;«5K;w«f. ■ I';. ,,■ ,: <™ ll'i' M: IJTuIv * ilf I i ■l.-/;>; '^W «: lift'i \ THE LIBRARIES COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY I 1 1 1 1 I I I 1 1 i i 1 I 1 1 1 1 1 1 i El RJTJlruiirrirgfruiirfOTirrinilrinJni^ [a _:v ,/ ■ / \ ^ (J / UNIVERSAL GEOGRAPHY, OR U l^tmtiption OF ALL THE PARTS OF THE WORLD, ©ST A SflW J?SLAS?« ACCORDING TO THE GREAT NATURAL DIVISIONS OF THE GLOBE ; ACCOMrANIEB WITH ANALYTICAL, SYNOPTICAL, AND ELEMENTARY TABLES. BY M. MALTE-BRUN. iMPHOVED BY THE ADDITION OF THE MOST RECENT INFORMATION, DERIVED FROM VARIOUS SOURCES. VOL. XL COWTAlNINa THE DESCRIPTION OF PART OF ASIA, OF OCEANICA, &C. With additional matter, not in the European edition. PHILADELPHIA : PUBLISHED BY ANTHONY FINLEY, 5K»RTH KASX CORNER OF FOURTH AND OflfiSNUT STREETS. William Browii, Priuter. 1827. 1/6 CONTENTS OF VOL. 11. BOOK XXXVIII. SIBERIA CONTINUED. Its J^atio7is, Provinces, and Towns. Siberian, Cossack, and other Nations. Progress of Civilization, Agriculturists, Hunters, etc. Tartar Co- lonies. Biriuss, Katscliinians, etc. Say- anians. Teleootes. Tartars of Tomsk. Tchulyro, etc. Barabintzi. Tartars of the Obi, Tara, etc. Manners of the Tartars, Mongolian Tribes. Booriaites. Tongoos- es. Constitution. Mode of Living. Religion. Tongoose Tribes, Wogools. Ostiaks of the Obi. Manners and Customs of the Ostiaks. Their Veneration for the Bear. Samoid Tribes. Soyetes. Kaibales. Kara- gasses, Samoids. Their Physical Constitution. Women. Yookaghirs, Tchooktches. Manner of Life. Tribes. Koriaks. Kamtchatdales. Inoculation. Dwellings. Provinces of Ekaterinburg, Government op Tobolsk. Climate. Pro- ductions. City, lluins of Sibir. Ob- doria, Arctic Vegetation. District of Surgoot, Ditto of Turinsk. Munich's Account of Pelym. Tioomen. Yalotorowsk. Koorgan. (Siberian Italy.) Amuse- ments, District of Ischim. Do of Omsk. Go- VEHNMENT OF ToMSK. — Province of Tu- rukhansk. Physical Details. District of Yenisei. OfNarym. Tchoulym and Tomsk. City. Kainsk. Kolywan, . District of Semipalatnoi. Climate. Ve- getation. Schlangenberg. District of Biisk. Ditto of Kutznesk. Ditto of Abakansk. Monuments. District of Krasnoiarsk. Rocks with Inscriptions, Government of Irkootse. Province. City. Physical Details. District of Kirensk. Lower Udinsk. Town of Kiakta. Inhabitants. Town of Selin- ghinsk. Inhabitants. Physical Re- marks, ... ... Nertchinsk, or Russian Daooria. Physi- cal Details. City. Exiles. Province Page 10 of Yakootsk. Curious use of Ice. Tongooses. Towns and Districts, Islands of the Frozen Sea. New Siberia, Province of Okhotsk. Country of the Tchooktches. Peninsula of Kamt- CHATKA. Climate, . . . « Agricultural Experiments. Riches of the Animal Kingdom. Vegetables. Ma- rine Plants. Settlements. Behring'a Island. Copper Island. General Con- siderations on Siberia, . . Its Trade. Balance of Trade, ynge 12 14 15 Tabular View of the Provinces and JVa= tions of Siberia, .... 16- Table of Distances of Siberian Towns, . Table of Geographical Positions, . 19- Agricultural Table of the Siberian Pro- vinces, ....•• Chronological Table o/"I>«scoi:;eries TOflrfe in Siberia, 21—23 -18 19 -20 21 U BOOK XXXIX. CENTRAL ASIA. Comprehending Little Jiukharia, the KaU muk Country, and Mongolia. Deficiency of our Information. Ancient and Modern Divisions. Promontory of Tabis, Note on the Ancient Seres, . 23- Djenistan. Kathaya, or Klthay. Exten- sion of the term Tartart, . . . Remarks on the Plateau of Central Asia. Minerals. Climate, .... Vegetation. Animals. The Yak. Musk Animal. Birds, ..... Little Bukiiaria. Situation. Nature of the Country. Province of Cashgar. Province of Yarkand, .... Provinces of Kotan, Karaia, and Poym. City of Ciarchian. Mode of Living in the Thirteenth Century. Origin of the Inhabitants, . . . . . 28 Dress. The Kalmuk Country. Kanka- ragay. Tshashan-Tala. Songaria. Lako Palcati. Camp of Harcash. Organum, 29 23 •24 24 25 26 27 t '9 ti IV CONTENTS, The Oigoors and their Country. Getha. Town of Lop. Canton of Hamil. Sin- gular Customs. Tangoot, . Ergi. Satchoo. Socor. Town of Selin. Country of the Sifans. The Kalmuks. Their Physical Constitution. Tribes, Dress. Dwellings. Occupations. Mare's Milk. Industry. Language. Kalmuk Poetry, ...... Political Constitution. Religion. Gel- longs or Priests. Mongolia, Desert of Gobi. Sharra Mongols, Kalkas Mongols. Mountains. Rivers. Lakes. Towns. Karakorum. Kyr?e. Other Towns, ..... The Mongols Physically described. Their Mode of Living. Dress. Food and Cookery, Wanderings, Games and Songs. Marriage of the Dead, , Writing. Alphabet. Government. Laws, Page Page 31 52 34 35 26 BOOK XL. MANTCHOORIA AND COREA. General View of the Mantchoo Country. Mountains. River Amoor or Seghalien, 36 Chinese Divisions. Province of Leao- Tong. Trees. Animals. Towns, . 37 Province of Mantchoo. Towns. The Yupi. The Eastern Coast. Marine Plants. Population. Tribes of Mant- choos, 38 Religion. Language, Alphabet. Re- marks, 39 CoKEA. Mountains. Rivers. Climate. Minerals. Animals. Vegetables. Names of the Country. Provinces. Towns. Islands, 40 Physical Constitution of the Coreans. Customs. Language, Learning, etc. Religion. Monastic Orders. Industry. Trade. Government, . . . .41 Armed Force, 42 SvNOPTic Table of the JVations commonly culled Tartars, .... 42- -45 47 48 Broughton and Krusenstern's Reason ings. Reply to these Reasonings. Con- clusion. M. Tilsingh's MSS, Matsumai Island, or lesso Proper. The Mosins, or Ainos. Iheir Exercises. Dumb Bargains. Language, Physical Account of lesso. Tame Bears. Towns and other places. Different Islands. Volcano Bay. Segalian Isl- and, or Oku Iesso. Its DifFei-ent Names. Inhabitants, 49 Physical Account of the Country. Chief Localities. Kuiiile Islands. Little Kuriles. Great Kuriles. Beniowski's Discoveries, EiMPiiiE OP Japan, Diff"erent Names. Mountains. Volcanoes. Rivers. Lakes. Climate and Seasons, .... Agriculture. Vegetation. Forest Trees. Fruit Trees. Domestic Animals, Food of the Japanese. Wild Animals. Metals. Gold Mines. Islands of Gold and Silver. Copper Mines. Iron Ditto. Minerals, City of ledo. Palace. Private Houses. Other Cities. Miaco. Temple of Dai- boots. Gokinai Provinces, . Different Towns. Isle of Likeo, Fatsi- sio. The Japanese. Physical Consti- tution. Eyes. Origin, Language, . Historical Epochs and Antiquities. Go- vernment. Domestic Civil Laws, Barbarous Punishments, Population. Ar- my, Navy and Navigation, . Revenue. Religious Sects. Sinto. Na- tive Worship, Budso Sect. Philoso- phers Introduction of Christianity. Progress of Learning, Science, and Art. Division of Time, Schools. Houses. Furniture. Dress. Description of a Japanese. Wives. Concubines. Funeral Rites. Public Amusements, ..... Domestic and Foreign Trade. Money. AncHiPELAGO OF Loo-CHoo. Tanaxima. Oofoo, ...... Great Loo-Choo Island. Climate, . Visit of the Alceste and Lyra. Scenery of Loo-Choo. Character of the Inha- bitants, 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 BOOK XLI. Table of Geographical Positions on the Coasts of J\Iantchooria, Corea, lesso, and Japan, ..... 64 — 65 JAPANESE ISLANDS. Japan. Inlands of lesso. Kurile and Loo- Choo Islands. Critical Inquiries on lesao, 45 Sea of Japan. Researches on Tesso. Voy- age of the Castricom and the Rreske, 45 Discovery of Tessoi' Strait, D'Anville's Hypothesis. Voyage of Spangenberg, etc. Voyages of La Perouse and Broughton. Seghalien Strait, . . 46 BOOK XLII. CHINA, Part I, General Description of the Coun- try. Progress of Information respecting Chi- na. Chinese Empire, Limits. Surrounding Seas. Extent, Chi- na Proper, Divisions. Extent, . 65 66 CONTENTS. Page Names. Mountains. Southern Chains. Northern Chains, . . . .67 Nature of the Mountains of Shan-si. Plains. Rivers. Hoanho. Yang-tse- Kiang, . . . • • • .68 Tributaries. Nature of the Waters. Principal Lakes. Canals, . . .69 Climate. Hurricanes. Heat. Extremes. Climate of Pekin, Winds. Rains. Agriculture. Corn, . . . .70 Implements. Bestial. Manure. Grand Agricultural Ceremonies, . . .71 Fruit Trees. Tea Shrub. Camphor Tree. Mulberry Tree. Bamboo. Su- gar Cane, he 72 Drugs. Forest Trees. Domestic Ani- mals. Wild Ditto. Birds. Insects. Fish. Minerals. Tutenague, . . 73 Copper. Arsenic, Rocks and Stones, . 74 BOOK XLIV. CHINA. BOOK XLIII. CHINA. Paet II. Topographical Details, vinces and 2'owiis, Pro- Number of Towns, . . Province of Petcheli. Pekin. Imperial Palace. Population of Pekin, . Other Cities. Province of Shantung. Towns. Province of Kiang-Nang. Nan- king. Porcelain Tower, Soo-tchoo-fou and other Towns. Island of Shin-Shan. Red Cotton. Yang- tcheou-fou. Province of Tch^-kiang. Han-tchoo-foo. Liampo, Province of Fou-kien. Emouy. Island of Tai-ooan', or Formoso. Physical Account of this Island. Towns. For- tresses, etc., ..... Inhabitants. Mode of Life. Supersti- tions. Provinces of Quan-ton. City of Canton. Its Population, Macao. Grotto of Camoens. Isles de Larrons. Isle of Hainan. Inhabitants of Hainan. Valuable Productions, . Province of Kiang-si. Towns. Porce- lain. Province of Houquang. Towns. Province of Honan. Its Towns. As- tronomical Tower, . . . . Province of Sluan-si. Its Towns. Pro- vince of Shen-si. Towns. Nestorian Monument, District of Kantcheou, Province of Setchuen. Towns, etc. Province of Koeit-cheou. Province of Quang-si, . Province of Yunnan. Lolos Nation, 74 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 Page 84 Part III. Political and General View of the Chinese Juration, .... Physiognomy of the Chinese, , . 84 Chinese Idea of Beauty. Despotism. Adoration paid to the Sovereign. Man- darins. Mistakes on the Chinese Go- vernment, ...... 85 Stability of the Laws. Ceremonies. The Chinese Mode of Writing, . . .86 Oral Language. Influence of the Lan- guage. Sciences. Chinese Gardens, 87 Printing. Industry. Navigation. The Compass. Vessels. Gondolas. The Great Wall. Its Antiquity, , . 88 Houses of the Chinese. Dress. Public Festivals. Theatre. Operas. Drama- tic Taste and Style. Vices of the Chi- nese, 89 Food. Marriages. Worship of the Tombs. Religion. Philosophy of Con- fucius. Worship of Fo, . . .90 Trade. Exports and Imports. Hannists. Army. Fleet, 91 Population. Military Discipline. Reflec- tions on the Admiration which has been entertained of China. Pretended An- quity of the Empire. Reasons for Re- jecting that Antiquity, . . .92 AncieTit State of China. Astronomical Observations. Cannibalism practised in 1300. Summary Conclusions, . 93 Table of the Population aiid JRevenne of China Proper, from the Chinese Geogra- phy, 94 Collection of Old Statements of the Popu- lation, ....... 94 Modern Statements of Population, . . 95, BOOK XLV. THIBET. General View. Marco Polo's Descrip- tion, 95 Singular Practices. Provinces Enume- rated. Paternal Incubation. Shamans or Magicians. Progress of Information subsequent to Marco Polo, . . .96 Boundaries. Different Names of the Country. Mountains, . . . .97 Rivers. Brahma-pootra. Hoan-ho, Ira- waddy, etc. Lakes. Climate. Tem- perature. Climate of Bootan. Vege- tation. Agriculture, . . . ,98 VI CONTENTS. Page Animak, Quadrupeds. Fish, etc. Mines. Tinkal or Rorax, .... 99 Geographical Divisions. Doubts regard- ing- them. Cities. Houses. Buildings. Bridges. Different Towns, . . 100 Little Thibet. Remarks on the Country of Beloot-Tag, Pamer, Parestan, etc. 101 Character of the Thibetians. Marriages. Plurality of Husbands. Funerals. Lan- guage. Written Character. Industry. 102 Religion. Shamanism, Brahminism, and Lamaism. Discusssions on Shamanism, and its Identity with the Worship of Fo or Budha, 103 Origin of the Dalai-Lama. Connexion with Nestorianism traced, . . . 104 Government, Civil and Ecclesiastical. Population. Army. Spiritual Power of the Grand Lama. Is he the Prester John of Travellers? General Infer- ence^ 105 Caufihistan. Aspect of the Country. Inhabitants, 106 Are the Caufirs Descended from the Greeks ? Rehgion. Customs. Govern- ment. Dress. Houses. Food. Wars, 107 Kaushkar, and its Inhabitants, . . . 108 BOOK XLVL INDOSTAN. Paiit I. Physical Description. Knowledge of India possessed by the An- cients. Name of India, . . . 108 Sanscrit Names. Boundaries. Superfi- cial extent, 109 Mountains. — The Himalahs, . . .110 Their height, Ill Mountains on the West of Indostan. The Ghauts. Eastern Ghauts, . . .112 Western Ghauts. Vandhia Mountains. Outline of India. Its Coasts. Their Shallows. RivEHs. Their Majestic Character, . . . . . .113 The Indus, 114 Rivers of the Punjab. The Jylum. The Chenab. The Ravey, . . .115 The Beyah. The Sutledge. The Gan- ges. Its Source. Ramifications. In- undations, .116 Volume of its Water. Worship paid to it, 117 The Brahmapootra. The Nerbuddah. The Tuptee, 118 The Godavery. The Krishna. The Ca- daverj'. Climate. Seasons. Dry Season. Rainy Season. Temperature, 119 Reputed Longevity of the Indians. En- demic Diseases. Elephantiasis, . . 120 Feutility. Deserts. Alimentary Plants. Flowers. Plants used in the Arts, . 121 Bamboo Thickets. Sugar. Indigo. Palms. The Jaggari. Fruit Trees. Forest Trees, 122 Ebony. Gums. Amomum. Malabathrum, p»gp Bdellium. Sipachora. Mits-ehais. Me- .tals, 123 Diamonds. Precious Stones. Animal Kingdom. Monkeys, .... 124 Bats. Rats. Bears. Tigers. Panthers. Lions. Horses. Asses, . . 125 Camels. Sheep. Goats. Antelopes. O.xen, 126 The Ami. The Elephant. Mode of Catching. The Rhinoceros. Serpents. The Worship of them. Reptiles, . 127 Fishes. Insects. Birds, . . .128 BOOK XLVII. INDOSTAN CONTINUED. Paiit II. Topographical View of the Couit' tries on the Itidus and Ganges. Province of Lahore. Hilly Part. Punjab. 129 The Seiks. Their History. Present State. Character and Manners, , . 130 Population and Trade. Revenue. City of Lahore. Runjeet Singh, . . 131 North-West Parts. Different Doabs. An- cient Monument. Amritsir, . . 132 Hill Territory. Mooltan. Bahawulpoor. Sinde, 133 Cities. Chinganes. Gypsies. Chalchan, 134 Cutch. Infanticide. The Runn Morass. Guzerat, 135 Different Classes of the Population. Gras- sias. Bhatts. Charons. Ungreas. Parsees; their History, . . . 136 Customs. Employments. The Borahs. Industry of this Province. Customs in Cases of Bankruptcy, .... 137 Revolutions and Present State. Jutwar. The Juts. Peninsular Portion. Hero- Ism of Concubines, .... 138 Doaraca. Sacred Usages of the Place. City of Cambay. Surat, . . . 139 City of Ahmedabad. Baroda. Broach. Province of Adjemere. Jauts, . . 140 Rajepoots. Town of Adjemere. Bhat- tees. Biccanere. Jesselmere. Jood- poor, 141 Shekawutties. J^eypoor. Kotah. Bhoon- dee. Odeypoor. Fortress of Chittore, 142 Basin of the Ganges. Province of Mal- wah. The Bheels. Chanderee. Se- ronge. Oojein, 143 Indore. Bopaul. Saugor. Account of the Pindarees. Their Expeditions, . 144 Their Suppression. Province of Agra. City of Agra, 145 Akber's Palace. The Mosque. Mausolea, etc. Family of Abul Fazel. Great Gun of Agra. Futtipoor, . . . 146 Mathura. Sacred Monkeys. Kanoje. Furruckabad. Fortress of Gualior, 147 Bhurtpoor, 148 Macherry. Province of Delhi. City of Delhi. Buildings. Palace, CONTENTS. Vll Page Peacock Throne. Pillar of Cuttub Minar. Kewarry. Paniput. Rohilcund. The Rohillas, ...... 149 Saharunpoor. Hurdwar. Annual Pil- grimages. Hurriana. Province of Oude, 150 Lucknow. Site of the City of Oude. Province of Allahabad, . • • 1^1 City. Hindoo acts of Piety. City of Benares. Fables connected with this City, -152 Its Learning. Observatory. Pannah. Diamond Mines. Province of Bahar, 153 City of Patna. Gaya and its Pilgrimages. Boglipoor. Monghir. Its Artizans, . 154 Province of Bengal, its Physical Posi- tion and Aspect. Produce and Agricul- ture. Commerce. Inland Navigation, 155 City of Caicutta. Its Situation. Build- ings. Black Hole. Indian Quarter, . 156 Fort William. Population. Society and Manners. The Asiatic Society, . . 157 Chandernagore. Chinsura. Serampore. The Sunderbunds. Sagor Island. Hu- man Victims, . . . . 158 Commencement of Cultivation, Recently Formed Island. District of Bacher- gunge. Jessore. Hoogly. Tides. Nuddea. Plassey. Midnapoor, . . 159 The Sontal Race. District of Burdvvan. Birboom. Moorshedabad. District of Rajshahy. City of Rajemahl, . . 160 District of Purneah. District of Dinage- poor. Ruins of Gour. Eastern Dis- tricts. Rungpoor. State of Morals, . 161 Rangamatty. Goalpara. Descendants of the Portuguese. District of Cooch-Ba- har. District of Mymunsingh. Its Improvement. Silhet District, . . 162 Its Oranges. Changes of Property. The Cosseahs. Slave Markets. Tiperah. Dacca Jelapoor, . . • • _ • 163 City of Dacca. Manufactures. District of Chlttagong. Islamabad. Inhabitants. The Mughs, 164 Isle of Sundeep. Countbies ix the Northers Mountains. Sutledge and Jumna. Present Political State, . 165 Gurwal and Kumaoon. Town of Serina- gur, 166 Kumaoon. Fortress of Almora. Paper Plant. Kingdom of Nepal, . • 167 The Newars. Original Inhabitants. Great Valley of Nepal. Catmandoo, . 168 Valley of Noakote. The Twenty-Four Rajahs. Mucwanpoor. Morung. Sik- kim, . , 169 Bootan. The Ueb Rajah and Dharma Rajah, 170 Kingdom of Assam. Adjoining States. Bidgenee, 171 The Garrows. Their Character and Cus- toms. Cachar, 172 Miinipoor, ,....• 17o BOOK XLVIII. INDOSTAN CONTINUED. Paut III. The Seccan or Southern Iiidos- tan. Fage General Account, 173 Divisions. Kingdomof the Deccan. Mo- gul Province of the Deccan. State of the Nizam. Late and Present Divisions. The Deccan Proper. Land Carriage, 174 Province of Cundwana. The Gond Tribes. Nagpoor. Amerkoontook, . . . 175 Mundela. Ruttunpoor. Province of Oris- sa. Balasore. Temple and Worship of Juggernaut, ..... 176 Festival of the Car. Singular Power of Fanaticism. Self-immolations. Im- provements connected with Jugger- naut. European Scruples, . . 177 ReveHue and Expenses of the Temple. Province of tlie Northern Circars. Division of the Country into A^illages, 17S Political Vicissitudes. District of Gan- jam. Vizagapatam. Desperate Con- duct of a Zemindar. Rajamundry. Ma- sulipatam. District of Guntoor. Pro- vince of Khandesh. Arabian Colonies, 179 Province of Berar. Suicides at Cala Bhai- rava. Province of Beeder. Province of Hyderabad. City of Hyderabad. Nizam's Court, . . . . .180 Golconda. Province of Aurungabad. Its Capital. City of Dowletabad. Antiqui- ties of Ellora. Island of Bombay, . 181 Its Advantages as a Station. European Society. Communication with Calcut- ta. Island of Salsette. Its Population, 182 Elephanta. Its Cave. Caranga. Henery. Kenery and other Islands. Mahratta Countries, 183 Account of the Mahratta Nation. Origin of the Peshwa. Other Chiefs. Mah- ratta Armies. Their Mutual Quarrels, 184 Civil Establishments. Fall of the Peshwa. City of Poona, 185 Caverns of Carli. Incarnate Deity of Chinchoor. Province of Bejapoor. City of Bejapoor, .... 186 Fort Victoria. Gheria. Warree. Goa. Portuguese Territory, . . . 187 Colapoor. Parnella. Satara. Its Raja. Wassotah. Punderpoor. Darwar. Hoo- bly. Bijanagur, 188 India South of the Rivek Krishna. General Physical Features. The Car- natic, or Coromandel Province. Choul- tries, 189 Temples. Inhabitants. Madras. Na- ture of the Shore and Landing. Cata- marans. Fort George. Garden Houses or Villas, 190 Society. Pedlars. Jugglers. Black Vlll CONTENTS, Page Town. Population. Origin and Pro- gress of this Settlement. Presidency of Madras. Chain of Forts, . . 191 District of Nellore and Ongole. Nellore. Koman Antiquities. Northern Arcot. Temple of Tripetty. Vellore. South- ern Arcot. Fort of Gingee. Pondi- cherry. French Settlement, . , 192 Trivicary. Its Pagoda. Petrifactions. ^ Fort St. David. Cudalore. Pagodas of Chillambaram. The Chingleput or Jaghire, ...... 193 St. Thome. District of Tanjore. State and Character of the Present Baja. Combooconam, ..... 194 Tranquebar. Danish Settlement. Nega- patam. District of Tinchinopoly. Dis- trict of Dindigul and Madura. Dindi- gul Division, 195 Madura Division. Island of Ramisseram. District of Tinnevelly, . . , 196 Climate of Trichendore and Courtallum. Cultivation of Spices attempted. Cape Comorin. Central Plateau. Ceded Districts of Balaghaut, . . . 197 District of Bellary. Soondoor. District of Cuddappah, Province of Mysore, 198 Power of the Ilaja. Seringapatam, . 199 Overthrow and Death of Tippoo. City of Mysore. Chitteldroog, . . .200 Bangalore. Province of Coirabatoor. Pro- vince of Barramahal, .... 201 Western Coast. Province of Canara. Revolutions and Present State. Popu- lation. North Canara. Soonda. Kar- war. Onore. Lake of Onore, . . 202 South Canara. Mangalore. Province of Malabar. Local State of the Castes, . 203 Niadis. Nairs. Their Singularities. Na- tive Christians of St. Thomas. Syi-o- Romish Christians, .... 204 Subjugation to Hyder and to Tippoo. Tellicherry. Mahd. Calicut, The Moplay Race, . . . .205 Cochin. Christians. Jews; White and Black. PoUlical State of Cochin. City. Cranganor. Province of Travancore, 206 Produce. Civil and Political State. Laws of Succession. Trivanderim. The Pa- lace, 207 Attinga, , 208 Page 213 214 215 216 217 218 BOOK LXIX. INDOSTAN CONTINUED. Part IV. Island of Ceylon. The. Laccu- dives, and the JMaldives, Names of Ceylon. Situation. Extent. Climate. Monsoons, .... 208 Salubrity. Rivers, 209 Minerals. Vegetables. Cinnamon, . 210 Animals. The Elephant. Buffaloes and other Quadrupeds, , . .211 Birds. Reptiles. Insects and Worms. The Ceylon Leech. Fisli, , - . 212 Pearl Fishery, Population. Different Classes, Singalese Character. Castes, Outcasts. The Kandians. Laws, •. Religion. Literature, .... Arts. Domestic Habits. Manners, General Character. Singalese of the Maratime Provinces. Malabars and Ma- lay inhabitants, 219 Christians. Historical Revolutions of Ceylon. Discovery by the Portuguese. Dutch Ascendancy. The English. Causes for the Occupation of the Inte- rior by the English, .... 220 A Rebellion. Its Suppression, Towns, and other Localities. Jaffnapatam and its Neighbourhood, .... 221 Prevailing Crimes. North-west Coast. Aripo and Condatchy. Peninsula of Calpeuteen. Putlam. Chilaw. Ne- gumbo. City of CoLUMno. The Fort, 222 The Pettah. Suburbs. Neighbourhood, 223 Courts of Justice. Style of Society. Re- marks. Caltura. Point de Galle. Ma- tura. Temple of Agra-boddha-ganni, 224 Belhgam, Dondra-head. Rock of Mul- geerelenna. Tengalle. Mahagampat- toe. Batticaloe, ..... 225 Trincomalee. Wells of Cannia. Coun- try between Trincomalee and Jaffnapa- tam. City of Kandy, .... 226 The Palace. Temples. Tooth of Buddha. Colleges. Adam's Peak, . . . 227 Aspect of the Country. Lake of Minere. Kandelld. Laccadive Islands. Maldives, 228 Their Internal Trade. Inhabitants. Hos- pitality. Government. Foreign Trade, 229 BOOK L. INDOSTAN CONCLUDED. Part V. Jl Historical and Moral View of India. Antiquities of the Hindoos. Ancient De- votees. Female Attendants on the Temples, etc 230 Extravagant pretensions to Antiquity. Population of Indostan. Mixture of Races. The Hindoos, . . .231 Savage Tribes. Physical Character of the Hindoos. Languages and Dialects, 232 Sanscrit. The Pracrit and its Dialects. Division into Castes, .... 233 Example of the Rigid Laws of Caste. The Brahmins, 234 Their DHl'erences. Vishnuvites and Si- vites. Four States of a Brahmin. 1. Brachmachari, 235 2. Grihastha. Marriage. Duties of a Grlhastha. Corporeal Purity, . . 236 On Scoffers. Occupations of Brahmins. Their Subtilty. Religious Toleration. Political Bigotry, . . . .237 3. Vanaprastha. 4. Sannyasl. Rules of Life. Anomalous Devotees, . . 238 CONTENTS, IX Page 239 240 241 Infidels. General Character of tiie Brah- mins. Caste of Kshatriyas. Caste of Vaisyas. Caste of Sudras. Mixed The Pariahs. Other Outcasts. Hindoo Religion, The Trimurti. Idolatry. Brahma and Vishnu. SiA'a, Worship of Animals. Transmigration. Hell of the Hindoos. Ceremonies. Hu- man Sacrifices. Births. Marriages. Fu- nerals, 242 Temples. Their Attendants, . . . 243 Buddhists. Jains, etc. Hindoo Architec- ture. Science. Literature. Mode of Writing, 244 Chai'acters. Hindoo Indolence. Luxury of the Women. Miscellaneous Cus- toms. Summary of the Hindoo Charac- ter, 245 Trade and Industry. Products of Indus- try, 246 Dyes, 247 Plants used in Manufacture. Commerce in Provisions. Monopoly of the English Company, ...... 248 Table Illustrating the Indian Trade. Im- ports, 249 Exports. Remarks, .... 250 Political Revolutions. Character of the Native Governments, .... 252 Persian and Grecian Conquests. Maho- metan Ascendancy. Mahmood of Ghiz- nee. Tamerlane. Bauber, . . . 253 Akber. The Ayeen Akberiy. Aureng- zebe. Decline of the Mogul Empii'e. Intrusion of Europeans. The Portu- guese. The Dutch, .... 254 The French. Austi'ians. Danes. The Eng- lish. Origin of their Power. Abuses, 255 Political State of India in 1784. Its pre- sent State. British Policy, . . __. 256 General Results. Internal Changes. Staje of Landed Property, tolice and Ad- ministration of Justice, . . . 257 Proceedings of Missionaries. Supposed instability of the British Power, . . 259 Table of the Area of the Modern States of Indostan, and the Population for 1820, 260 Tabie of the JMilitary Forces of the Bri- tish in In,dia, as laid before Parliament in 1819, . . . . . .261 Table of the Principal Geographical Po- sitions of Indostan, according to the jnost Recent Astronomical Observations, 261-262 BOOK LI. CHIN-INDIA, OR INDO-CHINA. Paiit I. A General Account of this Region, and a Description of the Birman Empire, Names of Chin-India, .... 262 Physical Structure. Uncertainties about the Origin of the Rivers. D'Anville supported in Opposition to Buchanan, 26J Vol. II.— 6 Page Opinion on the liiver of Siam. Different Accounts of the liiver Mei-Koiig. Un- certainties about the Mountains, . . 264 Climate. Inundations. Character of the V^egetation. Forests. Aromatic Plants. Vegetable J)ye-Stuffs. McdicinalPlants, 265 Alimentary Plants. Animals. Minerals. Short View of the Chin-Indian Nations. Their Physical Qualities. Languages, 266 Religions. The Bali, or Sacred Language. The Birman Empire. History of the Birmans. Note by Philad. Ed. .267—268 Situation and Extent of the Empire. Cli- mate. Vegetation. Animals. Mine- rals. Topography. Kingdom of Cassay, 269 Kingdom of Cachar. Kingdom of Arra- can, 270 Cheduba Island. Kingdom of Ava. The Old Capital. Ummerapoor, the Mo- dern Capital. Bamoo. Monchaboo, . 271 Shembigewn. Petroleum Wells. Prome. Savage Tribes. Lowashan. Country of Barma. Kingdom of Pegu. City of Pegu, 272 Temple of Shoemadoo. Sea-ports. Ran- goon. Southern Provinces. Mergui. Junkseylon. Character of the Birmans, 273 Language. Calendar. Manufactures and Trade. Religion, .... 274 Laws. Government. Honours of the White Elephant. The Court. The Great. Population. Army, . . 275 Revenue. Political Importance. Protest- ant Missionaries. Adjoining chain of Islands. Tlie Andamans, . . . 276 Their Productions. Inhabitants. Nico- bar Islands. Productions. Inhabitants. Barren Island, 277 BOOK Lll. CHININDIA. Part II. The Kingdom of Laos, Tonqidn, Cochin-China, Cambodia, Siam, Malac- ca, and the Interior. Kingdom of Yangoma. Country of Lac- Tho. Manners of the Inhabitants. KiTigdom of Laos, .... 278 Its Towns and Provinces. Inhabitants. Government. Priesthood. ToNatiiji, 279 Typhous of the Gulf. Climate. Pro- ductions. Natural Curiosities. Towns, 280 Government. History. Empire of Annam. The Tonquincse Character. Sea and Land Forces. Laws. Customs, . 281 Manufactures. Trade. Cochin-Cuina. Uncertainties about its name. Uncer- tainty of International Divisions. Pro- vinces and Towns, . . . . 282 Coasts of Cochin-China. Alluvial Depo- sitions. The nigh Country. Low Coun- try, 283 Inhabitants. Their Manners. Religion. Manufactures and Arts, . . . 284 CONTENTS. Page Historical Events. The Bishop of Adran. King N'guyen Shoong. Government and Military Force. Kingdom of Tsi- ompa, ..;.... 285 Donna'i. The Paracels. Condor Island. Kingdom of Cambodia. Hiver. Towns. Productions, ..... 285 Ancient City. State of Ponthiamas. King- dom OF SiAM. liivers. Inundations. Seasons. Vegetable and Animal Pro- ductions, ...... 287 Minerals. Towns and Provinces. The Loeach of Marco Polo, . . . 288 The Siamese. Their Language. Man- ners. Public Amusements. Industry. Commerce. Religion. Laws. Govern- ment, .289 Army. History. Account of Constantine Phalcon. Peninsula op Malacca. At- tempts made to explore the Interior. Journey of Van der Putten. Produc- , tions, 290 Tin Mines. Provinces or Kingdoms. Pa- tani. Tronganon. Pahang. City of Malacca. Pera, 291 Queda. Poolo-Penang, or Prince of Wales's Island, 292 Note by Philadelphia Editor, . 292—293 Table of the Chief Geographical Posi- tions of Chin-India, .... 292 BOOK LIII. OCEANICA. Paut I. General Description of this Divi- sion of the World, comprehending the Re- gions situated in the Great Ocean be- tween Jlfnca, Jlsia, and America. General View of Oceanica, . . . 293 Boundaries of Oceanica. Designation of this part of the World, . _ . .294 Subdivisions. North-west Oceanica. Cen- tral Oceanica, and Polynesia. Chains of Mountains. Their regular Direction. The Principal Chains, . . . 295 High Islands. Volcanoes. Low Islands. Their apparent Physical Origin, . . 296 Dangers of the Navigation, lleefs. Straits of Oceanica, 297 Particular Seas. Winds and Currents. Climate. Animals. Quadrupeds, . 298 Birds. Fish. Seals. Whales. Crabs. Poi- sonous Fish, ..... 299 The Vegetable Kingdom. Ahmentary Plants. Palms: their Utihty. Bread Fruit, 300 Observations on New Holland. Fruit Trees. Precious Woods. Gums. Flow- ering Shrubs. Aromatic Species, . 301 Poisonous Species. Kaces of Men. Ex- tension of the Malay Race. Their Phy- siognomy, 302 Identity of Language. Similarity of Go- vernment and Laws. Ceremonial Dan- ces, bolcina Songs, .... 303 Page Amusements. Society of Arrcoy. Divi- sion into Castes. Funeral Ceremonies. Ideas of a Future State. Mode of Dis- persion ? 304 Examples of Strayed Boats. DifTerent Hypotheses offered. Focus of Malay Civilization, 305 Connection with India. Epoch of , Civi- lization. Second Migration of the Ma- lays, Race of Oceanic Negroes, . 306 Their Extension. Degenerate Varieties, 307 BOOK LIV. OCEANICA. Paiit II. — North-Westehn Oceanica; Particular Account of the Sunda Islands ; or Sumatra, Java, and Borneo. Names of Sumatra. Extent. Mountains. Volcanoes. Soil. Mineralogy, . . 508 Climate. Vegetable Productions. Spices, 309 Animals. Birds. Geographical Divisions, 310 Kingdom of Acheen. The Capital. Go- vernment. Laws, .... 311 The Batta Country. An Ancient Build- ing. The Battas, .... 312 Their Cannibalism. Government. Reli- gion and Customs. Passaman, . . 313 The Rejangs. Bencoolen. Empire of Menangkaboo. Sultan. Literature. Arts. Arms. Kreeses. Lampoon Country. Kingdom of Palembang, . 314 Seraglio. Society of Thieves. Negroes. Islands of Banka and Billiton. Jamby, 315 North-eastern Shore. Sincapore. Islands on the West of Sumatra. Nyas. Nas- sau Islands. Strait of Sunda, . . 316 Java. Its Names, Mountains. Soil. Climate on the Coast, and in the Inte- rior. Vegetable Productions, . . 317 Maize. Yams, etc. Palms. The Man- ..... 318 gosteen. The Durion. Flowers. Plants used in Manufactures. Produce for Exporta- tion 319 Animals. Esculent Bird-nests. Geogra- phical Divisions. Kingdom of Bantam. Kingdom of Jocatra. Batavia, , . 320 Its F^nvirons. Kingdom of Cheribon. Mahometan Tomb, The Company's Government. Kingdom of Mataram. Population, ...... 321 Account of the Javanese. Their Physi- cal Constitution. Moral Character. Integrity. Credulity, .... 322 Savage Passions. Treatment of Women. Customs, • 323 Amusements. Tiger Fights. The Drama. Houses, 324 Useful Arts. Dress. Calculation. Mu- sic, . . , . . • • 325 Language, Histories. Sunda Language, 326 Anc'ient Religion and Antiquities. Pre- ^ sent Religion, 327 CONTENTS. XI Government. Revenue, Connection of the Dutch with Javd. Mas- sacre of the Chinese. Subsequent History, Character of the Dutch Colonists. Of the Chinese Settlers. Isiakd of Ma- dura. IsiAND OF Bali. Peculiarity of Keligion, BoKNEo. Mountains. Rivers Climate. Mi- nerals. Vegetables, .... Animals. Inhabitants. Different States. People of the Interior, Badjoos. Tedongs. Haraforas. Ne- grillos. Dutch Settlement. English Factory, Page Page 328 Plants and Flowers. Towns. Manners of the Natives, 350 Neighbouring Islands. Fountain of Oaths. 329 Banda Islands. The Great Timorian Chain. Aroo Islands. The Keys. Ti- mor-Laot, ...... 351 Timor: its Productions. Climate. Dis- 330 eases. Towns. Anchorages, etc. Cha- racter of the People, .... 352 331 Neighbouring Islands. Savoo Islands. Sandal-Wood Island. Solor. Floris. 332 Sumbawa. llemarks on their Lan- guages, ...... 353 Lombok. Molucca Sea. White Water, . 354 Tablf, of Geographical Positions in JVorth Wcstei'n Oceanian, .... 354 BOOK LV. OCEANICA. BOOK LVI. Part III. Nobth-Westeiin Oceanica Cok- CLUDED. The Philippines, Moluccas, mid Timorian Chaiji. Philippine Islands. Mountains. Volca- noes. Nature of the Country. Sea- sons and Climate. Vegetable Fertility, 334 Animals. Inhabitants. The Ygolots. Manners and Laws. Population, . ooS Spanish Colony and Trade. Account of the Island of Luzon. Manilla and other Towns. Mode of Living, . . . 336 Chinese Residents. The Bissay Islands. Samar. Panay. Mindoro. Palawan, and other Islands. General Influence of the Spanish Ascendancy, . . oo7 Mindanao. Its Productions. The Hara- foras. Other Natives. Navy. Spanish Settlement. Sooloo, .... 338 Ambergris found here. Pearl Fishery. Navy. The Spice Islands. Celebes. Its Soil and Productions, . . . 339 Mines. Sulphurous Lands. Different States. Boni, 340 Inhabitants. Their Ferocity. On Run- ning a Muck. Military Character and Habits. Manners and Customs. Amuse- ments. The Chase, .... 341 Religion. Government. Historical Epochs, 342 Islands of Sanghir, Siao, etc. Butung and Salayer. The Moluccas, . . . 343 Volcanoes. Climate. Plants. Cloves. Nutmegs, 344 Animals. European Aggressions. Mas- sacre of Amboyna, .... 345 Effects of the Monopoly of Spices, . 346 Description of the Island Gilolo. Isl- and of Mortay. Ternati. Tidore. Motur. Makian and Batchian, . . 347 Oby and Mixoal. Zula Islands. Island of Booro. Ceram. The Sago Palm, . 348 Mountains. Alfoors, or Original Inhabi- tants. A Singular Entertainment. Isl- and of Amboyna, .... 349 OCEANICA. Part IV. JVev) Holland and its Dependen- cies, New South Wales. Chain of Mountains. Their Height, 355 Constituent Parts. Rivers. Climate and Seasons, ...... 356 Vegetation. Alimentary Plants. Animals. Ornithorinchus, ..... 357 Birds. Black Swans. Amphibia. Fish. Inhabitants. Account of the Gwea-gal, 358 Dwellings. Courtship and Marriage. Su- perstitions. Language. English Co- LoxT 359 Town of Sydney. Paramatta. Windsor. Hawkesbury River, .... 360 Liverpool. Colonial Institutions and Im- provements, Newcastle, and the Coal River. Coal Mines. Port Macquarrie, 361 Country to the West of the Blue Moun- tains. State of Society. Remarks on Moral Fastidiousness, .... 362 Industry. Van Dieman's Island. Ori- ginal Inhabitants, .... 363 Climate. Mountains. Rivers. Lakes. Coasts, 364 Vegetation. Animals. Minerals. Topo- graphy and State of the Colony, . . 365 Exports. Statistical I'ables. Two years compared, 366 Southern Shores of New Holland. Pro- ductions. Quadrupeds, . - . 367 Inhabitants. Baudin's Country, or Na- poleon'sLand. Gulf St. Vincent. Spen- cer's Gulf. Cape Catastrophe, . . 368 Nuyts's Land. D'Entrecasteaux's Obser- vations. Plants seen by Labillardiere. King George's Sound, . . . 369 Lewin'sLand. Geographer's Bay. Edel's liand. Swan River. D'Endracht's Land. Its Productions. Petrifactions. Shark's Bay, 370 De Witt's Land. Its Soil and Climate. AVinds and Tides. Inluabitants. Cape Xll CONTENTS. Page Willem. Dampier's Archipelago. For- rester's Archipelago. Indications of an opening, Adele Island. Buonaparte's Archipelago. Cape Van Diemfen. North Coast. Arn- heim's Land. Van Diemen's B.a)^, Gulf of Carpentaria, liivers. Cape York. Endeavour River. Bay of Inlets. Con- jectural Geography of the Interior, . Methods of exploring it, ... Tablk of Geographical Positions in J\^t~:v Iloiland and the Adjacent Islantls, 375 — 376 3ri 372 374 New Hanover. Small Islands. Admi- raltylslands. Hermit's Islands, , New Guinea. Our imperfect knowledge of it. Coasts. Mountains. Vegetable Productions. Animals. Ornithology. Birds of Paradise, . . . . Inhabitants. Bajoos, Haraforas. Oce- anian Negroes. Clothing. Dress. Trade with the Chinese. Peculiar Fire-arms. Boats. Island of Waijoo, Salwatty Island. Islands of St. David and Freewill, Page 392 393 394 395 Table of the Geograplnccd Positions of the Great Compound Chain extending fromJVew Zealand to JVe^v Guinea, 395 — 39G BOOK LVII. OCEANICA. Pakt V. -Kew Zealand, JVew Guinea, and the Intervaiing Gronps. New Zealand. Progress of its Discover}'. Extent. Soil and Climate, . . . 577 Mountains. Kocks and Minerals, . - 378 Rivers. Vegetation. New Zealand Flax. Animals, 379 Inhabitants. Their Political and Civil . State. Their Ingenuity, . . .380 General Cliaractcr. Religion, . . 381 Suicide. Wai-like Habits and Cannibal- ism. Massacres Committed on Euro- peans, 382 Causes and Remedy of these Atrocities. Good qualities of the People. Adjoin- ing Islands to the South. Chatham Island. Its Productions, Inhabitants. Norfolk Islanj), .... 383 Nkw Caledonia. MouTitains. Rocks. Vegetation. Animals. Harbours. In- habitants, 384 Isle of Pines, etc. Nkw Heuuides. Isl- and of Tanna. Its Productions. Inha- bitants, 385 Women. Sandwich Island. Api, Paoom, etc. Whitsuntide Island, Aurora, etc. Mallicola. Iniiabilants. Language, . 386 Terra del Spirito Santo. Bays and Har- bours. Inhabitants. Poisonous Fish. Vegetable Productions, Islands seen byQuiros, 387 Solomon's Islands and Santa Cuttz. Mendana's Discoveries. Carteret's Ob- servations, . . . ... . 388 Observations of d'Entrecasteaux and La- billardicre. Discoveries of Survilie. Manners of the Inhabitants. Discoveries of Bougainville. Shortland's Disco- veries. Recapitulation, . . . 389 Nature of the Country. Inhabitants. Productions. Low Islands Adjoining. Archipelago of Louisiade. Its Inha- bitants, 390 Archipelago of New Britain. Its Na- ture and Productions, .... 391 Mountains. Plants and Animals. Island of Cocoas. Duke of Yoi-k's Island. BOOK LVIII. OCEANICA. Part VI. Eastern Oceanica oh Po- LTNESIA. Pelew or Palaos Islands. Inhabitants. Government. Soil and Produce. Ani- mals, 397 Small Islands. Marian Islands. Inha- bitants. Their Proas or Canoes. Ani- mals. Vegetables. Island of Tinian. Contradiction among Navigators, . 398 Volcanic Islets. Remarkable Rock. Ca- roline Islands. Inhabitants. ]Manners. Laws. Knowledge of the Compass, , 399 Islands seen by Captain Wilson. Mta- fiRAVE Islands. Islands little known. To\imaco or Rotuma Island. Feyjee Islands. Friendly Islands, . . 400 Tongataboo particularl}' Described. Cli- mate. Seasons. Rocky Foundations, tiovernment. Character and Manners, 401 Religion. Dwellings. Boats. Mlddle- burg, Rotterdam, and other Islands. Ilornc Island, ..... 402 Navioator's Island. Soil. ^Mountains. Maoona. Its Productions. Inhabitants. Murder of IMessrs. Langle and Lama- non. Oyolava Island, .... 403 Population. Society Islands. Otaheite. Its Soil. Harbours. Climate. Seasons. Vegetable Productions, . . . 404 Animals. Inhabitants. Circumcision. Tattooing. Houses. Plantations. Castes. Succession to the Throne, . . . 405 Nobles, Lords, Farmeivs, etc. Rights of Property. Religion. A Trinity. In- ferior Deities. A Future State. Mo- ra is. Funerals, 406 Conduct of Women. Child-Birth. So- ciety of Arreoys. Population. Indus- try. Account of the other Society Islands, . . .... 407 Detached Islands in the South. Easter Island. Low Islands. Dangerous Archipelago. MAnauESAs Islands, . 408 Mendana's Account of them. Nature of CONTENTS. Xlll Page the Land- Fruits and Plants, Inhabi- tants. Religious Ceremonies. Man- ners and Customs, .... 409 Note by the Fhil. Ed. . . . 410—411 Roggewynn's Archipelago. Sandwich Islands. Inhabitants. Dress. Their Dexterity in Swimming. Government, 411 Climate. Mountains. Animals. Plants. Particular Islands, .... 412 Table of the Geographical Positions of Eastern Oceanicuy or Polynesia, 413-414-415 BOOK LIX. AFRICA. A General Viexv of this Division of the World, and its Inhabitants, Africa little known. Seas and Gulfs. Promontories. Straits, . . Isthmus. Rivers. Configuration of the Mountains. Mountain Chains. On the Existence of a Central Chain, Reasons against its Existence. Why has Africa few Islands ? Plains and Table Lands. Rivers without Outlets, . Periodical Swellings of the Rivers. Cli- mate. Temperature. Contrasts of 416 417 418 419 Fertility, General View of its Vegetation. Animals. Peculiar Animal Forms, . . . 420 Man. Three African Races. Languages of Africa. Progresss of Civilization, . 421 Primitive State. Fetichism. Theocracies of Meroe, Thebes, etc. Internal Revo- lutions of Egypt. The Carthagenians, 422 The Romans. Christianity. The Arabs and Mahometanism. The Turks. Mo- dern State, 423 Page Mountains of Suez. Saline Depositions. Mountains of Upper Egypt. Valley of the Natron Lakes. Valley of the Dry River. Changes of the Soil, . 429 Lake Mosris. Maritime Lakes. Lake Menzaleh. Canals, .... 430 Climate. Varied Aspect. Causes of the Scarcity of Rain, . . . ,431 Temperature. The Mirage. Progress of the Winds. North Winds. The South Winds, or Khamseen. Endemic Diseases, 432 Ophthalmia. Vegetables. Crops of the Inundated Lands. Corn Crops. Cul- ture of Dry Lands, .... 433 Artificial Irrigations. Fruit Trees. Vines. The Persea, 434 The Lotus; different meanings of this term. Forest Trees. Table of the Succession of Cultures through the Year, 435 Animals. Crocodile. Hippopotamus. Fish. Birds, 436 BOOK LX. EGYPT. BOOK LXI. EGYPT. Part II. — Inquiries relative to the Isthmus of Suez, and the Extremity of the Ara- bian Gulf. Question proposed. Level and Inclina- tions of the Surface, . . . .437 Consequences of its Level. Hypothesis on the Waters of the Mediterranean. Position of Heroopalis. Heroopolis is not Pithom 438 Distances assigned in the Itineraries, . 439 Objections. Mythological Tradition. Con- clusions. The Heroopohs of Ptolemy, 440 Position of Clysma. Cause of Ptolemy's Error. Conclusion, .... 441 Ancient Measures of the breadth of the Isthmus. Examination of a passage in Moses. Heroopolis is not identical with Baal-Zephon, .... 442 Canal of the two Seas. Antiquity of this Work, 443 Paut I. — A Physical Description of this Country. The Nile, its Sources and Course, . . 424 Communication of the Nile and Niger. Cataracts of the Nile. Valley of the Nile. Parallel line of the Mountains. Level. Basin of Faioom, . . . 425 Plains of the Delta. Mouths. Depth and Rapidity, 426 Navigation. Inundations of the Nile. Mud of the Nile, 427 Qualities of the Nile Water. Nature of the Rocks, Specimen of Obelisks. Mountains of Cosseir, . . . 428 BOOK LXII. EGYPT. Part III. — Topographical and Political Details. Historical Revolutions. Mamelukes. French, Ancient and Modern Division. Towns of Lower Egypt. Alexandria. Harbours. The Ancient City, 444 445 XIV CONTENTS. Page Column called Pompey's Pillar. Rosetta. Northern Coasts, .... 446 Damietta. Towns of the Eastern Delta. Point of the Delta. Interior of the Delta. Places of Pilgrimage, . . 447 Towns on the West of the Delta. Grand Cairo. Origin of Cairo. Manners and Amusements, 448 Town of Djizeh, and the Great Pyramids. 449 Belzoni's Operations on the Second Py- ramid, 450 The Great Sphinx. Pyramids of Sakhara. Middle Egypt. Faioom. Lake Moeris. Peculiar Land Tax, .... 451 The Labyrintli. Caverns of the Thebaid. Ancient Paintings, .... 452 Akmin. Meshieh. Djirdjeh. Denderah. Its Temples. The Zodiacs. Remains of Ancient Customs, .... 453 Keft. Kuins of Thebes. Temples. Tombs and Mummy-Pits, .... 454 Description of the Mummies. Evidences of the State of the Arts among the An- cient Egyptians, l.inen Manufactures. Drawing and Painting. Architecture. The Arabs of Goornoo, . . . 455 Researches of Belzoni. Erment, or Her- monthis. Caverns of Elythia. Ruins of Syene. Observations on the Change of the Obliquity of the Ecliptic, . 456 Appearance of Syene. Islands of Ele- phantine and Philee. The names of these Islands, 457 Shores of the Red Sea. Cosseir. Desert of the Thebaid. Monasteries of St. An- thony and St. Paul. City of Suez. The Ancient Berenice. Emerald Mountains, 458 Arab Tribes. The Oases. The Great Oasis, 459 Temple of El-Kargeh. Necropolis. Wes- tern Oasis. Temple of Daer-al-Hadjar, 460 Indigo Manufacture. Little Oasis. Oases in the Eastern Desert. Government of Egypt. Land Tenures. Revenues, . 461 Population. Recent Revolutions. Man- ners and Customs of the Mamelukes, . 462 Manners and Customs of the Copts. Phy- sical Constitution. Coptic Language, . 463 Religion. Name of Copts. The Arabs. Fellahs. Turks 464 Greeks. Contrast of Manners. Heredi- tary Parties. Art of Swimming. Car- rying Pigeons. Enchanters of Serpents, 465 Pottery. Antiquitiesof this Art. Weaving. Rose Water. Abyssinian Caravans. Commerce of Cosseir, . . . 466 Caravans from Darfoor. Other Caravans, 467 Table of Geographical Positions, Astro- nomically observed by M. Nouet, . . 467 Page Vegetable Species. Animals. Minerals. Divisions. Turkish Nubia. Sketches of Topography and Antiquities. Deir. Ibrim. Hogos. Ebsambool, . . 469 Barabras. The Ababdes. State of Don- gola, 470 Kingdom of Sennaar. Inhabitants. The Nubians. The Shillooks. City of Sen- naar, 471 Government. On the Name of Fungi. Southern Provinces. Abyssinia. Situ- ation and Extent, .... 472 Different Names. Mountains. Rivers. Temperature. Seasons, . . . 473 Mineral Productions. Plants. Alimen- tary Plants. Aromatic Trees. Animals. Two Horned Rhinoceros, . . . 474 The Giraffe. The Zebra. Insects. Un- certainty of the Number of Provinces. Kingdom of Tigre, .... 475 City of Axum. Inscription. Dixan. Tem- ple of Abuhasubba. Monastery of Fremona. Provinces of Wogara, Sireh, etc. Kingdom of Dembea. City of Gondar, 476 Kingdom of Gojam. Begamder. Am- hara. State Prison. Xoa. Damota. Dismembered Provinces. Inhabitants. The Abyssins, or Agazians, . . . 477 Languages. Historical Epochs, . . 478 Present State. Religion. Civil and Po- litical State, 479 The Army. Houses. Abyssinian Feasts. Savage Nations. Their Religion, Laws, and Customs, 480 The Shangallas. The Agows. The Ga- fates. The Gurags. The Falasjas, or Abyssinian Jews, 481 TnoGLODYTicA, or the Coast of Habesh. Minerals. Want of Water. Vegeta- bles. Animals. Modes of Living. The Troglodytes. Language, Manners, and Customs, 482 Fishermen, Topography. Emerald Mines. Isle of Topazes. The Coun- try of Beja or Bodsha, . . . 483 Port of Aidab. Town and District of Sua- kem. Island of Dahalac. Massua, . 484 Country of Samhar. Territory of Bahar- Nagash. Dankali, .... 485 BOOK LXIII. rUBiA, ABYSSINIA, AND THE COASTS OF BEJA AND HABESH. Region of the Upper Nile. Nubia. Its boundaries. Climate. Deserts, . . 468 BOOK LXIV. THE REGION OF MOUNT ATLAS, BAR- BARY, AND ZAHARA. Part I. — General Features of these Coun- tries, Region of the Atlas, .... 485 Mount Atlas Described. Great and Small Chains. Extension of Atlas. Nature of the Rocks, 486 Hypothesis of M. Ideler, on the Atlas of tlie Ancients. Tlie Atlas of the Phe- nicians. The Atlas of Homer, . . 487 CONTENTS. XV Page Objections to this Hypothesis. ^ Passage in Maximus Tyrius. Description of the Region of Mount Atlas. Vegetation, . Vegetation of the Table Land. The Fo- rests. Vlowers. Alimentary Plants, . Animal Kingdom. Camel of the Desert. Degrees of Swiftness. Other Domestic Animals. Wild Animals, Descriptioh of the Bears of Africa. Os- trich Hunting. Inhabitants. The Moors. Moorish Fanaticism, . . . • Arabs. The Berbers, .... The Maraboots. Description of a Plague, 493 488 489 490 491 492 Tribes to the North of Fate of the Captives. South of Cape Blanco. Manners of the Moors. of Morocco. Danger; Route of this Caravan, Vage Cape Blanco. Tribes to the The Trarsas, 510 The Caravan Encountered, . 511 Mode of Living of the Travellers. De- serts and Oases of the Centre. Origin of the Desert, 512 BOOK LXVI. BOOK LXV. THE BARBARY STATES AND THE GREAT DESERT OF ZAHARA. Part IL — Detailed Descriptions. The Desert or Kingdom of Barca. Ruins of Cyrene, 494 Oasis of Siwah. The Oasis of Audjelah. The Desert of Haroodjeh, . . . 495 Fabulous Town. Fezzan. Climate. Soil and Productions, .... 496 Government. Inhabitants. Tibbos. Tri- poli. Climate and Products. Towns. Antiquity of Tripoh, .... 497 Different Towns. Government. Navy. Kingdom of Tunis. Government. Climate, 498 Productions. City of Tunis. Ruins of Carthage. State of Gadames. State or Algiers, ..... 499 Note by Phil. Ed., . . . _ .499—503 Soil and Productions. Boundaries. Di- visions. City of Algiers. Towns of the Province of Mascara, . . . 503 Of Constantine. Inhabitants. Empire OF Morocco, ..... 504 The Almoravides. Boundaries. Produc- tions. Rivers. Cities of the Kingdom of Fez, . . .... 505 Towns of the Kingdom of Morocca. Towns to the South of the Atlas. Po- pulation of Moi'occa, .... 506 Government. Administration. Civil Con- dition. Religions. Situation of the Jews, 507 Pride of the Moors. Singular Points of Etiquette. Revenues. Export Trade. Imports, . . . , . . 508 Bildulgerid. Soil and Minerals. Climate. Vegetation. Animals. The Coast, . 509 SENEGAMBIA AND GUINEA. Climate and Temperature of Senegam- bia. Winds. Temperature of Guinea. Winds. Hurricanes, .... 513 Mountains. Rivers. The Senegal. The Gambia, 514 Vegetation. Forest Trees. Aromatic Plants. Gums. Alimentary Plants, . 515 Guinea Grass. Animals. Monkeys, . 516 Domestic Animals. Insects. Termites. Cowries. Minerals, .... 517 Gold Mines. Other Minerals. The French Settlement. Kingdom of Owol. The Foulahs. Extension of this Peo- ple, 518 Serracolets. Kingdom of Galam. The Mandingos. The Bambookans, . . 519 lallonkadoo. The Yalofs. Emperor of the Yalofs. Detached States. Kingdom of Salum. Palace of Kahane, . . 520 The Serreres. Petty States. The Pe- loops. Boundaries of Guinea. Laws and Manners, 521 The Papels. Portuguese Settlement. Bissajas Islands. Bulam, . . . 522 Manners of the People. Rio Grande. The Naloe. Sierra Leone. Philanthro- pic Settlement. Slave Trade, . . 523 Liberated Slaves. Commerce. Division of Guinea into Coasts, . . . 524 Productions of the Grain Coast. Quoya and Hondo Countries, etc. Manners. Ivory Coast. The Quaquas. The Gold Coast, 525 European Settlements. Particulars on the Interior. Cultivation of the Land. Diversities of Soil, .... 526 Inland Nations, Slave Coast. Kingdom of Dahomey. Barbarous Customs, . 527 The Eyeos. Kingdom of Benin. Laws. Customs. Festivals. Kingdom of Wa- ree. Calabar, etc. River of Cameroons, 528 River of Gaboon. The Calbongos, the Biafras, and the Ibbos, . . . 529 SYSTEM or UNIVERSAL GEOGRAPHY. Siberian, Cos- sack, and other nations. BOOK XXXVIII. SIBERIA. Its JVations, Provinces, and Towns. When we mean to give a description of an extensive country in detail, it presents itself in tvi'o different points of view, which have two corresponding modes of sub- division. It may be divided into governments, provinces, and districts. It may also be divided according to the nations which inhabit it. The one of these methods is that of chorography ; the other, that of ethnography. We usually begin with the first. In the present instance we shall begin with the last, as an order fitted to im- part both greater clearness and greater interest to our descriptions. The Russians, Cossacks, and other colonists from Europe, inhabit chiefly the towns and military stations of Siberia. Some of them are descended from the soldiers employed in the conquest of the country ; others are criminals sent thither in banishment. To these two classes are to be added adven- turers, deserters among the peasantry, and ruined merchants who have sought here the means of repairing their fortunes. These different classes of colonists, burying themselves in a vast desert, have joined to their original grossness that which is generated by a savage climate. But, if ignorance, indolence and drunkenness often encroach on their happiness, we find them praised by travellers for their generous hospitality, their frank gaiety, and the good order which prevails among them. Only a century ago the Siberians were considered as so savage a race, that Peter the Great conceived that he could not inflict a severer punishment on his mortal enemies the Swedes than to send them to Siberia. The consequence was, that these honour- able exiles introduced into that country the customs and the manufactures of Europe. While employed in ameliorating their own situation, they civihzed the people among whom they came. The Swedes founded, in 1713, the first school at Tobolsk; there they taught German, Latin, French, geography, geometry, and drawing. In 1801, Mr. Kotzebue found in that place people who studied the Rus- progress of sian, French, and German literature, and saw his own plays acted on a civilization, public theatre.* These were symptoms of the extended progress of the Siberians in the cultivation of the mind. At the same time, the governors, and the civil and military officers have introduced into the Siberian towns the manners of Petersburg, with the Russian vanity and ostentation. Mr. Lesseps saw elegant carriages rolling • Kotzebue's Account of the most remarkable year of his Life. Vol. II.— a Life of agri- culturists, hunters, &c. archal. T Tartar colo- nies. Biriuss, Kat- sdiinians, &c, BOOK THIRTY-EIGHTH. along the streets of Irkutsk. But this refinement of the manners of the Siberians has not had an opportunity of extending to the small towns and the villages which are sadly scattered in the midst of vast forests. Some farmers, rich in flocks, scarcely know the use of money, and lead a life altogether patri- le hunters, ranging the deserts, are transformed into a sort of savages. The frozen ground serves them for a bed; they quench their thirst with the berries of the thickets; they even drink the blood of the animals immediately after they are' shot. The Cossack who, at Tobolsk or at Irkutsk finds himself confounded with the populace, becomes a sort of monarch when sent among the Samoids or the Yookaghires to collect the taxes, and to maintain the social order of the country. He has a cottage for his palace, and a corporal's staflT for a sceptre; the delicacies of his table consist in salmon, the flesh of rein-deer, and the heads of bears. Some Cossack families established in the towns have obtained the rank of dvoriainin, or patrician nobles.* — The merchants of Siberia are chiefly itinerant, going from town to town, and from market to market. — The number of Europeans established in that country, and of Siberiaks, or descendants of Europeans, amounts at present to half a million. The numerous Tartar colonies occupy the south part of the govern- ment of Tobolsk. Those removed farthest to the east are the Biriusses, the Katschinzi or Katschinians, and the Beltires. These three tibes, more or less mixed with Mongolian blood, live in the neighbourhood of Abakan, a river which falls into the Upper Yenisei. The Katschinians are rich in cattle. Their beardless visage indicates a mixture of Mongolian blood. They have among them Sayanians. | some doxtrous magicians, who dress like the French.l In the south the Sayanians occupy the high mountains of that name. These nomades have some Teieootes. | features of resemblance to the Mantchoos.;j; A tribe of Teleootes, or Telengutes, lives in the neighbourhood of Kutznesk ; the greater part of them live in the Kalmuk country. The Russians call them the white Kalmuks. Some of them who have been obliged to submit to baptism still neglect the greater part of the ceremonies of the Greek church. Their language is half Mongolian.§ In going dov/n the rivers Tomsk and Tchulym, we find two Tartar colonies, called after the names of these rivers. The Tchulym Tartars speak a dialect consisting of Tartar, Buriaite-MongoUan, and some Yakoot words. || Among various insignificant tribes, we may mention the Abinzi, who call themselves in the singular number Ma, and in the plural Malar. They live among the Telen- Barabintzi, | gootes. In passing the Obi we find the Barabinians, (Barabintzi,) who live by fishing and their flocks, in the great steppe known by this name. Some of them are Mahometans, and the rest pagans. The Tartars of the Obi live along the left bank of that river, as far as the environs of Narym. Those of Tobolsk live on the two banks of the river of this name, from the fron- tier all the way to its mouth. The Taralians, in the district of Tara, speak the same dialect as the preceding. The Turalinzi or Turalinians, the most civihzed of all the Tartars of Siberia, inhabit the towns and villages situated on the banks of the Tara, from the mountains till it reaches the Tobol. They were forcibly bap- tized in the river by Philoppei, a noble or ecclesiastical dignitary, assisted by a body of Cossacks. The constitutions of the Tartars are generally robust and vigorous. Their simple mode of life, their frugality, and their cleanliness, protect them from the greater part of contagious and malignant diseases, excepfing the small-pox, which has at different times spread terrible ravages among them. The cleanhness and temperance of this people chiefly depends on their religion. The Koran enjoins them to wash themselves several times a-day.1T By forbidding the * Georgi, Russie, ii. (vol. 4to.) 1009. t Pallas, Voyages en Russie, iv. 580. 4to. * Gmelin's Travels, iv. 370. 8vo. (in German.) § Georgi, Description of Russian nations, ii. 240, in German. Vocab. Petropolit. No. 101. S Vocab. Petrop. No. 96. il "U donne mfme despt^ceptes que lesfemmes son toblig^es do suivre dans les accidens propres a leur sexc." Tartars of Tomsk, Tchulym, &c. 'I'artars of the Obi, Tara, &c. Manners of the Tartars. Mongolian tribes. Booriaites. Tongooses, or CEvoen. SIBERIA. 3 use of spirituous and vinous liquors, it secures them from the consequences of Rus- sian drunkenness. The commandment which prescribes abstinence is less favour- able to health. The Tartars observe 205 fasting days in the year. The whole number of Tartar tribes may amount to a population of 100,000. We now proceed to mention such Mongolian tribes as have fallen under the Russian sway. The true Mongols live about Kiachta and Se- linginsk, and are in small number. The Booriaites, or Barga-Buratt, a great Mongolian race, have peopled almost the whole province of Irkutsk, and that of Nertchinsk ; they are computed at 98,000 souls.* In their exterior the Booriaites resemble the Kalmuks. There is a greater proportion of fat people among them ; they have still less hair, and many of them have no beard whatever. Their com- plexion is pale and yellow. They are deficient in corporeal strength ; a Russian of the same age and size with a Booriaite is a match for several of them in wrestling. The Booriaites, however, enjoy good health, though they seldom reach an advanced age. The small-pox, once destructive to this tribe, has stopped its ravages since the establishment of an institution for inoculation at Irkutsk. The itch is very prevalent among them, and promoted by their manner of living and clothing. To the east of lake Baikal they make use of warm baths in chronic diseases. Their physicians are shamans or sorcerers, who attempt to cure them by sacrifices and talismans rather than by natural remedies. The Booriaites speak a very rude dialect of Mongohc, rendered unintelhgible by frequent transpositions and changes of consonants.^ The third race of indigenous inhabitants of northern Asia is that of the Tongooses, who call themselves (EvcEn. The Chinese call them Solon, J and the Yookageers Erpeghi. They have a common origin with the Mant- choos. The Tongooses are distinguished by their regular conformation. They are usually of a middling size, limber, and well made. Their countenance is less flat- tened than that of the Kalmuks ; with small and lively eyes, the nose well propor- tioned, and beard thin, the hair black, and the expression agreeable. The Ton- gooses are subject to few diseases ; yet they seldom attain old age, | Constitution, which proceeds from their climate, and their laborious and dangerous mode of life. Sometimes the small-pox makes terrible ravages among them. The priests of their idolatry are their physicians. Among the Tongooses the senses of sight and hear- ing are incredibly acute ; the organs of taste, smell, and touch are less sensible. These nomades are well acquainted with every tree and every rock | Mode of living, within their district. They can point out with certainty a road of a hundred miles, by describing the stones and trees which occur in it ; and can give sure directions to travellers. They follow the game by the slight marks which their steps leave on the grass or on the moss. They have never submitted to the rite of | Religion, baptism. Their religion is a branch of Shamanism. Their supreme divinity is called Boa. Polygamy is allowed among them. Their princes are called Tai-Sha, a term which appears to be Mongolic. The language of the Tongooses is a dialect of Mantchoo, with a mixture of Mongolic words, chiefly consisting of such as denote objects relating to civilized habits. § The Tongoos language comprehends eight or ten dialects. This tribe pitches its moveable dwellings over a third part of Siberia. It extends from the banks of the Yenisei to the Sea of Okhotsk. On the south side it occu- pies the east part of Daooria. These Tongooses are good horsemen, I Different Ton- excellent archers, brave and robust. Another tract of the country inha- j ^°°''^ '"''"• bited by the Tongooses extends between the Lena and the Yenisei, as far as the lower Tongooska. Like their neighbours the Samoides, they are poor. Those on • Heym, Encyclopedic Russia, p. 219, (edition of 1783-5.) f Fischer's History of Siberia, i. p. 33. Gmelin's Travels, iii. p. 570. Georgi's Description of the Russian nations, iv. p. 420. (all in German.) + Fischer's History of Siberia, I. 465, note 16. Pallas, Memoires Histor. sur les Mongols, 1. p. 2, (in German.) I Vocab. Petropol. No. 138—145. Georgi's Travels in Siberia, etc. I. 268—271, (in Ger- man.) Filling's Travels, abridged by Sauer, p. 387. (in German) Fischer, Ilistoire de Siberie, introd. p. 116. 4 KOOK THIRTY-EIGHTH. the Lena, called Olenians, live by the rein-deer, and the produce of fishing and hunting. Their name is from Olena, the Russian word for the rein-deer; lastly, the Lamutes, or shoremen, from Lama, the sea, in the Tongoose language, occupy the province of Okhotsk, as far as the limits of the Koriaks. Their entire number amounts only to 24,000 persons.* At the base of the Uralian mountains of the north, and on the lower Obi, we find some tribes of Finnish extraction, and perhaps originally from Europe, for we have no proof that the Finnish nation was originally Asiatic. Wogoois, I The Wogools, who live between the Tobol, the Berezof, the Obi, and the Uralian mountains, are under the middling stature. They have generally black hair and little beard. Their principal business is the chase, in which they dis- play singular agility and address, and manage equally the musket and the javelin. They also excel in laying all sorts of toils for deer. They call themselves JVTami; their language is very mixed. | Ostiaks of the The Ostiaks of the Obi, who are likewise of Finnish extraction, form °'''' one of the most numerous tribes of Siberia, reckoning about 30,000 males. The name of Ostiak, which signifies stranger, has been given by the Tar- tars to three different tribes. The Ostiaks of the Obi, named Mansi by the Wo- gools, assert that they are descended from the Permians. Before submitting to Russia, they were governed by princes of their own nation ; and from their descend- ants the chiefs of the tribes are still taken. This people has no alphabet. They can count no higher than ten, which is also the case with the other Finnish tribes. They possess the country from Surgut to Berezof and Obdorsknoi. Manners and The Ostiaks, says a Russiau traveller, Souyef,J are small and feeble. Ostiaks. Their physiognomy has no distinguishing characteristic. Their hair is generally of a reddish or a light yellow cast. They wear a tight dress, which is made of skins and furs. The men make a mark upon their sldn, the women sew figures on the backs of the hands, the fore arm, and the fore part of the leg. Their summer cabins are of a pyramidal form ; the winter ones are square, and built of wood. The Ostiaks are properly fishermen, but in winter they make great hunting expeditions. The rich possess flocks of rein-deer. Nothing is so dirty and disgust- ing as their appearance and manner of living : yet they enjoy good health. They generally die of scorbutic, nervous, and other chronic diseases. The Ostiaks are still pagans. In swearing allegiance to a new emperor, they are made to go on their knees before a bear's skin, or an axe with which a bear has been killed ; each Ostiak is presented with a piece of bread on the point of a knife, and takes his oath in the following terms : " If in the course of my life I be- come unfaithful to my Czar, if I do not pay my tribute, if I desert my canton, &c. &c. may a bear devour me ! may the morsel of bread which I now eat suffocate me, this axe cut off my head, and this knife pierce my heart !" This is a ceremony used among all the idolatrous people of Siberia. The bear enjoys among them a religious veneration. They make sacrifices before going out to hunt this animal ; and after having killed one, they celebrate his memory by an expiatory fete, and by songs ad- dressed to his manes. § It is thought that the whole Samoid race has moved down the course of the Yenisei ; for there are still found from the upper YeniseY and the Abakan to the west end of lake Baikal some weak tribes which speak dialects which have a great mixture of Samoid words, or which even belong entirely to that lan- Soyetes. | guage. Such are the Soyetes, who are said to be numerous in Chinese Kaibaies. | Mongolia; the Kaibales, who leave the dead bodies of their children exposed on the trees, and who dispute with the mountain hare the heaps of hay Karagasses. | provided by that intelligent animal ; the Matores, the Karagasses, the Kamachinzes, and lastly, the Ostiaks of Narym.|| It might appear natural to con- . • Heym, loc. cit. f Georgi, Description des nations Uusses, i. 65. Compare with Adelung's Mithridates, i. p. S39. + Dans le Voyage de Pallas, t. Iv. p. 51—88, (4to.) § Georgi, Deer, desnat. Uusses, i. 21. I Fischer, Histoire de la Siberie, i. 137, 168, 170, &.c. Veneration for the bear. Tribe* of tlie Sanioid race. Physical con- stitution. SIBERIA. 5 sicler the Ostiaks of the Yenisei or of Pumpokol as a link of that chain ; but it ap- pears that this tribe of hunters has formed for itself a pecular jargon, which defies the researches of historians.* The Samoids properly so called occupy an immense extent of terri- | samoids. tory, covered with heath and morass. They are bounded in Europe by the river Mesen, about 42° of east longitude; and in Asia they go as far as Olenek near the Lena, and almost under the 117th meridian. It is a space of 2070 miles in length, and from 270 to 550 in breadth. The ordinary stature of the Samoids is from four to five feet ; they are generally squat, with very short legs, a large flat head, a flat nose, the lower part of the face very projecting, a wide mouth, large ears, and a very scanty beard; their eyes are small, black, and angular it to these attractions they add an olive coloured skin shining with grease, hair black and bristly, Avhich, though small in quantity, they arrange with great care. The women have an easy shape and mild features. They arrive very early at the age of puberty. The greater part of the girls are marriageable at eleven or twelve, but they have few children, and they cease bearing before thirty. These people, who may be called the Hottentots of the north, only use their tame rein-deers for drawing their sledges ; they use the wild rein-deer for food. Equally dirty as the Ostiaks, they are richer and better clothed. Their only worship is a gross form of fetichism; a stone or a piece of wood is the object of their adoration, or rather of their superstitious attention. They carefully avoid pronouncing the names of the dead. J Their magicians are adroit jugglers, who will plunge a knife into their bodies without being wounded. Acting the part of inspired persons, many of them become really phrenitic. Some of these sorcerers, at the least touch or look, are seized with a kind of madness, roll upon the ground, utter loud bowlings, and even attempt to kill those around them with any weapon they can find. The Russians, who are accustomed to see these savage people, tell us that the magicians inspire them with a sort of terror. The women are ex- | Women, tremely unhappy and despised ; considered as impure beings, they are obliged to perfume themselves before passing the threshold of the cabin. The amusements of this wandering people consist in dances, in which they keep time to a nasal sort of song. Divided into different tribes, among which the Obdorians and the looraks are the most remarkable, the Samoids do not amount altogether to 20,000 persons ; but placed out of the tract of conquerors, they have preserved their language, which resembles no other, in an unmixed state. § They give themselves the name of JVinctz, as apphed to their nation. Their term for the men as opposed to women is Chosovo4 The Yakoots, who live to the cast of the Samoids, in the neighbourhood of the town of Yakootsk, and on the banks of the Lena all the way to the Frozen Sea, ap- pear to be degenerated Tartars, who have withdrawn themselves from the power of the Mongols by emigrating to distant countries. They call themselves Socha, in the plural Sochalar; there is still among the Tartars of Krasnoiark a branch which bears this name. The Yakoots, contrary to the custom of their neighl)ours, wear long hair, and short and open dresses. In dirtiness they yield to none; for a grave au- tlior assures us that the mortars which they use for bruising their dried fish are made of cow dung hardened by the frost. Their number in all amounts to 84,000 persons. The Yookaghirs inhabit the mountains in which the Indigirka and the | Yookaghirs, Kowyma take their rise. They consist of 500 families, all baptized, who live by the chace and the produce of their rein-deer. We do not well know whether they should be numbered among the Samoids or among the Yakoots, or be conjoined with the tribes which are next to be enumerated. || * Adelung-, Mithred, i. 580. t Storch, Tableau de la Kussie, p. 405. Souyef, Voyage de Pallas, iv, p. 190, (in 4to.) + Wasili Krestinin, Observations on the Samoides, in Basse's Journal of Russia, i, p. 291, &.C. .S71, &c. ii. 83, &c. 245, &c. (in German.) § Vocabul. Petropol. No. 120—129. B Georgi, iii. 328. Sauer, Voyage de Billings, 38^ &.c. BOOK THIKTY-EIGIITH. Tchooktches or Tchoukot- ches. The Tchooktches possess the very eastern extremity of Asia, on the east side of the Yookaghirs, and on the north of the Koriaks. They consist of a thousand famihes at the utmost, who are generally found in small camps near the rivers. Their tents, of a square figure, consist of four poles supporting a roof of rein-deer skins. In front of each tent lances and arrows, fixed in the snow, are at hand, to repel the sudden attacks of the Koriaks, who, though belonging to the same race, often annoy them with perfidious warfare. In the middle is a stove ; and their bed consists of small branches of trees laid on the snow and covered with wild beasts' skins. Their dwellings are dirty, and their food disgusting. Manner of living. The dress of the women consists of a deer's skin hung from the neck, so that by untying a single knot they are completely naked. The Tchooktches have large features, but they have not the flat nose nor the small eye of the Kamtchatdales. Lesseps says that their figure has nothing of the Asiatic form, and Captain Cook had previously made the same observation. The Tchooktches, are able slingers, and display much courage and address in whale fishing, which they conduct in the Euro- pean manner, without having received instructions from that quarter. Different '^^^^ Shclagi, near the cape which bears their name; the Ashushalat, tribes. and the Peyeskoli, on islands of the Frozen Sea which are little known, belong to the family of the Tchooktches. Koriaks. | The Koriaks, whose number does not amount to 2000, live by their rein-deers or by hunting, near the rivers of Anadyr and Olutora. The Olutorzi (the Lutores of Witsen,) speak a smooth language, but in general the idiom of the Ko- riaks approaches both to that of the Tchooktches and to that of the following tribe.* Kamtchat- '^^^^ Kamtchatdales, whose number diminishes so fast that in a httle dales. the whole tribe will probably be extinct,! are a people of short stature, with firm shoulders, a large head, a long and flat countenance, small eyes, small lips, and little hair. The Kamtchatdale women have fine skins, very small hands and feet, and a tolerably well proportioned shape. This people is subject to few diseases ; several lame persons are to be seen among them, a circumstance probably owing to their labours and perilous undertakings. Their most common complaints are scurvy, and diseases resulting from immorality ; the latter were known before the Russians came among them ; they have no physicians. The glare of the snow subjects thepi Inoculation. | to frequcnt inflammations of the eyes. The small-pox, like the plague, carries oflf entire generations; yet inoculation has been long used among them; they perform the operation on themselves with a fish-bone. Their sexual temperament is keen, which is ascribed to their fish-diet ; and their tendency to libertinism is not repress- Dweiiings. ( ed by the severity of the climate. The Kamtchatdales of the south have their isbas, or balane^ans, tliat is to say their winter and summer cabins, raised on stages twelve or thirteen feet high, for the purpose of drying their fish, which is almost their whole support. They wear next their bodies a cotton shirt, with wide pantaloons of deer skin; their boots are of tanned leather, and their caps of fur. The chief occu- pation of the men is fishing. In the summer the women go into the woods to gather vegetables, and during this occupation they give way to a libertine phrenzy like that of our ancient Bacchanti. They travel on a light carriage, on which they sit side- ways, and instead of the rein-deer, they are drawn by dogs of a breed very similar to our shepherd's dog. In the north of Kamtchatka, the cabins are subterranean exca- vations, which retain the heat with advantage; but the confinement and exhalations generate an atmosphere which is insupportable. We now proceed to give an account of the provinces and towns of Siberia. The province of Ekaterinburg belongs to the government of Perm, the greater part of which is situated in Europe. It occupies the eastern declivities of the Urahan mountains. Ekaterinburg consists of 2000 houses, and is the seat of general administration for the mines. Irbut is famous for a great mar- ket for conducting the commercial intercourse between Europe and Asia. • Sleller's description of Kamtchatka, 59—71, (in German.) t Krusenstern's Voyage round the World, ii. 270, (original German edition.) Provinces and Towns. Provinces of Ekaterinburg. SIBERIA. District of TroVtsk. Government of Tobolsk. City of To- bolsk. The districts of Troitsk, containing a town of the same name, belongs to the government of Orenburg. The town is a rendezvous for Kir- guisan caravans. The GOVERNMENT OF ToBorsK cxtends along the banks of the Obi, the Irtysh, and the Tobol. We begin with the district of Tobolsk, situated on the junction of these three rivers, in the midst of an immense plain, in- tersected by some lines of elevated rock. The climate is on the whole severe, yet the summer heats are considerable. It is not an uncommon thing to see the ther- mometer rise to 90° or 95°. Storms are frequent in this quarter; and the rains are very heavy. The cold is as severe in winter as the heats are powerful in summer, the thermometer often falling to 30" below zero ; yet the chmate is very | climate, healthy. Venereal complaints and intermittent fevers are the only two prevailing diseases. There is no such thing as a fruit tree. The government | Productions, garden, certainly the finest in the country, exhibits them only in paintings on the walls. The pea-tree of Siberia, or Robinia caragana, the birch, and above all, the black elder, Rhamnus frangula, are the favourite trees of the inhabitants of Tobolsk. There are some red and green gooseberries. Every kind of grain succeeds ; the grass is thick and juicy; the soil, every where black and light, stands in no need of manure. The peasantry, too idle to remove the dung of their stables and cow-houses from time to time, are sometimes obliged to pull them down and build others, on account of the inconvenience attending the enormous accumulation. Tobolsk, situated on the left bank of the Irtysh, and opposite to the confluence of the Tobol with that river, is considered as the capital of all Siberia.* It is the place of residence of a governor and an archbishop. The upper city is 223 feet higher than the lower, and they communicate by an ascent of 290 steps. The numerous domes and steeples of this place give it a magnificent appearance at a favourable distance. The governor's palace in the citadel is an agreeable resting point to the eye, but having been burnt down, it only shews well at a distance. The streets are laid with timber ; the houses are generally of wood, but handsome; the population, increased by a flourishing trade, amounts to 16,000 or 17,000 souls. The nundations of the Irtysh and Tobol sometimes lay the country under water for twenty-six miles round the city. On such occasions it can only be entered by water, and the streets are covered with boats and rafts in which business is transacted. "Tobolsk," says Kotzebue, " is surrounded with rocks, which have been marked in a picturesque manner by the torrents. From these we may see, during the rains, the immense surface of the waters which inundate the neighbour- hood, to the borders of the thick forests which on all sides appear in the horizon. There the eye of the exile is fixed on each sail which appears, and where, in imagi- nation, he figures his family coming to participate in his misfortunes. Sibir was the capital of the Tartars while they ruled Siberia; that city | Ruins of Sibir. was situated about ten or eleven miles from Tobolsk, on the little river Sibirka. It is with difficulty that some obscure ruins of it can be found. At Kemianskoi-Yam, a travelhng stage on the Irtysh, north from Tobolsk, cabbage ceases to form a head, producing only some scattered leaves. At Samarofskoi-Yam, a httle above the confluence of the Irtysh and the Obi, the rigour of the climate becomes too severe for horses to endure. We then enter on the vast district of Berezof, which extends to the Gulfs of Kara, of Obi, and of Taz, a space two or three times larger than Finland or Norway, and situated under the same latitudes, but two or three hundred times less populous. The summer heats of Berezof, at the parallel of 64°, are of short duration but powerful, and are suddenly followed by the cold weather. The frosts generally begin at the end of August, and the ice of the Obi never breaks up till the end of May. There is no agriculture, 'yet some leguminous species succeed. The forests are composed of birch, pine, and Siberian cedars, all stunted. Aquatic birds and fish are abundant. The country on the mouth of the Obi, called Obdoria, is still more | obdoria. wretched. The ground scarcely thaws to a depth of eighteen inches, even during * See Hermann's Memoirs of Science, Economy, and Satistics, (in German) i. p. 23, lOO, for a description of the government of Tobolsk. 8 LOOK THIRTY-EIGHTH. Ai-crio vegeta- tion. the long day of summer. Nothing is to be seen but morasses over. grown with all kinds of rushes, mixed with small plants of a diminutive willow, the dwarf large-leaved birch, the marsh cistus, the Andromeda, and the Ar- butus alpina.* On the Uralian mountains, where the elevation is not great, there are larches six feet high, alders and willows in the state of underwood, and sometimes forming small trees. On the borders of the ocean two species of bramble are al- most the only plants to be found. District of Sur- The district of Surgoot, to the south-east of Berezof, and north from goot. Tobolsk, contains elevated lands, covered with marshy forests, where sal)les, foxes, and martens, formerly abounded. Surgoot is a small town on the Obi. Of Turinsk. [ The district of Turinsk, situated to the west of Tobolsk, contains ara- ble lands. Provisions here are very cheap. The chief place, Turinsk on the river Tura, is a considerable town for that country. Description of It was at Pclym, north from the preceding, that the celebrated Field Muiini'chf Marshal Munnich passed twenty years of his life, formerly so active, and then so useful to barbarous and ungrateful Russia. *' The woewodat of Pelym," says Munnich himself, " is covered with marshy forests, which cannot be traversed in summer with any sort of carriage. In winter, people pass along by means of pat- tens five feet long, six or seven inches wide under the feet, and covered with rein- deer skins to prevent them from sliding. The inhabitants guide themselves across these forests by means of the compass, which they can make for themselves, the niagnet being pretty well known among them."| Tioomen. | The district of Tioomen, to the south-west of Tobolsk, is more open and less covered with forests than Turinsk ; it exports grain, and even some apple- trees are found here. Tioomen, a flourishing town on the Tura, has several Tartar inhabitants, and handsome carpets are manufactured in it.J At some distance from it is found the tomb of the traveller Steller, who has made us acquainted with Kamt- chatka.§ Yaiutorowsk. | The district of Yalutorowsk is east from the preceding. No where are richer meadows tobe seen than here; they are cut down by the first who comes; and the greater part are not mowed at all, as there is a want of cattle to consume the fodder. Insects swarm amazingly. The district of Tara on the Irtysh, to the south-east of Tobolsk, comprehends a flat country covered with forests, and well stocked with game. Tara on the river side is a handsome town. Of Kooigan. | The district of Koorgan is situated south from Yalutorowsk on the Tobol. The governor of Tobolsk, in describing it to M. Kotzebue, called it the Siberian Italy. [ Italy of Siberia. The ground is covered with beautiful flowers. Flocks of horned cattle, and of horses, feed there without any keeper. Plenty of wood- cocks, wild ducks, and wood-pigeons are seen. The town of Koorgan, on the To- bol, resembles a collection of farm houses. * Provisions are extremely low in price, but all articles of European manufacture are very high. Kotzebue describes in the following manner the amusements in which the young women of Koorgan indulge on the banks of the Tobol. '' Along the rivers there are places where the young women come together to wash linen, and to bathe ; these baths are converted by them into admirable gymnastic exercises ; they cross and re-cross the Tobol, swimming gracefully and without effort, leaving themselves for a time to the force of the current, and lying on the water with their faces upward ; they often pursue one another, or pelt one another with sand, duck, and upset.one another, and plunge together; they remind a spectator of the Naiads of ancient fable; and so far do they carry their sport that one not used to see them would apprehend every mo- ment he should see them go to the bottom. The whole is conducted with the utmost decency ; the head alone appears out of water, and were it not for a slight glance of the form of the bosom, one might doubt of their sex. When about to finish their sport and go out of the water, they request the spectators to retire; and, should any • Soujief, in Pallas's Travels, t. iv. p. 29. t Busching, t. ii. part i. p. 491, French translation. ^ Georgi, Uussie, ii. p. 1036, (in 4to.) § Pallas, Voyages, ii. p. 506, (in 4to.) Koorganese girls, District of Omsk. Government of Tomsk. Province of Tui'ukhansk. Physical de- tails. SIBKRIA. 9 one more curious or rude than the rest refuse, the women on the bank's form a close circle round those who are coming out, and throw a piece of dress over each, so that every thing necessary to modesty in this particuhir is completed in an instant." To the east of the preceding is the district of Ischim, which comes in nisti-ict of is- contact with the great steppe of Issim, or Ischim, in which the Kirgui- ''"'"• sians of the middle horde wander. These nomades were formerly in the practice of carrying off the Russians, and dragging them along tied to the tails of their horses. In order to put a stop to these incursions, a line of military posts was estabhshed, extending from the banks of the Tobol to those of the Irtysh, along the margin of a valley full of salt lakes.* The fortress of Petropaulofskiaia is the residence of the statT of this line. The district of Omsk on the Irtysh, near the steppe of Barabin, presents nothing remarkable. Omsk, its chief place, contains a great many exiles. The government op Tomsk comprehends the countries situated on the Upper Obi, and on the Yenisei". The province of Tomsk presents at its northern extremity the vast district of Mangaseisk, more commonly called Turukhansk, a series of forests, marshes, and deserts. The white foxes, white bears, and wolves, are larger here than in any country of Siberia, and their hair is thicker and of better quality. Fish and aquatic birds abound. On the shores of the Frozen Sea, to the east of the Yenisei, quantities of timber are thrown on shore. | The climate is more severe than on the Obi. The ice does not entirely disappear till the end of June. The elms, larches, willows, and birches, are only two months in leaf. The flow- ering of plants is more early. A species of flax grows here, with flow- ers of extraordinary size.'l The town of Turukhansk, called also Mangaseisk, con- tains a thousand people. The simovie, or cabins of the Cossacks, extend 330 miles farther north : these hyperboreans are very much attached to their horrid country. § To the south of Turukhansk, the district of Yenisei extends along the river of the same name, and the Upper Tunguska or Angara. It pro- duces corn, venison, and winged game in plenty, but has no fruit trees. The town of Yenisei, situated on the river, has a great trade. It is four miles in circumference. Its inhabitants have the character of being cunning and deceitful dealers, and ad- dicted to drunkenness and debauchery. The districts of Narym, of Tchoulym, of Tomsk, and of Kainsk, | OfNarym. extend to the south-west of the two preceding. Narym, the most northerly, is a hunting country, possessing very little bestial, and no agriculture. There are some flocks in that of Tchoulym. In the district of Tomsk, which lies on both sides of the Obi, the soil is very productive in all sorts of grain, and many horses and cattle are reared in it. The rivers are stocked with a great variety of fish. In this country, Mr. Flaxmann discovered coal. Tomsk on the Tom, a river which falls into the Obi on the east, ranks | cityofTomsk. the third town of Siberia. Its population amounts to 11,000, and is daily increas- ing. Its central position will, perhaps, render it one day the capital of Siberia. Tomsk is the abode or resort of a very great number of Russian, Tartar, Bukha- rian and Kalmuk merchants. The greater part of the inhabitants belong to a sect called the Roskolniki, who are austere and ridiculous in their maxims, but are said to give themselves up in secret to debauchery and drunkenness, though such accounts of despised sectaries are seldom to be trusted. The district of Kainsk, which comprehends a part of the steppe of | Kanisk. Barabin, is remarked for a great quantity of ermines. The province of Kolywan was, under Katherine II., a separate go- | Kolyvan. vernment. It is the southern part of western Siberia. The country between the Obi and the Tom is blessed with a fertile soil ; but when visited by Pallas it was covered with birchwood, and very thinly inhabited. || Here the town of Kolywan * Pallas, Voyage, iii. p. 51. (4to.) | Gmelin, Voyage in Sib^rie, iii, p. 126. i Souyef, dans les Voyages de Pallas, iv. p. 458, (in 4to,) § Georgi, Russia, ii. p. 1057. 11 Pallas's Travels, iii. p. 388. Vol. II.— B District of Ye- nisei. Tchoulym and Tomsk. 10 isuotv TiinnY-KrcuiH. has been built and rebuilt, sometimes in one place, sometimes in another. The modern Kolywan is a middling town on the Obi. District of I ^^^^ district of Semipalatnoi, being the southern extremity of western semipaiatnof. [ Siberia, merits our particular attention in regard to its natural geography. The plain between the Obi and the Irtysh is of a saline nature. The banks of the Irtysh consist of hills of very deep moving sand. The cattle here are extremely liable to be cut oft" in multitudes by disease. In the southern part, which is more Climate. | mountainous, the water in several places is bad, and gives rise to inter- mittent fevers.* This country is exposed to storms and Inuricanes. The heights are generally arid, and none but the low grounds are susceptible of cultivation. The vegetation of wild plants, trees, and shrubs becomes more beautiful in proportion as Vegetation. | WO ascend the mountains. The false acacia, the balsam poplar, the wild cherry, the white hazel, the white and red elder, the red gooseberry, the privet, and all kinds of wild roses, cover the banks of the Ooba. Large yellow strawberries please both the taste and the eye. Hyssop, water-mint, hops, and wild hemlocks, adorn the banks of the Shoolba. The Clematites orienfaUs attaches itself to the trees in festoons. Limpid springs flow under the shade of the Tartarian honey- suckle, wl)ich here forms pretty large trees. In the Altai mountains, plants more peculiar to Alpine temperatures, such as the Gentiana veris, the alpine saintfoin, the Drijas pentnpetala, the Polygala Sibirica, the beautiful Spiroia aliaica, the Valeriana Sibirica, tiie everlasting flower called Gnaphalinm silvestre, display their elegant blossom in the immediate vicinity of the snow."j" schiangen- The mine and town of Schlangenborg, called by the Russians Zmeiew- i)erg;. skaia-Gora, is the most remarkable place in this district. The mountain receives its name from the great number of serpents found in it. The Tchoodes had made extensive workings here long before the Russians. District cf In the environs of Barnaool, in the district of Biisk, the air is milder, ^'"'^- and the summer warmer than in places more to the south, which are nearer the mountains. All kinds of pot herbs, and even artichokes, grow. Bar- naool is a mining town of nearly a thousand houses, and is famed for its forges. In its neighbourhood are lime-kilns, brick works, and glass manufactures. Of Ktitznesk. | The district of Kutznesk, with a town of the same name, is situated near the sources of the Tom, and extends to the Yenisei. It contains many very fertile and very agreeable places. District of The district of Abakansk, to the east of the former, is on the upper Abakansk. YeniseV. Though full of mountains it contains some excellent pastures, and some grounds which are fertile in grain. Near Abakansk the temperature is sufficiently genial for the culture of water melons. This district, like the whole Ancient mo- of southcrn Siberia, contains a great many tumuli or sepulchral mounds: numents. ^^^ Tartars call them the tombs of the Cathayans, or Li-KateY; and the ornaments of gold, and other metals found in them, show the flourishing state of the ancient nation which raised them. There are likewise on the rivers Abakan and Tchoolym human statues from seven to nine feet high, and covered over with hiero- glyphics. J District of As we go down the Yenisei we arrive at the district of Krasnoiarsk, Krasnoiarsk. where the soil is so fertile that it requires very slight labour, and may be cropped for five or six years, or even more, in succession, without manure. In this quarter, grain and all sorts of provisions are very cheap, and the people indulge in good living and idleness. The sepulchral tumuli in the mountains of Krasnoiarsk contain arms, ornaments, cups and coins of gold, silver, copper, and iron ; monu- Rocks with mcnts of the active industry of the ancient inhabitants of Siberia. § Two inscriptions. ^^^jj^ ^j. ^ocks, onc ou thc banks of the Koksa, and the other on those of the Birius, present inscriptions in unknown characters ; they are called Pisanoi- • Pallas's Travels, iii. p. 200. t Pallas, iii. p. 190, 201, 263, &c. Patrin, Voyage dans les monts Altai. + Georgi.Itussie, ii. p. 1029. Pallas, Voyage, &c. Messersclimidt, kc. § Georgi, ibid. SIBERIA. 11 CJovemment and province of Irkootsk. City of Ir- kootsk. Kanien, or " the rocks with the writing." Tiiere is a similar rock on the baiiks of the Tom, under Kutznesk, on which figures of animals are sculptured. We now proceed to Eastern Siberia, included in the vast Covern- MENT ov Irkootsk, the four provinces of which, viz. Irkootsk, Ncrt- chinsk, Yakootsk, and Okhotsk, supply us with good geographical divisions. Irkootsk, the capital of all the government, is likewise capital of the province which bears its name. This city, which is the seat of the go- vernor, and of the archbishop, is situated on the banks of the Angara, in a beautiful plain, forty miles from the lake of Baikal. It is one of the largest and finest towns in Siberia. It is fortified, and contains a population of 11,200 inhabitants, the greater part of whom are tluiving traders. Their household furniture generally comes from China, the women dress in Chinese stufls, and the ordinary beverage is tea. Diseases arisiag from vice are very general. A Japanese school of naviga- tion, is established in this city, in which native Japanese masters teach the language of their country, and persons from the Russian admiralty give instructions in the art of navigation. agri- ri)ysi(,al de- tails. District of Ki- rensk. labitants of Lower Udinsk. Town of Kiakta. The -environs of Irkootsk are agreeable, the soil is fertile, and culture in a flourishing state. In proportion as we a[>proach the lake ol BaYkal the country becomes more and more mountainous. Game is abundant in the neighbourhood. There are elks, stags, wild boars, muir-fowl, woodcocks, and par- tridges. This country experiences frequent earthquakes. Kirensk on the I-ena has also a fertile territory, producing plants of extraordinary size. The small sturgeons, and other fish which are taken in the neighbouring rivers, are the most delicate in all Siberia. The in this country are disfigured by goitures of uncommon size ; these are frequently seen even on the cows and oxen of the country. The district of lower Udinsk, which extends east from that of Ir- kootsk, is almost entirely covered with dark and marshy forests, where the soil produces nothing but moss and marsh plants, in a great measure similar to those of Russia and the north of Europe. The climate is excessively cold. Kiakta, a town built on the frontier of Mongolia, in the district of Upper Udinsk, has become a place of note from the trade between Russia and China. It is commanded by Mount Boorgultci, (the Mountain of Eagles) which the Chinese reserved to themselves in the last demarcation treaty, on the pretext that its summit contained the tombs of their ancestors. Kiatka labours under a great want of good water. The environs consist of sand and rocks, a soil ill fitted for the cul- ture of vegetables. The chief inhabitants are Russian merchants, or | inhabitants, agents of the chief commercial houses of the empire. Their mode of life is polished and social. The merchants think that the best hospitality they can show to a stran- ger is to press him to drink all the diiferent kinds of tea in succession. Their furni- ture, and part of their clothing, are of Chinese manufacture. Selinginsk, another town of the district of Upper Udinsk, is situated in the neighbourhood of high sandy mountains, the successive crumb- lings of which begin to cover all its streets. The inhabitants are very little engaged in trade ; their constitution and physiognomy present a strong mixture of the Mongo- lian. The Russians who are established here prefer, in their marriages, | iniiaWtants. wives from the Booriaits or Mongols. These alliances give origin to a breed called Karimki. The manners of the common people are very similar to those of the Boo- riaites. The inhabitants in general even prefer speaking the Mongol language. The climate of Selinginsk is tolerably temperate ; on all high grounds with a south- ern exposure snow disappears in the month of March, and the flocks go to pasture about the twentieth day of the same month. Bushes of the wild pear, the Ribes dia- canlha and the dwarf elm, are not found any where in great nninber. The moun- tains are covered with the Robinia j)ygmaea.* This province has an astonishing variety of soil and climate ; in one place narrow, gloomy, and cold valleys; in another, hot sandy plains. Town of Selinginsk. Physical remark*. • rallas, iv. p. 142, 224, and 369, 4to, Province of Nertchinsk, or Russian Daooria. Physical details. City of Nertchinsk. 12 BOOK THIRTY-EIGHTH. and a little way off, a surface of neutral salts. At Selinginsk water melons thrive very well; while on the banks of the Uda corn seldom ripens. In general this country is ill adapted to agriculture, even with the utmost care.* The province of Nertchinsk, which comprehends Russian Daooria, is covered with mountains. The plains met with here are, properly speak- ing wide valleys. The mountains present on every hand nothing but per- pendicular and projecting rocks, which seem suspended in the air. For this reason no country is richer in picturesque views and situations. The air may be compared with that of the Alps, the cold being rather keen even in summer. The most common wood consists of pines, larches, black and white firs, Siberian cedars, and black birch, which occurs in no other part of Siberia. The summits where the snow lies constantly contain some clumps of the pine of Libanus, dwarf birch, and a particular species of junipers and willows. The hazel and the oak do not make their appearance till we pass the river Argoon on the Chinese terri- tory. For rare plants and minerals this province surpasses all those of Siberia. It has a brilliant alpine vegetation. To mention one example ; we see entire mountains near the banks of the Onon, whose surface on one side is overspread with a lilac hue produced by the buds of the wild apricot, while the other seems carpeted Avith the deep purple of the rhododendrons with which it is covered. | Nertchinsk, a frontier town, with a fort on the Chinese side, is, next to Kamtchatka, the place of banishment most dreaded of any in Russia. The exiles sent hither are employed in the mines. The number in the place at a Exiles. I time is generally 1000, sometimes 1800, rarely 2000. Confounded in one single class, they are dressed and fed like the soldiers. Desertion is extremely difficult; they are not however oppressed with too heavy work. The Chinese always deliver up those who have made their escape, and insist on the infliction of an addi- tional chastisement on them for having polluted their territory. The province of Yakootsk comprehends the greater part of the basin of the Lena. Some southern strips of land on the west side of the river enjoy a tolerable climate. But from this river to the promontory of Tchalaginskoi the country has nothing but mountains or morasses, and is excessively cold. Barley ripens in six or seven weeks, but the harvest is uncertain. The only sure means of subsistence are found in hunting. In this wintry region ice is employed as a protection from the cold in the following curious manner : The win- dow panes are generally lamince of transparent mica, called Muscovy glass ; exterior to these, plates of transparent ice are set up, and cemented by pouring on them a little water, which immediately freezes. J The short summer heafs induce the Ton- gooses to go naked like the Americans, vvearing only a small piece of leather round the middle. Several of them live on the roots of the orange-lily, which are very Tongooses. | common, and which they convert into meal and bread. The Tongoos fishermen throw their lines into the rivers when scarcely thawed, and accompany their fishing with merry songs and nimble dances. Yakootsk, situated on the west bank of the Lena, is the caphal of the province. This town, consisting of about 600 indifferent houses, carries on a great trade in sables. In the vicinity of Olekminsk, the chief place of a dis- trict of the same name, some fields of barley are cultivated. This town consists of about twenty houses, with a cliurch and fort. Tlie inhabitants are descended from Russians who were sent hither when the fort was established for collecting the tri- bute of furs; but they have almost forgotten their native language and manners for those of their rude neighbours and dependents. The two districts of Olensk on the Olenek, and of Shigansk on the Lena, are vast deserts where hordes of Yakootes and Tongooses lead a wandering life. Olensk is the most northern place in the world that bears the name of a town. At Kumah-Surka, the Lena, proceeding from the mountains, offers one of the most picturesque and majestic views that can be ima- • Pallas, iv. 384, &c, f Idero, iy. 313, &c. 4to. i Gmelin, Voyage de Slberie. Georgi, Russie, ii, p. 1102. Province of Yakootsk. Singular ap- plication of ice. Towns and districts. Islands of the Frozen Sea. SIBERIA. 13 glncd.* The district of Sachiwersk is inhabited by Yookagirs. The tribute in these countries is levied by half-noble Cossakti, (or Dworianin) who arc settled at Ya- kootskj and receive eight rubles, (about £\ 5s.) of annual pay. These are the princes, and sometimes the dreaded tyrants of this Arctic world. The Frozen Sea on this part of the Siberian coast, seems to be full of islands. Those which are found opposite to the mouths of the Lena and the Yana, are, hke the adjoining coast, great turf hills on a base of eternal ice Some of them contain half frozen lakes. These solitudes are the habitations of the bear and the rein-deer. Islands more worthy of notice have been found to the north of Cape Sviaitoi. They had been visited in 1711 and 1724, but were afterwards for- gotten, till they were re-discovered by the Russian merchant Liaikhofl", in 1774. He first surveyed two flat islands, the southernmost of which contains a lake. The sand and soft earth surrounding this lake, in falling to pieces, lays open collections of bones, and entire skeletons of buffaloes, rhinoceroses, and elephants. The ivory found here is as white and fresh as that which is brought from Africa. He found at a distance of seventy miles from the second island, an extensive coast, which the surveyor Chwomof was sent to examine in the following year, and which has been recently examined by M. Hedenstrom. This land, which has been named New Siberia, presented a pretty high coast, where petrified wood was found I New Siberia. in immense regular strata between the sand and the clay. The bones of elephants are found in it in great abundance. There is a considerable river, which indicates that the land is not of very limited extent. It contains some plants ; and traces of human beings were supposed to be perceived. | This jVew Siberia is, perhaps, only an extremity of American or west Greenland, which would have been called a north- ern extremity had it been short of the pole ; but if it has crossed it, its two opposite extremities must both be called southern; and those which look east and west must be viewed as the shores of gulfs or bays formed by the undulating line of the land. The most westerly parts of Siberia are comprehended in the province Province of of Okhotsk, a hilly country, covered with marshy woods. Scarcely any Okhotsk, plant subservient to human subsistence grows here, and provisions are brouoht to it from Yakootsk. Even the potato speedily degenerates. + Tlie only town is Ok- hotsk, a sea port, from which the Russians fit out for Kamtchatka and America. Merchant vessels are built in this quarter. The country of the Tchooktches, which forms the extremity of Asia on the north-east, supports among its rocks innumerable flocks of rein- deer. The inliabitants live partly in the hollows of the rocks ; they also build cots of the bones of whales.§ The "Bear Islands," which skirt the north coast of the country of the Tchooktches have more vegetation than those of Liaikhofl". || In Behring's Straits are the two islands Inioglim and Igeliin, probably the same as the " Clarke's Islands" of the English. They are inhabited by the Achootllach colony, a set of intrepid fishermen, who cook their provisions over lamps formed in little ca- vities in the rocks, in which oil is burned with rush matches. The large peninsula of Kamtchatka forms a district of the province of Okhotsk. This coimtry is divided longitudinally by a chain of moun- tains, and its two sides are watered by an infinity of streams, generally neither lar^e nor navigable. The most considerable of them are the Kamtchatka, the Awatsha and the Bolshaia-Ricka. The winters of this country are often month's | climate. duration. It begins to freeze by the month of July, and the frosts often continue till May. But the cold is never very intense, the sea fogs keeping up a humid and comparatively mild state of the atmosphere. The winds, and in consequence of this the climate, are extremely inconstant, and the transition from summer to winter is * Kemarkable account of the islands of I-laikhof, &c. in Pallas's New Memoirs of the North vii. p. 128—142, (in German,) in the Fetersburj^h Gazette of 1810. t Adams, Voyage, &c. Ephem. Geog-r. xxv. 260. t Melanges sur Okhotsk, dans Pallas, Nouveau.Memoires du Nord, iv. 146 — 162. § Extract of the Journal of Iwan Kowalew, corporal of Cossacks, a native of Tchootcli, in the preceding work, iv. 105 — 111. n Journal of Leontiew, Andreiew, and Lissow's Expedition to the Bear Islands, in Pallas, Nouv. Mem. i. p. ii. p. 231 — 23r. Country of the Tchooktches. Peninmila of Kamtchatka. 14 liooK TiiiiiTY-Euarni. AgricuIliU'al experiments, Kiclies of the Hiiimal king;- doin. often iubtaiitaneous. Several of the rivers never freeze. Agriculture has not succeeded in this peninsula even in its southern part. Barley and oats give at most a return of two or threefold, and that only in select spots. The moisture prevents the ears from ripening. At a certain distance from the sea they might probably succeed.* Corn is extremely dear, being brought all the way from Irkootsk. But the rearing of cattle might become an important object, as the pastures are excellent, and the grass tall and waving, like that of the savannahs of Louisiania. Foxes, sables, hares, ermines, bears, and rein-deers, range this coun- try in droves. The coasts arc always surrounded by a crowd of ceta- ceous and amphibious animals, as whales, sea-bears, manatis, otters or sea-beavers. Dabs, soles, lampreys, eels, and pikes, swarm unmolested in the rivers, being only eaten in times of scarcity. But the Salmon, which is excellent, is regularly fished. When this fish ascends the rivers from the sea, it is in such numbers as to obstruct in some measure their current. The dogs and bears, by Steller's account, devour at their leisure as many as they please. The herring, which go up into the lakes to spawn, abound in them to such a degree, that they may almost be taken up in buckets. The birds are equally remarkable for their great number and the multiplicity of spe- cies. The sea birds are innumerable. Among the land birds may be mentioned swans, seven species of geese, and eleven of ducks. Eagles are used as food. Fir, larch, and poplar, are used for building l>ouses and vessels. The birches which Vegetables. | abound, are employed for making sledges. The green bark of this tree is cut in small pieces, and eaten with caviare, and the sap of the same tree furnishes an agreeable drink. The willow and the alder are almost the only species used as firewood. The willow bark is eaten by the inhabitants, and that of the alder is em- ployed for staining leather. The root of the lilium Kamlchatcensc is often used for Marine plants. | bread. IVettlcs are used instead of flax and hemp. There are seve- ral medicinal plants. Of the/«ci which abound in the adjoining sea, the fucus dulcis, or palmatus, the csculentus, and saccharinus,'\ (so called from an efllorescence which it gives out of soft and glutinous matter, compared to sugar from its appearance,) are eaten by the people like cabbage. Nishni-Kamtchatsk, acapital on the Kamtchatska river; Bolscheretzkoi and retropaulowsk, in Awatscha Bay, are mere villages or rather hamlets. The Aleutian islands belong too evidently to America to be described along with Asia. But Behring's Island and Copper Island are entitled to follow our account of Behring's Kamtchatka, of which they appear to|be an easterly extension. Behring's Island. Island, which is nearest to it, derives its name from the celebrated Danish navigator whose active life was terminated on this desert shore. It is unin- habited. The land consists of granite. The cold on the sea shore is not rigorous, and strong ice is never seen. But the tops of the hills in the interior, estimated by iSteller to be 6400 feet in height, are perpetually covered with snow.J The island Conner l ^^ destitute of wood, and surrounded with reefs. Mednoi-Ostrow, or Wand. I Cop|)er Island, takes its name from the circumstance of some native copper having been found on its western shore. It is in kidney-shaped pieces con- tained in the gravel of which the beach is formed, and situated in a sort of veins.^ In 1762, the navigator Melenski obtained from it three or four hundred pounds weight. 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E. from London. deg. min. sec. 158 46 45 83 27 Lat. N. defc. mint sec. 54 7 49 17 52 51 45 53 20 63 56 14 Authoritiea. Messerschmid, Ephemerides Geogr. XVI. Idem. Ibid. Connaiss. des Temps. Petersburg Calendar, pub lished by the Academy of Sciences. Idem. 20 BOOK THiK rv-Euarni, Table Conlinued. Names of Places. Lon. E. from Lon. Bolcheretzkoi-Ostrog . . Cape of Kamtchatka . . . - of Olutorsko'i — of Tchukotchoi, north - ofTchukotchoi, south -of St. Thaddeus . . . Ekaterinbouig deg. min. 156 50 162 169 15 190 16 186 29 179 5 60 40 The same lakutsk The same leniseisk • • • • Irkutsk The same Kiachta Kirenskoi-Ostrog Kolywansk Kowyma (Lower) Khrasnoiarsk The same Narym Nertchinsk The same Okhotsk The same Olekminsk Omskaia fort Petropaulofskaia port . . . The same Saianskoi-Ostrog Selenginsk The same Semipalatsk Smenogarskaia or Sclilangen- berg fort Sourgout Tobolsk The same The same Tomsk The same Udinsk lower, or NichneV . IU'dsko'i-Ostrog Werchoturia sec. 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 Lat. N. 60 50 129 42 129 44 91 58 104 11 104 33 143 12' 143 13 119 34 15 30 45 33 45 108 3 163 18 102 57 15 46 45 45 45 178 48 179 49 106 38 106 32 45 30 82 9 45 15 58 59 68 25 68 5 68 5 84 59 45 85 9 51 98 61 46 20 Authorities. deg. min. sec. 51 54 30 55 55 59 48 66 5 64 14 30 62 50 56 50 38 56 50 15 62 1 50 (Idem) 58 27 17 52 16 41 52 18 15 50 20 57 47 51 19 23 68 18 56 1 56 9 58 54 51 56 51 57 59 20 (Idem) 60 22 54 58 58 1 53 10 53 10 51 6 (Idem) 50 29 45 2 30 10 5 20 6 51 61 58 58. 58 56 56 54 55 58 9 16 25 12 30 11 43 11 30 48 29 39 55 22 18 50 15 Connaiss. dcs Temps. La Perouse. Idem. Petersburg Calendar. Idem. Connaiss. des Temps. Table of observations annexed to the map of Russia in 12 sheets. Connaiss. des Temps. Idem. Petersburg Calendar. The same. The same. Connaiss. des Temps. Petersburg Calendar. Connaiss. des Temps. Petersburg Calendar. Connaiss. des Temps. Petersburg Calendar. Messerschmid, Eph. Geogr. Petersburg Calendar. The same. Messerschmid, Eph. Geogr. Petersburg Calendar. Connaiss. des Temps. Petersburg Calendar. The same. The same. Connaiss. des Temps. Messerschmid, Eph. Geogr. Petersburg Calendar. Ephem. Geogr. XVI. Petersburg Calendar. Table of tlic map of Russia. Petersburg Calendar. Connaiss. des Temps. Petersburg Calendar. Table of the map of Russia. Connaiss. dcs Temps. Petersburg Calendar. The same. The same. The same. SIBERIA. '^1 JlgricAiUural Table of some, of the Proimices of Siberia. Districts, Corn, fields in acres. Forests, &c. Meadows. Delmatow Schradinsk . . , . . Kamyschlowa .... libit Werchoturia Turinsk Tioomen lalutorrw Issim Tara Teniseisk 279,730,360. 330,035,275. 348,794,097. 103,297,632. 306,246,132. 28,675,000. 48,012,500. 129,015,000. 8,602,500. 64,507,500. 2,867,500. 664,129,592. 59,925,987. 286,700,000. 57,857,547. 512,281,742. 745,420,000. 430,050,000. 1,003,450,000. 60,134,342. 63,237,690. 121,355,467. Chronological Table of Discoveries made in Siberia. 1242. The Tartars enter Siberia under Scheiban, who founds the Klianat of Sibir or Tura. 1246. Carpini mentions the Samoides as now included in the conquests of the Mongols. 1558. Troganow trades in Siberia. 1563. Iwan Wasiliewitch introduces Siberia into the titles of the Russian Czars. 1580. Icrmak Timofeyew, at the head of some Cossacks, invades the Khanat of Sibir, or western Siberia. 1584. The Russians leave Siberia. 1587. They build Tobolsk. 1598. The death of Kutshum-Khan puts ancTid to thensjsistanceof the Tartars. 1604. The city of Tomsk built. 1618. leniseisk and Kutznesk are built. 1621. Cyprian, metropolitan of Tobolsk, publishes a description of Siberia. 1636. Russian vessels sail down the Lena, and explore the shores of the Frozen Sea. 1639. Dimitrei Kopilow reaches the shores of the Eastern Ocean. 1646. Boniyshlan sailed round from the Kowyma to the Anadyr, doubling Cape Tchukotchi in Behring's Straits. 1648. Deschnew, another Cossack, made the same voyage. 1648-58. Irkutsk, lakootsk, and Nertchinsk, are built. 1690. Kamtchatka known at lakootsk. 1695. First Russian expedition to Kamtchatka. 1706. The Russians make the south point of Kamtchatka. 171 1-24. The merchants of lakootsk visit the islands and countries north of the mouths of the Lena and the lana. 1720-26. Daniel Messerschmidt travels in Siberia as far north as Turukhansk, and as far east as Nertchinsk. N. B. He was a native of Dantzick, and died in extreme misery at Petersburgh, in 1735. His numerous papers, preserved in the archives of the Academy, have been extracted by his successors. 1721. Baron Strahlenberg, (originally a Swedish captain, and author of a work on northern and eastern Asia) travels to the lenisc'i. 1727. Vitus Behring, a Dane, coasted eastern Siberia, from the Pacific as high as 67° 18' N. Lat., doubling Cape Tchukotchi, but without discover- ing the opposite coast of America. N. B. This navigator was born at Horsens in Yutland, and died, in 1741, on the island which bears his name. 22 BOOK THIRTY-EIGHTH. 1733. Behring, Muller, Gmelin, and Louis de I'lle de la Croycre, set out on a great expedition. N, B. Tiie last-mentioned person, a French geographer and astro- nomer, died, in 1741, on the coast of America. 1733-43. John George Gmelin, the botanist, explored Siberia as far east as lakootsk and Kirensk, as far north as Turukhansk, and to Nertchinsk and Sayanskoi-Ostrog on the south. N. B. This philosopher was born in 1709 at Tubingen in Suabia, and died therein 1775. He was author of the Flora Sibirica, and uncle to Samuel Gmelin, traveller in Persia. — — At the same time Muller and Fischer travelled along with Gmelin, in the character of historians and antiquaries. N B. Muller, historiographer, counsellor of state. Sec, was a West- phalian by birth, and died at Moscow in 1784. Fischer, a Livo- nian, member of the Academy of Petersburgh, died in 1771. 1738. Lieutenant Owzin sailed from the Obi to the Yenisei. Lieutenant Laptiew travelled by land along the coast, from the Yenisei to the Lena. 1739-40. This officer sailed from the Lena to the Kowyma. 1 740. George William Seller, a naturalist, arnived in Kamtchatka, and remain- ed there till the end of 1743. N.B. He was a native of Franconia, and died in misery in 1745. Author of a description of Kamtchatka, (1744,) the manuscript of which was used by Kraschenninikow. His other manuscripts, viz. Syllabe Plautarum Tobolensium, Flora Kamtchatika, Orni- thologia Sibirica, and Ichthyologia Sibirica, were preserved by the Academy of Petersburgh, and extracted by subsequent tra- vellers. 1760. The Academy of Sciences sent a list of questions to all the governors, and other persons likely to collect local information. — — Pleisner, a Courlander, commandant of Okhotsk, ascertained, by a va- riety of researches, that the country of the Tchukotches is a peninsula, separated from America by a strait containing two islands. 1764. Sind, lieutenant of a Russian vessel, examined Behring's Strait and the adjoining coast 8f America. — A merchant vessel sailed from the Ko- wyma to the Anadyr. 1765. Eric Laxmann travelled over Siberia, to the north-west part of Kamt- chatka. N.B. He was a Finnish Swede, a clergyman, afterwards an acade- mician, counsellor of mines, knight, &c. He died in 1796. It is matter of much regret that he committed so little to writing. 1768-74. Peter Simon Pallas, a native of Berlin, made his great tour; spent tlie years 1770-1773 in Siberia ; went to Daooria. Souiew his companion went to Obdoria. 1 77 1 . Nicholas Ry tschkow, a Russian captain, and Bardanes, an Illyrian savant, travelled over the steppe of Kirguis along with a Russian detachment. 1771-2. John Peter Falk, a learned botanist, travelled in Siberia. His papers were published, in 17S5,by Georgi. N.B. Falk was a Swede, and a pupil of Linnaeus, of respecable at- tainments, but the victim of jealousy and intrigue. He destroyed himself by a pistol-shot, in 1774. 1772. Georgi, colleague to Falk, made a minute examination of the lake of Baikal, and the Daoorian and Uralian mountains, Sec. N.B. Georgi was a native of Swedish Pomerania, author of the best statistical account of Russia. 1775. Liaichow and Chwoinow visited a large country, (island or continent ?) to the north of Cape Sviaitoi, 1787. BiHings,an Englishman, made an unsuccessful attempt to sail round from the river Kowyma, by Behring's Strait, to Anadyr. CKNTRAL ASIA. 25 1791-93. Billings navigated the Kamtchatkan seas. The accounts of this ill-di- rected expedition have been collected by Sauer, a German, and Saryt- schewj a Russian. 1790-95. Sievers, a botanist and apothecary, travelled into the southern moun- tains of Siberia. • N, B. Sievers, a German, was another victim. He killed himself by poison. Some of his plants have been published by Pallas. 1804. The expeditions of Krusenstern, Langsdorf, Tilesius, &c. This Table has been exti-acted from Fischer's History of Siberia, Muller's Collection on the History of Russia, Georgi, and others. — It does not inchidethe voyages to the Aleutian Islands, those to tlie Kurile Islands and to lesso, nor those to Spitzbergen. These countries come into view in other parts of our work. BOOK XXXIX. CENTRAL ASIA. * Comprehending Little Bukharia, the Kalmuck country, and Mongolia. We return from the northern extremities of Asia to the central zones, which are only known to geography by vague traditions and antiquated descriptions. Tlie tra- ditions often serve to thicken the darkness in which we wander. The Deficiency of old descriptions furnish very deceitful lights ; for, since the thirteenth, information, fourteenth, and fifteenth centuries, in which these countries were freely travelled, we know not how many cities may have disappeared, how many nations have become extinct, how many cultivated fields may have been suffered to lie waste, nor how many deserts may have been clothed with the benefits of cultivation. An analysis of the accounts of Carpin, of Bubruquis, of Marco Palo, Pigoletti and Haithon, will figure in the general view which will be given of the history of the geographical re- search in the middle age; but it is only for want of better materials, and with circumspection and reserve, that we shall adopt some of their descriptions on the present occasion. The central part of Asia, from which we separate Thibet, includes five geographi- cal divisions : Mongolia, or Mongohstan, properly so called, on the north of China, and the south of Irkootsk; the Kalmuk country, which we may denominate Kalmoo- kia, called also Songaria, on the west of Mongolia, and on the south of Ancie'nt^D?- Kolywan; little Bukharia, or eastern Turkestan, to the east of great visions. Bukharia, and the north of Cashmere and little Thibet: Tangoot, or the country of the Eleuthes of Koko-Nord, or the eastern Kalmuks ; and, lastly, in the middle of these four countries, the desert of Kobi, with the Oases of Lop, of Hamel and others. A small part of Songaria seems to have been included in what the ancients called Scythia beyond Imaus. The direction of the rivers, and perhaps a sight of lake Pal- cati-Nor, gave rise to the supposition that the northern ocean was but a short way off; and the Mongolian name of Daba, which is the general term for a mountain, was ap- plied to the pretended promontory of Tabis, considered as terminating Promontory of on the north-east in the country of the Igoors. The Serica of the an- TaWj. cients seems to have included the western parts of Thibet, Serinagur, Cashmere, little Thibet, and perliaps a small part of little Bukharia.* That name, known to • The opinion here given on the Geography of the ancients, and which is stated and sup- ported at some length in the author's history of geography, has been rendered less probable by various subsequent discoveries made by British oflicers on the actual physical geograpliy of the inounlainoub parts ol' Asia, wiiith lie inniiedialely on the north of India. Accordingly, Kxtenston of (he name of Tartary. 24 ROOK TIHRTY-NINTII. Ammianus Marcellinus in the fourth century, disappeared in the fifth. Moses of Chorene mentions, indeed, a town called Syrrhia, which is Sera the mctropohs, but Djenistan. | he gives the country of which it was the capital the name of Djenia, or Djenistan.* He seems to comprehend under this name central Asia, and particu- larly little Bukharia. He places the country of .Sena, or China, more to the east. Perhaps the term Djenia might have been given in consequence of some ancient conquest which the Chinese had obtained over these countries, or it might signify "the country of genii, or of gods," as that o( Serica may denote in Sanscrit "the country of happiness." Whatever be the fact in this case, it appears that, six ccn- Kathaya or turies later, these countries went under the general name of Cathaya, Kithay. or properly Kithay."!" It is uncertain whether this word was the proper name of northern China, or an appellation derived from a Tartar term signifying "Desert Mountain.". At all events, Kathay made a conspicuous figure in geogra- phy from the thirteenth till the middle of the seventeenth century. It is certain that the name chiefly applied to the north part of China, which long formed a separate monarchy, but it probably extended at the same time over part of Mongolia and of Tangut. The meaning of the term Kara-Kitha7j, or Tributary Cathay, must have varied with the fortunes of war. A name still more vague has long been applied in our maps, not only to the central zone, but also to all the northern and eastern part of Asia. This is Tartary with its divisions. In the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, this name was given to the whole empire of the Mongols under Gengliiz-Khan, and that of the Tartars under Tamerlane. During the dismemberment of this latter monar- chy, a descendant of Genghiz-Khan, called Isan-Boga-Khan, founded a separate state in little Bukharia, of which Bishbalig, and afterwards Cashgar, were the capi- tals. About the same time, the four confederate tribes of Kalmuks, which call the ophilon of M. Gosselin here acquiesced in is combated in a learned memoir by Mr. Hugh Murray, inserted in the Transactions of the lioyal Society of Edinburgh, vol. riii. p. 171, in which the Seres are maintained to be identical with the Chinese. The arguments are partly founded on a confidence in the g-eneral correctness of Ptolemy, as confirmed by these discove- ries, which, while they subvert the views recently entertained, restore, so far as they go, the geography of that author. The length of the journey of the caravans which went from western to eastern Asia, in the silk trade, and the localities referred to in the account of Ptolemy, induce the belief that the ancient Serica was nothing else than China. From Bactriana, where their route begins to be matter of controversy, tliey first ascended the Beloor, apparently by the valley of the Oxus laid down in Mr. Elphinstone's map ; then descended into a plain abundant in pasture, but not arable, (Pamer plains) then ascended a valley, probably the valley of Ladak, to the "stone tower," a great rendezvous for tlie caravans (though this singular appellation has never yet been explained,) situated most probably on a lofty ridge lying north and south, and separating Little from Great ThilDct. Tliis ridge is considered as the Imans versus adArc^ ton. From this point, their journey to the country of the Seres occupied seven months, a pe- riod which, allowing for the slowness of their progress, as well as some exaggeration, was amply sufficient to bring them to the heart of China, but inconsistent with any hypothesis wliich makes Serica either Little Bukharia, the Two Tliibels, the north of India, or a country made up of these or of portions of them. The account given of the Seres, their manners, their prejudices, their produce, and their manufactures and trade, corresponds in every par- ticular to the picture presented by China as now known, and as it is described to have invari- ably existed from time immemorial. Little Thibet, according to this view, was the Sct/lhia hi- tra Imcutm, the country of tiie 6'«c.e ,- Great Tliil)et, the Scijthia extra Imaiim. These points will be more fully considered in the history of geography. Though not warranted to alter the autlior's text in cases in which a difT'erence of opinion might be entertained, we think it necessary to allude, as in the present instance, to later discussions conducted under greater advantages. Corrections of geographical facts founded on actual discoveries are, however, every where introduced without scrujile, and without the ceremony of a formal intimation. On the present question, we must refer the reader to the interesting memoir now mentioned, and also to Mr. Murray's more recent work, entitled, " A IliRtorical Account of Discoveries and Travels in Asia," in 3 vols. 8vo. vol. i. p, 485, &c. In this work, however, the argument is in- terspersed witl\ other materials, and appears less pointed and consecutive than in the me- moir. — Tu. • Mos-Chor. nistor. Armcn. I And. Muller, Disquisiiio, C-cogr. et Ili^lor. de Cathaya (Belling, 1670,) Compare with Hyde bynlagnia Dibscrt. i. Itin. mund. p. ol. Considerations on the plateau of central Asia. CENTRAL ASIA. 25 themselves Derhen-Ocrdf, or " the four brothers," and are called by the Europeans Eleuths, re-estabhshed their ancient independence, and elected a sovereign, on whom they conferred the title of Contaish, or Khan-laidsha. At this epoch, the power of the Mongols in China was extinguished ; the descendants of Genghiz-Khan retired to Karakorum, a place which under Genghiz had been the capital of the whole of Asia, but was now merely the chief place of the horde of Kalkas. Divided among themselves, the Mongols gradually became tributary to the Chinese, and afterwards to the Mantchoos, the new masters of China. Russia, after destroying the Tartar kingdoms of Astrakan, Kasan, and Siberia, subjugated some Mongolian tribes in the neighbourhood of Lake Baikal. These different revolutions produced the famous distinction in geography between Muscovite or Russian Tartary, including Astrakan, Kasan, and Siberia; Chinese Tartary, consisting of the Mongols and Mantchoos; and Independent Tartary, consisting of the states of Great and Little Bukharia ; that of the Eleuth Kalmuks, the Kirguis and the Turcomans. This threefold divi- sion, now entirely rejected, had been thrown into some confusion half a century ago. The Kalmuks, who in 1683 had conquered Little Bukharia, and had become formi- dable to China and to Russia, experienced, after fifty years of power and glory, all the miseries of civil war. The Chinese, employing against them the arms of the Mongols, subdued them, and still hold them in a state of vassalage. Chinese Tar- tary should, at the present day, extend over the whole central plateau of Asia ; but it is more advisable to reject the term entirely. TVe have already traced the mountain chains which support or cir- cumscribe the central plateau of Asia ; we have followed the courses of the rivers which water that icy region. If it is asked, what arc the struc- ture and composition of that chain"? we are presented only with a long series of un certainties and conjectures. Does this plateau maintain nearly an equal level ; or- is it more elevated at one or two central points ? Is it interspersed with some groups of mountains which are of moderate elevation above their immediate bases, like the mountains of Algydim-Shalo in the Kirguis country ; or may the permanence of the snow on the summits of the great AltaY and the great Bogdo be considered as a proof of a greater elevation in the interior of the Kalmuk country 1 Is the same ele- vation continued along the deserts by which that country is separated from Thibet ? Are these deserts filled entirely with black sand, as has been hitherto asserted, or do they contain secondary mountains ? Is the granitic nature of the Altaic, Sayanian, and Daoorian mountains, common to the great chains in the interior, if such chains exist? or do the latter consist solely of masses of hardened clay, mixed with gravel, like the mountains in the neighbourhood of the great wall, mentioned by Staunton ? or, what certainly appears more probable, does this centre of the great continent of Asia contain immense seas of sand, and a chaotic mixture of all the elements of the globe. There seem to be no volcanoes in it in a state of activity ; but may not this great extent of land afford some traces of ancient volcanic revolutions, like those observed by M. Patrin in Daooria? In fine, does this region, so near to India, con- tain, like Siberia, bones of the elephant and the rhinoceros 1 These are important questions, and the list might be farther extended. It is curi- ous to find that hitherto they remain unanswered. This great region, forming a sixth part of the old continent, has not been seen by any of our geologists, w^ho display with so much confidence their theories of the earth. The mineralogy of these countries is equally unknown. The tin mines | Minerals, said to exist in the country strictly called that of the Mongols ; the name of " Golden Mountains," (Altai",) given to one great ridge ; the tradition of the great antiquity of the art of mining among the Mongols who live near to the rich mines of Russian Daooria ; the instruments and vessels of gold found in the ancient tumuH ; and, fi- nally, the report that the rivers of Little Bukharia furnish a gold dust, which forms an article in the commerce of Kiakta : these constitute the feeble proofs which we possess of the mineral treasures of this great region. All accounts agree in representing the cold of central Asia as ex- | climate, tremely rigorous ; and its elevation and latitude w^ould lead us to the same conclu- sion. La Perouse found the coasts of the Mantchoo country, under the parallel of Yor.. IL— D 26 BOOK THIRTY-NINTH. 40°, covered with snow in August. The ambassadors of Sharok saw, in the Kal- muk country, the ground frozen two inches thick at the summer solstice.* Yet some more temperate countries are found in the interior. Vegetation, ( The vegetation of the centre of Asia, including even that of Thibet, is almost entirely unknown to us; these vast countries never having been explored by any able naturalist. The elevation of their soil and the rigour of their winters might produce a presumption that they contain no plant belonging to the more tem- perate parts of Asia. Yet the cotton plant and the vine have found their way hither. From the vague accounts of ancient travellers, and the little that we know of the vegetables which groAV on the maritime coasts of Tartary, it would appear that the plants are partly the same that are found in the north of Germany, mixed with seve- ral of the Siberian species. Tiie vast extent of central Asia undoubtedly contains new species, and perhaps a flora altogether peculiar, but we do not yet know of any of its pecuHar and indi- genous plants, except the singular fungus called Polypodmm barometz, or the Tarta- rian lamb, (which is ligured and described in Darwin's Botanic Garden,) and the different species of rhubarb. These last grow on the mountains ; the fungus, now mentioned, in the steppes. Animals. | The animals which roam at large in the deserts become known by making their appearance in occasional visits which they pay to Siberia and to China. All the species which are useful to man are found here in a state of nature. The wild horse is called by the Kalmuksf takia, and by the Mantchoos tahi.'l The koolan or wild ass, inhabits the steppes and open plains ; and does not exceed the latitude of 48°. § His flesh is used as food. A third solipedous quadruped, which holds an intermediate place between the ass and the horse, the dijggetai or hemionus, collects in troops on the banks of the Onon, the Argoon, and the Amoor, in the desert of Gobi, as far as the confines of China and Thibet. He is often tamed. He shows more intelligence than the common ass, but does not entirely lose the wildness of his disposition. 11 The two-humped or Bactrian camel, wanders inde- The Yak. I pendent in the sandy deserts of Mongolia. The Yak, or wild grunting ox, (the Vacca grimniens of Gnielin, and the Buhalus of Pallas,) frequents the open meadows. His reflected horns, his soft hair, four inches long on the belly, and his tail resembling that of the horse, show that he is not the father of our domestic ox.1T This animal is called Kalo in the Bukharian and Tangoot languages, and Sarluk by the Kalmuks. An expcrmient made at Irkutsk proved that he could be raised and managed like our black cattle, but the milk of the female has an unpleasant taste of tallow.** The mountains in which the river Amoor takes its rise mark the limits which nature has prescribed to the rein-deer on the south, but the elk is found as low as the parallel of 45°. The argali or wild sheep, the goat, the chamois, the wild goat of Caucasus, the Jlnldope guthirosa, and the saiga, which is probably the yel- Muskaniraais. j low goat of Duhalde,jt wander in flocks on the steepest mountains. The JMoschus mosciferns or musk animal, which delights in boundless solitudes, inhabits Mongolia, Daooria, and the mountainous countries of the river Amoor; on the south he finds his way to Thibet, to China, and to Tonquin; and on the west, to the moun- tains of Cashmere: on the north, Pallas found him on the banks of the Yenisei, in the neighbourhoud of Krasnoiarsk.JJ Among the animals of the terocious kind, are known the brown and black bear, the common fox, the korsak, and the karagan, the white lynx, called irg-is by the Kalmuks, tlie karakal,§§ (more properly Karakulak or "black ear,") and the manul, a species of the cat kind, like the ounce and tiger. The ounce is well known here, and is called Djulbars in tlie Kirguisian and Bukha- rian languages ; but it is not a matter of certainty whether the true tiger has been * Vorster's Northern Discoveries, i. 254. f Pallas, Nouv. Mem, sur le Nord, ii. 6. :{: Kien-Long-, eloge de Moukden. § Pallas, Act. Petrop. 1777. II Sievers, Lettres sur la Sib^rie, dans les nouv. Mem. du. Nord, vii. 2141, •J Nov. .Comment. Petrop. v. Tab. 7. Pallas, Act. Petrop. i. p. 11. ** Georgi, Russie, iii. (vol. ix.) p. 1649. If Pallas, iv. p. 285. (4to.) compare with Gmelin, Nov. Comm. Petroj). vii, tab, 19. , 4t Pallas, t. iv, p. 13, §§ Guldentedt, Nov. Comm. Petrop. xx, p. 500. Little Bukhfl' ria. LITTLE BUKHARIA. 27 seen. Central Asia possesses also the fur animals of Siberia, the ermine, the mar- tin, the sable, the otter, which last swarms on the margins of the numerous lakes of the Kalmuk country; the marmot, the striped squirrel, and different species of hares. Even this rapid and imperfect enumeration of the principal animals of central Asia, shows that nature has in some measure assembled into one corner of the world species which elswhere exist far separated from each other. This plateau, like that of Africa, is a central region, from which several animal races may be supposed to have descended into the surrounding countries. Even in that class of animals | Birds. to which their power of flying seems to have assigned the whole world for a dwelling, Central Asia seems to claim as a native the beautiful and singular bird which holds an intermediate place between the pheasant and the peacock, the lucn of the Chinese, the Phasianus argus, of naturalists ; it is also said to be found in China and Sumatra. We shall now enter on more particular inquiries, beginning with the country near- est to Thibet and Independent Tartary. The country improperly called Little Bukharia extends on d'An- ville's map between the 34th and 43d parallels of latitude, and between the 75th and 83d degrees of east longitude from London. Major Rennel has shown that in this particular* the map of d'Anville is erroneous. The western | situation, frontier may be extended to the 69th degree of longitude. At least the towns of Cash- gar, Yarkand, and Khoten, ought to be placed more to the west than they are by d'An- ville. The letter of the Chinese general, quoted by Grosier, makes the distance be- tween China and Cashgar nearly 28 miles greater than it is in d'Anville's map of Asia. Whatever may in that respect be the fact, eastern Bukharia, a country for a long time inhabited or governed by Tartars, and included under the name of Turkestan, must be bounded on the north and east by the Kalmuk country : on the south it comes in contact with Little Thibet, and the less known parts of Great Thibet : on the west, it is separated from Great Bukharia by the Beloot Tag, or Beloor moun- tains, and perhaps by a high plateau called the plain of Pamer, whici has been con- sidered as the country where the Indus takes its rise. The river of Yarkand crosses this country in an easterly course, and discharges itself into the lake Lop or Loknor, which seems to be a com- mon receptacle for a great numljer of rivers. The territory seems to be plain and level in the middle, at least we hear of no mountain chain ; but on the north and west it is encircled by mountains or elevated table lands. It is asserted that these contain many gold and silver mines, but neither the aborigines of the country nor the Kalmuks are acquainted with the art of working them : they content themselves with collecting the dust of these metals, brought down in abundance by the torrents which are formed by the melting of the snows, and carry it to China and Tobolsk in Siberia. It also affords some precious stones. According to Marco Polo, the province of Cashgar has an extent of five days' journey ; it is covered with towns and castles, gardens and beautiful fields, producing good grapes, of which wine is made ; there is also an abundance of fruit of other kinds. Cotton, flax, and hemp, are cultivated. The Chinese general who subdued this country in 1759,* writes that the soil is poor ; the inhabitants covetous, and frugal in their mode of living ;t that there are about 60,000 families, 1600 villages and hamlets in the province of Kashgar or Cashgar ; but per- haps he meant the whole of Bukharia, which has received the name of the kingdom of Cashgar. The town of the same name, formerly the residence of the khans of eastern Bukharia, reckons, according to the same general, 2500 families. It is built of brick. The province of Yarkand is situated to the cast of Cashgar. It is I Province of called Earcan in one edition of Marco Polo ; Barcan in the Treviso | ^''^''''nd. edition ; Carchan and Carcam in others : Boorkend, Oordakend, and Ardakend, in • Grosler's Account of China. t Marco Polo, maravegliose cose del mondo. Edition of Melchior Sesaa, Venice, 1508, cap. 38. (in the Imperial Library.) Tliat of Treviso of 1590, preatly recommended by Pinker-, ton and Walkenaer, is imperfect, faulty, and insignificant, (Bibl. de Saiute-Uenevieve.) Nature of the territory. Province of Cashgar. 28 BOOK THIRTY-NINTH. Abulfeda, Albergendi and other eastern writers.* This province is fertile in cotton and in all the necessaries of Hfe. The people, according to M. Polo, are able artizans. But they are very generally subject to swelled legs and goitres, which are attributed to the water which they drink. Yarkand, situated on the river of the same name, is thought by some to be the present capital of Bukharia. The opinion of Petis de la Croix, who, in his learned notes on Sherefeddin, considers Yarkand as another name for Cashgar, is sufficiently refuted by the accounts of Marco Polo, and the Chinese general. Province of The- province of Koten or Kotan lies on the south-eastf of the for- Kotan. mer. According to M. Polo, it is eight days journey in extent; cotton flax, hemp, wheat, vines, and other useful vegetables, are cultivated here. The in- habitants are industrious and warlike. J Province of Karaia or Kereia, which is placed to the east of Kotan, is neither the Karaia. Caria nor the Carit of M. Polo, which we shall find to be in the south of Thibet, and in the Birman empire. This province probably belongs to Little Bulihana. With regard to the two following provinces or countries, that point is less certain. Province of " 0" the south-cast of Kotam," says M. Polo, " the province of Poym Poyra. is situated," (in some editions it is written Peym,) " it contains several towns and castles ; through the capital there runs a river, which carries down pre- cious stones, such as chalcedony and jasper. This country produces abundance of silk." D'Anvillc and Forster consider it as the Oasis adjoining Little Bukharia; perhaps the Thibetan term Poy, which denotes a province or department, might jus- tify the conjecture that Poym is the northern part of Thil)et. chiantr cTa^r. ^'^ these provinces, says M. Polo, constitute part of Great Turkcs- tiam. tan. " The first town is Ciarchian or Ciartiam. Going from Ciarchian, a journey of five days, across a sandy country, containing salt waters and some fresh, we arrive at the confines of the Great Desert, where there is a town called lob or ' Lop, situated east-north-east of Poym." We see nothing in this passage to show that Ciarchian is a separate canton to the east of Poym, as the translators have con- cluded. There is no necessity to make first a long turn to the south-east and then come round m a northerly direction to go south-east a second time. This would be the tour which they give to M. Polo. But does he himself say that he was at Poym? \\ e do not see that he does. Besides, the expression, first city, may designate the capital of Turkestan; now that capital was Yarkand, called before that Carcham. Might not that be the place of which M. Polo speaks? According to this hypothesis. It would be necessary to bring the city of Lop nearer, to shorten the course of the river Yarkand, and enlarge the extent of the desert. ingin^the is'iTi Eastern Turkestan, a country once rich and beautiful, had, in the time century. of Marco Polo, been ravaged by the Tartars, and was still exposed to their visits of devastation. Chalcedonies and jaspers arc found in it. The inha- bitants possessed flocks; every person after harvest hid his corn in a hole under the sand, ni a place known only to himself, the surface being quickly smoothed over by the drittmg sand of the desert. Always in dread of being robbed, they carried alon.r w. 1 them no more than a month's provision. Perhaps the same description wiH still apply to the condition of the people. pr.p;i., of the '^lie Origin and manners of the people of Little Bukharia are little m.-.>b,tant,. kuown; the population, notwithstanding the admixkire of some Kal- niuks, IS cluefly composed of native Bukharians, who are said to have tawny com- plexions; but many among them are handsome and well-formed. Their lan"uaffe which is called Zagathayan, is nothing else than the Turkish: tiieir idiom is mixed with a great number of Persian words. Bentinck tolls us that here as in Great Bukharia, the Tartars give the townsmen • See d'Herbelot, Bibliotheque oriental, v. Koten and Casliear. t 1 he traveller says, " between Gorge and Sosolan." + As to theii' warlike ti.avaclcr, tins passag^e of M. I'olo is read bv some so as to ffive the KALMUK COUNTRY. 29 the appellation of Taujiks or tributaries. They never use arms, a circumstance which makes them contemptible in the eyes of the Tartars, to whom a regular tri- bute is paid by every town and village of the country. They differ from the wander- ing nations of the east in not being divided into tribes. The Chinese missionaries also make a distinction between the Bukharians and the Tartars.* But in that in- stance we must probably understand by Tarters the Kalmuks, by whom the coun- try was conquered, and by the Bukharians the real Tartars or Turks. The dress of the men goes no lower than the calf of the leg : it is | Dress, bound by a girdle like the Polish garment. The women wear a similar one, with long ear-rings and pendents, like the women of Thibet; their hair is equally divided into long tresses, and adorned with ribbands. They dye their nails with the juice of henne. Both sexes wear long drawers, and boots of Russian leather: the head dress is the same with the Turkish. The generality of the houses are of stone, and de- corated with furniture of Chinese manufacture. Tea is the general beveraf^e of the country; it is taken with milk, butter, and saU, in the manner of the other ifations of central Asia. The women are purchased, and hence handsome girls are a source of wealth to their parents. The Kalmuks may be considered as the western Mongols. Mount | The Kaimuk*. Bogdo gave occasion to this ancient division of the tribes. After 1579, all the Kal- muk country acknowledged the dominion of the Emperor of China, The Khan- Taidsha could raise 20,000 men from Little Bukharia, by taking one man out of every ten families. This gives 200,000 families, equivalent to a p'opulation of a mil- lion. The Kalmuks themselves, without reckoning the Eleuths of Koko-Nor, pro- bably amounted to a million. Their country, which comes in contact with China on the east, and Tartary on the west, is bounded by Siberia on the north, and Thibet on the south. Its surface is equal to the whole of France, Italy, and Spain; their latitudes are the same, but in climate, productions, and manners, the dilference is very wide. We have a very imperfect knowledge of the provinces, or rather deserts and oases, which occupy that vast extent of country. The elevated region which d'Anville calls Kankaragay, and in which | Kankaragay. the river Irtysh takes its rise, has probably one of the most rigorous climates of the old continent. Mount Bogdo, and the other mountains in the neighbourhood, are covered with perennial snow. The Tshahan-Tala, or white plain, is Tsha,han- one of the most elevated plains in the world, and the same thing may be '^*'^- said of the environs of lake Zaizan. It seems to be among the mountains of Bogdo that we must search for the Ringui-Talast o^ Marco Polo, a country which produced steel and asbestos, and which was sixteen days' journey from the province of Ilamil. The country to which the name of Songaria properly belongs is a ba- | songaria. sin or concave plateau, bounded on the north by the mountains of Ulugh or Ulu-Tag,. and on the south by the Alak chain. There is a series of lakes, the last and largest of which is the lake of Palcati or Balcash ; we are told that a person can ( Lake Paieati. scarcely walk round it in fifteen days. It is about two degrees and a half long, and more than one degree in breadth. The river Hi, augmented by a number of other streams, falls into this lake, which has no outlet. It is on the banks of tlie Hi that the Songars, a tribe of Kalmuks, attracted by the exuberance of the pasture, had fixed the scat of their power; their Kham-Taidsha hved in a place called Harcash. There they kept immense droves of cam„of Har> .horses and fat-tailed sheep; their horned cattle and camels were not so ^■^'''• numerous. The great Tamerlane, says an eastern historian, stopped on mount lllugh to survey the immense plain which spread out at its base like a sea of verdure, j This country was probably the Ovganum of the traveller Rubruquis,§ | Organum. and the Irgone-Kond of Abulgazi.j| * Duhalde, iv. p. 464. t In one edition of M. Polo called Chinchin-Talas. ^ Histoire de Timui- Bey, par Scherefeddin, traduite liar Petis de la Croix, liv. iii. cfa. 10 § l-orstcr, Decouvertcs dans le Nord, p. 170. i Abulgazi, Histoire general des Tatars, Hv. i, ch. 5. 30 BOOK THIRTY-NINTH. The mountains on the south of Songaria comprehended according to d'Anville The Oigoois - . ~ and their country. the ancient estabhshments of the Oigoors or Igoors, the ancestors of the Hungarians. As it appears that these mountains are easily passed, ex- cept at the straits of Chongez, it is very possible that they may be only a series of plateaus of an elevation greater than that which serves as their base. Agriculture and trade formerly animated this country, which is watered by a multitude of small rivers. The civilization of the OYgoors is as old as two centuries before the Chris- tian era ; their language was the Turkish ; their letters are written from top to bottom like those of the ancient Syrians. Their Alphabet, on which M. Langles is prepar- ing a work, seems to owe its origin to the devanaghari or Indian mode of writmg.* Getha.v^ | The Country of the Oigoors went also by the name of Getha ; and per- haps the Getes, who were its inhabitants, were descended from the ancient Massa- getes. This country includes likewise the canton of Turfan, situated on the decli- vity of the plateau of Oigoor to the north of lake Loknor. Turfan is a considera- ble town, frequented by the merchants who travel between Persia and China. It is doubtless the Tarsal or Tarso mentioned by King Haithon, and which he describes as the capital of the flourishing empire of the logours. " The empire of Tarsce," says Haithon, in his history of the east, ch. 2, " contains three provinces, the chiefs of which are called kings. The inhabitants are called logoors ; they abstain most rigidly from drinking wine and eating animal food. They raise much wheat, but have no vines. Their towns are very pleasant, and contain many temples dedicated to the worship of idols ; they cultivate the arts and sciences, but are not at all addicted to war ; they have a peculiar mode of writing, which has been adopted by all their neighbours."! Town of Lop. I The town of Lop, mentioned by M. Polo, was situated on the river Yarkand, a little above the place where it falls into the lake of Loknor. On the journey from Little Bukharia to China it was usual to stop here to make the neces- sary preparations for crossing the Great Desert. Another road led to China by Hami, Hamil, or Chamul, a small pro- vince surrounded on all hands by deserts ; " the climate," says the mis- sionary Duhalde,J " is very warm in summer. The ground produces scarcely any thing but melons and grapes ; the former in particular are of an excellent quality ; they are preserved during winter, and are served up at the table of the Emperor of China." Other writers make this country contain agate and diamond quarries. § The inhabitants are strong and large men, well clothed and lodged, and generally profess the Mahometan faith. In the time of Marco Polo they were idolaters ; he describes them as good-natured and merry savages, rich in the produce of their soil, and employed much in singing and dancing. When a traveller arrives in their country, and wishes to lodge with one of them, the person on whom his choice is fixed gives up his house, wife, and family, entirely to the guest, whom he invests for the time with all the prerogatives of the master of the family, quits his house, goes through the city in quest of every thing that can contribute to the gratifi- cation and amusement of his guest, and does not re-occupy his house till the latter has left it. Manghu-Khan wished in vain to abolish the practice. The inhabitants regard it as a precept of religion, and believe that by giving it up they would incur the risk of bringing the curse of sterility on their lands. j| Tangoot. | Leaving the sandy and saline plains of the great desert of Cobi, we come to the countries which formed in the twelfth century the powerful empire of Tangoot, which probably extended over the north-west part of China, the country , of the Sifans, and perhaps over the whole or part at least of Thibet. Marco Polo gives a detailed description of it ; Kampioo, which according to him was the capital of Tangoot, seems to be the Kantchoo of the Chinese, and Singai the modern Si- Ergi country. | gan. Five days journey from Kampioo he places the country of Ergi or Ergiool, (the termination iool signifying " kingdom" in the Tangoot and Thi- • Langles, Alphabet Mantcheou. t Haithon, Hist, Orient, t. 2. i T. iv. p. 26 and 54. § Grosier, Description de la Chine, p. 241, »qq. U Marco Folo, ch. 45. Canton of Ha- mil. Singular cus- toms. Socor or Soocor. Vom this is TownofSelin or Serin. Country of the Silans. Physical con- stitution. KALMUK COUNTRY. 31 betian languages,*) where the musk animal, the grunting ox, and the Chinese phea- sant were seen. The moderns give Tangoot the name of Kokonor or Hohonor, i. e, the blue lake. In the Chinese geography it is called Zinchay.f Satchoo | satchoo. seems to be a considerable town, situated on a small stream which falls into the river Polonkir ; and the latter runs into the desert, and terminates in a lake called Hara-nor. The boundaries of Tangoot and Thibet are still wholly unknown to us. The Socor or Soocor of Marco Polo, where rhubarb grew, seems to be the Sooc of the map which the missionaries give of Thibet. Not far the canton of Seri. The Bukharian merchants who brought rhubarb to Kiakta, told M. Pallas that " there was a town called Selin (perhaps Serin) situated to the south-west of lake Hoho-Nor, on a river which runs into the Hoang-ho ; all the country consists of high and arid mountains ; rhubarb grows in the clefts of the rocks in most places ; the roots are pulled up in April and May, then cleaned and hung on trees. "J The country inhabited by the Sifans, who speak the Thibetan lan- guage, is situated in the corner in which China, Tangoot, and Thibet meet.§ It receives the name of Tosan, and was once a powerful empire, but fell to pieces in the ninth century of our era. The black Sifans, who live on the Hoang- ho or Hara-Moren, (the black river,) are less civilized than the yellow Sifans, who live on the banks of Yan-tse-kiang, the yellow river. The horses of this country are small, but valued foT their strength and other excellent qualities. Gold is found in the beds of the rivers. The Kalmuks, who under the sovereignty of China rule the country ] Kaimuks. now described, or at least the greater part of it, do not differ materially from the Mongols. They completely exemplify the portrait which Pro- copius, Ammianus, Priscus, and lornandez, have drawn of the celebrated Huns. They are generally of a middling height, and more of them under than above the ordinary stature. Left to nature from their infancy, thoir bodies are universally well made, and their limbs free. The characteristic features of the Kahnuk countenance are the following : The angle of the eye is directed obliquely downward to the nose, the eye-brows black and tiiin, the interior ends of the arches wh*ch they form are low, the nose is flat and broad at the point, the cheek bones prominent, the head and face very round. Perhaps the way in which their caps are fitted close to the head makes their ears appear more prominent than they would otherwise do, but they are naturally large in proportion. Their teeth preserve their beauty and whiteness to the most advanced age. Their skin, naturally white, assumes a brownish yellow by exposure to the solar rays in summer, and to the smoke of their cabins in winter. This differs in degree in different individuals and in the two sexes. Many of the Kalmuk women have a handsome figure and a white complexion, the effect of which is increased by their fine black hair. || The acuteness of the senses of smell, hear- ing, and sight among the Kalmuks, surpasses all the ideas that a European can form. They perceive by the smell the smoke of a camp, hear the neighing of a horse, and distinguish the most minute object in their immense plains, at an astonish- ing 'distance. The Kalmuks call themselves Derben Oeroct, " tlic Four Brothers or Allies." The four nations thus called are the Choshotes, called Sifans by the Chinese, consisting of 50,000 families, and occupying the neighbourhood of lake Iloho-nor; the Songares, in the country which bears their name, and who, though once very powerful, are reduced to 20 or 30,000 families; the Torgotcs, who after having lived in Russia in the steppe of Astrakan, amounting to 60 or 70,000 persons, returned in 1770 to their original country; lastly, the Uerbetes, some of whom have joined the Torgotes, and others the Songares. In addition to these no- * Mithridates, i. 72. f Sxtract from Dai-syn-y-tundschi, in Biisching's Magazin Geogr. xiv. 554. t Pallas, Voyages en Kussie, iv. 216, (trad, in 4to. § Regis dans Duhalde, iv. p. 463, H Pallas, Voyages, i. p, 491, Kalmuk tribes. 32 BOOK TIUKTY-NINTH. made tribes, it appears that the towns are inhabited by Bukharians, Chinese, and perhaps stationary Kalmuks. The Kalmuks are fond of society and entertainments. They cannot bear to eat by themselves; their greatest enjoyment is to share their provisions with their friends. Dress. | The drcss of the men resembles that of the Poles, with the exception of the sleeves, which are very tight and buttoned at the wrist. The common people are clothed in sheep skins and felt. In summer the girls go with the neck bare down to the girdle. The men shave their heads, leaving only a small tuft; the women, on the contrary, are very tenacious of that article of attraction ; their hair hangs loose till the age of twelve, when they are considered marriageable; then they collect it in braids surrounding the head; when married, they allow it to hang in two divisions over the shoulders. Dwellings. | The dwellings of the Kalmuks are tents, or rather a sort of half cabins or wigwams of hurdles, in a circular form, covered with a roof of felt, which is proof against rain and snow. The Kalmuks prefer the freedom of their nomadic state and their portable dwel- oceupations. | lings, to all the conveniences of a settled life. Hunting, the care of the flocks, and the building of tents, are considered as the only occupations suited to the dignity of a free son of the desert. Domestic labours fall to the share of the women. They also pitch and strike the tents, saddle and bring out the horses ; hours of lei- sure are as rare with them as they are frequent with the men. The Chinese endear your to give the Kalmuks agricultural habits ; in this they will not easily succeed, as the rugged chmate and arid soil either banish rural culture from the greater part of their country, or render its produce precarious. Mareh milk. | Mare's milk is preferred by almost all the people of Asia to that of the cow. This milk, in its recent state, is more fluid than cow's milk, but it has a slight alkaline taste, which makes it offensive to Europeans. When allowed to stand for a sufllcient time in clean vessels, it acquires an acid, vinous, and very agreeable taste ; and a few drops of cream can with some difliculty be obtained from it. The Kal- muks make from the milk a sHghtly spiritous drink, which they call amJca, and not Loumis, as is commonly said: kowmis is the Tartar, not the Kalmuk term for the milk oi^ the mare.* Their food consists almost entirely of articles of dairy, and the flesh of animals, generally what they take in hunting, for they seldom kill their domestic animals, iiuiustry. I The felt with which their tents are covered is of their own manufac- ture. The women have uncommon skill in preparing the skins of animals, and mak- ing from them utensils of all kinds. The men manufacture some of their arms. Language. | The language of the Kalmuks is the same with that of the Mongols, and totally different from the Tartar, both in words and in syntax. It contains seve- ral proper names of Hunnic origin. f The frequency of monosyllables reminds us of the Thibetian and Chinese languages- J Deprived of articles, scarcely admitting the aid of pronouns, or the elegant effects of conjunctions, and giving few inflections to the verb, it appears one of the poorest, but also one of the most ancient languages Kalmuk poe- in the world. It is said to be sonorous, harmonious, and poetical. § The '"■y- affecting romances and epic poems of this people partake of the sombre and magnificent nature of their country. The rocks, the torrents, and the meteors * Pallas, Voyages, i. 49 1 . I Such as Miaizak, Athel, Beiizik, Emeilzar, Uti, &c. . See Bergmann's nomadische Strlfe- reinen unter den Kalmuken, i. p. V-cS. \ Vocab. Petroj). No. loT". Falh, Mem. Topogr. iii. 575, (in German.) Fisclier's History of Siberia, introd. p. 40, (in German.) § The following is a passage from a heroic romance in tlie Kalmuk language: Tuclumail din kaimain aboodal inoo go tcclghym ssaid-kill ino cemoogolangtdi baii/ui Minister thus spoken countenance but elevated prophet mind but tranquil body ootaisskylaintai gaigain inoo toonggoolak,..Bi niggai sobylongtoo kcekshiri joockdi noossatoo mcen. important visage but serene. I a suffering old man very aged truly. Translatio7i. The minister thus spoke: thy noble countenance announces a prcJphet; thy mind is tranquil ; thine exterior commanding; thy look serene. I am an old man, suffering and oppressed with age. See Bergmann, in the work already referred to, i. 114. Polljjcal con- ititution. MONGOLIA. 33 of Ossian, figure here, along witli legwnds of miracles not less wild and absurd than those of the Hindoos. Yet they contain features of sublime truth with which per- sons of all nations, whatever may be their factitious habits, must be pleased.* The romantic story of one of their fugitive tribes begins thus: " The waters of the vast lake, after exhausting all their stormy fury, subside into a calm. Such are the trou- bles of this world, and their tranquil oblivion." These nomades have poems of twenty cantos and upwards, preserved by tradition alone. Tlieir bards or djangarU shi recite them from memory, surrounded by attentive and enraptured audiences. f Besides the Mongolic alphabet, which consists of forty-four letters joined perpendi- cularly, the Kalmuks have an Indian character called the onctkak, which they employ in their magical incantations. The ignorant arrogance of Kuropeans regards the free people of Asia as savages without laws or manners ; but the khanats of Asia are at least equally respectable with our feudal goveriunents of the middle ago. The Kalmuks have three distinct classes in society ; the nobility, who are called " white bones ;" the common people, consisting- of slaves, who are denominated " black bones ;" and the clergy, who are descended from both of these castes, and consist of free men. The noble ladies are called " white flesh," and the women of the lower orders " black flesh." The genealogy is always reckoned by the male connections, or " the bones." The poAver of the Khan-Taidsha, or head prince, must be esti- mated only by the number and importance of his subjects, and not at all by the ex- tent of his territory, which in that vast country is of little value. The subjects of each chief form an ooloos, which is divided into imaks, consisting of from 250 to 300 families ; each imak is commanded by a Saissan or nobleman. When they have a great khan, the princes submit to his direction only in matters of general concern. The tribute consists of a tenth part of the flocks, and other property. All the men are obliged to appear on horseback before the prince on the first summons when he has occasion for military service, and he dismisses those who are unqualified for the fatigues of war. They are armed with bows, lances, sabres, and sometimes fire- arms ; but the latter are chiefly confined to men of rank. The rich warriors wear a coat of mail formed of rings, or that kind called chain armour, such as was used in Europe in the fifteenth century. The religion of the Kalmuks, in common with all the Mongolian, | Religion. Mantchoorian, and Thibetian nations, is that of the Delai Lama. This sovereign prince is chosen from the yellow Sifans, whom Pallas considers as a Kalmuk tribe. In our description of Thibet we shall give a view of this system. We may only observe, that of all nations they are in most complete subjection to the dominion of their priests, to whom they commit the direction of all their aftairs ; nothing is done without consulting a gellong or juggler, who pretends to interrogate Geiiongj, or the gods by means of sorceries. These gellongs levy a handsome tri- P"^'"- bute on their credulous flocks ; they live in luxury ; celibacy is enjoined on them, but considerable licences are considered as their right, particularly in the houses of those who show them hospitality in the course of their frequent peregrinations.^ When we pass Mount Bogdo, we enter the country of the true Mon- | Mongolia. GOLs. The middle of this region is a cold and barren table land; it forms the ter- mination of the desert of Shamo or Cobi, which is about 1400 miles long, Deimorcobi and the w^estcrn and southern extremities of which extend to Thibet and °*' ^''"'"°' Little Bukharia. The countries of Hamil, Lop, and other fertile Oases, aflord short interruptions to its frightful uniformity. There are meadows along the banks of the rivers where the small Mongohan horses wander in large droves, and the wild djiggetai comes to take his rapid meal in the pasture. The countries in the neighbourhood of the great wall of China have a climate similar to that of Germany. The prevalent soil is of a clay texture. At Zhe-holl, on the confines of Mongolia, in lat. 41° 58', the English • Kalmuk Romances, in Pallas's Memoirs of the Mongolian Nations, i. p. 153, (in German.) f Bergmann, ii. 206, 236, &c. i " Celibat leur est present ; mais qiianci ils voyagent, ils ont le droit de partagcr le lit d« leurs hotcsses, et ilsvoyagent souvcnl.-' Vol. II.— E Country of the Sharra Mongol]. Kalkas Mongols, 34 BOOK THIRTY-NINTH. accompanying Lord Macartney saw aspens, elms, hazel and walnut trees ; but on the mountains the pines were small, and the oaks stunted.* The Yellow or Sharra Mongols wander in this country, while the Kalkas, or Black Mongols, occupy the places lying north of the great desert. This last country, adjoining Siberia, is very little known. According to the accounts given by Pallas, Sokolof, and Patrin, Russian Daooria is subjected to powerful summer heats, and the secondary mountains are covered with beautiful forests of pines, birches, elms and poplars ; while the plains support numerous flocks, and may be cultivated for several sorts of grain. It was natural to infer that Chinese Daooria, and some other parts of the north of Mongolia, resemble it in climate and productions. The journey of the last Russian embassy being begun in the middle of winter, and stopping at a distance of about 200 miles from the frontier, we only know that the Mountains. | country contains arid plains and steep mountains, many of them wooded, and abounding in wild boars, deer, and elks.f There is a mountain here held in peculiar veneration, called Khan-Ola, or the "Royal Mountain," on which there are several temples and sepulchres. It is thought that the principal tin mines of the Chinese are in this country. It is ascertaiiled that the Chinese have a very profitable establishment of iron works near lake Iroi, about forty miles from Kiakta. nivers. | The Hoangho traverses part of southern Mongolia. About the mid- dle, and farther to the east, there are many small rivers which are lost in the sands. In the north the Selingha and the Orchon carry their waters to Lake Baikal, while the Kerlon and the Onou join to form the magnificent river Amoor, which flows througli the territory of the Mantchoos. Lakes. I At the base of the Bogdo mountains we find the great lake Kosogol, and some others of considerable extent. Marco Polo has left us a description of the lake Cianga, which seems to be identical with Tsahan, or Tsahan-Nor. On the banks of this lake the great khan had a country seat; it abounded with swans, Pha- siani ar2;i, cranes, partridges, and quails ; but the cold being severe, the khan visited it only in summer. J; Towns. I It has been thought by several authors that this country was once filled with large cities ; but it is much more probable that the Mongols have never been sufficiently numerous, nor sufficiently rich and industrious, to build cities worthy of Karakorura. | the name. Even the famous Karakorum, the Ho-lin of the Chinese, the seat of a great Mongolian empire, was built of earth and wood. Perhaps it was a summer residence, like the present Zhe-holl, where the emperor of China received the British ambassador. Lord Macartney. Zhe-holl contains a spacious Chinese palace, extensive and magnificent gardens, some pagodas or temples, and a crowd of wretched huts. If deserted, the whole would disappear in less than a century. It is matter of no surprise that we searcli in vain for any vestiges of Karakorum. According to d'Anville it is situated on the Engui-Moren, about the 44th degree of latitude, and 106th of longitude (from London) ; but according to Fischer,§ on the banks of the Orchon, at 103° of longitude and 47° of latitude. The princes and chief priests of the Kalkas-Mongols lived not many years ago in a camp called the Oorga, about 220 miles from Kiatka, on the river Tula ; this camp has been con- Kyrs. I verted into a town, and called Kyr3e.l| The tem.p]es, the houses of ilie priests, and the house of the Chinese viceroy, are the only wooden edifices ; the rest consist of tents. Other towns. | Maimatshin, a small town on the very frontier of Russia, is the seat of the trade with Kiatka. Naoon is a mercantile town, at the distance of a month's journey in a southeast direction from the Russian post of Zooroocliaitau, on the river Argoon ; the merchants of that place come to this post armed with bows and arrows, and bring with them stuffs of excellent manufacture. Their language is neither Chinese nor Mongolic.lT • Macartnej's Embassy. f Account of the Russian Embassy. Ephem. Geogr. xxi. p, 225. t Marco Polo de Iteb. Orient, i. cb. 64. Forster, Dccouvertes dans le Nord, i. p. 230. § Introduction to the History of Siberia, (in German.) R Epbem. Geogr. xxi. 230 Bruns, Aussereurop?eische Geogr. i, 69. . t Sokolof, dans I'allas, Voyxge, iv. p. 620, 4lo, MONGOLIA. 35 The Mongols. Physical de- scription, The Mongols, like the Kalmuks, have flat noses, small oblique eyes, thick lips, short chins, and scanty beards ; their ears are large and pro- minent ; their black hair adds to the effect of their reddish brown or yellow com plexions. But more civilized, in consequence of their former residence in China, they are more tractable, more hospitable, and more addicted to pleasure. The Rus- sians of Daooria cojisider the Mongolian women as more fertile than their own. These women are also industrious and cheerful. The religious books | Religion, of the Mongolians are written in the language of Tangoot or Thibet, and every imak has a schoolmaster. The lamas or priests, and their heads the Jchuiiicitc, enjoy great consideration, and are under the authority of the great DalaY Lama. Polygamy, though allowed, is uncommon. They marry very young, | Mode of liv- and the women bring to their husbands a portion in cattle or in sheep. | '"^* They light their fires in the middle of their tents ; and in the deserts cow-dung is used as fuel. The tents of the nobility are hung with silk stuffs in the inside, and the floors covered with Persian carpets. Tin, silver, and porcelain vessels are used in the houses of the great. The tents of the conmion people are made of a kind of felt. In some places they erect small temples, round which wooden houses are built. They shave their heads, leaving only one ringlet, and cover them with | Diess. a flat-shaped yellow cap. This at least is the case among ihe Sharra Mongols. They wear wide pantaloons, a small vest with tight sleeves, and a girdle in which they stick the sabre, the knife, and smoking apparatus. The upper part of their dress is of woollen cloth, with wide sleeves ; their feet are wrapped in linen, over which they wear leather boots, which are generally either black or yellow. They •*"'are not yet so far advanced in luxury as to use shirts. The Mongols live on ani- mal food, which they sometimes eat with pease ro beans ; water is their | Food. ordinary drink ; they regale themselves with milk, butter and kowmiss ; they have also become acquainted with the use of spirits, of mead, and still more of tea. Their flocks consist of horses, camels, black cattle, sheep and goats. The women tan leather, cleanse the esculent roots, cure the winter provisions by salting or drying, and distil the kowmiss, or spirits of mare's milk. The men shoot the winged game, and hunt the animals which wander in great numbers over the vast desert. When the Mongols travel, they dress a whole sheep in its own skin ; they take off" the skin, and convert it into a kind of bag, which they fill with water, along with the flesh stripped from the bones, and throw into it one after another, a number of stones red hot. The meat is thus completely cooked, and the broth is excellent.* When the pasture begins to fail, all the tribes strike their tents, which | Peiegiinationj. takes place from ten to fifteen times in a year. In summer their progress is north- ward, and in winter southward. The flocks, the men, the women, and the children, form a regular procession, followed by the young women, singing cheer- ful songs. The amusements of these wandering and happy tribes are horse races, in which even the young women excel ; archery, wrestling, pantomime, singing performed by young women, and generally accompanied by the violin and the flute. The subjects of these songs are love adventures ; the language is highly inflated, but the melody harsh and disagreeable. Drafts are a favourite game among them. The bodies of the princes and chief priests are burned with great solemnity, and their tombs are generally encircled with walls, and ornamented with very high poles, on which strange looking flags are fixed. We do not know whether the Mongols still retain a superstitious but affecting custom described as prevalent among them in the time of Marco Polo-t When two famihes lost at the same time favourite children of different sexes, they made between their manes what they called marriages of the dead ; these alli- ances were celebrated at the graves of the children with much solemnity ; and the ft • laehrig', in the Selection of Memoirs of the Economical Society of Petersburgh, ili. 341, (in German.) t Marco Polo de Keb. Orient, i. cap. 58. Singular cook- try. Games ind songs. Marriage of the dead. 3G KOOK FOHTIETlf. respeetive relations afterwards conducted themselves to one another as persons united by the ties of blood. The Mongols, though less addicted to superstition than the Kalmuks, have more external appearance of religious worship. They build temples, some of which are of stone. Books are more common among them than among the Kalmuks. They Writing. havc, in addition to their ordinary writing, a kind of short-hand called Alphabet. akshar, derived from the Tangoot. Their common alphabet contains 98 characters, some of which represent whole syllables.* This alphabet seems to be in a great measure borrowed from the Oigoors. The Mongolic language, which is little known, is the same as that of the Kalmuks already described. Governrae»t. | The khans of southern Mongolia are entirely subject to China, pay an annual tribute, and present themselves at the emperor's court in the posture of the humblest vassals. But no tribute seems to be exacted of the khans of the Kal- kas. They receive, on the contrary, a small salary from the emperor, which is no doubt as an acknowledgment for their station as a garrison to protect the Russian frontier. To complete the view of the imperfect but remarkable civilization of the Mongols, it must be stated, that, since 1620, they have been in possession of a com- Laws. I plete code of laws, subscribed by forty-four princes and chiefs. In these the greater part of crimes are punished by fines, and actions of public utility are re- warded. He who refuses milk to a traveller is fined of a sheep. The evidence of the ordeal is admitted, likewise solemn oaths from the superior warranting the inno- cence of an inferior ; institutions coinciding with those which existed in Europe during the middle ages. BOOK XL. MANTCHOORIA AND COREA. General view of the country of the Mant- chooi. The central zone of Asia ends with Mongolia and the Siolki chain of mountains. The rivers no longer flow along an elevated plain. The ground inclines to the sea of Okhotsk on the ooe side, and the Yellow Sea on the other. The plants and the trees of temperate climates begin again to appear; but to the east a high chain of mountains, parallel to the shores of the sea of Corea, is continued through the peninsula of this name, and by its elevation and its extensive forests, counteracts the favourable influence of the solar heat. Though under the same latitudes with France and Italy, these mountains have very long and rigorous winters; but the central parts, which are watered by the river Amoor, enjoy undoubtedly a milder climate. If the agriculture of these parts is deficient, the fault must be ascribed to the indolence and ignorance of the inhabitants. The territory situated on the Yellow Sea, or the province of Leaotong, seems to enjoy a cHmate resembling that of Germany and the north of France. Mountains. | The mountains surrounding Zhe-holl are not very high.| They pre- sent no regular chain, but rather an undulating surface, and are composed of a hard clay mixed with gravel. Perhaps the high chain of mountains on the shore of the sea of Tartary is completely detached from the central chains of Asia. In the north the Stanovoi mountains send several branches to the banks of the river Amoor; but we know nothing of their nature. On all that coast there is frost and snow in the middle of September. The Chinese geographers tell us that the river Amoor rises in the mountain of Kente in Mongolia. At first it is called the Onon ; after River Amoor, or Seghalien. • Bayer, Elem. litter. Mongol , in the Comment. Petro. iii. 180. iv. 289. t Staunton's Account of the Chinese Embassy. Province of Leao-Tong. MANTCIIOORIA AND COREA. - 37 receiving the Ingada near Nertchinsk, it receives the name of the Amoor.* The Russians call this united stream the Shilka; it is after the Shilka is joined by the Kerlon that they call it the Amoor. The length and size of the Shilka and Kerlon appear to be equal. The Amoor, called Seghahen-Oolaf by the Mantchoos and Tungooses, receives from the south two great rivers, the Songari-UIa, in Chinese Chimiungian, and the Usuri or Usuli. It falls into the sea at Okhotsk, forming a large gulf bounded on the east by the shores of SeghaHen Island, and communi- cating on the south with the sea of Corea, or the channel of Tartary, by a narrow opening; the mouth of it being in some measure concealed by aquatic plants. Deep and still, it presents no impediment to navigation; it has neither rocks nor shallows; its banks are lined with magnificent forests. J The Russians complain greatly of the perfidy of the Chinese, wno by force and surprise obliged the Russian plenipo- tentiaries to make a formal cession of the lower part of that fine river, which was indispensable to the masters of eastern Siberia, and on which the Cossacks had already fixed the standard of Russia. Mantchooria, so confusedly described in our geographical works, is clearly enougli delineated in those of the Chinese. That country forms the government Chinese divi- of Shengyn or Shin- Yang, divided into two foos or sub-governments ; that """'• of Fyntien or Leao-Tong in the south, or the Yellow Sea; and that of Mantchoo on the Amoor and the sea of Corea. The province of Leao-Tong is described in the following manner by the Emperor Kien-Long in the "Eloge of Mookden," (of which we have a French translation executed by Amyot,) a feeble and frigid production as a poem, but very useful to the geographer. "In the space of 10,000 ly we find a suc- cession of hills and valleys, parched lands, and others which are well watered, majestic rivers, impetuous torrents, graceful serpentine streams, smiling plains, and forests which are impenetrable to the solar rays. The Iron Moimtain and the Ornamented Mountain§ are seen from a great distance. On the latter is found a lake which never increases nor diminishes." The imperial poet mentions among the | Treet. trees of this country the pine, the cypress, the acacia, the willow, the apricot, the peach, and the mulberry. Wheat yields a return of a hundred fold. Southernwood and mngwort would cover all the fields, but, from the general cultivation, are found only in the deserts. Ginseng grows in all the mountains ; its name signifies " Queen of Plants." "It would make man immortal if he were capable of becoming so." Among animals, Kien-Long mentions the tiger as in no degree formidable, | Animals, which is perhaps the lion without a mane figured in Nieuhofr;|| the leopard, by which he undoubtedly means a species of the ounce ; the dchighetei, the wild horse, two species of ounces, the civet, and the sable. The dogs rarely bark during the day ; they seem to .be of the Siberian race. The pheasant is conspicuous among the numberless birds with which the fields, the forests, and the banks of rivers and lakes, together with the sea shores, are peopled. The sturgeon, the king of fishes, the carp, the eel, and other excellent species, form the food of entire tribes. The mother- of-pearl of this country is of admirable quality. To these riches are to be added iron and jasper. IT Mookden, in Chinese Shin- Yang, was the residence of the last sove- | Towm. reigns or shivandis of the Mantchoos, immediately before the conquest of China. It contains several temples, and one in particular where the monarch prays alone on the first day of the year. The town is surrounded by two walls, the outer one being eleven miles in circumference. Leao-Yang is also a considerable town. * Bay-syn-y-tundshi, i\iQ Chinese Geography, in 24 vols, translated (in the form of an abridg- ment or series of extracts) into Russian by Mr. Leontiew, and into German by M. Hase, in Busching's Geograph. Mag. XIV. p. 462. f The Russians make it Saghalyn, but the natives, according to Perouse, pronounce it Seghalien. i See Mailer's Memoir on the river Amoor, composed by order of the Russian Government in 1740, in Busching's Mag. Gdogr. ii. 507. See also the History of the Country on the Amoor in the Collections in illustration of the history of Russia, ii. 289, (in German.) § Mont Brode. | See the account of, China in a subsequent Book. 1 Day-syn-y-Umdschi. 38 BOOK FORTIETH. MTiuch^o?*^ I The province of Mantchoo, which produces copper, iron jasper, pearls, Towns. ' I and furs, contains a middling sized town of the same name. Yenden, in Ciiinese Sin-Tchin, is the old residence of the Mantchoo princes, to whose memory magnificent monuments l^ave been raised by their successors. The precise situation of that town is not known. Ooanlin the largest town of the country, Ningoota the capital of a military government, Tzitchakart Merghen, and Segha- lieu-Oola, are marked as small fortresses on the map of d'Anville. The Yupi. I The general denomination of Yupi is given to the nomade fishermen; such were all the poor inhabitants of the eastern coast, a good-hearted and simple race, who were visited at a few places by the unfortunate La Perouse. One tribe of them, called the Ghiliaiky, lives on the two banks of the Amoor or Seghalien near its mouth. The tribe of the Natki or Atchani begins higher up the river about fourteen days sailing. Both tribes are dressed in fish skins during summer. The Natki use dogs for drawing their carts. The Ghiliaikes are said to employ tamed bears for a similar purpose.* View of the To La Pcrouse the eastern coast appeared to be almost a desert. On eastern coast, gyery hand a luxuriant vegetation reminded the mariners of their dear native country, which they were never more to behold. The lofty mountains were adorned with the spreading branches of the oak, and the verdant pyramidal forms of the pine. In the lower grounds the willows drank the moisture of the rivers. The birches, the maples, and the medlar trees, rustled in the winds. The lily, the rose, and the convallaria, perfumed the meadow. The spring was that of Europe, the flora nearly that of France. But there was no trace of the slightest commence- ment of cultivation ; no proof that these fine shores had ever been inhabited by human beings ; no paths but those of the bear and stag were formed across the rank herbage, often four feet in height. A grave and some fishing utensils seemed to indicate that some wandering tribes came occasionally from the interior to give a momentary disturbance to the fishes which swarmed at the mouths of the rivers.l It is strange to find a country so highly susceptible of culture in the state of an absolute desert at the very gates of the ancient empire of China, in which the exu- berance of the population often proves the cause of famine in all its horrors. Marine plants. | The sca of Japan brings to the shores immense floating meadows of marine plants, so that the anxious mariner often apprehends that his vessel is entan- gled by a new land, seeming to rise up from the waters which it conceals from view. In the extensive fogs which beset these countries, an optical illusion often presents the appearance of elevated and extended lands : the seaman draws near them and thinks of landing, when the fairy scene suddenly dissolves in vapours and disappears. Population. | The whole of Mantchooria, according to the Chinese geography, contains no more than 47,124 tributary peasants, but the aboriginal people are not included in this number, which probably consists of colonists from China. The country furnishes 10,000 Mantchoo soldiers. Mantchoos. The Mantchoos belong to the great race called the Tongoos by the tribis?" Russians and Tartars, and the Oveii in their own language.^ The Da- oorians are Mantchoos, but mixed with Mongols. Several tribes, such as the Dutcheri on the banks of the Amoor about the middle of its course, the Solons on the Argoon, and others, seem to differ only in slight shades of civilization. The Mantchoos, under the name of JVicutche, before the twelfth century, subjugated the Leaos or Khitans, to whom they had previously been vassals, and who inhabited the province of Mookden ; in 1115, they invaded the north of China, where these princes founded the dynasty of Kin, which means gold.§ Dispossessed by the Mongols, they returned to their wild mountains, whence they issued afresh in 1640 under the name of Mantchoos, to make the conquest of the whole of China, which still yields them an obedience mingled with hatred, and interrupted by partial rebellions. • The Cossacks Payarkow and Shabarovv, quoted by MuUer in the work already referred to p. 504, 505. f La Perouse, Voyape autour du Monde, iii. 12, 15, 16. etc. i Pallas, Memou-s on the Mongolic Nations, i. p. 2. (in German.) Georgi, Description des Nations Russes, p. 302. Langles, Alphabet Mantchoo, p. 41. § Langles, Alphabet Mantchoo, p. 30, 36, 40, &c. MANTCllOOlUA AND COUKA. 59 The Mantchoos were acquainted with agricuUure, and even had a code of laws before they conquered China. That extension of power has injured their native country, as the leading faniihes have migrated to China. According to the accounts of the Jesuits, the Mantchoos have neither | Reiigioh. temples nor idols ; they worship one Supreme Being, whom they style the emperor" of heaven. Yet the religion of the Mantchoos who are settled in China has an affinity with the system of shamanism. Of the three great nations of central Asia, the Mantchoos may be considered as the most advanced in civihzation, particularly since they have conquered China. And their progress in this respect must of late have been still greater, as the last emperor ordered the best Chinese books to be translated into the language of the Mantchoos. These people are more robust in their figure, but have less expressive countenances than the Chinese. Their women have not, like those of the latter, their feet cramped and distorted; their head dress consists of natural and artificial flowers. Their general dress is the same with that of the Chinese. The Mantchoo, Mongolic, and Tartar languages differ radically from | Language one another. M. Langl^s, who has published a Mantchoo dictionary, 'asserts that It IS the most perfect and learned of the Tartar idioms, without excepting that of Thibet, though it did not appear in a written form before the seventeentircentury. At that period, the Mantchoo monarch ordered men of learning to write out a set of letters similar to those of the Mongols. The alphabet of the Mantchoos I Alphabet contains fifteen hundred groups of syllables, which M. Langl^s has attempted to re duce to twenty-nine letters, the greater part of which have three different forms as adapted to the beginning, the middle, and the end of a word. ' We shall not dwell on the frequency of onomatopmas, or words imi- "^marks on tating of natural sounds, nor on (he extreme softness of the language Kage""^ which never admits of two consonants without an intermediate vowel- i or its coni ousness in particles capable of being joined to words to modify their meaning- nor on the great number of inflections given to the verb as in the Hebrew and Arabic The consideration of these characteristics belongs properly to the philoloo-ist. But we must not pass over in silence a fact which seems connected with the ancient mi grations of mankind. The Mantchoo language, though it belongs to the eastern extremity of the old continent of which we inhabit the western extremity, has many radical sounds bearing a close affinity to those of the languages of Europe * These do not consist of terms of art, which might have been brought by German prisoners of war earned to Asia by the Mongols, nor of words borrowed from natural sounds connected with the objects which they denote, and thus derived from a source com- mon to all nrumkmd. The resemblance, besides, only extends to the Gothic-German and Latin-Greek languages, which, as we have observed, have also affinities with the banscrit. Notliing in the Mantchoo language has the appearance of being Celtic or bclavonian. There is only one feature which reminds us of the Sannatian or l.ithuanian,T but this feature is also common to the Indo-Germanic lan-uaoes. • The following may be taken as a specimen: Mantchoo terms. European terms. Sirl\or,"p ^voine, iYvtnch.) mr««, (Latin.) Au/",,-, (German.) .WoH«, ahorse -IficAre, (German.) mare, {VA^^]\sh. F^r« a sledffe /^«AmMo ride in a carriage, (German.) /rA«/» top Ota mountain - - . , *cA./>/; a summit, (in German.) Oora, the back part or rear, - . - oi/g«, the tail, (Greek.) ^ .',,' , Cacflrc, (Latin.) catv;, (French.) Scnpu,h\oo, (Latin) savg,{rvcnJ.) .^maayear- .W.., (Latin.) a«, (French.) ^ /fl/«;/a, blackish /W,/, (-German.) ^ /^aj/Aw, indolent /'««/, (German.) jZV']t Furor, {\,^i\n.) /«re«r, (French.) Leta,. \osv -,---- -. - - - Xa/e, (English.) See.Adehing's Mithridate, i. 516, the >• of The LaS?s. ''"'''■'^''^'"'"'*'"' '"^ '' «^ '^'' ^"^'^'^''' ^^'^ ^'« «f ^he Germans; and 40 UOOK FORTIETH. These roots, Gonimou to languages locally separated by half of the WKlth of the globe, seem to indicate the Mantchoos to belong originally to the neighbourhood of Persia and of India. coiea. I Between the islands of Japan and Mantchooria is the great peninsula of CoREA, washed by the Sea of Japan on the east, and on the west by the Yellow Sea or Gulf -of Pekin. This country is about 640 miles in length ; but one-third of this length does not belong to what properly forms the peninsula. Its breadth, at its northern and its southern end, is from 250 to 280 miles; but at the place where the true peninsula begins, the width does not exceed 140. Mountains. | The Only well known feature of the physical geography of Corea is the existence of a high chain of mountains in a direction from north to south, and which seems to have a connection with the mountains of Mantchooria. This long chain, when it enters the peninsula, runs parallel to the shore of the Japanese Sea, at a very short distance. The most easterly province has the name of Kiang-yuen, or " the Country of Springs." The general inclination of the land is to the Yellow Sea. The coasts and adjoining islands are rocky and difficult of access. Two large Riven. | rivers are known in this country, the Ya-loo and the Tu-men. The first discharges itself into the Western Sea; the second into the Eastern. Both are in the northern parts of Corea, and beyond its peninsular part. They take their rise in the same mountain, which is very high, and is called by the Chinese Shang-Pe- chan, and by the Mantchoos, Shen-Jllia, or " the Mountain of Perpetual Whiteness." Climate. | It is said that Corea, though in the latitude of Italy, has a very cold climate, from the mountains which it contains. We are told that in the northern parts, snow falls in so large quantities as to render it necessary to dig passages under it in order to go from one house to another. Yet the soil is fertile and well culti- Minerais. vated. Among its mineral treasures are gold, silver, lead, iron, topazes,* Aniraaij. and rock salt. The most common animals, accordmg to Father Regis, are wild boars, bears, sables (in the northern parts,) martens, beavers, and deer. The rivers abound in fish, and, according to Hamel, who says he lived nine years in the country, ka'imans, a kind of crocodiles, are found here, some of which are thirty or forty feet in length. The missionaries also heard of birds with remarkable long tails, which undoubtedly belong to a species of pheasants. There are ponys little more than three feet high. Vegetables. | The mountains of the north are covered with vast forests : their only other produce is barley and ginseng, the root of which last is so precious in the eyes of the Chinese. The southern provinces abound in rice, millet, and a species ofpani- cum from which a vinous liquor is made ; in hemp, tobacco, lemons, and silk. A tree of the palm kind produces a gum which, when used as an ingredient in varnish, gives it the appearance of gilding. Names. | The true names of Corea are Kao-li and Tchao-sien ; the former is its ancient name, and still used in common language, the latter its modern appel- lation, and adopted in the official style. Both of them are derived from the names of dynasties which have reigned hi the country. "j" Piovinees. | It is divided into eight provinces ; King-ki in the centre ; Ping-ngan rioang-hai, and Tchu-sin, on the western shore ; Tsuen-lo, in the south ; Kin-han, Kiang-yuen, and Hien-king, on the Eastern Sea. Towns, I The Corean towns jiave the same general appearance with those of China. But the houses are built of mud, without art, and destitute of convenience ; in some places they are raised on stakes. The houses of the nobility have more external show, and are surrounded with extensive gardens. King-ki-tao, in the pro- vince of King-ki, is the capital and royal residence. The great wall wiiich the Coreans had built as a bulwark against the inroads of the Mantchoos is now falling jjiands. j to ruin. Tlie roast of Corea was found by the Alceste and the Lyra;|; to be every where surrounded with numerous islands, which had been mistaken by former navigators for a part of Corea itself. The island of Quelpaert, to the south of Corea, has been rendered famous by a number of shipwrecks. • Dai sln-y-Uindshi, in Busching'. Mag. Gdogr. xiv. p. 534. f Duhale, iv. p. 451. ^ See Captain Hall's Account of Loo-lchoo. MAXTCHOORIA AXD COREA. 41 The Coreans. Phjaical con- stitution. Language, learning, &c. The Coreans are a well made people, of an agreeable physiognomy, and very polished in manners. In a state of subjection for ages to a foreign yoke, they have contracted the vices of servitude. They are much addicted to pleasure, loose, false, and so habituated to cheating and theft that even the Chi- nese are taken in by them. Any seamen who are unfortunate enough to suffer ship- wreck on their shore are reduced to slavery, a custom to which several barbarous nations have resorted under the influence of fear. Diseases of an epidemic nature have struck such a terror into the Coreans, that they are in the practice of carrying their sick out to the fields, and leaving ihem without assitance to their fate. Marriages are prohibited between relations within the fifth degree. | customs. Children are married at seven or eight, and the bride lives in the house of her father- in-law. Poligamy is allowed, but the husband cannot take any except the first wife into his house. It would appear that the women, like those of China, are shut up in secluded apartments, and not allowed to be seen by strangers. The dead bodies of persons of distinction are often kept tor three years in a coffin before they are buried. They make the graves on high grounds, and by the side of the defunct they lay arms, utensils, and various articles of which he made use during his lite. The Chinese have introduced their arts, their sciences, and their lan- guage into Corea. The literati of this country form a separate order in tlie state, and are distinguished by two feathers stuck in their caps. They undergo many examinations as in China; but their learning is contied to the philosophy of Confucius. They make use of the Chinese language and characters; the vernacu- lar language of Corea is wholly different, and, like that of tlie Mantchoos, has a pe- culiar alphabet. They write with pencils made of wolf's hair,* and print their books with wooden blocks. Their language is too little known to enable us to form any judgment of its merits. It contains some Chinese and Mantchoo words; but the greater part of it seems to belong to neither, f" Perhaps it may be a dialect similar to that of the Japan and Kurile islands; or Corea and Japan may have contained an indigenous language and nation previously to their having received colonies from China and Mantchooria. It is left for future travellers to elucidate these questiona- ble points. Here, as in China, the philosophy of Confucius is the prevailing doc- | Religion, trine among the great and the learned. But the idolatrous religion of Fob or Bud- ha has many followers. The Corean Ambassadors told the missionaries at Pekin, that the bonzes were kept in a state of degradation, and obliged to build their tem- ples without the limits of their towns. There are monastic orders, or religious associations, the members of which lead an austere life, suffer with patience the most cruel persecutions, observe a great number of ceremonies, and in recompence for so many sufferings only meet with universal contempt. Of these, there are some whose rules oblige them to have the head shaved, to abstain from animal food, and to shun the sight of women. The Coreans manufacture a very white and very strong paper from cotton. They also make fans and painted papers for ornamenting rooms, and very fine linens. ;j; The other branches of their industry are unknown. The Chinese purchase their different articles in exchange for tea and silks. The Coreans also carry on some trade with the Japanese. Pu-shan, or according to other ac- counts, Kin-shan, is the port to which the Japanese vessels bring their goods, such as pepper, fragrant wood, alum, and buffalo's horns. In exchange, the Coreans give lead, cotton, raw silk, and ginseng root. Payments are made in small ingots of silver: the only coin is copper. Corea, originaffy divided into several small states, was subjugated and | Government, civilized by some Chinese adventurers, at the head of whom was prince Kitse. The • Ku-cher, China illustrata, p. 232. Nieuhof, Ambassade, P. ii. p. 403. t The pater-noster in pretended Corean, in tlie Oratio Dominica of M. Marcel, p. 26, appears to Adelung to be written in the Chinese dialect. t De Guignes, Voyage a P^kin, i. 410-411. Vol. il— F Monastia orders. Indnitry. Trade. 42 IJOOK FORTIETH. wise laws given them by this conqueror produced a golden age ; but that happy epoch is as far back as a thousand years belbre our vulgar era. It appears certain that Corea has been subdued by the Japanese, the Mantchoos, and the Chinese in suc- cession : the last alone have maintained their ascendency. The kings of Corea, con- founded among the other vassals of the Chinese empire, send to Pekin an annual tribute and ambassadors, who are not received with much distinction. In his own country, however, the king is absolute ; a numerous court and a well furnished sera- glio contribute to the splendour of his throne. All the inhabitants arc bound to work for the sovereign for three months ; and to the large revenues of his own domains this prince adds the produce of the royal tithe, taken in kind on productions of every sort. It appears from the account of Hamel, that the nobles exercise, in their respective districts, a very oppressive feudal power ; they allow no house but their own to be roofed with tile; the people arc obliged to live under roofs of thatch. Armed force. | The soldicry are very numerous, but they would not be formidable to Europeans. They are armed with bad muskets, bows, and whips. Their ships of war are superior to those of China, and appear to be imitations of the Portuguese galleys. They are mounted with cannons and furnished with fire-pots. The for- tresses, situated on high mountains, have a sort of military monks for part of their garrison. According to one modern account, the Japanese hold the sovereignty of ^^»iart of Corea,* but M. Kruscnstern is of opinion that the power of the Emperor "^vj.s confined to the island of Tsoo-Sima, situated in the strait of Corea. N SYNOPTIC TABLE ^jj the JVnfurns vulo-arhj called Tarfars, inhahilivg the JVorth, the Centre, and the Kant of Asia. N. B. — This Tabic relates to all the nations mentioned in books xxxvi. — xl. I. TATAR RACE. I. Turks or Southern Tatars. 1. Turks or Turkestan. 2. Turcomans to the east of the Caspian Sea, in Persia, Armenia and Asia Minor. 3. Uzbeks, in Khiwa and Great Bukharia. 4. Bukharians, in the town of the two Bukharias. N. B. Perhaps they are descended from a mixture of Persians, and Tartars, 5. Karamans, or Turks of Karamania, originally from Turkestan. 6. Osmanlis, or Turks of Anatolia, Constantinople, &c. who have come from Turkestan. II Northern Tatars. 7. Nogais Tatars, in the Crimea, on the Kuban, and in Bessarabia. They are called Mankat, and have a mixture of Mongolian blood. a. Budziaks, in Bessarabia. b. ledsan, in the Crimea, and on the Kuban. c. lamboilonk, on the Kuban. d. Kubanians, ditto. e. Kumuks, in Eastern Caucasus. f. Basians, in Upper Caucasus, &c. See Book XXV. 8. Konmanians, from the banks of the Kooma at the foot of Caucasus, living in Great and liittlc Koomania, in Ilimgary. 9. Tatars of Kiptchak. The old Khanat of Kipchak included Kasan, Orenburg, and Astrachan. That division may be subdivided into a. Tatars of Kasan, who speak a pure dialect, and are the most civilized of the Tartar race. • Zach's Correspondance, i. 21. TARTAR NATIONS. 43 b.. Tatars of Ufa and of Orenburg. c. Bashkirs, mixed with the ancient Bulgarians and Fins; in the govern- ment of Orenburg. d. Meshtclieriaks, ditto, ditto. e. Karakalpaks, on the north of lake Aral. 10. Kirguis, or Kirguis-Kaisaks, in their steppes, in Turkestan, Khiwa, &c. 11. Siberian Tatars ; remains of tire Tatar inhabitants of the Khanat of Sibir or of Tura. a. Turalinzcs, on the Tura. b. Tatars of Tobolsk. c. Tatars of Tara. d. Tatars of Tomsk. c. Barabintzes, in the steppe of Baraba. III. Tatars mixed with Mongols. 12. Tatars of Krasnoiarsk and of Kutznesk, with the Soyetes. (See the account of Siberia, Book XLIX.) 13. Katchinzes, ibid. 14. Tatars of Tchulym, on the river of that name. 15. Teleootes, or white Kalmuks, with the Abuizes, Beltires, and Biriusses, on the Upper Yenisei'. . 16. Yakootes, on the Lena. II. 3ION(iOLIAN RACE. I. Mongols. Kalkas, on the north of the Desert of Gobi. Ortosh, on the north side of the Great Wall. Tumet, on the north-east of Pekin. Nayman, ditto, ibid. Kortchines, ibid, near Tsitchacar in Mantchooria. Tchahary, north from Pekin, at a distance of 100 and 400 miles. Karloses, ibid. 850 miles. Sonjoot, &c. See the Uay-syn-i-tundshi. II. Kalmuks or Derben Ocroet (Eleuths.) 1. Choschotes, near Lake IIoho-Nor and in Thibet. The Sifans of the Chinese. a. Yellow Sifans. b. Black Sifans. 2. Songarians, more particularly called Eleuths. 3. Derbetes, joined to the Songarians and Torgots. 4. Torgots, who emigrated from the Kalinuk country to Russia, and afterwards returned. N.B. Among the Kalmuks perhaps there are some other tribes, remains of the Oi'goors in tlie Cantons of Hiuiiil, Turfat, &c. HI. Booriaits, in the neigbuurhood of Lake Baikal.^ in. MANTCHOO, OK TONGOOS RACE. 1. Mantchoos Proper. 1. The Nieutche, or Mantchoos of Ningoota, (the Bogdoitciii of the old Rus- sian authors.) a. The Atchari. b. The Mohlio, &c. 2. The Leao, or Kitans, ancient nation of Leaotong (?) 3. Daoorians, or Taguriuns. a. Solons, near Mount Sioiki. b. llumari, on the Anioor or Seghalien, above its junction with the Son- ^ari-Oola. 4 The Uulchcry, on the Amoor, nbovc llir Jlnman, removed mlo thf intrrior by ilip ''liinf:.--e ^ovcrnuiriit. 44 BOOK FORTIETH. 5. Mantchoo Fishers, or the Yu-pitatse of the Chinese. a. Natki, or Fiatta. b. Ghiiiaiky, or Ketching, (doubtful origin.) c. Orotchys, on the Bay de Castries. d. Bitchy's, more to the south. e. Mantchoos settled in the north part of Seghalien island. II. Tongoos, or CEvcens. 1. Tongoos hunters, in the north, on the river Toongooska. 2. Tongoos, whose employment consists in keeping droves of rein-deer, in the south near the Baikal, &c. 3. Tongoos Fishers, or Lamutes, to the east of the former. N.B. These are only vague subdivisions. There are seven or eight dia- lects which are little known. The Tongoos are called by the Chineae, She-Goei and Scions ; by the Yookaghires, Erpeghi. The names which they give themselves are (Evoens and Donki. IV. SAMOID RACE. I. Sainioids Proper. From Petchora in Europe to the east of the Yenisei. 1. Petchorians or Ingorians, on the east side of the Petchora. 2. Obdorians or Objoodirs, on the Obi. 3. Tchijoodirs, ibid. 4. Guarizi, at Waigatz Straits. 5. Tissovvski, (Russian name,) on the Tass. 6. Yuraks, cast from the preceding. 7. Turukhanskoi, (Russian name,) near the mouth of the Yenisei. II. Ostiaks of Narym and of Tomsk. III. Hdrdes of the Upper Yenisei. 1. Kamatchines, on the Kam. 2. Taragams and Taiginzes, on the Taasowa. 3. Tubinski, on the Tuba, scattered 4. Koibales, neighbourhood of Kutznesk and Krasnoiarsk. 5. Matores or Madores, on the Tuba. 6. Soyetes, among the Sayanian Mountains. N. B. These hordes seem to be the primitive stock of the Samoids. V. FINNISH RACE, OR MIXED YV^ITH FINNS. li Permiak's \ ^^^ ^^^ Table of the Finnish Tribes in the Geogra- Ili. Ostiaks of the Obi, &c. j P'^^^ ^^ ^"''^P^- VI. OBSCURE EASTERN RACES. I. Ostiaks of the Yenisei. * 1. Ostiaks of Pampokol. 2. Arinzes, in the District of Krasnoiarsk. 3. Kotowzes, on the Kan. 4. Asanes, on the Ussolka, scattered. II. Yookaghirs, mouth of the Lena ; they call themselves Audon Domni, and are called Yedel by the Koriaks. III. Tchooktchcs or Tchukotchis. 1. Tchukotchis, in the east. 2. Shelagi, in the north. 3.^Acliuchalat islanders, &c. IV. Koriaiks. 1. Tchantshu, on the Gulf of Penjina. 2. Tumuhutu, nonmdcs'. 3. Elutctat or Olutorzi, on the Olutora. JAPANESE ISLANDS. 45 V. Kamtchadales, who call themselves Itelmen. VI. Kurilians, called in their own language Amo, and Mo-Sin in the Japanese His- tories. Inhabitants of the Great Kuriles, of lesso, and Seghalien Islands. (See Book XLI.) VII. Coreans. &c. &c. BOOK XLI. JAPANESE ISLANDS. Japan; the Islands of lesso; the Kurilc, and Lco-Choo Islands. Critical inquiries oit lesso. To the east of Mantchooria lies the basin of the sea of Japan, the | sca of Japan, north end of which has been named by La Perouse the Channel of Tartary. Steep shores, destitute of large rivers, surround this dark, foggy, and tempestuous medi- terranean. On the north it communicates by two straits with the sea of Okhotsk. One of them, near the mouth of the river Amoor, separating the continent from Seghalien Island, is choked up with sand covered with reeds, and does not admit the passage even of a small boat. La Perouse's Strait, known formerly under the name of the strait TessoY, affords, on the east, a passage into the sea of lesso, a part of the sea of Okhotsk. The strait of Songaar, forms a communication between the sea of Japan and the great Eastern Ocean, or rather what is called the Northern Pacific. On the south, the strait of Corea opens into the Chinese seas. A chain of considerable islands forms the barrier by which the Japanese mediterranean is separated from the Great Ocean ; and this chain, which is more than sixteen hun- dred miles long, is connected again with the Kurile Islands on the north-east and with those of Loo-Choo on the south. The islands of the Japanese empire are the most extensive. In the north of the Japanese empire, two great islands form, with a number of small ones, an independent archipelago. It is here that geographical critical re- criticism amused itself with sketching the famous country of lesso. At ie»so.'^* "" first it was believed that this country, known by its connection with Japan, was a continent or a large island between Asia and America ; then it was confounded with Kamtchatka, or rather was joined with the country then called Russian Tartary, for Kamtchatka was not known till 1696. At last, the voyage of the Dutch navigator de Vries, commanding the voyag:e of the ship Castricom, threw the first ray of light on this part of the world. It tiie Brwke. was found to a certainty that these lands were as much separated from the continent of Asia on the north-cast as from Japan on the south. But three points continued doubtful. The land seen by de Vries presented one well marked island, the States Island : but to the east, the extent of the Company's Land was vaguely understood. Some accounts of little authenticity, and among others that of Jean de Gama, gave rise to the idea that this land extended to America. On the other hand, the Castri- com having coasted the land of Matsumai or lesso on the cast and north-cast, was repelled from the strait of TessoY by the currents. The fogs prevented her even from seeing it ; and when she touched on the southern and eastern coast of Segha- lien Island, it was considered as forming a continuation of lesso. Some geographers might thus have believed that all these coasts, instead of forming two islands, be- longed to the same peninsula of Chinese Tartary. The log-book of the Dutch ves- sel the Breskc not having been consulted, it was not known tliat tlic navigators belonging to that ship had determined the strait of Songaar to be such as we now Discovery of the strait of Tesso'j. Hypotheses of d'Anville. 46 BOOK FOUTY-FIRRT. know it.* The north point of Japan being placed two or three degrees too far south, created an immense gap between that country and lesso, where the Japan- ese charts laid down a very narrow arm of the sea.| About the same time, some particulars were known through the Chinese missionaries respecting the island of Seghalien, and the existence of a strait called Tessox. The Jesuit Father Des Anges even saw this strait, described its terrible currents, and learned that the land beyond it, the island of Seghalien, was named A'ino-Moxorj. This name signifies the isle of the Ainos ;J the last word being the name which the inhabitants of lesso and the Kurile islands gave themselves, although in 1620 this name had no meaning among geographers, and they could draw from it no conclu- sion. D'Anville made two attempts to delineate these countries, and by a chance not uncommon in geographical criticism, his last idea was the most remote from the truth. He gave the strait of TessoY its proper place, but he connected the south part of the island of Seghalien or Aino-Moxori with the conti- nent of Mantchooria ; then called Chinese Tartary, and figured this same island, under very small dimensions, opposite to the mouth of the river Amoor.§ The Russians, in visiting the Kurile islands adjoining their possession of Kamt- chatka, necessarily arrived at Icsso. The 'Cossack Kosirewski reached, in 1713, the isle of Koonasheer, making part of the coasts of the Icsso of the Dutch. In Voyage of I 1736, Spangeuberg, a Dane in the Russian service, examined the isles .^p^angen rg, | ^^ Qoroop ov the Company's Land, that of .^tovkoo, which is States Island ; also Koonasheer, Tchikotan, and Matsumai or Icsso. He even made Ja- pan, but he had neither ships nor instruments corresponding to his talents and cou- rage. At last the Russian Potouchkew, in 1777, sailed by the west, round the islands of Atorkoo and Ooroop. These discoveries were placed too far to the south, || from the respect paid to geographical systems on the position of Songaar. Two bad sketches of these discoveries, taken from the Russian records and published by M. Lesseps, completed the mass of confusion and fruitless conjecture in which the sub- ject was involved. At last the unfortunate La Perouse commenced the discovery by the true method. He entered from the Sea of Japan, found the channel which separates Mantchooria from the countries of lesso, penetrated to the sandy shallow strait which separates these countries from the continent, crossed another strait to which his name has since been properly given, and thus obtained for us a view of this archipelago altogether new. Broiighton's I The English navigator Broughton has confirmed the correctness of voyage. j ^y^^ Dutch charts and of those of Kajmpler, with regard to the strait of Songaar or Matsumai. In consequence of the investigations of this gentleman, the northern coast of Japan has obtained its right position of latitude. But Broughton has given geographers a new subject of dispute, by maintaining that there is no strait between Mantchooria and Seghalien island. La Perouse, forced by winds and other circumstances to leave this channel before he had explored it to the end, had interrogated with much care the natives both of the island and of the continent. The former assured him that their country was surrounded with water, and gave him a sketch of the strait which separated it from the continent. IT The people of the continent told him that the boats which came from the mouth of the river Amoor to the bay of Do Castries were dragged over a narrow isthmus of sandy ground covered with sea weeds.** This navigator remarked, besides, that the depth of the water rapidly decreased at the ex- tremity of the channel, and that no current was perceivable in it. He seems to have been satisfied that the strait existed, but that, obstructed by sand and sea weeds, it • Witscn, Noord-cn-Ost-Tartarye, 2d edit. p. 138. -j- Kxmpfer on Japan, i. 78. (Dohm's German edition.) i Vocabulary of the Icsso lanj^uage in MS. coiTiinunicalcd by M. Titsingh. § D'Anville, Carle gencrale de la Tartarie (Jtiinoisc el Carte de I'Asie, ii. pait. — I'll Bua clie, Consid. gei>,i;". cl pliys. sur les Dccuuv. p. 75, Sec. 11 Cartes des Decouvertes iiusbea, publities ii i'dersbourg en 177o et 17o7. *i La rei'ouse, iii. \i. 36. , •» J Jem ]• 72 Voyage of La Fcrousc. Description of tlie Strait of Seghalien. Reply to these I'ea^uiiiiigs. .TAPAKESE ISLANDS. 47' only nflbrded a narrow passage to small boats. Broughton goes fartlier. lie says, that having been twenty-two miles farther to the north than La Pcrouse, he arrived at a bay which was only two fathoms deep, and which was shut in on all sides by low and sandy ground. He is persuaded that this tongue of land, which was examined by his boats, is in no part interrupted, and that Seghalien is a peninsula. Mr. Kru- senstern, who did not go near this strait, but visited that which is situated to the north of the mouth of the river Seghalien, supports the opinion of Broughton by ex- tended reasonings.* The water which he found in the gulf formed by this river being almost fresh, furnished a specious argument, which appeared decisive to him and his companions. If the Gulf of Seghalien communicated ever so little with the channel of Tartary, the salt waters of that arm of the sea would have mingled with those of the gulf. M. de Krusenstern supports his views by the testimony of the inhabitants of De Castries Bay quoted by La Perousc, and by the acknowledgment of Broughton, and says he entertains no doubt of the existence of a sandy isthmus rendering the land of Seghahen a peninsula; but he thinks that this is of very recent formation, and that Seghalien was really to be considered as an island at the time Avhen even the modern Japanese and Chinese charts were constructed, all of which represent it as detached from the continent. It is to be regretted that nautical and political considerations prevented Krusenstern from substantiating on the spot the existence of this isth- mus. His reasonings as they stand are not unanswerable. Two or three windings of the beach; some islets and sand-banks; two or three narrow canals filled with the enormous rushes which grow over the whole of this coast, encinnl»cred also with floating meadows of marine plants, would afford a sufficient explanation of the fact that the salt water of the channel of Tartary did not extend to the Gulf of Seghalien. If to the west of this shallow strait there is a tongue of low land almost divided by two small rivers, as there certainly is one to the north of the mouth of the Amoor, at the place which tlie Russians call Gilazkaia Perewoloca, and the Chinese G()/c,| it is quite natural to suppose that the people of the continent have sometimes dragged their light boats over such a strip of land, to avoid the difficult navigation of the strait itself. This is what the Cossacks of the seventeenth century did, when coming down the Amoor, and wishing to reach Udskoi, they preferred carrying their boats over the tongue of land Gilazkaia to the plan of doubling the promontory which M. Kru- senstern calls Cape Romberg. According to this hypothesis, which is singularly favoured by the very remarkable details of a map of M. d'Anville's,J we may con- ceive how Broughton may have been deceived in mistaking a promontory in the strait for an isthmus. Besides, if this navigator found a sandy isthmus, even supposing it to have been of considerable width, why did he not perceive the sea on its opposite .side ? For these reasons, till such time as new light is thrown on the ques- ( conclusion, tion, every candid geographer will probably retain the strait pointed out by d'Anville, by the missionaries, and by the Chinese and Japanese charts, as separating Segha- lien, or Tchoka as it is also called, from the continent of Mantchooria. Krusenstern examined with great care the western shores of the isle of lesso, and the south-eastern and northern shores of Seghalien Island. His account, and those of La Perouse and Broughton, are the only published sources from which cer- tain ideas can be formed of this archipelago ; but the kindness of M. m. lissinKirs Tissingh, a Dutch gentleman who resided a long time at Japan, enables manuscruxs. us to avail ourselves of two Japanese descriptions for details which throw a new light on the geography arid history of these countries. One is called " hso-Ki, or a description of lesso, by Arai-Tsi-kogo-no-Kami, instructor of Ziogoen (military emperor) Tsocna-Josi," written in 1720. The other is called " Ieso-Ki, with the history of the rebellion of Samsayla, by Kannamon, Japanese interpreter," written in 1752. Besides these, M. Tissingh has communicated an account of two Ja- • Knisenstern's Voyat^e round the World, ii. p. 191—195, (orit^inal German edition.) I Midler's Memoir on tlie Uiver Amoor, in Busching's Mag. Gcog. ii. 507, 508. i Asie, ill', part 2'" feuillc. 48 BOOK FORTY-FIRST. Isle of MaCiu mai. orlesso Proper. The Mo-Sins, or A'inoos. panese maps, which will appear in our periodical work of the " Annalesdes Voyages." VV^e shall take the northern coast of Japan for our point of departure. The isle of Matsumai, situated to the north of that of Niphon, is called in the Japanese language lesso, or " the Coast ;" it also receives the name of Mo-Sin, or " the Hairy Bodies." The Mo-Sins formerly occupied the northern parts of Japan as far as the mountain Ojama. Driven back into their own island, they have there been repeatedly subdued ; and it is only in the south part of the island of Seghalien that they preserve their independence. Accord- ing to Krusenstern the Mo-Sins call themselves Amos.* This nation is distinguished from the Japanese by a stature somewhat taller, and a more robust frame. They have large very thick black beards, and the hair of their heads is black and somewhat frizzled. Both the men and women tattoo their faces above the lips with figures of flowers and animals. The rich among them dress in Ja- panese or Chinese manufactures ; the common people wear a stuff' made of a fibre obtained from a species of willow bark. At the early age of ten the children learn Exercises. | to divc into the sea, and to leap over tight ropes. The Ainoos excel in both exercises. Some of them can leap six or seven feet high. They hunt the deer ; their principal arms are the bow and arrows. Small detachments of Japanese can beat thousands of the Ainos. The hereditary chiefs of the villages acknow- ledge themselves the vassals of the Japanese prince of Matsumai, and pay him a tribute of otters' skins, or the skins of seals, bears, elks, beavers, likewise of salmon, falcons, and other productions of their country. They live together without esta- l)lished laws, and almost without rehgious worship ; at least a few libations and the lighting of fires in honour of Kamoi, a Japanese deity, are the only acts of religion that have been observed among them. They have no alphabet, and no coin. They trade entirely by barter. They repair to one of the Kurile islands, lay down their goods on the beach, and return on board their vessels : the Kiirilians come down, examine the goods, and place their own by the side of them; and by a series of such negociations in dumb show their bargains are concluded. They allow polygamy ; adultery they resent and revenge. If any attempt is made by a married woman to seduce a man, he demands her ear-rings, and, with these pledges in his hand, he is safe from the attacks of the injured husband. Brothers marry their sisters. Their tribes are so many separate family associations, which seldom form mutual alliances. Their lamentations for the dead are expressed by mock fights among the relations, in which bloody wounds are sometimes inflicted. To these curious accounts given by the Japanese writers very little has been added by European navigators. Broughton informs us that these people are uncommonly hairy over the whole body. This Krusenstern, trusting to the Dutch testimonies, considers as an exaggeration ; and the same view appears to be confirmed by the Japanese accounts. Language | The language of the Amos seems to be equally foreign to the Japa- nese, the Mantchoo, and the Kamtchatdale. On comparing about a hundred words with the corresponding terms in several of the languages of Asia, and the large adjoining islands, we can find no indication of affinity; but a more intimate acquan- tance with the structure and the roots of many of these languages woxdd be requisite to enable us to pronounce with any decision on the question. This language, though less sonorous and less mellow than the Japanese, has no savage rudeness in itn articulation. The following are a few specimens of it. Dumb bar- gains. Heaven, likita. Night, afziroo. Earth, sinkata. Man, okkay. Sun, tofskaf. (In Japanese oioko.) Moon, koonetsoo. Woman, mennokoosi. Stars, novo. Father, fanpe. Mountain, kimla. Mother, tafoo. Island, modjiri. (In Japanese /«>•) Shore, siVt. Fire, abe. Day, lokaf. * Kriisensteru's Voyage, ii. p. 74. JAPANESE ISLANDS. 49 rbysical description oflciso. Tdwns and I'diiMikablu places. piffbient The isle of lesao piesenls on all sides lofty mountains covered with a beautiful verdure. The name In-soo, given to the island, according to Broughtoii expresses this circumstance; the first syllable signifynig /i/o//, and the second green. It abounds with pines, willows, and many other trees. Tussilagos and the Kamtchatkan lily thrive in it, showing tiuit the clinuile is moist and cold. There arc several creeping plants. The reeds have the same enormous size as at the mouths of the river A moor. Among the cultivated vegetable species of which trials have been made by the Japanese, millet, pease, and beans have succeeded. The animals of the island are eagles, three sorts of falcons, bears, and deer. They take the bears when young, give them to their women to suckle, bring [ Tame btan. them up like favourite dogs or i)igs, and, when grown up, contine llicin in cages till fat enough for killing. The family mourn over the death, yet eat the body of the animal; a custom which reminds us of the Ostiaks.* The whales come to the bays and river mouths in ([uest of the immense swarms of nisiiig, a kind of sprats which are found there. iSalmon ;dso abounds to such a degree that they may be taken with the hand. The sea-leech is caught and sold to the Japanese. Several of the fuci are used ai^connnon articles of food. Matsuinai, or "the Town of the Strait," (Matsi being the word fur a strait;) is built near the south end of the island. It is a Japanese fort- ress, and inaccessible by land. The other military posts extend along the west all tho way to the northern point. In coasting the western shore we meet with the islands of Osima, Kosima, Okosiri, Kiusiri, (which cunlains the Pic do Langle of La Perouse,!) and llefoonsiri. The large gulf which extends into the country, is called by the Russians the Gulf of Slrogonof. The last station on the north side is Notsjiab, the Notzamboo or Krusenstern..^ Soyea is on a bay farther to the east. On the north-west coast the A'l'nos, though subject to Japan, live by themselves. Atkis, their princi[)al village, is on the north-cast coast. A Russian oliicer, Mr. Laxmann, visited in 1792 the harbour of Kimoro, which belongs to it."^ Mr. Tissingh's manuscripts contain no such name as this last; but Atkis is indicated under that of Atskesi. A fulh or strait which has received no name sepa- rates the isle of Icsso from that of Chicotan, one of the Kurile islands, claimed by the Japanese. The south-east coast has been surveyed by the Dutch and by liroughton. The country is covered with magnilicent forests. Volcano | VokanoBay. 13ay is a circular basin of a very picturesque aj)pearance. There is every reason to suspect the existence of a volcano in a state of activity in this quarter, although it has not been positively ascertained. The Japanese divide this island into six dis- tricts, but we are unacquainted with their respective limits. To the north of the island of Mats\nnai, the long island of Segiialien extends, called by the Japanese Oku Iesso, or the upper lesso, some- times Kita Iesso, which means either northern Yesso, or the Yesso of Kitay, (China.) The Amos, according to our Japanese geographers, call it KaraLo, to which name the Japanese add the termination sima, signifying island. According to Krusenstern, the name given to it by the natives is Saldan; according to La Perouse, Tchoka; but the latter appears to be only the name of a leading vil- lage, which is written Tchushin on M. d'Anville's map. The other two names may probably also turn out to be local. . La Perouse, who visited the west coast, gives a very lavourable ac- count of this people, taken in a moral point of view. The intelligence of these poor islanders struggles against a severe cliniate. They live by fishing and hunting. They tattoo their persons, and, like the Aiuos of Iesso, they make stuffs of the willow bark. Their language contains some Glcrman an(J some Mantcboo terms. A boat in their language is kahani, in German Icahn. The word ship has exactly the same meaning with them as in English. So has the word two, as pro- nounced by. the English. At Icsso isoolsoob is the word for the number two. This • See Book xxxviii.p. 4, of this volume. I Krusenstern's VoyagCi ii. 56. t Idem. ii. 50. § StorcW's Russia uader Alexander i. fascic. 6. (in German.) Vol. II.— G Scj;Ii»licn Island, or Oku Icsso. Ditfciciit iianio. Description of (lie iiilialM- laiits. 60 BOOK FORTV-FIRST Physical des- cription of the country. Remarkable localities. The Little Ku riles. island, very high in the njiddle, becomes flat towards the south end, where it seems to have an arable soil. Vegetation is extremely vigorous. Pines, willows, oaks, and birches, are the principal forest trees. The surrounding sea is full of fish. The rivers and streams abound in salmon and trout of the best quality. The hills are covered with rose trees, with angelica, and Kamtchatkan lilies.* Kursenstern examined Aniwa bay at the south end of the island. Here the Japanese had an establishment, which the Russians have destroyed; and it is supposed that tire latter nation mean to colonize it. The whole eastern coast, examined by the same navigator, presented wooded valleys, behind which mountains covered with snow seemed to lose themselves in the clouds. "j" At tlie 61st degree of latitude the ground becomes low, and nothing is to be seen except sandy downs and hills. J The south part is inhabited by the Ainos. The east coast seems to be an uninhabited desert; the north-west, near the mouth of the river Amoor, is occupied by a colony of Mantchoos. Kuriie Islands. | On the noith-cast of the isle of Icsso a chain of islands extends all the way to the south point of Kamtchatka. The Russians call them the Kuhiles. They reckon twenty-two of them, including lesso. The inhabitants of this last isle reckon thirty-six, which they comprehend under the name of Kooroo-Misi, which is probably of Japanese etymology, and signifies the " Road of Sea-weeds ;" kooroo signifying a species of fucus, and railsi a road. The charts in Krusenstcrn's voyage lay down only twenty-six ; the others will be discovered when the eastern shore of lesso is better explored. D'Anvillc lays down twenty-nine to the north of Boussole channel, and thirty-four in all. This archipelago is naturally divided into two parts, the chain on the south of the Boussole channel, and that on the north. The one which is nearest lesso, and is claimed by the Japanese government, may be called the Great Kurilcs ; and the other, adjoining to Kamtchatka, the Little Kurilcs. The latter, inhabited by Kamtchatdalcs who left their native country on the approach of the Russians, present nothing but a chain of precipi- tous barren rocks, which are mostly volcanic. roromu-Shir§ is the largest. Siunp- chu shows some indications of silver mines. Ana-Kutan, Arama-Kutan, Syas-Ku- tan,|| and several others, contain extinguished volcanoes. That of Rashotka, called Sarytchew Peak by Krusenstern, has a volcano always burning, and also Ikarma. In tJsi-Shir there are Avarm springs issuing with violet jets. The Great Kurilcs promise more considerable advantages lo intelli- gent colonists. Tliat of Ooroop, the " Company's Island" of the Dutch, the Nadeshda of some Russian maps, and the Ooroowoo of the Japanese manu- script leso-Ki, has pines and cherry trees. Here begin tlie benrdcd Kurilians of the race of the Amos of lesso and Seghalien. Etorpoo, the " Slates Island" of the Dutch, and the Atorkoo of Krusenstcrn's map, contains fine forests, which, how- ever, are, at times seriously tlueatcned by an adjoining volcano in the same island. The plains and mountains of Koona-Shir are covered with the most bcautifid larches and pines. The Pimis ccmbra tlirives in it. It was probably at Chicotan that Stel- ler and Spangenberg believed they saw vines, and even the wild citron of Japan. These navigators certainly did not find the oak and the walnut except on the coast of lesso. Beniowski's I It is among the Great Kurilcs that we are to look for a part of the discoveries. | alleged discovcrics of Beniowski. IF This enthusiast imagined thnt he saw at Koonasheer considerable towns. There was a j)carl fishery on its coast. His Tchidgan-Idzon island, rich in copper, and Maanas-Idzon, abounding in gold, are no more to be found. But the Japanese geographers point out in the isle of lesso a district called Figasi, and a village called Kawa, which are evidently the isles of Fiassi and Kawith of the Polish navigator. His accounts of silver and copper mines, • Voyage de M. La Perouse, iv. p. 73. ill. 40, 43. f Krusenstern, ii. p. 92, 96, 144. i: Idem. p. 153. § Shir is the term for an island in the lanffuage of lesso. B Kutan is from A'otanff, the lessoic term foi- a country. t See his Voyag'e translated by Torstei", i. 368. The Great Kuriles. Empire Of Ja- pan. JAPANl-SE ISLANDS. 51 horses, red pearl or coral, which he found in these countries, contain nothing incre- dible. In giving the town of Matza 2000 houses he probably exaggerates ; but the town exist>s, and is called Matzige.* It is on the whole rather rashly that this navi- gator has been charged with intentional imposture. We now proceed to describe a country more frequently treated in detail than those wc have just examined. The three islands of Niphon, Kiusiu, and Sikokf, surrounded with a multitude of smaller islands, form the king- dom, or as it is sometimes called, the Empire of Japan. The Chinese Different at Hrst called it Yang-hoo, or the " Workshop of the Sun ;" then they "*'""• called it N00-K006, or " the Kingdom of Slaves ;" and finally, Je-pen, or Jepoon, " Country of the Rising Sun."t Marco Polo knew it under the corrupted name of Xipangu. The isle of Kiusiu lias from north to south a diameter of nearly two de- grees, or 130 mdes, and its greatest length is about 220. That of Sikokf is 100 miles long, and 65 broad. The large island of Niphon lies south-west and north- oast ; its length is not less than 1600 miles, but its breadth is in every part mode- rate. In the middle it is not more than 160 miles, though in two places between that and the two ends it may be the double of this. The surface of the Japanese states may be reckoned at 122,720 scpiarc miles. The population is rated at between 15 and 20 millions by the most moderate authors. This regular and flourishing state, at the further extremity of Asia, is withdrawn from the researches of travellers by the cautiousness of its policy. The whole country is full of mountains and hills, and its coasts beset | Mountains, with steep rocks, which arc opposed to the waves of a stormy ocean. The plains are pervaded by numerous rivers and small streams. But the hills, the mountains, and tlic plains, enriched with many singular plants, present the interesting picture of human industry amidst the traces of the revolutions of nature. The most cele- brated mountain of Japan is that of Foosi, Avhich is covered with snow through the whole year. In the neighbourhood the mountains of Faconi surround a small lake of the same name. J Some of these mountains contain volcanoes. The | volcanoes, greater part of them abound in evergreen trees and limpid springs. It is said that there is near Firando an island entirely volcanic ; and several others of the same kind are mentioned in the surrounding seas.§ In the province of Figo there is a volcano which gives out many flames. The rivers of Japan cannot have a long course. The Jedo-Gawa, | Rivers, which passes by Osaka, has several bridges of cedar from 300 to 360 feet long. The Ojin-gawa|| and the Fusi-gawa are also broad and ra|)id rivers. In the Japa- nese history the river Oomi is mentioned as having in one night issued out of the earth. One of the largest lakes is that of Oitz, from which two rivers proceed, | Lakes, one towards Miaco, and the other to Osaka. This lake is fifty Japanese leagues long, each league being as much as a horse goes in an hour at an ordinary pace; its breadth abouta third. The delightful plain which surrounds it is rendered sacred by containing 3000 pagodas. These islands experience by turns the extremes of heat and cold The summer heat, however, is frequently alleviated l)y the sea breezes In winter the north and north-west winds are exceedingly sharp, and bring along with them an intense frost. During tlie whole year the weather is variable, and much rain falls, particularly in the satsaki or rainy month, which begins at midsummer. IT According to observations, the highest degree of heat at Nagasaki is 98° in the month of August, and the greatest cold 35" in January. The snow lies some days on the ground even in the southern parts. Thtmder is heard almost every night in summer; storms, hurricanes, and earthqiiakes are very frequent. The genial rains conspire with human labour and manure to overcome the natural sterility of the soil. * Manuscript Chart of Titsingb. f Kaempfer's History of Japan, i. 73,74, (German edition.) i Thunberg, t. iii. p. 164, (Langles's translation.) ^ Kaempfer, t. 1. p. 166, (French translation.) 11 The ^^/on^ ffnwa signifies river, as it does in Celtic. fl Thimberp, t, iii. p. 234 Climate and seasons. 52 BOOK >'ORTY-FIl{ST. Agiiciiituiv I Tlie laws enjoin agriculture as one of ihe rigorous duties of the Ja- panese. Every spot is lanler cultivation, with the exception of the most impracti- cable mountains. Exempt from all feudal and ecclesiastical exactions, the tarmer cultivates the land with zeal and success.* There are no commons. If a piece of land lies without culture, a neighbouring farm.er who is more active is at liberty to take possession of it. There are no grass meadows ; but the attention paid to manure is very great. On the sides of steep hills stone walls are raised Mhich sustain plots of ground sown with rice or with pYilse. Rice is the principal grain. Buck- wheat, rye, barley, and wheat, are rarely produced;! potatoe3 are of inditlerent quality; but various sorts of beans, pease, turnips, and cabbage succeed well. The rice is sown in April, and reaped in November. In this last month wheat is sown to be cropped in the following June. Barley also lies in the ground during winter. Vegetables. | The plants of Japan very much resemble those of China, which is probably owing to a nuitual interchange of the most useful species. The tea shrub grows without culture in the hedges. The most "superb bamboos abound in all the low grounds ; ginger, black pepper, sugar, cotton, and indigo, though perhaps originally from the southern parts of Asia, are cidtivatcd in Japan with great success and in Forest trees. | large cpiantity. In the interior the sides of the secondary mountains produce the Indian and the camphor laurel ; likewise the Rims vernix, the bark of which yields a gum resin which is regarded as the leading ingredient of the inimita- ble black Indian varnish. Besides the sweet China orange, there is a wild species peculiar to Japan, the fruit of the Cifrns. Japonica. The European vegetation is mingled M'ith that of southern Asia. The larch, the cypress, and the weeping wil- low, which make their appearance in all the temperate countries between Japan and the Mediterranean, terminate here. The case is similar with the Papovcr somnifc- rum, or opium-bearing poppy, the Convolvulus Jalappa, and lilac. Fruit trees. | The Japanese have none of our apples, but they have pears of con- siderable size ; Siam oranges, Kaki figs, or Japanese dale-plums, {Diospyros knki,) and large common oranges. They have the art of making sweet-meats, and pre- serving a variety of fruits, such as strawberries and cocoa-nuts, with the assistance of banana spice. They procure oil for cookery as well as for light from sesamum, from tlie sumachs, from the Ta.riis <^T)io-/.o, from the Laurns camphoro, the Lmtriis glaiica, the .Melia asedararh or common bead tree, and the cocoa-nut. They raise a great abundance of silk worms. The cotton tree furnishes them with a light na- pery, and the Uriica nivia, with durable cordage ; they make paper and fans of the bark of a species of mulberry, of the Licual, and the Bovassus jlabeUlformis ; bot- tles of the calabash, combs of the JVTyrica nagi, and all sorts of furniture o( Lindera, different species of pine, box wood, cvpress, and the Taonis macrophijUa, or long- leaved ycvf. The eye is delighted with the mixture of cocoa trees, fan-leaved palms, cycas, and arborescent mimosas, which adorn the sea beach. The hedges by which the possessions are divided are composed of Lycium Japonicum, three-leaved oranges, Gardenias, Vihunmms, and Thuyas, besides several twining plants of which they make arbours and covered walks. Several plants useful in medicine are also found here, such as the Convallaria Japonica, Acorus aromaiicus, Smilax China, in the virtues of which they were instructed by the Swedish traveller Thunbcrg ; the Corchorus Japonirus, the Lanriis camphora, the moxasrrprniaria, and mungo root. The maxims of Japanese industry have almost banished from the em- pire two domestic animals, which in all other coimtries arc the most common, goats and sheep. The first are deemed hurtful to agriculture, and the wool of the second is superceded by cotton and silk ; pigs arc also proscribed as pernicious to agriculture. The neighbomhood of Nangasaki is the only place where any are to be seen, and they have probably been introduced by the Chinese. [J! The islands produce on the whole but few quadrupeds. In Thunbcrg's opinion, one pro- vince of Sweden contained as many or more horses than the whole empire of Japan; there are very few cattle ; a variety of the buffalo, with a hump on the back, is em- Ooraestic ani- raaU. • Idem, t. iv, p. 80, &.c. + Thunberg, iv. p. 95. t Kxmpfer, \. 120, etc. (in German.) JAPANESE ISLANDS. 53 ployed in agriculture, and very small oxen ; yet the caprice or personal taste of the sovereign has created a law of the state in favour of dogs, which are fed at the ex- jjense of the towns, and are treated with much kindness and respect. The principal tbod of the Japanese consists of fish and vegetables. Fowls and ducks I Food of the are kept chiefly for the sake of their eggs ; to these are added many | •'^I'^neie. sorts of marine plants, Fuci and UlvcCy which are made ready in different ways. Game is not plenty ; there are wild geese, pheasants and partridges, but very few wild quadrupeds. The bear met with in the northern parts is black, with ] wild nnimgi*. two white blotches of a crescent form on the shoulders ; the flesh, which is eaten, is compared to mutton, but is tougher. The wolf is sometimes seen in the northern provinces ; there are also some foxes ; the latter are held in universal detestation, and considered as evil spirits clothed with an animal body. The precious metals, gold and silver, abound in the empire of Japan. | Metals. This was well known at one time to the Portuguese, and afterwards to the Dutch, Avho exported considerable cargoes. Gold is found almost every where; but, in order to keep up its value by its scarcity, there is a prohibition against digging beyond a determinate depth -, and no mine can be opened or worked without the express per- mission of the emperor, who claims two-thirds of the produce, leaving a third to the proprietor of the land. Gold is found in small quantities in the sand, | Gold mines, but the greater part of it is extracted from copper pyrites. The purest and richest mines are at Sado, in the largest of the small islands adjoining Niphon; those of Su- remga hold the next rank. Silver seems to have been at one time more abundant; the Japanese consider it as rarer than gold, though here, as every w-here else, it is of inferior value in exchange. It is said that there are rich silver mines in the pro- vince of Bungo, and the most northerly parts near Kattami; but the two islands called the Gold and Silver Islands (Ginsima and Kinsima,) are probably fabu- isiandsofGoid lous creations of national vanity, unless we should suppose them to be ""*^ ^''''''''" indications of some- ancient commercial connection with Mexico, or imitations of the tales of Ptolemy on the regio mtrea et regio argentca. Copper, mixed largely with gold, forms the chief wealth of several pro- | copper minet. vinces, and the most Aaluable of their exports. The finest and most malleable comes from Saruga, Astmga, Kino, and Kuni; the last is considered as the most malleable; that of Saruga contains the largest proportion of gold. There is a great number of copper mines also in Satsuma. Iron seems to be rarer in this country | or iron, than any other metal; but it is found in the provinces of Mimasalla, Bitsju, and Bisen; the Japanese do not make so much use of it as most other nations ; they sometimes employ it in the manufacture of arms, of knives, scissars, and other necessary instru- ments. The gold and copper are coined into money. Mr. Thunbcrg received some amber in a present, brown, yellow, and | Minerals, iridescent, which was said to have been found in the country ; sulphur is found in great abundance,* and pumice-stone, showing the former existence of volcanoes. We are informed that mineral coal is found in the northern provinces ; there are red agates with white veins, which are used for making buttons and snuff-boxes. t Ac- cording to Kaimpfer, calamine is imported from Tonquin, but tin is found in tlie pro- vince of Bungo; perhaps this pretended tin is only the white copper of China. A reddish-coloured naphtha is employed for burning. Thunberg saw asbestos, porce- lain-earth, and white marble. J Sulphuret of mercury in its primitive crystalline form, and in lamellatcd masses, has been brought from Japan. Baron Wurmb, a German savant settled in Batavia, received from Japan, asbestos, capillary scliorl, hydrophane, and the atmospheric stones formerly called thunderstoncs, denominated in Japan ka- minarij sakki.^ There are several warm mineral springs, to which the inhabitants resort for various diseases. |j The empire is divided into about sixty-two principalities, ruled by chiefs, who are vassals of the emperor or Ktibo. * Thunberg, t. iv. p. 402. f Ksmpfer, i. p. 121, 122, (in German.) i Thnnberg, iii. p. 203. § Verhandeliger van C. Batavlaasch Geuootschaap, v. 566, a Kacmpfer, i. p, 167, (French.) 54 IJOOK FOnTY'FIRSl*. Towns, I The capital of the empue of Japan is called ledo, and is situated in a bay on the coast of Niphon. The houses are only one or two stories higli, with shops in front. The harbour of this place is so shallow that a European vessel is obliged to anchor thirteen or fourteen miles off from the shore. The Emperor's palace is surrounded with stone Malls, and ditches with drawbridges. It would form of itself a considerable town, being about fifteen miles round,* while the whole city is nearly sixty. I It is the residence of all the feudatory princes for one half of the year. Their families, or part of them, are always kept there as a sort of hostages for their fidelity. The palace consists of a great number of apartments, and occupies an im- mense space. The hall of a hundred mats is 600 feet long and 300 wide. The palace has a square tower, which is peculiarly sacred, as representing royal strength and security. None of the grandees are allowed to enter it; and each one of them enjoys a similar prerogative in his own territory. The roofs arc adorned with gilt dragons ; the columns and ceilings exhibit an elegant display of cedar, camphor- wood, and other valuable kinds of timber; but the whole furniture consists of white mats adorned witli golden fringes. rrWate '^^^^ houses of private individuals are of wood, painted white so as to houses. have the appearance of stone; the upper story serves as a wardrobe and store-room; the ground floor is in one large apartment, divisible at pleasure into smaller portions by moveable partitions ; neither chairs nor tables are used, mats being the only seats ; the emperor himself, when he gives an audience to any of his sub- jects, is seated on a carpet. Other towns. | Going nortli-cast from ledo, we find two of the principal towns, Ga- sima and Namboo. In a south-west direction we have the town of Odowara, where catechu, erroneously called Japan earth, is prepared ; Okosaki, with its magnificent bridge; and Kerma, one of the wealthiest in the empire, where there is a strong castle surrounded with water. It is the capital of the fertile province of Owari, which gives its name to a bay. Miaco. I Miaco, the second city of the empire, is in an inland situation, in a level plain 150 miles south-west of ledo. It is the principal seat of manufactures and trade. There the royal coin is struck. It is the seat of the chief priest of Du'iri with his court of literati, and the place where all the books are printed. Kasmpfer informs us that, according to a census taken in 1674, the population of this place amounted to 405,642 persons, of whom 182,070 were males, and 223,572 females, independently of the numerous court of the Dairi.| The vast palace of this Japanese Pope is inaccessible to strangers ; but the temples of the holy city have been visited and described. That of Daiboots is the richest building in Japan, though only of wood. The gilt image of the divinity, sitting on a flower like the Hindoo idols, is twenty-five feet broad between the shoulders, and capable of containing several persons in the palm of his hand. The pyramidal roofs of the temples and palaces harmonize agreeably with the wooded hills surrounding the city, and from which several limpid rills flow.§ The five provinces adjoining to Miaco, reserved for the maintenance of the imperial court, arc comprehended under the name of Gokinai: they abound in rice and pulse. In one of them, called Sitz or Sidsjow, we find the important city of Osacca, the port of Miaco, and one of the most flourishing cities of the empire. The canals by which it is intersected, and which are crossed by bridges of cedar, remind us of Venice. The pleasures which predominate here, together with the great abundance and easy price of provisions, attract a great many who are in quest of voluptuous indulgence. || Fiogo in the same province, on the Gulf of Osacca, possesses a harbour protected by a very large mole. Moo too, in the pro- vince of Farima, is furnished with a natural harbour. Horses' hides arc manufactured into leather at this place in the manner of the Russians. The towns on the northern and western coasts of the island of Niphon are only known to us by name. The case is the same with those of the whole island of • Thunberg, iv. p. 54. t Ksmpfer, ii. 2M, 344. + Kxmpfer, ii. 247. § Ksempfer, ii. 234, 305, 339, &c. J Ksmpfer, ii, 223. Temple of Daiboots. The Gokinai provinces. Different towns. JAPANESE ISLANDS. 55 Sikokf, which have not been visited by travellers. In the island of Kiusiu, wc dis- tinguish the famous harbour of Nani^asaki, the only one in which foreign vessels arc allowed to anchor, this privilege itself being at present confined to the Dutch and Chi- nese. This place was formerly nothing more than a village, and is indebted to the Portuguese conunerce for its prosperity and importance. Nangasaki contains eighty- seven streets, each 130 yards long, which is the length legally assigned to a street ; the houses therefore may be reckoned at a thousand. When approaclied by sea, this city presents views which would be sought for in \^in in the most celebrated of our picturesque gardens. A rock 238 paces long is the only place in which the Dutch merchants are allowed to reside, where they live in a state of seclusion and solitude worse than monkish, immersed in a total ignorance of the whole world beside. The isle of Kiusiu or of Saikokf, which once formed a separate king- dom,* still contains the following large towns : Sanga, celebrated for beautiful women, and a manufacture of almost transparent porcelain ; Kokura, the place from which people pass to Simonoseki in the isle of Niphon ; and Cangoxima, where the Portuguese landed when they first discovered this country. The islands of Firando and Amakusa had great celebrity at that epoch, from being the first seats of the Christian religion. The isle of Tsusima, between Kiusiu and Corea, forms a principality which was tributary to the Coreans before it became subject to tlic Ja- panese. The archipelago of Gotto terminates Japan on the south-west. To the south, the island of Likeo, which we must not confound with the islands of Lieu-kieu, is sei)aratcd from Kiusiu by a narrow strait. It is governed by a dal'ri or native pontiff", wlio is a vassal to the prince of Satsuma. The inhubitaiits raise two crops of rice in the year. Tliey cultivate their fields to the music of songs ac- companied by the lyre. It is separated by Van Diemen's Strait from the island of Tanao-sima, and a chain of smaller islands, extending in the direction of the archi- pelago of Lieu-kieu. To the south-east the Japanese empire includes a small archipelago, conlaining a burning volcano, and traces of several subterraneous fires now extinguished. Tlie most considerable island is called Fatsisio, which is 500 feet high,j" and steep on all sides ; so that it is only accessible by means of steps of ropes fixed to the tops of the rocks. Here it is said that loose women who have been disgraced and exiled, weave silk stuffs, according to strange designs dictated by a devious imagination. The Japanese are well formed, free and easy in their gestures, of a | ihe Japanese, hardy constitution, and of middling stature. Their yellow complexion scnnetimes inclines to brown, and at others passes into a pale white. The women of distinction, seldom exposing themselves to the air without a veil, pre- serve complexions equally fair with those of our European ladies. It is by a pecu- liarity in the eyes that the Japanese are chiefly distinguished. They are | i I'cir eyes, farther from a round shape than in any other people : oblong, small, and sunk, as il" constantly winking. Their eyelids form a deeper furrow, and their eyebrows are placed a little higher than wc generally laid them in other nations. Tlu^y have for the most part large heads, short necks, broad snubby noses, and the hair black, thick, and glossy from being habitually anointed. In these physical characters we may perhaps trace a mixture of a | Thea- origin, Chinese with a Mongolian or Mantchoorian race. J The Japanese Iiistorv, aflei- describing a series of gods and demigods, says that the nation owed the first steps of its civilization to a Chinese colony. Their annals go back to a Chinese monarch called Sin-Moosa. They represent him with the head of a bull, because he tauf^ht them agriculture and the management of cattle. But the language of | Language, the Japanese, a more authentic document, gives no evidence of any forei"n extrac- tion of these islanders. It contains few Chinese terms. It has no resemblance to that of Mantchooria, of Icsso, or the Kurilo islands. The resemblances said to • Kacnipfcr, ii. p. 6, 201. f Fdtm' sig-nilics ten, anil xjo eifjht in tlic Japanese language. + De Guigncs, llistoire des Huns. Oallerer, Manuel d'llist. Uniy. part 2d. vol. i. p. 441. Kasmpfer, 1. 87, 88. 'Ihe isle I'al- sisiu. riiysical con- stilutiun. Historical ■Epochs. 56 BOOK FOHTY-FIKST. have been fbmul by a learned person betvreen the Japanese and Tartai languages have long remained without confirmation.* The Jajjanese words are not monosyl- labic like the Chinese ; the conjugations and the syntax hare a distinct and original character.f The Japanese or Yomi language, is employed in poetry and conversa- tion. The bonzes write their theological books in Chinese, which is to them what Latin is to us. If it is said that the indigenous Japanese have been subjugated by a tribe of Mon- gols or Mantchoos, who adopted the language of the conquered, at what epoch are we to fix such an invasion ? The sacred era of the Japanese goes back to the establishment of the hereditary succession of the dairies, or eccle- siastical emperors, which was 660 years before the Christian era. This dynasty re- tained its power till the year 1585 of our vulgar era. In this interval two invasions had been repelled, that of the Mantchoos in 799, the accounts of which are accom- panied with many fables. In 1281, the Mongols, under Mangoo Khan, having con- quered China fourteen years before, attempted to take possession of Japan. The learned Amiot has given us, in a work translated from the Chinese, j the history of that expedition according to the Chinese authors. In this history, the Chinese army,, joined to that of the Corcans, amounted to 100,000. The Coreans furnished 900 ships of war; but that great armada was dispersed in a dreadful storm: an event which the Japanese attributed to the protecting care of their gods. All tlic acqui- sitions which the population of Japan could have received from the continent of Asia are confined to some colonies of Chinese and Corean emigrants. Conclusion. | Tiic Japanese are probably, like all the principal nations of the world, so far aboriginal that their origin is beyond the reach of history. If they came from the continent, they must have left it previously to the formation of the present lan- guages. They have some obscure accounts that besides their race there were otiier two in the same island of Niphon, the J\Iosins or hairy Kurilians in the north, and a nation of negroes in the south. Perhaps the latter were the liaraforas of the Philippine islands. Many other primitive races may have shone in their day, and, unknown to the rest of the world, become extinct. aovernnicnt. | In the year 1128, the dairi or emperor-pontilf, who is descended I'rom- the national gods, was weak enough to appoint a military chief called the kuho or (zioo2;oo)i. The power of this great functionary, consolidated by hereditary suc- cession, grew by victories and by intrigues, till in 1585 the kul)o deprived the dairi of the last semblance of political authority. Ever since this revolution, the govern- ment of Japan may be considered as an absolute and hereditary monarchy, supported by a great number of subordinate hereditary princes, also absolute, whose submission to the supreme power is secured by their reciprocal jealousies and the hostagets which they give. Each prince arranges the revenue of his own fief or government. By them he defrays the expenses of his court, maintains a military force, repairs the highways, and contributes to the general expenditure of tlie state. The daimios or princes of the first degree, and the siomios who are their inferiors in rank, possess a dignity which is hereditary. The siomios are not only obliged to leave their families in the capital, but also to reside there six months in the year. Civil laws. 1 Travellers admire the Japanese laws. Ka-mpfer gives them the pre- ference over those of Europe. Justice is administered in the most expeditious manner. Tiie parties appear in person before the judge, who passes his sentence without delay. But this traveller gives no account of any legal code. He also reduces the value of his authority, by insisting on tlie pretended advantage arising from the law by which the visits of foreigners arc prohibited, and no Japanese is allowed under pain of death to leave his country. According to Thunberg, the laws of this country are few, but executed with the utmost rigour and without respect of persons ; only that the rich, when found guilty, are allowed to get off by paying pe- • Bayer, Thesaur, cpist. La Croz. i. 54. f Thunberg, Observationes in linguam Japonic&m, in Nov. Act. Upsal. i792, v. p. 258273. llervas, Catalago de las Icnguas, ii. 64. * An Introduction to the History of the Nations tributary to China, coinppsed by order of*" the Emperor Kang-Hi. My. in the Imperial Library. Harlmioiis liuiiialiiiK'nts. JAPANESR ISLANDS. 57 ciuiiary fines.* Delinquencios of little inagnitude are puiiislicil wiili tlealli^ but the sentence must be .signed I)y the emperor's privy council. The moral education of children being a i)olitical duty, parents are rendered accountable ibr tlie crimes of those whose early vices they ought to have repressed. The police is vigilant. Not oidy is there in each town a chief magistrate of police called the nhnban; but the inhabitants of each street, being accountable in a body for the oflcnees committed by any one of their number, nominate a commissioner who watches over the safety of lives ^ and properties. In each village there is a place surrounded witli palisades, containing ' in the middle an inscription in large characters, consisting of a code of police regu- lations.! It must however be confessed that Varenius, a well informed Dutch writer, gives a less favourable idea of the laws of Japan. The punish- ments in the seventeenth century were marked with the utmost cruelty. To hack the criminal to pieces, to open iiis belly with a knife, to suspend hini with iron hooks lixed in his sides, or to throw him into boiling oil, were common modes of punishment. The great were allowed the privilege of rip[)ing up their bowels with their own hands. | Valentine also describes the legislation of Japan as fero- cious and sanguinary. When we are told that crimes are rare in this country, we are not to infer that the laws must be excellent. How can it be otherwise in a country where every citizen is responsible for the oflences of his ncighliour; and where families and entire villages are visited with the extremity of punishment for the fault of an individual? Such institutions, if they lessen the number of crimes, deprive innocence of its tranquiUity, and society of its enjoyments. Would it not be better to run the risk of being robbed once or twice in one's life, than to be every moment in dread of having one's bowels laid open to atone for robberies committed by our neighbours? All that can be said in its favour is, that such terrible restraints may be rendered necessary by the degraded condition of human nature. But allowing the standard of private morals to be the lowest that can be imagined, it is a mistaken notion to suppose that the eflicacy of the laws is in proportion to their atrocity. ^Thc accountableness of a portion of the community for crimes which the united vigilance of that portion is capable of preventing, is to a certain extent wise and politic, but it ought not to go beyond pecuniary fines; and it is only just where (hose who arc liable in such payments have the exclusive management of the jirevention of the crimes. Cruelties to those who have forfeited their lives' are in all cases to be avoided; and when practised towards individuals who are not the actual oflcnders, they are sure symptoms of a hideous barbarism, which imagines that the abuse* of the members of the community is the best method of insuring a due reverence for the laws. The accounts of travellers concur in assigning to Japan a prodigious ( Population, population. Even the mountains, of which the country chiefly consists, ar? turned to the best account by industrious cultivators; and the Tokaidn, the principal of the seven great roads of Japan, is sometimes as much crowded with travellers as the streets of any European capital are with passengers.^ Varenius, following the best authorities, II reckons the number of troops kept by the princes and go- | Army, vernors at 368,000 infantry, and 38,000 cavalry; and according to the same author, the Kubo or emperor has an army of his own, amounting to 100,000 infantry, and 20,000 cavalry; making in all 468,000 infantry, and 58,000 cavalry. if this statement is correct, we may reckon the population at twenty or thirty millions of souls. The navy of the Japanese is not worth mentioning. Their vessels arc flat in the stern, and incapable of withstanding the waves of a heavy sea; and, though the mariner's compass is used among them as well as among the Chinese, they are very awkward and ignorant sailors. It is indeed hardly conceiva- ble how they could attempt in former times to keep up an intercourse with Formosa, Navy and na- vigation. o * 'I'hunberp:, t. iv. 64. t Thunberg, iv. T. i See the plates of the work entitled " Ambas.sades des Hollandais au Japon." § Thunberj^, t. ii, o45. iii. p. 282 and 318. 3 Varenius's Description of Japan, c. ix. Vol. II.— H Native wor- ship. 58 BOOK FORTY-FIRST. and even with Java, as they are said to have done. Their navigation to the north, . according to some Japanese maps, extended as far as the American coast in the ' neighbourhood of Behring's Straits, which they called Foosang. At present they scarcely venture farther than lesso. And the inhabitants of that island speak of their voyages to llakkosima, or " the Country of Sea Lions," which is probably either Behring's Island or Kamtchatka, as the Greeks did of the voyage of the Ar- gonauts.* •Revenue. | Varcnius has given an account of the revenues of Japan in separate provinces. He makes the sum total 2834 Dutch tons of gold, which, valuing the ton at 10,000/., will be upwards of twenty milHons Sterling, without reckoning the provinces and towns which depend immediately on the emperor. But these reve- nues should not be considered as national, being paid in kind to the difl'ercnt princes. The emperor, besides the gross revenue of the royal domains and his O'vvn provinces, possesses a considerable treasure in gold and silver. ♦ ReiigioHs sects. The Japanese are divided into two leading sects of religion, that ofj. sinto. Sinto, and that of Budso. The first acknowledges a Supreme Being, who is too exalted to receive the homage of men, or to look after their interests ; /-ut they admit as objects of veneration some deities of subordinate rank, to whom they pray as mediators. They maintain that the souls of the virtuous occupy the regions of light adjoining to the heaven of heavens, while the souls of the wicked wander through the air till they have expiated their sins. Though the doctrine of the transmigration of souls is foreign to that creed, the rigid adherents of the Sinto sect abstain from all animal food, abhor the shedding of blood, and will not touch a dead body."}" They call their gods Sin or Kami, and their temples JMia. These last consist of several apartments and galleries, formed, accord- ing to the custom of the country, by partitions which are removed and replaced at pleasure. Straw mats are laid on boards, and the roofs form on each side a pro- jection sufficient to cover a sort of raised path surrounding the temple, on which the people walk. In these temples no figure is remarked that can be considered as re- i presenting the invisible Supreme Being; but they sometimes preserve in a box a small image of some secondary divinity. A large metallic mirror is placed in the middle of the temple, to remind the worshippers that, as every spot on the body is there faithfully represented, the faults of the soul are seen with equal clearness by the eyes of the immortals. J The feasts and ceremonies of their worship are agree- able and cheerful, because they consider their deities as beings who take pleasure in dispensing happiness. The sect of Budso is originally from Indostan, and is the same with that of Budha or Boodh, which is said to have been formed either in Thibet or the island of Ceylon about eight centuries before the Christian era. Spread over Ava, Siam, China, and Corea, that sect adopts some maxims from others ; but it preserves the doctrine of transmigration. It threatens the wicked with a dreadful hell, where it describes a bridge for souls, seas of water and of fire, and other imagery borrowed from the alpine regions of Thibet. It also, like that of Swedenburg, promises to the righteous a paradise of gay fields, houses, and towns. This paradise, called Gokurak, is ruled by the god Amida. Boodhaism is so mixed with the Sinto or old religion of Japan, that it is difficult, and perhaps will become in time impossible, to make any discrimination between the votaries of the two. Japan has a set of moralists or philosophers, whose doctrine goes under the name of Sjooto. It has some aflinity to that of the Epicu- reans, although its professors acknowledge, with Confucius, that virtue is the purest source of pleasure. These philosophers believe in the existence of a soul of the world, but do not worship any subordinate deities; they have no temples or religious ceremonies. It has been said that these deists favoured Christianity, and that their number has decreased since tlie persecution of that religion, as, in order to avoid incurring suspicion, they made a point of offering an ostensible homage to the gods of their country. • leso-Ki, d'Arai-Tsikoego, MS. f Thunberg, iv. p. 19. i Thunberg, iv. p. 21. The Rudso sect. Japanese plii' losophers. JAPANESE ISLANDS. 59 Introduction of Christianity. From the year 1549 till 163S, missionaries of the order of Jesuits laboured in propagating their faith. They did not find this nation so ready as many others to embrace a plausible creed, merely because it was urged with earnest importunity. Their conversion could only be effected by arguing with them and resolving their doubts. In these intellectual efforts they obtained in the first instance great success. Several of the governors or tributary kings openly pro- fessed Christianity, and in one district the Jesuits obtained the entire prohibition of every other religion. Soon, however, the zeal of the grandees began to cool. They differed materially in one point of practice, viz. polygamy, refusing to part with their numerous trains of wives. The whole missionaries were ordered to leave the country. This mandate not being speedily put in force, the Jesuits remained, but kept them- selves extremely quiet. Afterwards some zealous barefooted friars arrived from the Philippine islands, whose open proceedings revived the severities of the government; some of them were crucified, and others had their ears cut oft". At the same time a Portuguese vessel having been taken near Orudo, was found to contain a quantity of arms. A strict examination being made, the captain exculpated himself from the imputation of conspiracy ; but, being subsequently interrogated by the Japanese ofli- cer on the subject of the extensive conquests of the Portuguese nation, of which he had boasted, he said that these were made by sending missionaries, who converted a large proportion of the people, after which an armed force was landed, and, being joined by these converts, soon made themselves masters of the country. The rage of the sovereign Tayoosama then knew no bounds, and a persecution of the bloodiest description was immediately begun. In 1590, 20,000 Christians were put to death ; and according to the accounts of the missionaries the massacre of 1638 involved 37,000. But some cotemporary authors tell us that there were no more than 20,000 Christians altogether in the kingdom.* These disasters, are, in part ascribed to the pretensions to power and the political intrigues of the Jesuits, throwing an odium on the religion which they professed. It is very probable that the commercial jealousy which the Dutch harboured against the Portuguese had a share in the bloody pro- ceedings. Ever since that memorable epoch the Catholic religion is held in abhor- rence in Japan. The missionaries were perhaps too forward in setting fire to the places consecrated to the native worship. It is very probable that, if a band of Ja- panese missionaries should land at Havre-de- Grace, and set fire to the cathedral of Rouen, the French police would treat them with no small severity. . The civilization of the Japanese seems, like that of the Chinese, to be stationary ; but Japan has germs of improvement which offer some possible prospect of a moral revolution. The brave and intelligent Ja- panese comes nearer to the European, by possessing a more masculine character, and a higher degree of civil liberty. We are told that their learned language is the ancient Chinese, and that their written characters have a great mutual resemblance ; but those of the Japanese stand for letters, and not for entire words. The Chinese cannot read a Japanese book ; but every well educated Japanese can read the books of China. M. Titsingh, who is now engaged in a great work on Japan, has given an account of printed books which do honour to the talent of that nation. Their types are not moveable, and they print only one side of the paper. This gentleman has in his possession a superb Herbal, drawn and coloured both with taste and ac- curacy; he has brought maps and plans veiy handsomely coloured ; and which, though they have neither latitudes nor longitudes, will not be without their use in chorogra- phy. They' have, since 600 years before the Christian era, been in the practice of engraving their money, and the coats of arms of their principal families. f The Dutch language is read and spoken in this Asiatic country. Medicine and natural history begin to be taught from Dutch books. Hitherto their physicians have been very ignorant men. Their astronomers adhere to an extremely incon- Division or venient division of time. The year, which is lunar, sometimes begins *"°^' in May, sometimes in February. Seven times in nineteen years, an intercalary * Plat.de bono Statu Relig-. lib. ii. cap. 50. f M. Titsingli, quoted by Charpentier-Cossigny in his voyage to Bengal. Progress of science, and learning, and art. Muiises. Furniture, Dress. Description ol' a Japanese. of his heac 60 BOOK FORTY-FIliST. sehooJs. I month restores it to the solar course. The schools or colleges, how- ever, seem to he superior to those of any other Asiatic country. Floggings and howlings are not the sounds witii which they ring, but solemn songs in honour of their heroes and national gods. Poetry is held in honour. In some arts the Japanese surpass the improvements of European industry. They have excellent coppersmiths, blacksmiths, and armourers. Glass-works are common in Japan, and they even make telescopes ; tlieir pictures are loaded with brilliant colours, but in composition and design they are defective. Their houses, which, on account of earthquakes, have only two sto- ries, would not please the taste of a European, nor would their furniture or their dress; but all these objects evince the industry and ingenuity of the people. Divided into several apartments by moveable partitions, the interior of the house is ornamented with paintings, and gilt and coloured paper; their furniture ghtters with a bright and unchangeable varnish; their clothes wide, but tucked up with a sort of elegance, are of substantial cotton and silk stufls, generally made in the country ; they also make their own clasps, buckles, and other trinkets which be- long to the female attire, straw slippers, (which are left at the door when they enter a house,) hats of flags which they wear in travelling, and indeed almost every article .subservient to their luxury or convenience. The carriages in which their ladies ride seem to be elegant and commodious.* They procure a kind of spirit from rice, which they call sakki, possessed of a powerful intoxicating quality.! A Japanese is certainly in some of his forms rather a ludicrous object : liis head half shaved; the hair which is left, accumulated on the crown the enormous covering of oiled paper in which he is wrapped up when he travels; his salutations, which consist in bending his body repeatedly ahnost to the ground ; and the fan which he constantly holds in his hand, present an extraor- dinary figure. They entertain a high sense of honour, and observe towards each other the most ceremonious politeness; their courtesies and ceremonies are infinite; * they liave many books teaching them how to take a draft of water, how to give and receive presents, and all the otlier minutiw of behaviour. Their chiefs are said not so much to resemble our counts and dukes as tributary sovereigns, like those of Arragon and Castile; they are supposed the entire proprietors of the land, part of which they keep for the support of" themselves and their families, and divide the rest among their nobles who have vassals under them. The Japanese, proud of the minute cleanliness of his habits, despises the Europeans as a dirty race; he has no idea of our keenness in dispute, and, even when loaded with injuries, does not utter one vehement expression ; but his pride is deep, rancorous, and invincible, and the poignard, which is inseparable from his person, is employed as an instrument of ven- geance when the object docs not expect it, or to destroy his own life in case ven- geance is impossible. Wives. The law allows only one wife to the Japanese, but the concubines live Concubines, in the same house ; the wife is at the absolute disposal of the husband ; and when she incurs his displeasure she has no appeal. Connubial infidelity is rare among them, although they are subjected to no system of seclusion. In cases of divorce they are obliged to go constantly with the head shaved. In their marriage ceremonies there is an agreeable simplicity ; the woman standing up at the foot of the altar, lights a torch, at which the inan'hghts another; it is also the custom for the young bride to throw the play-things of her childhood into the fire. Funeral rites. | The bodics of pcoplc of rank when they die are burned, those of others are buried. The festival of lanterns is celebrated as in China, to which is added the custom of visiting the graves at stated times; the manes are regaled with food and drink, and treated with songs and compliments. Spectacles. | The public amuscments consist of dramatic entertainments, which are said not to be inferior to those of our polished nations ; their numbers of dancing * Ambassade au Japoii, p. 98, 145. t Titsing-h, in the " Verhandelingen van het Balaviaasch genoostchap." JAVANESE ISLANDS. 61 girls and boys* announce tlie relaxation of public morals, Which is also evinced by the great number of infamous houses, wliich arc more scandalously protected here than in any other country."}" Inland communication is greatly facilitated by well kept roads ; nor i„,ernai and are there any taxes to interrupt the progress of trade. The harbours, loreign uaJe, though shut against the commercial enterprise of Europeans, are filled with large and small craft. The shops and markets teem with all sorts of wares. In the towns tliere are large fairs, which attract a numerous concourse of people. The Chinese is the most important branch of their foreign trade; they import raw silk, sugar, turpentine, and drugs ; they export copper in bars, varnish, and gum-lac. Accord- ing to Titsingh and Thunberg, the protitsof the Dutch trade to Japan are very in- considerable; two vessels only are employed in it. The Japanese money | Money, is singular in its form. Mr. Titsingh has some pieces in his possession which have a convex elliptical shape; the gold pieces are called kobangs; the silver ones, which are called kodama, sometimes have a figure of Daikok, the god of riches, seated on two casks of rice, with a hammer in his right hand and a bag in his left. J M. Tit- singh's collection of coins goes as far back as 600 years before Christ. Such is this singular Asiatic country, too much extolled by the travelling natu- ralists, as Thunberg, and too much vilified by the missionaries. The attention of the former was fixed on the magnificent botanic garden, that of the latter on the stains left by the blood of the martyrs. The description of Varenius and that of Valentine seem dictated by the discontents of the Dutch nation at the time at which they were composed. Mr. Titsingh, who, while exercising the functions of Dutch resident conciliated the esteem and confidence of the princes of the imperial blood of Japan, is employed in a large historical, political, and geographical work on the country, which he seems to have studied with greater deliberation and greater zeal than any one before him. The two chains of mountains which traverse Corea and Japan seem to approach one another, and have the appearance of being afterwards continued along the bed of the sea, so as to form a series of little archipelagos, ex- tending from Japan to the island of Formosa. In this maritime region, which is little known, we find the state of Loochoo, or Lequeyo. The difference in the orthography arises from this circumstance, that the Chinese letter /.-, similar to the Swedish, has neither the sound of the English ch, or tch, nor of our k; it therefore, can only be imperfectly expressed by some combination of our consonants, as //.•, or tgh. This is a very flourishing state, and worthy of engaging our interest. For the first good information on the subject we are indebted to a Chinese ambassador named Soo-pa-koo-ang, who was sent thither in 1719, and from whose writings Fa- ther Gaubil the missionary has extracted his account.^ Koempfer had indeed pre- viously mentioned it under the name of the islands of Lequeyo, but in an obscure and general manner. A very few years ago, the principal island was visited by two British vessels, which had gone out with Lord Amherst to China, and took the oppor- tunity of making this trip during that nobleman's stay. According to Gaubil, these islands form, as we have already stated, a sort of chain, or series of little archipelagos, extending from Kiu-siu, the most southerly of the great islands of Japan, to the island of Formosa; there arc in all thirty-six, subject to the same government. To the south of Kiu-Siu, there are seven small islands, and a large one called Tanaxima, belonging to the Japanese xanaxima, empire, and to the south of these, eight others which belong to the king oofoo,&c. of Loo-Choo; they are called Oofoo China, or the islands of Oofoo; the principal one is called Oofoo in the country itself, and Tatao, or " the Great Island," by the Chinese. These islands are fertile and populous, with the exception of Kikiai, which, however, like Oofoo, contains forests of fine large cedars. • " Des Danseuses en grand nombre, et surtout des danseurs plus qu'effemin^s." \ Kxmi'er, ii. 9. ;j; Titsingh, dans les VerhandeUngen. § Lettres Edifiantes, xiv. Archipelagfo of Lou-Cliou. 62 BOOK FORTY-FIRST. Great Loo- I ^" ^lie south-w6st of tlicse is the great island of Loo-Choo ; it is choo Island. | about fifty milcs long and from twelve to fifteen broad. The king resides at its south end, in a palace called Cheoole, in the neighbourhood of the capital Kien-Ching, which has a sea port named Napakiang, at the distance of five miles ; this place was found by the observations made on board the Alceste, to be in lati- tude 26° 14'. N. and in 127° 52' 1" of east longitude; this is its south-west point, the main body of the island extending from this north and a little easterly; all the rocks about it are of coral, and immense masses, often of grotesque shapes, are seen every where along the sea-shore ; many of the same nature are found on the higher land, at a distance from the beach, the origin of which may be considered as pro- blematical, and is supposed by some to have been disguised by the action of volcanic fire having raised them to an elevation beyond the reach of the ocean in which they were generated.* To the west of this island there are ten others, well peopled and productive, with the exception of Lung-hoang-chau, or " the Sulphur Island," so called from the quantities of that substance which it affords. On the east side of Formosa there are other seventeen, all dependent on the King of Loo-Choo. The natives trace their history back to a period long anterior to the Christian era; but they had no communication with the rest of the world till about the year 605, when they were discovered by the Chinese, who found them the same agreeable and polished people as they now are, though perhaps lesa on the Chinese model in some particulars than they have since been. The only connection which they have had with their neighbours has been with Japan and China, and even this has been very limited, nor, from what we know of these nations, are they liable to exhibit much change, or likely to have communicated variations of fashion or of habits to others. Gaubil says that Loo-Choo was not subjected till seven centuries after, or about the fourteenth century, and he adds that before that time the great island was divided into three political communities, whence it is called in some maps " the island of the Three Kings." Climate. | The climate of Loo-Choo is one of the rftost propitious in the world. Refreshed by the sea-breezes which blow over it at every period of the year, it is free from the extremes of heart and cold. The land does not contain those marshes which are so great a source of disease in the warmer latitudes, and the people appear to those who have visited them to enjoy robust health. Nature has been bountiful in all her gifts to that favoured country ; such is the felicity of its soil and climate, that vegetable productions, very different in their nature, and generally found in regions very distant from each other, grow here side by side. Not only the orange and the lime, but the Indian banyan, and the Norwegian fir, the tea plant and sugar- cane, all flourish together. It aboimds in rice, wheat, peas, melons, pine ap- ples, ginger, pepper, camphor, dye-woods, wood for fuel, silk, wax, and salt ; it also yields coral and pearls. The animals are oxen, sheep, horses, deer, and winged game. Almost the whole animal creation here is of diminutive size, but all excellent in their kind ; the bullocks seldom weigh more than 350 lbs. but are plump and well conditioned, and the beef very fine ; their goats and pigs are reduced in the same proportion, their poultry forming the only exception. The men are a very small race, the average height not exceeding five feet tw'o inches, but sturdy and athletic ; the women are of corresponding stature. They have a good deal of the Corean physiognomy, with increased mildness. They have nothing of the drowsy and elongated eye of the Chinese. The few Chinese and their descendants settled here have no appearance of having freely mixed with the Loo-Chooans, both their features and dispositions being wholly distinct. They show no mixture of Indian blood, being quite as fair as the southern Europeans; even those who are most exposed are scarcely so swarthy as persons of the same class of society in Spain and Portugal. They are a well-bred and cultivated race. They have a priesthood of bonzes, who are generally educated in Japan. Their books on reli- gion, morality, and science, arc in the Chinese character, but, for common purposes, the Japanese letters aro employed. Their language differs both from tlie Chinese • See Captain Hall's account. JAPANESE ISLANDS. 63 and Japanese, though possessing many words in common with both. The emperor Kyang-Hi cstabhshed a hbrary in the principal island in 1720, and ordered a temple to be built to Confucius. To the latest visiters, the crews of the Al- "^^f^'y ^^'K ceste and Lyra, this people appeared amiable in the highest degree. The Lyra, friendliness and cordiality of the respectable persons who composed these crews gave them an opportunity of cultivating a knowledge of their character, and exchang- ing with them sentiments which did the highest honour to both parties, and appear peculiarly ^fleeting as occurring between races who met from such an immense local distance, and had derived all their ideas from sources which in the lapse of ages had no mutual communication. On such scenes as are depicted in the narritives of Mr. M'Leod surgeon of the Alceste, ond Captain Hall commanding the Lyra, the mind enjoys a most agreeable repose, after having long travelled over pictures in moral and political geography which exhibit so many deplorable instances of the inhumanity arising from unrestrained passions, and from errors which generate antipathies that lacerate in the deepest manner the peace of society. The cfiect of this moral and social excellence is heightened by the delicious picture, which the country, rich by nature, and admirably improved by art, exhibits to the eye, refuting the dogmatism of those who maintain that the abundance of the means of pleasure has an invariable elTect in vitiating the heart, and that virtue is nowhere to be found but in scenes in which the scantiness and simplicity of the gifts of nature set limits to the wander- ings of human inclination. "From a commanding height above the ships," says Mr. M'Leod, | scenery, "the view is in all directions picturesque and delightful. On one hand are seen the distant lands rising from a wide expanse of ocean, while the clearness of the water enables the eye to trace all the coral reefs which protect the anchorage immediately below. To the south is the city of Napafoo, the vessels lying at anchor in the har- bour, with their streamers flying; and in the intermediate space appear numerous hamlets scattered about on the banks of the rivers which meander in the valley be- neath. Turning to the east, the houses of Kint-ching the capital city, built in their peculiar style, are observed opening from among the lofty trees which surround and shade them, rising one above another in gentle ascent to the summit of a hill, which is crowned by the king's palace ; the interesting grounds between Napafoo and Kint- ching, a distance of some miles, being ornamented by a continuation of villas and country houses. To the north, as far as the eye can reach, the higher land is cov- ered with extensive forests." About half a mile from this eminence, the traveller is led by a foot path to what seems only a little wood; on entering which, under an archway formed by the intermingling branches of the opposite trees, he passes along a serpentine labyrinth intersected at short distances by others. Not far from each other, on either side of these walks, small wicker doors are observed, on opening any of which he is surprised by the appearance of a court-yard and house, witli the children, and all the usual cottcige-train, generally gamboling about; so Ihal, while a man fancies himself in some sequestered retreat, he is in fact in the middle of a popu- lous but invisible village. They found many of these islanders persons of great intelligence and address. One individual is particularly characterized, whose name was Madera, a man of rank and influence in the government, who came on board in the disguise of a perstni of mean condition, for the purpose of learning the character and intentions of these visiters, and gradually and frankly unfolded his real character in proportion as his con- fidence in this respect increased. A series of anecdotes is related, showing his apt- ness in acquiring both the language and the ideas of the P^iUglish. lie doiiglited in receiving information ; and his remarks were always pertinent. The map of the world, with the track of the ship across the various oceans, from Britain to Loo Choo, with the different intervening continents and islands, when pointed out, he and others traced with great care, and seemed at last to comprehend, though such objects were entirely new to them, and though they appear to have had no idea of the figure or vast extent of the globe. Madera was gay or serious as occasion required, but always respectable, and all his countrymen seemed to be gifted with a sort of politeness which might be fairly termed natural, having in it nothing constrained or studied. 64 IJOOK FORTY-FIRST. Table of Geographical rosiiions observed on the Coasts of JMantchooria, lesso, Japan, and Corca. Places. Seghalien. Cape Elizabeth - — Golowatchef - — Patience - - — Amwa" - - - Idem - - - - Idem Cape Crillon Idem - - KURILES. Canal of Nadcshda, near the peak Sarytcliet" - - - Iesso. Cape Soya ------ — Romanzof - - - - - (Notzamboo.) Island ot" Riosheii or Langlcs Peak Idem ------- Lat. N. deg. min. sec, 54 20 53 13 15 48 50 46 2 20 46 3 Idem Cape Malcspina - - - — Novoilzof . - - - (Okomoov.) Island of Okosir, (middle) Cape Nadcshda - - - Volcano Bay - - - - Japan. Cape Songaar - - - — dcs Russes - - - - — Noto Island of Tsus - - - Nangasa'iki - - - - Cap d'Anville - - - - - Namboo - - - - Coast of Mantciiooria and Core A. Cape Romberg - - - - Bay Castries - - - - - (Jape Monti _ - - - - 45 54 45 54 15 48 2 45 31 15 45 25 50 45 23 45 10 48 45 11 45 42 15 43 11 42 9 41 25 10 42 33 11 41 16 30 39 50 37 3G 34 40 30 jLoiig'. E. from Lond. deg. min. sec. 142 141 144 143 143 Observers. 45 15 Krusenstcrn. 55 15 Idem. 45 15 Idem. 30 35 Idem. 29 La Perouse, after the correc tions of Dagelet. 144 40 15 Chart of La Perouse's Voyage, (an error in the chronome ter.) • , ■ 55 15 Krusenstern's Chart, (La Pe rouse. Connais. des Terns.) 68 54 La Perouse, corrected by Da gelet. 142 141 152 52 61 141 141 142 141 51 15 34 45 10 22 15 6 141 12 30 141 140 18 13 45 45 139 30 15 140 9 56 140 52 47 140 14 15 139 44 15 137 54 15 129 29 45 53 26 30 51 29 50 30 141 45 141 59 15 141 53 16 Krusenstern. Idem. Idem. Chart of La Perouse. (Error.) La Perouse after the correc- tions of Dagelet. Horner and Krusenstern, (re- peated and accurate obser- vations.) Idem. Idem. Idem. Idem. Broughton. Krusenstern. Idem. Connaiss. dcs Temps. Krusenstern. Krusenstern. La Perouse. Connaiss. des Terns. Idem. CHINA. Tabic continued. 65 Places. Lat. N. Lonjj. E. from Lond. Observers. Suffren's Bay Bay of Ternay - - - - Isle of Dagelct - - - - Tsa-Choni (Corea) - - - Quelpaert (Island) - - - deg. min. sec. 47 63 45 J3 37 25 35 30 33 7 49 deg. min. sec. 139 40 15 137 29 15 131 22 16 129 43 15 126 IS 57 Idem. Idem. Idem. Idem. Idem. N. B. The Table of the 68 provinces and 600 political subdivisions of Japan are omitted as of inferior importance, in order to leave room for more interesting materials. BOOK XLII. CHINA. PART I. General Description of the Country. Several circumstances relative to the Chinese are given in our history of geo- graphy. There the question is considered which has been agitated among geogra- phers,* whether that people was known to the ancients. We trace the progress of the Arabian travellers of the ninth century, and the missionaries of the thirteenth, as well as the celebrated Marco Polo, in their respective travels to Cathay or Kithmj, and to Mangi, or Maha-Tchin, or, in other words, northern and southern China. On this account these discussions will not now detain us. We shall merely mention that the travels of Riibruquis and Marco Polo remained for a long time almost unknown, and that the learned Pope Pius II., in 1448, described China only from a very short account of Nicholas Conti, who Progress of information respecting China. lad visited it half a century before, and whose veracity the pontiff seems to doubt. t It was only by means of the Portuguese navigators who succeeded Vasco de Gama that Europe received any certain information of the situation, extent, and splendour of China. Since that period, we owe our knowledge to some ambassadors who have seen the court and the great roads, to some merchants who have inhabited a suburb of a frontier town, and a considerable number of missionaries who have penetrated in every direction, and who being considered as credulous admirers though artless narrators, inspired little confidence in their judgment, so that the world was left to guess at the truth of numerous facts which these well meaning persons were ill qualified to appreciate. We have also some Chinese geographers, whose dry tables of nomenclature give us little information. Thus any extended description of China that could be given would consist of a series of repetitions. The conquests of the Emperors of the Mantchoo (called rather im- properly tlie Tartar) dynasty, have extended their power over a great part of the countries which used to be called independent Tartary, but wliich were inha- bited by Kalmuks and Mongols, races of men wholly distinct from the Tartars. The Russians at the same time advanced into Siberia. The centre of the old continent Chinese em- pire. See note at page 23, of this volume. Vol.. II.— 1 ■\ Pii Papsc, li. Asia, cap. 15. Limits or the territory. Surrounding seas. 66 BOOK FOllTY-SECOND. became a point of mutual contact for two nations proceeding in opposite directions from its two opposite extremities. Two great empires, the Russian and the Chinese, the one of which approaches the pole while the other passes the tropic, and which appeared to have the whole world intervening, find themselves conterminous on a line extending 3000 miles in length, from the neighbourhood of lake Palcati to the mouth of the river Amoor. This long mutual frontier follows in general the direction of the Altaic, Sayanian and Daoorian mountains. In Daooria, however, the Rus- sians have extended their boundaries beyond the mountains to the banks of the Amoor. Lake Palcati, the Alak mountains, and the Beloot mountains, separate the Chinese empire on the west from the Kirguis, the Uzbeks, and the other independent races of true Tartary. While the Chinese power gradually reached the frontier of Asiatic Russia on the north and north-west ; it extended to the west and south-west over the vast regions of Thibet, and has now become almost conterminous with the British possessions to the north of Bengal. The small countries of Sirinagur, Nepaul, and the Garrau mountains and others, the last barrier on this side between the Chinese empire and India, are now partly under the protec- tion of Great Britain. More to the east, the Chinese province of Yun-nan comes in contact with the Burman empire. The possessions of the Siamese do not reach the Chinese frontier ; but the little kingdoms of Laos and Tonquin are its nearest neighbours in that quarter, and perhaps tributary to it. The Eastern Ocean, forming many gulfs and straits, washes the shores of the Chinese empire for an extent of 3,600 miles, reckoning from the Tonquinese frontier to the mouth of the river Amoor. The Gulf of Ton- quin and the Chinese Sea bound this empire on the south. The channel of Formosa separates the island of that name from the continent. The Blue Sea extends be- tween China and the islands of Lieu-Choo and Japan; the Yellow Sea between China and Corea. We have already considered the Sea of Japan, the extremity of which, explored by La Perouse, has received the inappropriate name of the Channel of Tar- tary. It is not certain whether the Chinese lay claim to the island called Seghalien or Tchoka, a country which may acquire some importance, and of which the more active ambition of the Russians will perhaps take possession. The extremity of the Mantchoo country, which has been called Chinese Tartary, lies on the sea called by modern navigators the Sea of Okhotsk, and by d'Anville the Sea of Kamtchatka. Extent of the I The Chinese empire, comprehended within these limits, has a length empire. j of about 3460 miles, reckoning from Cashgur to the mouth of the Amoor. Its greatest breadth may be taken from the Saianian mountains to the southern point of China, opposite to the Island of Hay-nan, a line of more than 2000 miles. Its surface may be computed at seven millions of square miles, somewhat less than a tenth part of that of the habitable globe. China Proper. | In the present book we confine ourselves to China Proper. This country presents in itself a field of very great extent, having a surface of more than 537,000 square miles, inhabited by a population which some reckon 150, and others, 333 millions. This country has, indeed, no natural limit; the Great Wall separates it from the Mongols on the north ; on the west, political limits are prescribed to the wanderings of the Kalmuks, or Eleuths of Hoho-Nor, and the Sifans; on the south, the frontiers of China Proper are the same with those of the empire. The following is the table of division and extent of China Proper, ac- cording to the information communicated by the Mandarin Chow-ta-sing to Lord Macartney, when on his embassy from Great Britain. Divisions Extent. CHINA. 67 Provinces. Pe-tcho-li Kiang-nan. Kiang-si . Two provinces Square Miles Tche-kiang Fo-kien . TT i Hou-pe » Ilouquang {hou-U} Honan Shan-tong Shan-si Shen-si { f""""'] P^'^l'^' ( Kaa-tchou Se-shuen .... Quang-tong .... (^uang-si .... You-nan Koeit-cheou .... } 58,949 92,961 72,170 39,150 53,480 144,770 65,104 65,104 55,268 154,008 166,800 79,45.6 78,250 107,969 64,554 Acres. 1,297,999 37,727,360 59,495,040 46,192,640 25,056,000 34,227,200 92,652,800 41,666,560 41,666,560 35,715,320 98,565,120 106,752,120 50,851,840 50,080,000 69,100,160 41,314,560 830,719,360 Southern cliaui. This country has been celebrated under more than one name ; the in- | Names, habitants call it Tchon-Koo, or " the centre of the world;" for the Chinese, in their overweening pride, consider other countries as mere strips surrounding their own ter- ritory. The accounts of the Mahometan travellers of the ninth century, published by Renaudot, give southern China the name of Sin, pronounced by the Persians Tcliin. The origin of this name is uncertain; and, though the wn». of its extensive range of sea-coast. It has the mouth of the Imperial canal on one side, and the river Tchiang on the other. It is the emporium of the trade hctwecn the northern and southern provinces. Ning-po-fou, which the Europeans | Liampo. call Liam-po, is a town of the first order, and has an excellent harbour to which the Chinese merchants of Siam and Batavia repair every year to buy silks'. It also car- ries on a great trade with Japan, Nangasaki being at a distance of only two days' sail. The Chinese carry silks, stuffs, sugar, medicines, and wine to this country; and bring home copper, gold, and silver. Chao-king-fou is a place penetrated in every direction with canals, supplied with the most limpid water. Its broad streets are paved with large blocks of hewn stone, and extremely clean. The triumphal arches and houses are, contrary to general custom, built of that stone. The inhabi- • Macartney, v. 183. De Guignes, Voyage a Pekin, iii. 319. ProTince of Tchfrkiang. Island of Tai ouan or Fer- mosa. 78 BOOK FORTV-THIRD. tants are Ihe most formidable of all the Chinese for chicanery. Every viceroy, and every great man, prefers a native of this town for his siang-cong, or secretary. Province of From Tche-kiang we shall proceed southward to Fou-kien, one of the Fou kien. Smallest, yet one of the richest provinces in the empire. Its situation is favourable for fishing, navigation, and trade. The air is very warm, but pure and healthy. The fields are watered with an infinity of rivers which come from the moun- tains, and which the labourers manage with great dexterity for watering their rice grounds. Black tea is the principal produce. It also contains musk, precious stones, iron, tin, and quicksilver mines; silk, hemp, and cotton are manufactured; steel is prepared, both in the form of bars and ready-made articles of hardware; and among the delicious and abundant fruits which it produces, the oranges are remarkable for the flavour of muscat grapes which they possess.* Fou-tcheou-fou, the capital of the province, is above all celebrated for its situation, for the great trade which it possesses, for the multitude of its men of learning, for the beauty of its rivers, which liear the great barks of China to its very walls; and finally, for an admirable bridge known over the gulf, consisting of a hundred arches, and entirely built of beautiful white stone. Yen-ping-fou, situated on the declivity of a mountain, at the foot of which flows the river Min-ho, is not large, but it is considered as one of the hand- Emouy. | somcst towns in the empire. Tchang-tcheo-fou is near the port of Emouy, a great emporium of trade, frequented by the Spaniards from Manilla. f Opposite to the coast of Fou-kien, is the large and fine island called by the Chinese Tai-ouan, and by the Portuguese Formosa. It forms part of the government or viceroyalty of Fou-kien. It was in the reign of the Emperor Cang-hi that the Chinese first extended their knowledge and power to this island. It has remained in their possession ever since they drove out the Dutch in 1661. The latter had taken it from the Portuguese. It is divided into two parts by a chain of mountains. The eastern part has been inhabited by the Chinese ever since the Dutch were obliged to leave it ; the remain- der is possessed by the aboriginal inhabitants. The coast of Formosa which is in the possession of the Chinese, is certainly deserving of the name by wliich it is known ; it is a truly de- lightful country. The air is pure and serene ; the land is fertile in rice, in all sorts of grain, and in sugar canes : it is covered with magnificent forests, and watered by an infinite number of streams, which descend from steep and well-wooded mountains. Oxen are generally used for riding, for want of horses and asses. With the excep- tion of stags and monkeys, which make their appearance in flocks, the wild quadru- peds are not numerous. The fisheries of the coast present an abundant variety of food. Pheasants, wood-cocks, and pigeons swarm in the woods. If the earthquakes were less frequent and less destructive, and if the water of the rivers were as well adapted for human use as it is for fertilizing the fields, there would be nothing to de- sire in this island, which in other respects produces all that is requisite to render life agreeable. I Formosa has a Chinese government with a garrison of 10,000 men, but its authority is limited to the west side. The city Tai-Ouan is po- pulous and wealthy. The streets, in straight lines, and covered with awnings for seven or eiglit months in the year to protect them from the heat of the sun, lined with storehouses and elegant shops, where silks, porcelain, varnished and other wares, are arranged with admirable art, so as to give the appearance of so many charming galleries, woidd be delightful to walk in if less crowded with passengers and better paved. Tiiis city is defended by a good fortress, which was built by tlic Dutch, and called by them Fort de Zelandia. The harbour is spacious and deep, but the entrances of it are extremely narrow, and only eight or twelve feet deep.§ • Duhalde, Martini, Sec. passim. t Renonard de Sainte-Groix, Voyage aux Indes-Orientales, ill. 205, &c. + Valentyn, Oud und niew Ostindien, t. vi. Description de Formose, p. 37, 40, &c. Rechte- ren, dans les Voyages de la Coinpagnie Hollandaise, v. 160, &c. Le P. Mailla. Lettres edifi- antes, xiv. 28, 30. § Pierre Niiyts, Mem. sur Formose, dans Valentyn, 1. c p. (\'. I.ettrcs ^difianl. i. c. Physical de- scriptions. Towns, Fortresses, &c. CHINA. 79 Between the port of Tui-Ouaii and the coast of China, the httlc archipelago of the islands of Pongou, or Pescadores (t. e. fishermen's islands) aflbrds good anchorage, and a station which, with a suitable navy, might command the channel of Formosa. The savage people inhabiting the eastern and mountainous part of | inhabitants. Formosa acknowledge no regular government. Resembling in complexion and fea- tures the Malays and other islanders of the South Sea, they speak a distinct lan- guage from all that we are acquainted with.* There seem, indeed, to be several indigenous tribes ; and in particular, according to Valentyn's account, besides aa olive-coloured, there is a negro race of gigantic size. The cottages of the Formo- sans are of bamboo ; they have articles of furniture and utensils formed out of stag's leather. According to other travellers, they have in their huts no chairs, benches, tables, beds, or any sort of furniture. In the middle is placed a sort of | Mode of life, furnace made of earth, and two feet high, which serves them for cooking. They feed on corn and on game, which last they catch by hunting on foot, for they are possessed of surprisuig agility and swiftness. Their only bed consists of the fresh leaves of a particular tree common in the country. Their only clothing is a single piece of cloth, with which they cover their bodies from the middle down to the knees, "Their skin is covered with indelible marks representing trees, animals, and flowers of grotesque forms ; in the act of decking themselves with these barbarian marks of distinction, they inflict on themselves acute pain. The privilege of wearing them is allowed to none but those who, in the opinion of the chief persons of a district, have surpassed their fellows in running or in hunting. All, however, have the privilege of blackening their teeth, and of wearing bracelets, collars, and ear-rings. In the north end of the island, where the climate is a little cooler, they dress themselves with the skins of stags killed in hunting, which they make up into a kind of dress without sleeves ; and their cylindrical caps aremade of banana leaves. They worship, } superstitionj. though with little ceremony, a plurality of deities, whose priestesses are said to for- bid the women from bearing children till they are thirty-six years of age, and take the most revolting means of prevention. Though we know few particulars of their superstitions, the bridge of souls, and the abyss of ordure into which they throw the manes of the wicked, indicate some connexion with central Asia.| A century ago, some of the Formosans preserved traces of the Christian religion and of the Dutch language, which they had learned together. | Their mode of burying the dead re- sembled that which is practised among the islanders of Oceanica. The bodies were dried and remained a long time under sheds. — We now return to continental China. The most considerable of the southern provinces is that of Quan-Ton, province of to the south-west of Fou-Kien, and bounded in its turn on the south- ^"an-Ton. west by the kingdom of Tonquin. This province is fertile in grain and all kinds of fruits. It contains mines of gold, precious stones, and tin; also, pearls, ivory, and odoriferous woods, which are applied to all sorts of work. One rare production pecu- liar to this province is the tree called by the Portuguese the ** iron tree ;" it resembles iron in colour, in hardness, and in weight ; it sinks in water. Quan-tcheou-fou, which we call Canton, the capital of the province, is one of the most populous | canton, and wealthy cities of China. Its harbour is the only one in the whole empire fre- quented by Europeans. The wall by which it is enclosed is between four and five miles in extent. The adjoining plain is diversified with arid hills, verdant valleys, small towns, villages, high towers, temples, and houses of mandarins. It is delightfully watered by lakes, canals, and small branches of the river Ta, covered with boats and junks. The city of Canton contains a great number of triumphal arches and tem- ples richly ornamented with statues. The tlnong of passengers in the streets is so great that it is difficult to get along. There are few Chinese merchants in easy cir- cumstances whose families live in the same place where their business is conducted; they are lodged either in tlie remote suburbs or quite in the country. The population of Canton is estimated by Father Lecompte at a mil- | Population. * Mcmoires sur Formose. dans Ics Anrmles des Voyages, viii. p. 367. f Ciiiulidius, Kelat. sur Formose, dans Ics Voyajjcs dc la Coinp. v. 102. t Lett, edifiuut. xiv. 51, 52. Isles de Lar- roDS. 80 BOOK FOUTY-TIIIUD. lion and a half; Duhalde reduces it to a million. M. Sonnerat accuses both autliors of ridiculous exaggeration ; he asserts that he has, with the assistance of several Chinese, ascertained the population of this city, and found it to be only 75,000 ; but he does not give the particulars of this calculation, and he every where betrays too strong prejudices against the Chinese to be credited on his bare assertion.* The companions of Captain Cook| learned from the British factors established at Canton a number of details, which seem to make the population of the city and suburbs 150,000. The inhabitants of the sampans, or boats, which are 40,000 in number, may be 100,000 at most, though the English have made them much more numerous. Thus Canton will contain in all 250,000 inhabitants. Macao. | We shall describe the trade of Canton in a more suitable place, and proceed in the mean time with our topographic survey. Macao, a Portuguese esta- bUshment on a little tongue of land belonging to an island, has nothing left of its an- cient importance but the name. Three or four hundred negro soldiers formed its whole garrison at the time of Lord Macartney's visit. The number of its inhabit- ants amounts to 33,800 according to Renouard de Sainte Croix, and more than one half of them are Chinese. This little corner of land was allowed to the Portuguese in the days of their power and enterprise ; and here, for a long time, they carried on a great trade, not only with China, which scarcely any other nation then visited but with other countries of eastern Asia, and particularly with Japan and Tonquin. At present the English carry on the trade of Macao in the name of the Portuguese. Grotto ofCa- A group of rocks near one of the highest eminences of the city forms moens. ^ pg^yg called "the grotto of Camoens;" as tradition says that the poet of that name composed in this place his celebrated Lusiad. An English inhabitant of Macao has contrived to include within his garden wall this picturesqe spot, the sacred retreat of misfortune and of genius. The Larron islands, near to Macao, are always filled with pirates, who frequently carry off the small Chinese craft employed in the constant trade between Macao and Canton. A small European force could easily extirpate these pirates, but the efforts of the Chinese government to get rid of them are fruitless, in consequence of a connection which they keep up with rebellious and discontented persons of the interior. isieofHainaD. | The southem point of the province of Quang-tong and of continen- tal China projects in tlie form of a narrow peninsula towards the isle of Hainan, which belongs to this government, except when in a state of rebellion. This island has a superficial extent of 14,000 square miles. The north part is a flat and level country; the south filled with high mountains. The air is unhealthy, and the water, unless previously boiled, cannot be used without injury. But numerous rivers, and frequent rains at fixed seasons of the year, make the fields fertile in sugar, indigo, cotton, and, above all, in rice, of which the inhabitants often raise two crops in a year. The capital, Kioun-tcheou-fou, is situated on a promontory, and the vessels anchor close under the walls. Inhabitants. | Tho uativcs are generally ugly, of low stature and copper complexion; their hair ia passed through a ring on the forehead. They go almost naked. The women, by way of heightening their attractions, draw a number of blue lines with indigo from the eyes to the lower part of the face. Both sexes wear gold and silver buckles attached to the ears. They are armed with bows and arrows, but they are more dexterous in the use of a kind of cutlass. This is the only tool which they employ in carpentry, and for clearing away the trees and bushes which obstruct their way in traversing the forests. Minerals. | Besides the gold mines in tho centre of the island there are several coloured boles in the north which are carried to Canton for colouring the porcelain. The best wood, both for perfume and for carving, comes from tho mountains of H;ii- Precious wood | nan. The most valuable of these woods, next to the eagle- wood, is lliat which the Europeans call rose-wood, or violet-wood. There is also a yellow wood • Sonnerat, Vojag-e aux Indcs, t. ii. p. 24. t Cook's Third Voyage, French Iranslalion, t. iv. p. 503. Province oC Kiang-si. CHINA. 81 of remarkable beauty and wliich has the cliaracter of being incorruptible. This is formed into small columnar pieces, wliich are sold at a very high price. There is a pearl fishery on the shores. It is said that the Chinese have the art of | Pearl fishery, making the muscle secrete juice which Jiardens into that precious substance. When the muscle, coming up to tlie surface, opens its shell, a piece of packthread is intro- duced, to which pearl balls are attached;* according to others, they introduce a piece of brass wire, and the wounded animal covers these foreign substances with a juice which hardens into mother-of-pearl, or even true pearls."]* Similar pracitces were not unknown to the ancients;;]; and Linnaeus announced, half a century ago, that he had found out tho secret of making muscles produce pearls. § The province of Canton is separated from that of Kiang-si by the great mountain called Mi-Iin, on which a road is formed, which goes three miles along a most frightful precipice. There is a temple in the place conse- crated to tho memory of the mandarin under whose orders tliis work was executed. The passage is thronged like the streets of a large city. Passing the mountains, wo discover beautiful valleys and well cultivated fields. But this fertile province produces scarcely any overplus of rice above what is requir- ed for the support of its numerous inhabitants. The latter have the character of being rigid economists, and their mean avarice subjects them to the raillery of the Chinese of the other provinces. The lakes and rivers are full of salmon, trout, and sturgeon. The mountains are either clothed with wood, or celebrated for their me- dicinal plants, and their mines of gold, silver, lead, iron, and tin. Very fine stuflTs are manufactured here, and the rice wine of this country is highly delicate in the estimation of the Chinese. Tho province is principally celebrated for the fine porce- lain made at King-te-tching. This place is considered as a subordinate | Towns, town; yet the missionaries give it a million of inhabitants. They reckon not quite so many in Nan-tchang-fou, the capital of the province. Porcelain is the leading article of commerce in this quarter. Indeed j Poreeiain. the true porcelain is made no where else. That which is made at Canton, in the province of Fou-kien, and some other places, is not so much valued in China as common stone-ware is in Europe. The vast province of Hou-quang is in the centre of the kingdom: the j province of river Yang-tse-kiang passes through it. The greater part of the pro- j """lu^os- vince is a flat country, divided by lakes, and watered Avith rivers, which are stocked with immense quantities of excellent fish, and frequented by numberless flocks of aquatic birds. The cattle which are fed on the produce of the fields are prodigious in number. Every sort of grain and of fruit grows here, particularly oranges and citrons in all their varieties. This province is considered as the granary of the em- pire. It has its mines of iron, tin, and other metals, and gold is obtained from the sand of its mountain torrents. Vou-tchang-fou, the capital of this province, is almost the central point ] Towns, of China. In extent it comes near to Paris. It derives an immense profit from its manufacture of bamboo paper. Hang-yang-fou is separated from Vou-tchang-fou by the Kiang. It also is a large and very commercial town. The strong city of Kin-tcheou-fou is considered as one of the keys of the empire. It is situated in the north-west, at the bottom of the mountains. From this fortress we may take an excursion northward into the pro- vince of Honan. The mildness of the chmate and the fertility of the soil render this province a delightful country, and the Chinese call it the garden of their empire. They believe that this was the proWnce in which Fo-Hi, the founder of their monarchy, established his court. The air is certainly both temperate and salu- brious. Productions of all kinds come forward in the greatest abundance. Fields of wheat and rice, pastures, delicious fruit trees of every sort, and numbers of cattle, * Mem. of the Acad, of Sciences of Stockholm, xxxiv. p. 89, (German translation.) t Fabricius, Lettres Sorites de I.ondres, p. 104. t Philo.strat. Vit. Apollon. iii. 57. edit. Olcar. p. 139, Tzetzes, varior. 1, ii. segm. 375. Gesner, Hist. Natur. iv. 634. § Schloetzcr, Correspondance, cah, xl. p. 251. Vol. II._L Province of Honan. Astronomical tower. Province of Sliansi. 82 BOOK FOItTY-TlIlRD. form alipost the wliole scenery of this rich country, which is ahiiost all level except in the west, where we find mountains that are covered over with forests. Towns. I Cai-song-fou is a large, wealthy, and populous city on the river Honan, in a low situation, inferior to the level of the river. Hence,, though dykes are built to protect it from inundations, it is very much exposed to danger. In 1642, the em- peror ordered one of the dykes to be cut, in order to destroy a rebel prince who had fortified himself in this place, in consequence of which 300,000 persons were drown- ed. In former times the Chinese were simple enough to consider Ilonan-fou as the centre of the world, because at that time it was in the heart of their empire. The city of Ting-fou-hien is famous for the tower erected by the celebrated Tchou-kong, where he was in the practice of observing the phenomena of the heavens. There is still an instrument in this place which is said to have been used by him for taking the shadow of the sun at mid-day, in order to find out the elevation of the pole.* He lived nearly a thousand years before the Christian era, and the Chinese ascribe to him the invention of the mariner's compass. Let us now examine the north-west portion of China. The province of Shansi is one of the smallest ; it is bounded on the east by the Pe- tche-li. The great wall is its boundary on the side of Mongolia on the north. The Chinese history bears that this was the province in which the first inhabitants of China fixed their abode. The climate is pleasant and healthy. The country, though mountainous, is fertile in millet, in corn, and above all in grapes, of which the Chi- nese might no doubt make excellent wine if they chose, but they prefer drying them as raisins. This province contains porphyry, marble, jasper of various colours, and a blue mineral with which they colour their porcelain. In every quarter there are very abundant mines, saline lakes from which salt is obtained, and mineral waters. Towns, &c. I The capital, Tai-yuen-fou, was once a beautiful city, full of palaces inhabited by princes of the imperial blood of Tai-ming-tchao ; but these fine build- ings have gone to ruin. Carpets similar to those of Persia and Turkey are wrought here. Iron wares are also made, and form a prominent article of commerce. This ancient and populous city is about eight miles in circumference. On the neighbour- ing mountains there are beautiful sepulchres of marble and hewn stone, triumphal arches, statues of heroes, and of lions, horses, and other animals; and the whole is encircled with a forest of old cypresses planted in mutually intersecting rows. Province of Shen-si is the largest province of China. It is conterminous with Shen-si. Mongolia, the Kalmuks of Noho-Nor, and the Sifans. The tempera- ture is mild. Here for many ages the emperors resided. The inhabitants of this province are stronger, braver, and more handsomely formed than the other Chinese : its soldiery has always been comparatively formidable. It produces many medicinal plants. A great quantity of cattle, and particularly of mules, feed on its mountains. Wheat and millet grow with such promptitude, that in winter the farmers turn in the sheep upon the corn-fields to keep down its luxuriance, and their growth is renewed with fresh vigour in the spring. In the neighbourhood of Lin-tao-fou, and about the fountain of the Sifans, are found wild oxen, and according to report, a species of the tiger. I Towns, &c. I Si-ngan-fou, the capital of that province, is, next to Pekin, one of the finest and largest cities of China. Its walls are eleven miles in extent. Some of the gates are magnificent and uncommonly lofty. An old palace is still to be seen, which was the residence of its ancient kings. In this city the principal Mantchoo troops destined to the defence of the north of China are stationed. In 1685, there was found in the neighbourhood, in digging the foundations of a house, a marble slab containing an inscription in Chinese characters, together with words in the Syriac language, and a cross carved on the top. Several of the learned have laboured to discover the meaning of the words and figures. There * Mailkii Hist, de la Chine, i. 319. compare with De Guignes, junr. in the Annates des Voy- ages, etc.viii. 165. f Duhalde, i. p. 212. Nestorian mo- nument. l')istriet of KiuitcliL'uu. Province of S^Ccliucu. CHINA. 83 are sixtj-tvvo marks in Chinese cljaractcrs, divided into twenty-uine columns ; they consist of a treatise on articles of faith, together with some points of church disci- phne. It contains at the same time the names of emperors or kings wlio favom-ed the preaching of Christianity when introduced in the year of Christ C35, by Nesto- rian missionaries from Persia and Syria.* Tliese Nestorians had still many churches in China in the time of Marco Polo, about the year 1300.| The extremity of the province of Shcn-si, which advances to the north-west in a peninsular form between the country of the Mongols and that of the Kalmuks of Iloho-Nor, is called the district (in Chinese /o«) of Kantcheou or Kan- sou. The missionaries scarcely mention it, but Sir George Staunton makes it a province. Directing our course to the south-west we enter S^tchuen. This pro- vince yields to few others in the empire either in size or rich produc- tions : it was at one time desolated by the wars of the Tartars, but it has been sub- sequently re-improved. The great river Yang-tse-kiang passes through it and dif- fuses fertility on every hand. The inhabitants cultivated silk, wine, w heat, and fruit in abundance. It contains iron, tin, lead, and quicksilver. It is famous for its am- ber, its sugar canes, its excellent magnets, and luzulites of the finest blue. Its horses are in request, being very handsome and spirited, though small. Tching-tou-fou, the capital of the province, was one of the finest cities | Towns, Etc of the empire, but having been destroyed in the civil wars of 1646, along with whole provinces, it has lost much of its ancient splendour ; yet it is a very populous and "thriving place of trade. Its position is delightfully situated on an island formed by several rivers. Long-ngan-fou has, in consequence of its situation on the frontier of Tartary, always been considered as one of the most important places in the province. It is defended by several fortresses, more necessary in former times than now. On the south-east we come to a province which is acknowledged to be ill-peopled and ill-cultivated. It is filled with inaccessible mountains, which have long served as a retreat to independent hordes called Scng-miaosse. The emperors have at different times attempted to people this province, by sending to it whole colonies ; but these efforts seem to have been hitherto unavailing : the tribes belonging to it are unable to supply the necessities of the numerous garrisons esta- blished in the country ; and the court is obliged to supply them from the imperial treasury. The mountains contain mines of gold, silver, copper tin, and mercury. The copper of which the small current coin of the empire is made, is partly ob- tained from this quarter. It produces the best horses in China. It has no silk, but that defect is supplied by stuffs made from a plant resembling hemp, which are well adapted for summer wear. Koei-yang-fou, the capital of this province, is one of the smallest | Towns, Stc- cities in China, being only about two miles in circumference. The houses are partly of earth and partly of brick. Se-tchou-fou is a town, the inhabitants of which, though the least rude of any in the same province, live in profound ignorance of the Chinese branches of knowledge. They go barefooted, and walk over the rocks with surprising celerity. To the south of this wild province, wc find that of Quang-si, which is not one of the best peopled in China. It produces rice in such abund- ance that the province of Canton is supplied from it for six months in the year. Yet it is only raised advantageously in the plains of the south, where the air is mildest. The north presents nothing to the view but an uncultivated soil, and mountains covered with thick forests. In jthis province there are mines of all sorts of metals, particularly of gold and silver, but the policy of the government prolribits individuals from opening them. It produces cinnamon of stronger and sweeter flavour than that of Ceylon. Quei-ling-fou, the capital, is situated on the Eta. In this country are found the best stones employed by the men of letters in making their ink. Marco Polo says • Alvarez de Semedo, Hlstoria de la China. Lecomte, Mdmoir. i. 143. Duhalde, &c. t Marco Polo, de Reb. Orient, ii. 61, 64. i. 62. Province of Koeitcheou. Province of Quang-si. Province of Yunnan. 84 BOOK FOHTY-FOURTII. tliat ho saw in that country birds which instead of feathers, had hair Uko that of the eat.* These are the birds called the silk bird. The people of Quan-si are reckoned barbarians by the Chinese, because their manners have a certain uncouthness very different from the mild and ceremonious deportment of the rest of the nation. In the south-west corner we find the province of Yunnan, one of the richest in the empire, adjoining the kingdoms of Ava, Pegu, Laos, and Tonquin. It is all intersected by rivers, and the air is extremely temperate. The mountains contain mines of gold, silver, tin, and precious stones, especially rubies, and the marble called figure stone, which when polished represents in varied colours scenery of mountains, flowers, trees, and ruins. It produces small but vigorous horses, and deer no larger than our common dogs. Perhaps these are the Cervus axis. The inhabitants, though hardy and stout, are mild and affable, and have a re- Nation of l^o- markable aptness in learning the sciences. The nation which formerly '"'• took the lead in this province was called the Lo-los, and was governed by various sovereigns. After long wars undertaken for the purpose of subduing it, the Chinese adopted the plan of conferring on the Lo-Ios nobility all the honours of Chinese mandarins, with the right of hereditary succession, on condition of their acknowledging the authority of the Chinese governor of the province, receiving from the emperor title-deeds to their estates, and doing no public act without his consent. The Lo-los are not inferior in stature to the Chinese, and are more inured to fatigue ; they speak a diflerent language ; and their writing, as well as their reli- gion, resembles that of the bonzes of Pegu and Ava. These bonzes have built in the north of Yunnan large temples, different from those of the Chinese. The nobi- lity of the Lo-los claim absolute authority over tlie people, who behave towards them with the most profound submission. Towns, &c' I Wo have little knowledge of the towns of Yunnan. It is asserted that the capital, Yunnan-fou, built on the banks of a broad and deep lake, has long been the residence of a prince subject to the Chinese. It contains manufactures of satin and of carpets. Its trade in metals is necessarily great. Tching-kiang-fou is another place on the side of a lake, in a picturesque situation. Vouting-fou is one of the frontier bulwarks of tlie empire. BOOK XLIV. CHINA. PART III. Political and General View of the J^aiion. A MOST extensive field would still remain, if we wished to enter into all the re- searches which are requisite for a complete description of the political state of China. But these details, however well adapted for a monographic or statistical work, arc not suited to the narrow compass of a compendious universal system of geography. This is, besides, a subject, which has too often exercised the sagacity of Europeans without ultimate satisfaction. We do not flatter ourselves with the hope oi, being able to solve questions by which even those who have visited this singular country find themselves embarrassed. For this double reason we shall confine ourselves to a very summary view. Pliy5iof;nomy ofth lie Chinese. In features, and the shape of the bones of the head, the Chinese ap- proach to tlie great race of the Mongols. The head is almost quadran- * Marco Polo, de Keb. Orient. li. 68. CHINA. 85 gular, the noee short without heing flattened, the complexion yellow, the beard thin; the oblique direction of the eyes is more particularly characteristic of the Chinese and their colonies, such as the Japanese and Coreans. A residence for many ages in a milder climate has conferred on this race, since their arrival from Central Asia, a particular character, and rendered their countenances handsomer, though it has weakened their expression. There is, undoubtedly, a great difference between the southern and the northern Chinese, between the inhabitants of the mountains, those of the plains, and those of the maritime districts. In colour we know there are great varieties; but we have not sufficient information to enable us to trace the successive shades by which the rough Kalmuk is separated from the polished inhabitant of Canton. A Chinese female becomes vain of her beauty in proportion to the Chinese smallness of her eyes, the protuberance of her lips, the lankness and beauty, blackness of her hair, and the extreme smallness of her feet. This lust qualification completes the idea of beauty. In order to confer on them this high perfection, their feet are carefully swathed as tight as possible in their youth, so that when grown up they seem to totter rather than to walk.* Among the men, corpulence, as a symp- tom of an easy life, commands a certain degree of respect, and men of thin forms pass for persons void of talent.| People of quality allow the nails of their fingers to grow. The hair of the head and of the beard is stained black. Considered in a moral point of view, we soon perceive that the Chi- | Despotism, nese possess the usual virtues and vices of the slave, the manufacturer, and the mer- chant. A despotism of the most absolute kind has either acquired or preserved for China the external forms of patriarchal goverment. But, the sovereigns having ne- glected military discipline, frequent revolutions occurred in former times, till at last the country fell under the power of foreign conquerors, the Mantchoos. From that period tho whip of the Tartar has been conjoined with the paternal rod by which China was previously governed. The only institution tending to limit the royal power, is one by which the mandarins and the tribunals are allowed sometimes to make very humble remonstrances to the emperor on the errors of his government. Under a virtuous prince, this liberty has often been followed by the most salutary consequences. — The emperor is styled the sacred son of heaven, sole ruler of the earth, the great father of his people. Offerings are made to his image Adoration of and to his throne; his person is adored; his people prostrate them- the sovereign, selves in his presence ; the noblemen of his court, when addressed by him and re- ceiving his orders, must bend the knee ; every thing around him participates in the idolatry which is lavished on his person. His numerous concubines, and the eunuchs to whose charge they are committed, not unfrequently reign in his name. When this demi-god goes abroad, all the Chinese take care to shut themselves up in their houses. Whoever is found in his way is exposed to instant death, unless he turns his back, or lies flat with his face on the ground. All the shops by which the empe- ror is to pass must be shut, and this prince never goes out without being preceded by two thousand lictors carrying chains, axes, and various other instruments charac- teristic of eastern despotism. The different civil and military appointments are filled by nine classes | Mandarins, of ofiicers which the Europeans call mandarins. The power of the mandarin is fully as absolute as that of the sovereign from whom he derives his authority. An officer of this description entering a city, can order any person whom he chooses to be airested, and to die under his hand, and no one can venture to undertake his de- fence. He is preceded by a hundred executioners, who with a sort of yell, an- nounce his approach. Should any one forget to retire to the side of the wall, he is j| mauled with whips of chains or rods of bamboo. The mandarin himself, however, ^ in his turn, is not secured against the punishment of flogging. For the slightest prevarication the emperor will order the bastinado.^ These mandarins are far from being what Voltaire represents them, philosophers occupied with contemplations on the beauties of natural • Macartney, ii. 239, Atlas, pi. 11. f De Guignes, I. 397. II. 157, 159. :t, De Guignes, ii. 445. Meia des Mission, viii. 41.— 34S. Mistakes on the Chinese government. Steadiness of the laws. Tyranny and slavery. 86 )300K FORTY-FOUllTH. religion, who, raised above human passions, watch with fatherly care over the frailer virtue of their brethren. They are not a set of patriots who guard with integrity, and defend with energy, the sacred trust of liberty and public justice. They are nothing else than the sateUites of an absolute despot. Badly paid, they support themselves by the produce of their vexatious exactions. The pretended wisdom of the Chinese laws may be characterized in few words. It consists in good regulations of police, and fine discourses on morality. The emperor never alters the laws, because they leave the absolute power in his hands. The mandarins have equally little inclination to alter them, because they invest them with absolute authority over the people. There are courts where, in point of form, complaints may be brought against superiors, but under the full certainty of the complainer being punished for his audacity. There is no disu- nion among the aristocracy, because, while they hold the rod over the heads of the multitude, they see the imperial lash waving over their own. The des- potism of the Mantchoo sovereign keeps that of the grandees in order, and obliges them to remain united. There is no resistance on the part of the people ; they have no courage, though much cunning ; they find it safer to preserve a part of their precious property by grovelling at the feet of their masters, than to risk the loss of the whole in order to obtain their liberty. Besides, they have scarcely a motive to rebel ; though robbed by their superiors, they are suffered to rob in their turn, by using false weights, and disguising their goods. Justice is ill administered, but that is only to those who are foolish enough to neglect paying the expected price. Thus the rich man is content, and the poor is kept down. It often happens that the pea- santry, on the point of starving, betake themselves to highway robbery. These, unless too strong to be overpowered, are hung. When they beat the armies sent against them, negociations and stipulations follow, or they are left independent in their haunts. From this source the governors sometimes derive a little revenue. In short, all the notions of a Chinese from his infancy are directed to a single point, Ceremonies. | obedience. The sacred nature of social rank is perpetually impressed on his mind by innumerable ceremonies : at every step he makes a bow ; every phrase that he utters must be a compliment. Not a word can he address to a supe- rior without caUing to mind his own utter insignificance. But the great secret of Chinese policy, and the very basis of the empire, is to be found in an institution which in some measure deprives the inhabitants of the power of forming new thoughts, by depriving them of the liberty of expressing them by means of external characters Written cha- Corresponding to the words of their language. Such is the effect of the racters. Chinese mode of writing. It has been compared, though not with much propriety, to the hieroglyphical or figured language of the Egyptians.* It can only be compared to those systems of pasigraphy, or universal character, by which some wrong-headed persons in Europe have brought on themselves universal ridicule. If all the fundamental or generally necessary ideas are arranged in a cer- tain order ; if under these generating ideas all those others are classed which are furnished by common language, or which occur to the judgment of the contriver ; if each of the leading ideas has a representative sign ; if this sign is arbitrary, rude, and whimsical ; if these signs, elevated to the rank of the true keys of the Ian- ^ guage, are made the constant basis of signs equally abstract and arbitrary to denote ^ the subordinate idea ; this system will give us a perfect picture of the learned Ian- T^ guage of China. Its keys,! 214 in number, and its derivative signs, amounting to ** 80,000, do not express words but ideas. They are addressed solely to the eye and the memory. They never excite the imagination ; and not a hundreth part of them have any corresponding vocal expression. The beauty of a Chinese poem consists in not admitting of being read aloud ;J and the eminent literati of that country con- duct their disputes by describing in the air, with their fans, characters which do not correspond to any word in the language which they speak. § * Fourmont, Meditat. Sinlcs, p. 73. t Bayer, Museum Sinicum. Petersb. 1730. Fourmont, Gramm. Paris, 1742. Tracts by De- shantesraies, Hager, Montucci, de Guignes father and son ; but in preference to these, Messrs. Jules, Klaproth and Abel-Remusat. ♦ Barrow, ii. 13. § Remusat, Essai sur la Langue Chinoise, p. 33. CHINA. 87 Chlnete oral language. The spoken language of the Chinese is composed of monosyllables, and scarcely contains 350 terms which a European can distinguish from one another; but the Chinese can, by various inflections of the voice, distinguish a much greater number. Thus the word tcJioon, varied by intonation, signifies " a master," " a pig," " a kitchen," " a pillar," " an old woman," " a slave," " a pri- soner," " liberal," or, " to profane." Notwithstanding this contrivance, the very same sound often answers to several characters and several ideas ; pe short, for ex- ample, signifies " north," " white," " cypress," " a hundred," and many things be- sides. The syntax also is barbarously meagre; declensions and conjugations are wanting, and their place is supplied by puerile circumlocutions. The written or learn- ed language rejects these aids entirely; it places a number of characters together, and leaves the reader to judge of their mutual relations. This obscure brevity, dry- ness, monotony, and poverty, which render the language in a literary point of view so contemptible, prove at the same time its antiquity and its purity. It might, with- out much improbability, be regarded as the piimitive origin of the Thibetian and Annamitic languages. This institution, not singular in the end at which it aims, but altogther unique in its method of proceeding, perpetuates that eternal infantine imbecility of intellect by which the Chinese are degraded, and almost rendered inferior to nations immersed in the savage state. The spoken language, in the first place, is left in a deficient state. The ideas of the people receive no enlargement, because the ] influence of higher classes cannot express their thoughts except in a language totally | *'*^ 'an&uage. distinct, and only understood by the select few. The information of the privileged class has no means of becoming disseminated by speech, where the signs for repre- senting ideas have no corresponding words. This information must become obscure or utterly extinct even among those to whose care it is confided; for a dumb lan- guage of this sort, which excites no feeling of the heart, and gives no picture to the imagination, is a mere barren repository in which reflection and memory alone are concerned. The human mind has many faculties, all of which require to be deve- loped; and the thinking being is formed and rendered fit for his office only by the joint harmonious operation of his different powers. If every thing is sacrificed to a single faculty, the subHme machine of thought will have its equilibriimi deranged, and its activity relaxed and weakened. This stupid fixedness of mind, which holds the Chinese in a state of eternal childhood, bears an exact resemblance to that nul- lity of sentiment and of judgment which the exclusive study of a single science is sometimes observed to produce on geometricians, on grammarians, and on natural- ists of classification and nomenclature. It is almost a profanation of the name of science to apply it to the ] sciences, childish notions which the Chinese preserve as a precious inheritance from their an- cient sages and legislators. The interests of mankind are foreign to this people. The great theatre of nature does not rouse them to those bold researches, in which the science of Europe engages with such keen delight, though sometimes involving itself in error. Then- vaunted moral philosophy is almost confined to the doctrine of obedience to the laws, and the minute code of humble compliments and ridiculous civilities which constitutes their notion of politeness. They have no conception of the principles which constitute the beautiful in literature, the reijidar in architecture, or nature in painting. If they have discovered a sort of beauty in the arrangement of their gardens and the distribution of their grounds, it is because they have copied with exactness nature in a strange though picturesque form. Projecting chinesegar- rocks, as if threatening every moment to fall, bridges hung over deeps, ''^"'" stunted firs scattered on the sides of steep mountains, extensive lakes, rapid torrents, foaming cascades, and pagodas raising their pyramidal forms in the midst of this confusion : such are the Chinese landscapes on a large and their gardens on a small scale.* The Chinese perform arithmetical operations with incredible celerity, though in a different manner from Europeans. Before the latter landed in their country, • Chambers, Dissertation on Oriental Gardening. London, 1772. DeGuignes, i. 377',ii.406, 409. Renouard de Saint-Croix, iii. 156. 88 BOOK FORTY-FOURTH. they were ignorant of mathematics, and all the arts which depend on them. They had no convenient method of making astronomical observations. The metaphysical knowledge which existed among them was confined to the philosophers. The arts introduced by the Jesuits flourished among them only for a short time, and disap- peared under Canghi, the contemporary of Charles II. and Louis XIV., nor is there any likelihood of their reviving. It is generally believed that they knew the art of Printing. I printing before the Europeans, but that applies only to engraved plates; they never knew any thing of cast moveable types, the invention of which belongs to the Dutch or to the Germans. The Chinese, however, had almanacs printed in the block way many centuries before printing was known in Europe. Industry. | Mechanical talent alone has met with encouragement among the Chi- nese ; their industry in the manufacture of stuffs, of porcelain, of lacquered work, and other sedentary productions, is astonishing, and can be compared to nothing in the world but their own labours in the fields, as the construction of canals, the level- ling of mountains, and the formation of gardens. Yp.t in many of these same ope- rations we find many proofs of the impossibility of a nation of slaves carrying even the mechanical arts to perfection. Navigation. | Wc havc mentioned the great inferiority of the locks on their canals. Their navigation is equally little entitled to our praise, although they had, previously Tiie compass, j to oursclves, remarked the polarity of the magnet. The compass is in general use among the Chinese. The needle which they employ is hung with ex- treme delicacy, and is singularly sensible, changing its position with the least change of the direction of the box. The name which the Chinese give to their compass is tin^man-ching, or *'the needle of the south;" and they have a distinguishing mark for its south pole as we have for the north.* Vessels. | Their ships are enormous machines, some of them a thousand tons burden. The two ends are prodigiously raised, presenting an extensive surface to the wind. More than one half of them are wrecked ; for when once aground they cannot be raised. Their anchors are made of wood. Their pilots are not better instructed than the meanest cabin boy. On their voyage to Japan they are regulated by the stars like the rudest savage, and those who sail to Batavia, Malacca, or Que- , da, never go out of the sight of land. Gondolas. | But the elegance of their sampans is deserving of commendation. That species of gondola is employed on the rivers. They are painted with a beau- tiful yellow varnish. The sails are made of very handsome mats, but stiff and heavy. The cordage by which the yachts are towed is of bamboo bark, and appears very good for hauling, though for any other purpose they could not be substituted for hemp and flax ropes, which are also made of excellent quality in China. The monuments of the Chinese have been too much extolled. But we cannot help admiring some of their great roads, their one-arched bridges, their pyramidal Great wall, | towers, and their Strange but sumptuous triumphal archcs. The Great Wall, in a most particular manner, cannot be beheld without astonishment. This celebrated rampart of China passes over high mountains, crosses deep valleys, and extends from the province of Shen-si to Wang-hay, or the Yellow Sea, in a line of 1240 miles. In many places it is only a simple rampart; in others it has foundations of granite, and is built of brick and mortar. Antiquity of Sir Gcorgo Stauutou, with Duhalde, considers the antiquity of this ment'"""'' grcat wall as undoubted. "f Duhalde informs us that it was built 215 years before the Christian era, by the orders of the first emperor of the dynasty of Tsin. In another part of his work he refers the founding of it to the second empe- ror of the same dynasty, which makes its epoch 137 before Christ. Mr. Bell, a well informed traveller, says that it was not built till the year 1160. Among the eastern geographers, those who are more than 300 years old make no mention of the wall.t Marco Polo in the thirteenth century knew nothing of it, though he resided long in Cathay, or the north of China and Mongolia. It is probable that this wall • De Guigncs, "li. 202, 207. Barrow, i. 64, 101. t Macartney, lii, 225. 4 Muller, Dissert, de Chataia, p. 32. Public festi- vals. thcrwise be CHINA. 89 has been rebuilt, neglected, and allowed to go to ruin more than once, according to tho state of political necessities ; so that the present wall is not of very high antiqui- ty, and its preservation presents no subject of surprise. Wo shall not tire our readers with a minute examination of the do- | Houses, mestic manners of tho Chinese. The houses are of brick and hardened clay, and very often of wood. In general they have only one story. Those of the merchants have an upper story, which is used as a storehouse. The exteriors of the buildmgs are adorned with columns and galleries ; their appearance is improved by small flower-pots, in which tho Chinese take great delight, presenting an agreeable mixture of verdure with the varied colours of their numerous blossoms. Each house stands by itself, surrounded with gardens and spacious court-yaids. The rooms are kept clean, with very little decoration. Even glass is not very liberally used, though that species of ornament might seem likely to please the taste of a vain and childish people. The Chinese dress themselves in long robes with wide sleeves, | Dress, and flowing silk girdles. The shirt and drawers are different at difierent seasons. Furs are every where seen in winter, varying in quality from sheepskin to erAiine. Tho Chinese wear a small funnel-shaped hat, which varies with the dignity of the individual, and is mounted with a large button of coral, crystal, or gold. The ma- terials of which this button is made, and its colour, mark the difierences of rank in tho wearer. The general dress is simple and uniform. The only article which distinguishes the emperor himself from his courtiers is a large pearl with which his head is adorned. In the public festivals of the Chinese, displays of fire-works make the most conspicuous figure. In these, the Chinese are said to excel; but it is in broad day that they exhibit them, as if afraid that they could not o seen. Their theatre, so much praised by Lord Macartney, seems not ( Theatre. to have given equal pleasure to M. Guignes.* The Shakespeares of Pekin never observe unity of time or place ; rules which are not quite essential in themselves, but •which arise out of another rule, important in the eyes of all nations, that which pre- scribes for every production of human genius a unity of interest and of thought as an indispensable condition, founded in the moral and intellectual nature of man. In a Chinese tragedy, the actor is often supposed to traverse immense local distances in the twinkling of an eye ; and it often happens that the same who in the first act is an infant, becomes an old man before the piece is concluded. In the Chinese operas, spirits make their appearance on the stage; birds and other animals speak as well as walk. " On our return from Pekin," says M. Guignes,| " tho mandarins had the politeness to cause the piece called the ' Tower of Sy-hoi' to be acted before us. The scene was opened by genii mounted on serpents, and taking an airing by the side of the lake. A bonze of the neighbourhood fell in love with one of the goddesses, and paid his addresses to her. The latter, unmoved by her sister's remonstrances, listened to the proposals of the young man, married him, became pregnant, and was deUvered on the stage of a child, who in a few minutes was able to walk. Enraged at this scandalous conduct, the genii dismissed the bonze from his priestly functions, and, in the end, struck the tower with lightning, by which it was reduced to that dismantled state in which tlie tower of that name actually is." If to these incongruities we add, that an actor is often in the presence of another actor without being supposed to see him: that, in order to intimate that one enters a room, it is enough to pretend to open a door, and to raise the foot in order to step over the threshold, though no trace of door or threshold is exhibited, and that a man who holds a whip in his hand is supposed to be on horseback, we shall form a tole- rably just idea of the dramatic art among the Chinese. Those who have frequented the Chinese sea-ports have been struck with the total absence of probity in the inhabitants. Perhaps in places where the temptation less frequently occurs, this vice is less prominent. There are * Macartney, iii. p. 359. De Guignes, ii. 322, &c, t De Guignes, ii. 322, &c. Vol. II.— M Chinese ope* ras. Vices of the Chinese. 90 BOOK FORTY-tOUUTH. others which seem to pvevnil universally; indolence in the upper classes, and sloven- liness in the lower. The rich will not even give themselves the trouble to eat with- out assistance ; they have slaves to put their victuals in their mouths. The poor eat every thing they can find; all sorts of animals, and even such as have died by dis- ease. In so populous a country, that practice may find the excuse of necessity. To the same cause is to be attributed their exposure of children, a very ancient practice,* yet far less prevalent among them than prejudiced travellers have beUeved. The dead bodies of children which the police of Pekin collect in the streets, are those of infants who have died, and which have been thus disposed of by their indigent parents to avoid the expenses of burial."}" The Chinese are a set of subjugated and disciplined barbarians. Seldom do they lay aside the humble insinuating air of a slave anxious to please. They rarely be- Food. I tray the slightest appearance of rudeness or of passion. This character partly arises from the total abstinence which they observe from heating diet and ine- briating liquors. The use of tea is very general among them. A large vessel of it is prepared in the morning for the use of the family through the whole day. Chi- nese dishes seem shocking to every European, but it is not owing to any want of art or care in their cookery. Chinese dinners are rendered insufferably tedious by the ceremony with which they are accompanied. In those given by the emperor of China to the Dutch ambassadors, and at which M. de Guignes was present, many salutations and genuflexions were made before the guests could touch such plates as were supposed to come from the hand of the monarch. One day a large and fine sturgeon was brought to these travellers; their appetite was keen; but, before pro- ceeding to use any freedoms, they were under the necessity of comphmenting the august fish for a quarter of an hour. Marriagej. | Polygamy is allowed to the grandees and mandarins. The emperor keeps a well appointed seraglio, J Marriages depend on the pleasure of the parents. In order to obtain a wife, presents must be made to her family. Her husband can- not see her till the marriage ceremony is over. The sex is kept in a sort of slavery ; the Chinese peasant yokes his wife and his ass together to his plough. § The graves are judiciously placed without the town on barren hills, where there is no risk of the dead ever being disturbed by agricultural operations. White is the colour used for mourning; the soiling which it so easily contracts is considered as an Worship of the expression of sorrow and of a neglect of the ordinary concerns of life, tombs. The famiUcs offer a sort of worship at the tombs of such members as have fallen under the stroke of death. They assemble round the sepulchral monu- ment on certain days consecrated to the memory of the deceased. The spirits of their ancestors seem indeed to be reverenced as a sort of household gods ; an affecting illusion, which shows that the. heart has not lost all influence even among the Chinese. Religion. | The primitive religion of China appears to have been a branch of sha- manism, the principle of which is the worship of the heavenly bodies and other re- markable objects in nature. This ancient religion has been smothered under the Philosophy of numcrous sects which have been grafted on it. Among these is the sect Confucius, &c. of Confucius, often compared to the Stoical system of the Greeks and Romans. Like the latter, it has obtained the preference among men of condition, who perhaps once hoped to convert it into a kind of political religion. But the books of Kong-fu-tse, or Confucius, are full of superstitious ideas. The sect of Lao-kiun or of Tao-tse resembles that of Epicurus. Its founders are fond of a tranquil and contemplative life ; but they admit astrology and magic into their creed ; they have their monasteries and a sort of worship. Dissatisfied with these abstract reveries, the multitude listened with ardour to the apostles of brahminism who came from India about the sixty-fifth year of the Chris- wonhipof Fo. I tian era. Their doctrine, modified under the name of the religion of Fo, • Marco Polo, de Reb. Orient, ii. 53. t Compare Barrow, i. 281, &c. BelJ, iii. 323. De Guignes, ii. 285—290. + De Guignes, ii. 283, etc. § Neuhof, Embassy, Part ii. p. 50, a plate. CHINA. 91 has become that of the majoiity of the Chinese. It is filled with their superstitions, self-accusations, apprehensions, and mortifications, suited to the timid pusillanimous character of most eastern nations. The priests of Fo are called bonzes. Their number is prodigious ; it is said that there is a full million of them in the empire. Ail of them live by alms. These holy mendicants conceal under a sober garb a suf- ficient stock of pride and of avarice. Perhaps the Ncstorians who, in the eighth century, were disseminated in China, introduced some ceremonies of the Christian worship which have intermingled themselves with the observances of the bonzes. The bells, the lamps, the salutations, and several other characteristics of the Chi- nese ritual, seem to favour this opinion. But it is a remarkable suigularity in the Chinese worship, that the bonzes never suppose that they give the least otlence to their idols by spreading their breakfast tables on each side of their altars. Nothing is more common in China than to see in a temple the good people drinking their tea, or partaking of other refreshments, while the little pieces of sweet smelling wood are burning under the nostrils of their god. The religion of the emperor of the Mantchoo dynasty is that of the DelaY- Lama. These emperors give powerful protection to that pontiff; and in order to secure the collection of his revenues, they have now caused Thibet to be occupied with Chinese troops. In so vast an empire, the trade between the different provinces must j Trade, be of large amount, but we arc unacquainted with its nature; and, if we knew it, we should probably feel little interest in the matter. The trade which they carry on with foreign nations is not proportioned to the size and opulence of the Exportation . 11 r &nu imports.* empire. In 1806, China exported about forty-five millions of pounds tion. weight of tea, thirteen millions of which were sold to the Americans, one million to the Danes, and the rest to the British; ten millions of pounds of sugar, 21,000 pieces of nankeen, three millions of pounds of tutenague, besides copper, borax, alum, quicksilver, porcelain, lacquered ware, tin, vermilion; 300,000 pounds of cin- namon, rhubarb, musk, and various other drugs. A hundred and twenty-two Euro- pean vessels, of which eighty were English, thirty-three American, (if a geographer can be pardoned for once calling these European,) and three Danish, exported these goods. They had brought with them rice, (tliirty-six million pounds weight,) cotton, linen, woollen stuffs, glass, beavers, otters and foxes skins, sandal wood, catechu, benzoin, and various other drugs and spices.* These vessels, and those which landed in the harbour of Fou-kien, where the Spaniards of Manilla go for nankeens and napery, had imported into China 3,360,000 hard dollars. f If it is considered that the tea alone amounted to 3,333,333/. Sterling, and that the rest of the exportation could not be valued at less than 2,083,333/., it will be seen that the drain of specie from the western world is much less considerable than is generally supposed. In 1804, 5, and 6, it suffered a progressive diminution. The trade with the Europeans at Canton is in the exclusive possession of twelve privileged merchants called han- nists. These merchants make immense profits ; but a set of greedy | The Hannistj. mandarins, expert custom-house officers, and wily interpreters, are supported at the joint expense of the hannists and the Europeans. These different classes of per- sons, and the people of Canton, reap the profits of a trade the extinction of which would probably be a matter of indifference to the greater part of China. China might undoubtedly dispense with a great part of her army, | Army, which travellers tell us is innumerable. Some call it 1,462,590, others 1,800,000, We shall not attempt to contradict either of these statements. It is | Fleet, equally certain, according to the Chinese, that the imperial fleet consists exactly of 9999 ships. All this is sufficiently moderate for an empire which contains 333 millions of inhabitants, as his excellency Tchou-ta-tzin officially assured Lord Macartney. But what degree of confidence can we place in these enormous statements, when • De Guignes, i. 267, 400. ii. 351, 360,369, IH. 45. t Renouard de Sainte-Croix, Voyage aux Indea-Orientales, t. iii. p. 152, 160. Compare witfs Humboldt, Essai aur le Mexique, v. p. 151. Critical refleC' tion on the ad mirers of Chi na. 92 BOOK FORTY-FOURTH. we find that a statistical account, composed by command of the emperor Kien-Long,* only half a century ago, made the number of peasants who were Uable to the ma- norial tax amount only to twenty-five milliong ; when we find old censuses, which Population. | for fifteen centuries make the population of China fluctuate only between forty-eight and sixty-millions ;'|" and when, on comparing the tables of population of 1743, given by Father AUerstein, with those of Lord Macartney for the year 1795, an increase of three or four-fold is found to have taken place ; j when, in fine, we may see that each of these estimates labours under evident error, some of the num- bers being literal repetitions of others, and other sums out of all proportion ? Cool and impartial men rate the population of China, properly so called, at 150 ivfiiitary disci- millions. The army, which may amount to 500,000 or 600,000 regular phne. troops, and a miUion of nomades of military habits, has nothing formi- dable but its numerical amount. Bad artillerymen, ignorant of the art of military evolution, and what is worst of all, destitute of courage and the miUtary spirit, the Chinese would probably yield as easily to a moderate European force, as they have formerly so often fallen under the invasions of the hordes of central Asia. The picture which we have now drawn is conformable to the ideas of La Perouse, of Krusenstern, of Barrow, and of De Guignes, and is sup- ported by the acknowledgments of the missionaries ; yet it is con- demned by a number of persons who from the heart of Europe, raise encomiums on China. In the last century, China found her interested and ardent panegyrists in two powerful parties. The French philosophers and the Jesuits vied with each other in extolling the laws and the happiness of that country. The philosophers knew nothing of the subject on which they pronounced a judgment: the Jesuits knew a great deal. But those who reason with impartiality will never prefer the na- tural religion of Confucius to Christianity ; nor will the free and high-minded nations of Europe admire the arrangements of a tyrannical police, the annoyance of a childish etiquette, and "the great walls" which have been erected for interrupting the communications of the human mind. In the midst of these opinions, dictated by enthusiasm and party spirit, we must particularize those which relate to the pretended anti- quity of the Chinese empire. We know that the enemies of the Christian religion have made it an important object of research to discover a people whose records are more ancient than Noah's flood, and more ancient than even the common term as- signed as the epoch of the Mosaic creation. The pretended antiquity of the Egyp- tians and Babylonians having been reduced to its proper value, they recurred tolhat of India and of China. The wonders of distant countries were fitted to inspire a greater degree of veneration. China was represented as a highly civilized and flou- rishing empire 4500 years before Christ, and if due time is allowed for the formation of such an empire, it must have existed for a period often or twenty thousand years. Some ill-informed missionaries, wishing from motives of vanity to display the an- tiquity of an empire of which they pretended to have a spiritual conquest, went blindly into the same system, without being aware of the consequences to which it A. 2955 before led. A bad historical compilation, translated from the Chinese, || tells us ^'*"'*- that Fohi founded the empire of China about 3000 years before Christ, and that, three centuries after this, Hoang-Ti reigned over flourishing states, which were 1660 miles long and 1100 broad. f^eliin this Unfortunately for such narratives, China herself luis produced his- amiquity. torians candid enough to reject all the fables concerning Fohi and Ho- ang-Ti. They do not even venture to vouch for the traditions respecting the reign of lao, probably an allegorical person, whose era is fixed twenty-three centuries before Christ. Let us consider in what the great actions of Pretended an^ tiquity of the empire. Before Chr. 2537. * Day-sin-y-tundshi, translated from the Chinese into Russian, and thence into German. Busching's Mag. Geog. xiv. t De Guignes, Observations sur le D^nombi'ement de la Chine. Journ. des Savans. Mars, 1780, p. 155, 8cc. * See the tables subjoined to this Rook. S L'Histoire GcneraJe dc la Chine, en 12 vol. trad par le T. Mailla et I'abbii Grosier. CHINA. 93 Ancient condi- tion ut' China. Before Chr- 1401. Astronomicsl observations. Cannibalism, A. n. 1300. lao consisted. He drained marshes, he hunted down wild beasts, he cultivated a desert country, and so narrow were the dimensions of his territory that he surveyed the whole four times in the year.* Ten centuries after this, we find the princes of China moving from province to province accom- panied by all their subjects nomadic like themselves, and living all alike either in'caves of the rocks or in cabins of earth. t In the time of Confucius the whole of China south of the Blue River was still a desert. J Nothing Before ci.r. in the Chinese annals of that period affords any evidence of a great na- *"'• lion. There is no authentic monument to attest the power of those who erected it. The books, written on very brittle paper and very frequently recopied, can give no information worthy of our confidence. And we further knuw that, two centuries be- fore the Christian era, a barbarous monarch caused all the writings then in existence to be destroyed. We must then, with the learned among the Chinese, give the his- tory of China no farther extension than eight or nine centuries at most before Christ.§ The hypothesis which finds it entitled to any higher antiquity owes its origin to the caprice of some modern literati, and the vanity of the emperors. || But we may be told that astronomical observations, allowed by M. de la Place to be exact,^ are as ancient as 1100 before Christ. Laying aside the objections to which the authenticity of these observations is liable, admit- ting that they are not composed by modern Chinese, they only prove that 1100 years before Christ a civilized tribe and town existed which produced men of science. Eastern Asia may, like Europe, have had her Greeks and her Athenians. There is a great difference between that and the formation of an immense empire. From 1100 to 2300 there is also a long space of time. A shorter interval witnessed the rise, the civiUzation, and the extinction of Greece and of Rome. Even subsequent to the commencement of our era China has often been divided into small states; and, if her civilization is of more ancient date, it must oftener than once have perished ; for in the tliirteenth century the inha- bitants of the province of Fou-kien in Mangi or southern China, ate with avidity the flesh of their fellow creatures, nicely preferring that of persons in good bodily con- dition ; drank the blood of their prisoners of war ; and marked their skins with hot irons like the most savagS nations.** The person who relates these facts had the management of a district of the country. It is a remarkable circumstance that from Marco Polo to M. de Guignes, all who have seen China have observed facts so uni- versally tending to assuage the enthusiasm of those who cherislicd at a distance an admiration of China. We may praise the character of her policy in some particu- lars. The politician of Europe may contemplate with mixed admiration and disap- pointment the unyielding conviction entertained by the government of SMmraarycon- the hazard of giving access to the influence of our political intrigues ; i^'"*'"'"- and the moral philosopher may admire the cool and considerate theories by which they explain and account for the errors both of one another and of other nations, so favourably contrasted with the mysterious reprobation of crime and boastful displays of forgiveness which have so often rendered European and especially Spanish mani- festos ridiculous, and he may view with approbation the firmness with which they execute such acts as appear expedient for the safety of the state and social order. Plow have they acquired a tone so dignified, and so unlike tliat barbarous incapacity for thinking which in other particulars they betray, and that inhumanity which marks many parts of their practical proceedings'? What arc the means by which the more respectable materials of the national character admit of being improved, and incor- porated into a consistent system of social felicity 1 By what means can a condition • Ue Guignes fils, Keflections, Sec. Annales des Voyages, viii. 176. Le P. Ko (Chinois) Mem. des Missionaries, i. p. 213. Amyot ibid. xiii. p. 171, 311, &c. f Chy-King, Mem. des Missionaries, i. p. 108. Le P. Cibot, ibid. xv. p. 34. De Guignes, Voyage a Pekin, i. p. 73. t Mem. des Mission, xiii. 311. § Le P. Premare, preface du Clion-King, p. 55. Lc P. Ko, Mem. des Miss. i. p. 240. H Le P. Gaubil, Obs. Matheni.de Souciet, ii. p. 16, 17. •J Systeme du niondc, p. 398, 405, trois edit, •* Marco-Polo, de reb. Orient, ii. 67. n BOOK FORTY-FOURTH. thus formed become secure against the ambitious intermeddlings of other powers, consistently with a liberal interchange of social advantages 1 and finally, By what steps might such materials be adopted by those who at present value nothing so much as original genius in its free, romantic, and impassioned exercises, without weaken- ing their mental vigour t These are problems of great interest to the citizen of the world, who flatters himself that some Utopian state of society is within the reach of his species, while he is solicitous to exclude from his contemplations the reveries of idle imagination. Such a person can have nothing in common with those who enter- tain a spirit of bitter animosity towards the Chinese, and speak and write as if it were somewhat unfortunate that so singular a nation ever had existence. Yet a candid Avish to acknowledge their virtues need not be suffered to generate a blind credulity in the ridiculous pretensions which have so often been urged in favour of this nation. Table of the Population and Revenue of China Proper, from the Chinese Geography , Daisin-y-tundshi. Number of Peasants Tribute of Wheat in Tribute of Silver in Provinces. subject to contribu- Chinese bushels or lana.f tion. dan.* Pe-tche-li . . 3,340,544 118,162 2,422,128 Kiangnan . 4,256,712 189,124 5,327,614 Shansi . . 1,799,895 110,054 2,973,242 Shan-ton . . 2,431,936 1,271,494 3,463,221 Ho-nan . . 2,527,456 249,476 2,605,191 Shen-si . . 2,262,438 191,955 1,450,711 Kan-tcheoo 451,693 520,618 300,506 Tche-kiang 3,124,798 1,363,400 2,856,719 Kiang-si 337,069 942,065 1,975,711 Hon quan . 752,970 609,501 1,308,769 Sy-tchooen . 650,208 **•'"%• 656,426 Foo-kien 1,528,607 297,462 1,030,712 Quan-long . 1,201,320 114,579 1,286,198 Quang-si . 220,690 67,755 375,974 loun-nan 237,965 227,626 209,582 Quoi-lcheoo 41,089 123,015 118,094 25,165,390 6,396,286 28,360,800 Old Statements of the Poptdation of China. Census in the first century A. D. 740, under the Tang dynasty .... A. D. 1393, under Hong-Voo A. D. 1491, under Hiao-Tsong A. D. 1578, under Van-Lie Families. Mouths.t 12,233,062 8,412,800 16,052 860 9,113,446 10,621,436 59,594,978 48,143,600 60,545,812 53,281,158 60,692,856 • The dSn is equal to 12,070 cubie inches French. t The lana, according to some, is equal to 709 Dutch as, and, accordiner to others, to 772 or 781. t The term used technically in China in these statements, as souls is in Europe, THIBET. JV[odern Statements of the Population of China. According to Allerstein, 1743. Macartney, 1795. Mouths. Fong-tien • • • • 668,852 « ... Pe-tehe-li • • • • 15,222,940 38,000,000 Kiang-nan, divided into Gan-hoei andKian-soo 22,761,030^ 23,161,409 3 45,922,439 32,000,000 Kian-si .... • • • • 11,006,604 19,000,000 Tche-kiang . • • • • 15,429,690 21,000,000 Fou-kien • • • • 8,063,671 15,000,000 Hoo quang, divided into Hoo-pee and Honnan 8,080,603 > 8,829,820 S 16,910,423 27,000,000 Shan-ton 25,180,734 24,000,000 Ho-nan 16,332,507 25,000,000 Chan-si 9,768,189 27,000,000 Cl^en-si, divided into Si-ngs in ... 7,287,443 18,000,000 and Kan-soo 7,412,014 12,000,000 Se-tchoon 2,782,976 27,000,000 Kooang-tong . 6,782,975 21,000,000 Kooang-si 3,947,414 10,000,000 Yoon-nan 2,078,892 8,000,000 Koei-tcheoo . Total 1 3,402,722 9,000,000 98,213,713 333,000,000 ^ # * -i vj-i BOOK XLV. THIBET. The northern, the central, and the eastern regions of Asia have, in the twenty pre- ceding books, passed before us in successive review. Its southern parts still remain, the countries of the Indus, the Ganges, the Braniapootra, and the Irawaddy. All these rivers have been thought to descend from a plateau possessing a ( General view, southern inclination, but separated by immense mountains from the rest of southern Asia. This plateau is Thibet. Here we approach a mysterious and sacred country, the cradle of more than one system of religion, and in the bosom of which the seat of perpetual winter, the throne of superstition has been erected. But we must wait for a time till geographical investigation shall be admitted to profane that holy land where the pretended vicegerent of the Almighty holds his sway amidst rocks, forests, and convents. Thibet, known to us since the thirteenth century,| continued long in- S^JJ?p^°Jf'„V accessible to European travellers. Marco Polo did not enter the coun- Thibet. • This province being in Tartary, is not included separately in the last enumeration. t It is calisd Tt/Jimr and Touttxt in the Byzantine history. Wahl, Ostinden, i. 187. r" 96 BOOK FOHTY-FIf'TH. try; yet he has given a Very curious description of it. According to him, Tebeth contained eight kingdoms ; part of it had been devastated by the armies of Kublai- Khan. It abounded in wild animals; and travellers, in order to protect themselves from their attacks, set fire to the forests of large reeds, (L e. bamboos) with which the country was covered. In the inhabited parts several strange customs prevailed, stranse '^^® natives did not choose to marry women who had preserved the practice. treasure which in other countries husbands so highly prize. They en- treated strangers to initiate their young women in impure gallantry, and to leave with them trifling presents, as memorials of their transitory intercourse. The fe- males hung these trophies round their necks ; and the greater the numbers were in which they could display them, the more certain were they of establishing themselves by marriage. The country yielded gold, musk, and coral.* Proviiicej On tho wost of Tebeth, Marco Polo placed the province of Canicloo, m!po1Io.'^ ' or Gauicloo, where there was a lake rich in pearls. It contained many of the musk animals, which they called gaddery, mines of turquoises and of gold, and several aromatic plants. This country seems to answer to that of Gang-Desh mentioned in the Zenda-Vesta and in Ferishta, and was once considered as the country of the Ganges from its sources to its cataracts. "f It is terminated on the east by the river Brius, which is probably the Bramapootra, or Brihmapootre, which carried down gold dust mingled with its sand. Beyond that river lay the province of Caraiam, the capital of which was called lacy. That country, rich in horses, in-gold, and in rice, was infested by enormous serpents. The inhabitants spoke a peculiar language; they drank a spirit distilled from rice. The great khan made war on the king of Mien {u e. Ava) and of Bangala (Bengal) for the country of Caraiam. He took possession of it as well as of Botia immediately adjoining.J Botia was evi- dently the modern Bootan; and this Caraiam, which commentators have hitherto carried as far west as Little Bukharia, must be the country of Asham with its ancient capital Azoo. Perhaps the name of Caraiam has some relation to that of the Gar- row mountains. In a neighbouring province called Ardondam, or Arcladam,§ or Paternal incu- I Caridi,|| the men confined themselves to bed for forty days after the de- bation. j livery of their wives, and had the care of the infant committed to them. The only objects of their worship were the spirits of the ancestors of their respective families. Gold abounded to such a degree that every man wore a small plate of that metal as a cover to his teeth ; and they exchanged it for an equal weight of silver, which was brought to them by the inhabitants of the country of Mien, and was not found at all in that of Caridi. Their sorcerers pretended to cure the sick by magic songs, to which they danced with hideous contortions, till one of them, seized with the influence of the demon, fell down and declared by what sort of sacrifices it was necessary to concihate the good-will of the spirit who dictat- ed his words. These are exactly the juggleries of the present Shamans. The ca- pital of the province of Caridi was Nokian.lT This is the name of a great river which runs from Thibet into Ava. Thus the country of Caridi is the south-east point of Thibet, and perhaps the country of the nation of the Kariaines which is spread over Ava. Marco Polo also mentions the town of Ciangloo, or Cangloo,** which seems to be the Dsanclo of the map of the missionaries. Progress of in- | Such is the substaucc of the interesting account of Marco Polo, treat- since M. Polo. I ed at the present day with undue contempt.. It is more instructive than that given by Father Andrada in 1626; and it was not till the first half of the eigh- teenth century that the missionaries of Pekin collected more certain information. Horatio Delia Pinna, a capuchin, spent eighteen years in the capital of Thibet, but his observations were not judiciously directed. |f Two rapid visits of the English, • Marci PauU de Reb. Orien. lib. ii. cap. 36, 37. edit. Muller. cap. 85. edit. 1508. t Wahl, p. 239—242. ^ M. Polo de Reb. Or. lib. ii. cap. 39, 40, 42, 43, Muller. edit. § Ibid. cap. 41. _ i Ibid. edit, of 1508, cap. 89. ^ Edition of 1508, Unchian in Muller. ** Edition of 1508, Cangloo in MuUer. tt Horatio della Pinna, Relazeone della missione del Thibet, Rome, 1742, (4to.) Sorcerers, or Shamans, THIBET. 97 sent out on an embassy to one of the ecclesiastical princes of southern Thibet, that of Mr. Boyle in 1774, and that of Captain Turner in 17S4; some information derived from manuscripts in the language of Thibet found among the Kalmuks,* and some verbal accounts given by Russian subjects professing the religion of the Dalai-Lama;| these constitute all the soiuccs of our information concerning this singular country, so interesting both in its physical and its moral aspect. Under the name of Thibet we comprehend all the countries which Boumiaries of lie to the north of Indostan, to the east of Great ]5ukharia, to the south Thibet, of Little Bukharia, to the south-west of Tiingoot, (taking this name in its strictest acceptation,) to the west of China, and to the norlh-wcst of the Birman empire. In this wide range. Little Thibet and the state of Ladaak in the west, as well as Bootan in the soudi, may be considered as separate countries. The south-east boundary is little known, and in the north there feeem to be provinces respecting which we are altojretlier ionorant. D'Anville makes Thibet terminate at the 35th degree of latitude, but the Jesuit Tiefrenthaler,J positively assures us that Great Thibet lies on the north-east of Cashmere, and Little Thibet, on the north-west. The shortest road to Cashgar would be to go through Great Thibet, but that not being permitted, they go through Little Thibet, the capital of which, Eskerdon, is eight days journey from the northern boundary of Cashmere. Beyond it is Shakar. Fifteen days journey beyond this, passing through thick forests, we arrive at the frontier of Little Thibet. The cara- vans take other fifteen days to reach Cashgar. From these facts the result seems to be, that we may with confidence place Thibet two degrees at least more to the north than it is situated on d'Anville's maps. The Moos-Tag, or "Snowy Moun- tains," form, according to the Russian accounts, the northern boundary of Thibet, and these mountains are in latitude 38°. But perhaps these countries, without be- longing properly to Thibet, are inhabited by small nomade hordes dependent on the sovereigns of that country. This seems to have been the opinion of the missiona- ries. § Perhaps these countries form what d'Anville has marked Turk-endh on his maps; perhaps also Turk-bend and Little Thibet are the same. Turk-hend seems to mean "Turkestan on the Indus." The general name of these countries is equally uncertain as their boundaries. The inhabitants call them Pont or, Bhout, or adding the termination signifying country, BJwut-yid,\\ which appears to mean "the country of the god Boodha." The name of Thebet, Thibet, or Tobbat, known to the Persians and Arabians, does not seem to be used in the country itself. Perhaps it is only a corruption of the Thibetian words, Ten-boot, "kingdom of Boot."1T The Chinese call it Dshan; the Mongols Baran-Tcda, or, "the country on the right," and some- times include it under the name of Tangoot.** Geographers have spoken with admiration of the stupendous chain | Mountains, of mountains of Thibet, but we have not been able to procure a geograpiiical de- scription of their direction or extent. Those of the south-west and south are at first very higli and very steep. They were till lately considered as the sources of the great river Ganges, but it has now been found that the rivers formerly supposed to run into the Ganges, are tributaries of the Indus. Behind these mountains seve- ral valleys and plateaux are extended, partly included in Indostan. These are the Himmaleh mountains, the Imaus, and the Hcmodus of the ancients ; they seem to bend in a semi -circular form in the south-east direction from the sources of the Ganges to the frontiers of Asham. To the norlli of the river Sampoo a parallel chain rises ; and still farther north there are several large lakes. The chief elevation seems to be in the centre to the south of lake Terkiri. It is called Koiran, a name which may be extended to tlie whole chain, although that of Kantel is given to the western part. Here our present knowledge ends. We do not know if these chains • Georgil Ei-emitrc Alphabitum Thibetanum, Koma, 1762, (4to.) t I'allas, Noiiv. M^m. da Nord. i. p. 201, .^c. iv. p. 271, SiC. i Descriplion de I'lnde, ii. p. 18. § Dulialde, iv. p. 464. II Wald, Ostindicn. i. 188. «i (^eorgii, Alphab. Thibet. •* Pallas, I.e. i. 202. Vol. II.— N Various names. 98 BOOK FOllXy-FlFTII. bear the Indian and Chinese name of Kantaisse or Kantaiskan, and the Tartar name of Mus-Tag; these mountains are perhaps detached groups, and Thibet, communi- cating all along with the Kalmuks and Mongols, perhaps gradually passes into the plateau of central Asia. The principal valleys of this system, of mountains lie east and west, and are generally open only on the south-east. Great natural features of this sort are worthy of our attention, even to prepare us for forming a true theory of the earth. Chumularia, near Phari, on the frontier of Bootan, is one of the most elevated peaks. On the west is the peak of Langoor, which seems to be an extin- guished volcano.* Rivers. The chief river of Thibet is the Bcrhampootcr, or Brahmapootra, tia! '"^'""^ '< the river of Brahma," wliich receives numerous tributaries in Thibet, and among others the Sampoo. Its course is first east, then south-east for a space of nearly a thousand miles, to the confines of Thibet and Asham, where it takes a turn to the south-west, and seems to suffer a distortion, in order to flow into the sea close by the mouth of the Gangei';, with which it is apparentl}! confounded ; this lower part of its course is nearly 400 miles long. The Hoan-Ho and the Kian-Ku also derive their origin from the eastern confines of Thibet. The Irawaddy, the May-Kian of Laos, the great river of Cambodia, and the Nookian, which falls into the sea near Martaban, in the Gulf of Pegu, de- rive their sources from the eastern part of Thibet. Lakes. I Tliese mountainous regions contain numerous lakes. The largest is the Terkiri, about seventy miles long and twenty-five broad. The Chinese lamas, to whom we owe the only map that we have of Thibet, have placed several other lakes in the northern parts of the country. We know for certain that there is a very singular one, which furnishes tincal or crude borax. Another to the south of I^assa, and called Palto or Yambro, is in another respect equally extraordinary. The greater part of its area is occupied witli an island. It is, in fact, a large ditch or canal, five miles and a half broad, surrounding an island about a hundred miles in diameter. "j" The smaller lakes even in the southern part of Thibet are frozen in winter to a great depth. Climate. j The seasons in this country observe a great uniformity both in their Temperature, j respective temperatures, duration, and periodical return. They seem to follow the same divisions as those of Bengal. The spring from March till May, is remarkable for great changes in the atmosphere, powerful heats, and the frequency of thunder. The rainy season lasts from June to September ; heavy rains then fall witliout intermission, the rivers become enlarged, run with great rapidity, and swell the inundations of Bengal. From October to March, the sky, constantly serene, is rarely darkened by mists or by clouds. For three months of that season the cold is perhaps more rigorous than in any part of Europe. It is of a dry and piercing quality ; and, though in a latitude of 26° on the confines of the torrid zone, it vies with that of the Alps under the parallel of 46°. This rude and frozen climate becomes milder to the south of the Himmaleh. Turner assures us that Bootan, notwithstanding its shape-, less and irregular mountains, is covered with a perpetual verdure, and adorned with forests consisting of trees of astonishing size. The sides of the mountains are levelled, laboured, and sown by the industrious inhabitants, and covered with orchards, cornfields, and villages. Thibet Proper, on the contrary, presented to Captain Turner's view nothing but low hills bristled with rocks affording no appear- ance of vegetation, — or dry plains of uniform and gloomy aspect. The cold obliges the inhabitants to seek for shelter in the hollow valleys and in caverns. Vegetation. | The vegctation of Thibet is little known; the most scientific account that we have embraces only the southern part between the parallels of 27° and 29°. J ' Agriculture. | Its agriculture has great physical obstacles to contend with. At the ap- proach of winter the valleys are generally underwater; yet the rays of an ardent sun soon bring the grain to maturity. The autumn being clear and serene, the far- • AIpliab.Thibel.p.447'. f Alphah. Thibet, p. '151. i Saunders, in the Philosophical Transactions, vol Ixxix. p. 79-106. Climate uV Boot&ii. T111J5ET. 99 trier spreads his corji on tlic lii'able. This word, which by the meaning which it appeared to express in the Italian or French language led the tra- vellers into an error, ought undoubtedly to be reforred to some oriental language. Of all the etymologies which have been contrived, one of the most plausible is that of Scaliger,ir who considers the name as of Indian origin, and with some alteration representing the words presleii'.glma, (preslf-ghiani or Jiiani,) which signify the "universal messenger," the "apostle of the world." It is well known** that the Nestorian patriarchs assumed the title of catholic or ecumenical, a title which in somci measure coiresponds to the last mentioned interpretation of Prester John. If therefore we suppose • Diihalde, t. iv. p. 50. f " II est hors de doute que le contcnu de sa chaise pcrc(;e est dcvoiemcnt recueilli; les parties solides sont dislribuccs comme des amiilettes qu'on poi-te au cou j Ic liquide est pris int^rieurement comme une medecine infallible." See I'allas, i. 212. + Carpin, art. 5. p. 42. § lUibruquis, cli. xix. p. .S6, It iVIarco-I'olo, liv. vi. ch. 61, et 6i. ^ Scalit^erde Kmendatione Temporum, p. 627. •• Hcnandoi, Ancicns Itclalions de I'Inde et de la Chine, p. 238, Sic. Yor. II.— O Is lie tlie Pre«- ter .loliii of iravelleri ? H-.ive llie Nislorian |ia> triari'ht any siiccrssiOr? 106 BOOK FOKTY FIFTH. (and what well informed man would dispute the point?) that the Nestorian missiona- ries penetrated a very great way into the high regions of Asia, we shall be led by the analogy of the names to consider the chief of tliesc sectaries as the pretended sove- reign pontifl' of Marco Polo and of Rubruquis ; and, as all writers testify that Prester John presided over a Christian community, the inference will be that he was the patriarch of the Nestorian church, or else a bishop delegated by this patriarch, who, exercising a supreme power at a distance from the head on Avhom he was dependent, received or claimed the proud title of Universal, Catholic, and Ecumenical, though not due to his rank. We arc tempted to consider this Nestorian patriarch as the same person with the Dalai-Lama. It is only since the reign of Kaiuk-Khan, grandson to the celebrated conqueror Genghiz, that we hear at all of the word Lama, or Dalai-Lama* in Mongolia, the country in which Prester John is said to have held his double empire. f Father Andrada was (in 1624) the first European who made mention of the Dala'i-Lama ; J and Bernier speaks of him as an extraordinary per- sonage who was imperfectly known. It remains to be observed, that the writers of past ages who treated of the Nes- torians and Prester John say nothing of the high-priest of the Lamaists ; and we perceive, on the other hand, that in proportion as this last personage begins to pro- duce a sensation, (he Nestorian name begins to be forgotten among the inhabitants of Mongolia and Thibet. What conclusion are we to draw from all these conside- Conciusion. | rations? Only that a universal patriarch attracted a sort of veneration and renown under a foreign name, or most probably under his proper title translated into another language. The expression of universal patriarch, Pretre-Jehan and Dela'i-Lama, may then denote the same person and the same dignity. But as Ru- bruquis and Marco Polo place the kingdom of Prester John on the track which they traversed, and consetpiontly in Mongolia, and at a great distance from Thibet, it appears still more natural to recognise in this sovereign pontiff only a momcntry object, a Nestorian bishop who by his talent held a great ascendency over some tribe of the Mongols. Fame, which exaggerates every thing conspicuous, may be allowed to have created the remainder. caufiristan. | On the wcst of Little Thibet we find a small country which merits our notice chiefly on account of the singularity of its inhabitants in manners and opinions. § They seem to be independent, but they are more naturally connected with the suliject of the present book than with any other. The country has received from the Bukharians and Afghans the name of Caufiristan, and the people that of Caufirs, a term which signifies infidel, and is intended to distinguish them from the believers of the Koran. Caufiristan occupies a great part of the range of Hindoo-Coosh ad- joining Afghanistan, and a portion of Beloot-Tag. It is bounded on the )y Kaushkar, (a different country from Cashgar in the Kalmuk country,) on the north by Badakshan, and on the west and north-west by Balk. On the east, it extends for a great distance towards the north of Cashmere, where its boundary is not exactly known. It is an Alpine country, composed of snowy mountains, deep pine forests, and small but fertile valleys which produce large quantities of grapes, and feed flocks of sheep and herds of cattle, while the hills are covered with goats. The grain is inferior both in quality and abundance. The common kinds are wheat and millet. The roads arc only fit for travellers on foot, crossed by many torrents, which are passed by means of wooden bridges, or swinging bridges made of ropes of osier. The villages are built on the slopes of hills, the roof of one row forming the street of the row above. The valleys are well peopled. Camdaish, the capital of the Caumojee tribe, consists of 500 houses; and the tribe has ten villages. Inhabitants. | The people have no general name for their nation. The Mussulmans distinguish them into the Seaposh (t. e. black vested) or Tor (black) Caufirs, and Speen or white Caufirs, epithets taken from their dress. All of them are remarkable • Bubruquis, ch. 19. Ararco-Polo, liv. i. ch. 51. t Gaubil, p. 105, et 154 a la note. + Duhalde, t. iv. p 176. § See Mr. Elphinstone's Account of the Kingdom of Caubul, Appen. p. 617. Aspect of the country. north-east TIIIBKI'. 107 for fair and beauliful complexions, but those of the largest division wear a Test of black ^oat-skill, while the others dress in white cotton. Thej have several lau- j^uagcs, all allied to the Sanscrit. They have all one peculiarity, that of counting by scores, which they sciuaro, cube, and multiply constantly by twenty as high as they have occasion, in the same manner as we form hundreds, thousands, and higher numerical powers by multiplying ten successively by itself. These circumstances are adverse to an opinion which has had some currency, that they are ^ende^from descended from the Greeks, and were left in this country by Alexander, the Greeks? The only feature favourable to that hypothesis is, that they make use of raised seats, and cannot sit in the manner of the other Asiatics. The most general and credible account of them is, that they were expelled by the Mussulmans from the neigh- bourhood of Kandahar, and, after a frequent change of abode, settled finally in their present territory. They believe in one God, whom they call Imra, or Dagun, but venc- | Kcligion. rate numerous idols of stone or wood, which represent great men deceased. They attach the utmost importance to the virtues of liberality and hospitality ; these con- stitute among them tiie highest claims to future happiness and even deification after death, while the opposite vices are threatened with hell. They have solemn saciifices and long ceremonies and prayers, not failing to pray for the extirpation of the INlus- sulmans, whom they regard with invincible aversion. Their men, young and old, are honoured in proportion to the number of Mussulmans whom they | customs, have killed or lamed. They have hereditary priests, who possess but little influence in their community. When a child is born, it is carried with its mother to a house built for the purpose without the village, there to remain for twenty-four days, dur- ing wliich period the mother is considered as impure. The women are separated in a similar manner at certain other periods. The marriage ceremonies are conducted without any function of the priesthood. The women are not concealed; their im- moralities are punished, but not deeply reprobated. They have slaves both male and female of their own people. They do not enslave such Mahometans as they take in war, the glory of killing them being much more highly valued. It is in the course of violent contests among the Caufir tribes themselves, and in cases of op- pression practised by the strong against the weak, that they are made slaves. Per- sons in the servile condition, however arc not ill treated. They have some peculiar customs connected with their funerals. A strange account is given of their ceremo- nies of condolence : A person paying a visit to another who has lost one of his rela- tions, throws his cap on the ground when he enters the house, then draws his dagger, and seizing the hands of the afilicted person, makes him rise and join him in dancing for some time round the apartment. It is uncertain whether they have any acknowledged magistrates: if | Government, there are, they possess very little power, every thing being done by consultations among the rich men. The rich are called khans, a word which they have borrowed from their neighbours; but they have no titles properly their own. Tlicir dress con- sists of goat skins with the hairy side outermost, or cotton robes. Some | DrcH. have a cotton shirt under their other dress, and they wear cotton trowsers worked over with flowers in red and black worsted. The women have their hair plaited, fastened over the crown of tlic head, and covered with a small cap and turban. They also wear silver ornaments, and cowrie shells. Their virgins wear a red fillet round the head. Both sexes have ear-rings, bracelets, and rings round tjie neck, which are sometimes of silver, but oftener of brass or pewter. With the men these orna- ments are assumed after the ago of manhood, with much ceremony and expensive feasting. They are laid aside on occasions of mourning. The houses Houses, are of wood, with cellars for the family stores. Their food consists of ruod- dairy, fruits and flesh, which they prefer almost raw. They wash their hands before eating, and generally begin with some kind of grace. All persons of both sexes drink wine to great excess, but they do not become (puirrelsome in their cups. Their arms are a bow with barbed and sometimes poisoned arrows, and a dag- | wars, ger. They have lately learned the use of fire-arms and swords. They generally fight by ambuscade. The Mahometan nations are those with whom they are most 108 BOOK FORTY-SIXTH. habitually at war. When pursued they unbend their bows, and use them as leaping poles, by which they bound with the utmost agility from rock to rock. The Maho- metans of Afghanistan, and others have sometimes confederated to make a ferocious exterminating invasion of their territory, and have met in the heart of it, but have been obliged, by the harassing and destructive mode of warfare practised by the Caufirs to abandon the enterprise. When taken apart from these cherished and bit- ter antipathies, the Caufirs are a kind-hearted, social and joyous race. Kaushkar. | The couutry already mentioned lying on the north-east of Caufiristan, and called Kaushkar,* must be carefully distinguished from Cashgar near Yarkand. If the names are not originally diflerent, the same name is applied to totally dilTerent countries. Kaushkar is high and cold. The inhabitants live chiefly in tents. They are at present Mahometans, and subject to four petty despotisms. BOOK XLVL INDOSTAN. Knowledge of this country possessed by the ancients. PART I. Physical Description. In our preceding pages, we have oftener than once had occasion to glance at this finest portion of Asia, which we are now about to describe. In riches, population, and importance, India exceeds one of the great divisions of the world. Hero a na- tion, a language, and a religion, distinguished for the most venerable antiquity, per- manently maintain their ground amidst the fall of many successive empires. India has been known to every period of geography since the age of Herodo- tus. The writings of this father of history,| those of Strabo,+ of Pliny,§ and of Ptolemy, II exhibit the knowledge which the Romans possessed of India, or, to speak more accurately, their acquaintance with its sea-coasts, and with the banks of the Indus and the Ganges. The account of Cosmas, though not merit- ing on its own account a conspicuous place in the history of geography, IT serves as an intermediate link to connect the geography of the classic writers with that of the Arabians, whose notions were feeble and detached** like those furnished by the cele- brated Marco Polo-ll In fine, the voyages and enterprises of the Portuguese, which are amply detailed in our history of geography, make a brilliant figure in that depart- ment of geographical study. They render us familiar with its later features. They bring as it were the shores of India into contact with those of Europe, and by facih- tating our comprehension of the materials presented for the study of the present con- dition of that country, have the efl^ect of rendering our review so much the more easy. Name of Under the classical appellation of India, the ancients, and most of the India. moderns, have comprised three great regions of southern Asia. The first is that which is watered by the Indus, the Ganges, and their tributaries, called at present Indostan, in the strictest acceptation of this term. On the south of the river Nerbuddah begins that large triangular region sometimes called by Euro- • See Elphinstone's Account of Caubul, Appendix, p. 629. t See our History of Geop^rapiiy, Uook iii. viii, ^ Ibid. I'.ook viii. § Ibid. The whole of Book xi. || ibid, llouk xiv. 1 Hist, of (Jcog. Books xi. and xv. *• ibid. Book xvi. tl^ Ibid. ]]ook xix. (Oderlc de Porlcnau, I. xx. 'IGG.) Sanscrit names. INDOSTAN. 109 peans the peninsula on this side of the Ganges, and by the Indians the Deccan, or "country of the south." To this the island of Ceylon, and the Maldives, though separated by an arm of the sea, from natural appendages. The other peninsular projection, which comprehends the Birman empire, the kingdoms of Tonquin, Co- chin-China, Cambodia, Laos, Siam, and Malacca, has at present no general name in universal use. Sometimes it is vaguely denominated "the peninsula beyond the Ganges." Several geographers have called it " external India." We shall afterwards allot a separate portion of our work to that region, under a name which appears to us more appropriate; and in the present book, and the four which follow it, we shall limit our descriptions to the two former divisions, which, both in their physical and political character, have much in common that does not belong to the third mention- ed region. It is to these countries that the Sanscrit names o^ Djamboo-Dwyp, or the "peninsula of the tree of life," has been applied : also that o£ JMedhiami or JVIedhia-hlmmi, "the middle dwelling," and Bharatkand, or the "kingdom of the Bharat dynasty."* The country is too extensive to have received one general name in the indi- genous languages. But from the river which waters its western boundary having the name of Smd or Hind, which, like the name JVijl-JJb, is derived from its blue colour, the adjoining country received among the Persians the name of Hindoostan, and the in- habitants were called Hindoos."]" From the Persian language these names passed into the Syrian, Chaldec, and Hebrew .J they were imitated in the appellations given by the Greeks and Romans ; but in the writings of the Indians, the name Sindhoostan denotes exclusively the countries on the river Sind. The oriental writers subsequent to the Mahometan era have admitted a distinction between the name Sindh, taken in the acceptation now mentioned, and Hind, Avhich they apply to the countries situated on the Ganges. This application of terms is equally foreign to the national geography of the Indians, with the appellation of Gcn- toos, which the English apply to the Hindoos, and which comes from the Portu- guese term Gentios, signifying Gentiles or Pagans. The natural boundaries of India, on the north, are the Himalah moun- | noimdaries. tains, (the Imaus and Eomdiis of the ancients, j which separate Bengal, Oude, Delhi, Lahore, and Cashmere from Thibet. On the Indian side of the loftiest range, a stripe of mountainous but inhabited country intervenes between Thibet and the re- spective countries now mentioned, but these are considered as belonging to Indostan. On the east the river Brahmapootra seems to be the natural boundary. But beyond this river, some Indian hordes have estabhshed themselves in the mountains of Anu- pectumiu, a region scarcely at all known to us. On the south, Indostan is bounded by the ocean. On the west, the river Indus is, in the opinion of some learned men, its proper limit, although the oriental geographers, finding that many Indians live in Baloochistan and Mekran, often include these countries in their Sinde or Sindistan.§ The former is that which we shall adopt, and which seems to be conformnble to the nomenclature of the natives on both sides of the river. When Mr. Elphinstone crossed the Indus at Attock, in returning from Peshawer in Afghanistan, his Afgliau companions told him he was now in India, although it is seldom that such a river marks an immediate transition, physical or political. Hence some Indian i)rovinces, under the Afghan sway, have been already touched upon, and in their relation to the rest of India, they will again require to be mentioned while wc complete our survey of this country. We are not yet in possession of exact data for determining the s\iper- ficial extent of all India. The Indian, Arabian, and Persian authors, differ considerably in their calculations on this point ; a circumstance which partly depends on the uncertainty of the lineal road meastnes, especially the coss or mile, which is subject to great variations in the different provinces. || The European tra- vellers are also discordant in their estimates. Tiefenthulcr rates the whole superfi- • Eznor-Vedam, JMahnbhanU. See Wilforl, Asialic Uesearclies, torn. viii. and the Ediu- burj^li Review, V. xii. p. 44, &.C. f W:ilil Ostiiidici), ii. 210— 237. i: Esther, i 1. § Ibii Uaiikui, OriciituI (leoijrapliy, Iraiiblatcd by Ousely, US— 141. 14J. 1 Wahl, i. y. Tielciilhukr. Sii|>rrficial cs. tent. 110 BOOK FOllTY-SIXTH. cial extent of India at 155,250 square geographical miles, although he supposes the peninsula to be of equal breadth through its whole extent. Pennant is guilty of the same error : but he thinks that India does not extend so far to the north as geogra- phers have believed, and he rates the whole surface of that country at nearly 173,890 square French leagues.* Major Rennel contents himself with saying that Indostan Proper is equal to France, Germany, Bohemia, Hungary, Switzerland, Italy, and the Netherlands : and he compares the size of the Deccan to that of the British isles, Spain, and European Turkey, united, which would amount to 120,000 square leagues ; 66,780 for upper Indostan, and 53,076 for the Deccan. Mr. Hamilton makes it 1,280,000 British square miles. | Monntaini. | Those stupendous mountains which lie on the south of Thibet, and on the north of Indostan, have already come into view in our account of Thibet. It is only of late that we have obtained accurate notions of their extent, their altitude, and the territories in their immediate vicinity, and our information still labours under imperfections. They form one of those interesting chains by which the central pla- teau of Asia is encircled. All the mountains of these regions, and the mass of ele- vated land included by them, are called in Hindoo mythology by the names, Meroo, Soomeroo, and Kailassam ;J names so renowned in the east, that their fame reached the Greek and Roman authors. These names designate the Indian Olympus, the native dwelling of gods and of men. These mountains and elevated plains, rich in the precious metals, furnished in the time of Herodotus and of Ctesias, that quan- tity of native gold and of auriferous sand which gave rise to the fables concerning pismires which industriously amassed stores of this precious metal^ and fountains from which it bubbled up.§ These golden mountains of the Indians bear an equi- valent name among the Mongols and the Chinese. || The Himatah That part which forms the northern boundary of India, is a conlinua- mountains. ^.j^j^ ^jj' jj^^ Same range with that to the west of the Indus, known among the Afghans under the name of Hindoo Coosh. To the east of that river, it increases in height, and assumes a character of additional grandeur, both from that circum- stance and from its great extent in every direction. It forms, in fact, one of the sub- limest features in the structure of the old continent and of the globe. Here a long range of summits, covered with perpetual snow, presents itself to the Hindoo, who has in all ages raised towards it an eye of religious veneration. All the names by which it is distinguished are derived from the Sanscrit term Hem, signifying snow. Hence have arisen the name Imaus and Emodus among the ancients, and the Ilima- lah, Himadri, Himachal, and Himalaya, of the modcrns.1T The river Indus passes through a series of narrow defiles in lat. 65°, which scarcely ofler any interruption to the mountain chain. The direction of the mountain is eastward, as far as the north-east point of the valley of Cashmere : from tliis point, its direction is to the south-east, extending along the sources of all the rivers wliich run across the Pun- jab to fall into the Indus, with the exception of the Sutledge, which, like the Indus itself, rises on the north side of the range, and takes its passage across its breadth. Pursuing the same direction the Himalah mountains cross the heads of the Jumna, the Ganges, and their numerous tributary rivers. Farther east, they seem to be penetrated by several rivers, as the Gunduk, the Arum, the Teesta, the Cosi, and the Brahmapootra. The geography of the countries to the east of this last river is so little known, that it is a question whether the same mountain range is continued any farther. It seems agreed that, if it is continued, its height ceases to be e(|ually great ; it is probable, however, that a continuation of it extends along the northern • I'ennant's View of Hindostan, i. 3. t Hamilton's Description of llinflostan, vol. f. Iiitrod. p. xxxvii. ♦ See a Hindoo map of llie world in Maurice's Indian Anli([ullies, and Paulino's Systcnia Brahmanicum. § See our History of CiCORrapliy, ISooksiii. and viii. n JlUni-.'llin-Tupit, and Kin-Shan. 1 This old Indian root also biins^s to mind tlie Ilniiua of Tluacc, the lliimcttiir, of Allica, flic J\Ious Inucus of Italy, and the diil'erent mountains called Ihmmd in Saxony, Jutland, and otlicr countries. IXDOSTAX. Ill tVontier of the provinces of Quang-si and Quang-tong all the way to the Chinese sea, declining gradually as it advances to the east. It is only of late that the height of the Himalah mountains on the | Their height, north of India has been appreciated. In 1802, Col. Crawford made some measure- ments, which gave a much greater altitude to these mountains than had been ever before suspected, and Col. Colebrooke, from the plains of Rohilcund, made a series of observations, which gave a height of 22,000 feet. Lieut. Webb, in his journey to the source of the Ganges, executed measurements on the peak of Jamunavatari, which gave upwards of 25,000 feet. The same officer, in a subsequent journey, confirmed his former observations. This conclusion was objected to on account of a difference of opinion on the allowance which ought to be made for the deviation of the light from a straight direction, on which all conclusions drawn from the measure- ment of the angles must depend.* In a subsequent journey, however, this same officer confirmed his conclusions by additional measurements, and by observing the fall of the mercury in the barometer, at those heiglits which he himself visited. | It was found by these last observations, that the lower limit of perpetual snow is con- siderably higher than it ought to have turned out under that latitude, by the applica- tion of the principles laid down by Humboldt and Professor Leslie. By the indica- tions of four good barometers, compared with a barometrical journal, kept by Capt. Ilardwick at Dumdum, about fifty feet above the level of the sea, he found the elevation of the Niti Ghaut to be 16,814 feet, yet there was no snow on it, nor on the clilTs 300 feet above it. The line of perpetual snow, therefore, does not begin till at least 17,000 feet above the level of the sea. The banks of the Sutledge, at an elevation of nearly 15,000 feet, afforded pasturage for cattle, and yielded excel- lent crops of Ooa or mountain wheat. This mild temperature, at so great an eleva- is confined to the northern side of the Himalah. At Kedar-Nath and other points on the southern side, perpetual snow commences not much higher than 12,000 feet. This probably depends on the greater height of the, whole territory on the north side, in consequence of which, the heat which the earth receives from the solar ray, and which warms the air immediately superincumbent, is not so much expended by the time the ascending air reaches these greater elevations, as in that which has ascended from a much lower country. Mr. Fraser, in a later journey, inferred, that the lofti- est peaks of the Himalah varied from 18,000 to 22,000, or at most 23,000 feet, about 4000 less than the preceding estimate. But he had no instruments with him for mea- suring the altitudes, and no barometer, and he probably did not make the due allow- ance for the extraordinary height of the snow line. He considers that part of the range whicii lies between Bhagirath and the valley of Nepal as its most elevated part, the mountains decreasing in height both to the west and to the east. The fol- lowing are the heights of some of the peaks which have been ascertained : Dhawalagivri, or the White Mountain, near the sources of the Gunduk river, above the level of the sea, -----.- 26,862 Jamootri, ---.-----_. 25,500 Dhaiboon, seen from Catmandoo, - 24,768 Another Peak seen from the same capital, ----- 24,625 Another near to the preceding, ----... 23,262 A third in the same vicinity, -- 23,052 Peak St. George, estimated at the same place by Capt. Hodgson, - 22,240 Thus the Himalah mountains exceed in elevation the Andes of America ; that of Chimborazo, the highest of the latter, not exceeding 21,470 feet above the sea. Through this stupendous chain there are different passes, but all of them laborious to travel, and some iiighly dangerous. One of the most practicable is that which in its upper part, follows the bed of the river Sutledge. To tlic east of this, there are some practicable only at a favourable season, and where the traveller still runs the hazard of being caught in a fall of snow, or otherwise perishing with cold. Through the whole mountainous tract, and even before ascending much above the • Quarterly Review, vol. xvi. f Ibid. Vol. xvH, Mountains of the west. 112 BOOK rORTY-SIXTH. inhabited parts, the traveller is liable to be attacked with an alarming failure of re- spiration, I'rom the great rarity of the air, an aftection attributed by the natives to various fanciful and sometimes superstitious causes. Some of the most difficult passes are occasionally traversed by marauding parties from the one side of the Himalah to carry off the property of the inhabitants on the other. Such passes exist between Nepal and Thibet, or that stripe lying close to the north side of the Himfdah, which is inhabited by Bhootees, and may probably come under the name of Bootan, a name of which we are not at present able to assign the exact local extent. Plere there are also one or more easier passes chiefly along the beds of the rivers Gunduk, Arun, and Teestu. Hence armies have crossed from Nepal to attack the territory of Thibet, and a Chinese army has in return invaded and sub- jugated Nepal. The difficulty of access to these regions, heightens the ardour of the admiring Hindoo, actuated in some degree by curiosity, but much more by superstition, to bathe himself in the icy streams which give origin to the Ganges or its mighty tributaries; to contemplate the mystic rock, which so closely resembles the hind quarters of a bullock, and is reputed to have been the result of a holy trans- mutation of a divine being, a scene where it is reckoned a merit to make a voluntary sacrifice of life, by precipitating the body over the fatal crag. Superstition has in many instances chosen to cherish its propensities in localities signalized as the origin of large and fertilizing rivers. Nowhere is this carried^ so far as in this mountainous tract, and it must be confessed, that in no locality is the sublime cha- racter of the scenery so much in unison with such feelings. In the Hindoo Pantheon, Himalah is defined, and is described as the fatlicr of the Ganges, and of her sister Ooma, the spouse of the destroying power Siva, the favourite object of propitiatory adoration. Had we extended India to the west of the Indus, we should, in that quarter, have taken the Soliman range as a boundary, partici|iating of the character of the northern boundary in being mountainous, thougli far from being equally stupendous. These have come under review in our account of Afghiinistan. The territory lying along the western bank of the Indus, between the river and the mountains, is Indian both in its aspect and population, thougli Afghan in its poHtical relations, and therefore will be entitled to a glance in the passing, while we treat of Indostan. The Ghauts. .| Another system of mountains is that of the Ghauts, ?*. e. the " passages, or gates."* This is considered as commencing at Cape Comorin: yet the southern chain, or Malayala mountains']" form a separate group, terminating in the district of Coimbetore, at the great valley in which the forts of Palikadery and Annamaly are situated. The eastern | The Ghauts begin separately on the north of these plains, forming Ghauts. j j^yQ branches, one running to the east, and the other to tiie west of north. The eastern Ghauts extend seventy miles beyond Madras, forming the boundaries of the Carnatic, and to the north of that country divide into several branches, in which the mountains are subjected to interruptions, being separated by valleys covered with thick forests. J But the principal chain is divided by no hollow grounds, except narrow defiles, which are well lined with fortresses. To tlie natives, this chain is known by the name of Ellacooda, orXlie "White Mountains." It then rims along the northern margin of the Circars, forming an uninterrupted series of mountains so close as to affijid none but two military passes. At the ])lace where the Ghauts separate the Circars from tiic province of Berar, the- mountains become almost inaccessible, and there is only one passage for carriages and for horses, viz. that of Salarghaut, which leads to Behar. Nothing is seen on every hfind but masses of rock, rising perpendicularly to the clouds, and leaving apparently no out- let for the intimidated traveller. All the summits of this chain are composed of • Very analogous to the Swedish Gata, the Danish Gade, the Dutch Gait, and the English Gate. f Malayala signifies mountains. i Lcnnon on tlie roads into the Ciimbenand-fjmlapah countries. Mackenzie on the roads from Nellore to the western passes, in Dairymple's Oriental Uepertory, p. 53. "Western Gliauts. Vindbia moun- tains. INDOSTAN. 113 granite,* and it eveiy where presents one picture of total barrenness and utter na- kedness. Yet large trunks of trees in a state of petrification, are found here, and most particularly in the ravines created by the torrents, where trunks, projecting from the steep sides of the rocks, sometimes serve for bridges. "f The western chain of the Ghauts extends along the west coast to a distance of seventy miles, and acquires a greater elevation than the eastern chain. Its height has not yet been ascertained by barometrical observations, but it is generally believed to amount to three or four thousand feet. The chain then crosses Kanara and Sunda, passes near to Goa, enters the Mahratta country, and divides into several branches. The closeness of the forests, the depth of the precipices, and the rapidity of the torrents, render these mountains very difficult to cross, and the passage is, in many places, fifty or sixty miles long. J They are de- scribed as containing much limestone, and some basaltic rocks, but no one has deliberately studied the position and materials of the difierent strata. Towards the sea-coast, the western Ghauts present a magnificent amphitheatre of rocks and verdure, enlivened with towns and villages. The highest, or at least the steepest part to the east of Surat, goes under the name of the Bala-Ghauts, which is some- times extended to the whole of the western Ghauts, while the eastern chain, to- gether with the intermediate plateau, is called the Paian-Ghauts. About the sources of the river Godavery, some lower chains are sent oflf from the mass of the western Ghauts, pass through the interior of the peninsula, and join the mountains of Berar and Gundwana. The central chains which run parallel to the course of the Nerbud- dah river, one on its north side, and the other on the south, generally pass under the Sancrit name of the Vindhias ; the extent which this name embraces appears somewhat arbitrary to our most learned eastern geographers. But Arrow- smith more positively confines it to the mountains immediately adjoining the Nerbud- dah. It is also in these central countries that the Hindoos place their Sanyah and their Sookhian mountains, though they have been mistaken for the western Ghauts. With the exception of the point of Diu on the west, and Cape Co- outlines of morin in the south, India has no great promontories. The peninsula of ^"'^'^' Guzerat presents a projection altogether singular, and without which, India would form the oblique quandrangle to which it was compared by the ancients. The bays of Cutch, on the north, and of Cambay on the south of Guzerat, are the only bond- ings of the coast which merit the name of gulfs. The western coast of the Dec- can, though indented by numerous creeks, road-steads, and mouths of rivers, has, on the whole, one uniform direction. From Cape Comorin to the coast of Bengal, there is not a single na- tural harbour,'and the vessels have no retreat excepting the roads belong- ing to the commercial stations ; and even in these the merchant vessels are obliged to ride at a distance of a mile and a half from the shore, and ships of war at two miles. At that distance, the depth does not exceed ten or twelve fathoms. So gra- dual is the declivity of the bottom, that at a distance of twenty miles from land, the depth does not exceed fifty fathoms. The great number of sand banks, renders it necessary to employ in landing, boats of a particular construction, invented by the natives. The fertility for which India is distinguished is in a great measure derived from the numerous rivers, streams, and torrents, by which it is watered. The imposing character of these has commanded the admiration both of ancients and moderns. Here all the phenomena which the course of a river can combine, are presented on the most magnificent scale. First falling in foaming tur- bulence, and frequent cataracts, from immense heights, fed by all the snows of the mountains of central Asia, the Indian rivers already rival, in the volume of their wa- ters, the largest that are to be found on the European continent, even before they have laid aside the impetuous rapidity of our mountain torrents. In the successive junctions of these rivers, the momentum of matter moving from two different direc- • Buclianan's Journey to the Mysore. f Sonnerat, i. 23. t Dirom's Narrative of the Champaigns of India. Vol.. II.— P Coasts. Sliallows. Rivers. Their majestic appearance. 114 BOOK FOKTY-SIXTH. tions, produces in its mutual shock and violent intermixture, an encounter like that of two immense armies, whicli strikes the beholder with feelings at once the most animating, and the most sublime. When farther advanced, and now arrived in the level country, these enormous currents excavate beds for themselves which are several leagues in breadth. Scarcely does the mariner's eye descry, at any one time, the two opposite banks, which are covered with palm trees, temples, and palaces ; the transparent waters, like those of the ocean, have a surface smooth as a mirror, except when ruffled by the winds. A force, resistless but impercejjtible, hurries along the myriads of barks with which their surface is covered. The tides of the great ocean, entering with freedom the wide expansion of their beds, repel the river waves, and sometimes the retrograde current is rapid and violent. At the place of meeting, navigation becomes apparently hazardous, from the mountainous elevation of the waves, and the powerful whirl generated by the mutually opposing streams. — These great and numerous currents of water do not, however, entirely neufralizo the parcliing influence of the tropical temperature. Many districts of India, between the Indus and the Ganges, exhibit a scene of the most frightful ste- rility. Hundreds of villages forming the same neighbourhood, depend for subsist- ence on the waters derived from immense tanks, or reservoirs, which have been formed at an enormous expense. The iiidiis. I We shall begin our delineations with the river earliest known to the western world, tlie Indus. The sources of this river have not yet been fully ex- plored. But our information extends higher in its course than it did a few years ago. W^e have been enabled, at least, to correct the error of mistaking this river, or some of its eastern tril)utaries, for the source of the Ganges, an error which we find adopted in the construction of maps till a very recent period. The commencement of this river is fixed, by the most probable conjecture, in the northern declivity of the Cailas brand) of the Ifimalah mountains, about lat. 31° 30' N. and long. 80° 30' E. not far from Ihe town of Gortop in the Undes, a territory now under the dominion of China, and within a few miles of the lake Rawanshcad and the sources of the river Sut- ledge. It is supposed to flow for 400 miles in a N. N. W. direction, then assuming a S.W. course, comes to Di-ass, a town of Little Thibet; here it is seventy yards broad, and excessively rapid, and it receives another large branch, called the Ladak river, which flows past tlie town of Ladak. It is only below Drass that its course is known with certainty, the difllcult and desolate nature of the country having checked inquiries in its higher parts. From Drass, the Indus pursues its solitary course for above 200 miles, through a rude and mountainous country to Mullai, where it receives the Abasseen, penetrates the highest Hindoo Coosh range, passes for fifty miles through the lower parallel ranges, to Torbaila, where it enters the valley of Chuch, spreading and forming innumerable islands. About forty miles lower down, it receives tlie Caubul river from tlic west, and soon after rushes through a narrow opening into the midst of the branches of the Soliman range of mountains. Its stream is ex- tremely turliulent, and sounds like a stormy sea. When its volume is increased by the melting of the snow, a tremendous whirlpool is created, and the noise is heard to a great distance. Here boats are frequently sunk, or dashed to pieces. There arc two black rocks in this part of the river, named Jellalia and Kemalia, which are pointed out by the inhabitants as the transformed bodies of the two sons of Peercc Taruk, (the Apostle of Darkness) founder of the Kooshenia sect, who were thrown into the river by Akhoond, the opponent of their father. At the town of Attock, the river, after having been widely spread over a plain, becomes contractied to 260 yards, but is much more deep and rapid. When its floods are highest it rises to the top of a bastion about fhirty-seven feet high. At Neelab, fifteen miles below Attock, it becomes still narrower. From this it winds among the hills to Calabag, passes through the salt range in a clear, deep, and placid stream, and then pursues a sou- therly course to the ocean, without any interruption, or confinement from hills. It expands into various channels which separate and meet again. Below Attock it receives the Toe and other brooks from the west. At Kaggawala, the Koorum, astream of considerable magnitude from the Soliman mountains, falls into it. The only one to t!ic south of this point which it receives, is the Arul, which supplies very little water, INDOSTAX. 115 being r»ioslly drawn off for irrigation in the north of Daniiuni. At Kiilierce, the In- dus, Avhen at its lowest, is 1000 yards in breadth, and rather shallow, being diminished by tlui separation of some branches from it. At Mittenda it receives the Punjnud, formed by the union of live large tributaries. This immense stream previously flows parallel to the Indus for seventy miles ; at Ooch, which is fifty miles up, the distance across, from the Indus to the Punjnud, is not more than ten miles. In July and Au- gust, this whole space is completely flooded. The most of the villages contained in it are temporary erections, a few only being situated on si)ots artificially elevated. The whole country which it traverses is of the same description, all the way to Hy- derabad, the capital of Sinde. On the left bank, are some considerable towns and villages, with canals for agricultural purposes. Tliough the Indus gives olf lateral streams as it approaches the sea, it does not Ibrm a Delta exactly analogous to that of Egypt. Its waters enter the sea in one volume, the lateral streams being absorbed by the sand without reaching the ocean. It gives ofF an easterly brancli called the Fullalce, but tliis returns its waters to the Indus at a lower point, forming in its cir- cuit the island on which Hyderabad stands. From the sea to Hyderabad, the breadth of the Indus is generally about a mile, varying in depth from two to live fathoms. The tides are not perceptible in this river higher up than sixty or sixty-five miles from tlie sea. The laud near the mouth does not possess the fertility of the Delta of the Nile, or the Ganges. The dry {)arts exhil)it only short underwood, and the remainder arid sand, putrid salt swamps, or shallow lakes. From the sea to Lahore, a distance of 760 geographical miles, the Indus and its tributary the Ravey are navi- gable for vessels of 200 tons. In the time of Aurengzebe, a considerable trade was carried on by means of this navigation, but from the political state of tlie coun- try it has long ceased. From Attock to Mooltan, this river is called by the natives the At- | Names, lock, and further down it has the name of Soor, or Shoor, but among the Asiatics, it is generally known by the name of Sinde. Though one of the largest rivers in the world, the Indus has never obtained such a reputation for sanctity as many inferior streams in Indostan, a circumstance which may proceed from the barren and unin- teresting character of the country through which it flows. The five eastern tributaries which by their union form the Punjnud, arc celebrated for having been the scene of some events conspicuous in history. The most northerly in the Jylum, or Hydaspcs, the IJahut ol' Abul Fazel, which takes its rise in the mountains on the south-east side of the valley of Cashmere, where it is called the Vedusta. Proceeding westward, through that celebrated valley, it passes the capital, where it is joined by a small stream from the Ouller lake. Twelve miles further down, it is joined by the Little Sinde, still runs straight west, through the hills and valleys adjoining Cashmere, in- creased by numerous rivulets and torrents in its way. IJefore it turns south, it re- ceives the Kishengunga, coming from the northward, in its course through the hills. This river is extremely rapid, and from iOO to 600 yards broad. It in never fordable, but only fifteen or twenty yards of its breadth arc so deep as to require swimming. It flows southward 450 miles till it joins the Clien'd) at Tremmoo, 100 miles above Mooltan. The Chenab or ./Icesincs, the second tril)utary, antl the larg- tlc ciunab, est of the five, arises in tile Himulah mountains, near the south-cast cor- "^ -<«""«• ner of Cashmere, in the Alpine district of Kishtewar. Due north from the city of Lahore, this river is 300 yards wide iii the dry season, but a mile and three furlongs when swelled by the rains. Like tlie Jylum, it is not fordable, yet easily crossed in consequence of a small portion of its width reijuiring to be swum over. Its junction with the Jylum is accompanied with great noise and violence; a circumstance no- ticed both by the historians of Alexander and of Timoor. Fifty miles below their junction, these united streams receive the Ravey. The Ravey or Hydraolcs is the third of the Punjab rivers. It issues | The Ravey. from the mountainous district of liahore, but its sources have not been explored. Flowing to the south-west, it enters the plahis near Rajepoor, from which the canal of Shahnehr was formerly drawn to Lahore, a distance of eighty miles, though now filled up. It supplied the city with water, by keeping it at a higher level in the dry Rivers of tlie Punjftb. The Jylum, or 116 BOOK FORTY-SIXTH. season, when this, hke most of the Indian rivers, is twenty or thirty feet below its banks. Here it is fordable in dry weather, being only four feet deep. It has many banks and quicksands ; its sides are low and well wooded. It enters the united streams of Jylum and Chenab forty miles above the city of Mooltan. This is the least of the five rivers. Its length probably does not exceed 580 miles. The Beyah. | The fourth is the Beyah, or Hyphasis, rising in the mountains of Keloo in the pergunnah of Sultanpoor. It is shallow and fordable in dry weather, but abounds in quicksands. This and the fifth, or Sutledge, meet before either has pro- ceeded more than a fifth part of the diameter of the Punjab country; and their united stream flows the rest of the distance, to complete the conflux called the Punjnud. The Sutledge. | Tlie Sutledge rises in the Undes to the north of the great Himalah range, within the territory claimed by the Chinese; proceeds almost due west; then gradually bends to the south in crossing the subordinate mountains. It is the Hesu- drus of Phny, the Zaradrus of Ptolemy, and the Saranges of Arrian. It exhibits stripes of fertility along its banks, in the midst of a cold and dreary though sublime region, forming the western hmit of the hilly territory which the British lately wrested from the power of the Ghoorkas. Whether it rises from the celebrated and sacred lake Manasarovara, or not, is a point not satisfactorily ascertained ; and the precau- tionary policy of the Chinese government will probably long prevent us from acquir- ing a more correct knowledge of geography in that direction. The Sutledge seems to be the largest river within the Himalah range, between the Indus and the Brahma- pootra. From its origin to its junction with the Beyah, it runs about 500 miles. The united Beyah and Sutledge are called the Kehra or Gavra, which flows for more than 300 miles before it forms the Punjnud, which contains the waters of the whole five, and carries them to the Indus. The union of all the five rivers into one before they reach the Indus, was a point in geography maintained by Ptolemy ; but, owing to the obscurity of modern accounts, prompted by the splittings of the Indus, and the frequent approximation of streams running in parallel courses, we had been taught to correct this as a specimen of that author's deficiency of information, till very recent and more minute inquiries have re- estabhshed that questioned point, and along with it the merited credit of the ancient geographer. The Ganges. [ The Ganges is called by the Hindoos, Padde, and Boora Gonga, or "the river," by way of eminence. This mighty river was long supposed to have its Its source. | origin on the north side of the Himalah mountains, till the fact came to be doubted by Mr. Colebrook; in consequence' of which Lieut. Webb being sent in 1808 by the Bengal government to explore its sources, ascertained that all the differ- ent streams above Hurdwar, which form the Ganges, rise on the south side of the snowy mountains. At some places above the confluence with the Jumna, the Gan- ges is fordable ; but its navigation is never interrupted. At a distance of 600 miles from the sea, the channel is thirty feet deep when the river is at its lowest. This depth it retains all the way to the sea, where, however, the settling of sand by the neutralization of the current, from the meeting of the tide with the stream of the river, produces bars and shallows which prevent the entrance of large vessels. The ac- cessions which the Ganges receives in the spring by the melting of the mountain snow are not considerable. At any great distance from the sources, as at Patna, any cause affecting these sources produces little comparative effect. About 200 miles from the sea, the Delta of the Ganges commences by the dividing of the river. Two branches, the Cossimbazar, and the Jellinghy, are given off' to the west. These unite to form the Iloogly, or Bhagirathy, on which the port of Calcutta is situated. It is the only branch commonly navigated by ships, and in some years it is not navigable for two or three montlis. The only secondary branch which is at all times navigable for boats, is the Ciiandah river. That part of the Delta which borders on the sea is composed of a labyrinth of creeks and rivers called the Sunderbunds, with numerous islands, covered with the profuse and rank vegetation called jungle, affording haunts to numerous tigers. These branches oc- Overflowings. | cupy an extent of 200 miles along the shore. The Ganges, though so littlo affected by the melting of the snows, owes part of its increase to the rains which Division i«to branches. Volume of its waters. ne average INDOSTAN. 117 fall in the mountains. Hence it rises fifteen feet by the end of June, when the rainy season in the low country is scarcely begun. The remainder of its rise, which is in all thirty-two feet, is occasioned by the rain which falls in Bengal. By the end of July all the lower parts of the country adjoining the Ganges, as well as the Jirahma- pootra, are overflowed for a width of 100 miles, nothing appearing but villages, trees, and the sites of some villages which have been deserted. A stripe along each bank of the river remains tor some time uncovered, that part being highest in consequence of the more abundant deposition of mud at the river's edge, where the quantity held in suspension is the largest and contains the heaviest particles. Between August and November it decreases from four inches to two per day, and after that till April continues decreasing at a daily rate of half an inch. The difference of elevation of the waters always diminishes as the river approaches to tlic sea. At Lucki-poor it is only six feet, at Dacca fourteen, and at Custee thirty one. This last place is 240 miles from the sea, and the surface of the river in the dry season is eighty feet above that of the ocean. The Ganges is calculated to discharge in the dry season 80,000 cubic feet of water in a second; and, as its water has double the volume when at its height, and moves with a greater velocity in the proportion of five to three, it must at that time discharge 405,000 cubic feet. T for the whole year is reckoned 180,000. The deposition of slinre is sometimes ex tremely rapid, so as to fill up deep beds, or form extensive islands. In other parts the river extends its width in particular lateral directions, forming steep banks of soft soil, which, from their liability to tumble in, are dangerous of approach by land or by water. That line of the Ganges which lies between Gangootree, or the worship paid source of the leading stream, and Sagor island, below Calcutta, is held '° "• particularly sacred. The main body which goes east to join the Brahmapootra, is not regarded with equal veneration. Certain parts of the line now mentioned arc esteemed more sacred than the rest, and are the resort of numerous pilgrims from great distances to perform their ablutions, and take up the water to be employed in their ceremonies. Wherever the river happens to run from south to north, coulrary to its general direction, it is considered as peculiarly holy. The places most super- stitiously revered are the junctions of rivers, called Prayags, the principal of which is that of the Jumna with the Ganges at Allahabad. The others are situated among the mountains. Hurdwar, where the river escapes from the mountains, and Sagor island, at the mouth of the Hoogly, are also sacred. The water of the Ganges is esteemed for its medicinal virtues, and on that account drunk by Mahometans, as well as Hindoos. In tlie British courts of justice, the water of the Ganges is used for swearing Hindoos, as the Koran is for Mahometans, and the gospels for Christians. The waters of the Ganges are augmented by many successive tributaries, some of which are very largo rivers. On its right bank it receives the Jumna, which has a previous course of 780 miles from tlie lower range of Himalah between the Sut- ledge and the Ganges, and falls into the latter at the fortress of Allaliabad. It is said to receive at the same point a rivulet under ground, on which account the junc- tion is called, according to Tiefcnthalcr, Trebeni, or the confluence of three rivers. Lower down it receives the Soane, which arises in the table land of Amcrkoontook, in the mountains of Gundwana, and falls into the Ganges a little above Patna. On its left it receives the Ilamgonga, from the mountains of Kcmaoon ; and the Goomty, which, arising in the same hills, crosses the province of Oude, from north-west to south- east, passing Lucknow, and falls into the Ganges below Benares. The Gogra, after forming the eastern boundary of the British district of Kcmaoon, which it separates from the Goorkha tcrrhory, passes near Fizabad, and joins the Ganges in Berar, where it is called Dewa, being one of the longest tributaries which the Ganges receives. The Gunduk is supposed to rise near the great Himalah peak called Dhawala Giri, or the " White Mountan." Some conjecture it to come from the pla- teau of Thibet. In its higher parts it is called Salgrami, from the number of ammo- nites contained in the schistous rocks over which it passes, which are objects of worship among the Hindoos under the name of Salgrams, being considered as visi- ble traces of the divine Vishnu. It joins the Ganges opposite to Patna. The Cosi 118 BOOK I'OUTy-SlXTII. arises in the Nepul hills near Catmandoo, receives the Arun, (which is supposed to rise tioni the north side of the great mountain ridge, and penetrate between its snowy peaks,) and joins the Ganges in Bengal, after a course of 300 miles. The Teesta has not been explored by Europeans, but is said by the Nepaleseto arise in Thibet, and cross the great mountains. It formed till lately the eastern boundary of the Nepal territory, separating it from the dominions of the Deb Raja of Bootan. It joins the Pudda, or great body of the Ganges, after a course of 400 miles. The Brahma- The Brahmapootra is the largest river of India, though among the pootra. jgj^gj. sacred. Its sources, though never yet explored, seem to be situ- ated near lake Manasarovara in Thibet, near those of the Indus and the Sutledge. It flows eastward through Thibet, where it is known under the name of Sanpoo, or " the river." It passes near to Lassa, the residence of the great Lama, also to the north of Teshoo Lomboo, the seat of the Teshoo Lama, occupying a widely ex- panded bed, and forming numerous islands. Its principal channel near this place is narrow, deep, and never fordable. It receives various rivers from the south, and probably also from the north. After a long easterly course, in which it is conjectured to approach within 220 miles of Yunan, a province of China, it makes a vast circuit round the mountains, where it is lost to European knowledge. Making a sudden curve to the south, it re-appears in Assam, into which country it is supposed to de- scend by a series of cataracts, and up to which it is said to be navigable. On reach- ing Assam, it turns nearly due west, receiving a copious augmentation from numer- ous mountain tributaries. During this direction of its course, it separates into two; the southern branch being distinguished from the northern or main body by the name Kolong. These meet again after enclosing an island five days' journey in length and one in breadth. About Goalpara, the British frontier town, the expanse is mag- nificent and the scenery grand, but the water is dirty and oftensive.^ During floods it carries before it logs of wood and vast floats of reeds, together with dead bodies of men, deer, and oxen. In its rise and fall, it follows periods nearly coinciding with those of the Ganges. Its navigation is rendered difficult by shifting sand-banks and trunks of trees sticking in its bed. Its banks and islands within the British ter- ritories undergo continual changes. After entering Bengal, the Brahmapootra makes a circuit round the western point of the Garrow mountains, then runs southward through the Dacca province, is joined by the Megna, which, though a comparatively small river, now gives its name to the united stream, which is regularly four or five miles wide. The course of the Brahmapootra has a length of 1650 miles, but passes through a rude climate and a barren soil, differing in this respect widely from the Ganges. Rising from opposite sides of the same mountains, these rivers separate to a distance of 1200 miles, but are destined to meet again at Luckipoor in Bengal, where they form a wide gulf* communicating with the ocean. Tne Nerbud. I The Ncrbuddali is one of the largest rivers which have their rise in *"*''• the interior of India. It conies down from the plateau of Amcrkoontook, close to the source of the Soane, and runs in a solitary course, scarcely receiving any other river, its waters being augmented by very small streams. It flows directly west to the Gulf of Cambay, where it falls into the ocean near to the city of Broach. In the dry season it may be crossed on foot. Tiie Tiiptee. | The Tuptcc also runs from east to west, rising in Gundwana near the village of Batool, and flows into the sea at a distance of a few leagues from Surat. The mouths of both these rivers are greatly obstructed with sand banks. The peninsula of the Dcccan is, like the more northerly parts of India, well wa- tered with rivers, the greater part of which descend from the western Ghauts, run from west to east, and fall into the Bay of liengal. Beginning in its northern part, we have first the Mahanady, or Kuttak, rising in the mountains of Bundelkund, and crossing the province of Berar with many sinuosities, where it receives numerous rivers; near to the city of Kuttak it divides into several branches, one of which falls into the lake Chilka, while the others continue their course to the Bay of Bengal, forming a delta of islands covered with jungle and wild thickets. * Dr. 1\ Buchanan, Truacr, Kennel, Sic INDOSTAN. 119 Tlie Goda- vtry. Climate. Seasons, Dry season. The Godavcry, descending from the western Ghauts, waters the Ni- zam territory and Berar, is joined by the Wurda, the Silair, and the EluiifTonwa, and divides into two branches at Rajamundry, wliich afterwards form more numerous streams, and fall by so many mouths into the bay. Tliis river is held very sacred by the superstitious Hindoos. It is sometimes named the Ganges, and its source, like that of the great Ganges, " The Cow's Mouth." Tho Krishna, farther to the south, has a similar origin with the pro- | The Krishna, ceding, crossing, like it, almost the whole peninsula; receives tho waters of the Beema, the Gutpurba, the Malpurba, and the Tomboodra, crosses tho Soobah of the Deccan, and falls into Bengal Bay, to the south-west of Masulipatam. This river is another object of worship; its namo signifies black, that being supposed to be the colour of Vishnu under his ninth incarnation. Like the Ganges it has its periodical floods. Among the various streams of less note in the south of the Deccan is | TheCavery. the Cavery, which comes from the mountains of Coorg, crosses the Mysore, which it fertilizes, and the Carnatic below, which owes its chief productions to the water which it distributes. It is the most useful river in the south of India. Opposite to Trichinopoly it separates into two branches, and forms the island of Seringham. The southern branch runs at the highest level, and is very much drawn ofl' by canals for agricultural purposes. The northern, which is called the Coleroon, runs in a low bed. It approaches the other about thirteen miles below their place of separation, and mounds are formed to prevent the waters of the Cavery, or southern branch, from falling down into it. The coming of the fresh water from the interior is celebrated by the natives with joyous festivity. The river is adored as one of their most bene- ficent deities,* and the anniversary of the marriage of the goddess of the river to the god Renganaden, is held annually by the worshippers of Vishnu. Only two seasons are known in India, the dry and the rainy, pro- duced by the south-west and north-west monsoons. In the dry season, vegetation universally labours under a deadly languor, most especially if the rains are unusually late in setting in ; but a rain of one night's duration transforms into a verdant meadow, a plain which on the preceding day was a spectacle of utter aridity, where not one leaf of herbage could be found. In the interior and western parts of India, the rainy season commences in April or May, and continues to the end of October. On the Coromandel coast it begins later, as the clouds which are brought by the south-west winds are detained by the Ghauts. While this season lasts, it is a rare thing to see the rays of the sun pe- | Rainy season, netrating the dense vapours with which the atmosphere is loaded. In Bengal, it rains incessantly for many days. Twenty, or twenty-two inches depth of water are computed to fall in a month. The rivers overflow their banks, and cover the whole country, except places which are on elevated situations, or protected by dykes. On the Malabar coast, the sudden heavy showers, storms, and hurricanes, are more vio- lent than on that of Coromandel. If the rain does not come on at the ordinary time, or if it is not in sufficient quantity, dismal effects follow for the whole year, often amounting to the most destructive famine. In 1793, so great was the scarcity occa- sioned by the drought, that parents sold their children for a few pounds of rice. The conclusion of the rainy season is marked by changes of wind and storms of the most violent description. Bernier has remarked that the rain does not come from the same quarter of the heavens in all parts of India; that about Delhi it almost always comes from the east; in Bengal, and on the Coromandal coast, from the south; and on the coast of Malabar from the west."!" The climate of India is that of a country chiefly situated within the | Temiierature. torrid zone, and at the same time, adjoining a boundless mass of icy mountains. In the greater part of this extensive country snow and ice are unknown; but every other disadvantage of weather is incident to it in a temporary manner. No where do hur- ricanes rage with greater fury. No where are the lightnings and peals of thunder • "Wilks, Heyne, etc. t Bernier, Voyage, edit. Amsterd. 1709, toni. ii. p. 319. Kennel's Memoir. 120 BOOK FORTY-SIXTH. more appalling. No where is the husbandman more liable to the threatened ravages of protracted drought or drenching floods of rain. It might be interesting to deter- mine the general laws on which the local variations of the seasons in different parts of India depend. Why do the rains last for eight months in the Circars, and only two in the Carnatic, as has been asserted, these countries both lying on the Coro- mandel coast? But Europeans have sometimes exaggerated the prominent features . of the climate, by giving way to first impressions. Bengal has received a bad cha- racter for insalubrity, and certainly it is in an eminent degree exposed to a succession of violent extremes and vicissitudes; at one time to excessive rain, at another to storms; then to scorching heat, and frequently to thick fogs; yet the English have, by dint of prudent regimen, accommodated themselves to the climate.* The shores of Coromandel experience more violent heat and drought than those of Malabar; yet the narrow valleys and thick forests of this latter country comprehend many unheal- thy situations. The waste lands situated between the two chains of the Ghauts, the countries lying between the Jumna and the Ganges, the territories forming the Pun- jab, or lying in its neighbourhood, derive from their moderate elevation above the sea, from their wooded hills, and their numerous streams, a temperature less oppressive, and a purer and healthier air,! except where forests, marshes, or arid deserts give rise to local disadvantages. The great desert situated on the south-east of the Indus, and to the north of the Guzerat, exhibits all the horrors of the deserts of Arabia, while the valleys of Cashmere and Serinagur, Gorkhah, and Nepal, encircled witli alpine heights, experience, in succession, the rigours of a real winter, the delights of a lengthened spring, and a healthy summer. Reputed Ion- It was in the Punjab, and these other elevated countries, that the an- fiTtvity of the . . , Indians. cients collected numerous examples of Indian longevity-^ The Cyrni, and the subjects of Prince Musicanus often lived to the age of 130, or 200 years. The moderns have gone still farther. The Portuguese historian Faria states, that an inhabitant of Diu attained the age of three full centuries; and he adds that, ac- cording to the accounts of the natives, several individuals of 200 were to be found in Guzerat. Extreme simplicity of diet and perfect tranquillity of mind may procure for some of the Fakirs a lengthened period of existence; but, taken at an average, this is a climate in which the force of vitality receives a quick development, and is Endemic dis- subjected to Speedy exhaustion. Acute diseases carry off numerous eases. victims by sudden death. One of the most formidable is the bilious colic, known on the coast of Coromandel by the name of mordekshim, transformed by Sonnerat and other French writers, with more humour than truth, into mort de chien, " the death of a dog." The hill fever, which prevails in the higher part of the Circars in the districts of Grandjam and Viragapatam, is ascribed to the stagnant air of the forests, and the narrow shaded valleys. Other fevers, no less pernicious, operate as a scourge to the inhabitants of the Carnatic, known by the name of the o-endchi fevers. § Leprosies assume a dreadful character in the warm and moist districts : the most terrible form of the Arabian leprosy, that in which the limbs drop off joint by joint, extends its ravages among the more indigent classes. || It differs Eiepiiantiasis. | from the elephantiasis of modern physicians, which seems to be a kind of diopsy accompanied with cutaneous eruption. This last disease, which prevails on the coast of Cochin, where the water is of bad quality, derives its name from the enormous enlargement of the patient's limbs, which resemble those of an elephant. TT But among the ancients, the term was applied to a leprosy distinguished by white wrinkled blotches on the skin. The Europeans, who generally escape these dismal visitations, are not exempt from the slow influence of a hot temperature, and a con- tinual excessive perspiration. They contract a sallow complexion, and are early • OladwAn's Narrative of the Transactions in Bengal, p. 27, &.c. f Forstei's Journey from ]$eng-al to Petersbvn-g'h. Ruchanan's Travels u> the Mysore. i Strab. xv. 701, Amelov. Farla y Soiisa, Asia Portugueza. § Anqueti], Voyage. II The Djosaam of the Arabs; also the Daa-el-arad, or lion's disease; the Movrua-t; of the Greeks. •|! Ives, Yo3age, i. See M. Allard's work on a disease resembling elephantiasis. INDOSTAN. 121 .subjected to the inilimltics of old age. A slow iunammcilion, or disorganization of the liver, is the most common complaint atnong them.* But, with all these partial disadvantages, India contains in its cultivated parts the most healthy climates to be found in Asia. The fertihty of the soil, and the nature of the productions, are as va- | Fertility, rious as the temperature and climate. India is traversed by large chains of rocky mountains, and by hills of sand. Both of these are found in the province of Sinde. A series of rocky mountains reaches from the confines of Mooltan to Tatta, and a series of sandy hills from Ootcli to Guzerat. We have also sandy dc- | Deserts, serts where the burning south wind carries before it clouds of dust, in which it buries houses and cultivated fields. There is another twenty miles long between Rooder- poor in Delhi and Almora, covered with thorny briars and resinous shrubs. | The northern provinces contain numerous savannahs. At the mouths of the great rivers the soil is usually marshy. In some instances the marshy land extends along a great part of the banks of the rivers in the interior. But, with the exception of these un- cultivated parts, India presents on all hands beautiful meadows, rich pastures, fields loaded with abundant harvests, which are gathered twice in the year, tmd valleys filled with every useful and every beautiful product of vegetation. Rice, the chief food of the frugal Indian, abounds in most of the pro- Alimentary vinces. The varieties of that plant are reckoned twenty-seven in num- p'^"^'* ber. Rice in the husk is called ncllu, and when shelled arissi. Tanjore, on the coast of Coromandel, supplies the whole island of Ceylon. Arrack, the spirit ob- tained from rice, is mentioned by the ancients. India also produces those species of grain which are most common in Europe — as wheat, barley, maize, and millet. Se- veral species of Holcus are cultivated, as the holcus sorg-heuvi of Linnoeus, (the Ai- dvopogon sorghum of Dr. Roxburgh,) commonly called tcJior and dourra, and the Holcus spicaius, or badchcra, a common food among the people, particularly the Mahrattas. Our leguminous species, as peas, beans, lentils, together with many which do not grow in Europe, such as moong, (the Phaseohis mungo,) murlius, (the Cijnosurus coracanus,) the grain of which is small like mustard seed, and is used for cakes ; ianna, a very productive grain, requiring httle or no trouble in cultivation ; lour, (the Cytisus cajan, which is sown at the beginning of the rainy season ; and, lastly, (oil, a shrub the produce of which is a sort of pea, and, next to rice, the most favourite fbod of seamen. Melons and pine apples are quite common; also the lotus, or sea lily : the roots of this plant are used in different ways. Its red flowers and round leaves, sprinkled with drops of water glittering like diamonds, adorn the sur- faces of the pools. Instead of our potato, the Indian has the halchil, a root black on the surface, and white in the interior ; the igname, which often weighs several pounds, and the Jlrachis hypogcca or moogjyhully. Here the kingdom of Flora is arrayed in all her glory. Cashmere | Flowers, salutes the sense with the perfume of its roses, from which the highly valued ottar is obtained. The fine white rose, called koondja, scents the vales of Delhi and Se- rinagur;J the kadinmcdigu, or large flowering jessamine ; the Banistcria bengcdensis, or atimuca, which is equally elegant ; and the tchambaga, which the Indians use for adorning their hair, and perfuming their clothes. We must also particularize the Mussaanda, which displays so fine a contrast of white leaves and blood-red flowers ; the Ixoru, which, from boughs six feet in height, exhibits its scarlet and yellow tufts of flowers, like so many bright flames, enlivening the foliage of the woods ; the sin- drimal, whose flowers open at four in the evening, and close at four in the morning; the nyctanthes sambac, with which the Indians perfume their hair before going to bed; the nagatalli or Pcrgularia tomcntosa, which creeps along the walls, covering them over with its foliage, — a plant poisonous to the serpent tribe. India produces many of those plants which are subservient to indus- punts used in try and commerce ; as flax, hemp, tobacco, indigo, jalap, sarsaparilla, * ^ ""'• datura, cotton, anise, betel, saflion, sesamum, opium, many dyes, besides various * rciinaiit's View of ludostaii. t Tiefentlialer, i. p. 102. ^ llardwick, in tlie Asiatic liegistcr, 1800. Miscellaii. Tracts, p. 270. Vol. il Q 122 BOOK lORTY- SIXTH. reeds and canes. The hilly covnitrics of Oudc, and those at tlic foot of the Ghauts, produce large crops of cardamom ; the best comes from the coast of Malabar ; here also all kinds of pepper grow abundantly, so that the Arabians call it Belad-el-folfol, or the " pepper country." It is also produced in the island of Ceylon, in Bengal, and in Bahar. The Pajyaver oricntale, from which the indolent natives obtain opium, thrives in almost all the provinces ; the opium in most esteem is from Bengal and Bahar. The Indian sesamum furnishes an oil knov.'n to antiquity as an article of commerce. The cotton tree grows on all the Indian mountains, but its produce is coarse in quality ; the herbaceous cotton prospers chiefly in Bengal, and on the Co- romandel coast, and there the best cotton goods are manufactured. Next to these two provinces, Madure, Marawar, Pescaria, and the coast of Malabar, produce the finest cotton. The ancients seem to have got their muslins from the banks of the Indus, since they called them Sidones. India is the native country of the betel or tambol, a plant which, like the ivy and the hop, twines round trees and poles ; its leaves are chewed along with areca nuts, spices, and tobacco. Bamboo A great part of the soil of India is covered with forests of bamboo, forests. This spccics of rccds, which sometimes attains a height of sixty feet, is an article of great use to the Hindoos in the erection of their slight habitations. The indurated juice of this plant called tabasheer, has been used in medicine, and in the eyes of the scientific, is a curious object as a vegetable secretion, being what chemists call a hydrate of silica, i. e. flint in union with consolidated water.* Vari- Sugar. I ous other reeds, as the Jlrvndo calamus, abound every where. The su- gar cane, common through the whole of India, is cultivated in Bengal, particularly at Rajamundry and Grandjam,! and a million of quintals of sugar are annually ex- indigo, I ported thence to Europe, Indigo grows spontaneously in the province of Guzerat, and this plant is cultivated on a large scale in Bengal, Bahar, Oude, and Agra. A tree belonging to the genus JYerinm has been discovered in the Circars, which yields a vegetable blue dye. J Palms. I India contains all the different species of palms, from which are ob- tained fruits, liquors, a sort of paper, oils, meal, cordage, and other useful articles. Thejaggari. | The cocoa tree is undoubtedly the most valuable of this tribe. The jag- gari, or black sugar, obtained from the cocoa, is used at Tranquebar,§ at Madras, || and in Pegu, IT to form, along with white of eggs, lime, and burnt sheels, a cement which resists moisture and the solar heat, and is susceptible of a fine polish by friction. This cement has been successfully employed in Holland. The Jlreca nuts, the fruit of the cabbage palm, and bananas, are also to be added to the vegetable riches of India. The small fruited banana, or JSIusa sapientitm, has in all ages been the food of the philosophers and the priests of Brahma. The Indian fig, or banyan tree, stretches its immense branches and its holy shade, not only over the pagodas, and the cJioidtries, or caravanseras, but also over serpents and other venomous crea- tures, — an emblem of the eternal power of nature, which cherishes both useful and hurtful beings. It is a variety of the Budha tree, which is revered in the various countries between Indostan and China. Hence it is called by Linnceus the Ficus religiosa. Fruit trees. | Our fruit trees, such as the apple, the pear, the plum, the apricot, peach, walnut, almond, orange, and mulberry, thrive in the north of India, while the southern parts abound in bread-fruit, guavas, jambos, and mangos ; but the mangos- teen of the Sunda islands cannot be reared even in Coromandel. Forest trees. | Our tall forcst trccs, such as oaks, pines, cypresses, and poplars, as well as myrtles and tamarinds, are found in every part of the country. But the fo- rests chiefly consist of species unknown to our climates, such as the teak, a hard and almost incorruptible timber, fitted to supply the place of the oak in ship-building, the • See Dr. Brewster's optical experiments on llie substance In the Philosophical Transactions. t Roxburgh, Asiat. Register, 1800. Miscell. Tr. p. 7— 15. ± See the Alfred newspaper, 24th May, 1811. § Accounts of Danish Missionaries, ii. p. 1050. iii. p. 22. 241. 11 Pipe in Phil. Trans. No. 422, Art. 3. H Vincent Ltblanc, Voyages i. p. 201 and 226. INDOSTAN. 123 ponna, (the Uvaria altissima of KcEnig, and the Veleria iiidica of the Hortus Mala- bai'icus,) an ever-green which produces excellent masts ; the koru or sacoo, a tree vaguely mentioned by Tiefenthaler as forming whole forests in the northern parts, and which, with the djissoo (a species of Picrocarjms) furnishes small buildino- tim- ber ; the JVagassa, or iron wood, various Robinias, the azedarach, and other species less known. The Indian ebony, extolled by Virgil, is found in the island | Ebony, of Ceylon, and according to some on the banks of the Ganges, at Allahabad ;* yet it is probable that the ancients received their ebony from the eastern coast of Afiica, then included under the name of India. "j" The agreeable odour which that wood is said to have diffused inclines us to doubt if it was obtained from the tree which we now call ebony. The red sandal tree, or dragon's blood, gum lac, and | Gums, gamboge, grow in the Deccan and in Ceylon, also the Guilandina moringa, which produces a red gum. Among the species of laurel which abound in the southern part of the peninsula, and in Ceylon, we find those which produce mace, cassia, and camphor, and above all, the cinnamon tree, vainly claimed by Arabia as a native, on the testimony of the Greeks,J and now transplanted from Ceylon to the northern Circars.§ Other trees of more diffusible fragrance perfume the forests, while they adorn them with their splendid blossoms. Such are the Bignonias and the Pandaniis odoratissima. Among the numberless treasures of a Flora imperfectly known, are some produc- tions which were in high celebrity among the ancients, though now not found or not recognised with certainty. The number of dissertations written for idcnti- | Amomum. fying the true amomum is almost ridiculous. || We must not blame the indefatigable patience of the modern learned, but the vagueness and obscurity of ancient science. The Indian JVard, or spikenard, is probably the species of valerian known by the Hin- doos under the name o{ Jalamansi,^ although there is a gramineous species figured and described as the true nard.** JMalabaihrum, the produce of a species of | Maiabatiirum. laurel, which was purchased by the Romans at a high price, was probably a compound extract of a number of plants with odoriferous leaves, such as the laural called in Mala- bar Tamcda, and the mjmphea called Tamara in Sanscrit ; the termination bathrum being from patra, the Indian word for leaf. Perhaps further researches may discover more of the productions which were so highly prized by the ancients. The | Bdellium. Bdellium of Pliny, probably a myrrh or odoriferous resin, was known to the author of the book of Genesis, under the name of Bdolach,'\] and the Stpachora, \ sipachora. the fruit of which conferred a longevity of 200 years, as Ctesias and Ehan gravely assure us, may be known from a species of worm which burrows in it, and which furnishes a purple dye. Gumlac is doubtless a production of the JMimosa cinerea. Though the mineralogy of India has not been thoroughly explored, | Minerals, it is certain that in mineral wealth it is one of the richest countries in the world. The ancients say that the gold was heaped up by the ants in India. Whatever | Meuu. meaning we attach to such traditions, we find that the ancients are strictly correct when they speak of the auriferous rivers of this country. J;[; The rivers of the Dec- can, of Orissa, and of Berar, still carry down gold in considerable quantities. In the Punjab and in Cashmere, the Ayen Akl)eri mentions several rivers with golden Gand, a proof of the abundance of that metal in the great Imaiis. Mr. Fraser in his Highland Tour, mentions the Sutledge and other streams in its neighbourhood as at this day affording grains of gold, which are obtained by washing. Rich mines both of gold and of silver also occur in Golconda, the Carnatic, Assam, and Bengal. There are copper mines in the mountains of Kumaoon and in the provinces of Badrikshan, Agra and Adjemere. Iron is found in almost every province of India. • Ayen Akberi, ii. p. 36. t Voss, Commentary on Virgil, Georg. ii. 116. iv. 290. .Slneid, iv. 794. t Beckman ad Antigonii Caristii, Histor. Mirab. p. 87, Id. Litteralur der lieisin, i. 562. § Pennant's View, i. 222. II Breinius de Amomo Arabum, in the Miscell. Curios, medico-physic. 1681. Obs. 191. Sal- mas. Kxercit. PUn. p. 283, &c. H Sir W. Jones on the Spica Nardi in the Asiat. Researches. •• Philos. Transactions, 1790, vol. Ixxx.p. 284. tl Plin. sii. 19, should be read Bdellium sive Bdolchon. ++ Tiefenthaler, i. 222—274, Precious stones. 124 imOK FOUTY-SIXTII. The kingdom of Asnam is rplol>rateil for ils iron nnrl stenl niinp.s. There are whole mountains of magnetic rock in the neiglibourhood of Iloa in the province of Agra, from which a quantity of iron is extracted. The same countries whicli contain silver mines furnish also large quantities of lead, such as the kingdom of Assam, and the mountains of Kumaoon. Some mines of tin are worked near Zamvar, in the pro- vince of Adjemerc, and in the Punjab; zinc is quite common in India, and a quantity is exported to Europe, Quicksilver and antimony are found in a few places. Diamonds. | In no part of the world are diamonds so numerous or so beautiful as in India, especially in the provinces of Bengal, 'Bundclkund, Allahabad, Orissa, Berar, Visapoor, Golconda, and the Carnatic. Those of Golconda and Orissa, especially those of Sumboolpoor on the banks of Mahanady, the river Mamas of the ancients, are considered as much superior to those of Parna in Allahabad. Here also are found rock crystals, rubles, sapphires, amethysts, onyxes, and other precious stones. After heavy rains, the rivers detach them from the recesses of the mountains, and drag them along in their course. The Mahanady, or Cuttac, is one of the most remarkable for containing diamonds in its channel. One in the kingdom of Ghoorkha is mentioned as furnishing a great many.* Lapis lazuli, which, in its perfect form, is one of the most beautiful productions of nature, and which is with great probability, consided as the sapphire of the ancients, f is chiefly found in the mountains on the jiorth-west of India, the Hindoo Coosh and The onyx. | Beloot Tag. The Indian onyx, which was probably the shoham of the Jewish high priests, came from a chain of mountains mentioned by Ctesias, and which seems to correspond to the Bala Ghaut hills. J Almost every mountain in India contains quarries of marble and alabaster. Those of Adjemere contain white, black, and green marbles. Bahar is rich in alabaster. Rock salt is found in several mountains. In Adjemere, and on the coast of Coromandel there are large salt lakes. The Guzerat has plains covered with salt. In every quarter this useful article is carefully worked. Several provinces, especially Bahar and Bengal, furnish saltpetre, and a considerable quantity is exported to Europe, Tartary, and China. Sulphur, coal, naphtha, and other inflammable minerals, are found in several districts, both of Upper Indostan and the Deccan. Impregnations of sulphur, nitre, and other mineral substances, are said to be contained in some rivers, such as the Gunduk. Animal Thc animal kingdom is equally rich in species as the two preced- kiiigilum. inf. Monkeys. Among the Mammalia are monkeys, which make their appearance every where in troops. On the coast of Malabar, thousands of them come to the very centre of the towns: they are of all species. Gibbons are found chiefly in Bengal, and on the Coromandel coast; the beautiful long-tailed maudis in the Dec- can. There are tillows, vellakurangas, or little white monkeys; and koringurangas, or large black apes. Ourang-outangs are found in Bengal, in the Carnatic, and on the coast of Coromandel. The radjakada ape, with the red face and black beard, is, in the eyes of the superstitious Hindoos, a representative of their god Hanooman, the Indian Fan, who, having assumed that form, placed himself at the head of an army of monkeys, for the assistance of the god Rama, and materially contributed to the discomfiture of Ravan, king of the giants, and master of Ceylon. § It seems a certain fact that, in former times, monkeys, in consequence of the respect paid to them from superstitious impressions, peopled India in myriads. Alexander's army met v.ith a body of them so enormously numerous that they took them for a hostile nation, and prepared to give them battle. In those places where the power is in the hands of the Brahmins, the Hindoos allow these animals the enjoyment of perfect liberty: hence tlicy devastate the fields, plunder the orchards, and commit ravages in * Gladwyn's Hist, of Iiulostaii, i. p. 34. f Baier, Dissert, de Sapphire. Beckmann, History of Inventions, iii. 182, &c. (in German.) i Veltheiin, M^moire sur les Montagnes a onyx de^Ctcsias. Heeren,Iddes sur la Politique, le Commerce, he. 136—816. 2d edit. § Ramayana, an Indian poem, partly translated by Mess. Carey and Marshman. Rats, mice, ike. Reai-s, liyxnas. INDOSTAN. 125 the hoart of the towns. Those philosophers who maintain that animals are endowed with improveable intellects, though kept down by the human species, should tell us why the apes of Malabar, respected and caressed, have never contrived to found a political community. The southern provinces are infested with bats of all shapes and sizes. | Bats. The most remarkable is the vampire, or flying cat, which often devastates the fruit trees of Guzerat, and the coast of Coromandel. Squirrels are equally destructive, especially the mahannan, which lives in flocks on the highest trees on the Malabar coast;* the large Indian squirrel, which attaches itself particularly to the cocoa tree; and the yellow squirrel, which lives in a gregarious state in the Guzerat. The Malabar coast produces many porcupines, one of which, the pangolin, is often kept tame in houses. In Bengal, and along the eastern shore, is found the two-toed sloth ; and in Bahar there is a variety of this species which has a considerable resemblance to the bear, is called by naturalists Bradypns i(rsiformis,1[ and lives on ants India has several species of rats and mice, as the striped mouse, the musk rat, and the jerboa or jumping rat. These animals, numerous and bold, bid defiance to the cats. It is by dogs and professional rat-catchers that their breed is from time to time kept down. There arc hares, rabbits, and martins, particularly in the northern provinces ; civets of two varieties, badgers, racoons, immgos or ichneumons, which are capable of being tamed, and vigorously hunt the rats, the bats, and even the large serpents. The mountain bear, more terrible than the tiger, and which inhabits the Ghauts, according to a tolerably well informed traveller, Paulin de S. Bartholome, is perhaps a large hyaena ; but the true bear makes his appearance in the forests of Oude, Orissa, the Carnatic, and Coromandel. Wolves are seen, particularly in the Ghauts, the Carnatic, Malabar, and Guntoor. The jackals are ibrmidable in the interior of Indostan. The hyaenas are very numerous in the king- dom of Orissa, and on the coasts of Malabar and Coromandel. Bengal produces a fox of a particular species, small in size, and possessed of great agility.;]; Mr. Pennant, the Indian zoologist, has taken much pains to distinguish the dif- ferent species of ferocious animals of the cat kind, that inhabit this country. Ceylon and Bengal have two varieties of the tiger-cat. The serwal, or panther-cat of the Deccan, which is little known, extends as far as Thibet. The lynx lives in the northern provinces ; the caracal, a black-eared variety of the lynx, makes his ap- pearance in Bengal. This is also the true country of the royal tiger. Tigers, pan- known to the ancients by the name of the Ganges tiger. This formi- '^*'"' ^'^" dable animal reigns in company with the rhinoceros on the marshy uninhabited ex- tremity of the Ganges, called the Sunderbunds. Here he even attacks the boats as they pass through his domain. Ceylon, and the Ghaut mountains, contain only the common tiger, the size of which is less majestic. The Asiatic panther of Pen- nant seems to be a variety of the tiger, with spots, instead of stripes. The blackish variety, with black spots, is peculiar to Indostan. § The leopards, which have dark blotches on a white ground, vary considerably in size and colour. The ounce, which is the panther of Pliny, is found in all the central part of the Deccan, and in Guzerat. The gueparde of I3uflbn, the great j)arda}is of Oppian, is less known ; it is called /c/w7«,|| After all the trouble Mr. Pennant has bestowed on the subject, it is not yet divested of obscurity. At present the lion, at least the African species, distinguished from the lion of Babylonia by his long mane, is unknown in India. But Terry says, he saw them in Malwah. From the old Indian writings, we are led to believe that the lion, called si)i2;h, was formerly spread over the whole of India. The Indians make liltle use of horses : the kinds peculiar to their country are the tattoo in Bengal, a very small horse, but an excellent Is the lion round in India? Hones and asses. * Sonnerat, Voyage aux Indes, tab. ii. 87. Pennant, Indian Zoology, tab. i. View of Indos- tan, i. 137—202. t Pennant's View, ii. 258—260. ^ * Pennant's Hist, of Quadrupeds, No. 170. § Pennant's View, ii. 153. II Pennant's Hist. Quad. No. 184. Synopsis, p. 174. tab. 18. fig. 1. View of Indostan, ii. 246. Asiat. Reg. 1800. I^Iisc. Tracts, p. 338—342. 126 BOOK rOIlTY-SIXTH. runner ;* the f!;oot or £fim/ in the north of Indostan, and the tchcing-tcy, which comes from the province of BaKy. The best horses to be seen in India are of foreign im- portation, chiefly from Arabia and Tartary. Asses and mules are not in general use. In the north, and even in the Deccan, wild ones are found which have de- scended from the high lands of Thibet. The Hindoos, like the Europeans, attach an idea of great meanness to the use of asses for riding. The koolan and the djif- ghetai of Tartary travel down to pass the winter in the forests of India. Among the Indian dogs, those used in the chace were famous in antiquity : they hunted the wild boar, and even the lion and the tiger,| and many of them were exported to Persia and Babylon. The best comes from the north, and from Afghanistan-^ Camels Camels. | and dromedaries, the only beasts of burden in eastern countries, are found in great numbers in the Guzerat, in the neighbourhood of Patna and of Man- ghir, in Mooltan, and in Tatta. In this last province, the author of the Ayen Ak- beri saw flocks consisting of some thousands. The camel, with two humps, lives in a state of natural liberty in the northern provinces. Varieties of The Indian sheep is distinguished from the European race by his sheep. reverted horns, and the silkiness of his wool. This breed is found all over India, excepting towards the extremity of the peninsula. Ctesias was cicquainted widi the riches of northern India in the article of wool. When he assures us that the sheep of these countries were as large as the Grecian asses, and that they were employed as beasts of burden, he speaks of the sheep so common in Cashmere, and which the inhabitants call hundoo.§ The true Cashmerian sheep, a delicate animal, furnishes the fine wool used in the manufacture of shawls. In Mooltan the bhara, or thick-tailed sheep, is also found, and the Thibet sheep, so highly prized for the quality of his wool. This precious article consists of the interior or shorter hair. In the kingdom of Assam, the rams have four horns. Finally, India contains also Goats, &c. I the Argali, or wild sheep, the capra cimmon of Pennant. |) The Guzerat and Cootch contain many goats, both wild and tame : the Cashmere goat furnishes very fine wool for shawls. In the mountains and forests of Orissa, Telinga, Berar and Malabar, the goat is met with from which bezoar is obtained, a morbid concre- tion formed in the intestines, presenting the appearance of a mineral, and valued in Asia for certain supposed medicinal qualities. Pigs and wild boars, stags and deer, Antelopes. | make their appearance in great numbers. Flocks of antelopes are seen in Bengal, and the rest of India. Besides the species common to Persia and Tar- tary, we find the nylgau, or blue antelope with white feet, called also «-os,ir and a small white species called dirdhagen by Mr. Gladwyn, the male of which has four horns, and reminds us of the four-horned oryx of the ancients.** The elk is fre- quently seen in the island of Ceylon ; but it may be questioned whether it is the elk which we know, or merely a species nearly allied to it. Oxen. I The ox and cow are treated with as much religious veneration in India as they were in ancient Egypt. Considered as the symbols of the productive ener- gies of nature ; emblems of the sun and moon ; these living monuments of history and civilization are believed to attend the great god Chiva, and the goddesses Par- vadi and Lakshmi, the one the Cybele and the other the Ceres of the Hindoos. The touch of a cow purifies the individual from all his sins. Only forty or fifty years ago, a king of Travancore, that he might make atonement for his cruelties, caused a colossal golden cow to be made, passed through the body of this image with the pro- foundest humility, and after this dated his edicts from the epoch of " his passage through the cow." This sainted species, which is very handsome in the Guzerat, Malwah, and Bengal, is distinguished from the European breed only by a fatty pro- tuberance on the back. It is the zebu or Bos Indicus of naturalists. In Ceylon * Solvyns, les Hindous, t. ili. f iElian, Hist. An. iv. c. 10. viii. c. 1. compare with Heeren, Ideen. i. p. 818. * Ayen Akberi, i. 303. § In the German, Danish, Swedish, and English languages, hu7id (or hounds) signifies a dog. II Pennant's Hist, of Quadrupeds, p. 45. h. H Hunter,^Phil. Trans. 1771, Asiat. Ueg. 1800. Miscall. Tr. p. 285. Pennant's Hist, of *• iEIian, Hist. Anim.xv. c. 14. Mode of catching. The Ainoce- ros. IXDOSTAN. 127 and in the neighbourhood of Svnat, there are oxen no hirgcr than mastiirs.* ■ The buffalo is spread over the whole of southern India. The yak is found in tlie most northern provinces. The animal which the Indians call the arni has | The ami. more resemblance to the buffalo than to the urus ; he is said to be six feet in height, with horns of enormous length, and lives among the Ghaut mountains and the Himalah. The greatest forests and the marshy districts are peopled with ele- | Eiephanu. phants. In the forests of the Ghauts there are flocks of two or three hundred. Those which are caught in the province of Tiperah and on the banks of the Brahma- pootra are highly valued; but the most docile and handsome, though smaller in size, come from the island of Ceylon. These gigantic animals, once formidable in the field of battle, are now only employed to drag cannon and carry ammunition, to set heavy engines in motion, or to carry on their broad backs the purple tent w'here a nabod reposes on his gilded cushions, a being sometimes of inferior intelligence to the noble animal by which he is carried. Elephants are caught in large en- closures formed of strong poles, into which they are driven by the sound of drums and the glare of flambeaus, from which their fears make them retire ; the animal is sometimes allured into these enclosures by means of a tame female placed there. He is secured by closing the gates. Connected v.ith this enclosed space is a long alley by which the animal is flattered with the prospect of making his escape, and here he is finally caught by means of beams laid across. He is now led forth bound, under the care of tamed elephants, who soon teach him to obey his masters.| The rhinoceros lives in Bengal, particularly in the islands at the mouths of the Ganges, where he is frequently seen in company with the tiger. The tiger finds in the herbage and underwood of the marshes the coarse aliment on whicli he lives, while the rhinoceros seeks amidst mud and water a protection from the scorching heat: these savage animals are thus brought together by a union of physical circumstances, though they have no instincts for mutual association. India swarms with serpents. They are found in the forests, in the | seri>ents. plains, in the gardens, and even in the interior of the houses. Numerous are tlie species distinguished by Malabaric and Portuguese names. The most dreaded are the cobra manilla, a little blue serpent, one foot long; the rubdira mandali, a large serpent, the bite of which causes blood to proceed from the pores of the skin; and the cobra de capello, the Coluber naja of Linnaeus, which is capable of being tamed, though its bite is so extremely dangerous. Paulin de S. Bartholome seriously pre- tends that he saw serpents with two heads; they were amphisbsenas, which have a head and a tail equal in size and of similar appearance, and which the Portuguese call cobra de diias cahegus. The royal serpent or boa, one of which, forty feet in length, was killed by M. Anquetil, is treated with divine honours. One of them, -worship of which resided in a grotto at Sumboolpoor, was within these fcAv years serpents, consulted as an oracle. t Even the sea which washes the Indian shores is filled with serpents, the bite of which is dangerous. There is a particular tribe of Indians that make the conjuring of serpents their trade, and teach these animals tricks of a most astonishing nature. § Almost all the rivers and even the lakes and marshes of Indostan, in- | nept.ies. eluding the Deccan, give birth to crocodiles larger than those of Egypt, but in other respects scarcely differing from them. There is a smaller variety, which is particu- larly venerated as a consecrated animal. || They are sometimes maintained in the ditches of fortified places as contributing to their defence. Lizards are extremely common in all these provinces. Among the Ghaut mountains there are some of pro- digious size. The island of Bombay and some other places swaru) with frogs and toads. Turtles are common on the sea-coasts and in the rivers. The best tortoise shell is from the Orissa shore. • Pennant, Hist. Quadrup. i. tab. 3. t See tlie plate in Valenlyn, oud and nleuw Ostindien, viii. Ecschryving van Ceylon, p. 47. Asiat. Keseaiclies, iii. 229. it Motte, in Asial. Misccll. ii. No. 1. § Nouv. rapports des mission, de Halle, cab. 43. p. 648 — 656. 3 I'ennunl's View, ii. L'07. 128 BOOK FOllTY-SIXTII. Fiih. I Such is the cibundancc of lish on the coast of Corouiandcl, Malaljar, and other coimtries, that domestic animals, as pigs, dogs, and even horses, are fed on them. There are few European species that are not found in India : the most conniion are the sahnon, the pilchard, the eel, the carp, and the tunny. The mango, {i\\e polymmus paradisms of Linnaeus,) a beautiful sea-fish of an orange co- lour, ascends the Ganges. Shining multitudes of gold coloured fishes adorn the surface of the waters. Here also is found that singular species, the flying fish, which, .though capalilc of taking a temporary flight through the air, as wefl as of gliding tlu'ough tlie water, is so persecuted by enemies in both elements, that his double faculty proves iasuflicient to secure him from their pursuit. The electrical torpedo, and gyumotus sometimes gives a shock to the unwary swimmer. Insects. I In this vvami climate the insects display a brilliance unknown in tem- perate zones : but they are often highly destructive. Here, as in some of the other countries which have fallen under our view, locusts sometimes settle in whole clouds on the devoted fields. Here many bees, almost all of thcin in a wild state, prepare a rich aromatic honey. The ants, black and wliite, form one of the severest scourges of the country. Spiders, large and small, scorpions, cray fish, butterfles of all colours, and silk worms, are to be numbered among the insects. But here, as in other coun- tries, the insects exceed in the numbers of species the plants tliemselves, though we reckon the list of Flora somewhat formidable to those who attempt to recount or to remember the whole. The shells, the corals, and the polypi, present lists equally overwhelming, and far surpassing any such enumeration as could be admitted into the present work. Silkworms. | We may, however, remark, that the common silk worm, the phakma mori, is not the only insect which provides the inhabitants of India, as it did those of the ancient Serica, with a valuable flax. There are other two species, the pha- lamn atlas, and the pliakma ricini,'^ which give different kinds of silk, and were un- doubtedly comprehended under the bombijx of the ancients. The fisheries of cowries and of pearls will be found in another place. Binis. 1 As for birds, it is in the north of India that the finest eagles, vultures, and fiilcons are found. They descend in pursuit of their prey from the same moun- tains from which India has been often visited by her ruthless conquerors. The griffin vultures and the bearded vultures are common in Siberia. The Mongolian princes keep multitudes of these animals for the purposes of falconry.t In the Parrots. | Dcccan thcrc are more than fifty kinds of parrots. That bird, sacred in the eyes of the Brahmins, was in ancient times in great request among the Greeks and Romans, who borrowed from the Persians the names which they gave to it.t The rooks and ravens are, among the Hindoos, symbols of the human soul, in a state of separation from the body, and are plenteously fed by the hand of supersti- tious charity. The ardigigas, are believed to be inhabited by the souls of Brahmins. On the coast of Malabar, owls form flocks consisting of some thousands. Peacocks. | India is the country of the peacock. The forests in every part of it are inhabited by enormous flocks of them in a wild state. But the turkey, according to the most received opinion is originally from America. Yet this animal is called in German, the " cock of Calicut," and the question of its origin appears deserving of fresh examination. § In this country arc found almost all the birds of our climates. Among those which are peculiar to it, are the mango, which lives on the fruit of the same name ; the little bird of paradise, which is common in the Ghaut mountains and in Malabar ; the white ibis, whose feathers are used in India in ornamental dress ; the black-headed ibis, or butor ; and the blue bird, called porphyrio by the ancients, and in the Malabaric language pidaramholi. In all the forests bottle-shaped nests arc seen suspended from the boughs by a slender thread, and vacillating in the • Shaw's Nutiu-alist's Miscellany, plate ii. Sir W. Jones, Letter to Mr. Anderson. t AycMi Akljeri, i. oOf). . . , , , ,• -i- i i I 11 is called /2/TTdt«oc by Ctcsis, iiom liidak in Persian ; and I'siltucus is probably Irom 1 eUalc or Tiilak in llie same languaj^e. § Bcckman, Littcralurder Keisen, i.p. 26— 447 — S^7. INDOSTAN. 129 wind. These are the aboJes, us well as the ingenious workmansliip of the Loxta phili]yjnna. Were we to give a complete view of the physical features of India, we should far exceed the limits prescribed to the present work. We must therefore pass on from this copious subject to other details which the geographical reader is led more particularly to expect. BOOK XLVir. INDIA CONTINUED. Topograjyhical View of the Countries on the Indus and Ganges. After the account which we have given of the general geography of India, we niust now take a vicAV of its different provinces in succession. We shall first turn our attention to those which are watered by the Sinde and its tributaries, next to the Guzerat, and Adjemere, or the Rajepoot states ; then proceed to the basin of the Great Ganges, and take a view of the regions watered by that river and its tributa- ries. This will occupy the present book. In the one following we shall take a view of the Deccan, or peninsula, and afterwards of the island of Ceylon and the Mal- dives. In our account of Afghanistan, the empire of the king of Caubul, we included the territory on the west of the Indus, and at the mouth of that river, and also the val- ley of Cashmere, these being Indian provinces of that empire. We shall now begin with the province of Lahore, consisting of two Province of parts, the one of which is the mountainous tract in the north-east, ^^'^^^- stretching south and east from Cashmere ; and the other the flat country known by the name of the Punjab, a name sometimes applied to the whole province, and de- rived from the five celebrated rivers by which it is intersected, and which were de- scribed in the preceding book. Hence the climate of this province varies, the hills and northern parts having winters not unlike those of the middle of Eu- | Hiijy part, rope. The mountainous tract, which includes the origin of four of the five rivers, (the other rising in Cashmere,) is rugged and thinly peopled. It contains several principalities, the chiefs of which are Rajahs of Hindoo descent, who, as well as their subjects, have adopted the Mahometan religion, but retain their Hindoo title. In manners and language the inhabitants resemble the Cashmerians, with a mixture of the more southern nations. Many pines grow on the face of the mountains, the resinous parts of which are cut into slips, and used as lamps, but the extraction of tar and turpentine is not practised. The climate of the northern parts seems unfa- vourable to fruits, being too hot for the Persian productions, and too cold for those of India. The mountains contain large beds of fossil salt. Their sides, where they are cultivated, produce w heat and other grains. They are cut into a succession of flat terraces, supported by buttresses of loose stones. A small quantity of rice is produced in the narrow valleys. The flat part of the province more properly called the Punjab, is by | The Punjab, far the most productive, but, except in the inunediate vicinity of the rivers, it is much less fertile than Bengal, or even the British provinces in the higher parts of Indos- tan, the soil being of a sandy texture. Of the four divisions of" the Punjab, east of the Hydaspes, or Jylum, the two nearest to this river are quite flat, and chiefly pas- tured by herds of oxen and buffaloes, the cultivation is scanty, and the trees tew; that which lies to the cast, towards the Sutlcdge, has an undulated surface, and though naturally the most sterile, is the best cultivated. It contains many fine vil- VoL. II.— R 130 BOOK FORTY-SEVENTH, lages, and some large towns: but the latter, with the exception of Amritsir, the holy city of the Seike, are in a decUning condition. TheSeiks. The Seik nation, which rules the greater part of this country, holds a Their history, conspicuous place among the inhabitants of India. The term Seik sig- nifies a disciple. Their founder, Nanac, was born in an obscure station in a village to the north of Lahore, A. D. 1419. Devoted to a religious life, he becanne emi- nent as a teacher, inculcated a mild philosophic system, and endeavoured to connect (he contending factions of Mahomedans and Hindoos, by fixing their attention on the great principle on which they were agreed, the unity and perfection of God, and making them view their external observances as comparatively insignificant. The worship of Brahma, Vishnu, and Maliadeva, the three chief divinities of the Hin- doos, and the use of images, were rejected. When he died, others succeeded. One successor, Arjoonmal, distinguished himself by compiling the Adi-granth, or sacred book of the Seiks, and thus gave a consistent form and order to their religion, but he was treacherously put to death by tlie Mahometans. This event turned the thoughts of the Seiks to warlike objects. Hurgovind, his son, was a military priest, who urged the Seiks to vengeance, and headed them in a series of desperate attacks on the Mahometan chiefs in the Punjab, which, however, were suppressed by the vigour of the Mogul government. The execution of Teg Bahadar, a priest who lived in obscurity at Patna, by the Mogul government in 1675, gave a final turn to the destiny of the Seiks. Gooroo Govind, the son, eminent both as a preacher, an author, and a warrior, new-modelled the whole government of the Seiks, and con- verted them into a band of ferocious soldiers. Steel became the watchAvord of the state, and even the object of their worship. The supreme deity was denominated by them, " All Steel." This bold innovator extinguished all the distinctions of caste among his followers, urged them to unite in the career of military glory, and having collected them amid the mountains of Serinagur, rushed furiously down on the west- ern provinces. He had, however, too potent an enemy in the celebrated Aurengzebe, was defeated, and his adherents dispersed, and he is said to have died insane in the Deccan. After this they never again acknowledged any spiritual head. But, on the death of Aurengzebe, in 1707, they enrolled themselves under Banda, a military leader, committed dreadful ravages, and treated the places of worship and burial grounds of the Mahometans with every species of indignity. But they were again defeated and destroyed in great numbers, and Banda was put to death at Delhi with every species of insult and torture, which he endured with unshaken fortitude. After the expedi- tion of Nadir Shah, they issued from their fastnesses, harassed his retreating rear, and plundered the baggage of his army ; they now assumed an attitude of independ- ence and defiance, and, after many contests with the Afghans and Mahrattas, they Pieient state. \ have obtained possession of the Punjab. Amritser is their spiritual capi- tal, to which they resort in pilgrimage, and to reach which, while in possession of their enemies, they sometimes braved the dangerof death. This is also the scatof their coun- cil, where the chiefs on some occasions meet to take oaths of union and mutual fidelity, on their sacred books the Granths. Notwithstanding this practice, they are gene- rally in a state of dissension, and therefore unable to make head against a formida- ble enemy ; so that they owe their possession of their present territory chiefly to the weakness and distraction which prevail among their neighbours, and the balancing management of British policy. Manners and The prosclytcs belonging to the Seiks are mostly from the Hindoos, character. ^y|^Q^ ^j^ joining them, are permitted to retain all their former obser- vances, in so far as they imply no positive infringement of the tenets of Nanak, and are very strict on the subject of diet and intermarriages. The Mahometan converts, on the contrary, are prohibited from following any of the observances of their original creed, are not allowed to practise circumcision, and are obliged to eat pork. The Seiks abstain from several of the sensual indulgences to which the Mahometans arc addicted. They do not allow themselves the use of tobacco, but indulge in opium and spirituous liquors to great excess. They are a well made people, and have the countenance of Hindoos, though distinguished from them by their long beards. Thoy Population and trade. INDOSTAN. 131 have all the activity of the Mahrattas, to which they unite a greater degree of bodily strength, derived from their more favourable climate. They are very courageous, and when animated by religious fanaticism, quite desperate. Their mode of address is bold and somewhat rough ; their habitual tone of voice loud and bawling. Their language is chiefly Hindostanee, with a slight intermixture of Persian. Their con- duct towards women resembles that of the Hindoos and Mahometans, but is somewhat more relaxed. They prohibit the self immolation of widows on 'the death of their husbands ; though some of their women so far break the law as to take an opportu- nity for committing suicide when they become widows. Their chief military force consists of cavalry. They use matchlocks and sabres, entertaining for the latter weapon a veneration almost religious. One soldier often keeps a plurality of horses. On these they set a high value, and entertain for them sentiments of alfection. When one of their companions dies, they rather express joy than grief; but cry bitterly on the loss of a horse. Their force, at the end of the last century, was said to amount to 248,000,* but this must have been an enormous exaggeration. They used to boast that they could raise 100,000 horse ; but it is not practicable to bring every horse- man belonging to them into the field, llunjeet Singh is the only Scik chief who can bring forward 4000 effective men ; and oven this prince's force did not, in 1S05, amount to 8000. He has subjugated almost all the country north of the Sutledge, while those to the south are under British protection. The Lahore province includes a territory of 70,000 square miles, but the population probably does not exceed four millions. There is now scarcely any regular trade between this country and the rest of Indostan ; but petty merchants can generally obtain passports through the Scik territories, and a trifling commerce is in that manner carried on. The exports to Afghanistan and Persia are sugar, rice, indigo, wheat, and white cotton cloths : the imports are swords, horses, fruit, lead, and spices. From Cashmere they import shawls, cloths, fruits, and saffron. Commerce is much obstructed by heavy duties, though of late greater encouragement than formerly is given to it. The chiefs generally claim one half of the land produce ; but they ] Revenuei. treat the cultivators with great indulgence, and this revenue is seldom levied to the full extent. The chief city in this province is Lahore, the capital of Ruiijet Singh. | ciiyofLahore. It is situated on the south side of the river Ravey, on the great road bordered v ith plane trees which leads from Delhi to Afghanistan. It has lost much of its an- cient splendour, but still contains fine buildings and elegant gardens, though its liableness to warlike reverses has deterred wealthy individuals from residing in it. It contains the beautiful fortified palace of the ancient Mongul sovereigns, one of the finest and most sumptuous in the world. It was founded by Akber, and greatly enlarged by his successors. When beheld from the opposite side of the river, with its varied terraced gardens, it looks like a scene of enchantment, suited to the ideas formed of the palace of Semiramis, or of one of the faries of the Arabian tales. The terraced roofs are adorned from one end to the other with a thousand species of the finest flowers native to a country which is the abode of eternal spring. The interior of this magnificent building is ornamented with gold, lapis lazuli, porphyry, and fine-grained red granite. The hall where the throne is placed, and its gallery, are most of all admired, — the walls and ceiling being covered with fine rock crystal, and a trellice of massive gold running along, adorned with figures of grapes exe- cuted in pearls and precious stones, vying with one another in brilliance. The bathing room contains a bath in the form of a boat, which is made of oriental agate, adorned with plates of gold; this used to be filled with eight hogsheads of rose water. Across the river, and two miles north from Lahore, at Shah Durra, stands the celebrated mausoleum of Jehangheer, within a wall of nearly 600 yards square. | Runjeet Singh. Runjeet Singh, the chief who resides at Lahore, well skilled both in war and intrigue, has, between the years 1S05 and 1812, subjugated almost all the Rajahs of the Punjab, and now rules the country with considerable mildness, maintaining a good • Franklin, History of Shall Alum, p. 75. North-west parts. The different Doabs. 132 BOOK FORTY-SEVENTH, understanding with the British authorities, of whose intentions he has been taught by experience to entertain no apprehension ; very different from the Ghoorkas of the more easterly parts, who, by their oppressions, rendered themselves odious to the tribes which they subdued, and brought down on themselves the repressing hand of British power. Several parts of this country, adjoining the Afghan territory, are more or less subject to the Afghan power, such as Puckely in the north-west corner, the Peiikelaotis of the ancients, containing some of the descendants of the troops left in it by Timour as a garrison. Nortli of this is Turnaul, inhabited by the Swaties; ami Muzzifferabad, a town belonging to the Mahometan tribes of Bumbas and Cukkas, whose country forms the lino of communication between Caubul and Cashmere. The valley and district of Chuch, at the north-west corner of Lahore, is inhabited by Mahometan Hindoos, named Goochers. Near this is the Afghan fortress of Attok, which derives its name from a prohibition under which the Hindoos lie, against crossing the river under the penalty of degradation. It was here that Alexander, Tamerlane, and Nadir Shah entered India with their armies. Hussein Abdaul is a beautiful valley on the eastern border of Chuch. It has its name from that of a devout saint whose tomb it contains. Rawil Pindee is a larae and populous Seik town, sixty-eight miles east, consisting of handsome terraced houses. Here a kind of native newspapers, detailing the transactions of the neigh- bouring princes, and called the north-western Akbars, are usually dated, but tliey are careless and idle miscellanies, of no authority whatever. Between the Indus and the Jylum, the whole country was once in possession of the Goocher tribe, who occasioned much trouble both to the Moguls and the Afghans, but have been expelled by the Seiks, though they still retain a high military reputation. Their country abounds in grapes. At Manicyala, Ancient mo- One of their villages, there is a solid building resembling a cupola, seventy Dument. f-g^,^ ]^jgl^ ^^^ jqq paces in circumference, situated on the top of a high mound. The natives maintain that it was built by the gods. In architecture, it ap- proaches to the Grecian style, and has nothing of the Hindoo character. Leia is the name of a town and district near the southern part of the Sinde Sagor, or the Doab* bounded by the Indus and Jylum, belonging to the Afghans. This Doab, in general, is divided between that power and the Seiks: the former possesses the dis- trict nearest to the rest of their territory. The Doab bounded by the Jylum and the Chenab, belongs to the Seiks, and is not much known. The next, called Doabeh Rechtna, bounded on the east by the Ravcy, is fertile and extensive, and its popu- lation greater than that of the preceding, containing some towns of note, as Bissolec, a fortified town, belonging to Runjeet Singh, Vizierabad, and Eminabad. The Doabey Barry (from Bari, a residence,) comprehending the low countries between the Ravey and the Beyah, forms the centre of the Seik power, as it contains the cities of Lahore and Amritsir. Araritsir. | Amntsir, formerly called Ramdaspoor, derives its present name (sig- nifying " the pool of immortality") from a basin of 135 paces square, built of burned brick, in the centre of which is a temple dedicated to Gooroo Govind Singh. (Singh signifies a lion, an appellation which the Seiks, and especially their chiefs, adopted when they assumed the character of determined warriors.) It was a very ancient city, under the name of Chak, and was greatly enlarged by Gooroo Ranidas, who built the famous reservoir of Amritsir. Ahmed Shah twice destroyed the temple, and threw dead cows into the water to pollute it. Here Runjeet Smgh has a mint where coins are struck in the name of the great saint and founder of the Seik sect, Nanak. The town is unwalled, the streets narrow, the houses well built, but divided into narrow apartments. It is tlic chief emporium of the shawls and sallron of Cash- mere, and the various commodities which come from the south and cast of India. A few coarse cloths and inferior silks are manufactured in the place. Being the resort of many rich merchants, and the residence of bankers, it is a place of considerable • Doab is a term applied in India to any tract of land situated between two rivers above their point of junction. INDOSTAN. 133 opulence.* The Doabeh Jallinder, the tract inchuled between the Sutlcdgc and Beyah, and bounded also by the mountainous district of Cahlorc, is of small dinjcn- sions, but of great political consequence, being the only road by which the territory of Delhi can be entered by an army from the west. It is circumscribed by the moun- tains on one hand, and the desert on the other. It is under the dominion of Runjeet Singh, who holds the Doabeh Singhs in subjection. It is the most fertile portion of the Seik territory, and scarcely inferior to any province of India. Jallinder is it^ chief town, formerly a residence of the Afghans, and still inhabited by their descend- ants, subject to the Seiks. It contains also Noorpoor, a town situated on the top of a hill which is ascended by stone steps. The Kohistan (or hill country) of Lahore contains some small inde- [ niii teniiory. pendent states, as Kishtewar, the name of which signifies woody, and which is inter- sected by the Chenab. Jambo is sometimes tributary to the Seiks, but has a Rajah of its own. The town of that name was once a place of great and well regulated commerce. Khangra is a fortress which Akber besieged for a whole year, com- manding in person, before he succeeded in reducing it. The Khangra country is productive in rice, corn, and maize. Here the progress of the Ghoorkas of Nepal, after the taking of Serinagur, was arrested to the westward. It was defended by its own Rajah, who, however, afterwards submitted to the power of Runjeet. The city of Khangra, called also Nagorkot, is ancient, and contains a magniiicent temple, to which, in the months of September and October, a great number of pilgrims from every part of India resort. Cooloo is a country bordering on the Siitledge, the Ra- jah of which assisted in the war of the British against the Ghoorkas, but he was obliged in the settlement to cede some places to the east of the Sutledge, which he had wrested from that power. Mooltan is the lowest part, or angle of the Doab formed by the Sut- | Mooitan. ledge, the Ravey, and the Chenab. This is the country of the ancient J\lulles. At present it is not much known to Europeans. The city of Mooltan, four miles from the left bank of the Chenab or ./Icesincs, which has previously received the Ravey or Hydraotcs, and the Jylum or Hydaspes, is enclosed by a good wall, defended by a citadel on a rising gi-ound, and adorned with several beautiful tombs. It is noted for its silks, and a species of carpets much inferior to those of Persia. The soil of the country is rich and well cultivated. It contains many ruinous villages, and has on the whole an aspect of decay: but the greater part is still irrigated by means of Per- sian wheels. This country is unfortunate in a frequent change of masters, who de- vastate and pillage it in succession. In 1818, it was taken by Runjeet, who probably still holds it. Bahawulpoor is a principality of considerable extent, the strongest | Baiwwuipoor. place of which is Derawul, which owes its power of resistance in cases of invasion to the sterility of the surrounding sands. Ooch is a town in this principality, situated at the place where the Sutledge Hows into the stream formed by the junction of the four upper rivers, to complete the Punjnud which carries the waters of the whole Punjab into the Indus. Elphinstone says, that the Punjnud flows into the Indus at Ooch, but it is probable that in the dry season that confluence takes place nuich lower down. Ooch must have been of more importance in former times than it is now, as it gives name to an Indian dialect considered as distinct, though akin to the Ben- galcse and Ilindostance. Sinde, being tributary to the Afghan sovereign, has already, in some | sinde. measure, come under our notice, and the nature of the country has also been de- scribed in the ])rcceding volumcf Its boundaries are Mooltan and Afghanistan on the north, Cutch and the sea on the south, the sea and Baloochistan on the west, and Adjemere on the cast. To the cast of the Indus it is quite level. It carries on a considerable commerce with the adjoining parts of India, but nothing approaching to what it did in former times, and it has greatly declined under the present rapa- cious rulers, the Ameers. These belong to the Sheeah sect of Mahometans, but * Sir Joliii Malculm, Asiat, Kegisl. vol, x. t See Vol. I, p. 458. Chinganes. Conjectures on the origin of the gypsiesi 134 BOOK FOllTY-SEVENTH. are tolerant both to heretics and to inlidels. The poi)ulation consists chiefly of Hin- doos, Juts, (or converted Hindoos,) and Bcloochcs. The Sinde has dechned greatly in population and lertility. An extraordinary number of tombs and burial grounds are scattered over districts now in the state of deserts. Some of the best of the soil is appropriated in large tracts as hunting ground by the Ameers, who are passion- ately fond of that amusement. The country swarms with military adventurers, and furnishes mercenaries for tiie infantry of the native Indian powers. The army of the Ameers amounts to 36,000 cavalry. The territory contains many wretched men- dicants, and also a set of proud and arrogant beggars, who pretend to be descendants of the prophet. Cities. I Hyderabad is the modern capital. The fortress stands on a rocky hill on the margin of the Fulalec branch of the river, and possesses great natural strength ; some handsome mosques arc contained in it. Talta, higher up the Indus, was formerly the capital of Sinde. Here the old English factory still stands, and is the best house in the whole province. The surrounding soil is rich, but the city is miserably decayed, though once a flourishing place. It is mentioned in Mahometan history as early as the year 92, of the Hegira, or A. D. 677. Dr. Robertson sup- poses it to be identical with the ancient Pattala. The Chinganes, a predatory horde who live near the mouth of the Indus, have been supposed by some modern authors to be the original stock of those bands of wanderers known in Europe under the names of Zingarians, Bohemians, and Gypsies, who excite a mingled feeling of horror, curi- osity, and even tenderness, by the abject lives which they lead in the bosoms of fo- rests, their skill in a few trades, their indolence, their noisy mirth, their wild dances, and their pretended knowledge of futurity. We are told that some of them call themselves Shites. The Persians call them black Hindoos. In their language, though little known, there have been found a hundred words common to it with the Hindoo languages of Mooltan and Bengal.* Pallas found the Indians who visited Astrachan to speak a language which had many words in common with that of the Zingarians or Gypsies of the Russian Ukraine. "j" Another traveller, Paulin de St. Bartholome, has compared the dialects of Tatta and the Guzerat with that of the Bolicmians of Italy and Hungary..]; Some have even fixed the epoch of their emi- gration as coinciding with that of the ravages of Tamerlane. It was just half a century after this that the wandering Bohemians attracted notice in Europe. This hypothesis has been ably elucidated, § and is received by many of the learned ; but not by all. Some have attempted to show that the SiQ;ij7i7ies of the Danube, known to Herodotus, II or the Sindi of the Cimmerian Bosphorus, where the ancestors of our modern Gypsies. IT Others lay great weight on some Coptic v/ords found in use among the Zigeuns,** and on the term gypsy, (or Egyptian,) applied to them in Eng- land. Others lean to the opinion of the Turks, who consider the Zinguri of Cairo and Constantinople as having come originally from Zanguebar in south-eastern Africa. "f I At all events, the great number of Indian words which they use shows some ancient connection with Indostan. chaiciikan. | Clialchkan is a country once considered as a desert, from never hav- ing been explored, but now found to contain many cultivated spots, with small chicf- doms, and fixed tribes. On the nortli, it is bounded by the province of Adjemere ; on the south by the great salt morass called the Runn, which separates it from Cutch, on the west by Sinde, and on the east by the province of Guzerat ; it lies chiefly between the 24th and 25th degrees of north latitude. The most powerful chiefs in this tract of country are the Beloochee Kosahs, who settled in it about forty years ago, and are named Siryes by the aboriginal inhabitants. They are a set of san- • Adelung's Mithridate, i. p. 244, &c. f Neue Nordische Beytraege, iii. 96. i M. Alter on the Sanscrit, p. 172. § Grcllman's Historical Essay on the Zigeunes. Richardson, in the Asiatic Researches No. vii. II Xtyuv'M, lleroil. S/j/vw/, Strab. i'/j-t/^uco/, Orpli. i'/juiivo/, Apoll. Uhod. H Hasse on the Zigeuns of Herodotus, a German work, published at Kcenigsberg, 1803. •* Rami is the word for men, both in Coptic and the S^ingar, or G)'psy language, ft A manuscript note of M. FauUie. INnOSTAN. 135 guinary thieves, who infest the whole neighbourhood to grr^at distances, moving in bands from 100 to 500 strong. They are originally i'rom Sinde, and to that country they carry their dead for interment. Between Sinde on the west and the Guzerat on the cast, lies the pro- | Cuteh. vince of Cuteh, along the sca-shorc, 140 miles long and 95 broad. Its geographical position is rather singular. The hilly portion is not deficient in fertility and verdure, and is productive wherever the government gives due tolerance to the industry of tlie cultivator. The interior is studded with hills mostly covered with wild jungle, where the chiefs have their strong holds and dens, and from whence they either plun- der or protect the intervening valleys, as best suits their purpose. The greater part of the province, however, is poor and barren, and the rains uncertain. The most material part of the cultivation consists of three cro))s obtained by irrigation. In some seasons water is extremely scarce, and carried from great distances. The chiefs boast of their independence, and no country can well be more impracticable for an invading army. The villages are all forlilied, and some in a very respectable manner. Female infanticide has long been common, and probably still | infanticide, is so in this province. Prior to ISOO, the number of infants annually destroyed among the Jareiah tribes was supposed to be 2000. Other accounts make it much larger. The Government of Cuteh is extremely unsettled. The Raja or Row, has of late years been superseded for the cruelty and absurdity of his conduct, which had excited universal dissatisfaction. Some interference took place on that occasion on the part of tlie British, who sent a force from Bombay which reduced Bhoodje the capital. This territory being inhabited by a warlike race, fond of independence, but unambitious of conquest, is considered as a strong defence on the frontiers of the British possessions against the restlessness of the Sindeans on the north, whose attempts to enter Cuteh have been steadily opposed by British diplomacy. The Mahometan religion has been, and probably stUl is, making great progress in this part, and the Hindoo worship seems likely, in no long time, to disappear. The Runn forms a remarkable feature in the physical geography of Cuteh, TiieRunn being a salt marsh of. 8000 square miles, bounding that territory on the "^"''•^s- east. Its breadth varies from five to eighty miles across, between Cuteh and Guzerat. It is said to be formed by the overflowing of the river Puddar and the Gulf of Cuteh, probably chiefly, if not wholly, by the former, as in December, during the diy sea- son, it is quite dry, and in most places hard. It is a dead flat, totally devoid of ver- dure and vegetation, strewed with dead prawns, mullets, and other fish, and frequented by large birds. On the Cuteh side it is visited by apes and porcupines. On the op- posite, the incrustations resemble snow. In the dry season it has been crossed by armies and embassies. The banks of the Runn are frequented by wild asses in droves of sixty and seventy at a time. Bhoodje, the capital of Cuteh, is a place of considerable strength, both natural and artificial. Mandavie is the principal sea-port, possessing an excellent harbour, and maintaining an extensive trade. Anjar is a small district of Cuteh, which was ceded to the British in 1816. It is in contem- plation to form a number of tanks here for extending the cultivation of the country. Tiiere is a general law always observed in Cuteh, that every person who chooses to sink a well is entitled to the possession of the whole unoccupied land which it is capable of irrigating. The capital, Anjar, was garrisoned by 300 Arabs, when it Avas taken in 1816 by the detachment of Colonel East. Janagoor, is a town with a strong citadel, placed by Rennel on the river Banis, which runs in a course parallel to that of the Puddar, both being nearly dry, except in the rainy season. The extensive province of Guzerat — 320 mdes long and 180 broad | Guzerat. — is chiefly situated between the 21st and 24th degrees of north latitude; and is bounded on the north by the province of Adjemere; on the south, by the sea and the province of Aurungabad; on the east, by Malwah and Kandesh; and on the west, l)y portions of Sinde, Cuteh, and the sea. A considerable portion of this province in the interior is hilly, and much covered with jungle, which is encouraged by the inhabi- tants as a protection from invaders. Within these places, however, dwell many tribes of professed thieves, a great proportion of whom are cavalry, and extend their depreda- tions to a great distance. The coasts of the peninsular portion of Guzerat abound with Different classes of the population. The Grassias. 136 BOOK FORTY-SEVENTH. creeks and little inlets, which, by furnishing shelter from cruiesrs, by reason of their difficult navigation, are particularly adapted to the encouragement of piracy. This province is traversed by several noble rivers, as the Nerbuddah, Tuptee, Mahy, Me- hindry, and Sabermatty, but in many places a scarcity of water is experienced. In the sandy soil to the north of the Mahy river, the wells are from 80 to 100 feet deep. The country is very much intersected by ravines, and broken up by the rains, the chasms being converted into rapid rivers in the rainy season. The soil in general is fertile, but little improved. The districts possessed by the British are very improveable, but their improvement has been greatly retarded by the contests which have, till lately, been maintained with the neighbouring states. Here the baubul tree yields a gum by exudation, which is used as food by the poor inhabitants of the jungles. This province exhibits a vast variety of sects, castes, and customs. The Gras- sias are a numerous class of ambiguous landholders, belonging to no particular caste or race otherwise distinct. Their claims are considered as oppressive and vexatious, as well as dubious in their origin, resembling the black mail once existing in Scotland, a demand in compensation for a forbearance in plun- der. These demands are prosecuted by menacing means in defiance of any fixed law. The Coolies are a most untameable race of plunderers, who delight in blood and nastiness, and despise every approach to civilized habits. They live chiefly on Bhatts. I the river Mahy. The persons called Bhatts, a sort of rehgious order, abound most of all in Guzerat. Some are cultivators of the land, most of them are keepers of records, beggars, or itinerant bards. Some of them become securities in the money transactions of others. Allied to these are the Charons, a sect of Hin- doos, who possess great droves of animals of burden, by which they carry on a dis- Charons. ( tant traffic. Charons and Brahmins engage to protect travellers. When those under their protection are threatened, their plan is to take an oath to die by their own hands in case their protege is pillaged, and in such veneration are they held by these robbers that this threat is almost in every case sufficient to restrain them. The Bhatts formerly acted as securities between the Mahratta government and its subjects, the one demanding Bhat security for the payment of the revenue, and the other the same against the oppressive treatment of the ruling powers. Here, as in ungreas. | other parts, are Ungreas, or money carriers, who conceal in their clothes the money committed to their charge. They are persons of athletic strength, well armed, and, though miserably poor, are entrusted with large sums with perfect secu- rity. The Dheras or Pariahs are a degraded caste, employed in the vilest work, and obliged to live in huts separated from the rest of society. The other Hindoo castes also exist here as in the rest of India, though under different appellations. The sect of Jains is more numerous than in any of the adjoining countries, and they have many beautiful temples with well wrought images of stone and metal, rarsees. | Bcsidcs its uativc tribes and castes, Guzerat contains nearly all the Parsees of India, the remains of the followers of the Persian Zoroaster. When the Mahometan religion gained the ascendancy in Persia, they retired to the mountains of their own country, where Ihey remained till tlie overthrow of the monarchy, and Tiieir history, j tlic dcalli of Yt'zdigird, their last sovcreigu. Finding themselves treated as outlaws, they wandered towards the port of Ormuz, then governed by a branch of the old royal family, where they resided fifteen years, and they learned ship building and navigation. After this they repaired to the isle of l)iu in this part of India, where they remained nineteen years; then, becoming too numerous for so confined a place, they sought a wider habitation, by going to the Guzerat, where they were favourably received at Seyjan by Jadu Bana, a Hindoo prince. Here they first lighted up the sacred fire. Afterwards many of them settled in various other places in this quarter of India, such as Surat and Bombay, where they have increased rapidly in numbers. After their voluntary dispersion, the Seyjan chief requested their assistance in oppo- sition to the Sultan of Ahmedabad, a bigoted usurper, who about A.D. 1450, detached an army of 30,000, to levy trilmte from him. About 1400 Parsees joined the chief on this occasion, and beat the Mahometan Sultan in the first instance, though he after- wards gained his object. This is the only political or military transaction in which the Parsees have been engaged during 1000 years that they have resided in India. INDOSTAN. 137 They have, since that time, Hved in difierent communities, along the ooast, from Diu to Bombay. Their modern population is divided into two grand classes, the Mobid, or clerical class, and the Behdeen, or laity. A Mobid may marry a Behdeen female ; but Behdeens are not allowed to take wives from Mobid families. They often bring up other people's children, and admit them among the Behdeens ; and sometimes they admit adult proselytes, where they can place confidence in their adherence to the laws of Zoroaster. These last adoptions, however, are rare. The | customs. Parsee females are, by the laws of their religion, placed on an exact equality with the men, and have long maintained a character for unspotted chastity. The children, like those of the Hindoos, are betrothed between the ages of four and nine, and the marriage takes place within the ninth year of the girl's age. If a betrothed girl dies, the guardians of the boy look out for a girl who has, in like manner, lost her intended husband. Among adults, widowers only marry widows. They employ a dog to watch the corpse of a dead person, believing firmly that dogs see aerial beings which are invisible to men, and keep them off by their bowlings. They have a great dis- like to touch a dead animal, and especially a hare. They have adopted the dress and many of the customs of the Hindoos, and have forgot their own language for that of their present country. Very few think of studying the language or antiquities of their own nation. At present, the young men of their best families arc taught to read and write the English language. The opulent among them are mcr- | Empioymentj. chants, ship-owners, and land-holders; the inferior classes are shop-keepers, and exer- cise such mechanic arts as are not connected with the use of fire ; but the manufacture of metals is not practised by any among them, nor do they become soldiers or sailors, as the use of fire-arms is contrary to their religious precepts. At Bombay, many of them act as interpreters and domestic servants to Europeans. The clerical tribe is distinguished by white turbans, but they follow all kinds of occupations, only a few of them deing selected for the performance of religious ceremonies. Some of them read and write the Zend or Pehlevi character, but their knowledge is extremely su- perficial. The Parsees, devoted to the pursuits of commerce, are not addicted to any kind of literature. A recent innovation respecting the commencement of their new year has occasioned a separation of this ancient and long united people into two sects, the one celebrating the new year and their other religious festivals a month later than the other. The places in which they are at present collected in greatest bodies are Diu, Cambay, Broach, Oclaseer, Hansoot, Veriou, Surat, Nowsarry, Da- maun, Bombay, and Erdwara. This last place is the chief residence of their priests, and the depository of the sacred fire which they brought from Persia. In their ori- ginal country, they have been reduced by persecution to a small number, who are chiefly collected in the city of Yezd, where they occupy about 4000 houses. These also are a very industrious race, but much oppressed by the Persian government, paying a poll-tax of twenty piasters, and subjected to perpetual extortions of other kinds.* There is a singtdar race in this part of India called Borahs, professing | The Borahs. the Mahometan faith, who have Jewish features, and form every where a distinct community, noted for frugality and address in bargaining. Boorampoor in Khandish is their chief place, and the residence of their head Moollah. They go about as ]l itinerant pedlars in Guzerat and the adjacent provinces. There are numerous manufacturing looms in this province, all the | industry, castes, excepting Brahmins and Banyans, ocoasionally following the occuj)ation of weaving. Tiie Surat manufactures are famed for their excellent quality and mf)de- rato price. The trade of this province is far from being equally flourishing as under the Mongol government, even in its most turbulent periods. — It is the custom, when a merchant finds his affairs involved, to set up a blazing lamp in his shop or office, and abscond till his creditors have examined his property. Till such time as he has obtained his discharge, he wears the tail of his waist-cloth, not hanging down as usual, but tucked up. Pei-.5ons who adopt these steps in good time, so as not to do J:heir creditors much injury, are greatly esteemed, and often be- • A full .tccoinit of theU" religious creed is given in Malcolm's History of Persia. Vol. II.— S Ciiftoms in cases of bank- ruptcy- 138 BOOK rORTY-SRVENTH. come subsequently more prosperous than they could have otherwise been ; hence some have even set up the bankrupt light without necessity, with a view to the future patronage of the public. Guzerat is very thinly peopled in some parts, as the north- west ; in others, as about Surat, it is extremely populous. The people live in village groups for security, whereas on the Coromandel coast, the dwellings are detached. The horrid practice of female infanticide was lately very prevalent among the Jare- jah tribe, to which the chiefs of the Guzerat peninsula belong ; but the British au- thorities at Bombay have exerted themselves to suppress it, so that it is not now openly practised. Another crime of common occurrence was one which went under *rf the name of Jhansa, consisting in writing threatening letters, and destroying the property of others, in order to force compliance with some unjust demand. This is now becoming less common and less violent, from the regularity with which civil t justice is administered.* Revolutions Guzerat was first invaded by Mahmud of Ghiznee, about A. D. 1025. - mteTf Gu- It was subject to the Mongul power for many years. In the fifteenth zerat. Gcutury it bccame independent under a dynasty of Rajepoot princes, who had embraced the Mahometan faith. It was again reduced by Akber in 1572. After the death of Aurengzebe, in 1707, it was overrun by the Mahrattas, and in a few years finally severed from the Mogul throne. At present the more civilized parts are possessed by the British, who occupy a considerable tract on both sides of the Gulf of Cambay, including the populous cities of Surat, Broach, Gogo, Cambay, and Bhownugger. The sea coast from this to the Gulf of Cutch is in the hands of several petty chiefs, some subject to the Guicowar, and others independent, addicted to piracy, but now restrained by the British, who have a detachment of the Bombay army cantoned at Palyad, in the west of the Guzerat, for that purpose. — The district of Puttunwar in the north-west, is thinly inhabited, and not thoroughly explored. — Neyer, adjoining to it, is remarkable for its fine horses. — There is a district at the jtitwar,and mouths of the rivers which flow into the Runn, called Jutwar, being in the Jut.. ^ particular manner the country of that description of people called the Juts, who also exist in Sinde and the Punjab. They are of Hindoo extraction, but converted to the Mahomedan religion. They are professed and determined plunder- ers, yet industrious among themselves, and some of their settlements are remarkably populous. The Jut women exercise an influence over the men which is rare among Mahomedans. A woman can, when she chooses, leave her husband, and marry another. When she wishes to take such a step, she persecutes him, assisted by her female acquaintance, till he acquiesces in a separation. Being much respected by the men, the Jut women sometimes act in the capacity of protectors to persons and their property. Peninsular It is the penlnsular part of this province that forms its leading geogra- projection. phical feature, being the only lateral projection of any considerable size, by which the smooth outline of the extensive coast of India is diversified. Its length, from east to west, is 190 miles, its breadth 110. It is sometimes called the Cattywar, a name given to it by the Mahrattas, probably in consequence of having been first opposed there by the Catties, one tribe of its inhabitants. It has several small rivers. The mountains are few and not high. The loftiest of those called the Junaghur hills is sacred. The Catties, Jarejahs, and some other tribes in this quarter are a sort of imperfect Hindoos, believing in the Brahminical legends. They worship the sun, are superficially acquainted with the doctrines of their professed creed, and relaxed in the observance of its rules of diet and other peculiarities. The practice of female infanticide, which prevails among them, arises from the difliculty of finding husbands for all their daughters, because they will not marry them to any except the respectable castes of Hindoos. The illegitimate daughters are not put to death, because they can be married to persons of impure caste, or to Mahometans Heroism of I indiscriminately. The self immolation of women is also common; and concu ines. | |^ j^ remarkable that it is far more frequently done by concubines on the funeral piles of their lords than by wives on those of their husbands. Doaraca, a • Forbes's Oriental Memoirs. Hamilton's Description of Hindostan, vol. i. p. 604. INDOSTAK. 139 small island, is a place of peculiar sanctity ig this qimiter, containing a Doar«c«- temple much resorted to by pilgrims, who, among other ceremonies, go sacrwi usages, through that of receiving a stamp on their bodies with a hot iron, on which are engra- ved the shell, the ring, and the lotos flower, the insignia of the gods. This privilege costs a rupee and a half, or about three shillings. It is frequently impressed on infants. A pilgrim, besides his own stamp, sometimes has his body stamped for the benefit of an absent friend. From this place, the chalk is taken with which the Brahmins mark their foreheads all over India; it is reputed to have been deposited there by the god Krishna. Numerous ridiculous fables are connected with the same locality. The district of Soreth at one time comprehended a large proportion of the Guzerat peninsula. The ancient residence of its Rajahs was at lluntella, but after- wards transferred to Junaghur,'a city three miles round, at the foot of mount Ghirnal. On the top of that mountain are several pagodas surrounded with grottos inhabited by Hindoo hermits of different sects. The district is exceedingly fertile. It was formerly infamous for the piracies of its inhabitants, especially those connnitlcd by a Rajepoot tribe called Sangarians, whose chief place is Noanagur, but these are ke;)t down by commercial treaties with the government of Bombay, one article of which is to allow no such lawless acts. In 180S, Colonel Walker imposed a fine of 40,000 rupees on Ilamed Hassan Balis, the Mahometan chief of Soreth, for pira- cies committed by his sul)jects and connived at by himself — The isle of Din, nt (he south-west corner of the peninsula, contains a Portuguese town, with a harbour, still frequented by the Arabs. The ancient city of Cambay is remarkable for its subterranean Hin- city of Cam- doo temples, formed since the Mahometan invasion. The houses of ^^' opulent persons have also subterranean apartments. The city was formerly cele- brated for its manufactures of silk, chintz, and gold stufls ; btit they have gone to decay. The neighbourhood contains mines of rock salt and also of agates, and the manufacture of the latter into ornamental cups and vases forms a branch of the hi- dustry of the place. Surat is the most conspicuous trading city in this province. It is si- | city of Snfat. tuated on the south bank of the river Tuptee, in latitude 21° 11' N. and longitude 73° 7' E. The outer walls are seven miles in circumference. The inner town has also walls with twelve gates, and a number of towers ; but all in a ruinous condition. It is not the policy of the British government to keej) up many fortifications of any kind. The mosques and temples, the Nabob's palace, and all the public buildings are mean and insignificant. The most remarkable institution is the Banyan hospital for sick, wounded and maimed animals ; an institution dictated by the religious ten- derness which the Banyan sect cherishes for the animal creation. It is enclosed by high walls, and subdivided into numerous courts for the accommodation of the dit- ferent species. In sickness they are attended with the utmost assiduity, and provided with an asylum in old age. In 1772, it contained horses, mules, oxen, sheep, goats, monkeys, poultry, pigeons, and various other birds ; also an aged tortoise, which mes known to have been there seventy-five years. There was even a ward for rats, mice, bugs, and other noxious animals, and suitable food provided for them. This city has long been a place of great trade, though twenty miles from that part of the river where vessels are obliged to cast anchor. The harbour is not on the whole commodious, though one of the best on this shore in northerly winds. It is one of the most ancient cities in India, being mentioned in the Ramayuna, a Hindoo poem of great antiquity. In 1800 this city, and the district to which it belongs, fell under the power of the English ; previously to which it had been exposed to the most de- structive contests between the reijrnino; Nabob and the Mahrattas, as well as to all the violence of lawless predatory bands. It used to be a common thing for the inha- bitants of the town to hire bands of Coolies from the neighbourhood, to plunder one another's property ; — these thieves being admitted during the night, and secreted in cellars till their opportunities were matured. It is suspected that secret poisonings are common among the Hindoos in this city, instigated by jealousy, revenge, and the cupidity of relations and heirs. At present no ofiensive weapons are allowed within the walls. In 1796 the population was about 000,000. It is kept down by diseases, City of Ahrae- dabad. 140 BOOK FOllTY-SEVENTH. especially the small pox. Vaccination is objected to both by the Parsees and the higher classes of the Hindoos, as staining the purity of their caste. The city of Ahmedabad was the Mahometan capital of Guzerat. It is situated on the east bank of the river Sabermatty, and forty miles north from Cambay. It was one of tlie largest capitals of the east, and was one of the four cities which, in the reign of Akber, possessed a royal mint. It is said to have contained a thousand mosques, and to have extended to Mahmoodabad, which is now ten miles off. A century ago it contained eleven great Hindoo pagodas, three hospitals for animals, and streets beautifully lined with citron and cocoa trees. At present, its ruins occupy an area thirty miles in circumference, but its walls are only five miles and a quarter in extent. About the middle of the 15th century, it was the capital of a flourishing independent kingdom. In the early part of the 18th century, the Mogul governor assumed the sovereignty. It afterwards fell under the Mahrat- tas, but in 1779 it was stormed by the British, under General Goddard. Since that time, the Peshwa of the Mahratlas and the Guicowar have shared the sovereignty by an ill-understood agreement, and it has been subjected to much anarchy. Baroda. | Baroda, to the east of Cambay, is the capital of the Mahratta prince known by the family name of the Guicowar, who is much befriended by the English, having sided with them in most of their disputes, and whose power is of considerable extent in the province of Guzerat. Broach. | The city of Broach, the Barygaza of the ancients, forms with its ter- ritory part of the English East India Company's possessions. The soil is uncom- monly fertile. The people are quiet and orderly compared to many of their neigh- bours, and the administration of civil justice in the hands of their present rulers has been remarkably successful. The compactness of the district has also rendered it more practicable than in most others to give full protection from marauders by the establishment of patroles. Province of To the north of the Guzerat, in an inland and central situation, is the Adjemere. province of Adjcmerc or Rajepootana; so called from the race of Raje- poots which possesses it, being in an intermediate position between the Seiks and the Mahrattas.* Its length from north to south is about 350 miles, and its breadth about 200. It has a sandy soil, and in general presents a desert and dreary appearance ; a great portion of it is a waved surface of mere sand, which often rises in clouds, though in winter it exhibits a little verdure, and becomes firmer from a vegetation of grass called lihoke, the thorny bushes called baubul, and the jujube. The villages consist of miserable straw huts, with low sides and conical roofs, surrounded by hedges of dry thorn. The thirsty fields, which depend on dews and periodical rains, are cultivated with the poorest kinds of pulse, and Holcus spicatus, called badjera. Water melons, however, grow in great profusion, and of a large size. The wells are often 300 feet deep, and some only three feet in diameter, lined with masonry. To the east of Bahavvulpoor, the road for the caravans is over a hard and sounding clay, totally destitute of vegetation. Near that place the country begins to be well cultivated. The periodical rains are allowed to be absorbed by the sand immediately when they fall, the state of human industry being low and helpless. The common Jauts. I inhabitants arc Jauts; the higher classes Rhatore Rajepoots. The for- mer are black, little, and wretched in their appearance. They form a powerful sect of Hindoos, making part of the fourth caste, and known in history from the time of Aurengzebcf" The latter are stout and handsome, with hooked noses and Jewish features, haughty in their manners, and almost constantly intoxicated with opium. Bullocks and camels constitute the live stock. The wild animals are, — the desert rat resembling a squirrel, the fox, the antelope, and the wild ass. This province is almost destitute of rivers. The mountain streams of the more hilly parts quickly disappear. In the southern quarter, a portion of it is watered by ditlerent streams, as the Chimibul, which sends its waters to the Ganges, and the Banass, which runs •west, and falls into the great morass called the Runn. The three chief divisions of * See the Memoirs of Georg'e Thomas. t See note '3d of Forster's Travels, t. iii. p. 104; and Wahl, ii. p. 385, INDOSTAN. 141 this province are, — Odeypoor in the south, Joodpoor in the middle, and Jeypoor in the north. The Rajepoots Uve under a sort of feudal system. They I xheHaje- are brave, and much attached to their chiefs. Their number, though not j p°°"* ascertained, is supposed to be little more than three millions. This country was never completely subjugated by the Mogul power, though it paid tribute, and furnish- ed a number of mercenaries to the imperial army. After the death of Aurengzebc in 1707, it continued nominally dependent on the throne of Delhi; but in 1748, the chiefs assumed a state of independence. Since this time, the country has been a scene of civil war and plunder, being dreadfully overrun by the Mahratta armies, and infested by various predatory tribes. The Raja of Biccanere is the least important. The Odeypoor Raja is reduced in power, but respected as the purest of the race. In 1807, the Rajas of Jeypoor and Joodpoor disputed for the honour of marrying the daughter of this high-born chief, and suffered their dominions at the same time to become a prey to Ameer Khan, Holcar, and Sindia. In this state of constant un- easiness and wretchedness, all the Rajahs successively have entreated to be connect- ed with the British government — a change which took place in 1818; but is more satisfactory to the people and cultivators than it is to some of the great lords, who were aiming at the possession of separate independence. Their armies were taken into British pay, and placed under British officers, — their own officers being pension- ed off. Sir David Auchterlony, by whose skill and address these objects were ac- complished, enjoys the dignity of resident and commander of the forces in Rajepoo- tana. Agriculture, and the other arts of peace, begin to attract attention, though ferocious habits must retain some influence for a time. The town of Adjemere, seven miles in circumference, was formerly Town of Ad- the capital, but contains no trace of magnificence except the remains of J^"*^'"'^- a palace built in a garden by Shah Jehan. The streets are narrow, the houses small and in a state of decay. Tiie principal attraction connected with it is a tomb of Khaja Moyen ud Deen, one of tlie most distinguished Mahometan saints of India. It is of marble, but destitute of elegance. To this tomb the great Akber made a pil- grimage on foot. Upwards of 1100 resident priests subsist on the contributions of the devotees. The north-east part of Adjemere is inhabited by a predatory horde 1 Bhattees. called Bhattees. They were originally shepherds and Rajepoots, but are now Ma- hometans. They differ from other Mahometans in allowing their women to appear in public. George Thomas says that they could muster 20,000 men. In consc- qaence of their insufferable aggressions on the neighbouring territory of Hurriana, on the east, belonging to the British, they have been reduced, and their forts de- stroyed. Some of their towns which had been separated from Hurriana were rean- nexed in 1816. — The principality of Biccanere, lying south from the | ciccanere. Bhattee country, is arid and barren. George Thomas says the force of the Rajah amounted to 8000. Mr. Elphinstone, on his mission to the court of Caubul, was kindly received by this prince on his way, who offered him the keys of his fort as an acknowledgment of his submission to the British, — an ofler which the other did not accept of. At this time his territory was invaded by five different armies, in conse- quence of his taking part in the contest between the two Rajas already mentioned. The army of the Raja of Joodpoor was 15,000 strong. His mode of defence was to fill up all the wells within ten miles of his capital. He solicited the interposition of the British mediation, which was not granted ; but soon after, in consequence of an application to the resident at Delhi, he received back some towns originally be- longing to him, which had been taken by the Bhattees. At last, in 1818, his sepa- rate existence as a prince, (if that can be called independence,) was secured by his being admitted within the pale of British protection. Biccanere the capital, and the towns of Chooroo and Pooggul, in this territory, have nothing in them worthy of notice. To the south of this principality, and in the west part of the province, Jesseimere. lies that of Jesseimere. From this Joodpoor lies east and a little south; Joodpoor. an arid territory, containing lead mines. Its population is greatly diminished from what it was in former times. Their character is said to be frank, brave, and gene- 142 BOOK FORTY- SEVENTH. rous. The capital, Joodpoor, is of considerable size, destitute of springs or wells, and supplied with water by a large tank cut in a rock. It includes Marwar, a dis- trict which, in 1812, became a prey to all the horrors of famine, from the failure of the annual rain of the preceding year. The inhabitants fled to Guzerat, where the vicinity of every large town was crowded with the dying and the dead, half oaten by dogs. The Brahmins, forgetting the distinction of caste, sold their wives for a few rupees. The hand of charity was opened as liberally as possible, but was quite un- availing to alleviate a calamity so extensive, and it is believed that not one in a hun- shekawntties. | drcd lived to return home. The Shekawutty country is straight east from Biccanere. Bhuil is a considerable town belonging to it, situated on the high road from the Punjab to Biccanere. Here the merchants are oppressed with severe exac- tions, and sometimes entirely plundered. Its tribes are considered as subject to the jeypoor. j Raja of Jeypoor, but have the character of refractory subjects. — The Jeypoor principaUty is situated in the eastern part of Rajepootana. It produces salt, copper, alum, blue vitriol, and verdigrise. It is compact, and comparatively fertile and populous. In 1805, during the British contests with Scindia and Ilolcar, the Jeypoor court kept on good terms with both parties while the struggle was doubtful, that it might afterwards join the strongest. In consequence of some temporary suc- cesses of Holcar, the Raja joined him against the British, and was subsequently guilty of gross tergiversation towards the latter ppwer. A prejudice against the Bri- tish was strongly excited, as beef-eaters and shooters of peacocks: this induced Lord Lake to prohibit the slaughter of cows near any of the sacred places, which had the elFect of pacifying the minds of the Hindoos. In ISIS, this was the last of the Rajepoot states which sent negociators to Delhi; and, after much difliculty, a treaty was arranged, though some of the chiefs still attempted to withhold compli- ance with its conditions. Jeypoor, the capital, is modern, handsome, and regidarly built, and the streets spacious and straight. The citadel is built on a steep rock, which has round it a chain of fortifications four miles in circumference. Near it there is an astronomical observatory, provided with good instruments. To the south Kotah. are some petty states, as Kotah, on the Chumbul river. Bhoondee is Bhoondee. another, the Raja of which, in 1805, reduced himself greatly by some services which he rendered to the British army during a disastrous retreat, but was, at a subsequent pacification, scandalously neglected, and left at the mercy of the Mahrattas. In 1818, however, when he was received within the pale of British pro- tection, his interests were attended to with a laudable care. Not only was he, in commoi) with the others, placed in a state of security highly gratifying after a long experience of extreme wretchedness, his country having been the seat of the most savage war and plunder, but several possessions, of which his enemies had deprived iiim, were restored. The hills where Boondee, the capital stands, are inhabited by Meenas, a set of robbers, who, among other enormities, are addicted to the steaUng of children, whom they sell for slaves. odeypoor. j Odcypoor, On the southern boundary of Rajepootana, is one of the most honourable principalities, but miserably reduced by intestine disorders, and the oppression of the Mahrattas. It is well adapted for vegetation, being hilly and well watered. But its political condition is greatly disorganized, the Rana being weak- ened in his misfortune, and destitute of respectable counsel or support among his subjects. These circumstances are said to be somewhat ameliorated, though rather in promise than by any thing being actually established. The capital of the same name acquired in 1818 an accession of several thousand inhabitants on the emanci- pation of the state from the Mahratta yoke. It is situated in a valley surrounded by mountains, and to which the only access is by a narrow defile. That valley con- tains also some hundreds of villages, but has the character of being unhealthy.* — Fortress of Chittorc, a town and fort belonging to Odeypoor, is situated on the top of ciiitiore. ^ jjjglj g^j^j rugged mountain, about eight miles in circumference; it is reckoned a place of great strength. It was for several centuries the capital of a power- ful Rajepoot principality, and much celebrated for its riches and antiquity, as well as * Memoirs of George Thomas. Basin of the Ganges. ProTinc* of Malwa. IXDOSTAX. 143 strength, when it was taken by Akber, in 1567. It had been in the possession of the Mahometans at a former period ; being taken first by Allah ud Deen, in 1303 ; but doea not seem, on either occasion, to have been permanently retained. It was taken and plundered again by Azim Ushan, the son of Aurengzebe. In 1818, when seen by a British detachment, it ai)peared naturally strong, but the works neglected and de- cayed, while the surrounding country, though naturally fertile, was in a most miserable condition. — Kumulnero is one of the strongest forts in Upper Indostan. Sarowy and Pertaubghur are two thinly peopled and uncultivated districts in the south-west. Wc next proceed to the basin of the Ganges, to describe tiie countries situated on this mighty river, and its tributaries. The province of Malwa lies to the south and a little to the east of Rajepootana, chiefly between the 22d and 25th degrees of north latitude, bounded on the west by Guzerat, on the south by the Nerbaddah river, on the cast by the province of Allahabad, and on the north, by Rajepootana, and Agra. It contains the sources of the rivers Chumbul, and Bctwah, which fall into the Ganges. It is a central region of considerable elevation, with a regular descent from the Yindhya mountains on the south, extending along the north side of the Nerbuddah. But it is more fertile than the adjacent provinces; the soil consisting of a black mould, producing grain, and various vegetables subservient to merchandise. It pro- duces some fruits which cannot stand the heat of the lower provinces. The trade is conducted by land carriage, as the rivers are not navigable. The exports are, cotton, coarse cloths, opium, and the root of the J\Ioyincla citrifolia. This province was subdued both by the Afghan and the Mogul sovereigns of Delhi. In 1707 it was overrun by the Mahrattas, and in 1732, they separated it from the Mogul do- minions, though several landholders, or Grassias, like those of Guzerat, continued to extort some practical acknowledgment of their rights by more or less violence. In the southern division, especially amidst the mountains contiguous to the Ner- buddah and Tuptee rivers, the savage phmdering tribe called Bheels, | The Bhcei>. live in the jungle extending westward to Guzerat, where they meet the Coolies, and eastward to Gundwana, where they come in contact Avith the Gonds. All these races are averse to regular industry, prone to rapine, and sometimes employed by native chiefs to desolate the territories of their adversaries. A few of them are cavalry, but the greater part infantry, armed with bows and almost naked. They profess the Hindoo religion, but from their ignorance, are careless of the observance connected with the Braminical precepts of purity. They had acquired a degree of political consequence from their strength, when in 1818 they were subdued by Sir John Malcolm, and their chiefs came under an obligation to lead quiet and peaceable lives, and to protect the property of others. After this, an insurrection of Arabs and Mekranees, was formed under an impostor boy named Krishna, who was made lo personate the reigning Raja. This insurrection was defeated, nearly 4000 were ex- pelled, besides 2000 of Bapoo Sindia's Mewatties, and Patans. — Chan- | chamieree. deree, the chief town of a district of the same name, is very ancient, and was once a place of great splendour. Abul Fazel says it contained 14,000 stone houses, 376 market places, 360 inns, and 2000 mosques. It does not now correspond to so high a description, but it contains a manufacture of fine cotton stuffs. Seronge | seronge. is a large open town. In the cold season, the thermometer here often descends be- low the freezing point, and water freezes during the night. It seems to have been formerly more populous than it is now, though still a flourishing place. It is one of the possessions of Ameer Khan, a Pindaree chief, formerly a freebooter, but now under obligations to abstain from that mode of life. He has several assignments of land, and pending claims in Rajepootana and the country on the east of the Chum- bul ; but Seronge, and Tonk on tiie Banas, are his principal possessions. The district of Oojein is fertile. The vines bear a second crop of grapes in the rainy season, but they are sour. The city of Oojein, the Ozene of Pto- | Oojein. lemy, situated in a vast plain, is considered by some as the capital of Malwa. It is the modern capital of the dominions subject to the Sindia Mahrattas, It is adopted by Hindoo geographers and astronomers as the first meridian. The modern town is about a mile to the south of the ancient, which is said to have been destroyed by an 144 1U)0K FORTY-SEVENTH. earthquake about the lime of Raja Vicramaditya, when it was the seat of arts, learn- ino-, and empire. Remains of ancient walls and pillars are found by digging in the site of the ancient city, and among them some pieces of wood of extraordinary hard- ness. The modern town is six miles in circumference, surrounded by a stone wall with round towers. The houses are of brick with wooden frames. The chief buildings are four mosques, and a number of Hindoo temples. It also contains an f A astronomical observatory. The waters of the Sipra, near the city, are esteemed sacred, and Oojein itself is a place of pilgrimage. Sindia's palace makes a poor fio-ure. The popukition has diminished of late, in consequence of many being attracted by the neighbouring town of Indore, where Holcar has fixed his court, formerly migratory. The officers and public functionaries are almost the only Mah- ratta inhabitants of Oojein. It is, m general, well supplied with provisions, but in 1804, when visited by a British embassy, several persons were seen dead and dying of hunger in the streets. These were said to be needy strangers, and the inhabitants were restrained from giving them relief by the dread of the consequences of any appearance of superfluity. In 1807, a treaty was concluded by the British with Sindia, by which he engaged to do his utmost to effect the extermination of the Pin- darees, but his conduct was always suspicious till the battle of Maheidpoor, when the power of Holcar was suddenly annihilated. Indore. | Indorc is the capital of the Mahratta chief bearing the family name of Holcar, who has of late years made a great figure in the wars of India, having taken Bopaui. 1 Poonah in 1802, and desolated the whole neiglibouring country. — Bopaul is the capital of a sjnall independent state, 100 miles east from Oojein, and near a lake which abounds in crocodiles. The country is naturally fertile, but neglected, and over- run with jungle, which has been for some years a place of refuge for all kinds of ban- ditti, and the very centre of Pindaree influence. The town and territory are occupied by a colony of Patans, to whom they were assigned by Aurengzebe. The town is at present deserted and ruinous. Their Nabob is supported by British alliance, after Saiigor. I having been long oppressed by the Pindarees and Mahrattas.* — Saugor was taken by the British forces under General Marshall in 1818, and was found to exhibit every appearance of an opulent and flourishing city, though in the heart of the Pindaree country. This whole district and neighbourhood are naturally strong, and part of the military force required to overawe central Indostan is stationed within the Hmits of the Saugor district. The banditti so well known by their predatory incursions under the name of Pindarees at first occupied a small portion in the south of the Malwa province, but afterwards extended to the centre, and seemed in a fair way of soon absorbing the whole. This name was originally applied to a body of roving cavalry which accompanied the Peshwa's armies. When the Peshwa ceased to in- terfere with any territory to the north of the Nerbuddah, leaving that portion of the Mahratta empire to Sindia and Holcar, the Pindarees divided into two parties, accord- ing as they attached themselves to the fortunes of one or the other of tliese chiefs. All the Pindaree leaders, and most of the men, were Mahometans, but they admitted all sects into their body, and formed a general nucleus for vagabond and disaffected persons, till the elements of confusion and destruction were gradually so concen- trated as to form a dreadful scourge to India. Like the early Mahrattas, they, sys- tematically prosecuted a war of plunder acd devastation on all their neighboursfiand were recently acquiring the consolidated form of one or more organized states. Nature of their They livc in socictics of onc or two hundred. When an enterprising expeditions. leader determined on a plundering expedition, he invited the neighbour- ing Thokdars, as the chiefs were called. The power of the leader was not heredi- tary, but founded entirely on the respect paid to his talent and enterprise. The sub- mission paid to him was partial, except when in the midst of an enemy's country, when the safe return of the party depended on their implicit obedience to his orders. They moved in some measure at random, their previous information being seldom • See Prinsep's Narrative of the Political and Military Transactions of British India, under the administration of the Marquis of Hastings, from 1813 to 1818, p. 21, &,c. Account of the Pindarees. INIJOSTAN. 145 correct. The only object in the arrangement of their movements was to keep toge- ther. There was nothing systematic either in the attacks which they made, or in the division of the phmder, except that a part of the latter was set apart for those who were obliged to remain behind taking charge of the horses. They were excellent riders ; their arms were swords and spears ; fire arms, though they esteemed them for their execution, they disliked as too cumbersome. Nothing generous or brave, but every thing that was both mean and desperate, characterized their proceedings. To secure plunder by all means, and when attacked to escape in the securest manner, were their only objects. They undertook long journeys of two or three months, through the midst of armed enemies. In 1814, their strength was estimated at 31,000. In the northern Circars, the devastation which they made, and the plunder which they carried off, were immense. They put thousands of individuals to the most inhuman tortures, to make them disclose their treasures, and many were bar- barously murdered. As they were proceeding to convert the finest part Their suppiej. of India into a desert, it became the imperious duty of the British go- '""• vernment to put an end to so formidable a series of atrocities. The Marquis of Hastings took the field against them in October, 1817, and by a well concerted com- bination of movements, directed to their native haunts as to a centre, he expelled them by the end of November. In their attempts to take refuge, partly with Sindia, and partly with some subordinate neighbouring chiefs, they were disappointed. Ar- rangements were afterwards made, by which those of their own chiefs who surren- dered were provided for as peaceble cultivators or proprietors, in districts not fitted by any natural strength to cherish their lawless habits ; and this serious danger has thus been crushed. India is a country peculiarly liable to these irregular marauding combinations, which from time to time require to be put down, but it is seldom that they attain a strength so formidable as in the instance of the Pindarees, and under the preventive measures now adopted in that country, such a power is not likely again to arise. On the north of Malwah, between Rajepootana on the west and Oude on the east, and bounded on the north side by Delhi, is the province of Agra. In its western and southern parts, this province is hilly and jung is open, flat, and rather bare of trees. The chmate is, generally speaking, tempe rate, but in winter it is really cold; and during the hot winds of summer, though these are not of long duration, the climate is unhealthy, especially in the hills. The Jumna, the Chumbul, the Ganges, and several smaller streams, such as the Sinde and the Koharry, flow through this province ; yet it is not well supplied with water. To the north of the Chumbul, and on the western frontier, during the dry season, except in the immediate vicinity of the large and permanent rivers, water for agri- cultural uses is procured from wells. The soil is well adapted for indigo, cotton, and sugar, the crops of which articles are annually increasing in those portions which are immediately under British jurisdiction; in those which remain subject to native chiefs, agriculture is far behind. The territory between the Ganges and Jumna, which is called the Doab, is particularly fertile, and exports indigo, sugar and cotton. It is more thinly peopled than Bengal and the more flourishing provinces. The population may be estimated at six millions, of which the Doabeh districts under British rule comprehend a considerable proportion. The natives are a handsome and robust race. The Hindoo is the prevailing religion, though the Mahometans have ruled here since the eighteenth century. The language in common use is the Hindostanee; the Persian is used for public documents, and also in conversation among the higher classes of the Mahometans. The Agra district of this province is notorious for the frequency of highway robbery, which is believed to be connived at or encouraged by the Zemindars, thougli under the British jurisdiction. Robbers, in- deed, easily escape from the latter into tlie territories of native chiefs, where, after committing a robbery, they find a secure asylum. The city of Agra occupies a wide plain on the north-west side of the | City of Agra. Jumna, in tlie form of a crescent. It is supposed to have been the birth-place of Avatar, or incarnation of Vishnu, under the name of Parasee Rama, vhose conquests extended to Ceylon. According to Tiefenthaler, it is seven miles long and three Vol. II.-^T Province of Agra. y; the rest 146 1300K FORTY- SEYENTII. broad* It is to the emperor Akber that it owes its splendour; he gave it tl»e name Palace of Ak- ^^ Akber-Abad. Only a few monuments of it are left, among which is ber. the palaco of Akber, one of the finest buildings in Asia. It stands on an eminence ; its walls of red granite present the appearance of a single block of stone,! extending in a crescent shape along the river side, leaving between its walls and the water, a beach which is used as a harbour, where numerous trading barks and pleasure boats are continually arriving. Three days in the week, the great square of the palace, planted with several rows of oriental plane-trees, is employed as a market place. Round this square a fine gallery extends, and at regular distances are six triumphal arches of entrance, leading from the same number of spacious streets. The middle of the square is ornamented with a stone statue of an elephant emitting a stream of water from his trunk. The palace has two immense galleries, adorned with twenty-four double columns of white marble, with pedestals of blue granite and capitals of yellow mica. The mosque belonging to the palace is entirely of mica, and resembles a casket of precious pebble.;}; In the interior of the apart- ments, gold, marble, and sculptures executed in red, yellow, and black stone, occur every where in the greatest profusion. Round the great palace, seven small marble palaces, for the use of the princes, are ranged in symmetrical order. — At a little dis- The Mosque. | tance from the citadel is the great mosque of Akber, a building superior to the famous mosque of Soliman at Constantinople. Its red granite walls are en- crusted with plates of gold, and a cornice runs along the foundation. The mosque of Aurengzebe, on the river side is supported by upwards of a hundred columns. — Mausoiea, &c. | Among the mausoleums with which this city is adorned are those of Ak- ber and Shah-Jehan, of astonishing size and grandeur; but surpassed by that of the father-in-law of Jehan, the celebrated Noor Jehan Begum. It is kept in repair by the English. On every side we meet with magnificent gardens. In the time of Ticfentiialer, tlrere was at Agra a Jesuitical college, and a Christian burying-ground, with a vast vaulted building, the walls of which were painted with all sorts of flowers, while a fountain of sweet-scented water played by their side. Agra once owed much of its flourishing condition to the industry of its inhabitants. The city was filled with store-houses, work-shops, sale-shops, and market-places. Its trade has greatly declined, yet it still contains a great number of merchants, both native and foreign. Legoux de Flaix says, it may contain 800,000 inhabitants. This must be an exaggeration, and so indeed are the accounts given of its present magnifi- cence. The English accounts reduce it to 60,000. The city had the honour of Family oiAbui g'^i^g ^"'th to Abul Fazel, prime minister of Akber, and author of the Fazei. Ayeen Ackbery, or Statistical Account of Indostan. A lineal descend- ant of this meritorious vizier resided, and probably still resides here, Mustapha Khan, living on a pension which he has received under the successive rulers of the country. The Gallo-Mahrattan administration reduced that pension to fifteen ru- pees, 1/. 105. per annum. In 1813, the British government assigned him fifty rupees per month. — Agra, with the rest of the province, fell under the sway of Madhajee Sindia, and continued in the hands of the Mahrattas till 1803, when it surrendered Great gun of ^0 Lord Lake. Among the artillery captured was one enormous piece Agra. called the great gun of Agra, twenty-three inches in caliber, fourteen feet two inches in length, tlie tliickness of metal at the muzzle eleven and an half inches; weight of the gun, 96,600 pounds; the ball of cast iron which it received weighed 1500 pounds. In an attempt made to convey it to Calcutta, it broke through the raft and sunk into the river, in the bed of which it probably still remains. Futtipoor. j The town of Futtipoor, to the south-west of Agra, owed its lustre fo Akber. It has a stone wall of great extent, which seems never to have been filled with buildings. The only monument is the tomb of Shah Schm Chcestee, by whose prayers the empress of Akber became pregnant of a son, who, when born, was * I. tab. 7. No. 2. t ValeiUyn, Oiul-und-Nieuw Oslindien, vi. 205. (Vie des Grands Mogols. ) i Lcijoux de Flaix, Lssai, i. p. 174. INDOSTAN. 147 called Selim in honour of* the Kaiiit, and, on ascending the throne, took the name of Jehangeer. Matliura, thirty miles N.N.W. from Agra, is celebrated as the scene | Mathura. of the birth and early adventures of Krishna. It was destroyed by Mahniood of Ghizrec in lOlS. It was afterwards rebuilt and adorned with many rich temples, the most magnificent of which was erected by Raja Beer Suigh Deo of Oorcha. This tem- ple was razed by Aurengzebe, who erected a mosque with the materials on the spot. In the fort are still to be seen remains of an observatory built by llajah Jeysingh of Jyenagur. After the dissolution of the Mogul government, this place experienced many misfortunes, and, among others, a general massacre of its inhabitants by the orders of Ahmed Shah Abdalli in 1756. At the end of the eighteenth century, it was the head quarters of General Perron, the French commander of the Shidia Mahrattas. It was taken by Lord Lake in 1803. It is a great resort of Hindoo votaries. Here a multitude of sacred monkeys of large size are fed by the hand of superstition at the public expense. In 1808, two young English officers having inadvertently fired at one of these revered proteges, were immediately assailed by an overwhelming mob of priests and worshippers, and, in making their escape over the river on an elephant, were drowned. The fish in this part of the Jumna are equally respected, and are said to come to the surface in ex pectation of being fed. In the Doab, in the district of Etawch, is the city of Kanoje, which ( Kanoje, was a place of great renown, and the capital of a powerful empire at the period of the Mahometan invasion. But it is now completely fallen. The completion of its misfortunes was in 1761, when it was sacked by the Mahrattas. It is now a heap of ruins concealed under rank jungle, a retreat for robbers and criminals of every description. No buildings of any importance remain : the brick walls are going rapidly to decay. Hindoo coins, with the figures of deities, are sometimes found among the rubbish. Furruckabad, the capital of a district, and the mercantile emporium | FumicKabad. Sacred mon- keys. of the ceded districts of the neighbourhood, contained in 181 1 a po ndation of Fortress of Gualiur. 66,800, which is supposed to be greatly on the increase. Gualior, about seventy miles south from the city of Agra, iii this district, is reckoned one of the greatest fortresses in Indostan. It is built on a detached rock 340 feet high, and perpendicular all round ; its length is a mile and a half, but its greatest breadth not more than 300 yards. A stone parapet extends all round close to the brow of the hill. Within the summit of this fort, are large natural caves, which contain a never-failing supply of excellent water. The town, placed along the east side of the hill, is large, well inhabited, and contains many good houses of stone, which the neighbouring hills furnish in abundance. This has always been a place of great consequence. Under the Moguls it was used as a state prison, where the obnoxious members of the royal family were confined. It was taken by the Ma- hometans in 1197 after a long siege, and again by the Afghans in 1235. In 1519, after having been 100 years in the possession of the Hindoos, it yielded to Ibrahim Lodi, emperor of Delhi. In 1582 it is described by Abul Fazcl as the head town of a district. It afterwards came under the Mahrattas. It is deemed impregnable, yet has often changed masters. In 1780 it was taken by surprise and escalade, by the British troops under Major Popliam ; the storming party being headed by Capt. Bruce, brother to the celebrated traveller in Abyssinia. It is now in the possession of Dowlet Row Sindia, whose camp, formerly itinerant, was fixed at a short distance sojLith-west from this fortress, where a second city has consefjuently risen, surpassing the old one in size and population. Bhurtpoor, thirty-one miles N. by W. from Agra, is the capital of an | BhuniKwr. independent state formed by the Jauts, who originally came from Mooltan, and, though of a low caste, assumed higher claims on adopting military habits. Tlie Bhurtpoor Raja owes his situation at present to the forbearance of the English, to whom he has more than once proved an unwilling observer of treaties, joining enemies from whom he had no reason to expect greater friendship, or a more respect- Province of Delhi. 148 liOOK FORTY-SEVENTH. able independent alliance. He is consequently less powerful than he once was, and pledges of his fidelity, and even testimonies of submission, are now exacted. MacheiiT- | Machcvry is a Raja-ship adjoining the province of Delhi. The Raja has always maintained friendly relations with the British, on whom he is dependent. In 1811, after being for some time in a state of mental derangement, he was seized with an unfortunate propensity to persecute his Mahometan subjects by the most wanton acts of violence and outrage, destroying their tombs and places of worship, and cutting off the noses and ears of the devotees. This rehgious phrenzy was, however, placed under restraint, and practical toleration re-established by British interposition. Bindroban, or Bendrabad, on the Jumna, is a place containing some old temples, and a tree held in great reverence by the Hindoos.* Along the river there are many small chapels inhabited by hermits, and octagonal towers where the pilgrims assemble to bathe. Among the inhabitants are many Beerajes, or Indian monks, and some female vestals : both of them go almost naked, and live in dark straw-roofed cells, wearing three yellow stripes on their foreheads. Ascending the Jumna, we enter the imperial province of Delhi, to the north of Agra and Adjemere, bounded on the west by Adjemere and Lahore ; on the north by Lahore and the mountainous countries ; and on the east by the same countries, and the province of Oude. Several territories in this pro- vince were in 1803 assigned by the British to the support of the decayed representa- tive of the Mogul family, and the revenue is collected under the superintedence of the Enghsh resident at Delhi. It has gradually increased, and after supporting the royal household, a surplus remains applicable to general purposes. This province has less natural fertility than Agra, but is better cultivated. It yields three crops of rice in the year. Much of it is still uncultivated, but the places fully subjected to the British administration are rapidly improving. It is in contemplation to open a great canal of irrigation, which formerly existed, but has of late years been choked up. The districts subject to native chiefs, though also somewhat improved, are comparatively neglected, in consequence of the feuds which prevail among them. The population of this province does not exceed eight millions, consisting of Hindoos, Mahometans, and Seiks, the latter religion being prevalent in the north west. cityofDeiii.. ] The city of Delhi is in Lat. 28° 40' N. and Long. 77° 5' E. on the west bank of the river Jumna. It was called Indrapraths prior to the Mahometan invasion, and was even then a city of great fame and magnitude. In the days of its splendour it occupied an extent of tAventy miles. It has only one street in a line parallel to the river. In 1738 it was sacked by Nadir Shah, and spoiled of its trea- sures, which were valued at more than ten millions, among which were splendid col- lections of diamonds, a throne of massive gold studded with precious stones, and statues of eleph.ants in chased gold. The Afghans and Mahrattas have completed its destruction. Still according to Legoux do P'laix, it contained in his time more than 1,700,000 inhabitants, but its population is considered by its present masters as only between 150,000, and 200,000. It is divided into two parts, the one inhabited by natives, called Idooanee, the other by Mussulmans, and called Mogolanee ; the Building?. latter is the most handsome. The finest building contained in it is Palace. the imperial palace on the Jumna ; it is built of red granite of a tasteful architecture ; its length is 1000 yards, and its breadth 600. It is said to have cost 10,500,000 rupees, (1,050,000/.) The rooms ghtterwith gilding, azure, and all sorts of ornaments. The stables are capable of holding 10,000 horses. Even the kit- chens were like drawing rooms. The Djenana, or palaco of the princesses, com- municated with that of the emperor by a gallery. On the opposite side of the river was the Selimserey palace, the residence of the brothers and near kin of the em- peror, kept in a state of splendid imprisonment. Three other sumptuous palaces are still to be seen in the suburbs, the most remarkable of which is the Godaie Ko- telar. The walls of the great saloon arc ornamented with crystal, and a lustre of black crystal of admirable workmanship hangs from the ceiling; so that when lighted up, the whole presents the appearance of a conflagration. Hero Legoux tells us, • Tiefenthaler, i. 141. INDOSTAX. 149 The peacock throne. the " peacock throne" was still preserved.* This throne, says that author, is of an oval form, placed under a palm tree which overshadows it with its foliage ; a peacock, perched on one of the large pahnatted leaves, stretches its wings to cover the personage who is seated on the throne. The palm tree and pea- cock are of gold ; so thin and delicate are the feathers and the leaves, that they seem to wave and tremble with the slightest breath of wind. The tail and wings of the peacock glitter with superb emeralds. The fruit of the palm is partly executed in Golconda diamonds, and is an exact imitation of nature. Modern Delhi contains many good houses, mostly of brick. The observatory is in its vicinity. It was built in the reign of Mahomed Shah, but has been repeatedly plundered. — Among the most splendid memorials of the taste and magnificence of Shah Jehan is the well belonging to the Juirma Mojccd or mosque. The v.ater is raised by complicated machinery, and a succession of reservoirs, to the area of the mosque. It becomes an object not only of great convenience, but sometimes of necessity to the whole inhabitants of the city. The consequences of its having gone into disrepair were very distressing du'rin"- the hot season in 1S09, and it was subsequently put in order at the expense of the British fovernment. — Such is the veneration with which, from political habit, the city of )elhi is viewed, that many of the native princes still attach to it the idea of beino- the capital of their supreme government. The coin is in some places struck in the name of the Mogul emperor. Some have applied to the present representative of the family for confirmation in their respective possessions ; an empty ceremony, which the British policy does not encourage, whilst others apply for favour and acknow- ledgment to the British power, chiefly in consideration of their now having posses- sion of the Mogul metropohs."f Nine miles south-west from Delhi there is a remarkably elegant pillar piiiar of cut- 242 feet high, which seems to have been intended as a minaret to a *"'' Minar. mosque which was never built: it goes under the name of Cuttub Minar. Rewary, fifty miles S. W. from Delhi, is a town, with a district of the | Rewary. same name, formerly given to the Raja of Bhurtpoor, but resumed by the British on account of his infidehty to his engagements in their cause. It is now a secure and considerable entrepot for the commerce carried on with Delhi in that direction, which is great and constant. Paniput, fifty miles N. by W. from Delhi, was formerly a great com- | Panipnt. mercial emporium, but has suffered severely from the political confusion which so long desolated the country. It is famous as the scene of two of the greatest battles ever fought in India; one in 1525, between the Sultan Bauber and Ibrahim Lodi, the Afghan emperor of Delhi, in which the latter was defeated and slain, in conse- quence of which the dynasty of Timour siezed the throne; the second took place in 1751, between Ahmed Shah Abdalli, king of the Afghans, and the Mahrattas, under the Bhow Sidasiva. The latter were routed with immense slaughter; 40,000 prisoners were taken ; out of 500,000 persons, including men, women, and children, who composed the Mahratta camp, the greater part were killed: many were delibe- rately put to death in cold blood by the Afghans ; and many who attempted to escape were slain by the neighbouring Zemindars. That part of the province of Delhi which lies to the east of the Gan- Rohiicund. ges is called Rohiicund, being formerly possessed by a race called Ro- Tiie Rohiiia!. hillas, originally of the Yoosofzey Afghan tribe, who migrated hither about the be- ginning of the eighteenth century. They are a handsome and tall race, of a whiter complexion than the more southerly inhabitants of India, courageous and hardy, and conjoin the pursuits of agriculture with those of arms. They were united under a distinct leader. In 1774 the British defeated their combined forces at the battle of Cutterah. They have been since that time exposed to the plundering incursions of the Seiks, and the rapacity of the Nabob of Oude, who also denies the Rohillas the advantage of commercial intercourse with his territories, which is enjoyed by the other British districts; but their industry puts them in possession of a considerable trade. Rohiicund includes the three separate jurisdictions of Bareilly, Shah-jehan- poor, and Moradabad. The Mahometans and Hindoos arc about equal in number; • See his Essay on Indostan, i, 193. f Elphintone. 150 BOOK FORTY-SEVENTH. but owing to the intolerance of the former, there are no Hindoo temples of any magnitude. The population, especially about the town of Bareilly, is conaiderable, but has never been numerically ascertained. Bareilly is a large and thriving place, situated on the banks of the united Jooah and Lunkra. It was the capital of Hafez Rehmut, a Rohilla chief, slain at the battle of Cutterah, who lies interred here. — Cutterah is twenty-eight miles S. E. from Bareilly. — Moradabad forms the western part of Rohilcund. The soil is naturally moist: it is rich, but not cultivated. The climate is unhealthy, a circumstance attributed to the vicinity of the mountains ; and the population is scanty. During the Patau sway, this part, as well as the rest of Rohilcund, was in a highly flourishing condition; its dechne may be dated from the Mahratta invasion. It has been a prey to Jauts, Mewatties, Aheers, and others ; and even still the police is far from being efficient for the prevention of gross enor- mities. The imprisonments, trials, and punishments, which take place on account of robbery and murder, are uncommonly numerous. The independent jaghire of Ram- poor, possessed by a Rohilla Nabob, affords refuge to plunderers from the pursuit of justice. In 1816, the number of prisoners at Moradabad was upwards of four hundred. saiiaiunpoor. | About 90 milcs duc north from the city of Delhi is Saharunpoor, the capital of a British district of the same name. This district, though situated between the Jumna and the Ganges, and in itself flat, is not subject to the periodical inunda- tions which prevail in Bengal. Hurdwar. | In this district is Hurdwar, a celebrated place of Hindoo pilgrimage, near the last of the falls of the Ganges, where the pilgrims come to bathe in the river. At the end of March they begin to assemble. In 1794^, there were 150,000, Every Annual piigii- tcu ycars the number is unusually great. This gregarious pilgrimage is mages. accompanied by an annual fair, at which a great multitude of mercantile transactions take place. In times of political uncertainty and confusion, serious af- frays have occurred from the rival claims advanced by different armed castes to the superiority and direction. The British ascendancy has been followed by the esta- bUshment of more steady regulations for conducting the ceremonies and the trade. The town of Hurdwar is very small, having only one street, which is about a furlong and a half in length. About forty-seven miles N.N.E. from Delhi is Seerdhuna, the chief town of Somroo Begum, the widow of a celebrated military adventurer, called Somroo, who was a native of Treves, and died in 1776. Hurriana. | In the wcst part of the province lies Hurriana, the chief town of which, Hissar, has extensive ruins, having been once a flourishing capital. The palace of Feroze Shah, in the centre, has some extensive subterranean apartments. The sur- rounding territory was long a prey to all sorts of irregularity and individual rapacity, the Briti.sh leaving it to different chiefs, and declining to receive marks of subjection from any, for fear of becoming involved in their disputes with their neighbours : but matters were carried to sucli a lieight among the predatory natives and neighbours, that the chiefs resigned their possessions, and the British took them into their own hands. This happened about 1809. The northern quarter of the province of Delhi is occupied by Seik principalities •under Brili.sli prolection. Here is the ancient town of Tlianusar, in the vicinity of which is tlie lake Khoorket, to which pilgrims come from great distances to worship and bestow their charity. Siihind, once a renowned and brilliant city, is now a scene of desolation, from tiic devastations of the Sciks, w!io,in 1707, destroyed the mosques, and levelled the palaces and public buldings with the ground. D'Anville makes this the Serinda from which Justinian procured silk worms, an opinion not admitted by other oriental scholars. Piovinceof On the south-east of Delhi is the province of Oude, the smallest in ^" ^' Upper Indostan. On the north it is bounded by some dependencies of Nep'l; on tlic south by Allahabad; on the east by Baiiar; and on tlie west by Agra and Delhi. Its length is 250 miles; its breadth 100. The whole surface is level, well watered, and [jroductive in various valual^le plants. It also produces nitre, kit- chen salt, and lapis lazuli, from which last is obtained the ultra-marine blue so much valued Ijy painters, and which sells at nine guineas per ounce. The Hindoo inha- site of the city ot" Oude. IXDOSTAN. 151 bitants of this and the adjoining provinces are a much superior race both in bodily and mental qualities to those of the southern parts, tliough the latter may be their equals in acuteness and cunning. The Rajepoots, or mihtary class, have robust frames, and are taller in stature than the Europeans. Many of them are Mahome- tans. From this province some of the Ea§t India Company's best sepoys are pro- cured. Their military habits were kept much on the alert by the political anarchy of the province, till the British government assumed the superintendence. The present capital of Oude is Lucknow, on the south side of the river Goomty, one | LucUnow. of the tributaries of the Ganges which descends from the Kumaoon mountains. The streets inhabited by the lower classes are sunk several feet below the surface. They are extremely dirty, and so narrow that two carts cannot pass each other. The Na- bob's palace, the mosques, and burying places, display considerable splendour, hav- ing gilt roofs and an ornamented architecture. The Imam Barri, built by Asoph ud Dowla in 1783, is reckoned one of the most superb edifices in India, with the excep- tion of those erected by the emperor of Delhi. Here is the sepulchre of that Nabob, where tapers are kept burning, and verses from the Koran continually chaunted, both day and night. In the neighbourhood is Constantia, the residence of the late Gene- ral Claude Martin, to which are attached a superb garden and a mango clump, but the surrounding country is flat and barren. On the General's decease the furniture was sold, and the mirrors and girandoles now adorn the government house at Cal- cutta. The town of Oude, on the south side of the river Gogra, is religiously honoured as the ancient capital of the great Rama, but now exhibits a shapeless heap of ruins, covered with jungle, and containing the reputed sites of temples dedicated to different sainted characters. The pilgrims who resort hither are chiefly of the Ramata sect. Fyzabad, which was the capital before | FyzabaJ. 1775, still contains a numerous population. It has been chiefly remarkable of late years as the residece of the celebrated Bhow Begum, widow of Shuja ud Dowlah, who died in 1815, and left a treasure amounting to ^61, 038, 074 sterling, exclusive of jewels, shawl goods, wearing apparel, cattle, and various other property. Between the river Gogra and the southmost range of the Himalah chain of mountains, is Go- rukpoor, a large but depopulated town, not far from the mausoleum of Goseknath, a famous Hindoo hermit, and founder of the sect of Jaghys; — Balrampoor, much fre- quented by the merchants from the northern mountains, who bring hither the tails of yaks and strong horses of a small breed; — Naudpara, on a marshy soil covered with bamboos, and inhabited by wild long-horned buffaloes; — Nimkar, on the Goomty, where a sacred table, a tree, and some pools, attract the veneration of the Hindoos; — and Khyrabad, which contains a considerable manufacture of cotton stufls. In the district belonging to it is a sacred- place called Brahmavert, where Brahma sacri- fiiced by the side of a muddy pool. On the south of Agra and of Oude hes the province of Allahabad. It is bounded on the south by the Hindoo province of Gundwana, on the west by Malwah, and on the east by Bahar. The surface of this province on the banks of the Jumna and Ganges is flat and liighly productive, but flic soulh-wost parts, called Bundelcund, consist of an elevated table land, diversified with liigh hills, and abounding with fastnesses. It is not susceptible of complete cultivation, but it contains the famous diamond mines of Pannah. The low part has a sultry climate, and is exposed to hot winds, from which Bundelcund is exempt. Besides the two great rivers, a number of small streams flow through the north part of this province, and render some districts, especially the subdivisions of Benares and Allahal)ad, among the most productive countries of India. It exports diamonds, nitre, opium, sugar, and indigo. The hilly country having fewer and smaller rivers, depends chiefly on the periodical rains, and the water procured with considerable labour from wells. The population exceeds seven millions, consisting of a proportion of Hin- doos to Mahometans as eight to one. In the remote antiquities of India, it held a high rank for containing the two chief prayagas or confluences of the Ganges, places always esteemed peculiarly sacred in the Brahminical religion. It is at present en] tirely subject to British jurisdiction, with the exception of some petty chielUuniB in rrovince of AllalKihad. 152 BOOK FORTY-SEVENTH. City. I Bundelcund. The city of Allahabad is considered by some orientalist* as the ancient Palibolhra, the capital of the Prasian or Pragian monarchy. It i» called by the Hindoos the " Prayaga" by way of distinction, being the most sacrec place of this description. Here the Ganges, the Jumna, and the Sereswati are said to join; the last, however, is not now visible, and is only asserted to flow under Hindoo pietj-, | ground ! By bathing at the place of junction, a condensation of religious purification is obtained, amounting to the same degree as if the votary had bathed in each of the three separately, and even acquiring from the junction an additional con- summation of spiritual privileges. When the pilgrim arrives, he sits down on the bank of the river, has his head shaved, allowing all his hair to drop off directly into the water, the sacred writings promising a million of years' residence in heaven for each hair thus disposed of. Next day he performs the obsequies of his deceased an- cestors. Each devotee pays a tax of three rupees to government, and expends much more in charity to the Brahmins, who wait by the river side to receive these pious oblations. Many sacrifice their lives at the exact place of confluence, by going out in a boat and plunging in with weights hung to their sides. Others lose their lives by the pressing of the crowds, eager to enter the most sacred spot of the river at periods of the moon, esteemed supereminently holy. The fort of Allahabad is situated on a tongue of land a quarter of a mile from the city, the one side being washed by the Jumna and the other approaching to the Ganges. It is lofty and extensive, and commands the navigation of both rivers. The side next the land is regular and very strong; the gateway elegant, and in the Grecian taste. The government house is spacious and cool. The fortifications are considered as now quite impregnable to the tactics of a native army. This was a favourite city of Akber, and by that empe- ror the modern city was founded. The houses were formerly built of brick and sub- stantial, but now mostly of mud. The inhabitants, exclusive of the garrison, are esti- mated at 20,000. Another place of distinguished interest in India is the city of Benares in this province, being both a place of great sanctity and the focus of Brahminical erudition. The streets of Benares are so extremely narrow that it is difficult to get along even on horseback. The number of stone and brick houses is upwards of 12,800. Some of the brick houses are six stories high, with terraces and small windows. Those on the opposite sides of the streets are often connected by crossing galleries. The mud houses are above 16,000 in number, and in 1S03, the permanent inhabitants exceeded 582,000, exclusive of 8000 foreigners. During festivals the concourse is beyond calculation. The Mahometans are supposed to be more than one in ten. About 8000 houses are occupied by mendicant though not needy Brahmins. The mosque was built by Aurengzebe in a conspicuous and sacred spot, where a Hindoo temple formerly stood, which was destroyed to make room for the mosque. The houses of the English at Serole are handsome, but, like others in this climate, look bare for want of trees, which cannot be suffered near any dwelling on account of the multitudes of musquitoes which they harbour. Benares contains many inhabitants of great opulence, and many active merchants and bankers. It is the great mart for diamonds and other precious stones, brought principally from Bundelcund. The land in the vicinity is high priced and property frequently litigated. Benares is held sacred for ten miles round. The famous lin- gam which it contains is reckoned a petrifaction of Siva himself. Within the city Fables con- are not less than a million of images of the lingam. The history of this nected with it. ^jj^ j^ j.jpj^ -^^ ^j^^ marvellous. It is believed that it was originally built of gold, but in consequence of the sins of the people was converted into stone, and afterwards into clay and thatch for their increasing wickedness. The Brahmins maintain that the physical foundation of this city differs from that of the rest of the terrestrial mass. It rests on the point of Siva's trident! while the earth rests on the thousand-headed serpent Ananta, (the emblem of eternity.) Hence no earth- quake is ever felt within its holy limits, and it retained its positian at epochs at which the rest of the world was overthrown. One visit to Benares secures for the pilgrim a happy entrance into the heaven of Siva. There are persons who practise the profession of regular guides or cicerones to the pilgrims. Many resort hither to City of Be. nares. INBOSTAN. , 153 finish their days, and such is its sanctity, that even the Enghsh, who have stained their souls with the blood of the cow, and sacrilegiously fed on her flesh, may obtain absorption into Brihm by dying at Benares. Let it be hoped that this privilege does not depend on the faith which the privileged individual reposes in the reality of the bliss which awaits him — a condition which would be somewhat unreasonable. — Be- nares is also the Athens of the Hindoos. In 1801, besides the pubhc | its learning, college for Hindoo literature, there were private teachers of the Hindoo and Ma- hometan law. Of the former 300 were said to be eminent : their pupils were 5000. No fees are taken from the pupils, the teachers being supported by donations from pilgrims of rank, and regular salaries from Hindoo princes. Reading and writing are taught together, the boys being made to learn the forms of letters by tracing them on the surface of loose sand. The Brahmins are seen teaching literature and science in the streets, and under the trees. The ancient name of Benares was Casi, or "the splendid," which it still retains. Since 1781, when it came into the hands of the English, it has enjoyed uninterrupted tranquillity, and has increased in all directions. Its population certainly exceeds 600,000. It has fine gardens, elegant tanks, and pagodas ancient and modern, among which is the temple of Visvisha, built of red stone, and ornamented with elegant columns and fine sculpture. It contains a stone statue of a bull, and a living bull is always kept in it, as in the temple of Apis in Egypt. The pagoda is consecrated to Mahadco, or Siva, who is worshipped under the symbol of a black stone, a common emblem of divinity among the ancient nations, and which some consider as connected with the history of stones which have fallen from the heavens.* The observatory, built by the | observatoiT. Raja Jessing, still stands. Its figure is spherical, representing the universe. In its interior are contained the zodiac, and other circles of the armillary sphere. The astronomical system here delineated is the Copernican, which is believed to have been known and adopted by the ancient Indians. The instruments for observation are partly made of stone. | In the district of Rewah, the English have, as in other places, put down the trade of gang robbery, by which the country previously was so unmercifully oppressed. Surnaid Singh, a leader of a den of thieves, finding he could not escape when the mud fort of Entooree was stormed, and the garrison put to the sword, strewed gun- powder on a cloth, in which he wrapped himself up, and then terminated his life by setting it on fire. The diamond mines of Pannah are supposed to have been the Pa- nassa of Ptolemy. During the reign of Akber they were supposed to yield eight lacks of rupees per annum; and, under the government of the native chiefs and of the Mahrattas, these mines have been a considerable source of public revenue, as well as of mercantile profit. The diamonds are contained in the loose soil which is mixed with pebbles. The soil is washed, and the pebbles separated with the hand on a board. The diamonds are always found loose and separate. Many days are spent unsuccessfully in this labour, but a very few diamonds in the course of the year repay the workmen. They are taken to a house, weighed, and sold to the merchants residing at Pannah. The workmen are allowed a certain proportion of their value. Chatterpoor is a trading town, luit full of temples, and inhabited partly by borages, or Indian monks, fakeers, and other devotees. It was an import- ant entrepot for the trade between Mirzapoor and the Dcccan. It is extensive and well built, but far from being so flourishing as in former times. The large province of Bahar is situated between Bengal on the east, and Oude and Allahabad on the west. On the north it is bounded by the territory of Nepal, and on the south by Gundwana, which also extends round part of its western frontier. Its surface is flat, the soil fertile, and flie climate highly favourable to vegetation. Agriculture, manufactures, and commerce, have always greatly flourished in this province. Opium is its staple commodity, of which the * Dalberg-, sur le culte meteorique. •j- Esquisses de rHisloire des Indes, Trad, de I'Angl, ii, p. 24. Vol. II.—U Pannah. Diamond mines. Prnvince of Baliar. 154 BOOK FORTY-SEVENTH. governmeni makes a monopoly. It is brought to Calcutta, and exposed to public cityof Patna. | sale. Nitre is also manufactured. The modern capital is Patna, about a mile and a half long, and three fourths of a mile broad within the walls. It is closely built, and the suburbs are extensive, so that altogether it occupies nine miles along the river side, (including Jaffier Khan's garden,) and its width averages two miles. It contains but few European houses and settlers. The walls and gates are in a de- cayed and tottering state. In the middle of the city the Romish Christians, consisting of twenty Portuguese families, have a church, the handsomest in the place. Near to it is the common grave of the English, who were treacherously massacred by Meer Cossim in 1763, before his final overthrow. That massacre was perpetrated by the adventurer Somroo or Summers. This place now ranks before Delhi and Agra : its population is 312,000 of stationary inhabitants ; of whom 97,000 are Mahometans, and 214,500 Hindoos. The Seiks have here a place of worship of great repute, and Gaya and its several families of Armenians have long had a fixed residence here, pilgrimage. Gaya, the capital of the Bahar district, is a place of great sanctity, being the scene of many Brahminical legends. It is the resort of numerous pilgrims. These poor creatures have laboured under gross oppression and extortion from the priests, being even subjected to torture till they consented to give an offering deemed suited to their circumstances. The British have prohibited all forced exactions, and made the priests amenable to the criminal police for all acts of violence, or for refusing to per- form the ceremonies required when the pilgrim makes his voluntary gift. In times of peace the number of pilgrims and their attendants is reckoned not less than 100,000. Many breaches of the peace arise out of this great concourse, and the priests have a character for ignorance and immorality ill fitted for disseminating any improvement in morals among those who aspire at the benefit of their intercourse. Some miles from Gaya there is a granite rock in which a great cavern, and some temples containing Indian inscriptions, have been formed.* Bogiipoor. I The district of Boglipoor, in the eastern part of this province, consists of a great variety of surface ; hills, rocks, woods, and thickets. Some iron ore is found in it. The inhabitants bear a much superior character to that of the south- eastern natives of Bengal ; but it contains among the mountains a barbarian population of extremely predatory habits, who mostly follow a superstition of their own, while some of the wealthiest have fallen under the influence of a low caste of Brahmins, who have instructed them to worship Durga, and say prayers before a heel tree. Both sexes of these mountaineers are addicted to intoxication. They pay no taxes. Some of the chiefs receive pensions from the British government for maintaining the public peace. These are generally spent in liquor at the town of Boglipoor. The town is chiefly inhabited by Maliometans, who have a college here in a state of great decay. Monghir. | Monghir is a celebrated town and fortress, beautifully situated on a bend of the Ganges. It was a place of great importance under the Mogul govern- ment. It was strengthened by Cossim Ali, when he intended to throw off" his depend- ence on the English, who had raised him to the throne, but was taken in nine days. It was a place of importance, a station for a brigade, and a dep6t of ammunhion ; but, since the British dominions have extended beyond Delhi, Allahabad has been chosen for a depot, and the fort of Monghir has been neglected. The population is about 30,000. The most respected place of worship here is the monument of Peer Shah Hossein Lohauni, where both Hindoos and Mahometans make frequent offer- its artisans. | iugs, especially on their marriages, and other interesting occasions. The gardeners, tailors, and carpenters of Monghir, are noted for their expertness. Much of the army clothing is made here, and they excel in making European furniture, carriages, and palanquins. Hardware also, though coarse, is extremely cheap. About four miles from Monghir there is a hot spring called Seetacoond, of a tempe- rature of ] 30° or upwards. Not far from Monghir the Afghans built a rampart which formed a connection between two mountain chains, to protect the country from hostile invasions. * Asiat. Researches, vol. i. INDOSTAN. 155 Province of Bengal. Produce and agriculture. Proceeding down the Ganges, wc come to the most important pro- vince in India, occupying the lower part of the course of that great river. This is Bengal, — a province more deserving of the appellation of a kingdom than any to which we have yet turned our attention, and which will merit a minute description. Bengal enjoys a position admirably adapted for security against the its position attacks of foreign enemies. The whole northern frontier is skirted with a"pectl^^"^^ a belt of low land, from ten to twenty miles broad, covered with a most exuberant and impenetrable vegetation, particularly the augeah grass, which is sometimes thirty feet in height, and two inches thick. Beyond this, are the mountains connected with the Himulah, the population of which, though warlilie, is thin and of limited number. On the south, the shore is almost inaccessible by sea, an account of the shallows with which it is every where beset, having only one harbour, and that difficult of ac- cess. On the east it is protected by rugged mountains and mighty rivers from any inroads on the side of the Birman empire. It is only on the west that the approach of an enemy could be apprehended, and here also the natural barrier is in most places strong. — The Ganges, running in a south-easterly direction, divides Bengal into two nearly pqual portions. Taken in general, it is a flat country, containing only a few elevated tracts. The parts liable to annual inundations were called Beng, whence probably the name which we give to the whole province. The higher lying parts were called Barendra. In the southern districts rice grows most luxuriant ; as we ascend the river, the proportion of wheat and barley progressively increases. — The most important productions of Bengal are tobacco, indigo, cotton, the mulberry, and the poppy, each of which, in general, requires land appropriate to its own cultivation. One great object of the farmer is to have an equable supply of water, which is frequently obtained by means of embankments crossing the country, and preventing the rain which falls from flowing ofl^. Much care is requisite to protect the seed, when sown, from the depredations of numerous birds, and afterwards in several districts the produce must be protected by watching from the incursions of wild boars, elephants, buffaloes, and deer. Maize and millet require protection during the night from the large bats. The grain is stored in jars of unbaked earth, or in baskets made of large twigs. The implements of husbandry are coarse and ill adapted to their office, the plough merely scratching the surface, without turning it up. A number of them in succession, each drawn by a single yoke of very small oxen, are employed to deepen the furrows. The miscellaneous exercise of different kinds of industry is numbered among the causes which retard the progress of agriculture. The Bengalese can readily turn from his usual occupa- tion to another branch of the same art, or to an entirely new occupation, and suc- ceeds surprisingly in his earliest efforts. The division of labour is prevented from being carried to any extent by the want of capital. Every manufact-urer and artisan works on his own account, and conducts the whole process of his art, from the form- ation of his tools to the sale of his produce. , This versatility is certainly a valuable resource in those cases in which the demand for any class of productions ceases, — a frequent cause of misery in manufacturing countries, from the helplessness of indi- viduals who are thrown out of their usual employment, and unfit for any other. Many of the farm servants in Bengal are purchased slaves, or bond-servants, but they are not treated with any harshness, or even distance, by their masters. The culture of potatoes has been introduced here with very beneficial effect. A great abundance of fish is supplied by the rivers ; the best and highest flavoured of which is the mango fish, so called from appearing during the mango season. Mullet abounds in all the rivers, and may be killed with small shot, as they swim against the Stream, with their heads partly out of the water. Bengal enjoys great facilities of internal commerce ; innumerable boats incessantly navigate the Ganges, its tributaries, and its branches. The construction of these vessels varies in a cmious manner with the kind of navigation to which they are destined. The flat clinker boats used in the western districts are different from those employed in the wide and stormy navigation of the lower Ganges. The latter are lofty, un- wieldy, and deep. All the Bengaleac boats arc without keels, which v "^uld render Commerce and inland navigation. 156 BOOK FOUTY-SEVEXTH. them unsafe, as they often ground in the shallows. For this reason they are not so well adapted for sailing. In descending the river they are carried before the stream; in ascending, they are dragged along with the track rope ; in the winding branches at the mouth of the Ganges, the principal rehance is on the oar. The original man- ner of conducting commerce seems to have been by hauls or open fairs, held on par- ticular days, in an open pluiu. These are still very frequent. Petty traders take advantage of the days kept as festivals of the Hindoo gods and Mahometan saints,- to find a market for their wares. Many places have bazars, or dailv markets, in which articles in common use are regularly sold. These are kept by established shop- keepers, and frequented by small venders. There is no uniformity of weights and measures. They have standards, but these are local, very numerous, and difierent even in the same place for difierent articles of merchandise. The currency is silver and cowries. Copper has never been introduced, and gold seldom appears, except in Calcutta. Bankers were introduced from the vrest, at the time of the 3Iahometan conquest. Previously they were few m number, and of low rank. At all the mar- kets there are money changers, with loads of cowTies, who, in the early part of the day, give cowries for rupees, and in the evening give the hucksters rupees for their cowries, as being more easily transported. Their profit on the t\yo transactions is about a thirty-sixth part. The same class are also in the habit of advancing money to improvident senants, on their monthly wages, charging a profit of four seventy- fourths per month, on their advances, but occasionally losing their principal. Sta?^^** I This pro>-ince contains the now celebrated city of Calcutta, the metro- its situation. I pohs of the British power ia India. It is situated about 100 mUes from the sea, on the east side of the western branch of the Ganges, called the Hoogly. or Calcutta river. It is rendered somewhat unhealthy by being in the vicinity of exten- sive muddy lakes, and an immense forest. The jungle has been cleared away to a certain extent; broad straight roads are cut in the direction of the prevailing winds, and the streets are well drained; but the uir of the place still participates in the dis- advantages belonging to its general situation. At high water, the river is a mile in breadth, and at ebb tide exposes a great extent of dry sand banks. On approaching the city from the sea, a stranger is much struck \\-ith its magnificent appearance ; the Bafldings. | spircs of the churches, temples, and mosques, the strong and regular citadel of Fort William, the extent of the buildings, the expansion of adjoining villas and gardens, present a picture very difierent from the state of the same locality a hun- dred years ago, when it was a mere village, inhabited chiefly by husbandmen. It extends above six miles along the river. The esplanade between the citadel and the town leaves a spacious opening, in which stands the new government-house, erected by the Marquis Vi'ellesley; and on a line with this edifice is a range of mag- nificent houses, ornamented with spacious verandahs. The architecture of the house is Grecian, and the pillars of the verandalis too elevated to afford the requisite shade in this hot climate, in the mornings and evenings. One of the most memorable ob- BiackHoie. | jects is the Black Hole, tij^ prison in which ^oobah Sarajeh ud Dowla, on taking the fort iji 1757, shut up the garrison, consisting of 146 persons, of whom 123 perished miserably before morning, sufibcated by the confined air. It now forms part of a warehouse, and is filled %nth merchandise. A monument of a pyramidal form is erected opposite to the gate, to commemorate the unfortunate persons who perished by this act of cruelty. It has suffered by the lightning, and is rathar in a decayed state. The government house is the most remarkable public edifice. The others are, the town house, the court of justice, and two English churches. It con- tains -a Greek church, an Armenian, and some Romish churches belonging to the Portuguese, many Hindoo temples, and Mahometan mosques. The botanic garden is beautifully situated on the west bank of the river, on a bend of the Hoogly, hence Indian Called the Garden Reach. That part of the town which is inhabited by tP"^- natives, and called the black town, extends to the north of tlie other, to which it exhibits a wretched contrast. Its streets are narrow, dirty, and unpaved. It contains some two-storied houses of brick, but the great majority are mud hovels roofed with small tiles, with side walls of mats, bamboos, and other combustible ma- terials. Hence conflagrations are frequent. The EugUsh houses arc all dtUiched, INDOSTAN. 157 each possessing a piece of ground surrounded by a high wall. They cost large sums of money, and stand in constant need of repair. The destructive ravages committed on the timber by the white ants often occasion complete ruin in the interior, while the house has on the outside every appearance of being perfectly sound. Fort Wil- liam stands about a quarter of a mile below the town. It is of an octa- | Fort vroDain- gonal form, and superior in strength and regularit}' to any fortress in India. The building of it was commenced by Lord Clive, after the battle of Plassey. It has cost the East India Company altogether two millions Sterling. It is too extensive to be use- ful as a tenable post in a case of extremity; requiring 10,000 men to defend its works, and containing 15.000, a number which would be able to keep the field. The works are scarcely above the level of the country, — a circumstance which excites surprise in the natives the first time they see it, as they connect the idea of strength with eleva- tion: they generally mistake the barracks for the fort. The strata under the soil in this neighbourhood, are of a clayey tenaceous texture, and on boring to a depth of 140 feet, afford no springs. A.t a depth of thirty-five, a stratum of decayed wood is found, the debris, no doubt, of some ancient forest. The population of P«»p«>«"i«^ Calcutta is computed at hah' a million. In 179S, the number of houses, mamien. shops, and other habitations in the town, belonging to individuals was as follows : — To natives of Great Britam, ------ 4,300 Armenians, -.._.-.- 640 Portuguese, and other Christians, .... 2.650 Hindoos, -..--..- 56.460 Mahometans, ..-..-.- 14,700 Chinese, .--._... 10 Total houses, mdependently of those belonging to the Fort and the Company, ....... 7S,760 The genteel society of Calcutta is highly convivial. It is customary to rise carlv. Dinner is generally after sunset, and the convivial panics are kept up till midnight. The pro^nsions are excellent, and hberally served: and as they quickly spoil in this climate, the remains are thrown out to the pariah dogs: the prejudices of the natives not allowing them to use any thing prepared by persons not belonging to their own caste or reUcfion. The lower orders of the Portuguese cani^t consume the whole, and they are cleared away by a variety of animals, chiefly the pariah or wandering dogs, and immense flocks of crows, kites, and vultures, which almost cover the houses and gardens. The adjutant stork tenders his assistance during the day, the jackals and foxes mingle \^-ith the pariah dogs during the night, and altogether keep up a hideous howling. Game is to be had in great abundance. 3Iadeira and claret wines are used. They are exposed to much damage from the musk-rat, that animal com- municaUng to every bottle which it passes over a disagreeable flavour, which renders 'it unfit for use. The tables are covered with a profusion of dehcious fruit, obtained at a very moderate expense. The usual mode of ^isiting is in palanquins, but many gentlemen have carriages on a construction suited to the climate; and the breed of horses has been greatly improved. The British inhabitants are hospitable and gene- rous to their countr\TBen in cases in which their assistance is required. The Asiatic Society, established'in this city by Sir W. Jones, has proved highly useful ( Asaikiodety. for concentrating such knowledge as is occasionally obtained of Asia, and particularly of Indostan. 3Iany British merchants here have attained great opulence, and live in a splendid style. The Armenians are very respectable, and form the most numerous body of Ibreign merchants. Some of the higher classes of them are usually invited to the pubhc entertainments of the EngUsh. The Portuguese houses of agency are, next to the English, the most numerous. Many of the Portuguese approach venr near to the natives in appearance and manners. Some Hindoo traders hare acquired enormous fortunes. Some of them have apartments fitted up in the European fashion, and in the most splendid style, while other rooms in their houses contahi tlie ii::ages of their deiiios, decorated with jev. els. Some of ihora keep English coaches and quipages. There is more intercourse between the Europeans and the natives in G' 158 BOOK FORTY- SEVENTH. Calcutta than in other parts of India. The lower orders of Europeans have acquired a Hindoo appearance, and the Hindoos in too many instances contract from the most worthless of the Europeans a brutality and coarseness of character, habits of drunk- enness, and other moral deformities. The business of the covuts of justice also, with all its blessed fruits, generates in numerous individuals a spirit of low chicane. Dis- honesty is extremely prevalent, yet the property of Europeans is respected in a sur- prising degree by the natives, even when exposed to great temptations, chanderna- Chandcrnagore is a French settlement on the west bank of the river gore. Hoogly, sixteen miles from Calcutta. The position of this town is prefer- able to that of Calcutta. The population of it in 1S14 was 41,377, and the revenue chinsura. ] wliich it yielded 32,154 rupees. The Dutch settlement of Chinsura is eighteen miles up the river from Calcutta, on the west side. It was first the seat of serampore. | a Dutch factory in 1656. The Danish settlement of Serampore, twelve miles above Calcutta, has a lively and pleasing appearance, the houses being well built, and whitened with chunam. It is narrow and long, extending about a mile along the banks. It has a small saluting battery but no fortifications. It is the head quarters of the European Protestant missionaries, and has become a place of great literary activity ; the proficiency attained in the eastern languages in this place being very extensive. • ' The Sunder- I The dreary regions at the mouths of the Ganges, called the Sunder- bunds. I jjunjj^^ consist of a labyrinth of rivers and salt creeks, forming a com- plete inland navigation. All the banks consist of alternate strata of sand and black mould, bearing the appearance of recent deposition, and showing the shifting nature of the streams, and the mutability of these numerous islands. The navigation to Calcutta is by two passages, more than 200 miles through a thick forest, where at one time the channel is so narrow that the branches of the trees on the opposite shores meet over the vessel, while at another it presents a spacious expanse of water, and distant shores finely fringed with wood. The only inhabitants of the forests are wild beasts, excepting here and there a solitary fakeer, or Mahometan devotee, — persons greatly respected, and supposed to be divinely protected from the prowhng tigers. Wood-cutters also frequent these places. The marshy parts of the forests do not admit of cultivation. Some of the drier parts might undoubtedly be cultivated ; but the impenetrable forest is valued as a strong natural bulwark against maritime in vasion. Large quantities of excellent salt are manufactured in this quarter, and thr article is esteemed particularly sacred, as being obtained from the mud of the Ganges. The forests also supply Calcutta with an inexhaustible supply of wood for fuel, and other purposes. This vast tract is considered as without owners, and therefore claimed as the property of government. s^igor Island. | Sagor Island is twenty miles long and five broad. The anchorage is healthier at this part than higher up the river. It is a celebrated scene of Hindoo pilgrimage, being esteemed a place of great sanctity, because it is situated at the junction of the holiest branch of the Ganges with the ocean. Here many aged per- Human immo- SOUS make a Voluntary sacrifice of their lives. Children are also sacrificed, lations, ^y being thrown into the water, particularly by people belonging to the eastern districts, who sometimes, when apprehensive of not having progeny, promise, that if they have five, the fifth shall be devoted in its infancy to the Ganges. Simi- lar immolations take place at Allahabad, at Bansbariah in the district of Hoogly, and at Chogdah in that of Nuddea. The sacrifices of the aged are sanctioned by express tenets in their sacred books ; but the sacrifices of children are not any where en- joined ; such acts are the offspring of spontaneous supersfition, binding itself by vo- luntary vows. In 1801, this dreary island was inhabited by a few of the devotees called Gosseins, who claimed contributions from the pilgrims and itinerant merchants who resorted to it. Obsequies are performed for deceased ancestors, and an ancient sage called Capila, who is said to have lived 2000 years before Christ, has a temple here, in which he is worshipped as a god. Religious mendicants sometimes take up their abode at the temple, and are often devoured by tigers. Ruins of embankments and works of inasonry are found here, which show that the island has at one time been inhabited. Of late years, the altcation of governnicnl has been directed to this island,and INDOSTAN. 159 Commence- ment ofcul- tivatiun. Recently tbcraed island. District of Bacliergunge. it has been let out in portions to an association consisting of Europoans conjoined with natives. In this instance, the government has relaxed from that rigid policy which it has on other occasions invariably observed, of prohibit- inw Europeans from becoming landholders. This was necessary that the undertaking mio-ht be conducted with the requisite vigour, as the speedy clearing of the island of the shelter in which the tigers lurk, is necessary to make it habitable. In April, 1819, one-fifth was already cleared, and a broad passage effected through the remainder, in consequence of which the tigers gradually retired. In the course of these pro- ceedings, several vestiges of old buildings were discovered. An island two miles long, and half a mile broad, called Edmonstone's Island, in lat. 21" 5' N. and long. 88° 20' E. has emerged from the water, since the year 1813. It is covered with the trunks of trees floated down the river, many of which have taken root and vegetated, while creeping plants have bound together the accumulated sand, pushing upwards to the surface, in proportion as fresh portions were either deposited from the water or drifted by the wind ; the dung of the birds by which the place is frequented has promoted vegetation, and contributed to the formation of a fertile mould. The chief creeping plant of this description is the Ipomea pes caprm. Some species of salsola likewise contribute to the same end. It is visited by wood-cutters, and fishermen, who erect huts on it, but no permanent habitation has as yet been established. The district of Bachergunge is at the mouth of the Puddah, or great stream of the Ganges, on the sea shore east of the Sunderbunds, and similar in physical character, only that it is cultivated and populous. In 1584 it was laid waste by an inundation, and afterwards by the ravages of the Mughs, a fe- rocious banditti, who live on the eastern frontier of the province, and who were aided by the Portuguese settlers in Chittagong. — The district of Jessore, on | Jessore. the coast of Calcutta, partly consists of a similar territory ; it has been infested by river pirates, who live in the jungles. These places also are inhabited or frequented by salt-makers. This territory has been somewhat better cultivated since the land was settled on the Zemindars as their property, in fee-simple. The rent which they reahse, amounts to about a fifth part of the government land tax. It contains 1,200,000 inhabitants, in the proportion of nine Mahometans to seven Hindoos. — The district of Hoogly also improves, but much of it continues in a state | Hoogiy. of nature. It is particularly annoyed by gang-robbers, who accompany their rob- beries with torture. This crime though somewhat diminished by the vigilance of the British police, is still extremely prevalent. The river Hoogly, from which the district derives its name, is formed by the junction of two branches given ofT by the Ganges, called the Cossimbazar, and the Jellinghy. The influx of the tide here is sometimes inconceivably rapid, occasioning, at Calcutta, an instantaneous | Tides, rise of five feet. On its approach all boats must quit the shore, their place of safety being the deep water in the middle of the river. The town of Hoogly is large, well inhabited, and thriving, but not equal to what it was under the Mogul govern- ment, when all the duties on foreign commerce were collected there. In 1632, it was the scene of a tragical slaughter of the Portuguese, when the Moguls took it by assault. Most of the Portuguese ships lying at anchor, were blown up by their own people in despair, so that out of sixty-four large vessels, fifty-two grabs, and 200 sloops, only one grab and two sloops got away. Here in 1688, the English fought their first battle in Bengal against the Nabob's troops, in which they were successful, though it was followed by a peace on conditions of a submissive tendency. In the district of Nuddea, adjoining to Calcutta on the north, is Plassey, cele- NudJea. brated for the bloody route which decided the f\ite of Bengal in fivvour P'»"«J'- of the English, under Colonel Clivc, against the Mogul Nabob. The town of Nud- dea contains a Brahminical seminary, which the English have of late years encou- raged by the institution of prizes. The district of Midnapoor, on the confines of Orissa, is only partially | Midnapoor. cultivated. It sufiered severely by a dearth in 1799. Here there is no seminary properly so called, that is none for teaching the Hindoo and Mahometan law ; but there are numerous schools for reading and arithmetic. The character of the teach- Rirboom. Moorshedabad, 160 BOOK FORTY-SEVENTH. ers is on a scale of morality which must appear to a person of our habits ludicrous, or perhaps lamentable. An eminent teacher of Midnapoor was found on a criminal trial to be a habitual thief; yet the circumstance excited no surprise or disappoint- ment, and was attended with no lowering of the individual in society. But Ave are not to suppose, from the prevalence of such instances, that there is a total want of honour among the people. There are temptations to which all are conscious that tliey habitually yield, yet there are others which appear to our habits much stronger, over which their sense of honour never fails to obtain a heroic trium.ph. The sontai Midnapoor contains an indigent insulted race called Sontals, who are '■^'=*' considered as outcasts, and not allowed to settle in the villages of the other Hindoos. They have villages allowed them between the CLdtivated lands of the other inhabitants and the unoccupied tracts, and their neighbourhood thus serves as a protection to the former from the depredations of wild animals. They are said to be industrious in their habits, but from their ignorance of business, they are egre- o-iously imposed on by money lenders, who often extort from them 100 per cent, on the sums which they advance. The people of Midnapoor are, on the whole, a sim- ple and peaceable race, compared to those Hindoos who have more intercourse with the courts of justice. Pistrict of ^'^ ^^^^ north of Midnapoor and Hoogly is the district of Burdwan, Burdwan. distinguished by a comparatively high state of cultivation, like a garden in the midst of a wilderness. Its inhabitants amounted, in 1811, to 856,000, being at the rate of 476 to each square mile. It continues to improve, new villages are formed, and the number of brick buildings increases. It is the most fertile district in all India. The next to it is Tanjore in the Carnatic. To the north of this are the districts of Birboom and Moorshedabad, the former of which contains coal, though not of good quality. Moor- shedabad is the chief seat of the silk-weaving manufacture. Here gang-robbery, called " dacoity," is the most common crime. The city of Moorshedabad stands on the Cossimbazar branch of the Ganges, extending eight miles along both sides of the river. It is unfortified, the streets are narrow and almost impassable for car- riages, and the buildings very indifferent. The streets are badly drained, and even in some parts overrun with jungle ; the air confined and unhealthy. The city seems rapidly going to decay, unless some exertions to improve it are made on a decided plan and a comprehensive scale. In 1704, this city succeeded Dacca as the seat of government, under the Nabob Jaffier Khan. In 1757, when the Enghsh seized the government of the country, it was superceded by Calcutta, but continued the station of the collector-general till 1771. Moorshedabad is still a place of extensive trade. About a mile south from it is the town of Cossimbazar, on an island. It may be reckoned the port of Moorshedabad. Here the best silk stockings in Bengal, which are all wire-knit, are manufactured. In the midst of the adjoining marshes is to be found the magnificent palace of Motidchil.* 8o mild is the climate of this place, says M. Lagoux de Flaix, that the silk worms spin their silk the whole year round on the mulberry trees, with which the island is covered. The branch of the river which goes by the same name is a part of the most sacred line of the Ganges. | nistri« of Proceeding northward we enter Rajshahy, a large district, which oc- Rfljshahy. cupics the ccntrc of the province, and is intersected in its whole length by the Ganges. Its capital is Nattore, between which and the Dacca in the south- east, there is, during the inundations, a navigation of 100 miles across the shallow lakes called jeels ; the villages and clumps only appearing above the water, which cityof Raie. ^^^^ ^ gcntlc currcnt of half a mile per hour. The town of Rajemahl, raahi. with its adjacent territory, is now attached to the Boglipoor division of Bahar, though in the province of Bengal. Here we find the magnificent ruins of the palaces which it contained when it was a Mahometan capital, and the seat of an im- portant miliiary government, commanding tlie fiimous pass of Telliagurry, and other mountainous passes between Bengal and Bahar, which were of so much conse- quence when the two Soubahs were hostile and independent. The town has now • Pennant View, ii. 294. t I^ssai, tome ii. p. 376. District of I'urntah. District of Di- nagepoor. INDOSTAN. 161 fallen to complete decay, though still a large place, and the resident population about 30,000, besides a number ol" travellers whom it always contains. There is in this neighbourhood a tribe called Toojipahs, who live on pillage, and dwell in villages under chiefs called Manchis. They have retained, from time immemorial, in the midst of their mountains, their wild independence, their manners, and their re- ligion.* In the north-west corner of the province is the district of Purneah, bounded on the north by the Morung hills and woods, which separate it from the territory of Nepal. Here the winter is colder than in the preceding districts, hoar frost is frequent in it, and proves injurious to the leguminous crops. Yet the district enjoys on the whole great advantages both in soil and climate, and is very productive. The potato has been introduced, and is regularly cultivated, though not used as a leading article of food. In 1801, the population of Purneah had nearly doubled in forty years, and consisted of nearly three millions ; the Hindoos being to the Mahometans as fifty-seven to forty-three; but the latter have great influence, being in possession of a great part of the land. Purneah, the chief town, stands on a surface of nearly nine square miles, but contains only 40,000 inhabitants. This, like many other places in India, has been progressively deteriorating in salubrity without any apparent cause, and in 1815, had become so destructive to all classes, that it was thought necessary to remove the civil authorities elsewhere.")" Proceeding eastward, we enter Dinagepoor, which lies also a little south. In the winter months the cold here is considerable. The Eu- ropeans have fire in their rooms, and wear woollen clothing, while the natives, not so well provided, shiver in the night, and rise in the morning helpless and benumbed, till revived by the solar heat. In 1808, the population consisted of three njillions, of whom 2,100,000 were Mahometans, and 900,000 Hindoos. The inhabitants, dastardly in the extreme, are the prey of gangs of robbers, whose depredations are facilitated by the numerous rivers. Ghoraghat, in this district, is a town and zemin- dary, which, like some others in the same quarter, was, at an early period of the Ma- hometan conquest, given to Afghan chiefs, who zealously propagated their faith. It produces raw silk, gunnies, (or sackcloth,) plenty of fruit, and Tanyan horses. The ruins of Gour, the ancient capital of Bengal, are situated in the district | iiuinsofconr. of Dinagepoor, twenty-five miles from Rajemahl. Several villages stand on its site ; and it contains the remains of a mosque of black stone. + The district of Rungpoor occupies the north-eastern extremity of Ben- ^.f^ts?" **"' gal, on both sides of the river Brahmapootra, having Bootan on the north Uungpoor. and Assam on the east. It labours under the local disadvantage of a frontier exposed to five independent states, Nepal, Bootan, Cooch-Bahar, Assam, and the G arrows. It contains several swamps, and some beautiful clusters of lakes. To the cast of the rivers Brahmapootra and Chonkosh, the country is interspersed with a number of detached hills. Bamboos are extremely abundant. The cocoa trees are very productive of well ripened fruit. The different grains are cultivated. Tobacco is the staple produce ; sugar and indigo are also reared. Elephants are numerous ; and the harmless rhinoceros common. Although here, as elsewhere, proi)crfy of all kinds is secured by the British laws, yet the people have, in this quarter, little confi- dence in such settlements, not being able to conceive that the possessor of large sums of money can escape the rapacity of any sovereign ])ower. The upper classes are ill informed, and their mode of living is contracted. They do not associate with one another, but lead secluded lives, surrounded by flattering dependents and anms- ing mendicants. The frontiers adjoining to Bootan and Morung are infested with a set of wandering robbers and murderers, called Keechuks or Geedarmars. The natives are unhealthy, and the children feeble. This country being a portion of the Hindoo Camroop, or region of sensuality, prostitutes form a regular society, subject to a separate priesthood. The women thus set apai-t im- dergo in early life the ceremony of marriage with a plantain tree. The Mahometans • Sliaw, Asiatic Researches. f Mr. Colebrooke Dr. Trancis Buchanan, + Dr. F. Buchanan. Vol. U— X State of mo- i-als. 162 BOOK FORTY-SEVENTH. are more numerous here than the Hindoos in the proportion of ten to nine, and are gaining ground. But tlie two reUgions are on perfectly friendly terms, and the peo- ple apply frequently to one another's saints and deities when their own appear to fail. There are a few persons, named Asuric, who belong neither to the one nor to the other relio-ion. The name given to them is equivalent to atheist. The town of Rungpoor, the capital, is a scattered place, containing about 18,000 inhabitants. The public offices of the country, however, are not here, but at a place called Dhap, where the Europeans reside. The houses, about 300 in number, extend along an excel- Rangamatty. ( lent road, bordered with trees. Rangamatty is a town which was for- merly inhabited by several Mogul chiefs, but is now a miserable place. Goalpara, Goaipara. | a town ou tlie left bank of the Brahmapootra, twenty-three miles from the frontiers of Assam, is the principal mart of the intercourse with the Assamese, who bring coarse cloths, stick-lac, tar, wax, and occasionally gold, and take salt in return. But the Assamese are so disorderly, and so little to be trusted, (sometimes murdering their creditors,) that tliis intercourse is very inconsiderable. There are Descendants about twenty families of Portuguese here, who have entirely adopted the guel'e! ^°""* dress of the natives, can neither read nor write, and only understand a few words of Portuguese. I'he natives stand in some awe of them as a more vigor- ous race than themselves, and employ them as messengers for demanding payment of debts, and other bullying purposes. They have little form of religion, and no priest. Sometimes they go to Bowal near Dacca, to have their marriages duly so- lemnized; but in general they content themselves with a public acknowledgment of marriage at home. There are large forests in this quarter, the timber of which may probably turn to good account ; but its durability and other qualities have not been yet subjected to the requisite trials.* District of The district of Cooch-Bahar formed the western division of the an- coochBahar. c^Q^t kingdom of Camroop. The term Cooch, the name of a tribe, is attached to it to distinguish it from the large province of Bahar, of which Patna is the capital. One portion of the original Cooch tribe, called Panicooch, preserves a language quite different from the Bengalese, and has not adopted the Brahminical religion. A great proportion of the people live in extreme indigence ; and some years ago they were in the habit of selling their children for slaves without scruple ; but that traffic has been suppressed. This state was, for many years, subjected to great anarchy and misery, which the British attempted to remedy by temporary measures; but, in 1813, they took the management of it into their own hands, and reduced the Raja, who is of a low and cruel disposition, to a state of real dependence, without that semblance of freedom which is generally left to those who are friendly and of good character. "j" To the south of Rungpoor is the district of Mymunsingh, intersected by the Brahmapootra. This district is greatly improved of late years. The country near Bygonbarry, the capital, which in 1790 was a complete waste, the haunt of wild beasts and river pirates, is now well inhabited. The Hin- doos have some gratuitous schools for their own learning. It is reckoned disgrace- ful to receive payment for teaching. In 1813, the number of gang robberies said to have been committed was sixty-three, and the gangs were exceedingly formidable. The capital, Bygonbarry, is of modern creation. The other large town, Seragegunge, is on the Jhinai river; it appears in no map, yet it is thought by some to be the most trading place in Bengal, next to Calcutta.^ siihetcristrict. | Silliet, a district to the east of Mymunsingh, is the most easterly of the British provinces of Bengal. It is thought to be only 350 miles from the pro- vince of Yunan in China ; but no intercourse has taken place between the two countries in that direction, nor have tiie intervening regions been explored. On the east it is bounded by a lofty chain of mountains continued from Arracan and Chitta- gong, inhabited by savage tribes, who rank very low in the scale of humanity. The town of Silhet is surrounded with peaked conical hills. During the inundation of the Soormah and other rivers, the greater part of the land is laid under water. There • Mr. J. Grant. Dr. y. Eucli:inan. t Dr. !•'. I5iiclianaii. I)cscri|)lion of Huidostan by Walter llamiUon, Esq. vol. i. p. 214. i Hamilton's Description, i. p. 189, District of My' tnunsingh. Its improve- ment. INDOSTAN. 163 is a navigation at that season between it and Dacca, over fields which produce rice during winter, but during the rains are covered with eight or ten feet of water. Rice is the chief produce. But the cultivation is greatly impeded by the inroads of the Kookies, a savage race of predatory mountaineers, who inhal>it the Tiperah and Cachar hills, to which they instantly retire after their sudden incursions. This is one of the three only localities in India found capable of producing good | its oranges, oranges ; the other two being Chandpoor in the Dacca district, and Sautghur at the foot of the eastern Ghauts, or passes leading from Bangalore to Madras. There are large plantations of orange trees, like forests, in Silliet; and the quantity of fruit annually exported is very great.* On the spot they often cost no more than one rupee per thousand. Silhet abounds in lime, which is transported by water during the inundations. A sort of coal has also been found here, but of indifferent quality. The landed proprietors have the character of bad managers. 'I'hcy fall changes of into arrears in their payments to government, so tbat their estates are i""pefty. frequently exposed to sale: they are also irregular and litigious in their transactions with one another. There is a race of mountaineers called Cosseahs, | The cosseahs. who at one time occupied part of the low country, Init scarcely ever paid the revenue due to government, and always fled to their native mountains when any attempt was made at coercion. Being in consequence dispossessed of their lands in the low country, they in revenge afterwards committed many murders and other enormities, till forts with garrisons of sepoys were established to hold them in check. The Cosseahs are said to be an honest, fair-dealing set of people, and marked by strict veracity, but outrageously vindictive. It is expected that the intercourse now esta- blished will have a tendency to civilize them. This, however, is always uncertain. It may impart to them a new set of vices. The practice of selling their | slave markets, children and others for slaves, has always been carried to a great extent in the dis- trict of Silhet. Here the Moguls, according to Abul Faze!, procured eunuch slaves for the seraglio. Some of the free natives are still inveigled off for sale to the dif- ferent towns of Bengal ; but such attempts are now rarely successful, being vigi- lantly resisted by the British government. To the south of Silhet lies the district of Tiperah, named also Roo- | Tiperah. shenabad, of large dimensions, forming the chief eastern boundary of Bengal. Its limits to the east are indefinite, that country being extremely wild, overgrown with jungle, and abounding with elephants. That portion of Tiperah wliich lies near the river Megna is rich, well cultivated, and commercial. The manick or zemindar of Tiperah possesses an independent sovereignty beyond the hills, but usually resides in the British head quarters at Comillah. The district contains no large towns, but many of moderate size, such as Luckipoor, Daoodcaundy, and Chandpoor. It was an independent Hindoo principality long after the Mahometans had possession of Bengal, though Dacca, the capital of the latter, was in its near neighbourhood. It was not till 1733, when the Mogul power was itself falling to pieces, that Tiperah was brought under its full influence. In 1765, it devolved to the British government. In ISOl, it was estimated to contain 750,000 inhabitants, in the proportion of four Hindoos to three Mahometans ; but this was undoubtedly an exaggeration. It long continued one of the most disturbed districts of the province; but, of late years, gang robberies have been almost entirely suppressed, and other heinous offences have be- come comparatively rare. The territory round Chandpoor is famous for producing the very finest oranges in India. | On the west of Tiperah is the district of Dacca Jelalpoor, distinguish- ed as the granary of rice for Bengal. Since the famine of 1787, this district has been progressively improving. The landed property is divided into small portions called talooks, which are subdivided again to an extreme degree of minute- ness. Hence civil causes, on the subject of property, are numerous and intricate. In ISOl, this district contained nearly a milhon of inhabitants, one-half Hindoos, and the other Mahometans. The change in social condition, freedom of industry, and • Rennet's Memoir. Colebrook. Dr. F. Buchanan. Hamilton's Description, 8tc. vol. i. p. 191. I W. Hamilton's Description, kc. vol. i. p. 176. Dacca Jelal* poor. 164 BOOK FORTY-SEVENTH. security of property, is similar here to what it has been in the adjoining districts. The City of Dacca. | chief town, Dacca, is situated beyond the principal stream of the Gan- ges, about 100 miles above its mouth by land, but 400 by the winding course of the river. , It is admirably situated for trade, is on the whole wealthy, and in population and extent the third city in Bengal. It has, at different times, enjoyed great splen- dour and prosperity. In the time of Aurengzebe, it seems to have been a rival to the greatest cities, with the exception of Gour. Again, in 1774, it was made the centre of law and revenue, and exhibited great opulence. When the provincial coun- cil was abolished, and judges and collectors were appointed to the different districts, it fell ofi"; but the mercantile and industrious classes have not decreased, and its limits have been extended. Towards the end of the seventeenth century, Dacca was the residence of Azim Ushan, Aurengzebe's grandson, who began and nearly completed a magnificent palace, now in ruins. It contained, at the same time, an enormous gun of hammered iron, weighing about 64,814 pounds, and the shot for it must have weighed 400 pounds ; but it is not probable that it ever was discharged. The pre- sent city extends six miles along the river, the houses made of brick and thatch, the streets very narrow and crooked. The thatch houses are generally burned down once, and often twice, in the year, the owners looking on with indifference. Their valuables, being contained in earthen pots sunk beneath the floor, do not suffer, and the houses are easily rebuilt at the expense of a few rupees. This city formerly Manufactures, | manufactured beautiful fabrics, which were held in great estimation at the court of Delhi, and also at that of France. Its prosperity has been materially affected by the French revolution. In 1801, its population was estimated at 200,000, though then comparatively in a state of decline, and the Mahometans were to the Hindoos in the proportion of 145 to 130. The society of the place is diversified by many respectable Greek, Armenian, and Portuguese merchants settled in it. The inhabitants are remarkably orderly, and seem attached to the existing state of things. District of The district of Chittagong is situated to the south of Tiperah, in the chittagong. south-eastcm extremity of Bengal, on that part of the coast which turns round to the south-east, forming the commencement of the region called " the Pe- ninsula beyond the Ganges." It is more detached than any other portion of the province, being in contact only with Tiperah in a narrow part of its northern extre- mity. On the west, it is bounded by the bay of Bengal : on the east, by the Birman empire ; and on the south, by Arracan. About two-thirds of the soil are unpro- ductive and hilly, and one-third plain and arable ; the former being chiefly the parts Islamabad. | furthest from the sea-coast. Its capital, Islamabad, on the Chittagong river, is, according to M. Wahl, the Bangala of the Arabian writers ; it is an acces- sible sea-port, well situated for external commerce, as well as the construction of large ships, of which a considerable number are built annually, both of imported and indigenous timber. Being reckoned a healthy country, it is the frequent resort of Inhabitants. | invalids from other parts of the province. Its inhabitants consist of Mahomedans, Hindoos, and Mughs. The Mahomedans are to the Hindoos as TheMughs. j thrcc to two. The Mughs are uatives of Arracau, who havc been driven from that country by the oppressions of their chiefs, or of the Birman government by whom they have been subdued, or who have been induced by predatory habits to live in the most rugged localities of this district. These are a much more vigorous race than the Bengalese natives ; but addicted to murder as well as robbery. A considerable profit accrues to government from the elephants caught in the forests of Chittagong, which are possessed of excellent qualities, and well fitted for the camp and the chase. At an early period of its intercourse with Europe, Chittagong was inhabited by some irregular Portuguese, who were in the practice of pillaging the adjoining countries. The hills in the north and east, are inhabited by a savage people called Choomeas. Beyond them are Kookies, who live in a state of perpe- tual war, and esteem bravery, cunning, and the slaughter of their enemies, the highest merits that any man can possess. The land of this district is divided into very small possessions, and there are always numerous litigations on questions of bound- aries.* * W. Hamilton's Description of Hindostan, vol. i, p. 167. INDOSTAN. 165 Isle of Sun- deep. Sutledge and Jumna. At the mouth of the great Megna, formed by the united streams of the Ganges and Brahmapootra, is the isle of Sundeep, which was taken from the Moguls, and erected into an independent principality in the end of the 18th century by Sebastian Gonzales. It was taken in 1616 by the Arracanese, who, under the name of Mughs, infested and devastated the neighbouring parts of Ben- gal, carrying off the inhabitants into slavery. It was afterwards taken by the Mo- guls in 1666, and devolved to the East India Company along with the whole province of Bengal. We shall now take a view of the mountainous countries which lie countries in between the plains of the Ganges and the plateau of Thibet. Some of mountains, these were wholly unexplored, till recent transactions led the British armies to them as the scene of warlike operations. This is particularly the case with the tract situated between the rivers Sutledge and Jumna, which the last war with the Ghoorkas has brought into the view of Europe, and which was the scene of the tour lately published by Mr. Eraser.* That territory is divided into about thirty political communities, four of which, being considerably larger than the others, are called principalities. Such was its condition before it was subdued by the Ghoorkas, and to this it has been nearly restored since the expulsion of that foreign power by the British arms. Though the people are almost all aboriginal, the rulers have been always strangers, who seem to have come among them on some of their pilgrimages to the sacred places, and finding them barbarous and ignorant in the extreme, easily subdued them. The chiefs were almost always in a state of mutual war, till they were invaded by the Ghoorkas in 1803. In 1814 it was wholly occupied by this people, who had not only committed great excesses in the prosecution of the war, but kept up a rule of the most oppressive description. They maintained here a force of 7000 men, 5000 of whom were regular troops, armed with muskets hke the sepoys. Many of the old forts which they could not conveniently occupy were destroyed. The revenue ex- tracted from it by Ummer Singh, the commander, never exceeded 282,000 rupees, (£28,200.) In 1815 Sir David Auchterlony took the country after a hard contest, in which the fortresses of Jytok and Almora sustained the attacks of the Europeans with a bravery and perseverance seldom before displayed by the militaiy powers of India. This conquest cost the victors no trifling expenditure of blood and treasure. The country was, with a few exceptious, put in possession of the former expelled chiefs. Very few of them pay tribute to the protecting power. They have engaged to submit their disputes to British arbitration, and to furnish a specific number of hill carriers in case of military operations in their country, the only mode of conveying baggage over these rugged regions being by human labour. The moral character of the indigenous mountaineers is represented in very unfavour- able colours, as destitute of gratitude or honesty ; they perpetually rob one another, and the poorest individual who has a rag on his back is made an object of plunder in passing from one village to another. The long distracted state of the country and its extremely minute division into petty independent jurisdictions, generated or maintained this state of peculiar degradation. Their subjugation to harsh masters, and the exactions to which they have been subjected, have rendered them indolent in the extreme. Their physical constitution is far from being robust. The four largest principalities are Cahlore, (situated on both sides of the Sutledge,) Hindoor, Sirmore, and Bussaher. The legitimate Rajah of Sirmore, Kerrum Perkaush,. whose birth would have induced the victors to re-establish him, was so bad a character that he was set aside, and his son, a minor, seated on the guddy, (or throne,) under the guardianship of his mother. Kurrum Perkaush had, during hi? possession of the sovereignty before the Ghoorka conquest, murdered every per- son of worth in his dominions, so that the existence of such characters was only a matter of tradition: yet in 1816, when this person had every appearance of drawing near his end, his wife declared her resolution to terminate her life at the same time. Nahan, the capital of Sirmore, is a large open town, populous and * See Journal of a Tour through part of the snowy range of the Hamalali mountains, and to the sources of the rivers Jumna and Ganges, by James Caillie Fraser, Esq. 4to. 1820. Present poli- tical state. Gurwal and Kumaoon. 166 BOOK FORTY-SEVENTH. handsome, situated on a level spot on the top of a lofty mountain. It stands about 2000 feet above the level of the plain. From the top of this and the neighbouring mountains, a magnificent view is obtained of the plains of Sirhind to the south, the south-west, and south-east, but to the northward, the view is terminated by the snowy mountains. — Bussaher occupies the northern extremity of the territories between the Sutledge and Jumna. This state pays a tribute of 15,000 rupees, (^1500) per an- num. Rampoor, its capital, is a great mart for the goods of Thibet, those of the hills and of the plains. — Poondur is a remote and barbarous community amonw the hills, the particular circumstances of which are imperfectly known. It has never been subjected to the full control of any foreign power, such as that of the Ghoor- kas. The people demand black mail of several of their neighbours, and delight in the life of liberty and plunder which their situation enables them to lead.* To the east of the river Jumna hcs the province of Gurwal. The southern part of this country is an assemblage of hills of the most di- versified and irregular kind, short and narrow ridges in all varieties of angles and mutual attitudes, and separated by confined valleys. The people of Gurwal and of Kumaoon are called Khasiyas ; and their language also goes under that name, from the word Khas, the name given to the aborigines, who are reckoned an impure race ; for this reason the present inhabitants disclaim that appellation, and pretend that their progenitors emigrated from the south. Kumaoon lies east and south from Gur- wal, being separated from it by a small river; but the inhabitants of the two territo- ries are widely different from each other. Those of Gurwal are comparatively strong and active, and earn their subsistence in a great measure by labouring as carriers to the pilgrims who visit the holy places. The Gurwalians fix their burdens on their backs with slings, but the Kumaoonees carry them on the head, their country being- somewhat less precipitous, so as not to demand so imperiously the free use of their hands in climbing. The people of Gurwal, however, have always crouched beneath any political yoke however galling, without making the least eflbrt to assert their inde- pendence, though their country is strong and well adapted for defence. Here the Bha- girath and Alcananda streams unite to form the Ganges. The country fell under British influence in 1814. The Rajah of Serinagur was re-established; but, as his former capital is situated in a part of the territory which the British retained in their own hands, he subsequently fixed his residence at Barahat-I The river Alcananda is the Rajah's eastern boundary, and to the east of it lies the mountainous province of Kumaoon. Serinagur, the late capital of Gurwal, occupies a central situation in a valley about three miles long, surrounded by barren mountains, on the east side of the river Alcananda. It is of an elliptical form, and about three-fourths of a mile long. The houses are roughly built of stone and earth, generally two stories high, and roofed with slate. The house of the old Rajahs is of granite, and four stories high. The river Alcananda, on which the town stands, has made great encroachments on it; an earthquake in 1803, has also injured it greatly, and in 1815, the British found it in a most ruinous condition. The inhabitants are chiefly emi- grq^iffe from the low countries, and the leading persons are the agents of the banking houses at Nujibabad and in the Doab, who are engaged in the traffic of specie. The British retain possession of the valley of Deyrah Doon, situated between the Jumna and Ganges, and of some importance in a military point of view. Kalunga is an important fortress in Gurwal, which, in 1814, stood two separate attempts to carry it by storm, but was afterwards abandoned by the garrison during the preparations made for a third assault. A little to the north-east of this fortress are many caves, inhabited by a race of people nearly in a state of nature, who live on rice of a re- markably large grain. The caves extend for some distance into the rock, and are frequently a considerable height from the ground, and ascended by rope ladders. In tliis country are some of the holy junctions of the Gangctic streams called Prayagas, and the two sources called Gangootre and Kedarnath. Bhadrinath is a town con- • Fraser's Journal. t Dr. F. Buchanan. Mr. W. Hamilton, vol. ii. p. 633, etc. Town of Se' rinagur. Fortress of Almora. INDOSTAN. 167 sisting of twenty or thirty huts, with a temple and a warm spring used as a bath. The whole territory is filled with sacred places, which the Hindoos make a merit of visiting, and pay stated sums in the form of offerings, at numerous places, in the course of their religious tour. Between the rivers Alcananda and Cali, lies the Hindoo principality ] Kumaoon. of Kumaoon. Here the surface is less prerupt than in Gurvval, the plains are spa- cious, and the hills of easy ascent. The popvdation is denser, and the cultivation carried higher up the hills. The towns and villages look well at a distance, but, on nearer inspection, are found dirty. The houses are two stories high, the ground floor being occupied by the cattle. The people dress in cotton stuffs, while the Gur- walians dress in wool. Their dispositions are mild. Polygamy is much practised among them. The men take the charge of the household affairs, while the women undertake all the drudgeries of agriculture. They are very much under the influ- ence of the Brahmins, who, previously to the subjugation of the country by the Ghoorkas, raised and deposed the Rajah at pleasure. Almora is tlie capital of Kumaoon, and wa^ the scene of important and well contested military actions in 1815. There is a subdivision of the Kumaoon district called Painkhandi, very precipitous in its surface, containing the snowy peak of Rhanmee, 22,700 feet above the ocean. The hills abound in timber. Some of the cedars are of enormous size. Some specimens of them have measured 27 feet in circumfer- ence at the height of four feet from the ground, and 180 feet in height. Hemp grows with uncommon luxuriance, being ten or twelve feet high, with wide spreading branches. There is a plant, resembling butcher's broom, from which | Paper plant, the inhabitants make a paper which is in request among the native bankers of India for bills of exchange, as being only moderately bibulous, and stronger than other paper. Birch bark is used for writing on, and quantities of it are sent to Lucknow, where it is used to line the snakes, or winding tubes, of the hookahs. Several of the inhabitants are Bhootees. There are ten villages among the snowy mountains inhabited exclusively by that race. They indeed occupy in general the alpine heights nearest to the snowy Himalahs, both on the north and south side. They are entirely devoted to religious observances and commerce. On some occasions they are con- cerned in military operations, but rather unwillingly. They are darker in complexion than the other mountaineers. They adhere to the lama religion, which they mix with several Hindoo superstitions. Some of these tracts are only inhabited in the summer months : such as the village Malari on the Niti road. In Gurwal and Ku- maoon the sale of children was a daily practice, and a subject of taxation under the Ghoorka government, but has been abolished by British autliority.* To the east of these countries lies the kingdom of Nepal, one of the largest and most compact sovereignties of modern Indostan, compre- hending nearly two-thirds of the northern hills of India. The name of Nepal pro- perly belongs only to one magnificent valley, the rest of the kingdom consisting of other conquests of the Ghoorkas, wlio are its masters. This kingdom is in the form of a parallelogram, all the sides of which, except the northern, are bounded by the British possessions. It in general extends about twenty miles into the plains of Indostan. To the north of this flat belt, there is a range of low hills, between which and the high mountains there are fine valleys of considerable length ; these are well cultivated, and called doon, a term synonymous to " strath" or " glen." Along the bottoms of the hills there is a rich low tract, which is left without cultivation, on ac- count of its extreme unhealthiness ;f though some parts which have been well cleared appear to be tolerably healthy. — A great part of the country among the hills is very productive in grain and various fruits, such as pine apples, peaches, grapes, and oranges. Ginger and cardamoms form part of the valuable produce of these tracts. Much of this mountainous region consists of granite : it contains much iron, lead, copper, some zinc, and a little gold in some of the rivers : it also con- tains mines of sulphur. The breadth of the hilly region, between the plains and the alpine region, is about thirty or forty miles at Catmandoo, the capital, but it ii • W. Hamilton's Description of Hindostan, vol. ii. p. 648. t Col. Kirkpatrick's Account of the Kingdom of Nepal, p. 20. Kingdom of Nepal. Newars. Original inhabitants 168 BOOK FORTY-SEVENTH. greater in the western parts. The alpine region itself is of equal extent. The snowy ridge winds considerably, but has few interruptions, and is in most places quite impassable. The numerous valleys interspersed among the mountains are inhabited by various tribes, differing in language and customs. Those who have any preten- sions to be aboriginal have the Mongolian character and aspect. The most fertile part of Nepal Proper was formerly occupied (and still in a great measure is) by the Newars, a race addicted to agriculture and commerce, and far more ad- vanced in the arts than any of the other mountain tribes. They profess the doctrines of Buddha; but instead of acknowledging the Lama, they have a priesthood of their own. They have also adopted the Hindoo practice of division into castes. In the more rugged parts, there is a tribe called Murmi, a robust race, who live by agricul- ture and the carrying of burdens. They are hated by the Ghoorkas, for eating the flesh of the cow ; and, not being permitted to kill these sacred animals, they eat those that die a natural death. The Hindoo inhabitants of Nepal have the character of being both abject and arrogant, debauched, jealous, and revengeful. The Ghoorka military are more orderly than that which was previously maintained by the native Rajahs, but inferior to the British sepoys. They are armed with match-locks, for which they do not use cartridges. The war standard exhibits, on a yellow ground, the portrait of Huniman, a gigantic monkey and Hindoo demigod. Great valley ^^^^ most Select portions of the Ghoorka territories consist of two de- of Nepfti. lightful valleys, called Great and Little Nepal. The large valley is nearly circular, watered by numerous rills, running from the mountains, and meeting in the Catmandoo. | centre, in the Bogmutty. Here is Catmandoo, the capital, which stands 4784 feet above the plains of Bengal. Hence, though in lat. 27° 50', it enjoys a cli- mate similar to that of the south of Europe ; the temperature of the springs is 64*'. The periodical rains extend to this spot. The hoe is the great instrument of cultiva- tion, but extremely awkward from its shortness, obliging the workman either to stoop greatly, or to sit on his heels, the last of which postures he generally prefers. They have numerous water-mills for grinding corn, an improvement not known in southern Indostan. There are considerable manufactories of copper, of brass, and a kind of bell metal. They make bells, but not equal to those made in Thibet. They make several bell metal vessels, and sell them along with those of brass and copper in Thibet. The great mass of the inhabitants dwell in the valleys. Both the hills, and the low country called Terriani, are very thinly peopled. The Newars are much more numerous than the Parbutties, or mountaineers. To them also the cultivation of the soil is generally confined. They are despised by the Parbutties as an unwar- like race, and are treated with oppressive rigour and extortion by their rulers. They have in some degree the Mongolian features, but with a much wilder expression. Most of the servants are slaves. Some Brahmins are slaves to Rajepoots, and act as cooks, which is considered as a situation of great dignity. It is reckoned dis- graceful in any one to sell his children to an infidel, or a person of impure caste, al- though this is sometimes done in urgent cases ; and the individual who does it docs not on that account lose caste. He would however incur this dreaded calantiity, if ho should at any future time receive such a child again into his house. The female slaves of the Maha Ranny, or Queen, arc allowed some peculiar privileges, and have con- siderable influence at court. In the day time, they attend their royal mistress ; and when she goes out, some of them follow her as a body guard, dressed and riding on horseback like men, and armed with swords. Catmandoo is estimated to contain a population of 20,000. There are some other fine cities in the same valley; as La- lita Patau, which contains 24,000 inhabitants, and was formerly the capital of an in- dependent state. Bhatgony is another, which was also a capital before the Ghoorka invasion. In the hills on the south side of this valley are the sacred springs of the Seher at the village of Sulti Kuhl. They contain multitudes of small fish, which are never touched, the inhabitants behoving that any attempt to steal them will be fol- lowed by instant death.* • Kirkpatrick's Nepal, p. T5. TNDOSTAX. 169 Valley of Noa- kote. The other valley is called Noakote, about six miles long, and one and a quarter in breadth ; possessing an extremely fertile soil, and capable of bearing all the productions of Bahar, though hemmed in by the snowy mountains on the north. Though so near the hills, it appears not to be quite so elevated as that of Catmandoo. The heats are so great after April that the country is not ha- bitable, on account of the prevalence of the fever called the Owl.* North from Catmandoo, at a distance of thirty-seven miles taken in a straight line, though re- quiring eight days to accomplish the journey, is Nielkantha, a town of pilgrimage, which is visited about the end of July and the beginning of August, though the road is scarcely passable, on account of the depth of the snow ; avalanches and glaciers being frequent. During this short period a fair is held here, and many shops are opened ; but when the cold season sets in, it is abandoned by all its inhabitants, who remove to a milder climate. The name signifies " a blue throat," and is an epithet of Siva, originating from an exploit said in the Hindoo mythology to have been per- formed by that deity. Immediately west from Nepal Proper, is a country of considerable ^he twenty- extent, called " the territory of the twenty-four Rajahs," because it for- fo"'' Raj»hs. nierly consisted of that number of petty states under Rajahs who acknowledged the superiority of the Jemlah Rajah. One of these is Ghoorka, the original seat of the power which has made sucli extensive conquests in those regions. Jemla was once bounded by Gurwal, and had the ascendancy over numerous states. It contains a fine valley, indented with deep ravines twenty miles long, and ten wide, resembling that of Nepal, but more checquered with hills. It is well cultivated, and contains valuable mines of rock salt. The Bhootees, who are Lamaists, form the majority of the population; but all the accounts which we have of it have reached us through the medium of natives, as it has not yet been visited by Europeans. Mucwanpoor is an important district subject to the Rajah of Nepal. | Mucwanpoor. It was formerly more extensive than it now is. It lies chiefly to the south of the Nepal valley, and the San Cosi river. One half of it is in the level country called the Teniani, a belt about twenty miles wide. This contains sorjie hilly and poor land, but the greater part of it is rich, though uncultivated, and on this account abounding in elephants and rhinoceroses. The breed of elephants is of a very in- ferior kind. The native Rajahs formerly encouraged the exuberance of the jungle for their own defence, cultivating a few rich spots which were concealed in the bosom of the forests. Under the Ghoorka dynasty, it has become more extensively cleared. It produces excellent tobacco, and some red cotton. To the north of the Teniani, Mucwanpoor consists of a gradation of small hills abounding with pines. The pea- santry all over the district are dirty and poor. At the conclusion of the last war of the British with the Nepalese government, the former proposed to restore an old Rajah to the possession of a great part of this territory: but the matter probably remains still unsettled, being put off" by the pertinacity of the Nepalese. To the east of Nepal Proper, the mountains are chiefly occupied by two tribes called Kirauts and Lim- boos intermingled, both subject to the Ghoorkas. They are not sincere followers of the Brahmins, but are compelled by their present rulers to abstain from the flesh of the cow, for which they have a strong predilection. With Thibet there are two roads of communication from Nap'd. — Morung lies on the east of Muc- | Morung. wanpoor, and is similar to it in physical character. It continues subject to the Ghoorkas, with the exception of a section extending thirty-five miles to the west of the Teesta. To the east of Morung lies the principality of Sikkim, about sixty | sikkim. miles long, and forty broad. The greater part of it is included between the two arms of the river Teesta. The inhabitants are of the Lapcha tribe. They mostly profess Lamaism, eat beef, pork, and other animal food held by the Hindoos in detestation, drink ardent spirits to excess, and do not marry their females till they arrive at maturity. They are not so enervated by excess in religious devotion as the Bhootees ; hence, though the latter had the ascendancy in the govern- • Kirkpalrick's Nepal, p. 117. Vol. II.— Y 170 BOOK FORTY-SEVENTH. ment preyious to the Ghoorka invasion, the armies consist principally of the more vigorous Lapchas. In 1788, the Ghoorkas, in a desperate contest near to the capi- tal Sikkini, defeated the Rajah, and soon after obtained possession of the princi- pality ; though the submission of the people and their leaders was only partial, and accompanied with much annoyance to their masters, who afterwards gave them a chief of their own tribe. In the rupture between the Ghoorkas and the British in 1814, the Rajah declared in favour of the latter, and at the pacification was reinstated in a considerable portion of his mountain territory, together with a tract of low land ceded by the Ghoorkas, essential to the support of his people. This is rich, but not at all under cultivation. The chief produce is rice and madder. In consequence of their coincidence in religious faith, this state keeps up more intercourse with Thibet than any other on the south side of the snowy mountains, and it is through this medium that all communication is conducted between India and the Chinese authorities on the north side of the Himalah mountains. The establishment of a state independent of the Ghoorka sway, and under friendly relations with the British government, has arrested the progress of Ghoorkan ambition to the eastward, where Bootan would have fallen an easy prey, and the approximation of this power to the Birman empire might have generated scenes of the most extensive warlike confusion. The fort of Naggree, in Sikkim, is a place of uncommon strength, which the Ghoorkas gave up with much reluctance, and which the British have strengthened for the Rajah with some powerful pieces of ordnance. Bootaiu j Contiguous to Sikkim on the east, is Bootan, the country of the Deb Rajah, which we have already noticed in our account of Thibet, estimated at an ex- tent of 250 miles in length, and ninety in average breadth. It is entirely mountain- ous in its northern part, the reverse of Thibet, which is a level table land. At the base of the hills, near the frontier of Bengal, there is a valley choked up with jungle, and unhealthy. The face of the country in general is greatly diversified, and there are places of very opposite climates in sight of each other. There is a good deal of agricultural industry, and irrigation is much attended to ; the labours of the field are devolved on the females. Wild animals are not numerous in Bootan ; but mon- keys of a large size and a handsome form abound, and are held sacred by the Bhoo- tees, as well as by the Hindoos. A caravan dispatched by the Deb Rajah annually visits the Rungpoor district, bringing with it the coarse woollen manufacture of the country, Thibet cowtails, walnuts, ivory, musk, gold dust, silver in ingots, Chinese silks, tea, paper, and knives, besides horses ; it takes back in return, English wool- lens, indigo, dried fish, quicksilver, cloves, nutmegs, incense, sandal wood, copper, tin, gunpowder, hides, cotton cloth, and pigs. The value of the whole scarcely exceeds 30,000 rupees ; and the indigo forms one half of it. This timid government will not permit any caravan from Bengal to enter Bootan. The military weapons of the Bootaners are bows and arrows, short straight swords, faulchions resembling prun- ing hooks, and a few bad matchlocks. The people are of large stature, many of them six feet high : more ruddy and robust than the Bengalcse, but very subject to glandular swellings in the throat. Their eyes and features are in a great measure Mongolian. Their skins are smooth ; and they have no beard till well advanced in years. Tea is much used among them. Their manner of preparing it is to mix to- gether flour, salt butter, bohea tea, with some other astringent vegetable, and water ; boil them together, and beat them up. When they have finished the cup, they lick it clean with the tongue. Their houses have only one story, but the palace of the Deb Rajah has several, which are ascended by lofty stairs. The country being mountainous, abounds in bridges hung on iron chains. When the Deb Rajah takes a •dose of physic, his physician is obliged to sw.illow an equal dose. The ministers of religion are quite distinct in their habits from the people, and the latter take no part in ThrDehHa- I matters of spiritual concern. The Deb Raiah, their governor, is consi- jah and DUar- 1 ' , . •' ^ mn Rajah. j dercd as thc secular vicegerent of their spiritual prince called Dharma Rajah, a supposed incarnation of the deity, who sometimes interposes his opinion with an air of authority. The people of thc low countries belong to subdued tribes, and the true Bootaners live in the mountains; sometimes descending to enforce obe- dience from tiie people of the plains, to inflict chastisement, or to invade the neigh- Kingdom of Assam. INDOSTAN. 171 bouring slates. On such occasions it is said that their attacks exhibit a horrid com- bination of cowardice, perfidy, and diabohcal crueUy. It was in 1772 that this coun- try first fell under the observation of the British, in consequence of a sudden invasion made by the Deb Rajah on the territory of the Cooch Bahar. Two battahons of native infantry were employed to drive them back, and pursue them into their own country, when the fortress of Dellamcotta was taken by storm. On this occasion the Deb Rajah obtained a peace through the mediation of the Teshoo Lama. The town of Tassisudon, the capital of Bootan, stands in the middle of a cultivated val- ley, which is about tliree miles in length, and one in breadth. The castle or palace is of a quadrangular form. Near it is a long line of shed.s, where workmen are em- ployed in forging brazen gods, and other ornaments for their houses.* On the south of Bootan, and extending a great way to tlie cast, is the kingdom of Assam. It adjoins the province of Bengal, at the north- east corner, about the 91st degree of oast longitude. It is thought probable that it comes in contact with the kingdom of Ava on the cast, about the 96th degree of longitude, and is at that part 180 miles from Yunan in China. It is the basin or valley through which a large portion of the river Brahmapootra flows. The average breadth of the valley is about seventy miles, but the present territory of the Rajah of Assam nowhere reaches the hills, — these belonging to the Deb Rajah of Bootan. The western province is named Camroop, extending nearly as far east as the cele- brated temple of middle Kamakhya. The long island formed by the division and re-union of the river, contains many low woody hills, and a great extent of fine low land, possessed of great natural fertility. The middle province, or Assam Proper, is more extensive than the western. JVo European has penetrated much further than Gohati, the capital, situated at is western extremity. Its length is not known. It comprehends the northern half of the western island formed by the Brahmapootra, and the whole of the very large island named Majuli. It is more fertile, and less hilly than Camroop. The third province is a small and insignificant tract, of which very little is known. For a great way to the cast, no part of this state lies on the south side of the river. On the north Assam is bounded by the mountains of Boo- tan, Auka, DufFala, and Miree, and on the south by the G arrow mountains, which become higher as they extend east, and change the name of Garrow to that of Naga. The animal and vegetable productions are similar to those of Bengal. Three-fourths of the produce consist of rice. The trade of this kingdom has diminished of late years, and the number of its inhabitants has been reduced by the violence of intes- tine broils. It is a rule of state in Assam that no person of the royal blood can succeed to the throne if he has any blemish or scar on his body; and it is sometimes the practice to mark artificially those who are not to succeed to the crown, in order to prevent civil wars about the succession. The criminal code is cruel in the ex- treme ; but among the rich its punishments are easily averted by bribery. All the members of the family of any rebel, both male and female, are capitally punished. Rafts covered with human heads are sometimes found floating down the Brahma- pootra, supposed to be supplied from this source. The population is supposed to be under half a million: about three fourths of the country are uncultivated jungle. It contains no shops nor markets, and their towns are merely groups of the most niiserablc hovels. The national character has deteriorated since the introduction of the Brahminical religion. They have become more pusillanimous towards foreigners, and more disunited among themselves.f In the neighbourhood of Assam, to the west and the north, there are a few states or principalities which maintain more or less show of inde- pendence. Such is Bidgenee, the Rajah of which has part of his pos- sessions within the limits of the Bengal province, subject to the English, and another part within the territory of Bootan, while the spot on which his capital is situated is a sort of neutral ground, deriving a degree of independence from its ambiguous • See Capt. Turner's Account of Tliibet, and Ur. F. Buchanan, t See Mr. VVadt's work. Di. F. Buchanan. Adjoining staici. Bidgenee. 173 BOOK FOllTY-SEVENTH. position. Here the prince is suspected of harbouring bad characters, and sharing in their plunder. He pays a tribute of 2000 rupees to the Enghsh.* he Garrows. | The tribe called the Garrows occupies a portion of the territory included in the great bending of the Brahmapootra, where, from running west, it turns to the south. They formerly occupied this territory to the margins of the river, but are now confined to an inland hilly district. They are a ferocious and irregular set of people, and a military establishment is required in their neighbourhood, to hold them in check during the fairs. Mingled with them are some hostile tribes, who have subdued portions of their country, particularly on the banks of the river. They are a more robust race than the Bengalese, both men and women are active in their habits, and would be industrious if they were secured in a fair recompense for their produce. But their transactions with their neighbours are said not to be subjected Their charao- to good regulations on the part of the latter. They eat all sorts of animal tomi. * food, including dogs, cats, frogs, and snakes. Milk they hold in abhor- rence, as a kind of excrementitious matter. They are partial to puppies, which they cook in the most cruel manner that can be conceived. They first make the animal eat as much rice as its stomach will receive, then tie his four legs together, and throw him on the fire. They take out the animal when sufficiently broiled, rip open the body, and divide the rice in equal shares among the party assembled. This process has been repeatedly witnessed by the Bengalese traders. They have some other characteristic barbarous customs. When a quarrel arises between two Gar- rows, the weaker party escapes to a distant hill : both parties plant a tree bearing an acid fruit called chatakor, and swear solemnly to embrace the earliest opportunity of eating their adversary's head with the juice of its fruit. If no opportunity occurs for many years, tlie feud is handed down with undiminished virulence to posterity. The party which eventually succeeds in cutting off" the head of his adversary, boils it with the fruit of the tree, eats part of the soup, and distributes the remainder among his friends: the tree is now cut down, and the feud is ended; the party of the deceased, instead of indulging the spirit of vengeance, acquiesces in the award of the good fortune of the other. They set a high value on the heads of Bengalese people, especially when they belong to persons of rank. When they separate one from the body, they bring it reeking among their friends, fill the skull with victuals, eat out of it, and accompany the feast with dancing ; then bury it for a length of time sufiicient to make the flesh separate easily from the Irenes, after which they dance round it as before, and hang it up as a trophy in the house of the murderer. Such a ekuU has its value in exchange like any other piece of property. It forms, in fact, a circulating medium; and the value is in proportion to the rank of the individual. The head of a Hindoo factor who had purchased the zemindary of Caloomaloopara was valued at 1000 rupees; that of a common peasant costs ten or twelve. That none of their own people's heads may bo passed off" in this manner, they make a point of burning the bodies of their dead to powder. Domestic feuds are numerous; but they have courts held by their chiefs for settling disputes. These courts do not in- flict any punishment, unless a man is detected in uttering a falsehood before them, which incurs the penalty of instant death. Dishonesty and stealing are not frequent, but murders are daily occurrences. Those who are not converted to the Brahminical rehgion believe in the transmigration of souls. Their supreme god has a wife, though no children. They use no images or temples. They do not write their own language; a few among them can read and write Bengalese. This description ap- plies chiefly to the northern Garrows. The southern are partially converted to the Brahminical religion. Their colour is sometimes a light, sometimes a deep brown. They have a surly look, a flat nose, small eyes, a wrinkled forehead, overhanging eyebrows, a large mouth, thick lips, and a round face. The women are singularly ugly, short and squat, but strong-bodied, and work at all occupations. Intoxication is very common, and is the cause of many crimes. I cachar. | Cachar, on the south of Assam, is a large territory, which the Birmans have invaded with various success, sometimes being obliged to retire on account of • Dr. F. Buchanan. f Sipon, Elliot. Dr. F. Buchanan. INDOSTAN. 17^ the unhealthiness of the country, and sometimes succeeding in exacting tributary engagements. Between Cachar and Arracan Hes Cassay, or Munipoor, | Mimipoor. bounded on the west by the Bengal districts of Tiperah and Silhet, and on tlie east separated from the Birman territories by the river Keenduem. The natives have the soft countenances of the Hindoos, very different from the Birman physiognomy. Several of them who have been taken prisoners, are now settled in the Birman ca- pital, Ummerapoor, where they are distinguished by their superior skill in various branches of handicraft work. They are excellent horsemen, and form the only ca- valry in the Birman empire. Their music is pleasant, and conformable to the Eu- ropean taste. They profess the Brahminical religion. Their capital is Munipoor, in N. latitude 24° 20', and E. longitude 94" 30'. The tract in which it is situated forms the nearest communication between the north-east corner of Bengal and the north-west quarter of the Birman empire, but the whole route has not been traversed by any European. A communication is kept up between Munipoor and Assam. It was taken by the Birmans in 1774, and is still tributary to that power.* BOOK XLVIII. INDOSTAN CONTINUED. The Dcccan, or Southern Indosian. The countries topographically described in the preceding book are sometinies called Indostan Proper. To the south of these lies a beautiful triangular region, stretching from a broad base of fifteen degrees of longitude, through a range of the same number of degrees of latitude, that is, from*23° N. to 8° but gradually becom- ing narrower as it proceeds southward, till it terminates in a point at Cape Comorin- This portion of India has been called the Peninsula; and, to distinguish it from a country which is to follow it in our descriptions, it has been denominated " the Pe- ninsula on this side of the Ganges." A more appropriate name for it is the Deccan, which, according to some, means Dakkan, or "the south," according to others l)ax' ine, or "the country on the right," as it is on the right of those travellers or conquer- ors who enter by the way of Persia. The term Deccan has not always been equally extensive in its application. In its most ancient acceptation it included the whole peninsula, for it all belongs to the Poonyaboomi, or holy land of the Brahmins. It is full of ancient places of pilgrimage, and has, from the earliest period of histoiy, been inhabited by Hindoos. At the epoch of the composition of the Puranas, it was, like the rest of Indostan, divided into a multitude of small principalities. The five original nations which inhabit this country go under the common appel- lation of Draviras. The Goorjanas, or Goojers, seem to have been incorporated with the other four at some period comparatively recent, by circumstances buried in the darkness of antiquity. Other two, the Mahraltas and Telingas have always been numerous and powerful nations, occupying the western and eastern portions of the northern half of the peninsula. On the south, the Cmmatas or Canaras come in con- tact with them, occupying the whole breadth of the peninsula. The Tamulas, or Draviras properly so called, dwell in the southern extremity. This division of races, marked by diversity of language and of writing, and consecrated by a religion which prohibits any mixture of caste, has withstood the shock of conquests, the caprices of tyrants, and even the intolerance of Mahometan bigotry. Within the territorial limits of these different races, a certain number of others are found, who have been uiduccd • Wade. Syme's Account of an Embassy to the King of Ava. Kingdom of t{ie Deccan. Mogul pro- vince of the Deecan. State of the Nizaiii« 174 BOOK FORTY-EIGHTH. to emigrate to this country by motives of interest, or who have sought in it an asykim from tlie cruelty of conquerors: but, as they have remained completely insulated, their manners, customs, languages, religious and nuptial ceremonies bear testimony to their origin, and to the permanent character of all their institutions. Divisions. | Conqucsts and political revolutions have occasioned changes in the boundaries and relative importance of the kingdoms which have been formed in this peninsula. The kingdom which in the fifth century had Vijanagara, or Bisnagor, for its capital, is more particularly denominated "the kingdom of the Deccan" in the writings of the Portuguese, Arabs, and Turks. It compre- hended the more modern provinces of Khandesh, Dowletabad, Bejapoor, Golconda, Berar, and Gundwana. It was also called the kingdom of Narsinga, from the title assumed by its sovereigns. The Mahometan emperors, or Great Moguls, when they conquered a great part of this kingdom, of which Dowletabad was the most conspicu- ous portion, called it the government or vice-royalty of the Deccan. This province underwent various changes, sometimes by enlargement and sometimes by curtailment, according to the changing fortune of arms, till at last the viceroy or Nieam of the Deccan, taking advantage of the weakness of his masters to make himself independent, erected a separate state, now subject to England, of whicli the centre is Hyderabad, and to which, as a state, the name of the Deccan is sometimes particularly applied. Late and pre- I In conscquence of these changes, the names of provinces now cm- sent diTisioni. j piQyg^j j^ (^jjg geography of the Deccan are sometimes those imposed on them as Mogul governments, sometimes those of indigenous or mussulman king- doms, and sometimes those which are derived from the ancient tribes. It must be confessed that these fluctuations give the geographer a troublesome task. — Old poli- tical divisions are always less important than those now existing, and, irom the icecency of the last change, existing divisions in the present instance are not defined in a satisfactory manner. But we must trace their leading features. — Till very lately we should have been inclined to arrange them under three or four diflerent heads, founded on their political condition, viz. the Mahratta states, the Mahometan posses- sions, including those of the Nizam and of the Nabob of the Carnatic, the English provinces, and the Hindoo principalities of the south. But recent revolutions have so completely reduced the Mahrattas, and tlie countries immediately subjected to England are now so thoroughly intermixed with those of the former, as to break up all compactness of territory ; the others, likewise, are become so completely subser- vient, or at least so clfectually prevented from numbering the possibility of open defiance among their jjolitical prerogatives, that it will be most advisable to follow a simple topographical order, noticing, as we proceed, the influence of recent events in modifying the present state of the different localities. — "In prosecution of this plan, we shall first take a view of the Deccan strictly so called, that is, the extensive ter- ritory which lies between the river Nerbuddah, with its parallel of latitude, extended to the eastern boundary, and the Krishna, and then of the remaining part or triangu- lar termination of the land, lying between the parallel of the Krishna and Cape Comorin. The Deccan Proper does not enjoy the same advantages for inland navigation as the more northerly provinces already described. The rivers, when swollen by periodical rains, are too impetuous to admit of it, and when not so swollen they are too shallow, except near the sea, where their course is ob- structed by sand banks. The roads have at the same time always been impractica- Preyaiiing ^Jq fpj whccl carriaffcs. Hence, this recion is marked by a peculiarity mode of inland . i ,. r • • i ^ i- • nii i carriage. lu the modc ot conductiug an interchange of commodities. 1 liese have been transported on bullocks, the property of a class of people named Bunjarries, emigrants from Rajepootana, and consisting chiefly of four tribes, the Rhatores, Burteah, Chowan, and Powar. In 1813, these were supposed to possess 182,000 head of cattle. Besides these, a race, called Mooltanics, professing the Mussulman religion, who say that they fled from Mooltan when invaded by Nadir Shah in 1739, The Deccan Proper. ProTince of Gundwana. The Gond tribes. IXDOSTAK. 175 have a share in the same occupation of carriers, and muster ahout 5000 or 6000 head of cattle.* We shall now take our departure from the central parts in the north; proceed next along the eastern coast, and then take the western provinces in the same order, that is, from north to south. We begin witii the extensive province of Gundwana, so called from the tribe of the Gonds who inhabit the western parts of it, or Gundwana Proper. The eastern parts consist of a number of petty raja-ships, which are almost independent, and not mutually connected. They are of no political importance, ex- cept that they form a strong westerly frontier to Bengal and Orissa, the country being wild and impenetrable to an army. Gundwana is a large quadrangular territory, with its sides obliquely placed in reference to the points of the compass. On its north-west side, it is bounded by Malwah and Allahabad ; on the north-east by Ba- har and Bengal ; on the south-east by Orissa and the Northern Circars, which lie between it and Bengal Bay ; and on the south-west by Khandesh, Bcrar, Beeder, Hyderabad. It contains the sources of the Nerbuddah and Sone : the Wurdce and Godavery form its south-west frontier line, and receive several tributary streams from it. The Karoon, Hatsoo, and Silair, are the largest rivers by which it is intersected, and none of them are navigable within its limits. It is on the whole mountainous, poor, ill watered, unhealtiiy, wild, and thinly peopled. A chain of mountains of no great elevation extends from the southern frontier of Bengal almost to the G odavery, separating the western or Nagpoor districts from the eastern. The inhabitants of these hills are called Kurns or Carnas. The native Gonds in the west are a miserable race, scarcely advanced one step in civilization, and the very lowest in the scale of Indian society. They are Brahminical Hindoos, the Brahmins having condescended to officiate as spiritual directors to some of their chiefs, but they retain many impure customs, and cat all sorts of animal food, with the exception of beef. One of their chiefs was conquered and taken prisoner to Delhi by one of Aurengzebe's officers, was converted to tlie Mahometan religion, had his conquered lands restored, and received the title of Boorahan Shah. His descendants were afterwards carried to Nagpoor by the Mahrattas. They are still Mahometans, but highly respected, and family alliances with them are ambi- tiously courted by the other Gond chiefs. All the Gonds have been rendered tribu- tary to the Mahrattas, but the collection of the tribute could never be executed with- out the presence of an armed force. The capital of Gundwana is Nagpoor, being the seat of the Bhoonsla | Nagiioor. Mahratta dynasty. In some maps it is erroneously represented as the capital of Be- rar, which is an adjoining province. Nagpoor is an extensive city, of modern dale, but meanly built. The streets are narrow and filthy, and the houses roofed with tile. It is imperfectly fortified with a wall. The fort is a place of considerable strength. The British residency lie? to the west of the city, separated from it by a small ridge of high ground. I The city and suburbs are about seven miles in circ\imfercnce, and the population is estimated at 100,000. This was once a powerfid government, but, having so far departed from its old system of reserve and neutrality as to join Sindiai in a confederation against the English, it was, in 180.3, deprived of Cuttak, and thus cut off from its connection with the sea. Recently the Raja Appa Salieb having, under the veil of friendly relations, engaged in a series of deceitful plots, some of which were formed immediately after he had been reinstated in valuable possessions by tlie conquerors at whose mercy he was placed; that individual was, in 1818, placed in confinement, from which he escaped, and has, by the latest accounts, led the life of a predatory fugitive among the Gonds, while a legitimate heir of the family has been instated in the throne and territory; but the powers of the family are now greatly curtailed, the British having taken possession of all the northern parts situated on Amerkoon- took. the Nerb\iddah. Amerkoontook, in N. lat. 22° 55' and E. long. 82" 7', is a wild and thinly inhabited region, but a celebrated scene of Hin- • Mr. W. Hamilton's Description, vol. ii. p. 4. t A view of the residency and the adjoining hills, is given in Prinsep's Narrative, p. 144, and a plan of the vicinity of the city at p. 230. Province of Orisaa. the south, ; 176 BOOK forty-ei(;hth. doo pilgrimage, from containing the sources of the Sone and Nerbuddah rivers. It has not been explored by Europeans ; but, being now within the limits of the British Mundeia. | dominions, it is likely to be soon better known to geographers. IVIun- dela is a strong fortress on the Nerbuddah, delivered up to the British in 1818. The central district of Chotteesghur is better cultivated than the rest of this desolate pro- uuttunpoor. I vince, and exports grain. Its capital, Ruttunpoor, consists of 1000 mi- serable and straggling huts, near to which is an idol of blue granite, nine feet high, rubbed over with red paint, and ornamented with flowers. Here are many pools and tanks; and the ruins in the neighbourhood indicate the former existence of a more advanced state of society. Ryepoor, another town in the same district, contains 3000 huts. On the east of Gundwana, on the Bengal Bay, is the province of Orissa, bounded by Bengal on the north, and the Northern Circars on rom which it is separated by tlie Chilka lake. In the interior the hills are rugged, uncultivated, overgrown by rank jungle, and unhealthy in the highest degree, so that armies have sustained enormous losses by sickness, in the mere act of cross- ing the mountainous ridge which extends from the Godavery to the Mahanuddy. This province, though provided with so strong a natural barrier, has always easily changed its masters, in consequence of the apathy of the people : and, as its un- healthiness has discouraged colonization, the Hindoo manners are maintained in greater purity here than in most other parts of India. It contains some monuments which seem to indicate that it was a flourishing country previously to the Mahometan invasion, and the conclusion is confirmed by the narratives of some early travellers. Nearly half of it is now under British jurisdiction, including all the low parts on the sea-coast. Tliis part is plain and fertile, but not well cultivated or peopled. Its inhabitants are reckoned a hundred to each square mile. The hilly parts are pos- sessed by native Zemindars, who are called Ghurjauts, and are tributary to the British government. They contain about thirty persons to the square mile. Rice and salt are the chief produce of the province. In the tributary part, the peojjle are wretched and poor. Some live by burning charcoal, or smelting iron, others by felling timber. The country swarms with wild animals, among which are tigers and jackals. In the back lying parts of the province, the native Ooreas, a courageous and fierce race, retain their pristine barbarous manners, and commonly go armed with bows and arrows, or swords, which last are broad at the end and narrow in the middle, and worn naked. An irreconcilable hatred has always subsisted between this people and the Mahrattas. Those Ooreas, who are within the British jurisdiction, have adopted industrious habits, and are pusillanimous and cunning. In the northern maritime part of Orissa there is a considerable manufacture of coarse calicos, called Beiasore. | satittes, for turbans. The sea-port town of Belasore, on the Booree Bellaun river, though much fallen off", having been a great place for European fac- tories at an early period of intercourse between India and Europe, is still noted for maritime transactions. It has at different times been the scene of warlike opera- tions. In 1688, in a dispute with Aurengzebe, it was attacked by the English under Captain Heath, a battery of thirty guns taken, and the town plundered. In 1803, it was taken by the English from the Nagpoor Raja, and has ever since remained at- tached to the presidency of Bengal. The district of Cuttak to the south, lying be- tween the Chilka lake and the river Solundee, is a flat, rich, alluvial country. The town of Cuttak is large and populous, and its situation below high water mark, so as to require embankments to preserve it from being inundated by the tide. Temple and In the district of Cuttak, in this province, is the celebrated Juggernaut, Juggernaut. in lat. 19° 40' N. and long. 85° 54' E. Juggernaut is one of the names of the god Vishnu, under which he is worshipped in various temples in different parts of India. This temple, however, being esteemed supereminent in sanctity, receives the name of Juggernaut by way of eminence. It is a shapeless mass of decayed granite, but conspicuous from a distance, and, on so flat a coast, an excellent land- mark for navigators. The town Pooree, by which it is surrounded, is dirty and ill built, inhabited by a sickly Hindoo population, consisfing chiefly of priests and ofii- cers of the idol. The land for ten miles round the temple is reckoned so holy as to Festival of Ruth 01- the oai'. louts of an Fanaticism of the devotees. INDOSTAN. 177 insure future bliss to every person who dies witiiin its bounds. A ridiculous legend is attached to the origin of the image. Krishna, a divine incarnation, was acci- dentally killed by the arrow of Angada a hunter, and his bones were placed in the belly of an image made by Viswacarma, the architect of the gods. A succession of ditferent images has been fabricated, and the Brahmins engaged in removing the sacred bones are obliged to bandage their eyes for fear of being struck dead by the effulgence of the relics. The image at [)resent exhibited is a carved block of wood with a hideous visage painted black, the mouth wide and red, the eyes and head very large, without legs or hands, having only Htumi»s of arms. At ceremonies, he is supplied with gold or silver arms. There arc other two idols representing his bro- ther and sister, which are of a white and yellow colour. The cars on which they are elevated are eighty feet high, resembling Hindoo pagodas, supported by strong frames placed on four or live rows of wheels, which deeply indent the ground as they turn. The upper parts of the cars are covered with English broad cloth, in party-coloured stripes, and decorated with streamers. During the fes- tival of Ruth Jattra, the three images are brought forth with prodigious ceremony and noise, and moved along on these machines, amidst the s immense multitude, from the temple to the garden-house of the idol. The emulation excited to participate in the oflice of dragging these carriages is very high ; the distance is about a mile and a lialf, but the motion is so slow that the journey occupies three or four days, llorriblc scenes often occur on these occasions. Numerous individuals are squeezed or trod to death by the injpetuous rushing of the multitude. Many miserable persons die of famine or fatigue round the place, and often at a distance of many miles before they reach the termination of their pilgrimage. Many ofler themselves as voluntary sacrifices to gratify the idol. Here superstition assumes a peculiarly disgusting (brm. The temple, throne, and carriage of the deity arc covered with indecent sculptures : the ntotions which are made, and the songs sung by the attending priests and ministers, are grossly obscene, a^id the highest merit and admiration arc attached to the unnatural resolu- tion of suicide, when formed and executed by any infatuated individual. When any such announces his intention of resigning life in this revolting manner, seif immou- the crowd makes way for the devoted individual, who throws himself on ^'""' the ground before one of the chariot wheels, and is crushed to death. Sometimes, by laying themselves awkwardly down, they are not immediately killed, but languish for an hour or two in the agonies of death. Their bodies are not interred, but left to the dogs and the vultures. The air is deeply infected with the putrid eilluvia emitted by the half consumed bodies, and to great distances round the place human bones and skulls lio strewed on the surface of the ground. At the times of the fes- tivals, religious mendicants of all descriptions abound, who employ various strange devices to stimulate the charity of the multitude, such as standing on their heads, filling their eyes with mud, and their mouths with straw, or lying extended in a pud- dle of water. Numerous oHerings of food arc made to Juggernaut, and provisions which have been presented by others are purchased with much eagerness, on account of the sacred character which they have thus acquired. One singularity takes place here, that the distinction of caste is forgotten, and all descriptions of pilgrims feast with the Brahmins. Some old persons come on purpose to die at Juggernaut, and many measure the whole distance of a long journey by the length of their bodies. A great road from Calcutta to Juggernaut has been begun, raised at an average six feet above the level of the country. Between Cuttak and Juggernaut, the branches of the Maha are so numerous, that twenty- seven stone bridges are required. The chief entrance to the town and temple has been widened, to prevent the dismal casualties above alluded to, arising from the rushing of the fanatical crowd on the opening of the gate. This place was taken from the Mahrattas in 1803, and now presents the curious spectacle of a heathen temple of the most exceptionable kind, regulated, and its economy managed, under the British government. Scruples and rcmoiistraucos have been made by well mean- Vot. II.— Z Improvements connected with Jugger- naut. 178 BOOK FOIITV-EIGHTH, EuroDean iog individuals on this point.* The Europeans certainly give no coun- scruples. tcnance to the atrocious acts of self immolation which are perpetrated here under the influence of deluded opinions : but it would neither be wise nor fair to suppress by force the customary expressions of devotion, and the institutions which have for ages been subservient to it, and it would show too much apathy to stand aloof, and leave the scene to its own course, to the full extent of all its attend- ing barbarities. It is better to give full toleration, and at the same time exercise their power to mollify the hideous features of superstition by human regulations suited to the present state of the general mind, and fitted to impress it gradually with the Superiority of liberality and good sense to the fooleries of superstition and the useless tortures and violations of natural feeling to which it impels its votaries. In the year 1813, the receipts from the pilgrims (chiefly at the tolls) amounted to 87,159 rupees. In the year 1813, the accoupts of the temple stood as follows: — Receipts. Rupees. From pilgrims, chiefly at the tolls, ...... 87,159 From lands assigned to the temple, ...... 20,643 Authorized collections at the temple, ...... 5,997 Revenue and expense of the temple. Expenditure. CoUoetor's establishment, and contingencies, . . . 17,257 Value of broad cloth for the idol, ..... 1,505 Expense of the temple itself, ...... 56,612 113,799 75,374 Balance remaining to government, ...... 38,425 The number of taxable pilgrims sometimes amounts to 70 or 80,000; but the num- ber of persons attending exempted from taxation is always much greater. Many offerings are made to this temple all over Indostan and transmitted either in the form of merchandise or bills of exchange. The economy of the temple is vested in the Raja of Khoorda, by the British government. It is thought that 1,200,000 persons attend annually, of whom a very great number never return. STe Norfhern "^^^ province Called the Northern Circars, includes a great part of the circais. territory which once belonged to Orissa, viz. from Goomsur to the river Godavery. It extends south as far as the river Gundegama. The southern part is subjected to extreme heat in summer, the thermometer sometimes standing at 108° at midnight for an entire week. Under this heat the wood warps to such a degree, that the nails fall out of doors and tables, and glass is liable to crack. The hill fever prevails in the upland parts. Much grain is produced in the Circars. Fruits and esculent roots do not succeed, and are thought to be injured by the sea air. The forests of Rajamundry on the Godavery yield abundance of large teak trees. Seve- ral kinds of woollen, cotton, and silk stuffs are manufactured here, but not in re- markable quantity; the thread is prepared by the females. Ships of 600 tons are built at the mouths of the Godavery. The native inhabitants are wholly Hindoos, with the exception of a few Mahometans in the towns. The hilly lands are in the hands of zemindars, some of whom were driven from the Carnatic and Orissa, by the Mahometans, in 1652. Other lands are divided into villages or town- ships, a sort of corporations provided with their proper establishment of officers and servants. Under this simple form of government, the inhabitants have lived from time immemorial. The boundaries of villages have been seldom altered, though often injured or desolated, and the same name and the same families have continued for ages. The inhabitants give themselves no trouble about the breaking • See the details and reasonings in Buchanan's Christian Researclies in Asia, p. 18— ."0, third edition. Division of the country vil- lages. F(ilicieal vicis- situdes. le hands of Vizagapatam. Desperate con- duct of a poli- gar. INDOSTAN. 179 up of kingdoms while their village and its internal economy remain unchanged. This state of society is prevalent in the whole southern or peninsular India. In 1541, this country was subjugated by the Mahometans. In 1724, it was transferred from the house of Timour to the Nizam ul Mulk. In 1742, it was ceded to the French East India Company. It passed into t the British by a grant of the Mogul and the Nizam. A considerable force (six na- tive battalions) is required to preserve this country from the incursions of the moun- taineers, whose haunts are not under the control of the British. — Gan- District of jam is the most northern district in this province, containing Goomsur, Ganjam. a large zemindary, the possessor of which was found on accusation and subsequent inquiry by the British magistrate in 1815, to have been guilty of a long series of murders among the females of his seraglio, whom he destroyed by the most inhu- man tortures, and threw their bodies into a well where numerous bones were found, demonstrating that the practice had been kept up. for many years.. — To the south of this is Vizagapatam. This district contains the zemindary of Bobilee, the possessor of which, Kangaroo, who ranked as the first poligar in the country, on being taken in his last strong fort by the French com mander, at the instigation of a hostile neighbour, in 1757, ordered a thorough mas- sacre of all the women and children of his garrison ; and one of the soldiers, out of four who had taken an oath of vengeance when their chief fell, passed through the quartei's of his enemy Vizeram Rauze, and stabbed him in thirty two places. — The district of Rajamundry lies along both sides of the Godavery, but the | Rajamundry. greater part to the south. This is the only country on the west side of the Bengal Bay which furnishes teak wood. There is a considerable cultivation of sugar on the Delta of the river. — To the south of this is Masulipatam, famous | Masuiipatam. for its chintzes. The population is industrious and numerous, so that, though the country is rich and well cultivated, it imports considerable quantities of rice and other provisions. — To the south of this is Guntoor, a rich and populous dis- District of trict, and the scene of some of the worst excesses of the Pindarees in Guntoor. 1815. Between the 10th and the 22d of March, a band of these miscreants, amount- ing to 5000, plundered 308 villages, murdered 166 persons, wounded 485, and in- flicted torture on 2251. There were eighteen persons who killed themselves in despair on the approach of this banditti. Many of the natives, though unarmed, made a gallant defence, and it was afterwards in contemplation to allow them arms to protect themselves from gangs of robbers ; but the precautions since adopted of utterly destroying the Pindaree combinations, will, it is hoped, form an effectual pre- ventive of any repetition of such scenes.* Having proceeded southward along the eastern coast a little beyond the Krishna, we shall return to the west boundary of the great province of Gundwana, proceeding here also from north to south, and consequently beginning with the province of Khandesh, which is separated by the Nerbuddah from Malwah on the north, bounded on the west by Guzcrat, and on the south by Aurungabad and Bcrar. The river Tuptee, which runs through it, from east to west, is of consider- able size, with deep and steep banks of firm black earth, and sending olf numerous ravines on both sides, intersecting the country for several miles. A considerable portion of this province formerly belonged to the Ilolcar lamily. It was well peo- pled and cultivated, but has of late years been ruined by plunder and war. The chiefs of the Bhecl tribes possess the hills to the north of Boorhanpoor, and, besides their oWn people, keep some Arabs and others about them, to assist in making for- cible exactions on their neighbours. liolcar's dominions here were ceded to the British in 1818. At this time, when the Mahratla power was reduced, the Arab colonies were strong in Khandesh, and it was necessary for the victors to expel them. They made a vigorous resistance, and the only choice allow- ed to them was transportation to their native Arabian deserts. When they were re- duced by force, they escaped this lot in consequence of some misinterpretation which occurred in the course of the negociations. They were allowed to transport them- • See page 144, of this volume. Province of Khandesh. Arahian colo- nies. 180 BOOK FORTY-EIGHTH. selves wliorever they pleased.* The Arabs have always made a figure as brave sol- diers in this part of India. In the Peshwa's army they received fifteen rupees per month, while the natives of the Deccan only received six, and those of Upper Indos- tan eight. The forts which made the most determined resistance in 1816, were ]Mul- ligaum, which surrendered in consequence of their great magazine having been blown up; Talnere, where the garrison, having acted treacherously under the mask of su- ing for terms, was put to the sword;! ^^^ Aseerghur, which surrendered after a vi- gorous resistance. Province of Bcrar is a province nearly of a triangular shape ; the north-west side ^"*"^* being bounded by Khandesh, the north-east by Nagpoor in Gundwana, which is sometimes erroneously represented as part of Berar, and the south by Au- rungabad and Beeder. Its capital is Elichpoor. Berar is an elevated valley, almost equidistant from the west and east coast of the Deccan. It is thiidy inhabited, and little cultivated, but some parts of it are naturally fertile, and contain rich grass pas- tures. The cultivated crops are wheat, maize, pease, and flax. In the beginning of CaiaBhairava, | spring a shocking ceremony takes place at Cala Bhairava, in the motm- tains, between the rivers Tuptee and Ncrbuddah. It is the practice of some per- vowsof sui- sons of the lowest tribes in Berar to make vows of suicide, in return for *"'^- answers which their prayers are believed to have received from their idols. This is the place where t^.uch vows are performed in the beginning of spring, when eight or ten victims generally throw themselves from a precipice. The cere- mony gives rise to an annual fair, and some trade. But, on the whole, every sort of prosperity has been wretchedly kept down by the lawless spirit of plunder which has been indulged by persons of various descriptions; and the goveinmcnt of (ho Nizam has had the utmost difiiculty in stemming these irregular proceedings, partly in con- sequence of his own troops, and even his ministers, liaving been guilty of patronizing the mischief, and sharing in its spoils. Province of ' I The proviucc of Boeder lies on the south of Berar, bounded by Au- Beeder. | fmigabad on the west, and by Gundwana and Hyderabad, but chi(!tly the latter, on the east. The surface is uneven, but not mountainous, and it is in ge- neral very fertile. The inhabitants are in the proportion of six Hindoos to one Ma- hometan, though it has long been subject to Mahometan princes. It is at present included in the Nizam's dominions. Beeder, the chief town, was the capital of a Hindoo sovereignty before the Mahometan conquest. It was noted for works of tutenague inlaid with silver. It is much decayed, but contains tlie remains of some very good buildings. Province of To tho soutli and the east of this province is the large province of Hy- Hyderabad. dcrabad, extending to the Krishna river on the south, and bounded by the Northern Circars on the east; Gundwana and part of Beeder are conterminous with it on tho north. It is an elevated table land, with a hilly surface, and therefore of a lower temperature than tho adjoining parts of India. During three months in the year, the thermometer is often as low as 45°, or even 35°. Woollen blankets, shawls, and quilted sdks are used as a protection from this degree of cold. A few of the principal nobility use English broad cloth as a luxury. The territory is natu- rally productive, but the cultivators are wretchedly poor, and much oppressed by their superiors. To the south of the capital, an extensive tract, at present desolate and covered with jungle, contains traces of ruined towns and inclosures, which indicate the former existence of a numerous and civilized population. The fiscal arrange- ments are so bad, that commerce labours under extreme discouragement. • City of Hyde- Tho city of Hyderabad, the capital of tho Nizam's dominions, is about rabad. ^^^^^ mUcs long, and three broad within the walls; the streets are narrow, crooked, and ill paved. Its population is reckoned 200,000. The palace and Court of the mosques aro tho only remarkable buddings. The court of Hyderabad Nizam. retains more of the forms and ceremonies of the old Mogul governments than any other in Indostan. Tiie Nizam possesses large magazines full of the prc- • See Prinsep's Narrative of recent Political and Military Transactions in India, p. 415, 41G. t See a view of this tort in Prinsep's Narrative at p. 333. INDOSTAN. 181 sents whicli he has, at diflcrent times, received from native and European powers, consisting of bales of cloth, cases of glass, china and glass ware, clocks, watches, and similar articles, which arc hoarded without being ever seen. The Nizam is a vassal of the British government, but his court has sometimes been a scene of busy intrigue, and the ear of his highness has often been assailed with the suggestions of the enemies of that government, under such circumstances as could not aflbrd the most distant prospect of bettering his situation, and exposed him to the risk of a total loss of his high rank. Some of these intrigues were instigated by Europeans hostile to England, during the late war. Golconda, to tho east of the capital, though renowned for diamond ] Goiconda, mines, contains none at present, and it is doubtful if it ever did. But the fortress Is a considerable depdt for diamonds brought from other parts to be polished and fa- shioned for sale by the diamond merchants of Goiconda. The fortress is used as a state prison, where the obnoxious members of the Nizam's family are conlined, in which number are at present included his wife, his mother, and two youngest sons. Two provinces of the Deccan Proper remain to be mentioned, and both, according to existing divisions, are partly situated on tho western shore, though extending a great way inland — Aurungabad and Bejapoor. The surface of tho province of Aurungabad is very irregular, and in province of general mountainous toward the western Ghauts. It contains the sources Aurungabad. of many rivers, but none of them acquire any considerable size within its limits. IMost of it has been long in the possession of the Mahrattas, particularly the sea coast, which has from that cause, been infamous for piracy. Its capital, Au- | its capital, rungabad, in lat. 19° 54' N. and long. 75* 33' E. was the favourite residence of Au- rengzebc while viceroy of the Deccan. It continued tho metropolis of the Nizams till they quitted it for Hyderabad, as being too close upon the Mahratta frontier. Ah- mednuggur is a fortress in the middle of this province, beautifully situated among the mountains. It has been generally in the hands of a Mahratta chief, sometimes of Sin- dia, sometimes of the Peshwah. It is populous, and contains elegant architectural re- mains of Mogul buildings. — Dowlctabad is a town and strong ifortress, city of seven miles N. W. from the city of Aurungabad, belonging to the Nizam, nowietabad. The fortress is formed of an insulated mass of granite, and the only entrance is an as- cent, part of which is a covered way cut through the heart of the rock, so that it can only be taken by famine. It contains within itself reservoirs of water. Not Antiquities or lar from this is the village of Ellora, in the neighbourhood of which is Kiiora. found a most astonishing group of Hindoo temples, cut in the solid rock. These contain a sort of pantheon of all the Indian deities. The numberless sculptures, friezes, columns, and chapels, apparently suspended in the air, display, every where, a great refinement of taste united to labour inconceivable. The symbols seem to have been formed partly by Brahminical and partly by Budhist devotees. At present lliicy are not held in any veneration, nor visited by any class of pilgrims ; but being in the neighbourhood of Dowlctabad, which was in ancient times the seat of a pow- erful Hindoo principality under the name of Deoghir, they probably owe their origin to the zeal of the reigning families of that metropolis. The village and its lands be- ing now transferred to the British government, we wait for a more complete account of the symbols and inscriptions, as none has hitherto been given by any competent scholar. To this province belongs the Island of Bombay, the seat of the prin- is|g„j „(• cipal British settlement on the west coast of India, in lat. 1S° 56' N. Bombay, and long. 72° 57' E. This small island is formed by two parallel ranges of whin- stone rock, one on tho west, five miles long, and another on the east, eight miles long. These rocks are united at each end by a low belt of land, which seems to be of re- cent formation, and over which the sea is said sometimes to have broken, and flooded 40,000 acres of land. The Goper river, belonging to the island of Salsette, and which runs into the channel separating this island from Bombay, is said to have occa- sioned similar inundations, and flowed quite across Bombay island into the ocean at its southern side. When first noticed by Europeans, Bombay was reckoned a most unhealthy place. It contained a cocoa nut wood. — The fortifications of this island European society. consequent 182 , BOOK FORTY-EIGHTH. aro thought too extensive, as requiring too numerous a garrison. The houses are built of wooden pillars, supporting wooden verandas. The view of the bay from the Its advantages ^^^^ i^ extremely beautiful. Bombay is a barren rock, unfit for agricul- as a station. turo; but possesses great advantages for trade and for ship-building, the rise of the tides being sufficient to permit the construction of docks on a large scale. The docks belong to the Company, but the persons who contract for the timber, the inspector on delivery, and the builders of vessels, are always Parsees, who mono- polize every department, and build many large vessels, some of 1000 tons. The teak wood of which they are built is brought from the western side of the Ghaut mountains. The Parsees are exceedingly thriving, and contribute much to the pros- perity of the settlement. This little island commands the whole trade of the north-west coast of India, and of the Persian Gulf. In 1814 the Company's marine at Bombay consisted of eighteen armed cruizers, besides armed boats, advice boats, and other craft, a force requisite on account of swarms of cunning and ferocious pirates by whom these seas are infested. In 1716 the population was 16,000; in 1816 it amounted to 161,000. The European society at Bombay is less numerous than at the other presidencies, and the salaries of the functionaries are smaller, y there is less profusion, although great abundance and even elegance, in their mode of living. The territorial possessions under the immediate jurisdiction of the Bombay presidency are small compared to those of Bengal and Madras, and lie chiefly along the Gulf of Cambay ; but the inhabitants arc among the most intelligent and industrious of Indostan, and carry on a very great trade. Very few capital con- demnations occur in the crimnial court, sometimes not one in six years. — Twenty communica- days are required to convey a letter by post from Calcutta to Bom- tlOIlWlth ,-' 4,1 1- •,• •^' . ,, ., Calcutta. bay. A telegraphic communication was once projected, but not earned into execution. It was apprehended that the stations in the interior might be exposed to the attacks of plunderers for the sake of concealing their own motions. The small town of Mahim, on this island, has a Portuguese church, to which a college for priests is attached, but their chief seminary is at Goa, where all attend who have any pretensions to learning. Island of Sal- The comparatively large island of Salsette, on the north of Bombay, sette. ^jjg formerly separated from it by a narrow strait, but they aro now connected by a narrow causeway. The length of the island is eighteen miles, and its breadth thirteen. The soil is fertile, and well adapted to the production of the most valuable articles ; yet it unaccountably remains uncultivated, and covered with jungle, which makes it more unhealthy in its present state than Bombay. Some at- tention has lately been paid to the formation of roads, which, along with the cause- way, have a natural tendency to introduce other improvements. The causeway gives great facility to the gardeners in bringing their produce to the Bombay market, but it is said to have injured the harbour. The operation of embankments in pro- ducing either depositions or the stagnation of the water at a particular spot from the meeting of opposite currents, or the contrary effect of an active current, attended by the deepening of a moveable bottom, is seldom foreseen with such precision as to afford certain practical rules on this point of engineering. That this island, at some period buried in the obscurity of early history, has enjoyed a high prosperity, is at- tested by the remains of former great works found on it, such as tanks and terraces, accompanied with flights of steps. It is also rich in mythological antiquities. There are several extraordinary caverns in it, one of which resembles that at Carli on the adjoining part of the continent, and contains two gigantic figures at Biidda, twenty feet high, showing that the works belonged not to the Brahminical, but to the Buddhist system of faith. The Portuguese converted the place into a Christian church. They did not destroy the images as in many other instances ; but, not having coolness enough to allow them to stand as simple monuments of art and of antiquated opinions, they converted them into Christian emblems, painted them red, and, with a pious zeal, cherished them as valuable proselytes ; many others of an ugliness incorri- gibly heathen, they utterly effaced. Considerable quantities of bay salt arc made Population. I here in the shallows along the shore. — The island is estimated to contain 50,000 inhabitants, one fiilh of whom arc Christians, partly descendants of the Por- INDOSTAN. 183 tuguese, partly a sort of converted Hindoos. The inhabitants arc altogether an or- derly race ; a criminal trial does not occur amongst them lor years ; drunken quar- rels and petty assaults being the utmost extent of their breaches of the peace. Here, as in Bombay, several Indian languages, together with Indian and Portuguese, arc spoken with almost equal frequency, and writings on business are drawn up in all of them. Or this island arc the town and fortress of Tanna, the latter commanding tlie passage between the island and the continent. It was taken from the Mahrattas in 1773. Elephanta is a beautiful island in this group, about seven miles from | Eiepiianta. Bombay, and five from the continent ; composed of two long hills with a narrow valley between them, and is nearly six miles in circumference. At the landing place there was formerly an ill-shaped colossal statue of an elephant, cut out of a solid rock, which has now, in a great measure, fallen to pieces by its own weight. It was from this statue that the Portuguese gave the island its present name. This island contains the most celebrated of those artificial caverns which bear wit- | its cave, ness to the influence of superstition in animating its votaries to execute the most astonishing labours. The entrance is fit\y-tive feet wide, its height and length about eighteen. The temple itself is 130 feet long, and 123 feet wide ; its height varies from 17^ to 15 feet ; it is supported by twenty-six massy columns, cut out of the solid rock; the interior is covered with sculptures which differ from those of Kennery in .Salscttc, in being Brahminical. These have suffered severely from the assaults of the Por- tuguese. The most remarkable figure is a bust with three heads, called the Tri- murti ; the middle head representing Brahma the creator ; the other two Vishnu the preserver, and Siva the destroyer. Such are the leading capacities in which the character of the Deity is contemplated. These sometimes appear to be three re- presentations of one Being, at other times the worshippers view them as distinct [)ersons, according to the varying conceptions of a vague metaphysical theology. The length from the chin to the crown of the head is six feet; and the countenances would be remarkably beautiful were it not for an inordinate thickness in the under lip.* No document whatever exists to lead to any probable conjecture regarding the period at which this temple was formed, or the individuals to whom it owes its existence. Between Bombay and the main land, and separated from the latter by a | Caranja, very narrow strait, is Caranja, or Oorun isle, to which convicts are sent from Bombay to be employed in public works. A great quantity of salt is manufactured here, yielding a revenue to government of 11,000 rupees, (llOOL) About fifteen miles south from Bombay are the small islands of He- ncry and Kenery, both fortified, and formerly a great resort of pirates. Four miles farther south are Colabba isle and Colwoman's island, which arc esteemed well adapted for the accommodation of European troops on account of their great salubrity, and the facility with which intemperance among the niillitary may be pre- vented, and, though not hitherto so employed, seem to bo reserved for that purpose, as they are not applied to any object of revenue. Returning to the continental territory of the province of Aurungabad, I Mahratta we find the large district of Baglana, one of the original Mahratta coun- | *°"""'''^^S' tries from whence that tribe first sprung into notice. Its Rajas yielded a sort of feudal obedience to Aurengzebe, and a tribute which was not regularly paid, its sub- jugation never having been complete. This country was among the first to throw off its nominal subjection to the emperor of Delhi, under the conduct of Sevajee the first Mahratta leader, and it remained under a Mahratta government till 1818. It is exceedingly mountainous, and owed its habitual independence to its natural strength. Sungumnere is another large district, ^subject to the Pcshwah, before the late extinction of the power of that family. The districts of Jalnapoor, Bheer, and Futtehabad, belong to the Nizam. That of Jooneer contains Poona, the late capi- tal of the Peshwa. * Maria Graham's Journal of a Residence in India, p, 55, &c. Henci-y and Kenery. ami otliur islands. 184 IJOOK FOHTY-EIGHTII. Mahratta natiom. OriRin of the Pesliwa. Other chiefs. In the ancient tables of the Hindoos the term Maharashtra is given to a division of the Doccan, chiefly in the north-west quarter. Khandesh, Baglana, and part of Berar, were included in the original country of the Mahnittas* extending north-west as far as Guzerat and the Nerbudda, where the Grassias and Bheels commence. The Mahrattaa were leagued with the pirates of the western shore, and bore with them the common name of Ganim or robbers. The Mahratta language is now diffused much more extensively. This people is not like the Raje- poots, originally of the military cast. They are divided into three principal tribes ; the Koonbee, or farmers -, the Dungar, or shepherds ; and Goalah, or cowherds. Their make is diminutive, and has nothing of the grace and dignity of the llajopoot. It is only in very modern times that this nation has attracted notice, being unknown in history from the time of the Mahometan conquest till the reign of Aurengzcbe. They were governed by a plurality of discordant chiefs, till their efforts were com- bined under the adventurer Sevajec, the illegitimate olFspring of the Odeypoor family. After various adventures, ho settled at Poonah, where ho died. One of his descendants delegated all his authority to a Brahmin, who afterwards assumed the sole power, under the title of Peshwa, fixing his residence at Poona, and making a mere pageant of the representative of the royal stock, viz. the Rajah of Satara, whom he kept in his possession. In the mean time Bhoonsla, the paymaster, seized the eastern portion of the empire, and fixed his seat of government at Nagpoor. The family of Sindia established itself in Malwah and Khandesh, and seized a great part of Rajepootana. Guicowar seized a great part of Guzerat; and Holcar part of Malwah. These chiefs were always disposed to act in a confederate capacity ; and each divided his conquests among the others. Their possessions were thus very much mixed; the same district, or even the same town, being often held by a plurality of chiefs, each with separate rights. Their more remote possessions used to contain no larger number of genuine Mahrattas in proportion to the natives than India now docs of Englisli to Indians, and in later times the countries were kept in Subjection chiefly through the instru- mentality of Europeans, whose tactics were opposed to the physical force of the Hindoos and Mahometans. Making a constant trade of war, the Mahrattas could at any time raise a numerous cavalry, though badly maintained and irregularly [)aid. This army was joined by Mussulmans, Hindoos, Rajepoots, and latterly by the Pin- ■darees, all of whom conceived it their right to make up for the want of regular pay by ravaging the countries of the conquered. "A Mahratta camp," says M. Tone, ■"is formed without any regard to regularity, and always occupies a great extent of ground. "When the prince's tent is fixed, the great bazar was established in front of it, and there all sorts of goods are exposed for sale. This bazar constitutes a con- siderable source of revenue to the prince; every merchant and every tradesman belonging to it pays a duty of about five rupees per month. The dancing women, who follow the camp in hundreds, are also liable to a regular tax, and even the pick- pockets, a great number of whom follow the army under the protection of the prince. The cavalry make very long marches, and endure great fatigue. They sometimes give opium to their horses, to carry them through their fatigues." — This people, while extending their ravages and their conquests, met with a severe and bloody check at the battle of Paniput in 1761, when they were overthrown by Ahmed Shah Abdalla, the Afghan sovereign. In 1795 they confederated to invade the dominions of the Nizam, an expedition which turned out a mere marauding incursion, but be- ^' fore and after this they were much divided, and were engaged in warring against Their mutual onc another. The forces of Sindia and the Peshwa met with a signal quarrels. ^^^^^^ ^^^^^ Holcar near Poona, in 1802. The Peshwa, Baje-Row, in consequence of this event, fled to Bassein near Salsctte, where a treaty was entered into between him and the British, and he was in a few months reinstated at Poona by General Weflesley, (now the Duke of Wellington.) This state however, like ■ the others belonging to the Mahrattas, was miserably ill-governed; oppression, ex- * Orme's Indostaii. Mahratta armies. Fall of the I'cshwa. INDOSTAX. 185 lortion, rapacity, cmbezzloniont, and discontent, worn every where prevalent. All the offices at the court of Poona were hereditary. Not only did the people suffer, and industry consequently languish, but the members of the government perpetually preyed openly or secretly on one another, and on the general interests. A Mahratta government always considered itself as at war. At the festival called Dusserah, in the end of September, after the breaking up of the rains, they used to prepare regu- larly for their expeditions. The only weapon used by the horsemen is a sabre, in the use of which, and the management of their horses, they are extremely dexterous. The principal functionaries of a Mahratta slate were the Brahmins ; civii estoWisiw they were the only individuals who had it in their power to accumulate "'^"''• wealth, and they arc remarkably well qualified for public business by their extraordi- nary urbanity ^jand command of temper. A Brahmin, however, after being allowed to fill his coffers for years, generally fell at last under the grasp of his rapacious prince. The countries overrun by the Blahrattas have been much depopulated, and filled with misery. " I do not believe," says M. Tone, " tliat a government can be men- tioned on the face of the earth less capable of protecting its subjects than the vague and uncertain system of the Mahrattas, nor an administration more rapacious, more corrupt, less stable, and less fitted to provide for the happiness of individuals, and the tranquillity of the state. To this are to be ascribed the extreme misery of the people, the oppression, poverty, and famine which they suffer, and to which this un- happy country seems to be devoted."* The restlessness of the Peshwa, (which might be called perverse if we were not obliged to acknowledge that an impatience of subjection and control is universal among those who have ever tasted the sweets of independent rule, but which, in this instance, exhibited a strong contrast to the indulgence received,) hastened the downfal of the Mahratta power. In 1815 that chief was detected plotting, in direct violation of recent treaties which he had made with the English, not only when at their mercy, but when they had saved him from falling a victim to the hostility of his own brother chiefs. His first flagrant act was the murder of the Guicowar's ambassador, through the agency of Trimbukjee Dainglia, his minister. In consequence of this act his capital was sur- rounded, and he was obliged to fulfil the article of a former agreement, of keeping up an auxiliary force of 5000 cavalry, and to give up certain districts for maintaining it. After this, trusting to the co-operation of Sindia, Holcar, and others, he declared open war, by attacking the British residency at Poonah. Defeated in this attempt, he was reduced to the situation of a wandering fugitive with his army, was at last taken, obliged to renounce all sovereignty for himself and his family, and sent to reside in exile at Pithoor, a place of Hindoo pilgrimage in the province of Allahabad. The greater part of his territories were taken under the immediate rule of the British authorities. The Raja of Satara was established in his sovereignty, and had some additional territory assigned to him from that of the Ex-Peshwa. This arrangement reconciled the military class of the nation; the full maintenance of the religious esta- blishments, and the preservation of their sources of revenue, quieted the religious orders ; and the cultivating and mercantile classes spontaneously hailed the revolution as the first dawn of their freedom and prosperity. ., The city of Poona, the former residence of the Peshwa, is in lat. 18° | City of Poona. 30' N. and long. 74° 2' E. ; 100 miles from Bombay, and seventy-five from the nearest part of the coast. It is indifferently built, open and defenceless, and occu- pies only two square miles of siufacc. Several of the houses are large, and built of square blocks of granite to a height of six feet, above whicli there is a frame of timber with slight walls. The streets are named after mythological personages, and the walls of the houses painted with figures of the gods, forming thus a spacious pan- theon where the history of the Brahminical deities may be studied in traversing the streets. The ancient palace is surrounded by high thick walls, and was inhabited by the Peshwa's brother and the other members of his family, while he himself lived in a modern house in a different part of the town. He had made arrangements for * Tone, Aperju de la constitut. polit. de I'empire des Mahrattas, traduit dans les Annales des Voyages, Tome V. Chambers on the Mahrattas, in the Asiatic Itesearches. Vol. II.— A a 186 BOOK FOIITY-EIGHTH. building a new palace, to be executed by British architects, and the ground was regu- larly consecrated by being plastered over with ashes and cow-dung. To the east of the city there are excavations with mythological sculptures of the same kind with those of Elephanta, but much inferior. The Moota Moola river which flows past this city, afterwards joins the Beema, a tributary of the Krishna, and during the rainy season a journey may be accomplished by water in a light canoe all the way from Poena to the Bay of Bengal. The population has recently increased; it is now es- timated at 150,000. The British residency is about two miles from Poena. Caverns of Thirty miles N. W. from this city are the remarkable excavations of CarU. Carli, sculptured over, not with Brahminical figures like those of Ele- phanta, but with emblems of the Buddhist or of the Jain religion, i. e. figures of elephants, of men, and of Buddha, and these are confined to the capitals of the pil- lars; there are no personifications of the deity, and no separate cells for sacred rites. The cave is highly magnificent. It has elegant hexagonal columns, supporting a roof ribbed with teak wood cut so as to fit the cave exactly. The portico is highly laboured, and contains some figures remarkable for gracefulness of design.* Four miles from Carli is the remarkably strong hill-fort of Loghur. t"S-™iihi^^' About ten miles west from Poena, at Chinchoor, a personage resides choor. who, like the great Lama, is venerated as an incarnation of the favourite Brahminical deity, Ganesa or Gonputty, the god of prudence. He lives in a large dirty pile of building, accompanied by many Brahmins, who subsist on the revenue of the land which has been appropriated to the establishment by the bounty of super- stitious neighbours. When Mrs. Graham visited the place in 1809, the existing Deo of Chinchoor was a boy of twelve years of age. This person worships his other self in the form of a statue, that other self being the greatest part of the two, and not impaired by incarnation.'f Province of South from Aurungabad is the large province of Bejapoor, extending Bejapoor. as far south as the river Tomboodra, the great southern tributary of the Krishna. The maritime parts of it, lying between the Ghaut mountains and the sea, go under the general name of the Concan; the remainder is the basin of the Krishna and its tributaries, the Beema and Gutpurba. The horses reared on the banks of the Beema are held in great estimation by the Mahrattas. In this province the style of building among the lower classes undergoes a perceptible change: the roofs to the north of the Krishna are pitched and thatched ; those on the south are flat, and covered with mud and clay. This whole province was, during the Peshaw's power, exposed to dreadful disorder and depopulation, in consequence of the projects of rapine and oppression which that prince indulged against the leading families, till at last, in 1804, tranquillity and a more steady arrangement were established by British arbitration. cityof Beja- '^^^^ ^^^Y ^^ Bejapoor, written Visiapoor in old European books of pot"', travels, seems to has^e been a very extensive place when it was the capi- tal of an independent sovereignty, and before it was taken by Aurengzebe in 1689; and the fort was one of the largest in the world. At present it exhibits scarcely any thing but shapeless heaps of ruins, attesting its ancient magnitude. The fort, mea- sured by the counterscarp of the ditch, is about eight miles in circumference. The flanking towers are numerous and of great size, and the ditch cut out of the solid rock. Here are some magnificent ruins of the tombs of Mahometan saints. Most of the buildings, excepting the palaces in the fort, appear to have had little or no wood used in their construction. They are generally built of massy stone, in the most durable style, the workmanship being at the same time minute and elegant. The city is said to have contained amazing wealth; and many valuables, and quan- tities of the precious metals are often found among the ruins. Twelve huge guns are still left, affbi'ding a specimen suited to the enormous size of the fort itself. That part of this province which is called the Concan declines gradually westward from the Ghauts to the sea, and contains many streams, but no large river. This • Maria Graham's Journal of a residence in India, p. 64. This work contains a plate of the cavern, and another of the portico. f Ibid, p. TO. INDOSTAN. 187 coast being elevated, and broken into small bays and harbours, was particularly fa- vourable to piracy, and went by the name of the pirate coast. Much of it is rich. It produces remarkably strong hemp, but the plant will scarcely bear any seed. In 1816, the Concan, and the whole maritime country from the 17th to the 21st degree of latitude, were scoured by a maraudingleaderof the Pindarees, called Sheik DuUo. This coast contains several places of note. Beginning at its northern extremity, we find Fort Victoria on a lofty | Fort victoria, hill near the entrance of the Bancoot river. In 1756, it was a piratical state, and was taken by Commodore James, in concert with the Mahrattas, and ceded to the British along with its district, consisting of nine villages, in exchange for Gheria. It became extremely populous in consequence of the security which property enjoyed within its limits, and would have been much more so if there had been an adequate supply of water. The fortress of Gheria, situated on a rocky promon- | Ghena. tory connected with the continent by a narrow neck of land, is in lat. 17° 56.' In 1707, Conajee Angria had established here an independent sovereignty, and pos- sessed a numerous piratical fleet. The place was taken in 1756, by Admiral Watson and Col. Clive, and the fleet destroyed. There were found in it 200 pieces of can- non, and moveable property to the extent of 120,000/. The island of Dcwghur on this coast, in 16° 21', commands a very fine harbour, where vessels of 600 tons may ride in safety during the whole monsoons. Between the British possessions in Mal- wah and the Portuguese district of Goa, is the principality of Warree, | Warree. the chief of which is called the Bhoonsla. This was the piratical state longest tole- rated by the Bombay government, being only kept in check by a blockading squad- ron. Deadly animosities subsisted between the Bhoonsla and the Raja of Colapoor, by which the whole territory was kept in a state of desolation and misery. Warree surrendered to Col. Keir in 1818. The fortified island and town of Malwan, in lat. 15° 53' N. thirty-three miles from Goa, were acquired by the British from the Raja of Colapoor m 1813, and Vingorla, in its neighbourhood, from the Ranny of Sa- wunt Warree, along with a certain extent of territory, for the purpose of suppress- ing piracy. The citv of Goa, in the southern part of the Concan, is a place of | Goa. great notflj being the metropolis of the Portuguese possessions in India, in lat. 15° 30', two hundred and fifty miles south-east from Bombay. It is situated on the river Gja, or Mantoa, which flows from the Ghauts into the Gulf of Goa, by seve- ral moaths, forming the peninsula of Bardess and the islands of Goa, Combarem and others. The old city of Goa is eight miles up the river, and now deserted by the secular inhabitants on account of unhealthincss. The natives call this city Tifsoari or Trikurii.* According to the traditions of the country, the island was peopled by a colony of Moorish merchants driven from different parts of Malabar ; but it was a commercial place at a much earlier period. It contains many magnifi- cent churches in a style of architecture excelling any thing done by Europeans in other parts of India. New Goa is at the mouth of the river within the forts of the harbour. In 1808, there were 200 churches in the Goa province, and above 2000 priests. The territory still possessed by the Portuguese in this quarter Portuguese is 100 miles long and 20 broad. Goa was taken from the Hindoo Rajas '"''"o'-y. by the Bhamence Mahometans about A. D. 1469. In 1510 it was taken by Albu- querqtie, and made the capital of the Portuguese possessions. That nation does not seem to have taken possession of much territory, but merely made India an object of pillage, on which they maintained a large European army. In 1580 they pos- sessed, on this coast, Diu, Damaun, Choul, Bassein, Salsette, Bombay, and Goa. They had factories at several other stations, where they influenced the respective governments. After the conquest of Portugal by Philip II. of Spain, in 1580, the Portuguese settlements were neglected, and left to their own resources , and the vices of their internal government, and the exhoritant power of the inhabitants, Ijas- tened tlieir decay. At present, with the exception of a few of the highest classes, the great mass of the Portuguese population in India consists of descendants of Eu- • Tiefenthakr, i. 364, Pennant, ii. 110 Colapoor and Farnella. Satarah. Its Rajah. 188 BOOK FORTY-EIGHTH. ropeans by native women, and numerous converts who have joined them, and who still retain many pagan customs. At present the Portuguese nation posseses only Diu, Damaun, Goa, Dhelli on the island of Tinor, and Macao in China. Goa is the seat of an archbishop, a viceroy, a chancellor, with several other great function- aries, and a tribunal of the inquisition. The small state of Colapoor is partly in the Concan, and partly within the Ghauts. Its capital is in lat. 16° 19'. It has been in modern times a scene of habitual confusion, like most other Blahratta states. Parnella, in its neighbourhood, is reckoned the most healthy district in the Mahratta dominions. Satarah, in the northern part of this province, is a remarkable place, as being the residence of the royal family to which the Peshwa yielded a nominal submission, whilst he kept it under his own power, and used the Raja as a mere pageant. When a new Peshwa succeeded to power, he repaired to Satara to receive the keelaut, or dress of investment. The country round Satarah was pri- vileged with exemption from military depredations. When the Peshwa was reduced and obliged to abdicate in 1818, part of his territory was allotted to form a depend- ent sovereignty for the Raja of Satarah, while the rest was incorporated with the former British conquests. This sovereignty is bounded by the Ghauts on the west, by the Neera and Beema on the north, by the Warner and Krishna on the south, and by the Nizam's dominions on the east. The net resources of the Raja amount to fifteen or sixteen lacks of rupees. The country is in the interim occupied by the British authorities till it becomes duly tranquillized, and till the Raja, who is a young man, becomes adequate to the duties of his situation.* Wassotah. | At a distance of thirty miles S.S.AV. from Satarah, is the fortress of Wassotah, in the midst of the finest and most magnificent scenery. Tt was besieged Puntierpoor. | and taken in 1818. Punderpoor, on the Beema, is a regular, well-built, populous, and thriving city, where almost all the chiefs of the Mahratta empire had dwellings. The first stories of the houses are of stone, and the second of brick. This has received some celebrity as the scene of the assassination of Gungadhur Shastry, the ambassador of Guicovvar, by persons hired by the Peshwa and his mi- nister Trimbukjee. The person slain was a high Brahmin, and the foul act was perpetrated during the solemnities of religion, while myriads of pilgrims vere col- lected in the city. It proved the source of all the subsequent misfortunes and final Darwar. | overthrow of the Peshwa. — Darwar, a fortified town, was cede^ by the Mahrattas to Tippoo in 1784. In 1790 it surrendered to the Mahrattas, assisted by the British, after a siege of twenty-nine weeks, when the town was almost destjoyed, and the country totally devasted. It is now, with the adjacent district, attached to the presidency of Madras. — Badaumy, fifty-five miles east from Darwar, on ♦he river, is one of the strongest hill-forts in India. It was taken by storm in 1818. Hoobiy. I Hoobly, thirteen miles from Darwar, is a populous and respectable mart, containing numerous and rich bankers, who regulate the currency of the neighbour- ing country. The surrounding country is well wooded and watered. Shahnoor, near the Tomboodra, was once the capital of a small Patau state. It was dread- fully demolished, and the country ravaged by Tij)poo. Copal, at a lower part of the Tomboodra, was taken by storm by an English dcitachmcnt in 1819. Bijanagur. | Twenty miles cast from this is Bijanagur, a Hindoo city of great anti- quity and celebrity. Its wall is eight miles in circumference. It was the capital of t!ie kingdom called Narsinga or Bisnagur in old European maps, which compre- hended the whole Carnatic above and below the Ghauts. This capital is described in glowing colours by the eastern writers, "f and half a century ago it still presented some remnants of its ancient splendour.J It was founded in 1344, and must not be confounded with another Bijenagur or Visianagur, founded in 340, on the con- fines of Khandesh and Malwah.§ The descendant of the Narsinga monarchs pos- * Narrative of the Political and Military Transactions of Rritisli India, under the adminislni- tlon of the Marquis Hastings, by Henry T. Pnnsejj, 4to. 1820. p. 419, 420, &lc. f Abdool Hizacinn.-, Voyai^e ilans I'lmle, edition de M. Laiii^lOti, cli. 4. ct. note 36. Khon- demir, in tlie Asiatic Ann. lU-gi^lcr, 1800, Misc. Tracts, p. 226. T Ticfcnthalcr, i. p. 369. § WaliJ, ii. 956, Stc. 1ND08TAN. 189 scssos, under the title of Rajil or little Rajah, the fort of Anagundy, one of the ruins of the city of Bijanagur, with a small revenue. The southernmost portion of continental India still remains to l)e do- imiia south ut scribed. The river Krishna is mentioned in a general way as its north- '""^ Krishna, ern boundary, which it actually is at one part ; the province of Hyderabad, being on the north, and the Balaghaut on the south side of that river : but the upper part of the Krishna flows within the province of Bejapoor. The geographer, therefore in the western part, takes for the boundary an important tributary of the Krishna, far- ther south, called the Tomboodra. The Krishna, in like manner, before it empties itself into the bay of Bengal, winds round to the north, on which account a consider- able part of the Circars already described, lies on the south of the river ; and here we take for our boundary, a small river called the Gundcgama. The General piiysi- territory which has this line formed by the Tomboodra, Krishna, and '^' '^^aturcs. Gundegama, for its boundary on the north, and the sea in all other directions, termi- nating in Cape Comorin in the south, has a triangular form. Physically viewed, it consists of a great central table land, (principally occupied by the Balaghaut dis- tricts, and the Mysore,) separated by abrupt and mountainous declivities from a low belt, various in breadth, lying between it and the sea on the west and east. The term Balaghaut, signifying, above the Ghauts, is often applied to the whole central eminence, while the low belt is called Payeen Ghaut, or, below the Ghauts. In tliis whole country the number of Mahometans is comparatively small ; consequently the primitive Hindoo manners and customs are preserved more entire than in other parts of India ; a circumstance promoted by the insulated state in which all strangers who have taken up their residence in these regions have remained. It contains, besides the followers of the Brahminical system, which are the most numerous inhabitants, many Jains, some colonies of Jews settled in Cochin and other parts of Malabar, and many Christians of different denominations. In its present political situation this whole territory is included in the presidency of Madras. The term Karnata was applied to an ancient Hindoo geographical di- vision, comprehending all the high table land ; but it has in modern times lost its original application, and has been transferred to the adjacent provinces on the sea-coast. These are still, for the sake of distinction, called by some the lower Carnatic. The soil of this country is in general light and sandy, sometimes inun- dated with torrents of rain, at other times burned up with the land winds impregnated with fine dust ; it produces tobacco, betel, indigo, holcus sorghum, and dourra. Rice is less abundant than in many other provinces. Agriculture depends on artificial canals and reservoirs, built at an enormous expense by the princes and heads of vil- lages. The basin of Saragambra, among others, is eight English miles in length, and three in width, and for eighteen months supplies thirty-two villages with the water required for cultivation. The sea-coast is so shallow, that flat-bottomed boats are required for landing; yet manufactui-es and trade have attracted the Europeans to this coast so little favoured by nature. The inland parts contain hills of sienite, with a small proportion of feldspar; and the soil of the flat country seems to consist of the debris of the same rock. The loamy part of the soil is often strongly impreg- nated with iron. It is also impregnated in many places with common salt. This is the case near Madras, where the soil is heavy but sterile, and at certain depths con- tains strata of cockle and oyster shells at a distance of nine miles from the sea. Here trees will not thrive. The only trees which grow spontaneously on the barren jiarts of the Carnatic arc the Mdia azcdarach, or common bead-tree, and the Robinia miiis. In the towns and villages, and along some of the principal roads, are | Choultries, choultries for the accommodation of travellers. The small ones are single square rooms, without windows ; the larger ones arc handsome and extensive buildings, erected by munificent or pious individuals. A Brahmin always resides near, who furnishes the traveller with food and a mat to lie on, and they arc provided with a tank or well, where the pilgrims perform their ablutions. These establishments abound for forty or fifty miles round Madras ; but they are kept in a dirty state, and the water of the ponds is very impure from neglect. The Carnatic abounds in tem- The Carnatic, or Coronianilcl province. 190 BOOK FOHTY-EIGIITII. Tempiej, | ples or pagodas, which here are always within an area, surrounded by a wall as high as the temple itself. Over the gate-way is a high tower, serving as a historical monument of the god to whom it is dedicated. It contained formerly a prodigious number of forts, which, from tlie long continuance of internal tranquillity, Inhabitants. | are now going to decay. The population is estimated at five millions. The Mahometans are very thinly scattered over the country, excepting at the Na- bob's court. Tlie number of Christians is reckoned 40,000, one-half of whom are Roman Catholics. The natives are generally much inferior in bodily vigour to the inhabitants of northern Indostan. Here many of the Brahmins follow secular pro- fessions. Madras. | The most brilliant and interesting place in this province, at the present day, is the seat of the presidency, Madras. On approaching this city from the sea, the flat sandy shores and low hills present an appearance of barrenness, which wears off" when we come nearer, and find such crowds of human beings covering the beach. The public buildings present an elegant appearance, having colonnades to the upper stories, supported on arched bases, and covered with the beautiful shell mortar of the country, called chunam, which is hard, and so finely polished as to have exactly the appearance of marble. The fortifications of Fort George, and the pagodas and mi- narets, at a little distance, mixed with trees and gardens, give an air of magnificence to the scene.* The station, however, is extremely unfavourable for a capital. A Nature of rapid Current runs along the coast, and a powerful surf beats even in mild the shore. weather. Pondicherry would have been a far more eligible situation, lying to windward, and placed in a fertile country. — Some local contrivances have been adopted here for sumiounting the disavantages of the landing. Large and light boats are used for crossing the surf. They are formed of thin planks sewed together, with straw in the seams instead of caulking; the great object in their construction being flexibility. The ships' boats sometimes anchor on the outside of the surf, where they wait for the country boats from the beach. When the unsettled state of the weather renders landing dangerous, a flag is display on shore to warn the sailors. A sort of loose raft called a catamaran is often used in bad weather for maintaining communi- Catamarans. | cation between the shore and vessels at anchor. The catamaran-men wear a peculiar cap made of matting, in which they can keep any letter intrusted to them quite safe, although they themselves should be washed ofl' the raft, a circum- stance which often happens, and is not much minded, as they find it easy to regain their situation by swimming. Madras differs from Calcutta in having no extended European town, except a few houses in the fort, as the settlers here live entirely in Fort George. | their villas, and merely repair to the fort to transact business. Fort George, though not so large as Fort William at Calcutta, is handsome and strong; it requires but a moderate garrison; is on coiiimanding ground, and easily relieved by sea. The garrison consists of one European regiment and four native battalions. In the middle stands the original fortress, now converted into government oftices and town houses for some of the civil servants. Here are also the church, the govern- or's house, and the exchange, on which a lighthouse is erected, the light of which is ninety feet above the sea, and seen at a distance of seventeen miles. The govern- ment house is on the edge of the esplanade in the choultry plain, a large and hand- some edifice; near to it is the residence of the Nabob of the Carnatic, called the Gardeo I Chapauk gardens. The villas or garden houses are only one story high, houses. I of a pleasing architecture, with porticos and verandas, supported by chu- named pillars, and surrounded by trees and shrubs; the floors are covered with rattan mats. During the hot winds the air is kept cool by mats formed of tlic roots of the fragrant cusa grass, which are placed against the doors and windows, and kept con- stantly wet; through these the draughts of wind are transmitted which serve to ven- tilate the apartmens. Whenever the use of these is intermitted, the sensation pro- duced is like that of a furnace. Yet there is on an average less extreme heat here than at Calcutta. The botanic garden, which was fitted up at a vast expense, was almost destroyed by a hurricane in 1807. The roads in the immediate vicinity are * Hodge's Travels in India, p. 2, 3, &c. INDOSTAN. 191 broad, well made, and agreeably ornamented with trees. The huts are roofed with tile, and present abetter appearance than those of Bengal. The society | Society, of Madras is not so extensive as that of Calcutta; provisions are less abundant, and more expensive. The style of living, however, is nearly the same. The Mount road is a favourable resort, where the ladies and gentlemen repair with their gayest equipages. Along this road banyan and white tulip trees are planted on each side. On this road, at a distance of five miles from Fort St. George, is a cenotaph to the memory of the Marquis Cornwallis, where the gentry drive slowly about and converse in the cool of the evening. In this city there are two orphan hospitals, a male and a female, both admirably conducted. Madras is visited by French pedlars | Pedlars, from Pondicherry, selling laces and artificial flowers; and a few Mahometans go about selling amber, mocha stones, coral, and other trinkets. Madras is famous for jugglers, who are celebrated for superior dexterity : one of their most un- | Jugglers, pleasant feats is that of introducing a sword into their stomach, which they learn by early practice, introducing short pieces of bamboo in the first instance, which are gradually lengthened as the parts become habituated. To the north of the fort is the black town, which besides the Hindoos, contains Armenian and Por- | Black town, tuguese merchants, Chinese, Moors, and black Jews. It is quite void of plan, splendid brick palaces being mixed with wretched bamboo cabins. In 1794, the population was estimated at 300,000 souls. The commerce of Madras | Population. is inferior to that of the other presidencies. The Company's staple article is piece goods. The markets are dearer than at Calcutta, but have been greatly benefited of late by the removal of some restrictions to which they had been subjected. Do- mestic servants receive higher wages than at Calcutta, hence fewer are employed by any individual ; yet the service is equally well performed.* It was in 1639 that the English first had a fixed establishment on Originandpro- this coast, by virtue of a grant from the Hindoo sovereign reigning at ^ment. Chandergherry, a descendant of the dynasty of Benjanagur, containing permission to build a fort. In 1653 the agent and council were raised to the rank of a presi- dency. In 1744 it was taken by the French, but was restored at the peace of Aix- la-Chapelle in 1749, in a greatly improved state. In 1756 the fort was greatly strengthened, and withstood in 1758, and 1759, a siege from the French, conducted with much skill and bravery. In 1767, and 1781, Hyder approached very near it with his armies. The territory now forming the presidency of Madras is very exten- sive, comprehending the whole of Indostan south of the Krishna, the Northern Circars, and some tracts acquired since the degradation of Bajee Row, the last of the Peshwas. This territory contains three princes, the Rajas of Misore, Travancore, and Cochin, who collect their own revenues, and exercise a de- gree of power in the internal management of their respective states ; but, with reference to external politics, even these are wholly subservient to the British power, are protected by a subsidiary force, and furnish large annual contributions. The rest of the territory is under the immediate jurisdiction and control of the governor and council at Madras. In 1811 the population of these provinces, not including the subjects of the three Rajas, was computed to exceed 12,000,000. The number of civil servants on the establishment was 206 ; in 1818 it was 241. In 1811, the regular troops of all de- scriptions under this presidency amounted to 50,456, and the ofllccrs to 1347. In 1818, the military officers had increased to 1506, and the medical officers were 183. In 1813, the European inhabitants not in the service, residing within the hmits of the presidency, were estimated only at 170, which was undoubtedly under the real number-l The fortifications chiefly subservient to the defence of these territo- | Chain of Forts, ries in times of political disturbance, extend in a fine crossing the continent from Fort George by Vellore, Bangalore, Seringapatam, and descending the western Ghauts, to Tellicherry. There is another line farther north comprehendhig Chittel- droog, Bellary, and Gooty ; and a third, extending from Masulipatam, by Ellora • Lord Valentia's Travel's. f Fifth Report on Indian affairs. Presidency of Madias. Noithern Ar cot. 192 BOOK FOKTY-EIGHTH. and Hyderabad, to Julna, where it is taken up by the Bombay army, and extends by Serroor, and Poena, to Bombay. P'strict of Nei- The most northern district of the Carnitic is that of Nellore, and On- goie. gole. It contains several copper mines remarkably fusible, and free from iron. But the attempts made to work them seem not to have answered the expec- tations entertained. The general rocks are primitive, consisting of mica slate of va- rious colours. The manufacture and sale of salt are carried to a great extent in this Nellore. | district. Nellorc, the capital, is situated on the south side of the Pen- nar river. It has a fort, the walls of which are of mud, with many port holes for small arms, made of tubes of baked clay laid in the wet mud in the building of the Roman ami- Wall, and afterwards consolidated in the drying. In 1787, a peasant quities. having struck on some brick work in his field, dug, and found it to be the remains of a Hindoo temple ; he found also a pot which contained Roman coins and medals of the second century, mostly Trajans, Adrians, and Faustinas, all of gold, many of them fresh and beautiful, others defaced and perforated as if they had been worn as ornaments. To the south of this district lies the northern district of Arcot ; con- taining Arcot, the Mussulman capital of the Carnatic, sixty-eight miles S.S.W, from Madras. It is chiefly inhabited by Mahometans who speak the Hindos- tanee or Deccany language. It is thought to be the capital of the Sorce of Ptolemy ; but the existing town is quite modern. It is extensive, and contains excellent houses. Temple of In this district is the Hindoo temple of Tripetty, the most celebrated in Tiipetty. southern India, situated in a hollow enclosed by mountains, and not per- mitted to be visited or seen by any Christian or Mahometan. For this privilege, a large sum is annually paid to government, which, in 1758, amounted to £30,000.* veiiore. | Here also is Vellore, a military post of great importance previously to the conquest of the Mysore, built in a valley on the river Palaur. It is defended by a number of forts situated on the surrounding heights. The mountains here contain old pagodas ornamented with inscriptions in the Tamul character. Vellore com- mands the main road leading from the valley of Veniambady to the Mysore. Its ditch contains large alligators. To this place the family of Tippoo was removed, after the taking of Seringapatam. Here also, in 1806, a serious revolt of the native troops, and a massacre of their officers, and other Europeans,' took place, which was subdued) and the insurgents mostly put to the sword, by Colonel Gillespie and a party of dragoons. Vellore is the present place of exile of the ex-king of Kandy. Southern Ar- The next district is Southern Arcot, extending as far south as Tan- ''°^' jore and Trichinopoly. In 1806, this district was in a wretched condi- tion; many parts of it, naturally fertile, lay waste, and the revenue was collected with difficulty. In 1809, the leading inhabitants of the villages mostly combined to farm their own lands, in consequence of which the country and revenue have been greatly improved. Gingee is reckoned one of the principal forts of the Carnatic. It stands on a stupendous rock, and, when well defended, is impregnable by the ordinary modes of attack. By the Indians it is esteemed, on account of its situation, the strongest town in the Carnatic. It is very unhealthy, and proved the grave of a large proportion of the French garrison kept in it while in the possession of that government. It contains the ruins of the palace of the old Chola kings of the Carnatic. In this district Pondicherry is situated, though not comprehended in its jurisdiction, being in the possession of the French nation. It was once the most splendid European settlement in India. It stands on a sandy plain near the sea, producing only palm trees, millet, and a few herbs; but the surrounding district produces cotton and rice. Though a better natural station than Madras, it has no commanding advantages for commerce, and during the war with France, the inlial)itauts were reduced to great distress and poverty. It derives all its importance from being the capital of the French possessions in India. The French power in * Fr. Buchanan. Kennel's Memoir. Fort of Gia gee. Ponilichei'ry, tlie French settlement. INDOSTAN. 193 India began in 1749 under M. Duplcix, and ended with the surrender of Pondicherry in 1761 ; but during that interval it was remarkably brilliant; since that time it has always belonged to the British during war with France, and has been restored to the latter power on the conclusion of peace. At the peace of Amiens, its inhabitants were estimated at 25,000, the revenue 40,000 pagodas, and the extent of coast five miles. Bonaparte took this opportunity to send out a large equipm'ent, including a staff of seven generals, and carrying with them £100,000 in specie. On the re- commencement of hostilities, the ambitious views thus manifested were disappointed, but M. Lenois, the aduiiral, had the good fortune to escape with his fleet. The French system of jiolicy in this part of India was harsh and intolerant towards the natives. They destroyed the temples, forced the people to do work repugnant to their castes, and prolubitcd the residence of any family which was not Christian within their boundaries. Their revenue, in 1817, amoiinted to 12,988 star pagodas. Trivicary, a village sixteen miles N.W. from Pondicherry, seems to have 'nivicary. been at one time a place of great extent and importance, as the pagoda its pagoda. is one of the largest size, having a stone tower over the gateway eight stories high, and the tank belonging to it occupied several acres of ground. It is remarkable for the petrifactions found in its neighbourhood. One of the petrified trees { PetiiracUons. is 60 feet long, from two to eight in diameter, and in most places as hard as flint. Sixteen miles south from Pondicherry is Fort St. David, once the | Foitst-DavM. head of the English settlements on this coast, but when taken by the French under M. Lally, the fortilications were demoHshed and never re-built. Close | Cmiaiore. adjoining is the town of Cudalore, in a situation naturally strong. It is thought a better natural station than cither Madras or Pondicherry. It was the seat of a Bri- tish factory at an early period, and has been the scene of some sanguinary conflicts. Between the years 1780 and 1784, the country became desolate, the villages being laid in ruins, but since that i)criod a happy and rapid improvement has taken place.* The pagodas of Sidamburam or Chillambaram are situated on the sea Pagodas of coast, in lat. 11° 28' N. thirty-six miles south trom Pondicherry, and c'lii'afflbaram. form a favourite place of pilgrimage. They are encircled with a high wall of blue stone. The chief of the four pagodas is on the same plan with that of Juggernaut, though on a smaller scale, and is esteemed a master-piece of architecture. Each of the three gates is surmounted with a pyramid 120 feet high, built with large stones above forty feet long and more than five square, all covered with plates of copper, adorned with a variety of figures neatly executed. The whole structure extends 1332 feet in one direction, and 93G in another. In the year 1785 the main gateway was repaired by a devout widow at an expense of 50,000 pagodas. The circuit forms a vast gallery, divided into apartments, in which the Brahmins live. In the area of the temple there is a large pool, skirted on three of its sides with a beautiful gallery supported by columns. A broad stair of fine red granite leads down from each of these galleries to the pool. On the side opposite to the water there is a magnificent hall, ornamented with 999 columns of blue granite covered witli sculp- tures representing all the Brahminical deities. One of the greatest curiosities of this pagoda is an immense granite chain of exquisite workmanship, extending from four jwints of the circumference of the cupola to the nave, and forming lour festoons 137 feet long, with the ends held by four enormous wedge-shaped stones belonging to the arch. Each link is somewhat more than three feet in length, and the whole of a beautiful resplendent polish. | The territory in which Madras is situated is called the Jaghire or Chingleput, now forming a collectorship. This territory was dreadfully ravaged with fire and sword by Hyder Ali, in 1780, and at the conclusion of the war in 1784 it contained no vestige of man excepting the bones of persons who had been massacred, and the walls of houses and temples which had been burned. After this it was doomed to suffer by a dreadful famine. Chingleput, its capital, is respectably fortified. Conjeveram, or the golden city, in the Chingleput, is an extensive place, containing a vast number of weavers. It has a magnificent pagoda adorned with * Orme's Indostan. t Legoux dc Flaix, i. n. 118. Vol. IL— B b Tlic Cliin^c- put or Jaehirc. 194 BOOK FOIlTY-EmHTH. st.Thom6. I beautiful sculptures. St. Thome, three miles south from Madras, called by the natives Maliapuram, or " the city of peacocks," contained some Nestorian Christians when taken by Gama, who gave it its present name. It was taken in 1672 by the French, and in 1749 by the EngHsh, and is now subject to the presi- Mahabaiipu. dency. Maliabalipuram, thirty-five miles south from Madras, is a col- '®°'* lection of ruins on the sea side, containing many sculptures, also a temple cut out of the solid rock, with well finished figures of idols in alto relievo on the walls. At another part of the hill, there is a figure of Vishnu reposing on a > pillow consisting of a numerously coiled snake. There are at the distance of a mile and a half from the hill, two pagodas cut out of the solid rock ; a colossal lion, and an elephant as large as life. The town of Sadras, forty-two miles south from Ma- dras, is in possession of the Dutch. It used formerly to be a populous place, and famous for the manufacture of ginghams. District of ^'^ ^^^ south of the preceding is the district and principality of Tanjorc, Tanjore. v/hich, in point of fertility, is the second territory in Indostan; the first place being due to Burdwan, in Bengal. Prodigious mounds have been created to prevent the waters of the Cavery from rejoining those of the Coleroon, after their separation at Trichinopoly. The waters, thus preserved at a desirable height, are distributed by canals in all directions. The inhabitants are uncommonly industrious, and expert in husbandry. In 1807, their number was as follows: Brahmins, 17,149 Sudras, including native Christians, - - _ . . 42,442 Mahometans, ._. 1,457 61,048 The Mahometans of this quarter are all descendants o^ Arabian refugees, who left Arabia in the eighth century, and are called Lubbies. The territory was never occu- pied by any Mahometan power; and the Hindoo religion has been preserved in con- siderable splendour. The people seem strongly attached to the British government, which indulges and protects their worship, and makes a liberal allowance from the revenue for the maintenance of the temples. In 1799, the territory was transferred ^'^t^r^onh''*" ^^ ^^^ British jurisdiction. The Raja reserved several palaces, two forts, present Raja. which are kept in excellent repair, and an ample revenue for the main- tenance of his dignity. The present Raja was educated under M. Schwartz, a re- spectable Danish missionary, and among Christians, yet he adheres steadily to the Brahminical faith and observances, but he is particularly kind to the Danish mission- aries, and in other respects liberal in his sentiments. The Brahmins here are pe- culiar in having a printing press, which they employ in honouring their gods. The present Raja has been all along sensible of his dependence on the good will of the British, and sets a high value on any attention which he receives from them. He iinderstands the English language, has an English library, and reads the English newspapers. He made an earnest representation of the claim which he had to a higher title than that of Excellency first given to him, as he was not inferior to those Indian princes who were entitled Highness ; and was greatly delighted when this claim was acquiesced in. The voluntary immolation of widows is still retained here, though discouraged by the Raja, and not countenanced by natives of rank or educa- tion; the Brahmins however derive a profit from the cruel rite. The capital city, Tanjore, contains the finest specimen of the pagoda in Indostan; and within it a bull, carved from a block of black granite, which is an excellent example of Hind'6o sculp- ture. In remote ages this was the great seat of learning, and here the almanacks were framed.* Combooconam, 2.3 miles N. E. from the city of Tanjore, was the an- cient capital of the Chola race, and still exhibits remains which indicate its former splendour; such as tanks and pagodas, which are very fine. Its houses arc neat, and chiefly inhabited by Brahmins. The country around it is rich and * Lorecomes worse in proportion to the distance trom the sea. The interior is occupied by Hindoos, and the sea-coa.st by Mahometans, here called Moplays. In ISOO the population consisted of 206,633 males, and 190,039 females. The number of houses was 80,000, of which 7184 belonged to Brahmins, 5223 to IMahometans, 2700 to Jains, 2545 to Christians, and the remainder to low castes of Hindoos. The num- ber of slaves, male and female, was 7924. During Tippoo's government the Hin- doos were obliged to skulk in the woods, and all who could be caught were circum- cised, by which rite they lost the Hindoo caste, and became good Mahometans, forming a caste by themselves. Many of the Christians also of this country were compelled to profess Islamism, but more than 15,000 have returned to the church. Before the time of Tippoo the Christians had twenty-seven churches in this neigh- bourhood. Jains greatly abound, and seem to have been, at no remote period, the prevailing sect in this province. Mangalore, in tliis part of the province, is a flourishing sea-port town, | Mangaiore. in lat. 12° 53', built in a beautiful situation round the shore of a small peninsula, which is elevated in the centre, and once contained a fort in that situation. In Hy- der's time the principal merchants were Moplays and Concanies ; but since the Bri- tish acquired the government, many men of property have come to settle in it from Surat, Cutch, and Bombay. These are chiefly of the Yaisya caste, along with many Parsees. It was the scene of some violent contlicts during the Mahometan dynasty of Mvsore. At the river Chandraghiri, bounding Canara on the south, the Hindoo region of Malabar connnences, and extends to Cape Comorin. The British province of Malabar forms only part of this region, the remainder consisting of Cochin and Travancore. The British province extends about 200 miles along the coast. Tliis province contains few villages or towns, except on the sea-coast, each man living distinct on his estate or farm; the house being within the garden, which is surrounded by a high bank and deep valley, like a rampart and ditch. Black pep- per is the chief article of export. Almost the whole land is private property. The approved history of this country is, that it was created, or raised iiom tlie bottom of the sea, for the use of the Brahmins. Tliere are established rules of great antiquity, for the transfer, lease, and mortgage of estates. The Mahometans or IMoplays, being persons of industry and business, acquire great advantages over the idle and dissolute Nairs, so that they often make purchases or obtain mortgages of the estates of the latter. The principal division of the Hindoo castes here, is into I. Namburies or Brahmins; II. Nairs of various classes; III. Tiars, the free cultivat- ors of the soil; IV. Malears, musicians and conjurors, also freemen; and V. The Poliars, or bondmen, attached to the soil. The distance of intercourse by which the ditferent castes are separated, is laid down with great precision. I. A Nair must not touch a Brahmin; a Tiar must keep at the distance of thirty- six yards; and a Poliar ninety-six steps. II. A Tiar must not come within twelve steps of a Nair; a Malear withur three or four; or a Pohar within ninety-six. III. a Maloar must not touch a Tiar. IV. A Pohar must not come near even to a Makai Provinef of Malabar. I.ocal diTision erratics. 204 BOOK FORTY-EIGHTH. or to any othea- caste. If he wishes to speak to any one of them, he must stand at the prescribed distance and call aloud. When any unfortunate violation of these rules occurs, the person polluted by it purifies himself by bathing and reading the sacred books, according to rules which vary with the degree of contamination incurred. The Niadis. | There is a still more loathed race of outcasts in Malabar, called Niadis, who wander in small companies, and, when they see a passenger, set up a howl which warns him not to come too near, and proclaims the necessities of the wretched indi- vidual. The charitably disposed lay down what they mean to bestow, and go away; and then the Niadis approach and pick it up. They eat tortoises, and sometimes alligators. Singularities ' '^^^ most remarkable of the castes in Malabar is that of the Nairs, oftheNairs, | who are Subdivided into eleven gradations. They are the Sudra, or mili- tary caste, and, though not all following the military profession, were formerly all liable to be called on for military duty by the Rajas. At present they work at various handicraft occupations ; they are under the direction of the Brahmins ; they are fond of appearing in arms, and often practise assassination; their aiTOgance towards the inferior castes was formerly of the harshest kind. A Nair was expected to cut down any Tiar, or Mucua, (fisherman,) who presumed to touch his person, or any Foliar, or Pariar, who did not turn out of his road as he passed. The Nairs, in common with all the Malabar Hindoos, are as remarkable for thoughtless profusion as the people in other parts of India for extreme parsimony. But the most singular charac- teristic of this race is to be found in the terms of intercourse observe'd by the two sexes. They marry before the age of ten, but the husband never cohabits with his wife ; she lives with her mother or her brother, and is at liberty to cohabit with any other man who is of equal or higher rank. Hence no man knows his own father; his brothers and sisters arc only known by their common relationship to one motiier; and when a man dies, his property descends, not to children supposed to be his own, but to those of his mother or his sister. The mother manages the house, and at her death the eldest sister assumes the direction. Before the time of Hyder, this country was governed by numerous chiefs or landed proprietors, whose jurisdiction continually varied in extent, according to the circum- stances of succession. The Moplays, along the sea-coast, are descendants of Ara- bians, and extremely fanatical in their religion. The mutual antipathy which subsists between them and the Hindoos is very great. tians'^of^st"*' '^"^'^ Christian religion was early introduced into Malabar, and the pro- ihomas. * fcssors of that religion seem to be entitled to be considered as a distinct primitive church. They reject the supremacy of the pope, the mystery of transub- stantiation, and the adoration of relics and images. When Vasco de Gama arrived at Cochin in 1603, he found a political community professing the Christian faith, with a king at their head. But, finding that they differed from the church of Rome, the Portuguese exerted themselves to convert them, both by persuasion and force. Hence there are many Roman Catholics here who have their places of worship. The original church uses Syriac copies of the sacred books, and the same language is retained in those used by the proselyted churches. The members of the former are sometimes called Nestorians, sometimes the Christians of St. Thomas. They trace their origin to the apostle of this name, who, according to them, visited their country ; but it is more probable that the founder of their church was another Tho- mas, who landed on this coast in the fifth century. They acknowledge the patriarch of Antioch as their early head. They are called sometimes the Syrian Christians. They highly value the Syriac language as the sacred dialect in which Christ and his disciples spoke ; that language is not understood by the people, and therefore extem- poraneous explanations of the Scriptures are given by the clergy. The Syriac is, in fact, used among them as the Latin Vulgate is in the church of Rome. Among the mountainous parts of Travancore, Dr. Claudius Buchanan found many simple and amiable communities of these worshippers ; and he put them on a plan of having the Scriptures translated into the Malabaric, the vernacular language of the country. SyroRomitii Thosc wlio havc been converted to the church of Rome are chiefly on ciinsiians. | jj^^^ sca-coast. Aftcr yielding to the doctrines and practices of the sub- INDOSTAN. 205 jects of the pope and the inquisition, they made a firm stand when required to give up the Syriac as the sacred language appropriated to divine service, and to adopt the Latin in its stead ; and the missionaries were, by their obstinacy, necessitated so far to relax in this point as to allow them to retain the Syriac. They are distinguished by the appellation of the Syro-Romish Christians. The total number of Christians on the Malabar coast is estimated at 200,000, of whom about 90,000 are in the Tra- vancore country. The villages of Malabar are the neatest in India ; the houses are contiguous, in a straight line, built of mud of an excellent quality, well smoothed and painted ; but being thatched with palm leaves, to prevent the mud from being washed away, they are extremely combustible. The higher ranks use little clothing, but are remarkably cleanly in their persons ; so that cutaneous disorders are only known among slaves and the lowest castes. The beauty and elegant dress of the Brahmin women give some lustre to the general aspect of society. Common fowls were not known among the original natives, but since they have been introduced by Europeans, tliey are to be had in abundance. Hyder, when he took this province in 1761, found in it large quanti- H^'er^nd"*** ties of treasure, which had been accumulated by the inhabitants for ages, xippoo. He drove out all the Rajas except those who instantly submitted to him. He pro- ceeded gradually to settle them after frequent outbrcakings. Tippoo, however, in 1788, firmly established his sway, and enforced his religion by an overwhelming army, circumcising all those whom ho could lay hold of. The British, on subduing Tip- poo, restored the expelled Rajas, and reinstated them in their possessions; but, in three successive settlements, these failed to fulfil their engagements ; they maintain- ed a rule over the people of the most oppressive description, and the country was distracted by insurrections. The Rajas were, for these reasons, ultimately deprived of all authority, and allowed a fifth part of the revenue to support their rank. The refractoiy among them have been subdued by military force, and local arrangements have been made by which tranquillity is now restored. The population in 1800 was reckoned 600,000, but must be considerably greater. More than one-third are Ma- hometans. The sea-port town of Tellicherry, in lat, 11° 45' was long the chief | Xeiiicherrj-. English settlement on this coast, but has declined since the Company's commerce was removed to Mahe. The richest natives still reside here, _and the inhabi- tants are far more civilized than in the rest of the province. It contains an arsenal, and is a great mart for pepper and cardamom, sandal and teak wood, cotton stufis, and other Malabaric goods. Mahe is the principal French settlement | Mah6. on this coast. It is finely situated on high ground, at the mouth of a river ; the situation being much better thau that of Tellicherry. The French have in general been guided by more enlarged and judicious views in the selection of their stations than the English, who seem to have been attracted solely by the temporary resort of commerce. The city of Calicut, in lat. 11° 15', is a place of great trade. It has | caiicot. been the scene of some sanguinary contests, in which the Portuguese in the first instance, and afterwards Tippoo and the English were concerned. It contains 5000 houses. The Raja of the Calicut district, or the Tamuri Rajah, called the Zaniorin by Europeans, is one of the most respected native chiefs. The males of the family are called Tamburans, and the females Tamburettis. It would be reckoned scandalous for the ladies to have any intercourse with their husbands. The Namburi Brahmins are generally the fathers of their children. The oldest man of the family by the female line is the Tamuri Raja, and he pretends to be higher than the Rrahmins, and inferior only to the gods ; but these pretensions are not acquiesced in by the Brah- mins. At present he has a revenue, but no authority. The town of Paniany, thirty- six miles south from the preceding, is inhabited chiefly by Moplays, Account of the or Mahometan descendants of Arabs, who settled here at an early pe- ^*°P'*y'- riod of the Mahometan rehgion. It is the residence of their Tangul, or chief priest, and contains forty mosques. They use a peculiar written character, totally diflerent from the Arabic, that language being known to very few among them except the priests. They had no government, but were completely subject to the Hindoo chiefs, 206 BOOK FORTY-EIGHTH. till Tippoo encouraged them to make the most wanton attacks on the Hindoos, and thus transformed them into a set of lawless, blood-thirsty ruffians, who have with difficulty been in any degree reformed by the subsequent rule of the British. The Tangul is still their spiritual head, who names the Im^m of the mosque, gene- rally giving the appointment to the sister's son, or heir, of the preceding functionary. This shows, even among that race, a tendency to comply with the native customs of the country. Cochin. I To the south of the British Malabar lies the small principality of Co- chin, so named from a word signifying *' a morass." It contains a considerable variety of valuable forest trees, which contribute greatly to the beauty of the scenery, and the picturesque appearance of the dwellings of the inhabitants. Christians. | In this province are many Christian villages, inhabited chiefly by the Christians of St. Thomas, which are generally well built and cleanly. A great num- ber of Jews live about Cochin, of whom there are two classes, distinguished by the White and I appellation of white Jews and black Jews. The white Jews are con- biackJews. j gijjgj-ejj Qg later emigrants than the black, and of purer blood, the black being partly descendants of Hindoo proselytes, and partly of a mixed breed. They have a synagogue in the town of Cochin ; but the greater part of them live in the interior. Trittoor, Paroor, Chenotta, and Maleh, are the chief settlements of the black Jews. The white Jews keep a historical record of their emigration, which they date as far back as the building of the second temple. Their first set- tlement was at Cranganor, where they continued a thousand years, and during that time were joined by many others who had heard of their prosperity ; but at last, in consequence of intestine discord, a Hindoo prince who was called to the assistance of one of the parties, destroyed many of them, and dispersed the remainder, a catas- trophe compared to the sufierings of the Jews at Jerusalem as related by Josephus. They show a brass plate, on which an ancient grant of land and certain privileges from an Indian king, is inscribed in the Malabaric character, and in so old a hand as to be scarcely intelligible. The Rev. Dr. C. Buchanan caused a fac simile of this plate to be engraved at Cochin, which is now deposited in the library of the univer- sity of Cambridge.* Among the black Jews the same zealous inquirer found several Hebrew books, partly printed and partly manuscript. Some of the tombs in their bu- rial grounds are handsomely constructed. In building their houses it is a rule to leave a part unfinished, as an emblem of the desolation of Jerusalem, and to write on it words signifying " in memory of the desolation."! Political con- j fhe Raja of Cochin maintained his independence to a later period chin. I than most of the other Hindoo chiefs. Tippoo was the first who com- pelled him to pay tribute, which he now does to the English. Having in 1809 made an attack on the latter, supposed to be instigated by a hostile European power, he was reduced to a more dependent condition, and his tribute augmented. City of Co- 1 The city of Cochin was the station of the first Portuguese fortress in «'""• I India, begun in 1503. The Dutch took it in 1663. Under them Co- chin was a place of great commerce. This city contains a great many protestants, in consequence of colonies planted, and conversions made, by the Dutch. It is on the sea coast, in lat. 9° 57'. It is still a place of great trade in pepper, cardamoms, precious stones, teak wood, and other articles of export. Several vessels are built at it. The white and black Jews, Moors, and Parsees, have their own bazars. The town has a handsome appearance, and contains within it large plantations of cocoa trees, and other palms, which diffuse a delicious fragrance. Cranganor. | Crangauor, sixteen miles north from Cochin, is the place where the apostle Thomas is said to have landed from Aden in Arabia. Both the town and tlie Portuguese fort are now in ruins. It is still the seat of an archbishop, under whom are forty-five churches. The western coast from Cochin to Cape Comorin is occupied by the province of Travnncore, which lies between the eighth and tenth degrees * Buchanan's Christian Researches in Asia, 3d edition p. 207 — 210. Province of Travancorc. INDOSTAN. 207 of north latitude. At these latitudes there is only one chain of tlic Ghauts, the west- ern, and no elevated table land; the eastern Ghauts having terminated more to the north. This province, comprehending the continuation of the western Ghaut chain, is bounded on the east by the Carnatic. Agriculture is conducted here | its produce, on principles somewhat different from what it is in the Carnatic. No tanks are re- quired for irrigation ; the seasons always affording sufficient moisture for the cultiva- tion of rice, which is called the wet cultivation, and is of considerable extent in this province. The principal dry cultivation is that of pepper, betel nut, and cocoa nuts. Inland trade is cruelly restricted by the exaction of duties at every stage of the transit of goods, passes being unknown, except for articles already farmed. There are tuxes on Christian festivals, on nets and fishermen, and a capitation tax on all males from sixteen to twenty, except Nairs, Moplays, and artificers. The number sub- jected to this tax is 250,000. The British have had some obstacles to civU and poii. encounter in fixing the administration of justice in this province. The *'«ai state. Hindoo law is the basis of procedure ; but owing to the number of Christians and Mussulmans, that law will not universally apply. It makes the killing of a cow a capital crime. It sanctions the trial by ordeal, and other absurd practices. In one case, property which had been awarded by a judge to one of the litigants in conse- quence of his oath, was referred to an assembly of pundits by the Resident, before whom the cause had been brought by appeal; that property was found by the pundits to be due to the opposite party, because the man's oath had been rendered null by the death of a cow in his house within forty days! The trial by ordeal has even found its way among the Jews. One of them complained to the Resident that he had been obliged by a court of justice to put his hand in boiling oil, and, because he could not sustain it, lost both his cause and the use of his hand. The British functionaries are generally applied to by the Raja, or by the Ranny or queen, the leading Tamburetti, to conduct the national affairs, on account of the great partiality and turbulence which so commonly attend the administration of native Dewans and other ministers. It is among the hills of Travancore that the Syrian Christians are most completely natu- ralized. Hindoo temples are so rare, and plain Christian churches so abundant, that a European traveller would scarcely believe himself to be in India. The customs with regard to the intercourse of the sexes, which we have already no- Lawsof suo- ticed under the head of Malabar in speaking of the Nairs, operate in """'"• Travancore to their full extent, and regulate the succession to the throne, and to property. The husbands of the Tamburettis, or princesses, have no influence in the state, and are sent back to their villages on the death of the Tamburettis to whom they have been married. This perverted system of domestic relations, together with the oppressive character of the government, has generated a peculiar turpitude of character in this country, showing itself in the prevalence of an uncommon degree of idleness, treachery, and turbulence. The male offspring of the Tamburettis are the only legal heirs to the throne ; but certain forms are indispensable in order to become Tamburettis. In remote times the Tamburettis themselves were the sove- reigns. But about the year 1740 the power was transferred from the princesses to their sons. Superstitious scruples, as well as political feelings, often contribute to perplex the royal succession, and though not now attended with actual turbulence, prove a source of difficulty which the British power always waits to see removed before it gives its sanction to the succession. Travancore, the ancient capital, is twenty-seven miles N.N.W. from Cape Como- rin; The present capital is Trivanderam, in lat. 8*" 29', fifty-two miles | Trivandtram. from Cape Comorin. It is the usual residence of the Travancore Rajas. The cas- tle is extremely ill built. The royal palace is large and well built, in ( The palace, the Furopean taste, containing a great variety of paintings, clocks, and other Euro- pean ornaments. But the Raja prefers living in a house of a more humble appear- ance, where he is surrounded with Brahmins. The town is populous, and in 1785 it had a garrison of 10,000 Sepoys disciplined in the European manner, 1000 Nairs, and 400 Patau cavalry. Now, however, the force at the Raja's dfeposal must be much less considerable. There is a small sea port, seventy-eight miles from Cape 208 BOOK FORTY-NINTH. Attfnga. ] Comorin, called Anjengo, near to which is Attinga (named in most maps Attancal) where the Tamburettis principally reside. Cape Comorin, the terminating point of the Indian continent, is situated just at the boundary between Travancore and the Carnatic, and comes into view in our account of that province. BOOK .XLIX. INDOSTAN CONTINUED. Island of Ceylon, the Laccadives, and the JWaldives. Leaving now the continent of British India, we shall give a description of some islands which form natural appendages to that country. The most conspicuous is Island of Cey- the large and rich island of Ceylon ; in which we have been told that ^°' the stones are rubies and sapphires, that amomum scents the marshes, and cinnamon the forests, and that the most common plants furnish precious per- fumes. Elephants of the most handsome and valuable kind run here in flocks as the wild boars do in the forests of Europe, while the brilliant peacock and the bird of Paradise occupy the place of our rooks and our swallows.* Its name, | This island has received different names at different periods with dif- ferent authors. Cosmas calls it Sielen Diva, or the island Sielen, from which we have in European languages Selan and Ceylon. But, as Ammianus Marcelhnus calls the inhabitants Serandives, and as the Arabic name Serandib is a corruption of Selan Div, the latter must be traced to a very ancient period, and probably is con- tained in the Simundu, (which should be read Silundu) of Ptolemy. This term indeed has the syllables Palai preceding it; but these are merely the Greek adverb for " old," and should not be confounded with the name itself. Another Indian name Salabha, or " the rich island," may be recognised in the Salike of the same geogra- pher. But the more ancient Sanscrit name, Langa, and that which is now most used among the natives and their neighbours, Singala, were unknown to our ancient au- thors. Singala signifies the country of " lions." Some think that Sinhal-Dwipa, (or the " lion island,") is the origin of the term Sielendiba of Cosmas. It was called also Taprobrane by the older writers, a name unknown before the time of Alexan- der, and of uncertain application. Tabobon is a name which it receives in San- scrit. Situation, siie, This island is situated between the parallel of 5*^ 56', and 9° 46' N. ^"^ latitude, and between 76° 36', and 81° 58' E. longitude. Part of its length lies due east from the coast of Coromandel, at a distance of thirty miles. Its form is ovate ; its northern extremity being the most pointed, with the island of Jaff- napatam, of a very irregular form, appended to it. It is almost two-thirds of the size of Ireland, containing a surface of 20,770 square miles. The sea-coast is low and flat, and encircled with a broad border of cocoa-nut trees, surrounded by rocks and shoals. The interior is filled with mountains, which are seen from the ocean rising in successive ranges ; many of them beautiful and verdant, others huge, rocky, and peaked. The highest and most conspicuous mountain is that of Adam's peak. Climate. | In this country winter is unknown ; the perennial summer is only diversified by the difference of a few degrees of temperature. Monsoons. | Over most of the island, and particularly the maritime provinces, the • LiniiaHis, Musteum Ceylanicum, Pjierat. INDOSTAN. 209 wind blows during a certain period of the year from the south-west, and a certahi period from the north-east, the same monsoons which, under local variations, prevail over India ; the south-west monsoon blows while the sun is north of the line, the temperature of the continent being then higher than that of the ocean. This continues from the end of April to the beginning of November. The period of the other monsoon is when the sun is to the south of the line, when the ocean, taken along with the southern part of Africa, is of a higher temperature than the Indian continent. The difference of temperature being less than in the first period, the duration of this monsoon is shorter than the other, beginning in November, and ending in March. The south-west wind is generally felt over the island, but the north-east wind does not, during half its duration, reach across the mountains to Columbo on the west coast. The proportion of rain which falls is great, most particularly among the mountains, and on those parts of the coast which are most subjected to the influence of the monsoon. The rains are periodical and extremely heavy, two or three inches often falling in the course of a day. At the northern extremity, and along the east coast, the rainy season begins in November, lasting about two months witii great violence; the rest of the year is dry, and rarely visited by scanty showers. On the west coast, most rain falls about the setting in of the south-west monsoon, but it is not so heavy nor so constant here as on the opposite side ; the dry season, too, is more liable to be interrupted by showers. Hence the west coast is seldom parched, and exhibits at all times the most inviting aspect to strangers. The seasons among the mountains participate more of those of the opposite coasts in different places, in proportion to their local situation and aspect. Rains are frequent in the interior, hence the coun- try is well watered. The heat varies in different places. The west coast is remark- able for equality of temperature, exceeding in this respect any other part of the world, except a few small islands at a great distance from land, such as St. Helena and Ascension island. The mean temperature is about 78°, and the atmosphere is exceedingly moist. The east coast, about Trincomalee, is remarkable for intense heats, the mean temperature of the hot months being 82.8. Among the mountains, the temperature is generally cooler than might be expected, and the vicissitudes are greater. The mean. annual temperature of Kandy is about 73. 5.* Ceylon suffers much less ft-om violent storms and hurricanes than islands in general, especially be- tween the tropics. Instances of this kind, however, have occurred. In 1819, at the foot of the mountains in the south-eastern part of the island, there was a violent thunder shower, with wind and hail, which unroofed the houses in an instant, tore up many trees, and broke others across which were fourteen feet in circumference."]" The most healthy parts of the island are the south-west coast, and the | Salubrity, loftier grounds of the interior situations, which coincide in being well ventilated, and refreshed with frequent showers. The most unhealthy regions are the wooded parts between the mountains and the sea, in all directions except to the south-west. These parts resemble the Terriani in the north of Indostan. The lower mountamous dis- tricts, and the northern and the eastern shores, hold in this particular an intermediate character. Trincomalee is never sickly while subjected to the north-east wind, com- ing directly from the sea ; but it changes for the worse during the south-west winds, which blow over an extent of a low unwholesome, territory. The diseases arc in general those which prevail in hot climates. Elephantiasis, and various cutaneous affections, are very common among the natives. Dysentery is more frequent than in India, and is formidable from its fatality, and the rapidity fif its course. Palsy and insanity are frequent both among the natives and among Europeans. The principal river is the Mahawclle-ganga, which, winding extensively | Rivers, among the highest of the mountains of the interior, and supplied with many tributaries, receives all the water which falls on that region, and empties itself on the east coast, between Trincomalee and Batticaloe. It is only partially navigable. Shallows, rocks, and rapids interrupt the navigable communication between its higher parts and the sea. The Kalane-ganga, which runs from Adam's Peak in a westerly di- • Dr. John Davy's Account of the Interior of Ceylon, 1821, p. 68. t Ibid. p. 73. YoL. II.— Dd 210 BOOK FOliTY-NINTH. rection, falling in the sea at Colnmbo, tliouwVi of much smalh>r dimensions, is more important, on account of its being navigable for boats for tl nee-fourths of its course. Hence it is rruich used for inland carriage, and is likely to be more so in future. Perhaps by an artificial communication with tlic navigable part of the Mahawelle- ganga, the general internal communications may be materially facilitated.* Minerals. | The Avliole of tlus island consists of what mineralogists call primitive rock, chiefly granite and gneiss, with some quartz rock in large veins, hornblende, and dolomite rock, which last is both in veins and imbedded. Limestone is confined to the province of Jairnapatam, and is of the shell kind, and mixed with coral rock. Gfrey and blackish sandstone is of general occurrence along the shore. This island is remarkable for its richness in gems, and for the variety of its minerals. The pri- mitive rock contains ores of iron and manganese, the former of which is worked by the natives, the species being those called red hematite and bog ore. Rock crystal, amethyst, prase, and cat's-eyc, tlie latter particularly fine, topaz, schorl, common garnet, and the variety of corundum called the cinnamon stone, are also found. This last is an interesting mineral. Ceylon is richer in zircon than any other part of the world. It has long been celebrated for rul)ies of different species. The country contains several nitre caves. Vegetables. | Thc Vegetable productions of Ceylon are valuable. The cocoa-nut holds the fust rank for utility, from its agreeable fniit, the oil which it yields, the tod- dy produced from it, and its leaves universally, employed for the walls and roofs of the dwellings. Thc borassus flabdlijormin, or palmyra, is also valuable, its leaves being used for writing on all over India, and its wood durable, and not liable to the devastations of (he white ants. In the north part of the island the sweet fruit of this tree forms a leading article of food among the poor inhabitants. The sago tree, the large talipot palm, thc leaves of which serve for umbrellas ; two species of bread fruit, the Jlrtocarpus inlegrifoUa and incisa, the singular j^cn^ religiosa, or banyan tree, ca- shew, tamarind, and arcca nut trees, yield their respective fruits. There are two annual crops of oranges, and for two months in each season that iruit is to be ob- tained in a good state for eating. They are of a delicious flavour, but different from those to which we are accustomed, their colour, when ripe, being green instead of yellow. Guavas, papaw, pomegranate, bamboo, stigar cane, pepper, tobacco, and various articles of export, grow here. Very little grain is cultivated besides rice, of which they have four kinds. There is not a sufficiency, however, for the inhabitants, so that a considerable importation of this article is rendered necessary. Of all thevege- cinnamoii. | table productions of theisland that for which it is most celebrated is its cin- namon, the bark of the Laurus Cinnamomii/in, called by the natives coorundoo. On this the riches of the island in a great measure depend; therefore the cultivation of the trees, and the gathering of the bark, are objects of careful attention. In April, soon after the fruit is ripe, the business of decortication begins. May and June are reck- oned the most favourable months, the three following not so good, but November and December are favourable, and are called the little harvest. The labourer first selects a tree which appears to him ripe, tlien he ascertains it by striking his hatchet obliquely into a branch ; if, on drawing it out, the bark separates from the wood, the cinnamon has attained maturity; if not, it must remain. He cuts down a number of shoots, from three to fi\c feet long, and throe-fourths of an inch in diameter, carries his load to a hut or shed, and, with the assistance of a companion, strips off and cleans the bark. The cinnamori*tree flourishes only in one small district of the island, being confined to the soutl)-west angle, from Negumbo to Matura. There is none on thc western side beyond ('hilau, nor on the eastern side beyond Tengalle. Within this range the nature of the soil, and the warmth, moisture, and steadiness of the climate, contril)ute to cherish it. The largest plantation is near Columbo, and is about twelve miles in circumference. In some inland places, it grows without cul- tivation, but of interior quality. The cultivation of cinnamon was the result of the experimental enterprise of the Dutch governor Falk, who presided in Ceylon for thirty years before its conquest by the If'.nglish. He met with great opposition from * Dr. Davy, INDOSTAN. 211 the piejmlices and iuiagiticd iiitorcslt^ of t!io natives, some of wiioni slily attempted to thwart his endeavours by s[)riiikhrig the plants in the evcniiiy with liot water. His exertions were thus a httle retarded, but ultimately sueceeded. Tlie quantity of cin- namon annually sent to jjrilain anutunts to 308,000 lbs. lor which the East India Company pays to government (as this island is immediately subject to the king) ;tJGO,000 Sterling, and they carry it home at their own cxi)ense.^ A great quantity is used by the slaves in the South American mines as a preservative against noxious exhalations, and it is dispersed througli the dill'erent countries ot" the cast. The wood of the tree has no smell, and is chiefly used as fuel. All the larger animals of Ceylon are common to it wilh continental | Animals. India; subject to accidental modilications in the (pialitics of their respective breeds. Some of the continental species are not fovmd in the island. The clc- | Kkphants. {ihant stands at the head of the class of its quadrupeds. Of this animal there are two varieties, — one with very long teeth, called ullcia, and another, which has either very short teeth, or none at all; these are called (tela.]' Elephants are caught in ('eylon, chiefly by such snares as have been described in Book XLVI.;|' Of these tliere is one at Kotawy in this island, which rc(pures 300 men to guard it when ele- phants are caught. On the flrst day of a hunt, Mr. Cordincr mentions that they had caught twenty, which he reckoned a small niunber; but he thought that the opera- lion might be rendered nnich more speedy by additional expedients.§ On another day sixty were secured. ^Vhen caught, an elephant is tamed in the course of eight days. They arc conveyed to Jalliiapatam, where they are sold by auction before they are transported to the continent. The elephants of Ceylon are generally from ten to eleven feet in height. The feet, and some other parts of the flesh of this animal, are very palatable. The Kandians are in the habit of catching theni some- times by laying nooses for their feet, sometimes chasing Ihcm on tame elephants, throwing ropes romid the neck and Icet of the wild animal, and then beating them into subjection. The uses to which this noble animal is applied in Ceylon are, as elsewhere, innumerable. IJesides carrying all sorts of burdens in peace and w'ar, they are employed in thinning plantations, or clearing away forests, which they do by pulling U}) the trees with their trunks, with as great facility as a man pulls up stocks of cabbage. The neighbourhood of Matiua, in the southern part of the island, is the place where thosef arc chiefly cauglit that are intended for exportation. The hunts take place once in three or four years. The Indian bufl'alo is also found in a wild state in Ceylon ; and when tamed, employed in labour. It is a diflercnt animal from the bufllilo of the south of Europe and Egypt; being inferior in size and statme even to the English ox, and the horns bending back. They show their com- ,f,"Jr'"uad^"'' munity of nature with the large buffaloes by having the same instinct to mpeds. roll in the mud, and remain immersed in water tluring the heat of the day. In the wild state they are Hercc, and rather dangerous to meet in travelling. Common oxen of various colours, but mostly black, with a hump on the shoulders, arc reared in considerable numbers, and employed in labour. Both these and buflaloes arc liable to very destructive epidemics. Hogs are plentiful, and much eaten by the Dutch and Portuguese. Sheep and goats are not native here, and few of them arc reared, though they thrive very well, especially about Jaflhapatam. The horse is not a na- tive of Ceylon, and the only ones in the island arc a few which have been imported for the pleasure of the European inhabitants. Some have been bred at .laflha[>atani, and the small island of Delft. They were flrst introduced there by the Portuguese, who called the islands Illuis de Cavalcs. The woods abound with deer, of which a beautiful small species, not larger than a hare, is very common. It is called the moose deer, and nearly corresponds with the Ccrvus s;uinensis of Linnaius. The royal tiger is not found in Ceylon ; but a smaller species, called Chela, spotted like the leopard, is numerous. Monkeys swarm as they do in Indostan, and among others • Cordiner's Description of Ceylon, vol. i. p. 46, (published in 1807. t Asiat. Kei^ister, 1800. Miscell. Tracts, p. 3. ^ See {)age 127 of this volume. § See Cordiner's Account of Ceylon, vol. i. j). 213 — 247, where an animated account of an elephant hunt is given, accompanied by a plate of the snare. 212 BOOK FORTY-NINTH. the white-bearded and the black-bearded species. The musk animal called by natu- ralists Moschus memana, and the jackal, are among the quadrupeds which people the Birds. I island. Its birds form a more numerous class. Domestic fowls, ducks, and geese, are plentiful at the European settlements. The jungle fowl, which re- sembles the pheasant, is in great abundance. Green pigeons of beautiful plumage, and forming a delicacy for the table; snipes, green parroquets in considerable va- riety, peacocks, fly-catchers, tailor-birds, kites, vultures, crows, and numerous others, either peculiar to the tropical regions, or more or less allied to species familiar in Reptiles. | Europc, abound. Reptiles of various sizes, from the most minute lizard to the largest alligator, are in great variety, and among others the house-lizard, which is the largest animal that can, like a fly, walk in an inverted situation, a me- chanism accomplished by a muscular power in the webs of the feet, by means of which it can cling to any surface by taking advantage of the atmospheric pressure, like a leech fixing on the skin, or a child sucking the mother's nipple. When a lamp is hung on a house wall, it is soon surrounded with lizards in quest of flies. Snakes of different sizes and species, abound here as in Indostan; and in this island Dr. Davy has lately made some interesting experiments on the operation of their respec- insects. I tive poisons.* Like all warm countries of luxuriant vegetation, it swarms with insects in every direction. That valuable product of this class of the animal creation, honey, is abundant in Ceylon, and is commonly used for seasoning and pre- serving meat, as salt is used in other countries.! There are many kinds of ants; the most remarkable are the destructive white ant, the great red ant, which builds its nest on trees by connecting together a number of leaves with a glutinous cement; J the common red ant, which abounds in houses, and several others, red and black. A curious advantage is taken of the combative instincts of the ants, all the species of which are enemies to one another, so that one exclusively occupies any particular haunt. The white ant, being the smallest, is destroyed by the red ant. Therefore it is a common practice to strew sugar on the floors of houses to attract the larger species, and thus procure the extinction of the white ant. The grasshoppers are extremely curious; some resembling pieces of straw awkwardly joined together; others the branches of trees; while the wings of others bear a perfect resemblance to the leaves of trees. There are some very large spiders; one of them, which has legs four inches long, and the body covered with hair, is said to be poisonous in its Ceylon leech. | bite, but fortunately it is rare. — One of the most troublesome animals of Ceylon is a small leech, which, if not peculiar to this island, has no where else at- tracted so much attention, though it is perhaps the same animal which is mentioned by Mr. Marsden as found in Sumatra. It is confined to the moist parts of the island, which are of moderate elevation, and visited by frequent showers. In dry weather it retires into the shade of bushes and jungle, but during the rain, it abounds over every part of the surface, and fastens on the legs and feet of travellers in such enor- mous numbers, and with such perseverance, that it is impossible to keep them off". The only preventive is to have the limbs well covered with boots and trowsers. Smearing them with oil, especially with castor oil, or the juice of acrid plants, such as tobacco, answers tolerably well, as long as it is not removed by the friction and mois- ture in travelling ; but in general it is not a permanent defence. This leech is smaller than the medicinal species, and some varieties of it are extremely minute. Its co- lour is brown, and its texture to a considerable degree transparent. It tapers from a broad flat tail to a fine pointed mouth, and can stretch itself out as fine as a thread, so as to pass through very small openings. The bites, if properly attended to, are easily healed, but if neglected they occasion a great loss of blood, and degenerate into tedious ulcers ; hence some have pronounced this animal to be the cause of Fish. I more deaths than any other on the island. § The lakes and rivers abound with fish, but generally of a small size. The common fishes of the Indian Ocean • Dr. Davy's Account of the Interior of Ceylon, p. 89, 90. t Texeira, Hist. I'eraic. B. I. chap. 35, + Valentyn's Description of Ceylon, in Dutch, p. 54, § Dr. Davy's Account, Qtc, p. 102. 105, IND03TAN. 21 <-» are found on the shores. Many cowries are got here, which pass as a circulating medium of low value in petty Irallic through the whole of India. The marine animal most deserving of our notice is the oyster which | ivari Fisiiciy, yields the pearl, and which is taken for the purpose of procuring that valuable article. One of the most celebrated and productive pearl fisheries is on the west coast of Ceylon, off the Bay of Condatchy, about twelve miles south from the island of INIa- naar. This bay is the great rendezvous for the boats employed, and all the persons concerned in it. This part of the country is sandy, and scarcely inhabited at all excepting on these occasions. But during the pearl fishery it branches out into a populous town, with many streets a mile long. The most active persons in erecting the huts are the Mahometan natives of the island. None of the Singalese are divers, which some ascribe to the timidity of their character; but many of them resort to the place as to a fair, particularly fishermen, to supply the multitude with fish. About the end of October, in the year preceding a pearl fishery, | Peaii, Fishery, during a short interval of fine weather, an examination of the banks takes place, a few oysters being taken for a specimen. The banks extend over a space thirty miles long, and twenty-four broad, and fourteen in number. The largest bed is ten miles long and two in breadth. When the fishery is determined on, advertisements arc circulated for all concerned^ to repair to the place on the 20th of the succeeding February, when the boats come from Jaffna, Ramisseram, Nagore, Tutakoreen, Travancore, Kilkerry, and other parts on the coast of Coromandel. The banks are about fifteen miles, (or three hours saihng,) from the shore of Condatchy. The pearl oysters are all of the same species, but vary in their qualities according to the nature of the ground to which they are attached, and the appearance of the numerous and often large zoophytes which adhere to the outsides of their shells. Their num- ber on the banks varies considerably, being sometimes washed away by the current of the tide, and sometimes buried in the sand deposited from the water. The pearls are in the fleshy part of the oyster, near one of the angles, at the hinge. Each generally contains several pearls. The fishery is rented to one individual tor a stipu- lated sum, two-thirds of which are paid in advance. In 1804, the renter brought with him a large family, with thirteen palanquins, to each of which thirteen well- dressed bearers were attached. He is allowed 150 boats fishing for thirty days. The boatmen and their attendants, to the number of 6000, are roused a little before midnight with immense bustle, and, after their ablutions and incantations, set sail. About half past six in the morning the diving begins. A kind of open scaffolding is projected from each side of the boat, from which the diving tackle is suspended ; consisting of three stones fifty-six pounds in weight on one side, and two on the other. The diving stone hangs by a rope and slip knot, descending a little way into the water. In the rope just above the stone, there is also a strong loop, to receive, like a stirrup, the foot of the diver. The latter puts one foot in the loop, and the other in a basket formed of a hoop and net-work. When duly prepared, he grasps his nostrils with one hand, and with the other gives a sudden pull to the running knot, and instantly descends; both the rope of the stone and that of the basket follow him. The moment he reaches the bottom he disengages his foot from the stone, which is immediately drawn up, to be ready for the next diver. The diver at the bottom throws himself on his face, and collects every thing he can lay hold of into the basket. When ready to ascend, he gives a jerk to the basket-rope, and is speedily hauled up by the persons in the boat ; using in the mean time his own exertions in working up by the rope, he arrives at the surface a considerable time before the basket. He swims about, or remains at rest, laying hold of an oar or rope, till his turn comes to descend again. Some of the divers perform the dip in one minute ; a minute and a half, or two minutes are assigned as the utmost that any one remains under water. The basket is often so heavy as to require more than one man to haul it up. The shark-charmers form an indispensable part of the establishment. All these impostors belong to one family. The natives will not descend without knowing that one of them is present in the fleet. Two are constantly employed, one in the head pilot's boat, and another performing ceremonies on shore. Sharks are often •seen from the boats, and by the divers while in the water, but an accident rarely 214 BOOK FORTY-NINTH. occurs. This [)rcjiulice operates as a protection to the oyster banks from plunder at other times. Whore the bed is rich, a diver often puts upwards of 150 oysters into his basket at one dip ; when they are tliinly scattered sometimes no more than live. After diving, a small quantity of blood usually issues from the nose and ears, which is considered as a favourable symptom, and they perform the operation with greater comfort after the bleeding has commenced. They seem to enjoy the labour as a pleasant pastime, and never complain of fatigue unless the banks are poor in oysters. Two divers are attached to each stone, and go down alternately. The period- allot- ted for this operation continues from five to six hours. About one or two o'clock, at the setting in of the sea breeze, on a signal given by the head pilot, the fleet sets sail for the shore, and arrives about four or five, amidst an immense concourse of people. They never fish on Sundays, all the pilots, and many divers, being Romish Christians, and the day of rest is also convenient for the Hindoos. Each diver has a fourth part of the oysters which he brings up, from which, however, he has vari- ous claims to satisfy. He sells his share on the spot to the numerous adventurers who resort to the place. In a successful fishery, each man carries home, at the end of the season, forty or fifty pagodas. A boat has been known to land in one day 33,000 oysters, and in another not more than 300. Those belonging to the renter are piled up in enclosures formed by palisades, and the opening of them does not commence till the fishery is considerably advanced ; adventurers on a small scale open them when they buy them, or on the following morning. By some, the oysters are now thrown away, by others they are left to putrefy for the purpose of obtaining with greater certainty the remaining pearls, particularly those of a small size. Two days are generally required for the putrefaction. Many precautions are employed to prevent the secreting of pearls, but not with complete success. When the })carls are separated from the putrid flesh of the oysters, and from the sand along with which the mass has been agitated in boats for that purpose, they are sorted into sizes, by being passed through sieves or saucers full of round holes, those with the largest holes being first used, and the others in succession. The large ones are examined, to see if they contain any blemishes. They are then drilled with great skill, though by very rude and simple tools. Many of the native merchants, who resort hither from Madras and other parts, are extremely wealthy, and make a great display of opulence in their personal appearance, their retinue, and the quantity of specie which accompanies them. Pearls sell at a higher price in the market of Con- datchy during the fishing season, than in any other part of India. — No fishery took place between the years 1768 and 1796. The fishery of the latter year was rented by some natives of Jaftnapatam at J660,000 Sterling, and they cleared three times that sum by the adventure. In 1797, the net proceeds were iSl44,000, and in 1798, jlBl92,000. That of 1799 only yielded £30,000. There was a fishery olT another part of the coast, Chilaw, in 1803, which yielded d£l5,000, and one at Aripo, in 1806, which yielded £35,000. The fisheries, on the whole, present an amusing scene, from the number of strange characters, deformed persons, jugglers, dancers, tumblers, mechanics, and retailers, who resort to the place from the remotest parts of India. Poimiation, | This whole island is but thinly inhabited, and this is more the case with the Kandian than with the maritime provinces. In 1814, when a census was taken of the old English possessions, the population amounted to 476,000 souls, and it is believed that the population of the whole island does not exceed 800,000, or about thirty-eight to the square mile. Different The inhabitants may be divided into the aboriginal race, and natural- classes, j^ed foreigners. Of the former, who are called Singalese, the inhabit- ants of the interior exclusively consist. The greater part of the naturalized foreigners are Malabars and Moors. The Malabars are confined chiefly to the northern and eastern parts, while the Moors are scattered over all the maritime dis- tricts. The Kandians or Singalese of the interior, and those who are mingled with the other classes in the low country, seem to be of one stock, and probably exhi- bited, three Iiundrcd years ago, ong uniform character- But now there is a marked INDOSTAN. 215 Sing:alcse eha- racter. distinction in their language, manners, and customs, varying in degree according to their proximity to the European settlements. The Kandians, there- lore, may be considered as the living examples of the ancient national character, and their state of political subjection will now probably operate a gradual alteration of their character. Their features differ very little from those of the Eu- ropeans. Their colour varies from light brown to black ; they have almost univer- sally hazel eyes. In a very few the eyes are grey, and the hair red. They are inferior in size to the Europeans, but larger than the lowland Singalese. They are of a stout make, have capacious chests, but are more remarkable for agility and flexi- bility than for strength of limb ; and capable of long continued rather than great exertion. They are divided into castes, but they have not the ridicu- | Castes, lous pride of caste which prevails in India. A Singalese will not refuse to eat in company with any respectable European. The leading divisions of their castes are four. The first two are the royal caste, and the Brahminical, which comprehend a very small proportion ; the other two are the Wiessa, and the Kshoodra ; the former of whom comprehend the cultivators and the shepherds. The Wiessa cultivators are higher than the shepherds. They so far intermarry that a man of the higher rank may take a wife from the other, but a man of the shepherd caste is not allowed to take one from the class of cultivators. To this class belongs the savage race called Weddahs, or Bedas, who inhabit the extensive forests on the south-eastern side of the island. Their appearance is completely wild, and their habits disgusting. Some of them live in villages : another set of them, who have no intercourse with the village Weddahs, being both feared and hated by them, live in huts made of the bark of trees, and eat the flesh of wild animals, with a little maize and roots. They live in pairs, only occasionally collecting in greater number. They seem ignorant of all social institutions. It appears that they do not distinguish one another by proper names ; and their arts consist of making bows and arrows, rude cords from tough vegetable fibres, scratching the ground, and sewing a few seeds. They do not count beyond five. They believe in demons, and offer them homage, without entertaining any notion of a beneficent Deity. Dr. Davy, who witnessed one of their scenes of amusement, which seemed to be their nearest approach to dancing and singing, says that they began by jumping about with their feet together. As they became warm, their hands were employed in patting their bellies : becom- ing more animated, they clapped their hands as they jumped, and nodded their heads, throwing their long entangled locks from behind over their faces. They generally acknowledge some Singalese of rank of the adjoining country for their chiefs, and these now and then used to call them together to renew their acquaintaince and re- tain their influence. Dr. Davy mentions as belonging to the Goewansc caste, or that of cultivators, a sort of Singalese Christians, who have been lately discovered in the interior, viz. at Wayacotte in Matele, and at Galgomua in the seven Korles, about 200 in each village, who worship the Virgin Mary, bow before a crucifix, believe in a purgatory, and baptize, marry, and bury according to the rites of the church of Rome. Their only minister is a man who cannot read, and can only repeat a few prayers. They are said to visit occasionally the temple of Buddha. These must be descendants of the numerous converts made by the Portuguese, while they were masters of the interior. A few years ago, they, for the first time, received from an English clergyman a copy of the New Testament. The fourth, or lowest caste, is called Kshoodra or Sudra, and is subdivided into numerous classes, at the head of whom the Moormen or Mahometans are placed. These are a stout, active, shrewd, enterprising race, and monopolize the trade of the country. In appearance and manners they hardly differ from the Singalese. Some have land, and were obliged to appear when required, with tiieir bullocks, to carry the king's rice to the store. There is a class of toddy drawers, but their number is small, as the religion of the country proscribes the use of intoxicating liquors. There is a class of artizans in wood, stone, and metals, who were all obliged to work for the king without compen- sation, except the carpenters and sculptors, who, when employed, were allowed pro- visions, because the materials in which they wrought afforded no opportunity for purloining. There is a class of potters, who are numerous, and much employed : 216 HOOK POUTY-NINTII. n.> for after any feast, at which people of different castes have been entertained, the earthen vessels are all broken, lest any person siiould luidergo the disgrace of after- wards drinking out of vessels which have touched the hps of an inferior. The caste of barbers is little employed, as each man shaves himself, but they have a ridiculous religious ceremony to perform, the shaving of Buddha ; the barber merely makes the appropriate motions with a razor, without coming in contact with the image, which is all the time behind a curtain, whilst a priest holds vip a looking glass before it. This duty they perform as a condition for holding the land on which they live. There is a caste of washermen for furnishing white cloths to spread on the ground, line rooms, and cover chairs. The others, of whom as many as twenty-one are enu- merated by Dr. Davy, are all in like manner distinguished by the duties they had to perform to royalty, in consideration of the lands which they held. Outcasts. I Beneath all these, there used to be two sets of outcasts, one of them called Gattaroo, which consisted of persons degraded, and cast out of society by the king, for infamous conduct; the dreaded sentence being, "Let the offender be ex- empted from paying taxes, and performing services, and be considered a Gattaroo." The other was called Rhodees, who were descended from persons cast out of society for eating beef after it was prohibited. They are not allowed to live in houses built in the usual way, but only in sheds open on one side. They are obliged to go|out of the way or turn back, when a person of higher caste meets them on the road. Yet the Rhodees are a robust race, and their women particularly handsome. These are less shunned than the men. They ramble about the country, telling fortunes. TheKandians. | The govcrmnent of the kingdom of Kandy in the interior, lately abolished, was a regular and somewhat limited monarchy ; it was accompanied, in some degree with that rapacity on the part of the sovereign and his ministers, which characterizes the native governments of the Brahminical nations of Indostan, in which a transference even to the harsh rule of the Mahometans brought with it some advantages to the people. The succession was hereditary, but conditions were im- posed on the sovereign on his receiving the regal dignity ; and when cogent reasons appeared, the succession was liable to be modified without tumult or bloodshed. The atrocious character of the last king was rather a glaring exception, than an exempli- fication of the usual character of the sovereigns. It was necessary that the queen should be of the Soore Raja-wanse. Queens were therefore procured from the continent of India, generally from the state of Madura. The marriage ceremony w-as long, complicated, and extensive, but attended with an extraordinary festivity and relaxation of court discipline. The Kandians have four great annual festivals ; one at the new year, which is in April ; a second in honour of Vishnu and the gods; a third called the feast of the fortunate hour, celebrated for the prosperity of the kingdom ; and the last in honour of the completion of harvest, and called the feast of new rice. The manner in which these festivals are conducted is creditable and decorous, without riot or disturbance, and, as onlookers have testified, without any instances of drunkenness.* The public exhibitions are quite free from the indecency and licentiousness which characterize those on the continent of India, having nothing to shock the feelings of the most modest and refined. Laws. I The code of legislation seems to have consisted of a sort of common law, very well adapted to the social state of the people. They had not the code of Menu, but only a few of its precepts scattered through their books of religion. When an instance of suicide occurred, or when the perpetrator of a murder could not be discovered, a fine was inflicted on the village, unless the crime had occurred in the jungle, or at a distance from the village. No magistrate or judge, except the king, had the power of passing sentence of death. Neither suicide nor murders seem to be common. An elderly man, when questioned on the point, could not recollect of having heard of more than five instances. A sort of ordeal was sometimes employed. When two persons took contrary oaths, calling down the vengeance of heaven on the perjured, the party who first sustained any personal or domestic calamity was con- cluded to be the perjurer. Plunging the hand in boiling oil was also practised, but » Dr. Davy's Account of the Interior of Ceylon, p. 177^ INDOSTAN. 217 disapproved of by tlio mtoUigont. The huidost laws were those against insolvency. The debtor was doomed to slavery, along with his family, till his debt was paid, without any regard to distinction of caste. The slaves, however, are kindly used j their whole number in the interior is supposed to amount to 30U0. Regular usury was not allowed, but an agreement was sometimes made that the sum borrowed should be returned augmented by ouc-half, at whatever future time it was repaid. The Moors take twenty per cent, of annual interest. The land was the property of the king, but held by the possessor on easy terms, and sometimes, when appropriated to a temple, exempt from rent or civil service. The peojjle profess the religion of Buddha, which has by some been | iicUgton. called atheistical, because it allows of no Creator existing before the universe, and pays worship only to the souls of good men, who have suflered a transmutation re- sembling deification. In other points of view wo find as much fanciful detail on tlic history of heaven, earth, and distant worlds, and as much imagery of supernatural powers, as in the generality of eastern systems. They believe in the transmutation of men into gods and demons, and of gods into animalcules. Death tliey consider as a mere change of form. These changes they hold to be infinite, and bounded only by annihilation, which they esteem the acme of happuiess. The universe they consider as eternal, though in a constant state of alteration. The learned among them arc as familiar with the details of the system as with the events and interests of their own villages or families. They beheve in beings called lirachmcas, who are of greater purity than the goda. These vary in rank, and reside in different departments of tiio heavens. They have infernal regions, of a heat varying in intensity with the guilt of the individuals doomed to dwell in them. The term Buddha is considered by learned etymologists as meaning wisdom, and is ai)i)lied to persons of extraordi- nary endowments and destiny, a certain number of whom is fated to appear in each grand period of the world. One of these, the fourth in order, is the present object of adoration. This being had the power of assuming any form, and of multiplying himself to infinity. Ho now exists in a mysterious abode or state, which they call Niwane. The Buddhists of Ceylon have numerous sacred writings, which are ex- tremely obscure, and are reproached for that quality even by the Brahmins. At Kandy there are two regular colleges ; and the religious establishment is as regularly organ- ized as in any country whatever. The priests are dressed in yellow, and live in a state of celibacy, but they arc permitted to resign their ofiice, and may tlien marry. Their books are greatly venerated. They are not touched without a preliminary obeisance : a person will not sit down where a book is present, unless it is in a higher situation than himself. The priests do not worship the gods, being reckoned their superiors. When they preach, they invite the gods to be of their audience. They are, like Buddha, entitled to be worshipped ; and no person, not even a king, nmst sit in their presence. They were tlie only persons allowed by the Kandian govern- ment to go beyond the bounds of the kingdom, and often wandered over tlie whole island. The religion of Ceylon, uniting the worship of the gods with that of Bud- dha, and under the same names, (such as Vishnu,) which are used by the Bralimini- cal Hindoos, shows either an original connection or an accidental incorporation of the two systems. They say that the Brahminical system prevailed before Buddha appeared to revive tlieir own religion, then extinct, which was 600 years l>efore the Christian era. The Singalese language, like the other Indian dialects, has its origin | Littiaturc.i in the Sanscrit, mixed with what is called the Pali. It is, however, a i)eculiar language, and not, as some have asserted, the same with the Siiimcse. It has also a peculiar written character, unknown in any other country.* It is always written from left to right. Among this people language is almost the only subject that is carefully studied. There are various dialects appropriated to different cases and to dillerent occasions. Reading and writing are general acquirements among the men, but form no part of female education. Their books are written on talipot leaves, which are duly prepared, cut to a uniform shape, and connected together into books by a string passing through holes in the leaves. They arc fond of intricacies and displays * See a specimen of it In Mr. Coidincr's Dcsciintion of Ceylon, vol. i. p. 130. Vol. II.— E e 218 BOOK FORTY-NINTH. of art in language. One poem is considered as an extraordinary effort of genius, because it admits of being read from left to right, up and down, and various other ways, making sense in each. The compositions which approach nearest to poetry are addresses to the chiefs, expressive of respect, or sohciting them for favours. They have seven tunes to which they modulate these compositions in the recital. Their instruments of music are of rude simplicity, and most of them noisy, con- sisting of different sorts of drums, a wind instrament resembling a claiionet, and a fiddle of two strings.* Having no numeral characters of their own, they use the Tamul figures, which follow the decimal series. The currency consists of copper. Arts. I silver, and gold coin. All the last consists of Indian pagodas. In tlie arts of drawing and painting they are far behind. They are extremely fond of laquer painting, which they perform with a good deal of skill and taste; producing a pretty and brilliant effect. In statuary, as applied to the fabricating of representations of Buddlia, they have acquired excellence by practice. Such representations are in re- quest in every temple. They have the art of casting small figures very neatly; and there are good specimens of large ones in the temples. Their architecture is chiefly displayed in their temples. Their dwelling houses have a simplicity suited to a climate which requires no houses excepting as shelter from rain, and a shade from a scorching sun. The floors of their houses are of clay, plastered with cow-dung, an article conducive to cleanliness and to the keeping down of insects. The houses of the chiefs are in the form of square courts built of mud, roofed with tile. This last circumstance serves to distinguish them from the dwellings of the people, who are allowed nothing but thatch.'f' — They work in gold and silver with considerable ingenuity and taste, although their tools and apparatus are all portable, and charac- terized by a simplicity unknown in Europe. Their pottery is coarse and unglazed, but perfectly well adapted for its appropriate uses. The only weaving is of the coarse strong cotton cloth which is worn by the common people. Agriculture is very much respected by them. No manure is used, which is a great drawback from the productiveness of their labours. The land, when exhausted, is allowed to over- run with weeds and jungle, which it soon does, and this is afterwards cut down and burned on the soil, to qualify it for bearing useful crops. The implements of hus- bandry are remarkably simple. J Domestic ha- The Singalcse of the interior are rarely collected in large villages. neH?"'* "'^ The only group of this kind seems to be Kandy, the capital of the coun- try. They live either in very small villages, consisting of a few houses, or in de- tached habitations. These are usually in low sheltered situations, near their rice fields, as they have a particular aversion to wind. The men are engaged in the more laborious occupations of ploughing and banking, the women in weeding and reaping. Their grain is ground at home in hand mills. The Singalese rise at dawn, and go to bed about nine or ten at night. They sleep on mats, generally with a fire in their room. Cakes of cow-dung constitute their ordinary fuel. Their principal meal is at noon, and consists of rice and curry. Though not prohibited from the use of beef by tlieir religion, they abstain from it because it was forbidden by one of their kings ; another instance in which Brahminical ideas and customs have become intermingled with their original code of faith and practice. Thougii unacquainted with what we denominate conviviality, they are a social people, fond of conversation and mutual visits. The men and women form separate circles, and are never seen mixed in society. They are courteous and ceremonious, but, like other Asiatics, unacquainted with all the sentiments which constitute gallantry. Matrimonial alli- ances are fixed by the parents alone. Concubinage and polygamy are contrary to their religion, but are both indulged, particularly polygamy; and here, as in Thibet, a plurality of husbands is much more common than of wives. This practice prevails among all castes and ranks, and the joint husbands are always brothers. Matrimo- nial infidelity is not uncommon, and easily forgiven, unless when aggravated by a low * They are enumerated and fityurcd by Dr. Davy at p. 240, 241, t See some representations of the temples and houses ia the work of Dr. Davy, p. 257", 358, 259. 4: See Dr. Davy's vvuuJ cuts, ibid. p. 2/3—4. INDOSTAN. 2'19 attachment on the part of the female. But the manners of the people jsre by no means marked by extreme licentiousness. They have their own notions of propriety and decency, which no one's inclinations allow him to violate. In the relation of parents and children they appear particularly amiable. A woman has seldom more than four children, a circumstance which probably arises from the period of suckling being so long protracted, which it often is to four or five years. The children are named when they are able to eat rice, the name then given being called " the rice name." Their family attachments are strong. During the late rebellion, instances occurred of fathers giving tliemselves up as soon as they knew that their families were taken. Children are never exposed, except in some of the wildest situations, and under the pressure of necessity. They do not, as some have asserted, turn their sick relations out of doors to die in the fields ; though, in order to save their houses from pollution, they sometimes remove them to an adjoining shade to breathe tlieir last. The care which they take of the bodies of the dead is very great, many cere- monious attentions being bestowed preparatory to the ceremony of burning. Low caste people not being allowed to burn their dead, bury them with little ceremony,, with the head to the west. In civihzation, this people is nearly on a General ch». par with the Hindoos. In intellectual acquirements they resemble the "''^•''• state of Europeans in the dark ages. They are attentive to natural objects, and ac- quainted with the names and qualities of the minutest plant that grows within their district. In courtesy they are equal to any nation ; in character they are low, tame, and .undecided, with few prominent virtues or vices \ their natural affections are strong, their passions moderate, and their moral feelings weak. The Singalese of the provinces which have been for some generations Smgalcseof habitually subject to Europeans are more remarkable for mildness, bash- pro"inc"i™^ fulaess, timidity, and indolence. In consequence of this last characteristic, they are generally in a state of indigence. They shave their beards, while the Kandians do not. Before undergoing that operation for the first time, a young man must give a sumptuous entertainment to his relations and neighbours. Those who cannot afford it, retain their beards till their circumstances are improved. The men of influence, called Modelears, retain the insignia of greatness, but their power has been abridged by their European masters. One of them is now placed at the head of every de- partment of government, under the control of the British agents. The dignity of a Modelear is always conferred by the British governor in person, and is of great im- portance in the eyes of a Singalese. Those who enjoy good incomes do not indulge habitually in any luxurious style of living. A Modelear, when retired to 'his own dwelling is found stripped to the skin, sitting in an armed chair, with no covering except a piece of muslin on his loins; but in giving entertainments he will expend large sums. They sometimes give a breakfast, or a ball and supper, to their Eu- ropean friends in a splendid style, on particular festive occasions, such as the birth of a child, or the obtaining of any honourably distinction. One of those erections . common in the east, called Bungaloes, which are spacious open apartments, covered with roofs which serve for an agreeable and elegant awning, is sometimes made for the use of a single evening of pleasure and display, when it is embellished and light- ed up in a most magnificent manner. The higher orders of the Singalese in the maritime parts profess Christianity, and perform their maniage ceremonies according to the usages of the Dutch. This is generally done on Sunday, accompanied with music, dancing, and feasting, to which is sometimes added tumbling, performed by expert natives. When a Singalese pair marries, the thumbs of their right hands are tied together with a slip of cotton cloth, and water is poured on them by the man's father's brother, and the woman's mother's sister. A part of tlie low country has, from time immemorial, been inhabited TiieMaiabar, by Malabars. These wear large bunches of ear-rings, and encourage fnhabifams. the artificial apertures in the flap of the ear to grow to an enormous size, so that a man's hand may pass through them ; the lower parts being stretched till they reach the shoulder. A considerable number of Malabars are Mahometans, and go under the name of Moors or Lubbies. They follow the occupation of Pedlars, tailors^ fishermen, and sailors. These differ from the Singalese in concealing their womeu* 220 BOOK FOrvTY-NINTlL When a Moorish woman is moved from one place to anofhor, if a palanquin cannot bo affordod, she is placed cross-legged on an ox, and covered completely with a white sheet, the husband walking by her side. A considerable number of free Ma- lays reside at Ceylon, some of whom are persons of rank who have gone into exile Christians. I on account of political troubles. — The maritime parts contain many Christians, both of the Romish and Protestant church. The Portuguese, when they settled in the island, destroyed every monument of the existing religion along the sea-coast, converted the temples into Romish churches, and compelled the natives to adopt the forms of their religion. Fifteen priests educated at Goa still exert themselves with daily success in making proselytes.* The Dutch, in their turn, disseminated their religion, not by positive persecution, but by enacting that no na- tive could be raised to the rank of a modclear, or enjoy any employment under the government, without conforming to the creed and observances of the reformed church. Hence the higher orders assumed the name of Protestant Christians, which they still retain. Under the British rule some exertions have been made to convey to the natives farther instruction in the Protestant religion, particularly by dissemi- nating translations of the Scriptures, as the standard of Christianity. Historical ro- The history of Ceylon, previously to the visits paid to it by distant volutions. nations, is, like that of continental India, enveloped in uncertainty. We know that the island was frequented by the Arabians and Persians from very distant times, but these have not recorded any particulars which elucidate its history. The Singalese traditions are destitute of historical accuracy. Their first king they main- tain to have had a lion for his father.! Rfimfi makes a great figure in their legends, and probably was a real personage of illustrious eminence, by whose name a king- dom and city were known. They give a narrative of the different invasions of the island by the Malabars ; of their battles with the natives ; of their success at one time in subjugating the whole of the island, with the exception of Magam and Roona in the Magampattoo, and of their subsequent expulsion by king Wijeyabahoo. Discovery by The Portugucsc discovcrcd Ceylon in 1505. They formed a settlc- guese?' ' ment about 1520, and became firmly established here in 1536. It was in their hands that the natives first saw fire arms employed. By taking a part in the dissensions of the royal families, they sometimes had possession of Kandy. The natives, after having long suffered oppression and insult, formed an alliance with the Dutch for the expulsion of the Portuguese. For this service tliey agreed that the Dutch should receive all the maritime provinces, except Batticaloe and Putlam. The Portuguese were expelled, and the Dutch established, in 1658. The Kandians had now a succession of kings who have left behind them different characters, some having reigned in wisdom and peace, others tyrannized with cruelty over a reluctant and a rebellious people. The religion of the country having been neglected, and in a great measure effaced by wars and intestine troubles, Rajah Singah (during whose reign the interesting traveller Knox was detained for many years a prisoner) sent to Siam, with the assistance of the Dutch, for priests in order to operate a reformation. The king, Rajadi Rajah Singha, who co-operated with the British in 1790, to expel the Dutch from the maritime provinces, had the character of a voluptuous and indolent man. By this foreign alliance he obtained no sea port, as he had expected, and the only alteration in his condition was, that he got a more powerful neighbour in the marilime provinces. The English afterwards attempted to take possession of Kandy, and were for some time in possession of the metropolis, when, in 1803, the English garrison was at- tacked, overpowered, and treacherously massacred. A desultory war- fare was afterwards carried on for two years. Between the years 1805 and 1815, no active hostilities took place, but the court and kingdom of Kandy were now a scene of the most sanguinary proceedings on the part of the tyrannical sove- reign, scarcely equalled in history for their atrocity, and giving rise to a desperate resistance on the part of his subjects. The king evinced a jealousy towards his minister Pilime Talawe, and inflicted on him some indignities, A rebellion was in ■* Cordiner f Dr. Davy's Account, p. 293. Who were succeeded by the Dutch. And these hy the English. Causes of their occupation of the interior. INDOSTAN. 221 consoqijcnco raised, and followed by the beheading and impahne; of .some chiefs, and the execution of the minister in 1812. His successor in office fell under tho displeasure of his master in his turn, and was obliged to fly. An execution of se- venty respectable persons followed. The wife, children, and near relations of the minister were executed. The mother, after being forced publicly to bray the head of her sons, one after another, in a morter, immediately after they were separated from the body, was then, along with her sister-in-law, drowned in the adjacent tank. No person was safe. The most innocent, and even the highest of the sacerdotal order, who Avere supposed almost inaccessible to just punishment for crimes, were sacrificed to the whimsical suspicions of this barbarian. Some native merchants belonging to the British provinces having gone into the Kandian kingdom, were sent back cruelly mutilated. The governor, Licut.-General Rrownrigg, declared war, prosecuted the contest with vigour, and the king was secured in a house to which he had gone to take shelter, in January, 1815, was sent to Columbo, and from (hence to Vellorc, where he is retained in confinement. His name is Sree Wikrime Rajah Singha. The country submitted to the British power, under the condition of the old laws and administration of the kingdom being maintained. Only 1000 men were kept in the interior, and confined to a few military posts. A dissatisfaction, however, with their new masters soon sprung up. The chiefs conceived that they were treated with no respect, except on official occasions, the EngHsh soldiers having from ignorance, continually offended them by neglect. The English were somewhat disre- spectful in their mode of catering the temples and of addressing the priests. A rebel- lion broke out under a native pretender to the Kandian throne, in October | A rebellion. 1817. The war was carried on by the operation of small bodies, and was irregular and severe, and (he retaliations made by the English military were often exceedingly inhuman, as in such a situation it was not practicable to maintain a strict obedience to general orders. In a few months the revolt was suppressed. Kandy imupprcs- was taken, and with it the sacred tooth of Buddha, a relic, the possessor of """' which is considered by the people as rightful sovereign of their country. Simpler and less oppressive arrangements were now formed for conducting the government and ap- portioning Ihc revenue, which are likely to prove more conducive to the happiness and the satisfaction of the natives. It is an island which, throughout the interior as well as along the sea-shore, possesses admirable natural advantages, and, mider an enlightened and generous management, might be rendered one of the most flourish- ing spots in the world. We shall now take a rapid view of its chief localities, particularly I Account of th© the towns, beginning with those along the sea-coast which have been | otiiVr'iocai'ities. longest known. At the northern extremity of the island are the fort and town of Jafi'napatam, in 9° 47' of N. lat. and 80° 9' of E. long. The fort is the | Jaffi,apntam. most modern, the best constructed, and handsomest in Ceylon. It is situated on a piece of land called Jaffiia, which is sometimes denominated an island, sometimes a peninsula. It seems to be connected with the main island by a fordablc strait, which is pcrliaps a dry isthmus at low water. Within the fort is a Dutch church, contain- ing a tolerable organ, and one of the most respectable places of Cbrisfian worship now in the island. There are also a house for the commandant, buildings for tho public offices, and houses belonging to Dutch proprietors, which are rented to flie British officers ; a street of barracks, and one occupied by the mechanics, and Iho lower orders of the people. The pettah, or outer town, half a mile from the fort, contains several thousand inhabitants, mostly Europeans ; its streets are regularly built and kept clean, and the chief street finely shaded by rows of large trees on each side. Almost all the Dutch families which formerly resided at Tricomalee have removed to this place, which is recommended by cheapness and agreeableness. The country is fruitful ; an air of business prevails, and some regular trade its naiRhbour- is kept up with the opposite coast of India. Mr. Cordincr remarked, '"'°*'* that this country yielded vegetable produce in great variety ; but that the culture of the common English potato had not succeeded either here or in any other part of Ceylon. The surface is flat, but rich in every spot, and in high cultivation as far as Point Pedro, tiie northern extremity, at a distance of twenty-two miles from the 222 BOOK FORTY-NINTH. town. Here tho supreme court of judicature is frequently held, and the govornofr Prevalent of the island comes from Columbo to preside.* Many thefts and mur- crimcs. (j^,j.g occur iu the province. A common form of robbery is to cut open the flaps of men's ears during sleep, and carry off their ear-rings. Yet the peo- ple habitually sleep in their houses without locking their doors, or in the open air in their verandcsi The native inhabitants are Malabars, one half of whom are of the Brahminical religion, the other consists of Christians, with a very few Mahometans. Agriculture being in a flourishing state, and a small military force being sufficient to keep possession, this is the only province of Ceylon the revenue of which exceeds its expenses. Tobacco is cultivated in large quantities, and is a standing article of commerce, and a fruitful source of revenue. The timber of the palmyra tree, which is used for rafters in the building of houses, and chanque shells which are much used as ornaments in dress among the Hindoos, are tho other principal articles of com- merce. In this province are to be seen the remains of thirty-two Portuguese churches, and there are a few chapels in which the Romish worship is still celebrated. In the neighbourhood of the town there are some humble Hindoo temples of recent con- struction, built since universal toleration in rehgion has been re-established. North-west Proceeding round the western coast we traverse a country which is '"*'*• completely laid under water in the rainy season, though not to such a depth as to prevent travelling. Here we have on the right two small islands, called " the Two Brothers," then another large one called Manaar, containing a fort. A Aripo and little farther south is Aripo, the place where the governor fixes his head Condatchy. quarters during the pearl fishery. Here and at Condatchy the country is bare, and at other times almost deserted. Peninsula of Proceeding farther south, we come to the long peninsula of Calpen- caipenteen. ^^^^^ j^jj^g parallel to the line of the coast for about sixty miles, and connected with it by an isthmus at its south end. It has a fort, (without guns,) an excellent wharf, and a small village adjoining, containing a Portuguese priest. The inhabitants are pretty numerous, and export salted fish to Columbo, for which they bring back rice. The peninsula is low, and flat, sandy, and covered with cocoa-nut trees. The coast of Ceylon, at this place, is at all seasons beautiful and verdant, and possesses much natural fertility. Elephants and other wild animals, birds of Putiam, I beautiful plumage, and a great variety of insects, are seen here. Putlam, lying opposite to the peninsula, is one of the largest and most commercial native vil- lages in Ceylon. Here the areca nuts, cardamoms, black pepper, and coffee of the Kandian provinces, are exchanged for the manufactures of Coromandel, chiefly by Mahometan merchants. Oysters are gathered along the shore at all times in great numbers, and the sands contain many beautiful shells. The country is periodically inundated by the sea to a distance of sevoral miles from the shore, and considerable quantities of salt are crystallized by the heat of the sun, and collected by the natives, chiiaw. I About a day's journey south from this is Chilaw, a comfortable vil- lage, lying between two branches of a large river. A pearl fishery is occasionally carried on here. At this part of our progress along the coast, the inhabitants begin to consist of Singalese instead of Malabars. Here the mountains of Kandy come in sight. No mountains are seen between Juffiiapatam and Chilaw. Negumbo is Negurabo. | a bcautiful village, which we enter by passing through a cocoa nut grove with a shaded avenue. It contains a pentagonal fort. Several Dutch families live in it, apparently happy, but reduced in their circumstances by the political vicissitudes of the country. At this place the cinnamon plantations commence, extending, with few interruptions, a great way beyond Columbo. The country is well cultivated, and the people wear an air of comfort. The finest fruits are reared, and sell at very low prices. From this to Columbo the country is luxuriant, well cultivated, and the road lined with excellent houses, indicating the approach of the traveller to the capi- tal of the present government. Columbo lies in 7° of N. latitude. The fort is composed of sevdn bastions with intervening curtains. It measured a mile and a quarter ia City of Co- lumbo, The fort. • Cordlner's Description, vol. i. p. 327. INDOSTAN. 223 circumfoi'ence, and is almost entirely surrounded with water, being situated on a pro- jecting piece of land belonging to a stripe which lies between the sea and a large fresh water lake. Two-thirds are encompassed by the sea, the other is bounded by the lake; two narrow necks of land, like causeways, connect it with the main land on two sides. None but small vessels can lie close to the wharf, and there is no good harbour where vessels can at all times ride ia safety. The interior of the fort is beautiful, the streets regular and shaded with trees. The houses in general have only one story, and verandas in front. The water within the fort is brackish. That which is used is brought from a distance of a mile and a half. Rich and beautiful views are obtained from an excellent walk surrounding the ramparts of the fort. The pcttah is situated a few hundred yards to the east of the fort, on the | The pettaii. same piece of doubly peninsulatcd land. It is larger tlian the town within the fort. The streets are regular and clean. It contains an orphan asylum for the children of Europeans. The boys educated in it perform the business of clerks in the various ofhcos of government. It is bounded on the north by the sea, on the south by the lake, on the west by the esplanade of the fort. On the east, where it is connected with the main land, it was formerly defended by a fortified wall. Beyond [ Suburbs, this, many straggling streets extend for several miles into the country. The fort is chiefly inhabited by English, the pettah by Dutch and Portuguese, and the suburbs, which ai-e the most populous of all, by native Singalese. Columbo contains in all upwards of 50,000 inhabitants. The houses of the Singalese, here, and indeed over all the island, are much more comfortable than the huts of the Hindoos on the continent, especially about Madras. Bathing in fresh water is a daily practice among the native inhabitants of Columbo, who frequent the lakes and canals in large com- panies. Men, women, and children, are intermixed, but without stripping themselves naked. They stand immersed nearly up to the shoulders, and from a pitcher pour water over their heads continually for half an hour or longer. A dread of sharks prevents them from bathing in the sea. — The neighbourhood of Co- Neighbour- lumbo contains a great variety of hill and dale, and furnishes a number ^"^• of delightful rides, scarcely equalled any where else within so small a compass. The face of the country is chiefly covered with trees. Much constant attention is re- quired to keep any spot in the state of a cultivated open field. Even when a road is formed, shrubs spring up upon it so rapidly, that if it be neglected for two months, the traces of it can hardly be discovered. Several pleasant rides, from three to eight miles in extent, are formed, leading from one gate of the fort, traversing the intennediate country, and returning by the other gate ; along these many pleasing villas have been erected, and sometimes light and elegant bangaloes of wooden pil- lars, roofed with cocoa nut leaves. The borders of the lake are finely diversified, and it affords an opportunity for taking pleasant aquatic excursions. It contains a large peninsula, of fertile soil and varied surface, originally connected with the shore at the side opposite the fort, and also joined to the fort itself by an artificial cause- way. This piece of land, with its indented borders, thus divides the lake into two. It was formerly occupied by slaves in the service of the Dutch government. The construction of the fishing boats used here, and on the Calany-ganga river, is curi- ous. Each consists of a canoe made of one tree scooped out, about fifteen feet long, which is too light to allow a person to step into it without oversetting, were it not lor a parallel log of wood, with pointed ends, floating alongside at a little dis- tance, and connected with the canoe by two sets of elastic poles. This is called an outrigger. To this the ropes of the sail extend, by which it is lowered in an instant. Strabo, Pliny, and Solinus describe a similar boat as used in their time in the same seas. Columbo enjoys one of the most salubrious climates in the world. TIfose who remain within doors during the heat of the day find it agreeably temperate. Out of a thousand British soldiers, it often happens that not one is lost in two months. The thermometer fluctuates about 80° of Fahrenheit's scale, being seldom more than seven degrees under or above it. The insulated situation of the place, its par- taking of the salutary influence of both monsoons, the frequency of refreshing show- ers, the land and sea breezes, and the bibulous soil, preventing the stagnation of water, arc circumstances whicli uU contribute to tliis happy ellcct. 224 BOOK FOUTY-NINTH. Courts of ju9. ticc. In 1802, a supreme court of judicature was established at Columbo, consisting of a chief justice, and one puisne justice, and annexed to it was the advocate fiscal, the registrar, a sheriff or fiscal, and a competent number of clerks and oilier officers. Two Dutch gentlemen who had learned the English lan- guage were, in Mr, Cordiner's time, (1805,) the only persons who acted as advocates and proctors. There are three subordinate courts for setthng less important causes, civil and criminal. The number of causes which come before them is great, the people being extremely litigious, and fond of having their complaints heard and in- styieofso- vcstigatcd. Persons in the small circle of genteel English society at ciety. Columbo, find it extremely agreeable, and prefer it to that of the other stations in India; but the habits of that nation, making conviviality a necessary in- gredient in all easy social intercourse, operate as a cause of separation from the Dutch and other Europeans, except on pubhc occasions of infrequent occurrence, Remarks. | when, howcvcr, they show sufficient cordiality. Much advantage would accrue to the English nation, and those with whom they come in contact, if they could more readily surmount this awkwardness, and resign their slavish attachment to particular modes of intercourse, which are often too expensive to admit of a due extension of the bonds of society. The institution of literary and scientific asso- ciations, such as the Asiatic and other literary societies in Calcutta, have had a happy effect in bringing together individuals who, though mutually allied by a com- munity of taste and pursuit, would otherwise have been unknown to one another. It is certainly agreeable, for example, to find the Danish Missionaries and other orien- tal literati becoming associated with the well informed English at Calcutta. Cey- lon aflx)rds an ample field for philosophical investigation, as well as the formation of economical active institutions, which might afibrd agreeable employment for persons associated in liberal pursuits, and some such might undoubtedly be found among the Dutch and other inhabitants of that island. The spirit might at least be cho- 'rished. The cultivation of elegant and cheap pleasures of this kind would give a happiness and a dignity to the society of the country, which mere extemporaneous agreeableness, however desirable in its own place, never can impart, caitura. | Proceeding southward from Columbo, we pass Caltura, a village plea- santly situated on the banlcs of a river, with a small fortification, and inhabited by Singalese and some descendants of the Portuguese : — Also Barbareen, a place famed Point deGaiie. | for its oystcrs ; — and afterwards arrive at a more important place, Point de Galle, at a distance of seventy miles from Columbo. The road lies along a low sandy shore, luxuriant in cocoa-nut trees. At Point de Gallc there is a large fort, within which almost all the Europeans five. There are very few large houses built without it. There is a manufacture of ropes from the fibrous rind of the cocoa-nut ; these are called coiar ropes. A considerable trade is carried on in small craft. The fort is on a rocky promontory. Its works are extensive, but it is commanded by other eminences. The harbour is tolerable, and ranks the second in the island, be- ing commodious and secure, though small, and somewhat difficult of entrance. It is commanded by the fort. From this place the productions of the island were shipped for Europe by the Dutch, and part of them still is. The disease called ele- phantiasis, because the legs of the patient swell so as to resemble the elephant, prevails here among the natives. It has not been known to attack Europeans, ex- cept such as were in extreme poverty. Maiura. | Beyond this is the fertile province of Matura, filled with beautiful scenes resembling the parks of European gentlemen. Near Belligam, in this pro- Tompieor vince, is a Singalese temple of Buddha, called Agra-boddha-ganni, with Agra-woddha- ^^^^^^ • j^j^ ^^^j hicroglyphical paintings representing the history of their kings. The statues of Vishnu and Siva are conjoined with that of Buddha. The architecture is peculiar but elegant, and near it is a tomb of Buddha, resembling a boll of the most tasteful form.* Near this temple is a large statue sculptured out of the solid rock, and known by the name of the Crusta Raja, and supposed to reprc- BeUisam. j sent an Indian prince who subdued this part of the island. Belligam is a * A plate of il is given by the Kcv. Mr. Cordinei' in vol. i. p. 188 of his Description. Mulgeerelen' na rock. INDOSTAN. 223 populous fishing village. The right of fishing is let by the govcnimeut | FUhing timle. to men of property. This is the case along the whole coast of the island. Hence fish are expensive, and the fishermen arc not allowed to supply vessels as they pass, lest they should misrepresent to the renter the quantity of fish which they have caught, of whicli he is entitled to one-third. Eacli of the villages along this coast contains a Christian school. Farther on is tlie little town of Matura, on the Neel-ganga river, to which a small fort is attached. It contains several comfortable houses be- longing to families of Dutch extraction. Three miles to the east is Dondra-liead, the southernmost point of | Dondra-iiead. the island, which seemed to Mr. Cordiner to be a low stripe of land covered with cocoa-nut trees, but a mile to the east there is a higher and more rugged promontory. Just at the extremity of Dondra are to be seen the remains of a Hindoo temple, probably once the most magnificent structure in the island. They consist chiefly of a long avenue of 200 stone pillars, the stone frame of a door carved with stern look- ing heads and borders of foliage, and the shattered relics of several images. Close to this is a temple of Buddha. There is also a mud-built sanctuary dedicated to Vishnu, divided into several apartments, hung round with calico, on which arc printed figures of some sanguinary deities. It contains a stone image of Ganesa, having the head of an elephant on the body of a man. Here the Singalese come to be sworn, when about to give legal evidence. A few miles inland from the Dondra- head is the stupendous mountain of stone called by the Singalese Mulgccrelcnna, and by the Dutch Adam's Brecht, being one entire rock of a cubical form, 300 feet high. A winding flight of 545 steps leads to the s.ummit, said to have been formed 1500 years ago. On the summit is a bell-shaped tomb of Buddha, similar to that which accompanies all his temples in the island. From this situation the view is rich and magnificent. A little way from the top there is a re- markable natural cave, and two artificial caverns, forming gloomy temples of Buddha, containing many statues, and hieroglyphical paintings. At the foot of the rock arc the houses of ten priests. The province of Matura is very populous ; it contains many temples and about 2000 priests. It is well cultivated, and yields a considera- ble revenue ; but unhealthy, and very liable to epidemic fevers. Agriculture is now likely to flourish in it; as it is relieved from the discouragement which its Dutch mas- ters threw in its way for the sake of creating an exclusive market for the rice of Batavia. After we have passed to the east of Dondra-head, and begun to take | Tengaiie. a northerly direction by travelling along the coast, we come to Tengaiie, an old Dutch fortress in a district allotted to the hunting of elephants. Here a great many of these animals are caught. The village contains 300 inhabitants, chiefly fisher- men. Between Tengaiie and Batticaloc, the country is inhospitable from its neglected state, and the multitudes of ferocious animals which it contaii.s, so that the traveller often prefers a coasting voyage to a land journey over this interval. The wildest part, though of great natural fertility, is called Mahagampattoe, on the Mniiagampat- shores of which are the salt bays of Magam, by which the Kandians *""•"• were always supplied with salt while at war w ith the masters of the marine districts. It never was in the power of the latter to prevent them from supplying themselves at this place. The sugar cane and maize grow here with imconmion luxuriance, but cultivation cannot be carried on for want of protection from the depredations of wild beasts. Agriculture in this quarter would also stand in need of tanks to aflbrd a due supply of water, as the climate is much more liable to protracted droughts than on the western shore. Some tanks had been formerly maintained here, but in Mr. Cor- diner's time they had, through the selfishness of some individuals, and the supine ness of others, gone to decay. There are several marks of former cultivation, some small villages at great mutual distances, and some traces of old religious monuments. Batticaloe, on the east side of the island, lies much more to the north | Batticaioe. than Columbo on the west, being nearly in the latitude of Chilaw. The fort is on an island of the same name, three miles and a half in circumference, contained in an inlet of the sea. There is a small village, all the inhabitants of which speak the Vol. II.—F f 226 BOOK FORTY-NINTH. Malabaric language, and chiefly consist of Hindoos and Mahometans, some Romish Portuguese, and a very few Protestants. There are several islands adjacent. The country is flat, but the ground gradually rises towards the interior till it terminates in high mountains, amonc which is a rocky eminence of a cubical form, on the top of which is a palace belonging to the king of Kandy. Batticaloe is garrisoned by sixty sepoys, and fifteen gun Lascars. The surrounding country is one of the cheapest and most fertile in the island. Fish are in great plenty. The native inhabitants are described as extremely civil and obliging.* They have a contented and happy ap- pearance. The scenery is adorned with the magnificent talipot tree, the largest of the palms. Mr. Cordiner saw one which measured 100 feet high, and six in cir- cumference. Trincomaiee. | Nearly a degree north from Batticaloe, is Trincomalee, the most im- portant station on the coast of Ceylon, from the noble and commanding harbour which it possesses, capable of aflbrding ample protection to an extended commerce. It is situated in N. lat. 8^ 28'. From its position, and the ready entrance and egress which it affords at all seasons, it is better adapted for a marine dep6t than any other station in India ; yet it has been unaccountably neglected by the English, since they obtained possession of the island. The soil here is rather dry, and the climate un- healthy, and in tliesc particulars, the Dutch did not improve it; they wished to ob- viate the cupidity of rival nations, by discouraging the visits of strangers. The ter- ritory might, however, be cultivated with success. As it is, it presents, in point of verdure, a marked contrast to the sandy and flat shore of Madras, with its rugged cliffs, its woods, its plains, and its villages. It contains a copious variety of romantic and sublime prospects. The fortifications are principally of Portuguese workman- ship; a little was added to them by the French, but scarcely 'iny thing by the Dutch. While it is the most likely place for an enemy to attack on account of its value, it is at the same time capable of being made stronger than any other in Ceylon. Every convenience is aflorded except that of wet-docks, for which there is not a sufficient rise of the tide. While Mr. Cordiner was there, it had a neglected aspect, and the houses in the fort were in great disrepair. At one time, the English garrison had suffered from a neglect to provide fresh animal food, being subsisted five days in the week on salt provisions. Six miles to the north-west are the hot wells of Cannia, which have a temperature of 106 g, and are regarded with re- ligious veneration by the Hindoo natives, who have built a temple at the place. The road leading west from Trincomalee towards Jaffnapatam, part of which is well adapted for carriages, is in many places rich in romantic prospects; and rest-houses for the accommodation of travellers are built in different parts. The inhabitants of the country have the appearance of innocence and happiness. Cocoa-nut trees are rare on this side of the island compared to the other. A few oxen and buffaloes are kept. Wild elephants inhabit the woods, and alligators the rivers and their banks. Moletive, on the sea shore, is a neat com- fortable village, with some spacious houses. A garrison is kept in it, but it seems to have been made a military post for keeping open the communication between Trincomalee and Jafinapatam. Ancient redoubts are found in different parts, but scarely any other monuments of human labour, though the district was once highly cultivated. The places dedicated to religious uses were razed by the Portuguese, and private houses have always been formed of too perishing materials to leave any permanent traces of their former existence. A few prominent objects in the interior of Ceylon, the late kingdom of Kandy, re- cityofKamiy. j main to be noticed. In the first place, the capital city, Kandy, in a dis- trict called Yattineura, is at the head of an extensive valley, and about 1400 feet above the level of the sea, on the boarders of an artificial lake made by the late king, surrounded by wooded hills and mountains, varying from 200 to 2000 feet in height. Its situation is beautiful and romantic, but in a military view insecure, and hardly ad- mits of defence. The houses are all of clay, of one story, and all thatched, except those of the chiefs, which are tiled. There is one street which used to be exclus- * Cordiner, vol. i. p. 251, 262. Wells of Can nia. Country be- tween Trinco- inalee and Jaffnapatam. IN DOST AN. 227 ively inhabited by Malabars, relatives aiul dependants of the king, in whom he could place more confidence than in his own subjects. The palace occupied a con- | The palace, siderable area. Its front, about 200 yards long, has rather an imposing appearance ; it rises above a handsome mole, and looks towards the principal temples. It is termi- nated at one extremity by a hexagonal two-storied building, in which the king pre- sented himself on great occasions to the people collected below; at the other it is terminated by the women's apartments, on which the sun, moon and stars, as insignia of royalty, were carved in stone. Here tlie king and his ladies stationed themselves to witness the processions at the public festivals. This city abounds in temples, which seem to have been considered as a necessary appendage to a | Temples, royal palace. Every royal residence in the island had a number of them, some of which have survived the palaces to which they were attached. Tho Dalada Malc- gawa, the domestic temple of tho king, is the most highly venerated of any in the country, as it contains thepreciousrelic, the tooth of Buddha, to which Tooth of the whole island was dedicated. It has two stories, and is in the Chi- UucWha. nesG stylo of architecture, but small. The sanctum is an inner room in the upper story, about twelve feet square, without a window, and never visited by the light of tho sun. It is a place of the most striking splendour. The doors have polished brass pannels, and a curtain before and behind them. The roof and walls are lined with gold brocade, and scarcely any thing is to be seen but gold, gems, and sweet smelling flowers. On a low stage occupying half the room, there is a profusion of flowers tastefully arranged before two or three small figures of Buddha, one of crys- tal, and one of gilt silver, and four or five caskets called karanduas, containing relics. All the karanduas except one are small, not more than a foot high, and wrapped up in numerous folds of muslin. One is much larger, uncovered, and decorated with the utmost brilliancy. It is five feet four inches high, and nine feet ten in circumfer- ence at the base. It is of silver gilt on tho outside, of neat but plain workmanship, and studded with a few gems. Rich ornaments are attached to it, consisting of gold chains, and a great variety of gems suspended. Here, among the rest, is a bird formed entirely of diamonds, rubies, blue sapphires, emeralds, and cat's-cycs set in gold, the metal being hid by tho profusion of stones. This great karandua is the receptacle of the " Dalada," which is considered as the tooth of Buddha. It is en- closed, first in a small karandua, which is in a larger, and there are four of these, one within another, besides the great karandua. Two institutions called the Malwatte Wihare, and the Asgirie Wihare, | College*, both without the town, are at the head of the ecclesiastical establishment of the country. They are a sort of monasteries, or colleges, the one containing about forty priests. The sacred buildings are rendered ornamental by the groves of cocoa- nut trees, and the venerable banyans around them, which are carefully preserved. The appearance of Kandy altogether has declined since it fell into the hands of the English. They do nothing towards the repairing of the temples ; they have pulled down much and have built but little.* The high mountain called Adam's Peak, is one of the chief curiosities | Adara'»Peak. of the island. The approach to it, for a considerable way oft', is rugged and difficult. The peak is of a conical form, rising rapidly and majestically to a point. The ascent near to the top is precipitous, and lives are sometimes lost in climbing it, although iron chains are fixed in the rocks, to aid the numerous pilgrims who visit it. Those who have been on the summit describe the beauty and grandeur of the prospect enjoyed from it in the highest terms. f The area here is very narrow, and walled in to prevent accidents. Here Baddha is supposed, when he landed on his first visit to the island, to have left the mark of his foot. A superficial hollow, five feet long, is venerated by the natives as the sacred impression. It is ornamented with a margin of brass studded with a few ordinary gems, and covered with a roof which is supported by four wooden pillars fixed to the rock by four iron chains. The roof is lined with coloured cloths, and its margin decked with flowers and streamers. Lower down in the same rock, there is a little niche of masonry dedicated to Samen, the guardian • Dr. Davy's Account of the Interior of Ceylon, p. 564—371. j Ibid. p. 342. 228 BOOK FORTY-NINTH. god or saint protector of the mountain, with a small house of one room for the offi- ciating priest. — This peak is visited by numerous pilgrims, who, assisted by a priest, perform devotions according to a ritual. It is the custom, at the conclusion of the ceremony, for relations young and old, to salute one another, and the usage is ac- companied with symptoms of the hvehest affectionate feeling. Each pilgrim makes a small offering; these are placed on the sacred impression, and removed by a servant. They are the perquisites of the chief priest of the Malwatte Wihare. The height of the peak is about 7000 feet above the suvface of the sea. The temperature, when Dr. Davy visited it, fluctuated between 51° and 59', being sufficiently low to give a chilly feehng to persons used to the high temperature of the plains. The name of "Adam's Peak," was given to the mountain by the Mahometans of Ceylon. The Singalese call it Sree-pada, which is also the name of the impression which gives it sanctity ; sometimes Samenella, from the name of its guardian angel. General ajpeci The wholo of the interior of Ceylon is interesting from its natural ofthecountiy. fertility, and the beautiful and romantic views which it often displays. Much of it, however, consists of impenetrable and gloomy forests. Clumps of fra- grant lemon grass diffuse in most places a delicious odour. The climate, being diversified by elevation and exposure, yet every where fine, contributes with the fer- tility of the soil to impress us with the high capabilities which might here be brought into operation under enlightened management,* but the country does not present many objects either natural or artificial, which would appear interesting in topogra- Lake of Mi- phical detail. We may notice, however, two large lakes or tanks in the "^'^^" interior, on the north-east side of the mountains, in the direction of Trin- comalee. The one is the lake of Miner^, fifteen or twenty miles in circumference, the waters of which are confined by an embankment about a quarter of a mile long. The outlet is formed by very large masses of rock. This was probably a source of great and extensive fertility at a former period, when its waters were directed by man, but these are now allowed to run waste, forming swamps, and supporting a rank vegetation, which contributes to the unwholesomeness of that part of the coun- Kandeiid. j try. — Twenty-nine miles north-east from this is the lake of Kandelle which has embankments of greater magnitude than that of Minere ; one is about a mile and a half long, and twenty-feet high, besides which there is another of smaller size. The outlets, or sluices, are of vast strength, and constructed with great art 5 but the lake itself is of much smaller extent than that of Miner^, being only three or four miles in circumference. The Laccadive islands, lying seventy-five miles to the west of Mala- bar, are thirty-two in number, besides rocks and dry spots too small to be inhabited. They extend from the 10th to the 12th degree of N. latitude. They are separated by wide channels. The largest of them does not contain six square miles of land. They are surrounded by coral rocks and shoals, which render the approach dangerous. They yield no grain, their only produce being cocoa-nuts, betel-nuts, and plantains. The inhabitants, who are poor, subsist on cocoa-nuts and fish ; they are of Malabaric extraction, and profess the Mahometan religion. They export coir (the fibrous husk of the cocoa-nut) either in the raw state or manufac- tured into ropes. The best coir cables in the west of the peninsula are made at An- jengo and Cochin, from the fibres of the Laccadive cocoa-nuts. Some coral is carried from the surrounding reefs to the continent of India, where it is carved into images, and burned for quicklime. These islands were discovered by Vasco do •Gama, but they have not been properly explored. They are politically dependent on Canara, and under the dominion of the English. The Maldives. | To the Bouth of the Laccadivcs, and extending between the eighth degree of north latitude and the equator, are the Maldives, consisting of numerous islands and islets, grouped into twelve clusters called Altollons, some of which are round, others oval; a rampart of rocks surrounding each cluster serves to defend it • Mr. Cordiner states, vol. i. p. 326, that the attempts to rear potatoes at Jaffna, or any other part of Ceylon, had not been successful. But Dr. Davy, however, p. 437, tells us, that this vahiable root succeeded at Maturatta, a post about 2700 feet above the level of the sea. laccadive islaodi. t^^DOBTAN. 229 from the sea, which rages here with great fury. The large islands are inhahited and cultivated, but a great number are mere rocks and shoals, many of which are flooded at spring tides. They have never been completely explored. Between tho | internal trade, diftcrent attollons a considerable trade is carried on, as the different branches of manu- facturing industry are confined to distinct groups of islands, some being inhabited by weavers, others by goldsmiths, locksmiths, potters, mat-makers, joiners, or other mechanics, all of which are separate. The traders, going from island to island are sometimes a year from home. Here, as in tho Laccadivcs, tho cocoa-nut tree is the chief vegetable production ; yet tho trees aro in greater variety than those of tho Laccadives ; they have, among others, the wood called candu, which is compared to cork for its lightness. Ambergris and coral are collected in great abundance on the shores. An important fishery of cowries is carried on. Cattlo aro rare in these islands. Dogs are banished from them. Poultry is in great abundance. Dreadful depredations are committed both by the rats and the ants. The Maldi- | inhabitants, vians are well made; their complexions are olive ; they seem to be of Hindoo ori- gin, with a mixture of Arabian blood,* as their beards aro bushy and their bodies hairy. Some of their women are as fair as Europeans. They have a peculiar lan- guage. They profess the Mahometan religion but. retain some traces of an older creed. They are, for instance, in the practice of sacrificing annually to the god of the winds, by launching on the sea barks crowned with garlands, and filled with amber and fragrant wood, which they have set on fire. They dress in light silk and cotton stuffs. The more learned among them speak Arabic, expound the Koran, and possess some ideas in astronomy and medicine. Peyrard, who suffered ship- wreck here in 1602, describes the natives as an ingenious, brave, and industrious race, but of warm temperaments and dissolute morals. By some Euro- peans who have visited them, they are praised for their inofiensiveness and hospitality. In 1777, a French vessel, with some ladies of rank, was wrecked on the island of Imetay, and all the sufferers met with tho kindest treatment from the chief and his subjects. In 1812, Lord Minto, governor-general of Britisii India, received from the suUan of the Maldives a letter, stating that the vessel Europa, under British colours, had been cast away on the uninhabited island of Andue, and that the crew and passengers, amounting to fifty-three in number, were treated in the most hospitable manner, although the conduct of several of them was insolent nnd outrageous in the extreme. The complaint received duo attention, reparation was made for the injuries inflicted, and the whole transaction served to place tlio character of these people in a most favourable light. We are little ac- | Government, quainted witli their internal government, but it does not appear that the groups of islands ever engage in mutual warfare. The houses of the inhabitants in general are of cocoa-wood and leaves. Some of tho richer traders have stone houses. Tho sultan's palace is a low stone building, regularly fortified. The sultan has long been accustomed to send an annual embassy to Ceylon, which has been continued since that island came under the dominion of the English. At one time, a vessel or two from the BriUsh settlements used to visit | Foreign trade, the Maldives to load cowries, but owing to the unhcalthiness of the climate and the long detention found necessary, these visits were discontinued, and the trade is now carried on by Maldivian vessels, which arrive at Balasore in Ori.ssa in the months of June and July, loaded with the various produce of the cocoa tree, and with marine products, such as cowries, turtle shell and salted fish. They leave it in December, carrying home sugar and some other manufactures, but cliiefly rice. Ships frojn eastern India sometimes resort to the Maldives to procure shark fins for the Chinese, among whom they are valued as an excellent seasoning for soup. • Asiat. Annual Register, 1802, Characters, p. 17, 18. Their hospi- tarity. 230 BOOK FIFTIETH. BOOK L. • INDOSTAN CONTINUED. PART IV. A Historical and JVIoral vietu of India. The extensive countries now described have, both from physical and liistorical data, been supposed to be the earHest seat of a regularly organized civil society. The warm climate and abundant productions of India rnust have afforded every facility to its inha- bitants for uniting in the social state. When we consult the historic page, we find that an intercourse between it and western Asia existed from the most remote ages. The Antiquities of books of Moses make mention of the aloe wood, the ebony, the cinnamon, the Hindoo*. ^^^ ^l^g prccious stoncs of India, though the country was not then known hy name. At a later period we find the Phenicians, the Egyptians, the Greeks, and the Romans, repairing to the coasts of Malabar for the light stuffs, the indigo and other colouring drugs, the gum-lac, the articles of ivory and mother-of-pearl, which that coun- try exported.* Consequently a certain degree of civilization must have existed among some Indian nations, and they must have lived in political society some ages before they were brought into a state of regular communication with the rest of the world hy the invasion of Alexander. We find the religious and political system of India, at the era of Alexander and the Ptolomies, the same with those of modern Indostan. The division into castes, separated from one another by rigorous laws, formed, at that period, an essential and fundamental Indian institution. Arrian and Strabo enu- merate seven castes, while we only acknowledge four leading divisions of this kind, laut it is well known that the subdivisions are numerous, and that there are anomalous groups of persons which might be reckoned separate castes. Such are the shep- herds, or nomadic and predatory tribes, and also the principal functionaries of the state. — The Macedonians found the same varieties of fantastic devotees, called fa- keers, who have been viewed with so much astonishment by our modern travellers. Some lived in forests, feeding on roots, and using the bark of trees for their only clothing ; others sold amulets and miraculous remedies to the •ci-edulous ; others lay whole days on the ground, exposing themselves to torrents of 'drenching rain with consummate patience ; while others sat on stones heated almost to redness, and braved at the same time the rays of an ardent sun and the stings of numerous insects. "f" All of them wore an immense quantity of hair on the head, ■which was encouragxsd to grow to its utmost, never cut nor cleaned.J Strabo re- jected as fabulous the accounts which he received of their practice of bending the lingers backward and the toes of the feet forward, so as to walk on the upper part of the foot ;§ yet these are exercises to which the fakeers are daily addicted. Kemaie attend- In those ancicut times there were also courtezans attached to the tem- temVes, &c. plcs, and placed under an inspector, who called them together at the sound of his bell.|| The self-immolation of widows on the funeral piles of their hus- bands ;1T the use of ivory rings on the arms, of parasols and of white slippers,** charac- terized the Indians before the Christian era. The abuses which had crept into their religious system ; the extravagant superstitions with which it was loaded ; and the * See our History of Geography, Books viii. and xi. I Onesicritus, Megasthenes, and Clitarchus, quoted by Strabo. Geogr. lib. xv. 4: Dionys. Perieg. v. 1012. § Strabo, ii. xv. II Aristobulus, quoted by Strabo. 1 Cicero, Qusst. Tuscul. v. 27. •• Arrian, lad. c. 30. p. 330. edit, Gronovii. Ancient de- votees. INDOSTAN. 231 grossnesa of the allegorical emblems employed to represent the Divinity, are con- sidered by some, though rather theoretically, as decisive proofs of a highly remote ongm. Extravagant pretensions. But we must not, on this point, give way to the exaggerations of some persons, who have been actuated by party spirit. There is no monu- ment possessing the slightest pretensions to authenticity that leads us farther back than the epoch of Moses. Some of the astronomical tables of India claim a higher antiquity ; but these have been shown by an illustrious mathematician to be drawn up from a retrograde calculation ;* and the Surya-Siddhanta, their oldest book of astronomy, which they pretend to have been given them by revelation two millions of years ago, must have been composed within these 800 years. "j" The JVEaha-Bharat, or universal history, the Ramayana, and the Puranas, are mere legends and poems, from which no plausible chronology can be obtained, and none of any kind prior to Alexander. J The European literati who have assigned to these treatises a higher antiquity, still acknowledge that they have suffered numerous interpolations. § The Vedas, the oldest of all the sacred books of the Indians, if we may draw a conclusion from the calendar annexed to them, and the position of the colure of the solstices which that calendar indicates, may be 3200 years old, that is, nearly as ancient as Moses. [| Adopting these moderate opinions on the antiquity of Indian civilization, we still find enough left to excite our admiration. The Hindoo nation, united for about 3000 years under the same religious creed, the same laws and institutions, presents a phe- nomenon so much the more rare and interesting as their country has been invaded by many foreign hordes, attracted by the fertility of the soil, and the unwarlike cha- racter of the aboriginal people. Population of opi lUO Indostan. Mixture ot races. The population of Indostan, amounting, at the lowest calculation, to 134,000,000, is composed of two distinct classes ; descendants of the ancient inhabitants, and tribes of foreign extraction. The real Indians call the lat- ter JVIilytch, a term equivalent to barbarian among the Greeks and Romans. tT The number of these tribes amounts to thirty, if we include among them the nomades who occupy the mountains and the deserts. The most conspicuous are the Tartars and Mongols, the Afghans or Patans, of whom the Rohillas form a branch, the Belooches, who seem to have come from Arabia, the Malays, the Persians, particularly the Guebres or Parsees, the Arabs, the black and white Jews, and the black Portuguese, a mixed breed of Europeans and Hindoos who are widely spread over the coasts of the Deccan and the province of Bengal. These foreign races have come under our view in the course of our topographical details. Their manners and laws are greatly diversified. Their total number has been rated at ten millions. The indigenous inhabitants are the Hindoos, or descendants of the | The Hindoos, ancient Indians. They formerly were the exclusive possessors of India, and still occupy the finest and most extended tracts of the country. Some of them have mingled with foreign blood, and adopted foreign religions and manners, in whole or in part. In this list we may mclude the Buddhists of the north-east of Bengal and the kingdom of Assam, and the Singalese. The Seiks are distinguished from the rest by a new creed and certain institutions to which it has given birth. The Lac- cadivians, Maldivians, Batnians, Gookers, and several other local communities of the ancient Hindoos, have lost the purity of their blood, by mixing with Mahometans from Arabia and Persia. Some Hindoo tribes, have, without mingling with others, either degenerated from the primitive character of the nation in the sequestrated abodes which they have chosen in the midst of mountains and forests, still preserv- • De Laplace, Systeme du Monde, p. 330. f Bentley, in the Asiat. Researches, vol. vi. p. 537, and Ix. p. 195. i Paterson on the Chronology of the Mayadha Emperors of India, and the epochs of Vit- tramadytya, &c. Asiat. Keg. vol. ix. § Edinb. Review, vol. xx. p. 455, xxiii. p. 42, II Colebrooke's Memoir on the Vedas, Asiat. Kesearches, vol. viii p. 493. % Wahl, ii. p. 866. Physical cha- rs cter of the Hindoos, 232 BOOK FIFTIETH. ing traits of coincidence sufficient to identify their origin ; or else they retain a cJia- racter still more ancient than that of the other Hindoos, and which has never become Savage tribes. ] thoroughly conformed to their widely predominating polity. Such are the Nepalese, the Rookies, the Gonds, the Bheels, the Kallis, and other similar hordes, whose mode of life has separated them from the civilized mass of their coun- trymen. Herodotus speaks of a savage tribe of this description under the name of Paclmi, who not only ate raw flesh, being mere savage hunters, but even killed and devoured the bodies of their relatives when exhausted by age and infirmity, a custom which was probably the result of some fixed law, or transmitted by traditionary pre- cept. The same horrible custom is said to prevail to this hour among the Battahs in the north of Sumatra, a people afterwards to be described. Knox accuses the Bedahs of Ceylon of cannibalism. The ancient books called the Puranas mention a cannibal tribe which lived in the forests of Indostan, and was called in Sanscrit Vyada, a term which originally signified " tormentors," and " man-eaters," though now employed simply to denote " hunters." Whether these common features of resemblance are to be considered as denoting a community of origin, or are merely the eftect of an independent but similar set of causes moulding the human character in different places to the same pattern ; these races are to be viewed aa most proba- bly bands of savages whose mode of life withdrew them some way or other from the influence of the laws of Menu, by which the great mass of the Hindoo nation was united in one political and religious community. The genuine Hindoos being the most numerous, as well as the most remarkably artificial, claim our most particular attention, and, although in the preceding details several traits of their character have presented themselves, they are worthy of a more regular description in this place. The Hindoos may be considered as belonging to the first variety of the human race. In the form of the cranium, the features of the coun- tenance, and the proportions of the limbs, they resemble the European nations more than they do the Persians and the Arabs. But their complexions are almost black in the south of the Peninsula, and, though lighter in the northern mountains, they always retain an olive tint, and do not partake of the white and red of the Europeans. Languages The languages spoken by the ditTerent Hindoo tribes form a family of and dialects. dialects mutually akin and widely difilised. Their common source, or rather their most ancient form, is the Sanscrit or Sanskrada, in which all their an- cient books are written. It is said to be remarkably perfect in its structure. From this springs the Cashmerian, which makes the nearest approach to the ancient San- scrit, and preserves its written characters. The Marashta language, or that of the Mahrattas; the Telinga, which is spoken in Golconda, in Orissa, and on the banks of the Krishna, as far as the mountains of Balaghaut: the Tamul, or Malabaric, which prevails on the shores of the Deccan from Cape Comorin to the north-eastern extre- mity of the coast of Coromandel, and along the Malabar side to the northern limits of the Concan; and, finally, the Hindostanee, which, next to the Sanscrit and Cash- merian, seems to be the purest Indian language. It is also called the JYagari or Dehmnagari, a term, however, which rather denotes the character in which it is written than the language itself. It is divided into several dialects, the purest of which is called Wradsha, and is spoken in the neighbourhood of Agra and Mathra. The dialect of central Indostan, mixed with that of the Afghans, or Patans, and with that of the Mongolian armies, has given birth to the idiom formerly spoken at the Mogul court, and still prevalent among the Mahometans of India. It should be call- ed the Mongol-Hindostanee, but is generally known by the name of the Moorish or Moors' language. The other dialects are those of the Punjab and of Guzerat, which last is spoken not only in that country but also in the Sinde, at Surat, among the mountains of Balaghaut, of Nepal, Assam, Bengal, and Balasore, and also extends over the coast of Orissa as far as Coromandel.* Amidst the uncertainties which abound in the researches of the learned, the fol- lowing facts may be considered as established. * Adelung's Mithridate, B. i. 183—232. INDOSTAX. 233 The Sanscrit, tltat dead language in wliich the most of tlie sncrcd | The Sanscrit, books of the Hindoos are written, approaches, both in its roots and its inflexions, to the Zend, the Persian, the Greek, the Latin, and even to the Teutonic or old Ger- man, the Gothic, and the Icelandic* These affinities are equally surprising, whether we consider their decided character, or their wide diffusion. . The Sanscrit form of the verb is in some parts identical with that of the Latin, in others with the Greek. f Roots not found in the German language are common to the Icelandic and the San- scrit, though separated by a fourth part of the circumference of the globe. J The remains of a vocabulary and a grammar common to so many nations, seem to prove, either that they descend from one common source now lost, or that, at a nmote epoch, the people who spoke them have had mutual tics of friendly and commercial intercourse, which are not easily conceived, yet cannot bo denied. The Sanscrit is written with filly-two letters, for several of which we have no corresponding charac- ters in Europe. It has also thousands of syllal)ic abbreviations. Harmonious and grave, with a just proportion of consonants and vowels, rich in terms, free and flow- ing in its pronunciation, possessing numerous conjugations, tenses, cases, and parti- ciples, this language may be compared to those which we regard as the most perfect and refined original tongues. The Pracrit, or ''softened language," is spoken by the females in the | ThePraerit. work entitled Sacontala, while the men speak the Sanscrit. Under this denomination may be included aU the common dialects, of which the learned Colebrook believes he has made out ten distinct and leading varieties, viz. 1. The Sdrm-waUt, \ iwdiaiecu. spoken formerly in the Punjab, on ttie banks of a river of that name. 2. The Canyacuhja, or the dialect of Canojc, the source of the modern Hindi, from which is derived, by a mixture of Arabic, the Hindostance. 3. The Gaura, or dialect of Bengal, of which Gaur was the capital. 4. The Murihila, spoken in Tirhut and some adjoining districts, and closely allied to the {preceding. 5. The Ulcala, used in the province of Orissa. 6. The Tamla or Tamitl, the hmiiviagc oC Dravira Pro- per, or the countries south of the Krishna. 7. The MaJuiraslitra or JMahrutta, which, besides various intermixtures, contains words of peculiar and unknown origin. 8. The Carnata, spoken in the ancient Carnataca. 9. The Tdinf^n, called formerly liLa/mo-rt, and used in Telingana. And, 10. The Gxirjnra, or dialect of Guzerat.§ These languages must have belonged to a corresponding number of distinct civilized nations; but the enumeration is not complete. The Punjabi and the J\Iathara are not the only dialects which must be added to the list. |] The JMaghada deserves to be particularized as an ancient Indian language, being that of Bahar, the native country of Buddha. The priests of this deified prophet seem to have employed it; and it is undoubtedly the ancient Pali known to the Ceylonese and the Birmans. We must also add the Pa'isachi, which seems identical with the Apahransha. This, according to some, is a jargon formed by the poets, and put into the mouths of foreigners; according to others, it is the language of the mountain tribes, whose origin is diffcrtrnt from that of the Hindoos, a ditlerence of opinion which can only be settled by some new researches. If . The Hindoo nation continues to be divided, as it has been from the most remote antiquity, into four ichadi, or what are best known to us by the name of " castes," a Portuguese term, which all the Europeans have adopted to express these classifications. Each has its pccidiar privileges, duties, and laws. The more honourable the caste is, the more numerous are the restrictions under which its members are laid, and the prerogatives which it enjoys are the more valua- ble. The fourth caste has the fewest observances to follow, but it has also the least ♦ Wilkins' Sanscrit Grammar. London, 1808. Paul de St. Bartholome dissert, de antiq. et affin. llnguarum Zend. Sanscr. et German. Adcluiig'. p. 149. f E. Schlezel. Sur la langue et la sagesse des Indiens. i Mem. dans les Annal. des Voyages. See also p. 425 of our preceding volume. § H. T. Colebrooke on the Sanscrit and Pracrit languages, in tlie Tth vol. of the Asiatic Researches, p. 10. H Edinburgh Keview, vol. ix. p. 092. H Colebrooke, and the I'.dinburgh Review, he. citat. Vol. H.— Gg Division into castes. Example of the. rigidity of caste. 234 KOOK FIFTIETH. portiou of respect, and is the most limited in its rights. Every indiridual remains invariably in the caste in which he is born, practises its duties, and is debarred from ever aspiring to a higher, whatever may be his merit or his genius. Cruel are the penalties which await the person who ventures to dispense with the most absurd of the rules laid down by the law of his caste. To this point of honour the Hindoo patiently sacrifices health and life. A Brahmin of Calcutta, while labouring under a severe disease, had himself exposed on the banks of the Ganges, where he passed some hours in contemplation and prayer. Ho waited, motionless, for the tide to advance and bear him into the sacred waves, where a death the most blessed that imagination was able to figure awaited him. A party of En- glish people passed near him in a boat, one of whom, commiserating the situation of a person whom he believed to be falling a victim to some unfortunate accident, took the Brahmin on board the boat, recalled him to animation by administering a cordial, and brought him to Calcutta. His brother Brahmins now pronounced him infamous, degraded from his caste, and unworthy of being spoken to by any Hindoo. It was to no purpose that the Englishman showed by undeniable testimony that the fault was his, and not the Brahmin's, whom he found in a state of utter insensibility. The law of Menu was inflexible ; he had received drink and food from a stranger ; for this he must be deprived of all his means of subsistence, and condemned to civil death. The English courts of justice devolved his maintenance on the person Avho had saved his life. Deserted by all his triends, followed every where by de- monstrations of contempt and scorn, the unhappy Brahmin dragged out a miserable existence for three years. Seized after this interval with a new attack of disease, he again determined to die by his own hands, a resolution which his now impove- rished benefactorj did not prevent him from putting in execution. — This anecdote, which is perfectly authentic, delineates the intolerance of the Hindoos in enforcing the laws of caste. These laws are scrupulously enjoined by a code at once civil and religious, which has been in force for thousands of ages, and the rigour of which the Hindoos have never thought of moderating. The leading castes, as we have already had occasion to observe, are four: 1. The Brahmins ; 2. The Kshatriyas, or soldiers, including the princes and sovereigns, and sometimes called the caste of Rajas, or Rajepootras ; 3. The Vaisyas, consist- ing of agriculturists and shepherds ; and 4. The Sudras, or labourers. TheBrah- 1 Amidst many subdivisions, local refinements or relaxations, uncertain "'"* I claims, and infractions of the order arising from circumstances, the most certain and universal part of the system is that by which the rank and importance of the caste of Brahmins are maintained. This is the sacred or sacerdotal caste ; and its members have maintained an authority more exalted, commanding, and extensive, than the priests of any other people. Their current tradition is, that the Brahmins proceeded from the mouth of the Creator, which is the seat of wisdom. — There are seven subdivisions of the Brahmins, which derive their origin from seven Rishis, or penitents, the holiest persons acknowledged by the Hindoos, and who are beheved to have occasionally inflicted the effects of their sacred wrath on some of the gods, when guilty of debauchery. These persons are of high antiquity, and mentioned in the Yedas. Their residence was fixed in the retired regions of the north, and hence the Brahmins of the north, who are nearest to the great fountain, are esteemed the noblest. The Brahmins of antiquity were much more secluded than those of mo- dern times, tliough the latter show a predilection for a life of retirement from the bustle of the world. They have made no alteration in their rules of abstinence, ablutions, and multiplied ceremonies. Their great prerogative is that of being the sole depositories and expounders of the Vcdas, or sacred books. Of these there are in number four, and for each there is a separate order or branch of the Brah- mins. They have a story in general circulation, that if a Sudra, or other profane person should ever attempt to read the title of these books, his head would instantly cleave asunder. Yet it is remarkable, that they make an exception in these miracu- lous efTects as applied to Europeans. A Brahmin bold enough to show these sacred volumes to profane eyes would incur the penalty of irretrievable expulsion from his tribe. INIJOSTAN. 235 The great body of thctn profess to pay equal veneration to the three parts of the godhead, Brahma, Vishnu, and Siva. But some attach themselves exclusively, or with great preference, to one more than the others. The worship of Vishnu and Siva, in particular, become the objects of partiality with individuals, who form themselves into sects founded on these predilections. The Vishnuvites are called Their diffw also Namadhari, from bearing in their foreheads the mark called JVama, «><«»• consisting of three perpendicular lines joined by a crossing line at the base, so as to represent a trident. Tlieir clothes are of a deep orange colour. The devotees of Siva are called Lingainites, from wearing the Lingam stuck in the hair, visimuvitei or attached to the arm in a gold or silver tube. The former are noto- »'»d sivite*. rious for intemperance, and on that account, those of them especially who lead the lives of mendicants, are disliked by the people, while the Lingamites observe great moderation in eating and drinking. The Vishnuvites pay a high veneration to the ape, the bird called garuda, and the capclla serpent. Any of them who inadvertently kills one of these animals is obliged to expiate his crime by a ridiculous sacrifice, in which a human victim is pretended to be immolated and brought to life again; the fact is, that a little blood is drawn from a superficial wound in the thigh, inflicted with a knife; the individual lies still, apparently lifeless, till the farce of resuscitation is per- formed. This is done with immense ceremony, and gives occasion to a great con- course of people, who arc feasted on the fine levied from the culprit.* A similar pun- ishment is awarded for some other offences. — Sometimes these two sects not only strive to exalt their own divinity, but revile that of their opponents. The Vishnuvites consider the wearing of the Tiingam as the most heinous of all sins, while the Sivites maintain that all who bear the Nania shall, when they die, be tormented in hell by a three-pronged fork resembling that mark. These sectarian notions are less preva- lent, however, among the Riahmins than in the other castes. Vishnuvite Brahnnns are only to be found in the provinces which lie to the south of the river Krishna; and they are viewed with contempt by the tolerant Brahmins, who will not admit them to their tables or to their ceremonies, nor will they confer on them any public employ- ments Avhich happen to be at their disposal. These seels are farther split into subdi- visions, which dispute warmly on the subjects of their dillerences, but are ready to unite whenever the general interests of the sect require their protection. A Brahmin is subject to four dilTerent states. The first takes its com- mencement a!)out the age of seven or nine; when the individual is in- vested with "the trij)le cord," a badge which hangs from his left shoulder, previously to which he is not considered as a Brahmin at all. The young man thus , Biachma- initiated is called Brachmachari. In this state his duty consists in learn- «i»a". ing to read and write, in learning the Vedas, and the efficacious forms of prayer called the Mantras; in acquiring other sciences, and abstaining from the use of betel. He uses no ornaments in his hair, bathes daily, and offers the sacrifice called Homam twice a- day. Subjects so young do not in general observe the rules strictly. A certain pro- ficiency is enjoined in learning the books by heart, but neither in this nor in the acqui- sition of the lessons deemed by them scientific, is there much general emulation. They learn afterwards to understand the diflerent privileges belonging to their caste, and, among others, their right to ask alms, which they do not in the style of mendi- cants, but of confident yet not insolent claimants. Another is exemption from taxes. They are also exempted from capital, and generally from corporal punishment, how- ever heinous crimes they may commit, imprisonment being the only punishment to which they arc liable. They learn all the points of bodily purity which, as good Brah- mins, it is necessary to observe through life. Not only are they liable to be consi- dered as polluted by the touch of a dead body, but even by attending at a funeral. Childbirth and constitutional changes render females impure; and ablutions and forms of prayer are requisite to remove the stain. An earthen vessel, if ever it has been used by a profane person, or applied to any one of a specified number of uses, becomes so polluted that it cannot be used again, and must be broken; metallic vcs- • Abbe J. A. Dubois's Description of llie Character, Manners, and Customs of the People of India, p. ol, &c. (Englibh Iraublalioii.) Four states of a Brahmin. 236 BOOK FIFTIETH. sels admit of punfioation by washing. Leather, and every kind of skin, except those of the tiger and the antelope, are held to be very impure ; hence the boots and gloves of the Europeans are in their eyes the most disagreeable of all objects as articles of dress. A Brahmin must take care, in walking, or sitting, that he docs not touch a bone, a broken pot, a rag, or a leaf from which any one has eaten. In drinking, they must pour the liquid from above, without touching the vessel with their hps.* They must not touch the greater part of animals; the most polluting is the dog. The water which they drink must be carefully drawn, and by no means by any Sudra. If two Brahmins draw water together, their pitchers must not touch one another, otherwise one or botli must be broken. They must eat no animal flesh, nor eggs. This is particularly the case with the Lingamites, yet this sect is re- marked for great external slovenliness in their habits. The Brahmins are also taught to entertain a horror for defilement of soul, as the consequence of perverseness of the will, or sin; and, though the particulars of which such defilement consists are obscurely explained, the rules for purification by ablution, penances, and ceremonies, are both precise and ample. 2, Grihftitha. | The second stage of a Brahmin's life is called that of Grihastha, and takes place when he is married and has children. Mere marriage does not consti- tute this state, for that ceremony takes place at a very early age, and the parties remain for some years in the houses of their respective parents. Marriage. | Marriage is an essential object to a Brahmin, being necessary to any sort of respectability in society. When he becomes a widower, he falls from his station, and is under an urgent necessity of resuming the married state. The case is quite different with widowed females, v/ho are not permitted to marry a second time. There are, however, some hermits or penitents called Smmyases, who lead lives of celibacy, and the acting priests, who arc called Gurus, also live in a single state, though it is known that their morality in this particular is sufficiently relaxed. There is no such thing now as celibacy adhered to among women from any religious motive; but their ancient books, speaking of the five celebrated virgins, intimate, that in former times there were religious nuns. Marriage is conducted in the same manner which we have already described in our account of local manners. The parents fix the alliance which is to be formed, and the wife is purchased by the bride- groom for money. The money given, however, is employed by the father of the lady in the purchase of ornaments for his daughter; and these become the inalien- able property of the wife. The father does not give his answer to any young man's offer till one of the small lizards which creep on the wall gives, by one of its chirps, a favourable augury. The ceremony of marriage is operose, and lasts five days. There is a set of functionaries called Parohitas or astrologers, who go through the various ceromonies on this and some other interesting occasions. The gods are pro- pitiated by sacrifices, particularly Vislmesivara, " the god of obstacles," who is feared on account of the power which he possesses to thwart the plans of human prudence. This image is set up in the Pandal, a sort of alcove erected in front of a Bramin's house. When he takes his wife home, and has children by her, he is now Duties of a in his second state, that of a Grihastha; his daily duties and ceremonies Grihartha. bccome more multiplied and more strictly incumbent. Every act of his life is to be performed according to certain rules, some of them very foreign to all Corporeal pn- European notions of propriety. They consider some of our customs as "'?• liighly abominable, such as that of blowing the nose and stuffmg the excreted matter into the pocket. While the act of cleaning the nostrils, and some others considered as conveying an impine stain to the individual, are performed, a Brahmin never omits the ceremony of putting his cord over his riglit ear, which is supposed to have the virtue of purifying him from corporeal pollution. The clean- ing of the teeth is performed with a well chosen piece of wood, fresh cut from the tree; to rub them with brushes made of the hair of animals, is an act of indecorum Abbe J. A. Dubois's Description of the Character and Customs of the People of India, p. 112. (English translation.) . IN DOST AN. 237 to which nothing whatever would make him descend. When he bathes, he thinks of the Ganges ; and on coming out of the water, salutes each of his fingers and toes, and all the parts of his body in detail. Several regular days of fasting are ob- served in the course of the year, which amount altogether to a considerable space of time. These, and many other burdensome observances, become so habitual, that nothing galling is felt in submitting to them. They go through them all witli cheerfulness, and no innovation in tlicm is ever proposed. Some philosophers among the Hindoos hare turned them into ridicule, but oven these do not omit them in practice. The Abbe Dubois observes that those authors who have ridi- | on Koffcn. culed them in their writings, were never, so far as he could learn. Brahmins, but ge- nerally Sudras. Vemana, AgasOja, Patanaltipulai, and Tirtivaluvm, a Pariah, the chief authors of this description, are modern. If any ancient ones wrote in the same strain, their works are not now to be found. Transgressions in practice, how- ever, are secretly indulged in, especially in large towns, where concealment is most easy. — Many of the Brahmins engage in employments which appear ocoipntioiM of incongruous with their general professions. They are usually the po- Brahmins, litical functionaries of the native princes and of the Mahometan governments, which find it convenient to manage the people through their medium. Some of them, par- ticularly in Guzerat, engage in commerce- They often carry messages between distant places, an employment very convenient for them, as the veneration in which tliey arc held prevents any lawless person from molesting them. Sometimes they act as coolies or porters, in which characters they are exempt from the molestations of the officers of the revenue. — They are certainly an artful set of im- subtiuyofdis- postors. The Hindoos are all expert in disguising the truth, but the poMi'un. Brahmins much more so than any other. Flattery is one of their prime re- sources, which they lavish in the most extravagant manner on any person from whom they have a favour to expect. One of the features which we con- ReUgious toie- template with the greatest pleasure, is their toleration in religious opi- "tion. nion. They do not anathematize Mussulmans, Christians, and others, with the decision which generates an impatient spirit of prosclytism or of persecution. This is ascribed sometimes to the low estimation in which they hold the objects of their own worship, and, undoubtedly, they sometimes treat the latter with an indiftcrence bordering on contempt, and in their adorations, are influenced by their secular inte- rests rather than by the spirit of devotion, flattering those divinities whose functions they connect with their secular concerns. The distance at which they keep them- selves from the Europeans, and their unwillingness to admit them to their temples or their ceremonies, arise from the uncleanness which they attach to the habits of the latter, who, if they would conform a little to their manners and practical prejudices, would experience from all the Hindoos unbounded toleration. It is a very prevalent sentiment among them, that different religions are formed for diflTcrent nations, and that each serves every purpose to the souls of its believers and professors. The ex- cellent Abbe Dubois, who studied the manners of the Hindoos more carefully than any one who describes them, was, in consequence of the tenderness and respect with which he always treated their habits, often invited by the l?rahmins, to whom he and his mode of living were known, to enter their temples, and join tlicm in their ceremonies. The Brahmins entertain an unbending spirit of bigotry, Political w- however, in their attachment to their civil institutions, considering every 6«<'y- thing different from them as worthy of none but barbarians. The IMoors they hate for their arrogance, and despise for their ignorance of some physical branches of science known to themselves, such as those which are connected with the construc- tion and explanation of the almanack. They think well of some good qualities of their European masters, such as their humanity in war, the moderation and impar- tiality of their government, and their other benevolent features; but they soon forget these favourable impressions, when they think of the grossness and hatefulness of some of their prevailing habits. M. Dubois thinks that the latter ought to have de- nied themselves the use of beef, which is an insipid food in that country, and should not have admitted the detested Pariahs into their domestic service. It would, indeed, 3. VanaPrtu- tha. 238 BOOK FlFTIEtll. be wroiig to countenance them in their inhuman treatment of the inferior castes, and of persons who are considered as of no caste ; yet regulations might have been adopted by which the gross insult which their present modes imply might have been avoided or molhfied, and every humane purpose obtained. The third state of a Brahmin is that of Vana-Prastha, or that of the inhabitants of the desert. This order prevailed at a former period, but it is now scarcely to be found, and appears indeed to be extinct. These were the same persons whom we commonly call penitents. They were honoured by kings, and respected by the gods, who are said to have considered them as a sort of supe- riors. They observed a number of peculiar rules of self-denial, and practised peculiar sacrifices and religious observances. It was imagined that their pious acts and intentions were often thwarted by giants and even by gods. They were the depo- sitories of some of the sublime doctrines of theology, and practised magical incanta- tions. These last are now taken up by other individuals, who, on account of their supposed power, are frequently held in a sort of horror. 4. sannyasi. | The fourth State of a Brahmin is called Sannyasi, which is reckoned so peculiarly holy, tliat it imparts in a single generation a greater stock of merits than ten thousand could produce in any other sphere of life. A Sannyasi, when ho dies, is believed to pass straightway to the world of Brahma or of Vishnu, exempt from the penalty of being ever re-born on earth, or passing from one body into an- other. He performs all the rigid rites of the Vana-Prasthas, and in addition, renounces all worldly connexions, takes up the profession of mendicity, and lives solely on alms. Before this, however, he must devote several years to the married and paternal state, and thus discharge a debt which he owes to his forefathers. When a Brahmin is qualified and disposed for this state, he is installed in it with Ruietofiife. | many man tras and other ceremonies. — He must now, every morning, rub his whole body all over with ashes ; must restrict himself to one meal in the day ; give up the use of betel ; avoid looking at women ; shave his beard and head every month ; wear wooden clogs always on his feet ; must, in travelling, carry in one hand his seven-knotted bamboo staff, in the other his gourd, and the antelope skin under his arm, these being the three badges of his order. He must erect a hermi- tage on the bank of a river or a lake. Such is a specimen of his regulations. Con- templation, and a supposed communion with the Deity, amounting, in its highest form, to a participation of a divine nature, are the ulterior duties of this class of de- votees. Nothing can exceed the fantastic exercises in which they engage, such as suppressing their breath for as long a time as possible, till they are almost in a swoon, thus bringing on violent perspiration. These efforts are made during the night, and succeeded by endless wanderings of the imagination, to which they blindly attach a superlative value. They put themselves in the most irksome and ridiculous postures of body, such as standing long on one leg till it swells and ulcerates ; standing also a long time on the head. The act of highest merit among them is " to subdue all sensations, and retain the breath with such determined perseverance, that the soul, quitting the body, bursts through the crown of the head, and flies to re-unite itself Avilh the great Being, or Para-Brahma." The tricks which they perform are endless, but their most extravagant and fatal efforts are said to be confined to former times. The Sannyasis are not, like the Vana-Prasthas, burned when they die, but are inter- red. This is tlie case with the Lingamites, or worshippers of Siva ; but a Sannyasi, even though during life he has attached himself to the worship of Vishnu, is interred when dead, and the ceremony is pompous and expensive, being done at the expense of some relation or friend, who reckons the act in the foremost rank of good works. From the classes of Vana-Prastha and Sannyasi have issued numer- ous sets of fanatics, such as the Djogis, who exert themselves to please )y strange mutilations of their bodies, braving the force of fire, and the extremity of the seasons; the Panduris, who disseminate little figures of the most indecent description, as subordinate to devotion ; the Vairagis, who are a sort of or- der of monks and nuns, consecrated to the god Krishna and his mistress Rada, whose history they celebrate with songs, accompanied by the noise of cymbals. It is said Anomalous de' VOtfCf. the Deity INDOSTAX. 339 Infldels. General cfaa- racter of the Brahmins. that, some, oren of the Biahmins, under the name of Pashaiidla aud the Sarwaginn, maintain opinions completely libertine and atheistical. To some respectable travellers, it appears, on the whole, that the number of persons of the Brahminical caste who are respectable for their knowledge and their virtues is very small, while the great body of these hereditary priests and sages are completely devoted to ambition, intrigue, and voluptuousness, — their character being disgraced by an avarice, a meanness, and a cruelty, which inspire a stranger with no sentiments towards them but those of contempt* The charity which they hold so high in the list of duties and of virtues, has no human beings except Brahmins for its objects. Towards the other castes, they cherish no feeling of humanity, but claim every thing from them, while they give them nothing. The caste immediately beneath the Brahminical is that of the Ksha- caste of K$iia- triyas, or the military class. They are also called Rajepoots, from be- '"^'" ing the descendants of rajas or princes. Encroachments, however, seem to have been early made on the prerogatives of this class ; the military profession being em- braced by inferior castes, according as necessity obliged the governments to employ them, or lawless propensities led individuals to lead lives of habitual violence, till they became established in the military profession by the success of their insurrec- tions or incursions. The Rajepoots are now rather a tribe than a caste. They claim, and generally receive, a greater degree of respect than other warriors. In this tribe, as in the military body in general, the feebleness and insignificance of the Hindoo give place to a ferocious courage, a savage ambition, and an insatiable ava- rice, rarely compensated by any real virtues, or even by that generosity of conduct which so frequently accompanies the military character among Europeans. The Vaisyas are the third caste of the Hindoos. Their duties con- casteorvoi*- sist in the labours of the field and the garden, the breeding of cattle, and '"'•• the sale of landed produce. When these Vaisyas travel to other countries in mer- cantile pursuits, they go under the name of Banyans. They are privileged with ex- emption from military duty; but since the Indian princes have been in the practice of maintaining mercenary troops, many of this caste have become soldiers. It is of them that the Mahrattas in general consist. They are bound to pay the profoundcst respect to Brahmins and to Kshatriyas, but they receive the same awful submission from the caste next to be described. This is the fourth and most numerous of any, and is called the Kshoo- dra, or Sudra caste. The business of this caste is servile labour, and wherever the original spirit of the institution has not been infringed on by a train of political accidents, their degradation is inhuman. They are compelled to work for the Brahmins, being considered as created solely for their use. They are not, by the laws of Menu, allowed to collect property, " because such a spectacle would give pain to the Brahmins." To them the Vedas must never be read, nor spiritual counsel given ; and whoever shall dare to instruct them in the mode of expiating sin, is doomed to sink with them into Asamvrita, one of the hells with whiph the world of spirits is provided. Any one of the three higher castes, though possessing their separate spheres of occupation, is allowed occasionally, and under circumstances of necessity, to engage in the employments which belong to the inferior castes ; but the latter are in no case permitted to interfere with those of the superior. Hence in times of distress, the Sudras are subjected to peculiar sufferings from being thrown out of employment by swarms of interlopers from all the other castes, while to them no corresponding re- source, either then or at any other time, is open, In consequence of irregular intermarriages occurring among the dif- | Mixed castes, ferent castes, children were born who belonged to no caste, and for whom there was no employment. These were called Burren Svmker. They lived either on charity, or by plunder, and acquired a savage and lawless character. For them dif- ferent new arts and manufactures were ultimately contrived, by which, from being the pests of the community, they were converted to its service. Thirty-six branches of • SolvyHs on the Hindoos. Lord Yalenlla's Travels. Caste of Su- dras, 240 ROOK FIFTIKTH. this impure class are specified in the sacred books,* difforii:ig in the clei«6nts of their spurious origin, and in tlic degrees of humiHation attached to the labours respectively assigned to them. All of them are obliged to keep at a greater distance from the rest of society. Various circumstances, however, have in different places produced more or less intermixture and encroachment of the castes on one another. Hence the purity which they claim is not always conceded to them by others who pass under tlie same name. Many of those who occupy the place of the higher castes, with the excep- tion of the Brahminical, are by birth entitled to no higher rank than that of Sudras. ThePBriahs. | But beneath these, and beneath even the Burren Sunker, there is a race of most degraded and universally insulted outcasts, called Pariahs, whom we have more than once had occasion to mention. In many places their very approach is sufficient to pollute a whole neighbourhood. They must not enter a street where the Brahmins live. When they transgress, the higher castes will not assault them, for it is pollution even to touch them with a long pole ; but through the medium of others, they beat them at pleasure, and have often put them to death without dispute or inquiry. The degree of this detestation in which the Pariahs are held is greatest in the southern parts of the peninsula. The Europeans, however, are under the necessity of employing them as domestic servants, as a great part of their work could not be done by persons of any other caste; such as the cooking of beef, the pulling off and cleaning of boots. This arrangement is attended with the disadvantage of preventing individuals of reputable character from engaging in the service of a Eu- ropean, for fear of being confounded with the Pariahs. They act as scavengers ; they have the care of distributing the waters of the tanks over fields. Some have the charge of domestic animals. Of late they have been occasionally admitted into the Etiropean and Indian armies, where they have given considerable satisfaction to their masters. They are not inferior to the other Hindoos in courage, but cannot without groat difTifulty be subjected to military discipline, and are abandoned to all sorts of vice and irregularity. They are as coarse and sensual as the Brahmins are refined and knavish. Their features are harsh and rugged, their manners gross. They get drunk on the juice of the palm when it is in a state which gives them a most offensive odour. They engage in frequent quarrels, treat their wives with cruel- ty, often beating them brutally even in a state of pregnancy. They feast on any rotten carcase that falls in their way. In order that a race so abominable may be deprived of every chance of conveying contamination to their superiors, they are obliged to have their wells surrounded with the bones of animals, to warn others against making use of the same water. Other out- Besidcs the Pariahs, who are spread over all the provinces, there are '^"'' other local outcasts, some of whom are still more debased. Such arc the Pallis of Madura, and the Pulias in the mountainous parts of Malabar, who are not permitted to erect houses, obhged to Uve in open sheds supported by bamboo pillars, and dare not even walk along the common road for fear of defiling it. The shoemakers are every where held inferior to the Pariahs, and are in reality of a grosser character, and more destitute of honour. Players on wind instruments, and all sorts of vagrants, are also despised and hated as a portion of the infamous dregs of Hindoo society. t The religion of the Hindoos is so intricate and cumbrous in its le- gends, and so inconsistent in its doctrines, as to defy the powers of ana- lysis ; and for the same reason, it becomes too absurd to merit much interest, except as a conspicuous monument of the weakness of the human understanding, and a leading political engine in full operation. From some detached expressions in their writings, apparently mystical and sublime, the Brahminical religion has been sup- posed to be originally founded on just and elevated views of divine power. — A\ c The triraurti. [ havc already mentioned the Trimurti, or Indian trinity, consisting of • Colebrook on the Indian Classes, Asiat. Hesearclies, vol. v. p. 53. t See Abbe Dubois's "Description of the People of India," p. 454—476. (Knglisl> trans- lation.) -"to Hindoo reli gion. INDOSTAN. 241 Brahma, the creator : Vishnu, the preserver ; and Siva, the destroyer. Some have been impressed with sentiments of respect for the views thus unfolded, though im- perfect, and corrupted. They have even been considered as participating of doc- trines bearing a relation to the catholic theology. But when we enter more largely into the Hindoo mythology, we find that this trimurti is not eternal, but sprung from a female, who is known by a name signifying " the original power." Wc find the trimurti engaged in shameful amours, subjected to humiliation and disgrace, and re- stored to its dignity by the good nature of a virtuous female, who had punished it for an unsuccessful attempt at seduction. The trimurti is introduced into the first pages of the Eddo of Snorro. — The perpetuity of manners, as well as | idolatry, of ideas in India, is strikingly exemplified in their adherence to the same sacred em- blems by which their views were originally represented. Hence we see the strarige figures with four heads, and eight arms ; the frightful visages, the monsters which tear men in pieces, and all the horrid and disgusting oddities which characterize the representations of tlie Indian deities. What a shocking contrast to the graceful con- ceptions of the Grecian imagination! They show that the system existed previously to the formation of a correct or elegant taste ; but they are not on that account as some have alleged, conclusive, or independent proofs of its high antiquity. In some instances we must allow that these symbols are sufficiently expressive. Vishnu, the preserving principle, holds in one hand a leaf of the lotos, which is an aquatic plant, to sliow that every thing is sprung from the sea. The horn which he holds in another hand denotes his creative voice, which is capable of animating the chaotic void. The club in a third, indicates his power to punish and destroy the wicked. The wheel in a fourth, is the symbol of the eternal circle of life and creation. The triple crown on his head, teaches that he reigns over the sea, the earth, and the sky. The god of Brahma is described as a much more scandalous charac- nrahmaand ter than even the Jupiter of the Greeks.* Vishnu, the redeemer or pre- "V'isiinu, server, has, in order to execute his incumbent ofiices, been obliged to appear in dif- ferent earthly forms, called avataras, of which ten are enumerated. F>irst, he was transformed into a fish ; second, into a tortoise; third, into a boar; fourth, into a monster, half man and half lion; fifth, into a dwarf Brahmin; sixth, into the god called Paraswarama; seventh, into the hero Rama; eighth, into the god Krishna; ninth, into the tree ravi, or aruli. This is the last which has taken place; but another is yet expected, to which the Hindoos look forward with the same ardour as the Jews to the coming of the Messiah. This is a transformation into a horse. The books do not assign the period of its arrival, nor explain by what means it will be brought about; but the Hindoos trust that it will restore the Satya-yuga, or the age of happi- ness. Each of these avataras is the subject of a curious but monstrous fable.f The god Siva, who is chiefly characterized as the destroying power, | siva. is generally represented under a shape so contrived as to inspire terror, with large impassioned eyes, his ears decked with serpents, his hair plaited and curled in an ex- traordinary manner, and holding the weapon called siila in his hand. His amours, and his battles with the giants and tyrants of the earth, in which the four Vedas or sacred books were his horses, the mountain IMandara Parvata his bow, and Vishnu his arrow, and who, in order to prepare for battle, cut the world in twain, and took one half of it for his armour, are related in the book called the Bhagavata, which in fame is next to the Ramayana. In order to obtain a wife, he subjected himself to a long and austere penitence, and thus prevailed on the mountain Parvata to give him his daughter Parvati in marriage. The origin of the worship of the Lingam is connected with a ridiculous passage in the story of this god's debaucheries. The Bhagavata is a book of matchless obscenity ; yet it is the delight of the Hindoos, and the first which they puti nto their children's hands, when learning to read. Vighncswara, the god of obstacles, derived his birth from the excrement of Parvati, and his head being cut off by some malignant deily, was replaced with the head of an elf phant by the power of his father Siva. • A specimen of his nefarious conduct is given by Dubois, p. 429, 430. ■j- Dubois, ibid. See also an excellent account of this, and other parts of the Hindoo my- thologv, in Murray's Historical Account of Discoveries and Travels in Asia, vol, ii. p. 251, St Vol. II.— H h 242 BOOK FIFTIETH. Worship ol ftuimals* Tlie Hindoos are more oxliavagant than even the ancient Egyptians in the worship of animals, as they make almost every living creature the ob- ject of their devotion, although some species excel the others in the interest which they excite. Such are the cow, the ox, the ape, the serpent capella, and a bird of prey called garuda. They worship also a variety of malignant demons under the name of Bhuta. T ansmi- -^^^^ doctrine of the transmigration of souls from one body into another, gration. is an essential dogma of the Brahminical faith, and from this source the Grecian philosopher Pythagoras undoubtedly derived it. It was under this belief that Pythagoras prohibited his disciples from eating the flesh of animals, as implying cannibalism, or even the devouring of one's own ancestors; and for the same reason the Hindoos deem it sinful to put any animal to death, except when offered in sacrifice; but it is well known that in this, as in many other particulars, their prac- tices are inconsistent, and that they have among them both butchers and hunters by profession. The Hindoos recognise two leading causes of transmigration; one is for the punishment of transgression, and the reward of virtue, by sending the wicked into the bodies of Pariahs, or of mean and wretched animals, and those of the righ- teous into bodies of the happiest and most dignified kind. The other is for the pur- pose of removing the impurities implied in particular generations, which can only be done by many more transmigrations, if, instead of purifying themselves from old .stains, they contract new ones by a dissolute life. The hell of the They maintain the existence of a hell, in which, as in that of the Hindoos. Greeks, some whimsical punishments are awarded, such as plunging the guilty souls several times a-day in a lake of mucus. The retributions of that hell are long and severe, but not eternal. They are supposed to be succeeded by a universal restoration of the world. Ceremonies. | We have already found that some of the ceremonies of the Brahmi- nical worship are horrible in the extreme, such as the worship of Vishnu, under the name of Juggernaut.* Some of them are more tumultuous and licentious than the worship of Bacchus himself, and accompanied with prostrations before the most im- modest figures exhibited as sacred emblems. Ablutions and purifications form a leading part of Brahminical devotion. The images of the gods are purified by bathing them in the rivers, or the sacred tanks. Fire is held in religious veneration, and receives frequent offerings of butter thrown into it. Every Brahmin cherishes a sacred fire. The sacrifices chiefly consist of vegetable substances, but animals also are often immolated, and in the last century the popular superstition which Hamansacri- authorizes humau sacrifices in extreme cases was countenanced by ^*^*' some ignorant Brahmins. The burning of widows is a relic of these horrid sacrifices, and still, in epidemic diseases and other public calamities, it some- times happens that Brahmins are sufficiently fooUsh and sufficiently disinterested to throw themselves from the top of a tower, in order to propitiate the mercy of a divine being in favour of their contemporaries. Birthi. I An infant, as soon as it enters the world, becomes a subject of reli- gious ceremony. The Brahmins give it a name, and fix, by the study of the stars, Marriages. | its future destinies. The Hindoo marriages are celebrated with much ceremony. A piece of cloth is held extended over the pair while the priest implores the blessing of heaven on their union. Promises of unalterable fidelity, written on palm leaves, are mutually exchanged. Fanerali. | Thc funerals are accompanied by some curious observances. A dying Brahmin is laid in the open air on a bed of cusa grass, is sprinkled over with the holy water of the Ganges, and verses of the Vedas are chaunted over him. When his breath is gone, the body is washed, perfumed, and crowned with flowers. Thc funeral pile is lighted with a match from thc sacred fire, by which thc body is purified and fitted for ascending into heaven. The following arc some of the verses chaunted on such occasions : * See page 177 of this vol. IXDOSTAN. 243 " It is folly to expect tuiy tiling peiniiuieut in the lot of man, which is empty like the tnink of the bauanu, fleeting like the froth of the sea." " To receive the clue recompense of its actions, the human body, composed of five elements, returns to its native principles ; and what occasion have we for lamen- tation?" " The earth pcrislies, the sea, and even the gods, pass away ; yet vain man aspires at immortality." " Whatever is low must disappear, whatever is high must fall. Every compound being must be dissolved, and life must end in death." The relations of the deceased collect the ashes, which are put up into a parcel with the leaves of the Butea frondosa, are first consigned to the earth, and, after a time, thrown into the Ganges with a new set of ceremonies. Sacrifices of cakes are ollered to the manes of the three nearest progenitors by the father's and the mother's side. The building of temples is reckoned an act of great merit among the | Temi>ie». Hindoos. Elevated erounds are the situations chosen for these buildings. Most of them are miserable structures, resembling ovens rather than places of worship. Some of them are used as courts of justice, and choultries for travellers, as well as temples. The larger temples, or pagodas, however, sometimes exhibit a magnificent architecture. Their form is always the same. The gate of entrance is cut through a huge pyramid fronting the east. In those of the first order there is a large court beyond the pyramid ; at the end of this a second gate, cut through another massy pyramid less lofty than the first, leading to another court, at the end of which stands the temple for the residence of the idol. In the middle of the second court a figure is placed in a niche or on a pedestal. This is a cow, a bull, a lingam, a serpent, or some other object of worship, to which some mark of reverence is paid by all the votaries who visit the place. They are now admitted into the temple by a low nar- row door, which is the only entrance for air and Hght. The interior is divided into two or three apartments, all on a level. But here the air is polluted and noxious in the highest degree, from the smell of burning lamps, and the eflluvia of decayed flowers, as well as the repeated respirations of the worshipjiers. To unpractised persons, the horrid filth in which the divinities are kept is extremely disgusting. Here arc the ugly and monstrous productions of a wretched art, before which the poor superstitious Hindoo prostrates both body and soul. Numerous figures are set up, both within the temple and around it, many of them clothed in splendid garments, and decked with precious jewellery, which heighten their grotesque and horrific aspect. In the best endowed institutions of this kind, numerous persons are maintained in an official capacity. The first in rank are the sucri- ficers, whose duties are numerous and daily. Next in importance are the Dcvadassi or handmaids of the gods ; they have the charge of the sacred lamps, and generally are concubines to tlie Brahmins, and, in fiict, low and abandoned in their morals. They dance and sing to the impure songs in which the licentious actions of their gods are celebrated. These persons are sometimes dedicated to this fife by their parents, and are not considered as reflecting any disgrace on the family to which tiiey belong. They arc the only females who learn to read, to sing, and to dance. Such accomplishments are held in abhorrence by all the virtuous matrons of India. These women use the same arts, by means of dress and manners, which arc em- ployed by common women in other jjarts of the world, but without th(>. glaring impu- dence which is ))ractised in many parts of Europe. To the temples are also attached bands of musicians, who play with a kind of clarionets, cymbals, and drums. On the authority of the Abbe Dubois, we must believe that in some of these temples, scenes of indiscriminate debauchery arc practised. Accounts of such scenes, even when described as existing among the nations of antiquity, have been rejected with scorn by the sceptical critics of modern times. Yet they are now in full operation in India. One temple of this kind is at Junjinagati, a desert i)lacc on the banks of the Cavery ; another near the village of Kari-madai, in the province of Coimbatoor,* " Dubois's Description, 5cc. p. 109, &c. Tlicir attend- ants. 344 BOOK FIFTIETH. and another at Tirupati, in the north of the Carnatic. A sort of vows common among the devotees is that of suffering corporal mutilation or tortures. Some of these are described by Dubois, and would appear quite incredible, if not supported by testimony so respectable.* Buddhists, After the particulars which have come in our way on former occasions, Jains, &c. there is little to be stated on the subject of the dissenting religions in India, such as that of the Buddhists and the Jains. The latter follow similar doc- trines to the Buddhists, but differ from them in allowing the Hindoo division of the community into castes. Mahometanism, as we have found, has many followers, and in some places gains proselytes. Judaism and Christianity have not made much progress. This is as- cribed to the conduct of the missionaries, which has been too often impolitic and harsh, so as to inflame rather than conciliate the minds of the Pagans. Architecture. | The tcmplcs, palaccs, and pyramids found in various parts of India, are considered as proofs of a former state of greater civilization among this people than now exists ; but these remains only show that some individuals had sufficient riches, or sufficient power, to command an enormous expenditure of human labour, and sufficient ambition to project monuments which promised, by their magnitude, to subsist for many ages. Good taste is an ingredient rarely if ever found, and far less proof is there that civilization, in this particular, was ever prevalent in the com- munity at large. Science, | The scicnccs were cultivated in very early times by the Hindoos, the Brahmins being the only depositaries of knowledge. Besides the false sciences of astrolofry and magic, by means of which they impose on the ignorant, they also possessed some sound mathematical and astronomical knowledge, and were ac- quainted with some processes of algebraical calculation, which implied considerable patience and study. It is uncertain, however, in what degree these were original, and to what extent they were imported from Western Asia. These points are sub- jects of controversy among the learned : yet there is something creditable in having made them objects of attention. Some Hindoo books of algebra and arithmetic have been published in European translations ; which consist rather in the adoption of such abridged methods as are found to give true results, than in the unfolding of scientific principles. Literature. | The literature of the Hindoos consists chiefly of poetry. AH their ancient books are in verse. Even their books on medicine are not excepted. Not only the works in the original Sanscrit, but also the translation of them into modern Indian dialects, are executed in poetry. They have their verses arranged variously in feet, composed, like those of the Greek and Latin, of specific intermixtures of lono' and short syllables. Their rhyme is of the nature of alliterations, foiling some- times on the first letter or syllable of a line, sometimes on the second. The poetical expression errs in the extreme loftiness, and is obscured by quaint phrases and per- petual allegories. Tlicir descriptions arc tediously long and minute, the likenesses beinw never drawn Avith a single stroke in the approved style of the ancient and modern classics of Europe. Their epic poems relate to the exploits of their gods and heroes, which are far more stupendous than any that we are accustomed to read with interest, being conformed to that extravagant taste in miracles which charac- terizes the genius of the Hindoo religion. One of the most interesting productions is the dramatic \nece called Sacontala, which has been translated and read through all Europe, yet is characterized by a suflicient portion of Hindoo extravagance. The fables of Pilpai or Bidpai are by some thought to be the foundation of those of Esop and of Lokman. Such fables may be considered as a very natural mode of writin^T among a people who believe that the souls of men pass into the bodies of Modeof animals. The epistolary style of the Brahmins is solemn and compli- M-riting. mentary, beginning with the name of the writer and that of the person addressed, followed by a string of compliments, and concluding with business. No respects or compliments are ever sent .to wives. Any thing of that kind A\'0uld be * Dubois's Description, p. 413, £tc. INDOSTAN. 245 considered ridiculous and rudo. AVhcn notice of a dcutli is communicated, the custom is to singe a little the i)oint of the palm Jcaf on whicli the news is written. Though the diflbrent Indian dialects are closely akin, they are written in | characters, very diflerent characters. They also ditier in the form of their nrilhmetical ciphers, thou'T^h they all follow the decimal series. The Tclinga notation corresponds almost exactly with that which was communicated to Europe by the Arabs at the end of the tenth century, and which we now universally use for calculation. The Tamul notation rather resembles that of the Romans, consisting of letters of their own alphabet, and denoting ten, a hundred, and a thousand, by single letters. They have a paper made of the bark of a particular plant, (not of cotton, as has been supposed,) but they generally use the leaves of the latanier palm. Their w riting, in the first instance, consists of mere scratching with an iron point, while the leaf is supported on the middle finger of the left hand. The right or writing hand is not moved along the leaf, as with us, but the leaf is from time to time pushed to the lelt with the iron point stuck in the letter last formed. In this manner the process is conducted with great facility, and a Hindoo is often seen writing as he walks along. The leaf is afterwards covered over with a black substance, which adheres to the written lines, and renders them more distinct. It is only in a very few mechanical arts that the Hindoos make any | indolence, figure. Indulging in their natural indolence, they have scarcely any want but that of ease. Bloderate and sober, a simple piece of linen or cotton stuff suffices them for clothing; their dwellings are the shghtest and simplest that can be imagined; their support consists of rice and water ; little trouble is required to satisfy their few wants. Yet some rich individuals, habituated to the conveniencies of life, display in their houses all the luxury of the east. AVe find the persons of the Rajas and the Nabobs surrounded by numerous slaves ; their garments glittering with gold, silver, and em- broidery; their apartments adorned with painting and gilding, and perfumed with va- rious valuable essences. Their wives participate in the taste of their Luxury of iiie husbands, and pass their lives in utter inactivity. The zenanas are the ^^"""e"- abodes of voluptuous repose, where pure water falls in cascades, or displays its re- freshing surface on broad marble basins. The richest tapestry is used tor covering their floors, adorning their walls, and lining their doors.* We find that in the time of Alexander, the Indian beauties made use of a rich profusion of pearls, diamonds, sapphires, and rubies. I Even to the nose and the feet were hung rings which tinkled at every motion, to which splendid embellishments was added the sweeter charm of thousands of fair flowers and odoriferous plants.;]: A variety of paints constituted, from a remote antiquity, a conspicuous article in Indian coquetry. All classes of society among the Hindoos are in the habit of smoking tobacco and chewing betel, — acts as essential with them as eating and drinking. In all the houses of persons in good circumstances there are terraces or Hat roofs, where a part of the day is spent in smoking. In travelling, they use dif- ferent sorts of palanquins, which are often adorned in a most luxurious style, a mode of travelling well suited to a country where there are few roads practicable for car- riages. § The Hindoo character is a strange mixture of strength and weakness, of ferocity and of gentleness. This portion of the human race has, without passing through the various steps of a free civilization, been enslaved, refined, and degraded, by a political system which is both a theocracy and a despotism. Here the man who sacrifices life to the observance of an absurd law of caste, never has the daring to raise the arm of self-defence or of vengeance against the oppressors of his person and country. He gives all the extent of his protection to a sacred cow, but sees without emotion his nation consigned to be massacred. AV e have seen w hat an extreme degree of self-abasement, mortification, voluntiiry torture, and self-sacri- • Yalentyn's Engraving oithe Zenana of Nourmahal. See also a plate hi Mr. Hodge's Tra- vels, p. 24. t Q. Curtius, viii. cIi. 9. i (iita-Govinda, p. 357 — 359. Sacontala, p. HT, (Geniiaii Uarislatiuu.) § Solvyus, les Indous, tome iii. MiscellamoHs custums. Siimmarj- of tile Hindoo tliaracler. 25. 328. t Historical Sketches of the South of India. § Papers, &.C. p. 289. H Ibid. p. 327. 1 Ibid. p. 327. •• Ibul. p. 297. ft Ibid. p. 299. tj Ibid. p. 294, 301. 5^ Ibid. p. 340. Proceedings of niissiunories. ous nietho- INDOSTAN. 259 tice followed by powerful depredators, of intimidating persons fi-oni giving evidence. It is not to bo supposed that the progress of improvement in these j)articulars has yet reached its limit. While the prejudices of the people arc in general respected, some criminal prac- tices, founded on hereditary delusions, are resisted. The murder of female infants, among the Rajepoots and some others, is prohibited, and the burning of widows every where discouraged. A length of time, however, will be requisite to bring these and other savage practices into universal disrepute. Attempts are made to introduce among the natives the principles of Christianity. None of the violence which characterized the Romish missionaries is practised by the English clergy, or even by the more zoa dists. Some of the latter, while endeavouring to promote their cause by reviling the character of Mahomet, have been prohibited by the government from following a method of address which tended so much to excite displeasure in the Mahometan part of the population. There is no reason to apprehend that prudent efforts to dis- seminate the truth can be more dangerous in the hands of the present predominant race than they proved to those of the Dutch nation in the island of Ceylon. An English author who was in India during the latest great political changes which were effected, expresses a hope for futurity, which every woU-disposed ))er- son must wish to entertain. '* Perhaps, in some future age, when the genius of Bri- tain shall no longer lord it over the prostrate realms of Asia, tliis germ of liberal institutions of internal polity may be referred to as the commencement of a happier era in theso ample regions, — as the first lesson of self-government which Euro- peans shall have taught to the now slavish minds of the Hindoo race, and which may have afterwards lotl to the gradual diffusion of political liberty and moral im- provement."* Many causes of instability have been pointed out by politicians in the f,ai^i'|"t*;'J,r"i, tenure by wliich the British nation holds the empire of India. The ex- British power, tensive population of that anomalous empire ; its great distance from the country of the ruling nation; the small number of English resident in India; the wide dif- ference of religion, manners, and mode of life; the contempt and odium in which, on these accounts, the persons of the rulers are held ; the disappointment of those natives whose power in the land of their fathers is diminished or threatened; the dread of future attempts to thwart their opinions, and subvert their institutions ; the opposition of interests and inclination which is liable to occur between the British who are resident in India, and their government at home; the increase of the num- ber of persons of a mixed European and Indian breed, who are kept in a subordinate rank, but disposed to claim political rights which they do not enjoy, and whose man- ners are considered by the proud and timid part of the English as offensively arro- gant ; — to these, and many other internal sources of insecurity, has been added the chance of invasion from surrounding nations, whether as already oiganized, or as they may become hereafter united under energetic leaders, to show that the present state of things must be of short duration. Any opposition arising from a patriotic spirit among a people so contracted in their sentiments, and so slavish in all their I)olitical feelings as the Hindoos, is the least likely of all the conceivable sources of future revolutions. The sepoys, or native troops in the service of England, partici- pating in the universal political apathy, are always ready to serve with exclusive fidelity the power which pays them most liberally and most punctually. Their deeply-rooted prejudices, however, recjuire to be scrupulously respected. Serious mutinies have arisen from instances of imprudence in this particidar, which were allayed as soon as satisfactory pledges of this necessary respect were given to them. One part of the policy of England has hitherto been, to prevent the springing up of a numerous race of their own descendants as colonial settlers. Hence, though there is much unoccupied territory, no native European is permitted to establish him- • Pririsep's Narrative of the Folitical and Military Transactions of British India, under the AJmlnistrulion of llie Marquis of Uastingb, from 1813 to iyit>j p. 436. 260 BOOK FIFTIETH, self as a landholder. All the EngUsh consequently are mere sojourners, most of them bound to their native country by early recollections, and the hopes of revisit- ing it after acquiring a fortune. The pleasure of finding in the eastern world another England, as those do who emigrate to America, who find that country in most par- ticulars presenting the same social comforts and habits to which they have been early bred, and separated only by its political independence, this pleasure is never granted to the Englishman in India. He goes not to live among a race of friends, but in a nation of inferiors and slaves. Whether this policy is wise, or the reverse; whether it should bo pronounced contracted or liberal ; whether this, or an opposite course, would be productive of greatest advantage to the human race, and of the most agreeable terms of future intercourse in the event of India being by any means politically detached from England, these are questions merely fitted to oc- cupy the speculative politician in his closet, and perhaps not necessarily involved in the great objects of an ultimate diffusion of intelUgence and of happiness over India. Table of the Area and Pojndation of the Modern States of Indostanfor 1820. British Territory. Bengal, Bahar, and Benares .--...--. Additions in Indostan since A. D. 1765 ------ Ourwal, Kumaoon, and the tract between the Sutledge and Jumna Total under the Bengal Presidency - - - - - Madras Presidency Bombay Presidency ------..--.- Territories in the Deccan, &c. acquired since 1816, and not yet attached to any Presidency -------- Total British territory British Allies and Tributaries. The Nizam The Nagpoor Raja ------------ The King of Oude ------------ The Guicowar ----2-------- Kotah, 6500— Boondee, 2500— Bopaul, 5000 - - - - The Mysore Raja ------------ The Satarah Raja ------------ Travancore, 6000— Cochin, 2000 - - Under the Rajas of Joodpoor, Jeypoor, Odeypoor, Bica- nere, Jesselmere, and other Rajepoot chiefs; Holcar, Ameer Khan, the Row of Cutch, and numerous other petty native chiefs ; Seiks, Gonds, Bheels, Coolies, and Catties, all comprehended within the line of British pro- tection Total British and their Allies Independent States. The Raja of Nepal ■ The Raja of Lahore (Runjeet Singh) The Ameers of Sinde Scindia's Dominions Belonging to the Afghan Empire - - ■ British, Sq. Miles. 162,000 148,000 18,000 328,000 154,000 11,000 60,000 Total 553,000 96,000 70,000 20,000 18,000 14,000 27,000 14,000 8,000 283,000 1,103,000 53,000 50,000 24,000 40,000 10,000 Population. 39,000,000 18,000,000 600,000 57,500,000 15,000,000 2,500,000 8,000,000 83,000,000 10,000,000 3,000,000 3,000,000 2,000,000 1,500,000 3,000,000 1,500,000 1,000,000 16,000,000 1,280,000 123,000,000 2,000,000 3,000,000 1,000,000 4,000,000 1,000,000 134,000,000 INDOSTAN. 261 Table of the Military Forces of the British in India, as laid before Parliament in 1819. King's Troopa, Cavalry - - . Do. Infantry - . - East India Company's European Artillery Do. European Infantry Do. Native Cavalry Do. Native Infantry Do. • Native Artillery Irregular Native Cavalry - - - Do. Native Infantry - . - Invalids and Pensioners . . - Grand Total - 4,692 17,858 4,583 3,120 11,011 132,815 8,759 7,659 17,082 5,875 213,454 Efficient British Annies in the Field in 1818 With nine followers to every two fighting men Making an aggregate of - - - - - 95,000 - 427,500 - 622,500 Revenue of every Description in 1817, 1818 AcdUISITIONS IN 1818 . - - _ Or, £19,862,680 Sicca Rupees. 156,871,060 . 14,358,953 171,230,013 Table of the Principal Geographical Positions of Indostan, according to the most re- cent Astronomical Observations. Cape Comorin Anjengo road Cochin Cranganorc Telicherry Cananore Goa . . Idem . Idem . Bombay . Idem . Bassein . Diu, (cape) Idem . Lat. N. Long^. E. from Lond. Authorities. deg. min.«ec. 7 55 deg. min. sec. 77 39 15 Hamilton Moore. 8 40 76 55 15 Elmore, British Mariner's Di- 9 56 30 76 16 15 rectory. Connaiss. des Tems. 10 52 75 5 15 Brit. Mar. Direct. 11 45 75 26 15 Idem. 11 51 75 24 15 Connaiss. des Tems. 15 38 73 45 15 Brit. Mar. Direct. 15 31 Id. Connaiss. des Tems. 15 28 20 Id. Pennant, Rennel. 18 58 72 38 15 Brit. Mar. Direct. 18 55 43 Id. Niebuhr. 19 19 72 40 15 Connaiss. des Tems. 20 42 70 47 15 Idem. 20 44 70 42 45 Elmore. 262 BOOK FIFTY-rinsT. Table Continiied. Maddi Bender, (at the mouth of the Indus) . . . . 25 40 Pondicherry 11 56 41 Fort St. George, (Madras) . 13 4 54 Point Devy 16 6 Point Godavciy . . . . 16 45 Ganjam 19 22 30 Balasore 21 30 20 Calcutta 122 35 Lat, N. Long. E. from Lond, 68 79 SO 80 82 85 87 88 50 51 29 30 40 18 10 10 15 Rosily. 45 15 15 15 15 Authorities. Connaiss. des Terns. Idem. Brit. Mar. Direct. Idem. Connaiss. des Terns. Ritchie and Playstcd. Hlmore. Cape Dondra Trincornalee, (road) Caroly North Point Idem . South P;uUocmn of Cochin-China, the leaves of which dis- play a rich purple on tlieir inferior surfaces. Chin-India is singularly rich in aromatic and medicinal species, and in Aromatic those useful in the arts. Ciiigcr and cardamoms grow wild on the banks i''""'^- of the rivers, or are cultivated in large plantations. The cinnamon tree grows abun- dantly on both coasts of the peninsula of Malacca, and is sometimes accompanied by the nut-meg. Turmeric is used by the inhabitants of these countries to tinge and season their rice and other dishes. Their favourite aromatics are betel leaf, the fruit of the long pepper, and black pepper, to which they add three or four species resembling long pepper, and the grains of the Fa2;ura piparata, or long popper of Japan. Among the diflerent dye-stuffs arc distinguished the carmenfine vtgotabie or Juslicia lincloria, which alTords a beautiful green ; three species ol'royoc, *'y«-'-'"'"'- viz. the J\Ioriiula nmbelldla, carlhunms, and ti-umho!j;ia, all of which are yellow dyes ; indigo; and the red wood of the Lmi'sonia spiij^sa ; and sapan. The bark of the llliizo- jthora gymnorhiza gives a beautiful red dye. The gum resin called dragon's blood seems to be the produce of more than one plant, among which are the Drmivnaj'trrea^ and the rotang, natives of Cochin-China. Among the plants subservient to industry, we shall mention the Pimelia oleosa, from which an oil is obtained that enters into the composition of the Chinese varnish ; the sumach of Java, another varnish tree ; the Croloii lacctfenmi, from which is obtained the valuable red lac, the produce of a sort of ant which nestles on it, and separates this gum as his ordinary food ; and finally, the suet tree, the Sebifera glulinosa of Loureiro, the sapiiim or Ghtltier porte-stdf oi' Jussieu, the fruit of which yields a stiff grease, from which are made candles of a handsome appearance but unpleasant smell. From these countries we also obtain, for medical purposes, jalap, scammony, the bark of the Acriwn anlidysmicricum, called codogcqmla, Vol. II — L I Medicinal plants. 266 BOOK FIFTY-FIRST. that of the Laiirus culiban, the fruit of the Strijchnos mix vomica, cassia, tamarinds, aloes, camphor, and castor oil. The sugar cane, the bamboo, spikenard, three cele- brated plants of the family of reeds, are found in all these countries : the first two Alimentary ^^ *^6 ^^^^ marshes, the last on the dry hills. The sweet potato, the plants. melongena,* and the love apple ;| melons, pumpkins, water melons, and a great quantity of other nutritious plants, enrich the plains. The banana, the cocoa, and the sago palm afford a most liberal supply to the wants of the inhabitants. Of fruits they have a great variety. The vine grows in the forests, but for want of cul- ture, as well as the excessive heat, its fruit is much inferior to that of Europe. To make up for this disadvantage, they have the orange, the lemon, the citron, the deli- cious mango, the pine-apple, the litchi, (the diraocarpus of Loureiro and the eu-phoria of Jussieu,) the mangosteen, and a multitude of other fruits unknown in Europe. We may also take notice of the PJujllodes placentaria, the leaves of which are used in wrapping up provisions, in order to heighten their colour and improve their flavour, and are also like the Amomum galanga mixed with the fermented liquors obtained from rice and from sugar. Animals. | The most remarkable animals of this region are the Indian elephant, the single horned rhinoceros, the tiger, the leopard, the bear, the ourang-outang, several species of the monkey, the gibbon, the baboon, the pitheca, and two others not yet fully known; Forbin's great ape of Malacca, and the white ape with red eyes mentioned by Compagnon. Among the wild inhabitants of the forest are the hubalus, the stag, several kinds of antelopes, as the oryx, the strepsiceros, the albipcs of Erxleben, and the tragocamelus of Pallas. The civet and the porcupine are also found in these countries. Minerals. | That portion of the Birman empire which, according to M. Gosselin, corresponds to the Golden Chersonese of the ancients, is very rich in minei'als, and produces some very singular species, while Malacca, which had been previously taken for the golden Chersonese, scarcely produces a mineral of any value with the exception of tin. The rivers of Pegu still contains grains of gold, and in ancient times, their sands were probably much richer in this precious metal than now. The custom of gilding the ceiling and the cupolas of the temples, seems to have existed from very remote times. We are told that the temple of Shoemadoo was built about 500 years before the Christian era. If that was the case, the brilliancy of so splen- did an edifice may have given rise to the term " Golden Chersonese." Or the an- cients may have been in possession of some vague tradition respecting the whole Chin-Indian region. Gold and silver abound still more in Tonquin and Cochin- China than in the Birman empire. sho«Tiew^of After this general sketch of the physical geography of Chin-India, dian nations. let US take a general view of the nations which inhabit it, the languages which they speak, and the religion which they profess. Their physical With the exception of the Malays, who form a distinct race, mostly qualities. spread over Oceanica, the other Chin-Indian nations resemble the Mon- golian and Chinese races in their figure, their square countenances, their yellow com- plexions, strong hair, and sparkling eyes. Hence we may safely consider them as of the same original stock. The Chinese have always extended along the eastern and southern shores of Chin-India, where they have introduced their written charac- ters, and in some degree their language. The Birmans seem even to have preserved a tradition of the arrival of a Mongolian colony of 700,000 warriors. Such tradi- tions would still lead to the inference that the first inhabitants had belonged to these countries from time immemorial. We are informed that besides the prevailing race, there is in the mountains, espe- cially those of Cochin-China and Laos, a savage nation called Kemoys or Moys, who are black like the African Caffres. They seem nearly connected with the Haraforas of the Philippine islands and the other negroes of Oceanica. Languages, | All the Original languages of these nations, with the exception of the Malay, exhibit the same characteristic simplicity, poverty, and deficiency, with the monosyllabic languages of Thibet and China. They are, however, in their present • The Egg plant. t The Tatnata. The Ball, or sa- cred language. CHIN-INDIA. 267 state, subdivided into three perfectly distinct classes. The Boman or Birman lan- guage is spoken in Ava and Arracan; the Siamese language prevails in the kingdoms of Siam and Laos; and the Annamitic language is used in Annam, i. e. in Tonquin and Cochin-China, perhaps also in Cambodia. These languages are more or less mixed with Chinese or Hindostanee, according as the nations which speak them are situated near Indostan or China.* The dialect of Pegu differs entirely from these three ;' but it is not well known. The Malay, which extends over the whole of Oceanica, contains a mixture of Sanscrit, with some Birman or Siamese roots, to which many Arabic words have been added, in consequence of commercial intercourse, and the prevalence of the Mussulman religion. The religion of Buddha, proceeding from Indostan, prevails under a | Religions, diversity of forms, over this whole country. It has probably become incorporated with various local and national superstitions, which it has not entirely superseded. The sacred writings of this sect are in the Bali or Pali language, a dia- lect derived from the Sanscrit, and probably the same which is spoken in Magada, or southern Bahar."{" That rich, harmonious, and flexible language, has become the language of religion, and that of the priests and learned in the whole of Chin-India, with the exception of Malacca, Cochin-China, and Tonquin. The Mahometan religion excludes it from Malacca, while Cochin-China and Tonquin have been pervaded by the language and philosophy of the Chinese, introduced by colonies from that nation. Buddhism prevails there in the form which it has as- sumed in China, and Buddha is adored under the name of Fo. Some of these general views of the nations now under consideration, will be far- ther unfolded in the account which we are now to give of the different leading divisions of this part of the world. The Birman empire is the first political state which we meet in pro- ceeding eastward from Indostan. It includes the kingdom of Ava, and the conquered provinces of Cassay and Arracan, on the west ; Lowashan and Yun- shan on the east; and Pegu, Martaban, Tenasserim, Mergui, Tavoy, and Junkseylon, on the south. J In Dalrymple's Oriental Repertory, the Birmans are called Boragh- mans. In the Birman alphabet, published at Rome in 1776, the name is written Bomans. They are also called JMienmay. Their native country is Ava Proper. They were at one time subject to the king of Pegu; but in the sixteenth • Leyden's Memoh- on the Indo-Chinese Languages, in the 10th volume of the Asiatic Researches. t Lolliere Fetity. Encyclopedic Elementaire, ii. part 2, p. 623. Paullinus ^ Saint Barlh. Examen codd. indie, p. 41. + The war which began in May 1824, and ended the 24th of February 1826, between the B. K. Ind. Co. and the king of Ava, resulted in a treaty, by which considerable cessions were made to the company. By Art. 3, the British retain the provinces of Arracan, including its four divisions of Arracan, Ramree, Cheduba, and Sandowey. The Anoupectoumieu or Arra- can mountains, known by the name of Yeocnabourg, or Pokhengloung range, will henceforth form the boundary between the two nations on that side. Art. 4. Ava cedes to the British, the provinces of Yeh, Tavoy and Mergui, and Tennasserim, with the islands and dependencies thereto, taking the Saluen river as the line of demarcation on that frontier. The following observations, taken from Snodgrass's Burmese war, published in 1827, will be worth perusing. "The population of Ava, has been gi-eally overrated by travellers, their accounts being founded on the thickly peopled banks of the rivers, or drawn from th« natives who have estimated their numbers beyond the truth. So slight is the regard of the people for their present worship, that the king of Ava, could by a simple order, change the religion of the nation without a murmur. The country from Pagahm-mev/ to Ava is beautiful. Exten- sive plains of the finest land, watered by the Irawaddy, are interspersed with evergreen woods; and the banks of the river are so thickly studded with villages, pagodas, temples, monasteries and other handsome buildings, as to give under one view all the charms of a richly varied landscape, with the beauties of a populous and fertile country. To the north ward of Ava, there are mines of gold, silver, and precious stones, (rubies and sapphires of the finest description.) The cession of Arracan, amply provides for the freedom of the British Indies, from Burmese interference. The Burmese are now confined within their ancient boundaries by the lofty Anoupectoumieu, and a force can be marched across these mountains, and appear on the Irawaddy, from the British post'at Aing, in eight or ten days, and probably reach the capital of the Burmese empire in a month," Pfdl, Ed. The Birman Empire. , History of the Birmani. 268 BOOK FIFTY-FIRST, century this numerous and vrarlike people revolutionized the country by taking pos- session of Ava, and then of Martaban. The Birmans continued masters of this country till 1740, when a civil war broke out in consequence of a revolt in the con- quered provinces of Pegu, and was prosecuted on both sides with savage ferocity. In 1750 and 1751, the Peguans, with the aid of arms imported by Europeans, and the active services of some Dutch and Portuguese, beat their rivals, and in 1752, Ava, the capital, surrendered to them at discretion. Dweepdee, the last of a long line of Birman kings, was taken prisoner, with all his family, except two sons, who escaped into Siam. Binga Delia, king of Pegu, returned to his hereditary domi- nions, leaving the government of Ava to his son Apporasa. When the conquest appeared complete and settled, one of those extraordinary characters which Provi- dence sometimes raises up to change the destinies of nations, now appeared. This was a Birman called Alompra, a man of obscure birth, known by the name of "the huntsman," and the chief of Manchaboo, then a poor village. Having collected round him 100 picked men, he defeated the Pcguan detachments in small skirmishes. Improving in experience, and acquiring confidence in his own strength, he attracted more numerous followers; and in the autumn of 1753, suddenly advanced, and ob- tained possession of Ava. Defeating the king of Pegu in several subsequent engage- ments, he invaded his territories, and in three months took his capital, which he gave up to indiscriminate plunder and carnage. Having sustained some indignities from the Siamese, he invaded Siam ; but, during the siege of tb.e metropolis of that kingdom, his careerof conquest was suddenly terminated in 1760 bya fatal disease in the fiftieth year of his age, and ninth of his reign. Alompra was succeeded by his son Namdojee Praw, a minor. Sliembuan, the uncle of this prince, brother to Alompra, acted as regent, and, on the dcatli of his nephew, assumed the crown. Shembuan declared war against the Siamese, and took their capital in 1766, but did not retain permanent possession of that country. In 1767 the empire was invaded by a Chinese army, 50,000 strong, on the side of the Yunnan, which advanced as far as a village called Chiboo ; but the Birmans cut oif their supplies, and then destroyed the whole of them, except 2500, Avho were sent in fetters to the Birman capital, compelled to labour in their respective trades, and encouraged to marry Birman wives, and become naturalized subjects. Shembuan subdued Cassay in 1774, and died in 1776. His son and successor, Chenguza, a debauched and bloody tyrant, was dethroned, and put to death in 1782, in a conspiracy headed by his own uncle Minderagee, who took possession of the government. This prince was the fourth son of Alompra. In 1783 he sent a fleet of boats against Arracan, which he easily conquered. He then marched against Siam, where he met with some checks; and, finding himself unable to retain posses- sion of the interior, was obliged to content himself with the dominion of its western coast, as far south as Mergui, including the two important sea ports of Tavoy and Mergui, which were ceded to him by a treaty of peace in 1793. In 1795 his Birman majesty marched an army of 5000 men into the English pro- vince of Chittagong, holding an army of 20,000 in readiness to join them in Arracan. His object was to claim three notorious robbers, who had taken refuge in that country. This force was confronted by a strong detachment from Calcutta. The affair was amicably adjusted by the delivery of the refugees, whose enormous guilt was esta- blished, and the Birmans withdrew without committing any disorders. The English Capt. Canning, who visited the Birman capital in 1809, found that it had deteriorated during the declining years of Minderagee Praw, who, naturally superstitious, cruel, and despotic, had become insupportably suspicious and irascible. He had aban- doned Ummerapoor, his capital, and fixed his court at a place called Mengoury, seven miles up tlie river, consisting of a cluster of sand-banks, where he was ab- sorbed in melancholy, and occupied in the composition of drugs and charms for the prolongation of his life. The opposition to which his capricious cruelties gave rise rendered tlie country a scene of anarchy, rebellion, and robbery. More recently some absurd attempts have been made by this barbarous court to extend their influ- ence to the west, at one time by claiming the provinces of Dacca and Chittagong, and at anotlier by carrying on an intriguing correspondence with the Brahmins at Be- nares, by sending emissaries, in the disguise of merchants, to Dacca, on their way to the Seik territories, and others to Madras and Trincomalee, for the purpose of THE IIIRMAN EMPIRE. 269 voising a general combination of the Indian governments against the British. These proceedings, and sonic hostile preparations which appeared to be made on the fron- tier, were never followed by any important events.* In June, 1S19, Minderagce IVavv died, and was succeeded by his grandson. The junior branches of the family revolted, and scenes of massacre ensued. The Birman empire includes a space between the 9th and 26th de- I sitnationnnd i I ^1 extent 01 the grees of north latitude, and between the 92d and 104th of east longitude ; | empire, being about 1050 geographical miles in length, and 600 in breadth. Its northern boundaries are perhaps still more distant; but its limits in that direction, and to the east, are fluctuating. It probably may conatin 194,000 square miles. Though this empire extends into the torrid zone, it enjoys a temperate | climate, climate, in consequence of the elevation of its territory. The healthy and robust constitutions of the natives show the salubrity of the chmate. The seasons are regu- lar. Extreme cold is unknown, and the intense heat which precedes the rainy season is of short duration. This coimtry exhibits every variety of soil and exposure. A flat marshy delta extends along the mouths of the Irawaddy. Beyond this arc pleas- ing hills, picturesque valleys, and majestic mountains. The fertile soil | Vegetation, of the southern provinces yields crops of rice equal to those of the finest districts of Bengal. Although the surface is more irregular and mountainous to the north, the plains and valleys, especially those situated on the banks of the great rivers, produce excellent wheat, and the different corn and leguminous crops which are cultivated in Indostan. Sugar canes, excellent tobacco, indigo, cotton, and the tropical fruits, are indigenous in this favoured country. Agriculture is said to be in an improved state, though the methods followed have never yet been satisfactorily described. In a district to the north-east of Ummerapoor, the tea leaf grows, but not equal to that which is produced in China, and seldom used except as a pickle. The teak tree grows in all parts of the country, though properly a native of the mountains. Almost every kind of timber found in Indostan is produced in the southern parts. Fir grows in the mountains, and turpentine is extracted from it; but the natives do not use the wood in carpentry, being prejudiced against it on account of its softness. The fo- rests here as in Indostan, are exceedingly unhealthy. Even the wood cutters, a race inured to this situation and mode of life, are said to be very short-lived. The animals are the same with those of Indostan. The only singu- ( Animals, larity that has been observed is the total absence of any sort of jackal. The plains are well stocked with cattle ; but in the neighbourhood of the forests they are exposed to frequent ravages from the tigers, which are very numerous in this country. Pegu abounds in elephants. The chief minerals are found in Ava Proper. Six days' journey from [ Minerals. Bamoo, near the Chinese frontier, are the gold and silver mines of Badooem. There are also mines of gold, silver, rubies, and sapphires, now open in a mountain called Woobolootan, near the river Ken-duem. But the richest are in the neigh- bourhood of tlie capital. Precious stones are found in several other parts of the em- pire. Iron, tin, lead, antimony, arsenic, and sulphur, are in great abundance. Great quantities of very pure amber are dug up near the river, and gold is found in the sands of the mountain streams. One of these in the north, situated between the Ken-duem and the Irawaddy, is called "the stream of golden sand," (Shoe Lien Kioop.) There are no diamonds or emeralds in the empire; but it has amethysts, garnets, beautiful chrysolites, and jasper. There are, near Ummerapoor, quarries which yield marble equal to the finest in Italy. It is monopolized by the government, and consecrated to the making of images of Guadrna. This empire contains celebrated and very pro- ductive petroleum wells, which yield a large revenue to government, being retained as a monopoly. We shall now take a view of the provinces or kingdoms composing ( Topography, this empire, and their principal towns. Cassay, in the north-west corner, adjoining the kingdom of Assam, is called in Sanscrit the country of the Muggaloo, which has been trans- * Some account of the change made by the lat© war with E. I. C. Kingdora o{ Cassay. 270 BOOK PIFTY-FinST. formed into Meckley. It was formerly an independent state. Its capital, Munna- poora, is large and flourishing.* The inhabitants call themselves Moytai. Kinsdotn of The kingdom of Cachar, (or Katchar,) which we have already men- cachar, tionedf as usually subject to the Birmans, adjoins Cassay. The capital is Kaspoor, called Kospetir by the Portuguese historian Juan de Barros. The inha- bitants are of Hindoo extraction, and are called Banga in their own language, and Aikobah by the Birmans. Kingdom of The kingdom of Arracan, properly called Rokhang, between Ava Afracan. ^^^ Bengal, is a continuation of the Chittagong plain, bounded on the east by a range of mountains, the southern part of v/hich runs parallel to the sea coast, at a distance sometimes of 100, sometimes of only ten miles. From Chit- tagong it could not be entered by an army, except along the sea beach. The shore is studded with numerous islands and rocks, from which the country is seen, agree- ably diversified with wooded hills and dales, and enlivened with numerous torrents. The river of Arracan is said to have a good entrance, without bar or shoals ; and its situation, in a rich and wooded country, intermediate between Pegu and Bengal, would make it a good station for a timber depot : but it has never been accurately explored, though the English had a factory here in the ISth century. During the south-west monsoon, however, the current and the wind would render it difficult for a vessel to get out of this river. The interior of the province is little known, but is supposed to be similar to that of Chittagong. The maritime tract maintains a con- siderable intercourse with Bengal, especially with Chittagong, to which it exports small horses, ivory, wax, gold, and silver. The viceroy or rajah is always the chief merchant. During peace, merchants travel over from tho cities of Ava, and fit out forty or fifty boats tor Bengal, each of which carries a cargo valued at 4000 rupees, chiefly in silver bullion. One half of them regularly return with red betel nut, chiefly from Luckipoor, where they farm the plantations of this article. Rice is also exported from Arracan, and from the contiguous islands, which are uncommonly fruitful. There is also, during the north-east monsoon, a general coasting trade along this shore, between the southerly and easterly parts of the Birman coast and Calcutta, including all the intervening sea-ports. The province of Arracan, how- ever, has of late years suffered most calamitious alterations, in consequence of the increasing tyranny of the government. An insurgent of the name of Kingberring had in 1812 destroyed nearly all the cattle, the grain, and the orchards. — The na- tives are Buddhists in religion. Their language is monosyllabic. The have great difficulty in pronouncing any word ending with a consonant. They were long inde- pendent, previously to their subjugation by the Birmans ; and, though invaded by the Moguls and the Peguans, had never been so far subdued as to acknowledge vas- salage to a foreign power. The province is governed by a viceroy, called the May- woon. In 1783 it was incorporated with the Birman government. In 1811 the insurgent, Kingberring, subjected the whole province, but was defeated in that and the following year. No quarter was given in this contest, and entire villages were exterminated. The refugee Arracaners, called Mughs, are said not to be encou- raged by the British, into whose dominions they have retired ; but their determined character, and the extreme unhealthiness of their haunts to all who enter them from the west, render it a very difficult and expensive undertaking to expel them. The City or Arra- city of Arracan is in latitude 29° 40' N. and longitude 93° 6' E. It has *'*"• a fort in the middle, surrounded by houses, except on the north-east, where it has a large lake. The Birmans found considerable booty when they took this place in 1^83. The object which they valued most was a brazen and highly burnished statue of Gaudma, about ten feet high, which had been for centuries visited by venerating pilgrims from remote countries, being considered as a direct copy of the original Rishi, taken from the life. This statue, along with five gigantic images of Racshyas, or demons, and an enormous gun, thirty feet in length, were carried off in triumph to Ummerapoor by water. • Asiatic Researches, vol. v. p. 223. f See p. 172 of this volume. THE BIRMAN EMPIRE. 271 Cheduba i«> land. Kingdom of Ava. The old capi- tal. Tt consisted On the Arracan coast is the island of Cheduba, the most westerly of a considerable cluster of inhabited and fertile islands. It is said to have a good harbour. The channel between it and the main land is navigated by boats, but not safe for large vessels. It is governed by a Chekey or lieutenant, deputed by the Birman government. The kingdom of Ava, separated from Arracan by the Anoopectoo- miu mountains, includes a vast extent of territory, the interior of which, lying towards Yunnan, is almost entirely unknown to Europeans. The ancient capital, Ava, is now in ruins ; the materials of the houses, whic chiefly of wood, having been removed to the new city of TJmmerapoor ; but the ground still retains traces of former streets and houses, and the walls of the forts and the embankments by which they are connected with the country, are conspicuous. There are also several temples standing, two of which are eminently sacred ; the one containing a statue of Gaudma, twenty-four feet high, formed of a single block of marble, and called Logatherow Praw ; the other, Shoe-gunga Praw, is the favour- ite place for the administration of the most important oaths. These temples suffer a gradual decay, no violence having been offered to them. The whole scene exhi- bits a striking assemblage of ruins, the ponderous monuments of human labour being overrun with ivy, brambles, and other wild vegetation. The modern capital Ummerapoor, four miles east from the preceding, ^g'JJf^^^'' stands on the banks of a deep and extensive lake. Its site being quite capital, peninsular during the periodical floods, exhibits a splendid appearance, from the num- ber and variety of the boats, the great extent of the water, and the height of the surrounding mountains. Venice is the place with which it is most fitly compared. The fort is an exact square, with four principal gates, and a small one on both sides of each, making twelve in all. At each corner there is a large projecting bastion. It is respectable as an eastern fortification, and considered by the natives as impreg- nable, never having been assaulted by any enemy skilled in artillery tactics. The city has a few houses of brick and mortar, which belong to the royal family. All the houses are roofed with tile ; and it is the custom to have earthen pitchers filled with water standing on the roof to be ready for extinguishing accidental fires. The unbounded expenditure of gilding on the roofs of the religious buildings both without and within, gives the city an extraordinary degree of splendour. There is in some of the streets a brilliant display of Birman utensils, and silversmith's goods. In 1810, when Captain Canning visited the place, most of the shops had disappeared, and the entire city, including the fort and palaces, had been destroyed by fire. The royal library is in an angle of the fort, and consists of 100 ornamented chests, well filled with books of history, romance, medicine, music, and painting, but chiefly divinity. There are four magistrates, each of whom has a district of the city allotted to him, and a regular order of lawyers is attached to their courts of justice as agents and pleaders. Ummerapoor was founded in 1783 by the same monarch who after- wards capriciously abandoned it for a comparatively wretched situation higher up the river. In 1800 the population of Ummerapoor was estimated by Captain Coxe at 175,000, and the houses from 20,000 to 25,000 ; but in 1810, Captain Canning was of opinion that the population had diminished one half. Bamoo, in the northern quarter of the empire, is only twenty miles ] Bamoo. from the Chinese frontier, and was taken from that nation by the present Birman dynasty. It is in Lat. 24" N. and Long. 96° 56' E. Monchaboo, though a small place, is greatly venerated as the birth | Monchaboo, place of Alompra, and was the capital during his reign. Lat. 22° 40' N. Long. 96° 20' E. Chagaing, in Lat. 21° 54' and Long. 96°, is the great emporium for the cot- ton which is embarked for the Chinese market. It is a great religious resort on account of its numerous temples. It is celebrated for the manufacture of idols, and of fire works, particularly rockets of an uncommon size, in which the Binnans take great delight. Forty miles down the Irawaddy, are the splendid ruins of Pa- gahm, once the residence of a long line of kings, but abandoned as the metropolis in consequence of a supposed divine admonition. Long after this it continued to be the second city iu the empire ; but in 1809 it had been sacked by the insurgent Pretoleam wells. 372 BOOK FIFTY-FIRST. Nakonek. The remains of its innumerable temples prove it to have been a place of extraordinary splendour. Sillalunew was in 1795 a large town, embellished with temples, and famous for a manufactory of strong and richly coloured silks, but when visited by the British mission in 1809 it was found ruined and deserted, having, like the preceding, fallen a prey to the ravages of Nakonek. siiembigewn. | Shcmbigcwn, on the Irawaddy, is eight days' journey from Ummcra- poor. Here the road to Arracan branches off. Yanangheoom, another town a few miles from the former is chiefly inhabited by potters. Five miles east from Yanan- gheoom, are the celebrated pretoleum wells already mentioned, which are dug to a depth of thirty-seven fathoms, and about four feet wide. Iron pots are let down to receive the pretoleum. When the produce fails, the well is deepened through a hard rock, to renew the spring. This commodity, which is in great abundance, is sold very cheap on the spot. Its principal expense consists in the earthen pots which contain it, and the charge of carriage. Promc. I Prome, on the east side of the Irawaddy, in Lat 18° 50' N. and Long. 95° E. is on the boundary which separates Ava Proper from Pegu. In 1795 it was larger and more populous than Rangoon, and was supposed to contain 40,000 inhabitants, but in 1809 it was found deserted, its shops shut up, and the population consisting of old men, women, and children. Savage tribes. [ Ava Contains different half savage tribes. The southern forests are inhabited by a very peaceable race called the Kara'ines. The Kains, or Yoo, live in the hills between Ava and Arracan, forming four vassal principalities, and speak- ing a dialect of Birman.* The northern parts adjoining Thibet, are inhabited by the Leess. Lowashan. | The castcm parts of Ava are scarcely known, where the kingdom of Lowashan extends along the two sides of the river of Pegu. Two towns of this province are mentioned under the names of Quang-tong, and Chiamay. Near this last is a lake, which in the maps of the sixteenth century was grossly exaggerated in size, and described as the origin of four rivers of Ava, Pegu, Siam, and Cambo- dia ; an idea now rejected. In these obscure regions, old travellers mention a city and country under the name of Barma, or Brama, which they describe as a separate kingdom of Ava, and whose king sometimes carried on wars against the king of Ava.-f Kingdom of The kingdom of Pegu occupies the low lands watered by the Ira- I'egu. waddy, and the Tlialuyn, and comprehends the sea coast from Arracan to Siam. The name ai)pcars to be a corruption of Bagoo, the vulgar name of the capital. About a day's journey to the south of the capital, the country is much infested by elephants, which devastate the early crops of rice and sugar-cane. This country is relieved from many severe laws by which it was oppressed as a conquered country ; but still its native inhabitants are not admitted to places of trust and power. Con- taining much tinibcr, particularly teak, this province has long been famous for ship- building. The Arabs built vessels here in 1707. The inhabitants were more early civilized than the Birmans, and were once a powerful nation. Their language, which is called Mon, is quite original, being neither related to the Birman nor the Siamese. The country has continued in a state of great desolation since the sanguinary wars of the Birmans. In 1812, 3000 men were demanded as the quota of the thirty-two districts of Pegu, for the Arracan war; but it was found impossible to collect that number. City of Pegu. | The city of Pegu is ninety miles up the river from Rangoon. The fort and all the houses were destroyed by Alompra, and the people carried into cap- tivity; the temples alone were spared. About 1790, Mindcragee issued orders to rebuild the city. Several priests returned to it, a few poor families, and some fol- lowers of the court, as the viceroy fixed his residence here. The merchants and artizans continued to live at Raiiiioon. In 1795, its inhabitants were 7000. It is Country of liarma. "a Asiatic Kesearchcs, vol. v, t Mandelslo, Itin. p. 114, THE RIRMAN EMPIRE. 273 now fenced round with a stoccade eleven feet -high. The hoiiscs being rxtremely combustible, a long hook is placed at each door for pulling down (he thatch in case of fire, to prevent it from spreading. The most remarkable object at Temple of this place is Shoemadoo, the only temi)le which has been kept in repair, shoemadoa It consists of a solid pyramid. The diameter at the base is 162 feet. At the base it is octagonal, and spiral at the top. Its height is 361 feet. On the top is a tee or gallery, in the form of an umbrella, fifty-six feet in circumference, supported by iron pillars, the whole being superbly gilt. The building is of brick and mortar. Its name seems to be compounded of shoe, the term for gold, and madoo, a contraction for jMahadeo. It is said to have been built 600 years before Christ. It seems to have been known to Marco Polo. He describes the mausoleinn erected by a king of Mien, the towers of which were covered with gold, and adorned with a multitude of small silver bells, which, when moved by the wind, omitted agreeable sounds. These towers were of a pyramidal form. If these delineations are not sufficient to show that this traveller described the temple of Shoemadoo, they prove, at least, that the taste of the Peguans in architecture has not changed for several ages. The principal sea-port of the empire is Rangoon in Pegu. The en- I sea-pnrts. trance of the river, below this place, resembles that of the Ganges, but | ^^''K'""'' is more commodious for navigation. The town stretches about a mile along the banks of the river, and is not more than a third of a mile broad. In 1795, it con- tained 5j00 taxable houses. In 1S12, they had been reduced to 1500, by fire and bad government. A little above the mouth of the Pegu river is Siriam, formerly one of the chief ports of the kingdom. It was a place of considerable trade while the Portuguese first, and afterwards the Dutch, had a factory at it. It was the mart for riibies, and there was a great exportation of the earthern ware, the tin and rice of Martaban, the capital of an ancient kingdom, and a much frequented harbour before the Birman monarch shut it up. The same trtlde was also carried on at Tavoy. Among the places taken by the Birmans from the king of Siam to the | southern pr€>- south of Pegu, are Tavoy and Tenasserim, each of which names is ap- | ^'"'^'* phed to a country, a river, and a town. Below the city of Tenasserim, about six miles from the mouth of the river of that name, is the sea-port of Mergui, which is governed by an officer sent from the Birman capital. At this place, a number of Mahometans are settled, and some Romish Christians, who have a priest and a church. The Mergui islands, an archipelago extending along this coast | Mergui. 135 miles, arc not inhabited, though the soil is said to be fertile. To the south of these is the island of Junkseylon, about fifty-four | Junkseylon. miles long and fifteen broad, separated from the main-land by a shallow channel, a mile in breadth, which is nearly dry at low water. It has a harbour called Popra at the north end, which may be entered over a mud bar during the spring tides, by ships drawing twenty feet of water. The anchorage round the island is generally good. It was a place of great trade previously to the establishment of Prince of Wales' Island. It has valuable tin mines, which are worked by the natives ; the metal is smelted by the Chinese. Its chief town is Terrowa. It was taken from the Siamese in 1810. It now forms the southern extremity of the Birman empire, and is inha- bited by a mixture of Malays, Chinese, Siamese, and Birmans. It is governed by a mayoon sent from Ava, who watches with jealousy the approach of any European ship of war, but merchant ships readily obtain refreshments on reasonable terms. The Birmans differ remarkably in physical and in moral character from the Hindoos. Lively, impatient, active, and irascible, they have none of the habitual indolence of the natives of Indostan, nor are they addicted to that gloomy jealousy which prompts so many eastern nations to immure their females in the solitudes of a haram. The sexes have equally free intercourse as in Europe, but they treat the women as an inferior order of beings. Their testimony in a court of justice is less valued. They are often sold or lent to strangers without blame or scruple. They are much engaged in labour, and, on the whole, faithful to the con- jugal tie. The Birmans participate of the Chinese physiognomy. The women, especially in the northern parts, are fairer than those of the Hindoos, but less deli- cately formed. The men are not tall, but active and muscular. They pluck their Vol. II.— M m Character of the Birmans. 2T4 BOOK FIFTY-FIRST. ■? beards, and thus give themselves a youtmul appearance. Both men and women colour the teeth and the edges of the eye-lids with black. Marriages are not con- tracted before puberty. Polygamy is prohibited, but concubinage is admitted with- out limitation. The bodies of the dead are burned. They are less delicate and cleanly in their eating than the Hindoos. They kill no domestic animals, being pro- hibited by their religion, but make abundant use of game. The lower orders eat lizards, guanas, and snakes. They are very indulgent to the manners and customs of strangers. The sitting posture is reckoned among them the most respectful, though this mark of deference has been mistaken by some strangers for an expres- sion of insolence. Language. | The PaU language is that of the sacred text of Ava, Pegu, and Siam. The Birman dialect has borrowed the Sanscrit alphabet. The character in common use is a round Nagari, consisting of curves following the analogies of the square Pali.* It is written from left to right, like the languages of Europe. The common books are composed of the palmyra leaf, on which the letters are engraved with stiles, and are better executed than those of the Hindoos. Sometimes they write on plates of gilded sheet iron. I In a Birman version of the Lord's prayer, the mission- aries could scarcely discover three genuine Sanscrit words ; but many syllables are found coinciding with those of the colloquial dialect of the Chinese. A knowledge of letters is very generally diffused. Many read and write the vulgar tongue, though few understand the learned and sacred volumes. The Birmans are fond of poetry and music, and in the latter, make use of an instrument formed of a series of reeds, on the principle of Pan's reed. They possess epic and religious poems of great celebrity, and recite in verse the exploits of their heroes. Colonel Symes was asto- nished at the number of books contained in the royal library, where the contents of each chest are written on the outside in letters of gold. Calendar. | The Birman year is -divided into twelve months of twenty-nine and thirty days alternately, and every third year is made up by an intercalary month. They reckon the days of the month from the first of the moon to the full, and then in a retrograde order from the full to the next new moon. The Birmans excel in the art of gilding. The capital maintains a considerable commercial intercourse with Yunnan, the nearest province of China. It exports cotton, amber, ivory, rubies, sapphires, and betel nuts ; birds and edible nests from the Eastern Islands ; and receives in return raw or manufac- tured silk, velvets, gold leaf, paper, sweat-meats, and a variety of hardware. By the river Irawaddy there is a great inland trade in the transport of rice, salt, and pickled sprats from the lower provinces, to support the capital and northern districts. Some foreign articles are brought by Arracan, and carried over the mountains by men, but the greater part by the Irawaddy. Broad cloth, some hardware, coarse muslins, Cossimbazar silk handkerchiefs, china-ware, and glass, are the leading com- modities. Some lac, silver, and precious stones are exported. In 1795 the quan- tity of timber exported to Madras and Calcutta amounted to a value of £200,000 sterling. About 3000 tons of shipping are, in peaceable times, built in this country, and sold in different parts of India. The maritime ports of this empire are more commodiously situated than those of any other power, particularly the harbour of Negrais. The currency consists of silver, bullion, and lead, in small pieces ; as the Birmans, like the Chinese, have no coin. Religion. | Tlie religion of the Birmans is that of Buddha, whom they worship under the name of Gaudma, identical with the Gautama or Godama of the Hindoos. The Rhahaans, or priests, dress in yellow like the Chinese bonzes, and resemble them in many of their customs. Their kiooms, or convents, resemble Chinese build- ings, being made of wood, with one large hall in the interior. They have no private apartments, publicity being the prevailing system, and no secrets admitted either in church or state. They profess celibacy and abstemiousness. They take only one meal daily, which is about noon. They do not dress their own food, an occupation which * Mdm. de 1' Acad, des Sciences, 1729. tome vil. Sme partie, p. 818. f AniKil. Chihoises, quoted by Klaproth, Archives de la Literature Orientale, i. p. 137. Manufactures and commerce. THE BIRMAN EMPIllE. 2f5 they reckon incompatible with the mental contemplations incumbent on them. They receive daily tlie contributions of the people ready dressed, generally consisting of boiled rice mixed with oil, dried and pickled lish, sweetmeats, and fruit. They pre- fer cold food to warm. While perambulating the town in the morning, to receive the supplies for the day, they look straight forward to the ground, never turn their eyes aside, do not solicit any thing, and scarcely look at the donors. Their super- fluity is bestowed on needy strangers and poor scholars. These rhahaans, or tala- poins, as they are also called, have composed many books of morality. They never interfere in political disputes ; and, during the sanguinary contests of the Birmans and Peguans, were always respected by both parties, to whatever country they themselves belonged. They pay a certain respect to the Hindoo Brahmins, though they do not follow their doctrines. They have none of their pride of caste, their unnatural self-tortures, and other repulsive usages ; and on the whole, Buddhism wears a more favourable aspect in this than in other countries where it is maintained. The Birmans are extremely fond of religious processions ; and they place a great merit in the building of temples, neglecting, however, the keeping up of those which exist. Hence the country exhibits numerous edifices of this sort in a state of pro- gressive decay, while new ones are erected in their immediate neighbourhood. Their legal code is one of the commentaries on Menu. Their sys- | Laws. tern provides specifically for almost every conceivable crime : it admits trial by ordeal, and imprecation. On the subject of females it is offensively minute. It is a singular fact, that the first version of Sir William Jones's translation of the insti- tutes of Hindoo law was made into the Birman language by an Armenian, for the use of the Birman sovereign, in 1795. In the Birman empire, the sovereign is completely despotic. When | Government, any thing belonging to him is mentioned, the epithet " golden" is attached to it. When he is said to have heard any thing, " it has reached the golden cars:" a per- son admitted to his presence " has been at the golden feet:" the perfume of roses is described as grateful to " the golden nose." The sovereign is sole proprietor of all the elephants in his dominions ; and the privilege to keep or ride on one is only granted to men of the first rank. No honours are hereditary. All offices and dig- nities depend immediately on the crown. The tsaloe, or chain, is the badge of no- bility; and superiority of rank is signified by the numl)er of cords or of divisions. The council of state consists of the princes of the royal family. Men of rank have tlieir barges dragged by war boats, common water-men not being admitted into the same boat with them. Temporary houses ai-e built for them at the places where they mean to stop in travelling. A singularly absurd custom takes place in this country in certain forms of political homage shown to a white elephant, a preternatural animal kept for the purpose, superbly lodged near the royal palace, sumptuously dressed and fed, provided with functionaries like a second sovereign, held next in rank to the king, and superior to the queen, and made to receive presents and other tokens of respect from foreign ambassadors. The court of Ava is fully as proud as that of Pekin. The sovereign ] The court, acknowledges no equal. The punctilios of ceremony are numerous, and rigidly followed; and the utmost guardedness is observed in any diplomatic intercourse with foreign stales. The manners of the great are often pleasing, but they | The great, arc crafty; and the tenures by which they hold their oflices render them rapacious. Obliged to give large presents to the king, they have recourse to extortion, specula- tions in trade, and almost universal monopoly. Great vicissitudes of fortune are occasioned by royal caprice. Colonel Symes rated the popidation of the Birman dominions at [ Population, seventeen millions; Captain Cox, the next ambassador, at no more than eight, and Captain Canning believed that even this estimate exceeded the truth. A country rich by nature, and capable of a high state of prosperity under tolerable manage- ment, has been wretchedly desolated by a barbarous government. Here every man is a soldier, and liable to be called out on military | Army, duty. The only standing army consists of a few undiscii)lined native Christians and Honours of llie while cle- pliant. Political im portance. 276 Booiv FirTY-riiisT. renegadoes from other countries, who act as artillery; a very small body of cavalry, and about 2000 miserable infantry. The armies are composed of levies raised on the spur of the occasion by the princes and lords, who hold their lands on this con- dition. They have never exceeded 60,000 men. The family of each soldier is responsible for his good behaviour, and the whole are put to death when he proves guilty of cowardice or desertion. The infantry are armed with muskets and sabres ; the cavalry, who are all natives of Cassay, carry spears seven or eight feet long. The most respectable part of the Birman military force consists of war-boats, which are furnished and manned by the different towns in the vicinity of the river, in num- bers proportioned to their respective sizes. Formerly tlie king could on a short notice command 500 of these boats. They carry forty or fifty rowers, each armed with a sword and lance, about thirty soldiers with muskets, and a piece of ordnance on the prow. They make an impetuous attack, and use grapples for boarding; but lying deep in the water, they are easily run down and sunk by the impulse of anotlier of larger size. Revenue. | Thc king claims one-tenth of all the produce, and the same amount on all imports. The revenue arising from customs is mostly taken in kind ; a small part of it is converted into cash; the rest is distributed in lieu of salaries to the va- rious departments of the court. Money is never, except on the most pressing occa- sions, disbursed from the royal coffers. Insatiable hoarding is here, as in other oriental countries, a standing maxim of state policy; and the riches actually in the possession of this monarch must be immense ; but how heavily must the wheels of commerce move, and how low, comparatively, must thc scale of national wealth and power stand, when maxims so narrow and absurd fetter every part of the ma- chine ! By some this empire has been regarded as a formidable barrier to the progress of British ambition and cupidity in an easterly direction. Thc unsatisfactory nature of these extended continental possessions will probably of itself limit that ambition, especially where the field becomes comparatively new, and where farther extension does not promise to contribute to the permanent retention of their present possessions, but must rather, on the contrary, expose them to new dangers. In its present state this empire is a very desirable barrier between the British and the Chinese governments, being too weak to offer serious molestation to a powerful neighbour, and too inhospitable to afford temptation to an invading army. It is now like the deserts that separate the Chinese from the Russian dominions. If this is an advantage to the repose of a great portion of the world, humanity must regret that it assumes this character, by giving rise to so large a portion of misery and desolation within itself. Yet perhaps the most sanguine political Quixote would find it a diffi- cult task to sketch even in theory, a plan on which the Birman dominions could be put in possession of the blessings of political and civil prosperity, consistently with the maintenance of a liberal and safe line of conduct on the part of the regenerators. Protestant In ISIO there were four Protestant missionaries in Ava, a country missionaries. -which, from the maxims of toleration established in it, seemed to afford a fair field for the operation of rational instruction : but thc progress made seems to have been inconsiderable; and, in a government so capricious and despotic, the policy on the head of toleration may be suddenly reversed, as soon as prejudice or malice, conceived by interested individuals, may choose to represent the spread of new opi- nions as a ground of political alarm. The chief safety of these benevolent indivi- duals is probably derived from the respect paid to the British power, as established in the immediate vicinity. Adjoining Thcrc is a chain of islands extending from Point Ncgrais, in Pegu, islands. to the noith end of the island of Sumatra, in a line parallel to the shore of the Birman peninsula, which has been considered by some as a desirable station for any enterprising European country, entertaining an ambition to open a commer- cial intercourse with the Birman empire. This chain is divided into two groups, thc Andaman and Nicobar islands. The Anda- I The Andauiaus, on the north, are the largest group of the two. Under ""*"'■ 1 this name they were known to thc Arabians in the ninth century. The THE BIRMAN EMPIRE. 277 largest island is about 140 miles long, and not more than twenty-two in its greatest breadth. It is indented with deep bays, forming excellent harbours, and divided by largo gulfs, one of which is navigable for small vessels, and almost crosses the island, according to the charts prior to that which Dalrymple has attached to the narrative of Col. Symes. In this last we find the island divided into three by very narrow chan- nels. The maps of the 16th century also represent it as a long chain of small islands. The soil consists of a strong stratum of blackish earth ; the j Productions, ropks are a white quartz. We are informed that it contains some mineral products, and, among the rest, quicksilver.* There are extensive forests, containing some valuable trees ; such as the ebony, and the mellori, or bread-fruit tree of Nicobar. The only quadrupeds found hero are wild hogs, monkeys, and rats. The sea abounds in fish, among which are mullet, soles, and excellent oysters. The inhabitants of the Andamans are low in civilization, and probably | inhabitants, cannibals. Their antipathy to strangers is singularly strong, and it must be allowed that it has been in some measure justified by atrocities committed by piratical crews. They have woolly hair, the negro countenance, and the ferocious and crafty charac- ter of the negro race. Their barbarous language resembles no dialect either of Indos- tan or Chin-India.f They seem to belong to the great negro race of Oceanica spread over New Guinea and Van Diemen's land. These savages scarcely knew how to build a boat, or to manage a rope : but they have acquired a little more civi- lization in consequence of an English establishment having been formed on the great Andaman, to which some criminals have been sent from Bengal. The Nicobar islands form three small groups. The most northerly is called Car-Nicobar. Next to these are the Nicobars Proper, three in number, forming jointly a large and excellent harbour. The Sambelong islands are the most southerly. All these islands produce plenty of cocoas, areca, | Productions, sugar canes, Laurus cassia, excellent teak wood, and sassafras of the best aromatic quaUty.J The tree called by the natives larum, and mdlori by the Portuguese, bears a fruit superior to the bread tree of Otaheite, from which it differs in botanical character. The cattle brought to them from Europe have multiplied amazingly, and the edible birds' nests, so much esteemed in China, abound both here and in the An- damans. The inhabitants are copper-coloured, with small oblique eyes. | inimbitanis. Attached to their dress is a small stripe of cloth hanging behind, which gave origin to the absurd stories of an ignorant Swedish ;!ailor Keeping, who induced Linnajus to infer the existence of a race of men with tails. Their language and origin have not yet been investigated; but they are conjectured to be of Peguan descent. The Danes are the acknowledged masters of these islands ; and formed on the isle of Kamorta a small establishment which they called New Zealand, but afterwards gave up to a Moravian fraternity. The Austiians proposed to found a colony here in 1778; but they yielded to the claims of Denmark. To the east of these islands, and belonging to neither, though nearest | Barren island, to the Andamans, being at a distance of seventy miles, is the picturesque volcano of Barren Island, which emits a reddish-coloured lava. • Hamilton, ii. 68. 8vo. edit, quoted by Walckenaer. t Colebrook and Fontana. Asiat. Researches, vol. ill. and iv. Syme's Embassy to Ava» p. 127—138. \ Prahl. Present Stale of the Nicobar Islands, ch. 17. (Copenhagen, 1804, in Danish.) Nicobar islands. 278 BOOK FIFTY-SECOND. BOOK LII. CHIN-INDIA. Country of Lac-Tho. PART 11. Tlie kingdoms of Laos, Tonquin, Cochin-China, Cambodia, Slam, JVlalacca, and the Interior. When we direct our views to the central parts of the Chin-Indian region, the lights of geography become feebler and feebler, and at last entirely desert us. Kingdom of We are totally unable to fix the locality of the kingdom of Yangoma, Yangoma. which is governed by a Buddhist priesthood, abounds in rice, in the no- ble metals, in benzoin, in musk, which is exported from it to Ava, and above all, ce- lebrated for the beauty and gallantry of its women, who are much in request with the voluptuous monarchs of the neighbouring countries. D'Anville's map places Yan- goma near the sources of the western branch of the Meinam, or river of Siam. In other modern maps it is left out, as too uncertain to be admitted. It is only by conjecture that we assign the situation of the country of Lac-Tho, which, according to a recent traveller, lies to the north of Laos, between Tonquin and China. According to this traveller, or rather the reports which he has collected, it is a table-land without rivers,* but a moist soil, abounding in bamboos, and laid out in rice fields.t This country, which contains no towns, exports buffaloes and raw cotton, J in exchange for salt and silk manufactures. The people wear cotton stuffs and the bark of a particular tree ; they labour under the un- fortunate effects of a perpetual civil war, carried on among the hereditary chiefs to whom they are subject. Over these the king of Tonquin exercises a nominal sove- Mannersof Uie reignty. Somc of the Lac-Tho tribes are said to live in all the simplicity inhabitants. ^f g^ golden age; families possess their goods in common; the crops are left in the fields without protection ; the doors of the houses are kept open day and night ; strangers are welcomed, and treated with cordial hospitality ; and passengers are allowed to make free use of the fruits as they go along.§ This vague descrip- tion obliges us to consider Lac-Tho as nothing else than Laos, under the Chinese appellation of Lac-Tchoo. Still it may be said, that we know not for certain that this Chinese term really appUes to Laos. The map of d'Anville shows that he hesi- tated on that point. A traveller possessing sufficient courage and address to find his way by the inte- rior of the Birman dominions, would make interesting discoveries by directing his course, to the east through the province of Yangoma, and penetrating the almost un- known territory called the kingdom of Laos. It lies north-east from Siam, and due north from Cambodia. According to received opinion, it is watered by a large river, and this is concluded to be the upper part of the river of Cambodia. The Dutch envoy, Wusthof, went up the river in a boat, and met with great cataracts. || Marini agrees with that traveller, and places the sources of this river in the Chinese province of Yunnan. IT A Portuguese traveller went from China to Laos by descending a river and crossing a lake.** M. de la Bissachere, in contradiction to these assertions, tells us, that in Laos there is no sort of river. Pcr- • La Bissachere, Etat du Tonquin, i. p. 19. t Ibid. i. p. 246, p. 144. + Ibid. p. 200, p. 75. § Ibid. ii. 60, 61. i Valentyn, Oud-und-Niew-Ostindien, iv. Description de Cambodje, p. 51. Tl Marini, Relation du Royaume de Laos, cli. i. •* Jarric, Thesaurus Reruru ludicarum, i. lib. 2, ch. 25. Kingdom of 1.809. Towns and provinces. LAOS. 279 hapg these differences will bo reconciled by farther discoveries. Laos is separated from all the adjoining states by high mountains and thick forests. Respecting its fertihty, accounts differ. La Bissachere says that a tenth part of the [ Productions, land is under cultivation, and that rice is the only produce.* Wusthof and Marini describe it as abounding in provisions both of the animal and vegetable kingdom. The rice which it produces is esteemed the best in all these countries. Leguminotis crops are cultivated in great quantities. Many buffaloes are reared. For the gra- tification of luxury, it affords benzoin, musk, gold, and precious stones, especially rubies, topazes, and pearls. The gum lac of Laloo is above all so highly valued, that the merchants of Cambodia go thither in quest of it, although a very good arti- cle is produced in their own country. AVe are told that elephants are so plenty in the forests of Laos, that the country derives its name from that circumstance. The greater part of the trade of these countries is in the hands of the Tonquinese and Chinese. But the Siamese were once in the practice of repairing to them in cara- vans of wagons drawn by buffaloes, making a journey of two months. Silks and salt are sold here. The latter article is said to have once brought its weight in gold.t Marini says there are seven provinces, but does not give their names. Wusthof mentions three as governed by three vassal princes. In the time of Kiempfer, the principal towns of the country were called Lant-Shang (which Marini has converted into Langione) and Tsiamaya : to these our modern maps add Sandepora. The Chinese told Duhalde that the word JVEohang signified a town in the language of Laos, and that the name of the capital was Mohang-Leng. This is probably the Lant-Shang of Koempfer, and the capital of the province of Lantkian mentioned in the report of the Dutch envoy. But this traveller calls the capital Winkian. It was surrounded with a wall of reddish stone ; had a garrison of 50,000 men, and a splendid court. M. de la Bissachere, on the contrary, says, that Laos contains only one small town called Tranmah, containing 4000 or 5000 Tonquinese and Chinese. From this we may conclude the whole of that missionary's account of Laos to be apocryphal, or only to apply to some small corner invaded by the king of Tonquin. The inhabitants seem to resemble the southern Chinese. Their com- | inhabitants, plexions are olive. They have vigorous constitutions, a good physiognomy, and gentle and sincere dispositions ; but are prone to superstition and debauchery. Hunt- ing and fishing ai'e almost their only occupations. The country is divided into several small kingdoms, subject to an ab- | Government, solute sovereign, who, according to old accounts, shows himself in public only twice in the year, and is generally the mere tool of his priests and ministei's. The heads of families are also invested with great power. The talapoins or priests, | Priesthood, the chief of whom takes the title of raja, or king, stand in no awe of the civil autho- rity, lead licentious lives, and oppress both the people and the nobles. But we must not give implicit credit to these assertions of Marini. According to the Dutch ac- counts, these talapoins indulged in bantering verses at the expense of the mission- aries. " You see," said they, " that we are in possession of a very complete system of religion ; pagodas with gilded spires, pyramids, images of deities covered with gold, and regular ceremonies of devotion. Wc, talapoins, are a powerful, rich, and happy priesthood : before you preach to us a change of religion, condescend to learn our language, wear our dress, live among us, follow our manners, join in our studies, enter our sacred orders ; and when you have made this fair trial, you shall be allowed to preach against us, and try to convert us to your faith." M. de la Bissachere says that at present Laos acknowledges the sovereignty of the king of Tonquin. To the east of Laos, and to the south of the Chinese provinces of Yun- | Tonquin. nan and Koansi, is the country which we call the kingdom of Tonq,uin, bordering the gulf of the same name. Its true name is Anam, or Aynam.'l Tonquin is the name of the capital. • La Bissachere, Etat du Tonquin, i. p. 147. t Valentyn, p. 53. t Valentyn, Lettre d'un roi de Tonquin a un gouverneur de Batavia. 280 BOOK FIFTY-SECOND. The typhoiM of the Gulf of Tonquin. bj a small The Gulf of Tonquin, and the adjacent seas, are remarkable for dread- ful whirlwinds, called typhous. After calm weather, they are announced )lack cloud in the north-east part of the horizon, with a copper-coloured margin, which gradually brightens till it becomes white and brilliant. This alarming symptom often precedes the hurricane twelve hours. These dreadful winds seem to arise from the mutual opposition of the north wind coming down from the moun- tains of the continent, and the south wind proceeding from the ocean. Nothing can exceed their fury. They are accompanied with dreadful thunder, lightning and heavy rain. After five or six hours a calm succeeds ; but the hurricane soon returns in the opposite direction, with additional fury, and continues for an equal interval.* Climate. | According to the accounts of the missionaries, the climate of Tonquin is constantly refreshed by the south and north winds. Rain falls from April to Au- gust, and is followed by a beautiful and abundant vegetation. On the north and west the country is skirted by mountains. The centre and sea coast present one exten- sive plain, which seems to owe its origin to the alluvial depositions of the ocean and the rivers. I These low lands are protected from the encroachments of the sea by numerous and extensive embankments, and are very productive in rice. In several places the sand and mud form a thin half fluid mixture with the sea water, where the Tonquinese creep along in a half sitting attitude on planks, engaged in fishing. From May to September the rivers overflow their banks. The principal river is the Sang- Koi, called in China, where it rises, the Kotikiang. It receives the Li-Sien. Proiiuetions. | The Tonquincsc cultivate potatoes, yams, plantains, rice, mangos, lemons, cocoa nuts, and pine-apples. They have excellent silk. The Tonquin oranges are the best in the world. The tea tree grows in great plenty, but it is not applied to use. Iron-wood, and several other valuable timber trees, grow on the mountains, while the areca palm, or betel nut tree, the Piper betle or betel leaf vine, indigo, and sugar canes, enrich the plains. Sheep and asses are here unknown. The forests are peopled with tigers, deer, antelopes, and monkeys, and the fields are covered with cattle, buffaloes, hogs, and winged game. Natural ^^^ natural history of this country consists of vague notices, furnished curiosities. by ill informed missionaries. When they boast of the wild bees, which, like those of Brazil, furnish a limpid and fragrant honey; when they complain of the devastations of the white ant; or the swarms of serpents which infest this marshy country, we recognise the stamp of truth in their artless descriptions. But, when they tell us that they saw monkeys which sung with all the melody of the nightin- gale, J we must suspect at least an illusion of imagination or of memory. The mineral kingdom presents iron in a very pure state, abundance of good copper, some tin, and gold, and a metal which, from the quaHties ascribed to it, appears to be zinc in the state of muriate or arseniate.§ The numerous caverns filled with sta- lactites indicate the calcareous nature of many of the mountains. Towns. j The capital of Anam is called Don-Kin, or "the Court of the East," which we have converted into Tonquin. It has now taken the official name of Bac- Kin, or "the Court of the North," but it is commonly known by the people under the name of Kescho. It stands on the river Sang-KoY, 110 miles from the sea, and is said to equal Paris in size, || though it only contains 40,000 inhabitants, IT a great proportion of the ground being taken up with wide streets and gardens. The palaces of the king and mandarins are the only buildings formed of so durable a material as sun-dried brick, and those of the sovereign are distinguished by the form of squares. Besides the capital, there are the cities of Han-Vints of 20,000 inhabitants ; Tranash of 15,000; Kausang of 8000; Hun-Nam of 5000; the last being the same with Hean, where the Dutch had their factory. In the cultivated part of the country the villages are closet ogether, and the highway presents an uninterrupted succession of houses and gardens planted with the various palms. Of the provinces, we shall only particularize Boschin, on the Chinese boundary. • Pennant's Outlines of the Globe, iii. p. 76. f La Rissachere, Etat du Tonquin, i. p. 46, &c. t Ibid. 5. p. 94. § Ibid. i. p. S3. II Richard, Hist, du Tonquin, i. p. 36. H La Bissachcre, i. 73. TONQUIX. 281 Govcrnmeht. History. Tonquin, separated from China in 13G8, preserved tlioso forms of pa- triarchal despotism which dis^tingnisli the great nations of Asia. Rank, honours, and wealth, are concentrated in the mandarin, literary and military. The "king's men" form a race superior to the rest of tlio nation. The dynasty of Le governed for many ages with all the wisdom and all the benignity that despotism can admit of. But one of the great officers of the crown, the Shooa or Shuarua, a sort of mayor of the palace, having become hereditary, and placed himself at the head of the army and of the principal revenues, soon reduced the bova or king to the mere shadow of a monarch. Cochin-China was separated, and it formed, under the dy- nasty of N'guyen, a kingdom lirst tributary to Tonquin and afterwards its rival. The civil wars which broke out about the middle of last century, on the ascension of a Shooa, gave the king an opportunity of resuming the supreme power. With a view to revive his claims to Cochin-China, he interfered in the internal revolutions of tliat country, and, with warm though interested zeal, attacked the usurpers of the throne of N'guyen. One of these usurpers in revenge invaded Tonquin, where he destroyed the house of Le, and established himself in the sovereignty, retaining also that of the greater part of Cochin-China. The rightful heir of the latter, however, succeeded, by dint of perseverance, in re-conquering his kingdom ; and pursuing his usurpers into the heart of Tonquni, made himself master of that country, w4hch he kept, under the pretext that the house of Le was extinct. Thus, this prince, Ong- N'guyen-Shoong, the Shang-Shong of some authors, now reigns over all the ancient kingdom of Annam, to which ho has added Lac-Tho, Laos, and Cam- Empire of bodia. But the national hatred of the Cochin-Chinese against the ^"■"""' Tonquinese ; the insubordination of Laos and other parts of the interior ; the sup- posed existence of an heir to the house of Le ; and the death of the princes who were the immediate heirs of the throne of N'guyon-Shoong, are circumstances which compel us to regard the Annamitic empire as a mere passing meteor. The Tonquinese have flat and oval countenances, lighter complexions The Tonqui. than the other Indian nations, and black, long, and thick hair. Their ""^' whole dress consists of a robe which reaches their heels. Their monosyllabic lan- guage is derived from the Chinese, from whicli however it is distinguished by the possession of a number of compound words, and by aspirate and hissing sounds, which are wanting in the Chinese.* The Tonquinese have also changed the written character, or perhaps they have preserved one which has gone into disuse in China. Their literature is supposed to be rich in works of eloquence. For six centuries they have committed the history of their country to \vriting. Though less refined than the Chinese, this nation seems to possess a greater degree of moral vigour. They have exhibted an impetuous bravery, and their history records some splendid instances of heroism and generosity. They are described as hospitable, faithful in friendship, and entertaining great respect for civil justice ;"f yet they are accused of vanity, fickleness, dissimulation, and revenge. J Living under an absolute despo- tism, the Tonquinese have probably few virtues and few vices but what are common to them with their neighbours. Their army, which amounts to 100,000 seaand land men, often beats the Chinese. Their navy, consisting of 200 galleys, *"'^'"* is remarkable for nothing except the employment of a sort of Grecian fire which burns under water. § Here, as in China, the monarch annually celebrates a festival in ho- nour of agriculture. Polygamy exists in all its latitude. JNo woman claims the rights generally attached to matrimony, and they are discarded by the men at pleasure. The marriages are made without priests, but the consent of pa- rents is essential. Barrenness is here a great reflection on any family, but the mix- ture of many children of difierent mothers occasions no inconvenience. || The pomp of the burials, the elegance of the coffins, the superstitious selection of particular • Alex. Rhodes, Dictionarium Anamiticum. Roma, 1653. Hervas, Saggio Practice, p. 134. Valentyn, Descript. du Tonquin, p. 6. f LaBissachcre, ii. p. 36, &c. + Marini, Relation du Tonquin, p. 64, 66, &c. (trad.Frans.) § La Bissach^re, i. 325. II Marini, p. 155. Vol. II.— N n Laws and cus- tOIIIS. 1^82 BOOK FIFTY-SECOND. situations for graves, and the festivals in honour of ancestors ; every thing, in short, reminds us of the funeral solemnities of the Chinese. They are fond of scenic re* presentations of the comic sort, dances, and cocking matches. Tiiey have also among them some of a tragic nature. Manufactures. "^he Touquinese succeed in the manufacture of silk and cotton goods, Commerce. muskcts, porcelain, Chinese paper, varnished furniture, and hardware. Their foreign trade consists of silks of all sorts, painted calico, earthen vessels, medical drugs, musk, ginger, salt, dye-woods, ^loe-wood, marble, alabaster, and var- tiished goods.* They keep up a great commercial correspondence with China. The Portuguese and Dutch, who attempted to form some commercial relations with Tonquin, were obhged to give them up ; nor have the French been more for- tunate. Since these attempts, their only connection with Europeans has consisted of some visits made by the English merchants of Madras, who have not followed up that intercourse with any steadiness. The Jesuit missionaries were completely ex- pelled in 1772. CochinCMna. j To the south of Tonquin we find Cochin-Ciiina, j the geography of which has been rendered obscure by the number of contradictory authors who have treated of it. This country, which was included along with Tonquin under the ge- Vncertainties I ^cral name of Annam, was separated from it 600 years ago. It is un- ftboutittname. [ certain under what name it was particularly designated, or is now by its own inhabitants. That of Annam is too extensive. That of Quinam, mentioned as the name of the kingdom by a good observer,J seems to belong only to the prin- cipal province.§ The Japanese call the country to the west of China Cotchin- Djina, and the Europeans have followed them. But a new question rises here. What are the limits of the country? The nature of the lands, and the limits occu- pied by a particular nation, have made the Europeans confine their application of the name of Cochin*China, or Southern Jlnnam, to the coast lying between Tonquin and Tsiompa, 300 miles in length, and varying from thirty to seventy in breadth. We shall not deviate from this convenient application of the term. If recent, and per- haps temporary conquests, have subjected the coasts of Cambodia to the king of Cochin-China, the name may still be employed with propriety to distinguish a nation which, as well as their country, is essentially different from the other. The geography of the provinces is still less satisfactory. Those who follow some modern travellers, in extending Cochin-China to the Cape of Cam- bodia, divide it into three parts — the high, the middle, and the low;\\ or (to use the native names) the province of Hue ; that of Shang, which is said to reach from the 12th to the 16th degree of latitude; and that of Donnai, which is identical with low Cambodia. Ancient travellers give Cochin-China a much more complicated, yet probably a more correct, though obscure division ; in which we have attempted to fix the following provinces, proceeding from north to south. Hue, Hoe,Tr or Toan Hoa,** separated from Tonquin by a narrow defile, which is closed up by a wall, contains a large city, with a royal fortified castle, the ordinary residence of the reigning monarch. This city, with a population of 30,000 souls, bears the name of Ke-Hoa in the popular dialect, and of Foo-Shooang in the language of the mandarins. The province of Quambin is in the mountains. That of Shang, (or, in the Portuguese orthography, Ciam,)!! less extensive by two- thirds than modern accounts represent it, contains the magnificent bay of Turon, frequented by the junks of the Chinese and other nations, surrounded by a pictu- resque and fruitful country, and receiving the waters of a river on which is situated the city of Tai-Foo, the centre of the commerce of Cochin-China. JJ It was in the • Valetyn, p. 5. p. 31, &c. 'J- For additional notices of Cochin-China, see note at the enc' of Book LII. PhiL Etl. i Wusthof, in Valentyn, iv. Description de Cambodia, p. 52, 53. § Alex, de Rhodes, Relation du Tonquin, au comm. I La Bissachere, i. p. 25. Harrow's Voyage to Cochin-China. ^ Valentyn, Descript. du Tonquin, iv. p. 2. •• Alex, de Rhodes, 1. c. ft D'Anville's Map of Asia. Valefltyn, 1. c. +t farrow's Voyage. Uncertainty of the interna- tional divi' •ions. Provinces aad towns. Coaats of Cc» chin-China. Allavial depa> sitiont. COCHIN-CHINA. 283 mountains of the south-west of Tai-Foo that the Dutch travellers met with the pro- vince or tributary principality of Tiam or Thiem, removed by d'Anville 160 miles to the north-west, because this geographer was not aware that Laos, from which Thiem has been disjoined, extends a great way south, between Cambodia and Cochin- China, coming almost in contact with Tsiompa.* On the sea shore we find the province of Quan-hia (or Quan-sia) with the city of Banbong. Next comes the rich and fine province of Quinam, or Quin-Nong,f with the city of the same name, containing 10,000 souls, and situated on the bay of Shin-shen. This is the ancient capital of the whole kingdom. The province Foy of the Dutch is called Phayn hy the missionaries. In that of Niaron we find the city of Din-Foan, probably the same with Qui-Foo, mentioned as a large town by a modern traveller.^ The pro- vince of Niatlang forms the southern extremity of Cochin-China. Raman, which d'Anville substitutes for this province, is merely a country town ; and the two dis- tricts of Dingoe and Dihheut belong to the province of Hue. There is no shore that suffers more perceptible encroachments from the sea than that of Cochin-China. M. Poivre found that, from 1744 to 1749, the sea had gained 190 feet from east to west. The rocks in the southern provinces are in unstratified masses, generally granite, and sometimes with perpendicular fissures. In the middle of the river of Hue-Hane, three miles up, there is an island of sand, from the centre of which rises a large and magnificent alabaster rock, which in several places is perforated quite across. It has got the name of the '* Hill of Apes." The coast generally presents sandy shores. In such places the anchoring ground extends a great way out, and consists of a miry sand mixed with shells. In some parts the beach is strewed with rounded pebbles. Opposite to such places the anchorage is rocky and bad. In those situations in which the shores are mountainous and steep there are no soundings. It is opposite to the sandy parts that madrepores and coral are found in spots separated from one another by short distances. Nature has divided this country into two distinct portions, the plain and the mountains. These last enjoy a steady temperate climate ; but to strangers they prove unhealthy, which has been supposed to be owing to an im- pregnation which the waters derive from decayed leaves and minerals. In these Uvo the savage tribes called Motjs or Kemoys, who worship the sun, and employ magical charms to preserve their rice fields from the depredations of elephants. They abound in tigers and monkeys. They contain some iron mines, which are worked. Pure gold is also found among them, and silver has lately been discovered. The princi- pal riches of the mountains are their forests, which produce rose-wood, iron-wood, ebony, sappan, sandal wood, eagle wood, and calambac — the last of which sells in China for its weight in gold.§ Biuh-Kiang is the place most favourable to the growth of the beautiful tree called Moexijlum verum, from which is obtained the resinous aromatic concretion called calambac, or in Cochin-Chinese kinam. Paper is made of the bark of the same tree. |j The common eagle-wood {hois tVaigle) is the pro- duce of trees of the genus AgaUockum. Other valuable substances are found here, such as gum lac, elaborated by insects on the Crohn lacciferum, and the sangvis draconis, obtained from various trees, the chief of which is the Draccuna ferrea ; and the tallow tree, or Sebifera glnlinosa of Loureiro, already mentioned. IT The plain is exposed to an unsupportable degree of heat in the months The low of June, July, and August, except in the places which are refreshed by '='•"'»"■>'• the sea breezes. In September, October, and November, the plentiful rains, which fall exclusively in the mountains, swell the numberless rivers with which the country is intersected; in an instant all the plain is inundated, the villages, and even the • Wusthof, in Valentyn. Descript. de Cambodia, p. 53. t The Quenia of Father Rhodes. t La Bissachere, i. § Charpentier-Cossigny, m^moire Inedit. cite par M. Blancard, Commerce des Indes et de la Chine, p. 344, &c. II Loureiro, Memorias da lu Academ. das Sciencias da Lisboa, ii. 205 — 213. Valentjn, and the notes on Barrow, in the French translation, written by the author of this work, 1 See page 265 of this vol. The high country. Tlieir man- ners, Religion 284 BOOK riFTY-SECOND. houses, are go many islets. Boats are navigated over the fields and hedges, and the children in small barks go out to fish for the mice, wliich cling to the branches of the trees. This is the season of inland commerce, large fairs, and popular fetes; but the cattle are sometimes drowned, and are picked up by the first who finds them. In the months of December, January, and February, the north wind brings with it cold rains, which are the only symptoms of winter. This plain produces an immense quantity of rice, of which there is a double harvest, and which sells at less than a penny per pound ; also maize, millet, several kinds of beans, and pumpkins ; all the fruits of India and China, a great quantity of sugar canes, the juice of which purified and formed into cakes, is exported to China,* particularly from the province of Shang;| areca nuts, betel leaf, cotton, silk of good quality, tobacco, and indigo. The Laurus myrrha'l gives a kind of cinnamon which, for its camphorated odour and saccharine flavour, is preferred among the Chinese to the cinnamon of Ceyion.§ The tea of Cochin-China would be excellent, if the^culture of it were more attended to. The plant called dinaxang, or green indigo, would of itself enrich any colony. The Cochin-Chinese have a small breed of horses; mules, asses, goats, and plenty of poultry. They derive a good aliment from Salicornue, Jlrenurm, and other saline plants, and the dillerent species of JJlvce, and Fuci, thrown out u])on their shores. The sea affords them fish, diflcrent species of the mollusca, particularly Holothurioc or Bichos-domar, which are greedily eaten by all the nations of the south-east of Asia. The islands of Cochin-China abound as much as any part of the eastern regions in the nests of the salangan swallow, or liirundo escidenta, which are so much in request among the epicures of China. Inhabitants. | This Country, wiiere so many interesting articles of produce attract the commerce of Europe, is peopled by one of the most active and lively nations of Asia. Their small figures and olive complexions give them no high place in the scale of beauty. The common people follow the rehgion of Buddha; the mandarins study the writings of Confucius. The Catholic faith had made some progress, and the rising church, even in a political point of view, claimed the protecting care of the European powers: but now, the death of the prince, who was a pupil of the bishop of Adran, has left it without support in the midst of perils and of obstacles. Had the principles of that communion, and the governments which are under .their influence, been more conspicuous for affording that generous tolerance of which they so greedily avail themselves Avhen they take up their residence in other countries, they would be entitled to more sympathy under their difficulties than many readers will be inclined to give them. The vulgar tongue, though a dialect of the Chinese, is not understood in China. The written charac- ters are nearly the same; but only a small number are known to us. || — Persons of condition dress in silk. In manners they display all the politeness of the Chinese. The costume of both sexes consists of flowing robes with wide sleeves, under which are vests and trousers of cotton. Thej men wear a sort of turban on the head, and use no shoes or slippers. Their houses are built of bamboo, and roofed with reeds and rice straw. They are generally surrounded with groves of orange and lemon trees, bananas, and cocoas. The Cochin-Chinese manufacture a spiri- tuous liquor from rice, for their own use. They are tolerable skilful in the manufacture of hardware, and their pottery and stone wares are handsome. In music they have made some progress. Lord Macartney, during his stay at Turon, witnessed a sort of historic opera, containing recitations, airs, and choruses. Their ships are elegantly formed, the largest being about sixty tons burden. The form of their sails is admirably adapted for going near the wind, being constructed on the principles of a fan, which is opened and shut in a moment. The rowers move in time to the notes of a lively song. The ceremonies and festivals proclaim the Chi- nese origin of the nation. When the sovereign dies, they make a point of burying him in profound silence, for fear of conveying the important intelligence to genii • Barrow. | Charpentier-Cissigny, loc. cit. p. 370. i Louieiro, Memorias, i. 385. § Bhuicard, loc. cit, p. 374. 1 Adcluns-, Mitliridatcs, i. p. 90. Manufacture! and arts. TSIOMPA. 285 hostile to tVie empire, who ra'^ht seize on such a moment to visit it with new disasters.* We have already mentioned that Cochin-China formed in ancient times Historieai one state with Tonquin. But a rebeUious governor afterwards erected ^^^""• here an independent kingdom. His successors subdued Tsiompa and Cambodia. But, enervated by the enjoyments attached to despotism, the princes of the dynasty of N'guyen allowed their favourites and ministers to oppress the people ; and becoming in a little the puppets of their slavish courtiers, they held the sceptre on a most pre- carious tenure. The Tonquinese interfered in the troubles with which Cochin-China was agitated. Disdaining a foreign yoke, the three brothers, Tmj-Son, employed their influence to raise an army : from deliverers they became usurpers, and took possession of the kingdom. One of these rebels also achieved the conquest of Tonquin. He died in 1792, and his extensive dominions were divided among his sons. The lawful prince, taking refuge with the king of Siam, endeavoured to form a party in the southern portion of the kingdom. The bishop of Adran, The bUhop of who, from being a missionary, had become vicar apostolic and prime *'''^"' minister to the rightful sovereign of Cochin-China, craved assistance from France. He brought over to that country the heir of the crown, whom he had secretly con- verted, without venturing to baptize him. France seized this opportunity to establish her influence and her commerce in one of the richest countries of India, but was prevented from following up that object by the events of her own revolution. The bishop and young prince returned, attended by a small number of French, but the bold- ness and perseverance of N'guyen-Shoong at last conciliated the smiles King N'goyen of fortune. The dissensions which reigned in the family of Tay-Son ^^°'""s- aided him in recovering the inheritance of his fathers. To these he added Tonquin, and he now reigns over all the Chin-Indian countries to the east of the kingdom of Siam. An intrepid warrior by land and sea, he gained admiration for his talents, his correct manners, his humanity, and a generosity unknown to Asiatics. These vir- tues were partly the fruits of the education given to him by the bishop of Adran, and partly the etlect of the events of his life. When arrived at the summit of pros- perity, he showed himself to be less worthy ; and, as we have already remarked, the death of his heirs, and the discontent of the Tonquinese, portend no long duration to the Annamitic empire. "f" The form of government has always been despotic. The sovereign is styled " the king of heaven." His army is from 100,000 to 150,000 strong, among whom are 30,000 armed with muskets, and trained to the European exercise. The soldiers wear sabres and pikes of enormous length. No elephants are now employed in war. A Portuguese, who was shipwrecked on the coast of Cochin-China, cast some pieces of brass ordnance, which are still in existence. Some Frenchmen, among whom was M. Olivier, have assisted the present king in the for- mation of a respectable navy. He has himself, like Peter the Great, studied the art of ship-building, by causing a European vessel to be taken to pieces under his eyes. This prince has been seen directing the manoeuvres of 1200 galleys, a hun- dred of which carried from sixteen to twenty-four large guns. But when he got the better of all his enemies, he allowed this branch of his force, which is so essential and so well adapted to the local situation of his dominions, to fall into neglect. The kingdom of Tsiompa is more the country of tigers and of ele- Kingdom of phants than of men. Its real name is said to be Biu-Tuani.'\, For five Tsiompa. or six months of the year the climate is unhealthy ; the heats are excessive, the wa- ter is bad, and all provisions except fish arc scarce. The soil is sandy and poor, but it produces cotton, indigo, and an inferior sort of silk.§ The inhabitants are called Loyes, and seem to be of the same stock with the Laos, or Lows, and the • Kaeffler, Historica Cochin-Chinac Descriptio, p. 72—76. t La Bissachere, Barrow, &c. i Uosily, Carte du D^p6t de la Marine, and the article Jlynan in the Diclionnaire dc Geo- graphic Maritime, par M. de Grand-Pr^. § La Bissachere, i. p. 16, Barrow's Voyage, where it is written Fen-Tan, Government and military force. Kingdom of Cambodia. U 286 BOOK FIFTY-SECOND. Lolos of Yunnan. They are large, well made, and muscular; their complexions ruddy; their noses rather flat; and their hair long and black. DonnaY. | Dounai, properly so called, seems to be a district between Tsiompa and the mouths of the river of Cambodia. On an arm of that large, fine, and deep river, is the city of Saigong,* which was for some time the naval arsenal of the king of Cochin-China-t Iii approaching that city, we sail forty miles up a river one or two miles broad, and so deep, that large vessels graze the verdant banks, while their rigging is liable to get entangled in the branches of the lofty trees by which it is shaded.;]; Cape Saint-Jacques, at the mouth of the river, forms a very good road-stead. TheParaceb. | The Pracel or Paracels, is a labyrinth of islets, rocks, and shallows, which, according to the most approved charts, extend in a line parallel to the coast of Cochin-China, between north latitude 10° 45' and 16° 30', the mean longitude being about 109° east. But some French navigators have crossed a part of this space without encountering any rocks or shallows, whence we must conclude that this archipelago is in reality less extensive than it appears in our maps.§ Condor island. | The island called Poolo-Condor, or " the Island of Calabashes," is situated south from Cochin-China, forty-four miles from the mouth of the river of Cambodia. It is, properly speaking, a group of islands, among which is a harbour capable of holding eight ships, and a good and extensive anchorage. Here vessels bound to China purchase provisions, especially buffaloes, which sometimes weigh seven quintals, and Chinese pigs. It produces rice and several fruits, especially bananas, shaddocks, and calabashes. It is a place well adapted for a military and commercial station. Of the kingdom of Cambodia we have few authentic accounts, and none of modern date. The Portuguese call it Camboja, (pronounced Cambokha.) A letter of one of its kings, in a Dutch translation, has it Camboetsja, (pronounced Cambootja.)^ This also is the orthography of the Malay authors.** This country seems to consist of three physical regions: the valley watered and inundated by the Pdey-Kon, including some large islands at its mouth ;'f'f the deserts, which probably begin on the borders of the inundated territory, and extend a great way to the east; and lastly, the sea coast, generally low, sandy, covered with coppice- wood, and washed by a very shallow sea.JJ River of Cam- The river of Cambodia falls into the sea by three mouths; that of bodia. Saigong, already mentioned, and which, according to the missionaries, is more particularly called the river of Caml)odia;§§ one called the Japanese river, from being frequented by the junks of Japan; and a third, Avhich the Dutch have called Onhequmne, or "the Inconvenient." The second of these branches also re- ceives the name of the Bassak, and the third, that of the Matsiam.|||| The tides extend a great way up this river. It is said that a great lake or inland sea is con- nected with these mouths. The inundations take place in June. The beds of the two western brandies are full of low islands and sand banks, which render them unfit for being navigated by large vessels. Towns. I The country is indifferently peopled. The capital, which we call Cambodia, but the true name of which is Eeuvok, consists of a single street, with Productions. | ouc large tcmplc. The chief production of the country is the well known yellow pigment called gamboge, which is also used in medicine as a drastic pin-ga- tive. It produces considerable quantities of ivory, rose-wood, sandal-wood, eagle- wood, and calambac. The teak, iron-wood, and callophyllim, which grows as straight as the Norwegian pine, might supply ample materials for ship building. A little tin * See note at the end of Book LII. Phil. Ed. t Rosily, cite par Blancanl, Commerce des Indes, p. 361. ^ Barrow's Voyage. § Rosily, Carte du DcpStde la Marine, and the article ./lynan in Grand-Pre's Dictionnaire de Geograpbie Maritime. B Cambodia is called by the Onamese (people of the country,) Cou-Maigne. f Valentvn, Description de Cambodia, p. 48. ** Ibid. p. 36. It Aagenaar, in the Voyages of the Dutch Company, v. p. 360. ^4: Chapman, Annales des Voyages, vii. p. 15. §§ Valentyn, Ibid, 37, 38. ill Relation des Vicaires Apostol. i. ch. 1. p. 8. State of Pon- lliianias. Kinplom of Siani. siAM. 287 and gold are exported. The lands produce rice and other vegetable food. IMany Japanese, Chinese, and Malays are settled in the country. These last are scarcely distinguishable from the natives, who have dark yellow complexions, and long black hair. A Dutch traveller, ascending the river to the nortli of Cambodia, passed the towns of Batjong, an ancient seat of royalty, and Sumbapoor, the residence of a high priest, who assumes the title of raja, and exacts a toll from passengers.* M. Poivre ob- serves, that a short way from the capital are to be seen the ruins of an | Aneiem city, ancient city, the architecture of which shows something of the European style, while the ridges in the adjoining fields indicate that they have been under tillage. The present inhabitants have no sort of tradition respectaig this ancient establish- ment. Ponthiamas, a small independent state, was founded in 1705 by a Chinese merchant of the name of Kiang-Si. This state prospered under a flourishing trade. Its capital, which receives the same name, is situated on the west coast of Cambodia, which had previously been almost a desert A wide and deep gulf divides the southern part of Chin-India into two peninsulas. At the bottom of that gulf we find the famous kingdom of Siam, from which the gulf derives its name. The name which the Siamese give themselves is Tai, or "Free Men." Siam is a name of Malay origin. Previously to the recent enlargement of the Birman empire, the rich and flourishing monarchy of Siam was considered as the leading Indian state east of the Ganges. Its extent, however, has been curtailed by the Birman invasions, and cannot be, at present, fixed with accuracy. It is probable that a part of the coast south from Tenasserira, on the west side of the peninsula of Malacca, still belongs to Siam. It is separated from Pegu on the west by a chain of mountains; on the east another chain, Httle known, separates it from Laos and Cambodia. Thus the kingdom of Siam may bo considered as a wide valley between two chains of mountains. The Siamese Nile, or Meinam, holds a high rank among the rivers of eastern Asia. Ksmpfer describes it as very deep, always filled to its banks, and larger than the Elbe. He adds, that the inhabitants suppose it to rise in the same mountains with the Ganges, and describe it as dividing and sending branches through the kingdoms of Cambodia and Pegu ; accounts which, though fabulous, include perhaps some disfigured truths. The inundation takes place in September. In December the waters decline. It difters from the Ganges in swell- ing first in its upper part, owing its inundation principally to the rains which fall among the mountains. The water of the Meinam, though muddy, is agreeable and wholesome : the inundation is most remarkable in the centre of the kingdom, and much less so in the neighbourhood of the sea. The operations of the rice harvest are conducted in a great measure in boats. The soil of the mountains is dry and barren ; but the river banks consist of a rich and deep alluvial soil, where scarcely a single stone or pebble is to be found. The banks of the Meinam are low and marshy, but exceedingly populous from Bankok to Yuthia. Lower down they arc mere deserts, swarming with monkeys, phosphoric flies, and mosquitoes. The Siamese year is, with respect to weather, divided into three parts. The | seasons, first two months, December and January, form the winter, during which the north wind prevails : it is a dry season, but almost as warm as the summer is in Franco. The third, fourth, and fifth months, are called by the Siamese their little summer; the great summer consists of the other seven. The weather in summer is moist.f The immense forests which surround the valley of the Meinam con- tain some valuable kinds of wood, which are vaguely mentioned by the missionaries. The bark of the tree tonJci, is used for making paper. The wood of the fuang tree forms a good red dye. They have three varieties of rice ; wild rice, mountain rice, and that of the plain. Among the different kinds of cotton, there is one too fine to admit of being spun. The lands which are so situated as not to ad- * Wusthof, in Valcntyn, p. 54 and 55. t Loubcre, tome i p. 53. Rivers. Inundations. V«'petalile and animal produc- tions. 288 BOOK FIFTY-SECOND. mit of inundation are under corn crops. Pease, and other leguminous species, are abandant ; maize is cultivated only in the gardens. The animal species of Siam are common to it with the whole of the neighbour- ing countries. Its elephants are celebrated for their beauty and docility. The white ones are held in veneration, because the Siamese believe that the souls of their de- ceased sovereigns pass into their bodies. The horses are bad, and the cattle scarce. There is here a small sort of panther of the size of a dog, which only attacks wild birds. Wild boars and monkeys are in great abundance. The birds and insects of this country are remarkable for their huge size. The nocto is larger than an ostrich. All travellers speak in terms of admiration of certain birds, the species of which are not determined, whose tufts of white or red feathers enliven, like so many brilliant flowers, the verdure of the woods.* The Meinam is sometimes infested with veno- mous serpents. The trees on its banks are covered with phosphoric flies, which emit and retain light with all the regularity of a revolving machine. But the fine objects which this scene presents never banish from the traveller's mind the recollection of the numerous crocodiles with which the river abounds, which are sometimes fifty feet in length. Minerals. | The principal mines of Siam are those of tin and copper, the last of which is sometimes mixed with a little gold. Antimony and lead are also found and exported. The country produces beautiful marbles, agates, and sapphires. Towns and The topography of a country, the interior of which has not been tra- provinces. vcrscd by any European, is, of course, very defective. The capital is called by the natives Sujuihia, or simply Crung, i. e. " the court." The Portuguese have changed the name Siyuthia into Jutliya and Odia. That town embraces a large territory occupied with cottages and gardens. But the view given of it by Loubere must be somewhat modified. Father Garvaise tells us that the foreigners' quarter is full of brick houses ; and that the part occupied by the natives contains handsome paved streets. I The judicious traveller Kaempfer expressly says that " the temples are more elegant than the churches are in Germany. The Puka-Thon is a pyramid in a plain to the north-west of the city, in memory of a famous victory gained over the king of Pegu. Its height is 120 feet, and the building massive, but elegant. In the eastern part of the city are two squares, surrounded with walls, and separated by a canal. It contains monasteries, colonnades, and temples, the most conspicuous being the temple of Berklam, with a large and splendid porch, ornamented with sta- tues, sculptures, and other decorations." TheLoeachof I Louvok, a populous tovvn On the great river, frequently shares with Marco Polo. | giyuthia the honour of being the residence of the court. This is pro- bably the Loeach of Marco Polo: he arrived there from Poolo-Condor by sailing along the eastern shore of the gulf of Siam, and, leaving Louvok, he directed his course along the western shore of the gulf to Petani or Patau. An explanation so natural would have occurred to all his commentators, if they had not found the name written in several editions BoeacJi. Near the mouth of the river we find Bankok, called in the country Fou. This is the key of Siam, in the direction of the sea. Its environs are embellished with delightful gardens. Above the capital we find Porse- looc, the chief town of an ancient principality of the same name, famous for its dye- woods and valuable gums. J Cambouri, on the frontier of Pegu, is the seat of a great commerce in eagle-wood, ivory, and rhinoceros horns. From this place comes the finest varnish. That part of the kingdom of Siam which lies on the Bay of Bengal, is an ancient conquest of the Siamese from the kings of Pegu. Here the Birman language is spoken. § The Birmans have reconquered Tenasserim, with its port Mergui, and the island of Junkseylon ; places which have, on that account, been already describ- ed, jj But the Siamese still retain the kingdom of Ligor on that coast, a country which yields a very pure tin called caZm.lT • Choisy, 'Vo5'age h Siam, 1741, In 12mo. p. 229. f Gervaise, Hist, de Siam. i Tiirpin, Hist, de Siam, i. p. 23. § Le P. Gervaise, p. 11, 8cc. fl See page 27o. 1 Ksmpfer, Hist, du Japon, i. p. 11. Public amuse- ments. siAM. 289 In physical qualities, the Siamese make an approach to the Mongo- ] The Siamet*. lian race. Their faces are of a square form, with wide and prominent cheek bones; so that the cheeks themselves appear somewhat hollow. The forehead is narrow, terminating in a point almost like a chin. Their eyes are small, rather dull, and rise towards the temples. The white of the eye is exceedingly yellow. The width of their mouths, and the thickness and paleness of their lips, give them a singularly ugly aspect. They are in the practice of blackening their teeth, and partially cover- ing them with gold plates. Their complexions are olive, with a mixture of red. Kaimpfer compares them to negroes, and even to monkeys.* Their monosyllabic language has not been carefully examined. Tlie Siamese alphabet con- | Language, tains thirty-seven consonants ; and the vowels form a distinct list. It contains the letters R and W, which are unknown to the Chinese. The pronunciation, as in other ancient languages, is a sort of chant. Neither nouns nor verbs have inflex- ions.f The sacred books, like those of the Birmans, are in the Pah language. The manners of the Siamese resemble partly those of Indostan, and | Manners, partly those of China. Polygamy is allowed. The princes sometimes marry their own sisters. The wife, humble and submissive, neither presumes to sit nor to eat with her husband : vigilant and attentive in the preparation of his food, she does not eat till he has finished. She never goes out in the same boat with him, and even when lying on one common bed, she has a lower pillow to mark her inferiority. Their funerals bear a great resemblance to those of the Chinese. The talapoins, or monks, chant hymns in the Pali language. When the solemn procession is ended, the body is burned on a pile of valuable fragrant wood. The tombs are in the form of pyramids, and those of the kings are of large dimensions both in height and breadth. The Siamese are fond of dramatic exhibitions, founded on their sa- cred mythology, and the fabulous history of their heroes. They have bull races, aquatic boat fights, combats of elephants, cock-fightings, contests of hu man strength, wrestling matches, rope dances, religious processions, illuminations, and beautiful fire-works. Their mechanical talents lie dormant from | industry, their habitual indolence, [n iron aud steel manufactures they are far behind, but excel in jewellery, and in miniature painting. The common people are employed in fishing, and other labours, for subsistence. The higher classes divide their time between inactivity and the tricks of a petty commerce. Their chief commercial connections are with Japan, China, Indostan, | Commerce, and the Dutch. Their exports consist of grain, cotton benzoin, sandal wood, and difierent other woods; antimony, tin, lead, iron, loadstone, impure gold, silver, sap- phires, emeralds, agates, rock crystal, and marble. J To these is to be added tombac^ which, according to some, is a native copper containing gold ; according to others, an artificial compound. § They have also shagreen skins, nicely dressed and orna- mented with figures, which form a valuable article of export, sometimes sold at enor- mous prices. Sommona-Codom, the god of the Siamese, is the sarhe as Buddha. Religion and Ilis priests and monks, wliom we call talapoins, are called /a?j/.oo in the *"'*' language of the country. His precepts, contained in a book called Vinac, are nei- ther many nor rigorous : but the civil laws arc severe and bloody. Slavery here is perpetuated by birth, except in the case of prisoners of war, and persons enslaved in consequence of debt, whose children are considered free. Enslaved debtors are also themselves free as soon as they have fulfilled their engagements. The government of Siam is despotic and hereditary. The sovereign, | Government, as among the Birmans, receives almost divine honours. Three times in the day he presents himself for an instant before his great officers, who prostrate themselves on the ground, li There is no hereditary nobility to share the awful dignity of the crown. The monarch, when he pleases, may marry his own sisters, and even his daughters. But the power of this monarch seems to have sufiered diminution in • Kaempfer, Hist, du Japon, i. p. 29. Loubere, i. p. 81. j Loubere, ii. p. 94, + Van Vliet. Account of the Kingdom of Siam, p. 62, (in Dutch.) § Dalrymple, Oriental Repertory, i. p. 118. || Van Vliet, p. 19. Vol. II.— o 290 BOOK FIFTY-SECONn. proportion to the increase of his courtly pomp. His revenues were said to have iallen a century ago, from a proportion of forty to four or five. According to a cen- sus taken at that period, the adults of both sexes amounted to 1,900,000, which Army. | would give a population of between three and four millions. Loubere says that in his time there was no army except some royal guards : and Mandelslo reckons the mmiber which could be raised on emergency to be about 60,000, with 3000 or 4000 elephants. These estimates indicate a scanty population. The navy was composed of a certain number of galleys of different sizes, the chief merit of which consisted in their rich decorations. The rivers of Chin-India have, in civil wars, been frequently the theatre of naval battles. History. | The history of tlie Siamese has its chasms, but is not loaded with any fabulous chronology. Their era goes back to the pretended disappearance of their god Sommona-Codom, 544 years before Christ. Their first king began his reign in the 1300th year of their era, or about A. D. 750. Wars with Pegu, and usurpa- tions of the throne, constitute the sad and uniform epochs of the Siamese history subsequently to the discovery of the country by the Portuguese. In 1568 the king of Pegu made war on them, which was said by historians to be on account of two white elephants which the Siamese refused to deliver to him ; but probably the chief motive was to reconquer the coast of Bengal Bay, which had been dismembered from his dominions by the Siamese. For Vvant of attenfion, the politics of the Asiatics are sometimes supposed to be more absurd than they really are. After scenes of carnage on both sides, Siam became tributary to Pegu. But in 1620 Raja Hapi constantiue delivered his country from that state of servitude. In 1680 Constantino phaicon. Phalcon, a native of Cephalonia in Greece, having become a favourite with the king of Siam, opened a trade with France with the view of supporting his ambitious designs ; but, during the king's last illness, the grandees of the court ordered hira to be beheaded, and the connection with France was consequently broken otf. The Birmans have not been able to reduce the Siamese to a state of permanent subjection. Peninsula of ' To the south-east of the kingdom of Siam lies the Peninsula of Malacca. Malacca or Malaya, 550 miles long, and from eighty to 110 broad. The interior of this peninsula seems to be entirely occupied with vast natural forests. No maps, ancient or modern, describe it as containing towns or villages. Attempts to In the year 1644, fjJovernor Van Yliet, to whom we are indebted for a ^ueiw. '^ good account of Siam, attempted to send detachments into the interior. The level parts were covered with underwood, where it was necessary to open a road with the hatchet; and with marshes, in which the natives alone were able to get along over the trunks of felled trees.* AVhen an eminence is gained, the eye is de- lighted with beautiful trees ; but among these trees, brambles, thorns, and creeping plants, are so closely interwoven as often to present an insurmountable obstacle to the progress of the traveller. In 'these forests mnsquitoes fly in swarms like thick clouds. At every step there is a risk of treading on a poisonous serpent. Leopards, tigers, and rhinoceroses, when disturbed in their native haunts, are ready to devour any traveller who is not provided with a strong escort, and who does not keep up a fire during the whole night. Nor is an escort easily commanded. The Malays, a hundred times more dangerous tlian the tigers and the serpents, never attend a Eu- ropean but with great reluctance. Even those who were subject to Dutch authority often seized the first opportunity to betray the persons whom they had been employed Journey of I to conduct. In 1745 Van dcr Puttcu, a zealous traveller, undertook, ten" " "'' I with a detachment furnished to him by the (Governor Alhinus, to pene- trate to Mount Ophir, called in Malay, Goonong-Lelang, situated near the sources of the river Moar, in the soutli-east of Malacca but as soon as he quitted his boat, his escort gradually took to flight, and he could not accomplish his undertaking. Proiiuetions. | The parts best known produce pepper and other aromatics, and some species of gums. The forests, arrayed in eternal verdure, contain aloe-wood eagle- wood, sandal-wood, and cassia odorala, a species of cinnamon. The air is impreg- • Ualthasar Bort, MS. p. 103, quoted in the Memoirs of Batavia. Provinces or kingdoma. MALACCA. 291 nated with the odour of innumerable flowers, which perpetually succeed one another without an interval. But the uncultivated state of the country generates in many parts a highly noxious atmosphere, and occasions a general dclicicncy of human food. Fish, however, beans, and fruits, are found in this country.* The animal kingdom is little known. Among the birds Avhich seem to be numerous and extremely beautiful, the bird of Juno is mentioned, which, without the tail of the peacock, dis- plays a plumage equal to his in elegance and in beauty.| The tiger, pursuing the antelopes over the rivers, sometimes falls a prey to the caiman. | From the hedge- hog of Malacca is obtained the Malacca bezoar — from the wild elephants plenty of ivory. Tin is the only mineral substance exported, though gold is found in some of the rivers. The tin mines of Pera are found in valleys. After large roots | Tin mmes. of trees, sometimes seven feet in depth, are removed, the ore is found in a fine black sand, which closely resembles it in appearance. Wlien a rocky stratum appears, the digging is discontinued, althougli it also seems to contain the same ore, because the mining resources of the Malays are too confined to enable them to make way through the rocks. § Sometimes the Chinese undertake the mining operations, and they are decidedly more expert than the natives in refining and smelting the metal. The maritime parts are divided into six Malay kingdoms; Patani, Tron- ganon, and Pahang, on the east coast; Johor at the southern extremity; Pera and Queda on the west side. To these we may add Malacca and its territory, called Malaya. In the interior, the state of Manang-Cabo is separated from the Dutch territory by the Romboon mountains. In the time of Mandelslo, the city of Palani, inhabited by Malays and | Patau!. Siamese, was built of wood and cane, but the mosque was of brick, and the trade was in the hands of the Chinese and Portuguese, the natives being chiefly occupied in fishing and husbandry. According to this traveller, continual rains fall, accompa- nied with a north-east wind, during the months of November, December, and Janu- ary. Oxen and buliuloes were used for agricultural purposes, and crops of rice were cultivated. Fruit and game were abundant; the forests swarmed with monkeys, ti- gers, boars, and elephants. A modern traveller praises Tronganon as a favourable mart for the TiongBnon. purchase of pepper and of tin.|| Pahang, (in Chinese Pang-IIang,) ex- Paiiang. ports gold, areca nuts, and rattans. IT The kingdom of Johor occupied the eastern extremity of this Chersonese. Batusaber, the capital of the kingdom, was situated sixteen miles from the sea, on the river Yohor, in a marshy soil. But at present this kingdom is in a state of vassalage to a piratical chief, who is called king of Riom, and resides in Pooloo-Binlang Island, one of those which divide the strait of Sinca- poor from that of Malacca. This strait derives its name from a Malay town, found- ed by the first colonies of that people after their emigration from Sumatra. Cape Romania, the southern point of Asia, is called in the country itself Oodjon Tana. The city of Malacca, founded by a Malay prince about the middle of the thirteenth century, was in the hands of the Portuguese from 1511 till 1(341, when the Dutch took it. According to le (rcntil, this place, which once rival- led Goa and Orniuz, has now very little commercial itnportaticc, and is weakly forti- fied. But the marshes which render the approach diflicult, the river Crysorant, which partly encircles it, and the solidity of the works of St. Paul, which are built of regular iron-stone, render it ca])able of a long defence.** From 20,000 inhabitants, which it contained under the Portuguese, its population is reduced to 3000 or 4000. The suburb Tranquera is peopled with Chinese and persons of Portuguese extrac- tion. Within the last half century some successful attempts have been made to cul- tivate the camphor tree in this neighbourhood, the produce of which has soujcwhat reanimated a languishing commerce. Pera, a kingdom rich in tin, is governed by Mahometan [)rinces, who | Pem. are withheld from working their mines by a superstitious fear of giving otTence to the • Blancard, Commerce des Indes, p. 328. f Van Wurmb, Mem. de Batavia, p. 461. + Valentyn, Malacca, p. 310. § Memoirs of Batavia, iv. p. 558. II Blancard, p. 328. 1 Mem. of Batavia, iv. p. 344. •• See the plate No. 37 in Valentyn, and the Memoirs of Uatavia, iv. p. 325. city of Ma- lacca. 292 UOOK FIFTV-SIXOND. PooIooPe itang, er Printe of Walet' IsIanJ English ca genii of the mountain.^. Tlic adjoining state takes its name from the capital Qucda, Qucda. I a town containing 8000 souls. It has a harbour, which is well frequent- ed, and carries on a great trade in tin and elephant's teeth. An English captain, having married the daughter of the king while he was on the coast of Queda, obtained the sovereignty of the island Poo- loo-Ponang, winch he, without delay, transferred to his country. The 1 It J mice of Wales' Island, and have formed on it an important establish- ment, as the harbour is so situated as to command the strait of Malacca, while the soil IS rich, covered with teak forests, sugar canes, and rice fields, and found well adapted to tlie cultivation of pepper and indigo.* In our general view of tlie races of mankind, we have distinguished the Malays as the model of the fifth variety of our species. That people is not indigenous in the pemnsula of Malacca, but one of their tribes invaded and colonized ft in the 12th century having fled from tl.e territory on the river Malaya, in the island of Sumatra, before the victorious armies of a king of Java. This tradition has now been com- pletely confirmed by the investigations of Messrs. Leyden and Marsden, according to whom, the Ma ays form the indigenous population of Sumatra, and probably also u u^\ I 7 '''''"^' t'''^''^^'^''^' to the fifth great division of the world, Oceanica, which is to be described in the six following books. Table of the Chief Geographical Posilions of Chin-India. Places. Cape Ncgrais . , . IVIergui Prince of Wales' Island Malacca Cape Romania . . . Tronganon .... Capital of Siam . . . Condor Island . . . Saigong Faifo, or Bay of Touron Huefo Kchoe Cape St. James City of Saigonf . . . N. Lat. E. Long'. lUg. min. sec. dcg. min, 12 5 2 1 5 14 12 30 12 30 25 20 40 8 40 10 33 15 57 16 29 10 15 10 49 48 24 98 18 99 55 102 5 104 5 • • 100 .50 106 31 106 44 105 15 107 20 107 5 106 38 15 15 15 15 • 15 52 15 15 15 51 26 Authorities. Dalrymple. Forest. Popham. Batavian Memoirs. Connaiss. des Terns. Blancard. Idem. Connaiss. lilancard. Idem. Idem. Phil. Ed. Idem. des Terns. rJJ\LV^''\^''^l ^""^"^"^ «f Salfron, the country, and its trade, and of the naviff.ition of the Sea bwS Wl.i't;T flh a""'-''' '^t""'^' •''^ "''""«•' «^^ ^•'«^- °f ^ Voyaged the China Sea.by L>eut Wh.te, of the American Navy, performed in 1819-20. He complains preatlv of the alUhe bSns a Kl e J;.S I ' "' *''" """'r^'"^ "''^^' foreigners. Yet he states that with ail tnc bu den.s and enactions his sugar was on board at Saigon for §7 22 per Chinese nicul of He wTtlTtSTb^'l'^' '" r^Vr"''^" ^"'"^ '" ■'' '^^-' »" --Pl^^^ hii^Iadh'g cos?S8 50 than he-wa subi ct.d t'^'T,^'''"^ '^f '''^\''' ''''^'""' '^'^ ^^«^''' ''"« ^"^"^ have been no more derecUhradvent ui ir/l ^''".I^'"-^''-!' f S" ^'c took in. This, if true, he says would have ren- of I2V00 He ronr.,? ^ h ciat. ve. The charges on a vessel of 252 tons amounted to upwards S xSs'of rice ^S r ' rT'"*'^ '' """'"'^l''^, '^'''- ''"'^''' '"'"^'•«' «"^ ^'S^'^^^^ products. St Tam.Ps i^^h; / ^ "'^ ' ""'."" ''' """^ ""^ ^''^ ^'""t in the world. Cape St. James, or Nor{f7as faia th. r T'r a""'"' "^ " ''^"'" "*' •^"-"""i""' extending along the coast to 'the riv er beh,; on i^ n. H °^, ^ '"'IT"' ^' '' "" ^-^c.Ucnt mark for thl entrance of the Donnai and he ;Eel iL. thJ "' '■-, "" ''^ °! ^""^"'^" '" ^i "'''es from the point of the Cape posi s of tt :tlra b an'ch "^'fT'^r' '\^T'^''\ «" "- south by a flat, the joint alluvial del tniles from Cano^/ , "^'^f '^^ *he Cambodia and Donnai rivers. The city of Saigon is 59* nnaoitants, oi which 10,000 are Chinese. Tlie navy-yard and naval arsenal may vie OCEANICA. 293 BOOK LIII. OCEANICA. General view of Oceanica. PART I. A General Descnption of this new Great Division of the World, eomprehending the regions situated in the Ocean between Africa, Asia, and America. We now leave the old Asiatic continent, the nations, cities, and empires of which have fallen under our view. Our attention is claimed by another world, or rather, perhaps, the magnificent fragments of a former world, scattered over the mighty ocean. There extends over a space of more than 8000 miles a labyrinth of islands, an immense archipelago, in the midst of which are twenty countries spacious like minor continents, and one of them equalling Europe in extent. These regions present in every quarter scenes fitted to move the most frigid imagination. Many nations are here found in their earliest in- fancy. The amplest openings have been afforded for commercial activity. Num- berless valuable productions have been already laid under contribution to our insa- tiable luxury. Here many natural treasures still remain concealed from scientific observation. How numerous are the gulfs, the ports, the straits, the lofty mountains, and the smiling plains! What magnificence, what solitude, what originality, and what variety! Here the zoophyte, the motionless inhabitant of the Pacific Ocean, creates, by its accumulated exuvia?, a rampart of calcareous rock round the bank of sand on which it has grown. Grains of seed are brought to this spot by the birds, or wafted by the winds. The nascent verdure makes daily acquisitions of strength, till the young palm waves its verdant foliage over the surface of the waters. Each shallow is converted into an island ; and each island improved into a garden. We behold at a distance a dark volcano ruling over a fertile country, generated by its own lava. A rapid and charming vegetation is displayed by the side of heaps of ashes and of scorite. Where the land is more extended, scenes more vast present themselves: sometimes the ambiguous basalt rises majestically in prismatic columns, or lines, to a distance too great for the eye to reach, the solitary shore with its picturesque ruins. Sometimes enormous primitive peaks boldly shoot up among the clouds; while, hung on their sides, the dark pine forest varies the immense void of the desert with its gloomy shade. In another place a low coast, covered with mangroves, sloping in- sensibly beneath the surface of the sea, stretches afar into dangerous shallows, where with many of the naval establishments in Europe. It contains ample materials of the most ex- cellent kind for several frigates, and in fact two frigates of European construction were built there under the superintendance of French officers. The city of Donnai is on another branch of the same river, and is about 50 miles northward of Saigon. From the western part of Sai- gon a canal has been recently cut 23 miles long, 12 feet deep, and 80 feet wide, through im- mense forests, connecting with a branch of the Cambodia river. It was cut through in 6 weeks at that place by 26,000 men, at the sacrifice of 6000 lives, and was barely finished in 1819. The royal city of Hu^ is stupendous. It is surrounded by a ditch 9 miles in circumference, and 100 feet broad. Its walls are of brick laid in a cement, of which sugar is a principal ingre- dient, and are 60 feet high, The pillars of the gates are stone, and are 70 feet high, and over the arches are towers 90 to 100 feet high. The fortress is built on the plan of Strasburg, in Germany, The smallest guns are 18 pounders, the largest 68 pounders, cast in the king's own foundry. The whole number of guns to be mounted is 1200; 100,000 men are constantly employed on the works, and it is now (1820) nearly completed. The Bay of Touron is one of the finest in the world.— PAjY. Ed. 294 BOOK FIFTY-THIRD. the noisy waves break into spray. To these subUme horrors a scene of enchant- ment suddenly succeeds. A new Cythera emerges from the bosom of the enchanted wave. An amphitheatre of verdure rises to our view. Tufted groves mingle their foliage with the brilliant enamel of the meadows. An eternal spring, combining with an eternal autumn, displays the opening blossom along with the ripened fruits. A perfume of exquisite sweetness embalms the atmosphere, which is continually re- freshed by the wholesome breezes from the sea. A thousand rivulets trickle down the hills, and mingle their plaintive murmurs with the joyful melody of the birds ani- mating the thickets. Under the shade of the cocoa, the smiling, but modest ham- lets present themselves, roofed with banana leaves, and decorated with garlands of jessamine. Here might mankind, if they could only throw off their vices, lead lives exempt from trouble and from want. Their bread grows on the trees which shade their lawns, the scenes of their festive amusement. Their light barks glide in peace on the lagoons protected from the swelling surge by the coral reefs surrounding their whole island, at a short distance from the shore, and confining their domestic water in the stillness of a prison. It forms a fifth Tliis region was long explored in quest of a Terra Atistralis, a con- worid. tinent which was supposed to rival the old world in extent. After a series of multiplied voyages had dissipated that illusory expectation, geographers still recognised in this wide region a fifth great division of the world. Unless we fix New Holland and New Zealand as appendages of Asia, we must create a new di- vision to comprehend these vast countries. If this necessity is once admitted, the principle employed ought to be purely scientific. What reason can there be for dividing into two this great archipelago, which presents on the terrestrial globe such a manifest and striking whole ? Why seek for a line of demarcation between the Moluccas and Papuas, where none is traced by nature ? The ancients restricted the name of Asia to the continent so denominated. When the modern discoverers of Sumatra, Java, and Borneo, connected these islands with Asia, they were igno- rant of the extent of that archipelago of which they formed a part. But we have no reason for declining to restrict the name of Asia to the limits assigned to it by nature. The Chinese Sea separates Asia from the great ocean, as the Medi- terranean separates Africa from Europe. To the west we continue the boundary line through the strait of Malacca, and then turning round the north point of Sumatra, we proceed to the point where the 92d meridian east from London crosses the equator. Through the whole southern hemisphere that meridian will form a convenient division between the seas of New Holland and those of Mada- gascar and Africa. The islands of Amsterdam and St. Paul will, on this principle, remain connected with the archipelago of the Indian Ocean. When we leave the Chinese Sea to the north, the channel between Pormosa and the Phillippines being the broadest, marks the natural boundary. From this we draw a line which, follow- ing that part of the waters which is most of islands, separates the Japanese seas to a distance of 300 or 450 miles, and reaches the point of intersection of the 40th pa- rallel of north latitude with tlie 152d meridian. The 40th parallel will continue to bound the new division of the world, till we come to the point where it is crossed by the 158th western meridian from London. Taking our departure from this point, we separate the North American seas from those of the Oceanic archipelago by the shortest line that can be drawn from this to the point of intersection of the lOSth western meridian and the equator. This meridian will be our boundary through the southern hemisphere. Designation of The fifth part of the world thus determined is found to be situated in Vorili?'^'" ^'^ the Great Ocean, that which, of all others, is the Ocean, by way of eminence. This essential character is not common to it with any other division of the globe: it is a character which impresses a special physiognomy on its geography, as well as on its natural and its civil history. It is therefore worthy of being made the foundation of its name. It will be called Oceanic a, and its inhabitants Oceanians ; names which will supersede the unmeaning or inaccurate designations of Austral- asia, Notasia, Austral India, and Australia. New Holland has not one Asiatic fea- Boundaries of Oceaoica. Nortli-west Oceanica. OCEANIC A. 293 ture. Extending the principle of the nomenclature which is in present use, we ought to call Africa " Occidental Asia." This designation would be equally correct with those others. There is no occasion for perpetuating the memory of the pre- tended Terra Australis, in the name of a part of the world which is not exclusively situated on the Austral (or southern) hemisphere. The happier term of Polynesia will be preserved for that subdivision of Oceanica to which it has been specially ap- plied. In order to study the details of this vast territory, we proceed to divide | Subdivisions. it into a plurality of subordinate groups ; and in our classification we shall endea- vour to reconcile the rigorous principles of natural geography with the routine of other geographers. We shall therefore first go over the islands situated between the Indian Sea, the Chinese Sea, and the Ocean, as far as the 132d east meridian. These islands, which will form our north-west Oceanica, generally pass for an appendage of Asia, although the Chinese Sea determines so evidently the actual frontier of Asia. Not to browbeat with much disdain a pre judice consecrated by the usage of two centuries, we shall, in the arrangement of our materials at least, make these regions intermediate, while we lead the unpreju- diced reader to recognise the natural classification. From the Moluccas, we shall pass by a short interval to Great Oceanica, to which accident has assigned the name of New Holland. Arranged round this immense isle we find New Gui- central Ocea- nea, New Britain, New Ireland, Solomon's Islands, Louisiada, Terra ""^*' del Spirito Santo, New Caledonia, New Zealand, and Van Diemen's Land. This cen- tral portion of Oceanica, (which it will perhaps be necessary to subdivide again into two regions,) includes the countries least known, and the most numerous remains of the Oceanian negro race, who appear to be the true aborigines of this part of the world. Our third section will include the eastern part of Oceanica, or the Eastern Ooea- numberless small islands which cover the Pacific Ocean from the Mari- n«fa. °' " ^' ans to Easter Island and Owyhee. To these the learned President de Brosses has applied the name of Polynesia,* which the Portuguese authors, Juan de Barros| and Diego CoutOjJ had, two centuries before, given to the Moluccas, the Philippines, and others to the east of Java. Nature has given this part of the world a very prominent and charac- teristic physiognomy. No portion of the surface of the globe has more numerous inequalities, and in none, except America, have the chains of mountains so striking a polarity — so marked a direction from north to south. At the same time, these chains generally present about the middle a great bend from west to east. The best marked among them is that formed by the Marian islands, the Carolines, and the Mulgraves, which are probably connected by means of St. Augustine's Islands and some other links, with the archipelago of the Navigators, or that of the Friendly Islands. Their general direction is from north-west to south-east. Even among the Carolines, where that Polynesian chain turns due east, the particular The Poiyne- links lie north and south. Another great chain makes its appearance s'an'iiaiiu in the Isle of Luzon, the largest of the Philippines, which passes by the island Pa- lawan into that of Borneo. The direction of that well known branch is chain of the from north-east to south-west. It bounds on one side the basin of the ciiinese sea. Chinese Sea. More to the east that chain is converted into a number of minor ones, united in groups varying in their structure. The chains of Celebes and Gilolo are well marked ; but a larger and higher one crosses New Guinea ; where some of its elevations are covered with perpetual snow. In New South Wales, the long line of the Blue Mountains extend to Van Diemen's Land, terminates in South Cape and Cape Pillar, immense masses of basalt, which give a magnificent idea of tliis Cordillera of central Oceanica. The fourth great chain takes its commencement at the Andaman and Nice- Javanese bar islands ; then gives rise to the Islands of Sumatra, Java, Timor, and ''""°' others. It runs in the form of a bow from north-west to south-cast, then due east, Chains of mountains. Their polaritjr. Chain of New Guinea. Chain of New South Wales. • De Brosses, Hist, de Navig. aux Terres-Australes, i. p. 80. t Karros, Asia, Dec. i. tome i. p. 147. + D. Couto, Asia Contin. t. iii. 139. 296 BOOK FIFTY-THIRD. but it probably passes by Cape Diemen, (the Cape Leoben of the French maps,) where it can have no other direction than north and south. Small chains. | All the archipclagos of eastern Oceanica lie north and south. New Zealand, New Caledonia, and the New Hebrides, form well marked chains. That of Solomon's Islands, bending from the south-east to the north-west, is continued in New Ireland and New Hanover. It often happens that the small chains are indivi- dually terminated by a larger island than the others of which they are composed. Thus the islands of Otaheite, Owyhee, and Terra del Spirito Santo, are found at the extremity of a line of smaller islands. These analogies might have faciUtated the progress of discovery, and especially contributed to make each archipelago more easily recognised. By carefully marking the direction of a chain, navigators might have become almost certain of discovering new islands ; and even still, they ought to attend to a principle which may put them on their guard against immense reefs which, in all probability, follow the direction of chains at the bottom of the ocean. High Islands. | Among these thousands of islands, some shoot up to a considerable elevation, generally presenting a conical form. Many of them, according to Foster, are basaltic : the centres of the mountains often contain wide tunnels, and at other Volcanoes. | times rouud lakes which may be taken for ancient craters. Although the presence of volcanic substances has not every where been ascertained by satis- factory evidence, we know already in Oceanica a greater number of volcanoes than in any other part of the world. Sailors sometimes speak of them with admiration, at other times with terror. In one place, as in Shootens Islands, near New Guinea, the flames and the smoke rise calmly over a fruitful and smiling country ; in another, as in the northern part of the Marian islands, dreadful torrents of black lava darken the shore. The volcano of Gilolo broke out in 1673 with a violence which made the whole of the Moluccas shake. The ashes were carried as far as Magindanao, and the scoria and the pumice stones floating on the sea, seemed to retard the pro- gress of the vessels. Low islands. | All the low islands seem to have for their base a reef of coral rocks, generally disposed in a circular form. The middle space is often occupied by a la- goon ; the sand is mixed with pieces of broken coral and other marine substances ; proving that such islands have been originally formed by these coral rocks, which are inhabited, and according to some, created by polypi, and afterwards augmented and elevated by the slow accumulation of light bodies drifted to them by the sea. It is, however, very remarkable, that among the islands so constituted, some are almost level with the sea, while others have hundreds of feet of elevation, of which last Tongataboo is an example. On their summits are found coral rocks perforated in the same manner with those found at the water's edge. Theii- origin. | Now the madreporcs, millepores, and tubipores which raise these sub- marine habitations, (for the true coral polypus is never found there,) grow over the hardened spoils of their dead predecessors. They cannot Hve above the level of the sea, a circumstance which shows that the sea, at a former period, washed these rocks, and gradually retired and left them exposed. Whether have the zoophytes or polypi themselves formed the stony bodies which they inhabit ? or do they find them ready prepared by the hand of nature 1 This is one of the most interesting problems in physical geography ; but hitherto, the obser- vations made are too vague and too recent to alford a complete solution of it. Messrs. Anderson and R. Forster* incline to think that the animals form the matter which composes the coral rock, and consequently, that new islands may be formed by their labours. On this point Captain Cook is decided. Dalrymple thinks that the coral rocks are often formed at the bottom of tlie ocean, from which they are de- tached by currents and tempests, and thrown on the sand banks. f This may, in some localities, take place, but it cannot apply to the reefs which rise Hke walls in the middle of the deepest sea, such as the formidable rocks on which Captain Flin- ders nearly perished, and which probably proved fatal to La Perouse.J The great • R. Forsler, Observaticjns, p. 149. G. Forster's Voyage, ii. p. 145. t Ualrymple, Historical Collection, i. p. 22. i Fliiiders's Account. Difference of level of the islands. Dangers of tlic navigation. Extent of the reefs. Straits of Oceanica. OCEANIC A. 297 reef of New Caledonia is so steep tl^al Captain Kent, commander of the Buffalo,* sounding at no greater distance than twice the length of his ship with a line of 150 fathoms, could find no bottom. The reefs round New South Wales also rise like perpendicular walls from a very deep bottom. Such structures must owe their origin to the animals themselves, unless we should advance a new doctrine, that they grow by a vegetation resembling that of the fuci, and that the polypi found on them are analogous to the insects which take up their abode on herbs and trees, a theory to which the arborescent appearance of some corals, and the fungous forms of others, give some countenance. | The reefs render the navigation of this ocean exceedingly dangerous. In some of its seas these rocks reach the surface, while in others, they lie dangerously concealed, having over them only a few feet of water. Woe to the mariner who, in consequence of inacquaintance with the seas, or the power of the currents, gets entangled amidst the pointed spires of this submarine city. The in- telligent Captain Cook was neither able to foresee nor aviod such dangers.;]; It happened at one time, by a singularly fortunate accident, that the point of a rock which had pierced his vessel was broke off, and by sticking in the place, and acting as a plug, saved the vessel from destruction. The reefs often extend from one island to another. The inhabitants of Disappointment Islands and those of Duff's Group can make their visits by passing over long lines of reefs from island to island, presenting the ap pearance of a regiment marching along the surface of the ocean. On those reefs which are covered with water are found immense collections o(*mollasc(ii and small shells. Muscles of every variety, pearl oysters, jmiJiCB marince, star-fish, and nic- dusoc, collect in millions. § A part of the world so constructed must contain an infinite number of straits. A few of the most conspicuous are all that we can notice;. The strait of Sunda is the principal entrance of the Chinese sea, Asia is separated from Oceanica in general, and from Sumatra in particular, by the long strait of Malacca. To the north, the wide channel between the island of Formosa and the Philippines has hitherto received no name. To the east of Java, we distinguish, among a multitude of others, the strait of Bali, affording to the ships bound for China a passage which has some advantages over that of Sunda. The strait of Macassar separates Borneo from Celebes. To the east of this last island the great Molucca passage opens. The history of navigation has given a celebrity to the adjoining straits of New Guinea. That of Waigioo separates, with some geogra- • Mentioned by Barrow in his Voyag'e to Cochin-Cliina. f In a Review of the Transactions of the Geolog'ical Society, (Quarterly Review, No. 6R, 515.) certain facts are stated in relation to this subject, showint^ the prog-ress of these forma- tions and their causes. After the Earthquake in Chili, A.D. 1822, it appeared on the morning of 20th Nov., that the whole line of coast from N. to S., to the distance of above 100 miles, had been raised above its former level. At Valparaiso, tiie alteration of the level was 3 feet ; at (iuintero 4 feet. Mrs. Graham says, there was good reason to believe, that at former periods, several ajicienl lines of coast, consisting nf sking-Ie mixed with shells, had been raised to the hciffhl of 50 feet above the sea. Part of the coast thus elevated, is said to consist of i^ranite. In the Journal of the Royal Instit., it is stated that the whole country from tlie foot of the Andes, to far out at sea was raised, the ijreatest rise being at the distance of about 2 miles from shore; the supposed area over which the eartlicjuake extended on the land, was estimated at 100,000 square miles. — The rise upon the coast was from 2 to 4 feet. At the distance of a mile inland it must have been from 5 to 7 feet. Dr. Jack in his paper on the Geology of Pulo Nias, near Sumatra, says, "Near the surface on all the hills, masses of coral origin are found lying imme- diately above the rocky strata, and to all appearance, ])recisely in their original position, in general so little altered, that their differciit species can be determined with certainty. Every thing seems to indicate that the surface of the island must, at otie time, have been the bed of the ocean. Although it must be regarded as a phenomenon of a most singular kind, that so large an island, diversified with numerous hills from 800 to 3000 feet in height, should have been heaved up from the sea with so lilile disturbance to the fragile marine jjroductions on the surface. The appearance and nature of these productions, would indicate a compara- tively recent date to the event." — Phil. Kd. 4: Forster's Opuscula, i. p. 52, and 253. (Cierman.) § Martyn'.s Figures of Shells collected in the bouth Sua, 1784, Vol. 11.— P p Particular seas. 298 HOOK FIFTY-THIRD. phers, Asia from Australia. Those of Dampier and Bougainville open useful tracks for navigators. A more important strait separates New Guinea from New Holland; it boars the name of Torres, who discovered it after erroneous views of the connec- tions of these seas and lands had been long entertained ; and farther south is En- deavour strait, discovered by Captain Cook. At the southern extremity of New Holland, and on the north of Van Diemen's land. Bass's strait opens one of the most important communications between the great Pacific and the Indian ocean. Cook's strait separates from one another the two islands of New Zealand. Many parts of the ocean receive particular designation from the countries which they respectively bound. Thus we distinguish the Chi- nese Sea, a real Mediterranean, the Sea of Celebes, and the Gulf of Carpentaria. Old charts give the waters which separate the islands of Java and of Timor from New Holland the name of the Landichol sea, probably composed of two Malay terms, laool, a sea, and kidor, south. Captain Flinders has proposed to give the waters lying between New Caledonia, Solomon's Island, New Guinea, and New Holland, the name of "the Coral Sea." ■\T,nd«and I The winds and currents which prevail in this vast ocean may all be ctinents. j j-educed to a single principle, the general motion of the atmosphere and the sea in a direction from east to west, opposite to that of the rotation of the earth.* This occasioned the mistakes of Quiros, Mendana, and other navigators, respecting the length of courses which they had sailed. This general motion usually acquires an increased force in the ditTerent straits, which are almost all directed from east to west. In the neigh'bourhood of the Philippines and of New Caledonia, the rapidity of the westerly current is extreme. But the extensive lands heated by the sun often attract to their central parts the atmosphere of the surrounding sea, and thus occasion winds opposite to the trade winds. Such are the west winds which prevail on the west coast of New Holland. These monsoons are not all known. Each island has its sea and land breezes, the former prevailing by night and the latter by day. At a distance of forty degrees north and south of the equator, the storms and winds are variable; the west winds, however, seem to prevail in the northern hemi- sphere, while Cook always found the winds easterly in the seas surrounding the south pole. cumstcw I The great countries of Oceanica are exposed to the influence of a ver- tical sun. It is probable that New Holland, unless it contains inland seas, has a climate as hot and arid as Africa. The marshy shores of some islands in the north- west of Oceanica, exposed to an intense heat, generate a pestiferous air, which may be corrected by human cultivation. Notwithstanding these local inconveniences, Oceanica presents to the industrious, the healthy, and the temperate, a greater diver- sity of delightful climates than any other part of the world. Such islands as are small and elevated resemble so many paradises. By selecting localities with the proper elevations, the Englishman may find his fresh lawns and his moss-covered trees, the Italian his orange-groves, and the West Indian planter his fields of sugar cane. The small extent of these islands procures for them the temperature of the ocean. The heat never becomes insupportable, even for northern Europeans. The air is continually renewed by the light sea and land breezes, dividing the empire of day and night. Their perpetual spring is rarely disturbed by hurricanes or earth- quakes.! Animals. | We havc already, in another part of this work, taken notice of the im- perfect features of resemblance presented by the animal kingdom in the different Quadrupeds. | countries of Oceanica.|; The didelph-opossums, the phalangers, the kangaroo-philanders, the cassowaries, and a few other species, seem common to several countries of this part of the world. The case will probably be found to be the same with some other species, when the natural history of these countries has been attentively observed. If several of them possess animals peculiar to themselves, that circumstance will appear no way surprising in a world of islands. None of the • For the Theory, see vol. i. p. 158 and IT'S. t See vol. i. p. 256. ^ See vol. i. p. 249. OCEANICA. 299 great races of quadrupeds, either of Asia w New Holland, has extended to the small i;3lands of Polynesia. The pig is the only one found every where domesticated, and is the same species as in India and China. Dogs, cats, and rats, formed the whole quadruped class in these islands before Captain Cook suppHed them with goats and cattle. Ornithology offers, through the whole of Oceanica, a little more va- | Birdi. riety, along with many features of mutual resemblance. Common poultry abounds, and is of a larger size than ours. Labillardiere saw on the Friendly Islands several kinds of loris and other birds, common to the Philippines and the Moluccas. In Otaheite, as in Amboyna, small birds swarm in the groves of bread-fruit trees. Their song is agreeable, though it is generally said in Europe that the birds of warm cli- mates are destitute of the powers of melody. Remarkably small parroquets, of a beautiful sapphire blue, live on the foliage of the highest cocoa, while others of a greenish colour, diversified with largo red spots, appear usually among the bananas, and oflen in the houses of the people, who tame them and set a high value on their red feathers. These species are generally diffused between the 10th northern and the 20th southern parallel of lititude. The birds of paradise no where sport their light bodies and airy plumage but in the balmy winds of the shores of New Guinea. The aquatic birds are every where the same. In Amboyna and Otaheite we find the dark-green martin-fisher, with white neck surrounded with a ring of green. A large species of cuckoos, and several sorts of pigeons or turtle-doves, hop from branch to branch, while the blue herons gravely stalk along the sea shores in quest of shell-fish and worms. The tropic bird inhabits the caverns on the steep sides of the rocks, where the Otaheitans go in quest of it for the sake of the feathers of its tail. For the same purpose, they ensnare the frigate bird, a bird of passage. The spheniscus (manchot) of the Great Ocean differs essentially from the penguin of the Atlantic. These birds, almost without wings, found at a distance of 1300 miles from any known land, live chiefly in the frigid zone, and even in the icy seas. But one species, the Jlptenodytcs papua, is seen at New Guinea and among the Papua Islands.* No sea abounds so much in fish. Between Easter island and the | Fish. Sandwich islands. La Perouse was followed by immense troops of fish ; some indi- viduals were easily indentified by the harpoons sticking in their bodies. Between the shores of Borneo and those of New Guinea, we find an entire nation of fishermen called Badshoos, who are constantly in their boats, and live on fish. In the neigh- bourhood of New Zealand, Labillardiere saw shoals of fishes, which produced by their motions a waving movement on the surface of the water, like the advance and recess of a tide.| The species are in general the same that are found in the Indian Sea. The bonitas, the dorados, the tunnies, the surmullets, the rays, the mullets, seem to abound alike on every shore. There are a hundred new species, most of which are vaguely determined, as well as two new genera, the Harpurus and Balisto- podes. The seals of the Great Ocean, those at least which Peron observed on the shores of New Holland, differ from those of the Atlantic. Per- haps the case is the same with the whales which sometimes get entanglec reefs, where their immense bodies have not room to turn. All the lagoons between the reefs and shores abound with lobsters, common oysters, pearl oysters, and shells of extraordinary size and beauty. The crabs in some places acquire an | crabs. enormous size ; they eat cocoa-nuts. The crab of the Moluccas seems to be com- mon to the whole ocean. The number of poisonous fish seems to be considerable. Quiros | Poisonous fish, narrowly escaped death by eating a spams caught on the coasts of Terra del Spirito Santo.;]; The companions of Cook believed they were poisoned at the same place by the same food. It is thought that this fish only becomes dangerous when it has fed on a particular species of /netZMsce. But the Iclrodon, which poisoned Forster on • Forster, Historia Aptenodyt. Nov, Comm. Gott. 1780, vol. ili. Sonnerat, Voyage a la Nou- Velle-Guine, p. 181. t Labillardiere, Voyog-e, ii. p. 86. % Dalrymple, liistoricul Collec. 1. p. 140. Seals and whales. among the The vegetable kingdom. Alimentary plants. 300 BOOK FirTY-TlIIRl). the coast of Now South Wales, always contains a narcotic poison. At Otahcitc there is a sea eel of a very deleterious quality, and a small red lobster which is still more fatal to those who eat it.* Anson's crew found near the Marians so many fish that they resolved to give up eating them entirely. This superlluous abundance seems common to all the seas belonging to the great Ocean. The vegetable kingdom of Oceanica presents to us all the riches of India in new splendour, and accompanied by new pleasures unknown to Asia. In the Sunda islands, the Phihppines, and the Moluccas, rice occupies the place of wheat ; and the culture of it is probably extended over New Guinea. Farther to the east, in the islands of Polynesia, there are four exceedingly useful esculent plants, which grow either spontaneously, or under the influence of culture ; the potato, the yam, and two species of arum, from which, by culture and boiling, a sweet farinaceous substance is obtained Palms. I Two orders of trees are spread over all the middling and small islands of Oceanica, which delight both the eye and the taste. The numerous family of the palms is extended over the most remote and smallest islands. Between the tro- pics there is scarcely a rock or a sand-bank on which these trees do not display their astonishing vegetation. The palmsf have, in the interior structure of their trunks, no analogy with other trees. In habit and in structure they resemble the ferns, in their blossom the grasses, and the asparigi in their mode of fructification. But no trees are so portly and magnificent as the palms. They present a straight column, perfectly cylindrical, crowned at the summit with a vast load of sprightly leaves, ar- ranged in circles over one another, and put forth from their common receptacle largo panicles, partially inclosed in ample sheaths, and loaded with flowers and with fruit. But their majestic appearance is their least merit. Their beauty is surpassed by their Usefulness of Usefulness. The external layers of the trunk furnish a hard and heavy v»''"s- wood, which may be formed into planks and stakes. The sheaths which contain the clusters of fruit acquire such thickness and consistence that they are often used as vessels. The large leaves are employed for roofing wigwams and cottages. Materials for wadding, flock, and cordage, are furnished by the fibrous pericarp of the cocoa-tree, by the leaf stalks of several other species, and by the fila- mentous tissue which, in all of them, covers the trunk. Of these are made ropes, cables, and oven sail-cloth, and they are used as oakum in caulking vessels. The leaves of the Macaw tree (latinier) serve for fans to the Indian fair ones; those of tho Borassii3 flahelliformis furnish parasols which can cover ten people at a time. The leaves of some palms are used for writing on: the shell of the cocoa-nut sup- plies us with a natural cup. This order of trees furnishes a number of excellent dishes. Tho sweet and pulpy substance surrounding the shells of some is eaten and dressed in a variety of forms : such are the Areca catechu and the Phanix dac- tylifera. In some, as the cocoa-nut, the perisperm or cotyledonous matter, while in others, as the cabbage palm, or Areca oleracea, the terminal leaf-bud is used as a pot-herb. The milky liquid contained in the large cavity of the cocoa-nut is capa- ble of being converted into wine, vinegar, and alcohol. From the same fruit a good oil is procured. Bieadfruit. | Another family of nutricious trees enjoyed by the Oceanian nations is that of the Artocarpi, or bread-fruit trees. This valuable genus rises to a height of forty feet. Its trunk acquires the thickness of the human body. The fruit is as large as a child's head. Gathered before it is fully ripe, and baked among ashes, it becomes a wholesome bread, resembling fresU wheaten bread in taste. For a period of eight months, this tree yields its fruit in such profusion, that three of them will support a man for a year. The inner bark of the same tree is manufactured into a kind of cloth. Its wood is well adapted for building cottages and canoes. Its leaves are used as napkins; its glutinous and milky juice furnishes good cement and glue. • Missionary Voyage, Appendix. t Desfontaines, Memoires de I'lnstitut, 1796; Memoire sur rorganization des Monocoty- ledons ou plantes a une feuille scminale. OCBANICA. • 301 Observation on Mi'W HolliiinL ic civiliza- It is rallxer a surpriaing circumsfancc, that the great Oceanic country of New Ilollantl alone is destitute of these two vegetable tribes. The bread-fruit, which is spread over New Zealand, has evidently followed t tion and the emigrations of the Malay race. Probably the palms will be found on the coasts of Carpentaria and Dc Witt's land, which have not been well explored ; and perhaps their propogalion in a southern direction has been arrested by a groat inland sea, or a great mountain chain. The Eucalypiij the Casuarincc, and some other large trees indigenous in the southern part of New Holland, have spread from thence chiefly over that portion of the remainder of Oceanica which lies in the southern hemisphere. The gum trees and dracocnce of the north-west coast, con- nect again the Flora of this great island with that of Malacca and the adjoining parts of the continei.t. As yet our information respecting New Holland is too slen- der to enable us to descant on the relations which it bears to the rest of this division of the world. Fruit trees abound in Sunda, and other islands in its neighbourhood. | Fmit trees. Perhaps they have been brought thither by colonies, or at least improved by culture. They have tlie sweet man^o, the Eugenia odorata, the sitodium, and the cynomelra, distinguished for their oily and farinaceous almonds, resembling the kernel of the hazel-nut, and enclosed in pulpy fruits surrounding the trunk of the tree. They have the tamarind, which, with its acid juice, alleviates the febrile heats so incident to the inhabitants of that climate. The pomegranate and the orange abound in all their varieties. The orange tree extends as far as the New Hebrides. The bamboo, the sugar cane, and the nardus, three gramineous species indigenous in India, grow still more luxuriantly in the marshes of Java and Sumatra than on the banks of the Gan- ges. The sugar cane is found as far to the east as Otaheite, but it ditiers essentially I'rom that of the West India islands. In the islands of the north-west of Oceanica some valuable products arc more perfect in quality than in any other place; such as sandal wood, aloe vaiuabi wood, or calambac; the J\leluleuca hucodendron, which produces the oil -woods, of cajeput; the Jlmyris demifcra, which gives out the resin called elemi from inci- sions in its bark; the cmnota, cassia, ebony, and several others yielding valuable gums, the uses and even the names of which are unknown in Europe. These | Gums. are probably found in all the Oceanian countries. In Otaheite there has been found sandal wood of good quality. Under such a sky as that of the islands of the great Ocean, we may Flowering expect to meet with a multitude of those plants which are distinguished shrubs, by the brilliancy of their colours and the grace or singularity of their forms, but scarcely known to us beyond the precincts of the stove and green-house. It is only among a small number of readers that the names of the hibiscus, the erythrina, aralia, ixora, bauhinia, and euphorbia, recall the ideas of vegetable beauty and magnificence. Every one, however, knows those which contribute, by their aromatic pugency or grateful odour, to the luxuries of the table. All the islands of the north- "^I'^^'J^/J'';, west of Oceanica abound in the two species of pepper called the long n-ccs. and the round; the produce of the one being presented to us in the form of long spikelets containing seeds of minute size, while we know the other only in the state of round grains separated from the spike. Of these plants immense plantations are seen; but they are not found in a state of nature; at least this is the case with the black pepper, a native of Malabar.* The islands of eastern Oceanica produce in too large quantity the intoxicating pepper called Piper inelhyslicum, used for preparing the dangerous drink called ava or kava. The cinnamon tree grows abundantly in Sumatra, and the adjoining islands. In the Moluccas nature has multiplied in the amplest profusion the Eiigeiiia caryophyllala, the calices of whoso numerous flowers are so well known in the European market under the name of cloves; and the myris- tica, the fruit of which forms our nutmeg, and the inner bark or mace. The jealous avarice of the Dutch East India Company confined these species entirely to the small islands of Banda and Amboyna. The policy of other nations has gone in quest of • Crawford's History of the Indian Archipelago, vol. i. book iv. chap.Y. Poisonous plants. Extension of the Malay race. 302 BOOK FIFTY-THIKI). these lucrative trees to New G uinea, and though their researches Imve not yet proved successful, it is confidently believed that they exist in that country. The nutmeg tree grows also in Borneo. But, if the most pleasant aromatics enrich this part of the world, the most terrible poisons are found in their company. The same heats of a vertical sun give energy to the juices of the fatal and of the salubrious species. The ti*ee known under the name of the Bohon oopas, or the "poison tree," saddens the forests of Turat, of Celebes,* and of Balambooang in the island of Java, f It seems to belong to the genus Euphorbia; at least, the poison is not a gum-resin exuding through the bark, but a milky juice which issues from the branches when broken over. This tree has been the subject of many exaggerated reports. Even the phi- losophical Rumphius tells us that no other plant can live within the distance of a stone-cast round it; that if the birds happen to light on its branches, they instantly drop down dead; and that, in order to procure the gum without endangering life, it is necessary to have the whole body covered with a strong cotton cloth. He adds, that a single drop of its recent juice applied to the skin produces either immediate death, or an ulcer of a most malignant character, and extremely difficult to heaLj The inquiries of Messrs. Deschamps and Leschenault de la Tour have thrown some light on this mysterious tree. The former broke its branches without experiencing any harm: the latter confirmed the fact, that the juice of the oopas, when mixed witli the blood, occasions speedy death ; at the same time he showed that the immediate application of ammonia had the power of arresting its fatal effects. § Races of men- | Having given a general physical portrait of Oceanica, we shall take a view of the races of human beings by whom this part of the world is inhabited. They seem to be referable to two stocks, totally distinct both in physiognomy and in language ; the Malays, or Yellow Oceanians, and the Oceanian Negroes. The Malays are no longer considered by the learned as having ori- ginally come from the peninsula of Malacca : it is now understood that it was not till a comparatively recent period that they became inhabitants of that country. Their national historians trace their origin to the island of Sumatra ; they also describe them as connected with the Javanese ; but we find them at present ex- tending over numerous countries. Not only are all the inhabitants of the maritime parts of Borneo, Celebes, Luzon, and the Moluccas, of the Malay race ; but the innumerable tribes of Polynesia, or eastern Oceanica, seem to have the same origin. Although the Marians are 5500 miles from Easter Island, and though Owyhee is at nearly an equal distance from New Zealand, we have a collection of facts, authenti- cated by the concurring testimony of numerous observers, which force us to regard the families disseminated over this wide region as having a common origin. The islanders have tawny complexions, varying a little in the different tribes, independently of any ascertainable circumstances in their habits of life or their climate. The fairest are generally in the most westerly regions ; some of them, as the Battas of Sumatra, are directly under the equator. The hair of the head is long, lank, rough, and always black. The hair of the beard, and in general of every part except the head, is scanty. They are in the practice of pluck- ing out that of the beard in their youth. The Mahometan priests, affecting to wear long beards, cultivate them to the best of their power, but not with so much success as to escape ridicule. Their persons are short, squat, and robust ; their lower limbs somewhat large, but not ill-formed. The busts of the females are much inferior in symmetry to those of the women of Indostan. The face is round, the mouth wide, the teeth remarkably good, the chin square, tlie check bones high, the checks rather hollow. The nose is short and small, never prominent, but never flat ; the eyes are small, and, like those of other orientals, always black. They are an ill-looking peo- ple compared to the Arabs, Birmans, and Siamese. They are less handsomely formed than the Chinese, but have much better features. || * Valentyn. Descri|)tion d'Amboine : Vegetaux, p, 218. f Deschamps, Annales des A'oyages, i. 70. i IJvimphii Hortus Amboinensis, t. ii. tab. 87. § Memoir, in tlie Annales du Museum. U Rlumenbach, Dec. Craii. iii. tab. 29. Crawford's Hist, oflhe Indian Archipelago, vol. i. p. 22. Their physi ognomy- Similarity of government and laws. OCEANICA. 303 Differences in colour and in the appearance of the hair have been observed be- tween the great and the common people in Otaheite,*" which led Forster to believe that a Malay colony had subdued in these islands some prior negro tribes, of the race which inhabits New Guinea and New Holland. But others may, with some probability, ascribe this difference to habit and diet, as the great live on the flesh of quadrupeds, and the common people chiefly on fish. The similarity of the languages, as exhibited in the very imperfect vo- I identity of cabularies given by Forster, Father Gobien, Marsden, and others, is | "aneuages. strongly marked. The inhabitants of eastern Oceanica speak the same language in different dialects, and this presents a singular analogy to that of the Malays, particu- larly that spoken in Sumatra-t M. Du Petit Thouars says, that the resemblance extends even to the language of Madagascar, which is its richest and most regular form. Mr. Crawford denies the identity of the vocabularies of the different island- ers, and says, that on the contrary, even those tribes which are the nearest neigh- bours generally speak languages totally different and unintelligible to one another ; yet, he remarks, that in character and structure, they are all exactly similar. Their roots are different, but the mode of applying and combining them is universally the same. They have all the same form of government. Captain Cook tells us that in Hamao, one of the Friendly Islands, Tamalao signifies a chief. + Father Cantova, speaking of the Carolines, tells us, that " the authority of govern- ment was divided among a number of noble families, the heads of which were called Tamoles ; and that in every province there was a principal Tamole, to which the others were subject."§ The same species of feudal aristocracy prevails in the greater part of the islands of the Ocean. Cook tells us, that in the Friendly Islands, the chiefs never come into the presence of the monarch without demonstrations of pro- found respect, such as touching his feet with their heads and with their hands. j[ Fa- ther Cantova's letters inform us that the Tamoles of the Carohne Islands are ap- proached with the same reverence. When any one of them gives an audience, he appears seated on an elevated table, the people bow to the earth before him, and, at whatever distance they come in sight, they walk with the body so much bent that the head is almost between the knees, till they are near his person ; they then seat themselves on the bare earth, and receive his orders with downcast eyes and other demonstrations of the deepest reverence. His words are regarded as oracles, and his orders are blindly and implicitly obeyed. In imploring any favour they kiss his hands and his feet. IT In the Friendly Islands it is customary to honour their chiefs and strangers with midnight dances, accompanied with vocal and instrumen- tal music.** In the Caroline Islands, similar concerts are held in the evenings round the houses of the chiefs. In going to sleep, the latter are always serenaded by a band of young musicians. H The ceremonies on several solemn occasions are the same in islands situated at the greatest distances. The inhabitants of the Palaos Islands, those of the New Philippines, of the Carolines, and of Mangia, who are 4000 miles from one another, observe the same forms of salutation. They show their civility and respect by taking the hand or foot of the person whom they mean to honour, and drawing it gently along their faces. J J Another mode of salutation, which prevails from the Sandwich Islands to New Zealand, is for the parties to bring the points of their noses into contact. In almost every part of eastern Oceanica, the Polynesians receive | Solemn songs, strangers with grave songs, and present them with a branch of banana us an emblem of peace. The black race, on the contrary, moat commonly avoid all conmmnication with strangers. • Bougainville, Voyage Autour du Monde, p. 211. f Marsden, Archxologia, vol. vi. i Third Vo3'age. § l-ettres Edifiantes et Curieuses, vol. xv. p. 312. (Edition of 1781.) U Third Voyage. K I.ettrcs Edifiantes et Curieuses, t. xv. j). 312, 313. *• Third Voyage. ft Lettres Edifiantes, p. 314. ^i Cook, Third Voyage. Lettres Edif. p. 208. Ceremonial dances. Society of Ar- reoy. SivisioDJ into castes. Funeral cere- monies. 304 BOOK FIFTY-THIRD. AmtiBenwntK. | The saiKic teims are applietl to designate the same sort of national amusements. The words fanger ifaifil, in the Carohne Islands, signify, " the Fe- male Complaint," the title of one particular form of public entertainment. In the Friendly Islands the same thing is called tangee vefaine.* When we turn to the Marians, we discover still more decided resemblances.! The society of the Arreoy forms a most singular and infamous feature in the manners of Otaheite. These clubs of men and women, who make debauchery and infanticide fundamental laws of their body, present a phenome- non almost unique in the moral history of our species. Father Gobien tells us that there is a similar society in the Marian Islands. He says that the Uritoy are, among them, young people who live with mistresses without choosing to be connected by the mar- riage tie, and that they form a separate association. We know that the Otaheitans use smooth pronunciation ; and the word Uritoy, when the consonant T is suppressed, approaches to Arreoy or Erreoy, as the Otaheitan term is spelled by Mr. Anderson. Capt. Cook obseiTed in the Society and Friendly Islands three castes, the chiefs, the free proprietors, and the lowest people, or serfs. Gobien expressly says that the same division into three ranks is observed in the Ladrone Islands. In the whole of Polynesia, the nobihty are incredibly proud, and hold the people in a degree of subjection of which it is difficult for the people of Europe to form an idea. The whole political condition of these islands calls to mind the laws and institutions of the Malays. The case is the same with their notions of religion. Among the Carolinians, some keep the bodies of their deceased relations in a small stone building within their houses, others inter them at a distance from their own dwelling.^ Here we have an analogy with the Feiatooka of the Friendly Islands, and the custom universal among these nations, of leaving the dead bodies to dry in the air. Their cemeteries are also inclosed in the same manner. The natives of the Society Islands strow round their burying grounds garlands of palm clusters and cocoa leaves, together with other objects particularly consecrated to funeral ceremonies, and near to which they also set down a quantity of food and water. The natives of the Ladrones, according to Gobien, feast round the tomb, which is always raised on or near the spot where the dead is interred : it is covered with flov,ers, palm branches, shells, and every thing which the people esteem valuable. The Otaheitans do not bury the skulls of their chiefs along with the rest of the bones, but deposit them in boxes appropriated to that use. This strange custom is also found to prevail in the Ladrone Islands. Go- bien expressly says, that they keep the skulls in their houses ; that they put them in small baskets, and that the dead chiefs are the Anitis to whom the priests address their prayers. The opinions regarding a future state of existence have a general similarity among all these nations. They believe in the im- mortality of the soul, and in a heaven and a hell ; but they do not consider these as places for the reward of virtue and the punishment of vice. In the creed of the New Zealanders the man who has been killed and eaten by his enemy is condemned to eternal fire. The inhabitants of the Ladrones also consider hell as the destiny of persons who have died a violent death. These striking coincidences cannot be the effect of mere chance. They lead us irresistibly to the conclusion, that the inhabitants of all these islands have derived their customs and opinions from a common source, and are to be regarded as scat- tered tribes belonging to one nation, which had been separated at a period subsequent to the formation of their code of politics and religion. But how shall we conduct our inquiries into tlic progress of that dis- persion] Shall we believe, with Cook, Forster, and others, that it has taken place only in a direction from west to east? These navigators justly remark, that parties of savages in their canoes must often have lost their way, and been driven on distant shores, where they were forced to remain, deprived both of the means and of the requisite intelligence for returning to their own country. In- • Cook, Ibid. Letters Edif. xv. p. 315. •j- See rtlistoire des Isles Marianes i)ar le Fere le Gobien, liv. ii. or an Extract contained in I'Histoire ties Navigations aux Teircs Australes, t. ii. p. 4y2 — 512. i Leltrcs Ediliantes, t. xv. p. 308, £ic. Ideas of a fu- ture state. How have these ijeople been dispers- ed? Hypotheses of. fered. OCEANICA. 303 stances of this have occurred within the knowledge of modern writers. In 1696, two canoes, containing thirty persons who had left Ancorso, were | strayed boats- thrown by contrary winds and storms on the island of Saniar, one of the Philippines, at a distance of 800 miles.* In 1721, two canoes, one of which contained twenty- four and the other six persons, men, women, and children, were drifted from an island called Baroilep to the island of Guam, one of the Marians. "j" Captain Cook found on the island of Wateoo three inhabitants of Otaheite who had been drifted in a si- milar manner, and the distance between the two islands is 550 miles. These facts are incontestible. But when we throw our eyes on the map, we per- ceive that these three parties of unfortunate sailors have all been carried by the pre- vailinff currents and the trade winds to countries situated to the west of those to which they originally belonged. These examples, so frequently quoted, would there- fore lead to an inference the reverse of that generally drawn from them. They would prove that Asia and Africa may have received colonies of savages from the Oceanian islands, but not that these islands had received colonists from the old continent. In revolving this problem, we should believe the islanders to have pro- ceeded from South America, were not that supposition destroyed by the total absence of any similarity in language, or in physical character.J We might again be tempted to suppose that they belonged to an ancient continent now buried in the sea, leaving these islands alone above the surface. But this hypothesis, which has been hazarded by an estimable scholar, only explains one difficulty by giving birth to many new ones.§ If that ancient people left their few descendants in a state of dispersion over the east and the west, how does it happen that none of them are to be found on the large continent of New Holland, and that this country is entirely peopled by negroes? We consider the following as the best solution of this historical phc- om- hypotUe- nomenon. The large, islands of Luzon, Celebes, Borneo, Java, and "'• Sumatra, ai-e inhabited by nations who speak languages bearing more or less affinity to that of the Malays, thus showing a common origin ; yet some of them, such as the Tagal and Bissay languages of the Philippines, the Balian of the island Bali, and that of the Battas of Sumatra, also differ so essentially from one another, that their national separation must have been of very ancient date. At the same time, we are informed that other ramifications of the Malay tongue are found in Madagascar, 3000 miles west from Sumatra, and in the Society Islands and beyond them, nearly 7000 miles to the east of the Moluccas. They are said to be enriched with a harmony of modulation and a diversity of grammatical forms which suppose some advancement in civilization. The same feudal government, the same manners, and probably the same mythology, || are found in countries thus distant. The conclusion which seems to follow is, that this language, these customs, and these institutions, were formed in the bosom of an ancient empire, a powerful nation, and one which cultivated ma- ritime habits, but which has since fallen from its eminence, and been frittered down into detached local communities, unknown to one another. But what was the seat of this Malayan Carthage 1 Every considera' tion shows that we must search for it in Borneo, Sumatra, and Java The first of these islands is little known. The second appears to the learned Mars- denlT to be the true country of the Malay nations. Without positively adopting or rejecting this opinion, we rather incline to believe that the country of Malayan civili- zation is to be sought in the island of Java. In the first place, the historical traditions of the Malay colony established in Ma- lacca make Java the seat of a great empire, from which that emigrant tribe had •received its laws and its religion. Tlie greater part of the Malay books are trans- lations from the Javanese. • Retires Edifiantes, t. xv. p. 19G. f Ibid. p. 282, &c. ^ Forster's Observations on Physical Geography. § Meincrs, llecherches sur la Hifierence des Races Humaines. II See afterwards our account of Otaheite, Bali, and other islands, H Grammar of the Malay Language. London, 1812. Vol.. II.— Q q Focus of Ma- layan civiliza- tion. 305 BOOK FIFTY-THIRD. Connectioiu WftI) India. In the second place, the Malay language has a copious mixture of Hindoo or Sanscrit terms, which are particularly appropriated to reli- gious and civil uses. These terms approach most of all to the Kalinga or Telinga language, spoken in Golconda and Orissa.* We might consequently expect to find this admixture following the order of local proximity. But we find the affinity with the Sanscrit to prevail chiefly among the Javanese, and most of all among the inha- bitants of the mountains of Java. It is also in Java, and especially in the interior of that island, that we fii*d the feasts and ceremonies of the Brahminical religion. The history of the Javanese makes the nation to descend from Vishnu. I Epoch of that But at what epoch was Java the seat of a nation which, after being civilization. civilized by the Telinga Brahmins, colonized the shores of the vast Ocean ? It certainly was prior to the introduction of Mahometanism ; for that reli- gion has not extended farther than the Moluccas : and the pig, an animal unclean in the eyes of the Mussulmans, has accompanied the Malay colonies to the remotest islands of Polynesia. It was probably prior to the travels of Marco Polo : for he seems to speak of this world of islands as already known and visited. On the other hand, the ancients, in the days of Ptolemy, were not acquainted with any civilized nation to the south of the Siiw., (the Siamese of modern times.) The chronology of the Javanese goes no farther back than the king of Pajajaran, who must have reigned in the year 74 of the Christian era. Thus probabilities fix the foundation of the first Malay colonies somewhere between the fourth and the tenth century of our era. A second migration of the Malays was occasioned by the Mahometan fanaticism ; and this migration, which is better known, took place in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. Hence arise the palpable differences between the Malays of the coast and those of the interior. Second migra tion of the Malays, Race of Oce- anian negroes called the The second great race of men belonging to Oceanica, is that which ■p.- we have denominated the Oceanian negroes. J They are sometimes apuan race. Compared to the Africans, they are of a diminutive size, being about four feet nine inches high, and never exceeding five feet. Such, at least, js the account given by Mr. Crawford, of those whom he had an opportunity of see- ing in western Oceanica. They have spare and puny frames. The skin is not jet black, like that of the African, but of a sooty brown. Sir Everard Home thus de- scribes one who was sent to England by Sir Stamford Raffles to distiiigush him from the African negro. § "His skin is of a lighter colour: the woolly hair grows in small tufts, and each hair has a spiral twist. The forehead rises higher, and the hindhead is less cut oflT. The nose projects more from the face. The upper lip is larger and more prominent. The lower lip projects forward from the lower jaw, to such an extent that the chin makes no part of the face, the lower part of which is formed by the mouth. The buttocks are so much lower than in the negro as to con- etitute a marked distinction ; but the calf of the leg is equally high as in the negro." The description here given of the countenance corresponds exactly to a very strik- ing plate of a New Hollander, prefixed to a short tract entitled, Dixon's Narrative of a Voyage to New South Wales. j| It is only indeed in exterior stamp that the puny negro of these islands bears any resemblance to the African, who in vigour of frame and capacity for enduring labour, is superior to all other races, except the European. This is therelbre evidently a distinct and inferior race of mankind. Their dwarfishness and feebleness are not the effect of scanty food, or the hardships of their lot; for they do not attach to the lank haired races living in circumstances precisely the same. They have exclusive possession of some islands; yet have nowhere risen above the most abject barba- rism. AVhen encountered by the fairer races, they have been hunted like wild ani- • Leyden's Memoir on the Indo-Chhiese Languages. \ Seeafierwards our account of Java. i See a I'late representing these two Races in Crawford's History of tlie Indian Archi- pelago, vol. i. § Crawford's History of tlie Indian Archipelago, vol, i. p. 24, II Publislied at Edlngurgh in 1822. OCEANICA. 307 mals; and, incapable of retaining their ground, have retreated to the mountains and the fastnesses. The people of New Guinea and some adjacent islands have been described by navigators as of more robust constitution. Forrest's account is less satisfactory than that of Sonnerat. This author describes them as a hideous race, rendered more disgusting by the prevalence of leprosy or elephantiasis, yet robust: he adds, that their hair is of a shining black, or a fiery red.* This last account, which cannot be correct, is regarded by Mr. Crawford as throwing discredit on the whole ; and he thinks it probable that they are equally feeble with the negroes of western Oceanica.f To suppose that this race has emigrated from Africa is to do violence to all fact and reasoning, both on man and on the physical state of the globe. The different negro tribes of the Indian islands have different languages, and all completely different from those of Madagascar. The agreement between the languages of these two distant countries originates not in the negro languages, but in those of the men of brown complexion. The coincidences which Occur in points of arbitrary custom are to be traced to the same soiuce, and the mode of trans- mission must have been found from east to west. The Oceanian negroes seem doomed to perpetual misery, and incapable of rising from the very bottom of the scale of humanity. They have been found hitherto incapable of acquiring the habits and feelings of civilized beings; and we cannot allow that, at any former period, they existed in a superior state of society. This race is extended over ^^^-^^ g.jjg„. New Holland, Van Diemen's Land, New Caledonia, the New He- "o"- brides. New Britain, and Solomon's Islands, as well as New Guinea, where they go under the Malayan appellation of Papuas. Of these places they have exclusive possession, the Malays having either been expelled, or never permitted to settle. They seem also to have once occupied the Moluccas and the Philippines ; but in these places they have been partly destroyed and partly driven into the interior by the Malays. In the Philippines they are called Ygolotes and JYegritos; in the Mo- luccas, Haraforas and Alfureses. Perhaps they are extended still farther. Their features seem to be recognised in the inhabitants of the Andaman islands, and in the Googos of Sumatra. A few straggling families inhabit the central parts of the peninsula of Malacca, where they lead the lives of hunters. J But the Biajoos of Borneo and the Battas of Sumatra do not, as has been erroneously supposed, belong to them. Even several tribes called Alfureses, such as those of Booro, seem rather to be related to the olive-coloured race. Besides these leading races, Oceanica presents to the observer of hu- man nature a few more unnatural and disgusting varieties of the species^ In the island of Mallicolo, and in the neighbourhood of Glasshouse Bay in New Holland, the shape of the head approaches nearer to that of the ourang than in other* negroes. In the interior of Sumatra, there is a tribe which, from the large size of their heads and their small bodies, look like pigmies; and another, with long hair over the whole body, like the amos of Jesso. Deformities are often occasioned by hereditary disease. Thus the inhabitants of the island of Nias, off the west coast of Sumatra, have their bodies covered with scales, from a disease not unknown in Europe. The white leprosy, in which the skin of the negro assumes a livid white hue, prevails among the Papuans of New Guinea, and also extends to the Malay race in the isle of Java, where the subjects of it go under the name of Kakerlaks, In addition to these effects of preternatural change, the mixture of the olive with the negro race of Oceanians accounts for all the gradations found in this division of the world. • Voyage a Nouvelle Guin^e, par M. Sonnerat. f History of the Indian Archipelago, voLi. p. 27, \ Crawford's History, voK iii. p. 5, Degenerate varietiesi 308 BOOK FIFTY-rOURTH, BOOK LIV. OCEANICA. PART II. NORTH-WESTERN OCEANICA. Aparticulur Account of the Sunda Islands; or Sumatra, Java, and Borneo. Names of Sumatra. The first country which Oceanica presents, as we proceed eastward from the Indian Ocean, is the great Island of Sumatra, known in some measure to Ptolemy, who seems to designate the point of Acheen under the name of Jaba Diu, the same as Java Div, or "the island of barley." The name Sama- rade, found in some editions of Ptolemy, seems to be a corruption of Sumatra. It was known to the Arabs under the names of Lamery and Saborma.* Marco Polo mentions some kingdoms and districts belonging to it. He calls it little Java : some think that he thus contrasts it with Borneo, which was Great Java; but the fact seems to be, that he had no conceptions at all of the comparative size of the islands, and, finding that Java was the most famous and the best known island in this archi- pelago, and that Sumatra was also a large island, concluded that Java was the largest, and Sumatra the next in order.| Extent. I This island, called by the natives Andelis, and perhaps Samandra,| is 1040 miles long, from north-west to south-east; its breadth varies from 55 to 235. Mountains. | A chain of mountains divides it longatudinally, running nearest to the western coast. The maritime parts, on both sides, are low and marshy. The main chain is accompanied by others of a secondary order. Four large lakes on the sides of these mountains discharge their water by rapid torrents, or graceful cascades. The most famous of them is called Manselar. Mount Ophir was found, by the measurement of Mr. Nairne, to be 13,842 feet above the level of the sea. Several Volcanoes. | of the mountains are volcanoes. That of Ayer-Raya is 1377 feet above the sea.§ Soil, The soil is for the most part a fat reddish clay, covered with a stratum Mineralogy, of black earth, often poor and barren. In the mountains have been found a reddish granite and marble. Three-fourths of the island, especially towards the south, are covered with an impenetrable forest. The gold mines had attracted the attention of the Dutch ; but the German miners sent to Sillida declared the ore to be in sparing quantity, and too difficult to work.]] The Malays of Padang and Me- nangkaboo sell annually from 10,000 to 12,000 ounces of gold, which they collect principally by washing. The mines of Sipini and of Caye yield gold of eighteen and nineteen carats. There are excellent mines of iron and steel in the interior. The steel of Menangkaboo is preferable to any in Europe. Tin, a metal found in so few countries, is an object of export. It is found chiefly in the neighbourhood of Palembang, on the east coast, being a continuation of the rich strata of the isle of Banka. The small island of Poolo-Pcsang, at the foot of the mountain Poogong, consists almost entirely of one bed of rock-crystal. The soft rock called napj)al seems to be a sort of soap-stone or steatite. Petroleum is also found at Ippoo, and * See our account of the history of Geography, Book xvi. \ History of Geography, Book xix. 4: Valentyn's Description of Sumatra, (Ostindien, vii.) § Marsden's History of Sumatra, p. 8, 24. i Voyage of Benjamisi Olitscb, counsellor of mines, by Elias Ilesse, Dresden, 1690, (in German.) SUMATRA. 309 elsewhere. It is chiefly used as a preservative against the ravages of the white ants. A great part of the soa-coast is surrounded with coral reefs. Though situated under the equator, Sumatra is seldom subjected to a | climate, higher temperature than 85° of Fahrenheit, while in Bengal the thermometer rises to 101°. The inhabitants of the mountains are in the practice of hghting fires in the cold mornings. But frost, snow, and hail, are unknown, Thunder and lightning are frequent, and principally during the north-west monsoon. The south-east mon- soon, which is dry, begins in May and ends in September; the north-west or rainy monsoon begins in December and ends in March. The climate of Sumatra has been too much decried. The west coast, which is covered with extensive marshes, may deserve the character of a pestilential shore, in consequence of the unhealthy fogs to which it is subject. But many other parts of the island, especially the east coast, contain unhealthy situations, and afford examples of great longevity.* The Malay Islands, though adorned with many rare native plants VegetaWe and valuable trees, are, in general, ill adapted for cultivation. The facts P'^°<'"ct'"iM« stated by Mr. Marsden leave no doubt on that head.f The Sumatrans cultivate two kinds of rice. They extract oil from sesamum, and chew the sugar cane. They obtain a black sugar called jaggari, from the anoo palm, which also yields sago, and, like other palms, an inebriating liquor. The cocoa is the chief dependence of the people for subsistence. Sumatra abounds in the most envied tropical fruits, such as the mangosteen, that celebrated wonder of the Indies, esteemed a universal remedy ; J the durion, the white pulp of which has a taste resembling that of roasted onions, and is of a heating nature ; the bread fruit, though not of the best quality ; the fruit of the Yumho mura, which is shaped like a pear; pine apples, which, at Bencoolcn, sell for a penny or two-pence; guavas, lemons, citrons, oranges, and pomegranates. The mountains of this island are richly enamelled with the finest purple and yel- low hues, in an endless diversity of shades and forms, developed by numberless species of flowers. The Soondal mcdlam, or "fair one of the night," a funnel- shaped flower in this country, is so called from blowing only during the night. The most abundant native commodity produced for exportation, and | Spices. the chief object of the European establishments, is pepper, the produce of a creeping plant commonly called, from the analogy of its habit, the pepper vine. It begins in the third year to be productive, and continues so to the twentieth. There are two pepper harvests, the great one in September, and the small one in March. A very small proportion of it is in the form of white pepper, the effect of a process for remov- ing the external skin.§ Camphor is another conspicuous production, found in the form of a concrete crystal in the body of the tree. The camphor tree grows sponta- neously in the north of Sumatra, which is the warmest part of the island. It equals the tallest timber trees in size, and is often fifteen feet in circumference. j| Each tree yields about three pounds of hght friable and very soluble camphor, which wastes on exposure to the air, though much more slowly than that of Japan. The oil of camphor is the produce of a different tree. Benzoin is a resin obtained from a tree resembling the pine. Cassia, a sort of coarse cinnamon, is found in the interior. Rattans grow chiefly on the eastern side of the island, from whence | Trees, they are exported in large cargoes to Europe for canes. Besides the herbaceous and the ligneous cotton, the silk cotton, Bonihax cliha, is to be met with in every vil- lage. In appearance, this is one of the most beautiful raw materials which the hand of nature has presented. Its fineness, gloss, and delicate softness, render it to the sight and touch much superior to the produce of the silk-worm, but such are its brittlencss and shortness, that it is esteemed unfit for the reel and loom, and only ap- plied to the humbler use of stuffing mattresses and pillows. Yet it is not impossible that farther experiments may find it capable of being adapted to a superior manufac- ture. The tree is remarkable for the straightness and the perfectly horizontal growth • Radermachev's Description of Sumatra, § 7, in the Batavian Memoirs, (in Dutch.) f Hist, of Sumatra, p. 19 and p. 59, £cg. if Rumphius, Hortus Ainboinensis, vol. i. p. 132. tab. 13, Sic. § Marsden's Hist, of Sumatra, p. 118. Elias Hesse, p. 208. Eschelskron, p. 59, II Valentini, Ilistoha Simplicium, p. 488, tab. 7. 310 BOOK FIFTY-FOUllTII. of its branches, three always growing together and forming equal angles. The subordinate shoots also grow flat, and all the gradations of the branches observe the same regularity to the top. Some travellers have called it the umbrella tree. Mr. Marsden compares it to the piece of furniture which we call a dumb waiter, consisting of a gradation of circular shelves on one axis.* The coffee tree is planted in great numbers ; but the produce is rendered indifferent by unskilful management. The plants are set close together, too much shadowed by other trees, and the berries are gathered while they are red, and before they have been sufficiently ripened to acquire the proper flavour. Ebony trees are in great plenty. Sandal wood and the cele- brated eagle or aloe-wood, are the produce of this island, but they have lost much of that high reputation which they had among the early writers. There is excellent timber for ship-building, but, for want of rivers, it cannot be conveyed to the coast. Teak is scarcely to be met with, except where it has been recently planted. The 7'angee, or machined, which is rendered usefel by its property of resisting the ravages of the white ant, is found in this island. Iron-wood, and other useful species, are also found ; among which is the elegant camooning, resembling in its leaves the larger myrtle, and yielding a beautiful wood, susceptible of an exquisite polish, and much used for the sheaths of kreeses. The celebrated banyan tree also grows in this island, and, besides its other singularities, was remarked by Mr. Marsden to spring readily from the trunks of other trees, after they had become hollow by age, though still in vegetation, from brick walls, and even the smooth surfaces of painted wooden pil- lars, where its seeds have been lodged by birds, or other modes of conveyance. The fibres which hang from the branches, and which, when they reach the ground, readily and spontaneously take root, are observed to assume curious fantastic forms wherever obstructing substances are placed in their way ; so that living wicker works, of any form, may be produced by merely furnishing them with a mould.'j" Aiumais. | The horses are small but well made and hardy. The cows and sheep are of middling size; the latter are probably of the Bengal breed. The buffalo is used for some domestic labours. The forests contain the elephant, the royal tiger, the rhinoceros, the hippopotamus, the black bear, which eats the kernel of the cocoa- nut, the otter, the porcupine, the stag, the wild boau, the civet cat, several species of the monkey, particularly a bearded monkey, the simia nemeslrina, which seems to be peculiar to this island. Bii-ds. I Among the numerous birds, the coo-ow, or Argos pheasant, is re- marked for its uncommon beauty, but no complete specimen of it has been seen in Europe. Its plumage is said by Mr. Marsden to be the richest of all the feathered race, yet without any degree of gaudiness. When caught it cannot be kept alive longer than a month. It has an antipathy to the light, being inanimate through the day, and uttering in the night a harsh cry like that of the peacock. Turkeys are in great abundance, and in the southern parts there is a very large species of that bird, known also at Bantam. The Jirdea argala, the largest known species of the heron, which is also known in India, and in the south of Africa, is a native of this island. The angang, or rhinoceros bird is found here, remarkable for having a kind of horn projecting from its bill; perhaps it is a species of cassowary. The rivers are in- fested with crocodiles, and stocked with a great variety of fish. The house lizard is in great abundance, and remarkable for being the largest animal capable of retaining its hold so as to walk in an inverted position. Its body has such a degree of trans- parency as to allow the circulation of the fluids to be distinctly seen through the in- teguments. Insects are abundant, as in all hot climates, and among others the destructive white ant. Geographical I ^^^^ natives divide Sumatra into three countries. Bulla, in the north, divisions. | includcs the kingdom of Acheen, (or Atcheen,) with the vassal princi- palities of Pedeer, Passay, and Delli. The interior of this division is inhabited by the Battas. It is bounded on the east side of the island by the river Siac, and on the west by the river Sinkol. The second division is the ancient empire of Menang- kaboo, comprehending the kingdoms of Jamby and Andragiri on the east coast ; in • History of Sumatra, p. 127. t Marsden, p. 109. SUMATRA. 311 the interior the country of the Rejangs, and part of the present empire of Menang- kaboo ; and on the western coast the countries of Baroos, Tappanooly, Nattal, and others ; the late Dutch possessions of Priaman, Padang, and Sillida, with the king- dom of Indrapoora. The third division, called BaUmn-ary or Kampang, embraces the south-east end of the island, where we find the kingdom of Bancahoolo or Ben- coolen, with an English establishment, the country of the Lampoons, and the large kingdom of Palembang.* Acheen is the only kingdom of this island the transactions of which Kingdom of have been deemed sufficiently important to occupy the attention of his- Acht-eu. torians. It is situated in its north-western extremity. It formerly reached as far north as Indrapoor on the west coast, but now extends no farther than forty or fifty miles along both the eastern and the western shore; Carty, near Battoo-Bara river, being its boundary on the former, and Baroos on the latter. The subject inhabitants of the interior form three tribes, two of which, called Alias and Reeah, resemble the Achenese, and the third, called Carrow, come nearer in manners to the Battas. The capital, Acheen, stands two miles from the mouth of a river, which ad- | The capital mits no vessels during the dry monsoon. It carries on a considerable trade with the natives of the coast of Coromandel, who bring hither their cotton manufactures, and carry home gold dust, sapan wood, betel-nut, patch leaf, (the Costuslndicus,) sul- phur, and benzoin. From six to ten Telinga snows, of 150 or 200 tons, come an- nually. They are prohibited from touching at any other port on the east or west coast. This is a precaution for securing to the monarch the profits of the trade, the customs, and the presents usually made. The king is the chief merchant of the capital. The people carry on the subsequent business of distributing the goods through the different parts' of the kingdom. In this neighbourhood there is a volcano, from which sulphur is procured. The Acheenese are darker coloured, and stouter than the Sumatrans. They have a greater portion of sagacity and of industry. The mercantile transactions of those not connected with the capital are conducted on a more liberal scale than in many other places. The religion is Mahometanism, and they have a great number of mosques and priests. The city contains several public buildings, but none of them elegant. The king's palace is a rude piece -of archi- tecture, surrounded with strong walls built for protection, but without the least atten- tion to the modern principles of fortification. There are some cotton and silk manufactures in this country. The seamen are expert and bold, and carry on a con- stant and successful fishery. Having no coin, they make their payments in gold dust, which they keep in divided parcels contained in pieces of bladder, and these are weighed by the person who takes them in payment. The govern- | Government, ment is a hereditary despotism, subject to frequent revolutions and inteiTals of anar- chy. The sultan, in issuing his orders, first makes them known to a woman seated at his feet ; she communicates them to a eunuch sitting next to her, and he to thei Cajoorang-Go7idong, an officer who proclaims them aloud to the assembly. The throne is of ivory and tortoise shell. Ambassadors, and other strangers introduced to the sovereign, arc rigidly subjected to certain ceremonies, which are rather trou-^ blesome than degrading, and they are treated with pompous hospitality. The coun- try is wonderfully populous; the accounts of the population given by the people themselves are incredible, and believed to be exaggerations. The king hardly re.< ceives any land revenue: each proprietor is only obliged to give a measure of rice annually, which he carries in person to the court, but which seems rather intended as a mark of homage than a substantial tax. The king's revenues arise entirely from the customs on exports and imports, which amount to about £2500 a-year. The kings of Acheen, besides their proper territories, possess a grant along the sea coast as far as Bencoolen, from the sultan of Mcnangkaboo, whose sovereignty in these parts they acknowledge. The criminal laws of Acheen are par- | Laws, ticularly severe, and fall almost exclusively on persons in the lowest walks of so- ciety : mutilation and drowning are the most common punishments. The robbery of a priest is punished with burning alive. An adulterer is encircled by a ring of his • Uadcrmacher, Description de Sumatra, p. 9, See. 312 BOOK FIFTY-FOURTH. countrymen, and furnished with a weapon, by the aid of which lie is welcome to make his escape if he can break through any part of the ring, after which he is lia- ble to no further prosecution ; but he is most generally cut to pieces in the desperate attempt. The Achecnese, however, are represented by travellers as the most abandoned and unprincipled nations of the east. Their treacherous and sangui- nary character was amply exemplified in their early transactions with the Portu- guese. To these visitors, indeed, they owed little delicacy, nor could they profit in humanity by their example ; but their conduct to one another was also marked by every feature that can render man an object of distrust and abhorrence to his neighbour.* The Batta The country of the Battas comprehends the mountains of Deirah and country. Papa, to the south of the plain of Acheen. It is bounded on the south by Passamman, and the independent district of Aru. The northern extremity is abreast of the great river Sinkel, and the southern a little beyond that of Tabooyang. The country is very populous, but the greater part of the people live at a distance from the sea-shore, in extensive plains, between two ridges of mountains on the bor- ders of a great lake. It is divided into several districts, which are subdivided into tribes. The English settlements connected with it are at Natal and Tapanooly. A large quantity of gold is procured from the country, and there is a considerable sale for imported goods. The English live on good terms with the natives, but the peo- ple are too spirited to allow them any political influence. The settlement in Tapa- nooly Bay is on a small island called Punchong-cacheel, who has one of the most advantageous harbours in the world, and would be of vast importance if it were not so remote from the general track of shipping. The bay is very complicated, and stretches into the heart of the Batta dominions. The natives trade with the Europeans, and their conduct is inoffensive. The English have sometimes gone in small parties to gratify their curiosity in the interior, and on such occasions are treated with re- Ancient build- spect and hospitality. High up on the river Battoobara, which flows '"^'* into the straits of Malacca, there has been discovered a large brick building, in the form of one or more squares, with a very high piUar at one corner. Images, supposed to be Chinese josses or idols, are carved in relief on the walls, but The Battas. | no tradition is preserved respecting the erection of it. The Battas arc of lower stature and fairer complexion than the Malays. Their dress is of coloured cotton. The covering of the head is generally of the bark of a tree. The women wear rings of tin in their ears, sometimes to the number of fifty in each. Their ordinary fare is maize and sweet potatoes. Rice is confined to persons of distinc- tion. It is only on great occasions that cattle are killed for food ; but they will eat a part of any dead buffalo, alligator, or other animal they chance to meet with. The rivers are too rapid and too much interrupted by waterfalls to have many fish, except near their mouths. They delight most of all in horse flesh ; and the best horses arc carefully fed and rubbed down for the table. Their houses consist of wooden frames, which are boarded and roofed with a vegetable substance called ejoo, resembling horse hair. Their campongs, or towns, consist of about twenty houses : each house consists of a single apartment, which is entered by a trap door in the middle, and op- posite is an open shed where they sit during the day. Each campong has a hall for public business, and the reception and entertainment of strangers. Polygamy is freely practised. The wives sit in different corners of the same apartment, and have their separate establishments for cookery ; but their respective rights and duties arc sufliciently understood to obviate the heart-burnings and jealousies which are usually imputed to the harams of the east. They are represented as a sort of slaves. They perform the labours of agriculture. The men, when not engaged in war, lead indo- lent lives, passing the day in playing on a kind of flute, which they deck with gar- lands of flowers. Their music is rather better than that of the other Sumatrans. — They arc much addicted to gaming. A man who is unable to pay his gambling debts is liable to be confined and sold as a slave, unless released by the generosity of the winner. They arc fond of horse-racing. They use no saddles. Sometimes the • Marsden's History of Sumatra, p. 311—370. SUMATRA. 313 bit i3 of iron and the reins of rattan ; at other times the bit is of wood and the reins of ejoo. They have a pecuhar language and a peculiar ^vl•itten character, and the majority of the people can both read and write. The bark of a tree is used among them for paper. In their mutual dealings they are strictly honest, but pilfer leadily from strangers, when they are not restrained by the rules of hospitality. Adultery in men is punished with death ; in women it is only followed by the disgrace of hav- ing the head shaved, the weaker sex being looked upon as less accountable for their actions. The Battas practise cannabalism in the punishment awarded singular can- to particular crimes. This fact is established by abundant and unques- '>'''^*''*'"' tionable evidence. The intention of it is to testify their detestation of crime, and inflict the greatest possible ignominy on the victim. It is sometimes also extended to prisoners of war. The sufferer is first killed by lances thrown at him by the peo- ple, who, when a mortal wound is given, run up to him in a rage, cut pieces from the body with their knives, dip them in salt and lemon juice, ligbtly broil them, and swal- low them with savage enthusiasm. This is not accompanied witb any intention of giving pain to the sufferer, and therefore, though ferocious and inhuman, cannot, when rationally viewed, excite so much detestation as the refined tortures by which some nations prolong the sufferings of obnoxious individuals. An English gentle- man, who lately made some inquiries into the manners of these people, asked them if there was any part of the body which was usually preferred to the rest. They told him jestingly, after a little thought, that the palms of the hands and soles of the feet were the best eating.* The Batta country is divided into a num- | Government, her of petty communities, governed by rajas who are generally independent. In some instances there are gradations among them. The people have a permanent property in their possessions, and sell them to one another when so disposed. This is propably one cause of the comfort and prosperity which they are observed to en- joy in a greater degree than most of their neighbours. They entertain a supersti- tious veneration for the sultan of the neighbouring kingdom of Menangkaboo. They submit blindly to his emissaries, even when insulted, imagining that if they offered to resist they would cease to thrive, and their crops and their cattle Avould be ruined by some mysterious spell. They often go to war with one another, and carry on the contest not by open or general engagements, but by petty hostilities, waylaying indi- viduals of the hostile tribe. Before declaring war they use the solemnity of firing with gunpowder without shot into the campong of the enemy, and give a certain time for proposals of reconciliation before they commence actual hostilities. Their arms are matchlocks, bamboo lances, and a sort of sword or large knife. They carry no kreeses like the Malays. They manufacture their own gunpowder. They believe in a good and an evil deity. — On their belief in a future state accounts differ. Marsden says they have no such idea. They are credulous in matters of sorcery and prognostication, and take oaths with vehemen The priests predict the event of a war by inspecting the intestines of a dead buffalo; but, if their predictions are not verified, they are sometimes put to death. The body of a deceased man of rank is kept in a cofiin for several months ; the soft parts, dis- solving during that interval, are conveyed in a fluid state by a bamboo tube from the bottom of the cofiin into the earth. This people has remained separate from the other races partly in consequence of the absence of gold and other articles of traflic to tempt the rapacity of conquerors and the speculations of traders. Their marriages are accompanied with some singular ceremonies. The intended bride appears undressed before the man in a bath, after which he makes his bargain about the sum of money which he is to give her relations. The young couple partake together of two sorts of rice, and the father of the woman throws a piece of cloth over them. On the west coast, adjoining the Batta country to the south, is a po- | Passaman. pulous territory, called Passaman, an independent Malay sovereignly, governed by two rajas, formerly subject to Menangkaboo. The Dutch have a factory at Pudang, to which they were probably attracted by the quantity of gold found near it. About 10,000 ounces of gold are annually exported from the west coast of the island. To • A MS. -letter from a British officer, read before the Wernerian Societv of F-dinbiu-gh, 1822. Vol. II.— R r Helipion and customs. solemnity. 314 BOOK FIlTY-roURTH. the south of Pailang is Indrapoor, once the seat of a considerable monarchy, from the ruins of wluch sprung that of' Anac-eoongey, the capital of which is a small TheRejangs. | place Called Moco-moco. — Next to this is the country of the Rejangs, who live under chiefs called Panjerans, whose power is very limited. They have adopted Malay civilization, and yet preserved their primitive character and manners. They are small lean figures. Their noses are artificially flattened, and the lobes of their ears distended. Their eyes are black and lively. Their women bear a resem- blance to the Chinese. Their complexions are rather yellow than brown or copper coloured. Their mountaineers are extremely subject to goitres. A little to the south, Bencooien, | in 3° 16' south latitude, is Bencoolen, a Malay town, near which is the English presidency of Fort Marlborough. Hero pepper and sugar cane are culti- vated, but the produce does not pay the expenses of the government. Emiiiie of In the centre of the island is Menangkajjoo, extending partly to the .Menangkaboo. northv/ard, but mostly to the southward of the equator. It is the chief seat of the empire of the island, formerly extending over the whole, and held in high respect in the east. At present, its longest diameter does not exceed 100 miles, and probably falls much short of it. The capital is called Pangarooyoong. The sul- Suitan, I tan's power is greatly limited, and is chiefly founded on a superstitious veneration in which he is held as a sort of Mahometan pontift'. It is supported by the priesthood, but very little submitted to by persons possessing any military power be- yond a very limited territory. The titles which he assumes in the preambles to his edicts are absurdly pompous, containing a minute enumeration of his wealth, and the mysterious power of his military weapons. The people have no records or annals. Literature. ] They Write cxpcrtly in the Arabic character ; but their whole literature consists of transcripts of the Koran and bold historic tales. They are famous for Their arts. ' | Composing songs called pantoon. The arts are carried to greater per- fection among them than among the other natives of Sumatra. They are well skilled in the manufacture of gold and fillagree. They have, from tire earliest times, manu- factured arms for their own use, and for sale in the northern parts of the island. Kreeses. | Tlicy usc lances, kreeses, and various side arms. The kreese has a blade fourteen inches long. It is not polished, but has a waving surface, resembling that of an imperfectly mixed metal ; it has several seipentine bends. The handle is of ivory or some beautiful polished wood, finely carved and ornamented. The sheath is made of a hollow piece of beautiful wood. They used to go frequently to war with the Acheenese, but the modern English settlement at Nattal operates as a check on that warfare, the settlers in that locality having placed themselves under the protection of the English Company. The people of Menangkaboo differ from the other inland inhabitants, in being all Mahometans, having been converted at a very early period. The capital is the resort of pilgrims of that religion. A province called Tigablas Cottas yields a very pure gold, and contains a great lake called Dano. In the interior the Googons, a wild and hairy race resembling ourang-outangs rather than men, dispute v/ith the lower animals the dominion of the forests. The Lampoon country is a portion of the southern extremity of the island, consisting of mountains covered with impenetrable forests and plains which are subject to frequent inundations. The people resemble the Chinese^ more than any of the other Sumatrans. They have a guttural language, and a cha- racter peculiar to themselves. They are a hospitable and unwarlike race, using no fire-arms, and are not a match for the Javanese banditti, by whom they are much molested. Their manners are more licentious than those of the other Sumatrans. They have public dances called bimbangs, where the young women exchange their ordinary for their dancing dress, letting the one drop off dexterously, as the other is brought down over the head. They have canoes formed of the hollowed trunks of single trees, and large enough to carry 13,000 pounds weight. Kingdom of The kingdom of Palembang, an ancient dependence of the Susuhu- aiembang. nam, or cmpcror of Java, is mostly peopled by Javans. It has, in re- cent times, come under the protection of the Dutch government at Rafavia, which has a factory in the country, procures from it pepper and tin, and makes a mart for Lampoon country. Society of lUieves, lole island, SUMATRA. 315 vending opium and other commodities fiom the west of India. It comprehends the southbast portion of Sumatra, and the ishmds of Banka and IJilliton. Both in Baiika and in this part of Sumatra, there are tin mines ; and that metal is always purchased with silver, for which there appears to he no elUux from the country. Hence probably arose the accounts given of the immense wealth of the king of Pa- lembang. But to all appearance both the chiefs and peoi)le are miserably poor. There is said to be a remarkable increase of land in this kingdom, by deposition from rivers and from the sea. Ill cultivated, and covered with forests, this country exports, in addition to the other productions of Sumatra, sassafras, dragon's blood, and excellent timber. The climate is liable to many al)rupt changes of temperature, yet not unhealthy.* The large city of Palembang is inhabited by Chinese, Siamese, Malays, and Javanese, but the only stone buildings in it are a temple, and the royal castle. The despotic sovereign, without a regular army or a lixed revenue, in- dulges his pride and his etlominacy in the midst of an ample seraglio. | scmgiio. The malo inhabitants of the Blida, from being extremely stupid and phlegmatic, have tho exclusive privilege of being admitted within the walls of that building, where they act as water-carriers. The laws here are without influence, the judges void of honour, and the merchants destitute of honesty. Tho Mahometan priests engage in trade, and not without success. The thieves, who are called Sumb^raws, live in a community legally acknowledged, under a leader who restrains their excesses, and keeps up the police. "j" Here, as in tho w tho Malays wear a vest, and a kind of mantle, with a belt in which the kreese is thrust. They wear very short trousers, tho legs and feet are naked. The head is covered with a pretty handkerchief, over which they put a broad hat when they travel. Both sexes file and blacken their teeth. Their houses are of wood and bamboo, covered with palm loaves, raised on pillars, and entered by an ill made ladder. The interior contains some negroes, with uncommonly largo heads, short bodies, and very slender arms and limbs. Mr. Radermacher saw some specimens of this race at Palembang. Tho island of Banka, oft' this coast, is 130 miles long by forty-five broad. It has tin mines, in different places, which Avcre discovered acci- dentally in 1710, by the burning of a house. They are worked by 10,000 resident Chinese. Navigators havo considered this climate as one of the most deleterious in that part of tho world. That observation, however, applies only to the immediate neighbourhood of the sea. The island was ceded to tho British in 1812, and being thinly peopled, in proportion to its soil, is recommended by Mr. Crawford as a good station for an English colony ; but it was given up to the Dutch by tho treaty of peace in 1814, in exchange for Cochin on the coast of Malabar. On the east of llanka lies tho round shaped island of Billiton, separated from tho former by Cle- ment's straits, through which tho vessels bound for China pass, after passing those of Sunda. J It is the only place, in this whole archipelago, that contains iron mines which are not worth tho workintr. Jamby, on a river of tho same name, to the north-west of Palembang, | Jamby. was formerly a place of note, and both the English and Dutch companies had esta- blishments there ; but tho system of oppression and monopoly which they brought along with them issued in their poverty and ruin. There are many other petty Malay states at every largo river on that side of tho island ; but the extent of their respective powers is little known, being frequented by tho Moorish vessels of Te- linga. Private trading ships from Bengal sometimes dispose of a few chests of opium, but seldom venture on shore, so great is the antipathy to them entertained by the natives. They are generally at war with the inhabitants of the interior, who confine them to the sea-coast. The chief of these states are Indergerie and Siak, from which tho beat sago is obtained, and Batoo-Bara. Tho river Racan, in the • Radermacher, p. 131. | Radermacher, sect. 115. + Fleurieu, Voyage de Marchand, ii. p. 107, &c. Diminutive negroes. Bnnka ariJ ISilliton. Islands on the west of Sumatra. Kyasa 316 BOOK FIFTY-FOURTH. Am country, so often mentioned by the Portuguese historians, is so rapid, and at- tended with 60 great a swell, as to be unfit for navigation. North-eastern '-^^6 whole of the shoro, from the Straits of Sunda to Diamond Point, shore. ig yery low land, mostly covered with woods, and few or no mountains are in sight of the shore. From Diamond Point to Acheen, there is a gradual slope to the foot of a range of high hills, and the lands are well cultivated. A multitude of islands of different sizes lie between this shore and the peninsula of Malacca. Poolo Lingen is an irregular island, fifty miles long, by thirty in breadth, having a remarkable two-peaked mountain in the centre, called by sailors the "Asses Ears." It is held by a piratical chief, and much frequented by pirates, sincapore. | The island of Sincapore has, within these few years, been occupied by the English, and constituted a free port, in consequence of which it has acquired great importance with unexampled rapidity. When the British flag was hoisted by ISir Stamford Raffles, it was almost unoccupied, the population not exceeding 200 souls. In three months it increased to 3000, and it now exceeds 10,000, consisting chiefly of Chinese. No less than 173 vessels, principally native, arrived and sailed in the first two months. The Malays to the east, entertaining a great objection to pass the straits of Malacca, are encouraged by this emporium to exchange their com- modities for the productions brought thither from the west. The English flatter themselves with the hope of vending through this medium an immense quantity of their manufactures among the natives of north-western Oceanica.* The islands on the west of Sumatra form a regular chain. The isle of Nyas, very fertile and populous, is inhabited by a singular race, dis- tinguished by a skin of a whitish appearance covered with scales, and by ears of uncommon length.f A great trade is carried on between it and Nattal. The articles received from it are rice and slaves; of the latter 450 are annually bought, besides 160 which go to the northern ports; and in the act of kidnapping them, the chiefs destroy about 200. These facts illustrate the exuberant tendencies of the population. They are remarkably ingenious in handicraft work. Their language and manners resemble those of the Battas. They cannot pronounce the letter P. Their principal food is pork. They are said to be revengeful in their temper ; but that character is chiefly founded on their being reckoned dangerous inmates in the Nausjau I situation of domestic slaves. — The Nassau, or Poggee islands, consist Islands. J of rocks and mountains covered with forests to their tops, and affording excellent timber. Sago grows on them in great abundance. The inhabitants do not produce rice, but they cultivate cocoa-nuts, and they are surrounded by plenty of native bamboos. The islands contain I'ed deer, hogs, monkeys, a few tigers, but no buffaloes or goats. The inhabitants, in number 1400, are a tall copper-coloured people, similar to the Otaheitans both in aspect and in simplicity of manners. They are in the habit of tattooing their bodies. Polygamy is unknown among them, but chastity among the unmarried is scarcely esteemed a virtue. They believe them- selves descended from the sun. J — Enganno, or deceitful island, has been represented as inhabited by a race of cannibals. Charles Miller landed on it, and found the na- tives rude and simple. They are tall and copper-coloured, living in circular huts standing on pillars of iron-wood. Their food consists of cocoa-nuts, sweet potatoes, sugar cane, and dried fish.§ It has been said that they lived on rock lichens, || a thing not at all improbable. Strait of Sun- The Celebrated Strait of Sunda separates the island of Sumatra from "^ Java. The navigator coming from the Indian ocean, with Sumatra on his left, and Java on the right, soon sees ttio great island of Borneo right a-hcad. Hence these islands have been called in French, isles de la Sonde, or *' the islands of the Sound." The word Sunda seems to be of Sanscrit origin, and as such, bears a resemblance to the Danish word Sund, and the English " Sound," one of those • See the Report relative to the Trade with the East Indies and China. Printed by order of the House of Commons, 1821, p. 194—205, and 383. -j- Radermacher, p. 71. + Asiatic Researches, t. vi, p. 77. Annales dcs Voyages, t. i. 117. § Bibliotheque Britannique, No. 147, p. 203. U Radermacher, \). 78. JAVA. 317 nuinerous coincidences, to the existence of which wo have on former occasions ad- verted.* The Island of Java, the seat of a great and flourishing native empire, | inland of Jara. the centre of the power of a commercial company which lately ruled all the eastern sea, is worthy of a more extended description than the hmits of this work will allow. This island commands by its situation the principal entrances of the seas of Eastern Asia. In size it is inferior to Borneo and Sumatra, being only 690 miles long, and varying in breadth from 80 to 140. Its superficial area is about 18,560 square miles. The name Java is Malay, and signifies, according to some, " the great | Names. island," according to others a particular grain which grows on it."!" The Arabs and Persians called it Djezyret al Maha-Iiadje, " the island of the great king." According to Valentyn's large map, this island is traversed from east | Mountains, to west by a chain of mountains which generally lie nearest to the southern shore. In some parts there is a double chain, containing between them elevated table lands, such as those in which Priangam and Mataram are situated. The most westerly part presents a lower terrace. The high mountains begin strait south from Batavia, and are called the Pangerannan, or " Blue Mountains. "J Between Tcheribon and Mataram, in the narrowest part of the island, the highest mountains are collected, the Gonnong-Kandang, Toorenterga, Tagal, and Keddo;§ farther east, the two bro- thers, or Soodara-Soodara, Mount Loovon, Domong, Japan, and others, continue the chain to the eastern extremity. The plains on the coast consist of | soii. a reddish clay of little fertility, a black rich clay, and a barren yellow till. About three miles from the shore are the limits of the alluvial land, formed of sand, mud, and shells. ]| The mountains, covered with trees and herbs, and enriched with a va- ried cultivation, exhibit a most agreeable prospect. Among the volcanoes of the island, (for scarcely any islands in this part of the world are without volcanoes,) that of Gete is reckoned 8000 feet above the level of the sea. The northern shore of Java is considered as extremely unhealthy, climate. Yet the heat is no way insupportable. At Surabaya, the thermometer rises to 92'' or 93° of Fahrenheit in the dry season, but between noon and midnight there is a diflerenco of 24 or 28 degrees. IT The fatality of Batavia, Samarang, and some other places, to European constitutions, seems to arise in a great measure from the marshy lands, the stagnant water of numerous canals, the excessive number of trees, and general want of cleanliness.** At Batavia, an earth- quake in 1706 produced a bar which dams up the water of the river.H Thirty miles from the sea there are hills of considerable height, where the air is fresh and healthy. The plants of Europe, particularly straw- berries, grow very well: the inhabitants are vigorous, and have healthy complexions. To these situations invalids are sent, and are found soon to recover. The whole of the interior has similar advantages. At Soora-Karta, where the emperor of Java resides, the air is highly salubrious to strangers, and the waters of the hmpid rivulets are good and pure.JJ The very circumstances which render Batavia and its vicinity unhealthy to man, render it the most propituous locality to vegetation. The rice crops are of the greatest importance. The cultivation of this article, and indeed all the branches of husbandry, are conducted with more intelligence and neatness by the Javanese than by the Hindoos, and greater facilities are aflbrded for increasing their amount by irrigation, in consequence of the numerous rivulets superseding the ne- cessity of such enormous tanks as form the sole dependence of many agricultural • Vol. i, p. 425. See also p. 281 of this volume. t Valentyn, Description de Java, p. 64—66, (Indes Orlentales, t. v.) + Valentyn's Map, sheet 2d. § Idem, sheet 4. Mem. de Ratavia, i. p. 24—190, &c. •J I-abillardiere, Voyag'e a la recherche de M. de La Perouse, t. ii. p. 309. Compare with Itadermacher, Description de Batavia, p. 45. *• Cook's First Voyage, book iii. chap. xi. Wurmb and WoUzogon's Letters, in German, p. 572 and 580. ft Valentyn, p. 231 and 238. Bogaerts, Uistorische Keizen, liv. i. p. 170, (en Holl.) 4t Wollzogen, p. 378. Temperatare of the coast. Temperature of the interior. Ve^table productions. 318 BOOK FIFTY-FOUIITII. districts in continental India, and enabling the natives to accomplish every purpose by canal and drains. No n)anure is applied to the land, either here or in any other island of this archipelago, nor is any advantage sought from particular rotations of Maize. j crops. Next to rice, the most important produce is maize, bearing a relation to the former similar to that which oats or barley do to wheat in Europe. Mr. Crawford diflers from Humboldt in considering this as an indigenous product, and not consequent on the discovery of America. The name of it bears no analogy to any American term, although it is found that all exotics in this part of the world Yams, &c. | either preserve their native name, or others which point at their origin.* The yam {Dioscorea alata) has been cultivated in this part of the world from time immemorial, in many varieties, and seems to be indigenous. Sometimes it attains a weight of forty or fifty pounds. It is less cultivated in Java however than in the poorer islands, where the cerealia are more scarce. The sweet potato, and the European potato are of very good quality. There are several leguminous species, such as beans, lentils, kidney-bean, and Angola peas, and all the culinary European plants ; also the white Chinese radish, and the fruit of that species of solanum which is called the egg plant. Capsicum grows both in a wild and cultivated state, and is much used by the natives, who have no relish for black pepper, and those other spices of their own climates which are so much relished by all foreign jiations. The cocoa tree is cultivated as an article of food ; a little oil is pressed from it which is highly esteemed. The most valuable nut, especially considering its adaptation to poor soils, is the Jlrachis hypoga,, or ground pistachio-nut, yielding an abundant product of expressed oil, while the leaf of the plant makes, like clover, excellent feeding for cattle, and the oil cake is used as dressing for the land. Palms. I The areca or betel nut, a graceful slender palm, grows here abun- dantly; also the Gomuti palm, (Borassus gomutus,) affording the principal' supply of that saccharine liquour which yield sugar by evaporation, the only sugar used by the natives ; and which, when fermented and distilled, is converted into toddy and into spirit. A valuable production of this tree is the ejoo already mentioned,! found be- tween the trunk and branches, and used in the manufacture of cables and standing rigging. It affords also a farina of the nature of sago, and obtained from it in a similar manner. This tree grows in no other part of the world except this archipelago ; and differs from the cocoa in being principally an inhabitant of the mountains. The banana (Musa paradisiaca) is to the natives the most important of the fruits of the Indian islands, though never depended on as their chief subsistence in the same manner as it is in the tropical parts of America. Sixteen species or varieties of this fruit are cultivated in these islands ; whereas in America there are only three. This archipelago furnishes the most curious, the richest, and the most extensive variety of the acido-dulces fruits of any portion of the globe. The greater number are indigenous, and some of the finest so peculiar that all attempts to propagate them in other countries, even of parallel climates, have failed. Many of them grow wild, and none but a careless cultivation is bestowed on any. The principal fruit trees are planted in a straggling manner about the villages. The common peasantry cultivate only the most dehcate varieties; but the European colonists are the most successful in this culture, and it is at their settlements that the greatest abundance The Man- 1 o^ fi"© fruits is to be seen. The Garcinia mangostana, or mangostcen, gosteen. j ranks first in order, being the most exquisite of all known fruits. It is mildly acid without being luscious. In appearance it resembles the pomegranate, though smaller and more perfectly globular. A thick hardish rind incloses three or four large seeds, surrounded by a soft semitransparent pulp of a pure white colour, sometimes slightly tinged with crimson. This pulp is the esculent part, and may be eaten without injury in larger quantity than any other fruit. It is only in the Avestern parts of the archipelago that the mangostcen is a native. It does not thrive in the Moluccas, and in some does not grow at all. Luzon, in the Philippines, is the highest latitude in which it is brought to grow. * Crawford's Hist, of the Indian Archipelago, vol. i. p. 366. f P. 313. JAVA.' 319 The durion, formerly mentioned,* is preferred to the mangosteen by | xhe.intion. the natives; but its peculiar odour is oficnsivo to strangers. The tree is lofty; tho fruit resembles the bread-fruit, tliough larger. In structure and disposition, the fruit resembles tho mangosteen. The seeds which the pulp incloses are as large as pi- geons' eggs, and when roasted, have the taste and flavour of chesnuts. One durion costs more than a dozen pine-apples. It is never found wild, like the mangosteen. In geographical locality, it is equally limited. The attempts made to transplant these fruits to the isle of France, and other equatorial regions, have always failed. The common jack, tho produce of tho Artocarpus integrifolia, a fruit of enormous size, and growing in great abundance, is much eaten by the natives, and is exceedingly sweet and nutritious. The champadak, another and more delicious species of the jack, is also cultivated. The mango attains as great perfection hero as in Malabar. The orange and lemon tribe are widely diffused over this and all the islands of the archipelago. The shaddock is found in the greatest perfection. The lime is abun- dant, and productive through the whole year. Pine-apples are good and exceedingly plenty, but are very little in request. The jamboo, the guava, tho papaya, the cus- tard apple or anona, tho cashew, (Jlnacardium occichnlale,) the pomegranate, tho tamarind, and the pumpkins, and other cucurbitaceffi, are only a few of the numerous fruits of this island. The flower-bearing trees most frequently cultivated | Flowers. for the market, are the champaka, (a species of michelia,) the malor, (nyctanthes,) and the tanjung, or Mimusops elengi. Water lilies are particularly frequent in Java. Tho Plumeria oblusa^ or camboja, is a strong but agreeable aromatic, and the Oc?/-. mum siilasi, or Hindoo tulsi, another aromatic flower, is cultivated for the express purpose of strewing on graves at the annual festival observed in honour of ancestors. Roses and other European flowers dwindle in size and lose their perfume when trans- planted to this part of the world. Cotton is the most important article plants used in of commerce produced in these islands, but that of Java is the coarsest n^a»"'a""re' and least valuable. Materials for cordage are obtained from the rami, a species of nettle five or six feet high, and from a tree called the bagu. Among the useful plants are the rattan, (Calamus rofang,) the bamboo, and the nipa or cabbage palm, the leaves of which are better adapted for thatch than any others. There are many valuable timber trees, such as the teak, which has been found so durable a material for ship-building, though containing an odorous resin which unfits it for making casks and other vessels intented to contain wine, but it makes excellent water casks. The teak of Java is superior to that of the Birman empire, but not so good as that of Malabar. Those parts of the world which lie between China and Persia are tho only regions in which this tree grows. Timaca, ebony, and many others fitted for ornamented cabinet work, are also found here. ' Among the gums, that which is called damar is the most important. It is produced in very large quantity, and with- out any trouble, from several trees. Its greatest consumption takes place in the paying of the bottoms of ships and boats. Three species of indigo are cultivated in this island, but the preparation of it for use is conducted in a very rude and slovenly manner. Kasumba, American arnotto, turmeric, sappan or Brazil wood, mankudee, and ubar, which last resembles the log-wood of Honduras, are the principal other dye stuffs produced in this island. Some substances, exerting powerful effects on the human frame, which may be turned to advantage at some future period in this coun- try, are the datura, the cubeb pepper, and the upas, of which there are two sorts, the one called anchan, and the other chclik. The qualities of the upas have given rise to some ridiculous exaggerations; the chetik species, the most powerful of the two, kiUs a dog in six or seven minutes, but it does not kUl men or animals at a distance, nor does it blast the growth of every surrounding plant. For foreign exportation, Java produces the sugar cane, of which there Produce for ai'O several varieties, three of which are believed to be indigenous. They exportation, grow with very little culture. Pepper grows both cultivated and wild. Coffee and cocoa are also in some measm^e cultivated, the latter only in small quantities on this island. • P. 309. 320 BOOK FIFTY-FOURTH. Animals. | BufTaloes of a small brownish breed are here tamed and yoked in large wagons. Sheep are few in number, with pendent oars and coarse hairy wool. The horses are small, but strong and lively. The wild boars breed in great numbers in the forests. We are told by travellers that the rhinoceros is found in the island. Among the monkeys of Java are the Simla apedio and the Simia aygvla. In the woods are found the flying squirrel, aud another species, the hicolor. The peacock is very common in the forests. There are also wild cocks with brilliant plumage and white crests, slightly tinged with violet. The marshes are inhabited by that formidable serpent, the Boa constrictor, which swallows birds and even goats entire. There are also crocodiles of enormous size. Flying dragons flutter in the neigh- bourhood of the towns during the heat of the day, like the bats of Europe, and are easily caught. The Cicada tibicen, or musical grasshopper, perches on the trees, where he utters a piercing noise like the sound of a trumpet. Moths and red ants find their way into every crevice, destroying every thing that comes in their way. Esculent Java produccs in great abundance the hirundo esculenta, that species birds' nests. of swallow the ncsts of wliich are used as an article of luxurious food among the Chinese. This nest has the shape of a common swallow's nest, and has the appearance of fibrous ill-concocted isinglass. Even the common house martin, and all the other swallows in that country, mix more or less of this substance in the structure of their nests. The hirundo esculenta always builds in the caves of the rocks, at a distance from any human dwelling. Some are fifty miles from the sea. Alono- the sea-shore they are particularly abundant, the caverns being there most fre- quent. The manner in which this substance is procured, and the question whether it is entirely a secretion, elaborated in some part of the body, are points not yet as- certained by actual examination. The finest are those obtained before the nest has been contaminatad by the young birds; these are pure white; the inferior ones are dark, sometimes streaked with blood, or mixed with feathers. Some of the caverns are very difficult of access, and dangerous to climb, so that none can collect the nests but persons accustomed to the trade from their youth. hi ai '^^^ island of Java is divided by the Dutch into four unequal parts ; divisions. the kingdoms of Bantam, Jocatra, and Cheribon ; and the eastern shore, extendino- from the river Lossary to the straits of Bah. This eastern shore is subdivided into three parts; the territories of the emperor Susuhunam, those of the Sultan, and the provinces under the immediate jurisdiction of the Company. The city of Bantam, the capital of the kingdom of that name, has a harbour which has been rendered inaccessible by its extreme unhealthi- le gradual accumulation of the coral reefs. The king has usually fur- nished to the Company 3,000,000 lbs. of pepper annually, at twenty-eight livres per quintal. The fort of the residency is garrisoned by a small body of Europeans. This depopulated kingdom contains no other place of note; and, according to the latest census, is peopled by 90,000 inhabitants, who live mostly in the villages scat- tered along the sea-coast.* KinKciom of The old kingdom of Jocatra contains the famous capital of the Dutch nTtav'ia'. Indies, the city of Batavia, in the site of the ancient Javanese city of Sunda-Calappa.| The Dutch seem to have given the preference to this situation for the convenience of the inland navigation. It is, in this respect, a second Hol- land. Almost every street has abroad canal, the stagnant waters of which are more remarkable for poisoning than for embellishing the city. The public buildings are mostly old, heavy, and in bad taste. The city is enclosed by a stone rampart of moderate height, but old, and falling to decay. The citadel contains apartments wliich serve as a retreat to the governor-general and council of India during a siege. It contains, also, the great magazines of the Company. Batavia cannot be besieged by sea ; the water being so shallow that a gun boat can scarcely come within cannon shot of the ramparts, except in a narrow channel called " the river," defended on both sides by moles extending for half a mile into the harbour, and terminating under • Memoirs of Batavia, vol. i. p. 6. iii. 424. f Description of Batavia, contained in the Memoirs of the Society of Batavia, i.p. 42. Kingdom of Bantam. ness, and t The Compa- ny'! govern- ment. JAVA. 321 the fire of the strongest part of the fort. The harbour of Batavia is reckoned the finest in India; and is of size sufficient to contain the largest fleets. The popula- tion, including the suburbs and campongs, or Chinese, Macassar, and other dependent villages, was found, by an accurate census taken in 1799, to amount to 173,117 souls; of whom 20,000 were Chinese, and 17,000 negro slaves.* The environs contain beautiful walks, resembling the boulevards of Environs of Paris,! with rows of country seats, in which the Europeans seek protec- Bataria, tion from the insalubrity of the climate. At Wcltefrede, and at Mester-Comehs, there are elegant barracks for the troops. The inland provinces, such as Priangan, Sookapoma, and Samadang, are governed by vassal princes, almost reduced to the condition of mere civil magistrates. The whole population of Jocatra, at the time of the census now alluded to, was 340,915 souls. The small but fertile kingdom of Cheribon furnished the Company with Kingdom of 330,000 lbs. of rice, 1,000,000 of sugar, and 1,200,000 of cofl'ee. chtrbon. Cheribon, the capital, is a large city. Its sovereign reigns over 90,000 subjects, and takes the empty title of Sultan. About four miles from the city is the Tombof a Ma- tomb of Ibn Sheik MoUana, the first apostle of Islam who visited this »«»"«««"«>'»«■ island, and consequently held in great veneration, and much visited by the Mussul- mans. The tomb is shaded with palms, and near it five terraces are cut in the moun- tain, the parapets of which are ornamented with beautiful flower-pots, presented by the kings of the numerous adjoining islands. + In the east part of the northern shore, which is subject to the Com- pany, we observe the following towns in an order from west to east. Tagal, containing 8000 inhabitants; Samarang, the second city of the island, the capital of the Dutch government, containing a population of 30,000; Japara, for- merly the capital of this coast; Javana; Rembang, the great mart for jati wood;§ Surabaya, a fortified town, very healthy, and provided with a road-stead, where ves- sels may go in and out in all weathers ; the fortresses of Pamanoncan and Baniu- wangni,|| in the deserted province of Balambonung, the capital of which was destroyed by the ravages of war. The population along this coast in general, has diminished during the 18th century ; and the Company's subjects in 1774, did not exceed 414,000. It is not unlikely, however, that a long period of peace subsequent to that date has ameliorated the general state of the country. The inland and southern parts of the eastern division of the island, formed the political state, the sovereign of which bore the titles of Su- suhunam, and emperor of Java. By giving encouragement to civil dissensions, the Company has contrived to divide the empire, previously much reduced, between two princes, one of whom resides at Sura-Carta, and reigns over 512,000 subjects, with the title of Emperor ; the other lives at Jogo-Carta, has 522,000 subjects, and the title of Sultan. IT A German military man, who visited the court of Susuhunam, describes it in the most flattering colours.** The air is pure, cool, and perfumed with the odour of dehcious flowers. In one part the traveller wanders among vast plains covered with rice, cotton, coffee, and vegetables of every kind. In another, ascending the hills, he sees the limpid rivulets forming little cascades under the shadow of close and deep forests. It abounds with natural grottos of delightful coolness. In the distance, the eye ranges over seas, rocky hills, and volcanoes, va- rying by their perpetual smoke the azure of a serene sky. The population of the island of Java, amounting to more than two | PopuiaUon. millions, consists of natives or Bhoomi,|t and strangers. Of the latter, the Dutch, Chinese, Macassars, and Balians, are the most conspicuous. There is a native tribe of negroes who wander among the mountains, and another, called Isalam, who live on the sea-shore ; but their physical character and their language are not known with any certainty. The native Javanese seem to be a Malayan race who long ago setfled • Batavian Memoirs, iii, p. 425; compared with ii. p. 61. t MS. of M. Deschamps. + Valentyn, p. 37. i Valentyn, Description of .lava, p. 15. B MS. by M. Deschamps. 1 Batavian Memoirs, iii. p. 427. *♦ Wollzogen, Lettres, p. 378. It Deschamps, in the Annales des Vovajjes, t. i. p. 145, Sec. Vot. II.-Ss Kingdom of ^lataram. Moral cIm- racter. whenever t 323 imOK FIFTY-FOURTH. in this island, and were siibsequentlj ciyihzed by a colony of Talinga Hindoos, from whom they derived several terms of their language, and many institutions. Dereription of The Javanese in general are of middling stature, with tawny com- the Javanese. pJexions, long hair, and the nose a little flattened. As for diseases, they are said to be exempt from the gout, and are less liable to nervous disorders, such as apoplexy, and epilepsy, than the people of Europe. They are liable to several cutaneous diseases, some of which are unknown in Europe. Some loath- some contagious diseases, such as yaws and sibbens, are frequent among them, and supposed to have been brought by the Chinese. Children are liable to Morms, and other fatal complaints of the intestines, in consequence of their unlimited indulgence Physicaicon- in raw vegetables and fruit. The men are strong, athletic, and perse- ititution. vering, though not active in their personal exertion. The porters will carry a heavy load, walking thirty miles a-day, for several days in succession ; but they neither run nor leap, and never attempt feats of activity. The arts of the jug- gler and tumbler are quite unknown among them. They bathe frequently, yet are defective in personal cleanliness. They live frugally on rice and fish, with a few spices. Intoxicating liquors are seldom indulged in, and only at the public feasts, when the chiefs sometimes make themselves sufficiently merry, and caper about with no small extravagance. They have been described as devoid of indus- try, being satisfied with a life of comparative poverty and privation; but, ley are placed in a situation in which the fruits of their industry are se- cured to them, they are found very well disposed to improve their condition by vir- tuous exertions. They have an abundant portion of fortitude, which is displayed rather in suffering with patience than in braving dangers ; but, when their vengeance is roused, they perform acts of desperate valour, bordering on insanity. In under- standing they are slow ; of narrow though sound judgment ; and much inferior in subtlety to the Hindoos and Chinese. They are tolerably good imitators, though not equal to the Hindoos. They have a remarkably delicate musical ear, and readi- ly learn to play the most difficult and complex airs on any instrument. They have an abundant share of laudable curiosity. Mr. Crawford mentions an instance of a sagacious chief of Samarang, who lately had his wife and children well educated, the latter being sent for this purpose to Calcutta, and who afforded a promising instance of the capability of these islanders to profit by a liberal education. The Javanese Integrity. | are honourably distinguished from the civilized nations of Asia by their regard for truth. To persons accustomed to the people of Indostan, the candour of the Javanese appears singularly valuable. The truth is readily elicited in a court of justice, and it is not uncommon for the criminal to make an ample confession of his guilt. Having no capacity for intrigue, they are much imposed on by strangers. They are not litigious nor avaricious, but tenacious of their rights, and disposed to demand justice with great boldness, considering the tyrannical character of their go- vernments. They are not unkind or oppressive to inferiors, and are much more ready to relieve distress than the continental Indians. They are not irascible, or addicted to abusive language, and have the character of great and willing hospitality. Credulity. | They are remarkably credulous and superstitious, believing in dreams, omens, fortunate days, the casting of nativities, supernatural endowments, sorceries, and enchanments. Their forests, mountains, and caves, are peopled by nume- rous invisible beings of their own creation, or adopted from the various sorts of people who have come among them. Their ancient code denounced the most barbarous punishments for practices which were imputed to sorcery, such as writing the name of another person on a shroud, on a bier, on an image of paste, or on a leaf, which is then buried or suspended from a tree, or placed on haunted ground, or where two roads meet. For these, and numerous other silly acts which the law enumerates, the punishment is death, not only to the individual, but to his parents and his children. That code is not now in force except in the neighbouring island of Bah. But Mr. Crawford mentions two recent instances of very whimsical superstition in Java. It was discovered by accident, that from some motive of this kind, Mie skull of a buflfalo was conducted from one end of the island to another; the point insisted on being, aever to let it rest, but keep it in constant progressive motion. JAVA. 323 It was believed that some dreadful imprecation was denounced against the man who should let it fall. After travelling many hundred miles, it reached Samarang, where the Dutch governor caused it to be thrown into the sea. No resentment was expressed, and the matter dropped ; but it was never discovered how or where it had originated.* In 1814, a smooth road, fifty or sixty miles long, and twenty feet broad, leading to the top of an inland mountain called Sumbong, was suddenly formed, crossing no rivers, but passing in an undeviating line through private pro- perty of all descriptions. The population of whole districts was employed in the labour, and all because an old women pretended to have dreamed that a divine per- sonage was to descend on the mountain. Political imposters, preaching a new religion, very often take advantage of this national facility of the Javanese, and give rise to bloody insurrections. These pre- tenders are called kraman. One who was apprehended in 1812 had disturbed the district in which he appeared for six years. The Javanese are much savnge pas- addicted to revenge, never forgiving an injury, and long cherishing the "*""• deepest resentments. Their revenge and impatience occasionally burst out in those insane and horrible excesses called mucks, which are most common in Celebes, but occur also in Java and most of the other islands. The state of society in Java, as in the other islands, produces among the inhabitants a disregard for human life. The lives of the people are not at all valued by the chiefs, or by one another. Familiar with death, they view it with no horror. An assassin may be hired for twenty shil- lings, provided the person to be assassinated be a plebian. Such a practice is in- deed not common, as a man generally takes vengeance with his own hand. The Javanese, and other islanders in this part of the world, have been accused of treachery, but the authority on which this accusation is advanced is more than ques- tionable. They show much integrity in their transactions with one another. It is only in their intercourse with strangers that gross deceit is practised, in lawless acts of piracy. As for the resistance whicli they have made to the restraints imposed on them by their European masters, and their secret attempts to evade the operation of them, they had certainly more to complain of than the party to whom their con- duct was obnoxious. Their women are not at all secluded, and, though wives are purchased, they are not treated with contempt or disdain. Among the lower ranks, the women are very active and industrious. T better classes are withdrawn from the public gaze, but not immured. The wife and daughters of the chief of Samarang attended the public parties given by the Dutch and British, and conducted themselves with the most creditable propriety and deli- cacy. Polygamy is practised, but the first wife is the only one who possesses the same rank with the husband, and is mistress of the family. In Java, there is a greater laxity of morals than in the other islands. Women very frequently divorce their husbands. Complimentary inquiries after men's wives are not, as in India, thought improper, but rather courteous. Parental attachment and filial respect are well maintained to the latest period of life. Fraternal affection between children of tho same mother is warm and active. They are all much attached to their tribe, and to the place of their birth. In their marriages the Javanese differ from the Hindoos. The women | customs, marry at fifteen, and the men about eighteen or nineteen. Widows and widowers marry again at any age; and discordant matches, from disparity of ages, are com- paratively rare. The present sultan of Java is married to his cousin, who is three years older than himself. Differences are observed in the mode and terms of the married state, according to the relative rank of the parties ; as when the woman is of superior family to the man, or his equal, or his inferior. The last sort of connection is commenced without Jlny form or ceremony. They give their children their names when the umbilical cord drops off'. Some give an Arabic name. This is common among the Malays, and is intended as an expression of piety. Others give the child such an appellation as " the handsome one," or " the weak one ;" and the parents will be called the father and motherof the handsome or the weak one. Thus the names are frequently • Crawford's History, vol. i. p. 57. Treatment of women. lose of the 324 BOOK FIFTV-FOURTH. mere titles, and are changed at every promotion of a man's state or circumstances. This would render it difficult to identify individuals if they were liable to a frequent change of habitation. They bury their dead in the manner of the Mahometans, and attend much to beauty and simplicity in the appearance of their burying grounds. In showing respect for superiors they sit with the head covered. In approaching a superior, and retiring, they stoop as low as is consistent with locomotion. A superior testifies his most marked regard for an inferior by offering him the chewed refuse of the betel, which the latter swallows with great satisfaction. They never salute by kissing, but by applying the nose to the head or neck of the person saluted; hence the term for smelling signifies to salute. The chewing of betel, of holding tobacco Amusements. | in the mouth, and of eating opium, are almost universal practices. They are passionately fond of gaming, particularly of staking on the issue of combats between pugnacious animals, such as cocks, quails, and even crickets, which they excite to combat by tickling them with a blade of grass. They will even childishly risk their money on the strength and hardness of a nut. They are also fond of the spectacle of fights between the large ferocious animals, such as the tiger and the Tiger fights. | buffalo. The tiger being shy and unwiUing to fight, is shut up with his antagonist in a close catjo. The bufialo exerts himself to crush him to death on the bars of his cage, in which attempt he generally succeeds. The efforts of the tiger are directed to the head and throat in a sudden and insidious manner. The first onset is tremendous, but if one or the other is not immediately victorious there is no interest in the combat; both animals worn out are reluctant to renew their efforts. Under these circumstances the natives use abominable means for rousing them ; such as firebrands, boiling water, poisonous nettles, and infusions of capsicum poured an the lacerated skin. They scarcely ever amuse themselves with those exercises which display address or agihty. The country is unfavourable to the chase ; and it is but seldom that they hunt. Some of the more abject savage tribes indeed hunt tlie deer, the hog, and the monkey, as their chief means of subsistence. In some of the ill-peopled districts in the eastern and western extremities of the island, they follow tire chase for amusement, but it is a mere butchery of game, without sport or address. The tiger is sometimes pursued with more skill. An extensive circle of spearmen is formed round his known haunt ; this is gradually contracted, till the animal, hemmed in on all sides, is compelled to attempt an escape by rushing through the phalanx, in which attempt he is commonly killed by the numbers and dexterity of tlio hunters. A similar scene is sometimes acted before the Javanese princes at their palaces. Dancing is considered as a necessary accomplishment to evcy Ja- vanese chief; and they practisfe it at their public festivities, brandishing, at the samo time, their kreeses, and mingling with the hired dancing women. In this amusement respectable women never join. The intellectual amusements of the Javanese con- 'iiie drama. | sist in Ustcning to professed story-tellers, and a rude species of drama, sometimes executed by Uving actors, sometimes by means of puppets. In the first case the whole is performed by men. In the second they sometimes use ordinary puppets, much inferior to those of Europe ; and sometimes certain scenic shadows, which are peculiar and national. Their acting is a sort of pantomime, accompanied by a recitative performance, read by a conspicuous individual called the dalang, who sits full in view of the audience, and, before the interlocutors commence acting each scene, repeats the narrative of what they have to perform. The whole is accom- panied by a Javanese band of music. The subjects are taken from the Hindoo legends and the fabulous parts of their own history. They have also exhibitions of men personating the appearance and manners of wild beasts, which are very well managed. All these amusements excite a lively interest in a native audience. Houses. j Their houses consist of apartments, each of nhich stands on four pil- lars. Those of the rich consist of a collection of them; those of the poorer classes of one only. The houses are never solitary, but always grouped into villages or towns. Some remains of brick and hme walls show that architecture has declined among them in modern times. There are arches still standing, but they have now lost the art of building them. The art of weaving is rudely conducted, and entirely in the hand^ of the women. A cubit of coarse cloth, five spans wide, is a common JAVA. 325 day's work. They are ignorant of calico printing; and ae a substitute | Useftdwu. for it, they daub their cloth with wax in particular figures, and then put it through the dying vat, thus obtaining a coloured ground while the figures are left white. Tho silk worm has never been bred in this island, though its climate is undoubtedly fa- vourable for it. With regard to the metals, their chief skill is exerted on gold. Iron is not found in Java, and is extremely rare in the whole archipelago. It bears a high price, and the art of the blacksmith is held in a sort of reverence. The terra for that craft is equivalent to the word "learned." His principal skill is displayed in the manufacture of the dagger or kreese, and the spear. They do not possess the art of tempering their blades. The kreese is a piece of ordinary iron, which seldom re- covers its shape when bent. Ship-building is the only department of carpentry in which they have made any proficiency. There is no art which they have carried to so great perfection as that of fishing, which is chiefly conducted by drag-nets, and traps or snares slcilfully formed of palUsades. A large supply is obtained from the salt marshes of the coast, which are embanked for the purpose of rearing and feeding sea-fish. This practice was probably introduced from China or some part of Chin- India. The fish are, for the sake of economy, almost always eaten salted and dried. They universally use a sauce formed by the putrefaction of small fish, chiefly prawns; and no food is deemed palatable without it. They manufacture great abundance of salt by slow solar evaporation, and obtain it, mixed with some soil and dust, but free from tliose saline admixtures belonging to sea-water, which injure the culinary article by the bitterness and deliquescent quahty which they impart to it. They manufacture gunpowder from the nitre found in the caves frequented by bats and swallows, and from sulphur found near the volcanoes; but it is always an inferior ar- ticle, and the gunpowder imported from Europe is much in request. They are un- acquainted with the art of cutting and polishing precious stones. Their diamonds are cut by Hindoos; their rubies and sapphires are worn in the rough state. The manufacture of glass seems never to have been known among them. In the me- chanical arts, however, they have none of that bigotry in favour of their own methods and tools which characterizes the Hindoos, and show an open docility which would soon profit by instruction. Cotton is the grand material of their dress, which is a medium between | Dress, the close habit of the Europeans and the loose flowing robe of the continental Asia- tics. The ancient practice seems to have been to go with the head uncovered, which is still followed in the neighbouring island of Bali. At present the Javanese gene- rally wear a cap in imitation of the Mahometan turban. The legs are always bare ; the feet are often covered with sandals, in imitation of the Arabs. They adorn their persons with diamonds, gold ornaments, and flowers. Men of all ranks invariably wear the kreese. They constantly file and blacken the teeth. It is on the canine teeth that the first operation is performed. They express their contempt for persons who do not follow this practice, by saying that white teeth make men hke dogs and monkeys. The Javanese, like the rest of the inhabitants of these islands, areal- | Calculations, together unacquainted with arithmetical processes. The Chinese are much employed by them in their mercantile transactions. Though they know the Hindoo numeral characters, they frequently calculate by cutting notches on slips of wood. The wo- men are more expert than the men in all pecuniary transactions, and are commonly employed as brokers. The methods used by the people of this island have rather greater facihties than those of their neighbours, their numerical scale extending to ten billions. Some of the Indian languages have no term for any number higher than a thousand. Mr. Crawford, who resided some time in Java in dillerent | Music, ofllcial situations, considers the Javanese as having made very great proficiency in music for so rude a state of society. Tliey have wind instruments, stringed instru- ments, and instruments of percussion. The two first are rude. The mountaineers have a sort of Pan's reed, nmde of bamboo, which is not used for any melody, but merely made to give a confused sound by means of a rapid motion, given to the whole contained in a frame. They have fifes from Indostan and trumpets from Per- sia. The drum is a native instrument. Their gong is perhaps of Chinese origin. 326 BOOK FIFTY-FOURTH. They have a great variety of staccados, some made of graduated pieces of wood, which give a sweet sound when struck with a hammer, others of metal, which have a stronger sound. These have various arrangements and contrivances for improving the sound. Language. | The Javanese language is praised by Mr. Crawford for the beauty and regularity of its written alphabet, having a separate mark for each sound, and no mark expressing more than one. They have an ancient language they call Kawi, which is peculiar to the priesthood, and in which the mythological writings, called the Mahabarat and the Ramayana, are composed in verse. It contains many San- scrit terms, but seems to be radically native and original. The language in common use is sufficiently well adapted to the ordinary purposes of life, but not to any thing like abstract reasoning or science, in which tlie Javanese have never had any prac- tice. Their compositions are wretchedly feeble and empty, containing nothing to reward research. Their chief productions are the dramas already mentioned. In their letters and conversations they have, in a great measure, a separate vocabulary in addressing a superior. In this language of deference, which is associated with feelings of delicacy and refinement, both the names of provinces and cities, and the terms for common ideas, are changed for others. Notwithstanding the long period in which the Mahometan religion has been established, and Arabian literatme made known, (between 300 and 400 years,) the Arabic language and literature have made very little progress among them. A little Arabic is taught in the schools, but few even of the upper ranks make any proficiency in it. All the Arabic writings circu- lated in Java relate to religion and law. In writing their own language they are ex- tremely inexpert in the mechanical as well as in the mental part. Before the intro- duction of the Mahometan religion they knew nothing of the writing of history, and Hiotoriej. | wcrc as ignorant of chronology as the Hindoos. — The history of trans- actions are now written under the direction of their princes, who employ the most expert individual in versification that they can find. The great object is to turn every event into a long solemn tale, in a string of verses. One of them gives an account of the following event. Surapati, a native of Bali, the slave of a Dutch citizen of Batavia, raised himself to sovereign authority in op- position to the native and European governments, and maintained it till his death. The Dutch, having defeated his descendants and despoiled their territory, took up the dead body of the extraordinary founder, and treated it with indignity. This vile transaction is thus described by the Javanese. " The commissary remained long at Pasuruhan, making diligent search for the body of Surapati, but it was not to be found. He was distressed at this, and said to the inhabitants, * I will reward who- ever finds for me the body of Surapati.' Those people forgot their lord, and accepted the proftered bribe. The commissary was shown the spot where was the chief's grave, but it was level, and no one could discern it to be a tomb. The body was dug for and found. It was still entire as when ahve, and shed a perfume like a flower- garden. The Hollanders bore it away to the camp, and placing it in a sitting pos- ture in a chair, the officers took the corpse by the hand, saluting it acccording to the custom of the country, and tauntingly exclaiming, ' This is the hero Surapati, the mighty warrior, the enemy of the Dutch.' After this, they threw the corpse into a great fire, and burnt it to ashes, and the ashes they took and preserved. The com- missary all this time rejoiced in his heart." Besides the Javanese language, there is one spoken by the moun- taineers in the west part of the island, and over one-third of the area of the whole, though only by a tenth part of its inhabitants. The same language is spoken on the opposite coast of Sumatra, and is called the Sunda. It is more gut- tural, and in other particulars has less euphony than the Javanese. The letters d and t are wanting in it. It has some tendency to separate style for deference, which is not carried so far as in the Javanese. Although this langtiage has an alphabet and written character, there are no books in it, as the people have no national litera- ture. The vestin^es of their writing are only found on ancient rude stones. Those who aspire at a little education, learn Arabic and Javanese, and business is generally conducted in the latter. Sunda Ian guage. JAVA. 327 The ancient religion of Java wae a sort of Brahminism, though not J^'^^dlmi. in that strict and dogmatical form in which it exists in Indostan, and par- quitie*. taking of the doctrines and spirit of the religion of Buddha. Some of the moun- taineers still abstain from animal food, and believe in the transmigration of souls.* They trace their origin to a monkey, which they call woo-woo. The nature of the ancient system is chiefly to be inferred from the antiquities still to be found in this island. There are many architectural remains in its best parts. In some places there are largo groups of small temples of hewn stone, with a statue in each ; in others, large single temples of the same materials without any cavity ; in others, sin- gle temples of brick and mortar ; besides which, there are stone temples of ruder construction and more recent. The most perfect remains are the ruins of Bramba- nan, in the districts of Pajang and Mataram. One group goes under the name of " the thousand temples." There is a temple in the middle, sixty feet high, surrounded by four rows of small temples, all pyramidal, of the same character, and containing a profusion of sculpture on large blocks of hewn stone. | The temple of Boro-Bu- dur, in the mountain and romantic land of Kadu, is a square building, embracing the summit of a small hill, and ending in a dome. The whole building is 116 feet high, consisting of nine terraces, the lowest six being faced with square ascending walls, and the three uppermost containing each a circular row of latticed cages of hewn stone, in the form of bee-hives. At the base, each side measures 526 English feet. There is no concavity except in the dome. From the engraving given of it by Mr. Crawford, ;|; it seems to present an elegant and imposing appearance. The oldest structures are remarkable for the excellence of the materials, their great solidity, and the minute laboriousness of the execution. There is an evident design in every group, and in every individual temple in Brambanan. They contain numerous friezes, cornices, architraves, and flat pilastres carved on the stone, but no balustrades, or colonades, a defect which gives them a heavy look. None of the representations are gross or indecent. There are many vegetable decorations, but fewer figures of animals ; the most usual are the lion, the elephant, and the doer ; the cow is never seen. There are many historic groups, and several containing figures of Buddha ; but in the latter, that personage is never represented as an object of worship in a temple, none of the figures round him being in a posture of adoration, and no attri- bute of a Hindoo divinity being attached to him. The rudest and most recent class of temples are mere heavy masses, without plan or design, the interior abounding in sculptures, generally rude, often half-finished, and sometimes extremely indelicate. They are peculiar in containing representions of native manners and costume, (fre- quently, for example, introducing the kreese,) and in the circumstance of having inscriptions. Java contains a variety of genuine Hindoo images, both in brass and stone. Those of Siva are the most frequent. Durga ; Ganesa ; Surya, the deity of the Sun ; the Bull of Mahadeva ; the Linga, and the Yoni, are the most common except those of Buddha. The latter are never in the great central temples, but only in the smaller surrounding ones. Several of them are together, and when an object of worship exists in the same place they look towards it, tlms appearing not to repre- sent deities, but sages worshipping Siva. Mr. Crawford concludes from the various relicts of Javanese antiquities, that the Hindooism of that island was the worship of Siva, Durga, and the Linga and Yoni, united to Buddhism, and that it was a refor- mation of the bloody and indecent worship of Siva, brought about by persons of more kindly aflections than the rest of their countrymen. The word Buddha is not associated with any precise form of faith or worship in the minds of the Javanese of the present day, but merely used as a name for idolatry or paganisn, as distinguished from the religion of Mahomet. The Mahometan religion was introduced from Arabia, and has been kept alive by the intercourse which has subsisted with that country. Its most distinguished triumph took place in 1478, in the capture of the city of Mojopahit, and the destruction of that Hindoo monarchy, by Raden Patah, who erected a Ma- • l)e Wurmb, p, 1"A. f Crawford's History, vol. ii. p. 197. + Frontispiece to his second vohimc. Present reli- gion. 328 BOOK FIFTY-FOURTH. hometan empire in Java, assuming the title of Susuhuimm, or apostle, equiralent to tliat of caliph. The Javanese are the most lax of all the Mahometans of these islands, both in principles and practice, in consequence of the Arabs having been excluded by the commercial jealousy of the Dutch. Wine is drunk openly, even at their religious festivals. The Mahometan institutions are mixed with marks of the Hindoo system. The priests are the successors in duty to the priest and astrologer of the Hindoo village, a peaceful and respectable portion of the pea- santry, living on terms of perfect equality with the ordinary cultivators. Many of the inhabitants do not know the name of their prophet. The higher classes pay more attention to the forms of their religion, but in the use of wine and opium, and in the laws against games of chance and usury, scarcely any among them entertain the smallest scruple ; the only negative precept which they rigidly obey is that of absti- nence from pork. It is remarkable that some of the royal families abstain from touching beef, thus evincing a traditional remnant of Hindoo feeling. Government. | The native government in Java is a hereditary despotism, exactly such as is established in all the great empires of Asia. A Javanese monarch, being also chief priest of his religion, is under no control from rehgion or the priesthood. He has no hereditary nobility under him to share or limit his authority. He is addressed in the most bombastic style of flattering and abject etiquette. Hia ministers and vicegerents are, in their different departments or provinces, invested with nearly all the authority of the sovereign. They are now, however, overawed by their Dutch masters, though they continue to display all the pomp of eastern despotism. The court of the Susuhunam preserves more of the former national customs than most others. All the great servants of the crown are designated by the most high sounding titles. His civil and military oflicers are the " Suns of Prudence," and the " Suns of Hero- ism."* His residence, subjected to the power of a small Dutch fort, is known by the name of Surakarta, which means " The habitation of the Sun." The palace is inhabited and guarded by 10,000 females, of whom 3000 belong to the royal haram. The inner enclosure of the palace is called the thalm. A circular court, two miles in circumference, is adorned with statues of Javanese heroes. Here the ffetes and tiger fights are exhibited. Two tamarind trees present an inviolable asylum to every person who has a request to present to the emperor.| Yet the whole force which this prince can command scarcely amounts to 20,000 or 30,000 men, and these badly armed. The people are treated by their sovereign and chiefs with the most con- temptuous indifference, and their lives sacrificed to sport and caprice. Instead of mock fights for the amusement of the great, real battles are exhibited, in which the wretched combatants are, without the slightest quarrel, instigated to destroy one an- other. Yet Java is the only country of this archipelago where slavery does not exist Revenue. | among the natives. The revenue generally consists of one half of the produce of wet, and one third of that of dry lands. There seems to be no right of property in the soil among the subjects, and there are no large accumulated estates. Yet the condition of the cultivator is more fortunate than in any country of the east, in consequence of the great demand for cultivators and for labour in general. A sixth part of the produce is the pay of shearers. The servants of the king, from his ministers of state to his grooms, are paid by allotments of corn, or of land, or of a certain number of cultivators. This system supersedes the employment of numer- ous revenue agents, and a consequent system of chicanery, and probably contributes to give the Javanese a character of greater integrity than the Hindoos. Capitation taxes, fishery taxes, taxes on consumption, and transit duties, are also levied. The laws have the defects common to all eastern codes ; but the administration of jus- tice is rendered more pure than in India, by the greater honesty of the people, and the greater reliance due to the testimony of witnesses, who are not sworn except on occasions of peculiar solemnity ; and their regard for an oath will restrain them hi the most trying situations. An oath taken by the accused to his own innocence, is thought entitled to respect and credit. • Valentyn, p. 56. t WoUzogen, Lettres sur Java, p. 385. JAVA. 329 Connection of the Dutch na- tiun with Java. The Portuguese visited Java in 1511, but did not attempt any con- quests. The Dutch arrived in 1595, which was 117 years after the estabUshment of the Mahometan rehgion. Their object was phmder, under the name and appearance of commerce. The simple natives were considered as fair game to their rapacity, and were ill fitted to withstand the intelligence, expe- rience, and violence of these visitors. Till 1612, they traded chiefly with the king- dom of Bantam. Then they removed to Jacatra, where they traded peaceably for six years ; but at last quarrelled with the prince who afforded them protection, sub- dued his country, sacked his capital, put its inhabitants to the sword, and built Ba- tavia on its ruins, in 1619. A handful of Europeans at this time subdued the largest military combinations that were ever formed in Java. Ten years after this, when their fortress was not yet finished, they were attacked in two successive years, by the Sultan of Mataram, whose forces are said to have amounted in the first year to 100,000, and in the next to 120,000. The principal soldiery of the Dutch were Japanese ; they also derived the most effectual assistance from the zeal and courage of the Chinese inhabitants. From 1629 to 1675, the Dutch transactions were chiefly mercantile, and here, as in their other settlements, this interval formed the most flourishing period of their colonial history. In this year, having assisted the Sultan of Mataram to subdue a rebellion among his subjects, they made a treaty with him, the object of which was, to restrict the commercial enterprise of his subjects, and thus confer on the Dutch the advantages of a monopoly. The effect however was, that these Javanese merchants being ruined, the Dutch had no natives to trade with, and suffered an immediate decline in those commercial profits which they were so desirous by this piece of injustice to extend. In a similar case they interfered in the politics of Bantam, followed the same policy, and with the same ruinous conse- quences. In 1686, began the public career of the illustrious Surapati, who, from the situation of a slave under a Dutchman of Batavia, raised himself to the head of a sovereignty in the east end of the island, which he and his successors held for twenty years. This state was subdued in 1707, and the importance of it virtually acknowledged by the indignities with which the disinterred remains of that hero were honoured. In 1722, a conspiracy, headed by Peter Erberfield, a Westphalian, for the massacre of all the Christians, was discovered, and the conspirators were put to death with every species of inhuman torture and savage insult.* The bloodiest act of the Dutch in Java, or any where else, was the massacre of the Chinese in 1740. That people had been induced, by the security afforded under the European government, to settle in great numbers in this island. But the Dutch, jealous of their numbers, kept them down by excessive taxations, arbitrary punishments, and frightful executions. That people, goaded in this manner, turned their attention to the means of a combined resistance. A few of them having been shipped off to Ceylon for some pretended irregularities, the Chinese around the city flew to arms. Numbers of those within were put to the torture; and a story of a " wicked and long meditated conspiracy" was thus put to- gether. On a fire happening in the Chinese quarter of the city, the Dutch colonists took the alarm, this being construed into an artifice for commencing a massacre of the Europeans. They now rose on the Chinese. The massacre was formally au- thorized hy the regency, the houses were burst open, and the inhabitants dragged out and murdered, without ofl'ering the smallest resistance. For fifteen days the appalling scene was continued, and not less than 10,000 were massacred in the town of Batavia alone. Tliose who escaped fled to the Susuhunam, and joined him in a series of desolating wars and rebellions, which lasted for fifteen years. From the termination of these contests to 1810, the Dutch continued in a state of subsequent peace. In that year they moved a force to Yugyacarta, deposed the Sul- history, tan of Java, and placed his eldest son on the throne. In 1811, all the Dutch colo- nics having, along with the mother country, fallen under the dominion of France, the British took possession of Java. In 1813, many liberal and beneficial changes * Crawford, vol, ii. p. 422, 8cc. Vol. II.— Tt Massacre of the Chinese. CliaracltT of the Dutch CO lonists. Of the Chinese tettlera. Island of Ma' dura. breadth. 330 BOOK FIFTY-FOUUTU. were effected. The island, however, was restored to the Dutch by the treaty of peace ia 181G. The Dutch are freely permitted by their government to purchase and hold lands, and are fairly naturalized. The Creole and mixed races la- bour under the disadvantage of a want of liberal education ; are habituated to tyran- nize over the persons of the Javanese; and are entirely served by slaves. They are, with few exceptions, ignorant, timid, servile, and indolent. They indulge in convi- vial parties, but labour under a constant reserve, arising from the arbitrary and jea- lous nature of their government. The women, marrying early, and habituated to the society of their female slaves, have the character of gross ignorance and insipidity. They entertain a great jealousy of the attractions of the slaves by whom they are surrounded, and under that feeling inflict gross cruelties on them with their own hands.* The Chinese settlers in Java have generally been numerous. The talents of this nation for business and commerce enable them to thrive in these regions ; and they would be much more numerous were it not for the law of the Chinese empire, which strictly prohibits the emigration of women. They are enterprising, keen, and laborious, but luxurious, debauched, and pusillanimous. They are much employed in handicraft trades, in which they greatly excel. They are noted for a total want of faith, the least temptation of gain inducing them to evade the fulfilment of any engagement. All of them are from the province of Fokien, or that of Canton; the former maintain the best character, being rarely from the very lowest ranks of society, and less gross and abject in their manners. The small Island of Madura, near the eastern part of the northern shore of Java, is separated from it by a narrow strait not two miles in is supposed to contain 60,000 inhabitants,! who are a poorer and ruder people than the Javanese. They have a pecuhar and totally distinct language, but such of them as are at all educated understand Javanese. The island is subject to a prince who is called Pahambana, or " the Adorable." He has been deprived of two of his provinces, and now possesses the western portion of the island. J Bull- fights are common in this island, a species of amusement not known in any other part of the archipelago. BaU, I The Island of Bali, which is separated from the east end of Java by a narrow strait, has been called by some Dutch authors " little Java." A chain of high mountains, clothed with impenetrable forests, crosses it from north-west to south-east, containing mines of gold, copper, and some say iron ; this last metal, however, is rarely found in these islands. The level part is extremely fertile in rice. Gilgil, the sultan's capital, stands on a river of the same name, which falls into the strait of Lombok, at the east end of the island. The inhabitants are fairer and bet- ter formed than the Javanese, and are noted for intelligence and courage. Slaves are often obtained from this island, and a particular value is set on them. The in- habitants have a peculiar language, which has been extended by conquest to the ad- joining island of Lombok. Bali is the only country in the archipelago in which the Hindoo religion is maintained, with the exception of a few of the mountainous parts in the east end of Java. The Bahnese belong, in general, to the sect of Siva, and there are among them a few Buddhists. They have divi- sions of caste similar to those of Indostan ; and some outcasts, such as their potters, dyers, dealers in leather and in ardent spirits. The Brahmins are genuine Hindoos, but the people in general are left to their local superstitions. The Brahmins are treated with great respect, and the administration of justice is in their hands. They live entirely on vegetable food, but the people cat animal food without scruple. They perform no such extravagant acts of self-mortification as are so common in India; but the voluntary sacrifices of widows on the funeral piles of their husbands are car- ried to an excess unknown even in India. It chiefly takes place among the military and mercantile classes. At the funeral of a chief, seventy or a hundred women have • Stavorinns, quoted by Crawford, vol. i. p. 139 — 149. \ Batavian Jlemoirs, ii. 427. + Valentyn, Groot. Java, p. 44—46. reeuliarity of religion. nouNEO. 331 been known to immolate themselves.* The female slaves also devote their lives in a similar manner at the funeral of a royal mistress. They are generally poignarded before their bodies are committed to the flames. Bali was the resort of the Hindoo refugees from Java when persecuted by the Mahometans ; about which time the Brahminical system was inculcated on them with increased strictness by fresh Indian missionaries. The inaccessibility of the shores of the island has contributed to pre- serve it from the encroachments of other religions. The strait of Bali is the safest route for vessels bound to Europe during the west- ern monsoon, when the passage by the strait of Sunda is rendered difficult. The current in the strait of Bali carries the vessels along even when the winds are contrary. To the north of Java, and the south-west of the Philippine islands, | Borneo. is the great Island of Borneo, the largest in the world next to New Holland. It is probably about 750 miles long, and 620 broad. Its central parts have never been explored by Europeans, and the insalubrity of the climate has prevented them from frequenting its shores. On this account the geography of Borneo is very imperfect. It is probable tiiat the centre of the island, where the springs take their rise, is a marshy table land, inundated during the rainy season. This seems to be the best explanation of an old tradition, of the existence of a lake in the centre from which all its rivers issue. f The principal chain of mountains must lie north and south, not far j Mountainj. from the east coast. The Dutch call them " the crystalline mountains," from the numerous crystals found in them. One of the most remarkable peaks is called by tlie natives Keenec-Bollo.;j; This island is often devastated by volcanoes and earth- quakes. The coasts, for a breadth of from fifteen to fifty miles, present nothing but marshy soil, part of which is a moving bog or half inundated land. It is only by means of the rivers that we can penetrate the country. [ Rivers, They have many branches, which are connected together with natural canals. The rivers Pontiana and Sukadana, in the west, and Banjermassin in the south, seem to be the largest. Though situated under the equator, this island is sub- | climate, jected to no insupportable heats. The sea and mountain breezes, and the rains, which are constant from November till May, impart a degree of coolness to the at- mosphere. At Sukadana the thermometer varies very little, being scarcely ever under 82° of Fahrenheit, or above 94°. Gold is found in Borneo in large quantity, and more is exported from [ Minerals, it than from any of the adjoining islands. It is the only island of this archipelago which alibrds the diamond, a mineral not found indeed in any other country except Indostan and Brazil. The diamond mines are confined to the west and south coasts, being principally situated in the territories of the princes of Pontiana and Banjermas- sin. The best are at a place called Landak. A perpendicular shaft is first dug, and the stratum containing the diamond is from this ])ursued in a horizontal direction. The roof is supported by wooden posts, but frequently falls in, to the imminent risk of the miners. They are worked by persons belonging to the aboriginal savage races. The Bugis resident merchants are the great dealers in diamonds. The petty prince of Mattan, in this island, is now in possession of one of the largest diamonds in the Avorld, obtained 100 years ago from the mines of Landak. Its value is i3269,378; being less than that of the Russian diamond by i^34,822, and £119,773 more than the Pitt diamond. Rice, yams, and betel, together with all the fruit trees of India, are | Vegetable*, cultivated in this island. The cabbage palm is used for food. The forests contain trees of prodigioiis height, some excellent ship timber, and abundance of the tree which yields the sanguis draconis. Groves of nutmeg and clove trees are said to have been found in some mountains of the south west.§ The best known and most * Crawford, vol. ii. p. 241. t Radertnacher's Account of Borneo, in the Batarian Memoirs, ill. 109. Philon, ibid, ii. 435, Beckman's Voyage to Borneo, London, 1718. :f Meinungen's Letters from Borneo, in the Freimuthige, a Berlin journal, 1811, No. 237, § Valcntyn's Account of Borneo, iv. 235. 333 BOOK FlFTY-rOURTH. valuable species is the camphor tree, which grows here in all its perfection. It is the Dryobalanops cumphora of Colebrooke ;* a different tree from the Laurus cam- phora, the camphor tree of Japan. It grows near the sea-coast, and is found nowhere in the world except in the two great islands of Sumatra and Borneo. The Borneo camphor sells a third dearer than that of Sumatra ; the one being £500 per quintal, and the other 56330. That of Japan is much lower. Benzoin, the resin of a species of styrax, is found in the same islands as camphor. The principal use of it is for incense in the ceremonies of the Romish, Mahometan, Hindoo, and Chi- nese worships. It is also used as a luxury in the houses of the great. The Java- nese chiefs smoke it along with tobacco. The demand for this article has been steady in all ages. Borneo affords a plentiful supply of rattans, {Calanuis rotang.) This is a prickly bush, sending forth shoots of an amazing length. The manner in which the wood-cutter carries them off ready peeled, is sufficiently simple. He makes a notch in the trunk of any tree at the root of which the rattan is growing, and, cut- ting the latter, strips off a small portion of the outer bark, inserts the peeled part in the notch, then pulls it through as long as its size continues uniform. One man will carry away 300 or 400 at a timcf" Pepper, ginger, and cotton, grow here, and the nutmeg and clove are said to have been successfully cultivated. Animals. j It is in Borneo that the largest of the monkey tribe, the pongo, equal- ling the human race in stature, is found ; also the ourang-outang, or Simia satynis, which comes nearer to man in his looks, manners, and gait. Some have told us, that this animal lights fires, at which he broils his fish and rice ; but these accounts are not verified by recent observers. + The Borneans have an animal which they call the water stag, which lives most generally in the marshy grounds, and seems to be the largest variety of the Cervus axis of Pennant. This island contains also two species of wild buffalo of immense size, wild boars, tigers, and elephants. The species of birds are innumerable, and most of them totally different from those of Europe. The swallows which build edible nests are in great abundance. Wild bees are so numerous that their wax forms a very large article of export. Inhabitants. | The coasts are occupied by Malays, Javanese, Bugis, or natives of Celebes, and some descendants of Arabs, who are all subject to despotic princes styled sultans. Mahometanism is the prevailing religion. The princes and nobles live in a state of barbarous pomp. The kingdom of Banjermassin is the best known to Europeans, oc- cupying the south side of the island. The large river Banjar flows through it. Tlie present capital is Martapana. Here the Dutch have the post of Tatas, near the town of Banjermassin. The west side contains the kingdoms of Ijandak and Sukadana. The king of Bantam in Java was formerly the sovereign, but resigned his rights to the Dutch company in 1778, and they established a mili- tary post at Pontiana. The Sultan of Sambas is the most powerful prince of that coast, which is also the residence of diflerent independent political chiefs.' Borneo, a town containing 3000 houses on the north coast, is the seat of a sultan who formerly reigned over the whole island. Here, as along the whole coast, the houses are often built on a sort of rafts, moored to the shore, so as to fall and rise with the ebbing and flowing of the tide. The north-east part belongs to the kings or sultans of Soolo. Passir, in the south-east, is the chief commercial resort of the inhabitants of the island of Ce- lebes. The Malays of the coast, whose principal establishments we have now mentioned, consist of colonies which have come from Java and Sumatra. The interior is peopled with a race of the same original stock, but esta- blished for a greater length of time in the island. They are called Biajoos, properly Yiajas,§ a term evidently Sanscrit, and synonymous with Battas, Weddahs, and • Asiatic Researches, vol. xii. t Crawford, vol. iii. p. 423, 424. + De Wurmb, Memoirs of Balavia, iii. 250. 4 J Janse de Uooy, in the travels of Vander Aa, quoted by Kadermacher. Compare our former observations on the Battas, Weddahs, and other analogous tribes, p. 232. Different states. Inhabitants of tlie interior. Badjooa. Teciongs. BOKNEO. 333 Vyadjas, the names given to certain old tribes in Sumatra, Ceylon, and Indostan. Some others are called Malem, a Hindostaneo term for mountaineers.* The speci- mens of their language which we have collected, contain many words common to the Malay and the Sanscrit;! ^ circumstance which throws additional light on the ancient consanguinity of all these nations. The natives of Borneo call themselves Dayaks or Eidahans. They are fairer than the Malays, of tall stature, and a stout make; and extremely fierce and sanguinary in their character. Their principal peo- ple are in the practice of extracting one or more of their front teeth, and inserting pieces of gold in their stead. They paint their bodies with various figures; and a girdle round their middle is their only clothing. Their houses are large boarded huts without partitions; a hundred persons sometimes live together in one. The Biajoos hang the skulls of their enemies at the doors of their huts. A young man is not permitted to marry till he has either cut ofi" the head or some other part of the body of an enemy. J In their mutual intercourse they observe strict regulations. Their women are treated with gentleness and consideration. They are dressed in a scarf, and wear an enormous bonnet or parasol of palm leaves on the head. Some of them display a distinguished talent for pantomimic dancing. § One tribe of Eidahans, called Badjoos, lives by fishing. Their vil- lages are built half in the water. The Tedongs, on the north-west coast, seem to be a colony from the Philippine islands, and are formidable for their pi- racies. The Alfors or Haraforas, a race belonging to the interior, seem to ( Haraforas. differ from the Eidahans only in having browner complexions, and extremely long ears. The dancing girls of this tribe are much admired by Europeans for the nimbleness of their movements, which, however, border on licentiousness. Besides these different races, of which we know so little, there are | Negniioj. also some Negrillos, a tribe inhabiting forests inaccessible even to the Eidahans, and of whom no specimens have been hitherto seen by the Europeans. These must belong to the Papuan or Oceanic negi-oes. Several European nations had attempted to form settlements on the coast of Bor- neo, but they had always been expelled or massacred by the natives ; and from such particulars as are related to us of their conduct, they seem to have fully merited all their disappointments, being continually disposed to presume so much on their own superiority as to insult the natives indiscriminately. The Dutch, whose Dutch settle- first attempts had suffered a similar fate, appeared in force on the coasts «>«"*»• in 1748 ; and their fleet, though insignificant, so far awed the prince of Tatas, the only one who had pepper plantations in his dominions, that he granted them an ex- clusive privilege of trade ; only reserving to himself a right to give 500,000 lbs. of pepper to the Chinese. In consequence of this treaty the Dutch Company has im- ported to Banjermassin, rice, opium, salt, and coarse cloths, but can scarcely defray, by this trade, the expenses of their settlement. Their chief profits are derived from the diamonds which they procure, together with 6,000,000 lbs. of pepper. The Chi- nese take an active part in the trade of Borneo. Diamonds, however, are in no re- quest in Cliina, so that the dexterity of this nation has not been applied to that branch of mining or of trade. In 1706, the English Company were allowed to build a factory at Banjermassin, but abused their privilege so grossly, by domineering over the inhabitants, levying toll from those who passed up the river, and showing disrespect to the reigning power, that the natives burned the factory, and drove the English from the country. They were afterwards permitted to trade, on pretending to be private merchants ; which they did with much greater success than while their odious self-protected establishment existed. || • Stuart, a Dutch resident. See the Batavian Memoirs, 11. 436. f Meinungen, 1. c. No. 238. i " Avant d'avoir coupe soit une tete, soit les parties viriles d'un ennemi." § Meinungen, loco citat. I Crawford, vol. iii. p. 223 — 229. Beckman's Voyage to Borneo, p, 101. English fac- tory. 334 BOOK FIFTY-FIFTH. In 1773 that nation formed an establishment in the island of Balambangan, on the northern coast of Borneo, which was destroyed by the natives. It was renewed in 1803, but soon voluntarily abandoned. BOOK LV. OCEANICA. PART III. NORTH-WESTERN OCEANICA CONCLUDED. The Philip'pmes, JMoluccas, and Timorian Chain. Philippine isl- I To the north of Borneo we find the great archipelago of the Philip- *""*^* I pine islands. They were discovered in 1521 by Magellan, who gave them the name of the archipelago of St. Lazarus. But the Portuguese seem to have known the island of Luzon in the year 1511.* The Spaniards, who established themselves here in 1560, gave the name of their king Philip only to the northern ar- chipelago. The central part often receives the separate appellation of the Bissay islands. Mountains. | The chains of mountains which traverse these islands in all directions, seem lost in the clouds; none of them have been measured. They are full of vol- voicanoei. | canoes. That of Mayon, in the island of Luzon, has the figure of a sugar loaf; this at least was the case some years ago. It continually emits smoke, and sometimes flames and volcanic sand. In the neighbourhood of the volcanoes of the islands Mindoro and Sangui, inexhaustible quantities of sulphur are found in large masses. Nature of the I Th» land of the Philippine islands is not only diversified by number- country, j jggg torrents, and many straits, like all mountainous archipelagos, but also present the peculiarity of a great number of marshes, mossy grounds, and lakes. There is little regular firm land^. During droughts the miry and spongy soil is full of chinks in all directions. Earthquakes occasion the most dreadful ravages. These islands are sometimes inundated by violent drenching rains, and are frequently ex- posed to hurricanes. Those which are felt at Manilla are nothing compared to those which occur on the coast of Cagayan in Mindanao. Seasons and 1 There is nearly the same variety of seasons here as on the coasts of dimate. | Coromandcl and Malabar, and arising from the same cause. The prin- cipal mountain chain runs north and south like the Ghauts. | In the western parts, the rains prevail during the months of June, July, August, and part of September; the season of the west and north-Avest winds. The adjoin- ing seas are tempestuous, the lands inundated, and the plains converted into wide lakes. At this time, the easterly and northerly parts enjoy fine weather. But in October, and the succeeding months, the north winds, in their turn, sweep the coasts with equal fury, accompanied by an equal abundance of rain; the same inundations take place, so that, when the weather is dry in one district, it is rainy in the other. Vegetable fet- I Yet it is to this humidity that the Philippines owe their fertility. Dur- ^"'y- I ing the whole year the meadows, the fields, and the mountains, are • See our History of Geography, Book xxi. t Voyage dans les mers de I'lnde, par Legentil, t. ii. p. 8 — 12, et p. 334—360. PHILIPPINE ISLANDS. 335 clothed with perpetual verdure. The trees are always in leaf: the fields almost con- stantly enamelled with flowers; blossom and fruit are often exhibited together on the same tree.* The principal food in these islands is rice. Wheat was introduced by the Spaniards. The cacao or chocolate bean, which succeeds so admirably, was brought hither about the year 1670, and is culivated by the Indians in all the islands. The sugar cane is common. The cinnamon tree grows in Mindanao. The Euro- pean fruit trees, when planted in the Philippines, bear very little fruit, some of them none at all. The fig trees succeed, and attain to great beauty, but they are very rare. Oranges and citrons abound, and bear excellent fruit. The orange tree grows in the open fields to the height of thirty feet."!" Among the indigenous plants are the cotton tree, the bamboo, the banana, the mango, the pine apple, ginger, pepper, and cassia. The wild banana, or J\Iusa textilis, grows in natural groves, which are considered as property ; and from the fibrous bark is manufactured a kind of cloth in frequent use with the natives. It also affords the material of the most valuable cord- age obtained from any plant indigenous in north-western Oceanica. It is known to our navigators under the name of " Manilla rope;" and is equally applicable to ca- bles, to standing and to running rigging. J The ejoo, obtained from the Aren palm, or Borassus goimiti, abounds in the Philippines. These islands contain numerous herds of cattle. Hog's lard is used | Animals, instead of butter, which last is not at all used, the keeping and milking of cows re- quiring too much attention for the indolent inhabitants. The forests abound in deer. The numbers and varieties of fish are so great, that those of all the lakes, rivers, and seas in the world appear to be collected here as in a focus. But the rivers are infested with crocodiles. The serpent called the " rice field bear," or damonpalay, contains a poison under the teeth, which occasions immediate death. § There are swarms of the white ants, which sometimes consume a whole store in one night. According to native traditions, all these islands, and especially Luzon, | inhabiumi. were once entirely possessed by negroes, who, when the other races arrived, fled to the mountains, which are still inhabited by their descendants. The prin- | The Ygoiots. cipal tribe is called Ygoiots or Ygorrots. The others are called Finguians, Kalingas, and Italones.|| We are told by a Jesuit, that these tribes are divided into two races, one of which comes nearer to the negroes than the other. IT About eighty years ago they came down from the mountains to demand Manners and tribute, and did not return till they had murdered some of the other in- '**'' habitants, whose heads they carried off" to their own haunts. Legentil mentions that an act was passed, by which a certain tribute was allowed them, along with free possession of their fields. More recent accounts say merely that the savages trade with the Spaniards, without taking notice of any tribute. They live on honey, roots, and game. Their clothes are made of the bark of trees. Their huts are sheltered by palm trees, but scarcely afford them protection from the rain. A few knives arc their only furniture.** The coasts are inhabited by a race not inferior in ferocity of character, though addicted to the pursuits of agriculture and commerce. The leading tribes are the Tagales in the island of Luzon, and the Bissays in the central islands. The different dialects spoken by these nations bear a resemblance to the Malay, and perhaps also to the Chinese. The Tagales believe themselves to be a colony of Malays from Borneo. The practice of tattooing appears to be still continued, and was at one time so frequent, that the Spaniards, from this circumstance, gave some islands of the group the name of the Pintados. "fl Nothing certain is known regarding the population of these islands. | Population. M. de la Perouse supposes it to be 3,000,000, M. Gentil not more than 700,000. Another conjecture is given by M. Raynal, who says, "that only 1,350,000 Indians have submitted to the Spanish yoke; that the greater part arc Christians; and that • Legentil, t. ii. p. 25, 8ic. f Ibid. p. 45, Sec. ^ Crawford's History of the Indian Archipelago, vol. iii. p. 424, 425. § MS. Memoir of Rear- Admiral Kichery. || Voyage de Legentil, t. ii. p. 51, &c. ■I Bernardo de la Fuente, cite par Hervas; Catalogo delle Lingue, p. 99. •• MS. of M. Uichery, p. 289. f\ Crawford's History, vol. i. p. 218. Q 36 BOOK FIFTY-FIFTIi'. Account of the Island of Luzon. all of them, from the age of sixteen to fifty, pay a capitation tax of four reals, about two shillings Sterling." The natives of the Philippines who are Christians, have, by their more intimate intercourse with Europeans, acquired a share of energy and intelligence superior to their Pagan and Mahometan neighbours, and to all the in- habitants of the more westerly islands of Oceanica, to whom, in former periods, they were indebted for their improvements. In intrepidity they also excel the people of Indostan. Hence, natives of Manilla are almost universally employed as gunners and steersmen in the intercolonial navigation ; offices for which the continental Hin- doos are at present incapable of being educated.* Spanish colony "^^^^ colony is commanded by a governor, subject to the viceroy of and trade. Mcxico, who remains eight years in office. The trade between the Philippines and Acapulco in Mexico, has for ages been conducted by a single gal- leon of 1200 or 1500 tons. It is a monopoly in which the cargoes are limited to half a million of dollars, (56112,500,) and never amounting, by connivance, to more than a milhon and a half, (£337,500,) or two millions, (£450,000.) They chiefly consist of the manufactures of China and Indostan, with the produce of the Spice and Sunda Islands, for which Manilla is thus merely a place of transit. The eccle- siastical corporations have a large share in their investment. She sails in July or August, the voyage lasts between three and four months, and she returns in about half the time, with a miUion, or from that to 1,300,000 dollars in silver, some cochi- neal, cocoa, Spanish wines, oil, wool, and bar iron, but chiefly in ballast. Mr. Craw- ford, in stating the great losses sustained in this instance by commercial restrictions, mentions, that in a free trade, two annual voyages might be made, while under the present system there is only one."]" A smaller vessel occasionally sails to Lima by the same route. The largest of the Philippines is Luzon, the most northerly island of the group. It is indented by two gulfs, that of Cavite, or Manilla, on the west, and that of Lampon on the east. A great part of the space intervening between these in the interior is occupied by a wide lake called Bay, which discharges its waters into the gulf of Cavite. The largest river is that of Tagayo or Cagayau, which runs due north. The island produces gold, copper, and iron ; the working of iron has been abandoned ; gold is found in the form of sand or dust. The exports are ship-timber and masts, gomuti cordage, sugar, cotton, rattans, wax, gums, and resins. J Manilla and I The city of Manilla§ contains 38,000 inhabitants, including 1200 other towns, j Spaniards. The streets are handsome, though unpaved. The inha- bitants lead hves of ease and even of luxury. Every thing participates of the gay and simple spirit of the Indians. The suburbs are inhabited by Chinese and other foreigners. The motions of the sea being gentle, allow the front part of the houses to be built in the water. The transparent mother-of-pearl is sometimes used for windows. At Cavite, the port of Manilla, ships of war are built. Nueva Segovia and Nueva Caceres are episcopal cities. Mode of living. | The Tagals, erroneously called Indians, live in a state of plenty, tran- quillity and innocence, resembling the golden age. The indolent are enabled, by the munificence of their brethren, to dispense with every kind of labour. It is not uncommon for a man in good circumstances to maintain in his house a numerous train of relations belonging to different branches, who live in good terms with one another, and eat from the same dish. Numerous families, with the addition of strangers, often sleep in the same room, on mats laid along the floor. The benig- nant character of the Indians extends its influence to the wealthy Spaniards. All the rich houses support two or three creansas ; these are poor children who are fed and clothed exactly like those of the family. The character of the Spanish colonists at Manilla is drawn by some authors in very unfavourable colours. According to Legentil, the baths are conducted without • Crawford, vol. ii.p. 277, 278. f Ibid. iil. p. 338—341. + MS. of M. Richery. See also Blancard sur la Commerce des Iiides. § Voyage de La Perouse, t. ii. p. 345. PHILIPPINE ISLANDS. 337 the due regard to decorum, persons of both sexes bathe piomiscuousi/, wearing rery thin semi-transparent coverings. Opportunities are talien to make assignations while performing the civil office of lighting a segar for a friend, as the ladies com- monly carry a lighted segar in their mouths. It is said to be a commmon thing for the priests to have acknowledged children. A due submission to the Catholic faith and forms is all the morality required to support a character.* The Chinese have been at different times attracted to Manilla in great 1 Chinese re»i- numbers, by it its profitable trade. They have been much brow-beat and | '^*^'"*" oppressed by the Spaniards; and in 1603, 25,000 of them were massacred. In 1639, having again increased to the number of 30,000, they were driven to revolt by op- pression, and, in the contest, were reduced to 7000. In 1662, the island being threatened by the arms of Coxinga, who conquered Formosa from the Dutcli, the whole of the Chinese were ordered away. In 1709 the Chinese Avere again expelled from Manilla, being ignorantly accused of monopoly, because they watched the state of the market, and e.\i)Osed or withheld their goods accordingly, and also of carry- ing off the wealth of the Philippines to China. In 1751 they were again expelled by a royal order, in some measure extorted by popular clamour, but when the public began to suffer from the want of supplies and of trade, the measure was bitterly complained of, and the governor who carried it into effect subjected to public odium. The accounts which we possess of the other Philippine islands pre- The Uissay sent few characteristic features. In physical character, and in the ge- '*'»'"''• nius of the people, they resemble Luzon. All those situated between Luzon and Mindanao go under the appellations of the Bissay Islands. Zebu is very populous and productive in rice. Its chief town is Gu'igan, It was in the small island of Mactan that the celebrated Magellan lost his life. The island of Buglas or Negros has received this last name from the circumstance of containing a race of negroes in the interior. Samar is one of the leading islands, lying to the south-east of Luzon. | samar. It has a fertile and easily cultivated soil, yielding, at least, a return of forty-fold, and exports large quantities of rice. The forests abound in wild birds ; they contain three species of the turtle-dove, and many beautiful species of parroquets, some no larger than linnets. The quadrupeds are also very numerous. The woods swarm with monkeys of very large size, wild buffaloes, and deer. Numberless hives of wild bees hang from the branches, and alongside of them are the nests of humming birds dangling in the wind. The island of Panay is rich in game, especially in deer, boars, and | Panay. wild hogs. I In this, and the immediately surrounding islets, food and clothing are obtained by the Indians with the utmost ease. A species of banana fig affords a fibrous bark, easily separated by maceration. By joining the fibres together, a cloth of fine texture is obtained, which at first is somewhat stiff, but becomes flexible by being treated with lime. This flax goes under the name of abaca. Between the islands of Mindoro and Palawan, is the group called the J^'"''°''j'''^'*' Calamian islands, or " the Islands of Canes." The chain by which islands. these islands are formed, goes off from Luzon in a south-westerly direction. It seems to be very high and very narrow, the arable land at the bottom of the moun- tains being of very trifling extent. Their productions are rice, ebony wood, canes, wax, several gums, pearls, fish in endless variety, and turtles. Some of the inha- bitants live wholly at sea. The Spaniards have posts at Baco in Blinder, and some other places. All modern maps give the island of Paragoa the name of Palawan, by which it was known to Marco Polo, but D'Anville places the island of Balaba, (a name which must be identical with Palaba, or Palawa,) to the south-cast of Pa- ragoa. In Mr. Crawford's map, Palawan is marked among those which are under native jurisdiction. The preceding islands arc the only part of the archipelago of which the Spaniards hold the undisputed sovereignty. It is a circumstance worthy of remark, that the Philippines are the only islands of north- • Legentil, quoted by Mr. Crawford, vol. i. p. 119, &c. t Sonuerat, Voyage aux Indies, t. iii. p. 46. 8vo. Vol. 11— U u General influ- ence of the Sitanish atcea* dency. ■5^ 338 BOOK FIFTY-FIFTH. western Oceanica which have improved in civilization, wealth, and population, in consequence of their intercourse with Europe. When first visited, the inhabitants were a race of half naked savages, inferior to all the great tribes : but now they are in almost every respect superior. A monopoly of commerce happened to form no part of the Spanish policy. Private industry, though not altogether unshackled, has been allowed some scope, and private competition some operation. The govern- ment, finding here no spices, and no rich manufactures, satisfied itself with drawing a fixed capitation tax from its native subjects, which, however oppressive, did not extinguish the spirit of improvement. They also gave full freedom to European colonization, and freely distributed the unappropriated lands among the colonists. The consequence of this was, a free intermixture of the local society, and a com- munication of the genius and manners of Europe to the native races.* Mindanoa. | The island of Mindanao, the most southerly of the Philippines, ranks the second for size and consequence. Its name (which is also written Magindanao) signifies in the language of the country, " the united people of the channel."! It is properly the name of the capital of the principal state belonging to it. This island is about 830 miles in circumference, but it contains little arable land. Gulfs and peninsulas give an irregularity to the whole coast. Pools and rivulets occur at every Productions, jstcp. It has morc than twenty navigable rivers,which abound in fish. The chief nutritious plants are rice, potatoes, and sago ; cinnamon is also very common. When fresh, it seems equal in aromatic power to that of Ceylon, but soon loses its strength, and in two or three years becomes totally insipid. The vine grows in the treUis way, not admitting of any other mode of culture. It is not certain whether or not this island contains mines. J Great quantities of talc are found in it, and mill- stones are exported by the Spaniards. § There are numerous caverns, especially in the neighbourhood of the capital Mindanao, aflfording a retreat to bats, which are as large as common fowls. About sunset they issue in thousands from these caverns, which protect them from the heat and light during the day. From the earth polluted by their sojourning, a quantity of nitre is extracted. (| This island is ruled by its own kings and princes, who are styled sultans and rajas. The nobles are called Latoo. The marshes and the forests present an insurmount- able barrier to the enterprises of the Spaniards. The inhabitants of the interior are black savages, called Haraforas. Some represent them as cruel and bloody in their dispositions ; others as a weak, timid, and oppressed race. They are the aboriginal inhabitants. Three tribes are distinguished by their language, the Luta, the Sabani, and the negro esproperly so called. IT — The inhabi- other natives. | tants of the sca-coast have a great resemblance to the Borneans, the Ma- cassars, and the people of the Moluccas. Dampier found the natives of Mindanao very subject to a cutaneous disease, in the form of white flakes and scurf over all the body.** They have a language peculiar to themselves, and also speak Malay. Their native idiom seems to be the Bissayan. They are all Mahometans ; and have Imams who teach their children to read and write. In their devotions they use many Arabic words. The sultan of Mindanao is the most powerful prince in this island, but there are several petty independent sultans. The Mindanayans, when not at war among them- N«vy. I selves, follow the occupation of pirates. Their vessels carry small guns, and crews of seventy or eighty men. The settlement at Sambuangan is the only one which the Spaniards have kept. It is a town situated in the south-west part of the island, feebly defended by a small fort, and of little use to its possessors. Sooioo. I The island of Sooloo, or Suluk, written Xullu by the Spaniards, though small, is one of the most interesting in this part of the world. If It lies to the south- • Crawford's History, vol. ii. p. 447, 448. •}• Forrest's Voyage to New Guinea. * Forrest's Voyage to New Guinea. § Forrest, ibid. I Forrest, in a Note where he quotes Combes, a Spanish Jesuit. K Hervas, Cat. des Langues, p. 96. *• Dampier'» Voyages, vol. i. p. 334. tt Dalrymple's account of the natural curiosities of the island of Sooloo, in his collection of Voyages, vol. i, p. 21. The Harafo- ras. Spanish settle' ment. Amber^ij found here. The Moluccas, or Spice Isl- ands. CELEBES. 339 west of Mindanao; produces excellent fruits, elephants, and a small species of deer, the Cervus axis. The sea in this neighbourhood throws up a great quantity of amber- gris. It is said that before the coming of the Spaniards, the natives made torches with it to give them light while they fished during the night. It is thrown out on the shores of Sooloo, chiefly towards the end of the western monsoons. Some of it has been found in a liquid state. Whatever may be the origin of this sub- stance, it is very curious that it should in this quarter be confined to the small island of Sooloo, and seldom or never found on the coast of Mindanao. Sooloo derives wealth from its pearl fishery, which takes place at the | Pearl fishery, end of tlie western monsoons. There is at that time a constant calm. The sea is so smooth that the eye can discern objects under water to a depth of forty or fifty feet. The natives of Sooloo are excellent divers, and nothing escapes them that comes within their view. But the Sooloo pearls labour under the disadvantage of tarnishing in a few years. The sultan of Sooloo holds several neighbouring islands, and a part of the coast of Borneo. He keeps a small navy. Bowan, his capital, is situated in | Navy, the north-west part of the island. It contains 6000 inhabitants, which form a tenth part of the population of the island. In 162S and 1629, the Spaniards sent two great expeditions for the conquest of Sooloo, but both of them disgracefully failed. In 1637, they made a temporary conquest of Sooloo and Mindanao, which they were soon obliged to abandon. In 1751, they were beaten in their last attempt, and the natives of these islands joining their Mahometan neighbours, invaded the Philippines, and laid waste the Spanish provinces for three years.* The islands situated to the east of Borneo and Java, and to the south of the Philippines, and extending to the immediate neighbourhood of New Guinea, are called by the French geographers the Moluccas, or Spice Islands. The one of these names is by this extension completely alienated from its original and special meaning; the other is somewhat vague. But there are intimate physical relations, and old political ties, which justify us in grouping them as one archipelago. More divided and irregular than the Sunda Islands, they also contain a greater num- ber of volcanoes. Trees, bearing more or less exquisite spices, seem to be diffused over the whole of them. The king of Ternati possesses the whole north coast of Celebes; and the governments of Macassar and Banda share with each other the Timoorian chain. The Dutch of Batavia comprehend all these countries under the general name of De Groote Oost, or " the Great East. ""I" The largest of these islands is Celebes, separated from Borneo on | Celebes, the west by the strait of Macassar, from the Moluccas, properly so called, on the east, by the Molucca passage. That portion of the sea on the north which lies be- twixt this island and Mindanao, is sometimes called the Sea of Celebes, sometimes the Mindanao Sea. The figure of Celebes is extremely irregular. The bays of Boni, of Tolo, and, most of all, that of Tomini or Gunong-Tellu, divide it into a number of peninsulas connected by narrow isthni. The more our maps have been improved in correctness, the more ragged and skeleton-like does this island appear. It may be compared to a star-fish from which the radiating limbs on that side which lies to the west have been removed; and it is remarkable that the smaller island of Gilolo, adjoining to it on the east, has the very same singular form. The numerous gulfs confer on this island the advantage of a temperate mild for its equi- torial situation, the heat being moderated by the copious rains and the cooling winds. The eastern monsoon lasts from May to November; the opposite one prevails through the rest of the year. The tides here are extremely irregular. Celebes con- tains several volcanoes in a state of activity. The bold, broken, and verdant coasts, present some charming landscapes. Numerous rivers fall in broken cascades at the iect of immense rocks, in the midst of majestic groups of picturesijue trees. The most poisonous of known vegetables grow in this island. The famous upas, the ex- • Crawford, vol. ii. p. 4-71, 472. f See Valentyn. Soil and pi-o- ductions. 340 LOOK FIFTY-FIFTH. istence of Avliich in Java has given occasion to so many fables, grows also here; and the Macassars dip their arrows in its juice. Here also grow the clove and nut- meg trees, which the Dutch so avariciously engross, the ebony, the sandal, the calam- bac, the valuable woods of which are articles of export, the sago tree, the pith of which is used as an aliment by so many nations, the bread-fruit, and other fruit- bearing species. Rice and cotton "are abundant. No elephants or tigers are seen in the forests, but many deer, boars, and, according to some accounts, elks or ante- lopes. There is an infinity of monkeys of a very strong and very mischievous kind ; and there is a large species of serpent, by which many of them are devoured. The cattle of Celebes are small, and have a hump on the back. The island also produces buffaloes, goats, and sheep, which arc remarka])ly lively and sure-footed, being well accustomed to the mountain roads.* Besides the fishes common to the seas of Ce- lebes with others in the same regions, we may remark that large quantities of turtle are taken on the eastern coast, for the sake of the tortoise shell, which is here a vahiable article of commerce. Mines. | The minerals of this island seem deserving of attention. The south- ern part contains none ; but the northern peninsula, from the isthmus to the district of Boolan and beyond it, is full of gold mines. Those of the district of Ankahooloo, near the Dutch settlement of Gorontala, yield gold of twenty-one carats ; that found in the others is of eighteen. The ore is found in beds at a depth of some fathoms, and is accompanied with copper. "f Some of the mountains yield crystal, others iron. In the north-cast, the territories of Mongondo and Manado, Sulphurous which are liable to frequent destructive earthquakes, contain a soil which lands. jg filled with immense quantities of sulphur. J The topography of Celebes is confounded amidst the contradictory accounts of tra- vellers, who give totally different names to the numerous states into which it is divided. Different In the south part, on the gulf of Boni, the two leading states are those states. ^^ Boni and Macassar, or Mankashar. The best known place in the island is Macassar, a for tified town in possession of the Dutch. It is situated in the south-west, on a point of land watered by two rivers. One of these rivers is broad, and allows a vessel to sail up within half cannon shot of the town walls. Bonthain is also in the south, on the bay to which it gives its name. It has a Dutch fortress immediately adjoining it. The Bay of Bonthain is large, and affords Boni. I safe anchorage during both monsoons. The city of Boni is at a short distance from a lake which goes by the classical name of Tempi?, and gives rise to a fine river. The northern provinces under the jurisdiction of the Company, the capital of which is Maros, supply the whole island with rice. They contain 370 large villages, occupying the plains on the west coast. § Beyond the Gulf of Kaieli the territory of the king of Ternati begins, comprehending the whole northern and eastern shores, as far as the Gulf of Tomini, and extending a considerable way along the shores of this gulf. This territory, which is able to furnish 17,000 soldiers, is divided among a number of vassal princes. The district which the Dutch call Paloo, a flat and fertile territory, is the Parlow of Captain Woodward. || Tolatola, a large town, ac- cording to an English traveller, is the Tontoly of the Dutch. IT Magondo and Boo- lan are the largest states. Near Manado is Fort Amsterdam. On the Gulf of To- mini the Dutch have the settlement of Gorontalu, in a country which abounds in buffaloes, in iron-wood, and in rattans, and where the nights are rendered very chill by the air of the mountains.** The Tomitans occupy the central part of the island where the gulf terminates. Tambooko, and a part of the eastern coast, are pos- sessed by the Badshoos, a savage race, who spend a greater proportion of their time in their fishinc-boats than on land. • Valentyn, DesciMption de Macassar. I'ailcrmaclier, idem. t Duhr, in tlie Hatavian Memoirs, iii. p. 179 — 182. + Valentyn, Mollnques, p. (i4, vol. i. < § Radermacher. Notice on Celebes in the Batavian Memoirs, iv. 215. I Woodward. Radermacher, p. 204. H Valentyn Moluques, p. 72. *• Valentyn, Moluqnes, p. 79. Running a muck. MililaiT cha- racter and habits. CELEBES.' 341 The inliabitants of Celebes, who arc distinguished into Booghiese, | inhabitantj, or Biigis, and Macassars, are a vigorous and high-minded people. The very meanest of them are as impatient of a blow as any modern European gentleman, and their law allows any individual to revenge such an affront by the death of tlie person who inflicts it, ptovided he takes this revenge within three days. Among the more scru- pulous a haughty manner will not be tolerated. These principles generate a great deal of habitual politeness of behaviour. In cases of murder the law of retaliation is urged to a greater length than in the other islands. Yet every murder may be compensated to the f\xmily of the deceased by a price which is fixed for persons of each condition. When it has been committed by a person of a difiierent tribe, the iryury is reckoned a public one, and the death of any individual of that tribe is deemed a sufficient reparation. The practice of running a muck, which is com- mon in all the surrounding islands, is particularly frequent in this island. A person who has suffered a severe affront, especially if his life or honour is in dan- ger, and he is laid under restraint or captivity, if any weapon is within his reach, lays bold of it without the slightest warning ; sometimes with a hideous shout, imme- diately stabs those nearest to him, and, running about with an infuriated look, deals death among friends and foes indiscriminately, till he is himself put to death by some person, who thus performs an important service to society. The officers of police are furnished with three-pronged forks, for the purpose of overpowering persons in this unfortunate and desperate condition. In these islands it is dangerous to be seen running, as none run except persons in a muck, or thieves, and, when any one s seen to run, it is reckoned justifiable to pursue and put him to death.* The inhabitants of Celebes are better and braver soldiers than the other islanders. They have on different occasions made descents on Java, beaten forces more numerous than their own, and laid waste the country. t In this island every individual capable of bearing arms must appear in the field if sum- moned. War is determined in the council of the state ; and the assembled chiefs take a solemn oath binding themselves to the prosecution of it. The banner is then unfurled and sprinkled with blood. Each chief in succession dipping his kreese in a vessel of water, drinks of this liquid, and dances round the bloody banner with wild motions, brandishing violently his bare weapon, and repeating the oath with dreadful imprecations.! In war their first onset is furious; but a resistance of two hours is sufficient to exhaust all their impetuosity. Some have inferred that their first efforts are made under the intoxicating influence of opium, which dissipates itself in these frenzied transports ; but it is not necessary to have recourse to such a supposition in order to explain the fact, which is analogous to many other instances, varying in character with the physical constitutions and moral habits of different tribes. The kreese is their favourite weapon. They sometimes carry off the heads of their slain enemies as triumphant trophies to their wives and families, and on some occasions go so far as to devour the heart of an enemy. The Dutch governors have on some occasions had the barbarity to encourage their native allies to bring them baskets full of the heads of their enemies. § The inhabitants of the Celebes are rendered active, industrious, and robust by an austere education. At all hours of the day, the mothers^ rub their children with oil or with water, and thus assist nature in forming their con- stitutions. At the age of five or six, the male children of persons of rank are put in charge of a friend, that their courage may not be weakened by the caresses of relations, and habits of reciprocal tenderness. They do not return to their family till they attain the age at which the law declares them fit to marry. The are very much addicted to games of chance, in which they often | Amusements, stake their whole property, and afterwards their wives, their children, and their per- sonal freedom. The disputes which arise at the gaming table are often terminated by the dagger, or generate incurable family feuds. They are uncommonly fond of the sports of the field: deer and wild | The chase. • See Crawford, vol. i. 67. iii. 127. t Crawford, vol. i. p. 231. + Id. vol, iii, p 233. § Id. vol. i. p. 243. Manners and customs. 342 BOOK FIFTY-FIFTH. bulls being their principal game. Their country differs from most of the other islands in having extensive open grass fields adapted to the chase. These are the property of particular communities, and jealously guarded against the intrusion of strangers. As soon as the rice is sown, they collect for this purpose, mounted on small but active and hardy horses, forming companies of sixty, and sometimes as many as 200, and forget every thing else in the transports of the field. Women in this island eat out of the same dish with their husbands, though always on the left side, and are in other respects treated on terms of equality. They appear in public without any scandal, mingle with the men at the festivals, take an active concern in all the business of life, are consulted on public affairs, and frequently raised to the throne even where the monarchy is elective.* Religion. | The ancicnt natives of this island worshipped the sun and moon, and some local deities. They built no temples, deeming the canopy of heaven the only temple corresponding in magnificence to the leading objects of their sacrifices and devotions. The influence of Hindooism existed but in a very limited degree. The Mahometan faith has now been established in the island for two centuries, and its priesthood possesses an extensive influence. Government. | The governments in the Celebes are not despotisms, like those of Java and the other islands ; but aristocracies combined with elective monarchy, not unlike the late government of Poland. Boni is a federal state, consisting of eight petty states, each governed by a hereditary absolute chief, and the general govern- ment is vested in one of the number elected by the rest. These are his counsellors, without whom he can do nothing. They manage the public treasure, decide on peace and war, and the head of the confederacy corresponds in their name, not in his own. A woman or a minor may be raised either to the government of particular states, or to the head of the general government, and in that case the constitution provides a guardian. "j" All the other governments in the island are formed on similar principles, but with some variety. Among the Goa Macassars, ten electors, besides choosing the sove- reign, nominate also an oflScer who can of his own authority remove the king, and direct the electors to proceed to a new election, or can remove any one of the elec- tors. The Bugis state of Wajo, has a great council of forty princes. It is divided into three chambers, each of which elects two princes, who in their turn elect the chief of the confederacy, called the Matuwa. The present sovereign of the Bugis state of Lawu, is wife to the king of Sopeng, another Bugis state; but the king does not presume to interfere in the affairs of the state which is subject to his wife. The wife of Kraing Lembang Parang, are specta- ble Macassar chief, is sovereign of the small state of Lipukasi, and has the reputa- tion of being one of the first politicians of Celebes, exercising great influence even on the armies by her spirited harangues. The revenue in all the states is raised from the land, and consists of a tenth part of the produce. Historical '^'^^ historical records of Celebes are more imperfect and limited than epociis. even those of Java. They lead us no farther back than 400 years. They seemjfo have reckoned time by the reigns of their monarchs, like the Chinese. The first positive date is that of the arrival of the Portuguese in 1512. Since this time their annals are filled with details of turbulence and violence. The Goa Ma- cassar kings are put on record under names expressive of such scenes. One is called "throat-cutter;" another, "he who ran a muck;" another, "he who was be- headed;" a fourth, "he who was bludgeoned to death on his own staircase;" and a fifth is distinguished from all his fellows by "having died reigning," that is, a natu- ral death. The more civilized inhabitants are divided into the two great tribes of Macassars and Bugis, who are subdivided into small nations, that of Goa being the most emi- nent among the Macassars, and that of Boni among the Bugis. It was not till 100 years after the first visit of the Portuguese that the Mahometan religion was generally • Crawford, vol. i. p. 73, 74. f Crawford, vol. iii. p. 11, 12. CELEBES. 343 adopted, though a few Mahometans were found in the island in 1512. The Macas- sars, being the first converts,, attacked Boni and Wajo, and forced them to embrace the new laith. The Macassars have been generally the most enterprising race. In 1655 they destroyed the Dutch settlement on the island of Butung. In 1660 the Dutch defeated them, though assisted by the Portuguese. By this exploit they put an end to the trade in cloves and nutmegs which the Portuguese, after being driven from the Moluccas, had carried on through the medium of Celebes. The Macas- sars, in 1665, raised a fleet of 700 ships and boats, carrying 20,000 men, which con- quered Butung and the Sooloo islands, and was proceeding to the Moluccas, when Admiral Speelman, with a fleet from Batavia, encountered and destroyed it. In 1672 Raja Palaka, who had fled to the Dutch, and by whose instrumentality the Dutch were made masters of the principal part of Celebes, was elected king of Boni, sub- jected several small states, and thus confirmed the European ascendency. In 1710 the Goa Macassars were reduced to entire subjection by a Dutch expedition. In 1735, and some subsequent years, attempts were made by some bold characters to unite the Macassars for the expulsion of the Dutch. Goa was taken by a chief called Bontolangkas, assisted by the people of Waju, but the Dutch retook it. In 1776 an adventurer, called Sankilang, raised a formidable rebellion in the island, which kept the country in a state of distraction for sixteen years. In 1811 the authority of the Dutch was transferred to the British. The kings of Boni being in possession of the regalia of Macassar, maintained an ascendency in the aftairs of the latter, by which the European authority was undermined. The king of Boni was defeated by the British in 1814, and the regalia delivered into their hands with great ceremony, for the purpose of being restored to the Macassars. They consisted of the following articles : — the book of the laws of Goa — a fragment of a small gold chain — a pair of China dishes — an enchanted stone — a pop-gun — some kreeses and spears — and above all, the revered weapon called the sudanage, vol. i. p. 62 and 77. Vol. II 3 A King George's Sound. Kdel's Lnnd. Swan River. 370 BOOK FIFTY-SIXTH. Mount Gardner, near Port George, has the appearance of a volcanic cone.* Lcwin'i Land. | That part of New Holland which projects more in a south-west direc- tion, has the name of'Lewin's Land, from the Dutch word for "the Lioness," which was the name of the first vessel that touched at it. Its boundaries are arbitrary. We shall first take notice of the promontory, which forms three capes, Hamelin, Mentclle, and Naturaliste. Near the last of these, Depuch, the naturalist, found a beautiful granite, in regular and very numerous layers, which elucidated a contested Geographer's point in mineralogy. Geographer's Bay, which was discovered in Bau- Bay. din's expedition, has marshy coasts, with salt pools, tantalizing the eye with the counterfeited appearance of a river. Hero some feeble, wild, and stupid savages lead wandering lives. Yet they had formed plantations of trees, which had the appearance of being intended for devotional meetings ; and they had drawn some regular figures, to which a mysterious meaning seemed to have been attached. The ground, though covered with beautiful trees, particularly the JMelaleuca, the Xanthor- rhea, and a fine close sod, seemed to be impregnated only with brackish water."}' Here were seen the phenomena of the mirage, with its varying illusions. Edcl's Land comprehends the middle part of the west coast. Swan River, explored for fifty-six miles of its course by M. Bailly, waters a low country, which is pervaded by limestone strata, and covered with beautiful Euca- lypti, on the branches of which were seen countless flocks of beautiful parrots.J The shallows prevented this navigator's boat from proceeding farther. He pei'- ceived a lofty chain of mountains at a distance. He heard a bellowing much louder than that of an ox from among the reeds on the river side, which made him suspect that a large quadruped lay somewhere near him. This circumstance is the more remarkable, as we are told by the learned and faithful Dampier, that he found, near Shark's Bay, the head and skeleton of a hippopotamus, and gathered some teeth of the lower jaw of the same animal, which were a little bent.§ The country in which Swan River is situated is called, in some maps, Dinning's Land. To the north of this river the land seems to have a moderate elevation. It is skirted with sandy islands, breakers, and coral reefs. The isle of Rottnest and Houtman's Abrolhos, where Pelsart was shipwrecked, are the best known points. Pelsart found the coast of the main land destitute of plants and trees, and covered with large ant-hills like huts ; the air was full of flies, and fresh water was exceed- ingly scarce. II D'Endraciit's D'Eudracht's Land, or the land of harmony, has a very low coast. Land. The mountains are seen in the interior at a distance of 25 miles. The sandy country round the large bay, called "Shark's Bay," produces sea-fennel, brambles, and a long grass, growing in detached tufts. I'roduetions. | The Plerocarfus draco, the mango, and some other trees, also grow here; the trunks are very thick, but not more than ten feet high. Dampier says that he saw rabbits with extremely short fore legs. These were kangaroos. The guana lizards here are very large, and their appearance made this intelligent navigator shudder. IT The trees and shrubs had generally blue flowers. According Petrifactions. | to M. Peron this whole coast is covered with petrified shell-fish, and the plants are very often encrusted with petrified matter. The unfortunate naturalist Riche remarked, that a new Perseus seemed to have carried ofl* a second head of Medusa on these wonderful shores. The incrustations are formed with extraor- dinary rapidity. They were found covering the shrubs, the remains of animals, and even portions of their excrements.** Shark's Bay. | The peninsula of Peron divides the inner part of Shark's Bay into two gulfs, called by the French Havre Freycinet and Havre Hamelin, both of which * Atlas du Voyage aux Terres Australes, pi. vi. fig. 1. t P^ron, i. p. 77. Leschenault's Journal, MS, ^ Bailly, quoted by Peron, i. 178, Sic. § Dampler's Voyage, iv. p. 113, II Debrosses, t. i. p. 454. 1 Dampier, vol. iv. p. 101 — 104. Edition iu 12mo. ArnsterJam. ** Peron, Memoirc sur quelques faits, 8;c. Soil and cli- mate. Wiiuls and tidi'S. : which re- \EW HOLLAND. 371 afford good anchorage. Fresh water seems to be every where wanting ; vegetation languislios ; but the seals, the whales, and lish of all kinds, including the large sea- serpents, render the sea as populous as the land is desolate. The islands called Dorre and Dirk-Hartog, though very sandy, support shrubs of mimoscv, and a great number of kangaroos.* De Witt's Land comprehends all the north-west coast of New Hoi- I ncwiti's land, part of which is, in some maps, denominated " Dampier's Land.'* ( *" It is the least known of the whole. Jiauchn's expedition has not cleared up any one of the doubts to which the researches and conjectures of Dampicr had given origin. This English navigator had examined four or five points of the coast, and was per- suaded that they belonged to a long chain of islands, beyond which, as beyond the Sunda islands, vast gulfs, and perhaps an inland sea would be found. All this coast, says Dampicr, is covered with a succession of sandy downs. For half the year the nortli-west winds urge the waves with violence agauist the coasts, and render tlie tides extvo.mely irregular. The sur- rounding sea is covered with marine plants, crabs, and a sort of sea-wrac sembles fish spawn. Very little water or grass is found on the coast. It seems even to be deserted by birds and all sorts of animals. The only remarkable productions are, a tree the wood of which is red like that of the sassafras, and another of the dragon's blood kind ; the latter is of the size of an apple tree, with black leaves and whitish bark. The gum exudes from the knots and fissures of the trunk. Some miserable tribes of savages wander on the islands and coasts | inhabitants, of this country. Acccording to Dampicr they are a tall, stright, and meagre race. Their limbs are long and loose, their heads large, their foreheads round, the eye- brows tliick, the hair black and crisp, and the complexion completely that of a negro. Two teeth of the upper jaw are universally wanting, either naturally or in conse- quence of being artificially extracted, as is the practice among some of the people of Africa. f Their food consists of shell-fish and other fish. Their lances and swords are made of wood. They sleep in the open air, and seem to live exactly like the inferior animals. Baudin's navigators fixed several detached points. But the great question of the existence of aqueous communications with the ulterior of the continent has not been in any degree elucidated, notwithstanding all the learning and patience which JMessrs. Freycinet and BouUanger bestowed in calculating and combining the observations which have, at diifcrent periods, been made. The Cape" Murat of M. Freycinet's atlas seems the same with the j Cape wiiiem. Cape Willem of the old Dutch charts, and of the atlas of d'Entrecasteaux. Willeni River, on the south side of the promontory, can furnish no fixcilities for exploring the interior ; but to the north-east a gult', sixty miles wide at the mouth, and containing several islands, has a circumference not yet ascertained, and perhaps a connection with some inland sea. Capes Poivre, Malouet, and Dupuy, which form one large promontory, may as well belong to a separate island as to the continent of New Hol- land. From this part to Dampier's Archipelago, the coast of the m.iin land is unknown. But from the 116th to the 120th degree of longitude, it seems to form an uninterrupted and straight lino of low land. Opposite to this part of the coast the Archipelago of Forrester is situated, one of the islands of which is composed of large pentagonal prisms of basalt, in some places rising into walls, in others forming an extended tesselatet like the Giant's Causeway. In several places insulated columns shoot up from the bosom of the deep.ij^ The Geographer's Shallows, and those of the Planar'm, oc- cupy a large space. The island of Bcdout is fifty-six miles from the continent. Arriviiig at the 12lHt degree of longitude, we find a gap in the coast imiicaiions of of thirty or forty miles, and pt^rhaps an opening into the continent. Its "" oi"'""'k- line of direction then turns rapidly to the north-west and north, a change vaguely expressed in old charts, which merely carry the whole coast too far to the west. Cape Missiessy, and Cape Bossut, preceded by Casuarina Reef and Cape Villaret, • Leschenault's Journal, MS. f Danipier, vol. ii. p. 14L t Pcron, i, p. 130. Dampier's Arckiptilago. Forrester's Arcliipelagu. pavement 372 BOOK FIFTY-SIXTH. belong to the continent, or else to a large island ; but between the last mentioned promontory and Cape Huygens, we find, in Freycinet's atlas, the same large and deep opening formerly pointed out by Dampier in the same situation. An island of considerable size, near to Cape Huygens, has received the name of Gantheaume. If an attempt had been made to enter this opening, an ampler field would have been undoubtedly furnished for doing a similar honour to the names of other celebrated men. From Cape Huygens the coast runs north, with a slight westerly inclination, as far as Cape BerthoUet. Here we find another gap, and very probably a passage which may communicate with that on the south of Cape Huygens. The islands Lacepede and Carnot, and the " Whale Bank," front the entrance of this channel or gulf. From Cape Borda to Cape Rhuliere, for five degrees of longitude, the coast runs north-east ; and, though not completely examined, it presents no indications of any passage. Old charts mark, in this part, several deep bays, and a tunnel-shaped gulf, on which the French expedition has thrown no additional light. Island Adeie. | Opposite to this coast we have the important and detached island of Adele, with the remarkable Cape Mollien, which, in the earliest sketches of charts, Archipelago of was represented as apart of the continent. Then follows the large Buonaparte. archipelan^o, called by the French navigators the Archipelago of Buona- parte, and formerly marked on the old charts as " certain islands seen by Saint A^ louarn." These countries present every where the most steril and forlorn aspect. Whitish rocks shoot up in square, or pointed, or curiously projecting forms. Some of them have the appearance of mountains fallen on other mountains. No residence is furnished for man in a country from which vegetation is banished, and which the sky, always dry and scorching, never visits with a genial dew.* The leading islands go under the names of Keraudren, Fontaines, Cassini, and Bougainville. To the north of this last, which is the largest, is the large " Bank of Holothurias," peopled with myriads of molluscEe. From the mast-head a large island is seen lying north and south, which is perhaps the commencement of some chain of islands. From Cape Rhuliere to Cape Fourcroy, the coast forms a large concavity, with a south-easterly direction. Between the bank of Holothurias and the Barthelemi islands, M. Freycinet's inquiries present a wide gap, but the old charts give no indi- cations of any passage. De Witt's Land ends at Cape Van Diemen, which we think ought to preserve its original name, though the atlas of the " Voyage aux Terrea Australes" gives it the name of Leoben. It is a frivolous procedure to change the names of old discovered countries, merely because a more recent navigator may have corrected their position by a few minutes of longitude. Amiidm'sf'* From the preceding view of the north-west coast, we find it presenting Land, a scrics of gaps, which afford much scope for future discoveries. The north coast appears at first view to have been more completely explored. From Cape Van Diemen to the Gulf of Carpentaria, a Dutch chart lays down the coast in a positive manner.! It marks Van Diemen's Bay, the waters of which were found to be white and luminous, in the same way as we have al- ready observed to be the case with the Molucca sea. J This bay seems to be bordered by a chain of mountains. Farther east, the same chart lays down a bay under the name of the "Bay of Difficulty,"§ surrounded with low lands; and the river Speult, at the mouth of which are the islands of Crocodiles. The east part of this coast has got the name of Arnheim's Land, a name which some think should comprehend the whole coast from Cape Van Diemen eastward, in order that the name of Van Diemen's Land, as applied to the westernmost portion of it, may be abolished, and become exclusively appropriated to the island now so famous on the south of Bass's Strait. All ambiguity in this particular may, however, be prevented, by the easy expedient of assigning to the latter, as'we have done in the preceding pages, the name of " Fan Diemen's Island.'" • r^ron, i.p. 137. f See Valentyii's Description of Baiida. + See page 526. 4 Moeyelike 15ocht. Cape Van Diemen. Van Dieaien'* Bay. NEW HOLLAND. 373 The Gulf of Carpentaria, surrounded by a country called Carpenta- ouifof ria's Land, presents in the Dutch chart so many mouths of rivers, as Carpentaria, might tempt us to regard it as one of the chief recipients for the waters which pro- ceed from the interior of New Holland. The leading ones seem to be | RWers. Tasman's River in the west, and Caron River in the south. But we are told that Captain Flinders, on exploring these shores with the utmost care, found all the rirer beds either dry or filled with sea water. A large island, situated in the west part of this gulf, to which the Dutch navigators gave no name, has received from the Ger- mans that of Busching Island. Ou the east side of the Gulf of Carpentaria is Cape York, which is the | cape York, northern extremity of this continent, projecting in such a manner as to form the strait called Endeavour strait, which separates it from the island of New Guinea, and con- nects tho Molucca sea with the the Great Ocean on the south and east. The coast, now skirted with a line of reefs, runs first south-east to Cape Flattery, then turning nearly due south, it presents us with the small river called Endeavour I Endeavour River, where Captain Cook saw some caimans, (a kind of crocodiles,) j Wver. and oysters of extraordinary size. Here the savages, like the Otaheitans, baked their bread in furnaces dug in the ground. Their canoes were similar to those of tho Phenicians.* Cape Tribulation nearly proved fatal to this unwearied navigator. Magnetic island, near Halifax bay, is so called from the influence which it exerts on the mariner's compass in the ships which approach to it. Here the coast turns again to the south-east, as far as the Great Bay of Inlets, remarkable for a | Bayofinieu. number of indentations which seem to indicate either channels or rivers. The east- erly direction of the coast ends with Harvey's Bay, which has Sandy Cape for its eastern extremity. At this bay the huts of the savages are built with some degree of solidity, and roofed with the bark of a kind of tea tree, the JVlelaleuca trinervis of White. Proceeding almost duo south, we find Pumice River, where Captain Flin- ders thought he found some evidences of the existence of a volcano in the neighbour- hood-t Several large rivers discharge themselves into Glasshouse Bay, where stones of volcanic appearance are also found. After passing Cape Byron and Shoal Bay we arrive at Port Macquarrie, the mouth of a navigable river lately discovered by Mr. Oxley in his second exploratory tour. We have now made the circuit of the shores of this vast and singular I ^°"''''^''|'"'f country, but have been unable to follow it without several interruptions, j tiie interior. The interior completely escapes our inquiries. No gulf or large river has put it in our power to pass within the mystic circle of its general outline. Here research gives place to reasoning and conjecture. Does the territory consist of an immense sandy desert, by which the rain from the heavens is absorbed? This supposition is favoured by the burning winds which, on all sides, proceed from the interior. On the other hand, the inequalities which must exist in a territory so extensive, the heights of such mountains as have been seen, and the general copiousness of the rains of the torrid zone, have been supposed to favour the probability of its giving birth to large rivers. Several streams undoubtedly exist which have not been perceived, even by those navigators who were within sight of their mouths, in the same manner as the river at Port Macquarrie, passed unol)served by Captain Flinders, when he sailed along the coast, at a moderate distance, and described the rocky prominences which it presents. But if there had been any river of uncommon magnitude, it is not pro- bable that the freshness which it would have imparted to the sea water in its vicinity would have escaped observation, and not led to more minute investigations. The only inland parts yet examined are near the southern extremity, where the whole breadth of the continent is only about a fourth part of that of its northern and central portions. If that which was explored by Mr. Oxley, is to be considered as a faithful specimen of the whole, we must conclude it to consist of an unvaried level surface, part of which is rendered habitually marshy, and is frequently laid under water, by becoming the termination of large or numerous rivers; part consists of a real lake, • Cook in Hawkesbury's Collection, iii. p. 570 — 67?, 8tc. t Flinders, quoted by Collins, ii. 242, 235. Methods of exploring. 374 BOOK FIFTY-SIXTH. and part probably is permanently arid, like the African sands on the east and west of the Nile. But there may still be chains of mountains, or detached oases, which are fertilized by benignant rains, and rendered more moderate in temperature by their comparative elevation. Some have supposed that this whole land may be nothing more than the border of an immense lagoon, resembling, on a larger scale, some of the small islands of Polynesia. Some one of these hypotheses must be adopted, \mless we still believe that large or numerous rivers are concealed in channels con- nected with the openings which navigators have so imperfectly described. These channels may make the supposed shores of the continent turn out to be mere islands or peninsulas. Or we may suppose rivers of this kind to be like those of Madagas- car, hid behind the marshes by which Edel's Land is encircled. In order to determine these questions, it has been proposed to send an expedition to penetrate the country from Spencer's Gulf. For such an expedition, men of science and of courage ought to be selected. They ought to be provided with all sorts of implements and stores, and with different animals, from the powers and instincts of which they may derive assistance. They should have oxen from Buenos Ayres, or the English settlements, mules from Senegal, and dro- medaries from Africa or Arabia. The oxen would traverse the woods and the thick- ets ; the mules would walk securely among rugged rocks and hilly countries ; the dromedaries would cross the sandy deserts. Thus the expedition would be prepared for any kind of territory that the interior might present. Dogs also should be taken to raise game, and to discover springs of water; and it has even been proposed to take pigs, for the sake of finding out esculent roots in the soil. When no kangaroos and game are to be found, the party would subsist on the flesh of their own flocks. They should be provided with a balloon, for spying at a distance any serious obsta- cles to their progress in particular directions, and for extending the range of observa- tion which the eye would take of such level lands as are too wide to allow any heights beyond them to come within the compass of their view. It has been proposed that the vessels which take the persons and stores belonging to the land expedition, should leave that part of the coast where they have been disembarked, and after going to such countries as could furnish them with fresh stores, should repair to different sta- tions on the coast. This land expedition is recommended, in the first instance, to direct its course for the Gulf of Carpentaria. It will probably find in this passage, chains of mountains lying north and south, like the peninsulas situated on the coast, and will consequently pass along the intermediate valleys. If, contrary to all expec- tation, their progress should be arrested by chains in a transverse direction, they might turn east to the Bay of Inlets, or north-west to Dampier's Gulf, or south-west to Swan River. It seems inconceivable that all these routes should bo equally in- tercepted by deserts, or impracticable mountains. The journey might be allowed a year or eighteen months, which would be only at the rate of four or five miles per day. On the most unfavourable supposition, the party could return to Spencer's Gulf. The author of the present work has discussed this project in conversation with the enlightened and indefatigable traveller M. Peron, who saw no insuperable obstacle to its practicability, except the existence of an immense ocean of sand oc- cupying the whole interior of the continent, which to him appeared extremely proba- ble. Yet, as the central deserts of Asia and of Southern Africa maintain flocks and tribes of shepherds in their oases, our scientific nomades might in like manner find some strips of verdure, and some fresh-water springs and lakes, especially after the close of the rainy season. The health of the travellers in this unkown soil, perhaps exhaling noxious vapours, might be protected by the constant habit of lying in ham- mocks suspended from the branches of trees. On the modifications of procedure that would occur in executing such an interesting plan, it is needless to speculate. Since these ideas were suggested, however, the two journeys of Mr. Oxley from the British colony have afforded, as we have seen, a specimen of part of the interior, and perhaps of a large proportion of it. Yet it is unquestionably desirable that similar expeditions, with additional improvements, should be undertaken from various other parts of the extensive coast of New Holland. NKW HOLLAND. 375 Table of Geogra'phical Positions in JVew IloUand, and the adjoining Islands. Places. South Latitude. Long. East from Lend. Authorities. Van Diemen's Island. (leg. m in. s ee. deg. min. see. Cape Pillar 43 14 147 21 4 Boullanger and Freycinet. Cape Peron (Maria Island) 42 46 30 148 14 45 Idem. St. Helen's Pomt . . . 41 20 30 148 37 45 Idem. Cape Portland . . . • 40 42 25 148 5 15 Flinder's Chart. Entrance of Port Dalryraple 41 3 30 147 11 Flinders and Freycinet. Cape Lenoir (Hunter's islands) 40 29 30 144 52 26 Freycinet. South-west Capo . . . 43 33 40 146 4 15 D'Entrecastcaux. South Cape 43 39 146 54 25 Idem. New South Wales. Wilson's Promontory . . 39 10 30 146 40 25 Freycinet. Cape Howe 37 27 150 5 15 Flinders. Sydney Cove (Port Jackson) 33 55 151 25 OWentworth. Cape Danger .... 28 8 153 52 15 Flinders. Sandy Cape 24 40 153 15 15 Idem. Cape Capricorn .... 23 28 152 10 15 Cook. Broad Sound (Bay of Inlets) 22 25 149 15 Idem. Edgecombe Bay . . . 20 148 15 Idem. Cape Flattery .... 14 56 145 20 15 Idem. Cape York 10 40 142 20 15 Idem. De Witt's Land. Cape Diemen (or Leoben) 11 9 130 14 15 Freycinet, Boullanger, &c. Cape Fourcroy .... 11 58 130 15 Idem. Barthelemi islands . . . 13 48 129 35 15 Idem. Lacrosse islands . . . 14 44 128 20 15 Idem. Cape Rhuliere .... 13 52 127 17 16 Idem. Bougainville Island . . . 14 126 1 15 Idem. Cape Voltaire .... 14 15 125 33 15 Idem. Degerando Island . . . 15 22 124 8 15 Idem. Cape Mollien (Adel Island) 15 27 123 4 15 Idem. CafFareUi Island .... 16 5 123 12 15 Idem. Cape BerthoUet .... 17 10 122 5 15 Idem. Cape Huygens .... 17 58 122 11 15 Idem. CapeVillaret 18 19 121 66 15 Idem. Cape Missiessy .... 19 12 121 15 15 Idem. Cape Larrey 19 47 119 9 15 Idem. Depuch island .... 20 36 117 33 15 Idem. Romarin island .... 20 28 116 30 16 Idem. Cape Malouet .... 20 45 115 25 15 Idem. Cape Murat 21 37 114 18 16 Idem. D'Endracht's and Leu- win's Land. Cape Cuvier 24 14 113 24 15 Idem. Dirk-IIartog's Road . . 25 30 113 2 16 Idem. Red Point 27 42 114 16 Idem. Houtman's Abrolhos, (south- most point) .... 29 13 114 20 15 Van Kenlen. Swan river (mouth) . . 32 4 30 115 46 35 Idem. Cape Naturalists . . . 33 27 30 114 59 45 Freycinet, Boullanger, &c. Cape HamcHn .... 34 14 115 15 Idem. 376 BOOK FIFTY-SIXTH. Table of Geographical Positions, ^c. — coniinued. Places. Flinder's Land, Baudin's Land, (tbure Napoleon,) AND Grant's Land. Cape Farewell . . Cape Malouet Talleyrand Island (Islands of St. Francis) . . . Murat Bay . . . . Cape Lavoisier . . . Cape Ambrose Par6 Cape Correa .... Cape Brune .... Cape Turenne . . Marengo Island (middle) Port Champagny (Lagrange Island) . . . Cape Condillac . Cape Lafontaine Cape Berthier Cape Eliza Gulf St. Vincent (bottom) Cape d'Alembert Cape BedoLit (Isle Decres, or Kangaroo Island) Cape Gantheaume (Idem) Cape Sane (Idem) Cape Fermat Cape Bernouilli . Cape Lannes Cape Bolidor Cape Montaigne Cape Volney . . Cape Marengo . Mouth of Port Philip Western Port • . South Latitude. ■leg. ni]n. sec, 31 55 32 10 20 32 35 32 6 32 31 32 43 33 36 34 48 38 8 85 9 20 34 44 33 42 32 58 35 15 30 35 13 12 34 38 31 30 35 56 36 4 35 53 36 37 37 38 38 1 38 27 38 49 38 54 38 24 38 39 15 30 30 34 Long. East from Lond. deg. min. see, 131 55 15 133 5 15 133 133 133 134 134 134 136 136 9 15 37 15 50 4 5 15 48 15 11 15 5 45 26 45 136 5 137 17 137 48 136 52 137 41 138 5 137 59 15 15 16 15 15 15 45 136 137 138 139 139 140 140 141 143 143 144 145 34 55 30 15 10 45 28 45 42 25 13 15 52 15 42 15 20 15 60 16 48 15 27 32 Authorities. Freycinet, BouUanger, &c.'. Idem. Idem. Idem. Idem. Idem. Idem. Idem. Idem. Idem. Idem. Idem. Idem. Idem. Idem. Idem. Idem. Idem. Idem. Idem. Idem. Freycinet and Bernier, Idem. Idem. Idem. BouUanger, &c. Idem. Idem. Faure. NEW ZEALAND. 377 BOOK LVII. OCEANICA. Progress of (liiiCUTery. PART V. JVeio Zealand, JYew Guinea, and the intervening Islands. If we could venture on so great an innovation as to give New Holland the classir cal, and agreeable name of the Great Oceanida, those countries of intermediate size which lie between that continent and Polynesia would be very conveniently desig- nated under the appellation of the Secondary central Oceanida. The uncouth jumble of ancient and modern names introduced by navigators, is adverse to any regular classification. The countries now to be described probably present, by their readi- ness of access, and their excellent climate, the most favourable situations for Euro- pean colonies. But the most central of them, and particularly New Guinea, are inhabited by a warlike and inhospitable race. We shall begin at the south end of the chain, and proceed in a northerly course. New Zealand is a country which rises rapidly into importance, in pro- | New Zealand, portion as it becomes more known. Its west coast was dicovered in 1642 by Tas- nian, who describes the inhabitants as of a brownish yellow complexion, with long black hair, and resembling the Japanese.* It was a long time before any thing was added to Tasman's discovery. A French navigator, M. de Surville, doubled the North Cape, discovered Lauriston's Bay, and might have anticipatad Cook in the honour of completing the discovery. The unfortunate Marion determined the position of Mascarin Peak more precisely than the great English navigator. The celebrated Captain Cook visited these regions in 1779, and found that the strait discovered by Tasman, and thought to separate an island on the north from a great Southern Continent, only separated two islands from each other. The southern island was called by the na- tives Tavi Po'e'iiammoo, and the northern Eaheino-mawe, names of which Cook dis- putes the authenticity. Tavi seems to be the name of a lake, and Poenammoo the word for the stone called green jade. Yet this island appears to be called Poenammoo in the map drawn by a native, and published by Mr. Collins. D'Entrecasteaux fixed the position of Cape Maria de Diemen; but it was reserved for Vancouver, a pupil of the celebrated Cook, to complete the examination of the southern island, which was placed forty miles too far east in the first chart. Cook, not able to reach the termination of one of the arms of Dusky Bay, called it "No- body knows what." His pupil reached it, and changed its name to " Somebody knows what." This seamen-like pleasantry, however, will not answer the purposes of geographical nomenclature. The length of the northern island is 436 miles, and its medium breadth | Kxtent. probably sixty miles. Its extent, therefore, is about 26,160 sqnare miles, or 16,742,400 acres. The Southern island, being 360 miles long, and at an average 100 broad, contains 36,000 square miles, or 23,040,000 acres. The northern island, being the farthest from the pole, seems to possess greater natural advantages than the other. Its climate is temperate and moist, and the whole, except a few spots on the western, side appears well adapted to cultivation. The southern island is represented by Cook as mountainous, and apparently barren. But this report, founded on a general and distant view, cannot • Dalrymple's Miatorical Collection, ii. 20. Sec. Valentyn's Description of Banda. Vol. II.— 3 B Soil ami climate. 378 BOOK FirTY-SKYENTlI. be admitted as finally conclusive, especially as the country contains abundance of trees, and some of prodigious size. In the excursions which the English settlers have made into the interior of the northern island, the soil, though various, was found in general fertile. The landscape on every side displayed the richest verdure, a circumstance which led to the most flattering conclusions, both respecting the soil and the climate.* In this particular it is much superior to the territory round Port Jackson in New Holland, although in the same parallel of latitude. The latter is quite parched in summer, while every thing is green and flourishing in New Zealand, an advantage which it owes partly to its insular situation and comparatively small extent, and partly to the greater elevation of its mountains, which attract the dense, clouds, and invite frequent refreshing showers. The observations made on the northern part of Eaheino-mawe, apply also to the north end of Poenamoo ; for the vegetables which were sown in Charlotte Sound by Captain Cook, were found on his return remarkably vigorous, having been rather strengthened than injured by the temperature of winter, though the species were such as would have perished if ex- posed to an English winter. No frost was seen here by Captain Cook, though he visited it in the beginning of June, which was near the depth of winter. The southern extremity has of course a colder climate. It is also remarkable for the prevalence of cloudy and stormy weather. Violent gales are frequent and conti- nually change their direction, a circumstance ascribed to the great height of the mountains. f Yet the climate was found quite genial in its influence on the health of the Enghsh visiters. In Cook's Strait, the north-west are the prevailing winds. Moimtsins. I The general face of the country, so far as it has hitherto been explored, is undulating : the hills rising with a varied ascent from inconsiderable eminences to lofty mountains. A continued chain of hills runs from the North Cape southward through the whole country, gradually swelling into mountains, the highest of which, according to Dr. Forster, is Mount Egmont, lying in latitude 39° 16', and said to be the same in elevation, as weU as in general appearance, as the Peak of Tenerific. It is covered with perpetual snow a great way down, and from calculation and com- parisons respecting the snow line, he concluded its height to be 14,760 feet. Others are led by various considerations to assign to it an elevation of 10,000 feet. Rocks and The sidcs of the numerous coves about the Bay of Islands, in the minerals. north-east coast of Eaheino-mawe, where the English settlement is fixed, are for the most part composed of soft lameHated stones, probably steatite. In some of them hard or dark brown veins, with traces of iron, are perceived. From the softness of these rocks they are found to exhibit frequent curious perforations, which form picturesque arches, delighting the view of the mariner as he coasts the country. Huge masses of quartz rock are found in the interior, and the rocks have frequent cavities, lined with crystallizations. At North Cape there are hard nodules imbedded in clay. These are most probably iron-stone. Pieces of pumice-stone were found ; and this substance is used by the natives for polishing their spears and other instruments of war. Obsidian, a volcanic glassy substance, was also met with. The axes of the natives are generally of green jade. Some are of porphyry. The ochry appearance of some of the rivulets indicates the existence of iron-ore. A powdery ore of manganese is found, and employed by the natives in the barbarous practice of tattooing their faces. About Cook's Strait Mr. Anderson found the rocks to consist of horizontal strata of yellow sandstone, crossed by veins of quartz. The soil was a yellowish marl. Forster says that the southern island has a thin layer of black earth, under which lies a rock of pale yellow nephritic jade, intersected by quartz veins. J There were also argillaceous basalt, marble, jasper, granite com- posed of black mica and white quartz, § and various volcanic matters. [| These evi- dences of subterraneous fire are confirmed by the frequency of earthquakes. U • Narrative of a Voya,c:e to New Zealand, performed hi 1814 and 1815, by John Liddiard Nicholas, Esq. vol. ii. p. 231. f Cook's Thu'd Voyage, book i. chap. viii. ^ Forster's Observations, p. 10, (in German.) 4 Voyage de Marion et Cvozet. 1| Parkinson's Journal, p. 89. \ Forster's Voyage, i. p. 150, (German.) Coliins's Account, i. p. '^'22. NKW ZEALAND. 379 The moutitains abound in springs. Each rock seems to be furnished | Riven. with its provision of fresh water. The" rivers, though tliey have short courses, are broad and deep, and sometimes descend in the form of magnificent cascades.* One of these, in Dusky Bay, is thirty feet in diameter, and has a fall of 900. This abundance of water, so favourably contrasted with the aridity of | Vegetation. New Holland, is propitious to vegetation, and some of the productions of the coun- try are extremely valuable. The mountains which give origin to the river Thames, on the east side of the northern island, produce abundance of timber fit for ship- building. The size of the trees strikes every traveller with admiration. Various pines, quite difl'ercnt from those known in Europe, soar to a height far exceeding those of Norway. There are also various trees of inferior growth, of a fine grain, susceptible of a high polish, and admirably adapted for ornamental cabinet work. There is a tree called henoic, from which the natives obtain a black dye ; a species of cork-tree ; and many others, both beautiful and useful, which have not yet been classified by scientific botanists. The supple-jack is met with in all the woods, often fifty feet long, obstructing the progress of the passenger. The tea myrtle also grows here, resembling that of New Holland, which is a sort oT Philadelphus or J\Telaletica scoparia. A different species grows about Dusky Bay, which was used by the crew of the ship Endeavour as a substitute for tea. From the leaves of a tree resembling the American spruce fir a very wholesome liquor was brewed. This seems to have been the Dacryditim cwprcssinum, the leaves of which are a good antidote to scurvy. There are no native acido-dulces fruits which a European can eat, though some coarse kinds which are relished by the natives. The root of a low common looking fern, called Acrostichum fiircafum, supplies the natives with their ordinary food. Tlicro is likewise an arborescent fern, the root of which is dressed like potatoes and eaten, and the trunk of tiiis same tree contains a tender esculent pulp, which yields a juice of a red colour. Herbaceous species are prevented from springing by the exu- berance and closeness of the forests. The following, however, among others, are found : wild celery, canary-grass, wild j)arslcy, plantain-grass, a species of rye- grass, some flags, and the Phormium tenax. This last is a most valuable flax ; it has excited a great interest in Europe ; has been transplanted by the curious ; is found to succeed in the climate of France ; and considered as most probably an important accession to the riches of this part of the world. Nei- ther palms nor bread-fruit trees exist in this country ; the chmate probably does not suit them. From Europeans the New Zealanders have got potatoes, coomerU'S or sweet potatoes, cabbage, turnips, and a species of yam called tacca. Their only grain is maize, which they have also obtained from European navigators. From the same source they have got the pumpkin, or gourd, which they cultivate for the sake of the drinking vessels into which they convert it. The zoology of New Zealand is extremely limited in quadrupeds. The most conspicuous species is the dog. There is a large variety which runs | Animals, about in a wild state, and a smaller one domesticated. The former howls when it comes in sight of men. It offers no injury to the inhabitants, who prize it highly for its flesh, which they reckon a delicious food, and for the hide and bones, which they convert to various purposes of ornamental device. In the class of mammalia they have also the rat; a small bat resembling the New York bat of Pennant ;| the sea- bear, or Phoca nrsina; and the Phoca Iconina, or leonine seal, called by Lord Anson the sea lion. There seems to be a large animal of the lizard kind, which, according to the reports of the natives, sometimes destroys children in the interior. New Zea- land is the native place of some birds which are singular for the melody of their song as well as for the gaiety of their plumage. One called the poe has beautiful tufts of white feathers, and a song more charming than that of the finest European species. There are a few species of the parrot kind, wild ducks, and a large black duck pecu- liar to the country. From the feathers found lining some of the garments of the chiefs, somewhat smaller than the emu, it is probable that there is also a species of • Forster's Observations, p. 42. Voyage i. p. 153. f Synopsis of Uundrupctls, No. 2^3. New Zealand Jlax. Political and civil itate. 380 BOOK FIFTY-SEVKNTU. the cassowary, though not hitherto seen by Europeans.* Several aquatic birds, and in general the same species of sea fowl which frequent other parts of the South Sea, such as the albatross and penguin, abound on the shores of New Zealand. Butter- flies, beetles, common flies, and a few musquitoes, are among the insects, a class of animals which does not appear to be very abundant. There is a small sand-fly which proves troublesome by settling about the instep and ankles, and biting people while warm in bed. No poisonous serpents have been found. The coasts are visited by immense shoals of fish, and in great variety, making ample amends for the paucity of land animals. Those in common use among the natives are snappers, bream, the benicooto, the parrot-fish, herrings, flounders, and an inferior sort of salmon. Macka- rel is also found, and lobsters ; and there are beds of cockles, muscles, and other shell fish in some of the flats about the coves. The muscles are of immense size, and much relished by the natives. Inhabitants. | The native inhabitants of New Zealand belong to the same race with the Otaheitans, the people of the Friendly Islands, and the other Polynesians. They have tawny complexions, somewhat darker than the Spaniards ; a few among them are fair. In their persons they are generally above the middle stature. Some are six feet or upwards, and their limbs are remarkable for perfect symmetry and great muscular strength. Their countenances are, with few exceptions, pleasing and intel- ligent, without those indications of ferocity which some of their actions would lead us to anticipate. We know but httle of their diseases, except that they are liable to leprosy and visceral inflammations, and that ophthalmia is very common among them. The northern island is said to be divided into eight districts, governed by their respective chiefs, called areekees or kings, and other inferior chiefs, who, under the areekees, rule over smaller subdivisions. The power of the areekee is not absolute, and the inferior chiefs make frequent wars on one another without con- sulting him. In their political condition as well as in some of their usages, these people bear a remarkable resemblance to the Battas in the island of Sumatra. So- ciety is divided into two distinct ranks, the one consisting of the chiefs and all their kin, who are called y-un^ateedas, and the common people, who are called cookies. The former are extremely tenacious of their dignity. They disdain several kinds of work, yet one of them was not ashamed to supplicate an English visiter with continued importunity to " give him a nail," after his i-equest had been repeatedly complied with.! A chief, on board a British ship, will work like a common sailor, or will serve at table, or sweep the cabin, if he is assured that these labours are not derogatory to his dignity ; because he has not yet learned the European feelings, and perhaps still more, because he is acute enough to see the superiority of the Eu- ropean character, and reasonable enough to recognize it in his actions, reserving his claims of rank for the society of his compatriots. It is a common thing for a chief to display his dignity in his village by sitting on the top of a house. J The cookies, however, though considered as far beneath the rungateedas, are treated with gentle- ness and attention. Ingenuity. | The Ncw Zcalandcrs have some good domestic habits, and are not without ingenuity in a few arts. Having no metallic pots for boiling their food, they contrive to cook their fern root, and their potatoes, by means of two hollow stones, in which they first put their roots, surrounded by a few moist leaves of some well- flavoured plant, and then applying the hollow sides of the stones to one another, heat them thoroughly for a due length of time, at the end of which they are well stewed and palatable food. Of the fibres of the Phormium tenax they make a kind of cloth or matting, which they dye black with the bark of a tree called Enou. They make wooden vessels and spears, which last are neatly tipped with bone. They cul- tivate their fields with great neatness. Their canoes are made of boards, well joined and held together by strong osiers ; some of them are fifty feet long. The large ones carry thirty men or more. They are often ornamented with a head, well carved and expressive of warlike ferocity. They are expert rowers, keeping time with beautiful exactness, not only in the same canoe, but through the whole of a • Nicholas, vol. 11. p. 255. f Nicholas. i Idem. NEW ZEALAND. 381 small squadron. Their garments are made of matting and feathers. Sonie of thein are worked with the utniiost nicety. One of their finest cloaks requires more than a year to complete it. Their huts are constructed of sticks and reeds interwoven with each other, but in a manner so imperfect and insufficient as to have a wretched ap- pearance ; forming a great contrast to the neatness of the gardens. They have no windows, and the door is so low and narrow that they are obliged to squeeze them- selves in and out in a crawling posture. The interior is sufficiently roomy, being fourteen feet long and eight broad.* From motives of superstition they make a point of eating only in the open air, or under a shed adjoining their habitation. Some of their villages are agreeably situated, and have a pleasing exterior. The hut of the chief is often larger than the rest, without being more convenient, or having a larger door. In some cases it is distinguished by posts with rude ornamental carv- ings. There is also a seat or throne for the chief or king. The villages are pro- tected by strong pallisades, walls of wicker-work, embankments, and ditches. The store-houses, in which their provisions and arms are contained, are built with greater regard to method and neatness than their dwellings, having spacious doors, verandas, and orifices for admitting free air.'f The natives of this country who have visited New Holland in the English ships, have beheld the natives of that continent with pity and contempt, for the abject lives which they lead, — their idleness, improvidence, and misery. Their dress consists of mats made from the Phormium tenax, often fancifully worked round with variegated borders, and decorated otherwise with curi- ous art. These are fixed round the middle like the Scotch kilt. The chiefs are distinguished by wearing, over their shoulders, a cloak made of various furs, and shaped not unlike the Spanish cloak. The chiefs disfigure their whole countenances by tattooing them in a most hideous manner, of which no conception can be formed without the aid of such figures as are given in the works of Mr. Savage and Mr. Nicholas. They also besmear them with red ochre. They sometimes wear, as appendages to the ears, the teeth of the enemies whom they have slain in battle. Sometimes they hang from their breasts pieces of green jade, carved into rude repre- sentations of the human form. In their personal habits, however, they are dirty in the extreme, and from the highest to the lowest allow their bodies to swarm with vermm.;|; General cha- racter. In conversation the New Zealanders are animated, humorous, and witty. Towards their relations and children they are tenderly affection- ate. '\^^len they see a relation after a long absence, for example, one who has been beyond seas, or even hear accounts of one still at a distance, they howl aloud with the keenest sensibility. Naturally spirited and ingenious, they are curious and am- bitiously docile in matters of art. A chief who beheld the ropernaking, and other manufactures of the English at Port Jackson, wept with mortification at the rude state of the arts in his own country. The labours of the field are chiefiy devolved on the women. The fathers take the charge of the children ; they make excellent nurses, and fondle their infants with the liveliest tenderness and delight. Polygamy is practised. One wife is at the head of the establishment, the others rank as her inferiors and servants. In religion the New Zealanders are moderate polytheists, their cata- | Religion, logue of divinities being less extravagant than that of many other barbarians. They believe in a supreme Deity — in a god of anger and death — a deity who makes land under the sea, and fastens it by a hook to a large rock ready to be hauled up — a god to haul up the land : this last, at the same time, superintends human diseases, and gives lite. They have also a god of tears and sorrow ; but their 1113 tliology is imperfectly known. They believe in the creation of man, and have a tradition of the first woman being formed of a rib taken from the man. They have a story of the moon having descended to the earth, and carried off" a man who conlintu's fixed on its surface. Their children, when born, are sprinkled with water by the Tohunga • Nicholas, vol. i. p. 109. t Sec Mr. Nicliol is's Deficriplion of tlie Town of Wycmatlce, vol. i. p. 333 — 3 12. i Nicholas's Narrative, voi. ii. p. 223, 224. Warlike Iialiits. 382 BOOK fiFTY-SEVENTH. or priest ; a ceremony, without which they believe it would either be doomed to death, or grow up with a most perverse disposition. They are much in the habit of consecrating persons, places, and things, and call the spell thus imposed taboo. When a person labours under a severe malady, as soon as they believe that it is the intention of the god to deprive him of life, they place him under the taboo, deny him all food, and leave him to a necessary death, in compliance with the divine mandate. They inter the bodies of the dead with ceremonies which they do not allow Euro- peans to see. They believe that, on the third day after the bmial, the heart is sepa- rated from the body, and that the separation is announced by a gentle breeze to an Etooa, or inferior deity, who bends over the grave, and carries off the heart to the clouds. Suicide. I Women often commit suicide by hanging themselves when their hus- bands die. The keen feelings of this people make them prone to suicide on various occasions of disappointment. A woman will hang herself immediately after receiving a beating from her husband.* The inhabitants of the Bay of Islands are said to bo exempt from this malady.| The manners, no doubt, differ considerably in different tribes and places. No other mode of reckoning periods of time has been observed among them, than by the changes of the moon, which they count up to 100, and by these epochs they calculate their age and the events that occur among them. The New Zealanders live in a state of habitual warfare. The chiefs and tribes are respectively jealous of their riglits, and go to war when these are slightly invaded. Sometimes, when the two hostile armies meet, a parley takes place, and peace is concluded. On such occasions a spirit of fairness and reason is manifested. It is not, in general, so much from predatory principles, as from high spirit and irritability, that their violent quarrels originate. Each tribe entreated Captain Cook to destroy its antagonists. Even when at peace they dis- cover, in their intercourse with the English, a deep jealousy of each other; envying any one whom they suppose more highly favoured than themselves, and continually labouring to excite prejudices against one another's characters and intentions. Their wars are conducted with the utmost ferocity. They have short spears, which they throw, hke javehns, from a distance; long ones, which they use as lances; and broad, thick, sharp-edged tools, called patoo patoo, made of stone, about fourteen inches long, with which they strike in close combat, being able to cleave the skull by a single blow. Like the Battas, they devour the bodies of their enemies, and entertain the extravagant belief that the soul of a man thus devoured is doomed to eternal fire. It is purely from vengeance, and not at all from an appetite for human Massacres flcsh, that they indulge in this shocking practice. They have committed Europeans. some frightful massacrcs on their European visiters, but these do not appear to have been so much instigated by cupidity, as by revenge for some affront or injury received. The unfortunate Marion had lived on terms of intimacy with the chief Tacoory, when the latter, under the pretext of giving him an entertainment, massacred him with all his attendants ; and the French who came to revenge the outrage, saw the disgusting proofs of the savages having eaten and gnawed the pal- pitating limbs of those whom a few hours before they embraced with every demon- stration of attachment. The English have suffered from similar acts of perfidy. The last was in the case of the ship Boyd, in 1809, the crew of which, to the num- ber of seventy, was massacred by the chief named George, in revenge for some ill treatment received from the commander, Captain Thompson, who had brought him back as a passenger from Port Jackson, on condition of working his passage. The chief being taken sick, and unable to work to the Captain's satisfaction, was flogged and taunted by the latter, and, before being put on shore, was stripped of every thing English he had about him. Totally insensible to his own infamous conduct, the Captain went on shore, and left his ship unprotected, when the determined ven- geance of the savages made a short and dreadful catastrophe in the annihilation of the whole crew, with the exception of four, one of whom was tiie cabin boy, who • Collms, vol. i. p. 524. (in English.) f Savage's Account, &,c. '1 heir good qualities. NKW ZEALAND. 383 had paid some kind attention to the chief during the passage. The captain of a vessel who afterwards came to the coast, left a written warning with one of \l\e na- tives, to be shown to the commander of every ship which he might afterwards meet witli, and in this document it was stated, from some mistake or misinformation, that a chief called Tippahee, who had formerly been well treated at Port Jackson, Avas the perpetrator. The crew of a whale ship who found this paper, inflicted a barba- rous and misplaced vengeance, by murdering the whole people of Tippahee, who inhabited a small island, this chief himself and a few others having narrowly escaped in a boat. — We are not altogether certain what affronts may, on other causes and re- occasions, have mcited these high minded and irritable peojjle to acts of atrocities. atrocious and perfidious cruelty. In their conduct they often evince sentiments of honourable integrity and fidelity, where reliance is placed on them by persons who have treated them well. The English sailors have been too much in the practice of teazing and insulting them, from a wantonness more degrading than their own ex- cessive resentments, and they have invaded their property, and carried off their crops without scruple, as if no laws of honesty and dehcacy were binding towards beings so strange and so different from themselves. The governor of New South Wales has very laudably taken the natives under his protection against all such lawless acts; the people begin to learn to make distinctions in the characters of Europeans, as well as among themselves, and to cultivate a good understanding, and to seek redress of occasional grievances, through the medium of the small missionary settlement which has been formed in their country. They certainly possess qualities which may prove a good foundation for the formation of a respectable character by instruction. A New Zealand mother will risk her own life for the sake of her child. Their songs and music are superior to those of the Otaheitans. Their songs are sung in parts, and the companies join in fidl chorus. Their airs resemble the chantings of an English church. The inhabitants of East Cape are the bards of the country, by whom all their songs are composed. The subjects of them are generally taken from those scenes of violence with which the natives are so familiar, sometimes from the phenomena of storms, the business of rural cultivation, or other common exercises and enjoyments. Snares Island, Lord Aukland's Group, and Macquarrie Island, to the south of New Zealand, show the continuation of the same chain of mountains under water, by which that country is pervaded. There is another well marked chain to the east of New Zealand, and nearly pa- rallel to it, formed of the Bristol, Penantipodes, Bounty, and Chatham Islands, Chatham Island, which is the largest, was discovered by Broughton. It is about thirty-three miles long. The surface has a gradual rise, so as to form pleasant looking hills in the interior. It seems to contain one of those lagoons which occur so frequently in the low islands of this ocean. Vegetation, according to Broughton, is powerful in this island, but the trees are only of middling height. For a certain way up the trunk they are naked, and no brushwood grows among them. There is one tree similar to the bay, and another jointed like the vine. The inhabitants were observed to use much thread and cord made of a fine hemp, which undoubtedly is of the growth of the island. The inhabitants are of middling stature, stout and well proportioned. | inhabitantj. They have dark-brown complexions and expressive features. The hair of their heads and beards is black ; no tattooing was observed about any part of their l)odies. Their dress consisted of a seal skin, and a curiously wrought mat. The birds arc of the same species which are seen at Dusky Bay in New Zealand, and were remarked to be, like them, wonderfully familiar, and not the least afraid of men, an evidence that they sufier no molestation. Norfolk Island is situated to the north-west of New Zealand, nearly Norfolk w- half-way between it and New Caledonia. Here the English had at one | ^"''' time a flourisliing colony, but it has been removed to Van Diemen's Island. Nor- folk Island labours under the disadvantage of having no good harbour. It is about fourteen miles in circumference. The coral reefs extend nearly twenty miles in a Adjoining isl- ands. Chatham Isl- and. Its produc- tions. 384 BOOK FIFTY-SEVENTH. southerly direction. The basis of this island consists of a yellowish chalk common to it with New Zealand. This is covered with a great thickness of black earth. Vegetation is vigorous and productive. New Zealand flax grows better than in its native country. The pine wood is heavier than that of New Caledonia, but softer than that of New Zealand. Cabbage palms, wild sorrel, and sea fennel, are in great abundance. The English settlers introduced the grains and domestic animals of Europe. NewCaie- Saihug farther north we find New Caledonia, a pretty large island, donia. being 220 or 250 miles long, and fifty broad. But on the south and the west it is rendered dangerous of approach, by a formidable chain of reefs, extending 270 miles beyond the island to the south and to the north-west.* Monntainj. Ncw Caledonia seems to have a mountain chain extending over its Roekj. whole length, becoming gradually higher towards the south-east, till it reaches an elevation of 3200 feet above the level of the sea. The principal rocks are quartz, mica, steatite of different degrees of hardness, green schorl, and granite, and they contain a mine of specular iron ore. Basaltic pillars have been observed in some places. Its mountains contain, in all probability, rich metallic veins. Vegetation. | The brcad-fruit tree of this island is very similar to that of the Polyne- sian islands. Beautiful avenues are formed of the cultivated banana."f Sugar cane and arum are also cultivated here. The sides of some of the valleys are covered with cocoa. Among the other vegetable species'are the tree called Commersonia echinatn, which grows in great abundance in the Moluccas ; the Hibiscus tiliaceus, the young pods of which are eaten by the inhabitants ; the Dolichos tuberosus, the roots of which are roasted and eaten ; the Diacophyllum verticillatum, a new genus, allied to the dracontia, and which grows on the tops of the mountains ;J the fujpoxis, the roots of which are eaten by the New Caledonians, springs up spontaneously in the forests. The antholoma, one of the most beautiful of shrubs, forming a new genus, grows on the high grounds. § Animals. | Even dogs and pigs were unknown in this island before the arrival of Europeans. The most common birds are a pecuhar sort of magpie, large pigeons, and Caledonian ravens. A spider called nokee forms threads so strong as to offer a sensible resistance before breaking when pulled. The animal constitutes part of the people's food. Harbours. ] Amoug the mooriugs of the island we may mention Balada Haven and Deceitful Haven, where d'Entrecasteaux says he could not enter, but which the English navigator, Kent, has described as a spacious and excellent port, situated be- hind the frightful chain of reefs which lines the west coast. Inhabitants. | A travelling naturahst has lately found a singular correspondence in figure between the aborigines of Van Diemen's Island and those of New Caledonia, Their hair is nearly woolly, and the surface of their bodies greasy. Some have the thick hps of the African negro. |j Light and nimble, they chmb trees with as much facihty as they walk along level ground. Cook praises the mildness of their cha- racter, and the chastity of their females.TT D'Entrecasteaux and Labillardiere de- scribe them as equally cruel, perfidious, and thievish, with the other islanders of the Great Ocean.** The women were hired for a nail, and the size of the nail was in proportion to the beauty of the person. Ignorant of the use of the bow, they are armed with darts and clubs, which they manufacture with much pains ; they also Cannibals. [ make usc of sliugs. It turns out on recent and attentive observation that they are cannibals from taste. They tasted with an air of luxurious pleasure the muscular parts of the human body, and ate a slice of the flesh of a child-tt Their common food consists of shell-fish, and other fish, with roots. They also eat the spider already mentioned, and the greenish mealy soap-stone. The • Labillardiere, Voyage a la Recherche de La Perouse, i. 199, &c. t Idem, vol. ii, p. 36. Atlas, pi. 41. * Forster, Voyage, t. ii. p. 327. § Idem, ibid. p. 240, and Atlas, pi. 12. II Labillardiere, Voyage, ii. p. 186, Forster, Voyage, ii. p. 802. \ Cook's Second Voyage. *• Kossel, Voyage de d'Entrecasteaux, il p. "51. &c. tt Labillardiere, Voyage ii. p. 193—201, &c. Isle of Pines, NEW HEBRIDES. 385 only dress of the females is a girdle of fibrous bark ; several of the men encircle their heads with a fillet of sewed net-work, or a head dress made of leaves and the hair of the vampire bat. They build walls on the mountains, to confine the soil, in the same manner as is done in so many countries, forming the arable surface into a succession of terraces. Yet the soil is generally poor. Their houses are in the form of bee-hives, and the door-posts are of carved planks. Their harsh and croak- ing language seems to be totally different from that of Polynesia. The Isle of Pines, on the south of New Caledonia, produces stately cedars, the trunks of which furnish columns exceeding one hundred feet in height. The Loyalty and Beaupres Islands form a little archipelago to the east. The great reefs by which New Caledonia is skirted on the west, and which extend 250 miles in a northerly direction, present the navigator with the prospect of inevit- able ruin, in case the winds and currents should carry him among them. All the way between this island and New Holland, the sea abounds with coral banks, some of which are larger and more dangerous than others.* Captain Flinders, who was shipwrecked on one of them, is of opinion that the two frigates of La Perouse met their fate on one of these banks. To the north and east of New Caledonia we have an important archi- | New Hebrides, pelago, for the extent and fertility of the islands of which it is composed. Fernan- dez de Quiros, who discovered the mainland in 1606, gave it the name of Australia del Espirito Santo. A hundred and sixty-two years after this, M. de Bougainville added to it some islands, to which he gave the elegant name of the Great Cyclades. After an interval of six years, came Captain Cook, and completed the discovery of the leading islands. Following the principle of a submarine chain of mountains, he seems to have reached its southern extremity. Captain Bligh found a continuation to the north, consisting of islands which were probably seen by Quiros. Captain Cook proposed to give that archipelago, as a whole, the name of the New Hebrides, a proposal strongly objected to by Fleurieu, who wished to retain a memorial of the first discovery in the original name of the Archipelago, that of the Holy Ghost, f" The most southerly group of this archipelago is detached from the rest of the chain, and consists of five islands, which, with the exception of Immer, are high and have no coral reefs. Tanna, the only one which has been minutely examin- ed, contains a very active volcano. Messrs. Forster and Sparrmann made an unsuccessful attempt to reach that burning mountain, which is not one of the highest on the island. The volcano itself shook, and the ashes which it spouted forth darkened the atmosphere. The rain, which fell at the time, was a heteroge- neous mixture of water, sand, and earth, and might be called a shower of shme.t These subterranean fires seem to contribute much to that exuberance of vegetation by which the island is distinguished. Several plants attain here twice the height tliat they have in other countries, broader leaves and a stronger perfume. In seve- ral places, sulphureous vapours are exhaled. In others the springs are tepid. Tanna has also strata of clay and aluminous earth, with blocks of chalk and of tripoli. It abounds in sulphur, and affords traces of copper. The scenery of Tanna is plea- santer and more elegant than that of Otahoite, as the mountains do not shoot up abruptly from the middle of a narrow plain, but are preceded by several ranges of hills separated from one anotlier by wide valleys. Ilere are found ba- | Production*, nanas, sugar canes, potatoes, and several sorts of fruit trees. The English found here the pigeon which transports the seeds of the nutmeg in the Molucca Islands. In the crop of one of them, an oblong nutmeg was found. The natives showed them specimens of that fruit still surrounded by the mace. It cannot, therefore, be doubted that a variety of the nutmeg grows on these islands, thougl^ none were found within the narrow limits which the English were allowed to traverse. § The natives resemble the people of New Holland more tlian those of | inhabitants, the Friendly Islands. They are of a brownish-black colour, of moderate stature, * Flinders, Annales des Voyages, vol. x. p. 88. f YoyngQ de Marchand, torn. v. i Forster's Voyage, ii. p. 212, § Cook's Second Voyage, Hook iii. ch. 4 — 6. Forster, ii. 262. Vol. II.— 3 C Island of Tauna. 386 BOOK FIFTY-SEVENTH. but muscular and vigorous. Their beards are strong, black, and curled. The hair of their heads is thick and bristly ; their features are expressive and open ; and every thing about them has a masculine and warrior-like air. The singularity of their ornaments, the little peg with which the tip of the nose is pierced, the cloth which they wear around their loins, in such a style as rather to outrage decency than to preserve it, and the use of a coarse pigment made of ochre and chalk, are so many marks of an affinity to the natives of New Caledonia, New Guinea, and Solomon's Archipelago. On the other hand, these islanders seem to have derived their arts from the same origin with the Polynesians. Their bows, made of the best elastic wood, their slings, their clubs, and their darts, ^^■ith which they can pierce a plank four inches thick, often remind one of the arms used in the Friendly Islands. The language of Tanna, and that of Erromango, to the north of it, are different ; and neither of them has any resemblance to the general language of Polynesia.* Women. | The womcn of the New Hebrides, being treated as slaves, soon lose the few attractions which nature has conferred upon them. They are weak and puny. Several of the young girls, according to Dr. Forster,had pleasant features, and a smile which became more pleasing in proportion as their timidity was dissipated. They had handsome forms, delicately turned arms, and full and round bosoms ; their clothing reached to the knees. Their curled hair waved loosely on their heads, or was fastened in a tress ; and the green banana leaf, which they generally wore in their hair, formed a handsome contrast with its blackness. They repelled with mo- desty the advances of the seamen. Sandwich Cook also discovered Sandwich Island, which is about seventy miles ^'*°'^' in circumference, and has an aspect equally fertile as the preceding two. The woods were adorned with tints of lively verdure, and contained a profusion of cocoas. The mountains have a considerable elevation in the interior, and exhibit, at their feet, many lower districts covered with wood, intermingled with cultivated fields arrayed in the same golden tints with the corn fields of Europe. It was considered as a very promising island for colonization. Api, Paoom, The islands of Apiand Paoom were not minutely examined. Am- ^'^^ brym attracted attention by a volcano in it, which impetuously emitted columns of whitish smoke. It seemed to be fruitful and well cultivated. f In Whitsuntide Island several plantations were seen, and many fires. The more majestic island of Aurora is adorned with picturesque forests, diversified by fine water falls. The unpleasant name of Leper Island, given by Bou- gainville to a small one in this neighbourhood, is not founded on any peculiarity attached to it. A white leprosy exists in every part of Oceanica. The two large islands of Mallicolo and Spirito Santo form a separate chain, lying- more westerly than that which we have now traced. Maiiicaio. | The natives described Mallicolo to Quiros as a great country, although it does not exceed fifty miles in length. The Spaniards called it Manicola. It is well wooded and well watered, and appears to possess a fertile soil. Pigs and poul- try were the only domestic animals. Cook enriched it with the addition of the dog, inhabitantj. | The people of Mallicolo minht, from their looks, almost be regarded as a kind of apes. Their appearance is hideous, and altogether different from that of the neighbouring nations. The men are brown-coloured : their general height does not exceed five feet four inches : their limbs are, in many instances, ill propor- tioned : their arms and legs are long and lean, the head lengthened, and the coun- tenance flattened. To these characters are to be added a broad flat nose, project- ing cheek-bones, the forehead narrow and compressed backwards, as it is in the lower animals. Their hair is curled, but not woolly like that of the African negro.J Language. | This race exactly coincides in character with the monkey-looking tribe which Capt. Flinders found at Glass-house Bay. Their dialect contains those hissing and clucking sounds, and those strange combinations of consonants which occur in • Forster's Voyage, ii. p. 225. t Cook's Second Voyage, iii. p. 241. Forster's Voyage, ii. p. 180. i Forster's Observations, p. 240. Ditto, Voyage, ii. p. 182. Wliinuntide Island, Aurora Island, &c. Terra del Spi- rilo Santo. NEW HEBIUDES. 387 the African idioms, setting the organs of Europeans at complete defiance. Russian and German words they pronounce easily. The girdle which they wear round the body, being tight drawn, gives them the appearance of gigantic ants, while the cloth wrapped close under for the sake of decency, produces an opposite effect. They use poisoned arrows, by which speedy death is inflicted on the wounded. It is the mark of weakness to have recourse to treachery. Terra del Spirito Santo, the large and most westerly of the whole archipelago, is sixty miles long, thirty-three broad, and more than a hun- dred and sixty in circumference. The shores, especially on the west side, are un- commonly high, forming a continued chain of mountains, which, in some places, rise directly from the margin of the sea. But in general the island is bordered by beautiful wooded hills, open valleys, and varied plantations. The islands Bays and which lie along the southern and eastern coasts probably form bays and ''"'■''°""- harbours equally well sheltered with the great Bay of St. James and St. Philip, which is on the east side. Here Quiros and Cook anchored, in the harbour of Vera Cruz, near the River Jordan. The worthy Spaniard wished to found, in this place, the city of New Jerusalem ; but, before the first hut was finished, a bloody contest with the natives, and a failure of provisions, obliged him to return to America.* The inhabitants, more handsome and more vigorous than those of | inhaUitantj. Mallicolo, are black, and their hair either woolly or much curled. Some of their words are the same that are spoken in the Friendly and Society Islands. Quiros saw here men of different colours ; some mulattos, some blacks, some white, with red hair. These last were probably inhabitants of the island of Erromano.f Forster justly laments the hurry with which this country has been surveyed. This was increased by an unlucky occurrence. In leaving IMallicolo a fish had been taken | Poisonous fish, which seems to have been a Spmms eryihrinus. All who ate of it were seized with gripes, acute pains, and vertigo. Their bodies were covered with phlegmons, and they were affected with a deadly languor. A dog and a pig, however, were the only individuals to whom it proved fatal. Quiros met with the same accident. Some future navigator examining this island with greater leisure, will perhaps find in it the orange-tree, the aloe, the nutmeg, the pepper-plant, the ebony, the citron, the pearl, and other valued productions : perhaps even tlie mines of the precious metals mentioned by Quiros. This navigator, however, writes with much candour; he only extols the rich and varied vegetation, the beautiful forests, free from the incumbrance of traihng shrubs, and the fresh and salubrious waters, j If, in his Fifty Memoirs presented to the court of Spain, the silver mines figured as a conspicuous article, this was a harmless artifice, intended to produce, in the gross minds of the great, an interest in their noble acquisitions. Ten or twelve islands remain to be found again which were discover- ed by Quiros, after quitting the island of Taumaco, and before arriving at Terra del Spirito Santo. But it is not easy to convert his vague calculations of longitude into actual degrees. The discussion of the different explanations of them which have been given, and which might be given, would require a long memoir, or rather a monographic treatise. If Rotumah island is Taumaco, the islands of Tu- copia, San Marcos, Vergel, and others, will correspond tolerably well to Pandora, Cherry, and Barvel islands, and Banks's Group, lately discovered by Captain Ed- wards, on the north-east of Terra del Spirito Santo.§ The description of Pitt's Isl- and, which is high and wooded, corresponds to that of the " Gate of Bclen." Com- ing south to 14° 30' of latitude, Quiros discovered an island which he called Nuestra Sennora do Luz; and, immediately after, he saw to the south, the south-east, and the west, several high and extensive lands, in one of which he discovered the Bay of St. Philip and St. James. || We can easily sec the position in which every navi- • Quiros's Account, written by himself, in the Viajero Universal, t. xvii. p. 197. f Forster, Voyage, ii. p. 201. i Quiros, in the Viajero Universal, t. xxvii. p. 203. § Bumey's History of Discoveries, ii. p. 326. I Account of Quirus, according to Figuerva, in Dalrymplc, i. p. 131. Vegetable pro- (luctiona. Islands teen by Quiros. Solomon's Isl- ands, and the Islands of Santa Cruz. Mendana's dis* coveries. 388 ■ BOOK FIFTY-SEVENTH. gator must find himself, who, after having passed the Pic d'Etoile, enters the chan- nel surrounded on the one hand by the islands of Terra del Spirito Santo and Malli- colo, and on the other, by Aurora and Whitsuntide islands. Another account, which says nothing of Nuestra Sennora, or Pic d'Etoile, makes up for the defect by an express proof that the Great Cyclades of Bougainville had been seen and named by this navigator; for he found at seventeen degrees of latitude, and only seven leagues from Terra del Spirito Santo, the two islands of Cordova and Clementina, which seem to be the same as Aurora and Whitsuntide islands.* In short, the island of Belen, and that which is called the Pillar of Saragossa, towards which the north-east wind drove the fleet, after leaving the Bay of St. Philip, must belong to a chain which connects the New Hebrides with Solomon's Islands. We now come to a country the discovery of which, in its different parts, has afforded much exercise to the patience of navigators. The only description that can be given of Solomon's Islands, and the archipelago of Santa Cruz, is a history of the attempts made to recognize and examine them. The Spanish navigator Mendana, who was sent out to discover Terra Australis, found, in 1568, a series of islands which he called Ylas de Solomon, which he placed between the fifth and the ninth degrees of south latitude ; but his observations of the longitude were so vague and inaccurate, that neither he himself nor any other navigator, for a long time after, could succeed in finding the islands. He seems to have believed, from the estimates which he made, that he was 1450 marine leagues from Lima. But the Spaniards wished to conceal the disco- very, for fear of inducing other nations to form settlements in these countries ; and their authors, either in obedience to orders or from ignorance, placed these islands sometimes 800 and sometimes 1500 leagues west from Peru.| Mendana gave the name of Isabella to the largest island, lying south-east and north-west. Guadalca- nal is a long island, situated to the south of the preceding, and behind some small islands, among which is Sesarga, which contains a volcano. The most southerly land found here was called the island of Christeval. The whole of this archipelago was peopled by negroes, armed with arrows and lances ; they dyed their hair red, and ate, with high relish, the flesh of their own species. J No evidence is given of Men- dana having found any indications of the precious metals. Solomon's name was placed in the foreground merely to tempt the avarice of the Spanish government. In a second voyage, Mendana, after searching in vain for Solomon's Islands, dis- covered the Island of Santa Cruz and a few others. These were Egmont Island, and sonib others belonging to Queen Charlotte's group, which were again found by Captain Carteret. The attempt of the Spaniards to form a settlement did not succeed. Mendana's widow brought back to the Philippine Islands the remains of the colony which had escaped the ravages of disease and the hostile attacks of the natives. Carteret landed on the Island of Santa Cruz, where he was obliged to maintain a bloody contest with the inhabitants. Here the English had been received and entertained in a house of assembly similar in its form and accommodations to those used in Otaheite.§ The natives were black, though not of the very deepest tint. One of them, who was taken prisoner, had woolly hair, but regular features. These people, brave and vigorous, resolutely defended their island, which is fertile, well wooded, and lined with large villages. Carteret acknow- ledged the priority of discovery by the Spaniards, yet presumed to name the group Queen Charlotte's Island. Even Swallow Island, which has not been found by any subsequent navigator in the situation pointed out by this Englishman, must be that of San Francisco, which was seen by Mendana. It corresponds to it, at least, in latitude and in physical features. || * Quiros, in the Viajero Universal, xxvi. 190. f Dalrymple's Historical Collection, i. p. 43. i Figuerva, in the Viajero Universal, vol. xxvii. No. 273. § Voyag'e de Carteret, chap. iv. et. v. II Viajero Univ. p. 62. Compare Decouvertes des Francais au sud-est de la Nouv. Guin^e, en ires et 1769 ; Fleurieu, i. 233. Carteret's Observations Solomon's islands. 389 Observations of d'Entrecaj- teaux anil Labillardiere. D'Entrecasteaux and Labillaidiere have given us an excellent descrip- tion of the archipelago of Santa Cruz. Trevannion Bay is the most remarkable harbour of the large island. The mountains, which are not hio^h, seem to be calcareous. The inhabitants are olive-coloured, and in features resemble those of the Moluccas; but some of them are black, and seem to belong to a totally distinct race. The latter have thick lips, and broad flat noses ; but all of them have crisp hair, and broad foreheads.* They pluck the hair off every part of the body, and delight in wearing white hair, which they produce by means of lime, in the same way as is done in the Friendly Islands. This colour forms a strange contrast with the darkness of their skin, which is increased by tatooing. Solomon's Islands were first re-discovered by Surville, a French navi- Discoveries of gator, who called them the Arsacides Islands. f ^"'"'^ ^' He followed the chain from north-west to south-east. He discovered, on the north side. Port Praslin, Contrariety Islands, Deliverance. Islands, and the eastern extremity of all these countries called Surville Cape, or Surville Islands. I Manners of the The inhabitants manifested a perfidious and bloody disposition, on which \ ">''=*''"ant». account he compared them to the famous Assassins (erroneously called by him Ar- sacides) of Persia and Syria. They had black complexions, woolly hair, flattened noses, and thick lips. They powdered themselves with chalk, wore bracelets of shells, and girdles of human teeth. Nosegays were hung from their perforated noses. Their light boats were pitched with mastic. Surville noticed a diversity of tribes which spoke different languages. The government appears to be despotic in the extreme. The fishermen and cultivators are obliged to offer the king the whole produce of their labour, and he retains as much of it as he chooses. A subject who presumes to walk in the shadow of the king is punished with death. The sculptures with which they adorn their war boats are master-pieces of elegance. Some of these are fifty or sixty feet long. Their arms are far from being contempti- ble, especially their powerful elastic bows. J A year after Surville's voyage, another French navigator, M. de Bou- gainville, leaving successively the New Hebrides or Great Cyclades, and the island of Louisiade, found a passage by the north of Solomon's Archipelago. He discovered Bougainville and Booka islands. The strait by which these are divided from the islands visited by Mendana and SurviUe, received the name of " Bougainville's Strait." This navigator was here in great want of provisions; he observed among the inhabitants of Choiseul Bay evident traces of cannibalism. "§ The south-west coast of this archipelago remained to be examined, shortiand's It was visited in 1783 by an English navigator, Mr. Shortland, who took ''iscoveries. this series of islands for one continued country, which he thought proper to calf New Georgia. From what he saw and heard he inferred that the natives called it Simbu. The great mountain, which he called Mount Lammas, is situated in Men- dana's Island of Guadalcanal. The strait to which he gave his own name is the same through which Bougainville had passed. But he observed the " Treasury Islands," which had escaped the rapid researches of the French navigator. || D'Entrecasteaux has thrown considerable light on the geography of this archipelago. He examined the southern coasts of San Christoval and Guadalcanal ; verified the points seen by Shortland ; and determined with greater accuracy the position of the islands discovered by Bougainville. The atlas accompanying his account points out discoveries the authors of which are not cien- tioned, but which appear from their names to belong to the English. To sum up the detached notions obtained by these navigators, Solo- [ Hecapituia- men's Archipelago consists of the following islands from south to north : | "°"* San Christoval, near to which are the Santa Anna, and Santa Catalina of Mendana, and the Island of Contrarieties of Surville ; Guadalcanal, separated by a strait from • Labillardiere, vol. ii. p. 255. t Fleurieu, Decourvertes des Frangais, p. 120. p. 287, Sec. t Ibid. p. 136. 145, &c. § Bougainville, "Voyage Autour du Monde, p. 269. g Bratring, Memoire on the Discovery of New Georgia, the Arsacides Islands, &c. &c. in the Ephemerides Geographicse of Pertush. Discoveries of M. de Bou- gainville. Observations ofd'Entreeas- teaux. Nature of the country. 390 BOOK FIFTY- SEVENTH. Santa Isabella, the largest of the whole archipelago ; to the east of the strait are Carteret and Simpson's Islands, which must correspond to the Buenavista and Flo- rida of Mendana. To the south of these, according to the Spanish navigator, are San Dimas, San German, Guadeloop, and Sesarga. The large island of Isabella is separated by a long channel, to which no name is given, from the islands seen by Shortland, and which form a chain to the west of it. Marsh Island is small ; but that which Shortland thought he heard the natives calling Simboo appears to be large, and is probably (he Malayta of Mendana. To the north of it is an island which has no name, and which contains Choiseul Bay. Crossing Bougainville's Strait we come to the Treasury Islands, and those of Bougainville and Booka. According to Labillardiere, the naturahst belonging to d'Entrecas- teaux's expedition, the Solomon Islands are surrounded by reefs and coral banks, which, like those of New Caledonia, render the navigation very dan- gerous. They have a fertile aspect, and present delicious landscapes. The whole surface to the very tops of the mountains is shaded by trees.* Inhabitants. | The island of Booka is very populous. The inhabitants are of mid- dling stature, with black complexions, but not of the deepest tint. They go entirely naked. Their muscles are well marked, indicating great strength. Their figures are ugly but expressive. Their heads are large ; the forehead and whole face is broad and flat, especially below the nose. The chin is thick, the cheeks rather prominent, the nose flattened, the mouth large, but the lips thin. They pluck out the hair from every part of the body. They bestow industrious pains on the making of their bows ; their arrows are tipped with the sharp bones of the stickle-back, and they are skilful in the use of their weapons. Their boats are elegantly formed and adorned with carved work. In the Island of Contrarieties some of the words used by the natives belong to the Maylay or Polynesian language. Productions, j Solomon's Islands seem to be very fertile. Among their vegetable productions the old navigators mention cloves, coffee, ginger, a kind of citron, and many resinous trees, which afford an odorous aromatic exudation. The bread-fruit tree and the fan-leaved palm abound in them. Plenty of poultry were seen ; the dog and pig seem to be known ; the forests are peopled by elegant paroquets. They harbour serpents, toads which have a crest on the back, long spiders, and large ants."j" A little gold and some pearls were found by Mendana, which seem to have given origin to the extravagant ideas which several Spanish writers have formed of the treasures of this modern Ophir.| Hunter, Pitt, and Bellona Islands, situated to the south-west of San Christoval, form a separate archipelago. To the north-east of Solomon's Islands there seems to be a chain of low islets, surrounded by reefs, which is probably not fully known. Cap- tain Hunter has lately determined Stewart's Islands, Bradley's Shallows, and Lord Howe's Group. Bradley's Shallows are thought to be the same to which Mendana gave the name of " Baxos de la Candelaria ;" perhaps they are only a continuation of them. This chain of low islands probably joins the group to which Abel Tas- man gave the name of Ontong-Java, and which the Spanish navigator, Maurelle, believed he re-discovered. These lands have the appearance of groves of palms joined to shallows. The Great Ocean has several groups of this kind, the extent and precise number of which it will long be diflicult to ascertain. We proceed, therefore, to more important objects. Between Solomon's Islands and New Guinea we find important archi- pelagos. That of Louisiade, to the south-west of New Guinea, was discovered by Bougainville, who visited in a particular manner the bay called " Orangery Harbour." M. d'Entrecasteaux, who visited these countries on the north-side, gave names to the islands of Rossel, Saint- Aignan, d'Entrecasteaux, and Trobriand. The whole of Louisiade is a chain of islands surrounded by rocks and inhabitantt. | rcefs. It appears to be very populous. The inhabitants go naked, and • Labillardiere, i. p. 229. f Surville, chcz Fleurieu. * Burney, Hist, des Decouv. p. 283—287. Low islands adjoining. Archipelago of Louisiade, NEW BRITAIN. 391 are almost black. Their woolly hair is decked with tufts of feathers. Some among them are as black as the negroes of Mozambique. Like them they have the upper lip greatly projecting beyond the lower. These must be distinct races. The inha- bitants of Louisiade do not understand the Malay language ; their huts are built like those of the Papuas. They wear a buckler on the left arm, a piece of armour not common among the savages of this part of the world. Their axes are made of serpentine stone. They are wonderfully expert at sailing near the wind.* They manufacture fishing lines. They are very fond of sweet smells, and perfume the greater part of the objects which they make use of. The perfumes which were exhaled along the coasff created a belief that aromatic trees, particularly the culiban bay, grew in this country. The cocoa, the banana, and the betel tree were seen. We must take notice of the hypothesis of M. de Fleurieu, according to which, the northern coasts of Louisiade are the same that were discovered by the Dutch vessel Geelvink, in 1705, though neither their longitude nor latitude were deter- mined. J But this hypothesis is superseded since we have become acquainted with a large bay in the north of New Guinea, which seems to suit the description of that which was visited by the Geelvink. The Archipelago of New Britain, long confounded with New Guinea, [ Archipeiagoof is separated from that country by Dampier's Strait. Before this sepa- [ ^^^ Biitain. ration was known, Lemaire and Abel Tasman had coasted a part of the archipelago, and particularly New Ireland. Even before their time, the Spaniards, in their first voyages to New Guinea, had found the large island called Dagoa, the figure of which, in Debry's Chart, published at Frankfort in 1596, resembles that which was given to New Britain§ before Carteret's voyage; but these old discoveries remain envelop- ed in deep obscurity. Dampier was the first who informed us that this mass of land was separate from New Guinea. Carteret, soon after this, discovered St. George's Channel, and separated from New Britain the island which he named New Ireland. He also examined New Hanover and the Admiralty Islands to the west of it. D'En- trecasteaux contracted the circumference of these lands, which had been too much rounded off", especially by his examination of the north coast of New Britain, where he discovered the French Islands and William's Islands. The supposed easteiTi extremity of New Britain was found to form a separate island, and there were strono- grounds of doubt whether the land next adjoining was a continuation with the main island. H The nature of the soil and the character of the inhabitants resemble those of the neighbouring countries which we have now described. Dampier, who stopped chiefly in a bay belonging to New Britain, called Port Mon tague, found the country mountainous and M'oody, containing fertile valleys and large rivers. It appeared to him to be very populous. The natives resembled those of Papua, and managed their canoes with the nicest skill. The principal production appeared to be the cocoa tree. There were also found a number of esculent roots particularly ginger, several kinds of aloes, rattans, and bamboos. TT The birds and the insects were in great numbers. Dogs, or some similar animals, were believed to be observed. The sea and the rivers swarmed with fish. In the main land, and the adjoining islands, there are many volcanoes. New Britain presented to d'En- trecasteaux evidences of a very crowded population. The huts of the inhabitants were raised on posts like those of the Papuans.** Captain Carteret found the inhabitants of New Ireland a very warlike people. They carry spears armed with sharpened pebbles. Their faces are besmeared with white paint, and their hair covered with white powder; a characteristic trait of all these nations. They are black; their hair is woolly and curled, but they have neither • Labillardiere, torn. i. p. 275. Rossel, d'Entrecasteaux. t Bougaiuville, Voyage, p. 258. Labillardiere, torn. ii. p. 281. i Desbrosses, Hist, des Navigat. aux Terres Australes, i. p. 444. § Dalrymple, Hist. Coll. i. p. 16. ^ Zimmerman, Australien, i. 328. 1 Labillardiere, torn. ii. p. 285. •• Dampier's Voyages, t. v. p. 120. Nature and productions of New Ijritain. Plants and ani' nials. Island of Co- coas. Duke of York's Island. 392 BOOK FIFTY-SEVENTH. the thick Ups nor the flat noses of negroes. Some of the canoes of New Ireland are eighty feet long, and are made of a single tree. Bougainville observed here the pepper vine; but it is to Labillardiere that we are indebted for the most extended accounts. Mountains. | In the neighbourhood of Carteret harbour, in New Ireland, there are some steep mountains, containing on their sides remains of marine bodies, of which they are partly composed. Some of them in the interior seem to be upwards of 8000 feet above the level of the sea, and are covered with tall trees to their summits. The hollows of the rocks harbour the large bat called Vespertilio vampyrua. .The bread-fruit tree is found here, and the cubeb pepper, which grows amidst the shade of the forests.* There are many scorpions and Scolopendra. The little island of Cocoas, in this vicinity, is entirely calcareous. It contains a much greater number of fig trees than of cocoas. The Bar- ringtotiia speciosa, the Pandanus, the Heritiera, attracted by the humidity, wave their magnificent branches over the surface of the sea.^ There is also a new species of areca palm, which is 140 feet in height. Its trunk is extremely tender, but the wood is very hard. There is a very large tree belonging to the genus Solaniim. Teak and gum-bearing trees are common. In the marshes is found the useful sago palm, a valuable resource for a future colony. In the west part there is a species of nut- meg, described by Rumphius under the name of Myristica mas. The small island called the Duke of York's, in George's Channel, appeared to Captain Hunter a large garden, its plantations were so re- gular and so near together. The inhabitants brought fruits, which they piled up in pyramidal heaps, on the top of which they placed little dogs with their feet tied ; they sung hymns of peace to the sound of a large shell ; but amidst these demonstrations, tending to dissipate every fear, the spirit of defiance and ferocity which they cherished was sufficiently apparent. J New Hauover, | To the wcst of New Ireland is another pretty large island, though little known, called New Hanover, separated from the preceding by a channel much ob- structed with reefs, and shut up, at its entrance, by small islets. Small Islands. | Among the small islands, which form a chain to the east of New Ire- land, we shall take notice of Garrit-Denis, or rather Gerard de Nys. The inhabi- tants resemble those of the main land ; they wear little pegs stuck through holes in their noses. § Turning westward, in the direction of New Guinea, we meet with a series of archipelagos; among which are the Portland Islands, the Ad- miralty Islands, Hermit's Islands, and Exchequer Islands. Each of them has a large island in the centre of the group, and round which the outline is formed by a great number of flat islets, connected together by reefs. In the archipelago of the Admi- ralty Islands the islanders have black complexions, though not of the deepest kind ; their physiognomy is agreeable, and, in its oval form, differs little from the European character. Their figures are excellent, if the plates published by travellers are worthy of credit. The chiefs seem to be possessed of great authority; some persons among them were armed with darts pointed with volcanic glass. The only covering which the men wear is a shell fixed in front, for the protection of decency. The women wear a girdle round the middle. Their hair is curled and black. They sometimes paint themselves red with ochre mixed up with oil. || The Hermit's Archipelago produces several species of Eugena, which bear excellent fruit. The inhabitants seem stronger, yet gentler and more peaceful, than those of the Admiralty Islands. New Guinea. | A country of greater importance now claims our attention. New Guinea is the great link by which the Molucca Islands are connected with New Holland on the one hand, and the Polynesian Archipelagos on the other. It may, probably, have served as a medium of communication to the inhabitants, and even to the animals and plants, of different parts of Oceanica. It must participate in * Labillardiere, torn. i. p. 241. f ^bid. p. 233, &c. + Hunter's Journal, p. 141. § Dampier, v. p. 101. II Labillardiere, t. ii. p. 251. Admiralty Islands. Hermit's Islands. NEW GUINEA. 393 some of the characters both of New Holhind and the Malay Islands ; but, unfortu- nately, we know nothing of it beyond the line of coast, and even of this line our knowledge is imperfect. The west part is best known, and there seems to be now no room for supposing that there is any strait, by which this country is divided uito two. But of the whole south coast, especially from Cape Walsh to Cape Rodney, our knowledge is only partial, or derived IVom old charts, which are not to be depended on. Maclure's Gulf, penetrating deep into the country on the north part of the west coast, forms a circular peninsula, in which the Cape of Good Hope and Dory Har- bour are situated. The great Bay of Geelvink, penetrating from north to south, to a depth of 190 miles, produces another isthmus and another peninsula. Opposite to this gulf are situated Schooten Island, Jobie, and some others, which were long taken for a part of the coast of New Guinea. The remainder of the north coast, discovered by tlie Spaniards, Meneze, and Saavedra, visited by Lemaire, Schooten, and Tasman, and by Dampier, Carteret, and Bougainville, seems to be one even uninterrupted line, parallel to "which is a long chain of islands. On examination it is also found to have largo lagoons.* From King William's Cape to South-cast Cape the east coast was seen by d'Entrecasteaux, but only at a distance. It is not certain whether Cape Rodney, discovered by Edwards, forms part of the continent; of which, in that case, it will be the southern extremity. In fine, the delineations of the great gulf between Cape Walsh and the Arroo Islands are various and inconsistent. At the bottom of this gulf, the Dutch place the river of Assassins, and another which they call Kecrveer, or " the Return." Supposing that New Guinea extends, without interruption, from Cape Blanc, (also called the Cape of Good Hope and Cape Rodney,) its length must be about 1200 miles, and its breadth will vary from 15 to 360. Torres Strait, on the south, separates New Guinea from New Holland, and Dam- pier's Strait from New Britain. This country is often called Papua, or the country of the Papoos, from the name by which the inhabitants are known among the Malays. The coasts of New Guinea are generally high. In the interior, moun- Coasu. tains are seen towering over one another. There are cataracts, the Mountains, foaming waters of which are visible at a distance of many leagues. In the western peninsula, the mountain Arfook seems to reach higher than the clouds. The Dutch charts lay down to the north-east of the Arroo islands a mountain covered with snow, which must be nearly 20,000 feet high. The mountains on the coast are richly clothed with trees. The shores are covered with cocoas. Navigators have been universally struck with astonishment at the sight of so fine a country, which deserves to possess a more industrious and civihzed race of inhabitants. Captain Forrest, who only visited Dory harbour, found many nutmeg trees in some small Vegetable pro- islands ; and we have reason to think that the main land is not destitute ''"<-""•""'• of the same productions. An aromatic bark, called massoy, is exported in large quantity.| It seems to be the produce of a sort of laurel. The Dutch found m this country iron-wood, ebony, canary- wood, lingoa, and the grape-formed nutmeg.^ The sea throws out large lumps of ambergris. Beautiful pearls are found in it. Pigs abound on the sea-coast, and wild boars in the forests ; but per- | Animals, haps the animal called the wild boar is the barbyrossa of the Moluccas- The ornithology of this country is curious and even romantic. It is the favourite residence of the superb and singular birds of Paradise, of which there Birds of Van- are ten or twelve kinds. That kind which is called " The King," has two detached feathers, parallel to the tail, which end in an elegant curl, with a tuft. The species called " The Magnificent," has also two detached feathers of the same length with the body, very slender, and ending in a tuft. The species called " Golden Throat," has three long and straight feathers proceeding from each side of • Sec the Comparative Cliart of the Spanish and other discoveries in Dalryraple. t Valentyn, Amboyna, p. 208—289. i Ibid. Description de Banda. 64 et 67. (AccouRt of the Expedition of Kcyts.) YoL. II.— 3 D 394 BOOK FIFTY-SEVENTH. the head. All the birds of Paradise arc arrayed in brilliant colours. They are chiefly caught in the Arroo Islands. They are shot with blunted arrows, or caught with bird-lime, or with guns. After being dried by means of smoke and sulphur, they are sold for nuts or pieces of iron, and carried to Banda. This country also contains beautiful paroquets and loris. The goora carries a sort of crown, or rather a crest of long plumes, arranged over the head. White pigeons and pepper-coloured ring-doves live here on the nutmegs of the country. Inhabitants. Ncw Guinea seems to be peopled with a diversity of human tribes. Bajoos. The Bajoos of Borneo, and the Malays of the Moluccas, lead the lives of hunters on the whole of the v/est coast. Several of them have naturally settled Haraforas. | in that quarter. In the interior there is a race of Haraforas, who live in the hollows of old trees, on which they chmb, by means of a notched piece of wood, which they drag behind them, for fear of any surprise. Oceanian ne- I The great mass of the inhabitants seem to consist of real Oceanian groes, j negroes. Their bodies are stout, tall, jet black, and rough to the touch, the eyes large, the mouth extremely wide, the nose flattened, the hair curled, but hard, and of a shining black.* The women have enormously large hanging breasts. Their dwellings are built in the water, on a scaffolding. In this particular they re- semble the Borneans, and some other Asiatic islanders. The women appear to be industrious. They make mats and earthen pots, which they bake with dried grass, or brushwood. They even handle the axe, while their indolent husbands look on, or occupy themselves with preparations for hunting the wild boar."]' Clothing. The aspect of these people is frightful and hideous. Their skin is Dress. often disfigured v/ith marks of a leprous appearance. They form the hair of the head into enormous bunches, sometimes three feet long. Sometimes they adorn this with the feathers of the bird of paradise, while a number of boar's tusks are hung from the neck as objects of luxury. The religious creed of the Pa- puas is little known. They build tombs of hard coral rock, which they sometimes Trade with adom with sculpturc. Their principal trade is Avith the Chinese, from the Chinese. vvhom they purchase their tools and utensils, and the coarse Indian stuffs which are used as clothing for the women. They give in exchange, massoy, amber- gris, sea snails, tortoise shell, small pearls, birds of paradise, loris, and other birds, which they dry with great skill. Some slaves are also exported, who are no doubt prisoners of war. Armed with bows and arrows, and even with copper swords, the inhabitants of the west coast have repelled detachments of Dutch soldiers who were Firearms. | sent into their country. Captain Cook saw, near Cape Walsh, savages armed with a tube from which smoke and flame issued, but accompanied with no Boats. I report.;]; The precise nature of this weapon is not known. The learned navigator, Dampier, admires the lightness of the boats, or proas, which these people manage with much dexterity, and adorn with elegant carvings. § Some of the small adjoining islands are better known. Among the Schooten Islands, four had flaming volcanoes, when the Dutch passed them ; their soil was very fertile. The islands of Moa, Arimoa, and others, have the appearance of gar- dens of cocoa trees and other palms. To the north-west is seen Waijoo, an island of considerable size, which is said to contain 100,000 inhabitants. The land is elevated, and contains some very high mountains. In the north part of it arc the two excellent harbours of Piapis, and Oifak. j| This island, called Ooarido by the natives, is co- vered with trees of great size. The inhabitants go entirely naked, with the excep- tion of a piece of coarse cloth, which they wear about the middle. Their chiefs are dressed in stuffs which they purchase from the Chinese. They also, like the latter, wear a conical cap of palm leaves, and the greater part of them speak Chi- nese. Their hair is curled, very thick, and pretty long. Some of them allow their mustaches to grow. They are skilful in the use of the bow. Tiiey live on pigs, tur- * Sonnerat, Voyage, iii. p. 399. •f Forrest, Voyag-e it la Nouvelle Guinee, torn, i, p. 110 — 112 \- Ilawkesliury, p. 658. i Figured by Abel Tasman, (\'alentyn, iv.) || Forrest, Voyage, i. p. 90. Island of "Waijoo. NEW GUINEA. 395 Salwatty Isl- and. Islands of St. David and Freewill. ties, poultry, Siam oranges, cocoa nuts, papaws, gourds, purslain, citrons, pimento, and green ears of maize roasted. Labiliardiere found here the beautiful promerops of New Guinea, (a bird resembling the lapwing,) large black cuckatoos, and a ne\» species of cacao, which he designates the cacao of Waijoo.* Wild cocks, and the tufted pheasants of India, are very common in the woods surrounding the excellent roadstead of Boni-Saini. Salwatty is also a populous island, govenied by a raja. Its inhabitants resemble those of New Guinea; their appearance is frightful, and their character very ferocious. They live on fish, turtles, and sago. The most suitable point of transition from New Guinea to Polynesia, or Eastern Oceanica, will be found in the islands of St. David and Free- will. These are situated to the north of Schooten Island, and peopled with a race exactly similar to the inhabitants of the Marian and Sandwich Islands, Otaheite and New Zealand. " Here," says Carteret, " we met, for the first time, with copper- coloured, long-haired Indians."! They build their villages in groves of cocoa trees, bananas, and bread fruit. Their armour, made of matting, resists a pistol bullet. Their language resembles that of the Sandwich Islanders, J a remarkable circum- stance in the history of the Oceanic nations. To M. d'Entrecasteaux, the group of St. David, discovered in 1761, and that of Freewill, discovered in 176S, appeared to be the same archipelago. It is certain that the islands visited by Meares are the same with those the position of which was fixed by the French navigator. But as Meares and Carteret do not agree about the number of the islands, nor their longitude, and since low lands easily escape the view of navigators, it is possible that a chain of islets, of little elevation, may extend in the direction pointed out by " the low islands" of Bougainville, and the island Aiow. An English navigator has just published a note, in which he gives the name of St. Da- vid's Islands, to a group situated in 55 minutes of south latitude, and 134° 20' of east longitude. The particulars which he gives respecting the inhabitants, coincide with the preceding accounts. § If this opinion is admitted, the islands of St. David will only be the western portion of the archipelago of the Schooten Islands. Table of the Geograjjhical Positions of the Great Compound Chain extending from JYew Zealand to JYeio Guinea. Places. New Zealand. Cape North - - - - Cape Maria Van Diemen Idem ------ East Cape - - - - - Dusky Bay - - - - West Cape - - - - Chatham Island - - - New Caledonia. Queen Charlotte's Cape - Prince of Wales' Cape - Balade Haven - - - - Northern point of the Reef South Latitude. deg. min. 34 22 34 30 37 42 45 47 45 64 45 53 22 15 22 26 20 17 18 3 30 25 30 11 Longitude East from Greenwich. deg. min. sec. 173 20 15 173 1 30 172 42 15 181 169 IS 25 166 41 15 183 5 167 13 164 24 46 162 42 16 Authorities. Cook. D'Entrecasteaux. Cook. Idem. Cook and Wales. Idem. Broughton, corrected by Beaupre. Wales. Cook. D'Entrecasteaux. Idem. • Labiliardiere, torn. ii. p. 291. f Carteret, in Ilawkesbury's Account, i. p. 608. i Meares' Voyage, p. 84, (Forster's translation.) § Lradlcy in the Annual Register, 1817. Miscellan. Tracts, p. 916, 396 BOOK FIFTY-SEVENTH. Table of Geographical Positions, ^-c. — coniimied. Places. Archipelago del Spirito Santo St. James's Bay (in Terra del Spirito Santo) -..----■ Cape Quiros (Idem) - - - - . Port Sandwich (Malicolo) - - ■ Sandwich Island ------ Resohition Port (Tanna) - - ■ Solomon Islands, &c. Cape Byron (Santa Cruz Island) ■ Cape Boscawen (Idem) - - - ■ Swallow Island ------ Baxos de Candelaria - - - - ■ Bradley's Shallows - - - - • North Point of Isabella Island Port Praslin (Ibid) Idem .--.----■ Eddystone Rock (Indian Bay) - - North Capo (Booka Island) - - Archipelago of New Britain, &c. Capo Gloucester (New Britain) Cape Anne (Idem) - - - - - Port Montague (Idem) - - - - Cape St. George (New Ireland) Carteret Harbour ------ Cape Salomaswer (New Hanover*) La Vendola (Admiralty Islands) Admiralty Islands (north-west point) Hermit Islands (north point) - - New Guinea. Moa Island Cape Dory -------- Idem --------- Cape of Good Hope - - - - Mispalu (Western Island) - - - Cape Rodney ------- LOUISIADE. Cape Deliverance (in Rossel Island) South Latitude. deg. itiin. sec. 15 20 14 44 16 25 17 45 19 32 10 41 10 51 10 26 6 45 6 7 7 52 30 25 8 12 5 5 6 6 5 4 2 2 1 29 54 10 29 10 14 57 1 28 2 7 35 21 19 19 10 3 30 5 15 22 11 21 Longitude East from Greenwich. deg. min. sec- 149 15 15 167 55 37 128 30 15 169 45 166 165 166 160 161 157 158 159 154 4 47 43 30 20 15 5 15 6 15 52 15 30 15 28 15 35 15 148 20 148 24 152 40 152 16 152 40 150 18 148 9 146 35 148 20 15 15 15 15 45 15 15 15 15 138 47 15 133 41 15 131 15 132 26 15 132 7 147 46 15 154 26 15 Authorities. Quiros. Cook. Idem. Idem. Wales. Rossel, Beaupre. Idem. Wilson's Chart. Mendana and Fleurieu Hunter. Mendana. Surville. Rossel and Beaupre's Chart. Shortland. Rossel and Beaupre. Dampier. D'Entrecasteaux. Idem. Dampier, (Rossel.) Idem. Idem. Maurelle. D'Entrecasteaux. Bougainville, (Rossel.) Dampier and Rossel. D'Entrecasteaux. Idem. Forrest, (incorrect.) D'Entrecasteaux. Idem. Edwards. Rossel. • The true name is " Solomon Sweet's Point." See the Plates of Abel Tasman's Voyage, No. 22, Sect. x. in Valentyn. PELEW ISLANDS. 397 BOOK LVIII. OCEANICA. PART VI. Eastern Oceanica, or Polynesia. We have already made some general observations on the numerous groups of small islands scattered over the surface of the Great Ocean, which, under the name of Polynesia, constitute the most easterly portion of Oceanica. We have taken notice of the identity of origin of many among them, consisting of volcanic depositions or accumulations of sand on reefs of coral. We have also discussed the questions re- lating to the still more astonishing identity which appears in the physical character, languages, and manners, of the tribes diffused over these countries. We shall now give a separate description of the principal islands. It would be a heavy undertak- ing to enumerate the whole, and superfluous to repeat under each, those particulars which have necessarily a close resemblance to one another. When we leave the Molucca sea, we come first to the Pele w Islands. Peiew or Pa- These had been first visited by the Spaniards, who called them the Pa- '""^ ^*'''"''** laos ; but were little known previously to the agreeable and interesting account com- posed by Mr. Keate, in the Memoirs of Captain Wilson, who was shipwrecked here in 1783. This ingenious writer has perhaps given some embelhshment to the pic- ture. The inhabitants of the Pelew Islands are always represented as | iniiabitants. an amiable, gay, and innocent people. They are handsome, and of middling sta- ture. They are darker than the shade called copper-colour, but not black, and their hair is long and flowing. The men go naked ; the women wear small aprons, or rather fringes, made of the fibrous covering of the cocoa nut. Both sexes are tat- tooed, and their teeth are blackened. They do not appear to have any idea of reli- gion, though they conceive that the soul survives the body. Their language seems to be derived from the Malayan, so extensively diffused through the islands of these seas. The government is vested in a king, under whom are rupaks, or chiefs, | Government, forming a sort of nobility. The whole land is the property of the sovereign. His subjects can only be proprietors of moveable articles, such as canoes, arms, and some rude pieces of furniture. These islands are generally of middHng elevation, and covered with soiiandpr©. close woods. To the west they are beset with a long coral reef, extend- ''"'^'^' ing five or six miles from the shore, and in some places more than double that dis- tance. Ebony grows in the forests : bread-fruit and cocoas seem to be abundant. Our poultry exist among this people in the woods, and in a wild state. | Animals. The natives neglected them till they were instructed by the English in the use which might be made of them as articles of food. Fish form their chief subsistence. They make a sort of preserves of the sugar cane, which appears to be indigenous in these islands. They rise at day-break, and take a cold bath. Their houses are fixed on broad stones, raised about three feet from the ground, and are made of boards and bamboo. They have large halls for their public meetings. Their best knives are made of mother-of-pearl. They have also some made of muscle shells and split bamboo. They manufacture a coarse earthen ware. Their furniture and tools resemble those of the Otaheitans. Their arms are pikes, javelins, and slings. Their canoes are made of the trunks of trees, and ornamented with very handsome sculpture. Marian Isl- ands. Proas or ca^ noes. 398 BOOK FIFTY-EIGHTH. To the north of the Palaos Islands are those called the Matelottes, the Martyr's Island, Sagavedra, and some others. Some Spanish navigators have re-discovered these islands, which appeared doubtful. sraau islands. | The groups of St. Andrew, Pedro, Warwick, Evening, and some others to the south are imperfectly known. Turning to the north-east of the Pelew Islands, we find the Marians, a chain of fifteen or sixteen Islands, six only of which are of consider- able size, viz. Guan, Zarpane, Tinian, Saipan, Anatajan, Pagoo, and Agrigam. These islands were discovered in 1521, by the celebrated navigator Magellan, who called them the Ladrones, on account of the strong propensity of the inhabit- ants to thieving, and the skill with which they carried on their depredations. But under Philip IV. the name of the Marians was given to them in honour of Mary- Ann of Austria.* miiabiiants. | The natives have been almost exterminated by the Spaniards. In complexion, language, manners, and government, they seem to have borne much resemblance to the Tagals of the Philippine Islands. Though subject to a heredi- tary nobility, they lived in peace and happiness. t Their small vessels, called jjroas, have been considered as models of naval architecture. Pigafetta and Anson, at very distant periods, remarked their excellent construction. They have canoes which are convex on one side, and straight on the other. These have a balancing pole to keep them in equilibrium. They sail at the rate of twenty miles in an hour with a side wind. By joining two boats of the same size by a board, several islanders of the Great Ocean have formed vessels which that masterly sea- man. Sir Sidney Smith, thought worthy of being imitated, and introduced in the navies of Europe. J A missionary asserted, that before the arrival of the Spaniards, they were ignorant of the use of fire, and took it for an animated being. Their isl- ands are filled with volcanoes, and in that case they must be considered as worship- pers of fire. But their known industry, and the whole aspect of the facts, declare this story to be void of foundation. The natural geography of these islands is little known. La Perouse found some of these islands to be volcanic. Assumption Island contained formidable torrents of lava in all directions. § Animals. | The Spaniards found them without a single quadruped, and brought them horses, cows, and pigs, and, according to some accounts, guanacos, or lamas. || Vegetables. | The Only vegetables known to them were the jack, or bread-fruit tree, the cocoa, the orange, and the water-melon. Rice was planted here by the Spa- niards. The islands of Guan, almost depopulated by the tyranny of the successive go- vernors, began to breathe a little in 1772, under the wise administration of Don Tobias. He accustomed the Indians to difierent sorts of culture. Since that pe- riod the island produces maize, cotton, indigo, cocoa and sugar cane. IT Agana is its capital, and has a roadstead protected by a battery of eight guns. The island of Tinian has been rendered famous by the brilliant de- scription given of it in the history of Lord Anson's voyage. Navigators who, for a long time, wandered over these seas, sometimes tossed by storms, and subjected to privations and diseases, were quite charmed when they met with a country clothed with a little green sod. They enlarge on the superior beau- ties of places which are far from being extraordinary. Hence, all the navigators, who, on the faith of such accounts, have landed on the island of Tinian, have been disappointed in their expectations ; and some, among whom was Byron, have la- boured to depreciate the island of Tinian, as much as it had been formerly extolled. Anson found here a prodigious quantity of cattle, which were white-coloured, ex- cepting the ears, which were generally brown or black. They had probably been brought for the use of the Spanish garrison. He found also orange, cocoa, and • Bratrlng, Mem. sur les lies Marianes, translated into French, in the Annates des Voyages. t Father Gobien, in Desbrosses, ii. p. 495. % Boswell's notice of the experiments of Sir Sidney Smith, in the Annual Register, 1805. Miscellaneous Tracts, p. 855. § La Perouse, Voyage, ii. p. 346. U Byron, Voyage, p. 121. If La Perouse, t. ii. p. 350. Island ofTi. nian. Contradiction of navigators. Remarkable rock. CAROLINE ISLANDS. 399 bread-fruit trees. It certainly appears to contain all these different sorts of provi- sions ; to which modern travellers add the lemon, the mango, the pine-apple, and the guava.* But very simple causes, political or physical, would be sufficient sud- denly to strip so small an island of these advantages. A hurricane, an earthquake, a disease among the cattle, a bad governor, the arrival of a certain number of ships, migiit transform Tinian from a paradise into a desert. To the north of the Marians, are different groups of small islands, | voieanic islets, almost all of them volcanic. Several of them have no other name than that of Volcano Island; and others have names of similar import, such as Sulphur Island. There are two collections of reefs surrounding two small islands, to which the im- posing name of " The Gardens," has been given. " Gold" and "Silver" islands, probably owe their names to Japanese fables. In these seas is situated the famous pyramidal rock, called Lot's Wife. A sea neither broken nor interrupted for an immense space in all direc- tions, here dashes with sublime violence on the solid mass which rises almost per- pendicularly to a height of 350 feet. On the south-east side is a deep cavern where the waves resound with a prodigious noise. No question in geography is more obscure than that of the position Caroline of the Caroline Islands. All that we know is, that this archipelago ^''^n^s. lies between the Pescadores on the east, the Marians on the north, and the Pelew Islands on the west. It is probable that the little chains composing the great chain of the Caroline Islands run nearly south and north, like most of those of the Great Ocean. Waiting till some accurate navigator shall remove the veil by which this country is at present covered, we shall adhere to the interesting account of those generous missionaries, who at the peril of their lives have carried even into this corner, un- known to geography, the doctrines of virtue and of peace. | The first idea of these islands appears to have been conveyed to the Philippines in 1686, by a family of savages, who, intending to sail from one island to another, had been carried ofi'by the winds and the currents. The Spaniards first called them the New Philippines, and afterwards the Carolines, from the name of their king, Charles II. They are about eighty in number, and very fertile. They enjoy an agreeable climate, but are subject to dreadful hurricanes. The inhabitants, who are very numerous, resemble those of the Philip- | inhabitants, pine islands; their complexion is a deep copper colour. According to the letters of the Jesuits, each island has its own chiefs but the whole acknowledged the authority of one king, whose residence was at Lamurca. The nobility are haughty, and the people enslaved. These islanders believe in celestial spirits, which come to bathe in a sacred lake in the island of Fallalo, but they have neither temples nor idols, nor the least appearance of religious worship. The inhabitants of Yap are Mnnners and said to worship a species of crocodile, and to have among them a set of '**'* magicians. Polygamy is allowed. Criminals are sentenced to banishment from one island to another. They arc fond of dancing, which they accompany with singing, being unacquainted with musical instruments. Their only arms are a bow, and a lance pointed with bone. Their proas are similar to those of the Marian islands. According to the missionaries, they are acquainted with the magnetic needle, a circumstance which would lead us to infer some ancient inter- course with the Chinese, or with the Arabians. The language probably varies from one group to another. The missionaries found in it a considerable resemblance to the Tagal, and consequently the Malay language, but they give some words, in which we perceive an affinity to the Arabic; such as eli for spirit. Even in this remote corner of the world, the practice of negro slavery is known. It is said that twenty- five Spanish negroes left in one of the islands have produced a mixed breed, which has subsequently spread to another. We are informed that the inhabitants of Ulea * Shortland and Marshall, translated In Forster's Magashi des A'oyagcs, i. 191 — 199. f Father Cantova, in the Lettrcs Ediliantes, ii. p. 4 ; and Desbrosses, Histoh'e des Naviga- teurs, supplement, torn. ii. p. 43. Use or the compass'. Islands seen by Capt. Wilson. Mulgrave Islands. Islands little known. islands of 400 BOOK FIFTY-EIGHTH. are the most civilized. Hogoloo, the largest of the Carolines, must be about eighty miles long, and forty broad. Yap ranks next to it, occupying the western extremity of the chain. Captain Wilson returning from the South Sea, after leaving the Eng- lish missionaries, sailed by the south of the Caroline archipelago, in the 7th degree of North latitude. Here he visited some islands, and among others, a large group which he called " the Thirteen Islands;" the most southerly of which is in 7° 16' of north latitude, and 144° 30' of east longitude. The inhabitants arc copper coloured, the women of a pale olive; their lips rather large, their faces broad, and their hair black and long. Their idiom differs from that of the Pelew islands, which are near them.* They sell cords of great strength, made of a kind of rush ; they wear a sort of girdle resembling a Spanish scarf, and conical hats like those of the Chinese, which are also known in the Philippine islands. A hundred and fifty canoes were seen, each containing seven men. From this we pass on to the long chain of the Mulgrave Islands, dis- covered by Marshall and Gilbert in 1788. We only know their positions, and their English names. They are mostly low, and produce cocoas, oranges, and cabbage palms. Their copper coloured inhabitants seem to be of a hospitable cha- racter, and able seamen, t This chain is connected with the Carolines, by the Pes- cadores, or Fishers' Islands, and probably with the other archipelagos of Polynesia by chains still unknown, where we must search for the esus, the Solitary, and some others seen by Quiros and Mendana. We know exactly the position of the two islands, St. Augustine, and Cecal, which have been lately visited. They indicate a chain in the south. The island " de la Gente Hermosa," i. e. of the Fair Nation, will be one day re-discovered. It was seen by Quiros, at a distance of 4432 miles from Lima, and in 10° 20' of latitude. The inhabitants, remarkable for their whiteness, sail in double canoes, and build elegant huts of the trunks of palm trees. J All the seas west from the Navigators' Islands, towards Solomon's group, seem to contain a number of detached islands. The most remarkable of them is that of Rotuma, the Taumaco of Quiros. Captain Wilson, returning from his missionary voyage, landed here, and tells us that the fertility and population of that detached island were amazing. In a space less than an English mile long, 200 houses were counted, besides others which must have been concealed by the trees. Pigs, poultry, and fruits were in great abundance, and it formed an excellent place of refreshment. According to Quiros, it is 138 miles from Terra del Spirito Santo. The language of the New Hebrides, and that of the Friendly Islands, seem to be known here, for the chief took the name of Taurik, evidently the title Terik, given to the chiefs of the Friendly Islands, and likewise that of Toomai, which was probably the word Tomar, signifying " Friend" in the language of the isle of Tanna.§ The adjoining islands to the west were called Temelfica, Indeni, and Manci ; the last contained a volcano. Quiros saw several, but gave their position vaguely. The inhabitants of Tomaco were acquainted with Mallicolo, and drew by means of peb- bles, a cliart of the neighboring archipelagos. More to the south is the large group called the Feyjees, or Prince William's Islands. The Feyjeans have the reputation of being canni- "bals. They are more industrious than the people of Tongataboo, according to the acknowledgment of the latter, who, notwithstanding, have subjugated them. Such of these islands as Captain Wilson saw in 1796, were of ordinary elevation, covered with cocoa trees to tlic summit, and surrounded by extensive and dangerous reefs. The missionary ship was nearly lost in broad day light and calm weather, by coming in contact with a reef of which no previous warning was presented. Sailing eastward, we fall in with the hills and plains which compose the archipelago of the Friendly Islands. This division might be ex- • Missionary Voyapein the DufT, p. 304. t Gilbert, in Forster's Magazine, I. 200—206. 4 Quiros, Viajero universal, xviii. p. 177. § Forster, Voyage H. 331, Uuirus, I. c. ITi. Toumaco or Kotuma Island. Feyjee Isl auds. Friendly Islands. Particulars of Tonga taboo. Climate. Seasons. Rocky founda- tion. FRIENDLY ISLANDS. 401 tended to Feyjee in the west, to the Cocoa, and Traitor's Islands in the north, to Savage Islands in the east, and to Pylstaert in the south. Within these boundaries the Friendly Archipelago is very extensive, as it includes more than a hundred isl- ands and islets. It ranks nearly the first archipelago in Polynesia, for the industry of its inhabitants, and the degree of political order which prevails in it. The leading island is that which is called Tongataboo, or " The Con- secrated Island." It is one of the most southerly. Navigators have de- scribed it in the minutest manner. Yet were it not for the account of Labillardi^re, and the English missionaries, we should know very little about it. The country does not in general aflbrd that magnificent sort of landscape which arises from a multi- tude of mountains, valleys, plains, rivulets, and cascades ; but it displays a specta- cle of the most abundant fertility. The most frequent winds are those between the south and the east ; and, when they are moderate, the sky is generally clear. When they become stronger, the atmosphere is loaded with clouds, but it is not foggy, and it frequently rains. According to the account of the missionaries, earthquakes are very frequent. The foliage is subject to little or no sensible change in the course of the seasons, each falling leaf being replaced by another, so that there is a universal and continual spring. The missionaries found the air very healthy, but colder than they had been led to expect. A coral rock, the only kind which is seen on the coast, is the basis of the island. There is scarcely any other stone to be found, except a spe- cies of lapis Lydius, of which the natives make their hatchets. Though in several places the coral shoots above the surface of the country, the soil is generally thick. Under the vegetable mould lies a stratum of clay. M. Labillardiere has given a view of the botany of this island. Under the shade of the forest grow the Tacca pinna- tijida, the JVIussccnda frondosa, the Jlbrus precatorius, and the pepper-plant, which the inhabitants use for making the pungent beverage called Kava. They make mats of the Pandanus ordoratissimus. The Hibiscus tiliaceus springs spontaneously on the borders of the cultivated grounds, and close by the sea-side. Of its bark, stuffs are made, which are much inferior in beauty to those of the paper mulberry. The species of cotton called Gossypium religiosum grows in the marshy grounds, but is not applied to any use by the inhabitants. Sandal-wood is also found here, and a strong kind of nutmeg destitute of any aromatic quality.* The birds and insects are great in mmiber. Multitudes of the rarest shells are found among the reefs. The island of Tongataboo is divided into three sovereignties ; Ahifo in j Government, the north, Mooa in the centre, and Ahodshi in the south-east. f Each of these districts has its sovereign. The reigning family of Mooa has the name of Footta- faihi, the name also of one of the national gods; the Footta-faihis seem to have been once absolute sovereigns of the island, and still preside in the sacrifices. But the Deugona-gabula, or prince of the northern canton, has latterly assumed the po- litical ascendency. All the chiefs of the adjoining islands enjoy a despotic authority, but they do homage, and pay tribute to the state of Tongataboo. Even the islanders of Feyjee, so formidable in Captain Cook's time, have submitted to tlie yoke of Tongataboo. The power of this state extends in the opposite direction to the con- fines of the Navigators' Archipelago. Their fleet of war-boats is more respectable than tliat of the Otaheitans, and probably their navigation extends as far as Terra del Spirito Santo. They gave Captain Cook a long list of the islands which they knew. The people of Tongataboo sacrifice many human victims ; and, notwithstanding their ideas of property, they make no scruple in stealing from strangers, character and M. Labillardiere gives these islanders in general a much more depraved '"^"nerj. and barbarous character than would liavc been supposed due, from the accounts of Cook and Forster. He saw assassinations committed among them, accompanied by circumstances of the grossest perfidy.J Yet the more modern picture given by the • Labillardiere, Voyage, t. ii. 101. p. 105. &c. f Missionary Voyage, chap. xvi. t Labillardierejitom. ii. p. 109, Vol. II.— 3 E 402 imOK FIFTY-EIGHTIT. missionaries rloes not altogether corroapond with that of Lahillardicre. " The in- habitants of the Friendly Isiands," accordinf]; to them, "are deserving of the nam© which Cook liaa given them. Since the meaning of it has been explained to them, they seem to be greatly pleased with it. They exercise among themselves an asto- nishing degree of liberality. For a space of four months, we neither saw nor heard of the shghtest quarrel occurring among them." Infanticide and several other Ota- heitan institutions are unknown among them, conjugal infidelity among tlie upper classes is severely punished, at least in the person of the seducer. The women are almost in a state of slavery. Polygamy is a prerogative of the chiefs. One of the missionaries here was lately converted into a pagan and a savage ; but four years were sufficient to deprive him of all relish for the happiness which charmed him so much when contemplated in prospective.* Religion. [ The missionaries believe that these islanders have no separate order of priests, though they have a multitude of deities, and a public form of worship. Mythoioin'. I They have two great mtiches, or religious festivals ; one to implore the protection of Footta-faihi, for the newly planted fruits; the other at the end of har- vest, to testify their gratitude tc» the same deity. Each person kills and brings the animal which he ofiers in sacrifice. Calla-Feilatonga is sovereign of the waves and (he winds. The god Mauwi bears the island on his back; and the earthquakes take place when he tires of his load, and makes attempts to throw it off. The god of pleasure, Higgolayo, collects round him the souls of his worshippers in a paradise much resembling that of Mahomet. Dwellings. Tlio private and public buildings are much inferior to those of Otaheite, Boats. both for convenience and elegance. But they make up for this by the superior construction of their boats. Their mats are so much better than those of Otaheite, that the sailors export them to the latter island, as an article of commerce. They also manufacture glossy stuffs, some of which are striped, some in squares, and various other figures. Baskets, combs, and other little productions of female industry, are made with taste and elegance. The fishing lines and hooks of these islanders are as good as those of Europe. Tongataboo has a large and excellent harbour, which admits of being well fortified. The island of Eooa is called Middleburg by Tasman. It is a high land of a delightful appearance, well wooded, fertile, and well provided with fresh water. Though the soil is generally clayey, the coral rock is seen shoot- ing up to a height of 300 feet above the level of the sea. Anamooka, or Rotterdam, is the largest island of a group situated to the north of Tongataboo. Anamooka is, like Tongataboo, composed of a coral rock, covered with a good soil. It contains a greater quantity of bread fruit and Siam oranges than Tongataboo, and vegetables of all kinds grow here with greater vigour. The fields are not enclosed by so many hedges, nor so regular and well made; but the roads are covered with tufted bowers, which display beautiful flowers, and give out delicious perfumes. The numerous points of view afforded by the little elevations, and difl^erent groups of trees contribute also to adorn and diver- sify the appearance of this country. oihei- isiandi. [ Tafooa Contains a volcano which the natives consider as the abode of a divinity. Vavao is the Mayorga of Maurelle, a Spanish navigator. Latte is another island to which he has given its native name. That which he calls Amargura, is most pro- bably Hamooa. These islands are very fertile, populous, and at least as far ad- vanced in civilization as Tongataboo. To the south of the Friendly Islands, Vasquez and Kermadec islands mark the continuation of the submarine chain to the east side of New Zealand. To the north of the Friendly Islands, we distinguish among some small insular Home island. | countries, the picturesque island of Home, the fertility of which is extol- led by Lemaire and Schooten. Its chief wore a crown of feathers. It is probably the Enfant perdu of Bougainville."!" • Narrative of a Four Years' Residence at Tongataboo. London, 1811. t Voyag* Autour du Monde, p. 24. Middleburg Island. Rotterdam Island. navigators' islands. 403 Navigators' Islands. Soil. Mountains. Productions of Maoona. As we continue our voyage to the east, the first large archipelago that claims our attention is that of the Navigators, discovered by Bou- gainville, and examined by La Perouse. Those which have been visited are seven in number, viz. Polu at the west end, then Galinassa, Oyolava, Maoona, Fan- Ibo, Leone, and Opoon. The inhabitants are acquainted with three others situated to the southwest. In Arrowsmith's learned chart of the Great Ocean, Pola is called Otawhce; Oyolava, Oatooah; Maoona, Toolooillah; and Opoon, Toomalooah. Too- tooilla is found in the list of islands given to Captain Cook by the inhabitants of Tongataboo,* a circumstance which adds some weight to the English nomenclature. But the islands have probably dift'erent names in different native dialects. This ar- chipelago has received the name of the Navigators' Islands, because the inhabitants had a great many boats, and displayed an admirable degree of skill in the manage- ment of them, a circumstance common to the whole of Polynesia, and only applied particularly to this archipelago, because the inhabitants seemed to spend a greater part of their time in their canoes than others, and to have a greater number. Tlie Navigators' Islands consist of high land. Their central moun- tains, the beautiful plains on the sea side, and the encircling coral reefs, give these islands a character of resemblance to the Society Islands. Maoona is a very fertile island.| The French frigates which visited it were sur- rounded by 200 boats, filled with a variety of provisions, consisting of birds, pigs, pigeons, and fruit. In twenty hours Maoona furnished 500 pigs, and an immense quantity of fruit. The island is covered with cocoa, bread fruit, and orange trees. The groves are enlivened by the murmurs of numerous cascades, and peopled with wood pigeons and turtle doves. Various pebbles are found among the coral rocks. The women were very handsome, their forms were regular and highly | inhabitants, pleasing, and their manners were free. A scarf, made of leaves, serves them for a girdle. Their hair is adorned with flowers, and entwined with green ribbon. They might pass for nymphs or dryads : even their colour is not far removed from tints that are often admired. The men are above the ordinary stature, uncommonly strong, and very fierce. They despised the diminutive size of the French. They treat their women like slaves. La Perouse describes them as exceedingly dissolute in the intercourse of the sexes. | The situation of their villages is as delightful as fancy can picture. They are partially seen half buried in the bosom of rich natu- ral orchards. The huts, supported on rows of strong pillars, are covered with cocoa leaves. The inhabitants live on pork, dog's flesh, birds, bread-fruit, cocoa-nuts, bananas, guavas, and oranges. They set little value on iron and cloths, being fonder of glass beads than any thing else that the Europeans offer them.§ It was at Maoona that Captain Langle, Lamanon the naturalist, and nine sailors, were massacred by the inhabitants, probably because the Captain gave glass ornaments to some chiefs, and neglected others. La Perouse, cruelly undeceived in the favourable ideas which had been given him of the character of the savages, says on this occasion, " I am a thousand times more angry with the philosophers who praise the savages, than with the savages themselves. The unfortunate Lamanon, whom they massacred, told me the day before his death, that the Indians were better people than ourselves." || Both views are equally super- ficial. Savage and civilized people differ little in their conduct when placed in similar circumstances. At Oyolava M. de la Perouse saw the largest village in all Polynesia. From the appearance of its smoke, it might have been taken for a city. The sea was covered with boats, manned with peop those of Maoona. Though the islanders of this group are distinguished by a ferocity not observed in any other part of Polynesia, they are very industrious, and display much skill and • Cook's Third Voyage. f Voyage de la Perouse, t. iii. p. 264. \ Les vieillards, retenant par force les jeunes filles, servaiertt de prdtres et d'autel au culte de V^nus, pendant que des matrones cil^braieut par des chants ces noces brutales. Voyage de M. de la Perou3C, t. iii. p. 275. § Idem. Ibid. p. 282. J Idem, t. iv. p. 439. Disaster of Mj'ssrs. Lan- gle and Laroa- non. Oyolava island. e as tall as On Eastern Polynesia. Society Islands. 404 . BOOK FIFTY-EIGHTH. ingenuity. With simple tools of basalt, they succeed in giving an equisite pohsh to their works in wood. They not only make cloth of bark, but form from it a good yarn, which they undoubtedly procure from a flax resembling that of New Zealand. A native of the Philippines, on board the French vessel, understood their dialect, which must therefore be of Malayan derivation. Population. | According to the same navigator, Oyolava is at least equal to Ota- heite in beauty, extent, fertility, and population. He supposes that the whole archi- pelago contains 100,000 inhabitants, which we may reduce to one-tenth, and proba- bly come nearer the truth. If it should some time hence be thought eligible to divide Polynesia into natural regions, the Pelew, Marian, Caroline, and Mulgrave Islands, would be included in Western Polynesia, the centre of which would be Hogoloo. The Navigators', the Friendly, and the Feyjee, with all those lying between St. Au- gustine and the Kermadecs, might be called Central Polynesia. This region is sepa- rated by an open sea from Eastern Polynesia, of which Otaheite is the centre. We proceed to make this celebrated island a station from which we shall obtain a view of Eastern Polynesia, of which it also furnishes a specimen of extensive applica- tion. The Society Islands have formed the subject of more writings than many a kingdom of Europe. Every reader has admired the charms of Queen Oberea, and viewed in imagination the festivals of Pomarre. The Otahei- tans are better known to us than the inhabitants of Sardinia or of Corsica. Though the name of the Society Islands was originally given by Captain Cook only to the group of Ulietea and Huaheine, it has since received a more extensive application on Cook's own' authority. It comprehends Otaheite with its dependen- cies, and, with some, though improperly, several remote and detached islands, as far as Toobooai in the south, and Palmerston Island in the west. Otaheite has merited the title of Queen of the Pacific Ocean. It is composed of two conical mountains, united by a marshy isthmus. The large peninsula is of a circular form; its diameter is twenty-four miles. The small peninsula, in the south-west, is an oval, sixteen miles long, and eight or ten broad. The whole circumference of the island is 108 miles, according to the chart given by the English missionaries. Soil. I Between the mountains and the sea, a low strip intervenes, varying in breadth. In some places, especially in the north-east, the rocks project over the sea. In the plains and in the valleys by which the mountain is intersected, the ground is covered with a thick blackish slime, and extremely fertile. As we ascend the hills, the rich earth of the valleys is exchanged for veins of clay and marl of different co- lours, lying over strata of a soft brownish sandstone. Basalt seems to pi'edominate in the higher mountains. On the side of the great mountain is a very deep fresh lake. Matavia, on the north side of the island, is considered as the principal harbour. On the south-east side is another, called Langola, which is equally good and safe. On all sides of the island, rivers are seen descend- ing in beautiful cascades. The situation of this island, in the midst of an immense ocean, far from all extended lands, renders its heat far from insupportable. The missionaries say that the dry and rainy seasons vary even in the different districts of this small country. In the north, the bread-fruit harvest begins in November and ends in January; but, on the other side, it begins in January and continues till No- vember. Vegetable pro I All the Vegetable species peculiar to Oceanica grow in Otaheite in ductioMs. I fibundance, and of the best quality. There are reckoned eight varieties of the bread-fruit,* and fifteen of banana. | The very great perfection of the fruit shows that the trees have been cultivated here for several ages. The Spondias did- cis, called Evi in Otaheite, no where produces apples of a richer yellow, or more dc~ • Bligh's Voyage to the South Sea, p. 109. t Wilson, Missionary Voyage, p. 378. Description of Otaheite. Ports and hat- hours. Climate. Seasons. SOCIETY ISLANDS. 405 licious taste. The sugar cane, which is called To, is of a superior sort to that of the East Indies, and now receives the preference in all the colonics. The bark of the JVlorus papyrifera furnishes the material of a fine and soft cloth. The inhabitants have treated lightly all European cultures offered to thcin, with the exception of the tobacco plant, which is valued for its flowers.* There are several kinds of wood fit for carpentry and cabinet work. The missionaries give the native names of some species, which equal acajoo in beauty and ebony in hardness. There is some san- dal-wood, both white and black. It grows only on the mountains, and is in no great quantity. The air is animated with birds, and the sea with fish, without number. The pig, of the same variety which is known in Siam ;| and the dog, | Animals. which is delicately fed, furnish good animal food. The complexion of the Otaheitans is olive, inclining to a copper co- | inhabitants, lour. The men, constantly exposed to the sun, are very dark; but the women arc only a shade darker than the brunettes of Andalusia and Sicily. They have fine black eyes, regular and white teeth, a soft skin, and limbs of graceful proportions. Their jet black hair is perfumed and ornamented with flowers. But the habit which they contract from their infancy of widening the face, expanding the mouth, and flat- tening the nose, gives them a masculine air which mars their natural charms. The chiefs are taller than the common people, few of them under six feet. The dress of the two sexes is nearly the same, except that the men wear the maro, a | cioti.es. piece of cloth which covers the waist, and passes between the hmbs. Another ob- long piece, with a hole to let through the head, hangs before and behind ; a third is wrapped about the middle, and a sort of square mantle covers the whole. The Otaheitans practise circumcision. They tattoo their bodies not circumcision, merely for the sake of ornament, and to please their vanity, but as con- Tatioomf. iiected with the political and religious institutions of the nation. Individuals of both sexes are not considered as independent of parental authority, or capable of forming civil connections, till they have received the last of a series of tattooings. The different acts of this operation are regarded as sacrifices agreeable to the gods ; and the instrument with which a prince has been tattooed, is deposited in the moi-a'i of his ancestors. The society of the arreoy has, hke that of free masons, several de- grees, which are distinguislied by different forms of the tattoo. J Their | Houses, houses are only used as places of rest during the night, and of retreat during ex- treme solar heat. They are very elegantly shaped huts, consisting of small wooden pillars, arranged in an oval form, and supporting a roof of palm leaves. The sides are sometimes covered with mats, sometimes open. The floor is strewed with hay, over which arc laid mats, often very beautiful. These rustic mansions are scattered over all the plain, and in the valleys, in a manner the most agreeable and picturesque, in the midst of smiling plantations. The large palms tower above the | Plantations, rest of the trees. The banana displays its broad leaves, and here and there are seen specimens of its fruit ready for eating. Other trees, surmounted by dark green boughs, bear golden apples, which, in flavour and juiciness, resemble pine-apples. The intermediate spaces are filled with mulberry trees, yams, and sugar canes. The huts are also surrounded with odoriferous shrubs, such as the gardenia, the guellarda, and the calophyUum. In Otaheite the nobility who possess hereditary rights arc distinguish- | Castes. ed from the people who arc their dependents, without being ui any degree their slaves. The Eri-Rahei, or sacred chief, is the hereditary monarch of the state, which in 1797 comprehended the island of Otaheite, and those of Eimeo, Tethuroa, and Mai- tea, with claims on Ulietea and Otaha. As soon as the eri-rahei be- comes the father of a male child, the child succeeds to the crown, and the father is then only regent. An apron or maro of red feathers is the badge of the royal dignity. With this the young sovereign is invested in the midst of a solemn ceremony, in which the most • Voyage des Missioiialres Anglais, p 502, trad, allem. j-Forster, Observations, &c. p. 167, (in German.) I Missionary Voyage. Succession to Uie tlironc Nobles, Inrds, farmers, &c. 106 BOOK FII-^TV-EIGIITH. ireinaikcible thing is a ronnul harangue delivered to the people by the state orator, an office generally tilled by one ot^tlie chiet' priests. Unhappily, human sacrifices make an essential part ot" this ceremony. One of the eyes of the victim is offered to the king, by a priest, M'ho addresses him in a long discourse, probably on a religious subject. The eris are the hereditary proprietors of large estates. They go- vern the districts ; and they seem to be a sort of sovereigns in their own territory, though dependent on the eri-rahei. The toiuhas are generally kins- men of the eris. They govern some subdivisions of the great districts, or live at the courts of the eris. The rattiras are the possessors of estates. Their authority .seems confined to the rights conferred by simple free property. The manahoonis are larmers without property in the soil, but enjoying personal freedom and complete power over the property which they acquire. They have it in their power to move i'rom one landlord to another. The domestics are called totvtows, and those who are in the service of females are called toutis. These last, like their mistresses, are ex- cluded from all religious ceremonies. None of the commoners can rise to a higher rank than that of towha at most. The nobles, or eris, preserve all the dignity of their hereditary rank, though the monarch should see proper to deprive them of the management of their districts. The missionaries say that property is held sacred; that the last will of the possessor is scrupulously executed, and that his goods are given up, either to his children, or to his taijo, (an adopted kinsman;) that estates are bounded by land-marks of stones, and that theft, violence, and even verbal injuries are se- verely punished.* The Otahcitans believe in a sort of trinity, called Tani, te m4clooa, the Father; Oromafioio, ioua ti te meidi, God in the Son; and Turoa-man- nau, te hooa, the Bird, or Spirit. This great divinity resides in the palace of heaven, in the Torova, with a number of other divinities or Etooas, who are all designated under the name oi Fhanawpo, or the children of night. Their genealogy, like all the theogo- nies in the world, is a system of cosmography in an allegorical dress. The islands of the ocean are the remains of one great continent or island, which the gods in their anger broke iu pieces. These great divinities have one common temple in the dis- trict of Oparre, but they are only to be invoked in times of public calamity. The daily prayers are addressed to the inferior etooas. Every family has its thi, or pro- tecting genius, from whom it expects all the blessings and all the evils of this life. The souls of the dead, devoured by sacred birds, undergo a purification, and become divinities which exert a powerful influence on the lot of the living. The Otaheitans A future state. | firmly believe that the soul is immortal, and that according to its degree of virtue and of piety, each will enjoy different degrees of honour and happiness. So very religious are they, that they never approach the sacred places but with pro- found respect. In the eyes of this susceptible people all nature is animated; the air, the mountains, the rivers, the sea, are peopled with spirits. The iahooras, or priests, are very numerous and powerful. There are certain occasions on which all the chiefs officiate. The selection of human victims to be offered to the gods always falls on criminals, who are only put to death while asleep ; a refined specimen of considerate humanity, modifying the dictates of a barbarous superstition. The highest ambition of an Otaheitan is, to have a splendid mora'i, or family tomb. The funerals, especially those of the chiefs, have a solemn and affecting character. Songs are sung. The mourners, with sharks' teeth, draw blood from their bodies, which, as it flows, mingles with their tears; of- ferings placed on the bier, mock fights, religious abstinences, or days of fasting and of rest, are all employed to give a sensible expression of the public grief. The tap- apoiv, or sheds, under which the dead bodies remain exposed till they dry, and the walled and paved morai's, or cemeteries, in which the bones are deposited, are placed * Missionary Voyage, Appendix, ch. ii. Rights of pro. perty. Religion. A 'rrinity. Inferior del lies. Mora IS. Funerals. Societ)' of Arreoys. SOCIETY ISLANDS. 407 in romantic situations, where the .shadows of funereal trees, the frowning faces of the rocks, and the murmurs of rivulets, invite to retirement and melancholy. Those who have represented the women of Otaheite as venal wan- | Behaviour of tons have done them injustice. We are now informed that " it is difficult [ iJ^e^o""'- in this country to have private meetings, either with the married or unmarried wojnen, excepting the girls among the lowest orders, and that many among these also are chaste and modest. There is indeed a class of prostitutes, as in all other countries : perhaps the proportion of them here is larger than ordinary. Of this class were the women who went on hoard the European vessels, or frequented the camps which their crews pitched on shore."* The English missionaries, who are members of the most austere sect | Lascivioiisness, of Metliodists, say that they never witnessed any public indecency. They say that the lascivious dances are performed by none but giddy young persons, and that even these, beyond the circle of tho theatre, do not indulge in any gestures in the least degree offensive. The general conduct of the Otaheitan women, as mothers and wives, is sufficiently creditable to human nature. They bear their children with extreme ease, | chiw births. and make tender and assiduous nurses. The ornament which they esteem most valuable is a wig made of the hair of their deceased relations. — Polygamy is not allowed among this people. But a detestable political institution form- ed, till very lately, a dark shade in the moral picture. Under the name of Arreoys, a great number of the Otaheitan nobles of both sexes had formed them- selves into singular communities, in which all the women were common to all the men, and all the children born were destroyed. From this it is not surprising to find, that, according to a calculation | Population, made by the missionaries, the population of the island had of late years decreased, and does not now exceed 16,000 souls, making an average of 250 to the square league. The only inhabited places are the plain and the low valleys. The Otaheitans manufacture handsome cloths and mats. They seem | industry. to have once navigated a great part of the ocean ; but their navigation has declined, and the island has been miserably reduced by the devastating effects of civil wars. The moral character of this and the adjoining islands is now, how- ^o^i^ievo'iu- ever, undergoing a remarkable change. The steady exertions of the tion. missionaries have been followed by decided impressions' in favour of the Christian religion, and the manners, and even the dress, of civilized Europe. Pomarre, the late king, abandoned his idols, and shipped them off for London, where they now figure in the Missionary Museum. For the Missionaries they express a uniform and high respect. Those of them who have heard their doctrines have ranked themselves as converts, and those who know them only by report express an eagerness to profit by their instructions. The latter have indeed suffered a serious loss in the death of Pomarre, their powerful protector ; and some anxiety is felt for the peaceful continu- ation of their labours under the succeeding government, which is administered in the name of a minor. But they enjoy the advantage of a strong popular tide in their favour. The other Society Islands greatly resemble Otaheite, though smaller. At Huaheine the fruits ripen some weeks sooner than at Otaheite. This island has two excellent harbours. f — Ulietea is larger ; its inhabitants have darker complexions, and a more ferocious character. This island, and that of Otaha, are surrounded by one common reef. — The inhabitants of Borabora, fifteen or twenty years ago, were formidable to all the neighbouring islands. They had conquered Ulietea and Huaheine ; but their power is now at an end. — Maitea, the most easterly, is the entrep6t for the tribute of pearls which the Otaheitans raise in the archipelago of low islands. J — Eimeo possesses two of the best harbours in the whole ocean. — The inaccessible Tethuroa serves as a citadel to the king of Otaheite, for the pre • Wilson's Missionary Voyage. I Spanish Voyages to Otaheite, in Viajero Universal, xvii. p. 324. t Ibid. p. 323. See also Wilson's Missionary Voyage, Introduction, p. 27. Account of the other islands. 408 BOOK FIFTY-EIGHTH. servation of his treasure. — Mapija, or Lord Howe's Island, and Genuavra, or Scilly, are only inhabited by penguins, and other sea fowl.* Scattered isi- ^q ^^e souUi-west and south-east of the Society Archipelago, a long andstothe , . „ . , , i • i i i i • • -it?! ^ south. chain of widely separated islands extends, beginning with Palmerston and ending with Easter Island. They might be called the " Austral Sporades." The most westerly group comprehends Palmerston, Wateoo, Mangea, and some islets. In the second group we find Toobooai, which contains robust and savage inhabitants ; Ohiteroa, which is rich in casuarina trees, and a place which shows much human industry ; and, lastly, the " High Island" of Captain Broughton. To the north-east and east are Gloucester Island, St. Paul's Conversion, Michael, and many others little known. In the south we distinguish Oparo, the inhabitants of which speak the Polynesian language, but do not tattoo their bodies. — Pitcairn Island is now peopled by the children of the mutinous sailors of Captain Bligh, whose fathers had escaped the search of the English. The fate of these sailors themselves was sufficiently dismal. They had married Otaheitan women, whose brothers in one night murdered them, only one escaping, whose name by his own account was Adams. On the fol- lowing night, the Otaheitan widows of the English inflicted dreadful vengeance, by murdering all their brothers, who had committed the first bloody deed. Their chil- dren grew up under the fostering care of Adams, who, officiating as their patriarch, has made them an orderly and simple tribe, speaking the English language, and im- bued with the sober principles of the more respectable portion of the low orders of the EngUsh. Their number, when visited by the Briton, was forty-eight, all of mixed English and Otaheitan blood, except young Christian, the son of Captain Bligh's lieutenant, whose mother appears to have been English. They have a great anti- pathy to the natives of the other islands, whom they call the " Black Fellows," which has been generated by the accounts which they have received of the murder of their fathers. "f Easter Islands. [ The last of the Spoiades are Ducie, and the celebrated Easter Island, the identity of which with Davis's land is not yet fully decided. In this arid volcanic isle, we find a sort of platforms on which shapeless columns are erected, sometimes ' fifteen feet high, with a rudely carved bust at top, the face of which is five feet long. It is made of a very porous light and red lava. These statues seem to have a degree of resemblance with the sculptures of the island of Ulietea. The heads have the character of the Polynesian race of men. The language, manners, and dress of the inhabitants of this island also resemble those of the other islands. There is no- thing about them of Peruvian aspect. As the islands lying nearer to the American continent have been found altogether uninhabited, it is evident that the nations of America never contributed to the peopling of Polynesia. Low islands. | In passing from Easter Island to the Marquesas, we must go through a singular region, sprinkled with small islands, which are low, sandy, and encircled Dangerous with coral rcefs. The islands composing this truly "Dangerous Archi- Archipeiago. pelago," present strange forms; the names of the Harp, the Bow, and the Chain, express with precision the figure of those to which they are applied. Tiookea is a large low island. All of them abound with cocoa trees. They produce scurvy-grass, purslain, and various other plants. Dogs which live on fish, and pigs, are found here as in the high islands. The race of men which they contain is the same, but darker in colour. Pearl island is somewhat remarkable in its physical structure. There are several banks of coral rock, placed one behind another, be- tween the lagoon and the sea. These banks run regularly from south to north. They sometimes rise fifty or sixty feet above the level of the sea. It appears as if violent storms had driven blocks of coral over the outermost banks, and piled them above the innermost. The furrowed cavities which separate these successive banks, are generally sixty feet in breadth, and ten or twelve feet deep.| To the north of the low islands, we find the lofty chain of the Mar- quesas Islands, the chief of which are Ohitoa, or St. Magdalena; Marquesas Islands. * Viajero Universal, p. 327. f See Shillibeer's Narrative of the Briton's Voyage to Pitcairn's Island, p. 77 — 97. t Missionary Voyage, p. 285. Mendana'i ac- count of them. Nature of the land. MARQUESAS ISLANDS. 409 Onateyo, or San Pedro; Ohitahoo, or Santa Christina, and the island of Baux, or Nooaheeva. The leading islands in this archipelago were discovered by Mendana, who gave them the name of Gardias de MendoQa, Marquis of Canete, viceroy of Peru. Hence they are sometimes called Mendoga's Islands. If we be- lieve the account of Mendana^s discovery, this small archipelago was inhabited by a very fine race of men. The women were remarkable for the beauty of their features ; and their colour, though brown, was very agreeable ; so that in personal appearance they rivalled the finest women of Lima.* These islanders were clothed in elegant stufts, made of bark, which reached from the breast to the calf of the leg. They had wooden idols, and boats which held forty people. The air was so dry that linen hung out during the night collected no humidity. The "white fruit" of Mendana seems to have been the bread fruit. The Marquesas do not difler from the Society Islands, except that they have not the beautiful fertile plains which encircle the latter, the hills extending to the margin of the sea. The coral reefs are less extensive, and the har- bours which they form are less safe. The soil about tlie bay of Madre de Dios, or Revolution Islands, consists of an ochry clay, and terra puzzolana. The centres of the islands are occupied by piles of rocks resembling ruinous towers. The climate is a little warmer than that of Otaheite. The plants and fruit are nearly the Fruits and same. The younger Forster says, that he nowhere found the bread ^'^°'^' fruit so large and so delicious ; that it was tender as custard, but a little too sweet ; that cocoa nuts however were iarcf The English missionaries, on the contrary, found nothing to eat but cocoa nuts ; poultry and pigs were rare ; the prepared ma- hei, or bread fruit was indhferent ; but the scarcity seemed to them to be only tem- porary.J It is their opinion that, even in the fertile islands, such scarcities are ren- dered frequent by the improvidence of the people. " When they have pork," says Mr. Crook, the missionary, " they eat five or six meals per day ; and after it is finished, content themselves with vegetables and fish." The forests are filled with birds of splendid plumage, resembling those of Ota- heite. The Marquesans excel all the other tribes in the fine proportions of | inhabitants, their forms, and the regularity of their features ; and, if they were free from the tattoo- ino- process, in which the skin is blackened by numerous black punctures, their com- plexion would be nothing more than tawny. The tattooing of the Marquesans, how- ever, is remarkable for its regularity and comparative good taste. § Their hair is of various colours, but never red. Some of the women are almost as white and fair as our European brunettes, and they are less generally tattooed than the men.|| Their waists are bound round with a long piece of tight stuff", the ends of which passing between the thighs, fold back again, and hang to the middle of the leg. But as their stuffs do not bear moisture, they came on board the Missionary ship in a state which reminded the company of mother Eve. The appetite of the goats in the ship was excited at the sight of the green leaves which they wore, so that they were obliged to make an unsuccessful struggle to prevent their bodies from being completely stripped. Tf ' The religious ceremonies are the same as those of Otaheite. Each dis- trict has its JVI())-«i', where the dead are buried under large stones. They have numerous divinities, some of whose names resemble those of the gods of Ota- heite. The women are less subjected to the men than among the Otahcitans. The chiefs indulge in polygamy; they have no great authority among the peo- Manners and pie. These islanders appear in fad to be without laws, and regulated *"*""^*- solely by their customs. The English methodists have undertaken the task of eon- verting these children of nature, by preaching protestantism to them in its austerest • Derbrosses, Hist, de Navig. torn. i. p. 251. Mendana, in the Viajero Universal, xvii. p, 65. f Cook's Second Voyage. + Missionary Voyage, p. 24-4. p. 260, § Langsdorf, Voyage Autour du Monde. See the Annales des Vt)yages, xiv. 257. i Missionary Voyage. 1' Missionary Voyage. Vol. II.— 3 F Religions ce- re niuiiies. 410 BOOK FIFTY-EIGHTH. form. But they do not appear as yet to have succeeded to the same extent as at Otaheo.* • Captain Porter of the United States' Navy, on a voyage made by him in public service, in the years 1812, 1813, and 1814, landed and remained a considerable lime at one of a group of Islands, which he calls Washington's Islands, and of which he took possession in the name of the United States. He states them to have been discovered by Captain Roberts of Boston, in 1792, but that they were seen the preceduig year, (1791) by Captain Ingraham of the same place. The 20th June, 1791, some of them were seen, and their position determined by a Captain Marchand, in the French ship Sollde. Lieutenant Hergert of the British Navy, saw them on the 30th March, 1792, examined their coasts, projected a chart, and described tJiem. The French Navigator called them the Jievolution Islands. They had been, however, some months before fallen in with, discovered and named by the Americans, and Captain Mar- chand had obtained a knowledge of this fact at Canton. One of them called by the natives llooa- liooga, was named by Captain Koberts, Adams' Island, another Nooalieevah, named by Captain Porter, Madison's Island. Captain Porter describes very particularly the productions of the isl- ands, and the customs and manners of the people. His account chiefly relates to Nooaheevah, or Madison's Island. He found a bay which lie says Is one of the finest in the world, and which he named Massachusetts Bay. It affords safe anchorage, good shelter and landing, and conve- nient watering places. You may choose your depth of water from four to thirty fathoms, clear, sandv bottom. The people are very brave and Intellig-ent, seemed to be little frightened by fire-.arms, and resisted in the battles which took place with the marines, to the last extremity, 'ihe men were described to be of larger stature than those of Europe, and of fine manly forms, and the women very handsome. Notwithstanding a white man who was found among them, insisted they were cannibals. Captain P. after the strictest Inquiry and observation, did not be- lieve they were, and thinks the charge against them was founded In mistake. The object of greatest value with them was whales-teeth. Captain P. -says that a ship of 300 tons may be loaded at these islands with sandal wood for ten whales-teeth of a large size. For these the natives will cut it, bring It from the distant mountains, and take it on board the ship ; and this cargo In Ciiina would be worth one million of dollars. The whales-teeth are used as ornaments. They were prizcfl by the natives beyond every thing they had seen In the ship. The number of warrlurs wliich can be sent Into the field inchidlng all the tribes, which are eight, amounts to 19,200 men. Tliey eat raw fish. Tiielr religion appeared to be a mere ridiculous amusement ; ihey played with their gods, as children with their dolls ; but their priest being asked, whether according to their belief, the body was translated to the other world, or only the spirit ? after a considerable pause, replied, that the flesh and bones went to the earth, but all within went to the sky. The country abounds in hogs, cocoa nuts, bananas, bread-fruit, tarra, and sugar cane. The natives are in the practice of castrating the boars. Hogs are called bonarka, or rather povarka, a name which Ca))tain I*, rationally concludes they must have derived from some intercourse with the Spaniards, they calling the animal purca. The bread-fruit is eaten baked, boiled or roasted, and was greatly preferred by many of the crew to their soft bread, which it somewhat resembled in taste, but was much sweeter. Captain P. speaks in the highest terms of the honesty of these people. The utmost harmony prevails among- them ; they live like affectionate brethren of one family, and in the scramble for the articles thrown among them, the contention seemed to be, not who should get the most for himself, but who should get the most that they might afterwards have the pleasure of in front. The art of swimming is quite familiar to them. They glide tlirougli the water with uncommon vigour, nimbleness, and dexterity. On the slightest occasion they quit their boats, plunge under water, and emerge along side of another boat at a distance. Women carrying children on the breast have been seen to commit themselves to the waves, when the strength of the surf would not suffer them to land in their boats. They will make a long stretch in swimming with- out hurting their tender charge. Here, as at Otaheite, there is a su- ( Government, preme chief at the head of the government, called Eri-Taboo, whose funeral, when he dies, is honoured by the sacrifi.ce of two of his subjects, and sometimes of a great size, and when roasted, tastes like a cliesnut. Also an apple, in shape and colour resembling a red pepper. It is aqueous, and cooling', but ratiier insipid, though the natives are very fond of it. It has a hard round stone in tlic centre. There is also a fruit resembling' a wahiut, and producing much oil. They are used as candles, and give a brilliant light, but one will not burn more tlian two minutes. There is also a hard black wood called toa, wliich receives a jiolish etiual to ivory. The language of tiic natives is not copious : a few words serve to express all they wish to say. Captain P. gives a few words which have so great a variety of meaning, that they must be constantly liable to misappreliension. Captain Porter, 13th Nov. 1813, made a formal declaration of his taking possession of tliese islands on the part of the United States, and received the submission o( the natives as founded on priority of discovery, conquest, and possession, which could not be disputed. lie complains greatly of Marchand's pretensions on the part of the French, as being wholly un- founded. Nooaheeva, lat. 8° 54' S. Long. 140° 25' 45" W. Kooahooga, 9° 5' 139° 10' 15". Or by Vancouver, 8° SO', [Pful. Ed. Art of swim- ming. 412 BOOK FIFTY-EIGHTH. number. The subjects are divided into three classes, the Eris, or district chiefs; the proprietors, who have no pohtical power; and the Tootoos, who have neither rank nor property. These degrees of rank are hereditary. Captain Vancouver says, that the king of OwaVhee declared himself vassal to the king of Great Britain. Climate. | The climate of these islands seems to be more temperate than that of the American islands in the same latitude. The clouds are attracted by the moun- tains of Owaihee, and the rain refreshes the interior, while the sun shines on the sea- shore. The wind generally blows from the east, and there are regular refreshing- sea and land breezes. Mountains. | Moonakoa mountain, rises to a prodigious height. Anderson esti- mates it at 18,000 feet, but his calculation is vague and exaggerated.* La Perouse found the soil of the island of Mowee composed of the powder of lava, and other volcanic substances."]" Vancouvre gives a representation of a pretended volcanic crater at Owa'ihee. Animals. | Here as in all similarly situated countries, the quadrupeds are very few in number, consisting only of pigs, dogs, and rats. The dogs are of the same species with those of Otaheite. They have short bent legs, long backs, and straight ears. The birds seem very numerous, but the species not greatly diversified. There are large white pigeons, owls, the common water fowl, and a species of whis* tling plover. These islands produce sugar canes of extraordinary size, potatoes, bread-fruit trees, bananas, cocoas, and sandal wood. All these productions how- ever, are less abundant than in the southern islands. The plantations are kept in admirable order. The waters used for irrigating the fields are managed by means of ditches and aqueducts. T Particular The first view of the island of Mowu appeared quite enchanting to M. islands. ^^ ^^ Porouse. The water fell in cascades from the sides of the moun- tains, and a thousand rivulets watered a coast which was so covered with houses, that a space of eight or ten miles seemed to be one continued village. But the habitable part was only about three miles broad, and the south and west presented nothing to the eye but steep and barren rocks. § Morotoi, to the west-north-west of Mowu, is destitute of wood, and its chief produce is yams. It has neither freshwater nor good anchorage. II Ranai contains some fertile districts. Woahoo seems to be one of the most fertile and most beautiful islands of this archipelago. The inhabitants of the island of Atowi excel their neighbours in the skill with which they manage their plan- tations. In the low districts, these plantations are intersected by deep and regular ditches. The hedges are exceedingly neat, and almost elegant. The roads across them would, for completeness, do honour to European engineers. IT But the fine plantations which Cook admired have been horribly devastated. Beautiful pines are carried hither by the Ocean, and formed into canoes by the inhabitants.** * Cook's Third Voyage. f Voyage de La Perouse, t. ii. p. 125. + Vancouver. Manuel Quimper, in the Mercurio Peruano, vi. p. 2, &c. § Cook's Third Voyage, La Perouse, t. ii. p. 3. Vancouver. II Vancouver. '^ Cook. •» Vancouver. OCEANICA — POLYNESIA. 413 Table of the Geographical Positions of Eastern Oceanica, or Polynesia. Places. Marian Islands. Assumption Island - Tini^ (island) - - Guam harbour - - Sulphur Island - - - - Caroline Archipelago. Palaos, or Pelew Islands. < The Thirteen Islands, (the most southerly) - - - The Twenty-nine Islands dis- covered by the Pala frigate Yap Lamurca ------ Hogoloo ------ The Mulgraves. Hooper's Island - - - - Maslar Islands - - - - South Point of the Mulgraves Calvert Islands - - - . St. Augustine - - - - Rotumahoo or Taumaco - Feyjee Archipelago, &c. Duff's Reef Hemskerk Shallows - - Turtle Island - - - - Archipelago of the Friendly Islands. Tongataboo, (French obser- (vatory ------ Eooa or Middleburg Island Pylstaert Anamoka or Rotterdam - - Tofoa Latt6 Vavao or Mayorca - - - Amargura ------ Latitude. deg. rain, lec, 19 45 ON 14 55 13 26 24 48 6 8 20 7 16 3 30 10 8 25 9 3 OS. 1 42 ON 5 58 8 58 5 30 12 29 OS, 16 30 17 19 19 48 Long. E. or W from London. deg. min. sec. 145 35 30 E, 146 141 12 134 135 36 1} 144 30 156 20 138 30 149 158 5 173 43 175 1 170 3 171 41 177 50 176 57 180 41 179 45 OW. Home Island - - - - Enfant Perdu, (the same?) VVallis'o Island - - - Isle of Cocoas - - - Authorities. La Perouse. Wallis. Crozet. Gore and King. Wilson's Chart. Wilson. Spanish Journals. Arrowsmith's Map. Idem. Idem. Gilbert and Marshall. Idem. Idem. Idem. Maurelli, (doubtful.) Edwards. Wilson. Tasman, (longitude too far east.) Cook. 21 7 35 175 19 11 Rossel. 21 16 30 174 50 Cook. 22 26 175 58 45 Idem. 20 15 174 47 47 Idem. Tasman. 19 45 175 5 45 La Perouse. 18 14 174 54 45 Idem. 18 34 173 54 45 Idem. Maurelli. 18 175 9 45 Idem. Idem. 14 18 178 IS 45 Wilson and Burney. 14 22 176 42 45 Bougainville. 13 22 176 15 30 Edwards. 15 50 176 21 45 Burney and Schooten 414 BOOK FIFTY- EIGHTH. Table of Geographical Positions, <^c. — conliimed. Navigator's Archipelago. Opoon (east point) - . - Leone (south point) - - - Fanfoofe (east point) - - - Maoona (idem) - - - - Oyolava (NNE. point) - - Calinasse (N. point) - - - Pola (west point) - - - - Palmerston Island - - - Mangiea Places. Austral Islands. Tobooai - - - - Oparo - - - - - Pitcairn Island - - Ducie - - - - - Easter Island - - - Society Islands. Otaheite (Venus point) - - Idem, Port Oaitepiha Maitea ------- Eimeo ------- Idem ------- Huaheine ------ Ulitea Borabora ------ Lord Howe's Island - - - Scilly Island Low Isalnds, or The Dan GERous Archipelago. Whitsunday Island - - - Quatre Facardins - - - Idem ------- The Harp or Bow - - - The Chain - - - - - Isle of Dogs - - - - - Sondergrond or Sansfond* - Waterland - Isle of Fhes St. Simon's Island - - - St. Quintin's Island - - - King George's Island - - Carlshof 14 14 14 Latitude. in. sec. 9 lOS. 53 23 7 5 14 16 40 13 51 5 13 45 13 32 18 4 21 57 23 25 27 36 25 2 24 40 30 27 S 13 17 29 17 17 46 28 17 53 17 30 16 43 16 46 16 27 16 46 16 28 19 26 18 47 18 23 17 23 15 12 14 46 15 20 17 25 17 30 18 18 14 27 30 15 45 Long-. E, or W, from London. deg. min. sec. 169 35 W, 169 16 7 169 18 12 170 1 17 171 41 48 171 48 18 172 34 15 162 9 45 157 22 45 148 144 16 45 17 132 25 45 124 39 15 109 43 16 149 33 149 15 148 9 147 15 9 45 149 29 45 151 6 45 38 45 52 45 154 12 45 155 24 45 151 151 138 138 138 39 45 141 11 45 145 53 45 136 49 45 3 45 10 144 147 32 135 22 136 40 137 16 144 56 145 15 Authorities. La Perouse. Idem. Idem. Idem. Idem. Idem. Idem. Cook. Idem. Idem. Idem. Carteret. Edwards. Cook. La Perouse. Fleurieu. Wales. Idem. Idem. Cook. Wilson. Cook's Chart. Idem. Idem. Walhs. Idem. Idem. Bougainville. Fleurieu. Cook. Idem. Burney. Idem. Idem. Bocnechea.| Idem. Wilson.;}; Byron and Cook. Fleurieu. • The loni^itude of all these islands, discovered by Lemaire and Schooten, is uncertain. But the results of Burney's learned calculations, in his History of Discoveries deserve a place here. t A Spanish navigator, not much to he depended on. + The learned M. Zinimermann, in liis Australia, thinks that the Isle de Serle is probably the same with St. Uuintin. OCEANICA POLYNESIA. Table of Gcop;rapliical Positions, ^c. — continued. 415 Places. Palliscr's or Destructive Isl- ands ------- Oanna, or the Labyrinth Prince of Wales's Islands - Idem. ------- Marquesas Islands. Chanal Island - - - - - Isle of Masse - - - - - The Two Brothers, (or Her- gest's rocks) - - - - IVooaheeva, (or Sir Henry Martin's Island) - - - Rioo (or Roahooga) - - - Idem ------- Marchand (Trevanian Island, or Ropoa) - - - - - Hood's Island, or Tebooa - Hominique or Ohivaroa - - Santa Christina, or Ohitahoo San Pedro, or Onatea - - La Madalena, or Ohitoa - Roggewyn's Archipelago, &c. Bauman Island (conjectural) Tienhoven and Groningen (do.) ■ Penrhyn ----.. St. Bernard Island - - ■ Idem ------- Islands of Danger - - • Christmas or Noel Island • Palmyras ------ Barbadoes ------ Sandwich islands. Owa'ihee, Karakakoabay Ibid. Tyatatoa bay - - • INIorotai (east point) - - ■ Woahoo, White-lee bay - Atooi, Whymoa bay - - Oneehoo, Yam bay - - - Necker Island - - - - Shallows discovered by the French frigates - - - Longitude. ileg. min. sec. 15 26 OS, 15 38 15 7 8 51 8 51 8 9 8 9 9 9 9 9 10 54 5 50 21 26 40 37 55 30 58 25 30 12 10 10 9 10 10 20 10 10 10 15 1 58 ON, 5 56 ON, 8 40 ON, 19 18 19 37 30 21 4 20 16 47 21 57 30 21 50 23 34 Long. E. or W. from London (leg. rain, sec 146 30 OW. 149 151 47 45 148 12 5 140 16 15 140 29 140 34 15 140 25 45 139 10 15 140 6 45 138 48 45 139 2 15 139 9 5 138 50 45 138 48 45 154 9 45 157 157 44 45 161 9 45 157 41 45 165 9 45 157 31 45 162 24 45 177 Authorities. 156 156 5 15 23 45 156 49 45 158 50 5 159 50 30 14 45 31 45 160 164 165 49 45 Cook and Fleurieu. Fleurieu. TurnbuU. Byron.* Fleurieu. Idem. Marchand. Idem. Idem. Idem. Vancouver. Fleurieu. Cook. Bailey and Wales. Cook's Astronomer. Idem. Idem. Fleurieu, Idem. Severn and Watts. i'" Mcndana. Quiros. Fleu lieu. Burney. Byron. J Cook. Idem, Vancouver. Idem. Idem. Idem, Cook. La Pcrousc. Idem. • Cook found that Byron placed King George's Islands too far west ; and that error must have influenced the position of llie Prince of Wales's Islands, discovered on the following day. f This recent discovery iiappily supports Fleurieu's hypothesis on Roggewyn's Archipelago. + According to IJurney this island is identical with St. Bernard. Others would make it that of the Gerito Jlenmsa «f Quiros; but this htst must be nearer Taumaco or Kotuma. 416 BOOK FIFTY-NINTH. BOOK LIX. AFRICA. ,3. General View of this Division oj the World and its Inhabitants. Beginning with the west of Asia, the ancient cradle of history, we have gone over the whole of that great continent to its eastern limits, which were unknown to tlie ancients. We then embarked on the Great Ocean, and visited the numerous and interesting islands of Oceanica, a part of the world entirely new, and which might be viewed as an immense archipelago annexed to Asia. Fronting Oceanica on the west, a vast peninsula^oes off from the body of the Asiatic Continent. This peninsula forms likewise one of the great divisions of the world, and one which is particularly well characterized. Africa, on the description of which we are now to enter, will not present to us a new and unlocked for territory, where the European traveller, falling in with a numerous succession of feeble savage tribes, gives to his discoveries names borrowed from the recollections of his native country. Africa, Afiica little the shores of which, our ships have been for three centuries in the habit known. ^^ coasting, has been known to history for 3000 years. Yet, notwith- standing its ancient celebrity, and notwithstanding its vicinity to Europe, it still, in a great measure, eludes the examination of science. It was from the African shores that the Egyptian colonies, in the most remote times, brought to savage Europe the first germs of civilization. At the present day, Africa is the latest portion of the old world to receive from the hands of the Europeans the salutary yoke of legisla- tion and of culture. If Africa has remained so long inaccessible to the ambition of conquerors, to commercial enterprise, and to the curiosity of travellers, we shall find, in its physi- cal form, the principal cause of its obscurity. A vast peninsula, 5000 miles in length, and nearly 4C00 in breadth, presents, in an area of nearly 13,430,000 square miles, Seas and gulfs. | few long or easily navigated rivers. Its harbours and roadsteads seldom afford a safe retreat for vessels, and no gulf or inland sea opens the way to the inte- rior of this mass of countries. The Mediterranean on the north, by which it is sepa- rated from Europe, and the Atlantic and Ethiopic Oceans, which encompass it on the west, form inconsiderable inequalities in the line of coast to which the name of gulfs is improperly given, viz. the Gulf of Guinea in the south, and that of the Syrtes in the north, both held in dread by navigators. The breadth of the continent, between the bottoms of these gulfs, is still 1800 miles. The coasts of Senegal and Guinea, indeed, present several mouths of rivers accompanied with islands ; and were it not for the barbarous character of the people, these would be the most accessible parts of Africa. To the south, however, the continent resumes its usual appearance, and terminates in a mass of land without any deep windings. To the east a number of islands, and some mouths of rivers, seem to promise a readier access. The coast washed by the Indian Ocean lies low, like the opposite shores of Guinea, but we find only a sliort way in the interior the formidable terrace of arid mountains which forms the eastern extremity of the continent. In the north-east the Arabian Gulf separates Africa from Asia, without breaking the gloomy uniformity of the African coast. Pioraontories. | This large continent has its outline marked by four great promontories. Cape Serra in the north projects into the Mediterranean. Cape de Verd points due west into the American Sea. Cape Guardafui receives the first rays of the rising sun. The Cape of Good Hope makes a long excursion into the southern hemis- phere. On three other remarkable points Africa comes close up to the rest of the old straits. 1 continent. In the north-west the narrow Strait of .Gibraltar divides it Configuration of the moun- tains. AFllICA. 417 from Europe. In the east Arabia is separated from it by the Strait of Babel-mandeb. In the north-east the low sandy Isthmus of Suez connects it with Asia. | isthmu*. In some parts excessively parched, in others marshy or flooded, the soil | Rivers, of Africa presents strange contrasts. At great mutual distances are some large and beneficent rivers, as the Nile in the north-east, the Senegal and Gambia in the west, the Zaire in the south-west, the Cuama on the east coast ; and, in the centre, the mysterious Niger, which conceals its termination as the Nile used to conceal its origin. More frequently we find small and short streams, such as all the rest, with the exception of ten or twelve, almost all containing cataracts in their course, and presenting bars or sand banks at their mouths. In the interior, and even on the roast, there are great and lofty rocks, from which no torrents proceed ; and table- lands watered by no streams, as the great desert of Zahara, and others of minor extent. At a greater distance are countries constantly impregnated with moisture, as those which contain the lake or marsh of Wangara, and the lake Maravi, and some temporary lakes occasioned by the rising of the rivers. These features con- stitute the hydrography of this part of the world. When we attend to the structure of the mountains, other singularities come into view.* Though Africa very probably has mountains high enough to be covered with perennial snow even under the equator, that is, 16,000 feet in elevation, it is, in general, to be remarked, that the African chains are more distinguished for their breadth than for their height. If they reach a great elevation, it is by a gradual rise, and in a succession of terraces. Perhaps, we should not de- viate far from truth if we were to venture the assertion, that the whole body of the African mountains forms one great plateau, presenting toward each coast a succes- ,sion of terraces. This nucleus of the African continent seems to contain few long and high ranges in the interior, so that if the sea were to rise three or four miles above its present level, vVfrica, stript of all the low lands which line its shores, would perhaps appear almost a level island in the midst of the ocean. None of the known chains of Africa are adverse to this view of its surface. Atlas, which lines nearly the whole of the north coast, is a series of five or six small chains, rising one behind another, and including many tablelands. The "littoral chain of the Red Sea," or the Troglodytic Chain, re- sembles Atlas in its calcareous steeps, so imposing to the eye of the traveller, yet really of very moderate height. The Lupata Chain, "or the Spine of the world," which seems to reach from Cape Guardafui to the Cape of Good Hope in a direction not well known, contains the plateaus of Adel and Mocacanga; it terminates in the south in high and barren plains, called the Karros, and in steep mountains with flat summits, one of which has received the significant name of the Tal)le mountain. This chain seems then to resemble the preceding two. The rivers of Guinea de- scend in a series of cataracts, not in long and deep valleys. It is the usual character of calcareous mountains to be formed into terraces, and such seems to be the nature of the Kong mountains. There is just one fact which may be opposed to us with some appear- ance of reason. We are told that "a very high central chain crosses Africa from east to west, beginning at Cape Guardafui and ending about Cape Sierra Leone : comprehending the Kong mountains and tlie Mountains of tlie Moon, which lie to the south of Abyssinia." But the extension thus given by Major Rennel to the Mountains of the Moon, would not be inconsistent with the views now given. Africa would still be a plateau consisting of terraces ; the plateau would only be cut in two by a sort of wall. But we do not, by any jneans, admit the existence of that high central chain. It is true that the nucleus of mountains which gives origin to the rivers Senegal, the Gambia, the Mesurada, and the Joliba or Niger, gives oflT, among other branches, one which has an easterly direction, and which partly sepa- rates the basin of the Niger from the coast of Guinea. This is the chain called the Mountains of Kong, on the southern declivities of which rise the Rio-Volta and • See the views of thevcelebraled M. I.acepede, in the Annales dti Miineiim d'Hi^it. Nat, vol. vi. p. 284. Vol.. II.— 3 G Mountain chains. On the exis- tence of a central chain. Reasons against itt existence. 418 nOOK VIFTY-NIXTII. some other rivers of Guinea. But tlic learned Rennel has stretched his conjectures too far, in pretending to connect this chain to that of the Mountains of the Moon on the south of Abyssinia. May not these mountains be lost ia the central plateau of south-eastern Africa? or, if they are extended to the west, may they not terminate about Cape Gonsalvo, opposite to St. Thomas's Island? The following facts render this supposition very probable. At Darfoor, the south winds are the hottest and driest, and bring along with them clouds of dust. This shows that there is no hich chain of mountams immediately to the south, near Darfoor. The Mountains of the Moon must be removed farther to the south and to the east, and the south winds of Dar- foor must sweep over a sandy, though, perhaps, somewhat elevated plain. The passages of Ptolemy and Leo Africanus, which seem to describe a central chain, prove nothing. The first of these authors mentions several detached moun- tains without saying any thing of their extent. Leo says that the inhabitants of Wan- gara cross very high mountains when they go in search of gold dust. But the posi- tion of these mountains is not defined any more than the country of Zegzeg, the inhabitants of which require large artificial fires to protect them from the cold.* Even Major Rennel thinks that the mountains last referred to must lie to the north of the Niger. The prodigious numbers of slaves which come to Benin show that there is an open and easy communication with the interior. The slaves of the Ibbo nation perform a journey of seven months over forests and morasses. | It is even probable that, in the sixteenth century, the king of Benin was subject to the king of Ghana, a city situated on the Niger,;]] a circumstance which implies easy inland communications. Is it not also probable that the Niger, or some other river from the interior, flows into the most easterly corner of the Gulf of Guinea? Such large gulfs as this have generally some great river falling into their further extremity. The rivers which traverse Benin and Calabar seem to be arms of some great river. We are indeed told, that this appearance of great size is confined to the low lands immediately on the shore, but we have hitherto no accounts from any traveller who has actually as- cended them, and the hypothesis has been advanced and plausibly supported, that the Niger terminates here. The principle which we have now defended is susceptible of some in- teresting applications. If Africa is one immense flat mountain, rising on all its sides by steps or terraces, we easily conceive that it will not give origin to such narrow pointed peninsulas, or such long chains of islands, as those by which other continents are terminated. These peninsulas and chains of islands are sub- marine prolongations of the mountain chains extended across the continents. In Africa, nothing similar appears, excepting the Canary islands. The mountains lying parallel to the coast have scarcely any submarine continuation. A sea, clear of isl- ands, washes a coast marked by an even, unnotched line. The great island of Ma- dagascar, on the east, is not a prolongation of the continent, but follows a direction parallel to that of the coast. Plains and ta- If WO tum our attention to the interior of Africa, the same principle bie lands. makes its appearance in the vast plains which occupy the greater part of its extent. Some covered with sand and gravel, with a mixture of sea shells, and incrusted with crystallizations, look like the basins of evaporated seas. Such is the famous desert of Zahara, wlierc the sands, moving like the waves of the ocean, are said to have sometimes swallowed up entire tribes. Others, of a marshy nature, and filled with stagnant lakes, emit eflluvia the most destructive to human life, or breed disgusting jeptiles, and formidable animals of huge size. Nei- ther in the one nor the other do rivers find descent or outlet. They either terminate in lakes, or lose themselves beneath the sand. Many of the slen- der rivulets never unite to form permanent currents, but disappear with the rainy season, to which they owe their origin. Africa contains an infinite number of these * Leo Africanus, p. 329, da la Traduction de Jean Temporal. f Oldemlorp. See our Account of (iuinea, in the sequel, t IJarros, Dec. i. liv. 2, ch. 4. Why has Af- rica few isl- ands ? Kivors with- out uutiels. AiiacA. 419 torrents and rivers which never reach the sea. Some of them have a long course, and rival the greatest rivers in the world. Such is the Niger or Joliba, unless it has tin outlet, as yet unknown, in the Gulf of Guinea. After it come the Bornou and the KuUah ; the Misselad in Nigritia; and the Djedyd, in the Zab country, belong- ing to the Algerine States. Many of these rivers must form lakes or small inland seas, probably equalling tiie sea of Aral. The heat which rapidly dries up the waters, the bibulous quality of the soil which absorbs Ihem, and, still more, the absence of great inequalities, or extensive hollows, prevents the African table land from possessing another Caspian Sea. Lake Maravi gives some reason to suppose that there may be a second Niger in the interior of Eastern Africa. The other rivers of this continent, such as the Senegal, the Gam- f^v.^^^.'^f^f bia, the Zaire, and the Orange river on the western shores, the Zam- tiie livers. bczi, or Cuama, and the Makadshec on the east coasts, and lastly the Nile, which surpasses the others, and which is the only one that runs north into the Mediterra- nean, all possess a character of resemblance depending partly on the climate of the torrid zone, and partly on the structure of the plateaus in the heart of Africa. One conspicuous character consists in the periodic swells, by which these rivers over- flow the countries through which they pass, and particularly those by which their mouths are surrounded. These risings dilFer in nothing from the floods of our Eu- ropean streams, except in their regular annual return, in the large volume of water which they bring along with them, and the great quantity of mud which they depo- sit. It is well known that the rainy season, which, over the whole torrid zone, is synchronous with the vertical position of the sun, brings on almost continual drench- ing rains. The heavens, formerly binning like a flame, are transformed into a great atmospheric ocean. The copious waters which they pour down collect on the table lands of the interior, where they form immense sheets of water, or temporary lakes. When these lakes have reached a level high enough to overflow the boundaries of their basins, they suddenly send down into the rivers, previously much swollen, an enormous volume of water, impregnated with the soft earth over which it has for some time stagnated. Hence the momentary pauses and sudden renewals in the rise of the Nile. Hence the abundance of fertilizing slime, which would not be found so copious in the waters of rivers which owed their rise solely to the direct influence of the rains. These phenomena, simple in their origin, only astonish per- sons who have observed the eflxicts without tracing their cause. The general climate of Africa is that of the torrid zone; more than | climate, three fourths of this continent, (ten thirteenths at least) being situated betwixt the tropics. The great mass of heated air, incumbent on these hot regions | Temperature, has ready access to its northern and southern parts, situated in the zones called tem- perate, so that the portions of them adjoining the tropics are equally torrid with the regions actually intertropical. Nothing really moderates the heat and dryness of the African climate, except the annual rains, the sea breezes, and the elevation of the surface. These three circumstances are sometimes united in a greater degree under the equator than in the temperate zones. Such parts of the interior of Guinea, Nigritia, or Abyssinia, as fall under this description, enjoy a temperature much less scorching and dry than the sandy deserts on the south of Mount Atlas, though the last are thirty degrees from the equator. It is not impossible that in the centre of Africa there may be lofty table lands like that of Quito, or valleys like the valley of Cashmere, where, as in those two happy regions, spring holds an eternal reign. There is another general cause which influences the climate of Africa less than might be expected. The greatest cold of the southern hemisphere is only apparent on the southern shores, and is confined to a very small portion of the year. The saline and arid character of the lands of the southern extremity resembles, in some measure, that of the coasts of Zaara and of Ajan. Nowhere do the empire of fertility and that of barrenness come into contrasts of closer contact than in Africa. Some of its lands owe their fertility to '«-'"''")■• high wooded mountains moderating the heat and dryness of the atmosj)here. More frequently the fertile countries, bounded by vast deserts, form narrow stripes along 420 BOOK FIFTY-NINTH. the banks of the rivers, or alluvial plains situated at their place of exit. These last countries, generally contained between two branches of the river diverging to form a triangle, have, from their figure, received a name taken from Delta, the fourth let- ter of the Greek alphabet, Avhich is a triangle. The term has been, by way of emi- nence, given to the Hat island formed by the Nile in Lower Egypt. Another class of fertile lands owes its existence to springs, which here and there burst forth in the midst of deserts. These spots of verdure are called Oases. Even Strabo men- tions them, when he says, " To the south of Atlas lies a vast desert of sand and stones, which, hke the spotted skin of a panther, is here and there diversified by oases ; that is to say, by fertile grounds, rising like islands in the midst of the ocean." It is to these contrasts that Africa owes her twofold reputation. This land of perpetual thirst, this arid nursery of lions,* as it was called by the ancients, was, at the same time, represented under the emblem of a woman crowned with ears of corn, General view qj. holding cars of com in her hand-j Although the character of high don. ^^^^ *' fertility belongs especially to the Africa propria of the ancients, that is, the present state of Tunis, it is certain that in this part of the world, wherever mois- ture is conjoined with heat, vegetation displays great vigour and magnificence. The human species find abundant aliment at a very insignificant expense of labour. The corn stalks bend under their load ; the vine attains a colossal size ; melons and pumpkins acquire enormous volume ; millet and holcus, the grain which is most common over three-fourths of this continent, though badly cultivated, yield a return of two hundred fold ; and the date tree, which is to the African what the cocoa nut and the bread fruit are in Oceanica, can withstand the fiery winds which assail it from the neighbouring deserts. The forests of Mount Atlas are equal to the finest of Italy and Spain. Tliose of the Cape boast of the silver leaved Prolea, and some elegant trees. In the whole of Guinea, Senegambia, Congo, Nigritia, and the east- ern coast, formerly denominated India, are to be found the same thick forests as in America. But in parts which are marshy or arid, sandy or rocky, that is, in one half of Africa, the natural vegetation presents a harsh and uncouth physiognomy. Scattered tufts of saline plants diversifying a plain which has no green sod to clothe its nakedness, — thorny shrubs. Mimosas, and Acacias, present impenetrable thickets. Euphorbirc, Cacti, and arums, tire the eye with their stifl' and pointed forms. The enormous baobab, and the shapeless dragon tree, are void of grace and majesty. The fruit of the theobroma, finding its way outward through the bark of the trunk, a bark of a blackened and scorched appearance, seems affected by the same power of solar heat which has impressed the most sombre hues on the skin of the negro. AnimaU. | The animal kingdom presents still greater variety, and more origina- lity. Africa possesses most of the animals of the old continent, and in some species possesses the most vigorous and the most beautiful varieties. Such are the horse of Barbary, the Cape buffalo, the Senegal mule, and the zebra, the pride of the asi- nine race. The African lion is the only lion worthy of the name. The elephant and the rhinoceros, though of less colossal dimensions than those of Asia, have more agiUty, and perhaps more ferecity ; yet the African elephant is said to fly at the sight Pecuriarani- of that of Asia. Several very singular animal forms appear to be pecu- mai forms. jj^j. j^ ^j^jg pg^^j. ^^ ^\^^ world. The unwieldy hippopotamus inhabits the south, from the Cape of Good Hope, to Egypt and to Senegal. The majestic girafl^e the prototype of the Seraphim which the Arabian mythology yoked in the chariot of the lord of thunder, roams from the Niger to the Orange River. The gazelle, or antelope genus, peoples Africa with numerous species and varieties, some lighter and handsomer than others, and perhaps all ditferent from those of the table-land of Asia. Following the same principle, Africa, filled with monstrous apes and disgust- ing baboons, is probably deficient in many species of monkeys which seem reserved for Oceanica, as the ourang-outang; or for America, as the sapajoo. The winged race of Africa is equally peculiar. The flamingo, in his scarlet robe, the paroquet, clad in emerald and sapphire hues, the aigretta, of elegant plumage, might have irn- * "Sitientes Afros." — Virgil. Leonum arida nutrix, f Bochart, Canaan, i. ch.25. AFRICA. 421 parted sufficient interest to the descriptive pen of Vaillant, though lie liad added no imaginary birds. The ostrich is pccuhar to Africa, as the cassowary is to Oceanica, and the rhea, or tooyoo, to South America; but, among the walking birds, or those which have no true wings, that of Africa is the largest and most perfect. We re- serve for our special delineations other researches, which will confirm the old adage, " that Africa was always furnishing natural history with some new animal ;" — re- searches which will give a probability to the existence of some extraordinary animals, celebrated in all the writings of antiquity, while modern criticism, perhaps too scep- tical, has assigned them a place among the creations of fable. The inconveniences and calamities occasioned by venomous or voracious reptiles, are not peculiar to Africa; the whole torrid zone has its serpents, its scorpions, its crocodiles, or other equivalent species. But no where else, except in New Holland, do the termites build so many destructive nests. The swarms of locusts of Asia arc much less thick and extensive than those of Africa, where whole tribes of men use them as tood. Man. Three African races. lurope and To conclude our picture, we find the human species in this part of the Avorld exhibited in a new lii ir- «.i i i- course. sourcos iroui the research ot science. At least, scarcely any tlung more of them is known to us now than was known in the time of Eratosthenes. Tliat learned librarian of Alexandria distinguished tliree principal branches of the Nile. Tlic most easterly was the Tacaze of the moderns, which ffowed down the nortli side of the table land of Abyssinia. The second known branch, or the Blue River, first makes a circuit on the table land of Ayssinia, and then flows down through the plains of Sennaar, or of Fungi. The sources of this Blue River were found and described by the Jesuits, Paez and Tellez, two centuries before the pretended di.'^covery of Bruce. These two rivers are tributaries to the White river, the Bahr-el-Abiad, which is the true Nde, and the sources of which must lie in the countries to the south of Darfoor. These countries are, according to the report of a Negro, named Dar-cl- Ahiad. The mountains from which it issues are called Dyre and Tcgla; and pro- bably form part of the Al-Quamar mountains, or tlie mountains of the Moon. As it seems proved that travellers have passed by water from Tonibuctoo to Cairo, thp Niger must fall into the Nile, and be really the Nile itself; or there must be inter- Cataracts of the Nile. YMef of the Nile. EGYPT. 425 niediato rivers, forming between the Nile and Niger a communication ,^^",'"heNiie resembling that which was found by Humboldt, between the Orinoco and Niger. and the Amazons. The lirst hypothesis might seem to be supported by a vague romantic passage of Pliny the naturalist, quoted in our History of Geography.* The other hypothesis is the only one which can reconcile the accounts of persons who have travelled by the way of Tombuctoo, with the positive testimony of Mr. Browne, according to which the rivers Misselad and Bar-Koolla, run from south to north. This fact, which is generally admitted, does not allow us to suppose any other com- munication between the Nile and the Niger, than one which may be formed by ca- nals which, like those of Casiquiari in Guiana, might wind along a table land where the sources of the Misselad and Bar-Koolla are at a short distance from each other, and from those of the Nile. Perhaps some of om* readers will content themselves with supposing that the sources of ail these rivers are sufficiently near to communi- cate by means of temporary lakes during the rainy season. The true Nile, whatever may bo its origin, receives two large rivers from Abyssinia, and then forms an extensive circuit in the country of Dongola by turning to the south-west. At three different places a barrier of moun- tains threatens to interrupt its course, and at each place the barrier is surmounted. The second cataract in Turkish Nubia, is the most violent, and most unnavigable. The third is at Syen€, or Assooan, and introduces the Nile into Upper Egypt. The height of this cataract, singularly exaggerated by some travellers, varies according to the season, and is generally about four or five feet. From Syene to Cairo, the river flows along a valley about eight miles broad, between two mountain ridges, one of which extends to the Red Sea, and the other terminates in the deserts of ancient Libya. The river occupies the middle of the valley, as far as the strait called Gibbel-Silsili. This space, about forty miles long, has very little arable land on its banks. It contains some islands which from their low level easily admit of irrigation. At the mouth of the Gibbel-Silsili, I the Nile runs along the right side of the valley, which in several places has the appearance of a steep line of rock cut into peaks, while the ridge of the hills on the left side is always accessible by a slope of various acclivity. These last mountains begin near the town of Sioot, and go down towards Faioom, diverging gradually to the west, so that between them and the cul- tivated valley there is a desert space, becoming gradually wider, and which in several places is bordered on the valley side by a hne of sandy downs lying nearly south' and north. The mountains which confine the basin of the Nile in tipper Egypt are intersected by defiles which on one side lead to the shores of the Red Sea, and on the other to tho Oases. These narrow passes might be habitable, since the winter rains maintain for a time a degree of vegetation, and form springs which the Arabs use for themselves and tlieir flocks.- The stripe of desert land which generally extends along each side of the valley, parallel to the course of tho Nile, (and which must not be confounded with the bar- ren ocean of sand which lies on each side of Egypt,) now contains two very distinct kinds of land ; tho one immediately at the bottom of tho mountain, consists of sand and round pebbles ; the other, composed of iight drifting sand, covers an extent of ground formerly arable. If a section of the valley is made by a plane ( heyei. perpendicular to its direction, the surface will be observed to decline from the margins of the river to the bottom of the hills, a circumstance also remarked on the banks of the Mississippi, the Po, part of the Borysthenes, and some other rivers. Near Beni-sooef, the valley of the Nile, already much widened on the west, has on that side an opening through which a view is obtained of the fertile plains of Faioom. These plains form properly a sort of table land, separated from the surrounding mountains on the north and west by a wide valley, of • See Book ix. of the History of Geograpliy, t Girard, Mem. sur rEgyntc, t. iii. p. 13, Vol, 11,-3 H Parallel line of mountaini. Basin of Faioom. Plains of tlio Dtlta. 426 BOOK SIXTIETH. whicli a certain proportion, always laid under water, forms what the inhabitants cbJI Birkd-el-Kdroon. Near Cairo, the chains which limit the valley of the Nile diverge on both sides. The one, under the name of Jibbel-al-Nairon, runs north- west towards the Mediterranean; the other, called Jibbel-al-Attaka, runs straight east to Suez. In front of these chains a vast plain extends, composed of sands covered with the mud of the Nile. At the place called Batu-el-Bahara, the river divides into two branches; the one of which flowing to Rosetta, and the other to Daniietta, contain between them the present Delta; but this triangular piece of insulated land was in former times larger, being bounded on the east by the Pelusian branch, which is now choked up with sand or converted into marshy pools. On the west it was bounded by the Canopic branch, which is now pixi-tly confounded with the canal of Alexandria, and partly lost in lake Etko. But the correspondence of the level of the surface with that of the present Delta, and its depression as compared with that of the ad- joining desert, together with its greater verdure and fertility, still mark the limits of the aacient Delta, although irregular encroachments are made by shifting banks of drifting sand, which arc at present on the increase. Mouths. I The dilFcrent ho<^az, or mouths of this great river, have often changed their position, and are still changing it ; a circumstance which has occasioned long dis- cussions among geographers. The following are the most established results. The seven mouths of the Nile, known to the ancients, were, 1. The Canopic mouth, cor- responding to the present mouth of lake Etko ; or according to others, that of the lake of Aboukir, or Maadee; but it is probable, that at one time, it had commimicatious with the sea at both of these places. In that case it is probable that these lakes existed nearly in their present state, except that the Nile flowed through them, and gave them a large proportion of fresh water, instead of the sea water with which they are now fdled. We cannot believe that the bottoms of these lakes were formerly higher, as wo know of no natural process by which surfaces of such breadth could have been subsequently excavated. 2. The Bolbiline mouth at Rosetta. 3. The Sebenitic mouth, probably the opening into the present lake Burlos. 4. The Fhalniiic, or Bucolic at Damietta. 6. The J^endesian, which is lost in the lake Menzaleh, the mouth of which is represented by that of Dib6h. 6. Tlic Tanilic, or Saitic, which seems to leave some traces of its termination to the east of lake Menzaleh, under the modern appellation of Omm-Faredje. The branch of the Nile which conveyed its waters to the sea corresponds to the canal of Mocz, which now loses itself in the lake. 7. The Pclusiac mouth seems to be represented by what is now the most easterly mouth of lake Menzaleh, where the ruins of Pclusium are still visible.* The depth and rapidity of the Nile differ in different places, and at dif- ferent seasons of the year. In its ordinary state, this river carries no vessels exceeding sixty tons burden, from its mouth to the cataracts. The bogaz of Damietta is seven or eight feet deep when tlie waters are low. That of Rosetta does not exceed four or five. When the waters are high, each of them has forty- Navigation. I one feet more, and caravels of twenty-four guns can sail up to Cairc.f The navigation is facilitated in a singular degree during the floods : for, while the stream carries the vessels from the cataracts to the bogaz with great rapidity, the strong northerly winds allow them to ascend the river, by means of set sails, with equal rapidity. These winds are constant for nine months in the year, and, when the river is low, and the stream less rapid, vessels cannot often make their way down- ward even with their sails furled, the wind upward being more powerful than the stream, even under these circumstances. The regular practice at such times is, to row down with the stream during the night when the wind has subsided, and to halt Depth and rapidity. * Mem. sur I'Egypte, i. 165. Compare Dubois-Ayme, Mcmoires sur les Eouches-du-Nil. Livoiu-ne, 1B12. f Description de I'Rgypte, vol. i. Memoire de M. Lepere, sur le canal des deux mcrs, sect, ii. paragr. 5 et 6. EGYPT. 427 somewhere during the day; while the vessels tlmt are upward bound sail by day and halt by night. The passage from Cairo to the Mediterranean, occupies eight or ten days. When both voyages are practicable, it is an interesting sight to see the nume- rous boats passing one another on their way. The bogazes Ere difficult to navigate even during high Nile. The shifting sand-banks create unforeseen dangers over the whole extent of bottom which is liable to them. The cataracts are sometimes passed with, the aid of a little address, combined with courage, the lowest cataract, in parti- cular, being rather a rapid than a waterfall.* The celebrated plains of Egypt would not bo the abode of perpetual I immciauoiis fertility were it not for the swellings of the river, which both impart to j "^ ^'"^ ^'''^• them the requisite moisture, and cover them with fertilizing mud. We now know for certain what the ancients obscurely concluded,! and what was asserted by Agathar- cidcs, Diodorus, Abdolatif, and the Abyssinian envoy, Hadgi Michael, J that the heavy annual rains between the tropics are the solo cause of these floods, common to all the rivers of the toirid zone, and which, in low situations such as Egypt, occa- sion inmidations. The rise of the Nile commences with the summer solstice. The river attains its greatest height at the autumnal equinox, continues stationary for some days, then diminishes at a less rapid rate than it rose. At the winter solstice it is very low, but some water still remains in the large canals. At this period, the lands are put under culture. The soil is covered with a fresh layer of slime of greater or less thickness. The fertility and general prosperity of Egypt depend much on a certain medium in the height to which tho Nile rises in its inundations; too little rise or too much is nearly equally hurtful. In September, 1818, M. Belzoni witnessed a deplorable scene, from tho Nile having risen three feet and a half above tho highest mark left by the former inundation. § It was productive of one of the greatest calamities that had occurred in tho memory of any one living. Rising witli uncommon rapidity, it carried off several villages, and some hundreds of their inhabitants. Expecting an unusual rise, in consequence of the scarcity of water during the preceding season, the inhabitants had erected, as usual, fences of earth and reeds round their villages, to keep the water from their houses, but its force baflled their ctlbrts, and tho rapid stream carried before it men, women, children, cattle, and corn, in a moment. In Upper Egypt, the villages are not raised above the level even of tho ordinary inun- dations, but depend for their safety on artificial fences. When a village is in danger, tho boats are busily employed in removing the corn and the people, the former being first attended to, as more important to the Pasha; and, if the water breaks in before the inhabitants have been placed in security, their only resource is to climb the palm trees, and there wait till a boat comes to their rescue. Those who have it in their power repair with their property to a higher ground, others escape mounted on buf- faloes or cows, or keep themselves afloat on logs of wood. Mr. Belzoni, in the course of his travels, came to the village of Agalta, between Luxor and Cairo, which he found four feet lower than tho surface of tlie suiToimding water ; tho caimakan, or guard, deploring his imminent danger of being swept away from a place in which honour and duty obliged him to remain. Some poor refugees were placed on spots of ground very little raised above the river, which had still twelve days to rise before reaching its utmost height, at which it remained stationary for other twelve. Tho analysis of the mud of the Nile gives nearly one-half of argilla- ceous earth, about one-fourth of carbonate of lime, the remainder con- sisting of water, oxide of iron, and carbonate of magnesia. || On the very banks of the Nile, the mud is mixed with much sand, which it loses in proportion as it is car- ried farther from the river, so that at a certain distance it consists almost of pure argil. This mud is employed in several arts in Egypt. It is formed into excellent bricks, and vessels of divers forms. It enters into the manufacture of tobacco pipes. * Sicard, Nordcn. See iinrticularly Delzoni, vol. ii. p. 119. second edition, t Meiners, llistoire du Nil, dans ses CKuvrcs I'hilosopliiques, p. 80, ^ - t Quoted by Wansleben In an unpublished account of a journey hi Egypt. Collection do Fatdus, i.21. § Uelzoni's Narrative, vol. ii. p. 25—29. J Mdm. sur I'Egypt, i. p. 348, 382. Mud of (he Nile. 428 BOOK SIXTIETH. Glass manufacturers employ it in the construction of their furnaces, and the country people cover their houses with it. This mud contains principles favourable to vege- tation, and the cultivators consider it as sufficient manure. Qualities of the The Salubrity of the water of the Nile, so much extolled among the KUe water. ancients, is acknowledged also by the moderns under certain limitations. Being very light, it may deserve in this respect the character given of it by Maillet, that it is among other waters what Champagne is among wines. If Mahomet had tasted it, the Egyptians say, he would have supplicated heaven for a terrestrial im- mortality, to be enabled to enjoy it to eternity.* It is said to be laxative, owing to certain neutral salts contained in it. But during the three summer months when it is in some places almost stagnant, it requires to be filtered, or otherwise clarified, be- fore it can be used with safety. During the increase of the Nile, it first acquires a green colour, sometimes pretty deep. After thirty or forty days, this is succeeded by a brownish red. These changes are probably owing to the augmentations which it receives from different temporary lakes in succession, or from the waters formed by a succession of rains on the different table lands of the interior of Africa. Nature of die The moutitains on the west side of the Nile seem to consist of lime- '*"^'* stone containing many shells. In those of the east side, serpentine and granite seem to form the highest ridges. The stone of which the pyramid of Cheops, near Djizeh is built, is a fine grained carbonate of lime, of a light brown colour, and easily cut. The red granite, or rather syenite, of the ancient monuments, and which forms the coating of the pyramid called t ^tto toZ tiUKnv, Geogr. lib. xvi. p. 537, ed. Causab. " Amnem qui Arsinoen pi-;e(luit, Ptolemxiim api)ellavit." Plin. iv. p. 29. i This word seems to be Arabic, or from the Hebrew verb n^D, perfodit. § From Aiin, a fountain. 11 Erom jn lower. 1 Kaj-gov, ^gss-zsv. •• Quatremere, Mem. Histor. et Gcograph. i. p. 179. ft KxJj-^ft, irrigation, inundation, sometimes signifies the same, as kku^h^, a gutter, a syringe. Lucian, in the Pseudomantis, speaking of this place, couples with it the article, tw KhCcfAXTo;, i. e. the dam or floodgate. Strabn speaks of a x/.i/roc hu^nroi. -ft Philostorg, Hist. Ecclesiast iii. chap. 6. Vol. II.— 3 K Cause of Pto« lemy'f error. Ancient mea- sures of the breadth of the isthmus. 442 BOOK SIXTY-FIRST. like the port of Suez now, was the point of departure for ships. We have no evi- dence that the new HeroopoHs was on the very shore of the gulf, and that the latter must, therefore, have retired 5790 yards, as Gosselin maintains.* Having shown that the topography of Heroopolis, agreeable to the system of d'Anville, does not lead necessarily to the inference of a change in the shores of the Red Sea, we should now discuss the actual measures which the ancients have left us of the breadth of the isthmus. But our uncertainty respecting the value of the stadium renders the discussion fruitless. If the thousand stadia assigned by Herodotus were Egyptian stadia of 108 yards, they would bring the extremity of the gulf only to the south end of the Bitter Lakes. But these lakes bemg considerably lower than the surface of the water, the latter could not have stopped at this point, where no barrier was presented to it. The 900 stadia of Strabo, and the 817 of Marlnus Tyrius, considered as Egyptian stadia, favour somewhat more the contraction of the isthmus, but without being quite decisive. If we reckon them as stadia of 700 to the degree, these measures support the opinion that the state of the isthmus has not altered. "f" Examination ^g ^g must take every fact into view, we acknowledge that the march in Motes. of the Isrcalites m leavmg Egypt, has furnished an argument for a con- traction of the gulf.| This line of march would appear more probable, if we shoidd suppose that the Red Sea extended as high as Saba-Hbyar ; we should then conceive that this fugitive tribe, coming from the neighbourhood of Abbaseh and of Belbeis, and bending their course to the desert, fell in with the sea in the neighbourhood of Heroopolis, and had, in consequence of an extraordinary tide, or a violent wind, found the isthmus dry, which at present separates the Gulf of Suez from the l>asin of the Bitter Lakes. This view of the matter would be very favourable to an improved interpretation of a passage§ in which the translators have made the author of the Books of Moses say, (Exodus, chap. xiv. verse 22d and 29th) that the waters stood up on the left and on the right of the Israelites like a wall, but where the text only says that the waters were like a wall, or a rampart, on their left and on their right. An army, in fact, passing between the Gulf and the Bitter Lakes would have both flanks covered in this manner. An argument is furnished by the pretended identity of Heroopolis with the Baal-Zephon of the Hebrew text, [j Sephon, or Sophon, we are told, is one of the names of Typhon ; and the city of Cherosh, Heros, or Heroopolis, is the city of Typhon. The Israelites, before passing the sea, en- camped opposite to Baal-Zephon: that town must, therefore, have been only a short way from the shores of the gulf. This argument, drawn from etymology, however, admits of a corresponding reply. Baal-ZephonlT literally signifies "the Lord of the North;" and may be applied to any city to the north of the termination of the gulf opposite to Ajerood, or Hagirood, which to us appears identical with the Hachiroth of Moses. The narrative of the Hebrew legislator, though simple, and carrying conviction along with it, is not sufficiently circumstantial to allow us to entertain a hope of ex- plaining it. The poetic hymn with which it is accompanied, and which contains the most important details, does not admit of a precise interpretation. All the informa- tion that these records give us in physical geography is, that in former times, as in our own, the level of the gulf was liable to considerable variation from the influence of the tides and the winds. • Ilecliercbes sur la Geographie, ii. p. 184. f Kozlere, M^moh-e sur la geographic comparee de I'isthme de Suez. — Description de I'Egypte, vol. i. ^ Baron Gastaz, an unpublished report on the Memou'e of Dubois-Aym^. § Exod. xiv. 22—29. 8 Numbers, chap, xxxiii. v. 7. Exod. chap. xiv. v. 2. J. J. H. Forster, Epist. 28,29. Hennicke, Geogr. Herodoti, p. 72. IT j2i;S;'3. Heroopolis _ is not identical with Baal-Ze- phon. EGYPT. 443 Canal of the two leas. If the isthmus of Suez has not undergone any change within the Kmits of history, particularly no remarkable contraction, if a natural communi- cation between the two seas has never existed within the periods of human record, we know that industry has attempted to open by art, a passage which nature ha|l de- nied. The forming of a canal between the two seas has been the subject of many projects and many discussions. The engineers of the French army of the east as- certained the traces and remains of a canal, with a most satisfactory precision. The canal goes from Balbeis (Viciis Judmorum) on the old Pelusiac branch of the Nile, now the canal of Menedji, to Abbaseh, the ancient Thou. There it enters the narrow valley of Arabes-Tonmylat, the level of which is thirty-two or thirty-three feet lower than that of the Red Sea. Several portions of the bed of the canal are still in such a state as to require nothing except cleaning. It passes on to Abookesheyd, which is considered as identical with the old Heroopolis. The basin of the Bitter Lakes might have been filled at pleasure from the waters of the Nile: beyond this basin, the traces of the canal re-appear in the isthmus which separates the lakes from the Red Sea, and show that the canal was continued the whole way.* But to Antiquity what ago and to what potentate is this great work to be referred? Without °^ *'''' *'°''^' noticing tho fabulous times of Sesostris and Menelaus, there are two kings better known in history, Necho and Psammetichus, neitheir of whom aj^pears to us to have been its author. They, like Darius, were prevented by the dread of seeing Egypt inundated by the waters of the Red Sea, which were known to have a higher level than the Nile. It would have been a sacrilegious act to have thus admitted tho ma- lignant Typhon into the happy empire of Osiris. The use of locks and floodgates was unknown, which would have protected the Egyptian fields from this imaginary danger. The Ptolemies, according to Strabo| who had travelled in Egypt, completed the canal. According to Pliny, they only brouglit it as far as the basin of the Bitter Lakes. J The former of these authors makes Phacusa the point at which the canal communicated with the Nile, which would suppose this canal to be a different one from that which has been recently traced. The latter gives, in Roman paces, the exact measures of the length of the canal from Balbeis to the Bitter Lakes, as well as that of the total distance of the Gulf of Suez from the Nile, both of which mea- surements are found correct. If so well-informed a writer believed that the canal did not extend to the Red Sea, which its vestiges show it to have done, we here find a proof tliat the navigation of it had been relinguished. Perhaps the sluices had not been well constructed, or it had been found more convenient and profitable to convey merchandise by the harbours of J^'Iyos-Hormos and Berenice. Tlie emperor Adrian, who caused a canal to be formed to the east of the Nile, called Trajanus Jimnis, and which went off from Babylonia, seems to have intended it solely for irrigations, by means of which the province of Augustamnica was rendered a flourishing country. But the Arabians, particularly El-Magrizi and El-Makyn, attest that this canal was opened again by order of the Caliph Omar, and was used for navigation from the year 644 to 767. At this time another caliph caused it to be shut up, in order to deprive a rebel chief of his supplies of provisions. The Ottoman emperors havd oftener than once conteznplated the re-estabhshment of this canal. While the French army was in Egypt, some learned discussions were maintained on tho practicability and advantages of such a restitution. A steady and enliglitened government could execute the project at a moderate expense. The value of the lands which by means of it would be l)rought into cultivation, whould be more than sufiicient to cover it. But, as the navigation would, on the one side, depend on the rising of tiie Nile, and, on the other, on the monsoons which prevail in the Arabian gult'; and as llicse two conditions do not coincide to such a degree as to allow an uninterrupted navigation, it is very probable that this canal, though highly useful and necessary for the com- mercial prosperity of Egypt, would produce no great revolution in the East Indian trade. * Description de I'Figypte; l^Iemoire do M. I.epcre, f Geogr. xvii. \ Plin. vi. cap. 29. 444 BOOK SlXTV-SECONI>. BOOK LXII. EGYPT. HiftoricMl ro- vi)liitioii». PART HI. Topo[!;raphical and Political Detaih. In our physical sketch of Epypt, we traced the influence of a monotonous terri- tory and an unchanging chniate. A certain gloom will also bo attached to our ac- counts of tho cities and towns of a country which has been so often described. We must always sail along tho river or its canals, always admire antique monuments which we are unable to explain, always cast a mournful look on modern towns fust hastening to destruction, surrounded by palms and sycamores. On every hand op- pression, misery, distrust and discord hold |>ossession of a country so well lUted to become tho abode of happiness and prospeiity. In order to give some interest to this account, it is necessary to call to mind at every step the nations which have successively nded this country, and have left monuments behind them. In tho history of every ago Egypt holds a conspicuous place. lender the Pharaohs she derived streuijth from the stability of her laws, and was often tho successful rival (>f the greatest mo- narcliies of tiio world. Invaded and devastated by Cambyscs, sho was for 193 years cither the subject or tho vassal of Persia, and frequently in a state of open rebellion. Tho Greeks at last came to her assistance. Alexander the Great was received by her as a deliverer, and it is probable, intended to make this country the seat of his empire. For three centuries the Ptolemies made Egypt a flourishing country in commerce and tho arts, and her towns midcr them were almost converted into Grecian colonies. Augustus united this fertile kingdom to the Roman empire, and for 6GG years it was tho granary of Rome and By/.antium. It termed one of tho earliest conquests of the successors t)f IMalunuet. About tho year 8S7, the power of the caliphs was suc- ceeded by the reign of the Turcomans, their own janissaries, whom they had called to their aid. The dynasties of the Tolonides, the Fatimites, and the Aioobitcs, ruled over Egypt till tl>e year 1250. Mamtiukcf. | The Mamclukes, or military slaves of the Turcoman sultans of Egypt, then massacred their masters, and took possession of the sovereignty. The Turk- ish dynasty, or that of tho Rassarite Mamelukes, reigned till 1382. Tho Circassian race, or that of tho Rordjite INlamelukes, ruled here till within these very few years; for Selim II. emperor of the Ottomans, alter taking possession of Egypt, only abo- lished the monarchical form of government of these INlamelukes; he aUowoil an aris- tocracy of twenty-four Reys to remain, siibjected to a stated tribute. Since his death, the Mamelukes have move than once thrown o{\' the authority of the Ottomans. French. I In 1798, tlie French abolished tlio jMameluke aristocracy, and made themselves masters of the whole of Egypt. A great European colony now seemed to si)ring up in this line country, and a fair hope was cherished for the progress of civilization. Tho sciences, and especially that of geography, would have derived inestimable accessions from the success of that mible iiroject. Rut it was attempttMl during tho bloody wars and jealousies by which enlightened Europe was distracted. Far iVoui being concerted by the combined wisdom of the civilized world, and suj)- ported by its united energies, it was und(Mtakeu in subserviency to the paltry object of gratifying the sellish glory of Ruonaparte, and the aggrandi,iement of the French EGvrT. 445 nation, which hail tarnished the Uhcral character of her revoKilion, and lost the corj- tulenco ot'everr pliilanthropic mind hv the barbarous pillaixe ot' Sierra Leone. The rival «i<"ltishness ot' (treat l>ritain, aidiuii the vieu's ol'tlic Sub!inie I'orte, poured from the British Islee, from the Hosphoruo, and the (iang^s, numerous arnnes to cxier- minate the French army, which wns? too happv to take shelter under the wing of the civilized maxims of war, and return safe to Europe, to avoid fallinii under the ruth- le:?s sabre of the Turk.-s. In ISOl this evacuation was effected, and barbarism again took possession of her prey. I'erfidious assassinations, and merciless massacres, have signalized tlie contests between the Turkish government and the Mamelukes, and between the latter and the now almost independent Pasha of Kgypt. A ray of improvement in the arts, and of encouragement to industry, has unexpectedly begun to glimmer amidst the arbitrary sway of the ruttian masters of Egypt; but under such patronage, permanent advancement in civilization canu^t be expected. The ancients had divided Kgypt according to a principle afforded them n,'Xm dwt by the course of the river; into Upper Egypt, called the Thebaid, because sioi»». Thebes was its capital; Middle Kgypt, called also the "Seven Government^' or the lleptanomis; and Lower Kgvpt, or the Delta, extending to the sea. The Arabs and Ottomans luivc oidy changed the names of these divisions: 1. Upper Egypt is called the Said, and includes tlie provinces of Thebes, Pjirdjeh, and Sioot. 2. Middle Egypt is called the Vostani, consisting of the provinces of Faioom, Re- nisooet', and Minvet. 3. Lower Egypt is called Bahari, or " the Maritime Country," and includes the provinces of Bahyreh, Rasid or Rosetta, Gharbyeh, IMenoot', Massoora, Sharkieh, and the Cairo district, consistinjr of the subdivisions of Kclioobeh and Attiliieh. The apellafion of Upper Egvpt is sometimes taken iu a strictly metaphysical accep- tation, and made to include all the provinces above Cairo.* On this principle Abul- feda and Ebn-Haukal divide Egvpt into two parts, the Rif and the Saul, that is, the coast and the high country.! Another Arabian calls these divisions Kibli and Ba- liari, or Iho south and the coast.;j; But the most recent observations, by making us acquainted with a defile or contraction, separating the Yostani Iromthc Said proper, incline us to prefer the usual threefold division. We shall first take a view of the towns and remarkable localities of Lower Egypt. The ancient glory of Alexandria is still attested by the extensive ruins by which the present citv is surrounded, and in a manner concealed. It is built on a sandy stripe of land formed by the sea, along the ancient mole which once con- nected Pharos with the continent. Of its two harbours the most easterly seems to have lost its former advantages bv the chan£rcs which the coast has underirone. The ancient promontory, the situation of the modern Pharillon, has been worn lower ana destroyed by the waves : its ruins have been carried into the interior of the | H»rbour». harbour, where the vessels have also been long in the habit of discharging tlieir bal- last. — The famous Pharos, built on the island (now a peninsula) of the same name, serves as alight-house at the entrance of the harbour, or rather roadstead, where ves- sels are frequently lost. The other extremity of the peninsula surrounds in part the western or old harbour, which is possessed of great advantages, but shut against Chris- tians. To the south of the modern city and of tlie two harbours is the site of old Alexandria. Here among the heaps of rubbish, and among the fine gardens planted with palms, oranges, and citrons, are seen some churches, mosques, and monasteries, and three small clusters of dwellings, formerly three towns, one of which is surrounded with a wall and called the fort. Traces are seen of ancient streets, in straight lines, and some ruins of colonnades mark the sites of palaces. • Compare d'Anville, Mem. snr I'Eg-^^ite, p. "6. M'anslcben in Paulin, p. 8. t Abulfeila vers Micfiaei, p. 53. Compare with the notes of M. Siivestre ile S.^cy on Abdol latif, p. :^9T. t Notice et exlr.Vilsde Memoircsl. 250. Towni of Lower Egj-pt. Alt'xamlria. The ancient city. Column called Pompey's Pil- lar. 446 BOOK SIXTY-SECOND. One of the obelisks, called Cleopatra's Needle, still stands upright. All this con- fused mass of ruins, gardens, and masonry, is in the greater part of its circumfe- rence, surrounded with a high and double wall. The commission of the French Institute of Egypt seemed to regard this enclosure as the Avork of the Arabians. Such also is the opinion of Niebuhr, Wansleb, and the greater part of travellers. Pococke, however, thinks that the Arabians only built the inner wall ; and Baron de Tott believes that nothing about it is modern, except some local reparations. To us this enclosure appears to represent precisely the space of thirty stadia in length, and ten in breadth, which Strabo assigns as the dimensions of the city of Alexander and the Ptolemies. Only that part of the wall which extends from the Rosetta Gate towards the lloman Tower, in a direction from east-south-east to west-north-west, seems to pass through the ancient quarter of Bruchium, which, filled with palaces and monuments, extended quite round the New Harbour. Might not this part of the wall be the work of Caracalla, when, according to the expression of Dion the his- torian,* that ferocious beast of Ausonia came to devastate and drench with blood the beautiful city of Alexandria 1 Even the forts which exist to the north and south of the ancient city seem to be those erected by that tyrant. We also think that many of the ruins date the epoch of the capture of the city by the cruel Aurelian. On the outside of the southern gate, a detached column eighty-eight feet high, forms the most commanding object connected with the city and its environs. It has been erroneously called " Pompey's Pillar," and " the Pil- lar of Severus." It is the great column which served as the principal ornament of the famous Serapeum, a vast building consecrated to the worship of an Egyptian divinity, and which, after the destruction of the Museum of the Ptolemies, became the receptacle of the Alexandrian library, and the resort of men of letters. Here, as in a place of safety, Caracalla feasted his eye with the massacre of the people of Alexandria ; a circumstance which, added to many others, leads us to think that both the Serapeum and the Circus were situated in a suburb without the walls of the an- cient city.f Reduced to a population of 16,000 souls, Alexandria, before the French invasion, carried on a trade in which the south of Europe had a considerable share. It Avas the medium of all the exchange of commodities that took place between Egypt and Constantinople, Leghorn, Venice, and Marseilles. Near Aboukir, the roadstead of which makes so conspicuous a figure in history, the coast ceases to be composed of rocks, and alluvial lands begin. The city of Rosetta, | Rosctta is dcscricd at a distance in the midst of groves of date trees, bananas, and sycamores. It is situated on the banks of the Nile, which annually washes, without injury, the walls of the houses. Its population, like that of Alex- andria, progressively declines. The houses, though generally better built than those of Alexandria, are so crazy that they would go to ruin in a few months, if they were not favoured by a climate which destroys nothing. The stories projecting succes- sively beyond one another, render the streets dark and dismal. An island in this part of the river, a league in diameter, presented to M. Denon the appearance of a most delicious garden,;}; but is described by Hasselquist as an insupportable place with musquitos and buftalos.§ From Rosetta to Damietta the low sandy coast was formerly infested by robbers, or occupied by rude shepherds and fishermen living without law. Lake Bourlos, filled with islets, extends over a part of this country. Beltym, a town situated on the side of the lake^ seems to correspond to the ancient Buto. Here a learned man, well versed in Egyptian antiquities, places Elearchia or Bu- colise, that is, the country of marshes and of bufiblo herds. || This district bore, in • Dion. Hist. Kom. 1. Ixviii. p. 1307. Herodian, 1. iv. p. 158. Compare the plan of Alex- andria by M. Lepere in the Atlas of the Description de I'Egypte. "t" Langles, notes on Norden, Voyage iii. p. 279. Silvcstfe de Sacy, notes sur Abdollatif, p. 231 — 239. Zoegn de origlne obcliscorum, p. 24 et 607. i Denon, t. i. p. 88. § Hasselquist, Voyage, p. 68. ■ H Ktienne Qiiatremcre, Recherches sin* la litterature Egyptiemie, p. 117. Idem, Mtmoircs historiqiies ct gcographiques, t. i. p. 220 — 223. Northern coasts. EGYPT. 447 tho Egyptian language, the name of Bashmoor, the game word which was used for a name to the third dialect of the ancient language of Kgypt. The savage Bashmu- rians lived sometimes in their boats, and sometimes among the reeds which covered their marshy banks. Such appears still to be the condition of the people who live round Bourlos. The same picture is apphcable to the neighbourhood of Lake Men- zaleh, where Eleavchia was placed by other writers. All the country round Damietta is tilled with large rice fields, on which | Damictta. great attention is bestowed. The rice of Damietta is the most esteemed of any in the Levant. But the city, which according to Binos contains 30,000, and according to Savary 80,000 souls, is very dirty, almost all the inhabitants delighting in the most filthy habits of living. Their health, especially that of the females, soon languishes, and multitudes of blind and purblind persons are met in every corner. This city, one of the keys of Egypt, carries on a great trade in rice and other provisions. It was built in 1250, five miles and a half from the site of the ancient Thamiatis, but destroyed in the time of the crusades.* The coast of the ancient eastern Delta is still lower and more marshy I ^owns of the than that between Rosetta and Damietta. Menzaleh would not deserve | Eastern Ddta. particular attention, were it not for its very large lake, in the bosom of which are the islands of Matharyeh, which are very populous, and covered with houses, some of brick, and others of clay. In that which is called Mat-el-Matharyeh, the hovels of the people and the tombs of the dead form one promiscuous assemblage. The houses seem rather to be dens than human dwellings. The fishermen of Matharyeh allow none of their neighbours to fish in the lake. Constantly naked, wading in the water, and engaged in their severe labours, they are hardy and vigorous, but almost perfect savages. On the east side of the lake are the ruins of Pelusium ; on the south side those of the ancient Tunis; and on an islet in the middle those of Tennis. Ascending higher in the province of Sharkieh, we find the sites oi Mendes and of Thmuis, ancient cities now in ruins. Lofty minarets point out from a distance the city of Mansourah, famous for the battle fought under its walls in 1250, in which Louis IX. was taken prisoner. We have also Mit-Gamar on the Damietta branch of the Nile ; Tel-Bastah on the canal of Moez ; Balbeis on that of Menedje ; Salehieh, an important military post ; and El-kanka, on the borders of the desert which lies between Cairo and the Red Sea. Having passed these different places, we arrive at the point of the Point of the ancient Delta, forming now the small country of Kelyovlbeh,t rich in Delta. grain, in pastures, and in different species of trees. Its villages are large, its flocks numerous, and its inhabitants peaceable and comparatively happy. To the north of Kelyoubeh, the ground is intersected by an infinity of small canals for irrigation. The roads, though difficult, are very pleasant ; several of them are skirted with rich gardens, others lead through thick groves and immense nurseries. The interior of the modern Delta contains the populous city of Me- hallet, surnamed el Kebir, or "the Great." Lucas, Sicard, and Pococke, considered it as, next to Cairo, the most important in all Egypt.;]; It is built of brick, on a navigable canal, and surrounded with fertile fields always under crop. Ahoosir, the ancient Busires, formerly occupied the central point of the Delta. Samanoud, or Djemnouti, the ancient Sebennytus,§ a large town on the river of Damietta, is fa- mous for producing numerous and excellent pigeons. The city of Tenta is at present one of the most considerable places in the interior of the Delta. It is the resort of pilgrims from differ- ent parts of Egypt, Abyssinia, the Hedjaz, and the kingdom of Dar inhabitants estimate the annual number of these pilgrims at 150,000. The object of these meetings is to pay their respects at the tomb of a saint called Seyd Ahmed-el- Intcriijr of the Delta. Places of pilgrimage. bor. The • Abulfeda, Tab. Egypt, p. 24. Abulpharag. Chron. Syriac, vers, la p. 529. Index Geo- graph. ad Boliad. vit. Salad, edit. Schultens, in voce Damiata. t Malus, Mdnioire sur I'Egypte, t. i. p. 21J. i See Hartinann, Egyptien, p. 789. i D'Anville, Mem. sur I'Egypte, p. 85. and Quatremere, Mem. Hist, et Georg. i. p. 503. 448 BOOK SIXTY-SECOND. Bedaooi. Commerce derives from them some advantages.* Kenoof is the capital of the smiUng and fertile province of Menoufieh, which contains also the city of Shiquin-el-Koom. In the north of the Delta we must take notice of the monastery of Saint Germinian, a place of pilgrimage both for Christians and Mahometans. The surrounding plains are covered with tents ; horse races are held ; wine and good living animate the pilgrims ; the festival continues for eight days ; it brings to the place a great number of dancing women, who contribute much to the pleasures of the occasion, pleasures which are kept up day and night. In this country, the night being cooler than the day, is more favourable to amusements. In the corner of the Delta, adjoining to Rosetta, amidst a great number of flou- rishing villages, and fields covered with excellent produce, we remark the towns of Berimbal and Fouah. This last was, in the sixteenth century, the seat of that trade which has since been transferred to Rosetta. wesT"of Ae^^ I ^^ ^^® place whcrc the canal of Alexandria joins the Nile, we find the Delta. I large town of Rahmanie. On another canal is situated the small town of Damanhour, a mart for the cottons produced in the neighbouring country, and a place where, in the time of the fairs, the coarse rejoicings of the peasantry some- times remind the spectator of the noisy orgies of ancient Egypt. Terraneh, which derives prosperity from the natron trade, is situated on the western bank of the Nile, and above it Wardan, which is at the distance of a journey of twenty-four hours from Cairo. Grand Cairo. | At last the plain no longer displays its uniform luxuriance. Mount Mokattan raises on one side its arid head, on the other we find Djizeh, with its eter- nal pyramids. Opposite to these mountains, the eye descries in succession, on the eastern banks of the great river, the cities of Boolak, New Cairo, and Old Cairo. Boolak|is the port of Cairo, where the vessels he that come from the lower part of the Nile. It extends along the banks, and exhibits all the bustle and confusion of commerce. In the harbour of Old Cairo the vessels lie that have arrived from Upper Egypt. Some of the most distinguished inhabitants of Cairo have here a sort of country seats, to which they retire during high Nile. Between these two cities is New Cairo, called by the orientals, Grand Cairo, by way of eminence. The name Kahera, signifies " the victorious." This city lying a mile and a half from the Nile, extends to the mountains on the east, which is nearly three miles. It is sur- rounded by a stone wall, surmounted by fine battlements, and fortified with lofty towers at every hundred paces. There are three or four beautiful gates built by the Mamelukes, and uniting a simple style of architecture with an air of grandeur and Origin of magnificence. According to Abd-el-Rashid, El-Kaherah, or Cairo, was Cairo. Ijyj2j [^ ^\yQ 360th year of the hegira, the 970th of our common era, by tlie Caliph Almanzor, (el-Moez-le-Dym illah ^bn el Mansoor,) the first of the Fati- mite caliphs who reigned over Egypt. That city was afterwards joined to that of Fostat, built also by the Arabians. Salahh-ed-Dyn, or Saladin, about the year 572 of the hegira, (A. D. 1176,) built the ramparts with which it is surrounded, which are 18,116 yards in length. But in this vast extent we find only one narrow unpaved street. The houses, like all others in Egypt, are badly built of earth or indifferent bricks, but differ from most others, in being, like those of Rosetta, two or three stories high. Being lighted only by windows looking into back courts or central squares, they appear from the street like so many prisons. The aspect of Cairo is a little reUevcd by a number of large public but irregular squares, and many fine mosques. That of Sultan Hassan, built at the bottom of the mountain containing the citadel, is very large, and has the form of a parallelogram ; a deep frieze goes all the way round the top of the wall, adorned with sculptures which we call gothic, but which were introduced into Europe by tlie Spanish Arabians. The inhabitants of Cairo, fond of shows like all the people of large cities, amuse themselves chiefly with feats of bodily exercise, such as Manners and amusements. • Savarv, Lett, sur I'Egypte, t. i. p. 281, 282. Guard, in the Memoires sur I'Ejjypte, t. iii. p. 356—360. Town of Dji- zel), and the great py ra- ni ids. EGYPT. 449 leaping, rope-daacing, and wrestling matches ; also singing and dancing. Tliey have buffoons, whose rude pleasantries and stale puns excite the ready laugh among an ignorant and corrupt people. The ahnehs, or female improvisatorcs, who amuse the rich with the exercise of their talent, differ from such as exhibit to the common people. They come to relieve the solitude of the harem, where they teach the wo- men new tunes, and repeat poems which excite interest from the representations which they give of Egyptian manners. They initiate the Egyptian ladies in the mysteries of their art, and teach them to practise dances of rather an unbecoming character. Some of these improvisatrici have cultivated minds and an agreeable conversation, speaking their native language with purity. Their poetical habits make them familiar with the softest and best sounding expressions, and their recita- tions are made with considerable grace. The ahnehs are called in on all festive occasions. During meals they are seated in a sort of desk, where they sing. Then they come into the drawing room to perform their dances or pantomimic evolutions, of which love is generally the ground work. They now lay aside the veil, and along with it the modesty of their sex. They make their appearance covered with a piece of light transparent gauze, and the spirit of the scene is kept up by tabors, castanets, and flutes. Thus we find, in all countries, dancing and music made subservient to voluptuous indulgence, and employed as the allies of licentiousness. On the west bank of the Nile, we find the city of Djizch, pleasantly shaded by sycamores, date, trees, and olives. To the west of this city stand the three pyramids, which, by their unequalled size and celebrity, have eclipsed all those numerous structures of the same form, which are scattered over Egypt. The height of the first, which is ascribed to Cheops, is 447 feet, that is, forty feet higher than St. Peter's at Rome, and 13.3 higher than St. Paul's in London. The length of the base is 720 feet. The antiquity of these erections, and the purpose for which they were formed, have furnished matter of much inge- nious conjecture and dispute, in the absence of certain information. It has been supposed that they were intended for scientific pui-poses, such as that of estabhshing the proper length of the cubit, of which they contain in breadth and height a certain number of multiples. They were, at all events, constructed on scientific principles, and give evidence of a certain progress in astronomy ; for, their sides are accurately adapted to the four cardinal points. Whether they were applied to sepulchral uses, and intended as sepulchral monuments, had been doubted ; but the doubts have been dispelled by the recent discoveries made by means of laborious excavations. The drifting sand had, in the course of ages, collected round their base to a considerable height, and had raised the general surface of the country above the level which it had when they were constructed. The entrance to the chambers had also been, in the finishing, shut up with large stones, and built round so as to be uniform with the rest of the exterior. The largest, called the pyramid of Cheops, had been opened, and some chambers discovered in it, but not so low as the base, till Mr. Davison, British consul at Algiers, explored it in 1763, when accompanying Mr. Wortley Montague to Egypt. He discovered a room before unknown, and descended the three successive wells to a depth of 155 feet.* Captain Caviglia, master of a mer- chant vessel, has lately pursued the principal oblique passage 200 feet farther down than any former explorer, and found it communicating with the bottom of the well. This circumstance creating a circulation of air, he proceeded twenty-eight feet far- ther, and found a spacious room sixty-six feet by twenty-seven, but of^ unequal height, under the centre of the pyramid, supposed by Mr. Salt to have been the place for containing the theca, or sarcophagus, < hough now none is found in it. The room is tliirty feet above the level of the Nile. The upper chamber, 35 j feet by 17^, and 1S| high, still contains a sarcophagus. Herodotus erred in supposing that the water of the Nile could ever surround the tomb of Cheops. In six pyramids which have been opened, the principal passage preserves the same inclination of 26° to the hori- • See Walpole's Interesting Collection of Memoirs, relating to European and Asiatic Tur- key, 1817. Vol. XL— 3 L 450 BOOK SIXTY-SBCOND. Pelzoai's ope- rations on the jecond pynk- fnid. zon, being directed to the polar star. M. Belzoni, after some acute ob- servations on the appearances connected with the second pyramid, or that of Cephrenes, succeeded in opening it. The stones, which had con- stituted the coating, (by which the sides of most of the pyramids which now rise in steps had been formed into plain and smooth surfaces,) lay in a state of compact and ponderous rubbish, presenting a formidable obstruction ; but somewhat looser in the centre of the front, showing traces of operations for exploring it, in an age pos- terior to the erection. On the east side of the pyramid, he discovered the founda- dation of a large temple, connected with a portico appearing above ground, which had induced him to explore that part. Between this and the pyramid, from which it was fifty feet distant, a way was cleared through rubbish forty feet in height, and a pavement was found at the bottom, which is supposed to extend quite round the pyra- mid ; but there was no appearance of any entrance. On the north side, though thc^ same general appearance presented itself after the rubbish was cleared away, one of the stones, though nicely adapted to its place, was discovered to be loose; and when it was removed, a hollow passage was found, evidently forced by some former enter- prising explorer, and rendered dangerous by the rubbish which fell from the roof; it was therefore abandoned. Reasoning by analogy from the entrance of the first pyra- mid, which is to the east of the centre on the north side, he explored in that situa- tion, and found at a distance of thirty feet the true entrance. After incredible perseverance and labour, he found numerous passages all cut out of the solid rock, and a chamber forty-sLx feet three inches by sixteen feet three, and twenty-three feet six inches high, containing a sarcophagus in a corner, surrounded by large blocks of granite. When opened, after great labour, this was found to contain bones, which mouldered do\\Ti when touched, and from specimens afterwards examined, turned out to be bones of an ox. Human bones were also found in the same place. An Arabic inscription, made with charcoal, was on the wall, signifying that " the place had been opened by Mohammed Ahmed, lapicide, attended by the Master Othman, and the King Alij Mohammed," supposed to be the Ottoman emperor, Mahomet I. in the beginning of the fifteenth century. It was observed, that the rock surrounding the pyramid on the north and west sides, was on a level with the upper part of the chamber. It is evidently cut away all round, and the stones taken from it were most probably applied to the erection of the pyramid. There are many places in the neigh- bourhood where the rock has been evidently quarried, so that there is no foundation for the opinion formerly common, and given by Herodotus, that the stones had been brought from the east side of the Nile, which is only probable as applied to the gra- nite brought from Syene. The operations of Belzoni have thrown light on the man- ner in which the pyramids were constructed, as well as the purpose for which they were intended. That they were meant for sepulchres cannot admit of a doubt. Their obliquity is so adjusted as to make the north side coincide with the obliquity of the eun's rays at the summer solstice. The Egyptians connected astronomy with their religious ceremonies, and their funerals ; for zodiacs are found even in their tombs. It is remarkable that no hieroglyphic al inscriptions are found in or about the pyra- piids as in the other tombs, a circumstance which is supposed to indicate the period of their construction to have been prior to the invention of that mode of writmg, though some think that the difference may be accounted for by a difiercnce in the usages of difleront places and ages. Belzoni, however, says that ho found some hieroglyphics in one of the blocks forming a mausoleum to the west of the first pyra- mid. The first pyramid seems never to have been coated, and there is not the slight- est mark of any coating. The second pyramid showed that the coating had been executed from the summit downward, as it appeared that it had not in this instance been finished to the bottom.* — The following are the dimensions of the second py- ramid: The basis, 684 feet; the central line down the front from the apex to the basis, 568 ; the perpendicular, 456 ; coatmg from the top to where it ends, 140. These dimensions being considerably greater than those usually assigned even to the • Belzoni's Narrative of Operations and recent discoveries In Egypt and Nubia, second Edi' t}on,yol. i. p. 395.425. The great Sphinx. Pyramids of Siikhara. Middle Egypt. Faioora. EGYPT. 451 first or largest pyramid, are to be accounted for by those of Belzoni being taken from the base as cleared from sand and rubbish, while the measurements of the first pyra- mid given by others, only applied to it as measured from the level of the surrounding sand. The largest of the numberless sphinxes found in Egypt, is in the neighbourhood of the pyramids of Djizeh; it was, at an expense of ^£800 or 36900, (contributed by some European gentlemen,) cleared from the accumulated sand in front of it under the superintendence of Captain Caviglia. This monstrous production consists of a virgin's head, joined to the body of a quadruped. The body is principally formed out of the solid rock ; the paws are of masonry, extending for- ward fifty feet from the body ; between the paws are several sculptured tablets so ar- ranged as to form a small temple ; and farther forward a square altar with horns. Ascending the Nile we come to Sakhara, near which are many pyra- mids, some of them formed of brick. They are dispersed over a line of eleven miles, and are known by the name of the pyramids of Aboosir.* At the foot of this chain of mausolea, lies the ancient Memphis, which has left some of the rub- bish of its immense buildings at Mitrahenoo, and probably extending to Mohannan.| The inhabitants carry on a traffic in mummies, the embalmed bodies of men and of sacred animals found in the excavations of the rocks. On the eastern bank is seen the famous mosque called Atsar-en-Neby, which is much frequented by the mussul- mans of Cairo, who perform a pilgrimage to pay their respects to a stone marked with a perfect impression of the feet of the prophet. It is covered with a very rich veil which the priests of the mosque raise only for the gratification of those true be- lievers who evince their piety by means of certain offerings. Atfieh, the capital of the province of Atfieheli, is situated on the east bank, as Savary has observed, in opposition to the greater part of geographers. At a distance of fifteen miles to the west of the Nile, the mountains open to form a valley leading into the Faioom, the ancient province of ^drsinoe. The Bahr Yoosef coming from the Nile, passes through the centre of the valley in various serpentine turns, till it reaches the Faioom. In the north part of this extensive and fine district is lake Mceris, round which the soil is | Lake Moeris. barren and wild. This lake, which is now called Cairoon, is much inferior in size to what it was in ancient times, when described with enthusiasm by Strabo, as re- sembling the sea in its extent, in the colour of its water, and in th^ nature of the sur- rounding shores; but it is still about thirty leagues in circumference, its length being between thirty and forty miles, and its greatest breadth about six.;}; Its shore towards the Faioom is flat and sandy. The water of the lake has a slight saline impregna- tion, but is very well fitted for human use. It contains some fish, and thus supports a few fishermen who send the fish to be sold in the different towns* This lake has been believed to have been an artificial excavation executed by McEris an ancient king of Egypt, who most probably only formed the canal by which it is filled from the Nile. Belzoni thinks that the water was retained by a dam at its place of entrance, and a second irrigation thus produced. This at least is con- sidered by that traveller as the only way in which it could have been rendered sub- servient to agriculture, and thus it would resemble the artificial tanks which at pre- sent abound in India, but to the first irrigation itself the canal was necessary.§ This canal, however, has been much neglected, and the depositions of earth brought by the Nile have elevated the surface of the whole Faioom, which, thougli displaying traces of its former fertility has by the circumstances now specified, and the encroach- ments of the sand of the desert, been reduced to one-third of its former extent. All the villages in it except four, pay a fixed miri, independent of what is due at the rise of ihe Nile. This financial arrangement must be very ancient, and appears to have been established in consequence of' the great expense at which the kings of Egypt had rendered this country habitable. At the entrance • Abdollatif, p. 204. t Compare Pococke, Descripticm, i. p. 39-293, D'Anville, Mem. p. I08. Larcher, Hero- dotus, ii. 362—366. * Browne's Travels, p. 169. § Belzoni's Narrative, vol. ii. p. 150—152, Peculiar land- tax. The Liiby- riiuh. 452 BOOK SIXTY-SECOND. of the Faiooni is the town of Medineh, or Medinet-el-Faiooni, (the word Medineh signifying "the City;") near to which are the ruins of the ancient Jlrsinb'e. These ruins contain granite columns which are only found in this place and at the pyramids, and many of them are seen among the materials of which the town of Medineh is built. In this town there are manufactures of linen, cotton, and woollen stuffs; of oil and rose water. The last article supplies the immense consumption which takes place among the great people who keep their divans covered with it, and are in the habit of offering it to strangers. Wines also are made, but much inferior to those formerly produced in this Arsinoitic district. In this district was situated the Laby- rinth so celebrated in antiquity, consisting of 3000 chambers, one-half above ground, and the other half below. These have left no correspond- ing marks, at least none visible above ground, to render its exact situation certain. It is generally supposed to have been in the place where the ruins of the town and palace of Caroon are now found, about three miles from the western extremity of the lake. Here are to be seen the remains of a town wall, fragments of columns, and blocks of stone of middling size. The town is a mile in circumference. In the middle is the temple, which is in tolerable preservation, and is of a singular construc- tion, different from the Egyptian, having probably been at some period altered or re- built. It contains no hieroglyphics. Mr. Belzoni did not believe this to be the situation of the labyrinth. That traveller visited some other ruins of ancient Greek towns, situated in the same neighbourhood. He found among the blocks some frag- ments of Grecian statues and other specimens of sculpture. When the sand is re- moved, the roofs of habitations are found, with their wooden materials in a state of preservation. This traveller thinks that the remains of the labyrinth might perhaps be discovered if it were practicable to remove the sand, but at the same time states that several ancient remains are beneath the present level of the water, that many of them must be now deeply covered by the annually accumulating depositions from the waters of the Nile, brought by the canal of Joseph, and that the celebrated labyrinth may possibly be utterly out of the reach of discovery."* All along the west side of the lake, this traveller found a great number of stones, and columns of beautiful co- lours, of white marble and of gi^anite. The Faiooni contains a town called Fcdmin- el-Kumois, or " the Place of Churches," from a tradition that it once consisted of 300 Christian churches, which the Mahometans converted into a town. One part of it is inhabited by Mahometans, and the other by Copts, who live on very tolerant terms with one another; but the latter are poor, and destitute of the means of educat- ing their children. Vostani, or Middle Egypt, contains also Benisoef, where there is a manufacture of coarse carpeting ; Minieh, the capital of a province, the territory of which is ele- vated above the adjoining lands; Ansana, or Ensineh, where the statues found among the iTjins of Antinoopolis have given rise to a notion among the Arabs that human bodies had been petrified ;| Mellavi, a prettily situated town, which annually exports 400,000 sacks of wheat; and Momfaloot, known for its manufactures. At the town of Sahoodi is the beginning of the caverns of the Thebaid. These are quarry holes, to which the anchorets, in the first ages of Chris- tianity, retired. They have an extent of fifty-six miles ; and the hieroglyphics found in them prove them to have been the work of the Egyptians, who had taken their marble from this place at a very remote period. Ancient The grottos, near the city of Sioot, contain very curious antique pamtmg*. paintings in a good state of preservation. The city, one of the largest in the Said, is the resort of the caravans of Nubia. Its vicinity, and that of Abootish, produce the best opium. Jl Among the other villages, we remark on the east bank Gau-Shcnki6h, which has succeeded to Anteopohs. Here was a magnificent temple in honour of Anteus. The porch still remains, which is supported, according to Norden, by columns, and which • Belzoni, vol. n. p. 161—163. f Yakooti, Not. et Extraits, p. 245. * Noticea et Extr. t» ii. p. 424. Carerns of the Ttiebaid, EGYPT. 453 appears to be of one stone, sixty paces in length, and fortj in breadth. This splen- did work now forms the entrance of a stable, where the Turks keep their flocks. Akmin, the residence of an Arab prince, has succeeded to the ancient | Akmin. Shemmia or Panopolis. Ancient ruins are found here on the outside of the present town. Abulfeda mentions a temple built of stones of astonishing size, which he ranks among the most celebrated ancient monuments. Mere fragments, however, are all that now remain. The modern town is handsome ; very commercial, and has manufactures of cotton cloth and of pottery. It has a regular and strict police, and its territory is fertile in all sorts of produce. Opposite to Akmin, on the west bank of the river, is the large town of ] Mesh^ih. Meshieh. Here all the boats which go from Cairo to the cataracts, or from the ca- taracts to Cairo, stop to take in provisions, which are plenty and cheap. Seventeen miles to the south-east of Meshieh, we find Djirdjeh, the | Djinij^b. capital of Upper Egypt, and lately the residence of a Bey, and the seat of a Coptic bishop. The city is modern, and owes its origin and name to a convent dedicated to St. George.* It has public buildings and squares, but no monuments. It is a place of trade and industry, and the territory belonging to it is fertile. Denderah is a place of little consequence in itself, but travellers visit | Denderah. it with great interest on account of a great quantity of magnificent ruins found three miles to the west of it. Bruce, Norden, and Savary, agree in identifying it with the ancient Tenfyra. The remains of three temples still exist. The largest is in a singularly | its temples, good state of preservation, and the enormous masses of stone employed in it, are so disposed as to exhibit every where the most just proportions. It is the first and most magnificent Egyptian temple to be seen in ascending the Nile, and is considered by Mr. Belzoni as of a much later date than any of the others. From the superi- ority of the workmanship, he inclines to attribute it to the first Ptolemy, the same who laid the foundation of the Alexandrian library, and instituted the philosophical society of the Museum. Here, Denon thought himself in the sanctuary of the arts and sciences. The columns which form the portico are twenty-four in number,, divided into four rows. AYithin the gate, the square is surrounded w'ith columns with square capitals ; the shafts and every part of the wall arc closely covered with hiero- glyphics and figures in basso-rehevo. On each side there is a colossal head of the goddess Isis, with cow's ears, with a simple and almost smiling expression. The ceiling contains the zodiac, inclosed by two female figures, which extend from one side of it to the other. The walls are divided into several square compartments^ each containing figures of deities, and priests in the act of ofiering, or immolating victims. On the top of the temple the Arabs had built a village which is now de- serted and in ruins. f As for the zodiacs or celestial planispheres found here, and their high | The zodiac*, antiquity so much boasted, an able antiquary has shown that they could not have been prior to the conquest of Alexander. J From Djirdjeh to Thebes, the Nile forms a great bending to the east. At the elbow nearest to the Red Sea, stands Kenneh, the ancient Cenopozis, a town which once carried on an active commerce with Cosseir. According to Irwin, an English traveller, tbis city, which is still of considerable size, retains traces of many ancient customs. In the funeral processions, the women dance to the sound of dolorous music, and utter hideous cries. The festivals here, as in the Said in general, are held during the night, and on the river. They are concluded with a drama, partaking a little of a mythological character. The dancing women plunge almost naked into the water, where they swim about like so many nymphs or naiads. § Keft seems to be the harbour of the ancient city of Kept or Koptos, | Keft. • Denon, Voyages,!, p. 304. Sonnini, ii. p. 575. f Belzon's Narrative, vol. i. p. 52 — ST. ^ Visconti in Larcher's Herodotus. § Irwin's Journey to the Red Sea. Compare with Somini, Denon, and others. Remains of an* cient customs. Ruins of Thebes. 454 Book sixty-second. from which some authors derive the appellation given to the Coptic nation.* In all that country the inhabitants manufacture the vessels of light and porous clay, which by allowing the water slowly to transude so as to keep up an external evaporation, communicate a refreshing coolness to that which remains. These are used through the whole of Egypt. The village of Luxor, that of Karnak, and some others on the eastern bank, con- tain more ruins. The case is the same with the western side. Savary, Bruce, Nor- den, Browne, and Denon, concur in speaking with admiration of the ancient ruins of these places. New researches have proved that they belong to ancient Thebes, the city with a hundred gates, known to Homer, and which was 400 Egyptian stadia in circumference.'!" Diodorus, who speaks of Thebes as of a city already in ruins, takes particular notice of four principal temples. He speaks of sphinxes, colossal figures decorating the entrances, porticoes, pyramidal gateways, and stones of astonishing magnitude which entered into their structure. In the de- scription given by the travellers now mentioned, and by others who preceded them, these monuments cannot be mistaken. Browne tells us, that *' there remain four immense temples, yet not so magnificent nor in so good a state of preservation as those of Denderah." " It is surprising," says Norden, *' how well the gilding, the ultramarine, and various other colours, still preserve their brilliancy." He speaks also of a colonnade of which thirty-two columns are still standing, of platforms, pre- served galleries, and other remains of antiquity, which he has represented in his plates, and which he thinks the more worthy of attention that they appear to be the same that are mentioned by Philostratus in his account of the temple of Memnon. Temples. | No description can give an adequate idea of these wonders of anti- quity, both in regard to their incredible number and their gigantic size. Their form, proportions, and construction, are almost as astonishing as their magnitude. The forests of enormous columns, towering high above the palm trees of the country, with their capitals gracefully adorned with the lotus, and the shafts covered Avith orna- mental figures, the avenues of sphinxes miles in length, the colossi placed at the numberless gates, all produce a most bewildering impression on the mind of the admiring traveller. The temple of Tentyra, being in high preservation, pleases by the beauty of its workmanship and sculpture ; but at Thebes the mind is lost in a mass of colossal objects, every one of which is more than sufficient to absorb its whole attention. On the east side of the Nile, at Karnak, and Luxor, amidst the multitude of the temples there are no tombs ; these are confined to the west bank. An iron sickle was lately found under one of the buried statues nearly of the shape of those which are now in use, though thicker ; it is supposed to have Iain there since the invasion of Cambyses, when the idols were concealed by the superstitious to save them from destruction. Mr. Belzoni, and others, have been busily employed in uncovering and carrying away specimens of these antique remains, such as Tombs and sphinxes, obehsks, and statues. On the west side of the river at Goor- mummy pits. ^^^^ Mcdinct Aboo, and Beban-el-Malook, are numberless tombs in the form of subterranean excavations, and containing many human bodies in the state of mummies, sometimes accompanied with pieces of papyrus, and other ancient cu- riosities. These have been the subjects of ardent reseai-ch ; and the trade of dig- ging for tombs and mummies being found gainful, has been resorted to by numerous Arabs belonging to the place. The tombs and mummies of persons of condition are easily distinguished from those of the common people, by the care and expense displayed in preparing them ; and from the state in which they are found many inte- resting conclusions are drawn illustrative of the manners and customs of the ancient Egyptians, who employed their wealth in nothing more lavishly than in their mode of disposing of the bodies of their deceased kindred. On the east side of the river, no palaces or traces of ancient human habitations are met with ; but at Medinet Aboo there are not only Propylcea, and temples highly valued by the antiquarian, but dwelling houses which seem to point out that place to • Michaelis ad Abulfedam, not. 153, p. 73. Harlmann, Edrisi Africa, p. 519, 520. t Account of Thebes in the description de I'Egypte. Monumens, vol, ii. IJescription of the mummies. Evidences of the state of Uie arts amofig the ancient Egytians. EGYPT. 455 have been once a royal residence. Mr. Belzoni found at Goornoo the ruins of a temple with octagonal columns abounding in hieroglyphics, yet so completely unique in its style, that ho was led to consider it as of later date than the works of the ancient Egyptians. With respect to the mummies, some are found in wooden cases shaped like the human body. These belonged to persons superior to the lowest rank, but differing from one another in the quantity and quality of the linen in which the body had been wrapped. The mummies of the poorest classes are found with- out any wooden covering, and wrapped in the coarsest linen. These differ from the former also in being often accompanied with pieces of papyrus, on which Belzoni supposes that an account of tlie lives of the deceased had been written, while a simi- lar account was carved on the cases of the more opulent. The cases are generally of Egyptian sycamore, but very different from one another with respect to plainness or ornament. Sometimes there are one or two inner cases, besides the outer one. Leaves and flowers of acacia are often found round the body, and sometimes lumps of asphaltum, as much as two pounds in weight. The case is covered with a cement resembling plaster of Paris, in which various figures are cast. The whole is painted, generally with a yellow ground, on which are hie- roglyphics and figures of green. The tombs of the better classes are highly magnificent, consisting of different apartments adorned with figures representing the different actions of life, such as agricultural operations, religious ceremonies, feasts, and funeral processions, these last being generally predominant. Their paintings, which are described by Mr. Hamilton, contain numerous articles illustrating the domestic habits of the Egyptians. Small idols are found lying about, and sometimes vases containing the intestines of the mummies, generally of baked clay painted, some few of alabaster ; there is much pottery besides, and many Avooden vessels. Mr. Belzoni found some leaf-gold beaten nearly as thin as ours. No in- struments of war are found in these places. This gentleman only found an arrow with a copper point, well fixed in one end, while the other end had a notch. Figures of the scarabeus or beetle, a highly sacred animal among the Egyptians, are some- times found executed in alabaster, verde antico, and other materials. From the garments in which the mummies are sometimes wrapped, it appears that linen manufactures were brought to equal perfection among the ancient Egyptians as they are now among us.* They understood the tanning of leather, of which some shoes are found. Some of the leather is stained with various colours, and embossed. The art of gilding is proved to have existed among them in a state of great perfection. They knew how to cast copper, as well as how to form it into sheets. A few specimens of varnishing are found which show that this art and the baking of the varnish on clay, were in such perfection, that it ap- pears doubtful whether it could now be any where imitated. In the art of painting they were a littlo behind in not giving their figures relief by shading; but their colours, par- ticularly the red and green, are well disposed, and produce a splendid effect, espe- cially by candle light.| Their drawings are always in profile. Some drawino's are found preparatory to sculpturing on the walls, and others in different stages of their execution. Mr. Belzoni observed some drawings executed by learners, and after- wards corrected in faulty places by a master with a different coloured chalk. — This gentleman saw in some brick buildings of the highest antiquity, evidences | Architecture, that the Egyptians understood the building of arches with the key-stone, though their predilection for numerous columns in the construction of their large temples, led them in these buildings to neglect the arch. J Their sculptures are executed in four kinds of stone ; sandstone which is comparatively soft, a hard calcareous stone, breccia, and granite. This last is more finely polished tlian it could bo by our pre- sent tools. The Arabs of Goornoo lead the lives of troglodytes in the entrance I xi,e Arabs of the tombs, where they choose a place of convenient dimensions, and | of Goornoo. shut up the entrance between them and the tomb with clay, leaving only a hole to • Belzoni's Narrative, vol. i. p. 268, &c. f Ibid. p. 271. + Ibid. p. 273. Linen manu- factures. Brawine^ and painting. Erment or Hermonthis, 456 BOOK SIXTY-SECOND. creep through. Here their sheep, as well as themselves are housed. They use lamps of sheep's tallow : the walls are black like chimneys, and human bones and pieces of mummies lie every where about them unheeded. They live almost nalied, their children. entirely so. They are oppressed and prevented from accumulating wealth, yet are reconciled by custom to their situation, and on the whole happy. Their women are very ambitious of such jewellery as beads, coral, and pieces of coin, and look down with pity on those who have none. A mat, a few earthen pots, and a grinding stone, are all the household furniture they require. They are exceed- ingly expert in the art of cheating strangers, which constitutes the height of their Researches of virtuc and a great part of their industry.* — The researches of Mr. Bel- Beizoni. zoni havc had the effect of enriching the British Museum with some interesting specimens of Egyptian antiquity, among which are a fine obelisk from the island of Phila?, and a colossal bust called younger Memnon. The model which he has made of an Egyptian tomb is particularly gratifying to antiquarian curiosity. While he was in Egypt, he made moulds of every individual sculptured figure, and other objects in the tomb, and a tomb is built on the eame scale as the original, with fac similes of all its contents executed with correctness in form, relief, and colouring. It is seen by candle light, and gives precisely tlie same effect with the origind exca- vation. The ancient Hermonthis is represented by the village of Erment. In its vicinity is to be seen a large temple in a very good state of preserva- tion, and the paintings of which represent, among other animals, the giraffe, an ani- mal at present unknown in Egypt.f A learned discussion has recently confirmed d'Anville's conjecture, according to which the ancient Latopolis corresponds to the modern town of Esneh,J where a temple of very high antiquity is found. This town, situated on a height where vegetation is supported by artificial irrigation, was en- riched by the residence of some Mameluke beys, who spent here the money which they extorted from the cultivators of the neighbourhood. Esneh displays more luxury, and a more refined industry, than the other towns of Upper Egypt. Among other things, a great quantity of very fine cotton stuffs and shawls called Malayeh, «iuch used in Egypt, are manufactured here. The caravan from Sennaar brings 'hither also the different articles of its commerce, particularly gum arabic, ostiich fea- ihers, and ivory. Wood in this place is extremely rare. Esneh is the last large town in Egypt. But a little higher up we find some interesting ruins. At Elythia there are two caverns, containing a great number of paintings, representing the customs and occupations of the ancient Egyptians, and particularly the various forms of ploughs, and other agricultural im- plements. § At Edfoo is a large temple, the corridors and mysterious passages of which are still to be seen. At an elbow of the Nile, forming a harbour, we find the ruins of Ornbos on a hill called Koom-Ombos. In the great temple, some paintings which have not been finished show that the Egyptians employed in their drawings the same geometrical methods with the moderns. They divided the surface into small squares, — a method which they also no doubt employed in geography. || Huins of Near Assooan arc found the remains of the ancient Syme, consisting 6yen6. ^f somc granite columns, and an old square building, with openings at top. The researches made here have not confirmed the conjecture of Savary, who conceived it to be the ancient observatory of the Egyptians, where, with somc dig- ging, the ancient well might be found, at the bottom of which the image of the sun Observation yv^s reflected entire on the day of the summer solstice. The observations oftheobiiqui. of the French astronomers place Assooan in lat. 24° 5' 23" of north ecirptic!*^ latitude. If this place was formerly situated under the tropic, the posi- tion of the earth must be a little altered, and the obliquity of the ecliptic diminished. • Belzoni, vol. i. p. 291 —282. f Account of Hermonthis by M. Jomard, in the Description de TEp^ypte, Monumens, vol. i. ^ Jollais and Devilliers, in the Description de I'Egypte. Etienne Quatremere, Mem, Hist, sur I'Egypte, i. p. 172. § Baron Costaz, Mem. sur les grottes d'Elethya, dans la Descript. de I'Egypte. i Chabrol et Jomard, dans la Description de i'Egyple. Caverns of Elythia. Appearance of Syen6. EGYPT. 457 But we should be aware of the vagueness of the observations made by the ancients, which have conferred so much celebrity un these places. The phenomenon of the extinction of the shadow, whether within a deep pit, or round a perpendicular gno- mon, is not confined to one exact mathematical position of the sun, but is common to a certain extent of latitude corresponding to the visible diameter of that luminary, which is more than half a degree. It would be sufficient, therefore, that the northern margin of the sun's disc should reach the zenith of Sycne on the day of the summer solstice, to abolish all lateral shadow of a perpendicular object. Now, in the second century, the obliquity of (he ecliptic, reckoned from the observations of Hipparchus, was 23° 49' 25". If we add the semidiameter of the sun, which is 15' 57", we find for the northern margm 24° 5' 22", which is within a second of the actual latitude of Syene. At present, when the obliquity of the ecliptic is 23° 28' the northern limb of the sun comes no nearer the latitude of Syen6 than 21' 3", yet the shadow is scarcely perceptible. We have, therefore, no imperious reason for admitting a greater diminution in the obliquity of the ecliptic than that which is shown by real astrono- mical observations of the most exact and authentic kind. That of the well of Syene is not among the number of these last, and can give us no assistance in ascertaining the position of the tropic thirty centuries ago, as some respectable men of science seem to have believed.* Syene, which, under so many different masters, has been the southern frontier of Egypt, presents in a greater degree than any other spot on the surface of the globe, that confused mixture of monuments which, even in the destinies of the most potent nations, reminds us of human instability. Here the Pharaohs and the Ptolemies raised the temples and the palaces v/hich are found half buried under the drifting sand. Here are forts and walls built by the Romans and the Arabians, and on the remains of all these buildings French inscriptions are found, attesting that the warriors and the learned men of modern Europe pitched their tents, and erected their observatories on this spot. But the eternal power of nature pre- sents a still more magnificent spectacle. Here are the terraces of reddish granite of a particular character, hence called Syenite, a term applied to those rocks which differ from granite in containing particles of hornblende. These mighty terraces, shaped hke peaks, cross the bed of the Nile, and over them the river rolls majesti- cally his impetuous foaming waves. Here are the quarries from which the obelisks and colossal statues of the Egyptian temples were dug. An obelisk, partially formed and still remaining attached to the native rock, bears testimony to the laborious and patient efforts of human art. On the polished surfaces of these rocks hieroglyphic sculptures represent the Egyptian deities, together with the sacrifices and offerings of this nation, which more than any other has identified itself with the country which it inhabited, and has in the most literal sense engraved the records of its glory on the terrestrial globe. In the midst of this valley, generally skirted with arid rocks, a series of sweet 3e- licious islands covered with palms, date trees, mulberries, acacias, and napecas, has merited the appellation of " the 'Tropical Gardens." The one called islands of El-Sag, opposite to Syene, is the Elephantine of the ancients; while the ^ndihiis?"' ancient PJiUk is recognised in the El-Heif of the moderns. Both of them, especi- ally the latter, filled with beautiful remains of temples, quays, and other monuments,! attest the ancient civilization of which they must have been the seat. It is probable that the two names of Philcc and Elephantine are origi- nally one, for Fil in these Oriental languages, signifies an elephant, and these islands, fertilized by the deposited slime of the river Nile, must, in ancient times, have attracted elephants by their rich vegetation. This ingenious conjecture explains the reason why Herodotus has not named Philcc in describing Elephanline,^ so as to give the idea that he placed it to the south of the first cataract. It explains • Compare Jomard, Description de Syene et des Cataractes, in the Description de I'Egypte. t Jomard, Description d'Eii^phantine. Lancret, Description de Phils. Girard, Mem. sur le Nilomctre d'Elephantine, in the Description de I'Egypte. t Jomard, loc. cit. Compare Forster, epist. ad Michael, p. 36. Zoega de origine obeliscor. p. 286, not. 28. Quatremere, M^m. hist, ceoer. i. p. 387. Vol. II 3 M The names of these islands. 458 BOOK SIXTY-SECOND. the possibility of a former kingdom of Elepbantiiie, a kingdom which could not be confined to a single island 1400 yards long and 400 broad. Julius Africanus bears testimony to its existence and duration. The Augustine history speaks of a king of Thebes, an ally of Zenobia. These facts, taken altogether, show that the narrow valley of Upper Egypt, has, in all ages, been the retreat of small and almost inde- pendent states. Shores of the From the ever memorable scenes of the valley of the Nile, we cross Red Sea. narrow gorges and sterile plains covered with sand, where even the ser- pent and the lizard cannot find subsistence ; and where no bird dares to extend his flight, — and arrive at the no less arid shores of the Red Sea. The coasts of this sea are rich in coral, madrepores, and sea sponges. Among the reefs of coral is found Cosseii-o I the port of Cosseir. The town of this name is only a collection of old houses, and large storehouses occupied from time to time by the caravans, but with- out any fixed inhabitants. It labours under a want of fresh water, and the only pro- duce of the vicinity is the coloquintida.* Desert of the But the vast dcsert of the Thcbaid, lying between this portion of the Thebaid. valley of the Nile and the Red Sea, is not equally sterile in every part. Mr. Irwin, who travelled from Kenne to Cairo by a road which passes obliquely the northern part of this desert, found by the sides of frightful ravines and black chasms, some valleys in which acacia bushes, covered with white and fragrant blossoms, fur- nished a delightful shade to the timid antelope. Some tufts of wild wheat, a date tree, a well, and a grotto called to mind the old anchorets, who chose in these soli- tudes to relinquish their intercourse with a perverse world. Two similar verdant spots near the shores of the Red Sea, somewhat nearer to Suez than Cosseir, con- Monasteries of tain the monasteries of St. Anthony and St. Paul, surrounded with hand- anci'sJ.'S. some orchards of date trees, olives, and apricots. The first of these convents has a vineyard which produces good white wine.| City of Suez. | A route somcwhat less gloomy leads from Cairo to' Suez, a town si- tuated on the isthmus of that name. The port of Suez has only a bad quay at which small boats can scarcely land at high water, while the vessels lie at anchor in the roads. The only supply of water that the inhabitants have is one brackish spring. The sea abounds in fish, but they are neglected by the people. All the necessaries of life are wanting in this wretched place, which is situated in a parched sandy plain, about a league from the roadstead. The fortress is of a piece with the town, con- sisting of some towers in a half ruinous condition. In the most southerly part of this desert, about the latitude of Assouan or Syene, The ancient is the site of the ancient city of Berenice, dehghtfuUy situated in a plain Berenice. almost surrounded by mountains, at a distance of five miles. Its ruins are still perceptible, even to the arrangement of the streets, and in the centre is a small Egyptian temple, which, as well as the insides of the houses is nearly covered by tlie sand. The temple is built of soft calcareous stone, and sandstone. Mr. Bel- zoni found it adorned with Egyptian sculpture, well executed in basso-rehevo, and carried away a tablet of breccia covered with hieroglyphics and figures. The soil of the plain is sandy, but appears susceptible of cultivation for pasture and other pur- poses. It contains some bushes which make good firewood. Mr. Belzoni calcu- lated from the apparent extent of the ruins and the size of the houses, that this sea- port had contained a population exceeding 10,000. It has a fine harbour, with a northern entrance entirely formed by nature. Emerald Not far from this place are the famous mountains of emeralds, the mountains. highest of which is called Zubara, and which were visited by Mr. Bruce and Mr. Belzoni. The present pasha of Egypt made an attempt to work the eme- rald mines, and had about fifty men employed as miners in the year 1818, but the mines appear to have been exhausted by the ancients. The miners were exposed to great inconvenience and risk, being supplied with all their food by caravans from the Nile, at a distance of seven days journey. From the negligence of the pur- • Dubois-Ayme dans la Description de I'Egypte, i. p. 193, 194. t Sicard, Cartes des d. I fore only subjoin such brief sketches as are necessary. They live in round hovels with conical roofs, a form rendered necessary by the violent rains. A light cotton dress, some pieces of Persian carpet, and a few articles of handsome black pottery, form the chief objects of luxury. The children go naked till the age of fifteen. J The arts and mechanical professions are in a great measure in the hands of strangers, and especially of the Jews.§ To these last belong all the smiths, masons, and thatchers in the country. The proud indolence of the Abyssinians is shown in their manner of eating. The great lords have servants at table to introduce their newly dressed victuals into their mouths. It seems certain, after much discussion maintained on the point, that the Abyssinians have no repugnance to raw flesh, accompanied with a gravy of fresh blood, and rather consider it as a delicacy. |j Bruce has perhaps exag- gerated in saying that they cut slices from the live ox for immediate use, the blood of the animal staining the entrance, and his bellowings mingling with the festive noise of the company. The savage gaiety of these feasts is animated by hydromel in which opium is dissolved. The two sexes indulge publicly in freedoms Avhich to other nations seem licentious, though perhaps not in the gross debaucheries of which they have been accused. Such being the character of the Christians of Abyssinia, we cannot be surprised at any thing in the manners of the more savage nations that live in this country. Savage nations. | The ferocity and the dirtiness of the Gallas surpass every idea that can be formed. They live entirely on raw meat ; they smear their faces with the blood of their slain enemies, and hang their entrails round their necks, or interweave them with their hair. The incursions of these nomade and pastoral tribes are sudden and disastrous. Every living thing is put to the sword ; they butcher the infant in the mother's womb ; and the youths, after being mutilated, are sold by them into slavery. These people are distinguished from the negroes by their low stature, their deep brown complexions, and their long hair. These African Tartars, who first made their appearance in the countries situated to the south-east of Abyssinia, now occupy five or six great provinces of that empire, as stated in the topography. They are divided into many tribes, which according to some, are arranged into three national commu- nities. Those of the south are little known ; those of the west are called Bertuma- Galla: they have kings, or war-chiefs, called Loobo; tliose in the east are called Boren-Galla, and their chiefs Mooty. Their chiefs, Avho, according to Lobo, only enjoy a temporary authority, give audience in wretched hovels. Their guards and courtiers beginning by beating with bludgeons any stranger who presents himself; then introduce him into the king's presence, and compliment him as an intrepid fellow who would not sufler himself to be dismissed.** The Gallas worship trees, stones, the moon, and some of the stars. They believe in magic, and in a future state. The rights of property, marriage, and the support of aged relations, are made binding by their laws. Warriors are allowed to expose their • Petit-la-Cro'ix, cli. 22. f Bnicc's Travels. i Petit-la-Croix, ch. 11. § LuJoIf, 1. iv. c. 5. Petit-la-Croix, cli. 0, Stc. H Bruns, Afrika, ii. 137. H Bnice's Travels. Liulolf, Hislor. .'Elliiop. i. 15, 16. ValcntLVs Voyages and TiavcLs, iii. p. ■27. •• Lobo, I.e. i. p. 26. Tlieirreligion, laws, » nil customs. ABYSSINIA. 481 children. In their distant expeditions across desert countries, they hve on pounded coflee. The Abysssinians consider the G alias as originally beloiiffjng to the east coast of Africa. Their name seems to figure among the nations which were vanquished or subjugated by Ptolemy Philadelphus, according to the inscription of Adulis. When, along with these circumstances, we take into view the physical features which dis- tinguish them from the negroes, we must at once reject the hypothesis of some geo- graphers who would represent them as a colony of the Galla negroes of the Pepper Coast. They belong more probably to the nomade tribes of southern central Africa. The other pagan and savage races are not quite so Ibrniidable. In tlie The shan- north-west parts, and to the east of the river Tacazze, the Shangalla ^*""'' inhabit the wooded heights which are called KoUaby tlie Abyssinians. The visages of these negroes bear a resemblance to those of apes. They spend one part of the year under the shadows of trees, and the rest in caverns, which have been dug in the soft sandstone rocks. Sotne of these tril)es live on elephants and rhinoceroses, others on lions and boars; one of them subsists on locusts. They go quite naked, and are armed with poisoned javelins. The Abyssinians hunt them like wild beasts. These tribes, the description of which forms one of the most valuable parts of Mr. Bruce's account,* were long ago designated by ancient authors under the name of locust-eaters, ostrich-eaters, and elephant eaters, f The nature of the soil, alterna- tively covered with water, and baked and cracked into chinks by the violent heat, ex- cludes every sort of culture. There are two nations called Agows. The one lives in the province | TimAgows. of Lasta, round the sources of the Tacazze, (he other possesses the neighbourhood of the sources of the Nile of Abyssinia. Possessing fertile but inaccessible covm- tries, courageous, and provided with good cavalry, they mnintfiin their independence both against the G alias and Aljyssiniuns. The Agows of the Nile furnish Gondar with beef, butter, and honey. Altliough they retain some traces of the progress which the Christian religion formerly made among them, their principal worship is addressed to the spirit whom they consider as presiding over the sources of the Nile. Every year they sacrifice a cow to that spirit, and some neighbouring tribes, among whom are the Gafates, join in the sacrifice. The Gafates are a numerous people, who speak a distinct language | TiieCafutei. and live in Damot. Their counfry produces very fine cotton. The Gurags, a set of expert and intrepid robbers, live in the hollows | TiieGur»g«. of rocks to the south-east of Abyssinia. Bermudas places them in the kingdom of Oggy, contained in the list of provinces given by Petit-la-t'roix.t " This country," says that author, " produces musk, amber, saudal-wood, and ebony, and is visited by while merchants." Of all the inhabitants of Abyssinia, the Jews, called Falasja, or " the exiled," present the most extraordinary liistorical curiosity. That na- tion seems to have formed for ages a state more or less independent in tli of Samen, under a dynasty, the kings of which always bore the name of Gideon, and the (jueens that of Judith. § That family being now extinct, the Falasja submit to the king of Abyssiuia.|| They exercise the vocations of weavers, 'smiths, and carpenters. At Gondar they are considered as sorcerers, who during the night as- sume the form of hyicnas. According to Ludulf they had synagogues and Ilebrow Bibles, and spoke a cttrrupt dialijct of Hebrew. H Bruce asserts that they have the sacred books only in the Gheez laiigunge ; tliat tiiey have lost all knowledge! of tho Hebrew, speak a jargon peculiar to themselves, and know nothing of the Talmud, the Targorun, or the Cabbala. The greater part of the l''alasjns live on tho Bahr- el-Abiad among the Shiilooks. This is the very country that was occupied by the Egyptian exiles, the Asinach and Sebridiu. Perhaps a company of Egyptian Jews • Rlumenbacliin liis translation of Rrucc, V. 2^0. "■ f Agalliarch. in (ico.t,^!-. Mill. Hudson, i. 37. Diod. Sic. iii. Stc. + Hruiis, AlVika, ii.'.JJO. § Bnici's 'Iravels. 11 Sail's iravt lb. 1 Ludoll", llibt. iEtliiop. 1. i. cap. 14, Vol. H.— 3 P Tlic Kalaijiis, ur Abyssinian Jews. 10 province 482 BOOK SIXTY-THIRD. ■"to U'roglodytica, or the coast of Habesh. Vegetables. Animals. followed the steps of these emigrants, and it is not unlikely that they have been mix- ed together. Travellers, both ancient and modern, agree in comprehending all the African coasts, from Egypt to the strait of Bab-el-Mandeb, under the general name of Troglodytica, the coast of Abex, or Habesh, or New Arabia. There is nothing to prevent us from adopting that interesting division, in relation to history and to physical geography. We have found that neither Nubia nor Abyssinia have any fixed limits: and an Arabian geographer of great weight, Abulfeda, makes a formal distinction between Nubia and the maritime parts.* The ancients, whom we must often take for our guides, represent the chain of Minerals. | mountains which skirts the Arabian Gulf as very rich in metals and pre- cious stones. Agatharchides'j' and DiodorusJ make mention of mines of gold which were worked. These were contained in a white rock, probably granite. Pliny makes these riches common to all the mountainous region between the Nile and the Gulf § The Arabian geographers have confirmed these accoimts as well as those which re- Want of water. I late to a quarry of emeralds. But the excessive heat and the scarcity of water render the low part of the coast uninhabitable. Cisterns must be every where used, as there are no springs. || In the dry season the elephants dig holes with their trunks and their teeth to find water. The Etesian, or north-east winds, bring the periodical rains. IT The small lakes or marshes which abound on the coast are then filled with lain water. The palms, laurels, olive tress, styraxes, and other aromatic trees, cover the islands and low coasts. In the woods are found the elephant, the giraffe, the ant-eater, and numerous sorts of monkeys. The sea, which is not very deep, is green like a meadow, from the great quantity of algai and other marine plants which it maintains. It likewise contains much coral. The nature of the soil and climate has, in all ages, kept the inhabi- tants in a uniform state of savage wretchedness. Divided into tribes, and subject to hereditary chiefs, they lived formerly, and still live, on the produce of their flocks of goats, and by fishing. The hollows of the rocks were and still are their ordinary dwelling. From these caverns, called in Greek trogla, is derived the general name under which they are designated by the ancients. That kind of lodging was anciently used in many other countries of the world. We find Troglodytes at the bottom of Caucasus and of Mount Atlas, in Mossia, in Italy, and in Sicily. This last mentioned island contains an example of a whole city, formed by excavation in the interior of a mountain.** But of all the races that have dwelt in caverns, those of the Arabian Gulf have longest preserved the habits and the name of Troglodytes. According to the ancients, these people are of Arabian origin. Bruce considers them under the general and comprehensive name of Agazi or Gheez, which means shepherds. They speak the Gheez language, which is a dia- lect of the Arabic. The uncouth and singular sounds of this language made the ancients say that the Troglodytes hissed and howled instead of speaking. They were said to practise circumcision on both sexes. They employed a barbarous cus- tom, which is used at this day among the Kora-Hottentots, that of a partial castra- tion. It I" ancient times they observed none of the laws of marriage; the wives of the chiefs of tribes were the only women who could be said to have husbands. tj They painted their whole bodies with white lead, and hung round their necks shells, which they believed to have the power of protecting them from sorcery. Some of * Abulfeda, Afrika, edit. Eichhorn, tab. xxvii. f Agatharch. de Mar. Kub. Geogr. Min. Hudson. i; Died. Sic. § Plin. vi. 30, 11 Idem. "t Strabo. •• Travels in Sicily by Prince Biscari, in Italian. tf " lis se privaient <\'\\x\ testicule, coutume barbare qui se retrouve aujoufd'hui chez les Kora-Hottentots." U " Aiicienneinent les femmes ctaient en coinnnui, a I'excention de celles des chefs de tri- bus." Modes of li? ing. The Troglo. dytes. Language manners, anil customs. Emerald mines. HABESH. 483 these tribes killed none of their domestic animals, but lived on their milk, as the Ha- zorta still do; others ate serpents and locusts, a food still relished by various tribes of the Shangallas; finally, there were among them some who devoured the tlesh and bones of animals mashed together, and cooked in a bag formed of the skin. They manufactured a vinous liquor from certain wild fruits. The most wretched among them repaired in flocks, like cattle, to the marshes or lakes, to allay their thirst. This pictiu'e of the ancient Troglodytes is in a great measure applicable to the present inhabitants of these coasts. Mr. Belzoni, who, in his excursion to the Red Sea, came near the countries now under consideration, met with a fisherman, who was probably a fair spe- | Fishermen, cimen of that department of the population.* He lived in a tent only five feet wide, with his wite, daughter, and son-in-law. He had no boat, but went to sea on the trunk of a doomt tree,t ten or twelve feet long, with a horizontal piece of wood at each end, to prevent it from turning round; a small hole for a mast; and a shawl for a sail, managed by means of a cord. On this apparatus two fishermen mount as on horseback, carrying a long spear, which they dart at the fish when they see them. The weather requires to be very favourable when they go to sea, this being imprac- ticable during the east, and dangerous in west winds. We shall begin the topography of the coast with the promontory Ral- | Topography, el-enf, or the J)Ions Smaragdus of the ancients. Mr. Bruce places opposite to this Cape an " Isle of Emeralds," where he found fine green crystals of fluor spar. But the famous emerald mine, which was worked by the Egyptians, was on the continent. The Arabian geographers place it in a more southerly latitude than Assouan or Syene. They say that the mountain is shaped like a bridge, and that the emeralds are found sometimes in sand, sometimes in a blackish gangue.j Some moderns have given vague confirmations of the existence of this mine.§ We believe it to be the same which was visited by Belzoni. Pliny extols its precious .stones for their hardness, || and they are in great request in the east, under the name of " emeralds of the Saide."Tr Zomorget Island, which is farther from the continent than the Isle of Emeralds, passes for the Topaz Island of the ancients.** It is a barren rock, and was inhabited only by serpents, when chance led to the discovery of a quarry of beautiful stones, which the ancients called topazes, and the working of them was undertaken by the kings of Egypt. The coast makes a great concave sweep, called, by ancient and modern naviga- tors, Foul Bay. At the bottom of this gulf is the port of the Abyssinians. The Arabian geographers give the coast nearest this port, the name of Baza, I The country Beja, or 13odsha. According to them it is a kingdom separated from j Bodsha.' Nubia by a chain of mountains, rich in gold, silver, and emeralds.^l We have very discordant accounts, both of the orthography of the name and the boundaries of the country. The name of Baza is found in that of the promontory called Bazinm by the ancients, and now Raz-el-ComoI. The inhabitants of this country, who are called Bugiha by I;oo Africanus, Bogai'tes in the inscription at Axum, and Bedjah by the generality of the Arabians, lead a nomade and savage life. They derive abundant aliment from the milk and flesh of their camels, cattle, and sheep ; every father exercises a patriarchal rule in his family, and they have no other government. Full of loyalty to one another, and hospitable to strangers, they continually rob the neighbouring agriculturists, and trading caravans. Their cattle have horns of enormous size, and their sheep are spotted. The men are all subjected to the bar- barous and indecent mutilation already mentioned of the Gallas and the Kora-Hot- tentots. There are some tribes among them in which the front teeth are extracted ; • Narrative, vol. ii. p. 68. f The Cucifera Thebaica of Delille, a palm. i Edrisi, Bakooi, Ibn-al-Ooardi, in Edrisi's Africa, ed. Hartmann, p. 79. § Mulllet, Uescript. de TEgypte, p. 307. Niebuhr, Voyage, i. 210. Lucas, &c. Sic. II Plin. xxxvii. 16. •J Otter, VoyaR-e, &c. i. 20S. Wansleben, in Paulas, Collect, des Voyages, &c. i. 33. •♦ U'Anville, Descr. du Golfe Arab. p. 233. Gosselin, Recherches'sur la Geographic des Anciens, ii. lyf). ft Abulfeda, loc. cit. Edrisi, Africa, p. 78—80. Isle of To. pazes. Town and di>> trict uf Sua- kem. 484 BOOK SIXTY-THIRD. and there is a society of women who manufacture arms, and lead the lives of Ama- zons.* The custom of hanging up a garment on the end of a pike as a signal of peace, and for commanding silence, is common to them with the Hazorta, a tribe on the coast of Abyssinia. t — Bruce asserts that they speak a dialect of the Gheez, or Abyssinian language. But the Arabian historian of Nubia makes tliem belong to the race of Berbers, or Barabras. A learned orientalist, M. Quatremere, has en- deavoured to demonstrate the identity of the Bugihas or Bejahs, with the Blemmyes of the ancients, or the Balnemoois of the Coptic writers. The descriptions of the ancients appear to us to apply more naturally to the Ababdehs. The other hypo- thesis is formally contradicted by a passage of Strabo. " The Megabajri," says that geographer, " and the Blemmyes, live beyond Mcroe, on the banks of the Nile nearest the Red Sea. They are neighbours to the Egyptians, and subject to the Ethiopians, but on the sea shore live the Troglodytes. "j; From this passage we must consider the Megabaris as chiefly represented by the Makorrah of the historian Abdallah, the Blemmyes by the Ababdehs, and the Troglodytes by the Bejahs. Portof Aidab. | The port of Aidab, called Gidid by the Portuguese, long served as a point of communication between Africa and Arabia. It was a gi'eat place of em- barkation for Mahometan pilgrims bound to Mecca. The Samoom wind renders this place scarcely habitable. Suakem, called Szawaken§ by M. Seetzen, in the latitude of Dongola in Nubia, is now the most frequented port. The town is surrounded with some redoubts, and is mostly built on an island. It possesses mosques and even schools, and has a garrison appointed by the Sherift" of Mecca. The adjoining coast has no river, and is badly supplied with fresh water ; it contains calcareous rock, potters clay, and red ochre, but no metals. Here some dourra, tobacco, water-melons, and sugar-cane, are cultivated. Among its trees we find the sycamore, which, as well as the Persc«, II the ancients mention as growing in Troglodytica. The forests con- sist of ebony trees, gummy acacias, and many varieties of palms. There is a large tree which produces a fruit reseml)liiig grapes. Here are t"o\md the giraffe and nu- merous herds of elephants. The sea yields pearls and black coral. Besides all these productions, the city exports slaves and gold rings brought from Soodan.lT The inhabitants of Suakem, and those of Hallinga-Taka, the adjoining tribe of the Bishareens, and that of Iladindoa, speak a peculiar language.** The promontory of Ras-Ageeg,or Ahehas,seems to be the termination of the Bejah, or Bodja, or Baza country. After this promontory comes a desert coast lined with islets and rocks. It was here that the Ptolemies procured the elephants which they required for their armies. Here Ijord Valentia found a large harbour, to which he gave the name of Port Mornington. The first considerable island met with is called Da- halac, the largest indeed belonging to the Arabian Gulf, being more than sixty miles in circumference. It is level on the side towards the continent but rises eastward, and has a rocky precipitous coast towards the sea."!'! It contains goats with long silky hair, and furnishes a sort of gum-lac, the produce of a particidar shrub. JJ The pearls formerly got here had a yellowish water, and were of little value. §§ To this island vessels repair for fresh water, |||| which, however, according to Mr. Brucc's account, is very bad, being kept in 370 dirty cisterns. Massna. | In the gulf foruicd between this island and the coast is found Massua, orMatzua, an arid rock, with a bad fortress and a very good harbour. It is here that travellers land who go to Abyssinia by sea. At the bottom of the gulf the town of • Abdallah, Hlstoire de la Nubie, d'aprflss?m. t Poiret, ii. p. 71. •* Poiret, p. 129. Vol. II.— 3 Q Alimentary plants. Aii'mal kingdom Camel of the Desert, Degrees of swiftness. 490 BOOK SIXTY-FOUKTH. and sorghum are sown in spring, and cut down in summer.*- Oats grow spontane- ously.'!" Some of the fruits, such as the fig,J are inferior in quality to those of Europe : but the acorns of the oak taste like our chesnuts.§ The animal kingdom comprehends most of the species known in the rest of Africa; we must except from these the rhinoceros, the hippo- potamus, the giraffe, the zebra, and several of the monkeys. Nature has supplied the inhabitants of the desert of Zahara with the means of crossing the immense deserts of western Africa in a few days. Mounted on the heiree, or camel of the desert, which resembles the dromedary, and is only distinguished from it by greater elegance of figure, the Arab, after tying lip his loins, his breast, and his ears, to protect himself from the blasts of a dange- rous wind, traverses with the speed of an arrow that burning desert, the fiery atmo- sphere of which deeply affects respiration, and is almost sufficient to suffocate any unwary traveller. The motions of this animal are so harsh and violent, that no person could bear them without all the patience, the abstinence, and toilsome habits of the Arabs. The most indifferent variety of these camels is called talayeh, a term denoting that the animal cannot accomplish more than three ordinary days journey in a day. The most abundant variety called sebay can make out seven. There is a kind which accomplishes nine, and is called tasay, but these are exceedingly rare, and bring enormous prices. The Arab in his figurative phraseology thus describes the swiftness of the camel of the desert — "When you meet a heiree, and say to the rider salem alik, (peace be with you,) he is out of sight before he can return the alik salem, for he flies like the wind." Mr. Jackson relates facts on this subject which are almost incredible. A heiree arrived at Senegal in seven days from Mogadore, having traversed 14 degrees of latitude, and, including the windings of the road, had travelled 1000, or 1100 English miles, making 150 in a day. A Moor of Mogadore mounted his heiree in the morning, went to Morocco, which is 100 English miles off, and returned in the evening of the same day with a parcel of oranges, for which one of his women had longed. Mr. Jackson allows that these facts put the faith of the reader to a severe test; but three older travellers give similar accounts. It is at the same time added, that camels of this quality are but few. II Geography might receive some interesting accession, if Europeans, well armed, and in sufficient number, could procure these fleet creatures, and learn to ride them, in order to explore the deserts of northern Africa. Asses are also used, and are of two sorts, the one strong and large, the other very small. Morocco produces fine horses of the Arabian breed. In the whole of Barbary the cattle are small and lean; the cows give little milk, and that of an unpleasant taste. — Goats and sheep are plenty. Pigs being held in abhorrence among the Mahometans, are only found in the houses of Europeans. Cats, dogs, and European poultry are common. The Arabs breed a great many bees. IT Wild animals. | The panther has in all periods been a famous animal, but it is only within these few years that he has been described with precision.** The ounce and leopard of Buffon seem to be the panther at different ages ; yet it would be rash to expunge them at once from the list of quadrupeds. The bubalus, an animal of the antelope kind, belongs to the deserts of the north of Africa. It lives in a gi'ega- rious state, and flocks of them come to the marshes and canals of Egypt to assuage their thirst. The hieroglyphics in the ^emples of Upper Egypt contain several figures evidently representing this animal. Among the other animals of the same genus common in these countries, the pasap is the most frequent, then the corinna gazelle, which differs very little from llie kevel, or proper gazelle.ll In the forests and deserts are found the elephant, the lion, the African bear, two species of the hyaena, the ferret, which lives in the bushes, and some apes, among which are the * Desfontahies, Flora Atlantlca. f Shaw, p. 138. + Poiret, ii. p. 267. § Hocst, p. 305. 11 Hccst's Account of Morocco, translated from Danish into German, p. 289. Shaw's Travels in Barbary, p. 157. Lempriere's Travels. ^ Nachrichten und Bemerkungen uber Algier, &c. t. iii. •• Cuvier, Menagerie du Museum, article Panther. tt Idem. ibid. art. Corinne. Other domes tic animals. Ostrich hunt- ing. ATLANTIC REGIONS. 491 old man and the baboon. According to a conjecture of M. Walckenaer, the rats seen by Windhus the traveller, in the neighbourhood of Mequinez, *' rats as large as rabbits, and which like them burrow in ll)e earth," were archmijs gvvdi, a kind of marmots. It has been disputed whether there are anv bears in Aliica. n<^^ynption of The learned Cuvier doubts their existence in such southerly latitudes, Atvica. but Baldens, a well informed writer, says that he saw them in Ceylon.* It cannot be denied, that two grave authors, Herodotus and Strabo, assert the existence of the bear in Africa, distinguishing him from the lion and from the panther. Dion, or his abridger Xiphilin, makes a similar assertion ; Virgil, Juvenal, and Martial might be quoted to the same etlcct.| Aristotle does not expressly exclude the bear from Africa, j On these accounts we ought not yet to reject the testimony of modern tra- vellers, who maintain the existence of this animal in the high parts of Mount Atlas, only acknowledging that it cannot be very common. § Ostrich hunting is a curious amusement of this country. Twenty Arabs mounted on the horses of the desert, which are as transcendent among horses as the heiree is among camels, proceed to windward in quest of an ostrich track, and when they have found one, follow it In a body with the utmost ra- pidity, keeping at the distance of half a mile from one another. The ostrich, fa- tigued with running against the wind, which beats against his wings, turns about to the hunters and attempts to penetrate their line ; but they surround him, and all at once fire on the bird, when he falls. Without this address they could never take the ostrich, which, though deprived of the power of flying, surpasses in running the swiftest animals. The south wind brings along with it clouds of locusts, which, by devastating the fields, create famines, and often cover the ground so completely, as to make a travel- ler lose his way. II The wild bee fills the trunks of the trees with aromatic honey, and with wax, which are gathered by the inhabitants in great abundance.lT To the preceding physical delineation, which is applicable to the states | inhahitann. of Tripoh, Tunis, Algiers, and Morocco, we shall subjoin an equally general view of the inhabitants. The inhabitants of the towns and cultivated plains are distinguished by | The Moors, the name of Moors. Though they speak a dialect of the Arabic, abounding in ex- pressions peculiar to themselves, their physical constitution, their complexion, which is whiter than that of the Arabs, their countenance, which is more full, the less ele- vated nose, and less expressive physiognomy, seem to show that they are descended from a mixture of the ancient Mauritanians and Numidians, with the Phenicians, Romans, and Arabians. — Since Sallust asserts, that the Numidians and Mauritanians had sprung from an Asiatic colony, composed of Modes, Armenians, and Persians,** it would be an interesting thing to examine thoroughly the characteristic idioms of the Moorish language. ff The acounts given by European travellers make the moral character of this nation a compound of every vice. Avaricious and debauched, blood-thirsty and effeminate, greedy yet idle, revengeful yet fawning, they do not re- deem these vices by a single good quality : But may we not suppose that the hatred which the Moors have vowed against their Christian persecutors, ever since they were driven out of Spain, has excited corresponding feetiiTgs among travellers ? The Moors are Mahometans, and belong chiefly to the fanatical sect called Maleki. They, like the fanatics of many other religions, consider their piety as compensating for every moral defect, and heresy as a stain which can scarcely be rendered more tole- rable by the brightest assemblage of moral virtues. — They have among Moorish ana- them many saints ; some distinguished by their absolute inaction, others '"^'""' by a turbulent and mischievous insanity. These last have been seen to knock down * Zimmermann, Geographische Geschlchte, &c. + Salmasii, Exercitationes Plinianae, i. p. 228. + Hist, Animalium, viii. p, 28. § Poiret, ii.p. 238. Shaw. p. 177. Hccst. p. 291. i Hccst, p. 300. Agrell, Lettres stir le Maroc, p. 319. 1 Poiret, i. p. 324. Iloest, p. 303. •• Sallust in Jugurtha. tt Norberg. Dispui. de genie et lingua Marocano, Lund, in Scania, 1787. 492 BOOK SIXTY-rOURTII. an ass, and devour the flesh still reeking and bloody.* Several of the emperor's horses have been raised to the dignity of saintship : one, in particular, when Com- modore Stewart was tiiere,t was held in such reverence by the monarch, that any person who had committed the most enormous crime, or had even killed a prince of the blood royal, was perfectly secure as soon as he laid hold of the sainted animal. Several Christian captives had by this manoeuvre saved their lives. When his ma- jesty intended to confer a signal mark of favour, he and his horse drank successively from the same bowl, and then caused it to be handed to the distinguised individual. These people are addicted in an uncommon degree to a superstitious belief in the influence of evil eyes. An emperor of Morocco kept his son in a state of rigorous confinement, to preserve him from that fatal influence. One part of their marriage ceremonies is to make a solemn procession for the express purpose of ascertaining the purity of the betrothed maid. In no part of the world do the men discover more sensitive jealousy, both before and after wedlock. In Morocco, and through the whole interior, the Moors are temperate in their eating, and simple in their dress, but in Tunis and Algiers the women wear elegant dresses, glittering with gold and diamonds.;!; The whiteness of their skin is only discovered by their bare feet. To be able to read the Alcoran is in the eyes of most Moors the summit of polite learn- ing. They have also their astrologers, and they are fond of history and poetry. Their square flat-roofed houses are sometimes ornamented in the interior with rich carpets and salient fountains. Horse-exercises, and shooting-matches, with feats of rope-dancing, form their favourite pastimes. At their funerals, a long train of wo- men, paid for crying and howling, accompanies the dead bodies to their tombs. Arabs. { The nomade Arabs, who brought hither the Mahometan religion from Asia, preserve the purity of their race, which is distinguished by a more masculine physiognomy, more lively eyes, and almost ohve complexions. Their women, des- titute of personal attractions, enjoy a great degree of freedom. There would be no use, indeed, in concealing their brown and haggard countenances, which operate ra- ther as antidotes than incitements to guilty passions. The women of some tribes ingrain black lines and figures on their cheeks and bosoms.§ The tents of the Arabs, covered with a coarse stuff", or with palm leaves, have preserved the form of an in- verted boat, which, according to Sallust, was that of the mapalia of the Numidians.|| They call a cabin of this kind shaima, and a group of them forms a duar, or hamlet, which is in the form of a ring, with the Sheik's house in the centre, and is frequently surrounded with a thorn hedge, as a defence against the lions which roar around them. The number of these Arabs in the empire of Morocco alone is sometimes estimated at 40,000. The Arabs, as well as the Moors, send caravans of pilgrims to Mecca. In Asia, both these classes of people are comprehended under the name of Magrebi, or Mogrebbins, a term which signifies " people of the west." The Berber*. | The Berbers, who are totally distinct from the Arabs and the Moors, seem to be the indigenous race of northern Africa. They probably comprehended the remains of the ancient Getulm to the west of Mount Atlas, and of the Libyans to the east. IT They form at present four distinct nations. 1. The Amazirgh, called by the Moors Sliilla, or Shulla, in the mountains of Morocco. 2. The Cabyls, in the mountains of Algiers Ehid Tunis. 3. The Tibbos, in the desert between Fezzan and Egypt; and, 4. The Tooariks in the great desert. The identity of the language spoken by these different tribes, which is perceived by a comparison of their voca- bularies,** is one of the most important discoveries made in ethnographic history. This language has not hitherto been found to show any analogy to that of the Bara- bras of Nubia, or of the Shillooks of Abyssinia, but it is not impossible that farther • Bruns, Afrlka, vj. p. 126. -j- Windhus's Journey of Mequinez, (London, 1723.) ^ Nachrlchtcn, &c. An account of Algiers, i. p. 493. Altona, 1798. § Agrell, p. 39, German translation. II On the etymology of this word, see Bochart, Canaan, 1. ii. cap. 9. ^ Mithridates, by Adelung and Vater, iil. p. 45. "* Hoest's Account of Morocco, (in Danish,) p. 128. Joneses Dissertation de lingua Sliillensi in the Dissertat. ex Occas. Sylloges, kc, Atnsterd. 1715. Siiaw's Travels, p. 52. Ilornemann. Marsdea. Venture Tlie Mara- booU. ATLANTIC REGIONS. 493 researches may discover a connection. The Berber language, which the Amazirgh call the Tamazeght, and the Cabyls, Shoivia, seems to us to have quite an original character, though approaching to the Hebrew and the Phenician. The Berbers have a complexion of mixed red and black, a tall and handsome form, of spare habits, and a lean body.* In religious fanaticism they surpass even the Moors. When an opportunity is presented they occasionally gratify their antipathies by shedding the blood of Jews and of Christians. The Shillahs, however, eat the flesh of the wild boar, and drink wine. The Maraboots, who are honoured as a sort of saints, exercise in many of the Kabyl villages a despotic authority. These hypocrites distribute amulets, and affect to work miracles. Two of the most eminent of these at present in Morocco are Sidi Hamet and Sidi Alarbi, and hardly any thing is done in that empire without consulting them. Though they are consi- dered as endued with the gift of prophecy and of miracles, they are not distinguished in the least degree by personal austerity or self-denial. In their respective districts no tribute is paid but to them. With their revenues and the valuable offerings which they continually receive, they support an armed force, with which they are always surrounded, and maintain a liberal establishment of wives and concubines, without incurring the slightest abatement from the sanctity of their character. In other si- tuations, especially among the Shillahs, there are sheiks who rule the small tribes into which the nation is divided. Those who live in the high valleys of the Atlas are almost entirely independent. In Morocco some tribes have joined together under princes or hereditary kings, called Amargar, whose patriarchal authority extends no farther than to the punishment of theft and murder. They manufacture their own gunpowder. Their meals consist of brown bread, olives, and water. The poverty and dirtiness of their dress give them a most savage appearance. Yet the Berbers manifest, in the cultivation of their fertile fields, a laborious disposition, and a degree of intelhgence which might be turned to good account. They furnish the indolent Moors with wheat, olives, and all sorts of provisions. Their villages, some of which may, for size and population, be called towns, are fortified with watch-towers, from which they can spy the approach of an enemy. On the slightest signal all the men are in arms. They handle the musket with much skill, tossing it in the air, catching it again, and discharging it with astonishing accuracy and rapidity. Besides these genuine African nations, the northern part of this continent con- tains some foreign colonists, among whom are the Turks, the masters of Algiers, and once of Tunis and Tripoli, and the Jews who are spread over the whole of BarSary, even among the valleys of the Kabyls. This country, though one of the most salubrious, and the most propitious to the multiplication of the human race, is, in consequence of the absence of a regular government, exposed to calamitous visitations, and particularly to the ravages of the plague. Mr. Jackson, British consul at Mogadore, has drawn a hor- I Description of rible picture of a plague, which, some years ago, depopulated the ] *P'^sue. empire of Morocco. The deaths in the city of Morocco amounted to 50,000, those at Fez to 65,000, at Mogadore to 4500, and at Saffi to 5000. The survivors had not time to bury the dead with any regularity. The bodies were thrown into large trenches, which, when nearly full, were covered over with earth. The young, the healthy, and the vigorous were first attacked ; then the women and children ; and last of all, the lean, the exhausted, the valetudinary, and the aged. When the scourge disappeared, a total revolution was found to have taken place in the fortunes and situation of individuals. Some who had previously been plain mechanics, now found themselves in possession of large capitals, and sometimes purchased horses which they scarcely knew how to mount. Provisions were sold in great abundance, and extremely cheap. Flocks, with their shepherds, wandered in the pastures without owners. Great temptations were thus presented to the Arab, the Berber, and the Moor, all equally prone to theft. But they were restrained by an apprehension for their lives : for the plague, (el khere,) is believed by them to be a divine judgment in punishment of theu: crimes. It was, therefore, imperiously necessary to avoid * llocsl, p. 141. Lemprierc, Chcuier, Shaw, &.c. 494 BOOK SIXTY-FIFTH. being caught by the avenging angel in the flagrant act, and rather to regulate their conduct so as to prepare themselves for paradise. The price of labour was soon out of all bounds ; and as the number of persons capable of working was not suffi- cient to supply the demands of the rich who were able to pay them, the latter found themselves under the necessity of performing little domestic offices with their own hands. They ground corn and baked bread, and the simplicity of the golden age seemed to spring up in this recommencement of the organization of society. Many large estates which remained without owners were seized by the Arabs of the de- serU* BOOK LXV. THE BARBARY STATES, AND THE GREAT DESERT OF ZAHARA. PART n. Detailed Descriptions. In the preceding Book we have delineated the physical geography and ethnogra- phy of the whole Atlantic regions. We must now take a view of the different states or kingdoms of Barbary, and the cities and towns included in these political divisions. We shall first turn our attention to the small states scattered over the desert which bounds Egypt on the west. Then passing the SijrtfK, we shall follow the chain of Mount Atlas, giving an account of the States of Tripoh, Tunis, Algiers, and Mo- rocco, and conclude with a description of the Great Desert of Zahara. ♦ The desert or The country of Barca is the first that comes in our way on leaving kingdom of oii-r» 7j ji- • -i • Barca. Egypt, bomc Call Jt)arca a desert, and the mtenor certamly merits that name ; others call it a Jcingdom, an appellation founded on the existence of this coun- try as the independent kingdom of Cyrene, governed by a branch of the Ptolemies. The coast of Barca, once famed for its threefold crops,! is now very ill cultivated ; the wandering tribes of the desert allow no rest to the inhabitants, or security to their labours. The sovereignty of it is divided between two Beys, one of whom resides at Derne, a town surrounded with gardens, and watered by refi"eshing rivulets : his subjects may amount to 30,000 tents or families. The other lives at Bengazi, a town of 10,000 houses, with a tolerable harbour, on a shore abounding with fish, and in a fertile territory, from which much wool is exported. The Bey of Tripoli appoints these two governors, whose obedience to his authority is often ambiguous. J Ruins of Among the magnificent ruins of Cyrene, the limpid spring still flows Cyren^. from which the city had its name. A tribe of Arabs pitches its tents amidst its sadly mutilated statues, and falling colonnades. Tolometa, or the ancient Ptolcmais, the port of Barca, preserves its ancient walls, a temple, and some inscrip- tions. This coast seems to hold out an invitation to European colonies ; it seems to be the property of no government or people. A colony established here would • Jackson's Account of the Empire of Morocco. London, 1809. t See Herodotus and Strabo, and our volume on tlie History of fleograpliy. i Lemaire, consul Franijais, Vaj age dans les Montagues de Derne, dans Ic deuxicme Vayage de Paul Lucas, ii. p. 110, Sec. RARCA. 495 ro-discover those beautiful places which the ancients surnamed the Hills of the (•races, and tlie Gardens of the Hesperides. Such, however, is the latent rivalry of the civilized world, in matters connected with power and vanity, and the phantoms attached to the ideas of national greatness, and even national existence, that the most beneficent efforts of any people are liable to be resisted by the jealousy of another of equal pretensions. The travels of the intrepid Hornemann have procured for us a little information re- specting the countries situated beyond Barca. A chain of mountains runs west from the Natron Lakes as we leave Egypt, and taking successively the names of Mokarra and Gulsdoba, extends to the oasis of Audjelah, being about four miles in length. These mountains are calcareous, naked, and precipitous. At their feet we pass over a flat marshy country, from one to six miles broad, and abounding in springs. Fol- lowing these mountains westward, we first arrive at the oasis of Siwah, which forms a small independent state. The inhabitants speak the Tibbo dialect of oasisof the Berber language. This is the country of Ammon of the ancients, siwaii. The ruins of Oummibida seem to belong to a fortified caravansera, connected with the temple of Jupiter Ammon. They contain some hieroglyphics in relief. Their materials consist of a limestone brought from the adjoining mountains, containing petrified shells and marine animals. Diodorus speaks of the temple situated in the port as distinct from that of the forest near the fountain of the sun.* The arable territory of the oasis of Siwah, is about six miles long and four broad. The chief plantations consist of date trees ; there are also pomegranates, fig trees, olives, apri- cots, and bananas. A considerable quantity of a reddish grained rice is cultivated here, being a different variety from that which is grown in the Egyptian Delta. It also produces wheat for the consumption of the inhabitants. Abundance of water, both fresh and salt, is found. The fresh water springs are mostly warm, and are ac- cused of giving rise to dangerous fevers, when used by strangers. "j" The population of Siwah is capable of furnishing about 1500 armed men. This country is the San- tariah of Abulfeda, and the Sant-Ryah of Edrisi. According to Ebn-Ayas, an Ara- bian author, the zebra is met with in the adjoining deserts.;}^ From Siwah to Audjelah, the mountains rise in peaks from the midst of the plain. The naked rock is not covered with a particle of soil, or even with sand. A sandy plain at the bottom of the mountains, presents on its surface an immense horizontal calcareous bank, which contains no traces of petrification, while the adjacent moun- tains, also calcareous, are full of the remains of marine animals and shells. These are also met with here in large isolated heaps. The oasis of Audjelah, the Augila of Herodotus, contains three towns The oasis of or villages, and is the residence of a bey, who is dependent on the bey Audjelah. of Tripoli. The town of Audjelah is only a mile in circumference, and contains only three narrow and dirty streets of mean houses built of limestone. The public buildings have a most wretched aspect. At Audjelah is the termination of the long chain of mountains which bounds the desert of Barca on the south, and separates it from that of Libya, turning west to Fezzan. A little beyond this we find another chain called Marai, of the extent and direction of which we know but little, only that it appears to send off ramifications to the north. Then we find the sin- The desert of gular hilly desert called Haroodje, which is probably the Mons aler of Marooiijei.. Pliny. It commences at two or three days' journey from Audjelah, reaches the mountains by which Fezzan is bounded, and is prolonged to the north of Fezzan; but the branches which it forms in this direction, and those also to the south, are less known. Haroodjeh presents a mass of broken mountains, mostly bare and sterile, composed of black basalt. Their appearance is volcanic and exceedingly wild. In several places the ranges of basalt alternate with others of limestone. The low calcareous hills bounding the plains are composed of petrifactions, which consist mostly of the heads of fishes. • Diodorus, edit. Wessel, p. 589. t Voyage de Browne, t. i, p. 34. de la trad. Franjaise. * Langles, M^moire sur les Oases. 496 BOOK SIXTY-FIFTH. Fabulous tuwii. Soil and pro- duciions. It is probably in Haroodjc that the solution will one day be found of the enigma of the Arabian geographers, respecting a town, which they call Raz Sem, the inhabitants of which were turned into stone. Shaw and Bruce did not penetrate so far as to procure information deserving of reliance. The tra- dition has the appearance of concealing under it a curious fact, the existence of mummies in some JVecropoUs, or city of the dead, like those of Egypt. Fezzan. j From the Haroodje we enter Fezzan. Major Rennel and the learned Larcher consider Fezzan as the ancient country of the Garamantes ; a point still, however, very doubtful, as we have shown in our History of Geography. Fezzan is bounded by the state of Tripoli on the north, by the desert of Barca on ' the east, and by the great desert of Zahara on the west and south. The greatest length of the cultivated country, from north to south, is about 255 miles, and its greatest breadth 200 miles from east to west ; but the mountainous region of Ha- roodjeh is comprehended in its territory. According to Hornemann, this small state contains 100 towns and villages, of which Moorzook is the capital. Sakna, Wadan, and Germah, are the names of others, the last of which resembles the ancient Ga- rama. There is alse Zooilah, which, according to old travellers, contained magnifi- ciiraate. | cent ruins, but none such were seen by Hornemann. During the south wind the heat here is scarcely supportable even to the inhabitants, who then sprinkle their rooms over with water, in order to be able to breathe. The winter is not so mild as might be expected, owing to a cold and piercing north wind, which completely chilled the inhabitants while Hornemann was there, and obliged this traveller himself, though inured to a cold climate, to draw near a fire.* Rains here are infrequent and scanty. Hurricanes sometimes blow from the north, darkening the atmosphere with clouds of dust and sand. In the whole country there is no river or stream worthy of notice. The soil is a deep sand covering rocks, and sometimes calcareous or argillaceous earth. There are numerous springs, which supply water for the purpose of agriculture. The whole of Fezzan, indeed, abounds in water, at a moderate depth under ground, derived, no doubt, from the rains which fall on hills more or less dis- tant, perhaps on the confines of the desert, and though absorbed by the sand, find their level among the loose strata, across a broad extent of desert, till they become accessible in Fezzan, and impart to this country its characteristic fertility. Dates are the natural produce and the staple commodity of Fezzan. Figs, pomegranates, and lemons, also succeed. A great quantity of maize and barley is cultivated ; but the inhabitants do not raise wheat sufficient for their own consumption, and receive a great part of what they use from the Arabs. Some ascribe this to their indolence; but remarks of that kind are often gratuitous conclusions, arising from a deficient comprehensien of the principles of wealth and commerce. If the inhabitants are in- dolent, how do they contrive to procure an equivalent to give to these Arabs for their wheat 1 The latter may feed them because they are rich, but not simply be- cause they are unwilling to work. Such facts, if they authorize any inference on the subject, would rather incHne us to think that the industry of the people was such as to produce a population greater than the food produced in the country is able to maintain, or that a produce of a more delicate kind was given by them to the import- ing Arabs, in exchange for an article which goes farther for the purposes of nutri- ment. Fezzan abounds in pulse and culinary vegetables. The most common domestic animal is the goat. Sheep are reared in the southern parts. The ass is their beast of burden and draught. Camels are extremely scarce and high priced. All these animals are fed on dates or date-stones. In the province of Mendrah, natron floats in large masses on the surfaces of several lakes, over which a dense fog is frequently seen to hover. The Fezzanese send caravans to Tripoli, Tombuctoo, and Bornoo. They trade in gold dust and black slaves. They are acquainted with the cowrie shell, or cyphrosa mnnda, a circumstance which shows that their comercial relations extend to the coast of Guinea.]" From October to February, Moorzook is the great mart and ren- • Proceedings of the African Association, vol. i. t Brun's Afrika, v. p. 315. TRIPOLI. 497 dezvous of the diflercnt caravans which come from Cairo, Bcngazi, Tripoli, Gadamcs, Tooat, and Soodan. According to some, the suUan of this country is tributary to the Bey of | Government. TripoH;* according to others, he only sends him a present. f According to Horne- mann, his revenues arise from his landed estates; others mention three or four mo- derate taxes. The population of Fezzan is estimated by Hornemann at ( inhabitants. 60,000 or 70,000 souls. The variety of their complexion shows that they are a mixed people. The indigenous race is of middling stature, of little vigour, with brown complexions, black short hair, a form of countenance which in Europe would be called regular, and a nose less flattened than that of the negro. The women, as in the whole of Africa, are immoderately fond of dancing. According to Hornemann, all the inhabitants arc Mahometans ; according to others, there are also some pagans among them, who live in a good understanding with the Mussulmen.J The Fez- zanese intoxicate themselves with the juice of the date; in other respects they are very sober, which is partly the result of necessity. Hornemann says that a person who can afford to eat bread and meat daily is esteemed a man of great wealth. The houses of Fezzan arc built of sun-dried bricks, made of calcareous and argillaceous earth. They are extremely low, and lighted only by the door. In this country young persons are often mutilated and transformed into eunuchs. The Tibbos, a Berber nation, occupy the almost desert countries to | Tibbos. the south-oast of Fezzan, and from these extend eastward along the southern boun- dary of Haroodjeh, and the desert of Audjelah, as far as the vast sandy desert of Levata, by which Egypt is hemmed in on the west. This desert is the eastern limit of the Tibbos. The space on the south, lying between the Tibbos and the kingdom of Borneo, is in the possession of the wandering Arabs, some of whose tribes hve in caverns or grottos during the intense heats. Berdoa, an oasis mentioned by Leo, is perhaps identical with Boorgon, the capital of the Tibbos. The state of Tripoli, properly so called, extends on the north of Fez- | Tripoli, zan between the great and the little Sijrtcc; that is, between the Gulf of Sidra and that of Gabes. Here the climate is extremely unpleasant; the heat of the day and the coldness of the night being equally insupportable. From the month of May till the end of October no rain falls. Vegetation is more abundant in winter than in summer. The soil is tolerably fertile, producing dates, oranges, citrons, figs, almonds, and many other fruits. In winter there is abundance of all sorts of pulse, cabbages, turnips, and onions : in summer cucumbers and melons. Two days' jour- ney south from Tripoli, there is on Mount Garean a great plantation of saffron. — Lions and panthers are rarely seen; the jackals and hedgehogs are numerous. Much inconvenience is created by serpents and scorpions. § The comparative geography of the towns is involved in an obscurity | Towns, which it is not in our power to dissipate. There were three conspicuous towns in the Syrtic region; and in the fifth century this region received the name of Tripoli, which means " the country of the three cities;" but, in order to determine what these towns were, and what modern localities correspond to them, would require a long and not very amusing discussion. It seems to be certain, that during the first inva- sions of the Arabians, the city of Sabrata, apparently the capital of the province, had in common language received the name of Tripolis. It is still called Sabart, and " Old Tripoli." Its inhabitants took refuge in the place now called New Tripoli. This city may have been called Ncapolis by the Byzan- tine authors, but it was certainly diflcrent from that which Pliny and the rest of the ancients designated uirder that name. Was it identical with Ocea? This has been denied without decisive evidence. It is at least an ancient city, for it has a triumphal arch, dedicated, as appears by the remains of the inscription, to Marcus Amelius • Abderrhamau Aga, Tripolltan Ambassador, Account given to Mr. Niebuhr in the New Ger- man Museum, iii. p. 992. f Proceedings of the African Aiisociatlon, i. t Nouv. Mgs. Allcm. p. 993. § Rothmann's Letters on Tripoli, in Schlsetzcr's Political Correspondence, vol. ix. No. vi. (ia German.) Vol. II.— 3 K Climate and ]u'ocluctiou9. Antiquity of Tripoli. 498 BOOK siXTV-Firrn. Antonius, suni.amcd the philosopher, and to his imperial colleague, Lucius Verus.* After heing taken from the Arabs by Roger of Sicily, and occupied by the troops of Charles V. and by the Knights of Malta, it always returned into the hands of the Mussulmans; but industry and trade have been much injured by these revolutions. Some stuffs are manufactured here. The harbour opens in a semicircular form, and is feebly protected by old fortifications. Different I To the east of the capital is Lebida, the ancient Leptis magna, with towns. I ^j^^ remains of a temple, a triumphal arch, and an aqueduct;! also Me- surate, or Mezrata, the residence of a bey. To the west we find Arzori, of sufficient importance in the fifth century to give its name to the province which was called Arzugum Regio; and the island of the Lotophagi, now called Zerbi. The small towns on the borders of the two Syrtte, obscure in modern, as they were in ancient geography, seem to disappear with a rapidity like that of the shifting sand hills by which they are surrounded. The populous villages of Mount Garean are partly composed of grottos cut in the rocks. The tombs are sometimes over the dwellings of the living.J Government. The State of Tripoli, possessing an extensive territory, but depopulated, Navy. full of barren districts, and a prey to anarchy, is the weakest of the Bar- bary States. The hereditary prince, or pasha, who reigns here, does not annex to his name the title of Dey, but only that of Bey. He is more dependent on the Sub- lime Porte than the princes of Tunis and Algiers. He does not maintain regular troops, and his navy consists of some xebecs and armed polacres. The Danish fri- gate the Naiad, of 40 guns, commanded by Captain Sten-bille, was perfidiously inveigled into the harbour of Tripoli, where it was attacked by the whole Tripolitan navy. The frigate drove off all the xebecs and polacres, and made the pasha trem- ble in his palace, so that he offered more moderate conditions than he usually exacts. Tripoli exports the wool of Barca, gold dust, ostrich feathers, slaves brought from the interior of Africa, senna, wax, and morocco leather. Caravans annually arrive here from Fezzan, Morocco, and Tombuctoo. To the west of Tripoli is the kingdom of Tunis, the ancient Africa Propria, and the seat of the Carthaginian power. In the middle age, the State of Tripoli was subject to Tunis, of which Barbyrossa took possession in 1533. At the present day, the Tunisians, more civilized than the Algerines, are their inferiors in power, and have some difficulty to support their independence. The State contains four or five millions of inhabitants. The Moors, who are the agri- culturists and merchants, are less numerous than the nomade Arabs. The Turkish and Mameluke soldiery are comprehended under the designation of harefi, and are now deprived of all influence. The princes, who are hereditary, are | Government, descended from a Greek renegado, and a Genoese female slave, but they are sur- rounded by an army of Moors. The sovereign is called Kamouda Bey, a person of extraordinary vigour of character, and has now reigned nearly thirty years, without any attempt having been made to shake his authority. He is not the legitimate, heir, yet lives on terms of intimacy with his cousins, who ought to have inherited the throne. He superintends all the departments of government, and extends the protection of the law to Christians and Jews. The regular army does not amount to 20,000 men, and the navy consists of a few vessels armed for giving chace. Ad- dicted to agriculture, and other branches of industry, the Tunisians are less given to piracy than the other people of Barbary. The state revenues may amount to a million Sterling. § Climate. | The heat becomes insupportable in July and August, when the south wind brings the heated air from the interior of Africa. Some branches of the Atlas contain elevated and temperate regions. A fertile plain lies along the river Mejerda, • Picturesque Travels in Caramania, 8tc. from the cabinet of Sir Robert Ainslie. London, 1809. t Stromberg's Remarks on the Trade of Tripoli, (in Swedish.) t Rothmann, Lettres sur Tripoli. § Chateaubriand, Mcmoire sur Tunis, dans I'ltineraire ^ Jerusalem. MacGill's Account of Tunis. London, 1811, p. 24—39, &c. Kinjjdom of Tunis, Ruins of Car thage. ALGIERS. 49 the Bagradas of tlio ancitnits. Among its minerals are found alabaster, | rroductiom. crystal, clay, plumbago, iron, and lead. The cattle are small and delicate. Th horses are a degenerate breed. The sheep of Zaara, which are bred here, are a large as deer. Here are lions, panthers, hyaenas, jackals, and other ferocious animals The southern part is sandy, rather level, barren, and dried up by the solar hea' It contains a large shallow lake called Loodeah,* which is the Paltis Tritonis of th ancients. Tiie country along the sea shore is rich in olives, and contains many town and populous villages. But the western part is full of mountains and hills, watere by numerous rivulets, with highly fertile banks, yielding the finest and most abundar crops. Even the Mejerda is not navigable in summer. The generality of the so is impregnated with sea salt and nitre, and salt springs are more plenty than fres ones. The city of Tunis is one of the first in Africa. It has a harbour with | city of xunii good fortifications. The only fresh water to be had is rain water. This cit lias manufactures of velvets, silks, cloths, and red bonnets, which are worn by th people. The chief exports consist of woollen stuffs, red bonnets, gold dust, leac oils, and morocco leather. The most active part of the trade is carried on wit France. In no part of Barbary are the Moors so tolerant and so courteous as hen The commercial spirit of ancient Carthage seems to hover over this locality, so Ion the focus of African civilization and power. The ruins of that ancient city are to the north-west of Tunis. Her harbours, once the asylum of so many formidable fleets, seem partly filled up by the falling in of the ground. I the south-east part are seen remains of the moles by which they were bounded. A noble aqueduct is still to be seen, a monument of the Roman power, under whic the second Carthage flourished. The emperor Charles V. caused a di-awing to b made of it, and the design was arranged by the celebrated Titian, to serve as a mode for some tapestry to be executed for the Austrian court, j Among the modern places we may mention Barda, the Tunisian Versailles, bein, the palace in which the Bey resides. The Goletta, a well appointed fortress, com mands the roadstead of Tunis, and the entrance of a large pool, which is scarcel navigable for boats. Biserta, a fortified town, is situated on a lagoon, which is c.x ceedingly well stocked with fish, and might be formed into a magnificent harbour. Porto-Farina, situated to the north-west on the Mediterranean, has an exceller harbour, which has become foul with rubbish. The ancient Utica, where the younge Cato died a voluntary death, was near this place. Sooza, a trading town, built on rock, has a castle, and a good harbour, on the IMediterranean. Hamamet, Sfakes and Gabes, have also harbours or roadsteads. In the interior we notice Kairooan a town founded by the Arabians, and for some centuries the capital of Africa. 'Thi Mussulmans boast of its principal mosque, supported, as they say, by 500 granitii columns. Foser, on Lake Loodeah, is a great mart for wool. The Bey of Tunis has sometimes disputed with the Bey of Tripoli the sovereignty of the small state of Gadamcs, which is at a distance in the interior, to the south of the lesser Syrta3. Gadames had once a flourishing trade which has declined since the caravans, in going from Tripoli to Tombuctoo, havi stopped at Agadez, instead of this place. All the caravans from the interior brin; slaves, ostrich feathers, ivory, amber, senna leaves, and gold dust. Gadames i called by a modern autlior Gdamsia.§ Proceeding westward, we enter the state of Algiers. || This king- dom, watered by the Shellif and the Wadi-Jiddi, is crossed in its southern State of Ga- dames. State of Al- giers. • Brun's Afrika, vl. p. 329. f Chateaubriand, Itineraire, i'li. p. 186, &c. Jackson, Memou' on the lluins of Carthage. i Fischer d'Erlacb, Architecture Historique, liv, ii. Planche ii. Vienne, 1721. § Flora Atlantica, preface, p. 2. II A very interesting account of Algr'iers, was published in 1826, by Mr. Shaler, Americai Consul resident at that place. According to his account, the western limit of Algiers is at : place called Twunt, (about forty miles east of the great river Mulucha or Malva, and sixteei minutes west of the meridian of Greenwich,) from whence to Taburca its eastern limit, at tli( mouth of the little river Zaine, in 9° 16' E. long., the distance is about 500 miles. The breadtl 500 BOOK SIXTY-FIFTH. part by the chains of the Atlas, called Lowat and Ammer. We have described these chains, and mentioned the mountain of Jurjura, one of the highest in Barbary. is uncertain, the northern border of the Sahara never having been determined by observation. The whole territory is mountainous, but the natives say none of the mountains are bald, their summits being inhabited by the Kabyles, who find there sufficient pasturage for their flocks, and arable land to subsist upon. The city of Algiers, as seen from the sea, resembles a ship's topsail on a green field. The country enjoys a healthy and agreeable temperature, neither oppressive in summer or severe in winter, except during the winds from Sahara, which blow occasionally in mid-summer four or five days, when the mercury often rises to 108°. Fi-om April to September, the winds are usually from the eastward, damp without rain; the rest of the year westerly. The season of rain is from November to April, sometimes excessive in November and December. The quantity of rain falling annually is 24 to 28 inches. The soil throughout is equally fertile ; in some places black, and in some red — rarely is any grain cul- tivated but wheat and barley. The wheat is of the hard species. Nothing is more rare than to find forest trees in the plain. The only metals known to exist at Algiers are iron and lead. Inexhaustible mines of the finest foSsil salt abound in the mountains. The river Shelliff is the most considerable; its sources are in the Sahara; it approaches within 50 miles of Algiers; when becoming a river of some consequence, it turns to the west, parallel to the coast, and disembogues in 1° 20' E. long. There is no other remarkable river, though there are nume- rous streams which reach the sea. The sea coast is every where bold and free from hidden dangers. Its only known good harbours are Boujaiah and the Gulf of Stora, which are very spacious and afford perfect shelter at all times. Bona, Algiers and Oran have safe anchorage in ordinary times, but afford no shelter from the northerly gales, which sometimes in winter blow with excessive fury. Mr. Shaler says, although the Barbary horses have had much repu- tation, he does not recollect having seen a fine horse in Algiers. In every respect the horses appeared to him inferior to those of the United States. The neat cattle are very small, and the cows give very little milk. The wool is of good quality, and in its unsorted, unwashed state usually commands 50 franks per English quintal in France and Italy. The territory of Algiers is politically divided into three provinces — Oran, the western; Titterie, the southern; and Constantine, the eastern. Titterie is bounded on the west by the river Massafran in 3° 12' E. long., which separates it from Oran ; and by the river Boobrak in 4° 15' E. long., which separates it from Constantine on the east. The capital of the kingdom is on the coast of Tit- terie, in lat. 36° 48' N. and long. 3° 30' E., and is supposed to stand on the site of ancient Icosium. It ex-ercises an indefinite jurisdiction, several governments in the three provinces depending directly upon it. It may therefore be termed a fourth province. The cities except the capital are of little note. Tlemsen has fallen into entire decay, and is now supposed to contain a population of 3000 souls. Oran contains about 8000, and is undoubtedly the se- cond place in the kingdom, taking its advantages into view. — Mustiganim, formerly a Moorish city of much importance, has fallen into entire decay.- — Belidah is a town of 8 or 10,000 inha- bitants. Median the capital of Titterie, is a town of about the same size and importance. Constantine the ancient Cirta, and the capital of the eastern province, is stated by the natives to contain 25,000 inhabitants. Bona contains about 3 or 4000 inhabitants. Boujaiah has the best harbour on the coast. It is at present in a state of total decay, with about 2000 inhabi- tants, and known only as a place where coarse pottery is made, Shershell, mentioned by Dr. Shaw as of some consequence, has dwindled into total insignificance. Mr. Shaler from the best estimate he can make, thinks tiie population of the kingdom of Algiers is rather under than over one million of souls. The population of the city of Algiers appears to have been greatly exaggerated by all who have attempted to describe it. Mr. S. does not estimate it at more than 50,000. Islamism is the only religion of the country, and no other is tolerated except the Jewish. — The languages spoken at Algiers are Turkisii, Arabic, Hebrew and the Showiah, that of the independent mountaineers, whicli there is strong reason for believing to be an ancient and original language. The Turkish is that of tiie government, the Arabic the predominant tongue. The Lingua Franca, a barbarous compound, is the medium of communication between the foreigners and natives. The Deys of Algiers, though now elected, continued to be appointed by the Porte as late as the middle of the seventeenth century. The government consists of a Uey, and a Divan indefinite in point of number, and composed of the ancient military who are or have been commanders of corps. It is in fact a military republic, with a chief elective for life. The exclusive right of filling all offices of trust, honour, or profit, is reserved to the Janissaries. The Divan elects theDey, and deliberates on such affairs as he chooses to lay before them. Since the late removal of the residence of the Dey, into the citadel, the Divan may be re- garded as a dead letter in the constitution. The Dey appoints his own ministers; and these ministers with the Dey, are the real government, free of any control by the Divan. The title of Dej'is hardly known in. Algiers, and is used only by foreigners. It is probably a nick- name, meaning in Turkish " uncle." His ordinary title is Bashaw. In times of prosperity, Algiers sends to the Grand Seignor, once in three years, a present amounting sometimes to half a mllhon of dollars. In return the Porte usually .sends them a vessel of war with military and naval stores, and gives them permission to recruit in its donii- ALGIERS. 501 This chain is about twcnty-lwo miles long from north-cast to south-west: the chains of Wannoogah and of Auress form the continuation of it to the cast. Full of rocks nions. The Algerinea have not always respected the Ottoman flag, although the solemn intsal- lation of the Dey never takes place till the recognition of the Grand iSeignor is received. Bat this is never refused. The three provinces are governed by Ueys appointed by the Dey, and each province is taxed in a specific sum, which is paid semi-annually into the puWic trea- sury. Each visit of the Beys of Oran and Constantine cost those governors in expenses,, bribes, &,c. not less than 300,000 dollars, no part of which goes into the treasury. These visits are required to be once every three lunar years, and are very splendid. Tiie officers of the regency receive no salary but their pay and rations as Janissaries. They depend on their various extortions for what they want beyond these. A general system of prohibiting the exportation of the produce of the country, except a few articles which constitute monopolies, has reduced the kingdom to a most deplorable state. The corps of Turks has in latter times seldom exceeded 5000, and at this time is probably under 4000. The navy is an exception to the general rule. In this service native Algerines may lise to the highest rank. The sons of Beys have in some instances succeeded their fathers, and Colories (sons of Turks) have been appointed Kaids, or governors of districts, probably through corruption, but in consequence of a revolt of a Bey of Oran, who in 1814, marched an army within three leagues of Algiers, it will probably be never again permitted. The corps of Turks is kept up by recruits from the Levant, the sweepings of prisons, and the re- fuse of society. The pay of the Janissaries on their first arrival hardly exceeds lialf a dollar ]5er month, but is gradually increased to eight dollars. Though the Turks are essentially sol- diers, part of them are separated into a civil division, termed the corps of Khodgias, writers, which enjoys superior privileges, and furnishes writers to the public offices. The Turks are a plain, prudent, sensible people. In general their word may be relied on, and in the common intercourse of life they are courteous, friendly and humane, but in their political career have all the ferocity of barbarians. Taverns are kept by Jews, where the indulgence of the Turkish soldiery in wine and spirits is connived at on condition that no scandalous scenes are exhibited. The constraint under which the Janissaries are held is evidently irksome, and they desert whenever they can. The Colories, or sons of Turks, are believed to exceed 20,000. They have no sympathies with the Turks, and can hardly be regarded as a class distinct from the general population. Since 1815, the government has derived no benefit from pillage. If the taxes were col- lected with the good faith under which they are assessed, they would not only be light but afford a more abundant provision. Oppression has depopulated the country, by driving the inhabitants from the fertile plains into less accessible positions in the mountains, and the bor- ders of the desert, and evidently tends to the extinguishment of this government. The receipts into the treasury in 1822, were in Spanish dollars, . . 434,000 Expenditures, 859,000 Leaving a balance against the treasury of 425,000 But the regency receives annually from various Sheiks and Beys 200,000 measures of wheat and 20,000 measures of barley. The military establishment consists of 15,000 men including Turks, Colories and Arabs. The two former infantry, the latter cavalry. In this army a large part is merely enrolled, and doing duty only by rotation ; there is nothing that can be called organization or discipline, and they are the most inefficient body ever put under arms. The government maintains constantly in service about 3000 seamen, which in cases of emer- gency may be increased to 6000. Their vessels as ships of war are contemptible. The sea- men have httle skill, and the desperate intrepidity for which they have had credit is purely gratuitous and without any foundation. Upon the whole, Mr. Shaler .says, the power of Al- giers is utterly insignificant. Since the attack by the British and Dutch in 1816, a battery of 36 heavy cannon has been constructed opposite the mole head, which rakes the position taken by Lord Exmouth's licet; but as vessels may be anchored in tlie bay without the r.ange of cannon shot, the city may be bombarded with complete eficct. Algiers on the land side is nearly defenceless. The several expeditions against it have landed in the bay to the eastward. This discovers an unpardonable ignorance; for all the means of defence are concentrated there. Any force might be landed in the fine bay of Sidi Ferrajh without opposition, whence by a single march they might arrive upon the heiglits which com- mand tho Castle del Emperador, the walls of which could be scaled or breached in a short time. This position being mastered, batteries might be established on a height commanding the citadel. On this hclglit formerly stood a fortress, which the government destroyed, be- cause it commanded the citadel and of course the city. There is no city in the world with a more vigilant police, or where there is better security for person and property than in Algiers. The property of a native who is passive in political revolutions, is as well protected Jicre as in any other country. Ali,'icrs may be considered as one of the richest cities in the world in metallic wealth. Tiie widow of Achmet Fashaw, with whom the United States concluded the first peace, lately died with a fortune of several millions of dollars. The heirs of hi» successor 502 nOOK SIXTY-FIFTH. and piccipicos, they are covered with snow for more than nine months, perhaps the whole year. possess real estate worth half a million. Both these chiefs were publicly executed. It is sup- posed that the Dey Ali Khadgia, not many years since, removed into the citadel fifty milUons of dollars specie belonging- to the public treasury. The inhabitants are a mixed race; few surpass them in beauty of configuration, and their features are remarkably expressive, whilst their complexions are hardly darker than those of the inhabitants of the South of Spain. Their finest women are in the wane at twenty-five, when they are often grandmothers. Mr. Shaler never remarked any thing in the character of the people that discovered extraordinary bigotry, fanaticism, or hatred of those who profess a different religion. The sciences are unknown or disregarded in Algiers. No pretension is made to the healing art beyond charms and amulets. Several of the naval captains have learnt from foreigners to determine the latitude by a meridian observation, and have translated the necessary tables. Their usual practice when they go out of the Straits, is to impress some person capable of directing their route. Schools are numerous, where boys of five and six years of age and upwards, are taught to read and write, and it is probable their practice is the origin of the Lancasterian system. These people stand on the brink of civilization, and might be easily led to it. Algerines are generally contented with one wife. The nature of the government has had a silent and sure effect in favour of the sex, and the women are less slaves to their husbands than to custom and long received notions of decorum. On the celebration of marriages, the female i-elatives and friends assemble and enjoy themselves during several days, to the utter discomfiture of the men, who are driven out of the house or compelled to hide themselves. The Jews are about 5000, who have the free exercise of their religion, and are governed by their own laws in civil cases by a chief of their own nation appointed by the Bashaw. They are the only dealers in money and exchange. The streets of Algiers are mere alleys, in most of which two persons on horseback would find it difficult to pass without a shock ; but they are paved and kept clean. There is one street where two carts might pass with care. The public buildings consist of nine large mosques, and a number of minor places of worship j five barracks ; three colleges ; five bagnios, where for- merly Christian slaves were confined ; several open bazars or market places; and tlie old palace. The Citadel, now the residence of the Dey, is an immense fortified enclosure, occupying all the superior part of the city, and one tenth of its superficies. It contains a grand mosque, several palaces, and accommodations for a large garrison. The Coral fishery on the eastern coast, with the export trade of Bona, is farmed to France for 30,000 dollars annually. In consequence of the prohibition of exporting oil and grain there is never a surplus. In 1819, such was the scarcity, that 50,000 bushels of wheat were imported. The duties on the importation of foreign merchandise are fixed at five per centum, and dou- ble this amount when imported by Jews, and by foreigners who have no stipulation by treaty. Imports in 1822, gl,200,000 Exports, 273,000 The balance of 927,000 is remitted annually in gold and silver. The plain of Matijah, the eastern part of which is contiguous to Algiers, is one of the most valuable expanses of territory in the world. It contains about 1000 square miles, is watered by innumerable springs and streams, and is capable of subsisting a greater population than any territory of its size on earth. The Biscaries inhabit the southern region, or the borders of the Saliara, south of the great salt marsh called the Schott, They are a swarthy, serious people, diff'ering mach in appear- ance, spirit, and manners from the other African tribes. They are the most quiet subjects of the itegenc}'. They are a quiescent faithful people, are employed as confidential servants, have the monopoly of the bake houses, are the only porters and labourers on the public works. Blindness appears to be an infirmity of this little nation. The Mozabis inhabit a district of the desert 20 days journey of a caravan, south of Algiers, at least five days south of the regency without water. Mr. Shaler says there is no ascertaining the distance, as some persons have told him it was forty days' journey. There are five districts of this nation — Gordica, Berigun, Wargala, Engoussa, and Nadeam. Major Kennel's map does not correspond with Mr. Shaler's information, unless a days journey be reduced to 15 miles. They are independent of the Regency of Algiers. The Mozabis, in exchange for foreign goods, import into Algiers gold dust, ostrich feathers, camels, and dates. They bring dates of the choicest quality, consisting of a single cluster weighing from 6 to 10 pounds, in dried goat skins. A Thaleb of this people told Mr. Shaler that the Tuarics were a ferocious nation of robbers. The Kabyles are most deserving of attention of any people in this northern portion of Africa. They have always maintained their independence. They are also called Berebersor Brabers, and arc probably remnants of the Numidico Mauritanians. They are of light complexions, ALtUERS. 503 Soil and pro^ tluctioDs. According to M. Desfontaincs,* the territory of Algiers, with the ex- ception of the parts bordering on the desert, is less sandy and more fertile than that of Tunis. He found the climate more temperate, the mountains higher and more numerous, the rains more plenty, the springs and streams more frequent, the vegetation more active and more diversified. The mountains arrest the clouds that come from the north, and condense them by means of the snows which cover their summits, so that they fall down in rain. There are many rivers and salt springs, and near the lake called Marks there is a mountain of rock salt. Several mineral springs are known. Earthquakes are frequent, but not disastrous. There is a sandy plain which the Moors call Shott or Shatt, which is sometimes inundated, and re- ceives five small rivers. According to Mr. Shaw, the boundary of this state, with that of Mo- | Boundaries, rocco, is Mount Trara, which lies north and south, forming with its northern extre- mity Cape Hone, called by the inhabitants Hunein or Mellack: others | Divisions, extend it to the little river of MuUoia or Malva. It is a matter of little moment, aa the country which lies between these two states is the desert of Angara, a sandy country, which appears to be still, as in the time of Leo Africanus, the abode of lions, ostriches, and Arabian robbers, who plunder every defenceless traveller. On tho south the state of Algiers extends no farther than the river Wadi-Jiddi. It is divided into four provinces. Mascara in the west ; the province of Algiers : Titeri to the south of it ; and Constantine, which is most easterly, and conterminous with Tunis. The country of Zab, in the south, inhabited by Arabs or nomadic Berbers, yields a very doubtful obedience to the authority of Algiers, the southern limits of which are uncertain, and lost in the desert. The city of Algiers, which contains a population of 80,000 souls, | ciiyofAigiers. rises in the form of an amphitheatre at the extremity of a fortified anchoring ground, which however is not safe in a north wind. The numerous and handsome country seats scattered over an amphitheatre of hills, among groves of olive, citron, and ba- nana trees, present a rural and peaceful landscape, very dissimilar in character to a nation of pirates. | In the province of Algiers the city of Shersel, the ancient Ce- sarea, exhibits its ruins at the foot of a mountain covered with orchards. On the coast of the province of Mascara, we find Mostagan, a large town ; Arseoo, a harbour from which grain is exported ; and Oran, a fortress long occupied by the Spaniards, who restored it to the Algerines, reserving to them- selves the fort of Marsal-kibir, so situated as to command a large and good ancho- rage. Telemsen is always the chief city of the interior, although the governing bey has established his residence at Mascara, a fortified place. At Telemsen there are some woollen manufactures. Among the nomade tribes of this province, the Beni- with hair nearly flaxen, resembling rather the peasants of the North of Europe than Africans. Mr. Shaler has seen some of the fairest complexions with light flaxen hair. The Kabyles in- habit the mountains to their highest summits, and never descend into the plains but for the purposes of war or adventure. The Kabyles constitute the most numerous class of the Alge- rine population. The Beni Abbass command the passes in the mountains between Algiers and Constantine, and are alone capable of coping with all the force of the Regency. The Kabyles, although professing Mahometanism when at Algiers, are not required to do so when at home. Although Dr. Shaw says they speak a language called the Shillah, or Showiah, Mr. Shaler could not find that those terms are now known at all. The basis of the Algerine metallic currency is the messoon, a small silver coin, sixty of which are equal to a Spanish dollar. The messoon is divided into twenty-nine asperos, a small base coin resembling bits of tin. The gold coins are the sequin of 108 messoons ; the half sequin ; and the mahboob of 72 messoons. On the 2d of March, 1825, at half past 9 A. M. a very severe shock of an earthquake was felt at Algiers, and was followed by others in the space of 48 hours, which totally destroyed the town of Belidah, not leaving a single dwelling standing. Few of its inhabitants escaped. According to the most moderate reports 10,000 persons perished. The authenticity of the information in this note, will it is hoped, apologise |for its length; especially as the author of the principal work has been brief on the subject of Algiers. Phil, Ed. • Flora Atlantica, preface, p. 2. t Hebenstrcit, dans Jiernouilli, Collect, des Voyages, ix. p. 323. Towns of the province of Mascara. 504 BOOK SIXTY-FIFTH. Ammer had in a great measure adopted the language and manners of the Spaniards of Oran. — In the province of Titeri is the town of Bleda, occupying a cheerful Of Constan. Situation. It contains some independent tribes. — The province of Con- *'"°" stantine, governed by a very powerful bey, almost forms an independent state. On the coast we have the town of Boogia, with a good harbour, where the mountaineers sell ship timber, figs, and oil; Coolloo, which exports cowhides; Bona, in a country so rich in olives, lemons, jujubes, figs, and other fruit, that they arc suf- fered to rot on the trees ; and, lastly, La Calle, lately the station of a French com- mercial company, the chief object of which was the coral fishery. The interior contains the towns of Tubnah, Messila, Medrashem, with the tomb of Syphax. There is also Tifseh, a place fortified to cover the frontier on the side of Tunis, and tlie capital Constantine, containing nearly 100,000 souls, and adorned with many fine remains of Roman architecture. A short way from this city, the petrifying springs, called the enchanted baths, form small pyramids by the deposition of calca- reous earth with which their waters are impregnated. The Coocos and Beni-Abbes, in the vicinity of Boogia ; the Henneishas, on the Tunisian frontier, and on the banks of the Mejerda, are the powerful tribes of Kabyls, who yield to the bey of Constan- tine an obedience equally precarious with that which he yields to the Dey of Algiers. In the mountains of Auress, the romantic traveller, Mr. Bruce, says he met with a tribe distinguished by a white complexion and red hair, whom he believed to be a remnant of the Vandals.* They mark their foreheads with a Greek cross. The country of Zab, watered by the river El-Djidid, which loses itself in a marsh, supports with much difficulty its inhabitants, who are called Biscaris. It is a desert, containing some scattered groves of date trees. The countries of Wadreag and Guargala in the south, and of Sobair and Tegorarin in the west, seem to belong to independent Berbers. Inhabitants. | In Algiers there are about 14, or 16,000 Turks. The remainder of the population consists of Colons, or Kulogloos, Jews, Moors, Arabian shepherds, negro slaves, and Christians, part of whom, till lately, were in a state of slavery, part free. The Coloris, or Kulogloos, are the posterity of Turks, by Moorish and negro women. They hold a middle rank between the Moors and Turks. They occupy some offices, but not the highest ; many of them are very rich. They differ little from the Turks in figure, and a mutual jealousy subsists between these two classes. The government is both despotic and aristocratic. The army, which is composed of Turks, chooses the Dey, or Sovereign, whose arbitrary power seems to be mitigated by the principal officers composing the Divan, the members of which are chosen from the oldest warriors. The army consists of about 6500 Turks ; but during war, and when the Coloris are armed, the city of Algiers can send 16,000 men into the field. The revenues raised in the three provinces, from taxes on the Jews and Christians of Algiers, from the government monopoly of grain, the sale and ransom of prisoners, and confiscations, amount to a million and nine thousand Algerine piasters. The sciences and arts here are in a most deplorable state. The Algerines are even indifferently skilled in ship-building, and their compass is only marked with eight points. The chase is with them an interesting occupation. In autumn, and in winter, fifty or sixty persons join together to hunt the lion, the leopard, and other ferocious animals. Empire of The empire of Morocco is a remnant of the great^African monarchies, Morocco. founded by the Arabs. The dynasty of the Aglabites, whose capital at one time was Kaironan, and more lately Tunis, and that of the Edrisites, which re- sided at Fez, were subjugated by the Fatimites, who afterwards being occupied with the conquest of Egypt, allowed their western possessions to be usurped by the Ze'i- rites, who were succeeded by the Hamadians and the Abuhafsians in the provinces of Tunis and Constantine. But in the western extremity, a prince of the Lemtu- naas, a tribe belonging to the Great Desert, at present unlaiown, chose for the reformer of his people, their legislator and high priest, Abdallah-Ben-Iasin, an extra- ordinary person, who lived on water, game, and fish, but who married and divorced • Uruce's Travels. 1'lie Aliuora- vides. MOROCCO. 505 many women every month. This urtful fanatic created a sect markeil in the first ni- slancc by furious zeal, and always extremely ambitious and enterprising, called the Ahnoravides, or more [)roi>erly Blorabeth. It issued from the desert like a liery hurricane, threatening by turns Africa and Europe. The su- preme head of these concpiering zealots took the title of Eiitir-al-J\Ttnneniin, or Prince of the Faithful. In 1052, Abutasfin built the city of Morocco, or Merakash. Joosooph invaded and subjugated the finest part of Spain. At the same time the religious and political rule of the Morabeths extended over Algiers, the Great De- sert, Tombuetoo, and other towns of Soodan ; but new sectaries of a more austere character, the Mooahedes or Almohads, that is, the Unitarians, conquered in 1146 the great empire of Mogreb, or the west. Though less fortunate in Spain, they extended their power in Africa as far as Tripoli. Their princes took the title of Kmir-al-Mumcnim, and even that of Caliph. After the lapse of a century, intestine discords laid tlio Almohads open to the successful attacks of several rivals, among whom were the Merinites, who took possession of the kingdom of Fez and Mo- rocco. This dynasty, more bent on retaining than on extending its possessions, made no efibrt to re-establish the great emi)ire of Mogreb. In 1547, a Sherif, or descendant of Mahomet, put a period to the power of the Merinites. IJ is posterity still reigns, after having weathered frequent revolutions. The sovereigns of Mo- rocco conjoin the title of Sherif with that of Sultan. The State of which we have now traced the origin, slill embraces a | Uoumiaiies. territory of 500, or 550 miles in length, and 420 in breadth, almost as large as Spain, even |when we confine ourselves to the cultivated parts of the provinces of Segel- mesias, Tafilet, and Darah, situated near Mount Atlas. All travellers join in prais- ing the fertility of the kingdoms of Fez and Morocco, the one of which is situated to the north and the other to the west of the Atlas. This fertility, how- | Prmiuctions. ever, seems to be confined to those parts in which sufilcient supplies of water co- operate with the goodness of the soil, and the heat of the climate. Though the inhabitants almost entirely neglect cultivation, fruit and grain are produced, not only in quantities suflicient for the wants of the people, but also for exportation. Mo- rocco supplies a part of Spain with these necessaries of life. The principal grain is wheat. Barley is also abundant. It comes into ear in the month of March. Oats grow spontaneously. The olive in its best state, the citron, the orange, and the cot- ton tree, cover the hills. In the sandy plains, the Moors, by dint of irrigation, rear a variety of pulse, melons, and cucumbers. Many varieties of the vine succeed in the northern provinces. The tbrests are full of oaks, with sweet acorns, cork trees, cedars, arbutuses and gum trees. The minerals are neglected ; co)>per, tin, and an- timony are found ; but they are only worked superficially.* The climate, excepting for three months in summer, is very pleasant, but the dreadful hot wind of the desert prevails for fifteen days, or three weeks, before the rainy season, which commences in September. At this time the rains are not constant. Much snow falls in the valleys of Mount Atlas. The rivers are shallow, and generally have a bar at their mouth, which | Rivers, prevents the entrance of large vessels. The largest rivers are the Mulluia which flows into the Mediterranean ; the Subu ; the Morbeia, or Ommirabee, and the Tensif which fall into the Atlantic. Without bewildering ourselves in the labyrinth of the topography of the provinces, we shall take notice of the principal cities. I^'ez, the capital of the king- I citi.s of a>e dom of that name, is conspicuous among the African citi«3s fitr its ancient | y"^' '"" "^ literary renown. The )»assion for study, however, is now extinct. It has preseiTed some manufactures of silk, wool, and red morocco ; it has an active trade, and is said to contahi a population of 30, or according to others, 00,000 souls. Mequinez, in the plain to the west of Fez, has, on account of its salubrious climate, been fre- quently selected as a place of residence for the Sultan. On the coast of the 3Iediter- ranean, the fortresses of Mehlla, of Pennon-de-VcIcz, and of Ceuta, possessions of httle use to Spain, are memorials of the attempts which the Christians have made to * Jackson's Account of Morocco. Hcrsl's Relation du Maroc. Vol. II.— 3 S ta Towns of the kingdom of Morocco. 506 BOOK SIXTY-FIFTH. invade, in their turn, the territories of Islamism. In Tetuan, a town of 20,000 souls, the houses are generally two stories high, and good, but the streets are extremely narrow and gloomy. Their mode of building is to make a large wooden case for the wall, or for a part of it, into which they put the mortar, and when it is dry the case is removed. The roofs are flat, and the women, who live in the higher apartments, walk along them in paying their mutual visits. The women are so handsome, and at the same time so susceptible, that Mussulman jealousy has been obhged to pro- hibit Europeans from settling in it.* Tangier, or Tandja, a town pleasantly situated on the Straits, has become the residence of most of the European consuls. Passing Cape Spartle, we find on the shore of the Atlantic Ocean the large town of Larash, or El-Araish, at the mouth of the river Luccas, which here forms a port : Mamera on the south side of a number of large lakes, and Saleh, formerly a sort of piratical republic, now a commercial town, the residence of the French consul, and separated by the river Buragrag from the town of Rabat, or New Saleh. At Azamor on the Morbeya, the kingdom of Fez ends, and that of Morocco begins. The capital of this kingdom, and the ordinary residence of the Sultan, is properly called Merakash. It contains, according to the best autho- rities, from 20 to 30,000 inhabitants, silk, paper, and red morocco manufactures, large magazines of grain, built under the directions of a Danish architect,^ and numer- ous mosques, one of which had minarets, surmounted with four golden globes, which were said to be enchanted, but which a Sheriff" had courage enough to order to be removed. J On the coast we find Mazagan, a Portuguese fortress, which was unsuc- cessfully iDesieged by 200,000 Moors. — Valadia, the best situation for a harbour on this coast, where rapid currents and violent squalls, render a place of shelter a most valuable object to the seaman : — Safi, or Asafi, a small town at the foot of Mount Atlas : — Mogadore, the great emporium of the whole empire, regularly built, on plans given by a French engineer, well fortified, and provided with a harbour, which, how- ever, like all the rest on this coast, is filled with sand. — Next comes Agadir ; and lastly, Santa Cruz, the most southerly port of Morocco, situated in the province of Sus, the capital of which is Tarodant, a large inland town, and a military station for resisting the depredations of the nomades. Towns to the | Thocities of Tafilet, and Segelmessa on the south-east of Mount Atlas, Atlas." ' ^ I though now little known, were once very flourishing places. The cara- vans bound to Soodan and Egypt, seem still to join at the latter of these places, or at least both pass through it. According to Jackson, Tafilet possesses excellent woollen manufactures. The writer now mentioned, who oflSciated as British consul at Moga- dore, has given an opinion on the population of Morocco, very different from what is entertained by the greater part of travellers, who represent this country as extremely depopulated, containing not more than five or six millions of inhabi- tants. § This author says he has collected minute information on this subject ; but he does not always mention the precise sources from which it is derived. He pro- fesses to have seen the imperial registers, in which the names of all taxed persons are inscribed ; but he docs not say how these registers are kept, and what evidence we have of their correctness. The following are the numbers which he assigns : Inhabitants. Cities and towns of the Empire - - 936,000 Kingdom of Morocco and Fez, to the west of Mount Atlas - - 10,300,000 Nomade tribes on the north of the Atlas 3,000,000 Tafilet, a kingdom to the east of the Atlas ..... 650,000 Population of Morocco. Total population of the empire 14,886,000 As the whole surface of the Morocco states is 369,380 square miles, || the popu- • Agrell, Lettres sur le Maroc. ■}• Hocst, p. 76—78, &c. if Saint-Olon, quoted by Bru} zen La Martiniere, under the article Maroc. § Chenier, Lampriere, Sic. &c. See I5runs, Afrika, vi. p. 60, I Galterer's Geography, p. 123, (German.) MOROCCO. 507 lation would average forty-two inhabitants to the square mile ; but it consists of two very different countries ; — that which lies to the west and the north of the Atlas, and that which lies to the east and the south. As the latter, which gradually passes into the desert, would only contain 700,000 persons on a surface of 134,225 square miles, making five or six to each square mile, the maritime part, or the kingdom of Fez and Morocco, would contain, on a surface of 201,544 square miles, more than four- teen millions of inhabitants, which would make tiic relative population amount to seventy per square mile : a proportion perhaps equal to what exists in Spain or Tur- key, and which it is not easy to admit without further inquiring into a country so much exposed to intestine troubles, so ill governed, and so destitute of the means of civili- zation. Mr. Jackson makes the city of Morocco to contain 270,000 inhabitants, and Fez 380,000, — assertions too extravagant to require discussion. Travellers of excellent character give the first of these cities no more than 30,000, and the other 70,000, and yet seem to think it possible that they exaggerate them.* The subjects of this empire are slaves to an absolute despot, and | Government, strangers to the benefits of fixed laws, their only rule being the will of the emperor. Wherever this prince fixes his residence he distributes justice in person; for this purpose he generally holds a court twice, and sometimes four times in the week, in a hall of audience called M'shoire-t Here all complaints are addressed to him; every person has access; the emperor hears each individual, foreigners or natives, man or woman, rich or poor. Distinctions of rank have no influence, every person being entitled, without hindrance or embarrassment, to approach the common sove- reign. Sentence is promptly pronounced, always with absolute and ultimate decision, and for the most part with justice. With the exception of these imperial audiences, the administration | Administration, under this government is a tissue of disorder, rapine, and violence. The governors of provinces have the title of kalif, or lieutenant, that of fosha, or of kaid;X ^^^ combine the executive with the judicial power. They only remit to the judges some complicated causes. In some of the towns, such as Fez, there are Icadis, or inde- pendent judges, who are invested with great powers. Oppressed and harassed by the sovereign and the courtiers, all these governors and judges oppress the people in their turn. The lowest officer pillages legally in his master's name. | civii condition. The wealth thus acquired falls in the end into the coffers of the sultan, who, under some pretext or other, causes those who have amassed treasures to be dismissed from oflice, accused, and condemned. The sovereign can deprive a subject of every thing belonging to him except what is strictly necessary to save him from starvation. The confiscated sums are said to pass into the common treasure of the Mussulmans ; this is all the account of them that is given. The consequences of such a system may be easily conceived. The people, suspicious, cruel, and perfidious, respect no sort of obligations. Their universal aim is to pillage one another; no confidence, no social tie exists among them, and scarcely even any momentary feelings of affec- tion. The father dreads the son and the son detests the father. The dift'crent religions which maintain the unity of God are tolerated. | Reiigionj. There are Roman Catholic monasteries at Morocco, at Mogadore, at Mequinez, and Tangier; but the Romish monks at Morocco and at Mequinez are closely watch- ed and exposed to vcxations.§ The Jews, who are exceedingly numerous, and ex- tend even among the valleys of the Atlas, are treated with the most revolting barba- rity. Their situation, civil and moral, in this country, is a most singular I situation of phenomenon. On the one hand, their industry, their address, and their | ^•'eJe^s. intelligence, make them masters of all the trade and manufactures. They direct the royal coinage ; they levy the duties on exports and imports ; and officiate as interpre- ters and men of business. || On the other hand, they experience the most odious vexations and the most dreadful usage. They are prohibited from writing in Arabic, or even learning the characters, because for them to read the Koran would be a pro- • Hoest, p. 78 and 84. f Chenier writes it Meschouar ; TIast, Moschouar. t Hoest, p. 184. Jackson. § Hccst, p. 161. Lempricre, p. 108. U Hccst, Rclat. p. 144. Lempricre, p. 102, 165, , fanation,* Tlicir women arc prohibited from wearing any green article of clotliing, and arc only allowed to veil one-half of the face. A Moor enters the Jewish syna- gogues without ceremony, and even abuses and insults the rabbins. In passing a mosque, the Jews must uncover their feet, and remove their shppers to a respectful distance. They dare not be seen on horseback, or sit cross-legged before Moors of a certain rank. They are often assailed by the loAvest blackguards in the public walks, Avho cover them over with mud, spit in their faces, or knock them down ; they are obliged to ask pardon, and call the person sidi, or " sir," who, the moment be- fore, most outrageous-ly maltreated them.| Should a Jew, under any provocation, raise his hand to strike a Moor, ho runs the risic of being capitally condemned. When employed to work for the court, the Jews receive no pay, and think themselves happy if they are not beaten. One prince, Ishem, ordered a dress from a Jewish tailor; the dress when it came did not exactly fit him; the prince proposed to kill the Jew on the spot ; the governor of the city interceded for him, and he got oil' with having his beard pulled out hair by hair.;]; At Tangier, an order of government once appeared in the middle of winter, that every Jew should go bare-fooled, under the penalty of being hung up by the feet. To crown all, they are frequently condemned in BJorocco to be thrown, like Daniel, into a den of lions; but, as the keepers of the lions are themselves Jews, it is rarely that any deadly consequences ensue. The keepers use the precaution to feed the lions abundantly, and not to leave their coun- trymen exposed longer to them than a single night. § Pride of the The Moors entertain the loftiest ideas of themselves and their coun- Mooi-s. ^j.y^ These half-naked slaves style the Europeans agcin, or barbarians. They are not altogether destitute of virtues. A Moor never abandons himself to despair; neither sutlerings nor losses can extort from him a single murmur; to every event he submits as decreed by the will of God; and habitually hopes for better times. The Moors admit of no distinction founded on birth; nothing except public office confers rank. Among the points of etiquette which prevail at the court of the princes of Morocco, a very singular one is quoted by the author whom we follow. The word death is never uttered in presence of the sultan. When it is unavoidable to mention to his sovereign the death of any person, it is expressed by such words as, " He has fuUilled his destiny," on which the monarch gravely re- marks, " God be merciful to him." Another point of whimsical superstition is, that the numbers Jive and fifteen must not be mentioned in presence of the prince. || Revenues. | Mr. Ha^st estimates the revenues at a million of piastres, the chief sources of which are the customs and the land tithes. The sultan generally amasses treasure. The army, composed of 24,000 negroes and 12,000 Moors, is ignorant of discipline and mancsuvring. The navy consists entirely of corsairs, which arc sometimes fifty in number. It is only by the position of their country that these ignorant and cowardly seamen are enabled to inflict inconvenience on Europeans. Export trade. | R aw producc is all that a country so far behind in civilization can ex- port. The following is a list of its exports, according to the concurring accounts of travelleis: wool, wax, (5000 quintals,) ox-hides, morocco-leather, ivory, ostrich fea- thers, poultry, and eggs, (to the amount of two millions of francs, or d683,333, by the ports of Larachc and Tangier alone, according to Lempriere,) cattle for Portu- gal, mules for the "West Indies, gum arable of indiflerent quality, crude copper, almonds, oil dUirgfine, used in the manufacture of Marseilles soap ; various fruits. Imports. I and wheat, when the exportation of it is allowed. The imports are cloths, pottery, Biscayan iron, S[)iceries, and tea ; also ship-timber, which is not to be had on the coast, though probably it would be found on Mount Atlas if pains were taken to inquire for it. In 1 S04 the exports from the harbour of Mogadorc did not exceed dCl2S,000 sterling, duties included, and the imports amounted to .^150,000. The most active part of the trade of the Moroccans seems to be that which they carry on with Tombuctoo, by means of a caravan which goes from Akka in the province of Darah. • Agrell, p. 263. Hccst, p. 145. f Hoest, p. 143, 209. i^ Agrell, p. 89. § Ilcest, p. 290. || Htcst, p. 222, Agrell, p. 29G. Singular points of cti quelle. DESERT OF ZAHARA. 509 Now that we have taken our survey of the whole of Barbary, from the confines of Egypt to the shores of the Atlantic Ocean, the old routine of geographers should bring us to Bildulgerid ; but there is in reality no such geographical divi- | niWuigend. sion. The name oi Bdad-cl-Djerid, or, the "Land of Dates," falls under the same description with those of Belad-el-Tolfol, " the Pepper Country," and Bclad-el-Tibr, " the Land of Gold." Such appellations cannot apply to a country of definite limits. The Arabs gave the name of the " Land of Dates," to all the countries situated on the southern declivity of the Atlas, as far as the Great Desert. This stripe extends from the Atlantic Ocean to Egypt. It includes Darah, Tafilct, Sedjelmessa, Tego- rarin, Zab, Guargala, the country of Totser, Gadamis, Fezzan, Aujelah, and Sivah.* All these districts have been already mentioned in their proper places : the country of Totser, which belongs to Tunis, and to which Shaw and some others give the special name of Bclad-el-Djerid, is properly the Kastiliah of the Arabian geo- graphers.! Other travellers, with rather less impropriety, give the name of Bildul- gerid to the i)rovince of Darah in the south part of Morocco. The Great Desert, called in Arabic Zahara, extends, in the ordinary acceptation of the term, from Egypt and Nubia to the Atlantic Ocean, and from the foot of Mount Atlas to the banks of Niger. But, as Fezzan and Agadez, at least according to the latest notions, separate the deserts of Bilma and of Berdoa from the rest of Zahara, we shall not at this place take them under our view. The great desert of the north-west of Africa seems to be a table-land little raised above the level of the sea, covered with moving sands, and here and there containing some rocky heights and some valleys, where the water collects and nourishes some thorny shrubs, ferns, and grass. J The mountains along the shore of the Atlantic Ocean are in no continued chain, but only in detached peaks. Towards the interior they lose themselves in a plain covered with white and sharp pebbles. The sand hills, being frequently soU and mine- moved by the wind lie in undulating lines like the surface of an agitated ''^''* sea. At Tegazza, and some other places,'a sal-gem whiter than the purest marble, lies in extensive strata under a bed of rock.§ No other mineral substance belonging to this desert is mentioned by authors ; but, on its southern margin, Golberry found masses of native iron, his confused description of which excites our curiosity Avithout giving any satisfactory information. For a great part of the year the dry heated | Climate, air has the appearance of a reddish vapour, and the horizon looks like the fire of a series of volcanoes. || The rain, which falls from July to October, IT does not extend its precarious and momentary blessings to all the districts. An aromatic | vegetation, plant resembling thyme, the same which bears the grains of Zahara, acacias, and other thorny shrubs, nettles, and brambles, constitute the ordinary vegetation of the desert. It is rarely that a grove of date trees, or other palms, is to be seen. The forests of gum trees, (the JMimosa Senegal of Linnaeus,) situated on the extreme border of the desert, seem to be detachments derived from the vegetation of Sene- gambia. Some monkeys, and some gazelles, support themselves on | Animals, this scanty vegetation. The ostricli also lives here in numerous flocks, feeding on lizards and snails, together with some coarse plants, such as apocynums.**^ Lions, panthers, and serpents, sometimes of enormous dimensions, add to the horrors of these frightful solitudes. Ravens, and other birds, dispute with the Moorish dogs the dead bodies of men and quadrupeds. These animals live here almost without drinking. The flocks consist of camels, goats, and sheep. The horses, which arc very rare, sometimes receive milk to allay their thirst, for want of water.H The coast of Zahara contains some harbours and roadsteads. Those | Tiie coast, of Rio-do-Ouro, and of St. Cyprian, are formed by large creeks, resembling the • Leo Africanus, p. 623, edit. Elz. f Abiilfeda, Africa, p. 25. Timimi, quoted in Edrisi, Hartmann's edit. p. 256. Paulus, Mcmorabil. iii. p. 239. i Marmol, Afrique, iii. p. 41. Leo, Elzevu-'s edit. p. 67. § Leon, p. 633. II Rrisson, Voyage, p. 24. 35, 36. (German edit.) II Follie, Voyag'e, p. 63, tr. allem. Brisson, p. 45. 161. •• Cadamosto in Sprenpfel, iJreytrxgc, xi. p. 112. Shaw, p. 453. Poirct, i. p. 280. tt Brisson, p. 161. Follie, p. 63. Compare with Leo, p. 48. 510 BOOK SIXTY-FIFTH. mouth of rivers. The Gulf of Ardum, and the Portcndic road, have often been visited by Europeans. On the same line are Cape Bojadoro, the terror of the navi- gators of the middle age, and, down to 1533, the fatal limit of all sea voyages in this direction, and Cape Blanco, which, according to the most probable opinion, was the limit of the discoveries of the Cathaginians. norrifofcape "^^^^ people Called Mooselmins, live to the north of Cape Bojadore. Blanco. Their territories are intermediate between Morocco and the desert. These people are composed of a mixture of the descendants of Arabs and fugitive Moors from Blorocco. Their lands are not destitute of fertility, and the limits be- tween them and the desert are indicated by a series of lofty pillars. Their Ufe is intermediate between the pastoral and the agricultural state. Their corn is, in har- vest, deposited in large holes dug in the sand, in which the different individuals have shares proportioned to the number of labourers whom they have employed. They remain by their fields in seed-time and harvest, but wander in all directions with their cattle during the rest of the year, taking with them only necessary articles, and re- turning to their stores from time to time for a supply. The more opulent among them, and the artizans, reside in towns. The former are proprietors of cattle, which are abroad in the country under the care of their slaves. Gratuitous hospitality is habitually practised in the country, but not in the towns. Their government is re- publican, and their chiefs elected annually. Their country is populous, though their numbers are in some measure kept down by frequent warfare with the emperor of Morocco. These people are better clothed and more prosperous than the Moroc- cans. They are almost continually on horseback. They excel in breaking and managing their horses, which are the best in the world, and are skilful riders. The Mongearts live between Cape Bojadore and Cape Blanco. On the heights, along this dangerous coast, they generally make signals to the ships at sea, in order to allure them to their inevitable ruin. These ferocious Africans instantly take posses- sion both of the goods and crews. The Wadelims and the Labdessebas, who live near Cape Blanco, are described as monsters of cruelty, by a Frenchman who had Fate of the ^'^^ misfortune to suffer shipwreck on their coasts. The fate of the pri- captives. soucrs is truly lamentable. The Moors, in conveying them to the heart of the desert, make them walk, like themselves, fifty miles per day, giving them in the evening only a barley meal, mixed with water, the common food of these nomades. The soles of the feet in the European swell dreadfully from the heat of the burning sand, in which the Arab travels without inconvenience. The master soon perceives how ill qualified his slave is for the travels and toils of this sort of life, and therefore endeavours to get rid of him. After a succession of hard marches, he generally meets with one of the Jewish travellers who are settled at Wadi-Noon, and cross the desert with their merchandise. The Jew purchases the prisoner for a little tobacco, salt, and clothes. This person afterwards writes to the agent of the European na- tion to which the prisoner belongs, and endeavours to obtain for his liberty as high a ransom as he can.* The gum forests between Cape Blanco and the Senegal, are in the possession of three tribes, called Trarsas, Aulad-el-Hadgi, and Ebra- quana. All the three are of Arabian origin, and speak their mother tongue : they are Mahometans, and live in camps, without any fixed houses. The Trarsas. | The territory of the Trarsas is bounded on the west by the ocean, and on the south by the Senegal. Their capital, if we can be allowed to use the term, is in an oasis, the name of which is believed to be Hoden. To this place they seem to retire during the rainy Aveather ; but they anxiously conceal the place of their retreat, which they call their country'. We are only permitted to know that these oases arc situated between the 18th and the 22d degree of north latitude, and between the ocean and the 7th degree of longitude, (reckoning from the island of Fcrro.) The territory of the Brachnas, or the Ebraquana, and of the Auled-el-Hadgi, is bounded on the west by the Trarsas, on the south by the Senegal, on the east by Ludaman On the north they have the same sort of boundaries as the rest. * Jackson's Accouiit of Morocco. Brisson, and FoHie. Tribes to the soiiUi of Cape lilanco. Manners of tbc Moors. DESERT OF ZAHARA. 511 ' Portendik, on the coast, is the harbour where the trade with the Trarsas is carried on. Podor, on the Senegal, is the resort of the most easterly tribes. These Moors or Arabs, are in general a base and perfidious people, although individuals have been found among them distinguished for courage and other virtues. Cruel wherever they are possessed of power, — treach- erous and faithless, — they are strangers to every sentiment of generosity or humanity. Their wild aspect corresponds to their barbarous manners. Even in their copper complexion, containing a mixture of red and black, there seems to be something that indicates badness of character. Golbcrry, who has drawn this picture, saw their women, in a more agreeable light, at least during youth. According to him, they are handsome at that happy age ; their features are fine, mild, and regular ; their colour inclines to a pale yellow, but fairer and clearer than that of the men. They live in tents ; men, women, children, horses, camels, and other animals, being crowded promiscuously under the same cover. The camps, which they form on the banks of the river, are composed of the better sort of tribes. They live on millet, maize, dates, and gum ; and their sobri- ety and abstemiousness are almost inconceivable. The greater part of their fruits are furnished by the oases : the date palms, above all, grow in the greatest abun- dance. They have cattle with humps on the back, and excellent horses, whose rapid pace equals the speed of the ostrich. Our arts and trades are not altogether unknown to these barbarous people: they even practise some of them with skill. They have weavers who, with the simplest portable looms, make stuffs out of the hair of animals, especially the camel and the goat. They have even the secret of manufacturing morocco-leather. They know how to apply to purposes of utility the skins of lions, leopards, panthers, and hippo- potami. They reduce lamb's skins to the thinness of paper, then dye them with different colours, and fashion them into ornaments. They form stirrups and bridle- bits of single pieces of metal, as well as sabres and poniards ; incrust and damaskene the handles of the latter, and adorn the scabbards with plates of gold and silver. They have their itinerant goldsmiths and jewellers, who make bracelets, chains, gold rings, filligrees, and arabesque ornaments, by which they compose, with no small skill and taste, pieces of ornamental dress for ladies and royal personages. Farther to the east, we know the tribes of the desert only by the Mo- roccan caravan, or akkabah, which travels every year to Tombuctoo. The akkabahs do not proceed in a straight line across the immense desert of Zahara, which would afford no practicable road, but turn sometimes westward, sometimes eastward, according to the position of the different oases. These verdant lands, scattered over this vast desert, serve as places of rest and refreshment to the men and animals. So violent is the burning wind, called the samoom or shoom, that the scorching heat often dries up the water contained in the leathern bottles which the camels carry for the use of the merchants and the drivers. There was a monument here which, in the time of Leo Africanus, attested the deplorable fate of I Dangers en- a driver and a merchant, the one of whom sold his last cup of water to | •^""""-'"'^"i- the other for ten drachms of gold. Both had perished. In 1805, an akkahah, con- sisting of 2000 persons, and 1800 camels, not finding water at the usual resting- places, died of thirst, both men and animals. The vehemence of the burning wind, which in these vast plains raises and rolls before it the waves of red sand, makes the desert so much to resemble the stormy sea, that the Arabs have given it the name of a dry sea, (Bahar hilla maia.) Possessing some knowledge of the positions of the stars, they use the polar star for direction, and often prefer travelling during the clear nights of these climates, rather than brave during the day the intense heats of a burn- Tlie caravau of Morocco. mg sun. Route of this caravan. The Akkabahs of Morocco take about 1 30 days to cross the desert, including the time occupiod in resting at the different oases. Leaving the city of Fez, proceeding at a rate of three miles and a half per hour, and travelling seven hours each day, they arrive in six at Wadi-Noon, Akka, or Tatta; here they stop a month for the arrival of the other caravans which are to join them ; sixteen more days arc then occupied in travelling from Jlkka to Turujjsa, where Ihcy rest Mode of living of the travel- lers. 512 BOOK SIXTY-FIFTH. liftecu days. Tliey then set out for Toinbuctoo, where they arrive on the sixth day, after a journey of 129 days, being fifty-four of traveUing, and seventy-five of rest. Another caravan wliich leaves Wadi-Noon and Sola-Assa, crosses the desert between the black mountains of Cape Bojadore and Galata, goes to the western Tarassa, (probably the country of the Trasarts,) where it stops to procure salt, and arrives at Tombuctoo after a journey of five or six months. This akkabah goes as far as Jib- bel-el-Bud, or the white mountains near Cape Blanco, and crosses the desert of Ma- gaffi'a, to the district of Agadir, where it rests twenty days. These caravans obtain an escort from each tribe through whose territories they pass. Thus, in crossing those of Woled-Abuseed, they are accompanied by a great number of soldiers, and two sebayers or chiefs of clans, who, after conducting them to the territory of Woled- Dclcim, receive their remuneration, and commit the akkabah into the hands of the chiefs of this district; these escort them to the territory of the tribe of Magalfra, where other guides convoy them to Tombuctoo. Sometimes a caravan, bolder or more hurried than the rest, attempts to cross the desert without an escort; but they seldom fail to repent of their temerity, by falling into the hands of the two tribes of Dekna and Emjot, which inhabit the northern frontiers of the desert. Being subject to a religious code which forbids the use of inebriating liquors, the merchants of the caravans know no other drink than water; dates and barley meal serve them for food during a journey of many weeks across the desert. Their clothing is equally simple. Fortified by this frugality, and sus- tained by the prospect of returning to their homes, they sing as they trudge along, to shorten the long hours of travel. When they come near a few houses, or when their camels seem in danger of dropping down with fatigue, their songs accpiire addi- tional spirit and expression; their melody and sweetness restore animation to the toiling camels. At four in the evening they pitch their tents, and join in prayer; to this act of devotion supper succeeds; then they sit down in a ring, converse or recite stories till their eyes are closed in sleep. The Arabic language becomes extremely agreeable in the mouths of the camel drivers; it is then equally soft, and more sono- rous than the Italian ; their particular dialect resembles the ancient language of the Alcoran, which for 1200 years has scarcely undergone any alteration. The Arabs of Mogafiiia, and those of Woled-Abusebah, compose extemporaneous verses with great readiness; the women are good judges of poetry, and show particular favour for those young Arabs who excel in this literary exercise. Deserts and I Wg jo not know the prcciso situation of the deserts of Zuenga and oasis of tlie \ rT\ -iiti l ir>i-r- centre. | Targa, mentioned by Leo: they must be to the north of the oasis of Thuat. The Lemtuna people of this writer seem to form part of the Tuariks of the moderns. Agadez, a large town inhabited by slave-merchants, and situated to the south of Tezzane, is also known by the name of Tuarik,* probably as being the chief settlement of that people. May not the great desert which we have now described be the dried basin of a sea? Diodorus speaks of the lake of the Hesperides, which was turned into dry land by an earthquake; perhaps the countries of Mount Atlas, once surrounded by a double Mediterranean, formed that celebrated Atlantic island which is sought for in every direction and nowhere found. On the borders of the great desert there are immense collections of the remains of marine animals. The Soodan is destitute of salt, but the deserts of Zahara are covered with it. I'liny and Leo concur in saying that in several districts, sal-gem was cut like marble or jasper, and used as stones for building houses. These facts seem favourable to the hyi)othesis now mentioned ; but the level of the desert is unknown ; and such theo- ries do not, in the present state of retrospective geology, admit of any approximation to proof. * Abderrhaman, in dans le Nuuv. Mus. Allein. Hi. p. 988. Origin of tlie desert. SENEI.AMI51A AND (iUlNKA. Ol3 Climate nml tiMiipiratnn' oi" Sciicijain- bin. BOOK LXVI. 8 KNEGAMBIA AND GUINEA. The country which we arc now to visit, affords a rcnuirkablc example, both of the beneficence of nature and of the perversity of the human niiud. Those coun- tries, in which tyranny and ignorance have not had the power to destroy the inex- haustible fecundity of the soil, have, down to the present times, been the theatre of eternal robbery, and one vast market of human blood. The sea-coasts of this country experience the most intense heat that is known in any part of the globe. The cause of this is to be found in the east winds which arrive on these coasts, after having swept over the burning surface of Africa in all its breadth.* At Goree, in the years 17S7 and 17SS, in November and in May, the thermometer stood at (38° and S8.^° : during tlie night it did not fall below G0°, From May till November it did not fall below 77", nor rise above 99^. Thus there arc just two seasons ; the one may bo considered as a modorate summer, the other as a continuation of burning dog-days, l^nt, dur- ing the whole year, the sun at mid-day is unsupportable. At Senegal it is most intense, amounting to 113° and sometimes to 131°. The barometer almost always rises in those circumstances under which it falls in France, that is, at the commence- ment of a storm. The north and north-west Avinds blow almost without | wimis. interruption. The east or trade winds are only felt within 90 or 120 miles of the coast. The south wind is very rare. During the great heats a dead calm previiils for about thirty days, Avhich is enervating to the most robust constitutions. From the beginning of June till the middle of October, sixteen or eighteen heavy rains fall, amounting to fifty or sixty inches of water. A single one sometimes gives as much as six or seven inches. During the rest of the year there arc heavy dews, j' Of all the countries of western Africa, the Gold Coast seems to be subjected to the most intense heats. Near llio Volta, Isert saw the ther- mometer of Fahrenheit rise to 95^ within an apartment, while it was 134 in (he open air, which surpasses by 26 degrees the greatest heats observed by Adanson on the baidis of the Senegal. In the Gulf of Guinea the prevailing winds aie from the south-west, | wimis. which makes it diflicult for vessels which venture into it to get out. This direction of the wind, being contrary to the trade winds, is to be exiilained l)v the rarefacfion of the air in the central countries of this part of Africa, — a circumstance from whirh some infer the absence of high mountains. r»etwecn Cape Verga and Cape Palmas, the hurricanes called torna- | unrricaiKs. does, from a Portuguese term for wliirlwiads, are very fre(}uent in sunnner and antunni ; their approach is announced by a small cloud, apparently five or .six feet broad, remaining immoveably in one spot. This soon extends, and covers a great pint of the horizon. An impetuous whirling wind now breaks forth, which lasts only about a quarter of an hour : but in this short s[)ace, enormous trees are torn u|> by the roots, cottages are thrown down, entire villages destroyed, and vessels drivoJi from their anchors and wrecked. This scourge is unknown on the Senegal, and even from Cape Blanco to Cape de Verpa ; but it sometimes occurs in the Zahara. The winds raise the impalpable sand, .. .ning them into colunms which rise to an immense height, and become a sort of sand-spout. After dificrent changes of form, they are either dissipated through the air, or carried along, sometimes to very great * Schotte dans Forster et Sprengcl, Uccucil dcs Mcmoires pour lu Gcograpliie et TKUino- graphie, i. p. 55. t Adanson, Voyage au Senegal. VVadstrom, sur les Colonies, p. 55, trad, .\llcin. dc >f. Zinimerniann. Vol. II.— 3 T Tempi THl nil) or Guiiiia. 514 UOOK SIXTY-SIXTH. distances ; sometimes they break through in the middle with a crash Uke the explo- sion of a mine.* The harmattan, the name of which seems to be of European ori- gin, {air matan) is an east wind which prevails chiefly in Benin, and extends to the Gold Coast ; it brings on a dry haze ; the horizon is darkened, the skins of animals and men become contracted and chopped. These harmattans are felt about the solstices, t Mountains. J Near the sources of the Senegal, the Joliba or Niger, the Gambia, and the Mesurado, there is a nucleus of mountains from which, according to the most recent accounts, some branches go oft" like so many rays, which might lead us to suppose that they are granitic, or schistous mountains, yet the numerous falls in the rivers seem to indicate a surface rising by terraces, and hence probably calcareous. Some of them must be of great elevation, if the reports of the negroes to M. Mol- lien were correct, that to the south-east of Timbo and the sources of the great river, some of the mountains "have a white hat." J The mountains on the coast, from Cape de Verde to the Gambia, present indica- tions of volcanoes, which, however, are allowed to be equivocal, as the lavas of authors may bo considered as basaltic rocks. The foot of Sierra Leon Cape is en- circled with basaltic rocks, called by the English Carpenter's Rocks, and the whole coast has the same general appearance. Immense alluvial tracts make Senegambia to have some resemblance to Guinea. The islands to the south of the Gambia are partly inundated, and continually accumulating. Rivers. I The rivers of this country are very numerous. The Senegal, long The Senegal. | confoundcd with the Niger, rises in the country of Foota-Jallon, near Timbo, about 10° N. lat. and has a course, first to the north-east, then to the north- west, then west, more than 800 miles in all, before it reaches the ocean. § Among the falls of this river, that of the Feloo rock merits most particular attention. For seven months in the year the rock stops the course of the water, but during the other five they rise high enough to flow over the top of the rock. At the mouth of the Senegal there is a bar which prevents the entrance of all vessels that draw more than ten feet of water, though immediately within the bar the river is thirty feet deep. La Barthe observes, that in 1779 the entrance of the bar was eleven miles from the island of St. Louis, though now it is fourteen. These variations are of great impor- tance in determining the mooring grounds. They are owing to the currents in opposite directions, which, in proportion to their relative strength, deposit the sand in a place from which they afterwards carry it away. Similar shiftings, take place over the coast in general. The banks of the Senegal become highly picturesque when we ascend 140 miles from the sea. Lined with hills and mountains, where tall trees, mixed with handsome shrubs, form verdant arches, and amphitheatres, this river would furnish one of the most interesting voyages in the world, were not its charms so essentially impaired by the unwholesomeness of the air, the hideous aspect of the crocodiles, and the bellowing of the hippopotamus. The merchants even The Gambia. | avoid it, and prefer going by land. |1 While the Senegal is only navigable in the rainy season, the Gambia cannot be navigated except in the dry season. Forty gun frigates can go up thirty-seven miles, and large merchant [vessels ISO. IT The rains give it an enormous increase of depth, but at the same time, such inordinate rapidity that no vessels can stem the current. This river, though exceedingly deep and wide, has only a course of 610 miles. The Rio Grande, no less remarkable both for depth and width at its mouth, which is encompassed with islands, has a course only half as long as that of the Gambia. The Rio Mesurado is remarked for its short and rectilinear course, but otherwise little known. The rivers of the coast of Guinea seem to take their rise in the Kong mountains, at distances from 300 to 400 miles. The Rio Volta, which is the least known, descends in a scries of cascades; but the deepest angle of the Gulf of Guinea receives the Formosa, • Philosoph. Trans, Ixx. p. 478. f Aitkin's Voyajye, p. 147. ^ Mollien's Travels to the Sources of the Senegal and Gambia, edited by ]5owditcli, p. 292. § Mollien, p. 152. II Diirand, V()yat,'-e au Senegal, p. 343. Lamiral, I'Afnquc ct Ic pcuplc AlVicain. T Dcin?uict, Labut, Stc. SP.NKGAMRIA AND GtriNEA. .515 Ihe Calabar, and other broad and deep streams, which form at their termination a delta larger than that of Egypt. IVe shall afterwards state some reasons for con- sidering these rivers as the mouths of the Niger. At the head of the trees of these regions stands that colossus of the | vegetation, vegetable kingdom, the immense baobab, the Mansonia digitata of Linnaeus. Iscrt, a learned Dane, observed several species of this genus, though only one | Forest trees, has been hitherto botanically known.* Its fruit, surnamed monkey's bread, affords abundant aliment to the negroes, whp, at sun-rise, watch religiously the opening of its flowers, which have been closed during the night. The whole of Senegambia and Guinea is adorned with its green elliptic arches. The name of Cape de Verd is said to have been particularly suggested by the foliage of this tree. The wide trunk becomes hollow within while its diameter is augmenting, and the cavern which it forms is large enough to serve as a temple to the negroes, a hall of assembly to a tribe, or a habitation for several of their families. Its height, however, is very mo- derate. Mr. Golberry observed one which was twenty-four feet high, by thirty-four in diameter, and 104 in circumference. The forests ol these countries, equally close with those of Guiana or Brasil, contain, like them, cocoa trees, palms, mangos, ba- nanas or pisangs, tamarinds, papaws, various species of citrons, oranges, pomegra- nates, and sycamores. I Among the rest we remark the courbaril, or locust tree, a species of Hymenma, which yields an agreeable beverage;;}; the Elais Guinensis, from which oil and a kind of butter are obtained; a pea-tree, a new species of Robinia, found on the Gold Coast; a tree resembhng the tulip-tree, forming a new genus in the Linnean class of Tetrandria; and another, improperly called a cedar, which is a new species o( Avicennia.§ The valuable shea, or butter-tree, forms a great part of the riches of the kingdom of Bambook; but that tree, probably a species of croion, belongs more properly to Nigritia.]] The tallow-tree, however, according to Roemer, grows on the coast of Guinea. It has been said that the nutmeg, U and the cinnamon-tree,** grow here spontaneously, though in small number, but the assertion requires to be accompanied with stronger evidence than we as yet have. It seems certain that the Laurus cassia grows in the forests. The existence of the coffee-tree|'j" is only pi-o- bable. We know that it grows to the south of Abyssinia, but we are not certain that it is precisely the Arabian species. Among other aromatic plants, Senegambia and Guinea possess a species of pepper, the Cardamomum majns, called, from its locality, malaguctte, also pimento, Spanish pepper, and ginger. Cotton succeeds, and even excels that of Brazil. The indigo of tliis country is excellent. A great number of valuable | Gums, gums which this country furnishes as articles of commerce are well known, such as gum guaiac, the red astringent gum, gum copal, the inspissated juice of euphorbium, and Sanguis draconis. The courageous and able Wadstrom, a Swede, had brought from Africa fourteen kinds of valuable woods, among which were acajou and ebony. Several dye-woods are found here. Alimentary plants are in groat abundance. Two species of Iloleus are cultivated, the sorglmm and the dourra. There is a third species, called by Isort the Holcus bicolor, which is known by the Portuguese name milho, or millet, on the Gold Coast, and gives a return of IGO for one. Rice is cultivafed in the high lands. Africa has received maize from America ; but the potato, which in Fetoo is called broddi, seems to be indigenous. ;{;■]; The other esculent herbaceous plants, are the yam, the manioc, or cassava, the large bean produced by the JJolichos Ugnosiis, the delicious pine-apple, which grows in the most desert places, and lastly, • Isert, Voyage a la Guince, p. 110—281. t Labat, Noiivelle Description, &.c. i. p. 62, ii. p. 322, iii. p, 12 — 37, &c. Schott, in Spren- gel, i. p. 66, 67. Adanson, Voyage au Scn<;gal. i Labat, iv. p. 363. § Isert, p. 116, 182, &c. A Labat, iii. p. 345. Ehrmann, Histoire des Voyages, iii, p. 72. Compare Itomer, Relat. de la c6te de Guinee, p. 175. t Clarkson, on the Impolicy of the Slave Trade, p. 14. •• Smith's New Voyage, p. 162. Ehrmann, Histoire des Voyages, x. p. 40. ft Wadstrom, Essai sur les Colonies, p. 84. ^i Mollien, p. 24L Aromatic plauts. Alimentary plants. 516 HOOK sixTv-siXTii. different species of melons antl of cucumbers. Orange, banana, and papaw trees have been introduced by tlie Portuguese, and grow in abundance and perfection. Tobacco is found every where in great abundance ; that of Senegal is excellent, but that of the Gold Coast is of the most inditferent kind. The negroes are so fond of smoking this plant that they complain less of hunger than of the want of tobacco. The sugar-cane, though abundant and excellent, serves only to feed the elephants, the pigs, and the butfaloes, who are extremely fond of it.* The negroes sometimes drink the juice of it. The exuberant abundance of the aloes, balsams, Glorioscc superbcc, tuberoses, lilies, and amaranths, gives the flora of these countries a look of pomp and magnificence quite astonishing to the European traveller. The most singular feature of the African vegetation, is, perhaps, the height to which the Guinea gfi-ass. | Guinea grass grows. This plant forms immense forests, from ten to thirty feet in height where flocks of elephants and boars wander imseen. The enormous boa serpent conceals himself in this gigantic turf. In order to render the air more salubrious, or to prepare for cultivation, the negro tVequently sets fire to these savannahs, which shine in long lines during the night, resembling rivers of fire, that relieve the gloom for a great way round ; by day they cover the horizon with columns of smoke ; and the birds of prey follow these conflagrations in flocks, to devour the serpents and lizards which the flames have suflfocated. This practice has appeared to some of the learned to furnish the most natural explanation of the " tor- rents of fire," seen by Hanno, the Carthaginian, in his voyage to the south of Cerne.-f Auimais. | No part of the world produces more numerous flocks of elephants, monkeys, and antelopes, deer, rats, and squirrels. In every part of Africa the ele- phant lives in a state of nature ; he is nowhere tamed. The ancients justly observed, that the African elephant is smaller and less courageous than the Asiatic ; but his organs of defence are much larger, tlie substance of his tusks is harder, and less apt to become yellow, and furnislies almost all tlie ivory of commerce. The method of catching them, employed by the chiefs, is to assemble the young men and take them out into the woods; at the season when the grass is dry, they set fire to the grass all round the elephants, who, finding themselves unable to escape from the flames, perish in the conflagration, sometimes to the number of twenty or thirty, by which means the negroes procure a large quantity of ivory. The hippopotamus, which lives in fresh water and marshy places, grows to a monstrous size, and is most frequently seen to the south of the river Cassemance. The rhinoceros is scarcely known even in Benin. The lion is less common than the panther and the leopard. The spotted or striped hyeena is frequent in the country, but the common species is most common in the north of Africa. The jackal, however, is more formidable and destructive. The girafle, which has been seen by Mungo Park and other travellers in Nigritia, sometimes wander over these coasts. J The zebra is met with in droves, and the negroes hunt it for the sake of the skin and the flesh. Monkeys. | The most remarkable species of monkey is the Shnia troglodytes, caW- ed kimpanzay in Congo. It is the jocko of Buflbn, who has confounded it with the ourang-outang of India. This monkey has less approximation to the human form than the ourang-outang; but perhaps surpasses him in intelligence. They sometimes attack people, especially women who carry any provisions, and beat them with sticks till they let go their burden; when pursued and attacked, they defend themselves by hurling stones and biting; and the temales which have young ones to protect, are particularly fierce and courageous in their resistance. § A recent traveller says that this animal is far from being common. The hideous mandril varies according to his age; whence Linnaeus has erroneously divided this species into two, (the Simla mai- vion and J\larmon.) According to a learned naturalist, it has not hitherto been found except in Guinea and on the Congo. || We likewise meet with the pithecus, the ha- madryad, the Simia leonina, or macaque ; the diana ; the Sitnia cephus, or moustac ; • Wadstrom, p. 67. f See our History of Geography. * Spvengcl and Foster, i. p. 72, iii. p. 140. § Mollien, p, 290. il Cuvier, Menajjeric du Museum, art. Mandrill. SENEGAMBIA AND GUINEA. 517 the CnlUtriche, or green ape; the Simia sab(ta; the whitc-nosc, or Shnia pelaurisia; in short, ahnost all the tailed apes and baboons, of which these rcji;ion.s seem to be in a particular manner the native country. Two remarkable animals, akin to the monkey tribe, have hitherto been found only in Senegambia. These are the Lemur i;;ala2;o, and the Lemur minutus. The poto or sloth is common in Guinea. The Senegal negroes catch the zibeth in a very young state, and tame it. Among the antelopes, or gazelles, the kob, the nanguer, and the nagar, inhabit the banks of the Senegal and Rio Volta. Some kevels and corinnse are also found: these antelopes go in numberless flocks, which often contain upwards of a thousand.* The boar of Kthioi)ia peoples the marshy woods ; but the pig of this country is small and weak. The dogs are of the size of our setters, but approach somewhat to the mastiff; they do not bark, and their hair is short, coarse, and red, as in all warm countries. "f" The liorses of the Gold Coast are small and ugly; but Adanson admires the Domestic ani. horse of Senegal. That river is probably the southern limit of the Ber- ""*''' l)cr, or Moorish breed. The ass is exceedingly handsome, and very strong. Camels are sometimes seen here, but never to the south of the Senegal. The negroes rear cattle, butTalocs, sheep, and goats. The trumpet-bird, or monoceros, is found in all Ihe court-yards of the negroes, together with the armed swan, the Egyptian swan, the pintado, and the greater part of the poultry known in Europe. Among the mul- titude of birds which inhabit the forests, we remark the Anlea alba minor, or aigrette, the feathers of which form an article of trade. The beautiful paroquets are in unli- mited numbers. Swarms of them are seen to rise from the trees, frightened by the cries of the monkeys. Adanson saw the nest of an enormous species of eagle, or vulture, called by the natives, n^ntatm. This nest was three feet high. Numerous families of sparrows and hunmiing birds sport round the hut of the negro, and the iuunensc baobab supports the nest of the enormous pelican.J This region is much infested by venomous insects, disgusting reptiles, | insects, and clouds of locusts. Of the last, Isert distinguished more than twenty different species on the Gold Coast. On that coast cameleons are very common. The ser- pents are numerous, and some of them of enormous size. M. Mollien mentions a snake, the bite of which occasioned the skin to fall off in scales, an instance of which came under his eye. There are numerous swarms of wild bees, the honey and wax of which are objects of trade among the negroes. In the sequestered forests, the termites, improperly called white ants, display their astonishing industry. | Termites. Golberry saw in the woods of Lamayava and Albrida, on the banks of the Gambia, some pyramidal buildings, formed by these insects, which were sixteen feet high, and the bases of which occupied an area from 100 to 110 square feet. In these nests, the wild bees generally deposit their honey, to obtain which, the natives set them on fire during the night, that they may avoid the risk of being stung by the bees.§ The crocodiles, the cacholots, and the manatis, sometimes inhabit, in one common society, the mouths of the great rivers. Oysters are said to fasten in great multitudes on the immersed branches of the mango with which these rivers are bor- dered. They are large, fut, and very good to eat, though less fresh and cool than those found in more northern situations. Cowries, the shells called by | cowries, naturalists Cyproca momfa, which are used as money in all these countries, as well as in many parts of India, arc fished on the coast of Congo and Angola, |1 and arc not brought hither from India as some travellers have asserted. We are not certain if they are found on the coast of Guinea Proper, as travellers give no precise state- ments on that point. TT Much coral and ambergris is also procured on all these coasts.** The mineral kingdom of these equinoctial countries is i)robably as | Minerals, rich and varied, though not in so great proportion, compared to other parts of the world, since mineral productions are not influenced by climate; but we know little • Golberry, Fragmens sur I'Afriqiie, t. ii. t Rccmer, p. 273. Mullor, p. 244. + Mollien, p. 51. § Mollien, p. 227. H Proyart, Itelat. p. 25. % Hruns, Afrika, iv, p. 547. •• Wadstrom, p. 7"\ 518 ROOK SIXTY-SIXTH. Gold mines, j of their mineralogy. Among the objects most worthy of attention are the gold mines, which are said to exist in the country of Bambook, situated be- tween the Senegal and the Gambia, at equal distances from the two rivers. If we believe two French writers, Pelays and JDavid, who were sent into these countries by the old French Indian Company to examine these mines, they are situated near the villages of Natakon, Semayla, Nambia, and Kombadyree ; but these grounds from which the negroes obtain gold, are only alluvial deposits, derived from real mines, concealed among the mountains of Tabaoora. Eighty pounds of crude mixed earth, taken from a pit in the small mountain of Natakon, yielded 144 grains and a half of gold. The Semayla mine appears to be the richest.* — There are also gold mines on the Gold Coast at Akim, five days journey from the Danish Fort of Christianburg, but they are not very productive. At a distance of twelve day's jour- ney farther north, near the mountains of Kong, we have reason to beUeve that the Accasers work a rich mine of this precious metal in the form of deep pits. I Iron ore, in the form of silicious stones, is abundant in many places, and is smelted by the inhabitants, and manufactured into vessels with the hammer ; from which we may conclude that the metal is excellent in quality, and highly malleable. J Labat Other mine- saw whole mountains of fine red marble with white veins. The negroes " *' make fine pottery with a white unctuous earth, which is common in these countries. It is on the coast, and most especially in the rivers, near the gulf of the Idolos Islands, that the fat clay is found, which the people are said to mix with their food like butter. After this general view, we shall now proceed to some detailed descriptions of this wide and important region. The French The fertile plains, watered by the Senegal and Gambia, are occupied settlement. ^y ^ multitude of Small kingdoms, some consisting of the indigenous negroes, and others which have been seized by the Moors. Various European powers have perceived the advantages which this country offers for colonial esta- blishments. The French at one time had the largest and most numerous, as Fort St. Louis and Podor on the Senegal ; the forts of St. Joseph and St. Pierre, in the interior in the kingdom of Galam ; the island of Goree, called by the natives Bar- saghish, near Cape Verd ; Albreda and Joal, on the river Gambia ; Bintam, on the Cerebes river ; and the island of Bissaos. All these settlements are now abandoned, and the island of St. Louis is merely a factory under military government, the re- turns of which, in 1801, gave a population of 10,000 inhabitants, consisting in a great measure of slaves. According to Labat, a million and a half pounds weight of gum were exported ; also 1600 negroes. The Enghsh have, besides Fort St. James, three factories on the Gambia ; one at Vintain, another at Jookakonda, and a third at Pisania : the last of which is the farthest from the sea-coast. The French exported to the Senegal goods to the amount of 52750,000 ; and the English dis- posed of an equal amount on the Gambia. Spirituous liquors were the chief articles. The kingdom of Owal, or Ualo, contains the lake of Panior Fonlo, which, in the dry season, is transformed into a fertile plain. The sove- reign, who has the title of brak, (meaning king of kings,) is generally subject to the neighbouring Moors. The Fouiahs. | The Foulahs of Senegal live above Owal. Some of their tribes enjoy a turbulent independence, such as those of Footatoro, who are also remarked to be the most insolent and inhospitable. § The greater part of them are subject to a sove- reign possessed of considerable power, who has the title of Siratik. In this country is situated Fort Podor, in the large and fertile island of Morfil, formed by two arms of the Senegal. Extension of The Foulahs, who arc also called Peuls or Foleys on the Senegal, this people. are widely diffused over Africa. The great body of the nation lives about the sources of the Gambia and Rio-Grande. Besides the colonies found on Kingdom of OwaL • Golberry, t. i, p. 433. 439. t Muller, 1. c. p. 271. i Molllen, p. 147, § Mollien, p. 188. SENEGAMBIA AND GUINEA. 519 the river Falem6 and the Senegal, there are tribes of them on the south of Fezzan, on the confines of Bournoo, and even in the interior of this kingdom, where they are called Fellata. The Foulahs also inhabit the kingdoms of Massina and Tombuctoo on the Joliba, and from these parts probably the colonies went off that are now found in Bournoo. This curious fact seems to be substantiated by some collections of words of the language of these people, made in Senegambia, compared with others, communicated to M. Seetzen by a Fellata of the town of Ader, between Bournoo and Agadez.* The Foulahs have a reddish black or a yellowish brown complexion, longer and less woolly hair than the negroes, noses less fiat, and lips not quite so thick,! These features seem to indicate a mixture of the Berber and Negro race. But this mixed nation, which puts the reader in mind of the LeuccKthiopes of the an- cients, seems to us to have received from the Arabs not only the religious and civil influence of the Koran, but also the name which it bears, which seems to be the same with that of the Fellahs or cultivators of Egypt. The Foulahs have mild dispositions, flexible minds, and a great turn for agriculture ; but those among them who live by rearing cattle, migrate from one country to another rather than submit to tyrannical rulers. The different states of the Serracolet'or Serrawoolet negroes, form a | setracoieu. sort of confederation, of which Galam is the metropolis ; but the true name of the county is Kadjaga. The king of Galam at least enjoys a certain ascen- Kingdom of doncy over that country, which he owes chiefly to the trade of which his Gaiam. territories are the centre, as well as to the trade in prisoners, who are brought from more distant countries. By an agreement among all the Serracolet princes, the throne of Galam is occupied by their families by turns. J These negroes are trea- cherous and cruel, their complexion is extremely black, and it is difhcult to distin- guish them from the Yalofs.§ The air of the country is the purest along the coast. The Serracolets are great smelters of iron. For hammering it they use rounded pieces of granite, encircled with a leather band fastened to thongs, which the work- man holds in his hands. He raises and drops it alternately on the iron, which is placed on a low anvil in the sand, and thus fashions it into bars eight inches long.jl They are the most skilful and persevering in commercial affairs of all the negroes ; and being reputed rich, their travelling merchants are obliged to pay heavier duties, in the form of presents, to the chiefs through whose territories they pass. In Galam they are great hunters. Some describe them as treacherous and criminal. Yet it is allowed by all that hospitality is practised by them in a most ample and disinterested manner. The Mandingos are spread over the country which bears their name, and which is near the sources of the Niger. They extend eastward among the states of Bambara, and westward among those of Bambook and Woolly. These negroes, who are not of so fine a black as the Yalofs, file down their teeth to a pointed shape. They are a sort of Mahometans, have many Arabic words, and use the Arabic alphabet. TT Their maraboots, or hermits, perform long commercial journeys, and receive visits from those of Morocco and Barbary. They are well acquainted with the interior of Africa,** and the negro slave trade is in their hands. Since the year 1100 this nation has ruled over the rich kingdom of Bambook. The Bambookans furnish an example of the usual fate of a corrupted The Bam- people. Their rich and fruitfid soil supplies the inhabitants with the ne- '~°''*"'- cessaries of life, with scarcely any labour.|| Voluptuous and indolent, they live in a state of utter anarchy, and their wealth becomes the prey of their more active neighbours. Major Houghton, however, gives them a more favourable character, • Mithridates, by Adelung and Vater, iii. p. 146. ■j- Golberry Voyage en Afriqtie, i. p. 101, &c. Oldendorp, Histoire de la Mission desFrcrcs ^vangcliques, p. 274. I^abat, iii. p. 170. Pommegorge, Descript. de la Nigiilie, p. 52. t Golberry, Voyage en Afrique, i. p. 571. § Labat, iii. p. 308—370. iv. p. 45. Il Mollicn, p. 313. 2»8. 1 Malthcw'.s Voyage to Sierra Leone, p. 71— 9T, Sac. •• Jobson, in I'urclias's Pilgrim, ]). 1573. ■}f (Jampagiioi), duns I'llistoirc Gcntralcs dcs Voyages. The Man- dingos. 520 BOOK SIXTY-SIXTH. representing them as an industrious people, who manufacture cotton stuffs and iron utensils.* jaiionkadoo. | The kingdom of Jallonkadoo, in which the river Senegal takes its rise to the south-east and south of Bambook, is inhabited by numerous tribes, whose language, notwithstanding the doubts of Mungo Park, seems to be a dialect of the Mandingo.| The Jallonka race have, in general, been either converted or perse- cuted by the Foulahs and other Mahometans. Some fugitives, who have not re- nounced fetichism, have sought an asylum in the most mountainous districts, such as the mountains of Niekolo and Randeia, where they have mixed with the Youluks, and produced a mulatto breed, who are savage and wretchedly poor. They are remarked for bad and decayed teeth. On the east side of these heights, where the chief rivers begin their course, there is a remarkable difference in the domestic ani- mals. The ass, which is found wild on the southern declivity, is here so entirely unknown, that wh^n M. MoUien brought one with him in his travels, an animal so strange produced consternation among the inhabitants, both young and old. J De- scending the Senegal from this country, we might name kingdoms and principalities almost without number : but we shall merely notice the state of Bondoo, a pastoral country to the west of Bambook ; the mhabitants of which manufacture cotton cloths, and dye them black with indigo. § The country of Kassan, to the east of Galam, is considered as rich in gold, silver, and coffee. The Yalofs. | The country between the Senegal and the Gambia is chiefly inhabited by the Yalof, sometimes called the Walof nation. They are the most handsome negroes of western Africa. They have woolly hair and thick lips, and very black complexions, but are tall and well made, and their features remarkably regular. If we credit M. Golberry, they are a mild, hospitable, generous, and faithful race ; and their women are as attractive as jet-black females can be. They call themselves Mahometans, but their religion has an alloy of idolatry and superstition. Their language is graceful and easy. Their chief takes the title of Barb-i-Yalof, emperor of the Yalofs, and reigns over an extensive coun- try, little visited by Europeans. His place of residence is Hikarkor. Rich in provisions, cattle, and poultry, this country flourishes under a more regular administraton than that of the adjoining states. Justice is administered by a chief judge, who holds circuit courts over the kingdom. || The people manufacture cotton goods.lT Several states have separated from the Yalof empire ; such as that of Baol, and that of Cayor, governed by a prince who has the title of Da- rnel. Cape Verd and the small island of Goree, which was fortified and embellishod by the French, are in the territory of Darnel. The most commercial of the Yalof states is that of Salum, on a branch of the Gambia. The king's residence is at Kahan ; his cottage is within an enclosure of great extent, which contains more than sixty others, inha- bited by his wives, children, othcers, and principal slaves. At its entrance arc three large courts, lined with the cottages of his servants, each court being guarded by twenty men armed with javelins and zagays. In the centre of the royal enclosure the cottage of the prince stands by itself, m the form of u round tower, thirty feet in diameter, and forty-five in height, covered with a dome of twenty feet. It is built, like all the dwellings in this part of Africa, of pieces of wood covered with mallet straw, but executed more nicely than ordinary houses. The ceiling is covered with carpets curiously figured ; the floor is formed of a com- position of a kind of mastic with red earth and sand, and covered with mats. Tlie ceiling is hung all round with muskets, pistols, and other arms, and horse harness. The king is seated on a low stage at the farthest part of the cottage, fronting the entrance. The kingdom has an area of 11,500 square miles. The population is > • Elucidations of African Geography, p. 9. t See the words quoted by Milliridates, iii. p. 169. + Mollieii, p. 228, 230. § Voyage au pays de Hanibouc, 1789. !l IJenczet's Account ot Guinea, p. 8. (London, 17'88.) ^ Francis Moore's Travels, 8ic. p. 51. Emperor of the Yalofs. Detached states. Kingdom ol Salum. Palace' of Kahane. Boundaries of Guinea. SENEGAMBIA AND GUINEA. 521 said to be 300,000 ; the lands are fertile and well cultivated ; the foreign commerce is extensive, particularly with the French and English, the former nation being most respected, and best adapted to the character of the people. The Serrercs, a wild and simple tribe, witliout cultivation or laws, | The sen-eres. live in the country of Sin, (or Barb-Sin,) and that of Baol. The negroes call them savages, but Europeans speak in praise of tlieir mild and peaceful dispositions.* It is in works more voluminous than the present that a reader could expect to find a complete enumeration of the little principalities situated along the | Petty states. Gambia, together with the discussions which might arise out of the perpetual con- tradictions found among travellers. "f" We shall notice, on the north bank of the river, the countries of Barrah, of Yani, and of Woolly, the capital of which, called Cas- sana by the negroes, J and known also by the Arabic term, Medina, or the city, is populous and hospitable. To the south of the Gambia, there are twenty small states which dispute with one another their obscure existence. The most | The Feioops. conspicuous nation is that of the Fcloops, whose territories are greatly scattered, and extended from the Gambia to the river St. Dominique, and a little beyond it. Savage and revengeful, but faithful to their friends, they scarcely acknowledge any government; and the paltry fetiche is the only object of their worship. Their coun- try is flat, somewhat sandy, but rich in pasture and rice grounds, abounding in cattle, and maintaining numerous swarms of wild bees, which produce a great quantity of wax. Higher up the country there are steep mountains, composed according to a rather unlearned traveller, of fine sandstone. The mutual boundaries of Senegambia and Guinea are left to the caprice of geographers. In the interior of this doubtful space, on the upper part of the Rio Grande, live the nation of the Soosoos, erroneously called the Foulahs of Guinea. They have nothing in common with the Foulahs of the Sene- gal, though Golberry says otherwise. This is shown by the whole dissimilarity of their language. § Teembo, the capital of their country, contains about 7000 inhabitants. Tliey have iron mines, worked by women, also some manufactures in silver, copper and wood; it is said that these people can bring into the field 16,000 cavalry, or upwards. They are Mahometans, but surrounded by twenty-four pagan nations or tribes, on whom they are always ready to make war in order to procure slaves. They live in a sort of federal republic, in which a secret association. Laws and resembling the vehmic, or black tribunal of the middle age, maintains manners, order and dispenses justice. This is called the poorrah. Each of the five cantons of the nation has one of its own, to which the men are not admitted till they are thirty years of age. The principal members, consisting of persons above fifty years of age, form the supreme poorrah.\\ The mysteries of initiation, accompanied with some dreadful test of merit, are celebrated in the midst of a sacred forest. All the elements are put in requisition to try the courage of the candidate. It is said that he finds himself assaulted by roaring lions, who are restrained by concealed chains. A dreadful howling is kept up over the whole forest; and a devouring fire flames around the inviolate enclosure. Any member who has committed a crime, or betrayed the secrets of the body, finds himself visited by armed and masked emissaries. On the ominous words being pronounced, " the poorrah sends the death," his relations and friends desert him, and he is left to the avenging sword. Even entire tribes, which make war in contempt of the orders of the great poorrah, are laid under the ban, and oppressed by the united attacks of armed deputations from all the neutral tribes. This institution seems to indicate an improved degree of intelhgence, and consi- derable elevation of sentiment. • Pommegorije, Descript. de la Nigritie, p. 120—126. Labat, iv. p. 156. t Moore's Travels, p. 200. + Schad, a German Traveller, quoted by Bruns, Afrika, iv. p. 289. Compare Golberry, i. § See eight grammars and dictionaries of tlie Soosoo language, published at Edinburgh, In 1800—1802. 5 6 ' I 5 ' II Golberry, Voyage en Afrique, i. p. 114. Vol. II.— 3 U 522 BOOK SIXTY-SIXTH. ThePapeis. | Proceeding now along the line of coast, we find some detached low lands on the south of the river St. Dominique, inhabited by the Papcls, who are all pagans, worship[)ing trees, cow's horns, and all sorts of visible objects. When their king dies, according to the report of a traveller, the grandees range themselves around his coffin, which is tossed up in the air by some sturdy negroes, and the indi- vidual on whom the coffin falls, if not killed by the weight, succeeds to the throne.* Tliey are a brave people, their only weapon is a very long sabre. Large herds of oxen constitute their chief wealth, which they fatten with rice straw. The territories of these people extend from the river Geba, to tliat of Cacheo, the gates of the Por- tuguese settlement of Bissao. And the market of that town is so dependent on them for supplies of provisions, that the Portuguese government find themselves under the necessity of cultivating habits of good neighbourhood, with having on some occa- sions been threatened with a famine, when a good understanding was accidentally interrupted. On the frontiers of the Papels, to the south, dwell the Balantes, a cruel and savage race, with whom the Portuguese have very little communication. Salt is the only article of merchandise wliich they sell. They cat dogs, and reckon rats the most exquisite of dishes. Portuguese Cachco a fortross with a small town, is the station of the Portuguese settlements. authorities, and of a weak garrison to maintain in point of form the sovereignty of Portugal over this coast. There is also a fortress called Bissao on a large island of the same name formed by the river Geba, at its mouth. The situation is rendered unhealthy by the dampness, accompanied with the intense heat. Yet it is said rather to have the effect of rendering life sickly than of abridging its dura- tion. The soldiers of the garrison consist chiefly of mulattoes and blacks, with a few whites without shoes or uniform, but are muffled up in robes of flowered cotton and mostly in rags. They are on the whole much neglected by the government. All tlie commerce here is conducted by barter, and is exclusively in the hands of the governor, who thus acquires considerable wealth, while the inhabitants are idle and poor. In an inland situation 160 miles up the river Geba, is the Portuguese settle- ment called Geba, of which M. MoUien gives a curious account. The commandant receives visits in a large hall where straw beds are placed all round, on which the negroes seat themselves indiscriminately with Europeans, and every one has complete personal liberty cither to whistle or lie down to sleep, or eat at any time he thinks fit; yet none must pass the door without taking off his hat most respectfully, whether the master be within or not. The surrounding district is called Kaboo, and is inha- bited by a mixture of nations consisting chiefly of pagan Madingoes. The villages are large and populous, and the fields well cultivated. The houses of Geba are composed of mud, and there is no fort; the soldiers are negroes. The settlers are on good terms with the surrounding natives, who make war on one another's villages, and sell their captives at this place to the Portuguese. M. Mollien saw only three Jjuropeans at this place. The Bissajos islands form a smiling and fertile archipelago, surrounded, and almost covered on the west side by a series of sand and clay banks, 165 miles long, rendering the navigation extremely dangerous. The soil of tliese islands is watered by numerous small rivers; it produces rice, oranges, citrons, bananas, melons, peaches, and excellent pastures, on which the inhabitants rear cattle, consisting chiefly of hump-backed oxen of prodigious size. Fish arc in great abundance on all their shores. Ruiam. I Bulam Island, which is the one nearest the continent, was pronounced by the intelligent M. Brue, a good place for a French settlement;! the English hearing of the plan, hastened to anticipate it; but they treated the natives rudely; they neglected the precautions which the climate requires ; their colony went to ruin, and is now annihilated. J The useful plants grow here in great profusion, as rice, indigo, the coffee shrub, the tea shrub, and a variety of fruit trees. But the air * Schad, quoted by Bruns, p. 289. f Labat, v, p. 85. Pommegorge, p. 133— 135, i Beaver, African Memoranda, Cissajos islands. SIERRA LEONE. 523 18 humid, and proves hii;hly deleterious when the due precautions arc not observed.* The Bissajos, or Bidjoogas, make themselves tbrmidable to their neigh- Maimers of hours, by their incursions, and the cruelties which they commit. Fishing ''"^ i^^^upie. and piracy are professions which they cultivate by turns. The cock is esteemed among them a sacred animal. They possess much muscular strength of arm, harsh features, and quick movements. Almost all of them have muskets, or lances, which they use with much address. Their petty chiefs have turbulent subjects and tem- pestuous courts. The family of a minister is sometimes ordered by the caprice of a despot to be sold into slavery. Fertile as this archipelago is, the diet of the inha- bitants is extremely simple. Zealous friends of the Portuguese, they bear an im- placable hatred to other European nations. The Portuguese have numerous settlements along the banks of the | Rio Grande. Rio Grande, especially on the south bank. Entire villages are peopled by their race; but the English derive much more commercial profit from them, tlian their own na- tion. The north bank of the river is occupied by the Biafars, called also .Tolas, who possess all the track that lies between the Geba and the Rio Grande. This people arc almost continually at war with the Papels; but they are much gentler, and more tractable, and suffer much fiom the former, to whom the wealth acquired by their industry presents strong temptations. Here we find the city of Gonala, where the king resides; Bidjooga, on a river of the same name; Balola, and several Portuguese settlements, the largest of which is Caooda, about 140 miles from the mouth of the river. The south bank is inhabited by tlie Nalocs, a negro race so | iiioNaioes. completely mingled Avith the descendants of the original Portuguese, as not to be distinguishable from them. Their pursuits arc agricultural and pastoral, and their country is exceedingly fertile. The Portuguese have introduced among them some useful knowledge; their well cultivated fields produce the best indigo, and the finest cottons. The cloths which they manufacture from the latter substance are highly valued for the fineness of their fabric, and they have the art of dyeing them with beautiful colours, which make them objects of demand with the adjoining nations. Their principal river is Nuno-Tristao, called by some writers Nonunas, a name which appears favourable to the views of those who wish to identify it with the river Niinius of Ptolemy; but both terms are of Portuguese origin. The islands of Los, where some English merchants have formed a settlement,! owe their present name to the Portuguese, being a corruption of Yola de los idolos. The native inhabitants are called Forotimah. Immediately to the south of this Portuguese line of coast we find the English settlement of Sierra Leone, formed in 1787, for the express pur- pose of labouring to civilize the Africans. In this quarter the Enghsh have made tho greatest exertions to limit, if not to abolish the trade in slaves, but i)hilanthropy, and penal statutes, and vigilance, have been found but feeble barriers, when opposed to the cupidity of unprincipled traders. It is computed that there are not less than three hundred vessels on the coast, engaged in this disgraceful traffic, | slave iraiie. which is probably carried on to as great an extent at this day as at any l"ormer period. It appears from papers recently laid before tho British Parliament,^ that the whole line of Western Africa, from the river Senegal to Bengucla, that is to say, from about the latitude of 15° north, to the latitude of about IS*^ south, has, during that period, swarmed with slave vessels ; and that an active and increasing trade has also been carried on, upon the eastern shores of that continent, particularly from the isl- and of Zanzcbar. Not less than 10,000 liberated slaves, from the slave slu'ps cap- tured by the British cruizcrs, were calculated to be in the colony hi 182 1. The landing of these cargoes is often a very aflecting scene. The poor creatures, de- livered from the hold of a slave ship, faint and emaciated by harsh treatment and disease, when received with kuidn(!ss and sympathy by the inhabitants, among whom, perhaps, they recognise a brother, a sister, or countryman, whom they had * Johansen's Account of the Island of lUiIani, (London, 1780.) t Curry's Observations on the Windward Coast, p. ISO. + Kcport of Commodore Sir G. K, Collier, Ucc. ~7, ItJUl. Sierra I-coiie. I'liilantbi'OiMc sctlleineiit. 524 liOOK SIXTY-SIXTH. Liberated slaves. supposed long since dead, but whom they arc astonished to see clothed and clean, are overwhelmed with feehngs which they find it difficult to express.* On their arrival, those of a proper age are named, and sent to the adjacent villages. A house and lot is appointed to each family; they are supported one year by government, at the expiration of which they are obliged to provide for themselves. The captured children are also sent to villages, where they are kept at school till married, which is always at an early age. At the head of each village is a mission- ary, who acts in the double capacity of minister and schoolmaster. The number of persons attending the schools in January, 1S21, was 1959. The African Institution endeavours to promote a friendly intercourse with distant as well as neighbouring countries. The natives of Foulah resort to the colony to Commerce. | participate in the advantages of legitimate coinmerce ; and it may even be expected, that some years hence, caravans shall resort to the neighbourhood of Porto Logo, (on a branch of the Sierra Leone,) to convey the manufactures of Eu- rope into the very interior of the continent of Africa."!" Trade is rapidly increasing. The total invoice amount of imports at the port of Freetown, for the year 1820, was ^66,725 9s. 4|rf. ; and, for the same period in 1S21, the amount was ^6105,060 15s. lO^d. being an increase of £38,335 6s. 6d, The exertions of the African Institution, aided by the missionaries of the Church of England, have effected a remarkable improvement in the morals of the inhabitants, who are stated to be generally contented and industrious. The total population of Sierra Leone, by the latest returns, is computed at 17,000. Besides Freetown,;]; there have been built. Regent's Town, which contains nearly 2,000 inhabitants, and the towns of Gloucester, Leopold, Charlotte, and Bathurst, all of which appear to be thriving. A little to the west of Sierra Leone is Krootown, a small village inhabited by about 500 Kroomen. The British ships of war on the station, have each from twenty to seventy of these men on their books, who are said, whatever their pilfering habits may be on shore, to behave with the utmost propriety on board of ship. A fort erected on the Island of Banco, commands the entrance of the river, which has been ascended by Europeans as high as was allowed by its picturesque cataracts. In this country indigo grows well; several varieties of coffee are known, § the citron is degenerated, and its fruit resembles lemons. All the esculent and aro- matic plants of Africa are in great abundance. The gum of the butter tree is used as a yellow dye ; the colla bark seems to belong to a species of cinchona.\\ The puUam-tree produces a silky cotton. The chimpanzey monkey is met with in the interior; an animal five feet in height, with a pale face, the hands and stomach with- out hair, habitually holding himself erect, and even, it is said, sitting hke a man ; cir- cumstances which make him highly interesting to the naturalist. IT When the Portuguese discovered these places, they called the promontory to the south of the present settlement, Cape Ledo, and the mountains in the interior, Sierra Leona, or " the Mountain of the Lioness." This name, somewhat disfigured, has been since given to the Cape, the river, and the adjacent district.** The English seamen have given the name of the Windward Coast to all that hes between Cape Mount and the river Assinee,!! and they di- vide it into three parts, the Grain Coast, which terminates in Cape Palmas; the Ivory Coast, bounded on the east by the river Frisco or Lagos, and the coast; and the coast of Adoo or Kaka comprehending the remainder. The part lying between Cape Palmas and Apollonia, is generally included under the name of the Cote de Dents, or the Ivory Coast. The English themselves difler in their application of the term Windward Coast; some of them extending it no farther east than Cape Palmas. JJ The Gold Coast begins either at Cape Apollonia, or the river Assinee, and is generally * Sixteenth Report of the African Institution, p. 323. f Ibid. t Ibid. 354. § Afzelius, in the Report on Sierra Leone, addressed to the Proprietoi's, Curry, p. 37. I Curry, p. 40. J Afzelius, libro citato. ** Dalzel's Instructions on the Coast of Africa. London, 1806. ft Norris and Young-, quoted by Dalzel. iii- Clarkson's Essay on Slavery, p. 29. Newton's Thoughts on the African Shive Trade, at the beginning. Division of Guinea into coasts. Qiioya and Hondo coun- tries, &c. led Mendi- GUINEA. 525 considered as terminating at the river Volta. Then comes the Slave Coast, that of Benin or Wara, that of Calabar, and that of the river Gabon. All these coun- tries taken together, form Guinea in its strictest acceptation, which we shall here retain. Between Capo Mount and Cape Palmas, the coast produces abundance ^,'™J^'^"^J^°"' »f of rice, yams, and manioc. The cotton and indigo of this country are coast, of the first quality.* The articles for which Europeans have hitherto visited it are malaguctte pepper, red wood, and ivory. The inhabitants are skilful and intrepid rowers, and bid defiance to Europeans. The negroes on the banks of the river Mcsurado, speak a corrupt dialect of Portuguese, and acknowledge themselves vas- sals to Portugal, but are not as some have supposed, Europeans changed to negroes by the power of the climate. Sesthos, or Sestre, is a pretty large negro town. The houses are in the form of conical huts two stories high."f The old travellers, consulted by Dapper,J assign a place here to the kingdoms of Quoya and Hondo, which they describe as dependent on a more powerful kingdom in the interior, the inhabitants of which were ca Manoo, that is, the governing people. The word manoo, or monoo, an epithet com.' mon to all the tribes of these nations, has a striking affinity to the word mannoo, which signifies man in the dialect of the Sokkos, a people, of whom Oldendorp, the missionary, knew some individuals at Saint Croix, and who must live to the north- west of the Aminas.§ The Sokkos are neighbours to the Uwangs. The specimens of their language given by Oldendorp, resemble the Jallonkadoo words given by Mr. Park. The king of the Sokkos has many princes under him, and takes the title of inansa. There are presumptions of the identity of the Sokkos with the Mendi- Manoos. [n manners and laws, these people bear some resemblance to | Manners, the Soosoos. They have a secret tribunal, a mysterious order called BcUi-Raam, similar to the jyoorrah of the Soosoos. [| At the funeral of a man his favourite wife is sacrificed by the priests and thrown into the grave of her husband. The Sokkos, whom Oldendorp knew, said that baptism and circumcision were among the religious practices of their country, from which a learned geographer rather boldly attempts to infer some connection between the nations of Guinea and the Abyssinians,1[ These Sokkos, it must be remarked, are quite different from the A sokkos, in the country of the Issinese, on the Gold Coast, which appear to us to be the Insokkos of M. Ehrmann,** though M. Bruns says|| that he could not find the Insokkos. Two other traditions are worthy of our notice. The nations now mentioned have been subdued by the Folgians, who are probably the southern Foulahs. Another nation called the Gallas has been expelled from these countries, JJ but to look in these for the Gallas on the confines of Abyssinia, is to confound the negro and the Caflie race with each other. The Ivory Coast, as far as Cape Lahoo, is inhabited by a warlike | ivory Coast. nation of a dark unsociable disposition, at least towards Europeans, and according to report addicted to cannibalism. §§ The Portuguese have surnamed them )»«/«*- gentes. The coast is adorned with natural orchards. In the river St. Andre, ele- phant's teeth are exposed for sale, weighing 200 lbs. The animal called quogclo mentioned by Desmarchais, does not resemble any species known to us. To tho east of Cape Lahoo, arc the Quaquas, or Good People. | The qnaqnas. These are divided into castes like the Hindoos and ancient Egyptians, and the son uniformly follows tho profession of his father. The Gold Coast derives its name from the great trade in gold dust carried on in it, which has given rise to many European establishments. Tho Gold Coast. , -,,--, . ,--, r . - - (edit.All.de 1670.) § Oldendorp, Hist, des Missions Evangel, p. 280, D Dapper, 1. citat. p. 415. % Bruns, Afrlka, iv. p. 574. *• Hist, dcs Voyages, x. p. 137. ff Afi-ika, iv. p. 376. ^^ Dapper, p. 388. §§ Smith, p. 110. Desmarchais, Voyage k Cayenne, Stc, i. p. 200. European set tiements. 526 BOOK STXTV-SIXTH. It also abounds in fish, the chief of which are the sea bull, and the fish called from its shape, the hammer. The forts and counting houses belonging to Europeans in this quarter, are about forty in number, fifteen Dutch, fourteen English, four Portu- guese, four Danish, and three French. At present most of them have been de- stroyed or deserted, which some ascribe to the slave trade ; a circumstance which, if true, would indicate that they were concerned in a business less innocent than the trade in gold dust. The Dutch trade was concentrated at Elmina. The principal English estabhshment was Cabo-Corso. The head quarters of the Danes were Christianburg ; the Danish forts of Printzensten and Konegsten are well built. The Danes commanded the river Volta, and were in great favour with the tribes on the coast. Particulars on I A learned Dane, Mr. Isert, went into the country of Aquapim, fifty- the interior. | six milcs froui Cliristianburg. The country seemed beautiful, fertile, and populous. It is generally well wooded, yet more salubrious than the sea-shore, agreeably diversified with mountains, valleys, and hills. Water, which on the sea- shore is scarce and brackish, is good and plenty in the interior. At a distance of five Danish miles from Christianburg, a chain of mountains begins, which is covered with tall trees, and composed of coarse grained granite, gneiss, and quartz. The information obtained by the researches of the African Association of London, coin- cides with the account of Mr. Isert. In the neighbourhood of the sea, the soil of Guinea is in many places light and sandy, and consequently unfavourable to the culture of the greater part of tropical productions. In places where the soil is of a deficient character, the vegetation of many plants is opposed by other circumstances. Among these are the coolness and moisture of the sea-breezes, or south-west winds, which meet with nothing along the coast to interrupt their progress ; the saline impregnation which the air derives from the sea ; and the surf, which is general and violent. At a distance of two or three milcs from the shore, the land becomes more productive, and improves pro- gressively, till at the distance of eight miles, it becomes very fertile and fit for all the crops reared in intertropical situations. The climate at the same time is sufli- ciently temperate to admit of the vegetation of the different grasses and trees of Europe.* Cultivation of Thcsc observations apply in a particular manner to the Agoona coun- the land. ^yy^ ^^ which Wimbali, or Winnebak, is the capital. All the lands in this district are in common. No person is allowed to become proprietor of more land than he can cultivate with his own hands : scarcely a tenth part of the land is cultivated. Each individual may occupy and till whatever portion he pleases ; but if he leaves ituntilled, he cannot prevent another from seizing it in the same temporary way. The purchasing and measuring of land are unknown among the people. It is never sold except to Europeans. The latter are safe from all disputes about their right of possession ; but they are not equally sure of enjoying the benefits of their crops, unless they have an adequate force to defend them from the hccntious cove- tousness of the natives. Though the whole Gold Coast exhibits one general character in its' soil and climate, there are essential differences in some particulars. For example, the Anta country, which the river Aucobra separates from the State of ApoUonia, has a rich soil, plenty of wood, is well watered and industriously culti- vated. It has harbours and good roadsteads. The State of Apollonia is still better watered with lakes and rivers ; it contains more flat land adapted to rice crops, sugar cane, and other species which require humidity. The chief disadvantage under which this coast labours, is a violent surf, which makes the landing very dangerous. The form of government is absolute despotism, which operates as a preventive of most of the disorders which are common in the adjoining countries. Africa unfor- tunately is obliged to look to slavery for its safety. Among the pretended re})ublics, • Meredith's Description of the Agoona country, in the Fourth Annual Keport of tlic Afri- can Association. Diversities of soil. KinRdom of Daiiomey. GUINEA. 527 or rather turbulent oligarcliics of the Gold Coast, the warlike state of Fantce is the most powcrfuf and the most regularly constituted.* The interior is occupied by two powerful nations. The Aminas, who I inland have plenty of gold, extend in a north-western situation, to a space of | ""'°"'' fourteen days journey-t Their language, which has become known by the researches of the Danes, prevails over a great part of the coast.J The Ashantecs in the north- east, seem to be the Argurtans of a certain French writer.§ A king of this nation in 1744, made a very distant expedition to the north-east, marching twenty-one days through a well wooded country intersected by rivers ; fourteen days were em- ployed crossing a sandy desert where no water was found. The Mahometan nation which it was his object to attack, surrounded him with an immense army of cavalry, so that he returned with a slender remnant of his force, bringing along with him a great number of books in the Arabic language, which afterwards came into the hands of the Danes, and probably are now in the royal library of Copenhagen. || The learned Mr. Bruce thinks that this country was Degombah, the same which was visited by the sheriff Imhammed, and Timbah, mentioned by Oldendorp, on informa- tion derived from negroes. The Timbah nation is called by the Aminas, the Kas- siante. The Slave Coast, in the strictest acceptation, includes the States of | slave Coast. Coto, Popo, Widah, and Ardra. The maritime flat country here is broader than that of the Gold Coast, and extremely fertile. Poultry are in uncommon abundance, and the air is darkened by flocks of bats like dense clouds. The French had a trading settlement at Widah, or Judah, and the Portuguese sell their tobacco at Port-Novo. The small states of the sea coast are subject to the king of Dahomey, who by his concfuests raised himself from the rank of a small proprietor, to that of a great African monarch. He has only 1940 miles of sea-coast, and though he can bring into the field SOOO men, yet being every where surrounded by enemies, he would soon be expelled from the maritime parts, if he were not supported by the European forts. His villages are large and populous. Abomey, the capital of his kingdom, is situated at a distance of eighty miles from the coast, and contains 2400 inhabitants. The king has two pleasure-houses at Clamina and Agona, where he most commonly lives. These palaces are only a better sort of cottages, contained within a park more than half a mile broad, sur- rounded by an earthen wall. In this place there are 800 or 1000 women, armed with muskets or javelins. These light troops form the king's guard, and from them he selects his aids-de-camp and his messengers. The ministers leave their silk robes at the gate of the palace, and approach the throne walking on all fours, and rolling their heads in the dust. The ferocity of these kings almost surpasses conception. Mr. Dalzel, the English governor, found the road to the king's cottage strewed with human skulls, and the walls adorned and almost covered with jaw bones.lT The king walks in solemn pomp over the bloody heads of vanquished princes or disgraced mi- nisters.** At the festival of the tribes, to which all the subjects bring presents for the king, he drenches the tomb of his forefathers with human blood. Fifty dead bodies are thrown round the royal sepulchre, and fifty heads stuck up on poles. The blood of these victims is presented to the king, who dips his finger into it and licks it. II Human blood is mixed with clay, to build temples in honour of deceased mo- narchs. JJ The royal widows kill one another till the new sovereign puts an end to the slaughter. The people, in the midst of a joyous festival, applaud these scenes • Renner, p. 187, p. 236. | Oldendorp, Hist, des Missions, p. 277, &c. i: See Protten's Introduction to the Fantee, or Amina language, published in the Danish language at Copenhagen, 1764. § Pommegorge, Description de la Nigritie, p. 142. Roemer, p. 188. 'i Dalzel's History of Dahomey, London, 1796. *• Bruns and Zimmermann, Uecueil Geograph. iii. p. 115. tt Norris, Voyage a Dahomey, dans le Magasin des Voyages, v. Herlin, 1792. Isert, Voya- ges, p. irs. ++ Bruns and Zimmermann, p. 114. Barbarous customs. Kingdom of Benin. 528 BOOK SIXTY-SIXTH. of horror, and with dehght tear the unhappy victims to pieces, yet they abstain from eating their flesh.* The Ejeos. | The king of Dahomey is tributary to the king of the Eyeos, a very powerful nation, whose territories are north-east from Dahomey, and extend to the banks of a large lake, from which several rivers take their rise, and fall into the Gulf of Guineji. May not this be the lake of Wangara? The Eyeos are considered as conterminous with Nubia; which is certainly an exaggerated statement. The king, whose numberless cavalry forms his chief force, lives 150 miles from the coast. The Eyeos are a warlike people. They have among them extensive cotton manufac- tures. j" East from Dahomey, and south from the Eyeos, lies the kingdom of Benin, the king of which can bring 100,000 men into the field. The river, which the Portuguese call Rio-Formosa, is very broad at its mouth, and has been navigated as high as Agathon, one of the chief towns, about forty miles north- east from the sea. The road from Benin to Agathon is much frequented, and lined with very tall, and very strong trees, which afford an abundant shade. The city of Benin on the river of the same name, is surrounded with deep ditches, and there are traces of an earthen wall by which it has been protected. The streets are fifteen feet broad ; the houses low, covered with the leaves of the macaw tree, and kept exceedingly clean. — There are no stones in this country, and the soil is so soft that the river detaches several acres at a time. The moveable islands thus formed are the dread of seamen. '| The vast palace of the king, on the outside of the city, is defended by walls ; it contains some handsome apartments, and fine galleries sup- ported by wooden pillars. The market is not exactly adapted to the taste of Euro- peans ; the leading articles are dog's flesh, of which the negroes are very fond ; roasted monkeys, bats, rats, and lizards ; it also contains delicious fruits, and goods of all descriptions. The climate is one of the most deadly to the European consti- tion. — M. Palisot-Beauvois calls it pestilential. § Between three and four thousand slaves were purchased here by the traders. The inhabitants of Benin have the same laws and customs as the peo- ple of Dahomey. The king, who is venerated as a demi-god, is believed to live without aliment, and when he dies, is believed only to lose his former body, Festivals. | in Order to revive under another shape. At the festival of yams, he plants a root in a pot of earth in the presence of the whole people. Immediately after it, another pot is presented with a juggling dexterity, containing a root which has begun to bud. This miracle inspires the credulous spectator with the hopes of a good harvest. Human sacrifices form part of the propitiatory worship offered to the avenging or evil genius. The victims, who are generally prisoners of war, when immolated, amidst the dreadful vociferous songs of the whole people, show a most stupid indifference. At the festival of corals, the king and all the grandees dip their coral necklaces in human blood, supphcating the gods to preserve for them this high mark of their dignity. |1 The kingdom of Waree comprehends the flat marshy countries to the south of Benin, where there is a number of rivers, probably branches of the Rio Formosa. After Cape Formosa, the Calabar country begins, which is also intersected by many rivers, among which is the river Bey, or New Calabar, which admits vessels of 300 tons. The sovereign has the title of delemongo, or " the Great Man." The island of Bonny is a great slave market, and, along with Calabar, used to export 14,000 annually. One part of this coast is covered with layers of sea salt.TT After the high land of Amboses, which seems to contain volcanoes equaUing the Peak of Teneriffe in height, we arrive at the river of Cameroons, or Jamoor, the mouth of which is very broad. It has a good harbour, and the water is good and sweet. Here wax, elephants teeth, red wood, and refresh- ments, are to be had at reasonable prices, and the Dutch carry on a great trade with * Isert, p, 180. f Idem, p. 160. Snelgrave, p. 56—121. Dalzel, rommegorge, &c. i Bosmann, p. 450, &c. § Palisot-Beauvois, Memoire hi a I'Institute, 15 Nivose> an \x. fl Ibid, i Oklcndorp, Hist, dcs Missions, p. 280. Laws. Customs Kingdom of Waree, Cala- bar, &c. River of Cameroons. GUINEA. 629 the natives. Tlie river of San Benito is 110 miles beyond it. From the shore a double range of very high mountains is seen at a distance of thirty or forty miles. About forty miles from the mouth of the river is Cape St. John, which is rather of dano-erous navigation, from a sand-bank about a league out in the sea. — This Cape forms, with Capo Esteiras to the south, a bay, in the middle of which is the island of Corisoo, which has never been particularly explored. The river of River of Gaboon to the soutli of this Cape, in the Pongo country, is only twenty- ^'*^°'^ eight miles from the equator. The approach to these coasts is rendered difficult by the prevailing currents. There arc two small islands at the mouth of the river; one called King's Island, because it is the residence of a king; and the other called the Island of Parrots. The negroes along this coast are a bold and hardy race. The gulf, which is bounded by Cape Formosa on the north-west, and on the south by that of Lopez-Gonsalvo, takes the name of the Gulf of Biafra. It contains the islands of Fernando-Po, St. Thomas's and Priirce's Island, which we shall describe in another place. The nations of these coasts are very little known. The Calbongos The caibon- live on the San-Benito, and the Biafras on the Cameroons. In the inte- rior, an African has informed us of the Ibbo nation, to which he himself belonged, and which seems to furnish the greatest part of the slaves exported from Benin. He had travelled between six and seven months from his native district to the smiling and fertile valley of Calbari. In every part yams, bananas, pumpkins, and sugar canes, were in abundance : the cocoa tree was rare. There is a town called Timmah, situated on a lake. He had also seen a great river, but does not give any certain account of its direction.* The vague notices of this traveller serve rather to excite than to satisfy the curiosity of geographers. • Olauda Esquianos, or Gustavus Vasa the African's Account of his own Adventures. Roj, tlie Bia- tras, and the Ibbos. END OP VOL. II. 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