturing department, I have always preferred to figure a schedule cost for suits and overcoate, using this schedule in estimates and cutting-ticket costs. This schedule Involves the cost of the work done in the cutting and trimming rooms, the charge for the designer's salary, wages of grader and paper cutters, the saLa.ries and wages of the piece goods, examining and sponging room, busheling and final examining depart- ments, and the salary of the superintendent, his assistant, and the clerks in the manu- facturing-department office. To this labor cost must be added the proper charges to cover expense items, such as taxes, insurance, rent, depreciation oo machinery and fixtures, heat, light, and power, as well as the miscellaneous expenses chargeable to the departments named. The last item to be obtained in order to get the production cost is the cost of making the coat, pants, and vest. Here, too, the figures prepared for estimated purposes must be used in figuring cutting-ticket costs, and here, too, the weekly operating reports from the shops furnish the necessary adjusting figures to show you the dif- fCTence between your estimated and actual shop efficiencies. In getting up making estimates you should get from each shop foreman a detailed scheaule of prices paid for each operation on each model that will be made in his shop. You have organized your shops to produce garnaents of a certain quality at a certain price. If you fail to obtain your estimated efficiency here, you stand to lose a great deal of money in a very short time. * * * While on the subject of expense charges I should like to emphasize the necessity for clear and correct clasdfication of all expenses. I have been told many times that it did not matter much whether a certain expense was charged to general or to manufacturing cost — that it was only a case of changing money from one pocket to > i X I f >v ■;'. If N another. This is a mistake that may cause a great deal of trouble. Manufacturers of clothing are engaged in many varied activities. It is quite possible to be a very capable distributor and a very poor manufacturer, or vice versa. It is only by means of correct classifications that you can judge as to your efficiency in any given depart- ment. It is only through the correct classification of expense tJiat you can hope tp obtain correct figures of gross profits by merchandise classifications, or to reduce in any scientific manner the overhead charges that the business is now carrying. I have been asked many times to name a normal percentage on sales to cover selling, advertising, and general expense; also what ratio shop expense should bear to shop productive labor. These questions can not be answered in general, owing to the absolute lack of uniform accounting methods in the clothing industry. It ought to be well worth while for your association to take up this matter with the view of recom- mending some uniform method of classification to your members. This would be taking a long step toward a general increase in the clearness and usefulness of the statistics preparea by your accountants. Right here 1 should like to make a plea for the theoretical accountant. Accounting can not be picked up by prgictical experience unless the experience happens to be with people who possess a theoretically correct system of accounts. A good ledger clerk or a good cashier is by no possible stretch of the im^ination a good accountant, unless his experience has been supplemented by special instruction along accounting lines. Far greater harm results from unintell^ent accounting than from dishonest accounting. It has been said, and I have found it to be true, that in practical affairs unintelligent accounting is the rule and dishonest accounting the exception. In hiring an accountant do not be afraid of the word theory. There is plenty of prac- tical ability in the clothing business. A little theory will do no harm. It will be no great loss if y^ur accountant does not know a wigan from an undercollaf , but it will be a great loss if he does not know the difference between a trial balance and a balance sheet. To return to the figuring of overhead charges on production cost. It is usually safe to take the records for the previous' year in arriving at the percentage to cover sell'mg, advertising, and general expense charges, unless you happen to be planning on changes which will result in an obvious increase in some of these expenses. In getting up the figures do not forget depreciation charges, administration allowances, loss on bad accounts, or interest and.discount charges. Be sure to include the correct proportion of service charges, such as rent, taxes, insurance, light, heat, power, etc. In general, expense charges include all expense chargeable to the credit department, general office, accounting and statistical department, woolen office, and finished-stock depart- ments. Some of you may be interested in knowing about how much it should cost to main- tain a department devoted to the preparation of cost estimates, actual cost figuring, the preparation of weekly and monthly manufacturing-department and shop-opera- tion reports, the analysis and preparation of monthly reports of selling, advertising, general, manufacturing, and shop expenses, the figuring of monthly gross profits by merchandise classifications and salesmen, and the preparation of all statistics and general accounting statements. Such a department should be in chaise of a good Doan. responsible only to the management for results. This man should be directly in charge of the preparation of cost estimates. Two girls can figure all the cutting- ticket costs for a $3,000,000 business. Another girl can prepare and figure all weekly and monthly operation and expense reports. Two more can handle the profit-figuring work. Taken altogether the cost of such a department should not exceed $5,000 a year for a $3,000,000 bus'mess, and the results should be worth many times that amount. * * ♦ r^F-l^ SELLING CONDITIONS. 235 ^U CHAPTER VII. SELLIirG CONDITIONS. SELLING EXPENSES. Table 49 shows, by establishments, the percentage of manufacturing profit and final profit and the percentages of the various items of selling expense based on net sales. On the schedules secured from the 64 establishments shown in this table selling expense was divided into the following items: S^aries of officials charged to sales department includes the sal- aries of officials or partners in charge of selling, or the portion of salaries distributed according to the amount of time devoted to sell- ing. Salaries, commissions, and general travehng expense includes the salaries, traveling expense, and commissions of salesmen directly engaged in selling to the trade. Wages in sales department in- cludes the wages of employees in this department not actively en- gaged in selling. Rent charged to sales is rent naid for showrooms, sales offices, etc. Freight and express charged to selling mclude only carrying charges on prepaid shipments to customers. Adver- tising costs diarged to sellmg are only such costs as bring the mer- chandise to the notice of the public or the trade, and do not mclude advertising for help. Cases and other shipning materials include costs for all materials used in packing and shipping goods. Other selling expense is made up of all costs chargeable to selling not in- cluded in the divisions of cost alreadj enumerated. It will be noted that in nearly all instances the per cent of cost m the various subdivisions of selling expense is somewhat higher for Group I, with no operating contracted, than for Group II, with part of operating contracted, and considerably higher than Group III, with all operating contracted. This is explained by the^fact that Group I embraces establishments which turn out very high-grade clothing, and on account of the nature of their product have higher sellint' expenses. This also applies to Group II, composed of estab- lishments manufacturing high and medium priced merchandise. Clothing of this description, on account of distinctiveness of style and quality necessary to attract an exclusive trade, must be exten- sively advertised, more expensive salesmen are required to market the product, expenses for showrooms and sales offices are necessary, packing and shipping expenses are greater, and other selling expenses Group III is made up of establishments which contract all operating and have a low-priced product. Consequently they do little adver- tising, and in most instances their other selling expenses are smaU m proportion. 234 > k ' V - \ h9 •J H QQ 8 m H H I— • 00 P O P3 > ft) O Q < O 06 PLI < M Q o « o S O CD H O i « T ■ H »4 A < U O < Pi S5 O O O O O S5 Pk P O o d'3 • % M bo® ^1 oil 6|> •03 1^1 tn'O O ^^■«<«0eo>oao • •••■•••••* i s to n •o ©■^oot^ ■ 1-1 o» ■^" <-• 00 •^ 10 •csioo©«oc>«a>r^ lesoo S to r^ »« M0C400 •«i5'»>ei«000 SI • . . e5 lO to CO O r>. ■ • • • (O '^ kC to <-) ao ss 3 3 s «j o S CO tJ Sg, QOOaOOGOUJt^tOtOt^iCtO a5r>-t»«o«ooaoe<9aE«oo>® • ••■•■••••a • eoco>oi^cicoto^cttototo f-)tD<-i<-)iQcoo>>o>or«<^eo eo i-J »-< ci r4 1-5 f^ t-5 1-5 i-< m •o .0 I H I u a 8> . . . ^ • •••••••■••• 000000000000 236 MEN S FACTORY-MADE CLOTHING INDUSTRY. SELLING CONDITIONS. 237 o Q H SB < m o H QQ O a H H I— t OD O ^^ Pi o k H ?; o o o ?; 1-4 H.S . 2 o ■' 9 ^ < I O o Pk o o fell C mH SI Ha k B > e « 9 « B s C P* 5. CO ■»eo»-«o»^oeoo>t^«oKe>«'*-*c*'«'^coa>t-'co>oa»e<9aoa>>ou3a»«o<-ioo»a>a»t<>aoi«c4id«dt^«5eo«eo "«««««« >w*cs 8 9 8> I 6666666666666666666666 V ,^ 238 men's factory-made clothing industry. SELLING CONDITIONS. 239 The following table shows the percentage of selling expense and of profit of establishments that advertise nationally as compared with those that do not advertise nationally, the percentages being based on net sales: Table 50.— Percentage of Selling Expense and of Profit, of Establishments THAT Advertise Nationally Compared with Those that Do Not Advertise Nationally. Num- ber. Sal- aries of ofTi- ciaLs. Sal- vies, com- mis- sions, etc. Adver- tising. Other selling ex- pense. Total selling ex- pense. Manu- factur- profit. Final profit. Group I. No operating contracted: Establishments advertising na- tionally 4 8 9 21 1 21 14 SO Perct. 0.89 1.70 .61 .76 .54 1.13 .67 1.05 Perct. 5.99 4.14 4.75 4.63 6.96 4.06 5.00 4.30 Perct. Z27 .23 2.13 .33 1.66 .13 2.14 .22 Perct. 2.00 1.31 1.39 .90 1.06 .69 1.51 .85 Perct. 11.15 7.38 8.88 6.62 ia24 6.01 9.41 6.42 Per a. 6.11 4.90 5w76 4.20 1.62 6.19 5.70 &24 Per el. 3.54 Establishments not advertising nationally 6.63 Group II. Part of operating con- tracted: Establishments advertising na- tionally &13 Establishments not advertising nationally 3.21 Group III. All operating contracted: Establishments advertising na- tionally Lll Establishments not advertising nationally &8D Total for all groups: Establishments advertising na- tionallv &41 Establishments not advertising nationally 4.87 The 14 establishments that advertise extensively had net sales of $33,263,418, as compared with net sales of $33,648,536 by 50 estab- lishments that are not national advertisers, indicating that the national advertisers are considerably larger establishments than those advertising only to a limited extent. The estabhshments in Group I and Group II are manufacturers of high and medium priced clothing, while the establishments in- Group III turn out a low-priced product. The table indicates that in the opinion of manufacturers, mgh and medium priced clothing can better be marketed by means of extensive advertising than can low-priced clothing, as omy one estabUshment in Group III, which represents the low-priced manufacturers, is nationally advertised. In the total for all groups, the total selling expense for the 14 estab- lishments that are national advertisers is 9.41 per cent, as compared with a total selling expense of 6.42 per cent for 50 establishments that do not advertise extensively. The 14 national advertisers also show a higher percentage of manufacturing and final profit than the 50 estabhshments doing limited advertising. The total for all groups further shows ttiat the 14 establishments advertising nationaBy have a higher percentage for salaries, com- missions, traveling and general expense of salesmen, advertising, and other selling expense, than the 50 estabhshments doing hmited adver- tising. However, the 50 estabhshments doing limited advertising show 1.05 per cent for salaries of oflScials apportioned to seUing, as compared with 0.67 per cent for this item shown by the 14 establish- I %• y k J ■K ments doing national advertising. The explanation of this condition is that the hmited-advertising concerns are smaller and that officials or partners devote more personal time to actual selhng and employ fewer salesmen, which is substantiated by the colunrn showing sala- ries, commissions, travehng, and general expense of salesmen. In fact, it was ascertained that in some of the smaller estabhshments visited officials or partners were selling all or the greater part of the product. '^ SELLING METHODS. The several methods of distributing men's factory-made clothing are as follows: By seUing direct to the retail trade, by " tailoring to the trade," by " mail order," or by selling to jobbers. The bulk of men's factory-made clothing is sold direct to retail stores. In order to reach this trade the manufacturer employs travehng salesmen who cover a defined territory and call personally on the retailers. Practically all men's ready-made clothing is made to fill orders, and httle, particularly in the higher-priced lines, is made for stock. The manufacturer has new designs perfected well in advance of the opening of the season. Sample garments are made up for each traveling salesman, and in addition ''swatches " or samples of various styles of cloth, are carried. The salesman submits these samples to the retailers in his territory and takes orders for future dehvery, these orders being sent to the factory and there made up according to specifications. Orders are recorded three to six months before deliverv* There has been a growing tendency in recent years for manufac- turers to do '' tailoring to the trade." This branch of the industry is making rapid strides, and certain concerns confine themselves entirely to this fine of business. Others use it as a "side fine," in addition to deahng with retailers in ready-made clothing. The imtial expense is very large, as it requires the making up of an entire fine of samples bound in book form, and in addition, very frequently, made-up models are furnished. It is said, however, that the returns justify the expense, as ventures in this line have proved very orofitable. ' ' Tailor- ing to the trade" is handled for the manufacturer by merchant tailors, or, in the smaller towns and villages, by retail stores. The cus- tomer selects the style of cloth he desires from the books of samples, his measure is taken, and the order sent to the factory. The garment is made up and sent for a try-on, and if necessary, is returned to the factory for proper alterations. , . Mail-order houses sell entirely through catalogues or by advertising. Both ready-made clothing and made-to-order garments are sold in this way. Some mail-order houses have their own factories, while others buy from the regular manufacturers. It is also said that mail- order houses buy up the left-over goods and odds and ends that the manufacturer is unable to sell to the retail trade. The greater part of the clothing sold by mail-order houses is disposed of in small towns or in rural districts. Mail-order houses that make clothing to individual order secure their trade principally through advertising. Cloth samples are sent to the customer, from whidi he makes his selection; he has his measure taken and sends the order to the mail-order house, where 11 V 240 MEN S FACTORY-MADE CLOTHING INDUSTRY. W the garment is made up. This branch of the mail-order business is similar to "tailoring to the trade." There is very little field for the jobber now in handling men's factory-made clothing. Changed conditions in the industry have caused almost the entire elimination of the jobber as a medium of distribution. The manufacturers have preferred to deal directly with their customers, and desire to establish a custom which is their own and upon which they can rely. The little business that is now done with jobbers is in the cheapest Hues only, and in job lots and left-over stock. Table 51 shows the distribution of net sales in the 64 establishments from which information was secured: Table 51. — Distribution of Net Sales. \ \ \ x^ Number of establish- ments. Sold to retailers. Sold to jobbers. Sold by mail order. Sold tailoring to the trade. Exported. 52 2 3 1 Percent. loaoo 99.00 99.00 95.00 9a 00 90. op 85.00 75.00 Percent. Percent. Percent. Percent. 1.00 1.00 5.00 10.00 laoo l&OO 25.00 8a 00 2a 00 04 98w21 1.29 .21 .08 .21 \ In addition to the three establishments that reported the percent- ages of their net sales exported, seven establishments reported very small exports. The countries to which the exports were made are Canada, the Bahamas, Cuba, Mexico, Panama, Colombia, Peru, and Australia. Traveling salesmen employed by manufacturers of men's ready- made clothing sell on commission, on salary, expenses, and com- mission, or on straight salary and expenses. However, the custom almost universal in the industry is for salesmen to be paid a com- mission on the amount of business the(jr secure. The compensation for traveling salesmen on a commission basis averages about 7 per cent on gross sales. The manufacturer provides a drawing accoimt based on commission, and this drawing accoimt and traveUng expenses are deducted from commissions on sales. In most cases me manu- facturer prefers to pay a commission, rather than a straight salary and expenses, as the former method keeps the salesman working his best all through the season, and his earnings depend only upon his own industry and ability. /' — ^It is generally stated throughout the industry that the cost to sell has been increasing each year, for a number of years. Hotel rates have gradually increased, and all general traveling expenses have advanced. Tne selling season has become so mtlch snorter than formerly that, it is claimed, it now takes two salesmen to cover the territory formerly worked by one. Formerly orders were large but now they are smaller and more frequent, and this necessitates more trips over the territory and consequently more expense. "1 SELLING CONDITIONS. 241 ^ i Manufacturers have two methods of selling to retailers; they sell to all from whom orders can be secured or confine their business to one or two retailers in each city or town. i • , • There is much difference of opinion in the industry as to which is the more advantageous method. To be successful m sellmg by the ''sole-agent'' plan the manufacturer must advertise extensively and estabUsh a national reputation for his merchandise. This plan requires a considerable amount of capital, and none but the larger concerns can afford to embark on such an extensive advertismg campaign. The manufacturer seUing to sole agents selecte the stores in each community handling his merchandise and without doubt has more reliable customers than the manufacturer selling to. all retailers. Further, under normal conditions, he can better estimate the volume of his business in advance of the season and has to con- tend with fewer cancellations and returns and allowances. The retailer who acts as the sole distributor in a community for a brand of nationally advertised mens clothing enjoys many advan- tages over his competitors. The fact that he is agent for a well- known make of clothing gives his store a certam pr^tige. Ihe extensive advertising done by the manufacturer wiU bnng trade not only in men's clothing, but m other Imes as well. The retailer acting as sole agent has little trouble on account of late delivery, and he avoids cut-rate sales. Certain retailers, however, object to the sole-agent method, preferring to sell under theu- own brand and stand behind the reputation of theb merchandise, rather than sell under the trade-mark of the manufacturer and do business on his There is an opinion in the retail trade that the confining of sales by the larger manufacturers to one or two retailers in each locahty is restricting the number of retailers of men s factory-m^^de clothing. It is without doubt a fact that anyone starting in the rotail-clo thing business experiences great difficulty in securing the agencv for any of the large nationally advertised manufacturers. Establishments of this description have their sole agents in all the principal places in <. the country, and the new retailer is apt to find the brands he desu-es 1 to handle already controlled by other retailers. There are, however, numerous manufacturers of men s factory-made clothing who do httle if anv advertising and whose product is entirely unknown to the general pubhc. Many of these factories turn out high- grade merchandise, garments that will put their customers ui direct competition with retailers handling nationally advertised brands. Many retaUers prefer to buy from houses of this kmd, for they can sell under their own brands and build up a reputation for themselves rather than for the manufacturer. Some manufacturer of non- advertised Imes of mens clothing state that when the difference in cost of advertising is taken into consideration they prefer to establish a reputation for quaUty with the retail trade rather than with the general public. j • * i j \t The largest sales for the winter season are made m April and May, with thq heaviest deliveries in August and September. The largest sales for the summer season are in October and November, with deliveries heaviest in February and March. However, some mer- | chants in the West demand earher deliveries, and the heaviest ship- K^ I [ I I I / t 11914°— 16 16 / lif*''^^ : i V> . v^ i 242 men's factory-made clothing industry. X— ments to this section are two to four weeks earlier than in the East. On account of overcoats, the fall season exceeds the spring business. For years the market has been opened earlier every season, this early opening being an evil of the business that will be discussed later in this report (d. 249). The tendency in tne trade seems to be toward smaller and more frequent orders, one reason for which is the rapid change in styles in recent years. When styles remained more uniform from year to year, the retailer could carry left-over goods from one season to the next and sell them without a loss. Style changes from season to season have put an end to this, and conseq^uently the retailer places smaller orders, fearing that a dull season will leave him with a stock of left-over goods. Memorandum orders, or goods shipped on consignment, have also caused smaller orders. The retailer knows that by ordering in small quantities he can replenish his stock late in the season at a much lower cost and at a smaller risk of loss, as he can return all unsold goods received on a memorandum order or consignment shipment. The general opinion among manufacturers interviewed was that retailers would continue to put in small orders and order more frequently and that the days of the old-fashioned bulky orders are ^t an end. One of the leading men's clothing factories has recently announced a plan to install a department, the object of which will be to make deliveries of merchandise about three days after the order is received. It is natural to suppose that the retailer, knowing that he can secure such prompt delivery and can replenish his stock at short notice, will place smaller initial orders. Competition in the men's ready-made clothing industry is free and unobstructed and is as keen as it well could be. There are no com- binations or lai*ge concerns that can be said to dominate the trade or to fix prices. Traveling salesmen visit aD sections, and the retailer has the opportunity of seeing a great many lines; hance he is well informed regarding prices and can make comparisons. Retailers have been educated so thoroughly in the business, through salesmen and by other means, that their knowledge is complete. Retailers having such familiarity with prices and opportunity for choice, a manufacturer must quote very close prices or he will not be able to do business. While there is to a certain extent a uniform scale of discounts and time and dating allowances throughout the industry, the scale is not used by all manufacturers. A great deal depends upon the class of trade served and on the character, reputation, and business methods of the manufacturing establishment. Some concerns have been successful in establishing such a high reputation for quality that their output can be sold at 10 days net, and in a number of instances these are the only terms quoted. Such manufacturers are not numerous, but they have an immense advan- tage over others. Very often these strict terms are carried out and the manufacturer is successful in selling on these terms because he quotes very low prices on his goods. Usually, however^ the tferms to retailers in the clothing trade are 7 per cent, 10 days; 6 per cent, 30 days ; and 5 per cent, 60 days, with 6 per cent per annum for antici- pation. These terms are supposed to be standard, but the class of >^ SELLING CONDITIONS. 243 \ y j-T merchandise handled, reputation of the house, importance of the account, and other conditions enter into the terms of discount, dating, etc. Special terms are frequently made to important custo- mers, and salesmen are often permitted to make concessions in dis- counts and datings in order to obtain new customers, or to make impor tan i; sales. ,,^ . , ,. >< The following is quoted from the paper on Uatmgs and discounts, by Ira D. Kingsbury, read before the convention of the National Association of Clothiers at Atlantic City, N. J., June 1 and 2, 1914: Some one has said that cash discounts, as we know them to-day, were established a CTeat many years ago, before the methods of transportation were as adequate as they now are, and that they resulted from the needs of the far-away merchant for quick payment for his t,'ood8, which in the old days were many months m transit. Other- wise, long time had to be given and a period of many months elapsed before the trader received his money. Profits in those days were enormous and cash discoun' pro- portionately large. . , ,. .. i j *u v. If this is a true statement of the origin of cash discounts, it would seem as thougn we in the clothing industry had made little or no progress in our terms of sale. I am not in position to give the reasons why the present long t«rms that are prevalent in the industry were established, but they probably arose from the necessity of assisting the pioneer merchant so that he might carry a more complete stock than he could have done otherwiso and also so that he could turn the greater portion of that stock into money before the bill l>ecame due. The result has been to place the manufac- turer of clothing almost in the position of a banker. The manufacturer, therefore, practically supplies the capital for a large percentage of his customers, and is thus rendering a service which should not be a part of merchandising, but which should be rendered in the channels regularly organized for furnishing financial aid to the merchant. , . ^, u i • • One of the evils of this practice has been and is to encourage the embarking m business by men with inadequate capital, who expect the manufacturer to carry their account and who depend upon turmng the merchandise into cash before the manu- facturer's account becomes due. In times when trade is brisk, this may often work out satisfactorily; when trade is restricted and goods do not move seasonably, the merchant in this position finds himself with his bills maturing and without funds to meet them. The manufacturer, who has depended upon his payments coming in at a stated time, in turn finds himself compelled to extend additional time and is often forced to rely upon his Ijanker to finance himself. This leads to an abnormal number of failures, and I believe an analysis of the failures in our industry would show that a very large percentage of them is caused by lack of capital on the part of the merchant. We often find a man with $3,000 to $5,000 cash starting in business with the expecta- tion of carrying a $12,000 to $15,000 stock of merchandise and who invests 50 to 60 pt^r cent of his available capital in fixing up his store. The final end of this man is easy to sec. But the mad race to sell goods causes us constantly to take a chance on this man- by doing this we help swell the financial death list in our industry. This condition tends to create unfair competition by throwing on the market bank- rupt stocks, which are sold at a price that creates competition which is impossible to meet. , . u i. ^ • It seems to me that our present terms of sale, where accounts mature but twice a year, in the months of June and Deceml)er, tend to heighten this condition. This also creates a condition which is by many retailers forced upon the manufacturer who, through fear of competition, countenances the practice of the taking by a retailer of an excessive cash disL-ount— a discount not contemplated at the time the goods were sold— which gives the recipient of this excessive discount a decided advantage over his competitor, who stands loyally by his agreement and considers the terms of sale an agreement to be lived up to without equivocation or question. All of us have had experience with the man who places a large order, and when the account finally l)ecomos due makes a demand for terms which were not contemplated at the time the order was placed, and who, by obtaining a concession from one house, uses it as a lever to obtain similar concessions from other houses, creating a conditiop/ of competition which is not ethical and which requires considerable force of character to combat successfully. u * j Our present terms of sale, which are practically uniform throughout the trade, compel us to use an abnormal amount of capiUl in proportion to the returns, and com- pel us to carry open accounts on our books to an excessive amount; and in view of the fact that the manufacturers and dealers in raw materials are constantly reducing >J-A 244 men's factory-made clothing industry. both their datings and cash diacounta, we are forced to carry a financial load which miirht be obviated were it possible for us to market our product on shorter teraw, more clearly in keeping with those houses from which we buy our raw materials. Aa it stands to-day, labor, cloth, and trimmings must be paid for in cash and we must have sufficient capital to finance an entire season's product before bills come due. We find that both our labor and material expenditures extend over on the succeeding season, and I believe you will all agree with me that, with the increase in cost of pro- duction in our Unes, the percentage of returns on our sales is not adequate for the amount of capital that it is necessary to employ even in a moderate-sized business. Were it not that a good percentage of our customers are so situated and so tmance their business that they are in position to take, and do take, the very best cash dis- counts available, we would find^ourselves compelled to strain our own credit in order to meet the demands of our business. r«i- * m u ^ «- It has occurred to me that our terms invite controversy The ret^ler who does not discount his bill promptly in June and December considers that he is imposed upon when he is comp-lled to forfeit the full 7 per cent cash discount, and if he does not pay that bill until 60, 90, or 120 days afterwards, the large cash discount we allow takes it out of the plan^ of an interest charge. . .• i j- ..„« Those of us who sell on dating consider that the case discount entirely disappears within four months from dating, and all sorts of pleas are made by th« customer to save as much of his discount as possible. Those customers who are addicted to the practice of givijig notes expect that in giving a note on which they oay interest at the rate of 6 per cent per annum they have paid all they ought to be aslved for the use of that monc'y and still insist on having a full cash discount, thus creating a new contract, which under ordinary rules of trade should not carry the terms of tho original a<-n^ement. We have all of us had experience with the fellow who puts a new front in his store or puts in new fixtures or erects a building and wants us to help him finance it bv giving him an extra 2 or 3 per cent in cash discount and then >yait 30 or 60 davs l>eyond the agreed time, and who, notwithstanding the dolay inDaving. insists on the concession. We know how difficult it is to meet conditions of this kind and it is only another instance of our terms of sale being the reason for bringing trouble around us I have in mind one man who asked for a cash donation of $500 to help fat up his store, and it was an account that was not worth morc than $7,000 to $8,000 per annum "^I beli^vlTl ^warranted in saying that our line is practically the only line of trade that has not materially shortened the dating and reduced the amount of cash dis- count The question is, Wiy do manufacturers of clothing sell their product oi\ pnicticallv the same basis that they sold it 40 years ago? In evenr other department of our business we have advanced and have kept abreast of the developments of the times I am sensible of the fact that there are some houses having the nerve and foresi^'ht to reduce their terms of sale, and I want to congratulate- them on their posi- tion in this matter, for I U'lit^ve that in times of failuro tiiose merchants who adhere to what I have mentioned as the established terms in our tr»de arc usually the large creditors and have had the knowledge thrust upon them that the short-term houses, V)Oth in our Une and in kindred lines, have been receiving money for months past that was in a very large measure for merchandis'? such as we furnished, while our accounts stand in toto l>ecause our terms of sale give merchants the right to withhold payment. It may sound revolutionary and the clothing industry may bo so Ued down by traditioiis that it is impossible to make a change, but tiie idea has appealed to me strongly that sooner or later, if we are to receive tiie full measure of success, some radical change must l^e made in our terms of sales. We should place ourselves on a par with other lines, some as important and some not as important in volume of output as ours, in endeavoring to correct those evils which appeal to us all, and which seem to be ^'rowing and which make it each day more difficult for us to operate under an estabUshed poUcy with tiie idea of a scjuare deal for every man, to give no advantage to anyone, and to preserve our own integrity. / How to dispose of goods left on the hands of the manufacturer at the end of the season is a problem in the industry. A manufacturer may use bad judgment and make up patterns or styles for stock that do not take. In this case he has a large stock on hand at the end of the season, which it is necessary to get nd of m order to make his loss as small as possible. # * x Cancellations and returns are also the cause of manufacturers finding themselves with a stock of left-over goods on hand. If the ! J. SELLING CONDITIONS. 245 VI y ■— r demand for spring goods, An early fall has the same effect on fall trade. A cold winter will decrease a stock of overcoats everywhere and a mild winter will naturally produce the reverse result. TBADE ABUSES. A manufacturer may spend a great deal of time and money in effi- ciency and cost systems, employ the best factory supervision, and still lose money, owing to an inefFicient sales organization. The sell- ing and distributing cost is the heaviest overhead expense the manu- facturer of men's clothing has to meet, and without expert supervision and scientific management heavy losses often occur in this department. The following is quoted from the address delivered by Mr. David Kirschbaum on ''How to make the sales department more efficient" before the annual convention of the National Association of Clothiers at AUantic City , N. J., June 1 and 2, 1914: The manufacturing clothing industry, if I am correctly informed, ranks sixth or seventh in importance in America, yet it is the last of all big businesses to recognize the necessity for scientific sales management. As best proof of the above, I thnik 1 am safe in saving that up to two or three years ago, sales managers in the true sense were practically unknown in the industry, and if you were to try to-day to obtain the serv- ices of a thorough sales expert in our line, you would find that onl v three or four, or at the most five concerns have such executives, and that at best, they have only been en«nured in the work the past few years. The radical changes that have been and are BtiTl taking place in the industry have made it necessarv for us to obtiiin the services of the most capable executives to direct our credit, designing, manufacturing and tailoring departments, yet in that most important department of sales, what is the ^* Is it not true that it is generally under the supervision of a member of the firm, whose ereatest claim to capability lies m the fact that he has had some road experience? Ue mav have been an excellent salesman, but what about being a good executive? Is he likely to be a good general who inspires confidence and enthusiasm, a good statistician, an analyst, a clever judge of men, etc.? Vital changes have taken place in manufacturing men's clothing during the last decade, and the manufacturer has had to meet these chant'ed conditions in order to keep pace with his competitors. It is surprising to find that manufacturers who are abreast of the times as far as the manufacturing of clothing is concerned, cling to prece- dents set years ago in the marketing of their product. It is safe to say that more money is wasted in the sales department than in any other department of the clothing industry. However, it was stated by numbers of manufacturers interviewed on the subject, that it would not be possible to reduce selling expenses without a com- plete revolution of selling methods. On account of fierce competi- tion and the rapid growth of the industry in recent years, certain evils have been allowed to creep into the business which are almost impossible to eliminate, and the manufacturer who stands out alone against these evil practices will find himself in a very difficult position. Many remedies have been suggested, and the National Association of Clothiers has taken steps that have accomphshed good results. However, until the manufacturers get closer together and there is more cooperation between manufacturers and retailers, it is hard to see that much economy can be effected in selhng costs, or that the numerous evils will be eliminated from the industry. The principal evils in the industry, with which the manufacturere seem unable to cope, are the following: Cancellations, returns and <\:h — ^^— ^{^ y f^i allowances, revisions, indiscriminate extending of credit, extra dis- i counts and dating, buying on one basis and settling on another, J concessions to secure new accounts, consignment shipments, memo;/ randum orders, long future delivery, etc. „ ^ The most insidious of these evils are cancellations and returns and ^ allowances. One of the principal causes that leads to cancellation is .^^^ long future delivery. With three to six months elapsing from the time the order is taken to the time when dehvery is made, many things may come up that will cause the buyer to change his mind and revise or cancel the order. The buyer may decide he has made too heavy a purchase, or he may see some goods he likes better, or some financial difficulty may intervene of which he had no knowledge when he gave the order, or any one of a number of contingencies may arise which will lead to cancellation. The buyer, knowing that, as a rule, the manufacturer will stand lor cancellation, is not slow to take advantage of the fact, and any pre- text is considered sufficient excuse to cancel an order accepted m good faith. This has led to reckless ordering, and it can be said that the manufacturer is not always blameless. Often salesmen m their eagerness to take orders and earn commissions will mduce retailers to buy more than they can possibly use, hoping that if any cancella- tions are made, they wiU be on orders from other houses. There are a few manufacturers who claim that they will not accept cancellations, but the number is very small. The extent of competi- tion in the industry leads manufacturers to accept cancellations and returns and allowances. They know that the customer will turn to the numerous concerns in the industry that will stand for such prac- tices, and, rather than lose the account, they will put up with demands that are often entirely unreasonable. Among some manufacturers it is the custom to delay making up goods until the retailer has an opportunity to revise his order. Some- times they delay long enough to allow time for two revisions, and then start in to manufacture with more certainty that the order will not be canceled. This practice of delay for protection, however, is a great inconvenience to the manufacturer, as it causes ''rush work" and prevents an even distribution of production over the manufac- turing season. In speaking of these trade abuses a manufacturer said: The extent of the trade abuses of cancellations and returns in this industry can hardly be exaggerated. Manufacturers seem unable to cope with the situation, and retailers apparently can practice these abuses at will. The manufacturer claims that retailers make claims of defects or any excuse for returning the goods. Very often at the end of the season when they find they have stock left over they return it to the manufacturer Th e fact that competition is so very keen causes th is, as manufacturers know that if these demands are not met, of whatever nature they may be, a customer is lost, and some other manufacturer will obtain him. As a result, almost any demand a retailer makes is agreed to. The following is quoted from an address by Mr. David Kirschbaum on ''How to make the sales department more efficient," dehvered before the annual convention of the National Association of Clothiers, June 1 and 2, 1914: A clever sales executive will probably tell you that one of the largest items of loss directly due to sales inefficiency is that which accrues annually from the deliberate encouragement a number of salesmen give the trade at the time of booking their orders, when they tell the retailer he can select whatever he likes with perfect safety, because * ^VJ^^ ^ 248 men's factory-made clothing industry. SELLING CONDITIONS. 249 QrS^ the salesman knows the house will necessarily accept the cancellation (no matter when it comes) for fear of losing the account. It was said at one of our recent conventions that the average (annual) cancellation (this includes revisions, of course) for all manii- • facturers was about 20 per cent. Just think what that means: One-fifth of all the time, effort, and money expended to secure your entire business is regularly wasted ^^We^re^agreed that cancellations can not be entirely eliminated . However, the evil being largely in the making of our representatives, careful eductition and discip me and possibly some method of penalizing the incorrigible salesmen, will bring marked changes for the better. The tremendous variation in the percentage of cancellations in adjoining States and in identical territories proves that this subject is a fruitful field for a capable executive. , . , , i u u *u It mic^ht be said here that no salesman is doing his duty bv the house or by the retailer when he deliberatelv sells the retailer more goods than he knows that retailer can use to advantage, and where the salesman is guilty of such practices, it can only brin** one of two unprofitable results— the return of the merchandise and the loss inci- dent^hereto, or the overstocking of the retailer, whose opportunity to dispose of same L« also restricted to a loss. .^ j i xi. * m -» ♦«„ j« The selUng of models or fabrics that are absolutely unsuited to the retailer s trade deserves far more consideration than this subject has had at our hands in the past. A thoroughly capable salesman will study his customers requirements and will help them make the most intelligent selection, thereby assisting retailers to that extent m m^keting a greater percentage of their purchases at a profit. The intelligent sales- man will protect both the retailer and manufacturer by helping the former exercise S^ nTce^^ry care in his purchases. He should be informed not only as to correct style" for that particular territory, but if possible also as to the latest retailing methods. HO as to help such retailers as may be in need of intelligent and hon-^st advice. Further than that, I believe the successful wholesale clothing salesman of the future will require technical knowledge ncces.sary to di.'^criminate between good and pcx)r dothing so as t« be in a position to pass that knowledge on to the retailer who to-day L Wuily lacking in this particular, and who in turn needs this knowledge to dis- criminate between what is good, mediocre, or very poor. u- „^ Y^ur sales executive would probably give. attention also to tbe old-fashioned method still practiced by many salesmen, tiiat of spending a brief half day, or at most a dav in studW the m\>dels, the fabrics, and afl details covering same, instead of devoting two or three whole days to a full understanding of all important features, and «) be in a po.sition to do his work thoroughly, and thereby get maximum results out of '"'TheT^'is nll^^^^^^ thousands upon thousands of garment^s are now unneces- Karily cut special that would otherwise be cut, tnmmed and tailored with regukr Xck lots if the salesmen were properly informed on all the details of their lines and '''frr^'arrminy pfil^f suaTtiJe ^ liberal compensation paid wholesale clothing salesmen, the lavish methods of many, the unreasonableness of manu ac- tureri Lumin- the entire risk of maximum drawing accounts to sale-men and the loss SenUhS when there are crop failures, industrial depression, or financial panics the di^rediting of your line in a community by reason of it^ having been placed with an undesirable ret^ler or one to whose business your product is entirely unsuited, and manvothe? subjects, all of which should receive our most careful consideratmn, and Tt the hands of an experienced and capable man obtain for us a much higher efficiency on the Pt of oiir salesmen and very substantial economies in our sales department. Revision of orders is often the cause of loss to manufacturers. If the order is revised before the goods have been cut or are in work, there is of course no loss, but late revisions after the goods are in nrocess of manufacture cause "left overs." Indiscriminate extending of credit, next to canceUations and returns and allowances, is perhaps the greatest evil m the industry. Ihis condition is entirely due to the tremendous competition m the busi- ness and the desire of manufacturers to secure new accounts. The reckless extei.ding of credit not only leads to losses due to fail- ures, bad debts, and slow payment but is one of the causes of cancel- lations and returns and allowances. A manufacturer had the follow- ,ing to say regarding credits: -4^ V • -J ■y r \ 'iK OoY^A**^^""-^ One of the greatest curses of the business ^.^^l^^^'^^.^^J^^^^^^f^.^^^f^ turers to retailers. These have grown more liberal right along, until almost anyone can get into the retail business and get credit from P^^^^^^^^^^'^,; .^. „ „_^u ^v^ On account of tiiis a vast number of men are m business ajd receiving ^[^^i^^^^^ have no abilitv to carrv out what they attempt. These conditions have attractecl a ^1 SLny w^o'^re^'S hoLt. AltoU-, manufacturer, -^l^^l-^^^^^^^ lo much as to put their selling on a cost basis and do business with business men only, and this would happen if a cost basis could be adopted. Demands for extra discounts and datings on the part of retailors are generaUy complained of by manufacturers. These concessions are /c- often granted to hold an account, and it is said this evil is more prev- alent in the industry than ever before. Often, it is said, retailers buy on one basis and wish to settle on another. The order is taken in good faith on the part of the manufacturer and after the goods are delivered, the customer makes certam demands for extra concessions, which the manufacturer has to grant in order to prevent a return Concessions to secure new accounts are comraon m the mdustry. To secure a new account, salesmen often give the customer advan- tages in the way of discounts, datings, etc^ or tell him that the house will stand for returns or cancellations. This practice works against the manufacturer every time. A new account secured in this way always proves uncertain and unsatisfactory. The customer, having been granted these concessions in the begmnmg, will always expect the same terms and wiU continually make unreasonable demands Consignment shipments and memorandum orders, while good metn- ods of disposing oi left-over goods, are on the other l^^nd a distinct f^^f disadvantage to the manufacturer. Retaders, kiiowmg that they will be able to replenish their stock near the end of the season at reduced prices through these shipments, place smaUer mitial orders at the regular terms. It is without doubt a fact that consigimient ship- ments and memorandum orders are an evd ni every mdustry. Long future deUvery, as previously stated, ls the principal cause of canceUations, returns, and allowances, and other evds m the busi- . ness. The manufacture of men's clothing is necessardy a slow pro- yy^ A cess, considermg the time t^ken to get cloth from the woolen mdls and the time consumed in making up the goods. However, manufac- turers are in a way to blame for long future delivery. In consequence of the desire of some manufacturers to get their Imes before the retail- ers ahead of their competitors, salesmen start out on the road earlier each vear. This of course has the effect of causing a longer time to elapse between the time the order is taken and the date of delivery. For mstance, salesmen will start out in October to take orders for the following sprmg and summer season, when the retailers have not vet begun to move their winter goods. It can readdy be seen that the retailer is not in a position at that time to know exactlv what he wiU need for the following season. As yet he has sold only a small part of his winter stock and he is unable to know how this stock will move, which is necessarily a factor in placing sprmg and summer bus- iness. It should further be considered that it is not always the farst salesman in the field that secures the orders. The retailer may wish to have the chance to look over several lines before he determines where he will buv. In the event that the early salesman secures an order, the next salesman who comes along may have a line that in the estimation of the retailer is more attractive, or he may offer better terms either of which may lead to a cancellation of the hrst order. M ¥ 250 men's factory-made clothing industry. Without doubt the manufacturers would do a better and more sat- isfactory business if they would give the retailer a chance to get rid of at least some ot one season's stock before they tried to seU him the next. There would be fewer cancellation*, returns, allowances, and revisions, and the retailer would be in a better position to give an intelligent order than when he is approached so earlv ui the season. The following table compiled from data obtained from the 22 estab- lishments that furnished complete information shows the proportion of returns and cancellations to net sales, the percentage based on net sales of estimated loss from returns and allowances and cancella- tions, the percentage of manufacturing profit and final profit (based on net sales) actually received, and the manufacturing profit and final profit plus the total estimated loss from returns and allowances and cancellations. As it was not possible to arrive at the exact losses due to returns and allowances and cancellations, the figures submitted in the table represent the manufacturers' estimates of their losses due to these causes: Table 52. — Effect of Returns and Allowances and Cancellations on Profits. Total, Esti- mated lass on returns and allow- Manu- Returns returns and Esti- mated loss on cancel- lations. Total Manu- factur- ing Final profit Establish- and Cancel- allow- esti- factur- Final profit plus ment. allow- ances. lations. ances and cancel- mated loss. ing profit. profit. plus total es- timated total es- timated loss. . lations. ances. loss. Percent. Percent. Per cent. Percent. Percent. Percent. Percent. PercerU. Percent. Per cent. No. 3 4.02 21.20 25.22 0.81 1.06 1.87 6.79 6.65 8.66 8.52 No. 4 .21 1.05 1.26 .02 .11 .13 6.50 5.96 6.63 6.08 No. 11 7.55 14.27 21.82 2.52 .14 2.66 5.87 5.74 8.53 8.40 No. 13 8.53 10.84 19.37 .87 .43 1.30 2.01 .49 3.31 1.79 No. 14 5.33 12.78 18.11 1.60 3.20 4.80 5.20 4.32 10.00 9.12 No. 15 3.77 5.99 9.76 1.26 L98 3.25 O.40 a 1.15 2.85 2.10 No. 17 9.26 6.77 16.03 .93 .14 L07 5.03 5.01 6.10 6.08 No. 18 7.01 14.06 2L07 .98 1.41 2.39 a 1.10 a 1.43 1.29 .96 No. 19 2.88 1.60 4.48 .53 .20 .73 6.09 6.00 6.82 6.73 No. 27 14.24 10.40 24.64 1.42 .31 1.73 6.51 4.50 8.24 6.23 No. 30 6.65 4.82 11.47 1.25 .36 1.61 3.11 1.86 4.72 3.47 No. 34 3.92 12.82 16.74 1.96 1.92 3.88 3.74 2.57 7.62 6.46 No. 39 13.33 14.37 27.70 2.67 2.87 5.54 3.41 5.62 8.95 11.16 No. 40 6.50 28.02 34.52 1.60 .76 2.36 6.23 6.70 8.59 9.06 No. 45 9.77 8.90 18.67 .89 .22 1.11 7.04 6.76 8.15 7.86 No. 47 20.81 16.92 37.73 2.63 1.13 3.76 4.71 3.92 8.47 7.6.8 No. 49 7.35 26.74 34.09 L32 .66 1.98 3.00 1.52 4.98 3.50 No. 52 10.06 10.06 20.12 1.01 .50 1.51 8.44 7.48 9.95 8.99 No. 53..... 8.53 15.98 24.51 2.13 4.00 6.13 2.08 1.48 8.21 7.61 No. 54.,... 6.92 15.97 22.89 .69 1.60 2.29 .04 a 1.00 2.33 1.29 No. 59 8.66 1.62 10.28 .87 .03 .90 8.07 7.04 8.97 7.94 No. 61 3.71 25.26 28.97 .74 3.16 3.90 1.30 .89 5.20 4.78 Average 7.59 15.44 23.03 1.57 1.29 2.86 4.58 4.42 7.44 7.28 • Loss. While it is hardly possible to eliminate these evils from the indus- try, some means snould be found by which the manufacturer can protect himself to some extent from practices that are each day becoming a greater menace. While the percentage of cancellations is over twice as Inrge as that of returns and allowances, the loss on returns and allowances is greater than on cancellations. This condition is due to the fact that a large percentage of cancellations are made before the goods have been cut, entaihng a small loss, while returned garments thrown on r r n ^ SELLING CONDITIONS. 251 the hands of the manufacturer are hard to dispose of and are fre- quently sold at considerable sacrifice. ,, _ ^^ ij Establishments Nos. 15, 18, and 54, which show final losses, would each have shown a profit if they had had no returns and allowances nor ^^The c J^nsus of opinion among manuf actm-ere is that before the existing evils in the industry can be eliminated there wiU have to be closer cooperation between the manufacturers and retailers. It has been suggested that a joint committee composed of members of the National Association of Clothiers and the National Association of Retail Clothiers could do much toward bringing about such coopera- tion. Disputes of all kinds between manufacturer and retailers could be referred to this committee for arbitration and without doubt much good could be accomphshed. An agreement covering the followi^ headings should be drawn up and adhered to between manufacturers and retailers, and it should be the duty of the joint committee to adjust claims made under the agreement: There should be no cancellations except under conditions that would make it *^o"calfcellatSf revisions, or alterations should be accepted' after the goods have ^o^SiKls should be returned without proper cause, such as the merchandise not cominc up to specifications, inferiority of workmanship, late deUvery, etc Demands for allowances should be granted only with good reason and after thorough ''^M^Sct'urers should be required to deliver goods at the time specified in the order, otherwise the retailers should have the option of returning the merchandise Where the manufacturer has not lived up to the order and has subsUtuted stylea or materials not called for, the retailer should have redress. This committee should also go into the matter of cut-price sales, where fraudulent advertising is resorted to, misrepresenting merchan- * Cl^er coo^ration among manufacturers will also do much toward ehminating trade abuses in the industry. Recommendations by the National Association of Clothiers in regard to manufacturers keeping uniform cancellation records and interchanging canceUation and credit information are excellent, and, if adopted throughout the industry, would eventually lead to a great reduction of losses. MACHINERY AND PROCESSES. 253 CHAPTER VIII. MACHIVERT AND PBOCESSES. HACHINEBY FOR MAKING CLOTHING.^ The history of sewing machines starts with the patent granted to Thomas Saint, in England, July 17, 1790,'' and the first sewing machine known to be put in operation was one patented by Bar- thelomy Thimonnier in France in 1830. These machines, untd their destruction by mobs, were successfully used in making some of the clothing for the French army. Thimonnier patented his machine in the United States in 1850. Several patents on sewing machines were taken out in England and the United States up to 1846, on September 10 of which year Elias Howe, jr.^ of Boston, received a United States patent on the sewing machine as we know it. The stitch employed b^r the machines prior to Howe's was either a chain stitch or a back stitch, in imitation of hand sewing. Before Howe's machine was patented Walter Hunt of New York attempted to make a lock stitch, as the chain-stitch work was apt to run or come out. He used a needle with an eye near its point, so that on forming a loop below the cloth a little shuttle might pass on through the loop, carrying the second thread with it. ifint, however, never patented his idea. Howe's machine had a needle with an eve near its point, which had previously been used for handwork in France, and which with a shuttle beneath the cloth formed a lock stitch. An inter- mittent feed carried the material forward as each stitch was formed. Returning to the United States after an unsuccessful attempt to introduce his machine in England, Howe found I. M. Singer & Co. and others making sewing machines. Howe instituted legal proceed- ings against these manufacturers, and his suit was sustained by the courts. In 1860 Howe got a 7-year extension of his patent, but in 1867 his application for another extension was denied. Improve- ments in the machine were rapid after Howe'spatont. Among them were inventions by John Bachclder, AUen B. Wilson, Isaac M. Singer, and others. In 1856 the owners and controllers of the Bachelder, Wilson, and other fundamental patents, Elias Howe, I. M. Singer & Co., the Wheeler & Wilson Manufacturing Co., and the Grover & Baker Sewing Machine Co., pooled their patents. The improvement in the sewing machine has continued until it has been adapted to almost every commodity that can be sewed. From 1842 to September 10, 1895, the United States issued 7,439 patents on sewing machines and accessories.*' The following is a chronological list of the important early sewing- machine patents in the United States, compiled from Frederick G. a For history of the sewing machine see Frederick 0. Bourne's American Sewing Machines, in One Hundred Years of American Commerce. b Ibid., p. 525. • Ibid., p. 533. 252 Bourne's American Sewing Machines, in One Hundred Years of American Commerce: ^ ^ A rH Dates. Sept. 10,1846 May Nov. Feb. Aug. Aug. Mar. Apr. Apr. May 8,1S49 12,1850 11,1851 12, 1851 12, 1851 7,1854 4,1854 11,1854 31, 1854 Nov. 7,1854 Serial num- bers. 4750 6439 7776 7931 8294 8296 10ri09 10728 10757 10994 11884 Elias Howe, jr J. Bachelder A.B.Wilson W. O. Orover and W. E. Baker. I. M. Singer A. B. Wilson C. Miller: W. H. Akins S.J. Parker M. W. Stevens and E. G. Kinsley. D.C. Ambler Inventions. Eye-pointed needle in combination with shuttle for under thread, continuous thread from spools, lock stitch, automatic feed the length of l>aster plate. Two or more threads, chain stitch, continuous feeding device, horizontal table, and overhanging arm. Lock stitch, vibratory shuttle pointed at both ends, reciprocating feed-bar. Chain stitch, two or more threads. Lock stitch, feed wheel, thread controller. Lock stitch, rotary hook, for carrjing upper thread around bobbin containing under thread. Button hole, two threads. Cop for shuttle. Lock stitch, transverse reciprocating shuttle. Lock stitch, reciprocating shuttle in cylinder bed, with Lock stitch, two needles, over seaming for felling lap seams. The following statement of the Singer Manufacturing Co., quoted from pa^e 75 of ''The Clothing Industry in New York," by Jesse E. Pope, will give some idea of the improvement and perfection of the sewing macnine: ''Stitching macliines were first operated in the clothing trade by foot power at a speed of 800 or 900 stitches per minute. The construction was cimmsy and hard to operate. Gradually machines were built with less motion and friction in the parts and were able to attain greater number of stitches per minute with less labor, but still operated by foot power. * * * Machines on mechanical power were able to be operated on a si>eed of about 1,200 to 1.500 stitches per minute, and finally to 1,800. Later, machines with a speed of 2,000 stitches per minute came into general use. In 1895 a machine was put on the market permitting a speed of 2,800 stitcher per minute, and finally, in 1900, first-class results were obtained on a machine with a speed of 4,000 stitches. During all these changes the desire has been to get as little motion in the machine and confine the mechanism to as few parts as possible. The introduction of the swinging treadle enabled the operator working by foot to attain a high speed. The introduction of elec- tricity was of utmost importance. It increased the production and made greater speed possible with less strain on the worker. To-day all large shops and most contractors, even the small ones, utilize electric power. The trade-union has been chiefly responsible for the introduction of electricity in contract shops. Improvement has taken place not only in increasing the speed of the machine but also in adapting the machine to all ^inds oi operations, by the aid of various attachments. The first power cutting machine was made by Albion and Warth, of Staten Island, in 1872. This machine was operated by steam, and consisted of a reciprocating vertical blade. About 1873 or 1874 appeared the Fenn cutting machine, also worked by steam power, but consisting of a circular rotary knife. In 1892 Bloch, of Cincin- nati, brought out a rotary machine, weighing about 35 pounds, which was run by electricity. In 1897 the Eastman Co. introduced the -first electrically run vertical-blade machine, which cut a maximum thickness of about IJ inches of cloth, and in 1900 they introduced their rotary machine. ii 254 MEN S FACTOEY-MADE CLOTHING INDUSTRY. MACHINERY AND PROCESSES. 255 The present-day machine does the same work as the Bloch machine, but is much simpler in construction and has many improvements. The machine for ordinary use weighs about 15 pounds. The original form of pressing iron was a large goose, heated on a stove and applied directly to the goods without mechanical aid. This has been improved by the introduction of a blower iron, using ordi- nary illuminating gas, which heats each iron individually. Most off or final pressing is still done by this form of blower iron. For under pressing, as this work requires much heavy labor, various high-power Eressing machines, with tne iron attached to a crane or movable arm, ave been introduced. Cloth-testing machine. — The cloth- testing machine is simple in con- struction and is built on the dead-weight principle, thus d(oing away with inaccuracies due to changes in temperature, careless handling, etc., which occur in spring- type machines. The machine is built m both automatic and hand styles, and in various sizes. The automatic machine makes the complete test in less than one minute. In the hand machine the test is made with the clamps holding a sample of the cloth, usually one-half or 1 inch in widtn, the clamps being exactly one-half or 1 inch apart. The cloth must be inserted so that it is flat in the jaws, not angled or twisted. The hand wheel is then revolved, as steadilv as possible, at a speed of about 150 revolutions per minute, until tne cloth is broken. A dial indicates the number of pounds' puD upon the cloth at the breaking point. Cloth-weighing machine. — The cloth is weighed by means of a tor- sion balance scale, one for woolen cloth, which gives the weight in ounces to the yard of cloth, and one for cotton fabrics, which gives the number of yards to the pound. Automatic cloth-laying^v machine. — The automatic cloth-laying-up machine is used principally for linings and interlinings — goods that are flat folded. It will lay up any fabric if it is in a single ply and not doubled over. It wiD not, however, lay up cloth that has a nap, as the machine in laying up doubles back, which would result in the nap running in different directions. The machine is run along tracks attached to the cutting table; these tracks can be widened. The table has a straight line marked near the front edge and on the machine, in the same line with this, are cloth guides to keep the goods in such a position that they will be laid up with an even edge in front. What variations there are in the width of the cloth come in the back. The machine stretches the goods at the proper tension. The machine is pushed along until one thickness of cloth has been laid; the cloth is then automatically and instantaneously folded and the machine is pushed back, laying up another thickness. No cutting of the goods at the end of the lay is necessary, as in laying up by hand. A register automatically counts the ply as they are laid down. The machine has two leader blades, which lead the cloth onto the pile; they automatically rise as the pile thickens. The manufacturer of this machine estimates that one boy working this machine will lay up twice as much cloth as two boys by hand. Cloth clamp. — For those who do not use a lajnng-up machine, there is a simple cSoth clamp, which holds the ends of the cloth securely and uniiomily while it is being laid up. It does away with the need of weights. The manufacturer of this clamp states that its use saves ^ r 15 per cent of the laying-up time, adds 5 to 10 inches to the length of the lay on account of the extra tension, makes cutting easier and more accurate, and lessens the strain on the cutting macnine. Cutting machines. — Cutting machines rest on a flat bedplate, which is adapted to glide easily under the cloth. They are comparatively light, and are made with two styles of blades, the rotary, or circular, and the straight knife, or reciprocating, blade. Both types are run at great speed, on either a direct or an alternating current, and are built to operate on 110 or 220 volts. The power is easily transmitted from the motor to the knife, and both types have detachable lamps. The current is switched on or off by a simple thumb operation that does not necessitate removing the hand from the handle of the ma- v_ chine. The machine also has a sharpening device that sharpens both f^^ sides of the cutting surface, thereby preventing a wire eoge. The machine is equipped with a guard and guide, one piece of meta\ which not only Keeps the goods from becoming disarranged in cut- ting, especially in the case of the straight knife which goes up and down, but also protects the haiids of the cutter. The rotary-blade machine is usually made with 4 and 5J inch diameter blades. The 4-inch blade will efficiently cut a maximum of cloth 2 inches high, and the 5i-inch blade machine, a maximum of 3 inches. The straight- knife machine is made with all size blades, from 2^ to 8 inches, and L will cut goods the height of the blade. (Fig. 1.) J|]^^ The straight-knife machine is better than the rotary for cutting •^^" corners and curves because it cuts up and down. With the rotary machine the blade cuts the upper before the bottom layers of cloth. The rotary is, however, the faster machine, and is easier to handle and more easily sharpened. (Fig. 2.) The representative of the manufacturer of these machines claims that, exclusive of laying-up time, the straight-knife machine will do about three times as much work as the long knife worked by hand. Lininq-maTcing and seam-closing machine. — The machine for seam- ing the linings of coats and putting on the facings has a single needle, a long arm, drop feed, and rotating hook driven by a flat belt. The machine makes the lock stitch and can be operated safely and with- y^ out vibration at a speed of 3,000 stitches per minute. It is most {profitable for handling fight work, and is generally used for closing inings, facings, pocket making, seam closing, welt seaming, and general work on all kinds of clothing. (Fig. 3.) Seam-closing machine. — For the seaming on cloth where the occa- sional use of a trimmer is desired, a high-speed, long-arm machine making a lock stitch is used. It is equipped with an adjustable trimmer, to trim from one-sixteenth to one-fourth of an inch from the seam on either light or heavy fabrics. This trimmer can be thrown into or out of action at the will of the operator, so as not to impair the value of the machine for plain stitching. A cavity in the thniat-plate at the right of the trimmer knife is provided as a clear- ance for the knife and to prevent fint from dropping upon the shut- tle. The machine can be driven up to 1,800 stitches per minute. (Figs. 4 and 5.) Serging machine. — The machine designed for serging pants and cut edges of cloth makes the double- thread chain-stitch, and is capable of being operated at a speed of 3,300 stitches per minute. Its pro- duction is limited only by the skill of the operator. It has an adjusta- ble guide for various weights of cloth, is substantial in construction, 11! 256 MEN S FACTORY-MADE CLOTHING INDUSTRY. MACHINERY AND PROCESSES. 257 and does not get out of repair easily. The expense for its mainte- nance is extremely low. (Fig. 6.) For serging, or overcasting the raw edges of materials before seam- ing, several machines are in general use. One is a zigzag, lock-stitch machine that is used wherever this style of work is required. The needle- throw from side to side is adjustable up to seven thirty- seconds of an inch. The lock, or intersection of the upper and under threads, is formed at the edge of the goods, the needle naving a move- ment from side to side as the material moves forward. The machine can be run up to 2,500 stitches per minute. (Figs. 7 and 8.) Canvas front-making machine. — The canvas front-making machine is a one-needle zigzag, lock-stitch machine, and is designed for sew- ing or making coat pads and canvas fronts, with wide bight and zig- zag lock stitch. The bight is adjustable up to five-sixteenths of an inch in width, and straight seaming can be done if desired. The stitch is elastic, allowing for the forming or shaping of the coat fronts in accordance with the pattern and materials. The machine is capa- ble of a speed of 2,000 stitches per minute. (Figs. 9 and 10.) Blind-stitch machine. — Felling, or blind stitching, is a dehcate oper- ation requiring a steady hand and excellent sight. There is a machine on the market that does away with hand feUing, by mc^ans of a device permitting an operator to make the needle dig into a piece of cloth no matter how slight, to any depth desired, and almost instantly to adjust it for felhng. The machine eUminates slow and costly hand felling and gives a good finish. The manufacturers of this machine claim that it will produce neater and more evenly finished work than is possible by hand. Machines are especially built for felling coat bottoms, sleeve linings at the coat cuffs, pants bottoms, and numer- ous other operations. The cjlinder lock-stitch type is recommended by the manufacturer for use m the various felling operations on coats, pants, and overcoats; the flat bed lock-stitch typo for padding collars and lapels, and feUing bottoms and facings of coats. A single-thread blind-stitch machine is also made to pad collars and lapels and finish pants bottoms. Just half the cloth or thread is caught by the needle and not a single stitch shows through. The work will not unravel. The manufacturer of these machines claims that through their intro- duction the cost of feUing operations has greatly decreased. The fol- lowing comparative production is stated in their advertisement: Padding collars — by hand 50 per day, by machine 400 per day; padding lapels — by hand 40 coats per day, by machine 250 coats; felling pants bottoms — by hand 100 pairs per day, by machine 600 pairs per day. Shoulder-pad machine. — ^While it is customary for many manufac- turers and contractors to buy their shoulder pads, it is possible to make them very economically. The shoulder-pad machine makes a basting or tacking stitch. The material is moved by the operator back and forth under the needle for a long or a short stitch, as may be required. The machine has a hollow needle bar, a needle stripper in place of a presser foot, and a high hft. It is equipped with a stop motion and can be set for the required number of stitches. The ma- chine wiD stop with the needle raised to the highest point, ready for the next pad. The average production of one of these machines is approximately 1,800 pads per day varying with the size of the pads. < r-^ -< Two-row stitching machine. — The two-row stitching macliine has two needles and makes the lock stitch. It is made in gauges, or widths between needles, of one-eighth of an inch to 1 inch. The machine makes two rows of lock stitching and<;an be run up to 1,700 stitches per minute. (P'igs. 11 and 12.) Gathering machine. — ^The machine for gathering the sleeve makes the single-thread chain stitch, and has an adjustable gathering feed that can be put into or out of action by the hand lever while the machine is in operation, and that makes it possible to take in the fullness of a sleeve whenever desired. It is equipped with a guide to carry tape wherever this additional reinforcement is required. Sleeve-inserting machine. — The sleeve-inserting machine has a cyhnder bed. Where a machine of this type is used it is customary to omit the gathering of the sleeve before inserting, as the alternating presvsers with which this machine is equipped make it possible for the operator so to manipulate the garment as to bring it out without fullness or puckering under the arm. The machine can be driven up to a speed of 1,800 stitches per minute. (Figs. 13 and 14.) Buttonhole mxichine. — The machine for making buttonholes in coats, vests, etc., makes eyelet-end buttonholes from one-half of an inch to li inches long without changing any of its parts. The buttonhole has a fine, raised purl at its edges, and a reinforcing cord or gimp is laid under the stitches as is done in handwork, which the finished buttonhole closely resembles. The cutting of the hole is done by the hand-cutting lever attached to the machine, either before or after stitching. The machine can be driven up to a speed of 1,000 stitches per minute. (Figs. 15 and 16.) There is another buttonhole machine on the market, the manufac- turer of which claims that it makes a buttonhole as perfect as one made by hand, and that the buttonholes made on this machine are stronger, will wear better, and look better than the handmade button- hole. The machine runs equally well with any kind of material, from the thinnest mohair to the heaviest woolen. The machine is entirely automatic, the material always held stationary, and the stitching mechanism travels around the buttonhole. The machine can be easily adjusted to any width, bight, or gauge, and the needle is self-setting. The buttonhole is not cut until after it has been worked in the goods. The machine makes a high purl and can be run with any grade of silk or good cotton. The machine is speedy, simple in all its movements, is easily operated, and does not easily get out of order. The machine is made in various types and for buttonholes of various lengths up to IJ inches. Blind buttonhole machine. — ^There arc a number of methods for making bhnd or imitation buttonholes on the cuffs of sleeves. One of the machines for this purpose makes a purl stitch without bars. The inside measurement of the buttonhole can be adjusted from three-eighths to three-fourths of an inch. There are a number of other machines making barred or whip-stitch buttonholes without eyelets. The machines are simple and effective, not hable to get out of order, and being automatic, are easily handled by all oper- ators. The knives furnished with the machine are easily removed, and when it is desired to make real buttonholes (in trouser flies, coat 11914*»— 16 17 M I A. 258 men's factory-made clothing industry. lapels, etc.) are easily replaced. The machine is capable of a speed of 1,600 stitches per minute. Tacking and barring machine. — Tacking and barring in their various forms cover so wide a range that it would necessitate several pages to illustrate the different machines and their various kinds of work. Generally speaking, this work can be divided into buttonhole, fly lap, hanger and placket tacking, pocket barring, and the making of imitation buttonholes, tagging, and labehng. The machine in general use for buttonhole barring makes a bar from one-eighth to one-fourth of an inch long, composed of 7 staying, 1 1 covering, and 3 tying stitches that hold the ends of the buttonhole firmly together, giving the finished bar the apnearanco of being an integral part of tne buttonhole itself. The macnine ties a knot on the underside of the garment and cuts the threads, ehmi- nating all danger of unraveUng. The saving in silk effected by the machine is very large, as the trimming of the threads close to the under side of the knot entirely disposes of the long loops of waste threads between buttonholes. The machine js capable of a speed of 1,000 stitches per minute. Tichet-sewing machine. — The ticket-sewing machine sews a single continuous chain stitch, which pulls out instantly and entirely when the ticket is removed. It automatically forms a triangular stitch in one operation, the needle puncturing each hole only once. This operation prevents each needle puncture from containing too much thread, which often causes bad holes. The ticket will stand hard wear, and will not come off even if run against a pressing iron. By inserting a needle or pin under the finishing stitch, the ticket can be removed instantly, leaving no loose threads which when pressed into the garment would cause unsightly lumps. Coat-hanger tacHng machine. — ^The tubing to be used for the hanger can be cut to length and by this method an operator can sew 3,000 to 4,000 hangers dafly. This machine makes a very firm, strong fasten- ing, using 42 stitches, of which 12 are staying, 27 covering, and 3 tymg. It draws the top thread below, fastening and automatically trimming both threads at the completion of each bar and leaving no short ends on the right side of the goods. As the work leaves the machine it is finished without waste of thread. Tacking irouser loops machine. — The machine for tacking belt loops to trousers fastens them firmly by tacks, wliich may be three-eighths to seven-eighths of an inch long, and the width of bight lengthwise of the loop one-sixteenth to three-sixteenths of an inch. The number of stitches can be varied at will. The threads are cut off automatically, and the complete operation is performed so quickly that the resulting rage output for a proficient operator is 40 or 50 dozen pairs ol averi trousers, eacii having five or six loops. (Figs. 17 and 18.) Label-sewing machine. — The machme for sewing woven labeb at the top of inside breast pockets on men's coats is a post machine having a high arm and single needle ; there is ample room to turn the garment, in order to stitch the four sides of the label. The post of the machine being small, it is easy to shde the pocket over it. This machine can stitch 300 to 400 labels per day. (Fig. 19.) Button-sewing machine. — The machine for sewing on flat buttons makes a specified number of stitches, always including 3 tying stitches. It stops automatically when the needle is at its highest point, and r -X -''». \ ^ ^^ MACHINERY AND PROCESSES. 259 cuts the tlu*eads on the underside of the fabric. The machine also has a reliable automatic thread- trimming device. This machine makes 18 cross and 3 tying stitches, makes cross stitches in four buttonholes, and can be adjusted for two-hole and bar buttons. The needle throw is from five thirty-seconds to five-sijcteenths of an inch. This machine will take buttons from 15 to 48 lignes in diameter. As the work leaves the machine it is finished, with no waste of thread nor short ends on the right side, the threads being drawn through, tied, and automati- cally cut off on the underside of the garment. A good operator, under normal conditions, can sew 5,000 or 6,000 buttons daily. (Figs. 20 and 21.) Another button-sewing machine is simple in construction and oper- ates without knives or bobbins. It is a single-thread macliine, on which the finest thread may be used. It sews all sizes and styles of two and four hole buttons and on all fabrics, light, heavy, or medium. The stitches on the fabric are spread over a large surface to prevent the thread that holds the button from pulling through the cloth. The machine automatically forms a given number of stitches. After the button is sewed the machine cuts the thread without the use of knives but by a stationary mechanical device. PocJcet-making machines. — ^The machine for making pockets on coats and trousers where an overcast seam is desired is a three-thread chain-stitch machine that trims and overedges at the same time. It wiU handle fabrics up to five-sixteenths oi an inch in thickness. The macliine can be operated at a speed of 3,000 stitches per minute, and the seam produced is superior to lock-stitch work for this opera- tion, as it will give with the stretching of the pocket, and it has a more finished appearance than a single lock-stitch seam. (Figs. 22, 23, and 24.) Back-poclcet machine. — ^The back-pocket machine is a two-needle machine with a one-fourth-inch gauge. A knife is set midway between the needles, so that the pocket hole is cut and the two lines of stitching are made at the same time. If the pocket holes are cut wliile the fining and reinforeing welts are being stitched in position, the pockets are stronger and more durable than those made in the ordinary way, and the production is greatly increased. (Fig. 25.) Seamin^-trousers machine (outside seam). — ^This machine has a combination needle and drop feed with needle hole in the feed dog. It stitches straight and bias pieces together and brings them out even at the end. Not only is it unnecessary for the cutter to allow an extra length in one of the two pieces to compensate for the gathering action of the feed, but the usually troublesome fuUing along the length of the seam is entirely obviated. The machine is capable of 2,800 stitches per minute. (Figs. 2G and 27.) Lap-seam felling machine. — Where, in the cheaper grades of trousers, it is aesired to make a lap seam fell on the outside seam, the felling machine has a cylinder bed, feeds up the arm, has two needles, and makes the two-tnread chain stitch. It is capable of being run up to 3,400 stitches per minute. The machine makes a perfect fell on the heaviest work without pulling in the feller, and produces a seam that will not wrinkle or pucker at the knee. The machine is made in gauges, or distance between needles, of one-fourth, nine thirty-seconds, or five-sixteenths of an inch. (Fig. 28.) Pants-Hies machine. — The pants-flies machine binds and trims the edge of the fly, making a tight and perfectly flat seam, and at the il 260 men's factory-made clothing industry. same time remov'mg all surplus material; it is adjustable in width of bight from one-sixteenth to one-fourth of an inch. The machine can be driven up to 3,800 stitches per minute. (Figs. 29 and 30.) Binding machine. — The growing fashion of binding the tops of high- grade trousers has led to the development of a number of new machines especiaDy designed for this work. One of these is a vertical trimming and binding machine, which can be fitted to trim from one-eighth to one-half of an inch from the needle, using any size binder required. It has a hole in the bedplate to allow trimmings to pass through. The knife can be thrown into and out of action at will. The machine is capable of a speed of 3,000 stitches per minute. The curtains and canvas can be put in with a single line of stitching about 1 \ inches from the top oi the trousers; the machine will then put the binding on and trim the raw edges of the curtain material and canvas at the same time. (Fig. 31.) Safety devices. — One large machine company is experimenting with a sewing-machine table that will do away with tne danger to the operator from the shafting and belting underneath the machine. Tlie table consists of two shafts, which are covered by a steel tub- ing, running on each side of the table through the transmission. The transmission is completely covered. The belting runs from the machine to the transmission directly beneath the table und is exposed only above the table, whereas in other types, the belting runs from tha machine to the floor. This table has not proved completely satisfac- tory in actual use, but it is only a question of time when it will be perfected so that its general use will be possible. Another device to insure safety to the operator consists of a box that covers the transmitter. It operates on hinges on the bottom of the footboard, and is fastened with a hook to the top of the machine. There is also a cover for the shafting and strap wheel, fastened to the gutter of the table, with the bottom resting on the footboard. This arrangement makes the guard easy to open for cleaning or sweeping under the machine. The coverings are made of sheet metal ancl are easily attached or detached. Whde this guard completely covers the shafting and belting, it does not permit the air to circulate under the table and causes the machine, especially in summer, to become very hot. Pressing irons. — ^Up to about 1903 the irons used in the trade were the ordinary irons heated on a stove. About that time the gas iron was introduced, which was objectionable because it emitted a gas odor. This objection, however, was shortly afterwards removed through the introduction of the blower or air pump. Most of the irons used in the trade are heated by gas, as electncty, which is cleaner and more sani- tan^, is usuaUy not as economical. One type of blower iron in use is heated on the inside by compressed air and gas. The blower is run bv a motor. The iron is macie in all weights from 12 to 20 pounds, in length, from TJ to 8 J inches, and in width, from 4} to 5 J inches, depending upon the weight of the iron. Another type of iron recently put on the market dispenses with the blower. It is a gas and air heated iron, requiring no motor, which can be attached to any gas fixture. It is heated intemaUy by an intense, blue, odorless, noisdess gas and air flame, which can be regulated to any heat desired. The iron is equipped with a removable copper bottom, which better holds the heat, and it is claimed that no flame ^ I i •mK < X .¥- \ MACHINERY AND PROCESSES. 261 comes out of the sides. The iron is made in all weights from 12 to 22 pounds, in shapes broad and short or long and narrow, in lengths from 8 to lOi inches and in width from Z\ to 6 inches. Pressing nmchine. — There are many types of pressing machines on the market. One machine is very simple in construction and extremely strong, and requires very httle floor space. No jumping is necessary. A short, quick, foot-pedal movement by the presser and his weight give more than enougn pressure for the heaviest garment. This great pressure is secured from an automatic power compounder that can be adjusted as desired. The machine oils itself automati- cally. The iron on this machine is heated by a compound of air and gas. It moves straight up and down, without any sidewise motion, which, it is claimed, reduces gloss and prevents the cloth from stretch- ing or curling. The buck is heated by gas only. The machine is especially well adapted, it is claimed, for getting a thin edge on over- coats. Steam pressing machine. — Another type of pressing machine employs steam. Steam pressing machines are made in various shaped bucks for different garments, coats, pants, and vests. The machine can be directly connected with a steam plant, or is equipped with a boiler, so that it is independent. The boiler generates 50 to 65 pounds of steam, and is adapted for a natural or artificial gas or gasoline generating system. In some machines the heads and bucks are steam heated; in others only the head is heated. The head of the press is constructed so that the steam is diffused uniformly to all parte. The inside of the head is covered with asbestos noncorrosive filler, which prevents the goods from showing marks and the buttons from breaking. The foot lever is low, easily reached, and not in the presser's way. Steam is applied to the garment from the head, while usually the buck is continually steam heated and dry during the entire pressing operation. The steam pressing machine is a great producer. There is no question that pressing machines do more work than is possible by hand. It is estimated that the steam press- ing machine will do the work of three men with hand irons. Con- tinued steam pressing, however, is injurious to the garment, unless the fabric, hnings, interhnings, and tapes have aJl been London shrunk; the steam will shrink any portion of the garment that has not previously received the maximum shrinkage. TREATMENT AND PBEPASATION OF CLOTH. Every efficient clothing manufacturer tests his cloth for both strength and composition before such cloth is cut up. To test the cloth for strength, a small cut is firmly inserted into the jaws of the testing machine, and the jaws are then separated until the cloth breaks, a dial indicating the breaking strain. The weight and quality of the cloth will affect the breaking strain, and the cloth must be able to withstand a tensile strength test of at least 30 pounds to the square inch to be used in the manufacture of clothing. If the cloth IS bought as all wool, it is next put through a wool test, the cloth being usually boiled in a solution of potash, in which the wool or silk is consumed, leaving as a residue the filament of any cotton that the cloth may contain. Tests are also made to determine thb : ♦ 262 MEN S FACTORY-MADE CLOTHING INDUSTRY. . ^ MACHINERY AND PROCESSES. 263 quality and fastness of the colors, the cloth being treated with sul- phuric or other acids or exposed to the weather for a week or more. The bolt of cloth is next examined for defects, as cloth seldom comes from the mill without some imperfections. All goods should be examined before and after shrinking, though examination only before shrinking is usual. A bolt of goods is placed in an upright position on a revolving stand, and the cloth is unrolled and sjiread over a roller, back of which projects a triangular bar arrangement called spreaders, which stretches out the goods to the full width. The rollers are geared to a dial, which measures the cloth as the examiner pulls it down over the rollers. The roller or drum is 1 yard in circumference, and every revolu- tion of the roller registers 1 yard on the dial, wliich is marked to measure up to 100 yards of cloth. A yardstick is employed to ascer- tain whether the width is the same as was specified when the cloth was purchased. The examiner pulls the cloth gently over the roUers and, while the machine registers the yardage, exammes the cloth for defects. The examination is made in a north light, as that light is not affected by the sun. The examiner uses the naked eye onW. The following are some of the defects found in an examination of the cloth : Unovon shades, due to poor handling, which causes the dye to take unevenly. Streaks, a defect in the length of the goods caused by poor scouring, wash- ing of the goods, or dyeing. Runners, a foreign thread running along the piece of the goods. The examiner noting a defect ties a piece of narrow tape in the selvage, and frequentl}^ marks the imperfection with tailor's chalk. These marks are to notify the cutter ol the existence of defects when he makes his lay. If the defects in the cloth are serious, the cloth is returned to the mill. If not serious, it is used, the cutter laying out his patterns so that the damages will not affect the salability of the finished garment. A claim for an allowance, however, is made to the miU, which is usually one-eighth of a yard for every defect. Some allowances are settled on a percentage basis, ranging from 5 to 20 per cent. Some mills examine their goods before sending them out, and in this case also, one-eighth of a yard is usually allowed for each defect. After the examination the goods are shrunk or sponged. The term sponging, though generally used in the trade, is a misnomer. Goods may be either steam or London shrunk. Goods are shrunk before being made up into a garment because the finished garment shrinks when it comes in contact with the moisture hi the air or rain; it will not hold its original size and will water spot if the cloth has not previously been shrunk. The cloth slirinks because when it is being finished hi the mill it goes through a process called tentering in which it is stretched. The tension of the machinery also stretches the goods. The use of live steam does not shrink the goods fully but only to a limited extent. In the center of the perforated cylinder over which the cloth is wound is a reheating coil, inside of which live steam is passed. The coil keeps the steam in a dry state. Should Tender in warp or filling. Holes. Changes in filling. Coarse fillings. Uneven fillings. Broken threads. Missed picks. ^ ^-\ the steam condense into water, and the water, instead of steam, pass through the cylinder perforations, the goods when made up and pressed would show water spots. The reheating coil in this machine insures live steam. In anotner machine the penorations are fortified on the inside with little tubes, which are kept constantly hot by the continuous passing of the live steam. These hot tubes prevent the steam that is to pass through the perforations from condensing into water. The live steam permeates the cloth as it is wound around the cylin- der. When the goods are entirely wound, a piece of heavy burlap is rolled around the goods and the cylinder is revolved with the steam passing through. The burlap serves to keep the moisture and dampness off the cloth. London-shrinking is an Enghsh cold-water process. Woolen blankets are soaked in cold water, and the cloth is folded between the damp blankets. A weight of about 200 pounds is placed on top and the blanketed goods allowed to remain for about 12 hours. Tnis Is called putting in damp. The cloth is not permitted to come into direct contact with water, because a discolored cloth often results and because such a method would greatly increase the labor of the process. After dampening, the cloth is hung up on overhead bars, in accordion fashion, and permitted to dry. Natural air-drying is preferred, but when the cloth is required for immediate use, steam pipes or drying machines are employed. If the cloth is permitted to dry by natural air, it takes about 36 hours when the weather is damp and cold and about 24 hours when it is dry. The time necessary for proper drying depends also upon the weight of the cloth. London-shrinking takes off the gloss and much of the cloth made up into clothing is therefore refinisned. Refinishing may be accom- plished in several ways. One method is to book-fold the shrunk goods, glazed cardboards being placed between the folds, and the goods then placed in a hydraulic press. The goods are kept in the press for about 24 hours, under a pressure of 2,200 pounds to 5,000 pounds, depending upon the weight and kind of fabric. Where goods have a tendency not to finish smoothly, previously heated cast-iron plates are put in the press between the pieces of goods. Another method is to roll the goods between heavy smooth cloths. Steam is then passed through and the finish of the cloth is transferred to the fabric. Worsteds and woolens that are steam-shrunk will shrink from three-fourths of an inch to 1 inch to each yard in the warp and fill- ing. Cheviots and diagonally constructed goods, like serges, are liable to shrink more than the above in width, as much as 3, 4, or even 5 inches to the yard, but in warp only about 1 inch or slightly more. Woolens and worsteds that are London-shrunk will shrink about IJ inches to every yard in warp and filling if the construction is uniform. If the goods are not uniform in construction — that is, made of yarns of different numbers, etc. — they may shrink 2 inches to the yard in warp and 1 inch to the yard in fiUing, etc. There is no definite fixed shrinkage. Two pieces of the saine material and yardage may show a variance of shrinkage. Excessive shrinkage is due to the stretching of the goods when they are finished in the mill. L ii 264 men's factory-made clothing industry. ^ ^ 1\ 1^ MACHINERY AND PROCESSES. 265 ( .;■ The cost of steam-shrinking is about 1 cent per yard and of London shrinking about 3 cents per yard. The cost of examining goods is about one-half of a cent per yard. There is no question a^ to the superiority of London-shrinking. Steam-shrinking hardens the fabric and makes it feel coarse. The shape of a coat made of goods London-shrunk is permanent, that of a coat of steam-shrunk material only temporary. A garment that has been London-shrunk will not require pressing for several weeks; a steam-shrunk garment requires pressing about twice a week to hold its shape. A steam-shrunk garment wdl shrink more with wear; a London-shrunk garment has received the maximum shrinkage in the first instance, and it will not shrink with use. The various tests for determining the strength and composition of the fabric and dyes are usually performed by the clothing manu- facturer. The examination of the cloth for defects is often made by the clothing house and often by an outside shrinking establish- ment. Shrinkmg, in New York and Rochester, is usually done by outside shrinking houses that do nothing else. In other clothing centers the very large houses do most of the shrinking themselves. MANTTFACTURINQ PROCESSES. The processes of manufacturing clothing vary with the shop, accord- ing to the kind of product desired, the particular method of manu- facture, and the degree of specialization. There are at present two distinct methods of manufacturing a coat. One is known as the closed method and the other as the open method. In the closed coat the linings and outer material are made up separately, laid together and stitched by a machine around the edges, and then turned like a bag. In the open method the linings and outside material are built up together, the former being fitted and adjusted to the outer fabric piece by piece. In the closed method the collar and undercollar are sewed respectively to the lining and the outer shell of the coat. In the open method the collar is made separate from the rest of the gannent, and it is set in place by hand after the rest of the coat is put together. Until a few years ago, the closed method was generally used in the manufacture of ready-made cloth- ing. At present, it is used only to a limited extent and only on ch'eap clothing. Somo shops employ a combination of the open and closed methods. The order of the processes and the number differ in two shops making the same grade of goods, especially coats. Some houses employ more handwork than others, some have more underpress- ing, and some more examination of the work while in process. It is impossible to draw up a single set of processes as applicable to the clothing trade. Following are the coat processes of two of the largest houses in New York, one manufacturing the highest grade and the other a medium grade of clothing: HIGH-GRADE COAT. V X, Y A~ -^M i . t 1 . Collar making. 2. Trimming. 3. Serging. 4. Pocket making. 5. Joining. 6. Seam and pocket pressing. 7. lining making. 8. Sleeve making. 9. Stitching undercollar and sewing up eleeve lining. 10. Basting in sleeve lining. 11. Basting wigan on sleeves. 12. Canvas making. 13. Canvas basting. 14. Pocket tacking. 15. Lapel padding. 16. Canvas front pressing. 17. Shaping. 18. First basting. 19. Edge-tape sewing. 20. Edge-tape felling. 21. Edge-tope pressing. 22. Edge basting. 23. Second basting. 24. Drawing in armholes — shoulder-seam basting. 25. Amihole pressing. 26. Undercollar basting. 27. Felling in collar. 28. Sleeve basting. 29. Shoulder and sleeve sewing. 30. Sleeve pressing. 31. Undercollar pressing, 32. Armhole basting. 33. Collar covering. 34. Coat stitching. 35. Finishing. 36. Buttonhole cutting. 37. Buttonhole making. 38. Basting pulling. 39. Edge pressing. 40. Off pressing. 41. Button sewing. 42. Busheling. MEDIUM-GRADE COAT. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. Fitting. Pocket making. Joining. Seam pressing. Canvas basting. Shoulder closing and collar making. Front pressing. Shaping. Under bastii^. Tape sewing. Tape felling. Tape pressing. Edge basting. Corner tacking. 15. Lining basting. 16. Sewing in sleeves. 17. Coat stitching. 18. Armhole prising. 19. Armhole basting. 20. Buttonhole making. 21. Busheling. 22. Edge pressing. 23. Shape pressing. 24. Button sewing. 25. Coat pressing. 26. Brushing and cleaning. 27. Final pressing. On account of variations of processes there is no standard bv which the comparative production of various workers caa be judged. Cutters and pressers always, and shapers usually, are men in every shop and in every locality. Other operations performed by men in one shop may be performed by women in another. As a general rule it may be stated that men do the great proportion of machine work, basting, and those operations, like examining, brushing, etc., which require constant standing. The women do the great propor- tion of felling and handwork and minor operations, like tackuig, sewing buttons, buttonholes, etc. The following description of processes is not intended as a standard. They are the processes as they were found in one of the largest fac- tories making a fine line of goods and will serve to indicate in a general way how factory ready-to-wear clothing is made. Designing has been omitted, as it is not strictly one of the processes. Minor opera- tions have been omitted. The various examinations througtiout the processes have been omitted, only the final examination being given. 266 men's factory-made clothing industry. MACHINERY AND PROCESSES, 267 .u COAT PROCESSES. Cloth cutting.— The cloth is laid up either by the cutter or a helper, and the cutter then proceeds to make his lay— that is, to lay out the paper pattern of the desired style and size with the least waste of material. The cutter then marks the cloth with tailors chalk. Some houses have a set of patterns for every size of a particular style. Others, however, having patterns for only a few sizes, the cutter must frequently, in marking his lay, allow for the size required. Often a customer wants his coat 2 inches shorter than the sample. The cutter in marking must not only do this but must so mark his pattern that the style will not be made ludicrous and out of propor- tion by the 2-inch shortening. In laying out the pattern the different parts of the garment must be marked out with regard to stripe or pattern matching, shade matching, and saving of material. While the saving of material is an important function of the cutter, the use of more or less material depends to a great extent upon the manufacturing pohcy of the house. If the pants are made without a pieced crotch, one-eighth of a yard more wiU usually be required unless the pattern is reversed. Reversing the pattern often, however, makes the goods cut in this manner appear shadexl. Some houses not particular as to the crease being parallel with the stripe, w'lU lav in the pattern of the pants so as to take advantage of the edge of Most houses cut their goods folded, but in some of the very best houses the goods are cut on the open— that is, the goods are opened up to their fuU width. The goods after behig marked arc cut by shears, electric cutters, or long knives worked by hand. If the cutting is doiie by a long knife, the table contains iron-lined slote through which the knife is worked. Most houses employ the electric cutter, as it is most economical for bulk cutting. The long knife is used to some extent in cutting cloth, but its chief use is for cutting linings and trimmings. Shears are employed m many of the houses manufacturing the finest grade of goods. These houses usually cut the garments one or at most two at a time, because, making the finest line, their orders for any particular style and size are small, and two buyers will rarely purchase the same style without minor changes. The cloth being often stripes or plaids, it is very difficult to match these properly in order to permit bulk cutting. Shears are used to cut these single garments because shears are most convenient and accurate for cutting two or four thicknesses of cloth. Lininq and trimming cutting.— Limv.^ and trimmings hke canvas, haircloth, stays, pockets, etc., are cut by a trimming cutter, who usually is not as proficient as the cloth cutter. ITiis cuttmg is generally done by electiic machines or lono; knives. From* the cutter the cut goods go to the trimmer, who matches up the fabrics with the linings, buttons, and sdk and assembles everythir.g that is to be employed in making the garment. Machine operating.— The darts are first sewed together on a sowmg machhie. T^e dart is the underarm cut, where the goods has been taken out to make the coat conform to the shape of the body. It is the line seam running from the armhole to the pocket. The same operator sews in the pockets. Pocket work is done m tearas one operator piecing the pocket and another sewmg it m. (i^ig. ^2.) L ■ Umlfrwesdrui — Tho pockets are then pressed. Throughout the nrocS^SZreihfg Fs frequent, and is generally done on preying ZS ^f varying pressures:^ Light-pressured machmes are used to ♦h« liniiKTs and scams heavv-pressured machmes for the canvas ana for t^e^fees on he^y overcoats. The iron of the pressing machme s hSld ly g^San be used ahnost immediately a ter hghtmg. The ™rl is secured by the presser standmg on a foot lever Jmnina —The seams of the coat are next closed on the mside on a seZne macWne The front, side, and back seams are closed, put- ting togltherthe outer shoU of the co.t. The seams are then pressed ""fir'itin? ar^ paAZi«^.-^ver a piece of -«;«f j^^T^d a niece of haircloth, then wigan, and then felt. The haircloth ana fo^ arc ncc^sarv to hold up the chest of the coat, the wigan to hold the front fim The operator puts these four fabrics m proper posi- tion and se,^' them oTa paddLg machine, which makes one zigzag sXh to hoTd them togetU. The needle of this machme works m a triangle ThS maclSne can also bo «sed for pad^g these parts bnt in tWs factory tho padding is done by hand. With needle a.nd fcUd *a irisewLeveFal huifdred haW^n^h -g^^titc^^^ give the combined four parts strength and flexibihty. Ihe canvas ' KS tX^-TirclfJ'^LtlltSi^^^ the cloth onto the iTdded canvas. The work is done by hand with needle and to^d The baater makes four or five rows of stitches of about Saif to three-fourths of an i.,ch, the stitches running the length of the coat and according to the desired shape of the garment. The nJdcd canvas is thus hfld in position until tho coat is completed ^SSTnl-The canvas^ the lapels of the coat is next padded or ooverKtR numerous rows of smaU zigza- stitches about one- fourth of irinch long. The work is done by hand with needle and thread PaddTng insures strength and flexibility. In some factories ttlapel i^ pldid by machine. The lapels and fronts are then ^""sirw fr" W '% The lining of the coat is then basted to the coat and to the collar at the neck and armholes, and the armholes are basted around with a heavy thread. At the same time smaU cotton pads to give the shoulder a weU rounded appearance are inserted. (Fig. 36). Finishing. — Finishing consists in feUing the armholes, bottoms, sleeve linings, coUar, shoulders, and everything that has been basted. In some shops f eUing is done by machines ; in this factory one fin- isher does aU the feUing by hand. Buttonhoh m/iking. — The coat goes to a man who marks the place for buttonholes, the points at which the buttonholes are to be made having been indicated by the cutter. The marker, using a pattern, marks with chalk the place for the lapel buttonhole, and with a ruler draws a line across the points designated by the cutter for the other buttonholes. With a hand punch, which has a blade the length of the required buttonhole, he then cuts the buttonhole through. There are two blades, a plain one for the lapel and another with an eyelet at the end, for the buttonholes. After the buttonholes have been cut, the coat goes to a girl who sews the buttonholes by hand. She uses a hook stitch and a heavy twisted silk thread, underneath which is a gimp (a rope-like thread). The gimp is led around the buttonhole and is overcast and looped by the sUk thread. The buttonholes are then basted so that they wm not stretch in pressing and are tacked on a special tacking machine or by hand. Some fac- tories make their buttonholes by machinery. Ed^e stitching. — The edges of the coat are then stitched on a machine. Starting at the bottom of the coat and up the front, the stitching continues around the collar and down the other front, so as to stitch the complete edging of the coat. AU basting threads that remain on the coat are pulled out by hand. All the edges of the coat are pressed on a high-pressured machine, the high pressure insuring a thin edge. Offorjin/il pressina. — The coat then goes to the presser, who with a hand blower-iron, heated internally by gas, presses the entire gar- ment. He takes out all wrinkles, smooths out the lining, takes off the gloss caused by the heavy pressing machines, and gives the coat its proper shape. This pressing reauires skill, as the final appearance of tne coat is greatly affected by tne presser's ability. (Fig. 37). Button sewing. — After the places for buttons have been marked, by placing the buttonhole edge over the other and making a chalk mark: through the buttonhole, a girl sews the buttons on by hand. The button must be firmly set in, properly tacked, and sewed through the canvas but not through the facing. Some factories sew their buttons on by machinery. The button sewer also sews on the already Erepared coat hanger and size ticket and opens the buttonhole astings. Brushing, cleaning, examining^ and husheling. — All thread and un- necessary tickets are removed and the coat is given a thorough brush- ing to remove aU dust. Loose threads are picked off and others cut with Scissors. Often the brushers are also examiners. The examiner looks for defects in the sewing, sees that the coat is the proper size, and looks to the general workmanship. The coats are tried on liviug models and examined as to fit for the various sizes. This is the final examination ; other examinations have previously been held at certain stages of the work. \ 270 MEN S FACTORY-MADE CLOTHING INDUSTRY. MACHINERY AND PROCESSES. 271 If the final examiner finds anjr defect in the garment, it is turned over to the busheler for alteration. The busheler is an all-around tailor who is generally capable of correcting all defects found by the examiner. The qoat is now ready for shipment. The coats are hung up on racks, each coat on a separate hanger, to prevent it from becoming wrinkled or crushed, so that repressing will not bo necessary when the goods are shipped. (Fig. 38). VEST PROCESSES. Cntting. — See coat processes. Welt trimming, — The making of the vest begins with the trimming of the welt, the patch or the flap of the pocket. The place for the pocket or welt is marked in the cutting room. The welt trimmer with shears cuts the welt to the proper length, according to the stripe or pattern of the material. The welt maker then seams up the darts on a sewing machine and also sews the three sides of the weft to the lining of the pocket. The sewing is done on the inside. The welt sewed to the pocket lining is turned right side out, and the edges of the welt are stitched on a machine. The stitched welt and dart seams are pressed, after which the welt is trimmed of! to the proper width. The welt is then sewed to the fore part on a sewing machine, the place having been marked by the cutter. The operator, with the aid^of a ruler, marks a straight line where the welt is to bo sewed, care being exercised that stripes, etc., match. Poclcet'lining sewing. — The hnings of the upper pockets are then sewed on a machine, after which both pockets are cut open with shears and the ends of the pockets notched so that they will, when pressed, lie smooth. The seams of the pockets, where tliey have been cut open, are then pressed. After pressing, the pockets are turned right side out, and the pocket. linings trimmed to the proper length. The pockets are stitched down to the underseam on a machine, so that the pockets will not be pulled out when in use. Another oper- ator on a machine then stitches around the pockets, sewing them up. The edge of the welt is tacked down on a single-needle macliine, so that it will not pull out. Wigan hasting and trimming. — An operator on a chain-stitch ma- chine bastes the wigan under each vest front with one row of chain stitches and another girl with shears trims the wigan to conform to the edge of the vest and also trims the armholes. Tlie welt tacks are then pressed down. Shaping. — The front edge, including the lapels, and the bottom edge of the vest are then trimmed by shears. Lining maling.— An operator on a machine seams the facing and the darts in the lining, and sews the front facing on the lining. The inside vest-pocket maker then makes the completer inside vest pocket, makes the welt, cuts it open with shears, turns the pocket in, tacks the comers of the welt, and sews up the pocket on the inside. The underliner bastes together by hand with large stitches the facing that has been sewed to the lining and the right side of the vest. Taping. — The neck pieces are seamed on a sewing machine. The operator then sews a tape about three-eighths of an inch in width ^ound the front and bottom edges of the vest and around the arm- -< holes. The neck piece, seams, and tape are pressed and the vest is turned right side out. Ba^ck making. — A machine operator then makes and sews on the buckle strap, seams up the dart and center back, and joins the inside and outside lining bottoms. The front and bottom edges and the armholes are next stitched on a sewing machine. Plait making and hacking. — A girl hand-bastes a plait in the lining to allow for expansion, and also puts a few stitches in the width where the lining projects over the facing. She then cuts off the surplus lining with shears. The operator receives the back lining already made and seams it on a sewing machine to the shoulders, sides, and armholes. The seaming is done on the wrong side. The vest is then turned right side out. Buttonhole making. — The cutter marks the place for the top and bottom buttonholes. The buttonhole marker puts the top and bottom marks on a graduated board, which enables him to mark with chalk the places where the other buttonholes ought to be, according to the number of buttonholes for that particular style. He then places the vest on a chopping block, and with a mallet and a chisel-like blade having an eyelet at the end, chops out the buttonholes. The buttonhole is supposed to be one-half inch from the edge, but the marker uses only his eye in getting this distance. The buttonholes having been cut, the vest goes to a girl who sews the buttonholes by hand. She uses a hook stitch and a heavy twisted silk thread underneath which is a gimp (a rope-like thread). The gimp is led around the buttonhole and is overcast and looped by the sdk thread. The buttonholes are then basted so that they will not stretch in pressing. Neck felling. — A girl fells the neck inside and outside, by hand, sews on the fcuckle, and tacks the buckle strap to the inside lining. Off pressing. — The entire vest is then pressed with a hand blower- iron, neated internally by gas. The presser takes off the gloss caused by the heavy pressing machines, takes out wrinkles, smooths out the lining, and gives the garment its shape and finish. Button sewing. — ^In the coat the buttonholes were placed over the other edge and a mark for buttons made through the buttonholes. In the vest a horizontal line is drawn even with the buttonholes. A point is then made by ruler, seven-eighths of an inch from the edge for the top button and five-eighths of an inch from the edge for the bottom button. A ruler is then drawn through these two points and a mark is made where this line intersects the horizontal lines. These intersecting points indicate where the buttons are to be sewed. After the place has been marked for buttons, they are sewed on by hand. The buttons must be firmly set in, properly tacked, and sewed so that the stitches will not show through the facing. The button sewer opens the buttonhole bastings and sews on the size tickets. Brushing, cleaning, examining, and husheling. — The cleaner, with a hand brush and whisk broom, brushes the vest thoroughly. He picks off loose threads and cuts other threads with small scissors. Often the brusher is also the examiner. He looks for defects in the work- pianship and sees that the vest is the proper size. Some vests are 272 MEN S FACTORY-MADE CLOTHING INDUSTRY. MACHINERY AND PROCESSES. 273 t tried on to insure proper fit. This examination is the final one; throughout the various processes, at certain intervals, there have been examinations of the work up to that time. The vest does not often require busheling, because it is of much simpler construction than the coat. Tne vest is now readv for shipment. It is sent to the stock room to be assembled with the proper coat and pants. PANTS PROCESSES. Cutting. — See coat processes. Bastinq crotch pieces. — A girl hand bastes the crotch pieces on each part. There are four parts, two front and two back. Serffing. — To prevent the edges from raveling, all the seams are serged on a special serging machine that makes a zigzag stitch. Fly buttonhole maJcing. — The fly buttonholes are generally made by machine. The place for the buttonhole is marked by the trimmer. The buttonhole machine sews around the buttonhole, and then a plunger knife cuts it through. The top and back pocket buttonholes are made by hand, being cut by shears and then sewed. Piecing out, poclcet stitching, and closing. — An operator on a machine makes both flies, sews in the front and back pockets, and sews the two fly pieces to the lining. The pockets are basted and pressed. An operator on a machine then stitches around the pockets, after which tine pockets are turned, closed up, and pressed. This factory sews the pockets because it has been found that the serging machine occasionally misses a stitch resulting in a pocket with a hole. Seaming. — ^The four separate parts of the pants, front and back of each leg, are matched up for seaming. The seamer takes the iront and back lengths for each side and sews the seams on a machine. The out-seam is usually a raised cord seam, made by first sewing a plain seam, then gathering or making a plait, and again seaming. The out-seam of each part is sewed first and then the in-seams are made and the buttonhole fly sewed on. The seams are then pressed. In the case of pants for stout men, as a continuous waistband would be too loose, a separate waistband is sewed in after the out- seam has been stitched. Serging fiy, putting in canvas, top turning, and tachin/j. — The button- hole fly is then serged on a special machine, which trims the edge and tacks down the end with a zigzag stitch. Canvas is sewed around the waistband by machine. The top of the pants and the pockets are hand basted, after which the top of the pants is pressed. The pockets are tacked on a special tacking machine. The machine makes a definite number of stitches and makes a bar tack so that the pocket can not stretch or tear. Only the front pockets are tacked on this special machine. The back and watch pockets are tacked on the ordinary sewing machine. Joining. — An operator on a machine then stitches the top of the pants, sews on the lower end of the belt loops, and seams the pants together in the crotch. Fastening loops and finishing. — The loops, the lower ends of which have been sewed on by machine, are folded over the top of the pants < f A ► — 1 .--4 < and sewed down by hand, on the inside just over the edge. The back seam is then pressed. The finisher sews on the waistband on the inside and fells the waistband; she also sews on the fly buttons, the place for these buttons having been determined by placing the buttonhole fly over the other fly and making a chalk mark through the buttonhole. The finisher also sews on the top and back buttons. All the basting threads are now pulled out by hand. Pressing. — A pressor with a gas-blower iron shapes the legs of the pants, pressing them on the wrong side. An off presser with a gas- olower iron then presses the pants on the right side. He takes out the wrinkles, takes off the gloss caused by the heavy pressing machines, and gives the pants a finished appearance. Brushing, cleaning, examining^ and husheling. — ^All threads and unnecessary tickets are then removed. The pants are brushed thoroughly to remove all dust. The brusher is often the examiner also. He looks for defects in the sewing and general workmanship and sees that the pants are the proper size. This examination is the final one, but throughout the various processes, at certain intervals, there have been examinations of the work done up to that time. The making of the pants is simple as compared with the making of the coat. Fit and lines are not so important and defects rarely occur, so that only occasionally are pants sent to the busheler. The pants are now ready for shipment and are sent to the stock room to be assembled with the proper coat and vest. IWU**— 16 ^18 II '1 CHAPTER IX. FOBEIGH TBADE. IMPOBTS. The imports of clothing into the United States are almost neglirible and are generally Engli^ overcoats, novelty garments like the Bal- macaan, and golfing and motoring clothes. No sack suits are imported. The people in this country who demand English clothes are few. They reside usually in the seaport cities, New York, Boston, etc., and are in touch with England, either socially or commercially. A few people buy English clothes because of the English label. Some Amencan manufacturers put fictitious foreign labels on Ameri- can goods to please a certain class of purchasers. Enghsh ready-made clothing is not comparable with the American. The English hand tailoring is poor, except in the finest custom work. Very conservative styles of men's clothing are worn in England ; the moaels do not change from one season to another as they do in this country. High-salaried designers are employed by the larger clothing factories in the United States, who are constantly introducing attractive styles. Manufacturers in the United States assert that the styles of clothing made in other countries are so inferior to the styles originated in this country that the foreign product can find Httle sale here. The people of tne United States have been educated to the behef that American clothing is better in style than the clothing made anywhere else in the world, and this befief is common with almost all classes of people. Even the workingmen in the United States demand style in the clothing they buy. The preference of the American pubhc for American styles is a great protection to manu- facturers 01 clothing. American people believe not only that the styles of clothing for men that are originated in the United States are superior to those that come from other countries, but also that the workmanship of the domestic product is superior to the workmanship on ready-made clothing produced in foreign coimtries. This beliei accounts, in a measure, for the tremendous increase in the production of factory- made clothing in the United States during the last 20 years. While the manufacture of ready-made clothing is one of the large industries in the United States, this industry is of comparatively small importance in other countries. The completeness of the factory equipment, the thoroughness of the factory organization, and the efficiency of the wormng force, which are noticeable in many establishments for making men's clothing in this country, are not even approached in other countries. Nearly all the ready- made clothing manufactured in Europe is of low-grade, cheap varie- ties, and is almost invariably manufactured in small factories, in shops, or in the homes of the workers, 274 ^^ FOREIGN TKADE. 275 i ^ ^ V The statistics of imports do not separately specify the imports of men's clothing, but it is known that such imports are very small. No complaint about foreign competition was made by any manufac- tiu^ers interviewed during this investigation. The imports for consumption of wearing apparel, composed wholly or in part of wool, worsted, etc., during the 18 fiscal years 1898 to 1915 are shown in the following table: Table 53^Imports fob Consumption op Weaeinq Apparel, Composed Wholly OE IN Paet of Wool, Woested, Etc., and Duty Collected, Fiscal Yeaes Ended June 30, 1898, to 1915. Fiscal years. Imports. Duty col- lected. Aver- value per pound. Average Tariff acts. Pounds. Value. ad valo- rem rate of duty. Act of July 24, 1897: Manufactures composed wholly or in part of wool,worsted, the hair of the camel, goat , alpaca, or other animals: Clothing, ready made, and articles of wear- ing apparel made up or manufactured wholly or in part, not including hats of wool, knitted articles, shawls, cloaks, dol- mans, jackets, talmas, ulsters, orother out- side garments for ladies' and children's apparel, and articles of similar description or used for like purposes. Rate of duty, 44 cents per pound and 60 per cent ad va- lorem ]ol898 1899 1900 1901 1902 1903 1904 1905 1906 1907 1908 1909 1910 1911 1912 1913 «>1914 «:1914 1915 169,235 297,421 332,728 318,020 394,675 510,491 412,776 364,989 421,063 383,259 436,724 359,575 525,452 607,264 576,040 476,009 302,929 1568,409 707, 795 818, 198 865,351 1,003,783 1,336,653 1,074,681 1,020,811 1,153,271 1,016,250 1,101,924 969,433 1,353,074 1,794,081 1,608,156 1,481,068 901,380 732,320 1,317,649 $415, 506 555,542 637,319 659, 140 775,927 1,026,608 826,430 773,082 877,230 778,384 853,313 739,873 1,043,043 1,343,645 1,218,351 1,098,085 674,115 256,312 461,177 $3.36 2.38 2.46 2.72 2.54 2.62 2.60 2.80 2.74 2.65 2.52 2.70 2.58 2.95 2.79 3.11 2.98 73.10 78.49 77.89 76.17 77.30 76.80 76.90 75.73 76.06 76.-59 77.44 76.34 Act of Aug. 5, 1909: Same classification and rate 77.09 74.89 75.76 Act of Oct 3, 1913: Manufactures composed wholly or in part of wool , worsted , the hair of the camel , goat, alpaca, or other animals* Clothing, ready made, and articles of wear- ing apparel, made up or manufactured wholly or in part, not Including gloves, mittens, hats, shawls, hosiery, or other knitted articles. Kate of duty, 35 per cent ad valorem 74.14 74.79 35.00 35.00 • July 24, 1897, to June 30, 1898. » July 1 , 1913, to Dec. 31, 1913. c Jan. 1, 1914, to June 30, 1914. By this table it will be seen that during the fiscal years 1898 to 1909, while the Dingley Act was in force, the computed ad valorem rate of duty varied from 73.10 to 78.49, and that during the fiscal years 1909 to 1913, while the Payne-Aldrich Act was in force, the computed ad valorem rate of duty varied from 74.14 to 77.09. By the Simmons-Underwood Act the rate was reduced to 35 per cent ad valorem. The table shows that during the period from July 1, 1913, to December 31, 1913, the imports amoimted to $901,380 imder'the rates of duty of the Payne-Aldrich Act; and during the period from January 1, 1914, to July 1, 1914, the imports amounted to $732,320 under the Underwood-Simmons Act, a total of $1,633,700 during the fiscal year 1914. The following table shows the imports for consumption of specified articles of wearmg apparel, manufactured of cotton, for 18 years, the fiscal years 1898 to 1915, inclusive; il 276 men's factoey-made clothing industry. Table 54.— Imports for Consumption op Cotton Wearing Apparel, and Duty Collected, Fiscal Years Ended June 30, 1898 to 1915. Tar ifl acts. Act of July 24, 1897: Wearing apparel of cotton or other vege- table fiber not otherwise provided for: Clothing, ready- made, and articles of wearing apparel of every description, made up or manufactured, wholly or in part, by the tailor, seamstress, or manufacturer, and not otherwise provided for; including neckties or neckwear, and all kinds of cotton gloves; not including corsets, collars and cutis, hosiery, or other knit goods Act of Aug. 5, 1909: Wearing apparel composed of cotton or other vegetable fll>er not otherwise provided for: Clothing, readv made, and articles of wearing apparel of every de- scription, of which cotton or other vegetable fiber is the component material of chief value, made up or manufac- tured wholly or in part by the tailor, seamstress, or manu- facturer, and not otherwise provided for; including neck- ties or neckwear, gloves, except for men and boys; not in- cluding corsets, collars and cuffs, hosiery, or other knit goods. Act of Oct. 3, 1913: Wearing apparel composed of cotton or other vegetable fiber, except flax, hemp, or ramie, or of which cotton or other vegetable fiber is the component material of chief value, or of same with india-rubber: Cloth- ing, readv-made, and articles of wearing apparel of every description, made up or manufactured wholly or in part by the tailor, seamstress, or manufacturer, not especially pro- vided for; including neckties or neckwear; not including corsets, gloves, collars £md cuffs, hosiery, or other knit goods. Fiscal Vahie of Duty Rate of years. imports. collected. duty. Percent. 01898 $546,744 $273,372 50.00 1899 622,012 311,006 50.00 1900 746,526 373,263 5a 00 1901 902,688 451,344 50.00 1902 1,020,735 510,368 50.00 1908 1,556,834 778,417 5a 00 1904 1,616,862 808,431 50.00 1905 1,435,457 717,728 5a 00 1906 1,703,837 851,919 saoo 1907 1908 2,766,144 3,221,322 1,383,072 1,660,661 5a 00 5a 00 1909 1,564,093 782,347 5a 00 1910 2,028,539 1.014,269 5a 00 1911 1,884,849 942,425 saoo } 1912 1,871,477 935,739 5a 00 1913 2,277,876 1,13S,938 50.00 t>1914 676,684 338,342 saoo a914 387,926 116,378 saoo 1915 310,809 93,243 saoo a July 24, 1807, to June 30, 1898. » July 1, 1913, to Oct. 3, 1913. c Oct. 4, 1913, to June 30, 1914. The imports shown in this table include shirts and other garments for men and garments for women and children. It is impossible to ssLj how large were the imports of any particular kind oi cotton clothmg. As shown by Table 53, the imports of woolen wearing apparel amounted to $1,633,700 ($901,380 -f $732,320) during the fiscal year 1914, and as shown by Table 54, the imports of cotton wearing apparel amounted to $1,064,610 ($676,684 + $387,926) during the same year. The total imports of woolen and cotton wearing apparel, including ready-made clothing for men, women, and children, auring the fiscw year 1914 amounted to $2,698,310. This amount is a very small proportion of the value of the production of men's and boy's clothing m the United States, as reported by the Census of Manufactures and as shown by Table 3. The production of such clothing in the United States m 1909 was $485,677,493. The rates of duty on woolen cloths, as well as the rates on woolen clothing, prescribed by the tariff act of 1913 became effective January 1, 1914. It was expected that on account of the reduction in the rates of duty there would be large imports of woolen cloths. The field work in this investigation was done during the spring of 1915. Very few of the estabhsmnents that reported had used any foreign fabrics in the clothing they had manulactured during the previous year. Of the 64 establishments canvassed only 8 stated that they had used any foreign fabrics or outer cloths. Of the fabrics used by these 8 manufactiirers one manufacturer stated that he imported 16 - '^ ^ J^ •'^ '■ i FOEEIGN TRADE. 277 to 18 })or cent, three imported 4 per cent, one 1 percent, and three a still smaller percentage. Some of these 8 manufacturers also imported woolen linings, canvas, and velvet to a limited extent. Many manu- facturers who were interviewed during this investigation claimed that American materials are generally, at the present time, equal to EngHsh fabrics except in the very expensive grades. EXPOBTS. The exports of clothing from the United States are insignificant as compared with the domestic production. Most of the exports of clothing before the war began m Europe were sent to North Ameri- can countries, principally Canada and Mexico. The exports of cloth- ing to Europe were very small before the war began, but a few of the larger manufacturers have sold goods to retailers in London, Berlin, Vienna, Paris, Sydney, Melbourne, and other large cities, usually on the same terms as they sell their goods in this country. Clothing that is exported to European cities is manufactured in American styles from European fabrics imported in bond. The first American clothing sold in Europe was marketed in England about 1907 or 1908. The most significant result of the export of American clothing to Europe has been the effect on the EngHsh ready-made clothing manufacturere, who, since the introduction of American clothes, have improved their product to a considerable extent. In cheap clothing American manufacturers can not compete with the fore^ers in their own market, as the cost of manuf actunng in the United States is much higher because of the difference in the cost of labor. German wholesale ready-made manufacturers still have farm- ers' wives making up entire garments. The foreigner who wants a good suit goes to his custom tailor. In Europe the majority of people have both the means and the desire for good clothing. A start has been made by several American firms selling ready-made clothing. American manufacturers should enter on a campaign to educate Europeans to the advantages of ready-made clothing, the superiority of American workmanship, and the reasonable prices that put good, ready-made clothing withm the reach of everyone. The same demand for ready-made clothhig that exists in this country can be created in Europe by earnest, insistent, and honest effort. The adherence of European manufacturers to obsolete manufacturing methods gives the efficient American manu- facturer his greatest opportunity. With a few exceptions American manufacturers have done little to develop an export trade outside of Canada and Mexico. What little clothing is exported to Central and South America is usually sold through a buyer or agent resident in this country. American manufacturers claim that the South American tariffs are too high and operate against them, but that with more favorable tariffs American manufacturers could do considerable business. The South American trade demands long selling terms and liberal credit, which American manufacturers have generally been unwilling to extend, demanding payment for the goods or a guaranty from the agent. American banking connections were poor. There was no personal business relationship between the American manufacturer and his South American customer. Seldom, if ever, did the American manu- facturer's salesman visit South America. \\ V ' li |l; 278 MEN S FACTOBY-MADE CLOTHING INDUSTRY. There is one lesson that American manufacturers who desire a Profitable foreign trade can learn from successful European exporters, n the past American manufacturers have made the same goods for foreign markets as for the American market, with the attitude that the foreign merchants could take it or leave it. The service of some commodities, for example of a watch, woidd be the same in New York or Vienna. But m wearing apparel a different condition pre- sents itself. The South American or European does not want Amer- ican styles. What he desires is his own ideas worked out in up-to- date American factories. The success of the foreign exporter is due to his catering to the needs and desires of his export trade. American manufacturers must do likewise. They must study foreign condi- tions, and foreign languages, and familiarize themselves with the customs, needs, and desires of their prospective customers. Though South America offers some field for the exportation of cloth- ing, Europe, South Africa, and Australasia offer the greatest oppor- tunity. The majority of the people in South America wear only shirts and trousers and those of the cheapest cotton material. The 64 establishments that reported during this investigation were asked what percentage of tneir net sales was exported and what efforts they had made to build up a foreign trade. One estab- lishment reported that 10 per cent of its net sales was exported, and two that 1 per cent of their net sales was exported. Seven other establishments reported small exports. The countries to which exports were made by these 10 establishments, so far as stated, are Canada, the Bahamas, Cuba, Mexico, Panama, Peru, and AustraUa. It is known, however, that one large establishment that declined to report has exported goods to London, England. Most of the manufacturers who were interviewed in regard to export trade confessed that they took little interest in it, so little in fact that they had not even made inquiries about the best means of establishing such a trade. Mr. W. K. Corwine, of New York City, secretary of the National Association of Clothiers, in 1915 said in an interview with an agent of the Bureau: There has been no systematic effort to introduce American clothing in South America. A manufacturer in Chicago said: We have made no investigation of the conditions surrounding the possibility of export business, have no information, and, therefore, are not in a position to answer intelligently on this subject. A member of a very large establishment in New York City said: I believe that the American manufacturer does not adapt himself to exporting trade It apparently seems to be too troublesome for him. We have not attempted to establish a foreign trade, although we might enter into this through an expert exporter who claims to be able to place our merchandise in South America as well as in Spain. A member of another large firm in New York City said: We intend going into South American export trade. South America Is coming to the United States for clothing. American manufacturers have regarded South Amer- ica as a dumping ground for any of their old merchandise, with the idea that if the goods were taken, well and good, and if they were not taken it did not make any differ- ence. They never really cared for the traide. 'i -■< FOREIGN TRADE. 279 The president of another large clothing-manufacturing company in New York City made the following statement : We have not done enough foreign trade to say whether it is profitable or not. To some extent we have endeavored to establish foreign trade by sending salesmen to South America and the West Indies. The results have not been worth considering, as the class of ^oods that we manufacture is too high for the retail trade wben landed in most countries with duties added. We understand that there is a limited foreign demand, mostly from South America, but not in our grade of goods. Goods for export sold by us have usually been sold through export agents, to whom we have paid commissions. Export agents with whom we have done business have usually guaranteed payments. In our opinion foreign trade has not grown faster because the representatives of American factories have not been natives of the countries in which they have traveled and have not taken the foreign business seriously enough, nor have they been, in our experience, good enough salesmen. Some manufactm-ers who were interviewed expressed the belief that a sale for two-piece suits could be found in Central and South American countries. Under a section of this chapter headed '^Re- ports from American Consuls, " p. 287, will be found communications from representatives of the United States in other countries explain- ing opportunities for establishing or extending trade in men's clothing in those countries. The following table shows the value of the woolen wearing apparel pf all kinds made in the United States and exported to the various countries of the world during the fiscal years ended June 30, 1908 to 1915: Table 55.— Domestic Exports op Woolen Wearing Apparel, by Countries, During the Years Ended June 30, 1908 to 1915. Countries. EXJBOPK. Austria-Hungary Azores, and Madeira Is. Belgium Denmark Finland France Germany Gibraltar Greece Italy Netherlands Norway... Portugal Russia in Europe Serbia, Montenegro, Albania Spain Sweden Switzerland Turkey in Europe United Kingdom: England Scotland Ireland and NORTH AMERICA. Bermuda British Honduras Canada Ontral American States: Costa Rica Guatemala Honduras Nicaragua Panama Salvador Mexico Miquelon. Langley, etc Newfoundland and Labrador 1908 tI80 93 100 2,485 16,240 400 3,115 710 612 178 288 180 90 39,203 1,395 2,254 923,815 18,382 5,306 2,712 43,631 1,098 363,910 715 5,234 1909 f616 1,239 40 100 167 3,657 2,222 315 18 175 596 24,795 1,144 215 2440 3,672 825,810 4,253 8,324 3,195 2,898 58,372 2,336 288,042 100 4,169 1910 1896 190 510 47 3,903 9,739 250 156 375 50 18,715 691 50 1 452 812 997,981 2,857 2,122 1,062 1911 t2,062 732 14,982 2,685 45 185 1912 f225 678 2,536 118 2,648 263 10 20,859 698 160 620 937,410 2,800 6,520 1,919 2,102 9,141 1,455 278,802 151 9,8601 1201 17,081 785 826 3,746 1,105,572 5,137 10,351 6,470 4,492 36,830 2,439 299,614 S9 7,486 1913 1914 t453 236 2,375 2,258 95 2,871 9,907 3,980 130 561 12 30 275 663 11,041 132,672 993 1,826 4,013 1,456,950 2,499 31,889 6,638 4,834 83,913 1,582 402,803 $3,882 255 909 105 15,140 12,945 5,235,029 50 4,741 792 820 289 421 40 1,239 25 57,881 50,639 1,190 1915 SI, 600 168.308 6,570 9,113 4,639 43,320 620 49 770 8,125 60 115 2,187 1,631,376 3,278 359 1,639 402 5, 162 3, 142 1,389,1261,107,243 17,607 2,031 22,985 13,096 5,344 65,527 1,796 227,709 119 3,633 649 11,223 15,332 2,852 27,717 50 350,385 425 3,835 \u Il 11 280 men's faotoby-made clothing industry. Table 55 —Domestic Exports of Woolen Wearing Apparel, by Countries, During the Years Ended June 30, 1908 to 1915— Continued. Countries. 1908 1909 1910 NOSTH AMEBICA— COntd. West Indies: British- Barbados Jamaica Trinidad and Tobago. Other British Cuba Danish Dutch French Haiti Santo Domingo 13,364 71,992 71 HI SOUTH AMESICA Argentina Bolivia Brazil Chile Colombia Ecuador Guiana: British Dutch Paraguay Peru Uruguay Venezuela tl,U8 106,688 194 12,043 36,722 302 73 1911 1,677 3,840 69,371 ASIA. China China, leased territ(v>-: British. French Chosen (Korea) East Indies: British- British India Straits Settlements.. Hongkong Japan Russia in Asia Siam Turkey in Asia 864 743 995 2,263 30 118 372 3,618 29,461 360 343 6631 13 10 17 3,368 37,960 3,920 2,547 137 $491 673 933 19,565 37 1912 30 63 J, 507 194 73 36 336 98 $371 1,948 1,018 1,733 33,209 7 12 1913 $776 8,706 665 4,113 60,793 1914 734 1,437 3,845 828 1S7 8M 96 1,354 3,304 3,500 OCEANU. British: Australia and Tasmania. New Zealand Other British French.... ■ Philippine Islands 168 150 371 3,413 334 M 445 *3,'907 3,768 384 115 183 720 384 1,553 897 8 513 1,644 686 14 9,929 3,196 86,385 AnuCA. Belgian K(»igo British Africa: West DOtitn «••*•••••■•••••••••• Canaiy Islands ,. French Africa German Africa Liberia Portuguese Africa Turkey in Africa: Egypt 130 7,710 90 13 'i,'696 13,643 487 3 14,096 7,006 3,965 1,005 2 Total KKCAirrULATlOll. 1,717,833 Europe North America. South America. Asia Oceania Africa 3,613 55 335 30 1,722 832 21 17,805 53 460 152 642 3,680 104,784 3,932 67 18,906 eo 35 319 337 109 3,150 120,647 1,224 2,112 359 412 68 1915 1,154 6,175 90 143 1,3( 1,161 683 785 3,498 2,109 1,120 5S 44,993 17,595 2,101 558 130 6,115 363 34 35,496 535 382 145 1,363 3,333 5,162 181 172 1,430,135 63,931 1, 458, 108 80,390 7,948 S8,415 9,041 1,555,184 35,399 1,316,611 31,536 28,158 2,922 286 15,179 8,236 300 "*87 1,450,475 34,973 1, 441, 101 36,916 16,245 20,380 6,570 3,264 24,663 8,330 44 81,643 45 $317 607 65 3,419 30,437 1,811 38 320 3,255 3,615 93,160 316 1,212 3,385 935 94 90 80 1,330 1,993 1.384 996 4,318 473 $346 944 79 1,496 13,336 543 37 31 1,073 39,323 1,680 1,884 15,076 1,006 384 30 773 7 1,115 6,533 89 755 335 1,743,022 7,130 652 84 53,446 35,363 1,585 3 194 is, 773 718 3 86 514 371,679 1,310 13,433 771 380 79 '93,'336 103 10,383 633 246 2, 460, 326 2, 148, 236 9, 108, 900 43,368 1,272,699 68,411 3,123 48,222 15,752 34,464 1,513,533 138,351 26,649 41,900 8,226 2, 168,552 078,101 128,883 12,309 64,570 7,911 165 10,227 ■"653 559 1, 151,313 770,730 104,935 60,187 49,815 11,365 7,115,556 1,541,008 52,717 281,326 106,788 11,604 ":f / K .<-%. FOREIGN TRADE. 281 Considering the exports for the fiscal year ended June 30, 1914, a month before the war began in Europe, it will be seen that the total domestic exports of woolen wearing apparel amounted to $2,148,235. Of this amount, the exports to countries in North America amounted to $1,770,730. Of the woolen wearing apparel exported to South America, $104,925, Argentina took the largest share, $93,160. The exports of woolen wearing apparel amounted to $1,717,833 during the fiscal year 1908, and to $2,148,235 during the fiscal year 1914, an increase of $430,402, or 25.05 per cent, in six years. It will be noticed, however, that the increase was not imif orm from year to year. The following table shows the value of the cotton wearing apparel of all kinds, except corsets, hosiery, and other knit goods, made in the United States and exported to the various countries of the world during the fiscal years ended June 30, 1908 to 1915: Table 56.— Value op Domestic Exports op Cotton Wearing Apparel (Not Including Corsets, Hosiery, and Other Knit Goods) from the United States During the Fiscal Years Ended June 30, 1908, to IQIS. Countries. EUBOFS Austria-Hungary Azores and Madeira Is. Belgium Bulgaria Denmark Finland France Germany Gibraltar Greece Italy Malta, Gozo, etc Netherlands Norway Portugal Roumania Russia in Europe Serbia, Montenegro, Albania Spain Sweden Switzerland Turkey in Europe Umited Kingdom- England Scotland Iredand 1908 1909 1910 $287 422 4,800 2,589 5,116 88,903 and 9,639 18,607 2,127 202 $913 662 1,915 $1,728 268 2,785 5,236 2,887 114,022 626 4,590 •21 22,290 853 39 NOBTH AMERICA. Bermuda British Honduras Canada Central Anu^can States: Costa Rica Guatemala Honduras Nicaragua Panama Salvador Miquelon. Langley, etc Newfoundland and Labrador West Indies: British- Barbados Jamaica Trinidad and Tobago. . Other British Cuba Danish 1,003 2,440 3,544 1,060 371,559 12,495 36,036 764,299 20,303 20,669 40,9591 33,527 310,271 2,923 376,742 339 27,123 79,514 247,940 2,693 25 870 2,062 7,664 23,163 1911 1912 $3,691 179 11,615 6,698 $3,050 105 35,617 1913 $5,368 14 34,999 429 11,170 34,835 2,324 877 9,259 73,036 5,728 168 11,796 68,979 1914 1915 737 8,005 70 33,859 3,470 185 382, 10,946 41,068 6,321 173 25 263,436 5,616 226 15,432 16,665 931,831 10,734 13,403 30,296 27,394 359,342 950 232,619 34 34,838 51,151 234,910 5,550l 276 1,015 4,105 132 303,621 9,673 1,586 21,414 31,326 1,540,365 30,675 ll,415i 31,83S 32,204 521,473 1,527 274,709 444 50,467 62 1,922 8.707, 1,166 981 3,900 1,112 3,884 402,575 593,838 12,998, 10,667 194 7,779 140 9,954 13,397 20 735 9,183 $8,665 $1,530 188 27,450 116,365 200 4,251 12,915 29,237, 1,116,852 7,828 403 ' I 3,984 2,477 236 24 204 510 2,581 2,889 6,260 203,100 19,005 l,610i 15,619 1,512 3,765 400 1,468 5,'75i 755 2,942 472 3,542 20 24,365 36,104 38, 733 29, 444 1,881,262 2,596,126 105,899 309,742 7,165 40,471 31,952 72,297 57,311 428,489 4,328 301,901 480 88,791 7,719 80,400 27,656 28,326 376,100 10,167 991 1,235 1,433 102,224 18,154 20,134 20,684 30, 124 56, 185 2,569,381|2,489,435 50,005 30,413 63,636 64,926 584,608 3,357 340,461 549 88,077 7,574 116,925 29,093 32,016 463,207 16,951 35,751 36,434 98,326 91, 133 498,673 5,873 363,787 308 97,002 4,843 74,726 20,752 30,435 535,588^ 8,847' 25,301 38,488 146,996 110,413 415,035 3,319 450,503 611 128,994 7,625 106,986 40,020 37,379 592,559 8,156 367 4,930 2,803 8,237 304 500 7,450,951 167,096 814 19,714 37,482 2,390,317 20,418 23,198 115,761 35,120 324,368 1,617 1,105,494 479 62,580 6,345 67,403 36,250 30,543 684,471 3,186 »h t I » I 282 men's factory-made clothing industry. Table 56.— Value op Domestic Exports of Cotton Wearing Apparel (Not Including Corsets, Hosiery, and Other Knit Goods) from the United States During the Fiscal Years Ended June 30, 1908, to 1915.— Contd. Countries. NORTH AMERICA— contd West Indies— Continued. Dutch French Haiti Santo Domingo SOUTH AMERICA. Argentina. Bolivia Brazil Chile Colombia . . Ecuador . . Guiana: British. . Dutch . . French. . Paraguay . Peru Uruguay . . Venezuela. 1908 18,382 26A 2,017 21,876 2,400 2,135 14,588 3,465 26,906 8,771 2,982 2,673 176 1909 1910 ASIA. Aden China China, leased territwy: British GernMn Japanese Chosen ( Korea) East Indies: British- British India Straits Settlements . . . Other British Dutch H(mgkong Japan Persia Russia in Asia Siam Turkey in Asia OCEANIA. British: Australia and Tasmania. . New Zealand Other British French German Philippine Islands 18,940 7,307 2,584 6,439 552 3,124 50 $3,318 542 3,379 19,962 7,122 881 9,769 3,001 21,977 3,995 1,400 2,181 1911 17,508 490 4,199 19,471 14,817 2,270 60,751 4,324 30,819 7,898 2,554 1,798 4,609 1,561 521 22,349 1,894 4,553 7,929 4,443 490 AFRICA. Bel^an Ecmgo British Africa: West .•: South East Canary Islands French Africa German Africa Liberia Morocco POTtuguese Africa Spanish Africa Turkey in Africa: Egypt. Total. 178,086 98,027 2,799 5,981 1,124 136,506 2,567 1,765 600 70 1,444 3,214 5,828 7,387 3,916 4,052 22,197 12 56 463 1,930 539 S6,935 1,309 6,539 23,067 42,837 7,041 83,431 7,326 28,392 12,940 2,137 2,756 27 1912 1913 18,407 11,643 6,495 13,692 3,053 3,856 8,290 869 142,319 70 3,000 179 81 2,048 2,749 ""897 3,218,728 RECAPITULATION. Europe North America. South America. Asia Oceania Africa 512,319 2,008,374 92,927 30,373 422,523 152. 212 1,028 9 1,400 217,460 86,967 1,969 6,648 1,728 288,707 351 • 66 110,694 145 165 338 506 1,000 2,725 """eos 2,042 139 1,941 2»4,483 86,494 2,386 11,284 1,978 420,737 131 996 144,290 122 160 462 522 1,789 5,700 45 1,034 3,230,342 4,550,921 421,082 1,992,250 57,017 40,274 603,499 116,270 410,894 3,002,331 130,566 44,518 807,361 155,251 396 1,400 3,672 472 62 3,326 14,718 7,975 10 3,660 608 3,092 370,476 130,253 8,602 20,088 1,613 387,848 lis 286 215,421 164 S13,609 1,722 16,437 56,795 77,411 6,156 80,911 19,538 36,767 12,868 1,096 3,093 196 472 25,104 11,475 9,411 $8,107 808 57,644 61,547 120,700 5,619 134,150 31,215 28,291 13,628 1,677 1,617 1914 1916 31,856 50 30 1,840 4,600 905 468 4,101 20,730 8,502 160 34,678 20,205 2,645 10 50,739 529 '3,'444 *6,'985 'i,"6i2 2,134 997 6,976 417,320 118,579 4,274 14,710 2,924 513,117 aoo 351 190,392 41 109 225 1,905 41 2,184 21,567 1,353 1,292 3,246 12,334 11,693 $11,858 472 4,747 34,250 50,321 23,614 61,843 37,431 20,758 21,138 1,077 2,068 16 1,221 40,975 10,573 7,020 30 26,324 337 $13,985 2,001 29,564 36,432 3,706 20,915 36,751 23,073 26,491 1,966 2,407 30 1,902 1,209 6,064 76,675 35,129 3,406 17,780 1,786 419,469 50 646 163,441 86 832 22,253 2,405 1,453 1,699 26,061 12,905 23,486 7,092 8,185 14.350 5,305 605 6,518 98,679 34,951 4,507 34,733 3,406 384,206 160 38 820 10,023 143 905 5,538,303 7,119,580 578,428 3,538,588 222,522 52,992 918,830 226,943 798,740 4,640,035 284,399 82,188 1,100,924 213,294 10,505 "1*762 269 93,277 29 609 25 256 13,014 1,052 123 934 6,232 6,421 3,106 266 50 76,776 41,700 3,190 16,150 1,338 378,974 553 978 11,107 6,211,724 5,999,887 322,859 4,640,223 394, 375 122,633 564,147 177,487 216,557 4,730,025 277,954 106,747 560,482 106.122 737 60,541 29 100 168 117 342 11 8,651 1,600 14,743,148 8,907,222 5,011,142 190,634 44,«<27 517, 127 72,296 T ft- '--k^ \ ' FOREIGN TRADE. 283 Considering the exports for the fiscal year ended June 30, 1914, it will be noted that Canada is by far the most important market for cotton wearing apparel. Such exports to that country m the fiscal year 1914 amounted to $2,489,435, or 41.49 per cent of the total. Trade with Canada has grown rapidly, havmg mcreased more than threefold from 1908 to 1914. Cuba, Mexico, Panama, and the Fhil- ippme Islands, m the order named, are the other important markets. From 1908 to 1914 the increase of such exports to all North Amen- can countries was 135.52 per cent; to all South Amencan countries, 199.11 per cent; to all Asiatic countries, 250.34 per cent; to Oceania, 32.65 per cent. Such exports to all countries in Europe decreased 57.73 per cent, and those to all coimtries in Africa decreased 28.97 per cent. ,. . , , . ., The following table shows, by customs districts, the value of tUe domestic exports durmg the fiscal years 1914 and 1915, of woolen wearmg apparel and of cotton wearing apparel, not mcluding corsets or knit goods : Tablb 57.— Value op Domestic Exports op Woolen Wearing Apparel, and OP Cotton Wearing Apparel, Other Than Knit Goods and Corsets, by Customs Districts, Fiscal Years op 1914 and 1915. Customs districts. Woolen. 1914 Maine and New Hampshire . Massachusetts New York New Orleans Arizona El Paso San Francisco Washington Buffalo Dakota Duluth and Superior Vermont Mk^h^ gft" St. Lawrence All other disU-icts $37,572 21,977 528,936 26,277 61,211 105,859 («) 179,076 438,642 270,217 68,939 6 71,254 59,615 236,052 53,608 1915 Cotton. 1914 1915 Total. 2,148,235 132,086 208,992 7,305,268 29,107 31,078 254,721 (fl) 126, 827 306, 162 165,439 86,533 31,397 46, 498 308, 124 176,668 («) $69, 981 2,307,298 369,973 76,710 255,228 349, 717 121,786 986, 712 478,042 57,725 180,711 127,990 478,277 139,737 9,108,900 5,999,887 $73,127 10,652,862 221,230 108,979 665,738 375,827 101,393 1,066,580 270,494 121,860 123,934 93,365 565,617 302,133 14,743,148 a Included in "All othw districts." » Weston Vermont only. IMPOSTS INTO OUTLYING TESBITOBIES AND FOBEIGN AMERICAN COUITTBIES. The value of the imports of men's and boys' clothing into foreign countries of the Western Hemisphere and into Porto Rico, Hawaii, and the PhiUppine Islands is shown below. The statistics are as nearly complete as can be ob tamed from the official reports of the various coimtries. The classification in each case is that of the country for which the data are given. In the case of many coiin- tries the imports of men's and boys' clothing are not specifically reported, but are included under the headings of "Clothing" or "Wearing apparel" and are so shown here. Statistics of the imports of the various kinds of wearing apparel, 80 far as they are specified in the official reports of the coimtries mentioned below, appear more fuUy in a report on the cost of pro- duction of women's musHn underwear, previously issued by the Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce. ii it 284 men's factoey-made clothing industry. ARGENTTNA.o *A1I other wearing apparel," exclndinc underwear, hosiery, shirts, neckties, corsets, hats, gloves, ponchas, edgings and trimmings (passementerie), hand- kerchiefs: Cotton 11,290.626 Wool 1,214,732 Wool mixed 47,869 Silk 53S,423 Silk mixed 3,^784 Linen 145,237 Other fibers and mixed fibers 71, 404 Total 3,341.075 BAHAMAS.^ Cotton, woolen, linen, and silk wearing apparel 275, 656 BABBADO!).^ Wearing apparel, except haberdashery andheadwear 121,006 Ctothing 210,491 BOUVlA.ft Clothing, men's 64,624 "Other articles of clothing," except woman's clothing, all hat"?, gloves, knit- ted articles, laces, trimmings 297, 966 Total 362,500 BBAZIT..fr Wearing apparel, except hosiery, neck- ties, laces, etc. (passementerie): Cotton 1,143,599 Wool 98,617 Linen 102,211 Silk 43,691 Total 1,388,118 BRITISH 0U1ANA.6 Clothing, ready-made 79,810 Linen, cotton, and woolen manufactures, except haberdashery and headwear 861, 120 Total 940,930 BBITISH HONDUBA?*.* Clothing, except haberdashery and head- wear 67,106 CANADA, f "Other clothing not otherwise provided for," except hosiery, underwear, shirts, blouse-s, shirtwaists, corsets, collars ana cuffs, gloves, headwear, handkerchiefs, knitted gooos. laces (passementerie): Cotton 2,965,342 Wool 2,189,558 Silk 1,102,100 Linen 21,265 Waterproof clothing, various materials... 1,684,564 Total 7,962.8?9 CHILE.a Clothing, men's and boys': Cotton 82,312 Wool 208,994 Silk 2,680 o Calendar year 1913. ft Calendar year 1912. c Fiscal year ended Mar. 31, 1914. CHiLB— contincwd. Clothing, men's and boys'— Continued. Cotton and silk mixed tl,fl37 Flax, cut but not made 515 Wool, cut but not made 30,860 Wool and silk mixed, cut but not made 12,968 Cotton, cut out, of trkjot 9,783 Clothing, oiled or waterproofed: Cotton 22,604 Wool 4,306 Wool, cut but not made 1,638 Wool overalls, muffltfs, ponchas 31, 317 Total 409,920 COSTA RICA. 6 Clothing, except hosiery, shirts, collars and cuiTs, corsets, gloves, and headwear: Cotton 74,923 Wool.... 16,210 Silk 8,684 Linen 91 Total. 98,908 CUBA.4 Clothing, except hats and laces, etc. (pas- sementerie): Cotton 662,104 Wool 176,083 Sflk 204,675 Other fibers 95,284 Total 1,138,146 DUTCH GUIAKA.C Ready-made clothes 79,041 ECUADOR.' Clothing: Cotton Wool Silk Linen Other fibers Clothing, with or without silk lining. 25,187 13,317 6,377 496 1,866 7,567 Total. 64,800 VAUaAKD ISLANDS.* Wearing apparel 82,101 fEBNCH GUIANA, ft Clothing, ready-made, men's 23, 956 Rubber clothing 969 Total. 24,925 OBANADA.ft Wearing apparel, except haberdashery andheadwear 28,610 QUADELOUFE.ft Clothlns and haberdasher v 16.800 OUATEllALA.ft Readv-made clothing: Cotton 80,595 Woolen 24,854 Sflk 62,973 Total 108,422 d Fiscal year ended June 30, 1914. « Calendar year 1911 . / Fiscal year ended June, 30, 1915. f \[ r< FOREIGN TRADE. 285 HAlTAn.a From the Unitwi States: Cotton wearing apparel ^n'\nk Woolen wearing apparel 40,i/o From other countries: _ Cotton wearing apparel. i'^n Woolen wearing apparel ^»^i" Silk wearing apparel • 4^,w» All other wearing apparel, except handkerchiefs,headwear,and passe- PHiLiPPmE ISLANDS— continued. menterie Total. From the United States— Continued. Woolen clothing and other wearmg apparel :-- W49.230 Silk clothing and other wearmg apparel , except knit goods 41, w* From other countries: Coats , pants , and vests of cotton. .... oio Other clothing and men's wearmg apparel, except shirts, collars and 774.645 JAMAICA.ft Wearing apparel, except haberdashery, headwear, hosiery, and other cotton manufactures ^^*'^'^ MARTINIQUE, ft Clothing and haberdashery . . -^. . . ...•■. 22, 320 Clothing,not specified, except knit goods, corsets, head and neck-wear, handker- chiefs, and passementerie °>°^ Total 28,918 MEXICO.« Ready-made clothing, not specifically °»Sl{Sr*' 203,035 ??i5SP . 37 083 Silk', mixed with other materials 18, 187 Artlficialsilk ^ ^Sr:::;:::::::::::::::::::::::::_^ Total 573,192 NE-WTOUNDLAND.ft Clothing (includes collars and cufts) ^' ^ OUed clothing •• ^4,347 Total 397,955 NICARAGUA.' Clothing and wearing apparel: Cotton 180.660 Wool 63,535 Silk 48,990 Total 303,185 PANAMA.ft Ready-made clothing 403,999 PARAQUAT.* Ready-made clothing 135,313 PERU.* Clothing.various. except hosiery .under- wear. Shirts, collars, hats, shawls, lace, handkerchiefs 84,682 PHIUPPINE ISLANDS, e From the United States: Coats, pants, and vests of cotton Other cotton clothing and men's wearing apparel, except shirts, col- lars and cuffs, hosiery, underwear. cu§s, hosiery, underwear 54,052 Woolen clothing and other wearmg apparel ,• 1^'*"^ Silk clothing and wearing apparel, except knit goods *°'^*°* Total *62,584 PORTO RICO./ From the United States: Cotton wearing apparel, except knit goods 634,195 Wool wearing apparel oS'qSS Silk, manufactures of /•/«,*«) From other countries: Cotton wearing apparel, includmg hosiery and knit goods ^.^^ Wool wearing apparel ^V}SA Silk wearing apparel ^'"^ Total 974,946 ST. VINCENT. l> Wearing apparel, except haberdashery andheadwear lu^^ w ST. PIERRE AND MIQUELON.* Clothing and haberdashery ............. 19, 641 Clothing, not specified, except knit goods, underwear, headwear, corsets, passe- menterie *'"°* Total 20,709 TRINIDAD AND TOBAGO, ft Wearing apparel, except knit goods, hosiery, gloves, headwear, haber- dashery. 234,040 1,280 47,997 71,901 TURKS AND CAICOS ISLANDS, ft Wearing apparel, except haberdashery and headwear _ URUGUAY.* Clothing, ready-made, men's and boys': Cotton 21,414 Wool and principally wool ^' ?1I Linen • ^ Total 48,211 ven£2uela. d Readv-made clothing -. 3» 118 Wearing apparel, except underwear, col- lars and cuffs, hosiery, headwear, shawls,corsets,suspenders, and garters. 1, 804 Total. a Fiscal year ended June 30, 1915. ft Calen(Ur year 1912. • Calendar year 1914. d Calendar year 1913. « Calendar year 1911. / Fiscal year ended June 30, 1915. 4,922 i 1 i I ii I 286 men's factory-made clothing industry. suggestions fob incbeasing fobsign tbads. t No serious organized efforts have hitherto been made by American manufacturers of men's clothing to place their products in foreign markets, and with few exceptions such business as they have obtained has come largely through export houses. It is claimed by some of the manufacturers that export houses frequently do not give active atten- tion to the selUng of American clothmg abroad, because other lines, such as automobiles, hardware, and machinery, offer better returns and do not require the effort and technical knowledge that are neces- sa^ in attempting to introduce clothing. There is a rather widespread ignorance among manufacturers as to the requirements of the foreign markets and the proper methods to be adopted in building up an export trade. An active campaign of inquiry and study must be inaugurated before definite results can be expected. The most effective plan would be for the manu- facturers, individually or collectively, to send their own representa- tives into the foreign fields to stucfy the conditions and the tastes of the people in the matter of ready-made clothing, show their sam- ples, and estabUsh their own agents in the principal countries, who could look after the business when their representatives had returned from the field. Manufacturers who are unable or unwiUing to adopt this policy should avail themselves of the faciUties which the Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce at Washington and the American consular service provide for assisting them in securing export trade. In the ''Trade Opportunities'' pubhshed in the Commerce Reports, issued daily by the Bureau,there are frequently printed inquiries from abroad for the names of American manufacturers and exporters of clothing, and if these opportunities are actively followed up connections may be made with importers abroad which may result in good sales. Ameri- can consuls can furnish specific information in regard to the possi- biUties for trade in certain markets. They can also procure samples showing the particular kinds of goods which are in demand. Manufacturers who seriously undertake the work of selling their products abroad should bear in mind the suggestions which always apply in the development of export trade, namely, to write their letters and prepare catalogues in a language which the foreigner under- stands, to quote prices in a currency with which he is famihar, to furnish c. i. f . (cost, insiu-ance, and freight) quotations as far as possi- ble, to pack goods properly, to fill orders promptly and carefullv, to extend a reasonable amount of credit where the standing of the importer justifies it, and to keep in constant touch with the market through representatives or by correspondence. An active campaign which incorporates these suggestions, backed by a thorough studv of the foreign markets and their requirements, will undoubtedly result in a substantial increase in exports of men's clothing. . A monograph on South America as an Export Field « is intended to give manufacturers information as to the character, extent, resources, and trade of South American countries which will assist them to determine the most favorable markets for their goods. This monograph, which was pubUshed in 1914, contains 216 pages, and • Special Agents Stf iee No. 81. FOREIGN TRADE. 287 J^ir^ may be procured from the Superintendent of Documents, Govern- ment Printing Office, Washington, D. C, at 25 cents per copy. The Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce has recently issued (as Tariff Series No. 32) a volume setting forth the customs duties on textiles in all the South American countries. The pubhca- tion covers everything comprehended in the textile industries from the raw fiber, thread, yarn, and fabric, through all the ramifica- tions of made-up articles— ready-made clothing for men, women, and children, knit goods of all kinds, embroidery, trimmings and other fancy articles, carpets and rugs, and other manufactured articles of which textile materials constitute the whole or important parts. The original customs tariffs of all foreign countries are on file m the division of foreign tariffs of the Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce, which, in response to specific inquiries, will furnish infor- mation concerning the duties on any particular product in any country in which the inquirer may be immediately interested. BEPOBTS FBOM AMEBICAN CONSULS. Commerce Reports (formerly Daily Consular and Trade Reports), issued daily by the Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce,** frequently contain information in regard to the manufacture of men's clothing in foreign countries, statistics regarding the imports of such goods, statements regarding the kind of goods for which there is a demand, and suggestions in regard to how trade in such countries can be established or extended by American manufacturers. Reports that have been published since the war in Europe began indicate that in some of the belligerent countries there is now a better opportunity for the extension of American trade than formerly existed. BBiriSH COLUMBIA. AMERICAN CLOTHING ADVERTISED. IConsul General David F. Wilbur, Vancouver, Daily Consular and Trade Reports, Aug. 7, 1913.] There is an increasing sale for eastern Canadian clothing. In some cases these goods are purchased from branch houses of American firms located in Canada. Some of the firms in the United States are represented here, but are handicapped by the 35 per cent tariff rate. From what can be learned, American clothing is used a great de^as an advertisement to assist in selling Canadian-made clothing. Little English- made clothing is sold except to Japanese, Chinese, Hindus, and other foreigners. BRITISH HONDURAS. AVOID METAL ON TROPICAL CLOTHING. ISpecial Agent Ganard Harris, Belize. Daily Consular and Trade Reports, Nov. 12, 1914] Manufacturers of light-weight garments such as duck, linen, the " Palm Beach, " and " Panama cloth" would do well to exercise care in seeing that clothing designed for use in the Tropics does not have any metal about it. Considerable complaint is heard that the small buckles on the sides of the trousers, and the tinned or japanned iron catch in the front of trousers waistbands rust soon from the constant washing Buch garments necessarily undergo. This discolors the fabric and makes it unsightly. Especially is this the case in places near the sea, as the salt breeze corrodes the metal very quickly. Men in the Tropics have been heard to declare they would prefer to buy the ready-made garments instead of having clothes made by tailors but for the fact that metal was used. Some of these clothes have metal buttons, and these rust the same as other metal pieces. • For salt by the Superintendent of Documents, Washington, D. C, at $2.50 per year. 288 MEN S FACTORY-MADE CLOTHING INDUSTRY. FOREIGN TRADE. 289 1 , I I I'x: }■ I if i The use of buttons of bone, porcelain, or similar material is desirable and for buckles it would seem that a celluloid or bone device could be arranged. It is believed that the absence of any metal on the garments would assist considerably in their sale. CHINA. INCREASINO USE OP FOREIGN-STYLE CLOTmNO. (Consul Edwin L, Neville, Antung, Dally CoDsular and Trade Reports, May 26, 1M4.] The use of European-style clothes among the Chinese is unquestionably growing. All Chinese officials wear frock coats and evening dress on formal occasions. It 18 also customary for merchants and other business men to keep foreign clothes in reserve. It is now possible to find tailors in any city of importance anywhere in China, I am told, and the local Chinese tailors are authority for the statement that their business has doubled in the past two years. Certainly the number of tailors has greatly increased of late years. CLOTHES MADE AFTER FOREIGN FASHIONS. [Consul General Julean H. Arnold, Hankow, Commerce Reports, Not. 21, 1918.] The considerable decrease in imports of foreign-made clothes from $44,814 in 1912 to $29,772 in 1913 was due to the fact that the Chinese have learned how to make clothes after the foreign fashion, and numerous Chinese tailor shops are doing a thriv- ing business. Practically all the cheaper grades of clothes were imported from Japan. Of the better grades Great Britain furnishes a large quantity, which is sold in the retail stores of Uie foreign concessions. COLOMBIA. AMERICAN CLOTHING READILY SOLD. [Consul Isaac A. Manning, Bananquilla, Commerce Reports, May 25, 1918.] The use of ready-made clothing for men and children in Colombia is increasing rapidly since some of the coast cities began importing from the United States. For- merly ready-made clothing was brought principally from Austria and Italy, and the writer was informed that American clothing cost too much and could not be sold. The first lot of American clothing brought into Barranquilla, in light cassimerep ana suitings, was found to have a style and finish that made it sell, and last year one of the most important houses brought in a trial-order stock of men's wear in Palm Beach cloth, in two-piece suits. These sold here readily at retail at $10 per suit, and the order has been frequently repeated. Since all sizes were not to be had , however, the same house imported the cloth in bolt, selling it at $2 per yard for double width. A two-piece suit requiring 3^ yards, made to order in Barranquilla, equal to the imported ready-made suit, cost $4 to make, or a total of $11. Thus there is a fair difference in favor of the ready-made suit from the United States. The trade in Barranquilla holds to the idea that it is impossible to sell imported suita here at a profit because of the high duties, and no traveler carrying samples of ready- made clotn'mg from the United States has appeared to attempt to change this idea. Lightweight suits in washable flannels, cassimeres, cassinets, alpacas, or similar materials, in either two or three piece suits, can be sold here. As long as the retail price can be kept between $10 and $25, if the colors and patterns are attractive and the suits are made on good forms, the goods can be sold. . ,. The duties on ready-made clothing, which are payable in gold on gross weight, including all packing, are as follows: On cotton suits (coats, trousers, or vests), $1.30 per kilo ($0.59 per jwund); on linen suits, $1.50 per kilo ($0.68 per pound); on linen suits with silk stripes, checks, etc., where the silk surface does not exceed 25 per cent, $3.20 per kilo ($1.45 per pound) ; on clothing for men, women, and children, of material with weft of wool, or wool and any other fiber except silk, on a warp of cotton, hemp, or similar fiber, without mixture of wool or silk, with linings or trimmings other than wool or silk, $1.60 per kilo ($0.73 per pound); on clothing of other wool or wool and lotlon material, with or without light stripes, checks, or threads of silk, with liiungi or trimmings not of silk, lace, or embroidery. $2 per kilo ($0.91 per pound); on clothing of woolen fabrics not specified, $3 per kilo ($1.36 per Dound). It is suggested that clothing should be shipped in bales wrapped in waterproofed burlap; and if carton boxes are shipped for display they should be shipped knocked down , separately from the clothing. This last suggestion is offered in the case of almort any article paying high rates of duties (such as underwear, cotton shirts, and na;kw^), as the duty on such boxes, even though they carry printed labels, is only $0.17 per kilo Loca?laUors charge $9 to $10 for making a cassimere business suit, without furnish- ing the cloth, $12 to $15 for a frock suit, and $20 for a dress suit. The styles in demand correspond to up-to-date styles in the United States, and old-fashioned stock will have no sale here. The best sellmg seasons are November to January (inclusive) and the "before Easter" period. COSTA RICA. DEMAND FOR CHEAl* GRADES. fConsul Chester Donaldson, Port Limon, Daily Consular and Trade Reports, Nov. 13, 1914.] There is no merchant in Port Limon or this district who carries a stx)ck of ready' made clothing other than the ordinary cotton working clothes, overalls, shirts, and various grades of underclothing. The population of this district is largely made up of negro and peon laborers, and a cheap cotton shirt and a pair of overalls suffice for their needs. The climate is so warm and moist that any suit of fine woolen material not in daily use mildews and soon becomes worthless; consequently no such goods are keDt in stock In the consular district of San Jose, which includes all the larger cities of Costa Rica and is at such an elevation that the climate is delightful and cool all the year through, there are several large ready-made clothing house?. The principal one of these im- /^ ports and keeps in stock a large variety of fine ready-made clothing, which heretofore has been purchased from France. LONG-TIME CREDIT DEMANDED. [Consul Chester Donaldson, Port Limon, Commerce Reports, May 29, 1915.] Neither women's nor men's ready-made clothing has become popular in this dis- trict. Local tailors and dressmakers control practically all such trade, making the clothes to order. Underclothes, hats, corsets, hosiery, etc.. are generally imported. It is absolutely necessary to grant credits in order to do business in Central America, where European houses have been in the habit of allowing four to six months and sometimes nine months or even one year to well-known customers. CUBA. IMPORTS OP READY-MADE CLOTHING INCREASING. (Consular Agent Dean R. Wood, Neuvitas, Dally Consular and Trade Reports, Aug. 28, 1914.] During the last few years a proEfperous trade has been built up in Cuba in American ready-made clothing, a number of firms in the United States participating therein. Cuba's foreign trade is growing, and the imports of such clothing are especially increas- ing. Other American manufacturers might share in this market if they send attractive goods and if shipping documents are properly made out. Chambray, khaki, and drill shirts, denim overalls, khaki and drill trousers are being imported into Cuba in large quantities, coming almost entirely from the United States. However, the trade is not confined to workingmen's clothing. Considerable quantities of the finer grades of cotton goods, and clothing made of wool and silk, or mixtures thereof with cotton, also ready-made clothing for women, are imported. Effort has been made to manufacture in Cuba grades of cotton clothing, but without much success. In shipping ready-made clothing to Cuba the gross and net weight of the packages should be given, as well as the net weight of each article or class of goods. The Cuban duty on ready-made clothing is based on the duty on the component material, which is determined by the thread count. Surtaxes are provided for admixtures of wool, silk, etc., as well as for coloring or dyeing. Ready-made clothing generally bears on every garment a reference mark or number. The invoice should contain separately the net weight of garments of each mark or number. This is necessary because certain fabrics that may appear to be in the same class actually have more or fewer threads than goods of similar appearance in the customhouse, as the case may be. U914*»— 16 ^19 I' N 290 men's factoby-made clothing industey. If ready-made clothing is packed in cardboard boxes, as is often the caae, the net weight of these boxes should be eiven separately from the net weight of the goods or the not weight of the goods only should be given. Thus considerable savings in duties may result to the buyer of the goods. If goods contain a mixture of other material the fact should be stated in the invoice as well as the percentage of other material. If mixture is more than one-fifth a( the number of cotton threads the goods are considered as wool, silk, or other material, aa the rase may be. Goods composed entirely of wool or silk are charged on the ad valorem basis and not by the number of threads. On linen goods the duty varies according to the number of threads, as on cotton goods. The correct making out of invoices for shipment to Cuba is not difficult. Customers should be asked from time to time if goods have been received in good condition with everything satisfactory, and if they have any suggestions to offer. ENGLAND. UTTLE CLOTHmO EXPORTED TO THE UNTTED STATES. IConsul Homer M. Bylngton, Leeds, Commerce Reports, July 26, 1915.] It 18 hardly likely to be disputed that Leeds and London are the two foremost English ciUes in the manufacture of ready-made clothing, and it estimated that in Leeds between 40,000 and 50,000 workers (about 50 per cent of whom are Russian I'oland Jews) are employed in this trade, so that local prosperity depends to a certain extent upon a profitable year's business. The year 1914 opened badly, with 8lack orders until March, when a short-lived recovery took place until June, only to settle down to a poor outlook for the fall and winter seasons; but with the outbreak of war in August came the necessity of clothing the increased army, and soon nearlv all local manufacturers turned their attention to khaki uniforms. The year ended with extra hands and extra time being general, and so continued after the beginning of the present year. Although the handling of khaH and making of uniforms was new to most manufacturers and workers, the Government contracts were worked at such a pace as to keep well within sight of the number of enlistments Iteady-made clothine was declared for export to the United States in 1914 to the value of $21,995, butin 1913 the shipments were not of a sufficient value to justify a separate clasoification. GERMANY. MARKET FOR STANDARD STYLES. (Consul Charles A. Holder, Cologne, Daily Consular and Trade Reports, May 26, 1914.] In this district, unlike the United States, ready-made clothing, though bought in lai^e quantities by the laboring classes, is almost never worn by well-to-do men and IS worn by only a very small percentage of those in moderate circumstances. ' Men who can afford good clothes naturally prefer to have them made to order but many with limited means patronize custom tailors solelv because the latter are accus- tomed to selling on credit, while clothing stores never *do. As a consequence manv made-to-order suits are seen here where the cloth, fit, and general finish are greatly inferior to the average suit made by American manufacturers of ready-to-wear clothing although they have cost the wearer considerably more money. The method in \'ogiie here among custom tailors, of making suits upon the receipt of 20 or 25 marks ($4 76 or 15.95), with the balance payable in monthly installments, is one reason why sales of the better grades of ready-made clothing are not larger, but a greater reason is to be found m the comparatively poor quality and the limited variety of cloths and patterns to be found m the ready-made suits offered for sale. German clothing manufacturers have not yet realized, apparentlv, the possibilities offered by this trade, and are about in the portion that obtained among American clothmg manufacturers 20 or 25 years ago. This market, therefore, can be greatlv developed, and under certain conditions offers an excellent opportunity for the sale of men s ready-to-wear American clothing. For bovs' clothing there is also a market as very little of it is custom-made. ' All the ready-made clothing sold in this district at present is made in Germany except overcoats and ulnters, raincoats, automobile coats, and other specialties, which are frequently of English manufacture. All of the largest clothing stores in Cologne have factories in Stettm, Berlin, Breslau, and other northern cities, as wages in this district are too high to render the manufacture of clothing profitable. One or two of these tinns employ as many as 30 cutters and several hundred tailors, not only sup- f 1 FOREIGN TRADE. •291 il rilerXo^nSy air^eSAat they have their own tactor.es, obtain the« '^^'^g^-^rXl^ *-"- ZS^^er ha. eve, succeeded as the clothes, though far superior to what js usually ^^f^^^^^ ^^ clothing sold in ^d for fancy waisteoats, ulsters, and ^^f trousers wmcn are w German becona quauty, «/v/ »r^'" , .^„^J, , -.^t q/^\ oiwavs made of German cloth. Kla"i;L^^f I'^a^t'^^MTof'al-^o^'^S'rrLTt^ U, 19.52) and of the •^r»^Tv^^i"ofn.^ebTtii^tf^.» nXId*^ ele^' cSe^ I^K made oi German cloth and sell for 45 .» 85 aSHasVtf r J^'»K~ -?j::'r Si's Sil C£iiSS?!iiS;" S. is" to'™ . to.»nd i« high- i»i" ™id ,«u> ally follow. 292 MEN^S FACTORY-MADE CLOTHING INDUSTRY. FOREIGN TRADE. 293 Nt GUATEMALA. ALL IMPORTED CLOTHING FROM THE UNITED STATES. (8i>ecial Agent B. Joachim, Commerce Reports, Feb. 25, 1915.] Readv-made clothing is imported into Guatemala only to a limited extent. That which does come in is of United States make and is of the medium grade. Suits that sell in the United States for $10 or $12 are occasionally marketed, the price in Guate- mala running about $18 in United States currency. No ready-made clothing is im- ported from any other country. The sale of r^idy-made clothing for men and boys is not common in Guatemala, and most clothing worn is purchased from tailors, who make up the goods to order in the same way as the better class of goods is sold in the Unitea States. The material for these suits comes in very large part from Europe, partly because the manufacturers of England, Germany, Italy, France, and the otner countries have been engaged in the trade for many years, know the tastes of the people, and are willing to supply the trade with the particular styles and patterns desired, and to extend long credits. American manufacturers of cloth have in general so far failed to make any extensive study of the market. The principal reasons why they have not secured the comparatively large share of the trade which they might have had are that they have not learned what the people want in the way of patterns and styles, and that they are unwill- ing to make up the separate patterns in the small lots desired by the Guatemalan buyers or meet their wishes in regard to credits. The people of Guatemala are as much or more attached to the distinctive stvles prevailing there as the people in the United States, and just as Americans would not care to purchas"! conspicuously col- ored, striped, or checked clothing because they have not been used to seeing or wear- ing these goods, so the Guatemalans insist on having the particular styles prevailing in their country. The European manufacturers are perfectly familiar with these pref- erences and take care to observe them in attempting to maJce sales. There seems to be no reason why Americans should not have three-fourths or more of the trade if they will cater to the wants of the people and if they can profitably manufacture Uie differ- ent styles in the small-size lots required. The clothing for men is all made from this imported cloth by hand or with the use of sewing machines, no power machinery being used. As noted, it is made up to order, with the exception of the cheapest class of ^oods worn by the Indians. Tnese are made in large lots and sold as ready-made clothmg is sold in the United States, the price being very low. The usual clothing worn by the Indian men consists of a shirt (usually gay colored J, a pair of trousers reaching to the ankles, and a short jacket, the whole costing probably less than $1 United States currency. When the weather is cool the Indian wears a cheap cotton blanket, and these blankets are consequently sold in great quantities. They come almost altogether from England and Germany, but could eaedy be supplied from the United States. Gay colors and patterns are usually preferred by the Indians, who are very conservative and will not buy goods of a color to which they are not accustomed. Some cheap blankets are manufactured in Guatemala, and these retail at 35 to 40 cents apiece or even less. The imported blankets purchased by the Indians will avenge perhaps 55 or 60 cents retail, and this price represents a profit of 150 to 200 per cent. [About 60 per cent of the 2,000,000 people of Guatemala are Indians and most of the rest are of mixed blood.] Tiie clothing worn by clerks, small tradesmen, etc., is of the kind that would cost $10 to $20 a suit in the United States. A clerk ^ill probably have one good suit at $20 or more and one or two others of lower price. Merchants and business men also wear a comparatively inexpensive suit for aaily use, with better clothes for evening and holiday purposes. The workmanship on uiese clothes is usually good so far as wearing qualities are concerned, but the style and appearance of even the better grades of suits are generally inferior to the style and appearance of United States clothing. It is thought that under normal conditions a good sale in American ready- made clothing might be built up, but it would be necessary first of all to send down the right patterns, and as the people are not accustomed to buying the ready-made suits a certain amount of intelligent missionary work would also doubtless be required. The few lots of American ready-made clothing that have heretofore come in have been of the $10 to $20 grade, and these have filtered through onlv in a haphazard manner. One mek;hant, for instance, ha* a stock of goods on hand which his repre- sentative picked up at a bargain in New York and snipped down to him. He sold the better suits (as many as 80 or 90) without great difficulty, but the others w«re hard to dispose of and were left on his hande. It is probable that many of these might be marketed if slightly altered. It is details such as this that the American - exporter would have to look after if he desired to push his goods. The fact that these suits were sold and that others are occasionaUy marketed is sufficient proof that a potential demand exists and needs only intelligent cultivation to result in a steady trade. The clothing worn by the larger merchants and other business men, lawyers, doctors, government oflicials, etc., is of a substantial grade, prices running irom $30 to $40 or more. These suitings are largely woolens, and the total amount used in a year for this purpose would probably amount to a value of $100,000. The woolens come in large part from England and Germany, though other European countries also share to a greater or less degree in the trade. The United States sells few or no goods of this kind, for the single reason that the United States merchants have not care^ to cater to the trade. There seems no doubt that a substantial trade in theye goods could be built up by the United States if proper care were used in selecting patterns and in looking after similar details. For everyday business purpose:* the sack suit common in the United States is now generally worn, though a few years ago a more formal dress was common. For official calls on officers of the government, day weddings, and similar formal social affairs the cutaway suit is common, though sometimes the Prince Albert is worn. The dress suit is generally worn at formal evening functions as in the United States, and Tuxedos to a certain extent in the clubs, etc. There is a certain market for this class of goods, but it is necessarily small. There is a possibility, however, that ready-made dress suits might be sold, and if an attempt is made to establish the sale of ready-made garments in the market, it would probably be as well to include some suits of this kind in the stock sent down. The climate of Guatemala in most settled sections is not tropical, and this applies especially to Guatemala City and the surrounding country. Thin clothing is therefore not particularly in demand. The evenings are rather cool, as are also the days, as a rule, except for the hours between 10 a. m. and 2.30 or 3 p. m. Suits are nearly always full lined, the lining material being of all erades, from the cheapest to the very good. These linings come from Europe, as the merchants prefer to buy this material from the same sources as the other cloth for suits. American linings can be sold and a trade in them will probably spring up as soon as American woolens and other suitings begin to be sold. The American practice of going without a waistcoat in the hot summer weather is not followed in Guatemala, waistcoats being invariably worn under all circumstances. Fancy waistcoats are seen, and occasionally white waistcoats, but the latter are not common. For two months or so of the rainy season overcoats are occasionally worn in the evenings, and a certain deniand for them could be cultivated. These are of medium weight, and are of no special design. Those now worn are made generally in the country itself, but there is apparently no reason, except perhaps the duty, why they could not be imported. In tne seaports and other towns where tropical conditions prevail, some white suitings, such as duck, white serge, and flannels, are worn, but the population of these places is small and the number of people among whom a demand for these goods might be created is therefore limited. Of the suitings mentioned, the ducK, obtained usually from England, is most in evidence. Full suits of this material are often worn, thou^ the white serge trousers are usually worn with coats of a darker material. The "Palm Beach" suits worn by some tourists and traveling men last summer were much admired, and a large number could have been sold had they been on hand. It is quite likely that in 1915 these suits will become very popular, and it would be of value to American manufacturers to investi- gate the market personally. The rainy season lasts some four months in Guatemala, and there is consequently a considerable demand for mackintoshes and cravenettes. Up to a few years ago these were almost universally the old-style black rubber mackintoshes, with pointed hoods, and came from Germany and England . These still largely prevail, but are being slowly displaced by the American waterproof cravenette, which is well liked. It is likely that in a few years these will be worn entirely by those able to purchase the better grade of goods, though there will continue to be a market for the less expensive all-rubber coats. Prices at present range as high as $25, but seldom go above that. This is a field that deserves attention, and American manufacturers \*ill find a con- tinuous demand for goods once introduced and found to be satisfactory. Workingmen's overalls and jackets such as are used generally in the United States to protect the clothing are practically unknown in Guatemala. The clothing worn by the peons is no better than the usual grade of overalls, and there would be no particular reason for protecting it. The prica of our overalls is also too high to permit much of a sale in Central America. The buttons used on clothing manufactured in the country have come in most part from Austria and Germany, and these supplies 4^1^ 'i ■•' 294 men's factoby-made clothing industry. are cut off for the present. There was a considerable stock on hand, however, when the war broke out, and present conditions are not likely to cause an immediate shortage. INDIA. INCREASED USE OF WATERPROOF CLOTHINO. [Consul Henry D. Baker, Bombay, Dally Consular and Trade Reports. Oct. 21, 1914.] There is a fair trade in India in waterproof clothing, the imports for 1913-14 amounting to $80,776, as against $57,880 for the preceding year. Waterproof clothino-, like umbrellas, meets with an urgent and increasing demand during India's monsoon seasons. Waterproof coats and cloaks sell at $1.50 up to $15 apiece, according to size and quahty. Usually dealers order from the manufacturers about a year before the date of delivery, as generally tht more time allowed manufacturers for execution of the orders the cheaper they can be obtained. Orders are usually sent in for the ensuing ^ear shortly after the monsoon season has started. At this time dealers are in a position to know whether or not they will have much unsold stock left over the demand, of course, depending considerably upon the intensity of the monsoon and also upon the general trade conditions. The big demand may be expected during the early days of the monsoon, during the latter part of June or the early part of July. The newspapers of India at this time are especially full of advertisements of all kinds of waterproof apparel as well ^ ^'^^ •• ^^® leading department store of Bombay advertised the importation of 3,500 raincoats for the past monsoon season. England supplies practically all watorproof apparel used in India, and resident Europeans are the chief purchasers The cheapest class of goods they purchase for their servants. Among most coolies and agricultural laborers wh© are obliged to work outdoors in rainv weather, the chief protection from the rain consists of coarse woolen blankets that are folded to make a kind of hood over their heads and a cloak over their bodies. While such blankets are not impervious to water, they lessen the disagreeable effects of the heavy rains. MEXICO. AMERICAN MANUFACTURERS NEGLECTING A PROMISING MARKET. fVice Consul A. Gordon Brown. Mazatlan, Dally Consular and Trade Reports, Aug. 2.5, 1914.] In the lar^e Mexican cities there is considerable sale of Americ.yi ready-made cloth- ing, and it is surprising that no merchant in Mazatlan, a city of 20.000, handles this nne. A demand would develop for such garments if they were introduced after the people became convinced that they could save money by purchasing them. It is difficult to get any kind of a presentable suit here for less than $25, United States currency. TaUor-made clothing is worn by everybody except the poorer people, who use ready^ made overalls to a great extent. Clothing, such as can be bought in the United States for $15 and at closing-out sales as low as $10 a suit, is unknown in the Mazatlan district. If suits were offered here at retail at $15 to $25 in competition with tailor-made garments they would find a good market. The well-to-do Mexicans wear the latest stvles and are well dressed . Ameri- can ready-made shirts, hats, neckwear, and hoiscry' etc.. are already being sold here. The American manufacturer who contemplates* offering clothing to this market is favored in that, on account of the climate, the garments worn are of very light weight. As the customs duty is based on weight, it is claimed that ready-made suits of good texture could be imported here advantageously. Two Mazatlan tailor-made suits may be taken for illustration: A summer two-piece suit costing $25 was found to weight 1 .3 kilos (2.86 pounds). The customs duty on a similar foreign ready-made suit, if made of cotton, would be $1.16; of wool, $2 73 A winter suit costing $30 was found to weigh 2.2 kilos (4.85 pounds). The customs duty on a similar foreign readv-made suit, if made of cotton, would be $1.96: of wool, $4.63. The above rates have been calculated on the basis of the value of the Mexican peso during the month of July and include a surtax of 12 per cent of the duty. The freight rate by water on merchandise from San Francisco, Cal., to Mazatlan, per 2.000 pounds or 40 cubic feet space, is $7. This information is presented with the hope that there will be peace on the Mexican west coast shortly. At present duties have been increased approximately 67 per cent and business is paralyzed. 4. •r-n—^ FOREIGN TRADE. 295 On account of the climate in this and the surrounding country, overalls as suits are not as much used as in other localities, although there is some trade in overall pants. To the south in the more tropical climes a light cotton cloth is used to make the wear- ing apparel of the classes who would wear the overalls in the United States. This is always a white cloth and very thin, resembling pajamas. There are factories at Villa Union, Sinaloa, and at Los Angeles, Sonora, which manu- facture cloth for the overalls. The merchants buy the cloth and employ the Chinese here to make them up, the charge being $2.50 to $3.50 Mexican currency for making a dozen pair each of pants and shirts. About three dozen pair of pants are sold to one dozen shirts, due to flie climate. A suit of overalls sells here at $3 or $4 United States currency, according to quality. One side is dyed a dark blue and the other side a Ught blue, and the suits are made up on the light-blue side. These make good suits and are used to some extent by those of moderate. means in Lower California. The cotton for this work is obtained from Acapulco, Acaponeta, Lower California, Sonora. Sinaloa, and Torreon. Firms in the United States which are considering the markets in this part of Mexico must meet the high Mexican duty on this class of wearing apparel, which is $2.75 Mexican currency per kilo, equivalent, at the present value of the Mexican peso, to about $0.40 per pound. There is an excellent market in this part of Mexico if the American manufacturer offers overalls in competition with the local output. Thousands of suits could be sold. In the State of Sonora there are factories which manufacture overalls, and they are doing very well. In all the mining camps throughout this district overalls are used to a great extent. NORWAY. OPPORTUNITY FOR SALE OP AMERICAN CLOTHING. (Consul General Charles A. Holder. Christiania, Daily Consular and Trade Reports, Sept. 26, 1913.] For American ready-made suits that sell at retail for $15 to $20, Christiania offers a splendid opportunity. Most of the suits now on the market are poorly cut, have little style or shape, and are not warranted to be wool or not to shrink, to keep their color, or to wear well. Nothing approaching the high-grade American ready-made clothing can be found here, atid these are even superior to the suits made by custom tailors in style, finish, and general appearance. While Norwegian clothing dealers know little about American clothing (though they state that American tailors are considered superior to all others), there are enough Norwegian-Americans or Norwegians who have traveled in America to form the nu- cleus of a demand that would quickly spread if American clothing could once be introduced. American manufacturers who send salesmen to England would find it well worth while to include Christiania in their visits, or if sample suits were sent to a local agent it is possible that this would suffice. It would seem thai the best method of introducing these articles into Christiania would be through the medium of a commission agent who would be constantly in touch with the trade. The import duty on such goods can not be stated until a sample has ])een submitted to the customs authorities here for decision. Correspondence may be in English or Norwegian, but all advertising matter should be in Norwegian; prices, should be quoted f. o. b. steamer at seaport. Direct lines run from Boston, New York, Philadelphia, Newport News, and Gulf ports to Norway regularly and frequently. NOVA SCOTIA. CLOTHING TRADE LITTLE AFFECTED BY WAR. (Consul General Evan E. Young, Raillax. Daily Consular and Trade Reports, Oct. 5, 1914.] The trade in ready-made clothing and haberdashery will apparently be little affected, iu so far as concerns imoortations, by the European conflict. Except in the cheaper grades of ready-made clothing, which have heretofore been obtained from Germany and Belgium, the bulk of the ready-made clothing imported into this con- sular district is purchased in England, and shipments continue to be received from *'. at source. i si '.» 296 men's factoby-made clothing industry. scotland. AMERICAN STYLES POPULAR. P^>nstil RufUs Fleming, Edinburgh, Daily Consular and Trade Reports, Oct. 16, 1014.] It is especially noteworthy that prominent woolen cloth concerns which have never before considered the "ready-made" trade are entertaining a suggestion that a syndi- cate be formed to undertake this branch of manufacture. Some small firms have engaged in the production of clothing with much success. Orders from the British Government and prospective orders from France have induced the larger mill owners to think seriously of the tailoring branch of the business in connection with cloth manufacture, thus carrying on the trade completely from the wool to the wearer. It is claimed that suits can be produced to sell at $11 retail. It is said that a good 18-ounce cheviot cloth can be made, all wool, at $1 a yard when orders are in bulk. The aver- se cost at the factory of making a suit may be taken as $2.45. This leaves about $5.05 for marketing. There is a probability that the "ready-made " trade will develop rapidly under the impetus which Government orders have given and that this branch of manufacture will become an important feature of the Scotch woolen industry. This opinion is strengthened not a little by the fact that for several years the sales of ready-to-wear suits have been steadily increasing. A fair proportion of men's suits sold in this market are now made in America of Scotch cloth. The style, finish, fine appearance, and wearing quahtv of the clothing have popularized ready-made articles, even breaking down the prejudice of many men who have heretofore looked at nothing not made to measure. As new conditions are requiring the most careful economy, the time seems auspicious for the development of the wholesale tailoring industry. SOUTH AFRICA. MARKET FOR OLD-STYLE CLOTHING. (Consul Edwin N. Ounsaulus, Johannesburg, Daily Consular and Trade Reports, Aug. 6, 1914.] Throughout this consular district, particularly in the vicinity of the mines, there is a very brisk trade in old-style American clothing, which will increase to a marked degree, provided exporters strictly comply with the methods of packing and export articles corresponding to samples. For the most part, local agents obtain their requirements in shipments of 10,000 to 16,000 garments per month, and dispose of them to the wholesale houses, which in turn distribute them to their smaller customers. The smaller firms are mostly estab- Ui^ed in close proximity to the mines, and dispose of these goods to natives working in and around the mines and works of every description. These natives are mostly ol a burly type and the sizes in demand are 4, 5, 6, and 7, with a very small percentile of size 3, packed in bales of 200 assorted sizes, each bale containing 50 suits size 4, 75 suits size 5, 50 suits size 6, and 25 suits size 7. The reason for this method of paclang is to allow merchants to dispose of their supplies in bales, without previously having to sort them out. In this respect merchants have hitherto experienced considerable <3Uflaculty when dealing with American firms. In order to avoid unnecessary delay in correspondence samples should be submitted in the first instance. SPAIN. TOO DRY FOR RAINCOATS. (Consul Frederick T. F. Dumont, Madrid, Daily Consular and Trade Reports, Jan. 19, 1914.] The rainfall in most of Spain being very slight, the trade in raincoats is limited. No coats are manufactured in this consular district. Dealers buy from England and pay either cash with order or draft at 30 days, according to the standing of the pur- chasing house. It is stated that goods are usually ordered from catalogues, the trade not being important enough to warrant sending buyers to London for raincoats alone. No resident salesmen for these goods have been found, and department stores are unknown. The usual large store in Madrid carries from 10 to 50 raincoats in stock. Certain houses are distributors to the trade and do a retail business in Madrid as well. Apparently the best way to get this trade is to forward catalogues and samples direct to Madrid houses. A request for American catal(^es was recently receivea from one house here. Correspondence should be in Spanish, and catalogues in the same lan- guid are advisable. FOREIGN TBADE. TURKEY. 297 MODERN CLOTHES MORE GENERALLY WORN. [CoDsul Leslie A. Davis, Ilarput, Commerce Reports, Mar. 1j, 1915.) Articles of wearing apparel that are now imported from the United States in mirmon.. "n!!^K?5"~^ ^*^"*^ composed of wool prepared for spinning into vam bv thp of fabric between the wSa^d thi w^S?"** ""^ " ^"""'^ conceivable kind ^ Miscellaneous Series No 34. FIG. lf-ROTARY OR CIRCULAR CUTTING MACHINE. I'* ^•■^ ^ ••^•.y^ ~^r'-*" ■■■Mii^"vgg ^^|-^JJ^^2J^^g^^^^^^^^^^WJ^2^^^^ggJJ Miscellaneous Series No. 34. Miscellaneous Series No. 34. I ^ ■^ »-— » FIG. 2.— STRAIGHT-KNIFE OR RECIPROCATING CUTTING MACHINE. FIG. 3.-MACHINE FOR SEAMING TROUSERS AND OTHER GARMENTS Flat bed, single needle, and one under thread. t Miscellaneous Series No. 34 ^vr Miscellaneous Series No. 34. FIG. 4.— SEAM-CLOSING MACHINE. FIG. 6.— SERGING MACHINE. FIG. 7.— WORK DONE ON SERGING MACHINE. FIG. 5.— LEFT FOREQUARTER OF A COAT MADE ON THE SEAM-CLOSING MACHINE. <*J^ Miscellaneous Series No. 34. FIG. 8.-MACHINE FOR SERGING TROUSERS AND OTHER GARMENTS. Flatbed, single interlock, without trimmer. '^ \,J ^ Miscellaneous Series No. 34. FIG. 9.— CANVAS-FRONT MAKING MACHINE. J FIG. 10.-WORK DONE ON CANVAS-FRONT MAKING MACHINE. Miscellaneous Series No. 34. Miscellaneous Series No. 24. FIG. 11.— TWO-ROW STITCHING MACHINE. FIG. 12.— WORK DONE ON TWO-ROW STITCHING MACHINE. - / - FIG. 13.— SLEEVE-INSERTING MACHINE. X FIG. 14.— TOP OF THE SLEEVE GATHERED ON GATHERING MACHINE READY TO BE INSERTED INTO THE COAT. Miscellaneous Series No. 34. Miscellaneous Series No. 34. FIG. 15.-BUTTONHOLE MACHINE. L -< i 9 1 FIG. 17.— BELT LOOPS TACKED TO TROUSERS BY MACHINE. FIG. 16.— WORK DONE ON BUTTONHOLE MACHINE. FIG. 18.— MACHINE FOR FOLDING AND STITCHING BELT LOOPS FOR TROUSERS. Large arm. flat bed, and two needles. Miscellaneous Series No. 34. FIG. 19.-MACHINE FOR FOLDING AND STITCHING CONCEALED-STITCH BELT LOOPS FOR TROUSERS. Cup-feed, overseaming machine with trimmer. I 1 / L 1 Miscellaneous Series No. 34. FIG. 20.— BUTTON-SEWING MACHINE. i FIG. 21.— BUTTONS SEWED ON BY MACHINE. Miscellaneous Series No. 34. FIG. 22.— POCKET-MAKING MACHINE. i i i I FIG. 23.-POCKET CLOSED ON POCKET-MAKING MACHINE. Miscellaneous Series No. 34. Flat bed, single interlock, with trimming mechan ism. FIG. 25.-WORK DONE ON BACK-POCKET-MAKING MACHI NE. Miscellaneous Series No. 34. FIG. 26.-MACHINE FOR SEAMING OUTSIDE SEAM ON TROU SERS. FIG. 27.— MACHINE FDD c-ri-r/^. ( T Miscellaneous Series No. 34. FIG 28.-LAP-SEAM FELLING MACHINE. VAS TO Miscellaneous Series No. 34. FIG. 29.-PANTS-FLIES MACHINE. y PIG. 30.— FLY BUTTONHOLES MADE BY MACHINE. Miscellaneous Series No. 34. FIG. 31.— BINDING MACHINE. -^PP Miscellaneous Series No. 34. -L\^ ' Miscellaneous Series No. 34 ) \ ^ If V DC < _J o (J q: UJ Q z I ro CO o u. FIG. 32.— COAT FRONT. f^ \ CT3 «•- ■•-' ^ 1. 0) es-c o J: 0) ■^T3 •D o:;r ~ 0) (D-D o h- Q) k- — :3 o +-■ +j •^.^ (D~ +- CO C-D — c c ca |§) — CD C C »- OJ O <1> CO So,® > CO CO C 3~ C3 CS^ 0+-' (D tiO OJ^ C -C . Q) CO CO CO /« "^ "1 5 C3_ C £ "5 «>$ o^ CO -^ c3 .EcaJ$ — ,^_, _ T3 Q-to C CO 3 at- a :£-^ 0) o c^ t: o - br a> .52^ CO H- to C £?- Oi; CO CO CO — eS 5 O H_ O " O »- C >/> af« Q. •-to -C C CO — , JC » o £ « *- ex 2t, ^' 3 u. Ji -\: - 2 °3 o ^ >N o Q: c — — D O S ^ z ii^ •^ fl Q. en C Q. — X.. TJ ± e2 U) 1 r) 0) 00 tj" aj on I! -0 o T3 C E a 0) (/> ST c c E-^ a *- ~i n 'J "J c 0) 1 ( . -?=.«!«»»«•»<. Date Due \ T%B^ ' T 1 1 1 ■•■^' 1 — % irP^/^ f\f' / r t 1 1 1 i ! t \ » ^1 f^ H Date Due r i Y ^ fiiU% 0EC0 7t994 COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY LIBRARIES 41444663 nEH "D 3LC> ■ — I— 1 » r , «H as 1:1 lis. ijureaiA- or roy«i*v» «xv^4 The |V\ov»'s ^aci'ot-y- w%^<*- "•I ^//V '^O^n^ . W ^ f I ■S4 2