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Columbia 5Bntt)eröftp 
 
 LIBRARY 
 

 ^6 
 
A MANUAL 
 
 ANCIENT HISTORY, 
 
 PARTICULARLY WITH REGARD TO 
 
 , THE CONSTITUTIONS, THE COMMERCE, 
 AND THE COLONIES, 
 
 OF THE STATES OF ANTIQUITY. 
 BY ÄI H: L. HEEREN, 
 
 KNIGHT OP THE NORTH STAR AND GUELPHIC ORDER; AULIC COUNSELLOR 
 
 AND PKOPESSOR OP HISTORY IN THE UNIVERSITY OF GOETTINGBN ; 
 
 AND MEMBEH OP SEVERAL OTHER LEARNED SOCIETIES. 
 
 TRAASLATED from the GERMAN. 
 
 JHRARV. 
 
 r^ Xm\) a -iBingraiiljiral .^kptrlj nf tjjr Snthnr. 
 
 LONDON: 
 HENRY G. BOIIN, YORK STREET, COVENT GARDEN. 
 
 MDCCCLIV. 
 
JOHN CHILDS AND SON, BUNGAY, 
 
TRANSLATORS PREFACE 
 
 TO THE SECOND EDITION. 
 
 It is to the patient industry of the historians of Germany 
 that we are indebted for the first production of Manuals 
 of history, and for those synchronistic tables which have 
 so much facilitated the systematic study of ancient history ; 
 and among the various and profound treatises of this class, 
 which enrich and adorn their literature, the Avorks of 
 Heeren are distinguished by their extended range of in- 
 quiry, as well as by the minute accuracy of their details. 
 
 The work before us embodies the result of his laborious 
 researches during the long period in which he has been 
 engaged as public lecturer and professor of history in the 
 university of Goettingen ; and if it be any recommendation 
 of a work to know that its writer has had ample time, 
 ability, and opportunity to collect and elaborate his mate- 
 rials, it may be asserted, without fear of contradiction, that 
 the author of the present work possessed all these advan- 
 tages in an eminent degree. He has spent the greater 
 portion of his life in lecturing upon the subjects of which 
 it treats, and has in every case gone for his information 
 immediately to the fountain head. It forms, too, an im- 
 portant feature of his work, that a list of the original 
 sources, whence his own knowledge has been drawn, is 
 placed at the head of each section ; another is added of the 
 principal writers who have touched upon or illustrated the 
 particular portion of history under notice ; both being 
 generally accompanied with a few Avords of judicious criti- 
 cism, in which the value of the writer's authority is esti- 
 
 20586 
 
iv TRANSLATOR'S PREFACE. 
 
 mated, and his sources, circumstances, and prejudices, 
 briefly, but fairly set forth. Besides this advantage, the 
 work possesses the merit of combining the convenience of 
 the Manuals with the synchronistic method of instruction : 
 as the geography, chronology, and biography of the coun- 
 tries and states of the ancient world are brought at once 
 under the eye of the reader ; and so lucid is the arrange- 
 ment, that the darkest and most entangled portions of 
 history are seen in a clear and perspicuous light. Pro- 
 fessor Heeren seems, moreover, to possess, in a more 
 eminent degree than any other writer, the power of forcing, 
 by a very few words, the attention of the reader upon the 
 most important facts of history ; and of conjuring up in 
 his thoughts a train of reflections calculated at once to 
 instruct and enlarge the mind. His Avork is not only ad- 
 mirably adapted to become a text-book in the study of 
 history, but will be found equally serviceable as a book of 
 reference — it will guide the student in his untried and 
 intricate course, and enable the more advanced scholar to 
 methodize his collected stores. Perhaps in no work has 
 so much important information been condensed into so 
 small a compass. 
 
 The estimation in which this Manual is held on the 
 continent, may be gathered from the fact of its having 
 passed through six large editions in German, and two in 
 French, and from its having been translated into almost 
 every language of Europe. 
 
 The rapidity with which the first edition, as well as the 
 other writings of Professor Heeren, have sold in this coun- 
 try, is a proof that they only required to be known here 
 in order to be appreciated. The favour Avith which these 
 translations have been received, both by the venerable 
 author himself and by the British public, has been a 
 source of the highest gratification to the publisher. The 
 encouragement, so kindly bestowed, has urged him to new 
 exertions, the fruits of which, he trusts, Avill be observable 
 in the present volume. The manual has not only been 
 revised and corrected throughout, but has also been dili- 
 
TRANSLATOR'S PREFACE. V 
 
 gently compared with the German, and has received such 
 ameliorations as the original text or the English style 
 seemed to demand. When it is added to this, that a very 
 numerous body of corrections and improvements have 
 been sent to the publisher by Professor Heeren himself, 
 who has patiently examined the translation expressly for 
 this edition, he trusts that the public will be satisfied that 
 it is as faithful a copy of the original work as the nature 
 of things will allow. 
 
 In the preface to the last edition of this Manual the 
 publisher announced his intention, should it be favourably 
 received, of following it up by the publication of another 
 elaborate work of the same author, viz., A Manual of the 
 History of the States of Modern Europe and their Colonies, 
 as forming one political System. This work will now 
 very shortly appear. As an apology for the delay which 
 has taken place, he begs to call to their notice another 
 equally important work by the same author, which he has 
 published in the mean time ; the Historical Researches 
 into the Politics, Intercourse, and Trade of the Cartha- 
 ginians, Ethiopians, and Egyptians, with a general intro- 
 duction ; the remainder of this work, containing the His- 
 torical Pesearches into the Politics, Intercourse, and Trade 
 of the Ancient Asiatic Nations — the Persians, Phoenicians, 
 Babylonians, Scythians, and Hindoos, will appear in a 
 few weeks. 
 
 To add to the usefulness of the work, an analysis of the 
 contents, with dates, has been given in the margin. 
 The t prefixed to some of the books denote that they are 
 written in German. 
 
 Oxford, March, 1833. 
 
PREFACE 
 
 TO THE FIRST GERMAN EDITION. 
 
 In adding to the number of Manuals on Ancient History 
 already published, I feel myself bound to give an account 
 of the plan on which the present has been executed. 
 
 It was at first designed to be used in my public lectures, 
 and from them it has grown up to Avhat it now is. In 
 them I did not consider it necessary to state all we know, 
 or think we know, of ancient history. Many facts highly 
 interesting to the learned historian are not adapted for 
 pubHc lectures. It was therefore my great object to make 
 choice of such incidents as ought to be known by my pu- 
 pils in order to the effectual prosecution of their historical 
 studies. Consequently I have not extended my labours so 
 far as to give an historical account of every nation, but 
 have limited myself to those most remarkable for their 
 general civilization and political eminence. 
 
 The subjects to which I have particularly directed my 
 attention are, the formation of states, the changes in their 
 constitution, the routes by which commerce was carried 
 on, the share which the different nations respectively took 
 in its pursuit, and, as immediately connected with that de- 
 partment, their extension severally by means of colonies. 
 
 The favourable reception which my larger work, exe- 
 cuted after a different plan, has met with, would lead me 
 to hope for a like indulgence in this new attempt, even if 
 th6 spirit of the age did not so loudly call upon every his- 
 torian to direct his chief attention to these subjects. And 
 for this reason I could not rest satisfied with a mere detail 
 
PREFACE. Vll 
 
 of isolated facts, but have made it my study to follow the 
 course of events, linking them into one connected chain ; 
 so as to represent them in a condensed form by continu- 
 ally and carefully forcing together the main circumstances 
 which contributed to the development of the whole. 
 
 Without this, history in general would be but a lifeless 
 study, more especially that of republics, which were so 
 numerous in ancient times, and which, from their consti- 
 tution being made up of political parties, every where pre- 
 sent the most difficult problems for the historian's solution. 
 Of all the larger divisions of my work, the arrangement of 
 the Greek history I have found most troublesome, on ac- 
 count of the number of little states into which it is sub- 
 divided. Historians, indeed, lighten this labour by con- 
 fining themselves merely to Athens and Sparta ; but by so 
 doing they give us a very imperfect knowledge of the sub- 
 ject. I have endeavoured to surmount the difficulty by 
 throwing the account of the smaller states and their colo- 
 nies into the second period ; by which means I have been 
 able in the third and mos-t important portion, the interest 
 of which depends entirely upon the principal states, to 
 carry on my history, as a whole without interruption. But 
 in case others, who wish to make this Manual the ground- 
 work of their lectures, should disUke this arrangement, 
 they may very easily attach these notices to the intro- 
 ductory geographical survey; a plan I very often adopt in my 
 owai lectures. Upon the arrangement of the other parts, 
 I am not aware of the necessity of making any observa- 
 tions. The sources from which I have drawn my materials 
 are specified in every section. Particular references do 
 not come within my plan ; and if I have referred several 
 times in the first two sections to my larger work, it is only 
 on particu.lar points, explanations of which may be sought 
 for in vain elsewhere. 
 
 Some knowledge of ancient geography and the use of 
 niaps,^ if it has not been previously acquired by the student, 
 should, I am convinced, always be connected with lectures 
 ' I have made use of D'Anville. 
 
vm PREFACE. 
 
 on ancient history. That this need not extend to detailed 
 
 explanations of ancient geography, but that it should be 
 restricted to what is merely useful in the study of history, 
 I have observed in the body of my work. The geographi- 
 cal chapters which are interspersed having been written 
 with this intent, will, I hope, be judged of accordingly. 
 I have taken care to arrange them so as to include the 
 whole of the ancient world; it depends, therefore, only 
 upon the teacher to form a more or less extensive course 
 upon them. 
 
 With regard to chronology, I have followed throughout 
 the same uniform plan of computing time, viz., to and 
 from the birth of Christ. By preferring this method, so 
 convenient and certain, to the inconvenient and uncertain 
 one of reckoning fi-om the year of the world, I hope I have 
 deserved the thanks of my readers. I relinquish, on the 
 other hand, all claim to merit on the score of having more 
 accurately defined the chronology of events which occur 
 before the time of Cyrus. I have, on the contrary, in this 
 part of my labour, often stated round numbers, where, in 
 many modern publications, precise dates may be found. 
 Exact determinations of time are only necessary, in my 
 opinion, where a continuous development of circumstances 
 takes place ; not where unconnected facts are recorded. 
 
 The transactions of our own times have thrown a light 
 upon ancient history, and given it an interest Avhich it could 
 not formerly possess. A knowledge of history, if not the 
 only, is at least the most certain means of obtaining a 
 clear and unprejudiced view of the great drama now per- 
 forming around us. All direct comparisons, notwithstand- 
 ing the many opportunities which have tempted me, I 
 considered as foreign to my plan ; but if, notwithstanding, 
 in some chapters of my work, particularly in the history 
 of the Roman republic, I may be thought to make a refer- 
 ence to the transactions of the ten years during which 
 this work has been published, I do not consider it neces- 
 sary to offer any excuse for so doing. Of what use is the 
 study of history if it do not make us wiser and better ? un- 
 
PREFACE. 1^ 
 
 less the knowledge of the past teach us to judge more 
 correctly of the present ? Should I have contributed in 
 any measure to promote this object, and should I be so 
 fortunate as to lead the minds of my young friends to a 
 deeper study of a science which can only in this way re- 
 ward its admirers, I shall esteem it the most delightful 
 recompence my labour can receive. 
 
 Goettingen, Sept. 23, 1799. 
 
 PREFACE 
 
 TO THE SECOND AND FOLLOWING GERMAN EDITIONS. 
 
 The call for a second edition of my Manual imposes upon 
 me an obligation to supply the deficiencies of my former 
 work. CoiTections have been carefully made, and many 
 parts completely re^vritten. A select list of books which 
 treat of the respective departments of my subject is now 
 first added ; the former edition containing only references 
 to the sources from which my facts were derived. This, I 
 trust, will be considered an essential service to the friends 
 of historical science, more especially the young, for whom, 
 and not for the learned, these additions have been made. 
 Their use in this place is particularly ob\-ious, where it is 
 in every one's power to procure the books referred to.^ 
 The short criticisms subjoined, where it seemed necessary, 
 will serve as guides for tbeir use. In the author's de- 
 partment of the work but little has been changed, while 
 its form and appearance have been improved by the use 
 of difierent types, by more accurate running titles, and by 
 ranging the dates in the margin. By the adoption of the 
 latter method the increase in the number of pages is ren- 
 ^ [The author alludes to the public library at Goettingen. Tr.] 
 
X PREFACE. 
 
 dered inconsiderable, notwithstanding the numerous addi- 
 tions which have been made to the matter. In its ar- 
 rangement, this work is the same as my Manual of the 
 History of the European States and their Colonies. Be- 
 yond this, however, these works have no relation to each 
 other, but have been executed upon quite different princi- 
 ples ; the present as a history of the separate states of the 
 ancient world, and the other as a general history of modern 
 states and their colonies, as forming all together one political 
 system. Each, however, forms a complete work in itself, 
 and it is by no means my intention to fill up the gulf which 
 time has placed between them. 
 
 I regret that the acute researches of ]M. Volney,- upon 
 the chronology of Herodotus before the time of Cyrus, came 
 too late into my hands to be made use of in its proper 
 place in my second edition. In the third this has been 
 done. I lay claim, at the same time, to the thanks of the 
 reader for giving, in an Appendix, the results of these re- 
 searches, together with references to the passages by which 
 they are supported ; leaving out, however, all extraneous 
 matter, and every thing that cannot be proved by the po- 
 sitive assertions of the father of history. 
 
 I cannot close this preface without again recurriug to 
 the advantage of the mode now becoming more and more 
 general, of computing time in ancient history according to 
 the number of years before Christ. The fact of its being 
 certain and convenient has often been remarked ; but be- 
 sides this it possesses the gi-eat advantage of giving us at 
 once a clear and precise notion of the interval that sepa- 
 rates us from the incidents recorded ; which it is impossi- 
 ble to obtain by the use of any other era, whether the year 
 of the world, the olympiads, or the year of Eome, etc. 
 And yet this pecuhar advantage, so great in the eyes of 
 the teacher, has not, to the best of my knowledge, been 
 hitherto made the subject of remark. Even for the sci- 
 ence of history itself, this circumstance is of greater mo- 
 
 - Clironologie d'Herodote, conforme ä son Texte par C. F. Volney. 
 Paris, 1809, 3 vols. See the G'ött. Gell. Anz. for 1810 and 1816. 
 
PREFACE, XI 
 
 ment than might be at first supposed. Should an inquirer 
 arise who would closely examine all ancient history ac- 
 cording to this era — setting out from the generally received 
 year of the birth of Christ as from a fixed point, to which 
 the labours of M. Volney are a good beginning — the whole 
 science would thereby acquire a firmer consistency. For 
 by this method all dates would not appear equally certain 
 and equally uncertain, as they do in the eras which are 
 computed from the year of the world ; but it would be 
 shown what is chronologically certain, what only probable, 
 and what completely uncertain, according as we should 
 recede from the clearer into the more obscure regions of 
 history. The old manner of reckoning from the year of 
 the world, in which congruity was impossible, because 
 there was no agreement upon the point to start from, would 
 certainly be thrown aside ; but where is the harm if some- 
 thing better and more certain be substituted in its place ? 
 In the third, fourth, fifth, and sixth editions, though the 
 increase in the number of pages is small, yet all those ad- 
 ditions and corrections which I deemed necessary, and 
 Avhich the progress of knowledge and discovery, as in the 
 case of Egypt and other countries, enabled me to effect, 
 have been most carefully and fully made. The importance 
 of these will be best seen by comparison. 
 
 Goetti?igen, 1828. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 TAGE 
 
 Biographical Sketch of Professor Heeren . . i 
 
 Introduction ........ 1 
 
 Book I. Asiatic and African states previous to Cyrus : 
 General geographical outline of Asia . . . .13 
 
 General Preliminary Observations upon the History and 
 
 Constitution of the great Asiatic Empires . . .19 
 History of the ancient Asiatic kingdoms before the reign of 
 
 Cyrus 21 
 
 I. Assyrian monarchy . . . . . . . ib. 
 
 II. Median monarchy ...... 22 
 
 III. Babylonian monarchy . . . . . .23 
 
 IV. States in Asia Minor 24 
 
 1. Trojan empire . . . . . . . ib. 
 
 2. Phrygian empire ...... ib. 
 
 ^ 8; Lydian empire . . . . • . .25 
 
 V. Phoenicia ........ ib. 
 
 VI. Syi'ians 28 
 
 VII. Jews ib. 
 
 1. Period of the Nomad state from Abraham till the 
 conquest of Palestine . . . . . .29 
 
 2. Period of the federative republic ... 30 
 
 3. Period of the monarchy from B. C. 1100—600 . 31 
 The Jewish state as one single kingdom . . ib. 
 The Jewish state as a divided kingdom . . .33 
 
 African Nations : 
 
 General geographical outline of Ancient Africa . . 37 
 I. Egyptians ........ 39 
 
 1st Period. From the earliest times down to the Sesos- 
 
 trida3, about B. C. 1500 41 
 
 2nd Period. From the Sesostrid« till the sole dominion 
 of Psammetichus, B. C. 1500—650 . . .50 
 
CONTENTS. XUl 
 
 PAGE 
 
 3rd Period. From the reign of Psammeticlius to the 
 Persian conquest of Egypt by Cambyses, B. C. 
 
 650—525 56 
 
 II. Carthaginians 59 
 
 1st Period. From the foundation of Carthage to the 
 
 wars with Syracuse, B. C. 880—480 ... 60 
 2nd Period. From the breaking out of the wars with 
 Syracuse to the commencement of those with Rome, 
 
 B. C. 480—264 64 
 
 3rd Period. From the beginning of the wai's with 
 Rome to the downfal of Carthage, B. C. 264 — 
 
 146 66 
 
 Book II, History of the Persian empire, from B. C. 560 — 
 
 330 72 
 
 Book III. History of the Grecian states : 
 Geographical outline of Greece . . . . .90 
 
 1st Period. Traditional History down to the Trojan 
 
 war, about B. C. 1200 95 
 
 2nd Period. From the Trojan war to the breaking out 
 of the Persian war, B. C. 1200—500 . . .102 
 History of the Hellenic states within Greece . . ib. 
 
 General history ....... ib. 
 
 Sparta 106 
 
 Athens 110 
 
 Principal data for the history of the smaller states : 
 
 I. Within the Peloponnesus : 
 
 a. Arcadia . . . . . . • .114 
 
 b. Argos . . . . . . • • .115 
 
 c. Corinth ib. 
 
 d. Sicyon 116 
 
 e. Achaia . . . . . • • .117 
 /. Elis ib. 
 
 II. Central Greece, or Hellas : 
 
 a. Megaris . . . . . . • .118 
 
 b. Boeotia ib. 
 
 c. Phocis 119 
 
 d. Locris .......•• ib. 
 
 e. ^tolia ib. 
 
 f. Acarnania .....••• 120 
 
 III. Northern Greece : 
 
 a. Thessaly 120 
 
 b, Epirus ......••• 121 
 
 IV. Grecian Islands ■ • ib. 
 
XIV CONTENTS, 
 
 PAGE 
 
 a. Corcyra ........ 122 
 
 b. ^ffina 
 
 ib. 
 
 c. Euboea ........ ib. 
 
 d. The Cyclades 123 
 
 e. Crete ib. 
 
 /. Cyprus 124 
 
 History of the Grecian colonies . . . . .125 
 
 General observations ....... ib. 
 
 ' Colonies on the Western coast of Asia Minor : . . 127 
 
 1. ^olian colonies ib. 
 
 2. Ionian colonies 128 
 
 3. Dorian colonies . . . . . . .130 
 
 Colonies on the coast of the Propontis and tlie Black 
 
 Sea ib. 
 
 Colonies on the coasts of Thrace and Macedonia . . 132 
 Colonies on the Western coast of Greece . . . ib. 
 
 Grecian settlements in Lower Italy : 
 
 a. Tarentum . . • ■ • • • .133 
 
 b. Croton . ib- 
 
 c. Sybaris ........ 134 
 
 d. Thurii 135 
 
 e. Locri Epizephyrii ...... ib. 
 
 /. Ehegium 136 
 
 g. Cumje ........ ib. 
 
 Grecian settlements in Sicily : 
 
 a. Syracuse . • 137 
 
 b. Agrigentum . . • • • • .141 
 
 c. The smaller Sicilian cities ib. 
 
 Colonies in Sardinia and Corsica 142 
 
 Colonies in Gaul ; — Massilia ib. 
 
 Colonies in Spain ; — Saguntum ib. 
 
 Colonies in Africa ; — Cyi'ene 143 
 
 Period III. From the breaking out of the Persian wars to 
 
 Alexander the Great, B. C. 5^00—336 . . .144 
 
 Book IV. History of the Macedonian Monarchy : 
 Period I. From its origin to the death of Alexander the 
 
 Great, B. C. 800—323 166 
 
 Period II. History of the Macedonian monarchy, from the 
 
 death of Alexander the Great to the battle of Ipsus, B. C. 
 
 323—301 ^^^ 
 
 Period III. History of the separate kingdoms and states 
 
 which arose out of the dismemberment of the Macedonian 
 
 monarchy, after the battle of Ipsus . . • .186 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 XV 
 
 I. History of the Syrian empire under the Seleucidie, 
 B. C. 312—64 
 
 II. History of the Egyptian kingdom under the Ptolemies, 
 B. C. 323—30 
 
 III. History of Macedonia itself and of Greece, from the 
 death of Alexander to the Roman conquest, B. C. 323 
 
 —146 
 
 Achfean league ....... 
 
 ^tolian league ........ 
 
 IV. History of some smaller or more distant kingdoms and 
 states formed out of the Macedonian monarchy . 
 
 The kingdom of Pergamus . 
 Bithynia .... 
 
 Paphlagonia . . . . 
 
 Pontus 
 
 Cappadocia .... 
 
 Armenia . . . . , 
 
 The kingdom of Parthia 
 
 The kingdom of Bactria . 
 
 The restored kingdom of the Jews 
 
 1. Under the Persians . 
 
 2. Under the Ptolemies and Seleucidte 
 
 3. Under the Maccabees 
 
 4. Under the family of Herod 
 Book V. History of the Roman state : 
 
 Introductory remarks on the Geography of Ancient 
 Italy 
 
 Period I. From the foundation of Rome to the con- 
 quest of Italy and the commencement of the wars 
 with Carthage, B. C. 754—264, or A. U. C. 1— 
 490 
 
 Period II. From the commencement of the war with 
 Carthage, to the rise of the civil broils under the 
 Gracchi, B. C. 264—134, or A. U. C. 490—620 . 
 
 Period III. From the beginning of the civil broils un- 
 der the Gracchi to the fall of the Republic, B C. 134 
 —30, or A. U. C. 620—724 
 
 Period IV. History of the Roman state as a monarchy 
 till the overthrow of the Western Empire, B. C. 30 — 
 A. C. 476 
 
 Geographical outline. View of the Roman empire and 
 provinces, and other countries connected with it by 
 war or commerce ....... 
 
 186 
 198 
 
 215 
 223 
 224 
 
 232 
 233 
 235 
 236 
 
 ib. 
 238 
 239 
 
 ib. 
 244 
 246 
 
 ib. 
 
 ib. 
 247 
 249 
 
 252 
 
 257 
 
 271 
 
 289 
 
 321 
 
 ib. 
 
XVI CONTENTS. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 1st Section. From Augustus Caesar to the death of 
 
 Commodus, B. C. 30— A. C. 193 ... 327 
 2nd Section. From the death of Commodus to Dio- 
 cletian, A. C. 193—284 349 
 
 3rd Section. From Diocletian to the overthrow of the 
 Eoman empire in the West, A. C. 284—476 . .361 
 Appendix. Chronology of Herodotus from the time of 
 
 Cyrus, according to Volney 378 
 
 Genealogical Table of the reigning houses of Macedon . 383 
 
 ^ the Seleucidce 384 
 
 . ■ the Ptolemies . 385 
 
 the Jews . 386 
 
 . the Cßesars . 387 
 
 . Constantine . 388 
 
A BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH 
 
 PROFESSOR HEEREN. 
 
 WRITTEN BY HIMSELF IN A LETTER TO A FRIEND. 
 
A BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH 
 
 PROFESSOR HEEREN, 
 
 WRITTEN BY HIM.SELF IN A LETTER TO A FRIEND. 
 
 You ask me, my clear friend, for some account of the course of my studies 
 and of my literary progress. You say that by this means you shall ob- 
 tain the best commentary upon my writings, and you are not much out in 
 thinking so ; but you wäll have only yourself to blame, if my readiness to 
 oblige you should make me somewhat of a gossip. Although the greater 
 part of my years have flowed along in a smooth and uniform course, yet 
 has my literary life been scarcely ever altogether separated from my 
 natural one ; and I could not wiUingly bring myself to recount to you the 
 former, if you would not allow me to mix up with it some portion of the 
 latter. Do not however frighten yourself with the idea that there will be 
 much of this ; it has been my fate, like that of most scholars, that as I 
 grew older my life should become more simple ; therefoi-e you must not 
 think it strange, if I have more to tell you of my youth than of my later 
 years : Is not indeed youth the period in which our characters become 
 formed ? 
 
 I am indebted to my birth for two great advantages, for which, if for 
 no other, my gratitude is due to Divine Providence ; the one is, that it 
 placed me in that easy middle class of society, which, equally distant from 
 want and superfluity, never suffered me to feel the hard pressure of po- 
 verty ; the other, that it gave me a constitution, which up to the present 
 time, and I am now sixty-one, has preserved me in excellent health, which 
 has only been interrupted by one or two slight indispositions. My 
 parents were both natives of the city of Bremen ; my father was the 
 grandson of a citizen and merchant of that place, and the son of the pas- 
 tor to the very same church to which he himself was afterwards appointed. 
 My mother, whose maiden name was Wolters, was the eldest daughter of 
 a respectable merchant, whose family is since become extinct. I was not 
 however born at Bremen, but at the neighbouring little village of Arbergen, 
 of which my father, after his return from the University, and after spend- 
 ing a few years as teacher in the cathedral school of Bremen and the 
 
 b 2 
 
ii BIOGKAPHICAL SKETCH. 
 
 AthenjBum, had settled as pastor, some two or three months hefore niy 
 birth. Here I was ushered into the world on the 25th October, 1760, iu 
 the very same house in which my celebrated friend Dr. Olbers, the dis- 
 coverer of Pallas and Vesta, had been born three years before. Thus I 
 had the good fortune to pass the days of my boyhood in the country, 
 though exempt from its loneliness, which the close vicinity of the city 
 and my family connexions therein very effectively hindered. In the 
 year 1775, however, ray father, upon being appointed pastor of the 
 cathedral church of Bremen, again took up his abode in that city, 
 where he tranquilly passed the latter half of his long Hfe, and where he 
 died in 1811, at the very advanced age of eighty-four. This venerable 
 old man, his irreproachable Ufe, and his piety, are still remembered with 
 affectionate regard by his numerous flock ; nor will he easily be forgotten, as 
 the hymns which he composed for his congregation, many of which have 
 been adopted elsewhere, although without his name, will help to preserve 
 his memory. His domestic comfort, when I was only in my tenth year, 
 was destroyed by the death of my mother ; a loss which my father never 
 attempted 'to repair by a second marriage. Of the four children which 
 she left behind I was the eldest. Of these there now only remains, besides 
 myself, a younger brother, a merchant of Hamburg, with whom I Hve 
 on the most affectionate terms. Our dear and only sister, the truest 
 friend from childhood upwards that life has afforded me, became the wife 
 of a distinguished merchant of our native city, and was torn from me by 
 death in the same year as my father. Those wlio like you have experi- 
 enced the tender solicitude of a sister's love, will pardon me these few 
 words, to the memory of one so dear to me. 
 
 The first instruction 1 received, which was in Latin and geometry, was 
 given me by my father. He was very capable of the office of teacher ; as 
 he had not confined himself to theology, but had perfected himself in 
 mathematical and classical learning at Jena and Gottingen, and was able 
 even in his seventy-eighth year, upon the jubilee of his fifty years' con- 
 tinuance in office, to hold a Latin discourse, which was printed, and of 
 which no classic need be ashamed. He soon felt, however, that he was not 
 born for teaching, and committed me to the care of domestic tutors. The 
 two first of these I shall pass by in silence, but the third, recommended to 
 my father by Dr. Miller, now professor in this University, I must not omit 
 to notice ; his name was H. Hasselmann, and with him began my educa- 
 tion as a scholar. 
 
 He was a good Latinist, and endeavoured to make me one. I trans- 
 lated Licht's Exercises in Syntax, from the beginning to the end, encou- 
 raged by the sweet expectation (do not laugh at me) that I should see my 
 work in print ! This labour, however, was of great importance to me ; 
 as it insensibly inspired me with a taste for history. With the study of 
 the ^neid, he combined readings from the earliest history of Rome in the 
 Universal History ; a method well calculated to chain the attention of a 
 boy. Cornehus Nepos I found a great plague; but Quintus Curtius 
 was my darling. In Greek I went no further than to learn the paradigms, 
 and to translate Cebes. Indeed about this time Robinson Crusoe fell 
 into my hands, and 1 had no sooner seized upon it, than almost every 
 thing else was forgotten, and would have continued so had not Zacharias' 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH. Ill 
 
 translation of Paradise Lost, the fight of the good and bad angels, and, 
 above all, the journey of Satan through infinite space, riveted my atten- 
 tion and given my fancy a Iiigher fliglit. Truth and fiction Avere to me 
 the same ; but that which did not present itself under an historical guise, 
 left no impression upon my mind. 
 
 In this country education, in the house of my father, I had a companion ; 
 one who was destined, in a different field, to ripen into celebrity and use- 
 fulness — my friend Goeschen, of Leipzig. He was at a boarding-school 
 in Arbergen, and became, though some few years older, my playmate, 
 passing Ids leisure hours at home with me. It is not long ago since we 
 renewed, at his dwelling in Grimma, this our early friendsliip. You see, 
 then, that I was not the first to make the little village of Arbergen honour- 
 able in the sight of gods and men. And yet even now it makes no figure 
 in geography ! 
 
 I have only to add, that in my education piety and virtue were strictly 
 inculcated ; and I am thankful for it. Religious instruction, both at 
 church and at home, occupied no small space of my time. I had been 
 taught that the prayers of the good remained not unanswered. An over- 
 flowing of tlie Weser threatened to break through the dykes, I fell upon 
 my knees and prayed that it might not happen ; they held out ; could I 
 doubt that my prayers were the cause ? This was harmless, for I was as 
 yet too young to be vain of my religion ; but I have learned from expe- 
 rience how careful elders and teachers ought to be in connnunicating 
 religious instruction. The words " whosoever eats and drinks unworthily," 
 etc., which I was made to read before confirmation, threw me into doubts 
 which dreadfully afflicted me. 
 
 Just as I was verging from boyhood to manhood, my father, at the 
 express request of the parishioners of the higii church, again settled in 
 Bremen. This naturally caused a great change. My domestic instruc- 
 tion was put an end to; at the beginning of 1776 I was placed in the 
 school of the high church at Brem<^i, and took my station in the first class. 
 Of my teachers there, I tiiiiik only one, II. D. Nicolai, is now living; he 
 afterwards succeeded my father in the liigh cluirch, and has now reached 
 a ripe old age. Nor of my schoolfrllows there do I know of more than 
 one now alive ; a second, who sat near me upon the same form, but of 
 whom I have never heard any thing further than that in the late wars he 
 was made a Russian general of artillery. He has, as I learn, been mostly 
 stationed on the Persian. frontiers. 
 
 In the common instruction of the school, I did not make so much pro- 
 gress as I should have done; this was partly my own fault and partly 
 not. In Latin I remained in much the same position that I was in be- 
 fore ; in Greek the only book read at first was 'Plutarch de Puerorum 
 Ediicatione,' for which I never could acquire any taste. Tlie Iliad was 
 commenced next ; and for this I was not sufiiciently prepared. In He- 
 brew I succeeded wcirst of all ; my schoolfellows were all further advanced 
 than myself; indeed I knew just nothing about it ; moreover it was taught 
 by Danz's Granunar, in whicli an account is given of every point and 
 accent. I really could acquire no clear idea of the subject, and conse- 
 quently passed for a great blockhead. 
 
 Notwithstanding this, my attendance at a public school became in other 
 
IV BIOGEAPHICAL SKETCH. 
 
 respects very useful to me. Every Saturday morning we spent two full 
 hours in Latin disputations. This was my battle field. Whether as 
 opponent or respondent, I was always ready ; and soon an-ived at that 
 pitch that but few would venture to engage with me. These exercises I 
 aftervv^ards regularly continued at the University. If I have any clear- 
 ness in my ideas, any flow of expression, I owe it more especially to them ; 
 and I look back with particular satisfaction to the hours which I have 
 devoted to this part of my education. 
 
 With the exception of my school duties, I was left almost entirely to 
 myself; the numei'ous professional avocations of my father did not allow 
 him to pay much attention to me, even if he had been ever so well dis- 
 posed. I had been introduced, however, to two rich families, who, living 
 retired from business, sought their recreation in science and literature. 
 Having no children of their own, they conceived a great and kind regard 
 for me ; and I was not only constantly invited to their parties in town, 
 but frequently went with them to their country seats. This gratified my 
 ambition, and raised in me a sentiment of honour that kept me from baser 
 pleasures, which otherwise I might easily have fallen into. 
 
 It was naturally to be expected that my thus passing my life in a free 
 trading city, at this time in a very flourishing state, would influence my 
 taste and whole cast of thought. The American war had not long broken 
 out, during which the trade of Bremen, hitherto somewhat cuniliicd, began 
 to push itself in every part of the world. All tliis I had an opportunity 
 of seeing, not at a distance, but closely ; within the circle of my nearest 
 connexions and relations, many were taking a part in it. Ventures to 
 America, to the West Indies, and soon even to the East, were subjects of 
 daily conversation. W^ithout the faintest idea that I should ever write 
 upon it, I had already formed a very high notion of trade, and gained 
 considerable insight into its principles and details. To tliis became added 
 the civil relations of the burghers of Bremen. If they had not yet learned 
 to declaim about libei'ty and equality, they possessed those advantages in 
 as great a degree as could be Avished. It is almost impossible to ibrm a 
 practical idea of a free community without having lived in one ; and 
 these young impressions could scarcely become obliterated — the pictures I 
 had seen Avere too vivid to pass away. Need I say to you how inestimable 
 all this has been to me in my later historical studies ? If I have been 
 someAvhat successful in my representations of the spirit of different go- 
 vernments, it is because my pictures have been drawn not merely from 
 books, but from life. Neither was science or literature neglected My 
 father, with some other friends of learning, laid the foundation of the 
 Museum, which is now become a rich and flourishing institution. A lit- 
 tle circle of cultivated minds were united by a common desire to lay the 
 foundation of a society in which mutual instruction might be carried on 
 by lectures. My father took me with him to their first meetings, which 
 could hardly fail to be profitable to the inquiring spirit of youth. 
 
 Such were the people and associations under which I grew up, until 
 the period arrived for my going to the UniA'ersity. My father had des- 
 tined me for the church ; and for that purpose, I being quite willing, I 
 proceeded to Gottingcn at Michaelmas, 1779. How limited my attainments, 
 the Latin language excepted, you may gather from what I have already 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH. V 
 
 placed before you. In Greek I did not go beyond the New Testament ; 
 in Hebrew I now endeavoured to make myself" acquainted with the fun- 
 damentals of the language, but with little success. Logic I was taught 
 by the venerable Fedei', to whom I am indebted for so much besides, and 
 made as little progress as might be expected from a youth who had no 
 turn for philosophical speculation : the lectures on Church history by the 
 elder Walch were completely thrown away upon me. Thus my first half 
 year at the University was in danger of being as good as lost, if chance 
 had not unexpectedly helped me. I was one day idly strolling along the 
 streets, a few weeks after college lectures had begun, when I was accosted 
 by some acquaintance, who were going to Heyne's lectures on Greek an- 
 tiquities, and asked me to attend one as a visitor ; and then recommended 
 me — as an industrious student could not attend less than five courses — to 
 frequent them regularly. Thus I was brought into contact, though not 
 yet as an acquaintance, with a man, who, above all others, had, in every 
 respect, the greatest influence upon my future life. In his lectures, for 
 the first time, a new world was opened to me, for I saw at once that he 
 had a new world to display : many things which he spoke of, I confess, I 
 could scarcely apprehend, but those which I did understand were suf- 
 ficient to rivet my attention. 
 
 These lectures began immediately to give a new direction to my thoughts. 
 I now saw enough to convince me that theology alone, though for about 
 a year longer I remained faithful to its study, would not satisfy me. I 
 heard lectures on dogmatism and the history of theological literature by 
 Miller, witli wliom, at the request of my fatlier, I took up my abode ; on 
 the history of dogmas by Spittler, which, for want of a sufficient stock of 
 preparatory infoimation, 1 could not follow ; and on the Explanation of 
 tlie Gospels by Koppe. But in none of these did I find myself at home ; 
 indeed how could 1 with my limited knowledge of languages ? The long 
 wit and long-winded discussions of Michaelis completely disgusted me 
 with exegetical learning ; besides which little could be learned from him 
 in the Old Testament witliout some acquaintance with Arabic. Thus 
 my two first years at the University were almost entii'ely lost. I now at 
 last perceived that without a solid and systematic study of the Greek 
 language and literature no progress could be made ; and the probable 
 expectation wliich became opened to me by a journey home about Michael- 
 mas, 1781, of my some day getting a place in the Gymnasium at Bremen, 
 completely determined me to set about it. At tliis period properly began 
 my regular study upon a fixed plan. During this winter I laid every thing 
 else aside, and confined myself solely to Greek. The lectures which I 
 made my chief study Avere Heyne's on the Odyssey ; to him I had de- 
 voted myself, and he became my guide and counsellor. Even at the end 
 of the first week I felt that I had made an advance. The first book he 
 explained strictly grammatically, wliich was exactly the thing that I 
 needed. I prepared myself in the most careful manner for every hour ; 
 and soon had made sufficient progress to be able to help myself. Upon 
 this I connected with my other I'eading some little pieces of Plato and 
 Plutarch. With my lexicon on one side and my grammar on the other, 
 I proceeded step by step, and never rested till I could give a good account 
 to myself of all the difficulties of the language which I met with. For 
 
VI BIOGllArHICAL SKETCH. 
 
 the first two or three months this was a painful task, but I soon felt re- 
 warded by a sense of my progress. Besides tliis I took part, though only 
 as a visitor, in the exercises at Heyne's seminary, and obtained soon after 
 Easter his permission to interpret. The passage chosen was from a chorus 
 in one of Seneca's tragedies ; I had, as you may well suppose, prepared 
 myself beforehand. Heyne suffered me to proceed, only once interfering 
 during the whole lecture ; but after it was over he cahed me up to him, 
 and then made that encouraging exclamation which perhaps you may 
 remember to have seen in his Biography : "Now you may become a scholar 
 if you please." 
 
 From this time forward I Hved in the territory of classical literature, 
 and should willingly have lived there altogether, had not my acquaintance 
 with Spittler just at this time become more intimate. Next to Heyne he 
 is the person to whom I am most indebted for directions in my studies. 
 His conversation and his lectures on political history (of wliich I have 
 two, one on the history of treaties of peace, the other on the history of the 
 German states) were to me alike instructive. It was not, however, his- 
 tory itself tiiat I learned of him ; but the method and handling of history ! 
 I required a model ; not in order that I should follow it, which in so many 
 respects was quite beside the mark, even if I had wished it ; but in order 
 to give me clearer notions respecting the general views of liistory at large, 
 respecting liistorical reasoning, and historical composition. For this I 
 am indebted to Spittler, besides whom I never had any other teacher in 
 history, and far distant from me be the paltry vanity of thinking I found 
 all in myself alone. Of Spittler himself I shall say nothing further, as I 
 have already spoken of liim in another place. ■ 
 
 Next to Spittler, I must mention the very worthy professor Feder, 
 whose lectures I repeatedly attended. No philosopher in the world could 
 ever have made a pliilosopher of me, for I had not the least disposition that 
 way; but his conversation, a conversation full of practical examples of 
 wisdom, was of much more use to me than his lectures ; besides which, I had 
 the benefit of his Latin disputations, Avhich were held every half year. 
 These were not all the exercises that I took in this way. They were doubled 
 at Heyne's seminary ; and in one half year in which I attended a course 
 of Meiner's, they were trebled. Many persons may tlunk this branch of 
 my education was overdone ; but can we pay too much attention to the 
 development and graceful delivery of our thoughts? The almost total 
 discontinuance of these exercises cannot be too much regretted. 
 
 From this time my classical studies took an liistorical turn. Language 
 had always less attraction for me than facts, and I was now prepared to 
 study ancient liistory at its sources. For each period I took the principal 
 historian as my groundwork, making chronological extracts from it as I 
 went on. I then read the contemporary historians, marking those points 
 wherein they differed in the margin, I still believe this the best method 
 for beginners. 
 
 The lectures and exercises of Heyne still, however, enchained me to the 
 world of imagination in wliich he himself almost entirely lived. In the 
 winter, 1782, I attended his course upon Pindar, his darling poet. What 
 a power and copiousness of remark upon words and things, upon lyric 
 poetry and Greek antiquity ! The exercises in his seminary in which I 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH. Vll 
 
 took part, were mostly confined to the tragedians, so that I was at no loss 
 for opportunities of becoming closely intimate with the language of the 
 Greek poets, Heyne, however, giving me credit for greater abilities than 
 I possessed, believed me the proper person to execute a project, which he 
 had long nourished, of collecting and editing the fragments of the Greek 
 lyric poets. The first part of my task was to make the collection ; and 
 tliis led me into the obscure and out-of-the-way regions of Greek literature. 
 These fragments, as you know, lie scattered in the woi-ks of the gram- 
 marians, scholiasts, and rhetors. And all these, Eustathius included, I had 
 to read through ; a labour which kept me employed for about a year. 
 Thus was formed a collection, probably tolerably complete. Beyond this 
 I did not go ; my good fortune kept me from an undertaking for which 
 neither my acquirements nor my taste fitted me — the metre alone would 
 have brought me to the grave ! 
 
 Meanwldle the end of ray academic years began to draw nigh, and with 
 it the necessity of my fixing on some plan for my future life. Feder, 
 my well-wisher, instructor, and friend, oftered me a situation as tutor in 
 a family of rank in Switzerland, with a good salary, the expenses of my 
 journey, and a future pension. I had determined upon accepting this offer, 
 and had as good as given my word to do so ; but fote wihed it otherwise. 
 A letter from my sister caused me to hesitate. " What will you do," said 
 she, " at the end of your tutorsliip ? How will you be able to settle down 
 again to our simple mode of life, after having spent years in some proud 
 and lordly mansion?" Heyne, who had a prejudice against this sort of 
 life, gave the finisliing stroke to the business. " If you take this situation," 
 said he, " it leads in the end to nothing. Look a little about, and you 
 cannot fail to get on here." My good genius thus half decided for me 
 upon this occasion, as it has often done upon others. I believe even still 
 in its tokens, at critical moments of life ; but it is of great consequence 
 not to mistake them. 
 
 It was thus, at all events, settled that I should devote myself to an 
 academic course of life. I was well aware how much I still had to learn, 
 and doubled my industry. In order to get on as a tutor, it was necessary 
 that I should take a doctor's degree, which I did on the 29tli of May, 1784. 
 The subject of my exercise for it was : de Cliori Grtecoriim Tragici na- 
 tura et indole, ratione argumenti hahita. Heyne put this subject into my 
 head ; ancient literature would have sustained no great loss if it had re- 
 mained there, and had never been printed. My opponents, who still 
 survive, were the Russian collegial-counsellor, Buhle, now professor at 
 Brunswick ; and Professor Groddek, of Wilna. Heyne himself also had 
 tlie kindness to become an opponent. The ordinance for my creation was 
 obtained from the dean by my friend and countryman. Professor Doctor 
 Kulenkamp, of whom I shall shortly have occasion to speak again. 
 
 I was now, then, doctor, master of philosophy and the libei-al arts, and 
 private tutor. My classical studies had extended over a rather wide field ; 
 still the feeling that I could not, without some degree of disgust, devote 
 my life to the mere study of language, now became very strong ; the truth 
 had Ibrced itself upon my mind wliile collecting the lyric fragments, 
 Avhich from this cause I had left unfinished. Yet, in spite of this, it 
 seemed necessary, in my present position, that I should do something in 
 
VIU BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH. 
 
 tliis way to attract the attention of the public ; the editing of some ancient 
 author was perhaps the best plan. But to edit an author Avhose works 
 had already been edited by great masters, I could not for a moment think 
 of; I partly doubted my own abilities for the task, and I saw but little 
 honour to be gained by it. In reading through the Rhetors of Aldus, 
 however, for my collection of fragments, I had stumbled upon a dissert- 
 ation de Encomiis by Menander, a Greek rhetor, which as yet the hand 
 of no critic had disturbed ; indeed the work itself had been improperly 
 confounded with that of another rhetor, named Alexander. Some happy 
 corrections of the very corrupted text led me to entertain the notion of 
 giving an edition of this work. I bent myself therefore to the task ; every 
 new emendation spurred me onwards, and thus was consumed nearly the 
 whole of the year 1784. The next question was, Avhere I should find a 
 publisher ? I went with my manuscript to the since deceased Dieterich, 
 who now, for the first time in his life, heard the name of Menander the 
 rhetor. " Young man," said he, when I had explained to him the object 
 of my visit, " no one will ever read this." As, however, I asked for no 
 pay, and as we were ah-eady on friendly terms, he undertook my work, and 
 "Menander Rhetor de Encomiis, ex recensione," etc., 1785, was placed 
 before the public. It was the first critical labour of a young classic, done 
 without any help from manuscrij)ts, consequently very incomplete. Never- 
 theless it was sometMng ; and the good Menander might bless his kind 
 foi'tune that had sent him such a sospitator, seeing that his pretensions 
 to one were but very small. 
 
 About this time my health began to decline ; though, as was very na- 
 tural from the kind of life I was leading, it was my mind rather than my 
 body that was aflected. My first academic year I had passed in a very 
 cheerful manner. My acquaintance had been limited to the circle of my 
 countrymen and friends, mostly of good family, and well brouglit up ; to 
 these I had added a few natives of Hamburg and some pupils of the 
 Seminary. Our meetings took place at stated intervals, at a public inn ; 
 for notliing was then known of the secret political associations which have 
 been since held at these places, and we frequently invited some of our 
 teachers to join us. Doctor Kulenkamp, a preacher of the reformed church, 
 a man of frank and jovial manners, though he never forgot his profession 
 and dignity, as a native of Bremen, was a regular attendant at our meet- 
 ings. He was a philologist of the Dutch school, and deserves more par- 
 ticular mention on account of his excellent classical libraiy, of wldch he was 
 so good as to permit me the use. One after another, however, my friends 
 left the University ; new acquaintance with younger men I could liardly 
 form ; my way of life grew more lonely from day to day, and at length 
 became wholly solitary, while my out-of-the-way dwelling, which had some 
 years before been inhabited by Johannes Müller, and afterwards by the 
 nephew of the owner of the house. Dr. Miller, the author of Siegwart, and 
 the celebrated historian of Switzerland, at the end of the upper Mash, ren- 
 dered this loneliness still more lonely. It is by no means uncommon to 
 see great activity of mind, even where it is not overstrained, accompanied 
 by a propensity to lowness of spirits and melancholy ; and a situation 
 could scarcely be found more calculated to nourish such a feeling than 
 mine at this period. Indeed it increased to such a pitch that it became 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH. IX 
 
 necessary I should have that recreation and change which nothing but a 
 good long journey could i;ive. I could scarcely, however, ask my lather, 
 willing a^ I am sure he would have been to assist me, for the requisite 
 means ; my kind stars, however, here again were favourable. A grand 
 uncle, who had been domestic physician to the last king of Poland, died 
 about this time at Warsaw, leaving me a small legacy, to which my father 
 added sufficient to enable me to accomphsh my purpose. My desire was, 
 above all, to see Italy and Rome, a tour which but few German travellers 
 in those days undertook. I had, however, as yet no fixed plan, when a 
 second circumstance happened which put all in good train. About this 
 time, Tychsen, my old friend and colleague, returned from Spain, bringing 
 with him from the Escurial, the collation of a manuscript of the Eclogues 
 of John Stobajus, which he was so kind as to offer me. Tliis to me was 
 an important and valuable present. Of the works of John Stobaeus the 
 ' Florilegium ' has been several times published, and is pretty geueraUy 
 known; while of his Eclogues there are only two editions, that of 1575, 
 printed from a very corrupt and defective manuscript, and that of 1609, 
 Avhich is a mere reprint of it ; both impressions, however, are of great 
 rarity, and only to be found in a few public libraries. My collation af- 
 forded me at once a rich harvest of additions and improved readings; and 
 if you remember what I said above of my edition of Menander, you Avill 
 easily believe that this labour was just to my ta^e. In this case I had 
 what was of the greatest advantage to me, a settled object for my journey, 
 viz. to collate manuscripts preparatory to the publication of the Eclogues 
 of John Stobajus ; a work which I hoped would be of great advantage to 
 my future prospects, as it would give me a claim of whicli I had felt I 
 wanted, to the office of public teacher. Only six or seven manuscripts of 
 the work Avere known to exist, and these, besides the one in Spain, the 
 collation of which I possessed, were scattered over Germany, Italy, France, 
 and, as I then believed, Holland. A visit, consequently, to all these coun- 
 tries formed a part of my plan. 
 
 On the 17tli of July, 1785, I set out on my grand tour. Augsburg 
 was the first place I intended to visit, as I knew its public library con- 
 tained a manuscript of the Eclogues. 1 took Erlangen in my way, and 
 staid there a few days, during Avhich I had the pleasure of making the 
 acquaintance of Meusel, Ilarles, Hufnagel, and some other learned men. 
 A very few weeks taught me the beneficial effect which travelling had 
 ui)on my health. My lowncss of spirits vanished, and I was again blessed 
 with the clieerful serenity of youth. I began now, as I saw more of the 
 world, to look upon it with very different eyes from what I had while 
 immured in my cliamber at Gottingen. At Augsburg I induced Mr. 
 Mertens, tlie librarian, to place sufficient confidence in me to let me have 
 the manuscrii)t home with me to my hotel, so tliat I was able to work from 
 morning till night, and in a few weeks to finish my collation, which fully 
 equalled my expectations. Satisfied of the benefit I derived from travel- 
 ling, I proceeded to Munich. Ah Munich, how different were you then 
 to what you were six years ago, when I again visited you ! At that time 
 you were full of the disputes and violence of the illuminati, which have 
 scarcely yet ceased ; then they formed the subject of almost every tavern 
 conversation. At the library here I met with the kindest treatment. 
 
X BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH. 
 
 The curator of the manuscripts, a dignitarj of the church, whose name I 
 have forgotten, left me entirely to myself. I was allowed to examine and 
 copy whatever I chose ; but though I found much that was highly inter- 
 esting, I met with nothing that could be useful in my great undertaking. 
 From Munich I proceeded do'\\Ti the Danube to Vienna, where a residence 
 of six wrecks made me tolerably intimate with the city and its treasures of 
 art, as well as with the beautiful country surrounding it. At the library 
 I soon became intimate with the chief librarian, Denis, the well-known 
 abbot and ex-Jesuit, as I did also ^vith Alxinger, Fock, von Born, and 
 several other distinguished men. But here again I found no manuscripts 
 of the Eclogues, though I met with one of the ' Florilegium,' Avhich I par- 
 tially collated. 
 
 Thus far I had travelled alone. At Vienna I had the good luck to 
 meet with a companion. I was one evening at the theatre, and there, 
 close beliind me, I found my old college friend Bartels, of Hamburg, who 
 has since become a burgomaster of that city. He, like me, was bound for 
 Italy, and we soon agreed upon meeting again at Trieste, in order after- 
 wards to travel together. AYe did so. Our friendship became more closely 
 knit, and the pleasures of our journey were doubled. 
 
 My abode in Trieste was very agreeable ; 1 lodged at the same hotel 
 in which Winkelmann had been murdered ; and though not very advan- 
 tageous in a hterary point of view, it afforded me in other respects much 
 dehght and instruction. The appearance of the city itself, which is rather 
 Italian than German — the view of the Adriatic Sea with its numerous 
 creeks and its shores, of its harbour full of vessels mostly from the Levant, 
 the proximity of Greece, which so many objects announced, as well as 
 that of the southern countries in general, have a magic charm for the be- 
 holder Avho looks at them for the first time ! Nor was I here at a loss for 
 interesting acquaintance, among whom I may rank a brother of the cele- 
 brated Klopstock. Our intention of going to Venice by sea was frustrated 
 by contrary winds ; and Ave were compelled to proceed by land, through 
 Sacile and Conegliano : the remains of the ancient Aquileia being the most 
 remarkable thing in our journey. From Mestre we went to Venice by 
 water, Avhere we did not arrive till late in the evening, so that our view of 
 this city of wonders was delayed to the following morning. It cei-tainly 
 at first calls up a feeling of astonishment in the beholder, but it soon grows 
 tiresome. So I was in time to see the old repubUc before it» extinction ; 
 for age displayed itself in every thing, which was the more striking from 
 the contrast it presented to us, who naturally contrasted it with the young 
 and flourishing Trieste. The obliging attentions of a learned young Ger- 
 man, Siebenkees, whom death unfortunately snatched away at a too early 
 a""e, greatly assisted us in lionizing tlie curiosities of Venice. Among 
 the learned Italians we met with here, was the celebrated Morelle ; he 
 showed me many civilities, but could give me no help in the great object 
 of my research. 
 
 Winter had already set in before we continued our journey to Padua, 
 Verona, and ölantua. Here I fell ill, and dreaded the fever so fatal to 
 inhabitants of the north. But my good constitution triumphed ; and I was 
 sufficiently recovered before the end of the year to be able to reach Florence. 
 Here the galleiy and library of the Medici particularly engaged my attention, 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH. XI 
 
 but my weakness continuing, and a hard frost setting in, for which Italy 
 is so ill provided, prevented me from enjoying Florence so much as I might 
 otherwise have done. Among the learned of this place, I found scarcely 
 any worthy of notice ; Bandini and Brachi most deserve mention. My 
 longing eyes, however, were bent upon Rome ! I reached this ancient 
 capital of the world February 10, 1786. I neither am nor ever have been 
 in the habit of screwing up my feelings to the sentimental pitch, and be- 
 sides, high-raised expectation lessens the effect of reality ; I therefore am 
 free to confess that my first entrance into Rome gave me a feeling of dis- 
 appointment rather than of enthusiasm. The Piazza del Popolo, leavin"- 
 out the obelisk, was not much fitted to kindle enthusiasm ; but Rome has 
 a charm peculiarly its own. The endless and varied succession of gran- 
 deur and beauty which it contains, gradually unfolds itself to the specta- 
 tor. He becomes every day more and more enchanted ; besides which, a 
 stranger is scarcely any Avhere so much esteemed as at Rome ; he soon 
 finds himself at home, or at least fancies himself so ; and though many 
 may arrive at this capital with indifference, but few can leave it without 
 regret. 
 
 Rome was in every respect the principal object of my journey. The 
 Vatican was to furnish me with the most important manuscript of Stoboeus ; 
 and a lengthened residence to bring me acquainted with the works of ancient 
 art. Such were my views. I shall not attempt a description of what 
 has been so often described, but shall confine myself entirely to a personal 
 narrative. My first acquaintance Avas Zoega, a man well known by his 
 letters, and his Life by Welker. He soon became my friend, my guide in 
 my antiquarian rambles, and my almost daily companion. In all this he 
 could have no motive but a sense of kindness towards me. I owe him 
 many obligations for liis attentions ; and to him I was indebted for an in- 
 troduction to Cardinal Borgia who Avas then only Monsignore. 
 
 But fcAV individuals have hud any great influence upon my literary 
 career, and of these Cardinal Borgia was one. I never met with any but 
 him who to such mildness of disposition united such an easy, satirical hu- 
 mour, such a tender susceptibility of friendship, and, when once awakened, 
 such strength of attachment. I came to him without recommendation ; he 
 gradually found i)leasure in the society of the young stranger, and became 
 not only my Avell-Avisher, but almost a second father. It was neither by 
 his learning nor his museum that he wrought upon me, but by his kindl}»^ 
 disposition ; he appeared to me to realize all that 1 had ever imagined of 
 the perfection of the hunian character, an opinion which received ample 
 confirmation in the exalted spectacle he afterwards presented, when strip- 
 ped of his property and driven from his country, he sought and found 
 consolation in science and religion. It can scarcely be supposed that I 
 regarded his kindness Avith indifference ; and, as I had constant access to 
 him, I frequently passed hours together Avith him at his apartments in tiie 
 Propaganda, of which he Avas secretary. His hobby (if 1 may so express 
 myself) Avas his museum of antiquities ; and this, as it belonged to the 
 family, Avas for the most part at the family seat at Velletri, Avhere his 
 brother, the Cavaliere, resided. To this place I frequently accompanied 
 him, and there, with Zoega and other friends, on classic ground, and in a 
 noble family circle, I spent many of my happiest days. 
 
Xll BIOGRAPHICAL SKKTCH. 
 
 As the season of the carnival obliged nie to defer my labours at the 
 Vatican, as all libraries during that time are closed, I visited more fre- 
 quently the museum of that establishment, mostly in company with Zoega. 
 Besides the statues, the magnificent sarcophagi with their reliefs attracted 
 much of my attention ; and among them, one in particular, which I soon 
 felt convinced had been incorrectly described by Winkleman, in his Monu- 
 menti, as the murder of Agamemnon, instead of that of vEgistheus and 
 Clytemnestra, by Orestes and Pylades. As I had so recently left Gottin- 
 gen, where I had been deeply engaged in the study of the tragedians, I 
 soon observed this ; and upon a reference to ^schylus, I found that the 
 artist had almost copied him. I therefore came to the resolution of pub- 
 lishing in Rome a pamphlet upon this work of art, (Commentatio in Opus 
 cfelatum Muscei Pio Clementini, RomcE, 1776,) and which I have since 
 translated anti published in German, in the Bibliothek der alten Literatur 
 und Kunst. My work was favourably received, and paved the way to 
 many useful and honourable acquaintance : by Borgia's management I ob- 
 tained an opportunity of presenting it to Pope Pius VI. The correctness 
 of my interpretation was afterwards acknowledged by Visconti in the 
 Museo Pio-Clementine. Soon after this I published a second dissertation 
 on a fragment of marble covered with bas-reliefs and inscriptions in the 
 manner of the Tabula Iliaca ; this was likewise in Latin, but afterwards 
 published in German in the work above mentioned. It was a great plea- 
 sure to Borgia to see critical dissertations published upon specimens in his 
 museum, whence have sprung not only learned treatises, but classical works, 
 like those of Zoega and Adler. His enemies have attributed this to 
 vanity : I only wish that the generality of men possessed such vanity ! 
 
 Meanwhile the time was drawing on at which I might commence my 
 labours at the Vatican. Here I knew was the most important manuscript 
 of the Eclogfe of Stobaeus. From what I had heard I did not expect that 
 Monsignore Reggio, the librarian, would receive me in the most civil man- 
 ner. But I feared more than tliis, the difficulty of discovering the manu- 
 script, the Vatican having no general catalogue, but only particular ones 
 of the different collections from which it has arisen. I had no lack of 
 good recommendations for permission to open the presses of the library ; 
 among which that of Cardinal Garampi was of great service. To this 
 man of refined taste, so much occupied in diplomatic affairs, I had been 
 well recommended ; he had received me politely and I had dedicated to him 
 my first treatise. The morning of the fifth of April I went, provided with 
 his' recommendation, to the Vatican, to try my fortune with Monsignore 
 Reggio. His cold but polite answer was : Sara servita ; Signore Abbate 
 dategli il codice! More I did not want; the only question now was 
 where the codex was to be found. One of the catalogues was given to 
 me to look through, and — fancy my joy ! — in less than ten minutes I found 
 my manuscript ! A place in the working room Avas next assigned me ; 
 every day, with the exception of the numerous holy-days, I was allowed 
 to work from about nine tiU one o'clock. I began the very next day, the 
 sixth of April ; and finished my collation (consisting of forty-three sheets) 
 on the thirteenth of June, very shortly after which the long vacation be- 
 gan, when the library was closed. My trouble was richly rewarded, I had 
 a treasure of additions and improved readings to carry away with me, as 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH. XÜI 
 
 my edition when published fully proved. The conviction, daily growing 
 stronger, that I was not travelling in vain, and that the purpose of my 
 journey was accomplished, roused my activity whenever it began to flaw. 
 
 These learned labours, however, did not prevent me freely from enjoy- 
 ing the society of my friends and connexions. I spent my time partly 
 amidst a gay circle of German acquaintance, among whom, besides my 
 fellow-traveller, were Munter, now bishop of Zealand, Hii-t, now counsel- 
 lor at Berhn, and Wilhelm Tischbein. In addition to this I had obtained 
 the favour of Counsellor Reiffenstein, who, by receiving pensions from the 
 Prussian and other courts for executing their commissions in the fine arts, 
 lived in good style at Rome. I had earned his good will by my first 
 treatise, in which I had mentioned in an honourable manner the monument 
 he had ordered to be erected in the Pantheon. He tried to persuade me 
 to settle in Rome, and said he was sure my success would be equal to his 
 own. My evenings were generally spent with Italian families, in which 
 I occasionally heard the most exquisite music, the greatest delight I could 
 have. Imagine, then, how happy I must have been at Rome, enjoying, as 
 I did, in addition to all this, the blessing of health and freedom from care. 
 Having but little knowledge of pictures, my studies in the fine arts were 
 almost exclusively directed to antiquities, particularly to reliefs. Still ar- 
 chitecture on a grand scale, and where can this be seen in such perfection 
 as in Rome, always made a deep impression upon me. The Colosseum, 
 with its gigantic shadows by moonhght ; the interior of the Pantlieon, with 
 a fleeting cloud perhaps passing over its cupola, are sights which can never 
 be forgotten, and which even the magic illumination of St. Peter's with 
 the waving cross on the holy eve of our great Christian festival, is not 
 able to obliterate. Not a day did I allow to pass unimproved so long as 
 art and nature oifered new beauties to my view ; and it may be easily sup- 
 posed that the environs of Tivoli, Frascati, and even the remote Terni, 
 with its waterfall, were not left unvisited. 
 
 The seven months of my stay at Rome passed away like so many weeks. 
 I left it on the 16th of September to spend a short time at Naples. My 
 fellow-traveller, whom I expected to meet there, was gone on before to 
 visit Calabria and Sicily. My literary labours at Rome compelled me to 
 give up my desire of accompanying him ; a great sacrifice, but one which 
 my great object required. I arrived at Naples just in the season when 
 that land of wonders exhibits itself in its highest beauty and luxury. 
 The vines could scarcely bear the weight of their fruit, whilst above them 
 Mount Vesuvius repeatedly threw out its columns of fire and streams of 
 lava. It is here alone that earth puts on all her magnificence ; all other 
 scenes sink to nothing in comparison. I came here to enjoy nature, and 
 I did enjoy it ; but even in literary and social matters, my expectations 
 were greatly surpassed. At the library al capo di Monte, I found two 
 manuscripts of the Eclogse, one of them is the oldest extant. In conse- 
 quence of the great distance it was not possible, nor was it necessary, to 
 compare it entirely, as I soon discovered that it belonged to the very same 
 recension as that of the Vatican ; I therefore contented myself with a col- 
 lation of the more corrupt passages. Favourable circumstances and con- 
 nexions brought me into acquaintance with the celebrated Filangieri and 
 his friends. Though not thirty years of age, he had already composed 
 l.is great work on legislation. He lived away from the court, at his 
 
XIV BIOGRAPHICAL SKKTCH. 
 
 charming villa la Cava, vv^liere my friend MiJnter and T, on our juurney 
 to Pitstum, spent n few happy days with him in the busum of his family. 
 Two years afterwards deatli made tliis fine healthy man his victim, in the 
 prime of life, no doubt at the right time ; for most of his friends, of whom 
 several were also mine, perished soon after in the dreadfid revolutions 
 which took place ; and it is a question if he Avould have met with a bet- 
 ter lot. 
 
 My friend soon after returned from Sicily, and we left Naples together 
 on tlie 1st of November, and returned to Rome in order to prepare for our 
 final departure from Italy. Duiing the fortnight I stayed at Rome, I 
 was so happy as to make the acquaintance of Goethe and Moritz ; I met 
 them at the house of Reiffenstein, and formed one of the party to Frascati, 
 which Goetiie has mentioned in his life. On the 19th of November we 
 left Rome, witli what feelings ! Late in the evening Borgia came to take 
 leave; a mingled feeling of gratitude for his past kindness, joined to the 
 certainty that I sliould see him no more, became too powerful for me — 
 I burst into tears ; he clasped me in his arms, and exclaiming, Heeren, mio 
 che fail turned away and left me. Absence did not diminish our friend- 
 ship. The very day of his departure for Paris in 1804, for which place 
 he set out with Pius VII., to attend the coronation of the emperor, I re- 
 ceived his last letter. He died on this journey at Lyons, but even after 
 his death, I received from him a parcel of prints and manuscripts, which 
 he had previously despatched. Ave sancta animal 
 
 We returned by way of Perugia, Florence, and Leghorn, through Lom- 
 bardy to Milan, where I found in the Ambrosian libraiy some fragments 
 of Stobajus. From this place Ave continued our route through Genoa and 
 Turin, and across Mount Cenis to Geneva, and from thence by Lyons to 
 Paris. As we made this journey in the depth of winter, we saw but little 
 of the wonders of nature beyond the sublime spectacle of the Alps covered 
 with snoAV : for literary research there was no time. We arrived at Paris 
 on the eighteenth of February, 1787. I stayed two months in this city ; 
 amply sufficient to see all its beauty and magnificence ; but a much longer 
 time is required to bring a stranger acquainted with the social and domestic 
 life of the Parisians, there is no cause therefore to wonder that I was not 
 so much at home here as at Rome. Villoison and Belin de Ballu, the 
 only learned Frenchmen to whom I had letters, were absent ; but Barthe- 
 lemy, Larcher, Anquetil Duperron, Vauvilliers, etc., received me with- 
 out introduction with as much civility as a stranger could expect. At the 
 royal library, where I inquired for manuscripts of Stoba3us and of some 
 grammarians, I was treated in the most obliging manner by the Abbe Bejot, 
 who had the care of the manuscripts at that establishment. All tliose 
 men have passed away, and their places are now filled by others equally 
 distinguished, and with whom I have the honour of being intimately ac- 
 quainted, but who were then unknown. This must excuse my short 
 notice of Pai'is. I have only to add, that I left it in April for Holland, 
 in which country, and particularly in Leyden, (though I found no manu- 
 script of the Ecloga\) I passed my time most agreeably, thanks to the 
 friendship of the celebrated Ruhnkenius and the intellectual Luzac. How 
 little did I then imagine, that nearly thirty years later I should be invited 
 to fill the chair left vacant by the death of the latter ! 
 
 Thus after an absence of nearly two years I returned to Göttingen, 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH. XV 
 
 where I intended to settle ; and where I liopcd soon to get some appoint- 
 ment. Having taken leave of my fellow-traveller, I set out for Bremen, 
 in order to spend a short time with my father and friends, who were very 
 desirous of seeing me. ]icsides, I re([uircd rest, both for mind and body, 
 and where (;ould I expect to lind it better than under my parental roof? 
 After re(^ruiting my spirits here for a few weeks, I returned to Gottingen 
 in August, and on the 27th of that month I obtained from Hanover my 
 appointment to the chair of ))rofessor extraordinary of philosophy, just 
 three weeks before the I 'niversity jubilee in connnemoration of its found- 
 ation. On October 2()tli, I read my inaugural lecture, taking for my 
 subject. De Codicibus manuscriptis Eclogarum Joannis Siobcei; which is 
 found at the beginning of my edition. 
 
 At this epoch opens the second period of my life ; I was now about to 
 engage as a public teacher. As yet, however, I only stood at the starting- 
 point of a career, the great difliculties of which I could not disguise from 
 myself. It is true, that I returned from my travels with a mind enlarged, 
 better cultivated, and enriclied by many new ac(piirements. But my know- 
 ledge was crude and ill-digested. It wanted connexion ; it was defective 
 in every i)art ; yet, notwithstanding, I had to mount the chair as a public 
 teacher. Besides these disadvantages, there were otiiers not dependent 
 on myself. Those departments. In which I could have shone to the great- 
 est advantage;, that is to say, the classical and historical, were ah'eady 
 fille«l, and filled in such a way as they have seldom been in any other 
 academy. Heyne filled the classical chair, with whom I had neither 
 abilities nor inclination to contend ; the historical classes were superin- 
 tended by men of erpuU celel)rity in their way, Gatterer, Schlözer, Spittler, 
 all in the prime of their glory, and to whom (irelhnan had been joined 
 just before my appointment. What chance was there here for a young and 
 imknown scholar to distinguish himself by the side of such rivals, more 
 especially at an academy where there is no inclination to run after novelty, 
 but where a new teacher must enlarge his circle by degrees ? Still I was 
 obliged to make an attempt. Lectures on the history of the liberal sciences 
 (which became very useful to myself, as they procured me a clear historical 
 insight into this branch of learning); on Hoinan anticpiities ; then on 
 Tacitus and Sallust, filled up tiie first two years of my academical life, 
 although delivered to a very scanty circle of auditors. 1 could never avoid 
 giving my lectures a historical direction ; and however imfavourable tiic 
 j)rospects of tlie period, I felt more and more attracted by political history. 
 In the autumn of the year 1790, I first began my lectures on ancient his- 
 tory, which I liavc uninterruptedly continued every half year from that 
 time to tiie present. In these I have connected ancient geography with 
 ancient history, illustrating it by maps. The want of this had been much 
 felt; and though my class continued small, it was attended by a few men 
 of the best capacities and highest talents. I engaged also in several 
 literary imdertakings. Soon after my installation, I became joint-editor 
 with my friend Tychsen of tlu^ "Library of Ancient Literature and Art" 
 ( I'.ildiotiiek der alt(Mi Litteratur un<l Kimst); which was contiiuied to the 
 tenth number, when the unpublished j)ieces I had collected on my travels 
 were, exhausted. As soon, however, as time permitted, I gave my atten- 
 licm to n)y miiynum opus, tiie preparation of tlie Eclogae of Stobaeus, for 
 
Xvi BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH. 
 
 which I had ab-eacly obtained a rich collection of materials. It was, how- 
 ever, no easy task ! Imagine a work, corrupt in every page, nay, ahnost 
 in every hne ; consisting mainly of fragments from uncertain poets and 
 authors, without any regular connexion. My first business was to go 
 over it carefully, continually referring to my manuscripts, and correcting 
 it by them. Many points, however, stiU remained uncertain, and could only 
 be settled by conjecture. At the same time an account Avas to be given of all 
 these matters in the notes and observations. I next wrote out a fair copy 
 of my text ; for it was only by doing tliis that a critic C(^uld see clearly its 
 faults and gaps. The certainty of doing something useful cheered me in 
 tills labour. It was a singular feeling to me to find an author growing, 
 under my hands, into inteihgibiUty, that before could be scarcely under- 
 stood. At Easter, 1792, I pubUshed the first part of "Joannis Stobaji 
 Ecloo-arum Physicarum et Ethicarum libri duo," etc., which I dedicated to 
 the Cardinal Borgia, as a small tribute of my gratitude ; the second part 
 followed in 1794 ; the two parts forming the first book, or Physica. The 
 two last parts, comprising tlie second book, or Ethica, (important from its 
 detailed exposition of the three great systems of Ethics among the Greeks, 
 taken mostly from the writings of men whose works are lost,) together 
 with the remaining collectanea and the indices, appeared in 1801. Upon 
 the publication of the first part I sent a copy to a critical review then in 
 hio-h repute; but it was not even noticed. After a course of years a 
 , critique appeared, but neither approved nor blamed it. I must frankly 
 confess that tliis neglect vexed me ; but I leave it for you to decide whether 
 tliis was vanity or natural feeling. It led me to form a resolution, to which 
 I have ever since adhered, to leave my future writings entirely to their 
 fate. And it is to me one of the most agreeable circumstances of my life, 
 that most of them have made their way with the pubUc in that manner 
 alone. Perhaps you will think this another trait of literary vanity! 
 What weak creatures we autliors are ! 
 
 The great labour which Stobieus had cost me convinced me more than 
 ever that I could never devote my hfe to the criticism of words, and that 
 this work must be the last of its kind. This resolution was strengthened 
 by other circumstances. A short time before the publication of the first 
 part of Stobajus, I had fallen ill. An attack of scarlet fever had caused 
 an inflammation of my throat, which for some days threatened my life. I 
 recovered, but my sickness left a weakness and irritabihty which hung 
 upon me for a long time, and only very slowly disappeared. My academi- 
 cal situation did not improve ; many hopes which I had formed, and plans 
 which I had laid down, as you may well imagine a young and aspiring man 
 would, were completely destroyed ; and a similar state of mind to that I 
 had fallen into before my travels seemed to take possession of me. I felt 
 the want of some occupation, which would engage not only my head but 
 my heart. In my lectures on ancient history, the chapter on Carthage 
 always seemed to me the least satisfactory, much as I had felt interested 
 in this republic. This led me to a closer examination of its character and 
 history. I immediately entered upon the study of Polybius, and eagerly 
 consulted all the sources to which I had access. My interest in the task 
 I had undertaken increased from day to day, and so ardent was I in the 
 prosecution of it that I employed in study those hours wliich ought to have 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH. XVU 
 
 been devoted to sleep. I soon became familiar with all that concerned 
 this great trading and conquering republic, the first of antiquity ; one new 
 light after another broke in upon me ; my horizon gradually extended ; 
 till at last the ancient world seemed spread out before me from a point 
 of view from which I had never before regarded it. I now considered it 
 with respect to the bearings and influence of ancient trade and intercourse, 
 and, as closely connected therewith, the rise, formation, and constitution 
 of ancient states. By this I was immediately led to the determination of 
 representing it in this new hght ; and one of the chief objects of my life 
 was discovered. This was the commencement of my " Historical Re- 
 searches into tlie Politics, Intercourse, and Trade of the principal Nations 
 of Antiquity" (Ideen über die PoUtik, den Verkehr und dem Handel der 
 vornehmsten Volker der alten Welt). You may form some judgment of 
 the zeal with which I set about it, from the fact that I finished and printed 
 the first part, containing Africa, during the same winter. It was pub- 
 lished at Easter, 1793. If there are faults scattered over this first edition, 
 whicli betray its hasty composition, the kindness of the public has enabled 
 me to correct them by calling lor ncAV impressions. A lasting direction was 
 now given to my historical studies. Tiie route by which I should travel 
 through the wide domains of general history was fixed. Tliey lay spread 
 out before me under the soft sunhght of peace ; but how infinite in ex- 
 tent. How could such a prospect fail to inspire a young and ardent 
 writer ! 
 
 This first part of my work had not been published long, before I re- 
 ceived so many marks of approbation, and so many encouragements to 
 proceed, as more than counterbalanced the indifference shown by our lead- 
 ing critics. It did not fall in with their views. At the same time, if I 
 chose to go on, the whole of Asia was before me. But I could not help 
 seeing, that in order to set about this with effect, long and deep prepara- 
 tory studies were required, conqjnsing the geography, liistory, constitutions, 
 trade, intercourse, in short, a complete knowledge of the Oriental world at 
 large. I entered first upon Persia. I examined all that related to the 
 ancient Persian empire, that of the Parthians and Sassanides, and to the 
 kingdoms and nations of central and southern Asia. With this, under the 
 Arabian period, I connected an attentive reading and study of the Koran. 
 I do not believe, including some after labours, that I have omitted one of 
 the more important sources of Asiatic history that were open to me ; and, 
 following the plan I had observed with regard to Africa, of comparing 
 ancient liistory with modern, I added to these, the study of all the recent 
 accounts given by modern travellers. Tliese researches took up about 
 two years, I felt more and more at home in the Kast ; and the first part 
 of my work on the Asiatic nations appeared at Easter, 1796. INIany things 
 which were then new have since grown old, and you must go back to that 
 period in order to judge truly of my work. 
 
 At this time my domestic aftairs underwent an important change. A 
 daughter of that 1 leyne to whom I was so deeply indebted, became the 
 companion of my life. She has laid an embargo on my pen respecting 
 herself, but I caimot refrain from telling you, after a twenty-five years' 
 trial, that April 22, 1796, was the beginning of a domestic felicity, which 
 has never been disturbed. The quiet tenor of our lives, reheved every 
 
 c 2 
 
XX BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH. 
 
 Modern History, under the above title, grew out of these lectures, and was 
 published in 1809. If the well-known maxim "nonum prematur in an- 
 num " is any criterion of value, it apphes both to this work and to my 
 Manual of Ancient History, first published in 1799 ; for on both of these 
 subjects I gave public lectures for nine years before I committed them to 
 the press. I must mention here, however, that these two works are writ- 
 ten upon plans totally different from each other ; one being a History of 
 the principal States of Antiquity, taken separately ; the other, a History 
 of the European State- System, but never intended to be a history of the 
 sin"-le states, nor a general liistory of modern times. Those persons there- 
 fore have altogether misapprehended my views, who think that I should 
 write a manual of the liistory of the middle ages in order to supply what 
 they suppose a deficiency. It never entered into my head to write a 
 manual of universal history in three parts ; we have more of them akeady 
 than we want, and I do not wish to increase their number unnecessarily. 
 
 The situation of Europe at the time had a considerable influence upon 
 the reception my Manual of the European State- System met with, upon 
 its first pubUcation. Europe [excepting England] was in fetters. Yet 
 my work from the beginning had been announced as the history of a sys- 
 tem of free states. It seemed to me important to keep up their remem- 
 brance, by giving a faithful picture of them as they had formerly existed ; 
 and I have every reason to believe that my work supplied what the Avants 
 and feelings of the pubhc silently demanded. The first, a large edition, 
 was sold off in a year. The second appeared in 1811. Two pirated ones 
 kept back the third till 1819 ; in the mean time I had seen the triumph 
 of the principles which I sought to uphold, and enjoyed by this delay the 
 advantage of being able to give in tliis third edition the story of the re- 
 storation of that system whose fall we had deplored. This work seemed 
 to me the most appropriate offering that I could lay upon the altar of my 
 country. How great or how little its influence, it is impossible to ascer- 
 tain ; but when I add that my lectures upon this subject were regularly 
 delivered throughout the whole of this period to a continually increasing 
 number of young students, many of whom were entering upon a political 
 career ; it cannot be too much to say that the seed could not have been 
 always sown upon barren ground. 
 
 Thus I have given you a short sketch of my three courses of historical 
 lectures : — on ancient history, on the history of the separate European 
 states, and on the European state-system and its colonies ; to these I oc- 
 casionally added lectures on the crusades, preceded by a general view of the 
 middle ages, serving as an introduction to their history. These lectures 
 followed in such order that those on ancient history, which came down to 
 the overthrow of the Western empire, and form a proper introduction to 
 history, naturally became connected with those on the history of the 
 separate states, from the great emigration of nations down to the present 
 times (chiefly according to Spittler's outlines). This history of the separ- 
 ate states, again, forms the foundation work of my general history of the 
 European system, in which a previous acquaintance with particulars is 
 taken for granted. My pubHc lectui-es, however, did not end even here ; 
 and, since I have entered upon the matter, I trust I shall be excused for 
 saying a few words upon two other subjects which I entered upon, and for 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH. XXI 
 
 showing the relation in which they stand to those I have ah-eady men- 
 tioned : the lectures to which I allude were upon statistics, and upon the 
 general knowledge of lands and nations ; and these, like those on modern 
 history, I gave every alternate half year. 
 
 The study of modern history necessarily soon led me to remark, that 
 without an accurate acquaintance with the whole circle of what are called 
 the political sciences, nothing could be done. The best works upon go- 
 vernment and political economy became, therefore, the first object of my 
 attention ; the application of these studies to history, almost twenty years 
 ago, produced my lectui-es on statistics. You know my notion of states ; 
 I could never consider them as mere machines, but always regarded them 
 in the light of moral personages, each having its own manner of living, 
 moving, and acting ; and the elucidation of this is, in my opinion, alone 
 worthy to be called statistics, and not the compilation of barren tables, 
 containing figures instead of things. I have given, therefore, but Httle 
 care to mere figures, but have endeavoured instead to call attention not to 
 the form so much as to the spirit of constitutions and governments. Pre- 
 viously to entering upon any particular states, my method has been, to 
 take, without reference to any especial state, a general view of all those 
 objects which are of most importance to a state, abstractedly considered, 
 and give a practical explanation of them — not in order to build up theories 
 of governments, but in order to show the necessity of knowing and con- 
 sidering, in a general way, that which is in actual existence, to observe 
 its practical working ; and as well (in order to check any bhnd predilec- 
 tion for theories) to explain why it is so. When I have gone over this 
 preliminary gi-ound, but not till then, do I venture to enter upon the con- 
 sideration ofthe separate states. In treating of these my plan is not to 
 take any large portion, or, as some have done, the whole of them, but to 
 confine my observations to a few of the more important among them, such 
 indeed as I think best adapted to serve as representatives of the principal 
 constitutions and governments. These have usually been Great Britain, 
 as a monarchy with a free constitution and free government ; France, as 
 a free monarchy, with, hitherto, an autocratic government ; Russia, as a 
 monarchy with an autocratic constitution and autocratic government ; and 
 America, as a federative republic, with sovereign power in the hands of 
 the people. By following this method I flatter myself that I have been 
 able to give all the information required for forming a just estimate of all 
 existing forms of government, without entering into the separate consider- 
 ation of the whole of them. The statistics of the German states, which 
 were in no way suitable to my purpose, I have designedly left to others. 
 In these lectures, and in the research necessary for their preparation, I 
 have always taken the greatest delight : practically speaking, I think they 
 have been tlie most useful of any ; and they first breathed a life and spirit 
 into my historical researches. For what, after all, is the study of the 
 history of states, if we merely consider them as lifeless masses without 
 soul or energy ! If, however, I have been so fortunate as to bring these 
 subjects to a higher degree of maturity than they had obtained before, it 
 must in some measure be attributed to the favour of circumstances, and 
 the superior advantages I possessed in having among my auditors kind and 
 well-informed men from the countries I have above spoken of. Whenever 
 
Xxii BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH. 
 
 I asked for information it was freely given ; and who stands more in need 
 of it than the teacher of statistics. 
 
 Satisfactory and pleasant, however, as these lectures have been to my- 
 self, 1 never could be prevailed upon to pubUsh them. For this I have 
 been pubhcly censured ; but the question always arose, what was I to 
 publish ? A compendium ? That would have been a mere dry skeleton, 
 while all that is instructive lies in the flesh and marrow. The lectures 
 entire? Surely that which is well suited for a circle of young beginners, 
 would be but ill calculated for the public at large. 
 
 Inquiries into the manners and customs of nations, and the state of dif- 
 ferent countries, were equally connected with my historical pursuits, and 
 demanded as large a share of my attention. As a teaclier of universal 
 history, I found ft necessary to comprehend within my sphere of vision as 
 much of the globe as I possibly could ; to study mankind in all its varieties 
 and at every stage of civiUzation. Ample means for this object were fur- 
 nished me by our pubUc libraries, which are exceedingly rich in books of 
 voyages and travels. I did not attempt, however, to wade through them 
 all, but confined my reading to such as seemed of the greatest importance: 
 making it a fixed rule to banish as much as possible from my mind every 
 preconceived conjecture and hypothesis, and to describe every nation as I 
 actually fjund it. Without doing this effectually, without entirely shaking 
 off tlie trammels of prejudice, it is impossible to succeed in tlds difficult 
 task, or to enter perfectly into the character, manners, and customs of 
 different nations. In treating of these I again found it necessary to con- 
 fine myself within certain bounds. In my inquiries, for example, into the 
 religi(»n of various nations, and into mythology in general, I never ex- 
 tended tliem beyond what I felt called upon to do as a historian. Sym- 
 bolical and allegorical explanations, and the interpretation of traditions 
 and fables, or mythi, I have left to those who feel an inclination for that 
 kind of study ; they do not come within the limits of pure historical re- 
 search. The lectures on universal geography and ethnography which I 
 have delivered every summer during the last twenty years, are the fruits 
 of my studies in this department. I have never attempted a special geo- 
 graphical description of Europe; but have treated this part of the world 
 just as I have tlie rest ; my chief design being in all cases to show, in a 
 general historical point of view, the state in which the known nations of 
 the world now exist ; and tlic extent of our knowledge concerning them 
 and tlie countries they inhabit. It is solely as they answer for the pur- 
 poses I have stated that my lectures must be tried : they wei-e not only 
 illustrated and explained by a great number of maps and charts, but, by 
 the kind permission of our government, by a general use of the extensive 
 and valuable collection of materials contained in the ethnographical depart- 
 ment of our museum. 
 
 Thus, my dear friend, I have given you a sketch of my labours as a 
 teacher of history and its auxiliary sciences. Chronology and genealogy 
 are better learned from manuals, in wiiich our literature abounds, tiian from 
 oral instruction. I have made it a fixed rule from the day I first took my 
 seat in the professor's chair, never to enter upon a lecture until I had fur- 
 nished my head with a clear and distinct chain of ideas upon the subject 
 I had to treat. For the words in wliich these were to be expressed I never 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH. XXIII 
 
 took any great trouble ; and, the former condition being fulfilled, a very 
 few written notes to prompt my memory was all I required. By these 
 means that easy and free mode of exposition is soon acquired, without 
 which it is impossible to lecture well on history : to read lectures from 
 written papers entirely destroys the spirit and beauty of this method of 
 teaching. The interest which hearers feel in a lecture arises principally 
 from the interest the teacher himself takes in delivering it ; and how can 
 he show such an interest if his words do not flow from the living springs 
 of his own mind ? It is a false and hollow maxim that we ouglit to con- 
 fine ourselves to facts : in this case history would be a mere matter of 
 memory. But should not the hearer, should not the reader learn also to 
 examine and judge of facts ? And how can he do this, unless the teacher 
 or writer impart, not as infallible oracles, but as materials for reflection, 
 his own views on the subject, by interspersing with tiie narrative his own 
 train of reasoning? The study of authorities, on which so much stress is 
 laid, often for the purpose of mere display, is in the highest degree interest- 
 ing and necessary ; but if the Avliole study of history is to be confined to 
 the mere tracing of facts, if the writer of history is to forget his own in- 
 dividuahty, that he has mind, feelings, or opinions, then I, ibr one at 
 least, feel little desire to prosecute tlie study. But if this principle be 
 admitted, the names of Polybius and Hume, of Tacitus and Müller, must 
 be struck out of the list of historical writers. 
 
 One part of my studies, which I have above alluded to, namely, the ac- 
 quisition of a knowledge of different countries, and of the marmers and 
 customs of various naticms, was prompted not only by my lectures, but also 
 by my labours as a liistorical writer. The time was drawing nigii when 
 a new edition of my Researches into the jnüncipal States of Antiquity would 
 be called for ; and I became impressed with the necessity not merely of 
 correcting and revising them, but of altering their very form. In the ten 
 years that had passed away since the publication of the first edition, the 
 geographical and ethnograpiiical horizon had been extended on every side. 
 The French expedition into Egypt, and the discoveries of individual tra- 
 vellers, had done much towards disjK'Uing the dark mist that liad hung 
 over Africa ; the increased knowledge of India and tlie neighbouring 
 countries had done tlie same for Asia. Persevering, tlieretbre, in the 
 plan I had always adopted, of com[)aring tlie old world with the new, I 
 naturally did my utmost to keep pace with the advances of the age. I 
 had already given proofs of tiiis in the second edition, published in 1805, 
 in whicli Asia held the first place and Africa the second. The same ne- 
 cessity for exertion still continued, while my ardour was no way abated, 
 but rather increased by the fact that most of the travellers who so boldly 
 went forth to tear away the veil that hung over those distant lands, partly 
 prepared themselves for the task at our University. Seezen, Ilornemann, 
 W. Ilamikon, Roentgen, and even the celebrated Burkhard t, were all my 
 pupils or friends ; and my work had not been without influence upon their 
 enter ))rises. What, then, could be more natural than that their discoveries 
 should have a reactive influence upon my studies, and upon my endea- 
 vours to render my work as perfect as possible ? When the tliird edition 
 appeared in 181.3, it was, consequently, more than twice as large as the 
 first. My Historical Researches concerning the Greeks, forming the first 
 l)art of the European Nations, was published shortly after. 
 
Xxiv BIOGKAPIllCAI. SKETCH. 
 
 Oih; thing that greatly extended this edition was the Researches upon 
 the uiicient Indians, now first introduced into it, which occupied more 
 than lialf oi' the second vohniic. I had long felt it incumbent upon me to 
 inchi(l(! this interesting people within my inquiries, l)ut had ham deterred 
 from attempting it by tlie niiinilold diflicullies of tlie. subject. The great 
 events, JKjwever, Aviiich took place in lMiro])e in 181 .'5 and 1814, formed 
 an additional induccMuent for me to undertake this subject. Tiiese events 
 could scarcely fail to give a shock, or violent degree of excitem(;nt, to 
 every reilecting in<lividual, and to myself among the rest. I felt, how- 
 ever, tlie nec(!ssity of retaining tlie mastery over my feelings, and not suf- 
 fering tliem to carry me away: who, indeed, could rc^cpiire greater caution 
 in this resjjcct than a teacher of history, daily giving lectures on similar 
 events? In order etfectually to guard against tlieir influence, I saw no 
 better means than to fix myself in some distant laud at some remote period 
 of its history, no way connected with the present ; and what people could 
 answer so well the conditions 1 required as the Hindoos ? Every day, 
 therefore, I dcn'oted a few hours to this incpury. Every tiling connected 
 with Indian literature I sought lor with avidity, and carefully studied ; 
 tlie lengthened blockade kept up by the English, however, prevented my 
 obtaining all I desired. The two years above mentioned 1 spent in the 
 selection and iirrangement of my materials, and in 1815 appeared the fruits 
 of my la])our in the third edition of my Researches, extra copies being 
 struck off and sold separately for those Avho possessed the former ones. 
 In this work it seemed to mo of the first im])ortance to determine the 
 ])oint at which our knowledg(! of ancient India had arriv(Ml ; to tliis I have 
 devoted the whole of the first section. And though I have but little ex- 
 ])ectati()n of changing the opinions of others, who a])pear fully convinced of 
 the truth of their own hy[)t)tlu.'ses, yet I do hope that I have given to 
 readers who come fresh to the subject, a standard l)y which they will be 
 enabh^d to estimate their worth. The second section was by this means 
 left entire for the proper object of my woi-k : the politics and eomraeree 
 of the ancient Indians. 
 
 If to the foregoing you now add, my dear friend, the fugitive pieces 
 which my connexion with the literary society established in this place 
 made it ray duty to contribute to it, you will have a pretty accurate and 
 complete idea of my labours as a writer. As early as 1784 I was a visitor 
 of this society, and in 1789 I became a member. My connexion with 
 this society has been in the highest degree useful to me; it answered the 
 purpose of its foundation by leading me to the most important historical 
 inquiries, and by obliging me to pursue them with assiduity. The fif- 
 teen or sixteen psipers 1 wrote for it, are contained in th(! old and new 
 series of Dissertations, reckoning from the tenth volume of the former. 
 During the last ten ycjars I have chosen for myself a new field of iu(piiry ; 
 namely, the sources whence the most ci'lebrated historians and geogra})hers 
 have drawn their materials. You are ac(piainte(l with my labours, in this 
 way, upon Justin, riutarch, and Strabo. By pursuing this incpiiry, I 
 hope gradually to lay a solid foinidatiou for the criticisms of ancient 
 history ; and although the work may be too large for me to complete with- 
 out assistance, I look with some degree of confidence both for helpers and 
 followers. Every one who has fairly examined the subject must acknow- 
 ledge that this is the only means of attaining the object desired, and to 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH. XXV 
 
 whom can this work be so appropriately committed as to the society which 
 has made historical criticism its own peculiar province. For foreign re- 
 views and the academies, which have done me the honour to enrt)l me 
 among their members, my numerous avocations here have not allowed me 
 to write. The prize ottered by the historical class of the French National 
 Institute, now again called the Academic des Inscriptions, of which 1 was 
 first chosen a correspondent and afterwards a member, (one of its associts 
 (trangers,) tempted me, however, in the yc^ar 180S, to enter the held as a 
 competitor ; this I did chieily at the instigation of my ever-honoured friend 
 von Villcrs, who kindly offered to become my translator. The subject was, 
 " The Consequences of the Crusades." The courage with which the mem- 
 bers of this Institute reconstructed their down-fallen edifice, the central 
 point of scientific labour and exertion in France, even amidst the storms 
 of the Kevolution, as well as the active share they took at the time when 
 our University here Avas threatened with danger, have ever induced me to 
 regard this institution with the highest veneration and respect. Long 
 may it last and flourish, for the benelit of science ! 
 
 I have now, my dear friend, gone over the whole of my professional la- 
 bours. You will see by this sketch that they are all connected by an 
 internal principle of union, and that they have all been directed to one 
 object ; an object, I admit, so far above my reach, that my highest ambition 
 Avas limited to making some slight approaches towards it. A fortunate 
 conflux of circumstances directed my attention to the consiilcration of the 
 history of the world, in relation to that point which in our days is become, 
 above all otli(M-s, of the greatest importance, namely, the connnercial-politi- 
 cal. If in tliis I have been to any extent successful, as a writer or teacher, 
 I owe it in a great measure to tlie age, which has lent itself, as it were, 
 to my assistance in the task. With other branches of science I have not 
 much concerned myself, beyond what was necessary to keep up a general 
 acquaintance with tlie growing improvements of the day. Thus, for instance, 
 none of the many philosophieal systems which I have lived to see flourish 
 and fade, liave had the slightest influence upon me ; whether to the benelit 
 or detriment of my historical efforts I must leave my readers to determine. 
 
 My own poetical vein was as good as completely dried up in my youth ; but 
 not my taste and feeling for poetry, which now, in my old age, is as warm 
 and as fresh as ever. The circle of poets in whom I found delight was 
 always a very limited one. Whether the study of the great models of an- 
 tifjuity, upon which I have formed my taste, or the powerful creations of 
 Iphigenia, of Oberen, of Piccolomini, or botii together, have spoiled me or 
 not, I cannot say, but I have never been able to comprehend how any one 
 could place by their side works which, though in the language of our 
 critics they have been " much spoken of," have, nevertheless, soon been 
 buried in oblivion, and which rather seem calculated to raise the hair on 
 end than touch the heart. French poetry has never had so great a charm 
 for me as French prose ; Shakspearc, for whom my master of languages 
 soon gave me a dislike, I know rather from translations than from the 
 original. Of the Italians, on the other hand, I have read nnieh, and Tasso 
 still remains for me the prince of modern epic poets. With the great his- 
 toi-ians and orators I have had more to do ; yet I never felt myself quali- 
 fied, however I may have desired it, to take any one in particular as a 
 
XXVi BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH. 
 
 model. Rhetorical pomp lias always had a freezing effect upon me; 
 while the simple grandeur of William Pitt has affected me beyond descrip- 
 tion. From all I deduced a rule, to which I have always adhered, of ex- 
 pressing my thoughts as naturally as possible, and so clearly, distinctly, 
 and properly, that no misunderstanding them could be feared. Such has 
 been my exercise as regards style ; I have resorted to no art, but at the 
 same time have been guilty of no neglect. Indeed it was always my high- 
 est ambition and earnest endeavour to be able to write. How few are 
 there now among us who can do the same ! To the rigid purists (I mean 
 purists in language) I do not belong. To sift our language of the words 
 we have borrowed from foreigners, and which are now in common use, I 
 hold would be to impoverish it ; to do so when writing upon strictly po- 
 litical matters, would be affected and pedantic. Still, wherever I have 
 found I could conveniently do without them, I have avoided them. It was 
 neither my object nor wish to write merely for schools, but for an enlight- 
 ened public. To unite both is difficult. The art of leaving much unsaid 
 that might be said (an art rarely practised in our literature) is one of the 
 cliief requisites to this end ; but in our schools this would be called a 
 making of statements upon insufficient grounds — a lack of profundity, 
 however searcliingly and clearly the writer may have set forth and proved 
 them. 
 
 General extracts from books I never could make ; but always felt it 
 sufficient, in my researches, to make such as were necessary for my sub- 
 ject. The method of John v. Müller might suit him very well, and his 
 history of Switzerland. But had fate permitted him to have brought to- 
 gether his various extracts, and to have formed of them the Mosaic history 
 of the world he intended, we might have had a very learned work, but it 
 would have breathed none of the Ufe found in his spirited sketch of uni- 
 versal history. No, worthy John, only in the enthusiasm of youth could 
 you have expressed a desire to be able to carry on such a design even be- 
 yond the grave ! Should it be my fate ever to meet you in tliose regions 
 in which you now dwell, you will have something more exalted to show 
 me than books of extracts. 
 
 But enough, perhaps already too much, of myself ! You now know the 
 man whose portrait you wished to possess as a commentary upon his 
 writino-s. Fear not, however, that in those writings he will obtrude him- 
 self upon your notice again. He will be sufficiently happy if his writings 
 should lead you to think him more Avorthy of your friendship ; and as you 
 now know to what purpose he has lived, may you be able to say with jus- 
 tice, he has not altogether lived in vain. Farewell. 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH. 
 
 POSTSCRIPT. 
 
 Eighteen years, my dear friend, have now passed away since at your 
 request I gave you the foregoing sketch of my Hfe. I did not then expect 
 that I should be called upon for a continuation of it, in the seventy-eighth 
 year of my age : I comply, however, the more readily with your desire, 
 as my uneventful life has given but few particulars to add. With regard 
 to my official duties, they have continued the same, as have also my lec- 
 tures. I have had the happiness of receiving continued marks of appro- 
 bation and an increasing number of hearers tiU- the arrival of that age in 
 which the duties of the professor's chair, like all others, must be laid aside. 
 I indulge, too, the hope that my lectures, founded as they have been upon 
 those poHtical principles which are set forth in my writings, have not been 
 without use. I never laid much stress upon the mere number of my 
 hearers, still it recalls most agreeable reminiscences to my mind, when I 
 run over the long catalogue of my pupils, to find the names of men, not only 
 of Europe, but of all parts of the world, and of every rank and station, 
 who have risen to the highest eminence in literature and politics. The 
 remembrance that I have laad at least some part in their education surely 
 cannot be attributed to me as an idle vanity. Let me be allowed to add, 
 that many of the travellers whose bold enterprise has so much enlarged our 
 knowledge of the earth, have, during their preparation for the task at our 
 University, been my hearers and friends. The subjects of my lectures, in 
 general, have rec^uired that I should advance with the times in all those 
 departments of science to which they refer; and I have continued the 
 method of delivering them extemporaneously. You will, therefore, readily 
 believe that the continual studies and preparation required for these have 
 taken up a considerable portion of my time. 
 
 My literary labours and duties have been increased in another way 
 which I did not expect : the editorship of our weekly literary journal, 
 {Gottingische gelehrte Anzeigen,) which is published under the sanction of 
 the Royal Society of Arts, was put into my hands by the directors of that 
 institution in 1827, and for eleven years it has been under my manage- 
 ment. Tliis journal was commenced in the beginning of the year 1739, 
 shortly after the foundation of our University, and has been continued to 
 the present time without interruption ; so that at the end of the present 
 year it will have been established a century. It is by far the oldest of all 
 the literary periodicals of Germany, and Europe entire cannot show many 
 that have stood their ground so long. Among its former editors I must 
 mention Haller ; he was followed by Michaelis, and Heyne, my tather-in- 
 law, who filled that office for forty-two years : upon his decease it passed 
 into the hands of Eichhorn, and at his death into mine, in the year above 
 mentioned. Its chief object is to make the literary world of Germany ac- 
 quainted with the progress made in science and letters, particularly in 
 
XXVlll BIOGRA^rHlCAL SKETCH. 
 
 foreign countries, by the publication of great and important works : and 
 it does this by criticisms and reviews of such publications as are purchased 
 for our great public library, or are sent for review by booksellers who pub- 
 lish scientific or other books they may deem woi'th our notice. It has been 
 conducted from the beginning with the most rigid impartiality the nature 
 of things would allow, and no complaint has been made, so far as I know, 
 of any departure from this course since it has been in my hands. 
 
 It is obvious that the management of this work, from the necessity it 
 imposes upon its editor of acquiring an insight into the very increasing 
 department of scientific literatui'e, besides attending to the correspondence 
 connected with it, must consume a large portion of time. As most of the 
 articles, moreover, must be written in Gottingen, and this tlie rules of the 
 library render necessary, I have been obliged, in addition to its manage- 
 ment, to be one of its most active contributors. 
 
 These labours, and the loss of time they have occasioned, have not al- 
 lowed me sufficient leisur^ to undertake any work of considerable extent ; 
 they have even prevented me, up to the present moment, from finishing 
 my " Historical Reseai'ches into the Politics and Commerce of the princi- 
 pal Nations of Antiquity," I am now engaged upon the last volume, 
 which is devoted to the investigation of the commerce of the Greeks. I 
 have never, however, lost sight of the great object of this my principal 
 work ; but have made use of my connexion with the literary and scientific 
 society of tliis place, to explain certain points connected with it, in the 
 papers which I have furnished to this learned body. Two of tliese, one 
 on the Commerce of Pahiiyra, and the other on the Commerce of Ceylon, 
 during the period of antiquity and the middle ages, have been incorporated 
 in the English translation of my works. A third was translated and 
 published in numbers 1027 and 1028 of the Literary Gazette of London, 
 in the year 1836, on the Interior of Himalaya, more particularly on Lit- 
 tle Thibet, in which I have shown that this country, as early as the period 
 of the old Persian monarchy, was the seat of industry and commerce, more 
 especially of weaving and dyeing. And I feel the stronger desire that 
 this treatise should be appended to the English translation of my works, 
 as it is cliiefly compiled from the statements of British travellers, and is 
 important as respects the now reviving commerce of India. 
 
 The remainder of my time has been chiefly occupied with the prepar- 
 ation of new editions of my various works, to each of which I have made 
 numerous corrections and additions. Both my Manuals have passed 
 through five genuine editions, besides several pirated ones in Southern 
 Germany. Nor has the circulation of my writings been confined to my 
 native country ; they have been spread to a much wider extent abroad by 
 the translations of wliich they have been thought worthy. My two Manuals 
 have been published in almost eveiy European language ; ten translations 
 I know of, and many of these have passed tlu-ough several editions. I 
 willingly confess that the favourable reception of my works among so many 
 nations of the earth has been the highest gratification my literary life has 
 aiforded me. It would be false modesty to deny it. Every author writes 
 to be read ; and this great success of my works gives me the more pleasure, 
 as it seems to me a proof of the truth and soundness of the political prin- 
 ciples I have laid down. I hope it -will not be deemed an idle compliment 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH. XXIX 
 
 for me to add, that the favour shown to my writings by the British pub- 
 lic has given me heartfelt pleasure. To an author who has made the his- 
 toiy of politics, commerce, and colonies his principal object, the approba- 
 tion of no other people could be so satisfactory as that, Avhich in its home 
 policy has shown us, by a great example, that constitutions, as they ad- 
 vance in age, may be improved without being destroyed ; while abroad, 
 it has founded colonies in every quarter of the globe, and thus carried 
 European civilization and Christianity into the most distant regions of the 
 earth. 
 
 If in addition to this I may be allowed to hope that I have somewhat 
 enlivened the study of history by treating it in the manner which I have 
 thought best calculated to render it cheering and inviting to the friends of 
 humanity, and that I have increased the love of it, especially in the rising 
 generation, I shall consider it the highest reward I could receive for my 
 labours. 
 
 It was naturally to be expected that works so extensively circulated 
 would meet with adversaries. These I never attempted to answer, except 
 where it seemed absolutely necessary ; but it has been a great satisfaction 
 to me, that many of them have since held out a friendly hand tovf ards me : 
 among these I may mention Niebuhr, whose early death we have so much 
 reason to i*egret, and A. W. Schlegel, to whom all interested in Sanscrit 
 literature are so deeply indebted. 
 
 In addition to what I have done by my own pen, I have felt bound, as 
 often as occasion offered, to lend my aid in the promotion of historical 
 science. When, therefore, a proposal was made to me by Mr. F. Perthes, 
 one of our most respectable publishers, to superintend, in conjunction with 
 Professor Uckert of Gotha, a history of all the states of Europe, I frankly 
 accepted it. This work was commenced in 1 829, since which time twenty- 
 eight volumes have been published by twelve different authors. The his- 
 tories of four nations are already completed : namely, Germany, Italy, the 
 Netherlands, and Saxony ; while the history of eight others is more or less 
 advanced. One of tliese, the History of England by Dr. Lappenberg of 
 Hamburg, is known in that country by the two volumes which have al- 
 ready been published, embracing the earlier period of British history, and 
 is esteemed even there for its learning and research.* 
 
 I have also taken advantage of my official situation as member of the 
 Society of Arts and of the Faculty of Philosophy at Göttingen, to clear 
 up several obscure portions of history by proposing them as subjects for 
 prize essays. Those proposed by myself" have all been answered to the 
 satisfaction of the Society. The two principal essays among these are, 
 The History of Byzantine Commerce down to the end of the Crusades, by 
 A. E. Hüllmann, professor at Bonn, 1808 ; and, of still more importance. 
 The History of the Commerce of the Arabians, with nearly all parts of the 
 world, under the Abassides, 1836, by Dr. Stlive of Berlin, who, unfortu- 
 nately, has been snatched from us by an early death. The questions pro- 
 posed to the students of the Faculty were concerning some of the ancient 
 Greek colonies, and drew forth several very useful papers (monographs) 
 upon Rhodes, in the Macedonian period, Corcyra, on the condition of 
 Athens under the Romans, etc. 
 
 * A translation of this work into English is, I believe, in progress. — Trans. 
 
XXX BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH. 
 
 Thus, my dear friend, I have endeavoured to give you some notion of 
 the literary labours of my riper years. My advanced age has procured 
 me the honour of ft double jubilee ; the first, the fiftieth anniversary of my 
 Doctor's degree, which fell on the 29th of May, 1834, was a public jubilee ; 
 the second, the fiftieth anniversary of my professorship, on the 27th of 
 August, 1837, at my own request, was a private one. At the first I was 
 made a knight of the Guelphic order, by William the Fourth, our late 
 much regretted sovereign ; at the last, which happened just before the 
 centenary jubilee of our University, the ribbon of the Legion of Honour 
 was conferred upon me by the king of the French. I had already been 
 honoured with the order of 'The North Star' by the king of Sweden. 
 
 My days are now dwindled to so short a span, that the remainder of my 
 life cannot add much to this sketch. May the hope be realized with which 
 I finished my former letter, that I have not entirely lived in vain. 
 
 Göttingen, April, 1838. 
 
COL.COIX. 
 
 LlBR-fii^ a 
 
 1 O c\Ä-. / 
 
 MANUAL 
 
 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 I. The sources of ancient history may be ranged under two 
 heads ; the ancient writers, and the monuments still extant. 
 The various writers will be mentioned in their proper places, at 
 the different divisions of this work. A general view of the 
 ancient monuments, so far as they are sources of history, will 
 be found in : 
 
 Obeklik, Orhis antiqui monumentis suis illustrati primce 
 linecB. Argen to rati, 1790. Extremely defective, as many dis- 
 coveries have been made since it was published. 
 
 II. General Treatises on Ancient History. 
 
 1. The more voluminous works on the subject. These may 
 be divided into two classes : a. The part appropriated to ancient 
 liistory, in the general treatises on universal history ; b. Works 
 exclusively devoted to ancient history. 
 
 a. To the first class belong : 
 
 The Ulliversal History, ancient and modern ; with maps and 
 additions. Lond. 1736, 26 vols, folio. Reprinted in 8vo, in 
 67 vols., and again in 60 vols., with omissions and additions. 
 
 This work, compiled by a society of British scholars, has 
 been translated into German, and illustrated with remarks, by 
 SiEGM. Jac. Baumgarten. Halle, 1746, 4to. The Germans 
 frequently designate it by the name of the Halle Universal His- 
 tory of the World : the first eighteen vols, comprise the ancient 
 part. 
 
 Will. Guthrie, John Gr^vy, etc. General History of the 
 World, from the creation to the present time. London, 1764 — 
 1767, 12 vols. 8vo. This work, of no estimation in the original, 
 is rendered valuable and useful by the labours of the German 
 translator, C. G. Heitste, {Leip. 1766, 8vo,) who has corrected 
 the errors, inserted the dates, and added his own observations. 
 
 b. To the second class belong : 
 
 RoLLiN, Histoire ancienne des Egyptiens, des Carthaginois, 
 des Assyriens, des Medes et des Perses, des Macedoniens, des 
 
 B 
 
2 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 Grecs. Paris, 1824, 12 vols. 8vo ; revue par Letronne : the 
 last and best edition. This work, which greatly promoted the 
 study of ancient history in France, still maintains its well- 
 earned reputation. [It was translated into English, 1768: 
 best edition, 7 vols. 8vo : frequently reprinted.] The above is 
 generally accompanied by the Histoire Romaine of the same 
 author. See below, book v. first period, Sources. 
 
 Jac. Ben. Bossuet, Discours sur VHistoire Universelle. 
 Paris, 1680, 3 vols. Frequently reprinted, being considered by 
 the French one of their classics. 
 
 [Enghsh translation, by Rich. Spencer. London, 1730, 8vo.] 
 
 MiLLOT, Elemens de VHistoire Generale. Paris, 1772, sq. 
 
 [Translated into English, 1778, 2 vols. 8vo: and again, an 
 
 improved edition, with additions.] Edinb. 1823, 6 vols. 8vo. 
 
 The ancient history is contained in the first two volumes. 
 
 + JoH. Matth. Schroeckh, General History of the World, 
 for the use of children. Leipzic, 1779, sq., 6 vols. 
 
 t J. G. Eichhorn, History of the Ancient World, 1799, third 
 edition, 1817. (First part of the History of the World.) 
 
 tDAN. G.J. Huebler, Sketch of the General History of the 
 Nations of Antiquity, from the birth of states to the end of the 
 Roman commonwealth. Freyberg, 1798 — 1802. Five parts ; 
 and a continuation : History of the Romans under the Emperors, 
 and of the contemporary Nations, until the great migration, 
 1803 '; three parts. A work rendered extremely useful, by the 
 judicious advantage taken by the author of the labours of other 
 writers. 
 
 f H. Luden, General History of Nations. 1814; three parts. 
 
 tL. VON Dresch, Genercd Political History. 1815; three 
 
 parts. In each of the above works the first part contains the 
 
 ancient history, and exhibits the more modern views of the 
 
 subject. 
 
 [The following is added, as well deserving the attention of 
 the English student ; Ralegh (Sir Walter) History of the 
 World, Part I. extending to the end of the Macedonian Empire; 
 with his Life and Trial, by Mr. Oldys. Lond. 1736, 2 vols. 
 folio. Formerly the best edition ; but a new and improved one 
 has been printed at the Clarendon press. Oxford, 1829, 8 
 vols. 8vo.] 
 
 |F. VON Raumer, Lectures on Ancient History, parts 1, 2. 
 Berlin, 1821. 
 
 Works furnishing illustrations of the progressive civilization, 
 government, and commerce of early nations, although, strictly 
 speaking, not treatises on ancient history, are nevertheless very 
 closely connected with the subject. Among these may be men- 
 tioned : 
 
 GOGUET, De rOrigine des Lois, des Arts, et des Sciences, et 
 de leurs progres chez les ancie7is peuples ; nouv. edit. Paris, 
 1778. [Translated by Dr. Dunn and Mr. Speerman. Edinb. 
 1761—1775, 3 vols. 8vo.] 
 
 f A. H. L. Heeren, Historical Researches into the Politics, 
 
INTRODUCTION. 3 
 
 Intercourse, and Trade of the Principal Nations of Antiquity. 
 
 Thii'd edition, wath many additions. Gottingen, 1815, 8vo. ; 
 the third part, 1821. Fourth edition. Gottingen, 1824. [This 
 edition, the last, contains many improvements and additions, 
 suggested by tlie great discoveries of modern travellers. Part 
 I. Asiatic Nations, in 3 vols. Persians, Phoenicians, Babylo- 
 nians, Scythians, Indians. Part II. African Nations, 2 vols. 
 Carthaginians, Etliiopians, Egyptians. Part III. European 
 Nations : Greeks.] An English translation of these valuable 
 Researches has been published in 6 vols. 8vo. Oxford, Talboys. 
 
 2. Manuals, or epitomes. 
 
 The Germans are entitled to the merit of having first pro- 
 duced manuals of ancient history, all of them useful, some ex- 
 cellent, in their kind : they are a result of the progress made in 
 this science at the universities. 
 
 f J. Chr. Gatterer, Attempt at an Universal History of 
 the World to the discovery of America. Gottingen, 1792. He 
 who possesses this, the last and ripest fruit of Gatterer's studies, 
 may dispense with the earlier manuals published by that author. 
 
 f Chr. Dan. Beck, A Short Introduction to the Knowledge 
 of the Universal History of the World and of Nature. Leip- 
 zic, 1798. The first pai-t connected with our subject extends 
 to A. D. 843. This volume is enriched with such a copious 
 and critical account of books relating to ancient history, that 
 it may supply the place of a particular work on the subject. 
 
 f J. A. Remer, Manual of the more Ancient History, from 
 the creation of the world to the great migration. Fourth edition. 
 Brunswick, 1832. 
 
 t J. M. ScHROECKH, Manual of Universal History. 1774 : 
 latest edition, 1795. 
 
 |G. S. Bredow, Manual of Ancient History, with a sketch 
 of the chronology of the ancients. Altona, 1799, 8vo. [Trans- 
 lated into English. Lond. 1828, 12mo. In English we have: 
 
 The Outlines of History, in 1 vol., (forming part of Lardner's 
 Cabinet Cyclopaedia,) by Mr. Keightly, author of a learned 
 and highly useful work on Grecian Mythology, is a convenient 
 abridgement. Tytler's Elements of General History, im- 
 proved and continued by Dr. Nares, Lond. 1825, best edition ; 
 owes its reputation and success to the want of a better work on 
 the subject.] 
 
 3. Helps. 
 
 Among the works subservient to the study of ancient his- 
 tory, the first rank is justly due to the synchronistic tables. 
 
 f D. G. J. Huebler, Synchronistic Tables of the History of 
 Nations ; arranged principally according to Gatterer's His- 
 tory of the World. In two numbers. Second edit. 1799 
 and 1804. 
 
 1. The object of Political History is to re- object of 
 count the destinies of nations, both in respect to ^''*°'^^' 
 their foreign relations and internal affairs. In regard 
 
 B 2 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 Divided 
 into three 
 parts : 
 
 iirst, to 
 A. D. 500, 
 
 second, to 
 A. D. I.jOO, 
 
 third, to 
 our own 
 times. 
 
 Commence- 
 ment of 
 ])()litical 
 history. 
 
 to domestic concerns, one of its most important ob- 
 jects is the history of governments : in respect to 
 external affairs, it comprises not only an account of 
 the wars, but likewise of the friendly relations and 
 intercourse with other states. 
 
 Observe here the difference between universal history, or ge- 
 neral history of the human race, and the history of nations : the 
 latter forms part of the former. Observe also the difference 
 between political history and that of civilization, or of man as a 
 human being : the latter is merely the history of man, as man, 
 without regard to political circumstances. 
 
 2. Universal political history is usually divided 
 into three parts : ancient history, that of the middle 
 ages, and ?nodern history. The first extends to the 
 fall of the Roman empire in the west, which took 
 place towards the close of the fifth century of the 
 Christian era ; the second extends to the discovery 
 of America, and of a passage by sea to the East 
 Indies, about the end of the fifteenth century ; the 
 third extends from the commencement of the six- 
 teenth century to the present time. 
 
 The propriety of the above division is evinced by the nature 
 of the events which form these epoclis. The student will easily 
 perceive that the division of history, into that before and after 
 the birth of Christ, is not judicious. 
 
 3. From the definition just given, it follows, that 
 political history does not commence till after the first 
 formation of states. Whatever is known, therefore, 
 of the period previous to this, or may be gathered 
 from traditions, respecting individuals or tribes, or 
 their migrations, aflSnities, or discoveries, forms no 
 part of political history, but must be referred to the 
 general history of man. 
 
 It is well known that a great deal of information has been 
 preserved in the sacred writings concerning the early fortunes 
 of the human race. From these materials have been compiled 
 what has been called an Historia Antediluviana, sometimes 
 considered as forming a separate division of history. AVhat 
 has been said above will satisfactorily account for the omission 
 of this portion of history in the present work ; although none 
 can deny the high importance of such traditions in the investi- 
 gation of the origin, dispersion, and civilization of the human 
 race. 
 
INTRODUCTION. Ö 
 
 4. The sources of history may be ranged under sources of 
 two general heads ; oral traditions, and ivritten do- ^'^tory : 
 cuments of various kinds. The history of every na- 
 tion usually commences with oral tradition, which 
 remains the only source, until the art of writing be- 
 comes known, and in some degree adopted by the 
 people. 
 
 5. Under the name of traditional histori/ or 7Jii/- mythology, 
 thology, is comprehended all the general collection 
 
 of oral traditions preserved by a nation ; and some 
 such traditional history or mythology is to be found 
 among every people in the first stage of their exist- 
 ence as a community. This mythology, however, 
 is by no means confined to events strictly historical, 
 but embraces every branch of information which may 
 appear to a nation in its infancy, of sufiicient import- 
 ance to be preserved and handed down to posterity. 
 
 Hence the mythology of a people is invariably composed of 
 very heterogeneous materials ; it not only preserves the remem- 
 brance of various kinds of historical facts, but likewise the per- 
 vading ideas of the people with respect to the nature and wor- 
 ship of their deities ; as well as the notions they had formed 
 from observations and experience respecting astronomy, morals, 
 the arts, etc. All these are handed down in the form of his- 
 torical narrative ; because man, as yet unpractised in abstract 
 thinking, necessarily represents every thing to his mind under 
 the figure of some physical object. It is just as useless, there- 
 fore, to attempt to mould the mythology of any people into a 
 consistent and connected whole, or indeed into any scientific 
 system whatsoever, as it is difficult to draw a strict line between 
 what belongs to mythology, and what to pure history. It fol- 
 lows, therefore, that mythology should be employed by the his- 
 torian with great caution ; and not without judicious criticism, 
 and an accurate knowledge of antiquity. 
 
 These correct views of mythology, — the key to the whole of 
 earlier antiquity, — were first set forth and illustrated by Heyne 
 in his commentaries upon Virgil and other poets, in his edition 
 of Apollodorus, and in various essays published in the Trans- 
 actions of the Gottingen Scientific Society. It is principally to 
 the aid of these that the Germans owe their superiority over 
 other nations in the science of antiquity. 
 
 6. The place of writing among such nations, is poetry, 
 generally supplied, in a great measure, by poetry ; 
 which being in its origin nothing more than imagery 
 expressed in figurative language, must spontaneously 
 
6 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 arise among men, as yet wont to represent every 
 thing to their minds under the form of images. 
 Hence the subject matter of the poetry of every na- 
 tion, while in a state of rudeness, is and can be 
 nothing else but its mythology ; and the great variety 
 in the materials of which this is composed very na- 
 turally gave rise, at the same early period, to various 
 kinds of poetry ; as the lyric, the didactic, the epic. 
 The last of these, inasmuch as it contains the historic 
 songs and the epopee, claims in a more especial man- 
 ner the attention of the historian. 
 
 The mythi (or fables of which this mythology was composed) 
 were in later times frequently collected from the works of the 
 poets, and committed to writing by grammarians ; such as Apol- 
 lodorus and others. This, however, can have had no effect on 
 their original character. 
 
 written 7. The sccoud sourcc of history, much more copi- 
 
 documents, ^^^ ^^^ important than the former, are the various 
 kinds of written monuments. These may be ar- 
 ranged, according to the order of time at which they 
 were brought into use, into three classes; 1st, In- 
 scriptions on public monuments, under which head 
 are included the coins of later date ; 2nd, Chrono- 
 logical records of events, under the form of annals and 
 chronicles ; 3rd, Real philosophical works on history, 
 inscriptions, g. InscHptions ou public mouumeuts erected to 
 preserve the remembrance of certain events, though 
 perhaps no more than a stone set upright, or even a 
 bare rock, was used for that purpose, were undoubt- 
 edly the most ancient written memorials. These 
 rude monuments became fashioned by art into co- 
 lumns, obelisks, and pyramids, as the taste of the 
 nation became formed ; and assumed that definite 
 character which local circumstances and the natural 
 features of the country led it to adopt, as architecture 
 arose, and attained to perfection among them. The 
 very object, indeed, for which they were erected — 
 the commemoration of remarkable events, — must 
 have suggested the practice of inscribing upon them 
 some particulars of the facts they were intended to 
 perpetuate. Of this nature, no doubt, were the old- 
 
INTRODUCTION. / 
 
 est monuments, and more particularly those of Egypt. 
 Their use was much more general among nations of 
 a later period, especially Greece and Rome, than 
 among the moderns ; yet of the great mass of in- 
 scriptions still extant, but few comparatively are of 
 any importance as regards history. 
 
 The characters engraved on these monuments were either 
 symbolical, (hieroglyphics ; see below under Egypt,) or alpha- 
 betical. The invention and transmission of alphabetical writing 
 ai'e commonly ascribed to the Phoenicians ; although, if Ave may 
 judge by the shape of the arrow-headed character, it was made, 
 without communication with them, in the interior of Asia. 
 
 The general collections of inscriptions are : 
 
 Lud. Ant. Muratori, jVovus Thesaurus vetemm Inscrip- 
 tiormm. Mediolani, 1739, sq. 4 vols. fol. Together with Seb. 
 Don ATI, Supplementa. Lucc;^, 1764. Jan. Gruteri, Inscrip- 
 tiones antkpice totius orbis Romani, cura J. G. Gr^vii. Am- 
 stel. 1707, 2 vols. fol. 
 
 C. A. BoEKnius, Corpus Inscriptionum Grcecarum, aucto- 
 ritate et inipejisis Academice Uterarum Borussica, vol. i., 1827, 
 folio. 
 
 Among the separate monuments, the most impoi'tant for an- 
 cient history is the Parian or Oxford Inscription, 3Iarmora Ox- 
 oniensia Aru7ideliana, edited by Selden, 1629 ; by Pride Aux, 
 1677. The best edition is by Ricn. Chandler, Oxf. 1763, fol. 
 A useful and portable edition has been published by Fr. Ch. 
 Wagner, containing the Greek text, ivith a German translation 
 and notes. Gottiugen, 1790, 8vo. 
 
 9. Coins may likewise be regarded as a source of coins, 
 ancient history, as by the light they throw upon ge- 
 nealogy and chronology, the events known from other 
 authorities may be better arranged and understood. 
 The importance of coins, therefore, becomes most 
 sensible in those portions of history where our in- 
 formation, in consequence of the loss of the works of 
 the original historians, is reduced to a few insulated 
 facts and fragments. 
 
 Ez. SPANHEini, Dissertatio de Usu et Prcestantia Kamisma- 
 tum. Londini, 1707 et 1709, 2 vols. fol. The capital work, 
 however, on this subject, and which embraces the whole numis- 
 matic science of antiquity, is, 
 
 F^CKiiEL, De Doctr in a JVummoj-um Veterum. Viennte, 1792 
 — 1798, 8 vols. 4to. And the epitome, 
 
 f EcKiiEL, Brief Elements of Ancient Numismatics. Vienna, 
 1707, 8vo. Another very useful work is, 
 
8 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 J. C. Rasche, Lexicon Universce Rei Nummarice Veterum. 
 1785, sq. 5 vols. 8vo. 
 
 annals, 10. Chroiiicles OF annals form the second great 
 
 division of written historical monuments. Tliese 
 presuppose the invention of letters, and the use of 
 materials for vv^riting upon ; consequently they are 
 of a later date than mere inscriptions. They occur, 
 nevertheless, in the earlier periods of nations ; and 
 from such annals, indited by public authority, (state 
 chronicles,) subsequent historians have generally 
 drawn materials for their works. In many nations, 
 and in nearly all the eastern ones, history has not 
 even yet advanced beyond the composition of such 
 chronicles. 
 regular H. The third great division of historical writings 
 
 histories. -^ formed of works composed on philosophical prin- 
 ciples, which differ from mere annals by their con- 
 taining not only a chronological narration of events, 
 but also a development of their connexion with one 
 another, their causes and effects. 
 
 But few nations among the moderns, and we know of none 
 among the ancients, except the Greeks and Romans, that had 
 any acquaintance with this sort of history. A fact wliich may 
 be attributed, — 1st, To tlie government ; for the more com- 
 pletely the affairs of a nation are under the control of arbitrary 
 power and caprice, whether of one or more individuals, so much 
 the less apparent is a rational internal connexion of events. 
 Hence philosophical history flourishes most under free govern- 
 ments ; and has not even a shadow of existence under pure de- 
 spotic constitutions. 2nd, To the degree of civilization to 
 which the nation may have attained : for the observing and un- 
 ravelling of the political connexion of events presupposes a con- 
 siderable progress in philosophical culture. 
 
 Chronology \2, Siucc all cvcnts are considered in reference to 
 graphy. the time and place in which they occur, it follows 
 that geography and chronology are indispensable as 
 auxiliary sciences in the study of history, especially 
 the ancient. These sciences, however, need not, for 
 this purpose, be considered in their full extent and 
 detail, but only so far as they are of use in determin- 
 ing and arranging events according to time and place. 
 A fixed mode of computing time is therefore neces- 
 
INTRODUCTION. ^ 
 
 sary in ancient history, as well as a continuous geo- 
 graphical description of the countries which were the 
 theatres of the principal events. 
 
 13. No method of computing time was adopted Eras. 
 generally in antiquity. Each nation, each state, had 
 its own era : yet, in the explication of ancient history, 
 there is an evident necessity that some common era 
 should be fixed upon, by which a synchronistic view 
 of the various events may be obtained. For this pur- 
 pose, the years may be computed either from the 
 creation of the world, or before and after Christ. 
 The latter method has the advantage not only of 
 greater certainty, but also of greater convenience. 
 
 Of the various modes of computing time, the best known are 
 those of the Greeks and the Romans ; the former by olympiads, 
 the latter by years from the foundation of Rome. The era of 
 the olympiads commences at B. C. 776 ; that of the foundation 
 of Rome commences at B. C. 753, according to Varro ; at B. C. 
 752, according to Cato. — The era of the Seleucida?, in the Sy- 
 rian empire, commences with B. C. 312. — Various other eras, 
 such as that of Nabonnassar, commencing with B. C. 747, are 
 founded on observations preserved by Ptolemy, and made known 
 by Scaliger, in his Doctrina Temporum. 
 
 Chronology constitutes a distinct science : the best introduc- 
 tion to which will be found in, 
 
 f J. C. Gatteker, Epitome of Chronology. Gottingen, 
 1777. A most excellent criticism on the ancient eras has lately 
 been communicated to the public by, 
 
 t L. Ideler, Historic Researches into the Astronomical Ob- 
 servations of the Ancients. Berlin, 1806. 
 
 f D. H. Hegewisch, Introduction to Historical Chronology ; 
 1811. A very useful and portable work. 
 
 [In English we have the laborious work of Dr. Hales, 
 
 Hales (Willm.) New Analysis of Chronology, explaining 
 the History and Antiquities of the primitive Nations of the World, 
 etc. Lond. 1809-12, 4 vols. 4to. New edition, corrected and 
 improved, 1830, 4 vols. 8vo. 
 
 Blair's Chronology and History of the World, from the Cre- 
 adon to the present Time. Lond. 1803, folio. 
 
 And for the brilliant period of Greece and Rome the satisfac- 
 tory volumes, 
 
 H. F. Cl\'nton's Fasti Hellenici. TJie civil and literary 
 Chronology of Greece, from the fifty-fifth to the hundred and 
 twenty-fourth Olympiad. Second edition, with additions. Ox- 
 ford, 1827, 4to. And the continuation of the same work to the 
 death of Augustus. Oxford, 1830, 4to. In this valuable work, 
 much light is also thrown upon the chronology of the times an- 
 
10 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 terior to the period with which the first volume is principally 
 occupied.] 
 
 Geography, 14. Jn ancient geography there is much care re- 
 ^lanVtru'e. quircd to distinguish the fabulous from the true. 
 With regard to true geography, as an auxiliary sci- 
 ence to history, all that can be expected is some ge- 
 neral information respecting the nature and pecu- 
 liarities of the countries, respecting their political 
 divisions, and finally, respecting the principal cities : 
 — Long lists of the names of places would be quite 
 superfluous. 
 
 Fabulous geography constitutes a part of the mythology of 
 every nation, and differs in each, because the ideas formed by 
 every early nation respecting the form and nature of the earth 
 are peculiar to itself. True geography gradually comes to light 
 as civilization increases, and discovery widens its horizon. — Ne- 
 cessity of treating it historically, on account of the manifold 
 changes to which the division and the face of the countries of 
 the ancient world have been at various periods subjected. 
 
 Christoph. Cellarii iN'o^^Y/a Orbis Antiqui. Lips. 1701 — 
 1706, 2 vols. 4to, cum observat. J. C. Schwarzh. Lips. 1771, 
 et iterum 1773. This work was for a long time the only, and 
 is still an indispensable, treatise on ancient geography. 
 
 f H. IVLvNNERT, Geography of the Greeks and Romans. Nu- 
 remberg, 1788 — 1802. This woi'k, now completed in 15 vo- 
 lumes, may be justly designated classical, from the historical 
 and critical learning which the author has every where displayed. 
 Vol. I. contains Spain ; ii. Gallia et Britain ; in. Germania, 
 Rhastia, Noricum ; iv. The Northern parts of the World, from 
 the Wessel to China ; v. India and the Persian Empire to the 
 Euphrates, 2 parts ; vi. Asia Minor, 3 parts ; vii. Thrace, 
 lUyi'ia, Macedonia, Thessaly, Epirus ; viii. Northern Greece, 
 Peloponnesus, and the Archipelago ; ix. Italy and Sicily, Sar- 
 dinia, etc., 2 parts ; x. Africa, 2 parts. 
 
 ■j" F. A. Ukert, Geography of the Greeks and Roynans, from 
 the earliest periods to the time of Ptolemy : first part, first divi- 
 sion, contains the historical, the second contains the mathema- 
 tical sections. Weimar, 1816; with maps. 
 
 GossELiN, Geographie des Grecs analysee. Paris, 1790, 
 4to. A development of the system of mathematical geography 
 among the Greeks. Partly continued in, 
 
 GossELiN, Recherches sur la Geographie des Anciens. Paris, 
 an. vi. vol. i — iv. 
 
 J. Rennel, Geographical System of Herodotus. Lond. 
 1800, 4to. 
 
 [Reprinted in 2 vols. 8vo. Lond. 1830, revised. Here, too, 
 for the benefit of the English reader may be mentioned, 
 
 Rennel's Treatise on the Comparative Geography of IVest- 
 
INTRODUCTION. 11 
 
 em Asia, with an atlas. London, 1831, 2 vols. 8vo ; pub- 
 lished since the author's death. And the learned and valuable 
 volumes of Dr. Cramer, principal of New Inn Hall, and pub- 
 lic orator of the University of Oxford : they are, 
 
 Geograj)hical and Historical Description of Ancient Greece, 
 icith a map, and jilan of Athens. Oxford, 1826, 3 vols. 8vo. 
 
 Geographical and Historical Description of Ancient Italy, 
 with a 7nap. Oxford, 1826, 2 vols. 8vo. 
 
 Geographical and Historical Description of Asia Minor, 
 with a map. Oxford, 1832, 2 vols. 8vo. 
 
 The maps Avhich accompany these works approach very nearly 
 to perfection. 
 
 As useful compendiums, there are : 
 
 An Introduction to Ancient Geography, xoith copious indexes 
 of Ancient and Modern Names, by Peter Ed. Laurent, 
 teacher in the Royal Naval Academy at Portsmouth. Oxford, 
 1813, 8vo. 
 
 A Compendium of Ancient and Modern Geography, for the 
 use of Eton School ; illustrating the most interesting points in 
 History, Poetry, and Fable ; preceded by an Introduction to the 
 study of Astronomy, and containing plans of Athens, Rome, Sy- 
 racuse, and 7iumerous diagrams explanatory of the motions of the 
 heavenly bodies, by Aaron Arrowsmitii, Ilydrographer to the 
 King, 1 vol. 8vo, with or without a copious index. London, 
 1830. 
 
 Butler's (Dr. Sam.) Shetch of Ancient and Modern Geo- 
 graphy. Seventh edition, 8vo. Also his Atlas of Ancient 
 Geography, consisting of twenty-one coloured maps, with a com- 
 plete accentuated index. 8vo.] 
 
 We are indebted to d'Anville for the best charts of ancient 
 geography : Atlas Orhis Antiqui, twelve leaves, fol. 
 
 [The Eton Comparative Atlas of Ancient and Modern 
 Geography, with the index, published in several sizes ; and 
 the Maps published by the Society for the Promotion of Useful 
 Knowledge, are very useful and correct.] 
 
 15. Ancient history may be treated either ethno- Division 
 graphically, that is, according to separate nations Manual. 
 and states ; or synchronistically, that is, according to 
 certain general epochs. Each of these methods has 
 its advantages and its disadvantages. The two, how- 
 ever, may be combined, and formed into one system ; 
 and as this seems the most convenient, it has been 
 adopted in the present work, which is accordingly 
 divided as follows : 
 
 First Book. — History of the ancient Asiatic and 
 African states and kingdoms anterior to Cyrus, or to 
 the rise of the Persian monarchy, about the year 
 
12 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 B. C. 560 : comprising little more than insulated 
 fragments. 
 
 Second Book. — History of the Persian monarchy, 
 from B. C. 560 to 330. 
 
 Third Book. — History of the Grecian states, both 
 in Greece and other parts, to the time of Alexander, 
 B. C. 336. 
 
 Fourth Book. — History of the Macedonian mon- 
 archy, and of the kingdoms which arose out of its 
 division, until they merged into the Roman empire. 
 
 Fifth Book. — History of the Roman state, both 
 as a commonwealth and a monarchy, until the fall of 
 the western empire, A. D. 476. 
 
MANUAL OF ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 THE FIRST BOOK. 
 
 HISTORICAL FRAGMENTS OF THE EARLIER ASIATIC AND 
 AFRICAN KINGDOMS AND STATES, PREVIOUS TO CYRUS, 
 OR THE RISE OF THE PERSIAN MONARCHY. 
 
 I.— ASIATIC NATIONS. 
 
 General Preliminary Remarks on the Geography of Asia. 
 
 See the Introduction to Heeren's Researches into the Politics 
 and Commerce of the Nations of Antiquity, prefixed to vol. i. 
 of the African Nations. 
 
 1. Asia is the largest and the most favourably asia. 
 
 situated of the great divisions of the globe. Its ~ 
 
 superficial contents are 11,200,000 square geogr. situation. 
 miles ; while those of Africa do not exceed 4,780,000 ; 
 
 and those of Europe are not more than 2,560,000. 
 As to situation, it comprises the greatest portion of 
 the northern temperate zone. 
 
 Compare it, in this point of view, with the other quarters of 
 the globe, especially Africa. — Advantages over the latter, in 
 consequence of the convenience of its indented shores — of its 
 surrounding fruitful islands — of its deep gulfs and large streams 
 — the few sandy deserts in its interior. 
 
 2. Natural features, and consequent division of Natural 
 the land, according to the course of the larger moun- 
 tain chains and of the principal rivers. 
 
14 
 
 GEOGRAPHICAL OUTLINE. 
 
 [book I. 
 
 ASIA. 
 
 Divisions 
 
 Northern 
 Asia. 
 
 Central 
 
 Asia. 
 
 Southern 
 Asia. 
 
 Two great mountain chains run from west to east ; in the 
 north, the Altai (nameless in antiquity) : in the south, Taurus. 
 — Branches of both : the Caucasus, between the Black and Cas- 
 pian Seas : Imaus extending along the golden desert (desert of 
 Cobi) : the Paropamisus, on the north of India : the Ural 
 (nameless in antiquity). — Of the rivers remarkable in ancient 
 history, there are four flowing from north to south, namely, the 
 Euphrates and Tigris, which fall into the Persian Gulf ; the 
 Indus and Ganges, which fall into the Indian Sea : two which 
 run from east to west, and discharged their waters into the 
 Caspian Sea, (but now into the Sea of Aral,) namely, the Oxus 
 (or Jihon) and the Jaxartes (or Sirr). 
 
 3. This quarter of the globe is accordingly divided 
 into Northern Asia, comprising the regions north of 
 Altai; Central Asia, or the countries between the 
 Altai and Taurus ; and Southern Asia, or the lands 
 south of Taurus. 
 
 4. Northern Asia, between the 76th and 50th pa- 
 rallels of north latitude, (Asiatic Russia and Siberia,) 
 was almost, though not entirely, unknown in anti- 
 quity. Some obscure hints, though partly true, re- 
 specting it, are found in Herodotus, the father of 
 history. 
 
 5. Central Asia, the regions extending between 
 the 50th and 40th degrees of north latitude, Scythia 
 and Sarmatia Asiatica (Great Tartary and Mongol) ; 
 for the most part a boundless, barren table land, de- 
 void of arable fields or forests ; and consequently a 
 mere country of pasture. — The inhabitants pastors, 
 (nomads,) without cities or fixed abodes ; recognising 
 no other political association than patriarchal go- 
 vernment. 
 
 Peculiar mode of life and character of nomad nations : pow- 
 erful influence which they have exercised, as conquerors, on 
 political history. — Whether we have a right to expect that the 
 civilization of the human race will for ever continue to advance, 
 when we consider that perhaps one half of it has from time im- 
 memorial remained, and from its physical situation must for 
 ever remain, in a nomad state. 
 
 6. Southern Asia, or the regions from the 40th 
 degree of N. lat. to about the equator. — Its natural 
 features altogether different from those of Central 
 Asia. The great advantages of these regions com- 
 pared with all other parts of the earth, in possessing 
 
BOOK I.] GEOGRAPHICAL OUTLINE. 15 
 
 a soil and climate highly favourable for agriculture ; asia. 
 and an abundance of various costly productions. To 
 these circumstances may be attributed, 1st, The adop- 
 tion of fixed habitations and political associations in 
 these countries, from the earliest times. 2ndly, Their 
 becoming the principal seat of trade, from the in- 
 fancy of civilization to the discovery of America. 
 
 Reflections upon the rise of political associations. — Whether, 
 according to the general opinion, they were produced solely by 
 agriculture and the possession of land ; or, whether religion, by 
 which I mean the common worship of one divinity as the na- 
 tional god, (communia sacra,) was not the main bond which 
 united the earliest states of antiquity ? — How shall we account 
 for the very remarkable fact, that in the earliest civil societies 
 in the world, the priesthood is generally found to be a ruling 
 caste. — Reflections on early trade, particularly that of the East, 
 before it was changed, by the discovery of America and the 
 new passage to India, from a land trade to a sea trade. — Ob- 
 servations upon ancient commercial routes across Asia. — The 
 banks of the large rivers destined by nature to become the seats 
 of commerce for the interior ; on the Oxus, Bactra and Mara- 
 canda (Samarcand); on the Euphrates and Tigris, Babylon. — 
 The sea shores on the western coast of Asia Minor and Phoe- 
 nicia, pointed out also by nature as places of commerce ; — line 
 of Grecian and Phoenician factories. 
 
 7. Division of Southern Asia. 1st, South-western 
 Asia, from the Mediterranean to the Indus ; 2nd, 
 South-eastern Asia, from the Indus to the eastern 
 ocean. 
 
 A. South-western Asia is again subdivided into 
 the countries — 1st, on this side the Euphrates — 
 2ndly, between the Euphrates and Tigris — 3rdly, 
 between the Tigris and the Indus. 
 
 1. Countries on this side the Euphrates. 
 
 (a) The peninsula of Asia Minor (Natolia). Prin- Asia Minor. 
 cipal rivers : the Halys and Sangarius. Countries : 
 three towards the west, Mysia, Lydia, Caria. Along 
 the shore, the Greek sea-ports of Phocsea, Ephesus, 
 Miletus, Smyrna, Halicarnassus, etc. Inland, the 
 cities of Sardes in Lydia, of Pergamus in Mysia. 
 
 Three towards the south, Lycia, Pamphylia, and 
 Cilicia, with its capital Tarsus. 
 
 Three towards the north, Bithynia, Paphlagonia, 
 Pontus ; with the Greek ports of Heraclea, Amisus, 
 
16 
 
 GEOGRAPHICAL OUTLINE. 
 
 [book I. 
 
 Islands, 
 
 Syria, 
 
 Phoenicia, 
 
 Palestine 
 
 ASIA, and Sinope. Two inland, Phrygia, together with 
 Galatia and the capital cities of Gordium and Celae- 
 
 nse ; Cappadocia, with the city of Mazaca. 
 
 (/>) Islands along the coast of Asia Minor : Lesbos, 
 
 with the city of Mitylene ; Chios, Samos, Cos, Rhodes, 
 
 with cities of the same name, 
 
 (c) Syria, together with Phoenicia and Palestine. 
 1st, Syria, properly so called. Cities: Damascus, 
 Emessa, Heliopolis (Baalbec). In the desert, Pal- 
 myra. 2nd, Phoenicia, a mountainous tract, extend- 
 ing along the shore. Mountains : Libanus and An- 
 tilibanus. Cities : Tyre, on an island opposite the 
 ancient Tyre, which was situated upon the mainland ; 
 Sidon, Byblus, Berytus, Tripolis, Aradus. 3rd, 
 Palestine. Mountains : Carmel, Tabor. River : 
 Jordan, which discharges its waters into the Dead 
 Sea. Division of Palestine ; first, according to the 
 twelve tribes ; afterwards into the provinces, of Ju- 
 daea, capital Jerusalem ; of Samaria, cities, Samaria, 
 Sichem ; and of Galilee. 
 
 (d) Peninsula of Arabia, abounding in vast sandy 
 deserts, and almost entirely occupied by nomad 
 tribes. Its southern and eastern coasts render it, 
 nevertheless, a most important seat of trade. In 
 the north, Arabia Petraea, so called from the town 
 of Petra. Inland, Arabia Deserta. In the south, 
 Arabia Felix ; rich, both in natural productions, 
 being the native land of almost every kind of per- 
 fume, particularly frankincense ; and also as being 
 the ancient staple for the merchandise of India. 
 Cities ; Mariaba, Aden, etc. In the east, the trading 
 town of Gerra, and the islands near the shore, Tylos 
 and Aradus, (Bahrein,) both likewise marts for Ara- 
 bian and Indian wares, particularly cinnamon from 
 Taprobane (Ceylon). 
 
 2. Countries between the Euphrates and Tigris. 
 
 (a) Mesopotamia ; in the interior a sterile table 
 
 land, entirely occupied by nomad hordes. Cities on 
 
 the Euphrates, Thapsacus, Circesium, Cunaxa; in 
 
 the north, Zoba or Nisibis. 
 
 Armenia. (Z») Armenia, north of the foregoing. Very moun- 
 
 Arab 
 
 Mesopota- 
 mia. 
 
BOOK I.] GEOGRAPHICAL OUTLINE. 17 
 
 tainous ; for a long time without cities, but at last it asia. 
 
 had Tigranocerta. Rivers : the Cyrus and Araxes, 
 
 falling into the Caspian ; and the Phasis, falling into 
 the Black Sea. 
 
 (c) Babylonia, the southern part of Mesopotamia, Babylonia. 
 from which it was separated by the Median wall. A 
 level plain, remarkable for the richness of its soil ; 
 formerly, by its high cultivation, its canals and lakes, 
 and the erection of dams, the most fruitHil, and, from 
 its situation, the most opulent staple of inner Asia. 
 Cities : Babylon on the Euphrates, Borsippa. 
 
 Whether the account given by Herodotus, as an eyewitness, 
 of the size and splendour of Babylon, is not exaggerated ? — 
 Manner in which the great Asiatic cities arose out of the royal 
 encampments of the nomad conquerors. 
 
 3. CoiiJitries between the Tigris and the Indus. 
 (a) Assyria, or the province of Adiabene ; a table Assyria. 
 land. Cities : Nineveh, (Ninus,) Arbela. 
 
 The name of Assyria is also frequently taken by the Greeks 
 in a wider acceptation, as comprising both Mesopotamia and 
 Babylonia ; it is sometimes even confounded with Syria. 
 
 {])) Susiana, a fruitful district, with the city Susa Susiana. 
 on the river Choaspes, or Eulseus, (Ulai,) one of the 
 residences of the Persian monarchs. 
 
 (c) Persis, rugged and mountainous towards the Persia, 
 north ; level and fruitful in the centre ; sandy towards 
 
 the south. Rivers : the Cyrus and Araxes. Cities : 
 Persepolis or Pasargada, the national palace and 
 cemetery of the kings of Persia. 
 
 The name of Persis was, in ancient as well as in modern ge- 
 ography, taken in a more extensive sense, as comprising all the 
 countries between the Tigris and Indus, with the exception of 
 Assyria. In this sense, it contains three countries towards the 
 south — Persis, properly so called, Carmania, Gedrosia : three 
 central countries — Media, Aria, Arachosia : and three countries 
 towards the north — Parthia and Hyrcania, Bactria, Sogdiana. 
 
 (d) Carmania, an extensive country, for the most Carmania. 
 part desert, ranging along the Persian Gulf and In- 
 dian Sea. Cities : Carmana, Harmozia. 
 
 {e) Gedrosia, tract of land running along the coast Gedrosia. 
 between Carmania and India, and washed by the 
 
 c 
 
18 
 
 GEOGRAPHICAL OUTLINE. 
 
 i BOOK I. 
 
 ASIA. 
 
 Media. 
 
 Aria 
 
 Arachosia. 
 
 Parthia. 
 
 Bactria. 
 
 Soffdiana. 
 
 Indian Sea. A mere sandy desert; towards the 
 north, mountainous. Town, Pura. 
 
 (/) Media, above Persis ; an extensive and very 
 fruitful country; mountainous towards the north. 
 Rivers : Araxes, Cyrus, and Mardus. Cities : Ec- 
 batana, Rages. The northern district was Hkewise 
 known by the name of Atropatene, (Azerbeijan,) or 
 Lesser Media. 
 
 (g) Aria, a smooth table land, with a lake and 
 river, Arius : and one city, Aria or Artacoana. 
 
 (A) Arachosia ; a rich and fertile country on the 
 frontiers of India ; bounded towards the north by the 
 Paropamisus chain. Cities: Arachotus and Proph- 
 thasia. The neighbouring highlands, occupied by a 
 numerous population, (now Cabul and Kandahar,) 
 are often regarded, in consequence of their being 
 subject to the Persian dominion, as forming part of 
 Persia. They are known by the name of Paropamisus. 
 
 (i) Parthia and Hyrcania, rugged mountainous 
 districts to the north of Media; but abounding in 
 magnificent and fertile vales. Before and during the 
 predominance of Persia, but little knov>^n and little 
 valued ; and without cities. It was at a considerably 
 later period that the inhabitants of Parthia became a 
 dominant nation. 
 
 (k) Bactria, the country on the south bank of the 
 Oxus ; rich in natural productions, and one of the 
 most ancient marts of Asia. River : Oxus. Cities : 
 Bactra and Zariaspa. 
 
 Bactria lies on the frontier of India, Little Thibet, Bukharia, 
 (the north India of Herodotus and Ctesias,) and the desert of 
 Gobi (Herodotus's golden desert) : the road to China runs 
 through this country. Nature, by the geographical situation in 
 which she has placed Bactria, seems to have destined it to be the 
 great empoi-ium for the wares of south-eastern Asia ; and in pro- 
 portion as we penetrate into early history, we become convinced 
 that Bactria, like Babylon, must have been one of the earliest 
 seats of international commerce, and consequently, if not the 
 birthplace, one of the cradles of infant civilization. 
 
 (/) Sogdiana, the territory between the upper Oxus 
 and upper Jaxartes, the latter dividing it from Central 
 Asia. (A part of Great Bukharia.) Its peculiarities 
 
BOOK I.] POLITICAL GENERALITIES. 19 
 
 and advantages similar to those of the neighbouring asia. 
 Bactria. Capital : Maracanda (Samarcand). 
 
 B. South-eastern Asia, or Asia beyond the Indus, 
 offers nothing remarkable for history till a later period. 
 See Book V. Period IV. 
 
 General Preliminary Observations upon the History and 
 Constitution of the great Asiatic Empires. 
 
 1. Asia contained in ancient times, as it does at Magnitude 
 present, empires of immense extent, differinp; mate- °f ^^! ^"^' 
 rially both in this respect and in their constitution Asia. 
 from the civilized nations of Europe. Changes were 
 frequent ; but the form of government continued 
 nearly always the same. Some deeply rooted and 
 
 active principles therefore must have been in con- 
 stant operation, to have given so repeatedly, in these 
 various revolutions, the same organization to the king- 
 doms of Asia. 
 
 2. The great revolutions of Asia, with the excep- Nature of 
 tion of that caused by Alexander, were effected by iut7öns!^°" 
 the numerous and powerful nomad races which in- 
 habited a large portion of that continent. Pressed 
 
 by necessity or circumstances, they forsook their own 
 seats, founded new kingdoms, and carried war and 
 conquest into the fruitful and cultivated lands of 
 Southern Asia, until, enervated by luxury, the con- 
 sequence of the change in their mode of life, they were 
 in their turn, and in a similar manner, subjugated. 
 
 3. This origin, common to all Asiatic kingdoms, ^heir short 
 accounts for their immense extent, their rapid estab- 
 lishment, and their generally brief duration. 
 
 4. The internal organization must, for the same similarity 
 reasons, have been nearly alike in all ; and the con- constTtu- 
 stant re-appearance of despotism is accounted for, tions. 
 partly by the rights of conquest, partly by the vast 
 extent of the subdued countries, which obliged the 
 rulers to have recourse to satrap-government. 
 
 5. To this, it must moreover be added, that among; Effects of 
 
 2 polygamy. 
 
20 POLITICAL GENERALITIES. [book i. 
 
 ASIA, all the considerable nations of inner Asia, the pater- 
 
 nal government of every household was corrupted by 
 
 polygamy : vi^here that custom exists, a good political 
 constitution is impossible ; fathers being converted 
 into domestic despots, are ready to pay the same 
 abject obedience to their sovereign that they exact 
 from their family and dependants in their domestic 
 economy. 
 
 To avoid confusion, it will be necessary to define the terms 
 despotism and despotic government. In theoiy, we must admit 
 THREE essentially different kinds of government. 1st, The de- 
 spotic, in wiiich the members of the state are not secured in the 
 possession of their rights as men, (personal freedom and security 
 of property,) nor of their rights as citizens (active participation 
 in the legislative power). Such a constitution exists only by 
 force, and can never be lawful. 2nd, The autocratic, in wiiich 
 the members of the state are in full possession of their rights as 
 men, but not of their rights as citizens. This government, 
 therefore, ai'ises from the union of the legislative and exe- 
 cutive powers in the person of the ruler. In form, it is either 
 monarchical or aristocratical (a pure monarchy, or a pure aris- 
 tocracy). This kind of government is most likely to be estab- 
 lished by usurpation ; it may, nevertheless, be acquired by 
 succession, or even adopted by common consent : it may there- 
 fore be lawful. 3rd, The republican, in which the members of 
 the state are in possession of their rights, both as men and as 
 citizens. This government necessarily presupposes a separation 
 of the legislative and executive powers ; and with regard to its 
 form, may be either monarchical or aristocratical (a moderate 
 monarchy, or a moderate aristocracy). — How for can a pure de- 
 mocracy be called a government, and comprised under any of 
 the foregoing heads ? — Explanation of the despotism in the 
 Asiatic kingdoms, and the attempts made to limit it by religion 
 and religious institutions. 
 
 Rise, pro- 6. General features in the gradual internal de- 
 faiTof no'^ velopment of all empires formed by nomad con- 
 mad em- querors. id) At first the mere occupation of rich 
 ^"^"' territories, and levying of tribute, {b) Hence the 
 
 constitutions already established among the conquer- 
 ed or tributary nations generally suffered to remain. 
 (c) Gradual progress towards the adoption of a fixed 
 abode and the building of cities, together with the 
 assumption of the customs and civilization of the 
 conquered, {ct) Division into provinces, and, as a 
 necessary consequence, the establishment of satrap- 
 
BOOK I.] 
 
 ASSYRIANS. 
 
 21 
 
 government, (e) Insurrections of the satraps, and 
 the internal ruin of the state prepared thereby. (/]) 
 The influence of the seraglio on the government has 
 the same effect, for its unavoidable consequences are — 
 effeminacy and indolence in the rulers, (g) Hence 
 the dissolution of the empire, or its total annihilation 
 by some violent attack from without. 
 
 ASIA. 
 
 Period 
 
 BEfORE 
 
 Cyrus. 
 
 Fragments of the History of the ancient Asiatic Kingdoms 
 previous to Cyrus. 
 
 Sources, and their critical examination : 1. Jewish writings, 
 particularly tlie books of Kings, Chronicles, and the Prophets ; 
 together with the Mosaic records. 2. Greek writers, Herodotus, 
 Ctesias, and Diodorus : later chroniclers, Syncellus, Eusebius, 
 Ptolemy. 3. Native writer, Berosus. Futility of all endea- 
 vours to arrange into one work the accounts of authors so en- 
 tirely different by birth and the times in which they flourished : 
 a task attempted by the French writers, Sevin, Freret, and 
 Debrosse, in their papers contained in the Mem. de I'Acad. des 
 Inscript. 
 
 VoLNEV, Bccherches nouvelles sur THistoire ancienne. 1808 
 — 1814: very important and authentic, so far as regards the 
 system of Herodotus's chronology. 
 
 I. Afisyrian luoiiarchij. 
 
 1. With the Greeks, Assyrian is generally a com- Assyrians 
 mon name applied to the ruling nations about the "^^^^^^ ^jf. 
 Euphrates and Tigris before the time of Cyrus, feientfrom 
 With the Jews, on the contrary, it signifies a distinct nXews.'^ 
 nation of conquerors, and the founders of an empire. 
 Hence a necessary discrepancy between the Grecian 
 
 and Hebrew statements. 
 
 2. Assyrian history, according to Grecian autho- Grecian 
 rities, particularly Ctesias and Diodorus, is nothing =*^'^^""^- 
 more than mere traditions of ancient heroes and 
 heroines, who at some early period founded a large 
 kingdom in tlie countries about the Euphrates and 
 Tigris; traditions without any chronological data, 
 
 and in the style of the East. Ninus — Semiramis — 
 Ninyas — Sardanapalus. 
 
 According to Herodotus, an Assyi-ian empire of 520 years' 
 
22 RIEDES. [book I. 
 
 Period duration, 1237 — 717. Lists of Assyrian kings in the clironi- 
 EEFORE cles of Syncellus and Eusebius. 
 
 3. Assyrian history, according to Jewish autho- 
 
 Jewish ac- yitics. Chronological history of an Assyrian empire 
 between B. C. 800 and 700. — Seat of the nation in 
 Assyria, properly so called. — Capital : Nineveh on 
 the Tigris. — Extension of their dominion as far as 
 Syria and Phoenicia. 
 
 Line of Assyrian kings : 1. Pul, about 773. Livasion of 
 Syria. 2. TigLath-Pileser, about 740. He overthrows the 
 kingdom of Damascus. 3. Shalmaneser, about 720. He de- 
 stroys the kingdom of Samaria. Transplantation of the inha- 
 bitants into inner Asia. 4. Sennacherib, about 714. Mighty 
 expedition against Egypt, frustrated by a pestilence. 5. Esar- 
 haddon. 
 
 Contem-porary : Jews, the divided kingdoms of Israel and 
 Judah. — Greeks, decennial archons at Athens. — Romans, rise 
 of the state and the two first kings. 
 
 II. Median monarchy. 
 Different 1. The name of Medes is undoubtedly often used 
 
 orSe^vord ^»y the Greeks to designate one nation ; it is, how- 
 Medes. evcr, frequently made use of as a common appella- 
 tion of the ruling nations in eastern Asia, from the 
 Tigris to the Indus, (or Persia, in the more extensive 
 sense of that word,) before Cyrus. — With the Jews : 
 nothing more than general hints of the Medes as a 
 conquering nation. 
 Great na- 2. Although thc statcmcnts of the Grecian writers, 
 t'o°havrex-" as well as of the Zendavesta, sufficiently prove that 
 isted east of long bcforc the rise of the Persian power mighty 
 t e igris. j^jj^g^iQ^^g existed in these regions ; and particularly 
 in the eastern part, or Bactria ; yet we have no con- 
 sistent or chronological history of these states : 
 nothing but a few fragments, probably of dynasties 
 which ruled in Media, properly so called, imme- 
 diately previous to the Persians. 
 
 a. Herodotus' s History of the Medes. Herodotus's Medes are 
 unquestionably the inhabitants of Media, properly so called. 
 Division into six tribes: among these, that of the Magi. — 
 Ruling nation after the overthrow of the Assyrians. — Capital 
 of their empire, Ecbatana. — Boundaries : west, the Tigris and 
 Halys ; east, unknown. — Liternal organization : graduated sub- 
 jection of the various nations to one another, according to their 
 distance from the seat of empire ; rigid despotism ; and impo- 
 
BOOK I.] BABYLONI\NS. 2d 
 
 sition of tribute. Line of kings between B. C. 717 — 560. Period 
 Deioces, 53 ;/. the founder of J:cbatana, d. 657. — Piiraortes, 22 befoke 
 y. down to 635. He conquers Persia. Cyaxares I. 40 y. down ^R^s. 
 to 595. He establishes military discipline among the Medes. 
 Wages war with the Lydians, the Assyrians. — Irruption of the 
 Scythians and Cimmerians, 625. — He takes Nineveh, 597. 
 Astyages, 38 y. down to 560, when he was dethroned by Cyrus. 
 According to Xenophon, Astyages was followed by another 
 Median prince, Cyaxares II. b. Ctesias's History of the Medes, 
 deduced from Persian archives, and contained in Diodorus. 
 Probably a different dynasty in eastern Asia. Line of kings, 
 between B. C. 800 and 560. Arbaces, conqueror of the As- 
 syrians, \S y. Mandaucus, 50 y. Sosarmes, 30 y. Artias, 
 50 y. Arbanes, 22 y. Artfeus, 40 y. and Artyiies, 22 y. 
 Sanguinary wars with the nomad races of the East, the Sacae, 
 and Cadusii. Artibarnas, 1 4 y. Astyages, the last king. 
 
 Contemporary : Jews, kingdom of Judah alone. — Greeks, 
 yearly archons, Draco, Solon. — Romans, kings from Tullus 
 Hostilius to Servius TuUius. 
 
 III. Bahi/lonian monarchy. 
 
 Periods: 1st, Previous to the Chaldsean conquest, Babjio- 
 whicb occurred about 630. 2nd, From the Chal- ^"^^'• 
 dsean conquest to the Persian, 630 — 538. 
 
 1. Babylon was not only spoken of in the most ist period, 
 remote antiquity, but is mentioned in the Jewish [°aJnJe,ite*^* 
 traditions as the earhest scene of poHtical treaties, 
 
 and as the most ancient seat of intercourse for the 
 nations of Asia. Traditions concerning Nimrod — 
 and the erection of the tower of Babel. — Comparison 
 of those traditions with the Babylonian mythology in 
 Berosus. — Scanty historical notices of this period in 
 the later Jewish writers; and probable subjection of 
 Babylon to the Assyrian empire. 
 
 2. In the second period, 630—538, the Babylo- 2nd period, 
 
 mans were the rulmo- nation ot western Asia. — Ihe ciiaidjeaus. 
 
 Chaldaeans take possession of Babylon, there establish 
 
 themselves, and ultimately extend their empire, by 
 
 conquest, to the Mediterranean. 
 
 Origin of the Chaldaeans : whether that name was applied to 
 a distinct nation, or to the northern nomads in general ? — Line 
 of Chald;Tian kings. In the enumeration of these rulers, as given 
 by Ptolemy, this line begins with Nabonassar, and the era bear- 
 ing the name of that sovereign, whicli commences in the year 
 B. C. 747 (probably because, under the reign of that prince, 
 the adoption of the Egyptian solar year first introduced among 
 the Clialdaians an exact method of reckoning time). Neither 
 
S4 ASIA MINOR. [book i. 
 
 Period Nabonassar Mtnself, nor his twelve immediate successors, are 
 BEFORE remarkable in history : the six last alone deserve notice. 1. 
 Cyrus. Nabopolassar, 627 — 604. Settlement in Babylon ; and com- 
 plete establishment of the Chaldaso-Babylonian dominion, by 
 his victory over Pharaoh-Nechoh, near Circesium, in 604. 2. 
 Nebuchadnezzar, 604 — 561. Brilliant period of the Chald^o- 
 Babylonian empire. He conquers Phoenicia and Old Tyre 
 about .586 : Jerusalem in 587 ; pi'obable irruptions into Egypt. 
 Construction of immense buildings and canals in and about Ba- 
 bylon. Rapid decline of the empire after his death, under — 3. 
 Evil-Merodach, 561 — 559. 4. Neriglissar, (probably the con- 
 temporary of Herodotus's Nitocris,) — 555. Labosoarchad 
 murdered, after a few months' reign. Nabonadius, (Herodotus's 
 Labynetus, and probably the Chaldtean Belshazzar,) 555 — 
 538, attacked and conquered by Cyrus. Sack of Babylon by 
 the Persians, 538. 
 
 See the section concerning the Babylonians in A. H. L. 
 Heeren's Historical Researches, vol. i. part 2. 
 
 Contemporary: Jews, last sovereigns of the kingdom of 
 Judah. — Greeks, Solon, Pisistratus. — Romans, Tarquinius 
 Priscus and Servius TuUius. 
 
 IV. States and kbigdoms in Asia Minor. 
 No lasting The number and variety of the inhabitants of this 
 empire peninsula, was probably the reason why they never 
 
 formed in *" -^ i • - ^ • T-1 ^ • 
 
 Asia Minor, became united into one empire. Ine most import- 
 ant nations among them, were the Carians in the 
 west ; the Phrygians in the centre, reaching as far 
 as the Halys ; the Syro-Cappadocians beyond the 
 Halys ; and the Thracians in Bithynia. Neverthe- 
 less we find here but three kingdoms deserving no- 
 tice — the Trojan, the Phrygian, and the Lydian. 
 
 Troy. 1. The Trojan empire comprised western Mysia : 
 
 its history consists of mere traditions contained in 
 poets, with very uncertain chronological data. 
 
 Kings: Teucer, about 1400. — Dardanus — Erichthonius — 
 Tros (Troja) — Ilus (Ilium) — Laomedon — Priam. The destruc- 
 tion of Troy, after a ten years' war, occurred, it is probable, 
 B. C. 1190. 
 
 Contemporary : Jews, time of the Judges : before the found- 
 ation of Rome, 450 years. 
 
 Phrjgia. 2. The Phrygian empire. — Almost all the kings 
 
 were named Midas and Gordius ; their succession 
 cannot be accurately determined. After the death 
 of the last, called Midas V., Phrygia became a pro- 
 vince of the Lydian empire, about 560. 
 
BOOK I.] PHCENICIA. ylD 
 
 3. The Lydian empire. — The Lydians (Mseonians) Period 
 were a branch of the Carian tribe. According to cYrus^ 
 
 Herodotus, three dynasties ruled in Lydia ; the Aty- 
 
 adae down to 1232 ; the HeracHdee ^down to 727 ; J?,^ei%nas- 
 and the Mermnadee down to 557 : the two first are t'es there. 
 almost wholly fabulous, and the proper history of 
 Lydia may be said to commence with the last dynasty. 
 
 Kings : Gyges, down to 689. From this period followed al- 
 most uninterrupted wars with the Greek settlements on the sea- 
 coast. Gyges takes Colophon. Ardys down to 640. He takes 
 Priene. Under his reign, an irruption of the Cimmerians. Sa- 
 dyattes down to 628. Alyattes down to 571. Expulsion of the 
 Cimmerians. Capture of Smyrna. Crcesus down to 557. He 
 takes Ephesus, and subjugates Asia'lMinor as far as the Halys. 
 Under his reign, the first rise of a Lydian empire, which how- 
 ever is overthrown by Cyrus. Asia Minor becomes a province 
 of the Persian empire. 
 
 Contemporary with which, in Asia, were the j\Iedic and Ba- 
 bylonian empires. — Among the Jews, the last period of the 
 kingdom of Judah. — Among the Greeks, the yearly archons at 
 Athens. — With the Romans, the kings. 
 
 V. Phaniicia. 
 
 The Phoenicians may be regarded as one of the Frai^ments 
 most remarkable nations of Asia during this period ; cianhTstörv. 
 yet we have no complete, or even connected history 
 of this people. But though a few scattered frag- 
 ments are all we possess, we may from these trace 
 out a general outline. 
 
 The peculiar sources of Phoenician history. — How far San- 
 choniathon deserves to be mentioned here ? — Hebrew writers, 
 particularly Elzekiel : Greek writers ; Josephus — Eusebius, etc., 
 and the fragments which he has preserved of INIenander of 
 Ephesus, and Dius, historians of Tyre. 
 
 JVIiGNOT, Mtmoires sur les Phanciens ; inserted in Mem. de 
 VAcad. des Inscript. t. xxxiv. — xUi. A series of twenty-four 
 papers. 
 
 The section concerning the Phoenicians in A. H. L. Heeren's 
 JResearches into the Politics, etc. 
 
 I. Observations on the internal state of Phcenicia. Pinrnician 
 It did not constitute one state, or, at least, one single iJ^cYtSr^ 
 empire ; but consisted of several, and their territories. 
 Alliances, however, were naturally formed between 
 them, and hence a kind of supremacy of the more 
 powerful, particularly of Tyre. 
 
PHCENICIANS. 
 
 [book I, 
 
 Period 
 
 BEFORE 
 
 Cyrus. 
 
 Each city 
 independ- 
 ent, but 
 T\ro tlie 
 first. 
 
 Tyrian 
 kings. 
 
 Phoenician 
 colonies, 
 
 in the 
 islands ; 
 
 Spain : 
 
 2. But though Tyre stood at the head, and claimed 
 a certain degree of superiority, each separate state 
 still possessed its own particular government. In all 
 of them we meet with kings, who appear to have 
 possessed but a limited authority, as we always find 
 magistrates associated with them in power. Among 
 a mercantile and colonizing people, it was impossible 
 that absolute despotism should endure for any length 
 of time. Of the separate states. Tyre is the only one 
 of which we possess a series of kings ; and even that 
 series is not complete. 
 
 This line of kings, which we derive from Menander through 
 Josephus, commences with Abical, the contemporary of David, 
 about B. C. 1050. The most remarkable among them are : 
 Hiram, the successor of Abical ; — Ethbaal I., about 920 ; — 
 Pygmalion, Dido's brother, about 900 ; — Ethbaal II. in whose 
 reio-n Tyre was sacked by Nebuchadnezzar, 586. — Foundation 
 of New Tyre — republican constitution under suffetes : tributary 
 kings under the Persian rule ; — conquest of New Tyre by 
 Alexander, 332. The flourishing period of Phoenicia in ge- 
 neral, and of Tyre in particular, falls therefore between 1000 
 —332. 
 
 Contemporary in inner Asia : monarchies of the Assyrians, 
 Medes, and the Babylonians. Jews : period of the kings after 
 Dayid. Greeks : from Homer to Solon. Romans : period of 
 their kings in the last two centuries. 
 
 3. During this period the Phoenicians spread 
 themselves by the establishment of colonies; some 
 of which, particularly Carthage, became as power- 
 ful as the mother states. 
 
 General ideas concerning colonization. — 1. Colonies are ab- 
 solutely necessary to every seafaring and commercial people, 
 whenever their trade extends to distant countries. 2. They 
 have likewise been established for the purpose of providing for 
 the excessive increase of the poor. 3. And they have some- 
 times arisen from political commotion, when the malcontents, 
 either from free will, or force, have forsaken their country, and 
 sought new settlements in distant regions. 
 
 4. Geographical sketch of the Phoenician colonies. 
 They possessed, at a very early period, most of the 
 islands of the Archipelago ; from which, however, 
 they were subsequently expelled by the Greeks. 
 The principal countries in which they had settlements 
 were the south of Spain (Tartessus, Gades, Carteia) ; 
 
BOOK I.] PHCENICIANS. 21 
 
 the north coast of Africa, west of the Lesser Syrtis period 
 (Utica, Carthage, Adrumetum) ; and the north-west- cTrus^ 
 ern coast of Sicily (Panormus, Lilybaeum). It is 
 
 likewise highly probable that they formed settlements ^l^^^.! 
 towards the east in the Persian Gulf, on the islands probkbiy in 
 of Tylos and Aradus (Bahrein). Su/"'"" 
 
 5. This sketch of the Phoenician colonies will give Sea trade of 
 us some idea of the extent of their sea trade and na- c'Ja„f'^°^'^^' 
 vigation ; which, however, extended much fartlier 
 
 than their colonies. Among them, as among other 
 
 nations, commerce took its rise in piracy ; even as 
 
 late as the time of Homer, the Phoenicians appear to 
 
 have been freebooters. The principal objects of their 
 
 commerce were, (a) the settlements in north Africa 
 
 and Spain ; the latter more particularly, on account 
 
 of its rich silver mines, (b) Beyond the Pillars of 
 
 Hercules, the west coast of Africa ; Britain and the 
 
 Scilly islands, for the purpose of procuring tin, and, 
 
 very probably, amber, (c) From Elath and Ezion- 
 
 Gebar, ports situate at the northern extremity of the 
 
 Arabian Gulf, they undertook, in connexion with 
 
 the Jews, voyages to Ophir, that is to say, to the 
 
 rich lands of the south, particularly Arabia Felix and 
 
 Ethiopia. {(/) From the Persian Gulf, they extended 
 
 their commerce to the western peninsula of India and 
 
 the island of Ceylon. Finally, (e) they made several They double 
 
 extensive voyages of discovery, among which, the qq^^ho "e 
 
 most remarkable was the circumnavigation of Africa. 
 
 6. Of no less importance was the land trade, mostly Their hmd 
 carried on by caravans. The principal branches of 
 
 it were ; (a) The Arabian caravan trade for spices 
 and incense, imported from Arabia Felix, Gerra, and 
 the Persian Gulf. (Z>) The trade through Palmyra 
 with Babylon, which opened them an indirect com- 
 munication by way of Persia, with Lesser Bukharia 
 and Little Thibet, probably even with China itself 
 (c) The trade with Armenia and the neighbouring 
 countries in slaves, horses, copper utensils, etc. 
 
 7. To all this must be added their own manufac- t^e-" "^anu- 
 tures, particularly their stuffs and dyes ; (the purple, 
 
 made of the juice of a marine shellfish ;) their manu- 
 
28 SYRIANS. [book i. 
 
 Period factures of glass and toys, which, in their commerce 
 Cyrus, with uncivihzecl nations, generally carried on by bar- 
 — ter, were turned to good account. Many other im- 
 portant discoveries, among which the invention of 
 letters holds the first rank, are attributed to the 
 Phoenicians. 
 
 VI. Syrians. 
 
 Syria an 1. The inhabitants of Syria dwelt in cities as early 
 
 early state; ^^ ß q 2000, whcu Abraham wandered over their 
 country. This country did not form one single state, 
 but consisted of several cities, each of which had its 
 separate territory, and its chief or king ; of these ci- 
 ties, Damascus, Hamath, etc. are mentioned in the 
 most remote antiquity. 
 a frequent 2. Thc Syrians were, however, often subjected by 
 coiiquest: forcign couqucrors ; and their country was certainly, 
 about B. c. at least in the time of David, a Jewish province. It 
 shook off the yoke, however, in the time of Solomon ; 
 when Rezon, who had formerly been a slave, obtained 
 possession of Damascus. 
 Kiny:<iom of 3. After this, there arose the kingdom of Damas- 
 cus, which comprised the greatest portion of Syria, 
 the kings in the other cities becoming tributary to 
 Damascus. The boundaries of the empire, too, were 
 extended, and particularly at the expense of the di- 
 vided kingdoms of Judah and Israel. 
 
 The kings, Avhose names are taken from the books of Chroni- 
 cles, were ; Rezon, about 980. Benhadad I., about 900. Ha- 
 zael, about 850. Benhadad IL, about 830. Rezin. Under 
 this last, tlie kingdom of Damascus was overthrown by the As- 
 syrian conqueror Tiglath-Pileser, about 740. 
 
 Contemporary in Inner Asia : Assyrian kingdom. Jews : 
 kingdoms of Israel and Judah. Greeks : settlement of the 
 Asiatic colonies — Lycurgus. 
 
 VII. Jews. 
 Periods of The history of the Jewish people begins with 
 
 Abraham, the father of their race ; that of the Jewish 
 state does not commence till after the conquest of 
 Palestine. It is divided into three periods. I. His- 
 tory of the Jews, as a nomad family, from Abraham 
 till their settlement in Palestine, B. C. 2000—1500. 
 II. History of the Jewish state as a federative repub- 
 
 Damascus. 
 
 Jewish liis- 
 tory 
 
BOOK I.] JEWISH HISTORY. 29 
 
 lie under the high priests and judges, from B, C. Period 
 1500 — 1100. III. History of the Jewish state un- cTrTs^ 
 
 der a monarchical government, from B. C. 1100 — 
 
 600, first in one kingdom, — 976 ; afterwards as two 
 separate kingdoms, Israel and Judah, until the down- 
 fal of the latter, 588. 
 
 Sources of the Jewish history. — Their annals : — Books of 
 Judges, Samuel, Chronicles, Kings. How those books were 
 composed, and whether their authors may be considered as con- 
 temporary with the events they relate ? How far the Hebrew 
 poets, the prophets in particular, may be considered as historical 
 authority ? — Josephus, as an anticjuarian in his Archceologia, 
 and as a contemporary historian in his Historkt Belli Bomntii. 
 
 Unfortunately there is not at present any satisfactory treatise 
 on the Jewish history pi-evious to the Babylonian captivity; nor 
 one written in an impartial spirit, without credulity or scepticism. 
 The work of Beuuuyer, Histoire du Peuple de Dien, depttis son 
 origine jiisqtC a la Naissance de J. C, Paris, 1742, 10 vols. 
 8vo ; and the continuation, depuis la Naissance de J. C, 10 
 vols. ; and others of the same kind, do not answer this descrip- 
 tion. Relandi Antiquit. Sacr. Heb. ; the writings of J. D. 
 Michaelis, particularly his f Remarks on the Translation of the 
 Old Testament, and his \ Mosaic law ; together with f Herder, 
 On the Spirit of Hebrew Poesy, furnish many excellent materials. 
 
 I. Period of the nomad, state, from Abraham to the Jews as a 
 conquest of Palestine. — Under Abraham, Isaac, and ^^^^'^. 
 Jacob, nothing more at first than a single nomad 
 family ; which, however, during its sojourn in Lower sojourn in 
 Egypt, where, during four hundred and thirty, or, ac- 1?^^^"*^ 
 cording to others, two hundred and fifteen years, it i^oo- 
 roved about in subjection to the Egyptian Pharaolis, 
 — increased to a nomad nation, divided into twelve 
 tribes. The nation, however, becoming formidable 
 from the great increase of its numbers, the Pharaohs, 
 following the usual policy of the Egyptians, wished 
 to compel the Jews to build and inhabit cities. Un- 
 accustomed to restraint, they fled from Egypt under 
 the conduct of Moses; and conquered, under him and 
 his successor, Joshua, Palestine, the land of promise. 
 
 Moses and his legislation. — What he borrowed and what he 
 did not borrow from the Egyptians ? — The worship of Jehovah 
 in the national sanctuary, and by national festivals, celebrat(!d 
 with ceremonies rigidly prescribed, the point of union for the 
 whole nation, and the political bond which held the tribes to- 
 
30 
 
 JEWISH HISTORY. 
 
 [book I. 
 
 Period 
 
 BEFORE 
 
 Cyrus. 
 
 getlier. — The caste of Levites, compared with the Egyptian 
 caste of priests. 
 
 J. D. Michaelis, Mosaic Law. Göttingen, 1778, etc., 6 vols. 
 8vo. ; translated into English by Dr. Alexander Smith. Lond. 
 1814, 4 vols. 8vo. The commentator frequently sees more than 
 the lawgiver. 
 
 Jews as a 
 federate re- 
 ])ublic. 
 
 Heroic age. 
 
 Constitu- 
 tion. 
 
 Distribu- 
 tion of the 
 Levites. 
 
 Disturbed 
 state of the 
 Jews at the 
 death of 
 Joshua. 
 
 II. Period of the federative republic. From the 
 occupation of Palestine to the estabhshment of mon- 
 archy, 1500— 1100. 
 
 1. General character of this period as the heroic 
 ao-e of the nation, which, after the gradual adoption 
 of fixed dwellings and agriculture, was engaged in 
 constant feuds with neighbours, the vagrant Arabs, 
 the Philistines, and the Edomites. Impossibility of 
 exterminating entirely the ancient inhabitants ac- 
 cording to the intention of Moses. — Hence the 
 worship of Jehovah was never the onli/ religion in 
 the land. 
 
 2. Political organization. In consequence of the 
 division of land, according to tribes, and their se- 
 paration from one another, the government long 
 remained patriarchal. Each tribe preserved its pa- 
 triarch or elder, as in the nomad state. All, how- 
 ever, had, in the worship of Jehovah, one common 
 bond, uniting them into one federate state. Magis- 
 trates were likewise appointed in the cities, to whom 
 scribes are conjoined out of the Levite caste. 
 
 3. The permanent union of the nation, and pre- 
 servation of the Mosaic law, were likewise promoted 
 by the distribution of the Levite caste into forty- 
 eight separate towns situated in various parts of the 
 country, and by making the" high priesthood here- 
 ditary in Aaron's family. 
 
 4. But when at the death of Joshua the people 
 were left without a common ruler, the tie of religion 
 became insufficient to hold them together; especially 
 as the weaker tribes became jealous of the more 
 powerful. At this time the high priests appear to 
 have had but little pohtical influence ; and the na- 
 tional bond was only prevented from being dissolved 
 by the dread of a foreign yoke. 
 
BOOK I.] JEWISH HISTORY. 31 
 
 5. The Jews were sometimes independent, at other Period 
 times tributary. In seasons of oppression and dis- cTruI^ 
 tress heroes arose, jealous for the worship of Jehovah, 
 
 to dehver them from bondage. They acted as chief ''''^^^• 
 magistrates and rulers of a part, or even the whole 
 of the nation, and as champions of the worship of the 
 true God. The judges, particularly Othniel, De- 
 borah, and Samson. — Concerning the marvellous in 
 their history. 
 
 6. Re-establishment of the worship of Jehovah by Kings, 
 Samuel. He becomes jndge, and rules as Jehovah's ^i^owtiiso 
 minister. — His scheme of making the office of judge 
 hereditary in his own family is defeated by the con- 
 duct of his sons. The nation demands a king, whom 
 Samuel, as minister of Jehovah, is called upon to ap- 
 point. His crafty policy in the election, which he 
 cannot impede. He chooses Saul, politically speak- 
 ing, the most insignificant inan of the nation ; but 
 the tallest and most stately. A formal constitutional 
 act, according to the Mosaic command, is drawn up 
 and deposited in the national sanctuary. 
 
 Causes which led the nation to demand a king. — Earlier at- 
 tempts made, particularly by Abimelech, to obtain regal power. 
 
 HI. Period of the monarchy from 1100 — 600. 
 
 1 . The Jewish state as one single kbigdom from 
 1100 (1095)— 976. 
 
 1. Saul, the new king, strengthened himself on Saui: 
 the throne by a victory over the Ammonites ; and a 
 general assembly of the nation, in which Samuel laid 
 down his office as judge, unanimously acknowledged 
 his sovereignty. But Saul no sooner became a con- 
 queror than he threw off the tutelage of Samuel, and 
 ventured himself to consult Jehovah. This was the 
 occasion of a feud between them. Samuel, oftended, 
 privately anointed another young man, David the 
 son of Jesse, as king. David acquires fame and po- 
 pularity by his heroic conduct ; but has much diffi- 
 culty in escaping the jealousy of Saul. — Saul sustains 
 
12 
 
 JEWISH HISTORY. ^ 
 
 [book I. 
 
 Period 
 
 BEFORE 
 
 Cyrus. 
 
 slain about 
 lO.iS. 
 
 Jewish go- 
 vernment 
 and state 
 under him. 
 
 David, 
 1055—1015. 
 
 State of the 
 nation and 
 government 
 in his reign. 
 
 Conquests. 
 
 Solomon, 
 1015—975. 
 
 Declension 
 of the state. 
 
 himself amid constant wars with the neighbouring 
 nations ; but at last defeated, he and all his sons, ex- 
 cept one, lose their lives. 
 
 2. State of the nation and constitution under Saul. 
 — The king little more than a military leader under 
 the direction of Jehovah ; without either court or 
 fixed residence. — The people still a mere agricultural 
 and pastoral race, without wealth or luxury ; but gra- 
 dually assuming the character of a warlike nation. 
 
 3. Saul was succeeded by David ; but not without 
 opposition. Eleven tribes declare for Ish-bosheth, 
 the remaining son of Saul ; and David is only ac- 
 knowledged by his own tribe, Judah. It is not till 
 seven years later, and the murder of Ish-bosheth by 
 his own people, that David is recognised as king by 
 the whole nation. 
 
 4. Complete formation of the nation, and a change 
 of constitution during the reign of David over the 
 united kingdom, which lasted thirty-three years. Je- 
 rusalem is made the seat of government and of the 
 national sanctuary. Rigid observance of the worship 
 of Jehovah, the exclusive religion of the nation, con- 
 sidered in respect to its political consequence. 
 
 5. Vast aggrandizement of the Jewish state by 
 conquest. A war with Hadadezer opens the way to 
 the conquest of Syria and Idumgea. Extent of the 
 kingdom from the Euphrates to the Mediterranean ; 
 from Phoenicia to the Red Sea. Gradual decline to- 
 wards despotism and seraglio government ; the po- 
 litical consequences of which become apparent about 
 the end of David's reign, in the rebellion of his sons. 
 
 6. Reign of Solomon. , The brilliant government 
 of a despot from the interior of his seraglio ; unwar- 
 like, but civihzed, and fond of parade. New organ- 
 ization of the kingdom for the support of the court. 
 Connexions formed with the neighbouring states, 
 particularly with Tyre ; hence a participation in the 
 southern trade carried on from the ports of the Red 
 Sea, conquered by David ; but only as a monopoly 
 of the court. 
 
 7. The capital enriched by the splendour of the 
 
BOOK I.] JEWISH HISTORY. 33 
 
 court ; but the country oppressed and impoverished, Period 
 particularly the distant tribes. Gradual internal de- cTrTs^ 
 
 cay hastened by the admixture of the worship of 
 
 foreign gods with that of Jehovah ; although Solo- 
 mon, by the erection of the temple according to the 
 plan of his father, seems to have wished to make the 
 worship of the true God the only religion of the 
 country. An unsuccessful attempt at rebellion made 
 by Jeroboam, and by the Edomites, who remain tri- 
 butary under their own kings ; actual secession, even 
 during the reign of Solomon, of the conquered pro- 
 vince of Syria by the foundation of the kingdom of 
 Damascus. 
 
 8. Solomon is succeeded by his son Rehoboam, Rehoboam. 
 who has scarcely ascended the throne, before the 
 malcontents, increased in number by his imprudence, 
 break into open rebellion. Jeroboam is recalled 
 from Egypt, and ten tribes acknowledge him as their 
 king. Only two tribes, Judah and Benjamin, remain 
 faithful to Rehoboam. 
 
 2. T/te Jewish state as a divided kingdom, 
 
 976—588. 
 
 1 . Reciprocal relations between the two kingdoms Causes ot 
 of Judah and Israel. Although Israel was more ex- Jj^^^g^^?- 
 tensive and populous than Judah, yet was Judah, in tween Ju- 
 consequence of possessing the capital, richest of the Israel" 
 two ; thus their power was nearly balanced ; and 
 hence the struggle between them was the more ob- 
 stinate. 
 
 2. The kings of Israel seek to confirm the political Policy of 
 division of the nation, by establishing a new form of ^sraei""^ °^ 
 worship within their dominions, in order to restrain 
 
 their subjects from visiting the ancient seat of the 
 national worship at Jerusalem ; hence they were con- 
 sidered as the enemies of Jehovah. Several kings, of those of 
 however, even of Judah, were so impolitic as to min- J"'^^'^- 
 gle the worship of other gods with that of Jehovah. 
 But oppression itself serves to sustain the worship of 
 Jehovah ; the number and political influence of the 
 
 D 
 
34 
 
 JEWISH HISTORY. 
 
 Period 
 
 BEFORE 
 
 Cyrus. 
 
 Termina- 
 tion of the 
 
 prophets increase in proportion as men feel, amid the 
 turbulence of the times, need of the counsels of the 
 true God ; the idea of some future happier period, 
 under a mighty king — the idea of the Messiah and 
 of his kingdom — ^is more fully developed by the lively 
 recollection of the splendid reign of David. — Schools 
 of the prophets. 
 
 3. The rivalry and wars between those two states 
 not only continue with slight interruption, but be- 
 come more and more fraught with danger, in conse- 
 quence of the alhances entered into with foreign 
 princes, particularly with the kings of Damascus and 
 Egypt. An end is at length put to these feeble king- 
 doms by the rise of vast empires in Inner Asia. 
 
 Most important events in the history of the two kingdoms. 
 I. Kingdom of Israel, 976 — 721 ; under 19 kings, fi-om dif- 
 ferent families, who succeeded to tlie throne amid violent revo- 
 lutions. 1. Jeroboam I., d. 955. Settlement of the royal 
 residence at Shechem ; of the sanctuaries at Bethel and Dan, 
 and appointment of priests, not belonging to the tribe of Levi. 
 Constant wars with the kings of Judah. 2. Nadab, Jeroboam's 
 son, murdered in 953, by, 3. Baasha, d. 931. This prince, by his 
 alliance with the kings of Damascus, brought the kingdom of 
 Judah into great danger. 4. Elah, murdered in 930 by one of 
 his generals. 5. Zimri, 930, in whose place the army imme- 
 diately elected, 6. Omri : this prince, at the beginning of his 
 reign, had a rival to the throne in Tibni : d. 925. Omri founded 
 the new capital, Samaria, d. 919. He was succeeded by his 
 son, 7. Ahab : strong connexions by marriage with the kings of 
 Sidon ; introduction of the Phoenician worship of Baal. Wars 
 with Damascus, in which Ahab at last perishes, 898. Under 
 Ahab a league formed with the king of Judah. He is succeeded 
 by his sons, 8. Ahaziah, d. 896, and, 9. Jehoram. The league 
 with Judah continues. Jehoram is murdered by Jehu, 883. 
 10. Jehu : tliis king destroys the house of Ahab, which had 
 given 4 kings to Israel, and does away with the worship of 
 Baal. The kings of Damascus wrest from the kingdom of Is- 
 rael the lands beyond Jordan. Jehu d. 855. He is succeeded 
 by his son, 11. Jehoahaz, d. 839. The wars with Damascus 
 continue unsuccessful to Israel. 12. Jehoash, d. 823. He de- 
 feats the kings of Damascus and Judah. 13. Jeroboam H., d. 
 782. He restores the kingdom of Isi-ael to its ancient extent. 
 After a tui'bulent interregnum of 12 years he is succeeded by 
 his son, 14. Zechariah, 770 ; who was assassinated the same 
 year, being the last remnant of the house of Jehu, which had 
 given 5 kings to Israel. His murderer, 15. Shallum, after a 
 reign of one month, is, in his turn, assassinated by, 16. Mena- 
 
Cyrus. 
 
 BOOK I.] JEWISH HISTORY. 35 
 
 hem, d. 761 : under his reign the first expedition of the Assyri- Period 
 ans, headed by Pul, whom he buys ofFby tribute, 17. His son before 
 Pekahiah murdered in 757, by, 18. Pekah, under whose reign " 
 
 falls the expedition of Tiglath-Pileser the Assyrian, and de- 
 struction of Damascus. Pekah is assassinated in 738, by, 19. 
 Hoshea, Avho, after an anarchy of eight years, obtains possession 
 of the throne, 730. Hosliea endeavours, by an alliance with 
 Egypt, to shake off the Assyrian yoke ; but Shalmaneser, king 
 of Assyria, wages war against him, conquers Samaria, and puts 
 an end to the kingdom of Israel, whose inhabitants he trans- 
 plants to Media in Inner Asia, 721. 
 
 2. KixGDOM OF JuDAH under 20 kings of the house of 
 David, 976 — 588. The regular line of hereditary succession is 
 generally followed without dispute, and is only twice interrupted, 
 by Athaliah's usurpation, and the intervention of foreign con- 
 querors. 1. Rehoboam, d. 959. Jerusalem is still the seat of 
 government ; but even during this reign the worship of Jehovah 
 begins to fall into neglect, in consequence of the introduction 
 of foreign gods. Besides the war with Israel, Jerusalem is 
 attacked and plundered by Shishak, king of Egypt. 2. Abijah, 
 d. 956. 3. Asa. This prince was attacked by the combined 
 kings of Israel and Damascus, and, no doubt, would have sunk 
 in the conflict, had he not succeeded in breaking their alliance : 
 d. 915. 4. Jehoshaphat, the restorer of the worship of Je- 
 hovah and framer of a league with tlie kingdom of Israel. His 
 attempt to re-establish tlie trade to Ophir, on the Red Sea, is 
 unsuccessful: d. 891. 5. Jehoram. The union with Israel is 
 confirmed by the marriage of this prince with Ahab's daughter, 
 Athaliah ; but Iduma;a, under his reign, secedes wholly from 
 the kingdom of Judah: d. 884. 6. His son Ahaziah is, in the 
 next year, 883, assassinated by Jehu, the murderer and suc- 
 cessor of Jehoram king of Israel. 7. His mother, Athaliah, 
 takes possession of the throne ; murders the whole royal family ; 
 only one son of Ahaziah, 8. Joash, is, in consequence of his 
 youth, rescued from the carnage, secretly educated in the tem- 
 ple, and, after seven years, forcibly placed upon the throne, by 
 means of a revolution wrought by tlie high priest, Jehoiada ; 
 and Athaliah is put to death, 877. Joash rules under the tute- 
 lage of the pi'iests, which leads to the I'e-establishment of Jeho- 
 vah's worship. This prince is menaced by Hazael king of 
 Damascus, and compelled to pay him tribute. Slain, 837. 9. 
 Amaziah : he defeats the Edomites, and is in his turn defeated 
 by Jehoash king of Israel, by whom Jerusalem itself is sacked. 
 He is slain in 808, and succeeded, 10. by his son Azariah (or 
 Uzziah). This prince was leprous, and d. 756. His son, 11. 
 Jotham, d. 741, became regent during the life of his father. 
 The wars with Israel and Damascus recommence. 12. Aliaz, 
 d. 726. The league between the kings of Damascus and Israel 
 induces Ahaz to call to his assistance Tiglath-Pileser king of 
 Assyria, who overthrows the kingdom of Damascus, and sub- 
 jects Israel and Judah to tribute. 13. Hezekiah, d. 697. He 
 
 D 2 
 
36 JEWISH HISTORY. [book i. 
 
 Period sliakes off the Assyrian yoke ; under his reign Shalmaneser de- 
 BEFORE stroys Samaria, 721 ; and Shahnaneser's successor, Sennacherib, 
 Cyrus, undertakes his expedition against Egypt, 713. Jerusalem is 
 again besieged, but fortunately relieved by the total failure of 
 the expedition. Isaiah prophesies during the reign of this 
 pi-ince. 14. Manasseh, d. 642. During his 55 years' reign, 
 the worship of the Phoenician god, Baal, becomes general ; that 
 of Jehovah falls into contempt, and the Mosaic law into disuse. 
 15. Amon, murdered as early as 640. 16. Josiah, restoi-er of 
 the temple, and of the worship of Jehovah. The book of the 
 Law, wliicli had been cast aside and neglected, is once more 
 found, and a complete reform instituted according to its princi- 
 ples. Palestine however is the first country attacked by Necos, 
 king of Egypt; and Josiah falls in battle, 609. His son, 17. 
 Jehoahaz, is, after a reign of three months, dethroned by Pha- 
 raoh-Nechoh, and his brother, 18. Jehoiakim placed as a tri- 
 butary prince on the throne. But in consequence of the rise of 
 the Chaldaio-Babylonian empire, Pharaoh-Nechoh is deprived 
 of his Asiatic conquests by the loss of the battle of Circesium, 
 606 ; and Jehoiakim becomes tributary to Nebuchadnezzar : d. 
 598. The prophet Jeremiah flourishes. 19. Jehoiachin, son 
 of the former king, after three months' reign, is, together with 
 the greater part of the nation, transplanted into Inner Asia by 
 Nebuchadnezzar, after a second expedition, (commencement of 
 the Babylonian captivity,) and, 20. Zedekiah, brother on the 
 father's side to Jehoiachin, is seated on the throne as a tributary 
 prince. Forming, however, a league with Egypt, in order to 
 throw off the Babylonian yoke, Nebuchadnezzar marches a third 
 time against Jerusalem, conquers it, 588, and delivei's it up to 
 pillage and destruction. Zedekiah, after being deprived of his 
 eye-sight, and losing all his children by the hands of the exe- 
 cutioner, is, together with the remaining portion of the nation, 
 led in captivity to Babylon. 
 
 S. Bernhardi Commentatio de causis qidhus affectum sit ut 
 regnum Judce diutius persisteret quam regnum Israel; cum ta- 
 bida geographica, Lovanii, 1825, 4to. A prize essay, contain- 
 ing also several valuable inquiries into the monarchical period 
 of the Jewish state. 
 
 ■f Bauer, Manual of the History of the Hebrew Nation, vol. 
 i. — iii., 1800. The best introduction hitherto published, not 
 only to the history, but also to the antiquities of the nation, from 
 the rise to the fall of the state. 
 
BOOK I.] GEOGRAPHICAL OUTLINE. 37 
 
 II. AFRICAN NATIONS. 
 
 General Geographical Outline of Ancient Africa. 
 See A. II. L. Heeren's Historical Researches, etc. 
 
 1. Although the Phoenicians had circumnavi- africa. 
 
 gated Africa, the northern part only of that quarter ; 
 
 of the globe was known to antiquity. With that anc^e^ofuie 
 part, however, the ancients were better acquainted ancients 
 than we are at the present day, the coast being 
 
 then occupied by civilized and commercial nations, 
 who pushed their excursions far inland. This was 
 the case in early times with the Carthaginians and 
 the Egyptians ; still more so with the Macedonian 
 Greeks, under the Ptolemies and under the Romans. 
 War, hunting, and commerce were, generally speak- 
 ing, the objects which gave rise to those excursions. 
 
 2. Considered as a whole, Africa is very different General 
 from Asia, both in situation and form. Asia lies ^'f^7ca* 
 almost entirely within the temperate, while Africa is 
 almost wliolly under the torrid zone. Asia abounds 
 
 in deep gulfs and large rivers ; Africa constitutes a 
 regular triangle, and in its northern half possesses but 
 two large rivers, the Nile and the Niger. No won- 
 der, then, that this portion of pur globe should 
 form, as it were, a world in itself, distinguished by 
 its productions and its inhabitants. 
 
 3. Physically considered, Northern Africa may be Physical 
 divided into three regions, distinguished in early an- orNo^rfh^ 
 tiquity by separate names. The maritime country Africa, 
 along the Mediterranean, with the exception of Tri- 
 polis, or the Regio Syrtica, consists principally of 
 
 very fertile districts, and was consequently, at all 
 times, very thickly inhabited : hence in Herodotus it 
 bears the name; of the inhabited Africa; it is now 
 called Barbary. Above this, and under the 30th 
 
38 GEOGRAPHICAL OUTLINE. [üook i. 
 
 AFRICA, parallel of N. lat., succeeds a mountainous tract, 
 
 across which stretches the Atlas chain of mountains; 
 
 abounding in wild beasts and dates ; hence Herodotus 
 calls it the ivild beast Africa : among the Arabs it 
 is called the land of dates {Biledulgerid). Beyond 
 this, and between the 30th and 20th degrees of N. 
 lat., the sandy region extends right across Africa and 
 Arabia : this part of Africa is therefore known, both 
 among the ancients and moderns, under the name of 
 Africa Deserta, or the Sandy Desert (Sahara). The 
 fruitful lands beyond the desert, stretching along the 
 banks of the Niger, were almost wholly unknown to 
 the Greeks ; by them these parts were comprehend- 
 ed under the common name of Ethiopia, although 
 that name applied more peculiarly to the districts 
 above Egypt. The Greeks were, however, acquaint- 
 ed with some of the fruitful spots in the desert, the 
 Oases ; such as Augila, Ammonium, and the Oases, 
 properly so called, in Egypt. 
 Political 4. There exists no political division which com- 
 
 itate, prises the whole of Africa. The north coast alone 
 
 was inhabited by civilized nations, Egyptians, Cy- 
 renseans, and Carthaginians ; of which the first only 
 were aboriginals. The rest of the inhabitants either 
 roved about as nomad hordes, or formed insignificant 
 states, of whose existence we have heard some ac- 
 count, though we possess no history of them. Along 
 the shore, reckoning from the Phnthinetic Gulf, 
 Egypt is succeeded by : 1st, Marmarica, a tract 
 without cities, consisting principally of sandy deserts, 
 occupied by nomad hordes : this country extends 
 from the 40 — 47° E. long, from Ferro. 2nd, The 
 fertile territory occupied by the Greek colonies, call- 
 ed Cyrena'ica, extended to the Greater Syrtis, 37 — 
 40° E. long. Cities : Cyrene, Barca. 3rd, The 
 territory of Carthage, extending from the Greater 
 Syrtis to the Fair Promontory, 25 — 40° E. long. 
 This territory comprised (a) the country between 
 the Greater and Lesser Syrtis, (Regio Syrtica,) which 
 constitutes the modern kingdom of Tripoli ; a sandy 
 tract, almost wholly occupied by nomads, {b) The 
 
BOOK I.] GEOGRAPHICAL OUTLINE. 39 
 
 territory of Carthage, properly so called (kingdom Africa. 
 of Tunis). A very fruitflil country ; the southern 
 part called Byzacena, the northern part Zeugitana. 
 Cities : Carthage, Utica, etc. 4th, Numidia and 
 Mauritania ; occupied during the Carthaginian age 
 by nomad races. Along the shore some Carthaginian 
 settlements. 
 
 EGYPTIANS. 
 
 Preliminary remarks. Egypt in its superficial Geography, 
 contents is equal to about two-thirds of Germany, 
 and may therefore justly be ranked among the more 
 extensive countries of the globe ; it greatly varies, 
 however, in its physical properties. The soil is only 
 sufficiently fertile for tillage on the banks of the Nile, 
 and as far as the floods of that river extend ; beyond 
 that, on the west, is a sandy desert, on the east a 
 chain of rocky mountains. From its entrance into course of 
 Egypt at Syene, the Nile flows in one undivided tiieNiie. 
 stream to the city of Cercasorus, 60 geogr. miles 
 above its mouth, directing its course from south to 
 north through a valley from 8 to 16 geogr. miles 
 broad, bounded on the west by deserts of sand, and 
 on the east by mountains of granite. At Cercasorus 
 the stream first divides itself into two main branches, 
 which formerly discharged their waters into the Me- 
 diterranean, the eastern near the city of Pelusium, 
 the western near the city of Canopus (ostium Pelu- 
 siacum ct Canopicuni) ; from these two diverged se- 
 veral intermediate branches ; so that in the time of 
 Herodotus there existed seven mouths of the Nile, 
 but the number has not always remained the same. 
 The tract between the two extreme arms of the Nile 
 bears, in consequence of its triangular form, the 
 name of the Delta ; it was covered with cities, and 
 highly cultivated. The fertile part of Egypt, inha- 
 bited by civilized men, was therefore confined to the 
 
40 GEOGRAPHICAL OUTLINE. [book i. 
 
 EGYPT. Delta and the valley of the Nile, on the two banks of 
 the stream from Syene to Cercasorus ; to which must 
 be added some well-watered spots in the centre of the 
 western desert, known under the name of the Oases. 
 In consequence of the perpetual absence of rain, par- 
 ticularly in Upper Egypt, the fertility of the Delta 
 and the valley of the Nile depends on the overflowing 
 of the river, which happens at stated periods. This 
 commences at the begining of August and continues 
 to the end of October ; so that during three whole 
 months the above-mentioned parts of the country are 
 under water. 
 
 Divisions of Egypt is divided into Upper, extending from 
 
 Egypt. Syene to the city of Chemmis (capital, Thebes, or 
 Diospolis); Central, from Chemmis to Cercasorus 
 (capital, Memphis) ; and Lower Egypt, which com- 
 prises the Delta, and the land on both sides : it was 
 full of cities, among which the most remarkable was 
 Sais. 
 
 Ethiopia. Next abovc Egypt lies Ethiopia, {jEthiopia .supi^a 
 
 jEgyptum') ; which, from the earliest times, princi- 
 pally through commerce, appears to have been closely 
 connected with the former country. The regions 
 immediately above Egypt, usually called Nubia, are 
 little more than deserts of sand, still inhabited by 
 roving hordes of nomad robbers. The rocky moun- 
 tain chain, which forms the eastern boundary of 
 Egypt, stretches along the Red Sea, and was formerly 
 of great importance to Nubia, from its containing, 
 just above the Egyptian frontier, productive gold 
 mines. The Nile, in this country, makes a wide 
 curve to the west, and becomes so full of shallows as 
 to render navigation difficult. The lands adjoining 
 the river, however, are fertile and well inhabited ; 
 and contain numerous ancient monuments. Still 
 higher up, reckoning from 16° N. lat., the appear- 
 ance of the country changes ; the region of fertility 
 commences, and its costly productions, its gold and 
 its perfumes, gave rise to a profitable commerce. 
 Among these countries, Meroe, with its capital of the 
 same name, was celebrated in the days of Herodotus. 
 
PERIOD 1.] EGYPTIANS. 41 
 
 By Meroe is understood a tract of land bounded by egypt. 
 two rivers, the Nile on the west, and the Astaboras, 
 (Tacazze,) which falls into the Nile, on the east ; for 
 this reason it is frequently, although improperly, call- 
 ed an island. This country extended towards the 
 sources of the Nile, or the modern province of Gojam, 
 where, under the reign of Psammetichus, the Egyptian 
 caste of warriors, having for the most part deserted, 
 established themselves. Meroe itself, like the Egyp- 
 tian states, was sacerdotal, with a king at its head. — 
 The city of Axum, or Auxume, is not indeed men- 
 tioned at so early a period ; but if we may judge by 
 the ruins that still remain, it was of equally high an- 
 tiquity with the old Egyptian towns and with Meroe. 
 The same observations apply to Adule, the harbour 
 on the Arabian Gulf 
 
 The Egyptian history is divided into three periods üivisionsof 
 of unequal duration ; i\\e first of which extends from hiSdry!'' 
 the earliest time down to the Sesostridae, that is to 
 say, to about B. C. 1500 : the second comprises the 
 reigns of the Sesostridae, or the brilliant period of 
 Egypt, down to Psammetichus, 1500 — 650; the 
 third brings us from Psammetichus down to the 
 Persian conquest, 650 — 525. 
 
 FIRST PERIOD 
 
 From the earliest times down to the SesostridcB, about 
 13. a 1500. 
 
 Sources : 1. Jewish writers. Moses. His records contain, Period 
 no doubt, a faithful picture of the Egyptian state in his day ; before 
 but no continuous history can be deduced from them. — From tivRus. 
 Moses down to Solomon, (B. C. 1500—1000,) total silence, 
 with respect to Egypt, of the Hebrew writers. From Solomon 
 down to Cyrus, (B. C. 1000 — 550,) a few scanty fragments. — 
 Importance and superiority of the Jewish accounts, so far as 
 they are pure! 1/ his forical. 2. Greek writers, {a) Herodotus. 
 The first who published a History of the Egyptians. About 
 seventy years after the destruction of the throne of the Pharaohs 
 
42 EGYPTIANS. [book t. 
 
 Period by the Persian conquerors, this author collected, in Egypt itself, 
 BEFORE the earliest accounts of the history of the country ; he received 
 Cyrus, j^-^ information from the most capable persons, the priests ; and 
 wrote down faithfully that information, such as he heard it. 
 If, therefore, we would estimate at their proper worth the ac- 
 counts given by Herodotus, it is necessary to inquire, what did 
 the priests themselves know of their earlier national history ? 
 And this question cannot be answered until we have ascertained 
 in what manner the historical records of the earlier periods were 
 preserved among the Egyptians. 
 
 The earliest history of the Egyptians, like that of all other 
 nations, was traditional. They adopted, however, before any 
 other nations, a sort of writing, hieroglyphics, or allegorical 
 picture writing ; in which the signs borrowed from natural ob- 
 jects served, as modern discoveries have proved, partly to re- 
 present sounds, {liicroglyphes phonetiques,) and partly to express 
 ideas ; in the latter case they were either representative or 
 allegorical. This mode of writing, by its nature, is not so com- 
 plete as the purely alphabetical ; since, 1. It can express only 
 a narrow circle of ideas, and these separately, without con- 
 nexion or grammatical inflection, at least with very few excep- 
 tions. 2. As it is not so Avell adapted to v/riting as to painting 
 or engraving, it is not so useful for books as for public monu- 
 ments. 3. Being emblematic, it is not intelligible without the 
 help of a key, which could only be preserved in some tradition 
 connected with the monument, and which was exclusively pos- 
 sessed by the priests ; this key, therefore, could hardly be pre- 
 served many centuries without falsification. 4. The same 
 image seems frequently to have been used to express very dif- 
 ferent objects. — It follows, that the Egyptian history, as de- 
 duced from the lips of the priests, can hardly have been any 
 thing more than records connected with, and depending upon, 
 pubHc monuments : consisting, therefore, of mere fragments, 
 and reducible to no consistent chronology, it ultimately admitted 
 only of allegorical translation, and consequently was very liable 
 to be misinterpreted. Besides their hieroglyphics, the Egyp- 
 tians certainly had two other species of writing ; the hieratic, 
 confined to the priests, and the demotic, used in common life. 
 Both, however, seem to have been nothing more than running 
 hands derived from the hieroglyphic system ; and we have no 
 instance of the employment of either the one or the other in 
 public monuments of the time of the Pharaohs. That the use 
 of papyrus, a material on which all the above kinds of writing 
 were employed, had its origin in the highest antiquity, or at 
 least in the more brilliant period of the Pharaohs, we now know 
 for certain, written documents belonging to those times having 
 been obtained from the tombs. 
 
 Champollion le jeune. Precis du Si/steme Hitrogli/phique 
 des anciens Egyptieus. Paris, 1824. The main work on this 
 subject, of which the Lettre ä M. Dacier, 1822, is but the pre- 
 cursor, and the two Lettres a M. le due de Blacas the coutinu- 
 
PERIOD I.] 
 
 EGYPTIANS. 43 
 
 ation. The new metliod of deciphering has received its prin- Period 
 cipal confirmation from the work of the British consul in before 
 Egypt, Sai.t, Essay on the Pho7ietic System of Hieroglyphics, ^^"^' 
 1825, on the authority of a comparison with the Egyptian 
 monuments themselves. Hitherto, however, little more has 
 been made out than the names and titles of the kings, distin- 
 guished by being always enclosed within a border. 
 
 These preliminary remarks on the earlier Egyptian history, 
 will derive abundant support from a perusal of the account given 
 by Herodotus, (ii. 99 — 150,) of the Egyptian kings previous to 
 Psammetichus. The study of that author proves beyond all 
 doubt, that : I. The whole history is throughout founded on 
 public monuments, and on monuments, too, either in or near 
 Memphis. We may even restrict ourselves to one single monu- 
 ment at Memphis, to the temple of Vulcan, or Plitha, the chief 
 temple of that city. The history commences with Menes, the 
 founder of that edifice, (c. 99,) and we are informed, respecting 
 each of his successors, what was done towards the augmentation 
 and embellishment of the building : those who made no addition 
 to that temple, but left other monuments, (as the builders of the 
 pyramids,) are denominated oppressors of the people, and con- 
 temners of the gods : of those princes who left no monuments 
 at all, the priests could give no other information than a cata- 
 logue of names. II. Hence this line of kings, although the 
 priests gave it to Herodotus as such, is not without interrup- 
 tions, but, as is clearly proved by comparison with Diodorus, con- 
 tains many wide chasms : therefore no chronological system can 
 be erected upon such a basis. III. The whole history is inter- 
 woven with narrations derived from hieroglyphic representa- 
 tions, and for that very reason allegorical, the meaning of which 
 it is no longer possible to unravel, the priests 'themselves being 
 either unable or unwilling to explain it, and even inclining, it 
 appears, to introduce false interpretations. To this class of nar- 
 rations belongs, for instance, that of the robbery of Rhampsini- 
 tus's treasury ; that of his journey into hell, where he played at 
 dice with Ceres (c. 121, 122) ; that concerning the daughter of 
 Cheops (c. 127); concerning the blindness of Pheron, and the 
 manner in which he was cured, etc. (c. Ill ). To prove that 
 this charge is not without foundation, it will suffice to adduce 
 two examples; one from c. 131, where Herodotus himself ob- 
 serves that such was the case; tlie other from c. 141, the true 
 meaning of which we gather from other sources. Even in 
 the time of Herodotus, it was customary with the priests to en- 
 deavour to conciliate the Greek and Egyptian authorities ; a fact 
 in proof of which there are many arguments which cannot escape 
 the critic : such, for instance, as the completely Grcccised his- 
 tory of king Proteus, c. 112 — 115. — The general result of the 
 above observations on Ilei'odotus's Egyptian history is, that it 
 is nothing more than a narration connected with pubhc monu- 
 ments. To this inference but one objection can possibly be 
 made, namely, that the Egyptian priests possessed, besides their 
 
Cyrus. 
 
 44 EGYPTIANS. [book i. 
 
 Period hieroglyphics, an alphabetical mode of writing ; consequently, 
 BEFORE that, over and above the public monuments, they might likewise 
 refer to written annals ; but this objection is overthrown by 
 Herodotus himself. All the information the priests could give 
 him beyond what has been above alluded to, consisted in the 
 names of 330 kings subsequent to Menes ; these they read from 
 a papyrus roll, but knew nothing more of the kings who bore 
 them, because those sovereigns had left no monuments behind 
 them (c. 100). 
 
 (h) Besides Herodotus, Diodorus (lib. i.) likewise furnishes 
 us with the names of some Egyptian kings. This author, who 
 wrote 400 years subsequently to Herodotus, visited Egypt, and 
 collected his history, partly from the oral and written documents 
 of the priests of Thebes, partly from the more ancient Greek 
 writers, and particularly Hecatceus. If we consider Herodotus's 
 line of kings as not continuous or uninterrupted, all appearance 
 of contradiction between the two historians vanishes. Diodorus, 
 like Herodotus, did not intend to give a complete enumeration 
 of the Egyptian kings ; but only of the most remarkable ; indi- 
 cating the interruptions by the number of generations which 
 they contained. 
 
 (c) Finally, diiferent from both the above is the Egyptian 
 3Ianetho, high priest at Heliopolis, wlio flourished under the 
 reign of Ptolemy Philadelphus, about B. C. 260. He wrote the 
 JEgyptlaca, of which, besides several fragments in Josephus, the 
 enumeration of the kings has been preserved in the chronicles 
 of Eusebius and Syncellus. This catalogue is divided into three 
 sections, (tomos,) each of which contains several dynasties, in all 
 31, enumerated according to the different cities of Egypt. In 
 each dynasty the number of kings belonging to it and the years 
 of their reigns are mai-ked. The authenticity of Manetho is now 
 completely established ; since the names of the Pharaohs men 
 tioned by him have been deciphered on the Egyptian monu- 
 ments. To this period belong the first seventeen dynasties ; in 
 the eighteenth begins the second and brilliant period, to which 
 the yet remaining monuments of Upper Egypt, bearing the 
 names of the founders, are to be ascribed. It is worthy of ob- 
 servation, that in Herodotus we have the documents of the 
 priests of Memphis, in Diodorus those of the priests of Thebes, 
 in Manetho those of the priests of Heliopolis — the three princi- 
 pal seats of sacerdotal learning : — perfect consistency cannot, 
 therefore, be expected in the accounts of those historians. 
 
 The modern writers on Egyptian antiquities, fi'om Kircher, 
 (Edipus Mgyptiacns, 1670, to De Pauw, Recherches sur les 
 Egyptiens et sur les Chinois, 1772, have too often substituted 
 their own dreams and hypotheses for truth. The principal at- 
 tempts at a chronological arrangement of the dynasties have 
 been made by Marsham, in his Canon Chronicus; and by Gat- 
 TERER, in his f Synchronistic History of the World. — Among 
 the principal works on tliis subject may be reckoned: 
 
 Jablonski Pantheon Mythicum .Egijptiacum, 1750, 8vo. 
 
PERIOD 1.] EGYPTIANS. 
 
 45 
 
 Gatterer, Commentaüones de Theogonia ^gypt in Com- Period 
 mental. Societ. Gottivg., t. vii. before 
 
 De Origine et Usu Obeliscorum, aucfore G. Zoega ; Romae, ^^^"^' 
 1797. 
 
 UEgypte sous les Pharaons, ou Recherches sur la Geographie, 
 la Religion, Ja Langue, les Ecritures, et VHistoire de VEgypte 
 avant Vinvasion de Cambyse, par Champollion le jeune, t. i. 
 ii., 1814. These two volumes, dedicated to the geography, con- 
 tain the restoration of tlie ancient Egyptian names of provinces 
 and cities deduced from Coptic authorities. 
 
 Commentationes Herodotece, scribehat Frid. Creuzer. ^gyp- 
 tica et Hellenica, pars 1. Lips. 1819. A series of most acute 
 and learned illustrations of different points in Egyptian an- 
 tiquity, introduced by different passages of Herodotus. 
 
 The volume in Heeren's Historical Researches, etc., con- 
 cerning the Egyptians ; and particularly the introduction on 
 hieroglyphic writing. For the best representations of the 
 Egyptian monuments, we are indebted to the French expedi- 
 tion. Those of Denon in his Voyage en Egypte, are far su- 
 perior to those of Pococke and Norden ; but Denon's, in their 
 turn, have been greatly surpassed in the magnificent work. 
 
 Description de VEgypte, Antiquites, P. i. ii. iii. P. i. con- 
 tains the monuments of Upper Egypt, from the frontiers of 
 Nubia to Thebes ; P. ii. iii. contain the monuments of Thebes 
 alone. 
 
 Belzoni, Researches in Egypt, London, 1824, with an atlas. 
 
 f MiNUTOLi, Journey to the Temple of Jupiter Ammon, and 
 Egypt, 1824. 
 
 L. BuRCKiiARDT, Travels in Nubia, London, 1819. 
 
 F. C. Gau, Aiitiquites de la Nubie, Paris, 1824. A worthy 
 continuation of the great French work on Egypt. 
 
 Fr. Cadxaud, Voyage ä Mcroe et au Fleuve Blanc, Paris, 
 1825, contains the description of the monuments of Meroe. 
 
 1. Political civilization commenced in Egypt at Early civii- 
 a much earlier period than that to which history Egyp"." 
 reaches ; for even in the days of Abraham, and still 
 
 more so in those of Moses, the government seems to 
 have been so well organized, that a long period must 
 necessarily have elapsed in order to raise the nation 
 to that degree of civilization which we see it had 
 then attained. It may, therefore, be safely asserted, 
 that Egypt ranks among the most ancient countri&s 
 of our globe in which political associations existed ; 
 although we cannot determine with equal certainty 
 whether they did not exist still earlier in India. «^ i"^'^- 
 
 2. The causes which contributed to render Egypt ^^^^^^^ «<" 
 thus early a civilized state, may be found in the civilization. 
 
46 
 
 EGYPTIANS. 
 
 [book I. 
 
 Period 
 
 BEFORE 
 
 Cyrus. 
 
 The Nile : 
 
 commerce. 
 
 Egyptian 
 civilization 
 came from 
 the south. 
 
 natural features of the country, and its favourable 
 situation, when compared with the rest of Africa. 
 It is the only tract in all northern Africa situated on 
 a large uninterrupted navigable stream : had it not 
 been for this, it would, like the other parts of Africa 
 under the same parallel, have been a mere desert. To 
 this must be added two extraordinary circumstances : 
 on the one hand, the overflowing of the river so per- 
 fectly prepares the soil, that to scatter the seed is 
 almost the only labour of the husbandman ; and yet, 
 on the other hand, so many obstacles impede the 
 progress of agriculture, (by the necessity of canals, 
 dams, etc.,) that the invention of man must neces- 
 sarily have been awakened. When agriculture, and 
 the kind of knowledge requisite for its ulterior de- 
 velopment, had introduced a certain degree of civiliza- 
 tion into Egypt, the situation of that country, between 
 Asia and Africa, and in the neighbourhood of the 
 rich land of gold and spices, must have been highly 
 favourable to the purposes of international commerce ; 
 hence Egypt appears in all ages to have been one of 
 the chief seats of the inland or caravan trade. 
 
 3. It is obvious, therefore, that in the fertile valley 
 of the Nile, the course of things must have been very 
 different from what it was in the desert of Libya. 
 Several small states appear to have been formed in 
 this valley long before the existence of any great 
 Egyptian kingdom. Their origin, as might naturally 
 be supposed, is enveloped in an obscurity, which his- 
 tory can no longer entirely penetrate. It may still, 
 however, be gathered from monuments and records, 
 that Upper Egypt was first the seat of civilization ; 
 which, originating in the south, spread by the settle- 
 ment of colonies towards the north. It is probable 
 that this took place in consequence of the migration 
 of some tribe, differing from the negroes, as is proved 
 by the representations, both in sculpture and in 
 painting, found on the yet remaining monuments of 
 Egypt. 
 
 4. The records of the high «antiquity of political 
 civilization, not only in India, but likewise in Arabia 
 
PERIOD I.] EGYPTIANS. 47 
 
 Felix and Ethiopia, particularly in Meroe, and the Period 
 evident vestiges of ancient intercourse between the cyrus!' 
 southern nations of our globe, prove with sufficient 
 
 evidence the truth of such migrations, although they ftomThe"^ 
 cannot be chronologically determined. It is certain, south. 
 however, that religion had no small share in pro- 
 ducing them. The national bond of union in Egypt 
 not only continued in later times, entirely dependent 
 upon religion, but was originally grounded upon it. 
 Thus every step in political civilization must have 
 depended, if not solely, at least principally, on the 
 caste of priests and on their extension. 
 
 General development of the idea of division into castes. Ori- 
 ginating at first in the variety of tribes settled in one and the 
 same country, and their different modes of life. — Its further 
 progress in despotic and in theocratic kingdoms. — Application 
 to Egypt and to the Egyptian caste of priests, as an original, 
 civilized tribe. 
 
 5. The peculiarity of this caste was the worship a caste of 
 of certain deities, the principal of which were Am- ^^^^^^l ^'^' 
 mon, Osiris, and Phtha, confounded by the Greeks their reii- 
 with their Jupiter, Bacchus, and Vulcan. The spread ^'|°J|i,^'jfon 
 of this worship, which was always connected with in E-jpt. 
 temples, affords, therefore, the most evident vestiges 
 
 of the spread of the caste itself; and those vestiges, 
 combined with the records of the Egyptians, lead 
 us to conclude that this caste was a tribe which mi- 
 grated from the south, from beyond Meroe in Ethi- 
 opia, and by the establishment of inland colonies 
 around the temples founded by them, gradually ex- 
 tended and made the worship of their gods the do- 
 minant religion in Egypt. 
 
 Proof of the accuracy of the above theory deduced from mo- 
 numents and express testimonies concerning the origin of Thebes 
 and Amnion from Meroe ; it might have been inferred from 
 the preservation of the worship of Ammon in the latter place. 
 Memphis, again, and other cities in the valley of the Nile, are 
 commonly supposed to have been founded by detachments from 
 Thebes. 
 
 6. This conjecture, which agrees with the usual Nomes. 
 progress of population, is corroborated by the very 
 ancient division of the country into districts, or 
 
48 
 
 EGYPTIANS. 
 
 [book I. 
 
 Period 
 
 BEFORE 
 
 Cyrus. 
 
 Separate 
 states 
 founded in 
 Egypt : 
 
 Manetho's 
 account of 
 them : 
 
 nomes. This division was intimately connected with 
 the chief temples, each of which represented a sepa- 
 rate colony of the caste of priests ; so that the inha- 
 bitants of every nome belonged to tlie chief temple, 
 and joined in the religious worship there performed. 
 
 7. To the gradual extension of this civilized tribe, 
 which comprised, not only the caste of the priests, 
 but certainly also that of the warriors, and perhaps 
 some others, may be attributed the formation of se- 
 veral small states along the banks of the Nile ; the 
 central point of each being always such a colony as 
 we have just now described ; although each state 
 consisted both of the aboriginal tribes of the neigh- 
 bourhood, and of those that had migrated into the 
 country. The bond which united every separate 
 state was, therefore, as in most of those formed in the 
 infancy of mankind, a common worship, in which all 
 the members participated. But what, by reason of 
 the peculiarities of soil and climate, could not take 
 place in southern Africa, took place in Egypt : agri- 
 culture, and its progressive improvement, became the 
 great support of civilization ; and, as being the true 
 foundation of states, formed the principal political 
 object of the ruling caste. 
 
 Refutation of the idea, that the Egyptian priests were in pos- 
 session of great specuhxtive knowledge ; since their knowledge 
 rather had constant reference to practical life, and, therefore, 
 was in their hands the instricmentum dominationis over the peo- 
 ple, by which they rendered themselves indispensable, and kept 
 the former in a state of dependence. — Explanation of the close 
 reference which their gods, their astronomical and mathematical 
 sciences bore to agriculture. 
 
 8. According to Manetho's catalogues, these sepa- 
 rate Egyptian states existed first in Upper and Mid- 
 dle Egypt ; in the former were Thebes, Elephantine, 
 This, and Heraclea ; in the latter, Memphis. It is 
 only in the last division of his work that we meet 
 with states in Lower Egypt, such as Tanis, Mendes, 
 Bubastis, and Sebennytus. 
 
 To these states, therefore, no doubt, belong the 330 kings 
 after Menes, whose names the priests read to Herodotus ; as 
 also those whom Diodorus mentions as reigning previous to 
 
PERIOD II.] EGYPTIANS. 49 
 
 Sesostris, among whom are remarked Busiris II., founder of Period 
 Thebes, and Uchoreus, the founder of Memphis. Eusebius and before 
 Syncellus have preserved from Manetho the names of several Cyrus. 
 of those kings, which Marsham has endeavoured to compare 
 and arrange. 
 
 9. In the absence of a certain and continuous obscurity 
 chronology, it is impossible to determine accurately "hronö^io 
 which of these states were contemporary, and which 
 succeeded the others. There can be no question 
 
 that Thebes was one of the earliest, if not indeed the 
 most ancient of them all ; certainly prior to Mem- 
 phis, which was founded by it. According to the 
 natural order of things, some of these states became 
 wealthy and mighty, and swallowed up the others. 
 Even at this early period, Thebes and Memphis had 
 obtained a superiority over the rest. 
 
 This and Elephantine appear to have been united to Thebes ; 
 as were the states of LoAver Egj-pt to Memphis. 
 
 10. The Mosaic records prove, that even in Jo- Memphis a 
 seph's time the state of Memphis (the real place, it suTe^in jo. 
 appears, of his residence, not On, or Heliopolis) ^?P^'^^'i^^= 
 
 -iT/riii IT -r< T 1 ^bout 1800 
 
 comprised Middle and Lower h-gypt. It possessed b. c. 
 a numerous and brilliant court ; castes of priests and 
 warriors. Its airriculture flourished, and several of 
 its institutions indicated a deeply-rooted civilization. 
 But after the establishment of vassalage in this state 
 by Joseph, when the class of free proprietors was 
 destroyed, by making the king the only landholder 
 except the priests, the troubles which already threat- 
 ened the kingdom must have assumed a more dan- 
 gerous and alarming aspect. 
 
 11. These troubles came from abroad. Egypt, invasions 
 surrounded on all sides by nomad tribes, had often ^^l^^^ 
 suffered from their irruptions, which sometimes pour- 
 ed in from the south, sometimes from the east. But 
 never were these invasions so frequent and durable 
 
 as in the period which immediately followed the ad- 
 ministration of Joseph. Lower Egypt was overrun 
 by the Bedouin Arabs, whose chieftains, called by 
 the Egyptians Hi/ksos, settled in the country, forti- Hjksos, or 
 fied Avaris, or Pelusium, and extended their dominion bedouins. 
 to Memphis, which they made probably the seat of 
 
 E 
 
50 
 
 EGYPTIANS. 
 
 [book 
 
 Periob 
 
 BEFORE 
 
 Cyrus. 
 
 Expulsion 
 of the 
 Hyksos : 
 and rising 
 splendour 
 of Egypt. 
 
 their government. They are depicted as the op- 
 pressors of rehgion, and of the caste of priests ; but 
 when we consider that Moses flourished in their time, 
 we are led to infer that, like the Mongols in China, 
 they must have gradually adopted Egyptian manners 
 and civiHzation. They do not appear to have gained 
 possession of Thebes in Upper Egypt ; and it seems 
 highly probable, that the long struggle against them 
 was never, or at least but for a short time, suspended. 
 
 The dominion of the Arabian Hyksos falls between B. C. 
 1800 — 1600; and consequently was contemporary with Moses 
 and the exodus of the Jews. Josephus gives 500 years to their 
 dominion, in which he probably comprises the long periods of 
 earlier wars. 
 
 12. Defeat and final expulsion of the Hyksos from 
 Upper Egypt by Thumosis king of Thebes. The 
 consequence of this event was not only the restoration 
 of freedom and independence to Egypt, but also the 
 union of the different states into one kingdom ; as 
 the rulers of Thebes now became monarchs over all 
 Egypt. This expulsion of the Hyksos, which in it- 
 self cannot be considered otherwise than as a vast 
 national effort, must have been the more deeply im- 
 pressed on the memory of the people, as it laid the 
 foundation of the splendid period which immediately 
 followed. 
 
 The expulsion of the Hyksos appears to have been one of the 
 chief subjects on Avhich the Egyptian artists exercised their ta- 
 lents : it is supposed to have been represented upon one of the 
 large temples in Thebes. Denon, plate cxxxiii. 
 
 SECOND PERIOD. 
 
 From the Sesostrida until the sole dominion of Psammeti- 
 chus. B. C. 1500—650. 
 
 The sources for this period are the same as for the forego- 
 ing ; and the history still preserves the character of records 
 handed down by hieroglyphics. To this period belongs the line 
 of kings subsequent to Sesostris, given both by Herodotus and 
 Diodorus. Those two historians nearly agree, if we regard 
 
PERIOD II.] 
 
 EGYPTIANS. 
 
 51 
 
 Herodotus's line of king.s, not as uninterrupted, but as the frag- 
 ments of a series deduced solely from public monuments ; this 
 will be demonstrated by the following table, in which the pre- 
 decessors of Sesostris have likewise been indicated. 
 
 Period 
 
 BEFORE 
 
 Cyrus. 
 
 Herodotus. 
 
 Menes. 
 
 He was followed by three 
 hundred and thirty kings be- 
 longing to the previous period, 
 concerning which our informa- 
 tion is very incomplete : among 
 those sovereigns were eighteen 
 Ethiopians, and one queen 
 named Nitocris. 
 
 Maris. 
 
 Sesostris. 
 
 Pheron, son of Sesostris. 
 
 Proteus, in tlie time of the 
 Trojan war. 
 Jtthampsinitus. 
 
 Cheops, builder of the great 
 pyramid. 
 
 Chephres, brother to the 
 foregoing, builder of a pyra- 
 mid. 
 
 Mycerinus, son of Cheops, 
 builder of a pyramid. 
 
 DiODORUS. 
 
 Menes. 
 
 Followed by fifty-two suc- 
 cessors, ranging over a period 
 of more than 1400 years. 
 
 Busiris I. and eight success- 
 ors ; the last of whom was 
 
 Busiris II., the founder of 
 Thebes. 
 
 Osymandyas and eight suc- 
 cessors ; the last of whom was 
 
 Uchoreus, founder of Mem- 
 phis. 
 
 jEgyptus, grandson of the 
 foregoing. After the lapse of 
 twelve generations, 
 
 Mceris. 
 
 Seven generations. 
 
 Sesostris or Sesoosis. 
 
 Sesostris IL, .son of the fore- 
 going : he assumed Ids father's 
 name. 
 
 Interval comprising several 
 generations. 
 
 Amasis, and the Ethi(jpian, 
 
 Actisaiius. 
 
 Mendes or Manes, builder 
 of the labyrinth. 
 
 Anarchy which lasted five 
 generations. 
 
 Proteus or Cetes, in the time 
 of the Trojan war. 
 
 Remphis, son of the fore- 
 going. 
 
 Seven genoration.s, in the 
 course of which flourished Ni- 
 leus, from whom the Nile de- 
 rives its name. 
 
 Clienimis or Chemhes, from 
 Memphis, builder of the great 
 pyramid. 
 
 Cephren, brother to the fore- 
 going, builder of a pyramid. 
 
 Mycerinus, son of Chemmis, 
 builder of a pyramid. 
 9 
 
 E '^ 
 
Ö2 
 
 EGYPTIANS. 
 
 [book 
 
 Period 
 
 BEFORE 
 
 Cyrus. 
 
 Brilliant 
 period of 
 the Pha- 
 raohs. 
 
 Herodotus. 
 
 Asychis the legislator. 
 Anysis, who was blind. 
 
 Sabaco, the Ethiopian. 
 
 Anysis, king for the second 
 time. 
 
 Seikos, a priest of Vulcan. 
 
 Dodecarchy. 
 
 Psammetichus of Sais, sole 
 ruler. 
 
 DiODORUS. 
 
 Bochoris the legislator. 
 Interval of several genera- 
 tions. 
 
 Sabaco, the Ethiopian. 
 
 Dodecarchy. 
 
 Psammetichus of Sais, sole 
 ruler. 
 
 This comparative table demonstrates evidently, not only that 
 Herodotus's line is often interrupted, but likewise that it is im- 
 possible to establish any continuous chronology, since Diodorus 
 more than once leaves the number of generations undetermined. 
 Great importance, nevertheless, attaches to the date fixed by 
 Herodotus, ii. 13, where he declares that king Moeris flourished 
 900 years before his own visit to Egypt : consequently between 
 B. C. 1500 and 1450. And if, as seems highly probable, the 
 age of Sesostris was the 15th century B. C, (see Zoega, de 
 Obeliscis,) it cannot be denied but that we have some general 
 epochs ; and with these we must remain content until more 
 satisfactory information can be discovered on the monuments. 
 It should likewise be observed, that the discrepancy between 
 the names of the kings mentioned by Herodotus and Diodorus, 
 and those furnished by Manetho, may be accounted for by the 
 fact, that the sovereigns were distinguished by different names 
 on the monuments and in common life. 
 
 Of the dynasties of Manetho, the 18th, 19th, 20th, and 22nd, 
 belong to this period ; more especially the two first, which con- 
 tain the most important of the Pharaohs. 
 
 1. The following period, nearly to its termination, 
 M^as the brilliant age of Egypt, during which it 
 formed but one empire ; the kings being represented 
 as sovereign lords of the whole country. And, in- 
 deed, it was natural that the expulsion of the in- 
 vaders should be followed by a period in which the 
 military force and ardour of the nation would be 
 developed, and directed to external conquest. The 
 capital of the empire was, no doubt, Thebes, the 
 great monuments of which were erected in this 
 period ; that honour, however, seems to have alter- 
 nately belonged to Memphis, Herodotus's line of 
 kings being deduced from the monuments of that 
 city, and more especially from the temple of Phtha. 
 
 The more powerful of the Pharaohs of this period, and the 
 
PERIOD n.] 
 
 EGYPTIANS. 53 
 
 founders of the most important monuments of Upper Egypt, on Period 
 which their names are found, are the following : belonging to before 
 the 18th dynasty, some where about 1600—1500. ^'^^^^- 
 
 Amenopliis I. His name is likewise found beyond Egypt on 
 the temple of Amada, in Nubia. 
 
 Thutmosis I. Commencement of the expulsion of the 
 Hyksos. 
 
 Arnenophls II. The Memnon of the Greeks. Complete ex- 
 pulsion of the Hyksos, and commencement of several of the 
 great edifices. His name is also found on the monuments of 
 Thebes, Elephantine, and even in Nubia, on the distant temple 
 of 8olei3. Builder of the palace of Luxor. 
 
 Thutmosis IL His name found in Carnac, and on the obelisk 
 at the Lateran. 
 
 Ramesses I. Supposed to be the Danaus of the Greeks. Ex- 
 pelled by his brother. 
 
 Ramesses II. Miamun. Builder of the palace of Medi net- 
 Abu in Thebes. One of the royal graves tiiat have been open- 
 ed belongs to this king. 
 
 Amenophis III. Renewed invasion of the Hyksos ; he flees 
 before them into Ethiopia ; but returns victorious with his son 
 Ramesses. 
 
 Belonging to the 19th dynasty, between 1500 and 1400. 
 
 Ramesses III., called the Great, and sometimes Sesostris ; 
 founder of the dynasty, liberator of Egypt, and a great con- 
 queror. His name and titles, his wars and triumphs, are found 
 on the temples and palaces of Luxor and Carnac, in Thebes and 
 Nubia. His son and tbllower, 
 
 Ramesses IV., Pheron, rules long in peace. His name is 
 found in the great pillared hall of the palace of Carnac, and on 
 many other buildings. 
 
 Among his successors but few names have been preserved 
 until we come to Scheschonk or Sisac, of the 22nd dynasty, be- 
 tween 970 and 950 ; he took Jerusalem under the reign of 
 Rehoboam, and therefore furnishes a fixed date. 
 
 f R. V. L. (RuEHLE VON LiLiENSTEUN,) Graphic Illustra- 
 tions of the most ancient History and Geograph]/ of Eg if pt and 
 ■Ethiopia, with an atlas, 1827. A work containing every thing 
 necessary for understanding the discoveries hitherto made in 
 this department of history. 
 
 2. For this splendour, the empire was principally Splendid 
 indebted to Sesostris, son of Amenophis. This prince sJJ^strJs 
 is justly entitled to tlie surname of Great, which was 
 given him by the Egyptians. No one will, to the 
 letter, credit the narrative of his deeds, exaggerated 
 as they were by the traditions of the priests, or repre- 
 sented, as they still appear, on the buildings of 
 Thebes ; but who can doubt the existence of a mon- 
 
54 
 
 EGYPTIANS. 
 
 [book I. 
 
 Period arch of whom SO many and such various monuments 
 CyruT within and without Egypt bear witness ? 
 
 State of 
 the consti- 
 tution. 
 
 Division 
 into castes. 
 
 Critical examination of the accounts of the nine years' cam- 
 paign, and conquests of Sesostris. His arms were principally 
 directed against wealthy commercial countries ; probably by 
 land against Ethiopia, Asia Minor, and part of Thrace ; by sea 
 against Arabia Felix, perhaps even the Indian peninsula. Can 
 the performance of these exploits be deemed improbable, in an 
 age when western Asia did not contain a single great empire ? 
 The vast undertakings attributed to Sesostris in the interior of 
 his dominions, extensive buildings, canals, division of the land, 
 and imposition of taxes, according to a regular survey, prove 
 that he must have been the sovereign of all Egypt. 
 
 3. Notwithstanding the great changes that were 
 made, the constitution still bore the same general 
 character, that of a sacerdotal aristocracy combined 
 with a monarchy. Although the Egyptian kings, like 
 the Indian princes, were distinct from the priests, yet 
 their power was limited in various ways by that caste. 
 The high priest shared the royal authority ; the king 
 was shackled by religious ceremonies, both in public 
 and private life ; he was obliged to evince his vener- 
 ation for the established worship by the erection of 
 public monuments ; and all the high offices of state 
 were in the hands of the priests. It cannot be de- 
 nied, that on the personal character of the king de- 
 pended much of his power; but how strong must 
 have been this aristocracy, when even successful con- 
 querors were obliged to conciliate its approbation ! 
 
 4. It was probably about this time that the domestic 
 relations of the people, the division into castes, was 
 completed. The sacerdotal caste being in exclusive 
 possession of all scientific knowledge, remained for 
 that reason in possession of the offices of state. The 
 caste of warriors could hardly have assumed its com- 
 plete form before the country was united into one 
 empire : in like manner that of the navigators could 
 not have been completely established before the canals 
 were excavated ; although the origin of all may have 
 been of a much earlier date. 
 
 Comparison of the accounts given by Herodotus and Diodorus 
 of the division into castes. Not only precedence in time, but 
 
PERIOD II.] EGYPTIANS. 
 
 55 
 
 likewise the discrepancies between the two, declare in favour of Period 
 
 TT J i BEFORE 
 
 Herodotus. Cyrus. 
 
 5. It appears, therefore, tliat the most prosperous ^^^^^^^^^^ 
 period of the kingdom of the Pharaohs must be placed period of 
 some where between B. C. 1500—900; although, l^^\,^ 
 according to Diodorus, even this period v/as inter- — 9ob. 
 rupted by a long anarchy. The splendour of the 
 empire was obscured towards the end. Sabaco, a 7i4. 
 foreign conqueror from Ethiopia, (probably from 
 Meroe,) subjugated Egypt ; after his departure from 
 the country, Sethos, a priest of Phtha, contrary to all 
 precedent, seated himself upon the throne. He was, 
 consequently, considered a usurper ; he offended the 
 caste of warriors, and could not have escaped the 
 dangers of an irruption threatened by the Assyrian, 
 Sennacherib, had not a pestilence compelled the in- 
 vader and his host to retreat. 
 
 The dynasty of Sabaco, Seuechus, and Tarhaco in Meroe, 
 who, as conquerors, subjected Upper Egypt, is comprised be- 
 tween B. C. 800 — 700. Their names likewise have been al- 
 ready discovered on monuments ; some at Abydos in Egypt, 
 others in Nubia. 
 
 6. The Egyptian monarchy, however, at length Dodecar- 
 fell, and was replaced by an oligarchy ; (or perhaps a "^ ^'* 
 return was only made to the division of the earlier 
 kingdoms ;) twelve princes sharing among themselves 
 the sovereign power. A certain degree of unity 
 seems to have existed at first in this government ; but 
 quarrels soon sprung up among the princes, and they 
 compelled one of their number, Psammetichus of Sais, 
 to take flight. The exiled prince, supported by Greek About 
 and Carian mercenaries, contrived to avenge his ' ' 
 wrongs ; he drove away his rivals, and became the 
 sole ruler. 
 
56 
 
 EGYPTIANS. 
 
 THIRD PERIOD. 
 
 From the reign of Psammetichus, as sole monarch, to the 
 Persian conquest of Egypt by Camhyses. B. C. 650 — 
 525. 
 
 Period 
 
 BEFORE 
 
 Cyrus. 
 
 Revolutions 
 in Egypt. 
 
 Herodotus (1. ii. c. 125, etc.) is still the principal authority 
 for this portion of history. His statements, however, are no 
 longer derived from hieroglyphics : they are purely liistorical. 
 During the reign of Psammetichus, the Greeks who had mi- 
 grated into Egypt gave rise to tlie caste of interpreters, tpn^veiQ, 
 who acted both as ciceroni for strangers, and as brokers be- 
 tween the Egyptians and Greeks : these people were enabled 
 to give information respecting the history of the country. It 
 is not, therefore, surprising that Herodotus should assure us, 
 that from tliis time tlie history was authentic. — The names of 
 the succeeding Pharaohs are likewise found on tlie monuments ; 
 in tlie erection of whicli tliey rivalled tlieir predecessors. 
 
 Contemporary : Asia : rise and fall of the Chaldgeo-Baby- 
 lonian empire ; rise of the Persian monarchy. — Rome : kings 
 from Numa Pompilius to Servius Tullius. — Athens : Draco ; 
 Solon ; Pisistratus. — Jews : the last period and fall of the king- 
 dom of Judah ; Babylonish captivity. 
 
 1. From this epoch Egypt remained uninterrupt- 
 edly one kingdom, the capital of which was Mem- 
 phis, although Sais, in Lower Egypt, was the general 
 residence of the royal family. Strangers, and more 
 particularly Greeks, admitted into Egypt ; partly as 
 mercenaries, partly as merchants. Influence of this 
 innovation upon the national character, and upon the 
 political system in particular. A spirit of conquest 
 gradually inherited by the Egyptian kings, is directed 
 principally against Asia ; hence the formation of a 
 navy, and wars with the great rising monarchies of 
 Asia. Continued, but declining influence of the 
 sacerdotal caste, and proofs of the veneration of the 
 kings for the priesthood, deduced from the erection 
 and embellishment of temples, particularly of that 
 consecrated to Phtha in Memphis. 
 
PERIOD HI.] 
 
 EGYPTIANS. 57 
 
 2. Psammetichus, He obtains sole power through period 
 the assistance of Greek and Carian mercenaries, who cyrus. 
 are continued as a standing army in the country. 
 
 The caste of Egyptian warriors, taking umbrage in J^^"^^ " 
 consequence, emigrate for the most part to Ethiopia, b- c. eio. 
 where they settle. The southern portico of the temple 
 of Phtha is erected, and projects of conquest are 
 formed against Asia. 
 
 3. Neco, son and successor of Psammetichus. Neco eZ. 
 His extensive plans of conquest. First formation of ^^^^• 
 
 a naval power; and unsuccessful attempt to unite 
 by a canal the Mediterranean with the Red Sea. 
 Conquests in Asia as far as the Euphrates ; but quick 
 secession of the conquered, in consequence of the 
 loss of the battle of Circesium. Circumnavigation of eoe. 
 Africa undertaken at his command by the Phoenicians, 
 and successfully performed. 
 
 4. Psaminis Jiis son and successor. Expedition Psammis d. 
 against Ethiopia, and conquests in the interior of 
 Africa. 
 
 5. Reign of Apries (the Pharaoh-hophra of the Apries d. 
 Hebrews). Plans of conquest against Asia ; — siege 
 
 of Sidon, and naval battle with the Tyrians ; — expe- 
 dition against Cyrene in Africa ; its fatal result. A 
 revolution caused thereby in Egypt, the inhabitants 
 of which were averse to foreign wars, carried on 
 mostly by mercenary aliens : the revolution headed 
 by Amasis. In the civil war which Apries now 
 wages with his mercenaries against the Egyptians 
 commanded by Amasis, he loses both his throne and 
 life ; and with him ends the family of Psammetichus, 
 which had reigned to this time. 
 
 6. The usurper Amasis took possession of the Amasis d. 
 sovereign power ; and although he had to contend ^- ^- ^~'^- 
 with a strong .party, who despised him on account of 
 
 his low origin, he contrived by popular measures, 
 and by the respect he showed to the sacerdotal caste, 
 to establish himself upon the throne. — His monu- 
 ments, both at Sais and Memphis. — The Egyptians 
 and Greeks become better acquainted and more 
 closely connected with each other, partly in conse- 
 
58 
 
 EGYPTIANS. 
 
 Period 
 
 BEFORE 
 
 Cyrus. 
 
 Psammeni- 
 tus. 
 
 525. 
 
 Egypt a 
 province of 
 Persia. 
 
 Revolts 
 B. C. 488 
 to 484.' 
 
 463 to 456. 
 
 414. 
 
 quence of the marriage of the king with a Greek 
 woman ; but principally owing to the mouths of the 
 Nile being opened to the Greek merchants, and the 
 cession of Naucratis as a factory for their merchan- 
 dise. Great and beneficial consequences to Egypt, 
 which, under the long reign of Amasis, reaches its 
 highest pitch of prosperity. This prince had already 
 been engaged in disputes with the Persian con- 
 queror, Cyrus, whose son and successor, Cambyses, 
 led an expedition against Egypt, which Amasis, 
 however, luckily for himself, escaped by a seasonable 
 death. 
 
 7. His son Psammenitus, the last of the Egyptian 
 Pharaohs, is attacked by Cambyses in the very first 
 year of his reign. After a single battle, fought at 
 Pelusium, and a short siege of Memphis, the empire 
 of the Pharaohs is overthrown, and Egypt merges 
 into a Persian province. The powerful caste of the 
 priests suffered most from the hatred of tlie con- 
 queror ; but the persecution to which they were 
 subjected must be attributed rather to policy than 
 fanaticism. 
 
 8. Condition and fate of Egypt as a Persian pro- 
 vince. After the death of Cambyses, the country 
 received a Persian governor, and consequently be- 
 came a satrapy. Immediately after the first tempest 
 of war had blown over, Egypt was treated with mild- 
 ness by the Persians. The country paid a moderate 
 tribute, together with some royal gifts, among others 
 the produce of the fisheries in lake Morris ; never- 
 theless, repeated revolts occurred, which may be 
 principally attributed to the hatred and influence of 
 the sacerdotal caste. The first took place under 
 Darius Hystaspes, and was quelled by Xerxes. An 
 increase of tribute was the consequence. The second, 
 under King Inarus, fomented and supported by the 
 Athenians, happened .during the reign of Artaxerxes 
 I. ; it was quelled by Megabyzus. The third oc- 
 curred under Darius II., and in consequence of the 
 support which the Egyptians received from the 
 Greeks, was of longer duration than either of the 
 
BOOK I.J CARTHAGINIANS. 
 
 59 
 
 former, the throne of the Pharaohs being in some Period 
 
 ' ^ " BEFORE 
 
 measure restored, Cyrus. 
 
 This third secession of the Egyptians lasted till 354. During 
 this period various kings were appointed ; Amyrtaeus, d. 408 ; 
 Psammetichus, about 400 ; Nephreus, about 397 ; Pausiris, d. 
 375 ; Nectanebus I., d. 365 ; Tachos, d. 363 ; Nectanebus II. 
 conquered by Artaxerxes III., 354. 
 
 CARTHAGINIANS. 
 
 Sources. The first great republic which ancient records 
 mention as applying both to trade and war, is undoubtedly a 
 phenomenon well deserving the attention of the historical in- 
 quirer. Our knowledge, however, of Carthaginian history is 
 unfortunately very deficient, as we possess no author who has 
 made it the principal object of his attention. The immediate 
 subject of the Greek and Roman writers was the history of their 
 own country, and they only allude to that of Carthage in so far 
 as it is connected with their main topic. This observation ap- 
 plies as well to Polybius and Diodorus, as to Livy and Appian. 
 Even the information given by Justin, the only author who 
 says any thing concerning the early state of Carthage, is miser- 
 ably defective, although taken from Theopompus. (Cf. Com- 
 ment, de fontihns Justini in Commentat. Soc. Gott'nnj. vol. xv.) 
 Moreover, as Herodotus here fails us, we have not the writings 
 of any author whatever who v/itnessed Carthage in the days of 
 her prosperity ; Polybius did not see that country till after the 
 decline of its power ; the other historians wrote long afterwards. 
 But although an uninterrupted liistory of Carthage does not ex- 
 ist, we are yet able to trace the main outlines of the picture of 
 that state. — The modern writers on Carthage are : 
 
 Hendrich, de Repuhlica Carthaginiensium, 1664. A useful 
 compilation. 
 
 f History of the Republic of Carthage, 2 vols. Frankfort, 
 1781. A mere history of the wars. 
 
 Dajipjiartin, Histoire de la Rivalite de Carthage et de Rome, 
 tom. i. ii. Very superficial. 
 
 f W, BoETTicuER, History of Carthage, part i. Berlin, 1827. 
 The best work on the subject ; in whicli use has been made of 
 modern researches. 
 
 Concerning the Carthaginians, see Heeren's African Na- 
 tions. 
 
 The history of Carthage is most conveniently cli- Periods of 
 vided into three periods: I. From the foundation ofnJnhi?-' 
 the citv to tlie commencement of the wars with Syra- torj. 
 
60 CARTHAGINIANS. 
 
 LBOOK I. 
 
 Period cuse, B. C. 880 — 480. II, From the commencement 
 Cyrus^ of the wars with Syracuse to those with Rome, 480 — 
 
 264. III. From the commencement of the wars with 
 
 Rome to the destruction of Carthage, 264 — 146. 
 
 FIRST PERIOD. 
 
 From the foundation of Carthage to the wars ivith Syra- 
 cusel B. C. 880—480. 
 
 Contemporary : Inner Asia : kingdoms of the Assyrians, Ba- 
 bylonians, and fii'st half of the Persian monarchy. Greeks : 
 period from Lycurgus to Themistocles. Romans : period of the 
 kings, and of the commonwealth until the establishment of the 
 tribunes of the people. 
 
 Early his- ]. The foundation and primitive history of Car- 
 thlge°. ^^' thage, Hke all very early and important events in na- 
 tional history, have, by long tradition, been wrapt in 
 the veil of romance. The account given of Dido, 
 the supposed founder of the city, cannot be reduced 
 to the standard of pure historical truth, though it ap- 
 pears to justify the inference that some political com- 
 motions in the mother city, Tyre, induced a party of 
 emigrants to proceed to the northern shores of Africa ; 
 where other Phoenician establishments had already 
 taken place : here, by engaging to pay a yearly tri- 
 bute, they purchased from the natives permission to 
 found a city, the site of which was so happily chosen, 
 that it only depended upon the inhabitants to raise it 
 to that 2:reatness which it afterwards attained. 
 Vast extent 2. It is probable that Carthage advanced at first 
 tha-inian'^' ^»y slow stcps ; yet cvcu at the end of this first period 
 dominions, slic had rcachcd to such a height of power, that she 
 was mistress of a large territory in Africa, and of 
 foreign possessions still more extensive. Establish- 
 ment of the Carthaginian dominion in Africa by the 
 subjection of the neighbouring aboriginal tribes, and 
 the foundation of Carthaginian settlements within 
 their territories; the natives, Liby-Phoenicians, gra- 
 
TERioD I.] CARTHAGINIANS. 61 
 
 dually mingled with the inhabitants of those colonies, Period 
 and imbibed from them a love of agriculture and cTrTs. 
 
 fixed abodes. The inhabitants of the fertile territory ■ 
 
 extending southward as far as the lake Triton, were, 
 without exception, Carthaginian subjects, 
 
 3. Her connexion, however, with the ancient Relation of 
 Pha?nician towns along the coast, particularly Utica, J^JtMh? 
 was of a diiferent nature. For although Carthage other Ty- 
 possessed a certain authority over them, she did not ^fg^ of °" 
 claim absolute dominion, but ratiier stood at the Africa: 
 head of a federation ; thus affording a protection 
 
 which must frequently have degenerated into op- 
 pression. 
 
 4. In consequence of a treaty with the neigh- with the 
 bouring republic of Cyrene, the whole territory ex- lon^o/cj-- 
 tending between the two Syrtes was also ceded to '■^°^- 
 the Carthaginians. The Lotophagi and Nasamones, 
 inhabitants of this district, preserved their nomad 
 
 mode of life ; they must, however, from their trade 
 with the interior parts of Africa, have been of the 
 highest importance to Carthage. 
 
 5. System of colonization, and, as a necessary Canhagi- 
 result, that of conquest without Africa. It was evi- nie":*^" "" 
 dently the aim of the Carthaginians to settle on 
 islands, and to subject them to their dominion. Those 
 
 lying in the western part of the Mediterranean oc- 
 cupied the first place in their plan of conquest, which 
 was completely executed in Sardinia, the Baleares, Sa^^inia; 
 and other small islands; perhaps in Corsica; in Corsica;' 
 Sicily, however, they could never succeed to the full part of si- 
 extent of their wishes. There is also every proba- 
 bility that the Canary islands and Madeira were en- Canaries; 
 tirely in their possession. On the other hand, the ' 
 Carthaginians, previous to their wars with Rome, 
 were in the practice of establishing separate settle- 
 ments on the main land, partly in Spain, and partly 
 on the western shore of Africa. In the latter, they 
 adopted the policy of their ancestors, the Pha'nicians, 
 making the settlements so small, and confining them 
 within such narrow bounds, that the mother country 
 might always insure their dependence. 
 
62 CARTHAGINIANS, [book i. 
 
 Period 6. The gloiy of extending the territory of Car- 
 Cyrus. thage, by important conquests, belongs principally 
 
 to the family of Mago, who, together with his two 
 
 of^SiTgT^ sons and six grandsons, established the dominion of 
 and his fa- the rcpublic in Sicily, Sardinia, and Africa. This 
 "' ^' occurred about the same time that Cyrus, Cambyses, 
 
 Carthage and Darius were laying the foundation of the Persian 
 w^thPersIa mouarchy, with which Carthage even then entered 
 B. c. 550 into connexion. The Carthaginians, therefore, made 
 their first appearance, as extensive conquerors, in the 
 fourth century from the foundation of their com- 
 monwealth ; and it is at this period that mention "is 
 Sea fight made of their first naval engagement, in which the 
 
 between the -ni il • 1 • T ^1 
 
 Carthagi- rliocseans wcrc their adversaries. In tlie same 
 nians and period may be dated the establishment of their colo- 
 Cobi^eT nies beyond the Pillars of Hercules by Hanno and 
 without the Himilco — both probably sons of Mago; — by the 
 Gibraltar, formcr ou the coast of Africa, by the latter on that 
 B. c 539. Qf Spain. To the same period likewise is referred 
 
 First treaty , „^ . , '^^ i /^ i • • 
 
 with Rome, the hi'st commercuii treaty between the üarthagmians 
 ^^^' and Romans, in which the former appear as already 
 
 masters of Sardinia, Africa, and a portion of Sicily. 
 Arts miii- 7. To complctc thcsc conquests, and to preserve 
 tary and thcm wlicu complctcd, thc formation and support of 
 Carthage, vast flects and armies were indispensably necessary. 
 According to the usual practice of those nations who 
 apply both to trade and to war, the Carthaginian 
 armies were composed for the most part of merce- 
 naries. No nation, however, followed this plan so 
 extensively as the Carthaginians, for to them half 
 Africa and Europe furnished warriors. — Description 
 of a Carthaginian army ; development of the advan- 
 tages and disadvantages of its organization. — Organ- 
 ization of their navy. The state supported very 
 numerous fleets of war-ships, with a multitude of 
 slaves who laboured at the oar, and were it seems 
 public property. 
 Constitu- -8. The political constitution of Carthage, like that 
 thage°f ^^^' ^^ ^^^ wealthy trading states, was an aristocracy com- 
 posed of the noble and the opulent, though at all 
 times combined with a certain admixture of de- 
 
BOOK I.] CARTHAGINIANS. - 63 
 
 mocracy. The affairs of the state were confided to Period 
 the hands of the two suffetes or kings, — who, in all c™s! 
 probability, held their office for life, — and to those of 
 
 the senate, (^ov\^,) which contained within itself a ggfate^ ' 
 more select council (the ^lepovala). The privilege of state coun- 
 electing the magistrates resided with the people at " ' 
 large, who also shared the legislative power with the commons, 
 suffetes. Civil and military power was usually di- Miutary 
 vided : the offices of general and magistrate not being ]l^^^^'^^ 
 always, as at Rome, united in the same individual, — generally 
 although such an instance might not be of impossible 
 occurrence : — to each military chief, on the contrary, 
 was appointed a committee from the senate, on which 
 he was more or less dependent. 
 
 9. The high state tribunal of the hundred was in- Supreme 
 stituted as a barrier to the constitution against the hundred-. 
 attempts of the more powerful aristocrats, particularly »^^ «^J^ct ; 
 the military leaders ; indeed the brilliancy of Mago's 
 conquests seemed to threaten the republic with a mi- 
 litary government ; and immediately previous to his 
 
 time, one of the generals, Malchus, had actually made 
 an attempt to enslave Carthage. The object of the 
 institution was no doubt attained ; but in later times its evils. 
 the council assumed to itself a power which increased 
 to absolute despotism. It is not improbable that this 
 court likewise constituted the select conmiittee (the 
 
 r^epovai'a) of the SCUatC. 
 
 10. Our information respecting the financial sys- Finances of 
 tem of the Carthaginians is extremely meagre. The ^^'^^^'^?^- 
 following seem to have been the principal sources of 
 
 the public revenue. 1. The tribute drawn from the Tributes 
 federate cities, and their African subjects ; the for- Ifdcan^ 
 mer paid in money, the latter for the most part in f^^derates : 
 kind. This tribute was imposed at the will of the 
 government, so that in pressing cases the taxed na- 
 tions were obliged to give one half of their income. 
 2. The case was the same with their external pro- Sardinia, 
 vinces, particularly with Sardinia. 3. The tribute ^ 
 furnished by the nomad hordes, partly by those in the Syrtic 
 the Reffio-Svrtica, and occasionally also bv those on °' '^^■, 
 the western side. 4. The customs, which were le- customs-. 
 
64 
 
 CARTHAGINIANS. 
 
 [book I. 
 
 Period 
 
 BEFORE 
 
 Cyrus. 
 
 Trade of 
 Carthage ; 
 
 hy sea to 
 Britain and 
 the Guinea 
 coast ; 
 hy land to 
 the interior 
 of Africa. 
 
 vied with extreme rigour, not only in Carthage, but 
 hkewise in all the colonies. 5. The products of their 
 rich mines, particularly those of Spain. In consider- 
 ing the financial system of the Carthaginians, it should 
 not be forgotten that many of the nations with whom 
 they traded, or who served in their armies, were un- 
 acquainted with the use of money. 
 
 11. System and extent of their commerce. Their 
 object was to secure a monopoly of the western trade ; 
 hence the practice of restricting the growth of their 
 colonies, and of removing as much as possible all 
 strangers from their commercial marts. Their trade 
 was carried on partly by sea, and partly by land. 
 Their sea trade, arising from the colonies, extended 
 beyond the Mediterranean, certainly as far as the 
 coasts of Britain and Guinea. Their land trade was 
 carried on by caravans, consisting principally of the 
 nomad tribes resident between the Syrtes : the cara- 
 vans travelled eastward to Ammonium and Upper 
 Egypt, southward to the land of the Garamantes, 
 (Fezzan,) and even still further into the interior of 
 Africa. 
 
 SECOND PERIOD. 
 
 From the breaking out of the wars with Syracuse, to the 
 commencement of those with Rome, B. C. 480 — 264. 
 
 Views of 
 Carthage 
 upon Sicily, 
 
 Rout at Hi- 
 mera by 
 Gelon, 
 B. C. 480. 
 
 1. The great object of Carthaginian policy during 
 the whole of the above period, was to subdue Sicily ; 
 this object the nation pursued with extraordinary 
 pertinacity, often approximating to, but never ob- 
 taining, complete success. The growing power of 
 Syracuse, which likewise aimed at the sole possession 
 of the island, laid the foundation of that national ha- 
 tred which now arose between the Sicilian Greeks 
 and the Carthaginians. 
 
 2. First attempt, arising out of the league formed 
 with Xerxes I. upon his irruption into Greece. Ge- 
 
PERIOD II.] CARTHAGINIANS. ' 65 
 
 Ion of Syracuse, in a victory more decisive even than Period 
 that gained by Themistocles over the Persians at Sa- cyr°us^ 
 
 lamis, routs the Carthaginians near Himera, and com- 
 
 pels them to accede to a disgraceful peace. 
 
 3. This defeat was followed by a period of tran- General ex- 
 quillity lasting seventy years, during which we know thrcTrtL- 
 little about Carthap-e. All that we can say with anv ^"^'^11 em- 
 probability is, that in the mean time the struggle for Africa, 
 territory between Cyrene and Carthage commenced ^^0— ^lo. 
 and terminated to the advantage of the latter state, 
 
 whose dominion was generally extended and confirm- 
 ed in Africa by wars with the aboriginal tribes. 
 
 4. But the accession of Dionysius I. to the throne War in 
 
 of Syracuse, and the ambitious project formed by new«ir4io. 
 him and his successors, of subjecting to their rule all 
 Sicily and Magna-Graecia, rekindled once more the 
 embers of war, which had only smouldered for a short 
 time, to burst forth with additional violence. 
 
 Repeated and bloody wars with Dionysius I., between the 
 years 410 — 368. Neither party able to expel the other : terms 
 of the last peace ; that each party should remain in possession of 
 what he then occupied. Second commercial treaty with Rome. 
 
 Crafty advantage taken by the Carthaginians of the internal 
 commotions at Syracuse during and subsequent to the reign of 
 Dionysius II. : they endeavour to obtain their end ; but are 
 thwarted by the heroism of Timoleon, 345 — 340. 
 
 A new and frightful war with Agathocles, the seat of which 
 is transferred from Sicily into Africa itself; it at last terminates 
 in favour of Carthage, 311 — 307. 
 
 The war with Pyrrhus, 277 — 275, whose ambition gave rise 
 to an alliance between Carthage and Rome, contributed likewise 
 to increase the preponderance of the Carthaginians in Sicily ; 
 and probably the perseverance of that people, and their skill in 
 profiting by circumstances, would at last have enabled them to 
 attain their object, had not the seeds of war been thereby scat- 
 tered between Carthage and Rome. 
 
 5. What effect these Sicilian wars had upon the 
 state we are not informed. They were probably re- 
 garded in Carthage as a beneficial channel for car- 
 rying off the popular fermentation ; — nevertheless, 
 
 two attempts, both unsuccessful, were made by some tempts It 
 of the aristocratical party, to overthrow the constitu- ^^^"o'."^?: 
 tion ; first by Hanno, 340, and afterwards by Bomil- 3Ö8. 
 
 F 
 
68 
 
 CARTHAGINIANS. 
 
 [book 
 
 Period 
 
 BEFORE 
 
 Cyrus. 
 
 Excellent 
 state of the 
 Carthagi- 
 nian fi- 
 nances at 
 the begin- 
 ning of the 
 first Punic 
 war. 
 
 car, 308. — At the breaking out, however, of the war 
 with Rome, the commonwealth was so formidable 
 and mighty, that even the finances of the state do 
 not appear to have been at all affected ; a circum- 
 stance of the highest importance. What consequence 
 was it to Carthao'e whether 100,000 barbarians more 
 or less existed in the world, so long as there remained 
 plenty of men willing to suffer themselves to be sold, 
 and she possessed money to purchase them ? 
 
 THIRD PERIOD. 
 
 Causes of 
 the Punic 
 wars. 
 
 From the heginning of the wars with Rome, to the downfal 
 of Carthage, B. C. 264—146. 
 
 1. The wars between Carthage and Rome were 
 the necessary consequences of a desire of aggrandize- 
 ment in two conquering nations ; any one might have 
 foreseen the struggle between the two rivals as soon 
 as their conquests should once begin to clash. It is, 
 therefore, a question of little importance, to inquire 
 which was the aggressor ; and although Rome may 
 not be entirely cleared of that charge, we cannot 
 help observing that, according to the principles of 
 sound policy, the security of Italy was hardly com- 
 patible with the sole dominion of the Carthaginians 
 over the island of Sicily. 
 
 First war with Rome, 264 — 241, (twenty-three years,) waged 
 for the possession of Sicily, and decided almost at its commence- 
 ment by Hiero's passing over to the Roman side. (For the his- 
 tory of it, see below, in the Roman history, Book V. Period II. 
 parag. 2 sq.) 
 
 Fatal con- 2. This War cost the republic, Sicily and the so- 
 of the first vereignty of the Mediterranean, by which the fate of 
 ^"cartha^^'^e ^^^ Other cxtcmal possessions was already predeter- 
 mined. But that which appeared at the first view 
 to threaten the greatest danger, was the total ex- 
 haustion of its finances ; a circumstance which will 
 no longer surprise us, when we consider how many 
 
PERIOD ni.l CARTHAGINIANS. 67 
 
 fleets had been destroyed and replaced, how many Period 
 armies had been annihilated and renewed. Carthage cyrus! 
 
 had never before been engaged in such an obstinate ■ 
 
 struggle as this ; and the immediate consequences 
 were more terrific even than the war itself. 
 
 3. The impossibihty of paying the mercenaries Dreadful 
 produced a mutiny among the troops, which rapidly ^"^^040 
 grew into a rebellion of the subject nations, who had —237. 
 been most cruelly oppressed during the war. The 
 consequence was a civil war of three years and a half, 
 which probably would have spared the Romans the 
 trouble of destroying Carthage, had not the state 
 
 been snatched from ruin by the heroism of Hamilcar. 
 
 This war, which lasted from 240 to 237, produced lasting 
 consequences to the state ; it gave rise to the feud between 
 Hamilcar and Hanno the Great, which compelled Ilamilcar to 
 seek for support against the senate by becoming the leader of a 
 democratic faction. 
 
 4. The revolt spread abroad; it reached Sardinia Sardinia is 
 and caused the loss of that most important island, of '°^'' ^^^' 
 which the Romans, flushed with power, took posses- 
 sion, in spite of the terms of the peace. 
 
 5. The influence of the family of the Barcas, sup- Ri?eofthe 
 ported in their disputes with the senate by the popu- BarcL":^^^ 
 lar party, now got the upper hand in Carthage ; and 
 
 the first fruit of their power was the new and gigantic 
 project of repairing the loss of Sicily and Sardinia 
 by the conquest of Spain ; a country where the Car- vast projects 
 thaginians already had some possessions and com- "^°" ''*'"' 
 mercial connexions. The immediate object of the 
 Barcas was the support of their family and party ; 
 but the Spanish silver mines soon furnished the re- 
 public with the means of renewing the contest with 
 Rome also. 
 
 6. During the nine years in which Hamilcar com- executed by 
 manded, and in the followins; eip-ht in which Has- ^^""^^^^ 
 
 iiii- -1 1 ^ Has- 
 
 drubal, his son-in-law and successor, was at the head drubai, 
 of the army, the whole of the south of Spain, as far ^0^1.'^^ 
 as the Iberus, was brought under subjection to Car- 
 thage, either by negotiation or force of arms. The 
 further progress of the Carthaginians was only 
 
 F 2 
 
CARTHAGINIANS. [cook i. 
 
 Period arrestccl by a treaty with the Romans, in which the 
 Cyrus! Ibei'us was fixed upon as a frontier line, and the 
 freedom of Saguntum acknowledged by both powers. 
 
 with'th? Hasdrubal crowned his victories as a general and as 
 Romans a Statesman by the foundation of New Carthage, 
 fixed as°the (Carthagcna,) which was to be the future seat of 
 boundary of Carthaginian power in the newly-conquered country. 
 stssionsTn Hasdrubal having fallen by the hand of an assassin 
 Spain, 226. \^ ^{^g yg^^j. 221, the party of the Barcas succeeded in 
 
 Carthagena . •'. tt -i > tt -i i 
 
 fonnded. appointing Hamilcars son, Hannibal, a young man 
 Hannibal of onc-and-twcnty, for his successor. Hannibal 
 the*^com- ° found cvcry thing already prepared in Spain for the 
 mandofthe furtherance of the hereditary project of his family, 
 am J, >,-, , ^j^j^i^ ^^g ^ renewal of the contest with Rome ; and 
 and begins the vigour witli which this project was pursued, 
 Punirwar, clcarly proves how great must have been the pre- 
 '■^i^- ponderance of the Barcine influence, at that time, in 
 
 Carthage. Had the commonwealth attended to the 
 marine with the same ardour as their great general 
 did to the land service, the fate of Rome would per- 
 haps have been very different. 
 
 Second war with Rome, 218 — 201, (seventeen years,) first 
 in Italy and Spain, afterwards, from 203, in Africa itself. (See 
 the history of this war below, in the Roman History, Book V. 
 Period II. parag. 6 sqq.) 
 
 Internal 7. Until Africa became the scene of action, the 
 
 Carthage sccond war cost the republic much less than the 
 during^thie first ; the expenses being principally defrayed by 
 nicTar^'' Spain and Italy. Hanno, however, was at the head 
 of a powerful party at home, who were clamorous 
 for peace ; and who can say they were wrong ? .As 
 might be expected, the family of the Barcas were for 
 war, and their influence carried the day. That 
 general, who, with hardly any support from Carthage, 
 was yet able to maintain a footing in the country of 
 his powerful foes for no less than fifteen years, and 
 that, too, as much by policy as by force of arms, must 
 extort our admiration. It cannot, however, be de- 
 nied, that during the struggle one favourable oppor- 
 tunity, at least, was let slip of making peace ; a fatal 
 
PERIOD III.] CARTHAGINIANS. 69 
 
 omission, for which the hero of CannaB paid dearly Period 
 enough, by the failure of his darling project. c7rTs^ 
 
 8. By the second peace with Rome, Carthage 
 
 A dissjrace- 
 
 was deprived of all her possessions out of Africa, ^i eac""^ 
 and her fleet was delivered into the hands of the f'e result of 
 
 the war. 
 
 Romans. She was now to be a mere trading city 
 under the tutelage of Rome. But Carthage found 
 by this peace her most formidable enemy on the feoil 
 of Africa itself Massinissa had been elevated to the Massinissa 
 dignity of king of Numidia ; and his endeavours to fnewTn'-"' 
 form his nomads into an agricultural people, and to strumentof 
 collect them into cities, must have changed the hc^^™^" *'"' 
 military system that Carthage had hitherto followed. 
 Roman policy, moreover, had taken care that the 
 article inserted in his favour in the last treaty of 
 peace, should be so ambiguously worded, as to leave 
 abundant openings for dispute. 
 
 9. Even after this disgraceful peace, the family of Hannibal at 
 the Barcas still preserved their influence, and Han- Iffairs^'^ °^ 
 nibal was placed as supreme magistrate at the head 
 of the republic. He attempts to reform the constitu- attempts to 
 tion and the finances, by destroying the oligarchy of oUgarchy. 
 the hundred, by whom the finances had been thrown 
 into confusion. Complete as was the success of the 
 first blow, it soon became apparent that aristocratic 
 factions are not so readily annihilated as armies. 
 
 The democratic ftiction, to -which even the Barcas owed their 
 first elevation, was tlie cause of the dej^eneracy of the Cartha- 
 ginian constitution. By that faction tlie legishitive authority of 
 the senate and magistrates was withdrawn and transferred to 
 the ordo judicum — probal)ly tlie same as the high state tribunal 
 of the himdred — which now assumed the character of an om- 
 nipotent national inquisition ; and the members, being chosen 
 for life, exercised oppressive despotism. This tribunal was 
 formed of those who had served the office of ministers of finance, 
 with whom it shared unblushingly the revenues of the state. 
 Hannibal destroyed this oligarchy by a law, enacting that the 
 members slioidd hold their office but for one year ; whereas be- 
 fore they held it for life. In the reform wrought by this law 
 in the finances it was seen, that after all wars and losses, the 
 revenues of the repul)lic were still sufficient, not only for the 
 usual expenditure and the payment of tribute to Rome, but also 
 for leaving a surplus in tlie public treasury. Ten years had 
 hardly elapsed before Carthage was enabled to j)ay down at 
 
70 
 
 CARTHAGINIANS. 
 
 [book 
 
 Period 
 
 BErORE 
 
 Cyrus. 
 
 Hannibal 
 compelled 
 to fly to 
 Syria. 
 
 B. C. 195. 
 
 Roman in- 
 fluence 
 completely 
 established 
 in Car- 
 thage. 
 
 The Car- 
 thaginian 
 territory 
 gradually 
 dismem- 
 bered. 
 
 once the wliole of the tribute which she had engaged to furnish 
 by instalments. 
 
 10. The defeated party, whose interests were now 
 the same with those of Rome, joined the Romans, to 
 whom they discovered HannibaVs plan of renewing 
 the war in conjunction with Antiochus the Great, 
 king of Syria. A Roman embassy was sent over to 
 Africa, under some other pretext, to demand that 
 Hannibal should be given up. The Carthaginian 
 general secretly fled to king Antiochus, at whose 
 court he became the chief fomenter of the war against 
 Rome ; although unsuccessful in his endeavour to 
 implicate the Carthaginian republic in the struggle. 
 
 See hereafter the history of Syria, Book IV. Period III. 
 separate kingdoms, I. Seleucidae, parag, 18 ; and Book V. 
 Period II. parag. 10 sq. 
 
 11. In consequence of the absence of Hannibal, 
 Carthage fell once more under the dominion of the 
 Romans, who contrived, by taking a crafty advantage 
 of the state of parties, to give a show of generosity 
 to the exercise of their power. Even the patriotic 
 faction, if we may judge by the violent steps which 
 they took more than once against Massinissa and his 
 partisans, seem to have been but a tool in the hands 
 of Rome. 
 
 12. Disputes with Massinissa, which led to the 
 gradual partition of the Carthaginian territory in 
 Africa. The manner in which this territory had 
 been acquired, facilitated the discovery of claims 
 upon each of the component parts ; and the in- 
 terference of Rome, sometimes disinterested, but 
 oftener swayed by party-feeling, insured the posses- 
 sion of the territory to the Numidian. 
 
 Even in 199, a disadvantageous treaty framed with Massinissa 
 for fifty years : nevertheless the rich province of Emporia is 
 lost in 193. — Loss of another province unnamed, to which Mas- 
 sinissa inherited some claims from his father. — Seizure of the 
 province of Tysca, with fifty cities, about 174. Probable date 
 of Cato's embassy, who returned in disgust, because his decision 
 had been rejected, and became the fomenter of a project to de- 
 stroy Carthage. — New disputes about 152. — Massinissa's party 
 is expelled Carthage. — War breaks out in consequence, during 
 
PERIOD III.] CARTHAGINIANS. 71 
 
 which the king in his ninetieth year personally defeats the Car- Period 
 thaginians ; and what with famine and the sword, Hasdrubal's before 
 army, which had been surrounded by the enemy, was nearly ^rus. 
 exterminated ; in the mean while the Roman ambassadors, who 
 had come to act as mediators, obeying their private instructions, 
 looked on with quiet indifference. 
 
 13. Though it is evident that the party spirit Destruction 
 raging between Cato and Scipio Nasica had a con- "j^^^"'." 
 siderable influence in hastening the destruction of third Punic 
 Carthage ; and though it is equally clear that Mas- ^'^^ ' 
 sinissa's late victory paved the way for the immediate 
 execution of that project ; yet it is difficult to unravel 
 the web, by which, long before the declaration of 
 war now about to follow, treachery prepared the final 
 scene of this great tragedy. Was the account that brought 
 Cato at his return gave of the resuscitated power of ^j^j^"^^ ^''°' 
 Carthage consonant to truth ? Was not the sudden Roman du. 
 secession of Ariobarzanes, the grandson of Syphax, ^ '"^^' 
 who was to have led a Numidian army to defend 
 Carthage against Massinissa, previously arranged 
 with Rome ? Was not the turbulent Gisgo, who 
 first incited the populace to insult the Roman ambas- 
 sadors, and then opportunely rescued them from the 
 fury of the mob, in the pay of Rome ? These ques- 
 tions give rise to suspicions, although they cannot 
 satisfactorily be answered. At any rate, it may be 
 said, that the conduct of Rome, after war had broken 
 out, corroborates the suspicion. The whole history 
 of the last period sufficiently proves, that it was not 
 so much the debased character of the nation, as party 
 spirit, and the avarice of the great, which produced 
 the fell of Carthage. Advantage was taken of that 
 party spirit and avarice by Roman policy, which, al- 
 though acting according to the dictates of blind pas- 
 sion, knew how to profit by dark and base intrigue. 
 
 Third war with Rome and destruction of Carthage, 150 — 
 146. See hereafter the Roman history, Book V. Period II. 
 parag. 19 sq. 
 
SECOND BOOK. 
 
 History of the Persian Empire, from B. C. 560 — 330. 
 
 From 
 Cyrus 
 TO Alex- 
 ander. 
 
 Original 
 coiiditioa 
 of the Per- 
 sians 
 
 Sources. Preservation of historic records among the Per- 
 sians themselves under the form of royal annals ; origin and 
 nature of those annals. As these have been destroyed, we are 
 obliged to deduce the history from foreign writers, some of 
 whom, however, availed themselves of the Persian annals. 1. 
 Greeks: their authority as writers, contemporary, but not al- 
 ways sufficiently acquainted with the East, (a) Ctesias. His 
 court history, compiled from Persian annals, would be the prin- 
 cipal work did we possess the whole ; we have, however, only 
 an extract from it preserved by Photius. (b) Herodotus, 
 who probably availed himself of similar sources in some portion 
 of his work, (c) Xenophon. To this period of history be- 
 long, not only his Anabasis and Hellenica, but also his Cyro- 
 psedia, or portraiture of a happy empire and an accomplished 
 ruler, according to eastern ideas, exhibited in the example of 
 Cyrus : of use so far as pure historic records are interwoven 
 with the narrative, (d) Diodorus, etc. 2. Jeivish writers. 
 The books of Esdras and Nehebiiah ; and more particularly 
 that of Esther, as containing a faithful representation of the 
 Persian court and its manners. 3. The accounts of the later 
 Persian chroniclers, ]\Iirkhond in particular, who flourished in 
 the thirteenth century of the Christian era, can have no weight 
 in the scale of criticism ; they are nevertheless interesting, in- 
 asmuch as they make us acquainted with the ideas that the in- 
 habitants of the East form of their early history. 
 
 The modern authors on Persian history are principally those 
 who have written on ancient history in general : see p. 2. A 
 treatise on Persian history, deduced from eastern sources, will 
 be found in the Ancient Universal History, vol. iv. 
 
 Brissonius, de Regno Persarum, 1591, 8vo. A very la- 
 borious compilation. 
 
 The section concerning the Persians in f Heeren's Re- 
 searches into the Politics, Intercourse, and Trade of the Princi- 
 pal Nations of Antiquity. 
 
 [IVIalcolm, Sir John, History of Persia, from the earliest 
 ages to the present times. Lond. 1816, 4to, 2 vols. "A valu- 
 able work."] 
 
 1 . State of the Persian nation previous to Cyrus ; 
 a highland people, subject to the Medes, dwelling in 
 the mountainous parts of the province of Persis, and 
 
BOOK II.] PERSIANS. 'lis 
 
 leading wholly, or for the most part, a nomad life. From 
 Division into ten clans, among which that of the toAlex- 
 Pasargad(E, the noblest and ruling horde, is parti- ander. 
 cularly remarkable on account of the figure it makes ^he horde 
 in subsequent history. — The result of this division ofthePa- 
 was a patriarchal government, the vestiges of which ^^''s^'^^' 
 remain visible in the whole of the following history 
 of the Persians. Permanent distinction between the 
 tribes in reference to their mode of life, observable 
 even during the most flourishing period of the Per- 
 sian state : three of the nobles or warriors, three of 
 the husbandmen, and four of the shepherds. Argu- 
 ment thence deduced, that the history of the Persians 
 as a dominant nation, is that of the nobler clans alone, ^^^ the 
 and of the Pasargad^ more especialli/. 
 
 2. The personal history of Cyrus, the founder of cvrls, 
 the Persian monarchy, was, even in the time of He- oTn!rls-'° 
 rodotus, so obscured under the veil of romance, tliat i^'i:'" '"'J 
 it was no longer possible to detect the real truth. It Äslaüc con- 
 is, however, evident, that the course of the revolution queio's ; 
 wrought by him was, on the whole, the same as was 
 followed in all simihir empires founded in Asia. 
 Gengis-khan, in a later age, was placed at the head 
 
 of all the Mogol hordes ; in the same manner was 
 Cyrus elected chief of all tlie Persian tribes, by whose 
 assistance he became a mighty conqueror, at the time founds the 
 that the Babylonian and Median kingdoms of Inner phc^lüKHU ' 
 Asia were on the decline, and before the Lydian ^- ^- ^^>^- 
 empire under Croesus had been firmly established. 
 
 Descent of Cyrus from the family of Achtemenes (Jamshid ?). 
 That family belonged to the Pasargada) tribe, and therefore re- 
 mained the ruling house. 
 
 3. Rise of the Persian dominion, in consequence oftheMe- 
 of the overthrow of the Medo-Bactrian empire, after empire, de^ 
 the defeat of Astyages at Pasargada. Rapid exten- stroyed 
 sion by further conquest. Subjection of Asia Minor „f jj^g l ' 
 after the victory won by Cyrus'in person over CrcE- «^jan em- 
 sus, and capture of the Greek colonies by the gene- Asfatic 
 rals of the Persian monarch. Conquest of Babylon Greeks 
 and all the Babylonian provinces. The Phoenician abouTssT: 
 
74 
 
 PERSIANS. 
 
 [book II. 
 
 From 
 Cyrus 
 TO Alex- 
 ander. 
 
 of Babylon, 
 538. 
 Cyrus is 
 slain in bat- 
 tle with the 
 Massagetse, 
 .52y. 
 
 The Per- 
 sians adopt 
 the religion, 
 laws, and 
 polity of the 
 conquered 
 Medes. 
 
 Expedients 
 adopted to 
 keep pos- 
 session of 
 the con- 
 quered ter- 
 ritories. 
 
 cities submit themselves of their own accord. Even 
 in Cyrus's time, therefore, the frontiers of the Persian 
 empire had been extended in Southern Asia to the 
 Mediterranean, to the Oxus, and to the Indus ; but 
 the campaign against the nomad races, inhabiting the 
 steppes of Central Asia, was unsuccessful ; and Cyrus 
 himself fell in the contest. 
 
 It cannot be denied but that, in the narration of the separate 
 wars waged by Cjrus, discrepancies are found in Herodotus and 
 Ctesias ; those two authors, however, agree in the main facts : 
 and, indeed, the differences wliich exist between them cannot be 
 considered always as direct contradictions. 
 
 4. Immediate consequences of this great revolu- 
 tion in respect both of the conquerors and the con- 
 quered. Among the former, even in the time of Cy- 
 rus, the civilization and luxury of tlie Medes, their 
 legislation and national religion, and the sacei'dotal 
 caste of the magi, who were guardians of that reli- 
 gion, had been introduced, and the whole system of 
 the Persian court had been remodelled upon that of 
 the Medes. 
 
 Description of Zoroaster's legislation, and of the Magian na- 
 tional religion, according to the Zend-avesta. How far the 
 dogmas of Zoroaster can be considered as dominant among the 
 Persians ? — Proof that they were adopted only by the nobler 
 tribes, more particularly the Pasargadaj. Their great and be- 
 neficial influence on agriculture. 
 
 AjsTQUetil du Perron, Zend-avesta, ouvrage de Zoroastre, 
 traduit en Francois sur V original Zend. Paris, 1771, 4to. 
 This work has been much improved by the critical discussions 
 added to the German translation by J. L. Kleuker. Com- 
 pare the dissertations on Zoroaster by Meiners and Tychsen, 
 in Comment. Soc. Gotting. and Heeren's Researches, etc. vol. i. 
 
 Hyde, De Religione veterum Persaruni; Oxon. 1700, 4to. 
 Replete with learned research, and the first work that excited 
 inquiry on the subject. 
 
 f J. S. Rhode, Sacred Traditions of the East ; Breslau, 
 1821. An excellent work for the study of the Zend-avesta, the 
 magian religion, and the antiquities of the Medes and Persians. 
 
 5. First political constitution of the Persian empire 
 under Cyrus. No general new organization ; but 
 for the most part the original institutions are pre- 
 served among the conquered, who are compelled to 
 pay tribute. Royal officers, appointed to collect the 
 
BOOK II.] PERSIANS. 75 
 
 tribute, are associated with the generals, who with ^^°^^ 
 numerous armies keep in subjection the inhabitants to alex- 
 of the conquered countries. For the support of the ^^^^^' 
 empire large standing armies are kept in pay, besides Tribute. 
 which, recourse is frequently had to the transplant- standing 
 ing of whole nations ; while, as was the case with the Transfer of 
 Jews, some who had been formerly transplanted are ^^^^°^^^ °^" 
 restored to their country. With the same view in- 
 junctions are issued, as in the case of the Lydians, to 
 effect the enervation of warlike races by a luxurious 
 and effeminate system of education. 
 
 6. Cyrus leaves two sons, the elder of whom, Cam- 
 byses, succeeds as king ; the younger, Smerdis, (the 
 Taniio.varces of Ctesias,) becomes independent lord 
 of Bactria and the eastern territories ; but is soon 
 after murdered by the command of his elder brother. 
 
 7. Under Cambyses the conquering arms of the Cambyses, 
 Persians are directed against Africa. • Egypt be- ^522,^'^ 
 comes a Persian province, and the neighbouring Li- conquers 
 bya, together with Cyrene, assume the yoke of their Egjpt,etc. 
 own accord. But the two-fold expedition against 
 
 the opulent commercial establishments, Ammonium 
 in the west, and Meroe in the south, is wholly un- 
 successful ; that against Carthage is arrested in its 
 commencement by the refusal of the Tyrians to join 
 the naval armament. A colony of six thousand 
 Egyptians is transplanted into Susiana. 
 
 8. The cruelty with which Cambyses is accused His policy 
 of treating the Egyptians was directed rather against |" j'Jhe^*'"*" 
 the powerful caste of the priests, than against the E^^yptian 
 whole nation ; and originated more in political than ^"^^ 
 
 in religious motives. It must be observed, how- 
 ever, that we ought to be particularly on our guard his vices 
 against all the evil that is related of Cambyses, inas- JIuch^eL 
 much as our information respecting that prince is de- aggeraied. 
 rived entirely from his enemies, the Egyptian priests. 
 
 9. The usurpation of the Pseudo-Smerdis, (or Usurpation 
 Tanyoxarces^ was an attempt of the magi to replace ° ''^'"^s'- 
 a Median dynasty on the throne, by means of a plot 
 hatched within the seragho. It was the occasion of J^^'j,'?^^ 
 an accident which cost Cambyses his life, after a reign 522. 
 
76 
 
 PERSIANS. [book ii. 
 
 From 
 Cyrus 
 
 of seven years and a half (or, accordino; to Ctesias, 
 TO Alex- 01 eighteen). 
 
 ^''"^'^- 10. The Pseudo-Smerdis kept his seat on the 
 The false thronc eight months, during which he attempted to 
 Smerdis, bring; over the conquered nations to his interest bv a 
 
 a,it6r a. reiirn ," . . ^ • , 
 
 of eight remission of all tribute for three years ; but the dis- 
 ^a'hi^b^' the covery of his cheat gave rise to a conspiracy of seven 
 seven gran- of the chicf Pcrsiaus, who could not brook the rule 
 ^^^^' of a Mede, and the usurper lost his life. 
 
 No progress H. It could not bc cxpccted that the political or- 
 made to- p-Qnization of the kingdom should advance to com- 
 
 wards ati o . • ^ n r^ i i i 
 
 established plctiou clurmg tlic rcigu oi Cambyses, who was almost 
 unTerTam! ^l^ays abscut iu the prosecution of war ; or during 
 byses and the brief rulc of the Pseudo-Smerdis. It remained, 
 therefore, in the same state as under Cyrus. But 
 The Per- the iutroduction of the Median court-ceremonial 
 
 siunshaving , ■.. ., r- i -n» • it i 
 
 forsaken the amoug the rulmg tribe ot the Persians, and the adop- 
 nomad life, ^[q^ ^f fixed dwellings by that tribe, rendered it ne- 
 cessary that royal residences should be erected for 
 Persepoiis the reccptiou of the king s court ; among these Per- 
 13 built. sepolis, (see above, p. 17,) probably commenced by 
 Cyrus, was completed under Darius and Xerxes. 
 
 The best drawings of the monuments of Persepohs, remark- 
 able alike for their architecture, their sculpture, and their in- 
 scriptions in the arrow-lieaded character, are to be found in the 
 Travels of Chardin and Niebühr. Illustrations : 
 
 f Herder's Persepoiis, in the collection of his works, vol. i. 
 
 f Heeren's Researches, etc., vol. i. Great assistance in stu- 
 dying the inscriptions, is furnished by 
 
 De Sacy, Memoires sur diverses Anüquites de la Perse; 
 Paris, 1793, 4to. It must be observed, however, that tliis work 
 is confined to the illustration of the later monuments, belonging 
 to the SassanidcB. The most sticcessful attempt at decijihering 
 the arrow-headed inscriptions of the old Persic, since Tychsen, 
 MuENTER, and Lichtensteln, will be found in 
 
 f Grotefend, O71 the Interpretation of the Arroiv-headed 
 Characters, particularly of the Inscriptions at Persepoiis, con- 
 tained in the appendix to Heeren's Researches, etc. vol. ii. 
 with an accompanying Zend alphabet, 
 
 A^llG sgvgh 
 
 grandees 12. Aftcr a vcry remarkable debate held by the 
 
 cif on the' ^^"^^^ conspirators, concerning the form of govern- 
 future form mcut which should be established, Darius, the son of 
 m^u!'"'" tlystaspes, one of the family of the Achsemenides, 
 
BOOK u.] PERSIANS. 77 
 
 was raised to the throne by an oracle ; this king* en- From 
 deavoured to strengthen his right to the sceptre by to alex- 
 marrying two of Cyrus's daughters. ander. 
 
 13. The reign of Darius I., which lasted thirty-six j^^j^j^.^^ 
 years, (according to Ctesias 31,) is remarkable for (022-486,) 
 the improvements made both in the external and in- statesman 
 ternal administration of the Persian empire. In the ^'"^ ^°^y 
 former, by the great expeditions and conquests, which 
 extended the Persian realm to its utmost limits ; in 
 
 the latter, by several important institutions, estab- 
 lished for the internal organization of the state. 
 
 14. The expeditions of the Persians under Cyrus, the first 
 were directed against the countries of Asia ; those of that 
 
 carries 
 
 Cambyses, against Africa. But those undertaken by !"* ^"»^ 
 Darius I. were directed against Europe, though the rope: 
 Persian territory was at the same time extended in 
 the two other quarters of the world. In the reign and is em- 
 of this king likewise commenced those wars with the ^^^i^h^the 
 Greeks, so fatal to the Persians ; constantly fomented European 
 and supported by emigrant or exile Greeks, who 
 found an asylum in the Persian court, and there con- 
 trived to raise a party. — First example of the kind 
 exhibited shortly after the accession of Darius, in the 
 case of Syloson, brother to Polycrates, who had been 
 tyrant of Samos : at his request the island was taken 
 possession of by the Persians, and delivered up to 
 him after the almost total destruction of the male po- 
 pulation. 
 
 15. Great revolt in Babylon, which would not Babylon Re- 
 submit tamely to a foreign yoke. After a siege of |'s''teduceli, 
 twenty-one months, Darius by stratagem regains pos- b. c. sic. 
 session of the city. The power of Babylon and the 
 importance of its situation increased the jealousy with 
 
 which it was guarded by the Persian kings ; so much 
 so, that they were wont to reside there a certain por- 
 tion of the year. 
 
 16. First great expedition of Darius undertaken Campaign 
 against the Scythians inhabiting the lands north of scvthLnsJ 
 the Black Sea : the former irruption of the Scythians 5i3. 
 into Asia afforded a pretext for the war, which, there- 
 fore, was considered as a general national under- 
 
78 PERSIANS. [book ii. 
 
 From taking. Unsuccessful as the Persian arms were in 
 To^ Tlex- this vast expedition against the Scythians, and dis- 
 
 ANDER. graceful as was the retreat from the barren steppes 
 The Per-" ^f the Ukraiu, yet the power of Darius was estab- 
 sians, lished in Thrace and Macedonia, and the Persians 
 luecfifur obtained firm footing in Europe. 
 
 establish 
 
 themselves Concerning the peculiar character of the Persian national 
 in Europe, ^^^^.g^ q^. gj-gat campaigns, in which all the conquered nations 
 
 were obliged to participate, contrasted with the other wars 
 
 waged by Persian troops alone. 
 
 Campaign 17. The uext expedition made by Darius was more 
 against succcssful. It was Carried on along the banks of the 
 India, 509 : Indus, down whicli river Scylax, a Greek, had pre- 
 viously sailed on a voyage of discovery. The high- 
 lands north of the Indus were then subjected to the 
 Persian dominion, and the Indus became the bound- 
 ary of the kingdom. About the same time that 
 Darius was engaged on the Danube and the Indus, 
 Aryandes, his viceroy in Egypt, led an expedition 
 against agaiust Barca, to avenge the murder of king Arce- 
 AfricV" silaus ; a war which terminated in the destruction of 
 the city, and the transplantation of its inhabitants 
 into Asia. 
 Secession of 18. Howcvcr trifling the first occurrence which 
 the Asiatic ^.jgg ^^ ^}-^g revolt of thc Asiatic Greeks, it was 
 
 Greeks, o . . j 
 
 B. c. .^ü2— much more important in its consequences. It was 
 '^^^'' set I Ml foot by Aristagoras, lieutenant-governor of 
 
 Miletus, who was secretly supported by his relation, 
 the offended Histiseus, then resident at the Persian 
 who, as- court. The share taken by the Athenians in this 
 AtifeL^^fire rebellion, which led to the burning of Sardes, was 
 saides,' the origin of the national hatred between Persia and 
 ^^^' European Greece, and of the long series of wars 
 
 but are that cnsucd. The confederates were this time de- 
 «^«'"P'eteiy feated ; but the naval battle off the island of Lada, 
 MiieTus° could hardly have had such a fatal result, had not the 
 ^^^- league been previously corrupted by the craft and 
 
 gold of Persia. Be that as it may, this war ended 
 in the reduction of the lonians, and the destruction 
 of Miletus, their flourishing capital ; a city which 
 
BOOK II.] PERSIANS, 79 
 
 in those days, together with Tyre and Carthage, en- ^kom 
 grossed the trade of the world. to Alex- 
 
 19. First attack upon Greece, particularly Athens, ander. 
 Darius, already enraged against the Athenians by j-j^g^ ^^^_ 
 the firing of Sardes, is still forther instigated by the paign 
 suggestions of the banished tyrant of Athens, Hip- ^e"ce, 
 pias, the son of Pisistratus. This prince, who had 
 
 fled to the Persian court, was evidently the animating 
 spirit of the whole undertaking. Although the first ui^der Mar- 
 attempt, made under the command of Mardonius, frustrated 
 was thwarted by a tempest, yet the mighty expedi- ^^'^^^^J!°' 
 tion which afterwards followed, was undertaken with Athos, 492. 
 so much more prudence, and conducted with so second 
 much knowledge of the country, that no one can fail campaign. 
 to recognise the guiding hand of Hippias. Even the 
 battle of Marathon, which seems to have been but a Battle of 
 diversion on the side of the Persians, would not have sept! 29"' 
 decided the war, had not the activity of Miltiades ^9"- 
 defeated the principal design of the enemy upon 
 Athens. 
 
 20. It may be said tliat Darius, by these foreign Progress of 
 wars, debilitated the kingdom which he endeavoured [g^^ardsa"^ 
 to extend ; tliis circumstance, however, it cannot be regular 
 denied, increases the merit which he has of perfecting t^'n.^'*"' 
 the internal organization of the empire. His reign 
 constitutes precisely that period which must enter 
 
 into the history of every nomad race that has at- 
 tained to power, and is advancing towards political 
 civilization ; a period at which it becomes visible 
 that the nation is endeavouring to obtain a constitu- 
 tion, however gradual the progress towards it. 
 
 21. Division of the empire into twenty satrapies, Division of 
 and the imposition of a regular tribute on each. into'^srtJ',!«- 
 This division at first depended solely on that of the p^^^- 
 various tributary races, but from it gradually arose a 
 geographic division, in which the ancient distinction 
 
 of countries was for the most part preserved. 
 
 Proofs that the division into satrapies was originally a mere 
 arrangement for the civil government and collection of taxes, 
 distinct from military poAver. Duties of the satraps. The at- 
 tention they w^ere to pay to the cultivation and improvement of 
 
80 
 
 PERSIANS. 
 
 [book II. 
 
 From the land ; to the collection of the imposts ; to the execution of 
 Cyrus the royal commands relating to provincial affairs. An abuse of 
 '^ander''^" ^^^^^ institution, at a later period, placed in the hands of these 
 satraps the command also of the troops. — Various means of keep- 
 ing the satraps in a state of dependence : royal secretaries ap- 
 pointed for each, who were to be the first to receive the king's 
 commands. — Periodical visits paid to the provinces by commis- 
 sioners under the direct appointment of the king, or by the king 
 himself accompanied with an army. — Establishment of couriers 
 in every part of the empii-e, for the purpose of securing a safe 
 and rapid communication Avith tlie provinces, as was the case 
 also in the Mongol countries (not a regular post, however, the 
 institution here alluded to being intended only for the court). 
 
 Persian 
 finances : 
 the con- 
 quered to 
 support the 
 conquerors. 
 
 Art mili- 
 tary. 
 
 22. The Persian finance continues to preserve 
 those peculiarities which naturally result from the 
 formation of an empire by a nomad race of con- 
 querors, desirous of living at the expense of the con- 
 quered, and under a despotic form of government. 
 
 Collection of tribute, mostly in kind, for the support of the 
 court and the armies ; and in precious metals, not coined, but in 
 their raw state. Application of the treasure thus collected to- 
 wards constituting a private chest for the king. Various other 
 I'oyal imposts. — Mode of providing for the public expenditure 
 by assignments on the revenues of one or several places. 
 
 23. Organization of the military system, conform- 
 ably to the primitive state of the nation, and the ne- 
 cessity now felt of keeping the conquered countries 
 in subjection by means of standing armies. 
 
 Military organization of the Persian nations, by means of a 
 decimal division pervading the whole. — Royal troops cantoned 
 in the open field, according to a certain division of the empire, 
 or stationed as garrisons in the cities, and distinct from the en- 
 campments. — Manner in which the troops were supported at 
 the cost and by the taxes of the provinces. — Introduction of 
 mercenaines and Greeks, more particularly among the Persians, 
 and fatal consequences of that measure. Military household of 
 the satraps and grandees. — Institution of a general conscrip- 
 tion in national wars. Formation of the Persian navy, con- 
 sisting of the Phcenician, and not unfrequently of the Asiatic 
 Greek fleets. 
 
 ThePersinn 24. From the time of Darius, the court of the 
 seragiio°and kings of Pcrsia attained its complete form, and the 
 the head- government soon after was wholly concentrated in 
 tiiT'aiTOy° the seraglio. Yet the mode of life which the kings 
 
BOOK II.] PERSIANS. 81 
 
 led, surrounded by a court, taken principally if not f «om 
 wholly from the tribe of the Pasargadee, and changing xo alex- 
 their residence according to the revolutions of the ander. 
 seasons, still preserved the traces of nomad origin. ~ 
 
 Babylon, Susa, and Ecbatana, the usual residences ; Perse- 
 polis, now used as a royal cemetery. The court supported by 
 the most costly productions of each province ; hence arose the 
 rigid ceremonial observed at the royal table. — Internal oi'gan- 
 ization of the seraglio. — Influence of the eunuchs and queen- 
 mothers on the government. 
 
 25. Already had Darius commenced preparations Revolt of 
 to wreak his vengeance on Athens, when a revolution B°^(j'^'4yg . 
 broke out in Egypt, and hindered him from prose- 
 cuting his design. He died after nominating for his death of 
 successor Xerxes I., grandson of Cyrus, and his eld- fgg""*' 
 est son by a second wife, Atossa, whose influence 
 
 over her husband was boundless. 
 
 26. Xerxes I. A prince educated in the seraglio, Xerxes i. 
 who knew nothing beyond the art of representing the ^^^~'^'^-^ '• 
 pomp of royalty. Subjection of Egypt, and severe recovers 
 treatment of that country under the satrap Achae- ^^p^^^^: 
 menes, brother to Xerxes. 
 
 27. Xerxes' famous expedition against Greece was 'eads a 
 again the result of the cabals and intrigues of the ^„y^^ 
 Greek exiles, the Pisistratidse, the soothsayer Ono- against 
 macritus, the Thessalian princes or Aleuadae, who 
 contrived to exert their influence on the king's mind, 
 
 and to raise a party in their favour among the gran- 
 dees. But the progress of the campaign showed that 
 no Hippias was at the head of the invading army, al- 
 though the Persian king did certainly succeed in his 
 avowed object, the capture and destruction of Athens. 
 
 Critique on the detailed account given by Herodotus of this 
 expedition, as a national undertaking in which all the subju- 
 gated nations were obliged to take a share. — Preparations which 
 last for three years in the Persian empire ; league framed with 
 Carthage for the subjection of the Sicilian Greeks, 483 — 481. 
 The expedition itself in 480 ; over Asia Minor and the Helles- 
 jKjnt, through Thrace and Macedonia. — Muster of the army and 
 division of the troops according to nations at Doriscus ; the de- 
 tailed description of which found in Herodotus, was most pro- 
 bably boiTowed from some Persian document. — The pass of 
 Thermopylae taken by treachery ; on the same day a n^'val en- 
 
 G 
 
82 PERSIANS. [book ii. 
 
 From gagement off Artemisium. — Athens captured and burnt, Bat- 
 
 Cyrus tle°of Salamis, Sept. 23, 480. Retreat of Xerxes ; an army of 
 
 TO Alex- pj^j-gd y^en left behind, under the command of Mardonius. — 
 
 ^^°^'^' Fruitless negotiations with tlie Athenians. — Second campaign 
 
 ■ of Mardonius : he is routed at Plata.-«, Sept. 25, 479 ; and that 
 
 event puts an end for ever to the Persian irruptions into 
 
 Greece: on the same day the Persian army is defeated, and 
 
 their fleet burnt at Mycale in Asia ]\Iinor. 
 
 Persia now 28. The consequences of these repeated and un- 
 obiigedtb guccessful expeditions, in wliich ahnost the whole 
 
 concentrate tr ' li- • 1 i. T'U 
 
 herforcesin population was engaged, must be selr-eviclent. ine 
 Asia Minor. gj-^pjj,g ^.^g weakened and depopulated. The de- 
 fensive war which the Persians for thirty years were 
 obliged to maintain against the Greeks, who aimed at 
 establishing the independence of their Asiatic coun- 
 trynien, completely destroyed the balance of their 
 power, by compelling them to transfer their forces to 
 Asia Minor, the most distant western province of the 
 empire. 
 Policy of 29. Little as the Greeks had to fear from the Per- 
 thePersians gj^^ amis, the daugcr with which they were now 
 tiie Greeks, threatened was much more formidable, when the 
 enemy began to adopt the system of bribing the 
 chieftains of Greece ; a system which succeeded be- 
 yond expectation in the first trial made of it with 
 Pausanias, and perhaps was not wholly unsuccessful 
 with Themistocles himself — But the Persians soon 
 cimon fouud in Ciuiou an adversary who deprived them of 
 Persia t^re"" the sovcrciguty of the sea ; who in one day destroyed 
 sovereignty ]jq^\^ ([^q\i^ üeet and their army on the Eurymedon ; 
 battle of tlie aud by the conquest of the Thracian Chersonese, 
 di)TTo9 wrested from them the key of Europe. 
 Bioödy ' 30. What little we know further concerning the 
 deeds in the j,gjo-n of Xcrxcs, cousists in the intrig;ues of the se- 
 
 i Grsi3.n SG- o ^ ^ 
 
 ragiio : raglio, which now, through the machinations of Queen 
 
 Amestris, became the theatre of all those horrors 
 
 which are wont to be exhibited in such places, and 
 
 Xerxes to which Xcrxcs himsclf at last fell a victim, in con- 
 
 murdered. ggq^ence of the conspiracy of Artabanes and the 
 
 eunuch Spamitres. 
 
 Was Xerxes the Ahasuerus of the Jews ? — On the difference 
 between the names of the Persian kings in Persian and Chal- 
 
BOOK II.] PERSIANS. 83 
 
 dee; not to be wondered at when we consider that they were From 
 
 mere titles or surnames, assumed by the sovereigns after their Cyrus 
 
 ■^ TO Alex- 
 
 accession. ^^^^^_ 
 
 31. Artaxerxes L, surnamed Longimanus. In J^. ' 
 consequence of the murder of his father and his elder xerxes, 
 brother, in the conspiracy of Artabanes, this prince _!424. 
 ascended the throne, but was unable to keep posses- 
 sion of the sceptre without assassinating, in his turn, 
 Artabanes. His reign, which lasted forty years, ex- durin- his ' 
 
 ■ hibits the first symptoms of the decline of the empire, [.^'fn^h^'''' 
 which this king, although possessed of many good decline, 
 qualities, had not the talent or spirit to arrest. 
 
 32. At the very commencement of his reign re- Rebellions 
 bellions are excited in the provinces ; in the mean "[„^g p™' 
 while the war with Athens continues. Two battles 
 
 are required to repress the insurrection of his brother 
 Hystaspes in Bactria. 
 
 33. Second revolt of Egypt, excited by the Libyan Second sc- 
 king, Inarus of Marea, in conjunction with the ^^gy°t^ "' 
 Egyptian, Amyrtseus, and supported by an Athenian b.c. 463: 
 fleet. Although the confederates did not make 
 themselves masters of Memphis, they defeated the 
 Persian army, commanded by the kings brother, 
 Achsemenes, who lost his life in the battle; they 
 
 were at last overpowered by MegabyzAis, satrap of 
 Syria, and shut up, together with Inarus, in the town 
 of Byblus. Inarus and his party were admitted to partly 
 capitulation ; but Amyrtseus, having taken refuge in Hq^^"^' 
 the morasses, continued to make head against the 
 Persians. 
 
 34. The Grecian war takes, once more, an unfa- Persian 
 vourable turn for the Persians : Cimon defeats the ^^m^de- 
 enemy's fleet and army near Cyprus. The fear of feated by 
 losing the whole of the island accordingly compels J^J"""' 
 Artaxerxes I. to sign a treaty of peace with Athens, Disgraceful 
 in which he recognises the independence of the Asi- 5!thensT'*^ 
 atic Greeks, and agrees that his fleet shall not navi- 449. 
 gate the iEgsean Sea, nor his troops approach within 
 
 three days' march of the coast. 
 
 35. But the haughty and powerful MegabyzAis, J^^^^fJ^J^^"^^' 
 enraged at the execution of Inarus, in violation of ample of a 
 
 G 2 
 
8-1 PERSIANS. [book ii. 
 
 From the promise made by him to that prince, excites a 
 
 TO Alex- rebelHon in Syria ; repeatedly defeats the royal 
 
 ANDER, armies, and prescribes himself the conditions upon 
 
 rebellious which hc will be reconciled to his sovereign. This 
 
 satrap, was the first great example of a successful insur- 
 
 ■ rection excited by one of the Persian satraps ; and 
 
 chequered as were the subsequent fortunes of Mega- 
 
 byzus, his party continued to subsist after his death 
 
 in the persons of his sons. He possessed in the 
 
 centre of the court a support in the dowager queen 
 
 Amestris, and the reigning queen Amytis ; (both 
 
 Death of notorious for their excesses ;) who kept Artaxerxes 
 
 ^^r^axeixes, ^ -^ ^ constaut statc of tutelage to the hour of his 
 
 death. 
 Xeuxes ir. 36. Revolutions in the government now succeed 
 each other with rapidity and violence. Xerxes IL, 
 the only legitimate son aiid successor of Artaxerxes, 
 is slain, after forty-five days' reign, by his bastard 
 SoGDiANus. brother, Sogdianus ; the latter, in his turn, after a 
 reign of six months, is deposed by another bastard 
 brother, Ochus, who ascends the throne, and assumes 
 the name of Darius II. 
 Darius II. 37. Darius IL sumamed the bastard, or Notlius. 
 " ~ ■ He reigns nineteen years, under the tutelage of his 
 wife, Pary satis, and of three eunuchs, one of whom, 
 Artoxares, even attempts to open a way to the throne. 
 Rapid lie- but is put to death. In this period the decline of 
 sü"e." ^'^ the state advances with hurried steps; partly by 
 reason of the extinction of the legitimate royal line, 
 partly by the increased practice of placing more than 
 one province, together with the military command, 
 in the hands of the same satrap. Although the re- 
 peated insurrections of the satraps are repressed, the 
 court, by the breach of faith to which it is obliged to 
 have recourse, in order to succeed in its measures, 
 exhibits to the world a convincing proof of its in- 
 B.C.422. firmity. The revolt of Arsites, one of the king's 
 brothers, who was supported by a son of Megabyzus, 
 "^^^^ and that of Pisuthnes, satrap of Lydia, are quelled 
 only by obtaining treacherous possession of their 
 persons. 
 
BOOK II.] PERSIANS. 85 
 
 38. In consequence of the weak state of the em- ^rom 
 pire, the fire, which had hitherto been smouldering to Alex- 
 under the ashes, burst forth in Egypt. Amyrtseus, ander. 
 who had remained till now in the morasses, issued 
 
 forth, supported by the Egyptians; and the Persians Third revolt 
 were again expelled the land. Obscure as the sub- 41^°^^'' 
 sequent history may be, we see that the Persians 
 were obliged to acknowledge, not only Amyrtaeus, 
 but his successors. [See page 59.] 
 
 39. The Persians must have regarded it as a happy Peioponne- 
 event, that the Peloponnesian war, kindled in Greece JouraWe to' 
 during the reign of Artaxerxes, and protracted the Persian 
 through the whole ofthat of Darius II., had prevent- 
 ed the Greeks from unitedly falling upon Persia. It 
 
 now became, and henceforward continued to be, the 
 chief policy of the Persians to foment quarrels and 
 wars between the Grecian republics, by siding at va- 
 rious times with various parties ; and the mutual 
 hatred of the Greeks rendered this game so easy, that 
 Greece could hardly have escaped total destruction, 
 had the Persian plans been always as wisely laid as 
 they were by Tis>i;phernes ; and had not the caprice 
 and jealousy of the satraps in Asia Minor generally 
 had more effect than the commands of the court. 
 
 Alliance of the Persians with Sparta, framed by Tissaphernes, 
 41 1 ; but in consequence of the policy of Alcibiades, and the 
 artful principles of Tissaphernes, followed by no important re- 
 sults, until the younger Cyrus, satrap of all Asia Minor, was 
 by Lysander, 407, brought over to the Spartan interest. (See 
 below, the Grecian history, Period III. parag. 23.) 
 
 40. Artaxerxes II., surnamed Mnemon. Although ^^^^a- 
 this prince was the eldest son of Darius, his right to b^^SYus ' 
 the throne might, according to the Persian ideas of "~^^^- 
 succession, have appeared dubious, since his younger 
 brother, Cyrus, had the advantage over him of being 
 
 the first-born subsequent to the accession of his father. 
 Relying on the support of his mother Parysatis, Cyrus, Anabasis of 
 even without this claim to the throne, would, no doubt, ^'"*' 
 have asserted his pretence to the sovereign power. 
 It would have been, in all probability, a fortunate 
 event for the Persian empire, had the fate of battle, 
 
86 
 
 PERSIANS. 
 
 [l300K II, 
 
 From in the ensuing war between the two brothers, assigned 
 TO Alex- the throne to him whom nature seems to have pointed 
 ANDER. Q^j^i rjg ij^g fittest person. 
 
 Weak reign 
 of Arta- 
 xerxes II, 
 
 War with 
 Sparta, 
 B. C. 400. 
 
 Agesilaus 
 in Asia, 
 396—394. 
 
 Peace of 
 
 Antalcidas, 
 
 387. 
 
 Policy of 
 Persia in 
 keeping on 
 good terms 
 with 
 The.bes. 
 
 War with 
 
 History of this war according to Xenophon. Battle of Cu- 
 naxa, in which Cyrus falls, 401. Retreat of the ten thousand 
 Greek mercenaries in the service of Cyi'us, under the guidance 
 of Xenophon. 
 
 41. During the whole of this reign, Artaxerxes, 
 now firmly seated on the throne, remained under the 
 tutelage of his mother, Parysatis, whose inveterate 
 hatred against his wife, Statira, and against all who 
 had any share in the death of lier darling son, Cyrus, 
 converted the seraglio into a theatre of bloody deeds, 
 such as can be conceived and committed only in 
 similar places. 
 
 42, The insurrection and rout of Cyrus produced 
 a corresponding change in the political relations be- 
 tween the Persian court and Sparta; which, how- 
 ever, were now determined, not so much by the will 
 of the monarch himself, as by the satraps of Asia 
 Minor, Tissaphernes and Pharnabazus, of whose jea- 
 lousy Sparta knew how to take advantao;e. The 
 former, by his severity towards the Asiatic Greeks, 
 who had supported the cause of Cyrus, excited a war 
 with Sparta, in which he himself fell a victim. The 
 death of the satrap is not, however, succeeded by 
 tranquillity ; for Agesilaus commands in Asia, and 
 threatens to overthrow the Persian throne itself. 
 The policy of the Persians is shown by the war which 
 they foment in Greece against Sparta : Conon is 
 placed at the head of their fleet, and extricates Persia 
 from her difficulties better than could have been done 
 by her own generals ; in the peace of Antalcidas she 
 herself dictates the terms, by which the Grecian colo- 
 nies of Asia Minor, together with Cyprus and Clazo- 
 mense, are again delivered into her possession. The 
 rising power of Thebes under Epaminondas and Pe- 
 lopidas, with whom Persia keeps up a friendly con- 
 nexion, insures her from any future blow at the hands 
 of the Spartans. — War for the possession of Cyprus 
 
BOOK II.] PERSIANS. 87 
 
 with Evagoras, who, however, by the subsequent J"^^^°^^ 
 peace retains the sovereignty of Salamis. to Alex- 
 
 43. The war ap'ainst the Cadusii in the mountains 
 
 ANDER. 
 
 of Caucasus, proves that Artaxerxes II. was not fitted Evagoras of 
 for mihtary command ; and his attempt to recover 3- P'"'"' 
 Egypt from King Nectanebus I., which was defeated War with 
 by the feud between Iphicrates and Artabazus, evinces t^he^Cadusii, 
 that the most numerous Persian host could achieve Attempt to 
 nothing without the assistance of Grecian troops and 5^^°pj'" 
 Grecian generals. — It could hardly be expected that b!c. 374. 
 an empire should endure much longer, when in the 
 court all was ruled by the desire of revenge in the 
 women ; when the political organization was already 
 so corrupt, that the satraps waged war against each 
 other ; and when those generals who gave any proof 
 of talent received no better reward than that of 
 Datames. 
 
 44. In fact, it seemed not unlikely that the Per- The succes- 
 sian empire would fall asunder a little before the ji;'^^^^«^^^ 
 death of Artaxerxes Mnemon. A quarrel about the Persia is 
 succession arose in the court between the three legiti- ^almost 
 mate sons of the king, the eldest of whom, Darius, produces 
 was put to deatli : the standard of rebellion was erect- of'the^em-'' 
 ed in the western half of the empire, and joined by ^^^'^ J^jJ^^l^ 
 all the governors of Asia Minor and Syria, support- Anlxerxcl 
 ed by Tachos, king of Egypt, to whose assistance 
 
 the Spartans had sent Agesilaus. The insurrection. Rebellion 
 however, was quelled in consequence of the treachery l^l^peUedTy 
 of the chief leader, Orontes, who was bribed over to treachery, 
 
 , ' 3G2. 
 
 the court. 
 
 45. In the midst of these commotions died Arta- Arta- 
 xerxes IL : his youngest son, Ochus, took possession ^i™'^,^ 
 of the throne, and assumed the name of Artaxerxes 3G2— 338 ; 
 III. This king conceived that he could not establish 
 
 his power but by the total destruction of the royal 
 family, numerous as it was. He was contemporary H^^^^J;^' 
 with Philip of Macedon, in whom he soon found a phliip, the 
 more formidable rival than any he could have met ^Jj^!;,;;},, 
 with in his own family. the Great. 
 
 46. The new insurrection fomented by Artabazus tLo'^hiTsia 
 in Asia Minor, was accompanied with success so long Minor, 
 
88 PERSIANS. [book ii. 
 
 From only as it was backed by the Tliebans ; but the re- 
 
 TO Alex- ception which Artabazus met with at the hands of 
 ^ANDER^ Phihp soon betrayed the secret intentions of the Ma- 
 B. c. 358. cedonian king. 
 
 Rebellion 47. But the cxtcnsivc rebelhon of the Phoenicians 
 ofthePhffi^ and Cyprians in conjunction with Egypt, compelled 
 
 nicians 
 
 Cyprians, the king to undertake another expedition, which suc- 
 ^^^' ceeded almost beyond expectation ; although in this 
 
 case the object was again attained principally by 
 
 treachery and by Grecian auxiliaries. 
 
 Treachery of Mentor, the leader of the confederates ; the con- 
 sequent capture and destruction of Sidon, followed by the sub- 
 jection of Phoenicia, 356. Capture of Cyprus by Grecian troops, 
 under the command of Phocion and the younger Evagoras, 354. 
 Expedition of the king in person against Egypt ; victory of Pe- 
 lusiura, won over King Nectanebus II., with the help of Grecian 
 mercenaries. Egypt becomes, once more, a Persian province. 
 
 The Per- 48. This restoration of the empire to its former 
 oncri^ limits was followed by a period of tranquillity, the 
 restored to result of forcc, as Mentor and the eunuch Bagoas, 
 bouildT" holding the king in complete dependence, divided 
 The king the kingdom, as it were, between themselves : until 
 fhe^eimuc'if Bagoas was pleased, by poison, to remove Arta- 
 Bagoas. xcrxcs out of his way. 
 
 Bagoas 49. After the assassination of the royal family, Ba- 
 
 Sron the' g'oas placcd on the throne the king's youngest and 
 throne, but only surviviug son, Arces. Bagoas was desirous of 
 makesaway rciguing in the name of that prince; but after the 
 with him, lapse of two years, he found it necessary to depose 
 him, and to substitute in his place a distant relation 
 of the reigning family, Darius Codomannus, who 
 commenced his reign by putting to death the wretch 
 himself 
 Darius HI. 50. DaHus III., Codomannus, not having been 
 ^^^' educated, like his predecessors, in the seraglio, gave 
 
 proof of virtues which entitled him to a better fate. 
 His king- Attacked in the second year of his reign by Macedon, 
 vaded'by agaiust which Persia had hitherto made no prepara- 
 Aiexandei- tiou for resistancc, — unless, perhaps, the dagger which 
 334. ' pierced Philip was pointed by Persian hands, — Da- 
 rius was unable at once to re-establish a kino-dom 
 
BOOK II.] PERSIANS. 89 
 
 which of itself was mouldering away. And yet, had From 
 not death defeated the invasion of Macedonia by his xo^aTex- 
 general, Memnon, it might have been matter of doubt ander. 
 whether Alexander would ever have shone as the con- 
 queror of Asia. — After the loss of two battles, in Alexander's 
 which he fought in person, Darius III. fell a victim Jtabulhcd 
 to the treachery of Bessus ; and the burning of Per- in Asia, 
 sepolis made known to Asia that tlie realm of Persia 
 was destroyed, and that the East must acknowledge 
 a new lord and master. 
 
 For the history of the war, see below : the history of Macedon. 
 
THIRD BOOK. 
 
 HISTORY OF THE GRECIAN STATES. 
 
 Geographical Outline. 
 
 GREECE. 
 
 Boundaries 
 of Greece : 
 
 its dimen- 
 sions : 
 
 physical 
 advantages. 
 
 Div 
 
 Northern 
 Greece. 
 
 Thessaly, 
 
 Greece is bounded on the north by the Cambu- 
 nian mountains, which separate it from Macedonia ; 
 on the south and east by the iEgaäan, on the west by 
 the Ionian Sea. Greatest length from south to north 
 = 220 geogr. miles, greatest breadth from west to 
 east, = 140 geogr. miles. Superficial contents, = 
 29,600 square miles. — Principal rivers : the Peneus, 
 which discharges its waters into the iEgeean, and the 
 Achelous, which flows into the Ionian Sea. Advan- 
 tages in respect to fertility, resulting from the mild- 
 ness of the climate, between 37 — 40° N. lat. ; from 
 the number of siuall streams ; from the qualities and 
 variety of the soil, in which this country has been so 
 much more blessed by nature than any other of simi- 
 lar extent, that every branch of cultivation may be 
 prosecuted equally and in conjunction. — Advantages 
 in reference to navigation and commerce : situated 
 in the vicinity of the three quarters of the woi-ld, on 
 three sides washed by the sea, and by reason of its ir- 
 regular, indented coast, abounding with commodious 
 ports and havens. 
 
 It may be divided into Northern Greece, from the 
 north boundary to the chain of Qita and Pindus, 
 between the Ambracian Gulf west, and the Maliac 
 east. Central Greece, or Hellas, down to the isth- 
 mus of Corinth : and the southern peninsula, or Pelo- 
 ponnesus. 
 
 Northern Greece comprises two countries ; Thes- 
 saly east, Epirus west. 
 
 1. Thessaly, the largest and one of the most fruit- 
 
BOOK in ] GEOGRAPHICAL OUTLINE. 91 
 
 ful of the Grecian countries. Length from north to Greece. 
 south 60 geogr. miles ; breadth from west to east 64 
 geogr. miles. Rivers ; the Peneus, Apidanus, and 
 several smaller streams. Mountains; Olympus, re- 
 sidence of the fabulous gods, and Ossa in the north ; 
 the chain of (Eta, Othrys, and Pindus in the south. 
 Division into five provinces: 1. Estiaeotis : cities; 
 Gomphi, Azorus. 2. Pelasgiotis : cities ; Larissa, 
 Gonni, the vale of Tempe. 3. Thessaliotis : cities ; 
 Pharsalus, etc. 4. Phthiotis : cities ; Pherae, etc. 5. 
 The foreland of Magnesia, with a city of the same 
 name. Other territories, such as Perrhsebia, etc. for 
 instance, derived their names from the non-Greek 
 races who inhabited them. 
 
 2. Epirus. Next to Thessaly, the largest, al- Ei.irus. 
 though one of the least cultivated countries of Greece : 
 48 — 60 geogr. miles long, and the same in breadth. 
 Divisions : Molossis ; city, Ambracia : Thesprotia ; 
 city, Buthrotum ; in the interior, Dodona. 
 
 Central Greece, or Hellas, comprises nine coun- Central 
 
 , • Greece. 
 
 tries. 
 
 1. Attica, a foreland, extending towards the south- Attica, 
 east, and gradually diminishing. Length, 60 geogr. 
 miles ; greatest breadth, 24 geogr. miles. Rivers ; 
 Ilissus, Cephissus. Mountains ; Hymettus, Pente- 
 licus, and the headland of Sunium. City ; Athens, 
 with the harbours Piraeus, Phalereus, and Muny- 
 chius ; in the other parts no towns, but hamlets, 
 ^no^, such as Marathon, Eleusis, Decelea, etc. 
 
 2. Megaris, close to the isthmus of Corinth. The Mes,'ans. 
 smallest of the Grecian countries; 16 geogr. miles 
 long, and from 4 — 8 broad. City, Megara. 
 
 3. Bceotia, a mountainous and marshy country, Bceotia. 
 52 geogr. miles long, and from 28 — 32 broad. 
 Rivers; Asopus, Ismenus, and several smaller streams. 
 Mountains ; Helicon, Cytheron, etc. Lake ; Co- 
 pais. — Bcjeotia was, of all the Grecian countries, that 
 which contained the greatest number of cities, each 
 having its own separate territory. Among these, the 
 
 first in importance, and frequently mistress of the 
 rest, was Thebes on the Ismenus. The others, Plataese, 
 
GRECIAN STATES. 
 
 [book ]II. 
 
 GREECE, 
 
 Phocis. 
 
 Lociis 1st 
 and '2ud. 
 
 Doris. 
 
 jEtolia. 
 
 Acarnania. 
 
 Pelopon- 
 nesus. 
 
 Arcadia. 
 
 Laconia. 
 
 Tanagra, Thespise, Chseronea, Lebadea, Leuctra, and 
 Orchomenns, are all celebrated in Grecian history. 
 
 4. Phocis, smaller than Attica ; 48 geogr, miles 
 long, from 4 — 20 broad. River ; Cephissus. Moun- 
 tain ; Parnassus. Cities ; Delphi, on Parnassus, 
 with the celebrated oracle of Apollo ; Crissa, with 
 the harbour of Cirrha, and, up the country, Elatea. 
 The other cities are insignificant. 
 
 5, 6. The two countries called Locris. The east- 
 ern on the Euripus, territory of the Locri Opuntii 
 and Epicnemidii, is the lesser of the two ; being but 
 little larger than Megaris. City ; Opus : pass, 
 Thermopylae. The western Locris on the Corinth- 
 ian Gulf, station of the Locri Ozola3, is from 20 — 24 
 geogr. miles long, and from 16 — 20 broad. Cities; 
 Naupactus on the sea, Amphissa up the country. 
 
 7. The small country of Doris, or the Tetrapolis 
 Dorica, on the south side of Mount CEta, from 8 — 12 
 geogr. miles long, and the same in breadth. 
 
 8. iEtolia, somewhat larger than Bceotia ; from 
 40 — 52 geogr. miles long, and from 28 — 32 broad ; 
 but the least cultivated country of all. Rivers ; 
 Achelous, which skirts Acarnania, and the Evenus. 
 Cities ; Calydon, Thermus. 
 
 9. Acarnania, the most western country of Hel- 
 las, 32 geogr. miles long, from 16 — 24 broad. 
 River ; Achelous. Cities ; Argos Amphilochicum, 
 and Stratus. 
 
 The peninsula of Peloponnesus contains eight 
 countries. 
 
 1. Arcadia, a mountainous country, abounding in 
 pastures, and situate in the centre of the peninsula ; 
 greatest length, 48 geogr. miles ; greatest breadth, 
 36 geogr. miles. Mountains ; Cyllene, Erymanthus, 
 etc. Rivers ; Alpheus, Erymanthus, and several 
 smaller streams. Lake : Styx. Cities ; Mantinea, 
 Tegea, Orchomenus, Hersea, Psophis; subsequently 
 Megalopolis, as a common capital. 
 
 2. Laconia, likewise mountainous. Greatest length, 
 66 geogr. miles ; greatest breadth, 36 geogr. miles. 
 River ; Eurotas. Mountains ; Taygetus, and the 
 
BOOK III.] GEOGRAriilCAL OUTLINE. 93 
 
 headlands Malea and Tenarium. Cities ; Sparta on Greece. 
 
 the Eurotas. Other places ; Amyclse, Sellasia, and ■ 
 
 others of little importance. 
 
 3. Messenia, west of Laconia ; a more level and Messeuia. 
 extremely fertile country, subject to the Spartans 
 
 from B. C. 668. Greatest length, 28 geogr. miles : 
 greatest breadth, 36 geogr. miles. City; Messene. 
 Frontier places; Ithome and Ira: of the other places, 
 Pylus (Navarino) and Methone are the most ce- 
 lebrated. 
 
 4. Elis, with the small territory of Triphylia, on Eiis. 
 the west of the Peloponnesus. Length, 60 geogr. 
 miles : greatest breadth, 28 geogr. miles. Rivers ; 
 Alpheus, Peneus, Sellis, and several smaller streams. 
 Cities ; in the north, Elis, Cyllene, and Pylus : on 
 the Alpheus, Pisa and the neighbouring town of 
 Olympia: in Triphylia, a third Pylus. 
 
 5. Argolis, on the east side of the peninsula ; a ArgoUs, 
 foreland opposite to Attica, with which it forms the 
 Sinus Saronicus. Length, 64 geogr. miles : breadth, 
 from 8 — 28 geogr. miles. Cities ; Argos, Mycenae, 
 Epidaurus. Smaller but remarkable places; Nemea, 
 Cynuria, Trcczen. 
 
 6. Achaia, originally Ionia, called likewise JEgia.- Achaia 
 lus, comprises the north coast. Lengtli, 56 geogr. 
 miles: breadth, from 12 — 24. It contains twelve 
 cities, of which Dyme, Patrae, and Pellene, are the 
 most important. 
 
 7. The little country of Sicyonia, 16 geogr. miles Sicyonia 
 long, 8 broad, with the cities of Sicyon and Phlius. 
 
 8. The small territory of Corintli, of the same ex- Corinth, 
 tent as the foregoing, adjoining the isthmus which 
 connects Peloponnesus with the mainland. City ; 
 Corinth, originally Ephyra, with the ports of Le- 
 chaeum and Cenchrea^ ; the former on the Corinthian, 
 
 the latter on the Saronic Gulf 
 
 The Greek islands may be divided into three Islands. 
 classes : those which lie immediately oft' the coasts, 
 those which are collected in groups, and those which 
 lie separate in the open sea. 
 
 1. Islands off" the coasts. Off the west coast in c/a/i.^^ 
 
94 GRECIAN STATES. [eook hi. 
 
 GREECE, the Ionian Sea : Corcyra, opposite Epims, 32 geogr. 
 
 miles long, from 8 — 16 broad. City; Corcyra. A 
 
 Leu?a?ia; Corinthian colony. Opposite Acarnania ; Leucadia, 
 
 Cephaionia witli the city and headland of Leucas. — Cephalonia 
 
 and Ithaca ; ^j. ggnie, Originally Scheria, with the cities of Same 
 
 and Cephalonia. In the neighbourhood lies the small 
 
 Zacynthus ; island of Ithaca. — Opposite Elis, Zacynthus. Off the 
 
 Cythera ; south coast, Cythcra, with a town of the same name. 
 
 ^gina and Oft" the cast coast, in the Saronic Gulf, ^gina and 
 
 Salamis; Salamis. Opposite Bceotia, from which it is separ- 
 
 Eubcea; atcd by the Strait named Euripus, Euboea, the most 
 
 extensive of all; 76 geogr. miles long, from 12 — 16 
 
 geogr. miles broad. Cities ; Oreus, with the head- 
 
 Scyathus, land of Artcmisium on the north, in the centre Chal- 
 
 Thasus, ■ Ei-etria. Off Thessalv, Scyathus, and Halonesus. 
 
 Imbrus, Sa- ' i mi t i o i i 
 
 mothrace, Farther north, Ihasus, Imbrus, bamothrace, and 
 l'j;"'°'' Lemnos. 
 
 Grozips. 2. Clusters of islands in the ^gsean sea : the Cy- 
 
 Cyciades cladcs and Sporades ; the former of which comprise 
 and Spo- |.j^g western, the latter the eastern islands of the 
 Archipelago. The most important among them are, 
 Andros, Delos, Paros, Naxos, Melos, all with cities 
 of the same names. 
 Separate. 3. The morc extcnsivc separate islands: 1. Crete, 
 
 Crete; 140 gcogT. milcs loug, from 24 — 40 broad. Moun- 
 tain ; Ida. Cities ; C3^donia, Gortyna, Cnossus. 2. 
 Cyprus. Cyprus, 120 geogr. miles long, from 20 — 80 broad. 
 Cities ; Salamis, Paphos, Citium, and several smaller 
 places. 
 
 Concerning the principal Greek islands off the coast of Asia 
 Minor, see above, p. 16. 
 
 f Fr. Carl. Herm. Ejruse, GcograpJiico-Antiquarian de- 
 lineation of ancient Greece and its Colonies, with reference to 
 modern discoveries. Illustrated with maps and plates : first 
 part, 1825. General Geography: second part, first division, 
 1826. Second division, 1827. Special Geography of Central 
 Greece. A most minute and careful description of Greece, 
 founded on modern discoveries. 
 
PERIOD i.l GREEKS. 96 
 
 FIRST PERIOD. 
 
 Tlie most ancient traditional history, down to the Trojan 
 war, about B. C. 1200 
 
 Sources : On the formation and progress of history among First 
 the Greeks. Preliminary inquiry into the peculiarities of Gre- Period. 
 
 cian mythology in an historical point of view, as comprising the 
 
 most ancient history of the national tribes and heroes. A his- 
 tory rich in itself, on account of the number of tribes and their 
 leaders ; but embellished and altered in various ways by the 
 poets, particularly the great early epic writers, and afterwards 
 by the tragedians. — First advance of history from tradition, 
 wrought by the logographi, especially those of the Ionian cities, 
 HecatfEus, Pherecydes, etc., until Herodotus, so justly called 
 the Father of History, raised it at once to such a lofty pitch of 
 eminence. (Compare f The Historical Art of the Greeks, con- 
 sidered in its lUse and Progress, by G. F, Creuzer ; 1803.) 
 Nevertheless, in Herodotus, and even later writers, history con- 
 tinued to savour of its origin ; and so far as the realm of tradi- 
 tion extended, even Theopompus and Ephorus felt no disin- 
 clination to borrow their materials from mythologists or poets. 
 It need scarcely be observed, that in this first period the history 
 is merely traditional. 
 
 Among tlie moderns, the English have most successfully 
 treated the subject of Grecian liistory : the principal works are : 
 
 John Gillies, The History of Ancient Greece, its Colonies 
 and Conquests, from the earliest accounts till the division of the 
 Macedonian Empire in the East, including the history of litera- 
 ture, philosophy, and the fine arts; London, 1786, 2 vols. 4to ; 
 and 
 
 WiLLLA3i MiTFORD, The History of Greece. London, 1784, 
 4 vols. 4to. Several new editions have since appeared. Trans- 
 lated into German, Jena, 1800, sqq. by H. L. Eichstädt. INIit- 
 ford is perhaps supei'ior in learning, copiousness, and solidity, 
 but he certainly is greatly surpassed by Gillies in genius and 
 taste ; and more especially in a proper conception of the spirit 
 of antiquity. [Few English critics will here coincide with our 
 author.] 
 
 De Pauay, Recherches sur les Grecs, 1701, 2 vols, 8vo. Re- 
 plete with partial views and hypotheses. 
 
 f Heeren, Researches into the Politics, Intercourse, and 
 Trade of the most celebrated Nations of Antiquity. 
 
 Many important inquiries on various portions of Grecian his- 
 tory and antiquities will be found in the great collection, 
 
 Gronovii Thesaurus Antiquitatum Grcecarum, 12 vols, folio. 
 
96 GREEKS. [book hi. 
 
 First Others are contained in the transactions of different learned 
 
 Peuiod. societies, particularly in 
 
 Mcmoires de TAcacUmie des Inscriptions et des Belles Lettres. 
 
 Pai-is, 1709, sqq. 49 vols. 4to. 
 
 Commentarii, (4 vols.) Commentarii novi, (8 vols.) Commen- 
 tationes, (16 vols.) and Commentationes recentiores Societatis 
 Scientiarum Gotting. (5 vols.) 
 
 Early in- 1 . Althougli Greecc was originally inhabited by 
 
 Gi^'^ce'*^ °^ several insignificant races, two principal tribes claim 
 our attention, the Pelasgi and the Hellenes. Both 
 probably were of Asiatic origin ; but the difference 
 of their language characterized them as different 
 Pelasgi. tribes. The Pelasgi were the first that extended 
 their dominion in Greece. 
 
 First seat of the Pelasgians in the Peloponnesus, under Ina- 
 chus, about B. C. 1800. According to their own traditions, 
 they made their first appearance in this quarter as uncultivated 
 savages ; they must, however, at an early period, have made 
 some progress towards civilization, since the most ancient states, 
 Argos and Sicyon, owed their origin to them ; and to them, 
 perhaps, with great probability, are attributed the remains of 
 those most ancient monuments generally termed cyclojnan. — 
 Extension of this tribe towards the north, particularly over 
 Attica ; settlement in Thessaly under their leaders Achfeus, 
 Phthius, and Pelasgus ; here they learned to apply themselves 
 to agriculture, and remained for a hundred and fifty successive 
 years; about 1700 — 1500. 
 
 Hellenes: 2. The Hellenes, — Subsequently so called from 
 
 Hellen, one of their chieftains, — originally the weaker 
 
 of the two tribes, make their first appearance in 
 
 Phocis, near Parnassus, under king Deucalion ; from 
 
 descend whcucc they are driven by a flood. They migrate 
 
 soutinvRid -^ Thessaly, and drive out the Pelaspi from that 
 
 about B. C. . ^' TT n p i • i i 
 
 1550, territory. — Ihe Hellenes soon alter this become the 
 
 the a°sclnd- "^^^^ powcrful I'acc ; and spreading over Greece, 
 ant. expel the Pelasgi from almost every part. The latter 
 
 tribe maintain their ground only in Arcadia, and the 
 land of Dodona ; some of them migrate to Italy, 
 others to Crete, and various islands. 
 Hellenic 3. The Hellenic tribe is subdivided into four 
 
 tribes. principal branches, the y^olians, lonians, Dorians, 
 and Achceans, whicli continue afterwards to be dis- 
 tinguished and separated by many peculiarities of 
 speech, customs and political government. These 
 
PERIOD I. 
 
 GREEKS. 97 
 
 four tribes, although they must not be considered as F'rst 
 comprising all the slender ramifications of the nation, ^^^'°°' 
 are derived by tradition from Deucalion's immediate 
 posterity ; with whose personal history, therefore, the 
 history of the tribes themselves and their migrations 
 is interwoven. 
 
 Tliis derivation of the tribes will be better understood by an 
 inspection of the following genealogical table : 
 DEUCALION. 
 
 
 HELLEN. 
 
 1 
 
 A 
 
 
 DOKUS. 
 
 XUTHUS. 
 1 
 
 ^OLUS. 
 
 1 
 
 ACH^US. 
 
 1 
 ACH^ANS. 
 
 
 ION. 
 
 1 
 lONIANS. 
 
 4. The gradual spread of the various branches of 
 the Hellenic tribe over Greece was effected by several 
 migrations, between B. C. 1500 — 1300; after which 
 they preserved the settlements they had already ob- 
 tahied until the later migration of the Dorians and 
 Heraclidse, about 1100. 
 
 Principal data for Ihe history of the separate tribes in 
 this period. 
 
 1. ^OLUS follows his father Hellen into Phthiotis, which 
 consequently remains the seat of the Cohans ; they spread from 
 thence over western Greece, Acarnania, ^Etolia, Phocis, Lo- 
 cris, Elis in the Peloponnesus, and likewise over the western 
 islands. 
 
 2. DoRUS follows his father into Estiaeotis, the most ancient 
 seat of the Dorians. They are driven from thence after the 
 death of Dorus by the Perrhcebi ; spread over Macedonia and 
 Crete ; part of the tribe return, cross Mount Q*^ta, and settle 
 in the Tetrapolis Dorica, afterwards called Doris, where they 
 remain until they migrate into Peloponnesus, under the guid- 
 ance of the Heraclidse ; about 1100. (See below, p. 102.) 
 
 3. XuTHUS, expelled by his brothers, migrates to Athens, 
 where he mai-ries Creusa, daughter of Erectheus, by whom he 
 has sons, Ion and Acha;us. Ion and his tribe, driven out of 
 Athens, settle in that part of Peloponnesus called iEgialus, a 
 name which by them was converted into Ionia, and in later 
 times exchanged for Achaia. The Achteans preserve their 
 
 H 
 
98 GREEKS. [book hi. 
 
 First footing in Laconia and Argos, until the time of the Dorian 
 PEnioD. migration. 
 
 f L. D. HuELLMAN, £'ar/y Grecian Historij, 1814. Rich in 
 original views and conjectures, beyond which the early history 
 of nations seldom extends. 
 
 f D. C. Otfried Mueller, History of the Hellenic Tribes 
 and Cities, 1820, vol. i., containing Orchotnenus and the Minyce: 
 vols. ii. iii., containing the Dorians, 1825. 
 
 Colonies 5. Besides these original inhabitants, colonies at 
 
 Greece"^ the Same early period came into Greece from civilized 
 countries, from Egypt, Phoenicia, and Mysia. The 
 settlements of these strangers occurred probably be- 
 tween B. C. 1600—1400. 
 
 Establishment in Attica of the colony of Cecrops, from Sais 
 in Egypt, about 1550 ; in Argos, of the colony of Danaus, like- 
 wise from Egypt, about 1500. — The colony of Cadmus, from 
 Phoenicia, settles in Bojotia about 1550. — The colony of Pelops, 
 from Mysia, settles in Argos about 1400. 
 
 Progress of 6. The mythology of the Hellenes proves beyond 
 among'the » doubt, that they were at first savages, like the Pe- 
 Heiienes. lasgi, siucc they had to learn even the use of fire from 
 Prometheus ; yet it is equally clear that they must, 
 even in the earhest period, particularly from 1300 — 
 1200, when they had ceased to migrate, have made 
 the first important steps towards the attainment of a 
 certain degree of civilization. About the time of 
 the Trojan war they appear to have been still barba- 
 rians, though no longer savages. 
 Was the 7. The origin and progress of this national organ- 
 
 dvStion ization, and the influence wrought upon it by settlers 
 of native or from foreign countries, are difficult subjects to deter- 
 grow°th? mine. If we allow that Cecrops was the first who 
 introduced marriage in Attica, and that agriculture 
 and the cultivation of the olive were discovered in 
 that country, it unquestionably follows, that the Hel- 
 lenes were indebted to strangers for the foundation 
 of domestic civilization. And when we consider that 
 the families which subsequently held sway were de- 
 scended directly from the most powerful of these 
 strangers, their lasting influence can hardly be a mat- 
 ter of doubt. It must, however, be observed, that 
 what the Greeks borrowed from foreigners they pre- 
 viously stamped with their own peculiar character, 
 
PERIOD I.] GREEKS. 99 
 
 SO that it became, as it were, the original property of firsi 
 the nation. The question, therefore, is deprived of ^^'°° ' 
 much of the importance which it assumes at the first 
 glance. 
 
 8. The case was the same with regard to all the Hellenic 
 branches of intellectual civilization, particularly re- rfvlS°from" 
 ligion. That many deities and religious rites were foreigners. 
 introduced into Greece from Egypt, Asia, and Thrace, 
 
 and generally through Crete, hardly admits of a 
 doubt ; but they did not therefore remain Egyptian, 
 Asiatic, or Thracian ; they became Grecian gods. 
 Hence it appears tliat the investigation of those rela- 
 tions can hardly lead to any important conclusion. 
 It is a fact, however, of the highest importance, that No sacer- 
 whatever gods the Greeks adopted, no separate order i^ creecl! 
 of priesthood was established among them, still less 
 any caste laying claim to the exclusive possession of 
 knowledge. Several traces, nevertheless, make it 
 probable, that many of the most ancient sanctuaries 
 were settlements of Egyptian, Pha>nician, or Cretan 
 priests, who imported with them their own peculiar 
 forms of worship. And notwithstanding this wor- 
 ship consisted merely of outward ceremonies, many 
 ideas and institutions which were attached to it, be- 
 came, in this manner, the common property of the 
 nation. 
 
 9. It was principally, therefore, by religion, tliat ^j'^'J^^J^J^ ."'^ 
 the rude mind became in some degree polished. 
 
 But it was the ancient minstrels, (aoiBol,) Orpheus, 
 Linus, etc., who, by disseminating religious princi- 
 ples, contributed so much towards abolishing revenge, 
 and witli it the perpetual state of warfare which had 
 hitherto distracted the country. These it was who 
 in their mysteries contrived ni some measure to im- 
 press the narrow circle of the initiated with the ad- 
 vantages resulting from a civilized life. 
 
 Sainte-Croix, Recherchrs sitr les Mysthcs du Paganisme ; 
 Paris, 1765. Translated into German, with valuable observa- 
 tions, by C. G. Lenz ; Gotha, 1790. 
 
 10. The influence of religion, through the medium of the ora- 
 of oracles, especially those of Dodona and Delphi, '''^^^ 
 
 H 2 
 
100 GREEKS. [book hi. 
 
 First was not less powerful. The two latter, with that of 
 _J!!!^ Olympia, were, perhaps, originally ancient settlements 
 
 of priests, such as have been already alluded to. The 
 necessity of consulting these sanctuaries naturally led 
 men to regard the oracles as the common property of 
 the nation, to which every one should have access ; 
 it followed therefore as an inevitable consequence, 
 that the direction of affairs in which all were eno;aQ[ed, 
 depended principally on those oracles. 
 
 A. Van Dalen, De Oraculis Veterttm Ethnicorum Disser- 
 tationes 6. Amstel. 1700. A very valuable work. A com- 
 prehensive dissertation on the subject, however, is still want- 
 ing : a portion of it is treated of in 
 
 J. Groddek, De Oraculorum veterum, qua in Herodoti 
 libris continentur, natura, commentatio ; Gotting. 1786. 
 
 ofthereii- \\^ \i happened with Greece as with other coun- 
 g^ous es 1- ^^.^^ ^ ^j^^ tender plant of civilization grew up under 
 the shelter of the sanctuary. There the festivals 
 were celebrated, and there the people assembled ; 
 and there various tribes, who had hitherto been 
 strangers to one another, met in peace, and con- 
 versed on their common interests. Hence arose 
 spontaneously the first idea of a law of nations, and 
 those connexions which led to its development. 
 Among these connexions, that of the Amphictyons 
 at Delphi was the most important, and continued the 
 longest : it is probable that it did not assume" its 
 complete form till a later period ; yet it appears in 
 early times to have adopted the principle, that none 
 of the cities belonging to the league should be de- 
 stroyed by the others. 
 
 •fFR. WiLH. TiTTMANN, Upon the Amphicfi/onic League; 
 1812. A dissertation which gained the prize of the Academy 
 of Sciences at Berlin. 
 
 ofnaviga- 12. To religion must likewise be added naviga- 
 tion, and the consequent intercourse which brought 
 the nation into contact with strangers, and prepared 
 it to receive civilization. It cannot be denied that 
 the navigators continued long to be mere pirates ; 
 
 «bout B. c. but as Minos of Crete cleared the sea of freebooters, 
 the want of another state of things must have been 
 felt long before. 
 
 1400. 
 
PERIOD I.] GREEKS. 101 
 
 13. In the mean time the chivalrous spirit of the First 
 nation was graclually aroused ; and developed the 
 
 first bloom of its youthful vigour in the heroic ages. Age of chi- 
 An affection for extraordinary undertakings was ex- ''^^^'' 
 cited ; and conducted the chieftains not only indi- 
 vidually, but also in confederate bodies, beyond the 
 limits of their father-land. These undertakino-s were 
 
 o 
 
 not only important in themselves, but their advan- 
 tages were increased by their being preserved in the 
 songs of their bards by means of a national poesy, 
 such as no other people possessed, and such as con- 
 tributed further to the development of the national 
 genius. 
 
 Expedition of the Argonauts to Colchis, some where about 
 B. C. 12Ö0 ; war of the seven confederate princes against Thebes 
 about 122Ö ; the town, liowever, was not taken initil the second 
 attempt made by the sons ot" the chiefs (Epigoni) in 1215. 
 
 14. Thus every thing was now ripe for some great 
 national undertaking of all the combined Hellenic 
 nations ; and that object was attained in the war 
 against Troy. The most important result of that Effects of 
 expedition was the kindling; of one common national ^^^ Trojan 
 
 r _ _ o _ _ war. 
 
 spirit, — a spirit which, in spite of dissensions and 
 feuds, was never wholly extinguished, and which 
 must almost necessarily have arisen from an expedi- 
 tion carried on in so distant a field, which lasted ten b.c. 1194 
 years, in which all were joined, and wliich was ~ 
 crowned with such signal success. From the time 
 of the Trojan war downwards the Hellenes always 
 looked upon themselves as but one people. 
 
 General view of the political state of Greece about the time 
 of the Trojan war. — Division into several small states, the most 
 powerful of which were Argos and ]\lycenic. — All those states 
 were governed by hereditary chieftains or princes from a certain 
 famili/, (kings, ßaaiXe'iQ,) who combined the offices of leaders in 
 war and judges in peace. Their authority being more or less 
 extended in proportion to the qualities they possessed, and par- 
 ticularly to their valour in battle. — Manner of life among the 
 people : a nation dwelling in cities, but at the same time culti- 
 vating the land and tending cattle ; applying also to war, and 
 already somewhat ad\anced in the art of navigation. 
 
 A. AV. Schlegel, De Geographia Ilomeri Commcntatio. 
 Ilannov. 1788. A review of the political geography of Greece 
 at this period. — On the topography of Tro3^ 
 
First 
 Period. 
 
 102 
 
 GREEKS. 
 
 [book III. 
 
 Lechevalier, Description de la Plaine de Troie. Trans- 
 lated and accompanied with notes by Heyne, Leipzig, 1794. 
 Compare Claeke, Travels, vol. i. c. 4 — 6, wlio has thrown 
 doubts on the system of Lechevalier, which has, however, been 
 again confirmed by Leake, Travels in Asia Minor. 
 
 SECOND PERIOD. 
 
 From the Trojan war to the hreakinq out of the Persian 
 war, B. C. 1200—500. 
 
 Second Sources. On no portion of the Grecian history is our in- 
 
 Period. formation so scanty as upon this long period, in which we can 
 be hardly said to have more than a general knowledge of many 
 of the most important events. As in the foregoing period, its 
 commencement is but a traditional and poetical history. It was 
 not till towards the end of it that the use of writing became 
 common among the Greeks ; add to which, the period itself 
 was not rife in great national undertakings, such as might af- 
 ford appropriate materials for the poet or historian. Besides 
 the scattered information which may be gathei'ed from Hero- 
 dotus, Plutarch, Strabo, and above all from the introduction to 
 Thucydides' history, Pausanias must not be forgotten ; who, in 
 his description of Greece, has preserved an abundance of most 
 valuable documents relating to the separate histories of the 
 minor states. The books of Diodorus belonging to this period 
 are lost. 
 
 I Fr. Wilhelm Tittmann, Delineation of the Grecian 
 Forms of Government, 1822. An industrious collection of all 
 the information we possess respecting this subject. 
 
 •{• W. Wachsmuth, Grecian Antiquities with regard to Poli- 
 tics, 4 vols. All excellent work. 
 
 Return of 
 
 THE HeRA- 
 CLID^ : 
 
 about B. C. 
 1100. 
 
 1, History of the Hellenic states within Greece. 
 
 1. The Trojan war was followed by a very stormy 
 period, in consequence of the many disorders preva- 
 lent in the ruling families, especially in that of Pe- 
 lops. But more violent commotions soon arose, 
 caused by the attempts of the rude tribes of the north, 
 particularly of the Dorians combined with the MlIo- 
 lians, who, under the guidance of the descendants of 
 Hercules, exiled from Argos, strove to obtain posses- 
 sion of Peloponnesus. Those commotions shook 
 
PERIOD ii] GREEKS. 103 
 
 Greece during a whole century, and as the seats of Second 
 most of the Hellenic tribes were then changed, the ^^^^'^°- 
 consequences were lasting and important. 
 
 First unsuccessful attempt under Hyllus, son of Hercules, 
 about 1180. — Repeated attempts, until at last the claims of the 
 Heraclidje are made good by the grandsons of Hyllus, viz. Te- 
 lephus and Cresphontes, together with Eurysthenes and Pro- 
 cles, sons of their brother Aristodemus, 1100. 
 
 2. Consequences resulting to the Peloponnesus Conse- 
 from this migration. The territories of Argos, Sparta, Jh^at^great^ 
 Messene, and Corinth, wrested from the Achseans revolution. 
 who had hitherto inhabited them, become the pro- 
 perty of the Dorians ; Elis falls to the share of the 
 ^tolians, who had accompanied the former. The 
 Achaeans expelled, in their turn expel the lonians, 
 
 and settle in the country since called Achaia ; the 
 fugitive lonians are received by their ancient kins- 
 men the Athenians. — But among the consequences 
 of this migration of the Hellenic races must be reck- 
 oned likewise the establishment of Greek colonies in Colonies 
 Asia Minor; an occurrence of the highest import- ^^"'^'°'^^'^' 
 ance to the ulterior development of the nation. This 
 colonization was commenced by the iEolian Hel- 
 lenes, whose example was soon ; fter followed by the 
 lonians, and even by the Dorians. 
 
 For the history of these colonies, see the following section. 
 
 3. Although the effect of these migrations and Monarchies 
 wars, in which the ruder tribes oppressed the more b^repub- 
 civilized, must inevitably have been, not only to in- i'" 
 terrupt the progress of civilization, but even almost 
 entirely to annihilate it, yet in this universal move- 
 ment the foundation was laid of that constitution of 
 things which afterwards existed in Greece. The 
 
 tribes which had migrated, as well as those which had 
 been expelled, remained at first under the dominion 
 of their hereditary princes, some for a longer, others 
 for a shorter time. In the two centuries, however, 
 immediately subsequent to the migrations, B. C. 
 1100 — 900, republican constitutions took the place 
 of hereditary clanship in all the Grecian countries, 
 
104 
 
 GREEKS. 
 
 [book III. 
 
 Second 
 Peiuod. 
 
 Origin of 
 the small 
 republics. 
 
 the distant Epirus excepted. These repubHcs con- 
 tinued to exist amid the various revolutions which 
 happened ; and the love of political freedom, deeply 
 impressed on the minds of the people, constituted 
 from this time the principal feature in the national 
 character. 
 
 4. The sequel proves, that the principal cause of 
 this change so important for Greece, — this change, by 
 which her future internal policy was for ever deter- 
 mined, originated in the progress made by the newly- 
 come tribes towards civic life, and consequently at the 
 same time towards national civilization. In this new- 
 ly-constituted order of things, each city, with the ter- 
 ritory around it, formed a separate state, and framed 
 its own constitution ; hence there arose as many free 
 states as cities. 
 
 The notion that Greece contained the same number of states 
 as countries is completely false, although it cannot be denied 
 that the mode of expression in most writings upon Greek his- 
 tory seems to authorize the assertion. It is true that some of 
 those countries, such as Attica, Megaris, Laconia, may be each 
 regarded as a separate state, because each constituted the terri- 
 tory of one city. The others, however, such as Arcadia, Boe- 
 otia, etc., did not each form one state, but comprised as many 
 separate states as there were free and independent cities, each 
 of which, with its territory, formed one. Still, however, it 
 must be observed, (a) that the natural ties of kindred subsist- 
 ed ; Arcadians, Boeotians, etc. spoke of one another as country- 
 men. (Ä) Voluntary connexions were entered into between 
 different cities, and sometimes all the cities of a country, as, for 
 instance, in Achaia, so that the whole formed one confeder- 
 ation ; each individual city nevertheless still preserved its own 
 system of laws and government. Again, (c) in consequence of 
 a greater share of power, one city assumed a sort of dominion 
 over the other ; as, for instance, that of Thebes over the Bcb- 
 otian cities. Tliis dominion, however, was always precarious, 
 and depended upon the state of affairs, (d) It must likewise 
 be observed, that the constitution of each separate city under- 
 went many changes, wrought generally by influential citizens, 
 (tyrants,) who not only possessed themselves of the supreme 
 power, but also contrived frequently to make it for some time 
 hereditary in their families. Every one will easily discern that 
 the above are the fundamental principles of Greek history, 
 which cannot be too clearly conceived, or too correctly defined ; 
 since it is self-evident what a wide field was by such a consti- 
 tution of things thrown open to practical politics. The more 
 
PERIOD II.] GREEKS. 105 
 
 improbable the attainment of fixed constitutions in the separate Second 
 cities was, the more frequent must have been the political at- Period. 
 
 tempts ; (attempts facilitated by the narrow extent of the state ;) 
 
 and the more frequently those attempts failed, the more exten- 
 sive in this intellectual people became the mass of political ideas ; 
 the results of which in later times were the legislative codes of 
 Solon and others. 
 
 5. Although Greece was thus parcelled out into a unitjofthe 
 number of small states, united by no common poli- ^"^^ gj J^* 
 tical bond, yet there existed a certain unity of the 
 Hellenic race, a certain national spirit : this was pro- 
 duced in part by national festivals and games, occur- 
 ring at stated periods, among which those in hon- 
 our of Jupiter at Olympia were the chief The 
 
 nation at these appeared in all its splendour ; and all 
 Hellenes, but no others, were allowed to join in them. 
 This union, too, was promoted by the extension of the 
 Amphictyonic council : and the reason why this last 
 institution was not followed by all the consequences 
 which might have been expected from it, may per- 
 haps be found in what naturally takes place in every 
 great confederation whenever any of the component 
 states become too powerful. 
 
 The Amphictyonic council was certainly not a states-general, 
 in which all national affairs were discussed. Its immediate 
 office was to attend to the temples and the oracles of Delphi. 
 But then it must be observed, 1st, that from this council ori- 
 ginated the Grecian ideas of the law of nations ; over the pre- 
 servation of which the Amphictyons watched. 2. In conse- 
 quence of its political influence on the oracle, this council, in 
 certain cases, was enabled to take a share in the affairs of dif- 
 ferent states. 3. The Amphictyons always formed a national 
 institution, since none but Hellenes were admitted. 
 
 St. Croix, Des anciens gouvernemens fcdcratifs et de la le- 
 gislation de Crete, Paris, 1796. One of the most invaluable in- 
 quiries not only into the institutions of the Amphictyons, but 
 also into other matters of Grecian history connected with them. 
 
 6. Among the diiferent states of Greece, Sparta Sparta and 
 and Athens, even at this period, became celebrated, ^^ ^°^' 
 not only for their greater power, but also for their 
 superior constitutions and their laws ; and though it 
 
 may not perhaps be strictly true, that the history of 
 the rest of Greece is connected with that of these two 
 
106 
 
 GREEKS. 
 
 [book in. 
 
 Second cities, vet thev certainly possess the highest claim to 
 
 Period. -i" i- 
 
 our attention. 
 
 Conquests 
 of the Do- 
 
 Reyoiutions 7. Historj of Sparta. The Achseans at first were 
 
 temmeuTof govcmed bj princcs of the house of Perseus, but 
 
 Sparta. after Menelaus's accession to the throne in virtue 
 
 of his wife, by princes of the house of Pelops. When 
 
 the latter had been expelled by the Dorians, Laconia 
 
 fell by lot to the sons of Aristodemus, Procles and 
 
 1100. Eurysthenes, between whose families the royal power 
 
 was divided, so that two kings constantly reigned in 
 
 common, one from each family. 
 
 Families of the Proclidae and JEgidx. ; the latter so called 
 from Agis, the sou and successor of Eurysthenes. 
 
 f J. C. F. ]VIajs"so, An Essay on the History and Constitution 
 of Sparta, Leipzig, 1800 sqq., 3 vols. The most important 
 work upon this subject, and which likewise contains much in- 
 formation upon various points of Grecian history connected 
 with it. 
 
 Cragius, De Republica Lacedcemoniorum, 1642. 
 
 Meursius, De regno Laconico ; and Miscellanea Laconica. 
 Both laboi'ious compilations. 
 
 8. The Dorians now gradually conquered, and 
 established themselves in many cities of the penin- 
 sula ; forming, if not the whole population, at least 
 the only part of it that enjoyed any power, as the 
 Achseans that remained were reduced to slavery. 
 No long time, however, elapsed ere the city of Sparta 
 usurped an authority over the whole country, which 
 it ever afterwards preserved ; the other towns, for- 
 merly considerable, becoming unfortified, defence- 
 less, and insignificant. 
 
 Relation between the Spartan citizens of the capital as a 
 ruling body, and the Lacedaemonians, or ■n-eploiKoi, inhabitants of 
 the country, as subjects who paid tribute and military service. 
 Even in the time of Agis, the successor of Eurysthenes, this 
 subjection was effected by force ; the inhabitants of Helos were 
 made slaves, as a punishment for their opposition ; while the 
 others, by the sacrifice of their political freedom, preserved 
 their personal liberty, however confined it might be. 
 
 Repeated 9. The histoiy of the two following centuries, to 
 
 Spartans. ^ the time of Lycurgus, exhibits nothing but the re- 
 peated wars of the Spartans with their neighbours 
 the Argives ; their domestic broils, occasioned by the 
 
PERIOD II.] GREEKS. -••U» 
 
 too unequal division of property, by the feuds, and ^^^°J^° 
 
 the diminished power of the kings, and which lasted ^^L^ 
 
 until Lycurgus, the uncle and guardian of the minor 
 king, Charilaus, about the year 880, gave to Sparta 
 that constitution to which she was principally in- 
 debted for her subsequent splendour. 
 
 Illustration of the principal features in the Spartan constitu- 
 tion. Some preliminary observations are necessary. («) As 
 the legislation of Lycurgus occurred at so early a period, and as 
 his laws were not written, but conveyed in apophthegms, 
 {pi)Tpai,) which were confirmed by the oracle of Delphi, many 
 things of later origin have been attributed to Lycurgus. (b) 
 Much that is rightly attributed to him was not original, but 
 deduced from ancient Dorian institutions, which being now 
 upon the decline, were re-establislied by force of law. Hence 
 it follows, that the legislation of Lycurgus must naturally have 
 had many points of resemblance with that of the Cretans, like- 
 wise of Dorian origin, although much, as we are told, was di- 
 rectly borrowed from them, (c) The principal object of the 
 laws of Lycurgus was to insure the existence of Sparta by cre- 
 ating and supporting a vigorous and uncorrupted race of men. 
 Hence those laws had a more peculiar reference to private life 
 and physical education, than to the constitution of the state, in 
 which the legislator appears to have introduced but few alter- 
 ations. 
 
 In reference to the constitution : 1 . The relation which had 
 hitherto existed between the Spartans as a dominant people, 
 and the Lacedajmonians as subjects, was preserved. 2. The 
 two kings, from the two ruling families, were likewise con- 
 tinued, as leaders in war and first magistrates in peace. On the 
 other hand, 3. to Lycurgus is attributed the institution of a 
 senate, (yepovina,) consisting of twenty-eight members, none of 
 whom could be less than sixty years old, who were to be chosen 
 by the people for life, and were to constitute the king's council 
 in public affairs. 4. "Whether the college of the five Ephori, 
 annually chosen, was originally instituted by Lycurgus, or at 
 some later period, is a question impossible to decide, but of 
 little importance, since the great power of this college, to which 
 every thing was finally referred as the highest tribunal of the 
 state, was certainly assumed after the time of Lycurgus. 5. 
 Besides the above, there were likewise the popular assemblies, 
 convened accoi'ding to the division into (pvXac and w§aQ, at 
 which none but Spartans could assist : their privileges extended 
 no further than to approve or reject the measures proposed to 
 them by the kings and the senate. 
 
 Jn the laws relating to private life, Lycurgus aimed at mak- 
 ing the Spartans a society of citizens, equal as far as possible 
 with respect to their property and mode of life, and each deeply 
 impressed with the conviction that he was the property of his 
 
108 ' GREEKS. [book hi 
 
 Second country, to which he was bound to yield an unconditional obe- 
 Period. dience. Hence, 1. The new division of land, 9000 portions to 
 the Spartans, and 30,000 to the Lacedtemonians ; permission 
 being given to dispose of those portions by entail or gift, but 
 not by sale. 2. The removal as far as possible of every species 
 of luxury, particularly by means of the daily public tables 
 {(Tvaai-ia) of all the citizens, according to their divisions, in 
 which the commons were settled by law. 3. The complete 
 organization of domestic society in relation both to husband and 
 wife, parents and children, which was so framed as to further, 
 even at the cost of morality, the grand political object, the pro- 
 duction of vigorous and healthy citizens. 4. Hence, finally, the 
 condition of the slaves, comprehended under the general name 
 of helots, who, although they may be regarded nearly as serfs, 
 were likewise the property of the state, which had the right of 
 claiming their services in war. Easy, however, as it is to enu- 
 merate thus generally the principal heads of the Spartan con- 
 stitution, the want of sufficient documents renders it difficult 
 and oftentimes impossible to answer a crowd of questions, which 
 present themselves on our penetrating more deeply into the 
 subject. Still, however, its long duration, (nearly four hun- 
 dred years,) without any observable change, is more remark- 
 able even than the constitution itself. More remarkable, inas- 
 much as the Spartans soon after this time appear as conquerors. 
 Indeed, it could no longer be expected that any durable peace 
 should exist in Greece, while the centre of the country was oc- 
 cupied by a military commonwealth, whose citizens must have 
 been, by the restlessness common to man, impelled to war, since 
 all the occupations of household life and of agriculture were left 
 to the cai-e of slaves. 
 
 Besides the works mentioned above, p. 95, 
 Heyne, De Spartanorum repuhlica Judicium; inserted in 
 Commentat. Soc. Gotting. vol. ix. Intended to correct the 
 partial opinions of De Pauw. 
 
 Wars of the 10. Soon after the time of Lycurgus, commenced 
 Pebpon-''^ the war of the Spartans with their neighbours, the 
 nesus. Argives, the Arcadians, but more particularly the 
 Messenians. The wars with these last appear to 
 have originated in an old grudge on the part of the 
 Dorian tribe, proceeding from the unequal division 
 of lands at the occupation of Peloponnesus : it is 
 nevertheless evident, that the quarrel between the 
 two nations was mainly fostered by the ambition of 
 the Spartan kings, who wrought upon a superstitious 
 multitude by oracular responses and interpretations. 
 
 Unimportant wars with Tegea and Argos ; and disputes with 
 Messene, 783—745. 
 
PBiiioD II.] GREEKS. 109 
 
 First Messenian war, 742 — 722, terminated by the capture Second 
 of the frontier fortress Ithome, after the voluntary death of Period. 
 the Messenian king, Aristoderaus. — The Messenians become 
 tributary to the Spartans, and are obliged to give up one half 
 of the revenues of their lands. — Occurrences during this war : 
 1. Institution, according to some authorities, of the college of 
 Ephori as vicegerents of the kings in their absence, and arbi- 
 trators in the quarrels which might arise between the kings and 
 the senate. 2. The power of th'e people so far limited as to 
 restrain the popular assemblies from making alterations in the 
 resolutions proposed to them by the senate or the kings, and 
 confining them merely to a vote of approval or rejection. 3. 
 Insurrection of the Parthenii and Helots becomes the motive 
 for sending out colonies ; a measure to which Sparta had more 
 than once resorted for the purpose of maintaining domestic 
 tranquillity. 
 
 Second Messenian war, 682 — 668, waged by the Messenians 
 under the command of their hero Aristomenes, by the Spartans 
 under that of Tyrtteus, who fanned the flame of war until the 
 contest was terminated by the capture of the strong town L-a. 
 The Messenian territory is divided among the conquerors, and 
 the conquered inhabitants become, like the helots, agricultural 
 slaves. 
 
 11. Although the territory of the Spartans was Spartatakes 
 greatly increased by these Messenian wars, the na- ^^mong the 
 tion seems to have been a long time before it recovered Dorian 
 from the struggle, and to have raised itself by slow 
 
 steps to the first rank among the Dorian states, ex- 
 tending its boundaries at the expense of the Argives 
 and Arcadians. 
 
 Wars with Tegea, for the most part unsuccessful ; and with 
 Argos, for the possession of Thyrea and the island of Cythera ; 
 by the accession of which the Spartan territory received an 
 important augmentation, about 550. 
 
 12. These wars within Peloponnesus were not of f '"^t »'^fe'"- 
 
 , . . ' ^ 111 lerence ot 
 
 such a nature as to give rise to any remarkable sparta in 
 chanp-es in the Spartan constitution, and for a lono; ^*''f 'ff '''''*"- 
 time the nation reiused to take any share in foreign peninsula. 
 affairs. But no sooner did King Cleomenes, who in 
 the end procured the deposition of his colleague, 
 Demaratus, interfere in the affairs of the Athenians, 
 than the seeds of strife were sown between these two 
 republics. The Persian war next ensued, in which 
 Sparta was obliged to bear a part, although Cleo- 
 menes had refused to participate in the insurrection 
 
no 
 
 GREEKS. 
 
 [BOOK HI. 
 
 Second 
 Period. 
 
 History of 
 Athens. 
 
 of Aristagoras : that struggle, together with the idea 
 of supremacy in Greece which now took its rise, 
 introduced a series of pohtical relations before un- 
 known. 
 
 13. The history of Athens during this period is 
 rendered important rather by domestic revolutions, 
 which gradually tended to convert the state into a 
 republic, than by external aggrandizement. The 
 situation and peculiarities of Attica, which rendered 
 it less exposed than other parts of Greece to the at- 
 tacks and forays of wandering hordes, favoured the 
 gradual and tranquil growth of national prosperity ; 
 the traces of which are incontestable, though it would 
 be difficult for the most profound research to point 
 out the whole course of its progress so perspicuously 
 as the historian might wish. 
 
 The history of Athens, of course, constitutes a main part of 
 the works mentioned above, p. 95. Besides which, 
 
 W. Young, The history of Athens politically and pMlosophi- 
 cally considered. London, 1796, 4to. Ai'gumentation rather 
 than history. 
 
 CoRSiNi, Fasti Attici. Florent. 1747, 4 vols. 4to. A most 
 careful chronological essay. 
 
 1. Period of kingly government down to 1068. The history 
 of Athens as a state begins properly with Theseus, who suc- 
 ceeded his father ^geus, about B. C. 1300. Although certain 
 institutions, such as that of the Areopagus, the division of the 
 people into nobles, (evTrarpicai,) husbandmen, (yednpyoi,) and 
 mechanics (gjjjuioupyoi) : a division which recalls to our me- 
 mory the Egyptian institution of castes, are perhaps of an ear- 
 lier date, and may be ascribed to the colony of Cecrops. The- 
 seus was, however, in some measure, the founder of the state, 
 since, instead of the four districts, (2///jot,) hitherto inde- 
 pendent of one another, he constituted the city of Athens as 
 the only seat of government. Among his successors the atten- 
 tion of the student is directed to Mnestheus, who fell before 
 Troy ; and the last king, Codrus, who, by a voluntary sacri- 
 fice of his Ufe, rescued Attica from the inroads of the Do- 
 rians, 1068. 
 
 2. Period of archons for life, taken from the family of Codrus, 
 thirteen of whom ruled ; 1068—752. The first was Medon, the 
 last Alcmseon. These archons succeeded Hke the kings, by in- 
 heritance, but were accountable for their administration (uTrtu- 
 0yj,oi). — At the commencement of this period occur the mi- 
 grations of the lonians from Attica to Asia Minor, 1044. See 
 below. 
 
PERIOD 11.] GREEKS, J-ii 
 
 3. Period of the decennial archons, seven of whom succeed- Second . 
 ed between 752 — 682. These likewise were taken from the Period. 
 family of Codrus. This period is devoid of any remarkable oc- 
 currences. 
 
 4. Period extending to Solon, 682 — 594, that of nine archons 
 yearly chosen, but so arranged that the prerogatives of the 
 former kings, and the preceding archons, were divided among 
 the three first of the nine. With respect to this, as well as to 
 the other changes above mentioned, we know little of the causes 
 which produced them, or of the manner in which they were 
 brought about. Rise of an oppressive aristocracy, (like that of 
 the patricians at Rome, immediately after the expulsion of the 
 kings,) both the archons and the members of the Areopagus 
 being elected only from noble families. First attempt at legis- 
 lation by Draco, 622, which appears only to have consisted in 
 a criminal code, rendered unavailing by its severity. — The in- 
 surrection of Cylon, 598, in consequence of the manner in 
 Avhich it was quelled, turned out most injurious to the aristo- 
 cratical party, inasmuch as the nobles drew upon themselves 
 the pollution of blood, which, even after the purification of 
 Epimenides, 593, was long used as a pretext for commotion. 
 The political factions of the Pcdia3i, of the Diacrii, and of the 
 Parhali, produced an anarchy at Athens, during which the 
 neighbouring IMegarians took possession of the island of Sala- 
 mis ; a conquest which, however, was subsequently wrested 
 from them by Solon. 
 
 14. From this state of anarchy Athens was rescued Soion's 
 by Solon ; a man to whom not only Athens, but b?c.V94.' 
 the whole human race are deeply indebted. He was 
 chosen archon, and at the same time commissioned 
 to remodel the constitution of Athens : and the suc- 
 cessful manner in which he executed this task, laid 
 the foundation of the happiness of his native country. 
 
 Revieio of the j)rominent features in Solon^s legislation. Its 
 main object was to abolish the oppressive aristocracy, without, 
 however, introducing a pure democracy. 1. Pi'ovisional laws: 
 abolition of the statutes of Draco, those against murder except- 
 ed : law enacted for the relief of debtors, ((Ttio-axötm, nova3 ta- 
 bulaä,) not so much by cancelling the debts as üy diminishing 
 their amount by a rise in the value of money ; and likewise by 
 insuring the personal liberty of the debtor. 2. Fundamental 
 laws, both in reference to the constitution and in reference to 
 private life and private rights. — Constitution of the state, (a) 
 Organization of the people by means of divisions : according to 
 property into four classes ; the Pentacosimedimni, or those who 
 had a yearly income of 500 medinini ; the Equites, (tTTTrflc,) 
 who had 400 ; the Zeugitae, who had 300 ; and tlie Thetes, (oa- 
 pite censi,) wliose yearly revenue did not amount to so much. — 
 
112 GREEKS. [book hi. 
 
 Second The ancient divisions according to heads, into wards, ((pvXai,) 
 Period, ^f which there were four, and according to residence into demi, 
 (hundreds,) of which a hundred and seventy are enumerated, 
 were preserved, {b) None but citizens of the three first classes 
 could fill all the offices of state ; but all were admitted to the 
 popular assemblies, and had a right of voting in the courts of 
 judicature, (c) The nine archons annually chosen, who acted 
 as supreme magistrates, although not permitted to assume mili- 
 tary office at the same time, remained at the head of the state ; 
 the first bearing the name of ettwi'v/ioc, the second of ßaaiXsvc, 
 the third of TroXefiap^oc, the remaining six that of defffxodirai. 
 Combined with the archons was (d) The council, (ßovXi),) which 
 consisted of a body of four hundred persons annually taken 
 from the three first classes of citizens ; (a hundred from each 
 ward ;) these were chosen by lot, but were obliged to submit to 
 a rigid examination (^oKi/xao-ta) before they entered upon office. 
 The archons were obliged to consult the four hundred on every 
 occurrence ; and nothing could be carried down to the commons 
 until it had been previously debated in this council, (e) To the 
 people, consisting of the whole four classes, was reserved the 
 right in its assemblies (tVxXr/crtai) of confirming the laws, of 
 electing the magistrates, of debating all public aflTairs referred 
 to them by the council, and likewise the public distribution of 
 justice. (/) The Areopagus was, according to Solon's plan, to 
 be the main buttress of the constitution ; that tribunal had hi- 
 therto been a mere tool in the hands of the aristocracy. It was 
 composed of retired archons, and remained not only the su- 
 preme tribunal in capital cases, but likewise was charged with 
 the superintendence of morals, with the censorship upon the 
 conduct of the archons who went out of office, and had the pre- 
 rogative of amending or rescinding the measures that had been 
 approved of by the commons. The power of this court, which 
 might easily have become equal to the college of Ephori at 
 Sparta, might at first have been supposed too extensive, had 
 not experience shown the fatal consequences of the reduction of 
 that power by Pericles. This alloy of aristocracy and demo- 
 cracy certainly gives proof of a deep insight into the nature of 
 republican constitutions ; but Solon is not less entitled to praise 
 for his endeavours to place the helm of government in the hands 
 only of the most enlightened and prudent citizens. It must 
 likewise be observed, that the code for private life given by 
 Solon, exhibits the genius of a man who regarded polity as sub- 
 ordinate to morals, and not, like Lycurgus, morals as subordinate 
 to polity. 
 
 Sam. Petitus, De Legibus Attieis, 1635, fol. The best com- 
 pilation and illustration of the fragments remaining of the Attic 
 law. 
 
 Chr. Bunsen, De jure Atheniensium hereditaria, ex Isceo 
 ccBterisque oratoribus Grcecis ducto, Goett. 1812. The law of 
 inheritance was a principal feature in Solon's legislation ; the 
 explanation of it requires a profound acquaintance with the 
 
PERIOD II. 
 
 GREEKS. 113 
 
 constitution, so far as it was connected with government by Second 
 clans or families. Period. 
 
 An explanation of the Athenian constitution will be likewise 
 
 found in the above-mentioned works of Tittmann, Kruse, and 
 Wachsmuth. 
 
 15. The legislation of Solon, like all other state Tyranny 
 reforms, was not followed by the total extinction of !^^^^.^''^^'''^ 
 
 ' . . _ 111 ^^ Athens 
 
 party spirit. It was natural that the commons, now by Pisistra- 
 free, should wish to try their strength with the aris- *"*' 
 tocratical party, and that, after the defeat of the lat- 
 ter, Pisistratus, who headed the commons, should 
 grasp the rudder of the state without, therefore, ne- 
 cessarily abrogating the constitution of Solon. Mo- 
 dern history has proved with sufficient evidence, that 
 the framework of a republic may easily subsist under 
 the rule of a usurper. And would that no repub- 
 lics might fall into the hands of a worse tyrant than 
 Pisistratus ! 
 
 First exaltation of Pisistratus, 561, procured by his obtaining 
 a body guard ; flight of the AlcmaionidiB under IMegacles. Pi- 
 sistratus expelled, 560. Second exaltation of Pisistratus pro- 
 cured by his matrimonial connexion with the family of Megacles, 
 556 — 552. — His second expulsion by Megacles, 552 — 538. — 
 His third exaltation ; obtains the power by force of arms, and 
 preserves it to the day of his death, 538 — 528. Flight of the 
 Alcmajonidaj into ]\Iacedonia, where they attach the malcon- 
 tents to their party. Pisistratus is succeeded Ijy his sons Ilip- 
 parchus and Hippias, who rule conjointly until 514, when the 
 elder is murdered by Harraodius and Ari.stogiton. The exiled 
 Alcma»nid;e, having bribed the Delpliian oracle, gain over the 
 Spartans to their interest : backed by a Spartan army, they 
 take possession of Athens in 510; Hippias is deposed, and flies 
 over to the Persians. 
 
 16. This return of the Alcmaeonidse was followed changes in 
 by a change in the constitution of Solon. Clisthenes, ft-J°Ho,;""' 
 the son of Megacles, with a view of quenching party 
 
 spirit by a new combination of the citizens, increased 
 the number of wards to ten, and that of the members 
 of the council to five hundred. — But the Athenians 
 had to purchase the continuance of their freedom by 
 a struggle with Sparta, who, united with the Boeo- 
 tians and Chalcidians, and aided by i^gina, sought 
 to re-establish monarchy in Attica ; first in the per- b. c. 527— 
 son of Isagoras, the rival of Clisthenes, and after- ^"^ 
 
 I 
 
114 
 
 GREEKS. 
 
 [book III. 
 
 Second wards in that of the exiled Hippias. But the glori- 
 ^^''^°°' ous success of the repubhc in this first struggle in 
 the cause of liberty, gave an additional impulse to 
 the national spirit. Impelled by that spirit, Athens 
 suffered herself to be induced to share in the war of 
 freedom carried on by the Asiatic Greeks under 
 Aristagoras ; and the audacity which led to the firing 
 500. of Sardis, drew upon Attica the vengeance of the 
 Persians, without which, doubtless, neither Athens 
 nor Greece would ever have risen to that degree of 
 eminence which they ultimately attained. 
 
 17. Of the history of the other states of Greece 
 we have at best but few data, and even these in most 
 instances are very scanty. Towards the end of this 
 period Sparta and Athens had, undoubtedly, exalted 
 themselves above the rest, and were recognised, one 
 as the first among the Dorian, the latter as the first 
 among the Ionian states ; yet did Sparta more than 
 once meet with rivals in Messene, Argos, and Tegea : 
 while Athens had to contend with Megara and 
 ^gina. Sparta and Athens had, nevertheless, not 
 only the best constitutions, but possessed also a more 
 extended territory than any other of the great cities. 
 
 History of 
 the other 
 Grecian 
 states. 
 
 Principal data for the history of the smaller states. 
 
 I. Within the Peloponnesus. 
 
 a. Arcadia. The Arcadian traditions enumerate a line of 
 kings or hereditary princes, said to have ruled over the whole 
 of Arcadia ; the line commences with Areas and his son Ly- 
 caon, whose successors kept possession of the supreme power, 
 and shared more or less in the ancient feuds of the Hellenic 
 princes. Upon the conquest of Peloponnesus by the Dorians, 
 Arcadia was the only land that did not suffer by the irruption : 
 an advantage for which it was probably indebted more to its 
 mountains, than to the skill of Cypselus its king. The suc- 
 cessors of that prince took a part in the wars between the Mes- 
 senians and Spartans, siding with the former ; but in the second 
 Messenian war, the last Arcadian king, Aristocrates II., having 
 betrayed his allies, was in consequence stoned to death by his 
 subjects, and the regal dignity was abolished in 668. Arcadia 
 now became divided into as many small states as it contained 
 cities with their respective districts ; among these Tegea and 
 
PERIOD II.] GREEKS. 115 
 
 Mantineawere the chief, and probably held the others in a cer- Second 
 tain state of control, without, however, depriving them Avholly Period. 
 of their independence. As might have been expected in a pas- 
 toral nation, the constitution was democratical. In Mantinea 
 there were wardens of the people, (cr//itoupyot,) and a senate 
 (ßovXii). The wars of separate cities are frequently mentioned, 
 but no general confederation united them. 
 
 I See A. VON Breitenbaucii, History of Arcadia, 1791. 
 
 b. Argos. Even previously to the Dorian migration, the 
 country of Aj'golis was parcelled out into several small king- 
 doms, such as those of Argos, Mycenae, and Tiiyns. In Argos, 
 the oldest Grecian state next to Sicyon, ruled the forefathers of 
 Perseus, who exchanged the kingdom of his ancestors for Ti- 
 ryns : here his successors continued to reign till the time of 
 Hercules, whose sons, expelled by Eurystheus, sought an asy- 
 lum among the Dorians. — In Mycenae, said to have been built 
 by Perseus, the throne was occupied by the family of Pelops : 
 and at the period of the Trojan war, this little state, to which 
 Corinth and Sicyon then belonged, was the most powerful in 
 Greece, and governed by Agamemnon, The migration into 
 this country by Pelops, from Asia Minor, must have been at- 
 tended with important consequences, since it has given a name 
 to the whole peninsula: the object of Pelops, as we may infer 
 from the riches he brought witli liim, was probably to establish 
 a trading settlement. — At the Dorian conquest Argos fell to the 
 share of Temenus, the Achaeans were expelled, and the country 
 was peopled by Dorians. As early as the reign of Cisus, son 
 of Temenus, the royal power was so limited, that the successors 
 of that prince hanlly preserved any thing but tlie mere name : 
 about 984 the regal dignity was wholly abrogated, and its place 
 supplied by a republican constitution, concerning the domestic 
 organization of which we know nothing more than tliat at Ar- 
 gos the government was in the hands of a senate, [ßovXi],) of a 
 college of eighty citizens, (o< oycuijKovra,) and of magistrates, 
 who bore the name of aprvroi : in Epidaurus, however, there 
 was a body of one hundred and eighty citizens who chose from 
 among themselves the senate, the members of which were called 
 apTvvoi. As in the other states of Greece, so in Argolis, there 
 were as many independent states as there were cities ; in the 
 north Argos, Mycente, and Tiryns ; in the south Epidaurus and 
 Troczen. The two last preserved their independence ; but My- 
 cenae was destroyed by the Argives in 425, and the inhabitants 
 of Tiryns were forcibly transplanted to Argos. The district of 
 Argos, therefore, comprised the northern portion of the country 
 called Argolis ; but not the southern portion, which belonged to 
 the towns situated therein. 
 
 c. Corinth. In this place, previous to the time of the Dorian 
 migration, the house of Sisyphus held the royal power ; and 
 even at that early period Corinth is extolled by Homer for its 
 wealth. The Dorians drove out the original inhabitants ; and 
 Aletes, belonging to the race of Hercules, became king about 
 
 I 2 
 
116 GREEKS. [book ]ii. 
 
 Second 1089 ; the posterity of that prince held the sceptre down to the 
 Period, flfti^ generation. After the death of the last king, Telessus, 
 
 777, the family of the Bacchiadge, likewise a branch of the 
 
 family of Hercules, took possession of the government, and in- 
 troduced an oligarchy, electing annually from among themselves 
 a Prytane. At last, in 657, Cypselus got the upper hand ; he 
 Avas succeeded, 627, by his son Periander ; both father and son 
 were equally conspicuous for their avarice and cruelty. Peri- 
 ander {d. 587) was succeeded by his nephew Psammetichus, 
 who reigned till 584, when the Corinthians asserted their free- 
 dom. With regard to the internal organization of the repub- 
 lic, little more is known than that there were at Corinth assem- 
 blies of the commons and a senate {yepovaia) : the government 
 appears to have been the aristocracy of a trading state ; for 
 even the Bacchiad«, at least some of them, were merchants. — 
 The Corinthian commerce consisted chiefly in the exchange of 
 Asiatic and Italian goods, and thei-efore was mostly carried on 
 by sea : for such a trade the city of Corinth offered many ad- 
 vantages, particularly if Ave consider the state of navigation in 
 those times ; but the sea trade of Corinth, however profitable 
 to the citizens, and even to the state, in consequence of the cus- 
 toms, cannot be considei-ed as very extensive. — The colonies of 
 Corinth in the Avest Avere principally Corcyra, Epidamnus, 
 Leucas, Syracuse ; in the east, Potida^a ; these colonies Avould 
 fain have asserted a sort of independence, but never succeeded 
 for any length of time in so doing. 
 
 From the possession of these colonies, and from the necessity 
 of protecting the trader from pirates, Corinth grcAv to be a 
 naval power ; she invented triremes, and at the early date of 
 664 gave battle to the Corcyra^ans at sea. On the other hand, 
 her wars by land were generally waged with the assistance of 
 foreign subsidiaries ; and from the facility Avith which she was 
 enabled to pay her mercenary troops, she was the more ready to 
 interfere in the domestic Avars of Greece. 
 
 d. Sicyon. Tradition represents this state, together Avith Ar- 
 gos, as the most ancient in Greece ; the catalogues of early 
 kings and princes, Avho are said to have reigned at this place, 
 make it probable that in early antiquity some settlements of 
 priests Avere made in this quarter. In the times previous to the 
 migration of the Dorians, Sicyon was first inhabited by the loni- 
 ans ; at the Trojan war, however, it made part of Agamem- 
 non's kingdom. At the Dorian irruption, Phalces, son of Te- 
 memis, took possession of Sicyon, which then became a Dorian 
 city. After the abrogation of the kingship, the date of which 
 is not precisely known, the constitution assumed the form of an 
 uncurbed democracy, which, as usual, paved the way for the 
 usurpation of one individual. Orthagoras and his posterity, the 
 last and most celebrated of whom Avas Clisthenes, ruled over 
 Sicyon during a whole century ; 700—600. After the restor- 
 ation of her freedom, Sicyon frequently suffered from revolu- 
 tions ; and the period of her highest splendour was during the 
 
PERIOD II.] GREEKS. in 
 
 latter days of Greece, when she became a member of the Second 
 Achgean league. Period. 
 
 e. Achaia. During the spread of the Hellenes, this country, 
 which till then had borne the name of ^gialus, Avas taken pos- 
 session of by Ion, who had been expelled from Athens, and his 
 tribe, who from their leader took the name of lonians : the 
 country remained in the hands of the lonians until the Dorian 
 migration, when the Achajans, driven out of Argos and Laconia, 
 pressed into the northern parts of Peloponnesus under Tisa- 
 menus, son of Orestes ; they settled in the land of the lonians, 
 and the power of the chieftain descended to his posterity, until 
 the tyranny of the last sovereign of that race, Gyges, (of date 
 undetermined,) produced the abolition of monarchy. Achaia 
 thereupon was parcelled into twelve small republics, or so many 
 cities with their respective districts, each of which comprised 
 seven or eight cantons. Al these republics liad democratic 
 constitutions, and were mutually united by a league, founded 
 on the most perfect equality, and which nothing but tiie policy 
 of the Macedonian kings could dissolve ; and even this dissolu- 
 tion gave rise to the Achcean league, of such high importance 
 in subsequent times. The Achasans lived in peace and happi- 
 ness, inasmuch as they had not the vanity, before the Pelopon- 
 nesian war, to interfere in the affairs of foreign states ; their 
 constitutions were so renowned, that tliey were adopted by se- 
 veral other Grecian cities. 
 
 f. EHs. The inhabitants in earher times bore the name of 
 Epeans, which, like tiiat of P^lcans, was traced to one of their 
 ancient kings. The names of their most ancient hereditary 
 princes, Endymion, Epeus, Eleus, Augias, are celebrated by the 
 poets. It appears that tliis country was divided into several 
 small kingdoms since, at the period of the Trojan war it con- 
 tained four, to which, however, must be added Pylus in Tri- 
 phylia, a territory usually reckoned as belonging to Elis. At 
 the epoch of the Dorian migration the vEtolians, who had ac- 
 companied the Dorians, lieaded by their chieftain Oxylus, set- 
 tled in Elis ; but permitted the ancient inhabitants to remain in 
 the country. Among the successors of Oxylus was Iphitus, 
 the contemporary of Lycurgus, and celebrated as the restorer 
 of the Olympian games, to the celebration of which Elis was 
 indebted for the tranquil splendour that distinguished her from 
 this time ; her territory being regarded as sacred, although she 
 had occasional disputes with her neighbours, the Arcadians, 
 for precedence at the games. After the abolition of the royal 
 power, supreme magistrates were chosen, to whose office was 
 added the charge of superintending the games (Hellanodicaj). 
 These magistrates were at first two ; they were afterwards in- 
 creased to ten, one from each tribe, although their number fre- 
 quently changed with that of the tribes themselves. There 
 must likewise have been a senate, consisting of ninety per- 
 sons who held their places for life, since Aristotle makes 
 mention of that branch of the Elean constitution. The city of 
 
118 GREEKS. [book hi. 
 
 Second Elis was first built in 477, before which time the Eleans resided 
 Period, in several small hamlets. 
 
 II. Central Greece, or Hellas. 
 
 a. Megaris. Until the epoch of the Dorian migration, this 
 state generally formed part of the domain of the Attic kings ; 
 or at least was governed by princes of that house. Immediately 
 previous to that event, the Megarians, after the assassination of 
 their last sovereign, Hyperion, placed the government in the 
 hands of magistrates elected for stated periods. At the time of 
 the Dorian irruption, under the reign of Codrus, Megara was 
 occupied by Dorians, more especially those of Corinth, who con- 
 sequently reckoned the city among their colonies, and during 
 the sway of the BacchiadiB endeavoured to keep it in a state of 
 dependency ; a circumstance which gave rise to several wars. 
 Nevertheless Megara supported her rank as a separate state, 
 both in those and many subsequent wars among the Greeks, in 
 which she took a share both by sea and land. About the year 
 600, Theagenes, step-father of the Athenian Cylon, had pos- 
 sessed himself of the supreme power ; after the expulsion ofthat 
 tyrant, the republican constitution was once more restored, but 
 soon after merged into the lowest species of democracy. Me- 
 gara, however, even at the period of the Persian war, in which 
 it took a glorious share, appears to have recovered the character 
 of a well-ordered state, although we have no information re- 
 specting its internal organization. 
 
 b. Boeotia. History mentions several very early races in 
 Boeotia, such as the Aones, Hyantes, etc. ; with these were 
 mingled Phoenician emigrants, who had come into the country 
 under the guidance of Cadmus. The stock of Cadmus became 
 the ruling family, and remained so for a long time : the his- 
 tory of his descendants, who were kings of Thebes, and com- 
 prised under their dominion the greatest part of Boeotia, con- 
 stitutes a main branch of Grecian mythology: among them 
 were CEdipus, Laius, Eteocles, and Polynices. After the cap- 
 ture of Thebes by the Epigoni, 1215, the Boeotians were ex- 
 pelled by Thracian hordes, and settled at Arne in Thessaly ; at 
 the time of the Dorian migration they returned to the land of 
 their forefathers, and mingled with the iEolians of those quar- 
 ters. Not long aftei-, upon the death of Xuthus, royalty was 
 aboUshed, 1126. Boeotia was now divided into as many small 
 states as it contained cities : of these, next to Thebes, the most 
 eminent were the towns of Platzte, Thespias, Tanagra, and 
 Chaäronea, each of which had its own separate district and pe- 
 cuhar form of government ; but all those constitutions appear 
 to have been commuted into oligarchies about the time of the 
 Persian war. Such had been the case even with Thebes, al- 
 though she had received as a legislator, Philolaus from Corinth ; 
 but the code given by this individual cannot have been attended 
 
PERIOD II.] GREEKS. 119 
 
 with tlie desired effect, as the government was continually flue- Second 
 tuating between a licentious democracy and an overbearino- Period, 
 oligarchy. The Boeotian cities were, however, mutually united 
 by a league, at the head of which stood Thebes, who gradually 
 converted her right of precedence into a right of power, al- 
 though her ambitious attempts were resisted to the last ex- 
 tremity by the separate cities, and by Plat^ae in particular : 
 hence sprung many wars. The general affiiirs were decided 
 upon in four assemblies, (ßovXai,) held in the four districts into 
 which Bceotia was divided ; these assemblies in conjunction 
 elected eleven Boeotarchs, who stood at the head of the feder- 
 ation as supreme magistrates and field marshals. The great 
 extent and population of their territory might have enabled the 
 Boeotians to act the first part on the theatre of Greece, had they 
 not been impeded by their pernicious form of government, by 
 the envy felt against Thebes, and by the want of union which 
 naturally ensued. Yet in subsequent times the example of 
 Epaminondas and Pelopidas gave proof that the genius of two 
 men was sufficient to surmount all these obstacles. 
 
 c. Phocis was originally ruled by kings descended, it is said, 
 from Phocus, the leader of a colony from Corinth. The sove- 
 reign power was abolished about the time of the Dorian migra- 
 tion ; but the form of the republican constitution which succeed- 
 ed remains undetermined ; and of the undertakings of the 
 Phocians previous to the Persian invasion, we know nothing 
 more than that they waged Avar with the The.ssalians, and were 
 successful. As history never mentions the Phocians but in the 
 aggregate, the whole territory must have formed but one inde- 
 pendent state. To that state, however, the city of Delphi, which 
 had its own constitution, did not belong : the city of Crissa with 
 its fertile district, and the harbour of Cirrha, constituted a se- 
 parate state, which became opulent by practising extortions 
 upon the pilgrims to Delphi : this state lasted till 600, when, 
 in consequence of the insults of the Crissasans to the Delphian 
 oracle^ a war was proclaimed against them by the Amphictyons, 
 which ended in 590, with the raising of Crissa ; the land of 
 which was thenceforward added to the sacred glebe of Delphi. 
 
 d. Locris. Although we learn from early history that the 
 Locrians also had their kings, — among whom Ajax, the son of 
 Oileus, is renowned in the Trojan war, — and that tliey likewise 
 in subsequent times adopted a republican form of government ; 
 yet the date of that revolution, and the manner in which it was 
 brought about, are not known. The three tribes of Locrians 
 remained politically distinct. The Locri Ozokv, west of Phocis, 
 possessed the most extensive territory ; each city of which stood 
 independent, though Amphissa is mentioned as the capital. Tiie 
 country of tiie Locri Opuntii, eastward, consisted of the district 
 appertaining to the city of Opus ; of their domestic organization, 
 as well as that of their neighbours, the Locri Epicnemidii, we 
 know nothing. 
 
 e. iEtolia. The iEtolians remained the most rude and unci- 
 
120 GREEKS. [book hi. 
 
 Second vilized of all the Hellenic races ; they were little more than a 
 Period, band of freebooters, and carried on their predatory excursions 
 both by sea and land. Renowned as are the names of their 
 earliest heroes, ^tolus, Peneus, Meleager, Diomede, the nation 
 has no place in the history of the flourishing times of Greece. 
 Nor did they acquire any celebrity until the Macedo-Roman 
 period, when the various insignificant tribes of which they were 
 composed gathered themselves together and chose one common 
 leader, for the purpose of carrying on a war with the Achoeans. 
 The earlier period of their history seems, however, to afford no 
 previous example of such a union ; their political constitution 
 in those times is wholly unknown. 
 
 f. Acarnania. This country derived its name from Acarnan, 
 son of Alcma3on, both of whom are adduced as its earliest kings. 
 In the Trojan age it appears beyond a doubt, that some part at 
 least of this country was subject to the governors of the island 
 of Ithaca. When and how a republican government was intro- 
 duced among the Acarnanians, and what were the peculiarities 
 of that government, we know not. All that can be distin- 
 guished through the veil of time is, that here likewise the dif- 
 ferent cities, the most important of which was Stratus, had each 
 its own form of government. Those cities upon particular 
 emergencies were wont to combine ; and out of that practice in 
 later times, during the Macedonian period, gi'ew up a perma- 
 nent confederation. The city and district of Argos Amphilo- 
 chicum constituted a separate state, which endured a long time, 
 and flourished greatly ; it derived its name from Amphilochus, 
 the founder. The inhabitants, however, being driven out by 
 the Ambracians, whom they had themselves called in, sought 
 assistance at the hands of the Acarnanians, who with the help 
 of Athens, replaced the exiles in possession of their city, which 
 thenceforward was inhabited in common by Amphilochians and 
 Acarnanians, and was almost constantly engaged in war with 
 Ambracia. 
 
 III. Northern Greece. 
 
 a. The importance of Thessaly in the earliest liistory of 
 Greece, may be gathered fi-om the principal data enumerated 
 above for the history of the Pelasgi and the Hellenes. From 
 this country it was that the Hellenes proceeded and spread over 
 Greece ; and here likewise they maintained their original seat. 
 In the Trojan age Thessaly contained ten small kingdoms, go- 
 verned by hereditary princes, several of whom, such as Achilles 
 and Philoctetes, were among the most renowned heroes of the 
 time. In the period subsequent to the Trojan war and the 
 Dorian migration, Thessaly must have experienced political 
 revolutions similar to those of the other Grecian countries ; but 
 neither the time nor the manner in which those revolutions oc- 
 curred can be ascertained. All that can be deduced from the 
 
PERIOD II.] GREEKS. 121 
 
 subsequent history is, that if the Thessalian cities ever did re- Second 
 cover their political freedom, they were unable to maintain it ; Period. 
 for in the two most eminent cities, Pherte and Larissa, with ' 
 whose history that of the whole country is closely connected, 
 the supreme power had fallen into the hands of arbitrary indi- 
 viduals, who appear to have kept possession of it almost without 
 interruption. Even before the breaking out of the Persian war, 
 Larissa was under the rule of the Aleuadte ; a ftxmily who 
 claimed descent from Hercules, and are especially denominated 
 by Herodotus kings of the Thessalians. They preserved their 
 power until the Macedonian period. — In Pheraa there arose 
 about the year 380, a tyrant, by the name of Jason, who ex- 
 tended his dominion not only over Thessaly, but likewise over 
 several of the neighbouring barbarous tribes. The sceptre of 
 Jason passed rapidly and successively into the hands of his 
 three brothers, Polydorus, Polyphron, and Alexander. The 
 last was first driven out of Larissa by the Aleuadje, assisted by 
 the Macedonians ; was afterwards worsted in war by Pelopidas ; 
 and fiinally, at the instigation of his wife Thebe, was murdered, 
 356, by her brothers, Lycophron and Tisiphonus. The two 
 murderers then assumed the supreme power, but were, in com- 
 pliance with the request of the Aleuada^, deposed by Philip of 
 Macedon. — Some other such tyrants are met with at intervals 
 in the rest of the Thessalian cities, such as Pharsalus, etc. 
 
 b. Epirus. This country was occupied by several tribes, 
 partly Greek and partly barbarian. The most powerful of 
 these was that of the Molossi, who were governed by kings of 
 the house of the iEacidae, descendants of Pyrrhus, the son of 
 Achilles. This Greek family was the only one that held the 
 kingly power for a permanency ; it must be observed however, 
 that previous to the Älacedonian period, those sovereigns were 
 by no means lords of the whole of Epirus ; for the other non- 
 Ilellenic races, such as the Thesprotii, Orestii, etc., had their 
 own separate kings. Moreover, the Corinthian colony of Am- 
 bracia constituted a distinct state, generally governed as a re- 
 public, although sometimes subject to the rule of tyrants. But 
 in consequence of an alliance framed with the Macedonian 
 kings, the whole of Epirus, and even Ambracia itself, was 
 placed under the sceptre of the Molossian kings ; and some of 
 those princes, Pyrrhus IL more especially, rose to be mighty 
 conquei'ors. See below. 
 
 IV. Grecian Islands. 
 
 Both the islands off the coast of Greece, and those of the 
 Archipelago, all underwent the same political revolutions as 
 occurred in the states on the mainland. But those events did 
 not take place till after the more ancient non-Hellenic inhabit- 
 .ants, such as the Phoenicians, Cai'ians, etc., had been driven 
 out, and the land had been taken possession of by the Hellenes. 
 
122 GREEKS. [book hi. 
 
 Second In the more extensive islands, which contained several cities, 
 Period, there generally arose as many small republics as there were 
 
 towns, and those little states were wont to enter into mutual 
 
 alliances. The smaller islands, containing but one city, formed 
 each one small independent state, the territory of which com- 
 prised the whole island. The respective independence of these 
 islands ceased to exist at the period of the Trojan war; for 
 after the Athenians had by their success placed themselves at 
 the head of confederate Greece, and possessed themselves of the 
 sovereignty of the sea, these smaller states, although called 
 confederates, were treated little better than subjects, except 
 that their political constitutions were not changed. — Among the 
 islands of the Grecian coast, the most remarkable in history are 
 the following : 
 
 a. Corcyra, a colony of Corinth, important for its naval power 
 and trade, in which it rivalled the mother state itself ; a rivalry 
 which occasioned many feuds and wars, and was even one of the 
 principal motives that led to the Peloponnesian war. About 
 the time this struggle began Corcyra had attained the height of 
 her power, being able, without foreign aid, to man a fleet of 1^0 
 galleys. The constitution appears, as at Corinth, to have been 
 aristocratic, or oligarchical : but after the Persian war a demo- 
 cratic faction arose, which produced the most violent internal 
 commotions, and ended in the total ruin of Corcyra. 
 
 b. iEgina. This small island was, after the Dorian migra- 
 tion, occupied by colonists from Epidaurus : it however soon 
 shook off the yoke of the mother city, and rapidly grew by com- 
 merce and navigation, to be one of the first Grecian states, 
 ^gina was for a long time the rival of Athens ; over whom her 
 naval power enabled her to maintain a superiority until the 
 time of the Persian war. Humbled, however, by Themistocles, 
 485, she could no longer support herself against the preponder- 
 ating influence of Athens ; and although subsequently she made 
 another stand for independence, 458, the consequences were but 
 an increase of oppression. Neither must it be forgotten, that 
 ^gina suifered much, even before the Persian war, from in- 
 ternal broils, caused by the bitterness of party spirit engendered 
 between the aristocratic and democratic factions. 
 
 C. O. MuELLEK, vEginetkorum liber, 1817. This treatise 
 contains not only the political history, but likewise that of trade 
 and arts. 
 
 c. Euboea. The different cities of this island, Chalcis and 
 Eretria in particular, had each its separate domestic constitu- 
 tion : in the two towns above mentioned the constitution was 
 aristocratic, since the government was in the hands of the opu- 
 lent (Hippobatai) ; nevertheless we hear of tyrants in Chalcis. 
 After the Persian war Euboea became dependent upon Athens, 
 which drew from that island a portion of her supplies and pro- 
 visions. The oppression of the Athenians stirred up the minds 
 of the Eubffians to rebellion, and the islanders were in the se- 
 quel ever ready to throw up their allegiance when a suitable 
 
PERIOD II.] GREEKS. 123 
 
 opportunity presented itself ; such an opportunity was seized Second 
 in 446, when the island was recovered by Pericles ; and the Perioi,. 
 attempt was renewed in the Peloponnesian war. 
 
 d. The Cyclades were first colonized by Crete, during the 
 reign of Minos. The Carian race had in earlier times spread 
 over these islands, but were gradually driven out by Hellenic 
 invaders, belonging principally to the Ionian and Dorian fami- 
 lies. The most important was Delos, chief seat of the lonians. 
 Sheltered under the protection of Apollo, this place became the 
 centre of an extensive trade, and during the Persian war, 479, 
 was selected for the treasury of Greece. Next was Paros, famed 
 for its marble, and for the stand it made against Äliltiades, 489, 
 although it afterwards shared the fate of the other islands, and 
 passed under tlie dominion of the Athenians. We know little 
 of the constitution of the other smaller islands ; each of them 
 contained one city of the same name as the island which con- 
 stituted its territory. 
 
 e. Crete. The inhabitants of Crete were not pure Hellenes, 
 but of alloyed origin, such as Curetes, Pelasgi, etc., mingled 
 with whom were Hellenes, of the Dorian and ^olian stock. 
 In the earlier periods, Crete had her kings, the most celebrated 
 of whom were Minos, about 1300, probably first sovereign of 
 the whole island ; his brother Rhadamanthus, Idomeneus, Me- 
 riones, who followed Idomeneus to the Trojan war, and suc- 
 ceeded him upon the throne : the last king, Etearchus, about 
 800, after whose death a republican form of government was 
 introduced. Under these kings Crete was powerful on sea : to 
 Minos is ascribed the honour of having by his fleets purged the 
 -^gaean of pirates, occupied the islands, and insui'ed security to 
 the mariner. To him likewise is attributed the Cretan legisla- 
 tion, the model, it is said, of that given to Sparta by Lycurgus. 
 But the uncertainty as to what does and what does not belong 
 to Minos, is in this case even greater than in that of Lycurgus ; 
 many of the laws referred to Minos are pi'obably nothing more 
 than ancient Dorian institutions. The insular situation which 
 in some measure insured Crete from foreign inroads, and the 
 proximity of Egypt and Phoenicia, must indubitably have con- 
 tributed to expand the germ of political civilization. The abo- 
 lition of the kingly office seems to have been the effect of inter- 
 nal commotions, to which Crete continued to be frequently 
 exposed, even under a republican form of government. Those 
 commotions originated in the jealousy between the two largest 
 cities, Gortina and Cnossus, which, when united, ruled the rest ; 
 but when at war, shook the whole island, until the city of Cy- 
 donia, passing over to one of the sides, gave a turn to the ba- 
 lance. The laws instituted by Älinos respecting private life 
 were enforced in all the cities of the island ; but declined at an 
 earlier period than in the country. Each city had its own con- 
 stitution ; each possessed its senate, {ytpovma,) at the head of 
 which were ten censors, (koo-yuoi,) chosen from certain families : 
 these cosmi were not only prime magistrates, but likewise in- 
 
124 GREEKS. [book hi. 
 
 Second vested with the command in war, not often, it is true, waged by 
 
 Period, ti^e Cretans against other nations, but, for that reason, more 
 
 frequently with one another ; a circumstance which must have 
 
 necessarily contributed to corrupt, not only their constitution, 
 
 but likewise their national character. 
 
 Meursii Creta, Rhodus, Cyprus, 1675, 4to. Very laborious 
 compilations. New light, however, has been thrown upon the 
 subject by the inscriptions published in 
 
 Chishull's Antig. AsiaüccB ; 1728, folio. A work which 
 has been made use of by 
 
 St. Croix, Des anciens goiivernemens, etc. (See above, p. 
 105.) The principal work upon Crete. 
 
 f C. HoECK, Crete. An attempt to explain the mytholog}', 
 history, etc., of this island, 1823. 
 
 f. Cyprus. This island, like Crete, was inhabited by a race 
 of mixed origin, who, even in the time of Herodotus, traced their 
 descent from Phoenicians, Africans, (Etliiopians,) from Greeks 
 out of Ai'cadia, Attica, and the island of Salamis ; of which last 
 the city of Salamis, founded by Teucer about 11 GO, was a colony. 
 There can be no doubt, that in earlier times the Phoenicians 
 were for a long period the dominant race in the island ; since in 
 the flourishing days of Tyre the Cyprians rebelled against their 
 oppressors, at the same time that Psalmanezer led an expedition 
 against the former city, about 720 : moreover, even in the 
 present day, Phoenician monuments are still found in the island. 
 From that time to the Persian period, there appears to have 
 been a close connexion between this island and the Phoenicians, 
 although the Cyprians preserved their independence. Several 
 smaller kingdoms afterwards ai'ose in various cities of the 
 island ; the number of which in subsequent times amounted to 
 nine, and under Amasis, about 550, were tributary to the Egyp- 
 tians ; and under Cambyses, 525, to the Persians : notwith- 
 standing this species of subjection, the various states preserved 
 their own kings. During the Persian dominion, the Cyprians 
 more than once joined in the insurrections against tlie Persians ; 
 more particularly the kings of Salamis, now become the most 
 powerful. So early as the year 500, Onesilus joined the Ionian 
 rebels, but was defeated. In the wars which afterwards ensued 
 between the Persians and Greeks, Cyprus was frequently at- 
 tacked by the combined Grecian fleets ; as in 470 by Pausanias, 
 and during the reign of Evagoras I., 449, by Cimon, who died 
 at the siege of Citium ; yet the Persians were not driven out, 
 but appear to have kept their footing even after the peace of 
 449. Among the subsequent kings of Salamis was Evagoras II., 
 (400 — 390,) who was master of the greatest portion of the 
 island ; but as in the peace of Antalcidas Cyprus was ceded to 
 the Persians, he was obliged to wage a hot war against them, in 
 which he lost every thing but Salamis. Finally, the Cyprians, 
 in 356, took a part in the insurrection of the Phfcnicians and 
 Egyptians : thereupon the Persians sent an army against them, 
 under the command of a younger Evagoi'as, (who had been 
 
PERIOD II.] GREEKS. 125 
 
 banished by his uncle Protagoras,) and under that of the Athe- Second 
 nian Phocion Salamis was besieged, but matters were made up Period. 
 by a negotiation. The nine small kingdoms of the island con- " 
 tinned to exist till the time of Alexander, whom they voluntarily 
 joined during the siege of Tyre, 332, and thenceforward Cyprus 
 constituted a part of the Macedonian monarchy. 
 
 2. History of the Grecian Colonies. 
 
 To assist the student in obtaining a general view of the 
 events connected with the Greek colonies, the history of them 
 will be here carried on tlirough the subsequent period. 
 
 Raoul Rociiette, Ilistoire critique de V t'tablissement des 
 Colonies Grecques, Paris, 1815, 4 vols. The most compre- 
 hensive treatise on the subject : it comprises tlie earlier Pelas- 
 gian and the later Macedonian colonies, as well as those of the 
 Hellenes. Tliere is much erudition displayed in this work, but 
 sufficient attention is not paid to the value of the authorities 
 made use of. 
 
 f D. H. Hegewiscii, Geographic and Historic Documents 
 relative to the Colonies of the Greeks, Altona, 1808, 8vo. A 
 brief review of the subject. 
 
 St. Croix, De Vttat et du sort des Colonies des anciens peu- 
 ples, Paris, 1786. A series of valuable and important inquiries. 
 
 1. No nation of antiquity ever founded so many Historie 
 colonies as the Greeks : these colonies became so of£''JJ"eek 
 important in various respects, that an acquaintance colonies 
 with them is indispensably requisite towards under- 
 standing the more early history of the world. Not 
 
 only is the history of the civilization of the mother 
 country and that of early trade intimately connected 
 with these settlements, but some of them grew to 
 such power as to have the greatest influence on po- 
 litical history. 
 
 2. The Grecian colonies, to which the following 
 observations apply, are those founded by the Hel- 
 lenes in the time which elapsed between the Dorian 
 migration and the Macedonian period. It appears 
 certain that before the date of that migration some 
 Pelasgian, and perhaps even some Hellenic settlers 
 passed over into Italy. The history of these colonies 
 however is not only involved in obscurity, but it is 
 besides known that they ceased after a time to be 
 Greek. The later settlements of the Macedonians 
 
126 
 
 GREEKS. 
 
 [book III. 
 
 Second 
 Period. 
 
 Hellenic 
 colonies. 
 
 Origin of 
 these colo- 
 
 Relations 
 between 
 colony and 
 metropolis. 
 
 were of a quite different nature from those of the 
 Hellenes, to which we now allude. 
 
 3. The Hellenic race spread alike to the east and 
 to the west of Greece, their settlements, however, 
 were confined to the shores of the Mediterranean 
 and Black Sea. The countries in which their prm- 
 cipal colonies were established, were Asia Minor and 
 Thrace in the East ; the coasts of Lower Italy and 
 Sicily in the west. Nevertheless, particular settle- 
 ments were to be found scattered here and there on 
 the shores of most other countries. 
 
 4. The Grecian colonies had their origin either in 
 political motives, being generally made in accordance 
 with the express command or advice of an oracle, 
 (for the propagation of the religion of the parent 
 state was always connected therewith,) or, in com- 
 mercial speculations ; the former was the case, almost 
 without exception, with the settlements made by the 
 mother country herself; the latter, with those which 
 had branched out of such colonies as had already ex- 
 alted themselves by their commerce. In fact, almost 
 all the Grecian colonies applied more or less to trade, 
 even when that was not the sole object of their 
 foundation. 
 
 5. The connexion existing between the colonies 
 and the mother cities was generally determined by 
 the same causes that led to their foundation. In 
 those cases where a city had been founded by mal- 
 content or banished emigrants, all dependence on 
 the mother country was naturally out of the ques- 
 tion ; and even in the colonies established for the 
 purposes of trade, that dependence was but feeble 
 and brief; the mother cities failing in power, if not 
 in will, to enforce it. The very independence of so 
 many colonies, made (almost without exception) in 
 countries pre-eminently favoured by nature in pro- 
 ductions and climate, and so situated as to oblige the 
 inhabitants to navigation and commerce, must have 
 given a great impulse to the civilization of the Hel- 
 lenic race, and may be regarded as the main cause 
 of its rapid progress and wide extension ; wider in- 
 
PERIOD II.] GREEKS. 127 
 
 deed than that of any other nation of the ancient Second 
 world. What a variety of pohtical ideas must have '^'"°°' 
 been formed among a people, whose settlements, 
 more than a hundred in number, had each its own 
 peculiar form of government. 
 
 6. Of the Greek colonies, the most ancient, and importance 
 in many respects the most important, were those l^■^^ Q,.ggjr 
 along the western coast of Asia Minor, extending settlements. 
 from the Hellespont to the boundary of Cilicia. 
 Here, ever since the Trojan war, which first made 
 these countries generally known, Hellenes of the 
 three great families, Cohans, lonians, and Dorians, 
 had planted settlements. These were the most im- 
 portant for trade ; and here likewise in the native 
 country of Homer, the father of Grecian civilization, 
 of Alc9Bus, and of Sappho, poesy, both epic and lyric, 
 expanded her first and fairest blossoms ; and hence, 
 too, the mother country herself received the first im- 
 pulse of moral and cultivated taste. 
 
 1. The ^olian colonies. Their original foundation dates 
 about 1124: they appear to have been a consequence of the 
 Dorian migration, having been established during that great 
 movement in Greece. Tlie Pelopidte, who had been driven out 
 of Peloponnesus, Orestes, his son Penthilus, his grandson Ar- 
 chelaus, and his great grandson Grais, successively headed the 
 emigrants, who proceeded slowly by land, divided, it appears, 
 into several companies, with which some Boeotians and others 
 gradually coalesced. In Asia they occupied the coasts of My- 
 sia and Caria ; a strip of land which from thence derived the 
 appellation of iEolis. They moreover possessed the islands of 
 Lesbos, Tenedos, and the Hecatonnesi. On the mainland, in 
 the quarter named from them iEolis, they erected twelve cities, 
 the most eminent of which were Cyme and Smyrna ; the latter, 
 however, afterwards fell into the hands of the lonians. But 
 their chief settlements were on the island of Lesbos ; here they 
 inhabited five cities, at the head of which, and likewise of all 
 their other colonies, stood Mitylene. They had likewise spread 
 inland as far as Mount Ida. All these towns were independent 
 of one another, and possessed their own peculiar forms of go- 
 vernment : our information, however, respecting these consti- 
 tutions extends no further than to enable us to ascertain that 
 they were subject to many disorders, which it was often at- 
 tempted to quell by nominating rulers of unlimited power, un- 
 der the title of iEsyranette. These were elected sometimes for 
 a stipulated period, at others for life ; the most celebrated of 
 the number was Pittacus of Mitylene, who flourished about 600, 
 
128 GREEKS. [book hi. 
 
 Second and was the contemporary of Sappho and Aleosus. The iEoli- 
 Period. ans maintained their independence till the time of Cyrus, with 
 
 the exception of Smyrna, which, as early as 600, was captured 
 
 and destroyed by the Lydians, and not rebuilt till four hundred 
 years afterwards, when it was restored by Antigonus, and en- 
 tered upon its flourishing period. The cities of the mainland 
 were compelled to acknowledge the supremacy of the Persian 
 conqueror ; but not the islands. The -ZEolian cities were not 
 leagued together by any permanent bond ; it was only in pecu- 
 liar cases that they debated in common. Älitylene, which they 
 all regarded as their capital, was the only one of their colonies 
 that became rich by trade, and formidable by its naval power. 
 Yet in 470 it was tributary to Athens ; having seceded in 428, 
 at the time of the Peloponnesian war, it was recaptured and 
 almost levelled to the earth by the Athenians. 
 
 2. The Ionian colonies. These were, no doubt, founded at 
 a later period than those of the JEolians ; like them, however, 
 they were a consequence of the Dorian migration. The lonians, 
 driven out of Peloponnesus by the Acha^ans, had withdrawn to 
 Athens, from whence, sixty years afterwards, that is to say 
 about 1044, they pi-oceeded by sea to Asia, headed by Neleus 
 and others of the sons of Codrus. They were joined, however, 
 by some Thebans, Phocians, Eubcean Abantes, and various 
 other Greeks. In Asia they settled on the southern coast of 
 Lydia and the northern shore of Caria ; which, together with 
 the islands of Samos and Chios, took from them the name of 
 Ionia. Here they built twelve cities on tlie mainland ; namely, 
 reckoning from north to south, Phoca^a, Erythra, Clazomene, 
 Teos, Lebedus, Colophon, Ephesus, PHene, Myus^ Miletus, and 
 in the islands, Samos and Chios. They possessed in common 
 one sanctuary, the Panionium temple of Neptune, built on the 
 headland of Mycale. Here they celebrated their festivals, 
 and assembled to deliberate upon matters aifecting the general 
 interest, although it must still be remembered that each city 
 was in itself independent. This independence was maintained 
 until the time of the Lydian dynasty of the Mermnadaj, and 
 that of Cyrus, under whose reign they were compelled to sub- 
 mit to the Persian yoke. Still, under the Persian rule, they 
 for the most part preserved their own form of government, and 
 were subject only so much as they had to pay tribute. Never- 
 theless they seized every opportunity of delivering themselves 
 from this species of thraldom ; and hence their history in the 
 following period is closely interwoven with that of Greece. 
 The political constitution was, no doubt, at an early period, re- 
 publican in all ; but these colonies likewise were oppressed by 
 continual factions, and frequently by tyrants. Among the 
 towns situate on the continent, the most remarkable were Mile- 
 tus, Ephesus, and Phoca;a. Miletyis_was the principal seat of 
 trade. It had been founded by the Carians before the arrival 
 of the lonians ; but was by the latter raised to opulence and 
 power. The most flourishing period of its existence was be- 
 
PERIOD II.] GREEKS. 129 
 
 tween 700 — 500 : in the latter year it was implicated in the Second 
 insurrection of Aristagoras against the Persians, in consequence Period. 
 
 of which it was destroyed in 496. From that time Miletus 
 
 never recovered its ancient splendour. Nevertheless, in the 
 days of her prosperity, Äliletus Avas, next to Tyre and Carthao-e, 
 the first emporium of the world. Her sea trade was chiefly 
 carried on in the Euxine, and the Palus Maeotis, whose shores, 
 on all sides, were occupied by her colonies, amounting, accord- 
 ing to some authorities, to more than a hundred. By means of 
 these settlements she monopolized the whole of the northern 
 trade in pulse, dry fish, slaves, and furs. Her land trade was 
 carried on by the great military road, constructed by tlie Per- 
 sians, far into the interior of Asia. Four harbours admitted 
 her vessels ; and her naval power was so great, that she had 
 been known, more than once, to fit out, unaided, fleets of from 
 eighty to a hundred sail. — PJiociKa. The flourishing period of 
 this establishment was contemporary with that of Äliletus ; but 
 ended at the rise of the Persian dominion, 540, when the Pho- 
 ca3ans, rather than submit to the Persian yoke, chose to forsake 
 the city of their fathers and migrate to Corsica, although one 
 half of the inhabitants repented of their resolution and returned. 
 Phociea had the most extensive trade by sea of all the Grecian 
 cities ; they were to the west what the Milesians were to the 
 north. Their navigation extended as far as Gades ; and they 
 not only visited the coasts of Italy, Gaul, and Corsica, but even 
 foumled colonies in these countries ; as for instance, Aleria in 
 Corsica, Elea in Italy, and, above all, Massilea, (Marseilles,) on 
 the coast ofGaul. — Fjghcsus. This city was likewise originally 
 founded by the Carians, but subsequently occupied by the 
 lonians. Its independence was maintained until the time of 
 Croesus, who annexed it to his other conquests about 560, The 
 constitution was aristocratic ; " the government being in the 
 hands of a senate, (yepoviria,) combined with the magistrates 
 {liriKXjjToi) : and the family which had once possessed the throne 
 preserved certain prerogatives. Ephesus was not so important 
 in a commercial point of view as Phocaja and Miletus ; but was 
 much celebrated for its temple of Diana, which in 355 was fired 
 by Erostratus, and afterwards rebuilt with more sumptuous 
 splendour. The flourishing period of Ephesus appears to have 
 commenced at this time, long after that of Miletus and Phoca?a 
 had terminated ; for both in the Macedonian and Roman ages 
 Ephesus was regarded as the first city of Asia Minor. — Of the 
 cities on the islands, Samos was the most important, for its 
 trade, and for its navaTpowcr. The period of its splendour 
 was under the reign^öfHietyrant Polycrates, 540 — 523, whose 
 sway extc^nded over the sea and islets of the neighbourhood. 
 Syloson, brother to the tyrant, having by the assistance of the 
 Persians, 517, obtained possession of Samos, the island was al- 
 most depopulated. Soon afterwards Samos became dependent 
 upon the Athenians, who in 440 introduced a democratic form 
 of government, and made it the rendezvous for her troops and 
 
 K 
 
130 GREEKS. [book hi. 
 
 Second fleets during the war with Sparta. — Chios was scarcely inferior 
 Period, to Samos, either in power or wealth. It submitted to the Per- 
 sian yoke with the rest of the Ionian colonies ; but was so pow- 
 erful, that in 500, at the insurrection of Aristagoras, ninety-eight 
 sail of the combined fleet belonged to Chios. After the defeat 
 of Xerxes, 469, it entered into the Athenian league, from which 
 it endeavoured to secede in the Peloponnesian wai-, 412. The 
 naval power of the Chians was still considerable ; and those 
 islanders had the high honour of not suflTering prosperity to in- 
 flate them with overweening ambition. 
 
 F. G. Rambach, De Mihto ej usque coloniis, 1790, 4to. 
 3. The Dorian colonies. These were situated in Asia Minor, 
 upon the southern coast of Caria, and in ^he islands of Cos and 
 Rhodes, but were all planted at a later period than the Ionian 
 colonies, and, no doubt, were the result of successive migra- 
 tions. The Dorians appear to have gradually spread beyond 
 Peloponnesus, over the isl mds of the Archipelago to the Asiatic 
 coast : in Rhodes they erected the cities of lalyssus, Camirus, 
 and Lindus ; in Cos a city of the same name ; onlhe mainland 
 two cities, Halicarhassus and Cnidus. These six ancient cokb=. 
 nies had, like the lohians, one common sanctuary, the temple of 
 Apollo Triopius, where they celebrated tlieii' festivals and held 
 their deliberative assemblies. Haliearnassus, however, was 
 afterwards excluded from the confederation. They remained 
 independent until the Persian period, although the constitutions 
 of the separate cities were subject to violent revolutions : thus 
 at Cnidus the oligarchy was converted into a democracy ; Ha- 
 liearnassus was likewise generally subject to the Carian sove- 
 reigns, among whom Mausolus and Artemisia are names familiar 
 to all. — The three cities in Rhodes appear never to have grown 
 to any importance ; that of Rhodes, not built till after the ir- 
 ruption of Xerxes into Greece, 480, soon eclipsed the others : 
 its flourishing period began after the death of Alexander. At 
 
 rno period of early history could the Dorian colonies, or those 
 of the iEolians, compete in wealth and commerce with the 
 lonians. 
 
 7. The shores of the Propontis, the Black vSea, 
 and the Palus Meeotis, were hkewise covered with 
 Grecian settlements. Nearly all these were colonies 
 of the city of Miletus alone, and were, without ex- 
 ception, all of them the marts of a prosperous trade. 
 Although the date of each cannot be precisely de- 
 fined, they must have arisen between the eighth and 
 sixth centuries before the Christian era. They were 
 not only sovereigns of the Black Sea, but likewise 
 extended their trade over the whole of southern Rus- 
 sia, and eastward to the regions beyond the Caspian 
 Sea ; that is, to Great Bukharia. 
 
 
PERIOD II.] GREEKS. 131 
 
 On the Propontis stood Larapsacus (adjoining the Helles- Second 
 pont) and Cyzicus, on an island connected with the continent Period. 
 by means of bridges. The latter town certainly was one of the 
 most beautiful and flourishing cities of Asia ; but this did not 
 occur until the Roman age, and was in consequence of the fos- 
 tering protection of the Romans. — Opposite to Cyzicus, on tlie 
 Thracian coast, was Perinthus, subsequently called Heraclea ; 
 at the mouth of the Thracian Bosporus stood Byzantium, over 
 against which was Chalcedon. The pi-osperity of all these towns 
 affords sufiicient proof of the skill with which sites were chosen 
 for the establishment of colonies. 
 
 Heyne, Antiquities Bijzantina : Commentationes duce, 1809. 
 The first of which contains the fragments of the earlier history 
 of Byzantium. 
 
 The colonies of the Black Sea were : on the southern coast of 
 Bithynia, Heraclea, in the territory of the Maryandini. This 
 place preserved its republican constitution amid frequent broils 
 and revolutions, brought about by the oligarchic and democratic 
 factions, until about B. C. 370, wlien the democrats having 
 gained the upper hand, a path was opened to Clearchus, who 
 became tyrant, and abrogated the senate (ßovXi)) ; the family of 
 the tyrant continued for a long time in possession of power, after 
 he himself had been murdered by two disciples of Plato. — In 
 Paphlagonia Avas Sinope, the most powerful of all the Grecian 
 settlements on the Black Sea, of which it long held the sove- 
 reignty. The freedom and independence of this place lasted to 
 about 100, when it fell under the dominion of the kings of 
 Pontus, and afterwards under that of the Romans. The prin- 
 cipal source from which it derived its wealth were the shoals of 
 migratory fish, (7r»j/\a/L/vo£e,) which, issuing from the Palus Ma3- 
 otis, spread along the shore of the Black Sea down to the Thra- 
 cian Bosporus. — In Pontus was Amisus, the mother city of 
 Trapezus, and which shared the fate of Sinope. — On the east- 
 ern coast stood the cities of Phasis, Dioscurias, and Phanagoria : 
 this last was the principal mart of the slave trade, and, during 
 the Macedonian period, the staple for Indian commodities im- 
 ported across the Oxus and tlie Caspian Sea. — In the Cherso- 
 nesus Taurica stood Panticapa^um, capital city of the little 
 Grecian kingdom of Bosporus, whose kings (among whom 
 Spartacus, about 439, and more especially Leucon, about 
 350, are celebrated) remained in alliance with Athens till 
 Mithridates the Great laid there the foundation of his do- 
 minion. — On the northern coast was the city of Tanais, on the 
 mouth of a river of the same name at the bottom of the 
 Palus Mteotis. Olbia was situated at the mouth of the Bo- 
 rysthenes. These two places, and Olbia in particular, were 
 of the highest importance for the inland trade, which issuing 
 from thence in a northern and easterly direction, was extend- 
 ed to the very centre of Asia. — The colonies of the western 
 coast, such as ApoUonia, Tomi, and Salmidessus, were of less 
 notoriety. 
 
 K 2 
 
132 GREEKS. [book hi. 
 
 Second g. The coast of Thrace and Macedonia, washed 
 ^^ERioD^ by the iEgaean Sea, was likewise covered with Gre- 
 cian colonies, from various cities, and especially from 
 Corinth and Athens. The Athenians having obtained 
 in the Persian war the sovereignty of the sea, endea- 
 voured to establish their dominion in this p'art of the 
 world ; hence the cities in that quarter were closely 
 implicated in the quarrels and wars excited, first by 
 the jealousy between Sparta and Athens, and after- 
 wards by that which sprang up between Athens and 
 Macedonia, in the reign of Philip. 
 
 On the Tln-acian coast of the Cliersonesus, regarded as the 
 key of Europe, and ranging along the Hellespont, were the 
 towns of Sestos, Cardia, and ^Egospotamos ; farther to the west 
 stood Maronea and Abdera, the latter a colony of Teos. Of 
 far greater importance, however, were the towns on the Mace- 
 donian coast, Amphipolis, Chalcis, Olyntlius, Fotid:i;a. The 
 first of these towns, founded about B. C. 464, was a colony from 
 Athens, which endeavoured to keep it in a state of dependence. 
 Chalcis was a colony from a city of the same name in Euboea. 
 In 470 it was dependent on Athens ; but in 432, the inhabitants, 
 having raised the standard of rebellion, forsook their houses and 
 voluntarily withdrew to Olynthus. — Olyntlius derived its name 
 from the founder, one of the sons of Hercules : in the course of 
 time it ranked among the most powerful cities of Thrace, al- 
 though it was tributary to the Athenians. It took a share in 
 the war between Athens and Sparta, and continued to be a 
 flourishing city until 348, when it was taken by Philip of Ma- 
 cedon, and destroyed. — Potidasa was a colony of Corinth, from 
 which it received annual magistrates, (ETricrj^utovpyot,) having be- 
 come tributary to Athens after the Persian war, it revolted in 
 431 : obliged to yield to the Athenian arms, its inhabitants 
 were expelled, and their place supplied by an Athenian colony. 
 It now became a possession of Athens, and remained so till it was 
 taken by Philip in 358. 
 
 9. The Grecian settlements westward of the mo- 
 ther country were, almost without exception, made 
 at a later period than those in the J^gsean and Black 
 Seas : they reached nevertheless to an equal degree 
 of splendour ; and though their trade was not so ex- 
 tensive, it was equally profitable : these colonies not 
 only rivalled those we have above described in wealth, 
 but surpassed them in power, being generally cha- 
 racterized by the wisdom and prudence displayed in 
 their respective constitutions. The foundation of 
 
PERIOD II.] GREEKS. 133 
 
 most of them may be dated between B. C. 750 and Second 
 650 ; consequently at a period when all the cities in '^'^'° 
 the mother country had already been republicanized : 
 and at a time when there could be no lack of domes- 
 tic troubles, which would furnish sufficient motives 
 for emigration. 
 
 1. Grecian settlements in Lower Italy. The most numerous 
 and important of these were scattered around the bay of Ta- 
 rentum ; they extended likewise along the western coast of 
 Italy up to Naples. These colonies were variously traced to 
 the Dorian, Achivan, and Ionian families : they Avere likewise 
 distinguished by political characteristics, the government in the 
 Dorian settlements being generally more aristocratic, in tlierest 
 more democratic : it must ha observed, however, that with re- 
 spect to tlie various revolutions which the respective constitu- 
 tions underwent, it is hardly possible to give any general inform- 
 ation, excepting so far as regards the earliest times. Of Dorian 
 origin were Tarentum, and its colonies Ileraclea and Brundu- 
 sium. Of Acha;an origin were Sybaris and Croton, togetiier 
 with the colonies of the latter, Laus, Metapontum, Posidonia ; 
 which last founded in its turn, Tcrina, Caulonia, and Pandosia. 
 Of Ionian origin were Thurii, (built on the site where Sybaris 
 had formerly stood,) Rhegium, Elea, Cuma?, and its branch 
 settlement of Neapolis. Locri Epizephyrii, a colony of the 
 Locri Ozola^, may be regarded as an -^olian city. The most 
 remarkable of tliese cities, in respect to general history, are: 
 
 a. Tarentum, founded by tlie Parthenii, from Sparta, about 
 707. It waged several wars with the aboriginal tribes in the 
 vicinity, the Älessapians, Lucanians, etc., and grew to be one of 
 the richest and most powerful of the maritime towns. The 
 brilliant ])eriod of Tarentum ap])eai's to have fallen between 
 500 and 400. Excess of wealtli subsequently introduced lux- 
 ury, which extinguished the national spirit. Nevertheless Ta- 
 rentum preserved its independence until 273, when, after the 
 war witlx Pyrrhus, it fell under the Roman dominion. The 
 constitution was originally a moderate aristocracy ; but was 
 commuted soon after the Persian war into a democracy, which 
 was, however, curbed by prudent restrictions. Tarentum had 
 its senate, (ßov\t),) without who.se consent war could not be un- 
 dertaken ; its magistrates elected half by lot, half by majority of 
 votes given in the assemblies of the commons. Among its 
 most celebrated citizens is reckoned the Pythagorasan Archytas, 
 who, after the year B. C. 390, was frequently at the head of the 
 state, filling the offices of general and supreme magistrate. The 
 constitution appears to have preserved its form until the Roman 
 period, althougli the national spirit was greatly corrupted by a 
 luxury almost exceeding the limits of credibility. 
 
 b. Croton, founded 710, by the Acha^ans, under the guidance 
 of Myscellus from Rhype in Achaia. This city must have at- 
 
134 GREEKS. [book hi. 
 
 Second tained to very great power during the very first century of its 
 Period, existence ; since in the battle of Sagra against the Locrians, 
 
 ~ which may with probability be dated about 600, the Crotoniates 
 
 were able to set on foot an army of 120,000 men. Neither does 
 the defeat which they there suffered appear to have debilitated 
 the settlement for any length of time ; for in 510, with nearly 
 the same number of forces, they attacked the Sybarites, and de- 
 stroyed their city. The original constitution was, no doubt, a 
 moderate democracy ; but we are unacquainted with the details 
 of its organization. Pythagoras was the reformer of customs, 
 moral and political, not only at Croton, but in several other of 
 the Italico-Greek cities. This philosopher arrived at Croton 
 about 540, and there laid the foundation of the league or secret 
 association named after him, tlie object of which was, not to 
 chanf^e the form of government in the Italian cities, but to 
 create men capable of managing the helm of state. This re- 
 form and influence of the Pythagoreans lasted about thirty 
 years, when their order underwent the same fate as generally 
 befalls a secret association founded with a political view. Pro- 
 bably about 510 the Pythagora^an league was broken asunder 
 by the democratic faction under Cylon. The consequence was 
 universal anarchy, not only in Croton, where, about 494, a 
 certain Clinias usurped the supreme power, but likewise in the 
 other cities : these disorders, however, were quelled by the 
 intervention of the Achasans ; and the Acha?an colonies not 
 only adopted the laws of their mother cities, but likewise soon 
 afterwards signed a league in the temple of Jupiter Honorius, 
 about 460 : it appears that Croton, having already recovered 
 from the blow it had received, was at the head of this league. 
 In this happy posture affairs remained till about 400. After 
 the kings of Syracuse had commenced their attacks on Magna 
 GrfEcia, Croton was repeatedly captured ; as in B. C. 389 by 
 Dionysius I., and about 321 ; and again, in 299, by Agathocles. 
 Finally, after the war with Pyrrhus, 277, it became dependent 
 on Rome. 
 
 c. Sybaris was founded about 720, like the foregoing, by the 
 Acheans, who were mingled with Troezenians : this settlement 
 existed till 510, when it was destroyed by Croton. Soon after 
 its foundation it became one of the most extensive, populous, 
 and luxurious cities, so much so, that the effeminacy of the Sy- 
 barites became proverbial. Sybaris appears to have been at the 
 height of her prosperity from about 600 — 550 ; she then pos- 
 sessed a respectable territory, comprising four of the neighbour- 
 ing tribes, and twenty-five cities or places. The extraordinary 
 fertility of the soil, and the admission of all strangers to the 
 rights of citizenship, tended to increase the population so much, 
 tlmt Sybaris, in the war against Croton, is said to have brought 
 into the field 300,000 men. The vast wealth possessed, not 
 only by Sybaris, but by the other cities in this quarter, was 
 probably derived from the great trade in oil and wine carried 
 on with Africa and Gaul : that such was the case at Agrigen- 
 
PERIOD II.] GREEKS. 
 
 135 
 
 tum we know with certainty, The constitution of Sybaris was Second 
 likewise, it appears, a moderate democracy : towards the year Period. 
 510 one Telys took possession of the supreme power, and drove 
 out five hundred of the optimates, who fled to Croton. The 
 Crotoniates received the exiles, and the Sybarites having put 
 to death their ambassadors, a war was kindled between the two 
 cities, and ended in 510 by the defeat of the Sybarites and the 
 destruction of their city. 
 
 d. Thurii, founded near the site of ancient Sybaris in 446 
 by Athens, although tlie inhabitants were of mixed origin ; a 
 circumstance which gave rise at first to many domestic broils, 
 the citizens disputing as to who was the real founder ; at last, 
 433, the Delphian oracle declared the city to be a colony of 
 Apollo. The constitution was at first a moderate democracy ; 
 but this was soon converted into an oligarchy, all the power and 
 the best lands having been taken possession of by the Sybarite 
 families who had joined the settlement. The Sybarites were, 
 however, again expelled, and Thurii grew into importance by 
 the confluence of several new colonies out of Greece ; its con- 
 stitution was meliorated by the adoption of the laws of Charon- 
 das of Catana. The principal enemies of the Thurians were 
 the Lucanians, by whom tliey were beaten, 390. The desul- 
 tory attacks of that tribe obliged them, 286, to crave the assist- 
 ance of the Romans, which soon after afforded the Tarentines 
 an excuse for attacking them. Thurii now formed a part of 
 the Roman dependencies, and after suffering much in the Car- 
 tliaginian wars, was at last, B. C. 190, occupied by a Roman 
 colony. 
 
 e. Locri Epizephyrii. The question of their origin is subject 
 to dispute : the causes of this uncertainty are, that here, as in 
 most other of the cities, various bands of colonists arrived at 
 various times, and those bands themselves were composed of a 
 mixture of several Grecian stocks. The chief colony was sent 
 out, B. C. 683, by the Locri Ozola?. After suffering much from 
 violent internal commotions, Locri found, about 660, a lawgiver 
 in Zaleucus, wliose institutions remained more than two centu- 
 ries inviolate. The constitution was aristocratic, the adminis- 
 tration being in the hands of a hundred families. The supreme 
 magistrate was called cosmopolis. The senate consisted of a 
 thousand members, probably elected from the commons, mth 
 whom resided, either wholly or partially, the legislative power. 
 The maintenance of the laws was, as in other Grecian cities, 
 committed to the nomophylaces. Locri was certainly neither 
 so wealthy nor so luxurious as the cities above mentioned ; but 
 she was honourably distinguished by the good manners and 
 quiet conduct of her citizens, who were contented with their 
 government. The flourishing period of this city lasted till the 
 time of Dionysius II., who having been driven out of Syracuse 
 fled with his dependents to Locri, the native country of his mo- 
 ther ; by his insolence and licentiousness of manners the city 
 was brought to the verge of ruin ; after his return to Syracuse, 
 
136 GREEKS. [book hi. 
 
 Second 347, the Locrians avenged their wrongs upon his family. Lo- 
 Per'od. cri afterward maintained its recovered independence until the 
 time of Pyrrhus, who, 277, placed a garrison in the town ; the 
 Loerians, however, put the troops to the sword, and passed over 
 to the Roman side : the city was in consequence sacked by 
 Pyrrhus in 275. From that time Locri remained a confederate 
 town dependent on Rome, and suffered much in the second 
 Punic war. 
 
 f. Rhegium, a colony from Chalcis in Euboea, 668 : here also 
 the government was aristocratic, the supreme power being in 
 the hands of a council of a thousand men, selected only from 
 Messenian families, which had joined the original settlers. 
 Hence arose an oligarchy, of which Anaxilaus took advantage 
 to assume the sole dominion, 494, in which he was succeeded 
 by his sons. These having been driven out, 464, commotions 
 ensued, which, after a time, were quelled by adopting the laws 
 of Charondas. Rhegium now enjoyed a period of happiness, 
 which lasted till B. C. 392, when it was captured and destroyed 
 by Dionysius I. Dionysius II. restored it in some measure ; 
 but in 281 the city was taken possession of by a Roman legion, 
 who being sent for the purpose of garrisoning the place, mur- 
 dered the inhabitants. The soldiers were punished with death, 
 271 ; but Rhegium thenceforth remained in a state of depend- 
 ence upon Rome. 
 
 g. Cumte, founded as early as 1030, from Chalcis in Eubosa. 
 This city attained at an early period to a high degree of power 
 and prosperity ; its territory being of considerable extent, its 
 navy respectable, and Neapolis and Zancle (or Messana) among 
 its colonies. The government was a moderate aristocracy : this 
 constitution was subverted about 544, by the tyrant Aristode- 
 mus ; but restored after his assassination. Cum« was subject 
 to repeated annoyances from the petty Italian nations ; and in 
 564 she was invaded and defeated by the Etruscans and Dau- 
 nians combined : in 474 she beat the Etruscans at sea ; but in 
 420 was captured by the Campanians ; together with whom she 
 became a dependent of Rome in 345. Curate, nevertheless, in 
 consequence of its harbour of Puteoli, preserved a share of im- 
 portance, even under the Roman dominion. 
 
 Heyne, Prolusiones 16 de civitatum GrcBcarum per magnam 
 GrcBciam et Siciliam mstitiitis et legibus. Collected in his 
 Opuscula, vol. vii. 
 
 2. Grecian settlements in Sicily. These occupied the eastern 
 and southern shores of the island : they were founded in the 
 same period as those of Magna Grtecia, and belonged partly to 
 the Dorian, partly to the Ionian stocks. Of Dorian origin were 
 Messana and Tyndaris, from Messenc ; Syracuse, who in her 
 turn founded Aci'a3, Casmenas, and Camarina, from Corinth ; 
 Hybla and Thapsus from Megara ; Segesta from Thessaly ; He- 
 raclea Minoa from Crete ; Gela, which founded Agrigentum, 
 from Rhodes ; and Lipara, on the small island of that name, 
 from Cnidus. Of Ionian origin were Naxus, the founder of 
 
PERIOD II.] GREEKS. 137 
 
 Leontini ; Catana and Tauromenium, from Chalcis ; Zanele, Second 
 (after its occupation by Messenian colonists, called Messana,) Period. 
 founded by Cumas, and in its turn founder of Himera and Mylaj, " 
 
 The most remarkable of these towns in ancient history are : 
 
 a. Syi'acuse, the most powerful of all the Greek colonies, and 
 consequently that concerning which our information is the most 
 copious. The history of Syracuse, on which, as that town was 
 for a long time mistress of the greatest part of the island, de- 
 pends nearly the whole history of Sicily, comprises four periods. 
 1. From the foundation, B. C. 735, to Gelon, 484 ; a space of 
 two hundred and fifty-one years. During this period Syracuse 
 was a republic, but does not appear to have risen to any very 
 great height of power : yet she founded the colonies of Acrae, 
 665, Casmena?, 645, and Camarina, 600. The assistance of her 
 parent city, Corinth, and Corcyra, alone prevented her falling a 
 prey to Hippocrates, sovereign of Gela ; and even then she was 
 obliged to cede Camarina, 497. The constitution was aristo- 
 cratic ; but not free from domestic troubles. The administration 
 was in the hands of the opulent (ya/jopoi) ; but these were, about 
 485, expelled by the democratic faction and their own mutinous 
 slaves. They fled to Casmente, and by the help of Gelon, sove- 
 reign of Gela, were restored to their homes ; Gelon retaining 
 the power in his own hands. 2. From Gelon to the expulsion 
 of Thrasybulus, 484 — 466. The three brothers, Gelon, Hiero, 
 and Thrasybulus, successively ruled over Syracuse. Gelon, 
 484 — 477. He was at once the founder of the greatness of 
 Syracuse, and of his own power : this he effected partly by in- 
 creasing the population, bringing in new inhabitants from other 
 Greek cities ; and partly by the great victory he won over the 
 Carthaginians, in alhance witli the Persians, 480. At tliis early 
 period Syracuse was so powerful both by sea and by land, as 
 to justify Gelon in claiming the office of generalissimo of Greece, 
 when Sparta and Athens came to solicit his aid. His beneficent 
 reign not only gained him the love of the Syracusans during his 
 life, but likewise procured him heroic honours after death at 
 the hands of a grateful people. He died in 477, and was suc- 
 ceeded by his brother Hiero I., who had till then ruled over 
 Gela. The reign of this prince was splendid, his court was 
 brilliant, and a fostering protection was extended to arts and 
 sciences. Hiero's power, strengthened by the establishment of 
 new citizens, both in Syracuse and its subordinate towns of 
 Catana and Naxus, whose original inhabitants are translated to 
 Leontini. — Wars waged against Thero, 476, and his son Thra- 
 sidajus, tyrants of Agrigentum : after the expulsion of Thra- 
 sida3us, that town forms an alliance with Syracuse ; the Syra- 
 cusan fleet sent to the assistance of Cuma^, wins a victory over 
 tlie Etruscans. Hiero, dying in 467, was succeeded by his 
 brother Thrasybulus, who, after a short reign of eight months, 
 was expelled for his cruelty by the Syracusans and the con- 
 federate cities. 3. From the expulsion of Thrasybulus to the 
 elevation of Dionysius I. ; Syracuse a free democratic state : 
 
138 GREEKS. [book hi. 
 
 Second from 466 — 405. Re-establishment of republican forms of go- 
 Period. vernment in Syracuse and the other Grecian cities ; accompanied, 
 ■ however, with many commotions and civil wars, proceeding 
 from the expulsion of the new citizens and the restoration of the 
 ancient inhabitants to their property. — Increasing power and 
 prosperity of Syracuse, who is now at the head of the con- 
 federate Grecian cities in the island, and soon endeavours to 
 convert her precedence into supremacy. The new democratic 
 constitution quickly suffers from the diseases incident to that 
 form of government ; a vain attempt is made to apply a remedy 
 by the introduction of the petalismus, B. C. 454 ; in the mean 
 time the Siculi, aboriginal inhabitants of Sicily, unite in closer 
 league under their leader Ducetius ; attempting to expel the 
 Greeks, 451, they engage the Syracusans in reiterated wars ; 
 the arms of Syracuse are successful, her authority is confirmed 
 by the subjection of the ambitious Agrigentum, 446, and by 
 her naval victory over the Etruscans. First but unsuccessful 
 attempt of the Athenians to interpose in the domestic affairs of 
 Sicily, by siding witli Leontini against Syracuse, 427 ; eleven 
 years afterwards occurs the great expedition against Syracuse, 
 415 — 413, caused by the disputes between Segesta and Seli- 
 nus ; the expedition ends in the total rout of the Athenian fleet 
 and army, (see below,) and the power of Syracuse reaches its 
 zenith. A constitutional reform takes place, 412, brought 
 about by Diodes, whose laws were subsequently adopted by 
 several other of the Sicilian cities. The magistrates were 
 chosen by lot. The rest of the laws, which appear to have had 
 reference to the criminal code, were the production of a commit- 
 tee over which Diodes presided ; these enactments were so bene- 
 ficial to Syracuse, that the author of them was honoured with a 
 temple after his death. Yet as early as 410, a renewal of the 
 differences between Segesta and Selinus afforded a pretext for 
 war with Carthage, from whom the Segestani had besought as- 
 sistance ; by this war the whole state of affairs in Sicily was 
 subverted. The rapid strides made by the Carthaginians, who, 
 under the command of Hannibal the son of Gisgo, took, 409, 
 Selinus and Himera, and even Agrigentum, 406, engendered 
 domestic factions and commotions within Syracuse ; and amid 
 those disorders the crafty Dionysius succeeded first in obtaining 
 the office of general, and then, after supplanting his colleagues, 
 the sovereign power of Syracuse, 405. 4. From Dionysius I. 
 to the Roman occupation, 405 — 212. Dionysius I., 405 — 368. 
 Ominous commencement of his reign, by a defeat at Gela and 
 the mutiny of his troops. — A plague wasting the Carthaginian 
 army, he is enabled to patch up a peace, B. C. 405, by which 
 it is agreed, that Carthage, besides her territory in the island, 
 shall retain all the conquests made during the war, together 
 with Gela and Camarina. But the project of expelling the 
 Carthaginians out of Sicily, in order to subject the whole island, 
 and to fall upon Magna Grajcia, kindles a long series of wars 
 both with Carthage and the cities of Magna Groscia. Second 
 
PERIOD !!.] GREEKS. 139 
 
 war with Carthage against Hannibal and Ilimilco, 398 — 392. Second 
 Uionysius loses all that he before had conquered, and is himself Period. 
 besieged in Syracuse ; but a plague, once more attacking the 
 Carthaginians, rescues him from his predicament, 396 ; deeds of 
 hostility continued notwithstanding till 392, when a peace was 
 signed, by which Carthage ceded the town of Tauromenium. — 
 From 394, desultory attacks on the confederate Grecian cities 
 in Lower Italy, particularly on Rhegium, the chief seat of the 
 Syracusan emigrants, which, after repeated invasions, is at last 
 compelled to yield, 387. Third war with Carthage, 383, against 
 Mago ; Dionysius wins a victory, which is, however, followed 
 by a greater defeat ; and the war ends the same year by the 
 adoption of a peace, according to which each party is to retain 
 what he then had ; the Halycus is fixed as the boundary line, so 
 that Selinus and a portion of the territory of Agrigentum re- 
 main in the hands of the Carthaginians. Fourth war : inroad 
 upon the Carthaginian states ; it ends, however, in the signing 
 of a treaty. The decision of these wars generally depended on 
 the side taken by the Siculi, the most powerful aboriginal race 
 in .Sicily. Uionysius I. having died by poison, 368, was suc- 
 ceeded by Dionysius II., his eldest son by one of his two wives, 
 Doris of Locri, but under the guardianship of his step-uncle 
 Dio, the brother of Dionysius's other wife Aristomache. Nei- 
 ther Dio or his friend Plato, who was three times invited to 
 Syracuse, were able to improve the character of a prince whose 
 mind had been corrupted by bad education. — Dio is banished, 
 360. He returns, 357, and, in the absence of Dionysius, takes 
 possession of Syracuse, all but the citadel. Dionysius now has 
 recourse to stratagem ; he excites in the city distrust of Dio, 
 and foments dissension between him and his general Heraclidas ; 
 meanwhile he himself withdraws to Italy, taking with him his 
 treasures. Dio is compelled to retire from the city, which is 
 sacked by the troops garrisoned in the citadel ; hereupon the 
 Syracusans themselves fetch back Dio ; he possesses liimself of 
 the citadel and wishes to restore the republican government, 
 but soon falls a victim to party spirit, being murdered by Cal- 
 lipus, B. C. 354, who usurped the government till 353, when he 
 is driven out by Hipparinus, a brotlier of Dionysius, who keeps 
 possession till 350. After ten years' absence, Dionysius II., by 
 a sudden attack, becomes once more master of the city, 346. 
 The tyranny of this prince, and the treachery of Icetas of Gela, 
 whom the Syracusans called in to their assistance, but who 
 leagues himself with the Carthaginians, and the formidable 
 attempts of the latter, compel tlie citizens to apply to the 
 mother city Corinth : Corinth sends to their assistance Timo- 
 leon with a small force, 345. Rapid change of affairs wrought 
 by Timoleon : he beats Icetas and the Carthaginians : in 343 
 Dionysius is forced to deliver up the citadel and evacuate the 
 country ; he retires to Corinth, where he leads a private life. 
 Restoration of the republican government, not only in Syracuse, 
 wliers tlie laws of Diodes are reinstituted, but also in the rest 
 
140 GREEKS. [book hi. 
 
 Second of the Grecian cities : tlie revolution confirmed by a great vic- 
 Period. tory over the Carthaginians, 340. In the midst of the execu- 
 tion of his plans Timoleon dies, 337 ; the most splendid ex- 
 ample of a republican that history affords ! From 337 — 317 ; 
 almost a chasm in the history of SjTacuse. Wars with Agri- 
 gentum ; the usurpation of Sosistratus disturbs the peace, both 
 external and internal. The character of the Syracusans was 
 already too foully corrupted for one to expect that liberty could 
 again be established among them, without the personal superin- 
 tendence of a Timoleon. They deserved the fate that befell 
 them, when, in 317, that daring adventurer Agathocles assumed 
 the sovereign power, which he maintained till 289. Renewal 
 of the plan for expelling the Carthaginians from the island, and 
 subjecting Magna Grtecia. Hence arises a new war with Car- 
 thage, in which Agathocles is defeated, 311, and besieged in 
 Syracuse : by a bold stroke he passes over into Africa, accom- 
 panied by part of his fleet and army, and there with general 
 success prosecutes the war until 307 : the insurrection of most 
 of the Grecian cities in Sicily recalls him from the theatre of 
 war : his views in Africa are consequently defeated. In the 
 peace of 306, both parties retain what they had at the begin- 
 ning of the war. The wars in Italy are confined to the sacking 
 of Croton, and a victory won over the Bruttii ; and are rather 
 predatory expeditions than regular wars. In the year 289, 
 Agathocles died by poison, and his murderer, Ma^non, seized the 
 power ; he is expelled by the general Icetas, and flies over to 
 the Carthaginians. Icetas rules as praetor till 278, when, in his 
 absence, the government is usurped by Thynion, who meets 
 with a rival in the person of Sosistratus ; in the mean while the 
 mercenaries of Agathocles (the Mamertini) possess themselves 
 of Messana, and the Carthaginians press forward to the very 
 gates of Syracuse. The Syracusans invite Pyrrhus of Epirus 
 over from Italy : that prince takes possession of the whole of 
 Sicily as far as Lilybauim ; but having by his haughtiness in- 
 curred general hatred and disgust, he is obliged to evacuate the 
 island, B. C. 275. The Syracusans now appoint Hiero, a de- 
 scendant of the ancient royal family, to the oflice of general : 
 after defeating the Mamertini he is called to the throne, 269. 
 At the bi'eaking out of the war between Carthage and Rome, 
 the new king forsakes his alliance with Carthage, and, passing 
 over to the Roman side, thereby purchases a long and tranquil 
 reign until 215, when he dies of old age. Under this wise 
 prince Syracuse enjoyed a degree of happiness and prosperity 
 Avhich none of her demagogues had been able to effect. After 
 his death, the Carthaginian party became predominant ; Hie- 
 ronymus the grandson of Hiero is murdered, 214, and Hanni- 
 bal's intrigues enabled the Carthaginian party to keep the upper 
 hand, by contriving to place at the head of affairs his friends 
 Hippocrates and Epicydes, who entangle Syracuse in a war 
 with Rome ; and the city, after a long siege, celebrated by the 
 inventions of Archimedes, is brought to ruin, 212. — The his- 
 
PERIOD II.] GREEKS. 141 
 
 tory of Syracuse is a practical compendium of polities : what Second 
 other state ever underwent so many and such various revolu- Period. 
 tions ? 
 
 The history of Syracuse was at an early period disfigured by 
 partiality. For the topography, see f Bartel's Letters from 
 Calabria and Sicih/, vol. iii. with a plan. 
 
 f A. Arnold, Histori/ of Syracuse from its foundation to the 
 overthroio of liberty hi/ Dionysius. Gotha, 1816. 
 
 Mitford, History of Greece : the fourth volume contains the 
 history of Syracuse, and a defence of the elder Dionysius. It 
 would seem that even now it is difficult to wi'ite this history in 
 an impartial spirit. 
 
 b. Agrigentum, a colony of Gela, founded 582. The first 
 city of Sicily next to Syracuse, of which it was frequently the 
 rival. Its first constitution was that of the mother city ; that 
 is to say, Dorian or aristocratic. It fell, however, soon after its 
 foundation, under the dominion of tyrants ; the first of whom 
 noticed in history is Plialaris, who flourished probably 566 — 
 534. lie was succeeded by Alcmanes, 534 — 488, who was fol- 
 lowed by Alcander, an indulgent ruler, in whose reign the 
 wealth of Agrigentum seems to have already been considerable. 
 More renowned than the foregoing was Theron, the contempo- 
 rary and step-father of Gelon ; he ruled from B. C. 488 — 472 : 
 in conjunction with Gelon he routed the Carthaginian army, 
 480, and subjected Himera. His son and successor, Thrasy- 
 dseus, was beaten by Hiero and expelled, 470 ; whereupon the 
 Agrigentines, as allies of SjTacuse, introduced a democracy. 
 The period following, 470 — 405, is tiiat in which Agrigentum, 
 blessed with political freedom, attained the highest degree of 
 public prosperity. She was one of the most opulent and lux- 
 urious cities in the world, and in the display of public monu- 
 ments one of the most magnificent. For her wealth she was 
 indebted to the vast trade in oil and wine that she carried on 
 with Africa and Gaul, in neither of wliich were those produc- 
 tions hitherto natui-alized. In the year 446 the Agrigentines, 
 excited by envy, fell upon the Syracusans, but wei-e defeated. 
 In the war with Athens they took no share ; but in the Car- 
 thaginian invasion of Sicily, 405, Agrigentum was taken and 
 destroyed ; from this blow she recovered but slowly, and never 
 effectually. By Timoleon she was, in some measure, restored, 
 340 ; and under Agathocles, 307, was able to head the cities 
 combined against him, but was beaten. After the death of 
 Agathocles, a tyrant, by the name of Phintias, took possession 
 of the sovereign power ; and was attacked, 278, by Icetas of 
 Syracuse. At the breaking out of the first Punic war, Agri- 
 gentum was used by the Carthaginians as a military depot ; but 
 was taken by the Romans as early as 262. 
 
 c. The fiite of the other Sicilian cities was more or less de- 
 pendent on that of Agrigentum and Syracuse : they all had ori- 
 ginally republican forms of government ; but though t!ie Ionian 
 colonies had a celebrated legislator in the person of Charondas, 
 
142 GREEKS. [book hi. 
 
 Second (probably about 660,) they had the same fortune with the rest, 
 Period, ^f jjeing frequently oppressed by tyrants, either from among 
 their own citizens, or by those of Syracuse, who often used to 
 drive out the old inhabitants, and introduce a new population 
 more devoted to their interest : hence must have sprung mani- 
 fold wars. The foregoing history shows how grievously they 
 likewise suffered in the wars between Syracuse and Carthage. 
 Following the dates of their respective foundations, they may 
 be thus arranged : Zancle, (after 664, known by the name of 
 Messana,) the earliest, though of uncertain date ; Naxus, 736 
 Syracuse, Hybla, 735 ; Leontini, Catana, 730 ; Gela, 690 
 AcriB, B. C. 665 ; Casmenre, 645 ; Himera, 639 ; Selinus, 630 
 Agrigentum, 582. The dates of the rest cannot be ascertained 
 with any degree of accuracy. 
 
 3. On the other islands and coasts of the Mediterranean we 
 meet with various insulated Grecian settlements ; in Sardinia, 
 the cities Garalis and Olbia : the date of their foundation un- 
 known ; in Corsica, Alaria, (or Alalia,) a colony of Phocaeans 
 founded, 561 ; hither the inhabitants of the mother city betook 
 themselves in 541 ; and subsequently, after the naval engage- 
 ment with the Etruscans and Carthaginians, withdrew, some to 
 Rhegium, others to Massilia, 536. 
 
 4. On the coast of Gaul stood Massilia, founded by the Pho- 
 cajans, who had been driven out of Corsica after the above-men- 
 tioned naval engagement, 536 ; or rather, there was on the same 
 site an old settlement which was now increased. Massilia ra- 
 pidly grew in wealth and power. Our information respecting 
 the wars she waged on the sea against Carthage and the Etrus- 
 cans is but of a general kind. Her territory on the mainland, 
 although rich in wine and oil, was limited in extent ; she estab- 
 lished, nevertheless, several colonies along the sliores of Spain 
 and Gaul, among which Antipolis, Nicaja, and Olbia are the 
 best known. The trade of Massilia was carried on partly by 
 sea, and partly by land, through the interior of Gaul. The 
 constitution was a moderate aristocracy. The chief power was 
 in the hands of six hundred individuals ; the members of this 
 council were called timuchi, they held their places for life, were 
 obliged to be married men with families, and descended at least 
 to the third generation from citizens. At the head of this 
 council stood fifteen men, three of whom were chief magistrates. 
 As early as 218 ]\Iassilia was in alliance with Rome, under 
 whose fostering protection she grew in prosperity ; her freedom 
 was preserved to her until the war between Porapey and Ca3sar ; 
 having sided with the former, she was stormed, 49, by Cfesar's 
 army. vShe soon retrieved herself, and under the i-eign of Au- 
 gustus, Massilia was the seat of literature and philosophy, in 
 which public lectures were there given as at Athens. 
 
 Aug. Bruekner, Historia ReipubliccB Massilie7isium. Got- 
 ting. 1826. A prize essay. 
 
 5. On the Spanish coast stood Saguntum, (ZaKwdog,) a colony 
 from the island of Zacynthus ; the date of its foundation is nn- 
 
PERIOD II. 
 
 GREEKS. i4i 
 
 determined. It became opulent by its commerce ; but at the Second 
 opening of the second Punic war, B. C. 219, was desti'oyed by Period. 
 Hannibal, as being an ally of Rome. 
 
 6. On the coast of Africa lay Cyrene, founded at the sugges- 
 tion of the Delphic oracle in 631, by the island of Thera. The 
 constitution was at first monarchical. Kings : Battus I., the 
 founder, 631 — 591. In whose family the sceptre remained. 
 Arcesilaus I., d. 575. Under the reign of his successor, Battus 
 II., surnamed the happy, {d. 554,) the colony was much strength- 
 ened by new comers from Greece. The Libyans, bereaved of 
 their lands, seek for help at the hands of Apries, who is de- 
 feated by the Cyrenasans, 570, and in consequence loses his 
 crown. — Arcesilaus II., d. 550. Rebellion of his brothers, and 
 foundation of Barca, an independent town ruled by its own 
 separate kings. Secession of the Libyan subjects. He is put 
 to death by his brother or friend Learchus, who in his turn is 
 poisoned by Eryxo, the widow of Arcesilaus. Her son, Battus 
 III., surnamed the lame, {d. about 529,) succeeds to the throne. 
 The royal power confined within narrow limits by the laws of 
 Demonax of Mantinea : the king retains nothing more than the 
 revenue and priestly office. His son Arcesilaus III. becomes 
 of his own accord tributary to the Persians ; in conjunction 
 with his mother, Pheretime, he seeks to re-establish the regal 
 supremacy, but is expelled ; nevertheless he regains possession 
 of Cyrene. In consequence of his cruelty he is assassinated in 
 Barca, about 516. Pheretime seeks for help from the Pei'sian 
 satrap of Egypt, Aryandes, who by craft gets possession of 
 Barca ; the inhabitants are carried away and translated into 
 Bactria, 512. Soon after Pheretime dies. It seems probable 
 that another Battus IV. and Arcesilaus IV. must have reigned 
 at Cyrene, to whom Pindar's fourth and fifth Pythian Odes are 
 addressed : their history, however, is veiled in obscurity. Cy- 
 rene then received a repuljlican constitution, probably some 
 where about 450 ; but we are unacquainted with the internal 
 details of the government. Yet though Plato was invited by 
 the Cyrena^ans to give them laws, and though they had for their 
 legislator Democles of Arcadia, they appear never to have been 
 blessed witli a good and stable constitution. Not only is men- 
 tion often made of domestic troubles, as in 400, when amid the 
 uproar excited by Ariston most of the aristocratic party were 
 cut off ; but we likewise frequently meet with tyrants. Con- 
 cerning the external affairs of this state we know nothing but a 
 few general facts relative to the border wars with Carthage. 
 Subsequently to Alexander, Cyrene became a part of the Egyp- 
 tian kingdom ; so early as the reign of Ptolemy I. it was added 
 to that realm by his general Ophelias, about B. C. 331. It now 
 continued to receive various rulers from the family of the Pto- 
 lemies (see below) until the reign of Ptolemy Physcon, when it 
 became a separate state, the bastard son of that prince, Apion 
 by name, having made it over to the Romans, 97. Cyrene pos- 
 sessed a considerable shai'e of trade, consisting partly in the 
 
144 GREEKS. [book hi. 
 
 Second exportation of country produce, more especially the Silpliium, 
 Period. (Laser,) partly in a varied intercourse with Carthage, Ammo- 
 
 nium, and thence with the interior of Africa. The former 
 
 splendour and importance of this city and the neighbouring 
 country are testified by an abundance of most noble ruins ; a 
 more accurate research into which every friend of antiquity 
 must desire. 
 
 Hardion, Histoire de Cyrene, in 3Ihn. de V Acadanie des 
 Inscriptions, t. iii. 
 
 J. P. Thrige, Historia Cyrenes, inde a tempore quo condita 
 urbs est, usque ad cetatem, qua in provincicB formam a Romanis 
 redacta est : particula prior, de initiis colonicB Cyrenen deductce, 
 et Cyrenes Battiadis regiiantihis historia. Havnia^, 1819. 
 The best work on Cyrene. It is hoped that the author will not 
 disappoint our expectations of the second part, which is to 
 contain the period of republican government. [The whole 
 was completed in 1828. The learned and ingenious author has 
 neglected no authority, whether ancient or modern, and is par- 
 ticularly cautious and judicious in his researches.] 
 
 A ray of light has lately, for the first time, been thrown on 
 the remains still found in Cyrenaica by Della Cella, Viaggio 
 di Tripoli ; translated by Spieker, in the f Journal of the latest 
 travels by sea and by land, Sept. 1820. 
 
 W. Beeciiey, Proceedings to explore the northern coast of 
 Africa, from Tripoli eastivard, 1827. 
 
 F. R. Pacho, Relatioji d' un voyage a Marmarique et Cyre- 
 naique, 1828. A most accurate description. 
 
 T. EiiRENBERG, Travels through North Africa, in the years 
 1820 — 1828, by Dr. W. F. Hemprich and Dr. C. G. Ehren- 
 berg. Berlin, 1828. 
 
 THIRD PERIOD. 
 
 From the commencement of the Persian wars to the time 
 of Alexander the Great, B. C. 500—336. 
 
 Sources. The chief writers in this period are : For the his- 
 tory of the Persian wars to the Battle of Platoefc, 479, Hero- 
 dotus. For the period between 479 and the breaking out of 
 the Peloponnesian war, we must, in the absence of contemporary 
 authors, consider Diodorus Siculus as the principal authority. — 
 The beginning of the 11th book, which commences with the 
 year 480, (the 6th, 7th, 8th, 9th, and 10th books being lost,) to 
 the middle of the 12th ; the chronology of this author, however, 
 must in several cases be rectified after Thucydides's summary 
 in lib. i. For the period of the Peloponnesian war, 431 — 410, 
 the history of Thucydides is the capital work ; but it must be 
 
PERIOD HI.] GREEKS. 145 
 
 accompanied by Diodorus, from the middle of the 12th book to Third 
 the middle of the 13th. — From the year 410 to the battle of Period, 
 Mantiiiea, 362, the pi-incipal sources are the Hellenics of Xeno- ''^^ -^lex- 
 
 phon, and occasionally his Anabasis and Agesilaus ; together '__ 
 
 with Diodorus, from the middle of the 13tli book to the end of 
 the 15th. For the years intervening from 362 — 336, no con- 
 temporary historian has been preserved ; Diodorus's 16th book 
 must therefore here be considered as the chief source : for the 
 times of Philip, however, recourse may likewise be had to the 
 speeches of Demosthenes and ^Eschines. The Lives of Plutarch 
 and Nepos often touch upon this period, but cannot be regarded 
 as authentic sources ; of still less authority are the abrid<^ed 
 documents given by Justin and some others. 
 
 The modern authors on tliis, the brilliant period of Greece, 
 are, of course, the same as have been enumerated above. (See 
 p. 95.) To whom must here be added, 
 
 PoTTKR, Arcludogia Grccca ; or the Antiquities of Greece: 
 2 vols. 8vo. Lond. 1722. Translated into German by J. J. 
 Rambacli, 3 vols. 1775. 
 
 Bautiielemy, Voyage du Jeune Anacharsis en Grece. (Be- 
 tween the years B. C. 362 and 338.) Paris, 1788, 5 vols. Ac- 
 companied with charts and plans, illustrating the topography of 
 Athens, etc. This work is conspicuous for a rare union of good 
 taste and erudition ; unattended, however, with an equal share 
 of critical acumen and a correct appreciation of antiquity. 
 
 f History of the Origin, Progress, and Fall of Science in 
 Greece and Rome, by C. Meiners. Göttingen, 1781. It con- 
 tains also a delineation of the political state of affairs ; but does 
 not extend beyond the age of Philip. 
 
 The principal works on the monuments of ancient Greece are, 
 
 Le Roy, Les Ruines dc plus beaux Monumens de la Grece. 
 Paris, 1758. 2nd edit., 1770, fol. The first in point of time; 
 but far surpassed by, 
 
 J. Stuart, The Antiquities of Athens measured and de- 
 lineated; 3 vols. Lond. 1762: the 4th vol. published in 1816. 
 In beauty and accuracy of execution superior to all. 
 
 R. Dalton, Antiquities and Views of Greece and Egypt, 
 1691, fol. The Egyptian monuments ai-e confined to those of 
 Lower Egypt. 
 
 R. Chandler, Ionian Antiquities. London, 1796, 1797, 
 2 vols. fol. A worthy companion to Stuart. 
 
 CnoiSEUL GouFFiER, Voyage pittoresque dans la Grece, vol. 
 i. 1779: vol. ii. 1809. Confined principally to the islands and 
 Asia Minor. 
 
 1. From a multitude of small states, never united, Beneficial 
 but continually distracted by civil broils — and such 'u'*^^* °f 
 at the beginning- of this period were the states of invasion. 
 Greece — any thing important could hardly be ex- 
 pected without the occurrence of some external 
 
 L 
 
146 GREEKS. [book in. 
 
 Third eveiit, wliicli, by rallying tlie divided forces round 
 to'^Alex- one point, and directing them toward one object, 
 
 ANDER, should hinder them from mutually exhausting one 
 another. It was the hostile attempt of Persia that 
 first laid the foundation of the future splendour of 
 Greece ; certain states then grew so rapidly in power, 
 that upon their particular history hinges the general 
 history of all the rest. 
 
 Causes which led to the Persian war. Share taken by Athens 
 in the Ionian insurrection and firing of Sardes, B. C. 500. (See 
 above, p. 78.) Litrigues of Hippias, first with the satraps, and 
 afterwards at the Persian court itself. — First expedition, that 
 of Mardonius, thwarted by a storm, 493, 
 
 Athens and o. Not cvcn the summons to acknowledge the 
 
 aionn^eject Pcrsiau authority was sufficient to rouse the national 
 
 the de- energy of the Greeks. All the islands, and most of 
 
 Persia" the states on the mainland, submitted to the yoke; 
 
 B. c. 4Ü1. gpapta and Athens alone boldly rejected it. The 
 
 Athenians, unassisted, under their leader Miltiades, 
 
 acquainted from his youth with the Persians and 
 
 their mode of warfare, and with the superiority of 
 
 the arms of his countrymen, became the saviours of 
 
 Greece. 
 
 Quarrel of Athens and Sparta with JEgma, which sides with 
 the Persians, 491 ; and consequent deposition of Demaratus, 
 king of Sparta, by his colleague Cleomenes. 
 
 Persian expedition of Datis and Artaphernes under the guid- 
 ance of Hippias : frustrated by the battle of Marathon, B. C. 
 Sept. 29, 490, and the failure of an attempt upon Athens. 
 
 Expedition 3. The immediate consequence of this victory 
 rfs^'by'^MU- "^'^^ a uaval expedition against the islands, more 
 tiades. particularly Paros, to which Miltiades, out of a 
 private grudge, persuaded the Athenians. It was 
 undertaken for the purpose of levying contributions ; 
 and seems to have given the Athenians the first idea 
 of their subsequent dominion of the sea. The Athe- 
 nians punished Miltiades for the failure of this expe- 
 dition, although the effect of their own folly ; yet was 
 this act of injustice a source of happiness to Athens; 
 as the fall of Miltiades made room for the men who 
 laid the solid foundation of her glory and greatness. 
 
PERIOD III.] GREEKS. 147 
 
 4. As usual in every democratic state rising to Third 
 power, the history of Athens now becomes that of to^Alex- 
 eminent individuals, standing at the head of affairs, ander. 
 as generals or demagogues. Themistocles, who united j^^emai 
 to an astonishing degree in his own person the most state of 
 splendid talents of statesman and general, with a 
 
 spirit of intrigue, and even of egotism ; and Aristides, 
 whose disinterestedness, even in those days, was 
 singular at Athens, were the real founders of the 
 power of this commonwealth. Athens, however, 
 was more indebted to the first than to the latter. 
 
 Rivalry of these two men, 490 — 486. While Themistocles 
 at the head of the Athenian fleet prosecutes the design of Mil- 
 tiades against tlie islands, the management of state affairs is 
 confided to Aristides. On the return, however, of Themistocles 
 as conqueror, Aristides is by ostracism banished Athens, 486. 
 Themistocles alone, at the head of affairs, pursues his plan for 
 making Athens a maritime power. In consequence of a war 
 against the object of popular hatred, ^gina, B. C. 484, he pre- 
 vails on the Athenians to devote the income from the mines to 
 the formation of a navy. AYhile Athens is thus rising to power, 
 Sparta suffers from the insanity of one of her kings, Cleomenes, 
 (succeeded in 482 by his half brother Leonidas,) and the arro- 
 gance of the other, Leotychides. 
 
 5. The glory of frustrating the second mighty Second cx- 
 Persian invasion of Greece under Xerxes I., belongs [he'rei'-"' 
 to Themistocles alone. Not only his great naval vie- s'^ns de- 
 tory off Salamis, but still more the manner in which xhemisto- 
 he contrived to work upon his countrymen, proves ^'^*= ^- ^• 
 him to have been the greatest man of the age, and 
 
 the deliverer of Greece, now united by one common 
 bond of interest. — All national leagues are weak in 
 themselves : yet how strong may even the weakest be 
 made when held together by one great man, who 
 knows how to animate it with his own spirit ! 
 
 Themistocles' plan for the conduct of the war ; first, a com- 
 mon union of all the Hellenic states ; a measure which succeeds 
 to a certain degree, the honour of the command being left to the 
 Spartans ; secondly, the sea made the theatre of war. — Gallant 
 death of Leonidas with his three hundred Spartans and seven 
 hundred Thespians, July 6, 480. An example of heroism which 
 contributes as much to the greatness of Greece as the victory of 
 Salamis. About the same time naval engagements off Artemi - 
 .sium in Euboea, with two hundred and seventy-one sail. The 
 
 L 2 
 
148 GREEKS. [book in. 
 
 Third leaders of the Greeks are kept to their posts merely by bribery ; 
 Period, ^^iq means of purchasiiijj their services beino- for the most part 
 
 TO At f^— 1 o Ol 
 
 ANDER, furnished by Themistocles himself. — Athens, deserted by its 
 
 inhabitants, is taken and burnt by Xerxes, July 20. Retreat 
 
 of tlie Grecian fleet into the bay of Salamis : revocation of all 
 exiles, Ai-istides among the rest. — Politic measures adopted by 
 Themistocles, to hinder the dispirited Greeks fi'om taking flight, 
 and at the same time to secure to himself, in case of need, an 
 asylum with the Persian monarch. — Naval engagement and vic- 
 tory off" Salamis, Sept. 23, 480, with three hundred and eighty 
 sail, (one hundred and eighty of which were Athenian,) against 
 the Persian fleet, already much weakened : retreat of Xerxes. — 
 Poets and historians have disfigured these events by fanciful 
 exaggerations : still, liowever, they may show us how commonly 
 human weakness is attended with human greatness ! 
 
 Battles of 6. The victorj of Salamis did not conclude the 
 m'^c^ic ^"'^ ^^^^ '•> ^^^ ^^^^ negotiations entered into during the 
 B. c. Sept. winter months with the Persian general, Mardonius, 
 -'5, 479. jg^^ jj^ Thessaly, and with tlie Asiatic Greeks, to ex- 
 cite them to throw off the yoke, show how far the 
 confidence of the nation in its own strength had in- 
 creased. But by the battle fought on land at Pla- 
 taese, under the command of the Spartan, Pausanias, 
 (guardian to Plistarchus, son of Leonidas,) and the 
 Athenian, Aristides ; together with the naval battle 
 at Mycale on the same day, and the destruction of 
 the Persian fleet ; the Persians are for ever driven 
 from the territory of Greece, though the war con- 
 tinues for some time longer. 
 Sparta has J ^ Xhc cxpulsiou of the Pcrsiaus wrought an en- 
 encyTo47o" tirc chauge in the internal and external relations of 
 Greece. From being the aggressed the Greeks be- 
 came the aggressors ; to free their Asiatic country- 
 men is now the chief object or pretext for the con- 
 tinuation of a war so profitable ; the chief command 
 of which abides with Sparta until B. C. 470. 
 
 Athens rebuilt and fortified by Themistocles despite of Spar- 
 tan jealousy, 478 : formation of the Piraeus, an event of still 
 greater importance, 477. — Naval expedition under Pausanias, 
 accompanied by Aristides and Cimon, undertaken against Cy- 
 prus and Byzantium, for the purpose of expelling the Persians, 
 470. Treachery and fall of Pausanias, 469. In consequence 
 of the Spartan's haughtiness, the supreme command devolves 
 upon the Athenians. 
 
PERIOD III. 
 
 GREEKS. 149 
 
 8. This transfer of the command to Athens had a Third 
 decided effect on all the subsequent relations of to'alex. 
 Greece, not only because it augmented the jealousy ander. 
 between Sparta and Athens, but because Athens ex- Athens as- 
 ercised her predominance for a purpose entirely dif- sumes the 
 ferent from that of Sparta. — Establishment of a per- mändT™' 
 manent confederacy, comprising most of the Grecian 
 
 states without Peloponnesus, especially the islands, 
 and an adjustment of the contributions to be annually 
 furnished by each, with the view of prosecuting the 
 Persian war, and liberating the Asiatic Greeks from 
 the Persian yoke. Although the common treasury 
 was first established at Delos, the superintendence of 
 it was confided to Athens ; and such a manager as 
 Aristides was not always to be found. — Natural con- 
 sequence of this new establishment : 1. What had 
 hitherto been mere military precedence, becomes in 
 the hands of Athens a right of political prescription, 
 and that, as usual, is soon converted into a sove- 
 reignty. Hence her idea of the supremacy of Greece, 
 ("pxv "^v* 'EXXüBo^,) as connected with that of the sea 
 (OaXaaaoKpaWa). 2. Tlic opprcssion of the Athenians, 
 sometimes real, at other times presumed, after a short 
 time, rouses the spirit of discontent and contumacy 
 among several of the confederates : hence, 3. The 
 gradual formation of a counter-league, headed by 
 Sparta, who maintains her supremacy over the great- 
 est part of the Peloponnesus. 
 
 9. The chan2:es introduced into the internal oro-an- conse- 
 ization are not to be determined solely by the palpable „f 'thnT 
 alterations made in any of Lycurgus's or Solon's in- change, 
 stitutions. In Sparta, the general framework of Ly- 
 curgus's constitution subsisted; nevertheless the power 
 
 was virtually in the hands of the ephori, whose dicta- 
 torial sway placed Sparta in the formidable posture 
 she now assumed. — ^At Athens, in proportion as the 
 importance of foreign relations increased, and amid 
 the protracted struggles between the heads of the 
 democratic and aristocratic parties, the real power, 
 under the outward appearance of a democracy, gra- 
 dually centered in the hands of the ten annually 
 
150 GREEKS. [book III, 
 
 Third elected generals, {ffrpa7r]-/ol,) who with more or less 
 ERioD, Q^Q^^ played the parts of demagogues. 
 
 TO Alex- 
 ander. 
 
 Abrogation of the law that excluded the poorer citizens from 
 official situations, B. C. 478. 
 
 Expulsion of Theraistocles, implicated in the fall of Pausa- 
 nias, principally through the intrigues of Sparta : he is first 
 banished by ostracism, 469, but in consequence of further per- 
 secution he flies over to the Persians, 466. 
 
 Brilliant 10. The followiiig forty years, from 470 — 430, 
 
 Athells°^ constitute the flourishing period of Athens. A con- 
 currence of fortunate circumstances happening among 
 a people of the highest abilities and promoted by 
 great men, produced here phenomena, such as have 
 never since been witnessed. Political greatness was 
 the fundamental principle of the commonwealth ; 
 Athens had been the guardian and the champion of 
 Greece, and she wished to appear worthy of herself. 
 Hence in Athens alone were men acquainted with 
 public splendour exhibited in buildings, in spectacles, 
 and festivals, the acquisition of which was facilitated 
 by private frugality. This public spirit animating 
 every citizen, expanded the blossoms of genius ; no 
 broad line of distinction was anxiously drawn between 
 private and public life ; whatever great, whatever 
 noble was produced by Athens, sprang up verdant 
 and robust out of this harmony, this buxom vigour 
 of the state. Far different was the case with Sparta; 
 there rude customs and laws arrested the develop- 
 ment of genius ; there men were taught to die for 
 the land of their forefathers ; while at Athens they 
 learnt to live for it. 
 Athenian 11. AgHculturc coutinucd the principal occupa- 
 
 tion of the citizens of Attica ; other employments 
 were left to the care of slaves. Commerce and navi- 
 gation were mainly directed towards the Thracian 
 coast and the Black Sea ; the spirit of trade, however, 
 was never the prevailing one. As affairs of state be- 
 came more attractive, and men desired to participate 
 in them, the want of intellectual education began to 
 be felt, and sophists and rhetoricians soon offered 
 their instruction. Mental expertness was more co- 
 
 civilizatlon. 
 
TEuioD III.] GREEKS. 151 
 
 veted than mental knowledge ; men wished to learn Third 
 how to think and to speak. A poetical education xo Alex- 
 had long preceded the rise of this national desire ; ander. 
 poesy now lost nothing of its value ; as heretofore, 
 Homer remained the corner-stone of intellectual im- 
 provement. Could it be that such blossoms would 
 produce other fruits than those which ripened in the 
 school of Socrates, in the masterpieces of the trage- 
 dians and orators, and in the immortal works of Plato? 
 
 12. These flowers of national genius burst forth changes in 
 in spite of many evils, inseparable from such a con- a^t ullThead 
 stitution established among such a people. Great of affairs. 
 men were pushed aside ; others took their places. 
 
 The loss of Themistocles was supplied by Miltiades's 
 son Cimon ; who to purer politics united equal ta- 
 lents. He protracted the war against the Persians 
 in order to maintain the union of the Greeks ; and 
 favoured the aristocratic party at the same time that 
 he affected popularity. Even his enemies learnt by 
 experience, that the state could not dispense with a 
 leader who seemed to have entered into a compact 
 for life with victory. 
 
 Another expedition under Cimon ; and victory by sea and 
 land near the Eurymedon, B. C. 469. He takes possession of 
 the Hellespontine Chersonesus, 468. Some of the Athenian 
 confederates ah-eady endeavour to secede. Hence, 467, the 
 conijuest of Caristus in Eubfca ; subjection of Naxos, 466, and 
 from 465 — 463, siege and capture of Thasos, under Cimon. 
 The Athenians endeavour to obtain a firmer footing on the 
 shore of ^Macedonia ; and for that purpose send out a colony to 
 Amphipolis, 465. 
 
 Great earthquake at Sparta; gives rise to a ten years' war, 
 viz., the third Messenian war, or revolt of the Helots, who for- 
 tify themselves in Ithome, 465 — 455 : in this war the Athenians, 
 at tlie instigation of Cimon, send assistance to the Spartans, 461, 
 who refuse the proffered aid. The democratic party seize the 
 opportunity of casting on Cimon the suspicion of being in the 
 interest of Sparta ; he is banished by ostracism, 461. 
 
 13. The death of Aristides, and the banishment of -^/'stiUes 
 Cimon, concur in elevating Pericles to the head of 46^.' 
 affairs ; a statesman whose influence had begun to 
 operate as early as 469. Less a general than a de- 
 magogue, he supported himself in authority during 
 
152 
 
 GREEKS. 
 
 [bock 111. 
 
 Third 
 Pkriod, 
 TO Alex- 
 ander. 
 
 Cimon re 
 stored. 
 
 forty years, until the day of his death, and swayed 
 Athens without being either archon or member of the 
 Areopagus. That under him the constitution must 
 have assumed a more democratic character, is de- 
 monstrated by the fact of his exaltation as leader of 
 the democratic party. The aristocrats, however, con- 
 trive until 444 to set up rivals against him in the 
 persons of the military leaders, Myronides, Tolmidas, 
 and more particularly the elder Thucydides. 
 
 Change in the spirit of administration under Pericles, both 
 in reference to internal and external relations. A brilliant 
 management succeeds to the parsimonious economy of Aris- 
 tides ; and yet, after the lapse of thirty years, the state treasury 
 was full. — Limitation of the power of the Areopagus by Ephi- 
 altes, B. C. 461. The withdrawal of various causes which 
 formerly came under the jurisdiction of that tribunal must have 
 diminished its right of moral censorship. — Introduction of the 
 practice of paying persons who attended the courts of justice. 
 
 With regard to external relations, the precedence of the 
 Athenians gradually advanced toward supremacy ; although 
 their relations with all the confederates were not precisely the 
 same. Some were mere confederates ; others wei-e subjects. — 
 Augmentation in the imposts on the confederates, and transfer 
 of the treasury from Delos to Athens, 461. The jealousy of 
 Sparta and the discontent of the confederates keep pace with 
 the greatness of Athens. 
 
 Unsuccessful attempt to support, by the help of an Athenian 
 fleet and troops, Inarus of Egypt in his insurrection against the 
 Persians, 462—458. 
 
 Wars in Greece : the Spartans instigate Corinth and Epi- 
 daurus against Athens. The Athenians, at first defeated near 
 Halite, in their turn rout the enemy, 458, and then carry the 
 war against iEgina, which is subdued, 457. In the new quar- 
 rel between Corinth and Megara respecting their boundaries, 
 the Athenians side with Megara ; Myronides conquers at Ci- 
 molia, 457. Expedition of the Spartans to the support of the 
 Dorians against Phocis ; and hence arises the first rupture be- 
 tween Athens, Sparta, and Boeotia. First battle of Tanagra, 
 in which the Spartans are victorious in the same year, 457. 
 The Boeotians, incited by the Spartans, are in the second battle 
 of Tanagra worsted by Myi'onides, 456. The recall of Cimon, 
 at the suggestion of Pericles himself, in consequence of the first 
 defeat. 
 
 14. Cimon, recalled from exile, endeavours to re- 
 establish the domestic tranquillity of Greece, and at 
 the same time to renew the war against the Persians. 
 
PEiiioD 111.] GREEKS. 153 
 
 He succeeds in his attempt after the lapse of five Third 
 
 1 ,1 • • J. • T Period, 
 
 years; and the consequence is a victorious expedi- toAlex- 
 tion against the Persians. He defeats their fleet off ander. 
 Cyprus, and routs their army on the Asiatic coast. ^ ^ 450 
 The fruit of this victory is the celebrated peace with 449. 
 Artaxerxes I. (See above, p. 83.) Ere that peace 
 is concluded Cimon dies, too soon for his country, 
 vi^hile occupied w^ith the siege of Citium. 
 
 Termination of the third Messenian war in favour of Sparta, 
 by the cession of Ithome, B. C. 455. Meantime Athens con- 
 tinues the war with Peloponnesus ; Tolmidas and Pericles 
 making an incursion by sea on the enemy's territory, 455 — 454. 
 At the same time Pericles, by sending out colonies to the Hel- 
 lespont, endeavours to secure more firmly the Athenian power in 
 that quarter : a colony is likewise sent out to Naxos, 453. — 
 Cimon negotiates a truce, which is adopted first (451) tacitly, 
 afterwards formally, (450,) for five years. The result of this 
 truce is his victorious expedition against the Persians, and the 
 consequent peace with that nation. Although the conditions of 
 the peace prescribed by Cimon were sometimes infringed, they 
 appear to have been ratified by all parties. 
 
 15. The conclusion of peace with Persia, glorious state of 
 as it was, and the death of the man whose o;rand no- Greece after 
 
 ,..,'. . 1 /-i I t"ö peace 
 
 litical object was to preserve union among the (jrreeks, with Persia, 
 again roused the spirit of internal strife. For not- 431. 
 withstanding nearly twenty years intervened before 
 the tempest burst with all its fury, this period was so 
 turbulent during its course, that Greece seldom en- 
 joyed universal peace. While Athens by her naval 
 strength was maintaining her ascendency over the 
 confederates, and while some of those confederates 
 were raising the standard of rebellion and passing over 
 to Sparta, every thing was gradually combining to- 
 wards the formation of a counter-league, the neces- 
 sary consequence of which must have been a war, 
 such as the Peloponnesian. Up to this time Athens 
 was at the height of her power ; she was governed by 
 Pericles, who, in every thing but the name, was sole 
 ruler during this period, and for that reason she expe- 
 rienced few of the evils resulting from a democratic 
 constitution. Who, indeed, could overthrow a de- 
 magogue whose presence of mind, even in the great- 
 
154 GREEKS. [book hi. 
 
 Third gst good fortune, iiGver once deserted him; who 
 to^aS- knew how to keep alive among his fellow-citizens the 
 ANDER, conviction that, however exalted they might be, it 
 was to him alone they were indebted for it ? 
 
 During the five years' truce the sacred war for the possession 
 of the Delphian oracle took place, and it is given by the Spartans 
 to the city of Delphi ; but after their return is given back again 
 by the Athenians to the Phocians, B. C. 448. The Athenians 
 commanded by Tolmidas, are defeated by the Boeotians, 447. 
 This expedition, undertaken in opposition to the advice of Pe- 
 ricles, contributes to increase his influence ; particularly as he 
 reduces to obedience the revolted Euboea and Megara, 446. 
 End of the five years' truce with Sparta ; and renewal of hos- 
 tilities, 445 ; further warlike proceedings are repressed by a 
 new thirty years' peace, which lasts, however, only fourteen 
 years. — Complete suppression of the aristocratic party, by the 
 banishment of the elder Thucydides, 444 ; the whole adminis- 
 tration of the state consequently centres in the hands of Pericles. 
 — Democracy in the confederate states favoured ; forcibly in- 
 troduced in Samos, which, after a nine months' siege, is obliged 
 to submit to Pericles, 440. — Commencement of the war between 
 Corinth and Corcyra, on the subject of Epidamnus, 436, which 
 the Corcyrosans take possession of after winning a naval victory, 
 435. The Athenians take part in the quarrel, and side with 
 the Corcyra3ans, 432. The rupture with Corinth, and the 
 policy of Perdiccas II., king of Macedonia, lead to the se- 
 cession of the Corinthian colony of Potida^a, which previously 
 belonged to the Athenian confederacy: the war thereby is ex- 
 tended to the Macedonian coast. Engagement near Potida^a, 
 and siege of that town, 432. The Corinthians direct their 
 steps to Sparta, and excite the Spartans to war ; which is fur- 
 ther accelerated by the attack of the Thebans upon Plata^ee, the 
 confederate of Athens, 431. 
 
 Peioponne- 16. Tlic liistory of the twenty-seven years' war, 
 
 b! c'lsi known by the name of the Peloponnesian, or great 
 
 —404. Grecian war, which swept away the fairest flowers of 
 
 Greece, is the more deserving attention from its 
 
 being not merely a struggle between nations, but 
 
 likewise against certain forms of government. The 
 
 policy of Athens, which, to establish or preserve her 
 
 influence in foreign states, excited the multitude 
 
 against the higher orders, had on all sides given rise 
 
 to two factions, the democrat or Athenian, and the 
 
 aristocrat or Spartan ; and the mutual bitterness of 
 
 party spirit produced the most violent disorders. 
 
 fufluencTtf 17. The respective relations of the two head 
 
PERIOD III.] GREEKS. 155 
 
 states of Greece to their confederates, were at this Third 
 time of a very opposite nature. Athens, as a naval to^Alex- 
 power, was mistress of most of the islands and mari- ander. 
 time cities, which, as tributary confederates, rendered Atiiens and 
 for the most part a forced obedience, Sparta, as a Sparta. 
 land power, was allied with most of the states on the 
 continent, which had joined her side of their own ac- 
 cord, and were not subject to tribute. Sparta there- 
 fore presented herself as the deliverer of Greece from 
 the Athenian yoke. 
 
 Confederates of the Athenians : the islands Chios, Samos, 
 Lesbos, all those of the Archipelago, (Thera and Melos except- 
 ed, which stood neutral,) Corcyra, Zacyiithus ; the Grecian co- 
 lonies in Asia Minor, and on the coast of Thrace and Mace- 
 donia ; in Greece itself, the cities of Naiipactus, Platajoe, and 
 those of Acarnania. — Confederates of tlie Spartans : all the Pe- 
 loponnesians, (Argos and Achaia excepted, which stood neutral,) 
 Megara, Locris, Phocis, Boeotia, the cities of Ambracia and 
 Anactorium, and the island of Leucas. 
 
 18. Sketch of the internal state of Athens and ^"J^J"j' 
 Sparta at this period. The power of Athens depend- Athens and 
 ed mainly on the state of her finances ; without which Sparta. 
 she could not support a fleet, and without a fleet her 
 ascendency over the confederates would of course 
 fall to the ground. And although Pericles, notwith- 
 standing his lavish public expenditure, was able to 
 enter upon the war with 6000 talents in the trea- 
 sury, experience could not fail to show that, in such 
 a democratic state as Athens was now become under 
 Pericles, the squandering of the public money was 
 an unavoidable evil. This evil was produced, how- 
 ever, at Athens much less by the peculations of indi- 
 vidual state officers than by the demands of the 
 multitude, who for the most part lived at the expense 
 of the state treasury. On the other hand, Sparta as 
 yet had no finance ; and only began to feel the want 
 of it as she began to acquire a naval power, and 
 entered upon undertakings more vast than mere 
 incursions. 
 
 Financial system of the Athenians. Revenue : 1,. The tri- 
 bute paid by the confederates {(pvpoi) increased by Pericles from 
 four hundred and sixty to six hundred talents. 2. Income 
 from the customs, (which were farmed,) and from the mines at 
 
TO Alex- 
 ander 
 
 156 GREEKS. [book hi. 
 
 Third Laiirium. 3. The caution money of the non-citizens ([.liroi- 
 Period, ^Qi^ 4^ Xhe taxes on the citizens, (elafopal,) which fell almost 
 entirely on the rich, more particularly on the first class, the 
 members of which were not only to bear the burden of fitting 
 out the fleet, {Tpiepap-)(^Lai,) but were likewise to furnish means 
 for the public festivals and spectacles (xoprjyiai). The whole 
 income of the republic at this time was estimated at 2000 
 talents. But the disbursements made to the numerous assistants 
 at the courts of justice, (the principal means of existence with 
 the poorer citizens, and which, more than any thing else, con- 
 tributed to the licentiousness of the democracy and the oppres- 
 sion of the confederates, whose causes were all brought to 
 Athens for adjudication,) together with the expenditure for 
 festivals and spectacles, even at this time, absorbed the greatest 
 part of the revenue. 
 
 f F. BoEKH, Public Economy of the Athenians, 2 parts. 
 Berlin, 1816. The chief woi'k on the subject. [Ably trans- 
 lated by J. C. LE■\^^s, Esq., of Christ Church in this university.] 
 
 Athenian Letters, or the Epistolary Correspondence of an 
 Agent of the king of Persia residing at Athens during the Pelo- 
 ponnesian loar. London, 1798, 2 vols. 4to. The production 
 of several young authors ; first printed, but not published, in 
 1741. This sketch comprises, not only Greece, but likewise 
 Persia and Egypt. 
 
 First period \^ Y\\:^\. üeriod of the war until the fifty years' 
 B. c. 431— peace. Beginning of the war unsuccessful to Athens, 
 *^-- during the first three years, under the conduct of 
 
 Pericles, in whose defensive plan we may perhaps 
 discern the infirmities of age. The Athenians, how- 
 ever, suffered less from the annual inroads of the 
 Spartans than from the plague, to which Pericles 
 
 429. himself at last fell a victim. The alliance of the 
 Athenians with the kings of Thrace and Macedonia 
 extended the theatre of war ; on the other hand, 
 
 430. Sparta had already conceived the idea of an alliance 
 with Persia. 
 
 Conse- 20. The death of Pericles was, for the next seven 
 
 T^d*^^ °*^ years, during which the place of that great man was 
 
 Pericles. Supplied by Cleon, a currier, followed by all the 
 
 evih of an uncurbed democracy. The atrocious de- 
 
 427. crees with respect to Mitylene, which, after seceding, 
 
 had been recaptured, and the insurrection of the 
 
 Corcyrsean populace against the rich, characterized 
 
 the party spirit then dominant in Greece better than 
 
 the few insignificant events of a war conducted with- 
 
PERIOD III.] GREEKS. 167 
 
 out any plan. Sparta, however, found in young Third 
 Brasidas a general, such as are wont to arise in re- to alex- 
 volutionary times. His prosecution of the war on ander. 
 the Macedonian coast might have brought great ^ 
 danger to Athens, had he so early not fallen a victim 422. 
 to his own gallantry. 
 
 Capture of Ampliipolis by Brasidas, and exile of Thucydides, 
 424. Engagement near Ampliipolis between Brasidas and 
 Cleon ; and death of those two generals, 422. 
 
 21. The peace now concluded for fifty years could Peace not 
 not be of long duration, as many of the confederates b!c.422. 
 on either side were discontented with its terms. All Aicibiadcs 
 hope of tranquillity must have been at an end when of lü\.irs^^*^ 
 the management of Athenian aftairs fell into the hands -120. 
 
 of a youth like Alcibiades, in whom vanity and arti- 
 fice held the place of patriotism and talent, and who 
 thought war the only field in which he could gain 
 credit. Against him what availed the prudence of 
 Nicias ? — Happy was it for Athens that during the 
 whole of this period Sparta never produced one man 
 who could match even with Alcibiades ! 
 
 Attempt of some states, Corinth especially, to set Argos at 
 the head of a new confederacy ; this measure Athens likewise 
 favours, 421. — Violation of the peace, 419; the war indirect 
 until 415, and limited to assisting the confederates on either 
 side. — Alcibiades's plan of giving Athens the preponderance in 
 Peloponnesus, by an alliance with Argos, is defeated by the 
 battle of Mantinea, 417. — Exterminating war of the Athenians 
 waged against the Melians, who wish to preserve their neutral- 
 ity, whereas neutrality in the weaker party now becomes a 
 crime, 416. 
 
 22. Alcibiades's party brings forward at Athens Project 
 the project of conquering Sicily, under the pretence "''°" "^'^* 
 of succouring the Segestani against the Syracusans. 
 
 This rash expedition, in which the hopes both of the 
 Athenians and of its instigator, Alcibiades, were 
 blighted, gave to Athens the first great blow, from 
 which she never after, even with the utmost exertion 
 of her strength, recovered ; especially as Sparta also 
 was now become a naval power. 
 
 Early interference of the Athenians with the concerns of the 
 Sicilian Greeks. — A fleet and army under the command of Ni- 
 
158 GREEKS. [book hi. 
 
 Third cias, Lamaclius, and Alcibiades, sent against Sicily, 415. — Ac- 
 Period, cusation, recall, and flight of Alcibiades to Sparta ; formal rup- 
 To Alex- ^^^.^ ^^ ^|^g peace by an inroad of the Spartans into Attica, 
 ^^^^^- where they fortify Decelea, 414. Unsnccessful siege of Syra- 
 cuse, 414 ; and total annihilation of the Athenian fleet and army 
 by the assistance of the Spartans under Gylippus, 413. 
 
 Athens af- 93. Fatal as in the present circumstances the blow 
 iirsiciiy!""^ struck in Sicily must appear to have been to Athens, 
 yet the calamity was surmounted by Athenian en- 
 thusiasm, never greater than in times of misfortune. 
 They maintained their supremacy over the confeder- 
 ates ; but the part which Alcibiades, in consequence 
 of the new posture his own personal interest had as- 
 sumed at Sparta, took in their affairs, brought about 
 a twofold domestic revolution, which checked the 
 licentious democracy. 
 
 Alliance of the Spartans with the Persians, and indecisive 
 engagement off" Miletus. — Flight of Alcibiades from Sparta to 
 Tissaphernes ; his negotiations to gain the satrap over to the 
 interests of Athens. — Equivocal policy of Tissaphernes. — Ne- 
 gotiations of Alcibiades with the chiefs of the Athenian army 
 at Samos, and the consequent revolution at Athens, and over- 
 throw of the democracy by the appointment of the supreme 
 council of four hundred in place of the ßovXi), and of a com- 
 mittee of five thousand citizens in place of the popular assembly, 
 411. — The army assumes the right of debate ; names Alcibiades 
 to be its leader ; but declares again for democracy. — Great com- 
 motions at Athens in consequence of the discomfiture of the 
 fleet at Eretria, and the secession of Euboea. Deposition of the 
 college of four hundred, after a despotic rule of four months ; — 
 reformation of the government ; — transfer of the highest 
 power to the hands of the five thousand ; — recall of Alcibiades, 
 and reconciliation with the army. 
 
 Biiiiiant 24. Brilliant period of Alcibades's command. The 
 
 AicibLdes, reiterated naval victories won by the Athenians over 
 B. c. 411 the Spartans under Mindarus, who, mistrusting Tis- 
 ~ " saphernes, now forms an alliance with Pharnabazus, 
 satrap of the north of Asia Minor, oblige tlie Spar- 
 410. tans to propose peace, which haughty Athens, un- 
 luckily for herself, rejects. 
 
 Two naval engagements on the Hellespont, 411. — Great vic- 
 tory by sea and laud won near Cyzicus, 410. — Confirmation of 
 the Athenian dominion over Ionia and Thrace by the capture 
 of Byzantium, 408. Alcibiades returns covered with glory ; 
 
PERIOD III,] GREEKS. 159 
 
 but in the same year is deposed, and submits to a voluntary Third 
 exile, 407. Period, 
 
 TO Alex- 
 
 25. Arrival of the younger Cyrus in Asia Minor ; 
 
 ANDER. 
 
 the shrewdness of Lysander wins him over to the Anabasis of 
 Spartan interest. The repubhcan haughtiness of^j^™?, 
 Lysander's successor, CalHcratidas, shown to Cyrus, 406. 
 was a serious error in pohcy ; for, unassisted by Per- 
 sian money, Sparta was not in a condition to pay her 
 mariners, nor consequently to support her naval 
 establishment. After the defeat and death of Calli- 4og. 
 cratidas, the command is restored to Lysander, who 40.5—403. 
 terminates the twenty-seven years' war triumphantly 
 for Sparta. 
 
 Naval victory of Lysander over the Athenians at Notium, 
 407 ; in consequence of which Alcibiades is deprived of the 
 command. — Appointment of ten new leaders at Athens ; Conon 
 among the number. — Naval victory of CalHcratidas at Mity- 
 lene ; Conon is shut up in the harbour of that place, 406. — 
 Great naval victory of the Athenians ; defeat and death of Cal- 
 Hcratidas at the ^^ginussfe islands, near Lesbos, 406. — Unjust 
 condemnation of the Athenian generals. — Second command of 
 Lysander, and last decisive victory by sea over the Athenians 
 at ^gospotamos on the Hellespont, Dec, 406. — The loss of the 
 sovereignty of the sea is accompanied by tlie defection ol' the 
 confederates, who are successively subjected by Lysander, 406. — 
 Athens is besieged by Lysander in the same year, 405 ; the 
 city surrenders in May, 404. — Athens is deprived of her walls ; 
 her navy is reduced to twelve sail ; and, in obedience to Ly- 
 sander's commands, the constitution is commuted into an oli- 
 garchy, under thirty rulers (tyrants). 
 
 26. Thus ended a war destructive in its moral, End of the 
 still more than in its political, consequences. Party ^Jn'wa"?^* 
 spirit had usurped the place of patriotic feeling ; as 
 national prejudice had that of national energy. 
 Athens being subdued, Sparta stood at the head of 
 confederate Greece ; but Greece very soon experi- 
 enced the yoke of her deliverers to be infinitely more 
 galling than that of the people hitherto called her 
 oppressors. What evils must not have ensued from 
 the revolutions Lysander now found it necessary to 
 effect in most of the Grecian states, in order to place 
 the helm of government in the hands of his own party 
 under the superintendence of a Spartan harmost ? — 
 
160 GREEKS [book hi. 
 
 Third How Oppressive must not have been the mihtary 
 t^^aLex- rule of the numerous Spartan garrisons ! — Nor could 
 ANDER, any alleviation of tribute be hoped for, now that in 
 Sparta it was acknowledged that the "state must 
 possess an exchequer." — The arrogance and rapacity 
 of the new masters were rendered more grievous by 
 their being more uncivilized and destitute. 
 
 History of the reign of terror at Athens under the thirty ty- 
 rants, 403. — AVhat happened here must likewise have happened 
 more or less in the other Grecian cities, which Lysander found 
 it necessary to revolutionize. In all quarters his party consisted 
 of men similar to Critias and his colleagues, who appear to have 
 been long before united in clubs (traipeicu) intimately connected 
 with each other ; from which were now taken the most daring 
 revolutionists, in order to place them every where at the head 
 of affairs. 
 
 Expulsion 27. Happy revolution in Athens, and expulsion 
 "yrlmsl'''*^ of the thirty tyrants by Thrasybulus, favoured by the 
 party at Sparta opposed to Lysander, and headed by 
 B. c. 403. King Pausanias. Restoration and reform of Solon's 
 constitution ; general amnesty. It was easy to re- 
 establish forms ; — to recall the departed spirit of the 
 nation was impossible ! 
 
 Ed. Ph. Hinrichs, De Theramenis, Critice et Thrasybuli, 
 virorum tempore belli Peloponnesiaci inter Grcecos illustriuni, 
 rebus et inge?iio, Commentatio, Hamburgi, 1820. An inquiry 
 which exhibits much research and impartiality. 
 
 War of the 28. The defeat of the younger Cyrus entangles 
 wiufpe^sia, the Spartans in a war with the Persians, the same 
 400. ygrjr that, after the death of King Agis, Agesilaus 
 
 takes possession of the regal dignity. We willingly 
 forget his usurpation as we follow him in his heroic 
 career. None but a man of genius could have in- 
 structed Sparta how to support for so long a time 
 the extravagant character which she had now under- 
 taken to play. 
 
 Opening of the war with Persia by Tissaphernes's attack on 
 the ^olian cities of Asia Minor, 400. — Command of Thimbron, 
 who, 398, is succeeded by the more successful and fortunate 
 Dercyllidas. — Availing himself of the jealousy between Tis- 
 saphernes and Artabasus, he persuades the latter to a separate 
 truce, 397. — Command of Agesilaus ; his expedition into Asia, 
 from the spring of 396 until 394. The conviction which he 
 
ANDER. 
 
 PEHIOD III.] GREEKS. 161 
 
 obtained of the domestic weakness of the Persian empire in the Third 
 successful invasion of Phrygia, 395, seems to have matured in Period, 
 the mind of Agesilaus the idea of overturning the Persian ^'?..^^^^' 
 throne : this design he would have accomplished had not the 
 Persians been politic enough to kindle a war against Sparta in 
 Greece itself. 
 
 29. The Corinthian war, waged against Sparta Corinthian 
 by Corinth, Thebes, and Argos, to which Athens '^'*'"' ^^^• 
 and the Thessahans unite, terminated by the peace 
 
 of Antalcidas. The tyranny of Sparta, and more 387. 
 particularly the recent devastation of Elis, a sacred 
 territory, were the alleged pretexts ; but the bribes of 
 Timocrates, the Persian envoy, were the real causes 
 of this war. 
 
 Irruption of the Spartans into Bceotia ; they engage and are 
 routed at Ilaliartus, 394. Lysander falls on the field of battle ; 
 and Agesilaus is recalled out of Asia. His victory at Coronea 
 insures to the Spartans the preponderance by land ; but the dis- 
 comfiture of their navy near Cnidus at the same time, gives to 
 their enemies the sovereignty of the sea: Conon, who com- 
 manded the combined Persian and Athenian fleets, avails him- 
 self, with consummate skill, of this success to re-establish the in- 
 dependence of Athens, 393. — Sparta endeavours by apparently 
 great sacrifices to bring over the Persians to her interests : the 
 peace at last concluded by the efforts of the skilful Antalcidas, 
 (see above. Book II. parag. 42,) was readily agreed to by the 
 Spartans, as they gave up only what otherwise they could not 
 have retained. The preponderance of Sparta on the continent 
 of Greece was establislied by the article which invested them 
 with the power of seeing the conditions of the treaty fulfilled : 
 the stipulated freedom of the Grecian cities was but an ap- 
 parent disadvantage ; and now that the Asiatic colonies were 
 given up, the contest for power in Greece itself must be de- 
 cided by land, and not by sea. 
 
 30. The quarrels which, after the peace of An- b. c. .386. 
 talcidas, Sparta began to have with Mantinea and ^^*' 
 Phlius, and still more so her participation in those 
 between the Macedo-Greek cities and the overpower- 383—380. 
 ful Olynthus, prove too plainly the arrogance with 
 which Sparta behaved to the weaker states. But the 
 arbitrary appropriation of the citadel of Thebes by 
 Phoebidas, — an act not indeed commanded, yet ap- 
 proved by Sparta, — was attended with more serious 
 consequences than were at first expected. Would 382. 
 that all authors of similar breaches of good faith 
 
 M 
 
162 
 
 GREEKS. 
 
 [book III. 
 
 Third 
 Period, 
 TO Alex- 
 ander. 
 
 Rivalry of 
 Sparta and 
 Thebes. 
 
 General 
 peace in 
 Greece me 
 diated by 
 Persia : 
 B. C. 374. 
 
 Epamoni- 
 das: B. C. 
 371—362. 
 
 and the law of nations were visited with the same 
 vengeance ! 
 
 31. Period of the rivahy of Sparta and Thebes, 
 from the year 378. The greatness of Thebes was 
 the work of two men, who knew how to inspire their 
 fellow-citizens and confederates with their own heroic 
 spirit : with them Thebes rose, with them she fell. 
 Rarely does history exhibit such a duumvirate as that 
 of Epaminondas and Pelopidas. How high must our 
 estimation of Pythagoras be, even had his philosophy 
 formed but one such man as Epaminondas ! 
 
 Liberation of Thebes from Spartan rule by the .successful at- 
 tempt of Pelopidas, and his fellow-conspirators, 378. Vain at- 
 tempts against Thebes, by the Spartans under Cleoinbrotus, 378, 
 and Agesilaus, 377 and 376. The defensive war conducted by 
 Pelopidas, during which he established the Theban supremacy 
 in Boeotia, and brought over the Athenians, (whose fleet, 376, 
 beat that of the Si^artans,) deserves our admiration more than 
 the winning of a battle. — The vast plans of Thebes were not 
 unfolded, however, till Epaminondas was at the head of affairs. 
 
 Serajst de la Tour, Histoire cV Epaminojidas. Paris, 1752. 
 
 I IMeissner, Life of Epaminondas. Prague, 1801, 2 parts. 
 In which the authorities are duly considered. 
 
 f J, G. ScHEiBEL, Essays towards a better understanding of 
 the Ancient World, 1809. The second part contains an essay 
 upon the history of Thebes, as the first does on that of Corinth. 
 
 32. A general peace is concluded in Greece 
 through the mediation of the Persians, (who wish to 
 obtain auxiliaries against the Egyptians,) under the 
 condition that all the Grecian cities shall be free : it 
 is acceded to by Sparta and Athens, but rejected by 
 Thebes, because she cannot admit the condition 
 without again falling under the Spartan yoke. In 
 
 372. fact, the lofty language used by Epaminondas, as en- 
 voy to Sparta, shows that it was problematic whether 
 Sparta or Thebes should now be at the head of Greece. 
 Could the idea, therefore, of a perfect equality be- 
 tween the states of Greece be other than chimerical ? 
 
 33. The long struggle maintained so gloriously by 
 Epaminondas against Sparta is remarkable both in a 
 political and military point of view. The power of 
 Sparta was abased ; Epaminondas invented a new 
 system of tactics (out of which soon after sprang.the 
 
nance 
 ith 
 lens. 
 
 PERIOD lu.l GREEKS. 163 
 
 Macedonian art of war) ; and as soon as he found Third 
 confederates in Peloponnesus itself, he made his way t^^alex- 
 to the very gates of Sparta. ander. 
 
 Victory won by the Thebans at Leuctra, July 8, 371, and 
 annihilation of what hitherto had been called the supremacy of 
 Sparta. — First irruption into Peloponnesus preceded by alliances 
 with Arcadia, Elis, and Argos. — The attack upon Sparta itself 
 is unsuccessful ; but the freedom of Messene is restored, 369. 
 
 34. Sparta in distress forms an alliance with sparta in 
 Athens, under the stipulation that the command shall '^'l' 
 alternately be in the hands of the two confederates ; Athe 
 conditions, no doubt, humiliating to Spartan pride ! 
 It however affords them the means of frustrating 
 Epaminondas's new attempt on Corinth and the Pe- 
 loponnesus. Even Dionysius I. of Syracuse thinks 
 himself bound to assist the Spartans, as being Dorians. 
 
 35. Thebes played a no less brilliant part in the 
 north than she did in the south. And had the at- 
 tempts to liberate Thessaly from the rule of the ty- 
 rant, Alexander of Pherae, been attended with suc- 
 cess, Thebes would have received a vast increase of 
 power. Even in Macedonia she acted as arbitress. 
 
 First and successful expedition of Pelopidas into Thessaly, 
 368. — After the decision of the disputed succession to the 
 Macedonian throne, young Philip is brought as hostage to 
 Thebes, and educated in the house of Epaminondas. — Pelopidas 
 is sent as ambassador, and taken prisoner by Alexander ; hence 
 the second expedition of the Thebans, in which Epaminondas 
 rescues the army and delivers his friend, 367. 
 
 36. Alliance of Thebes with Persia successfully Alliance of 
 brought about by Pelopidas. In the intrigues of the peäa! ^^'^ 
 opponents at the Persian court, the object of each 
 
 was to bring that court over to his own interest. 
 Yet the domineering tone in which the Persians 
 wished to dictate peace had not the consequences 
 that might have been expected ; and although Sparta 
 consented to her confederates remaining neutral, she 
 would not forego her claims on Messene. The estab- 
 lishment of a navy would have been of more import- 
 ant consequences to Thebes than this alliance, had 
 not all these plans, together with the greatness of 
 Thebes, been swept away by the premature death of b. c. 365. 
 her two leading men. 
 
 M 2 
 
10 Alex- 
 ander 
 
 164 GREEKS. [ßoOK III. 
 
 Third Last expedition of Pelopidas against Alexander of Pherae, in 
 
 Period, which he himself falls, 364. — New irruption into Peloponnesus 
 caused by the commotions in Arcadia. — Battle of Mantinea, and 
 death of Epaminondas, June 27, 362. — General peace in Greece 
 mediated by the Persians ; Sparta does not assent to it on ac- 
 count of Messene, but sends Agesilaus to Egypt, there to sup- 
 port the insurrection of Tachos. 
 
 State of 37. The result of this bloody struggle for the 
 
 üie'war^^^^' supreiuacy of Greece was, that neither Sparta nor 
 
 between Thcbcs obtained it ; the former of these states being 
 
 sjarta! """ weakened by the loss of Messene, the latter by the 
 
 loss of its leaders, and both strained by their violent 
 
 exertions. The situation of Greece after this war 
 
 seems to have been thus far changed, that no state 
 
 had the predominance ; an independence proceeding 
 
 from enervation. Even Athens, who by means of 
 
 her naval power still preserved her influence over the 
 
 cities on the coast and in the islands, lost the greater 
 
 part in the war of the allies, together with three of 
 
 her most celebrated leaders, Chabrias, Timotheus, and 
 
 Iphicrates, whose places were ill supplied by Chares. 
 
 Confederacy of the islands Cos, Rhodes, and Chios, and the 
 city of Byzantium ; their secession from Athens, 358. — Unsuc- 
 cessful siege of Chios, before which Chabrias falls, 358 ; of By- 
 zantium, 357. Athens suffers a still greater injury from the 
 cabals of Chares against his colleagues Timotheus and Iphi- 
 crates, and from her imprudent participation in the insurrection 
 of Artabazus, 356. The threats of Artaxerxes III, force Athens 
 to make a peace, in which she is obliged to acknowledge the 
 freedom of her confederates. 
 
 Sacred war. 38. At the very time when the growing power of 
 B. c. 356— Macedonia under Philip ought to have united all the 
 Grecian states, had such a union been within the 
 range of possibility, Greece plunged into another 
 civil war of ten years' duration, which is known by 
 the name of the sacred or Phocian war. The Am- 
 phictyonic assembly, whose duty it was to maintain 
 peace, and whose influence had been in the present 
 circumstances reinstated, abused its authority by 
 kindling discord. The hatred of the Thebans, who 
 sought for new opportunities of quarrel with Sparta, 
 and the ambition of the Phocian Philomelus, were 
 the real causes which led to the war, which the policy 
 
PERIOD III.] GREEKS. 165 
 
 of Philip knew how to prolong- till the precise mo- Third 
 ment favourable to his own particular views arrived, to Alex'- 
 The treasures of Delphi circulating in Greece, were ander. 
 as injurious to the country as the ravages which it 
 underwent. A war springing out of private passions, 
 fostered by bribes and subsidiary troops, and termin- 
 ated by the interference of foreign powers, was ex- 
 actly what was requisite for annihilating the scanty 
 remains of morality and patriotism still existing in 
 Greece. 
 
 Sentence of the Amphictyons against Sparta on account of 
 the former surpri,se of the citadel of Thebes by Phccbidas ; and 
 against Pliocis on account of the tillage of the sacred lands of 
 Delphi, 357. — Philoraclus is elected general of the Phocians ; 
 the rifling of the treasury of Delphi enables him to take into his 
 pay Athenian and other auxiliaries, and to carry war against 
 the Thebans and their confederates, the Locrians, etc., under 
 pretence of their being the executors of the Amphictyonic de- 
 crees. Philomelus having fallen, 353, is succeeded by his bro- 
 ther Onomarchus, more skilful than himself in intrigue and 
 war: but Onomarchus having fallen, 352, in the battle with 
 Philip in Thessaly, is followed by Phayllus. Philip even thus 
 early endeavours to push through Thermopylae into Greece, but 
 is repelled by the Athenians. He executes this plan after his 
 peace with Athens, 347, and having procured the expulsion of 
 the Phocians from the Amphictyonic council, gets their place 
 and right of vote to be transferred to himself. 
 
 39. From the very first advance of Philip, the fate Philip's ad- 
 of Greece could scarcely afford matter for doubt ; Greece, 
 although the eloquence of Demosthenes warded it off 
 until the second invasion, caused by the Amphicty- 
 onic sentence passed on the Locrians. (See below, 
 Book IV. parag. 15.) The battle of Chaeronea laid bc 338. 
 the foundation of Macedonia's complete ascendency 
 over the Grecian republics : by the appointment of 336. 
 Philip to be generalissimo of Greece in the Persian 
 war, tliat ascendency was, as it were, formally ac- 
 knowledged ; nor did it end with tlie assassination of 
 that prince. 
 
FOURTH BOOK. 
 
 HISTORY OF THE MACEDONIAN MONARCHY. 
 
 FIRST PERIOD. 
 
 From its origin to the death of Alexander the Great. 
 B. C. 800—323. 
 
 First SOURCES. We have no historian who Avrote, particularly, on 
 
 Period. Macedonia, before the time of Alexander. The facts relative 
 
 to the earlier history previous to Philip are collected from Dio- 
 dorus, Justin, Thucydides, and Arrian ; from Diodorus more 
 especially. In consequence of the loss of the other historians, 
 Diodorus is the chief authority for the liistory of Philip ; the 
 speeches of Demosthenes and ^schines must likewise be con- 
 sulted, but not made use of without caution and judicious histo- 
 rical criticism. With respect to Alexander the Great, as so 
 many writers on liis reign have been destroyed by time, Arrian 
 must now be considered as the chief authority, on account of 
 the care he has shown in the selection of his authorities, con- 
 jointly with the seventeenth book of Diodorus. Plutarch's bio- 
 graphy contains several valuable additional facts ; and even the 
 superficial Curtius might furnish us with abundance of inform- 
 ation, did his accounts offer higher claims to our credit. 
 
 Origin of 1 ^n Hellenic colony from Argos, headed by the 
 dom ; about Temenidae, a branch of the Heraclidse, settled in 
 B. c. 813. Eniathia, and laid the feeble foundation of the Ma- 
 cedonian empire, which was in time to rise to such 
 power. Not only did the settlers keep their footing* 
 in the country, in spite of the aboriginal inhabitants ; 
 but their princes gradually extended their territory, 
 by subjecting or expelling several of the neighbour- 
 ing tribes. Their earlier history, not excepting even 
 the names of their kings, is buried in obscurity till 
 the time of the Persian invasions. 
 
 The three first Macedonian kings, Caranus said to have ruled 
 twenty-eight years, Coenus twenty-three, Tyrmas forty-five, 
 were unknown to Herodotus, who names as founder of the Ma- 
 cedonian monarchy, Perdiccas, 729 — 678. Of this prince and 
 
PERIOD I.] MACEDONIAN MONARCHY. IßT 
 
 his successors, Argaeus, d. 640, Philip I., d. 602, Tropus, d. First 
 576, and Alcetas, d. 547, nothing more is known than that they Period. 
 waged war, with various success, against the neighbouring Pi- 
 erians and Illyrians, who had theii- own kings. 
 
 2. When the Persians commenced their incursions situation at 
 into Europe, Macedonia, by its situation, must have the Persian 
 been one of the first countries they ravaged. Ac- invasion. 
 cordingly, as early as the reign of Darius Hystaspes, 
 
 the Macedonian kings were tributary to the Persians ; 
 
 and were indebted for their dehverance from that 
 
 yoke, not to their own valour, but to the victories of 
 
 the Greeks. The battle of Plataeae restored inde- b. c. 479. 
 
 pendence to the Macedonian kingdom, although that 
 
 independence was not formally acknowledged by the 
 
 Persians. 
 
 Immediately after the Scythian campaign, 513, Amyntas {d. 
 498) became tributary to the Persians ; his son and successor, 
 Alexander, (</. 454,) was in the same state of subjection, and 
 was even compelled to join the expedition of Xerxes. 
 
 3. But the expulsion of the Persians still left Ma- Situation 
 cedonia exposed to the attacks of other formidable ,^,.eat Iniie' 
 neighbours ; on one side there were the Thracians, Persians, 
 among whom, under Sitalces, and his successor, Seu- d. 424. 
 thes, arose the powerful kingdom of the Odrysee ; 
 
 on the other, the Athenians, who, availing themselves 
 of their extensive navy, reduced to subjection the 
 Grecian settlements on the Macedonian shores. 
 Harassing as these neighbours were to the Macedo- 
 nian kings, they proved to be the very instruments 
 by which Macedonia became so early and so deeply 
 involved in the affairs of Greece. 
 
 Commencement of the differences with Athens, under the 
 reign of Perdiccas II., 454 — 413 ; Athens having supported his 
 brother Philip against him. — Defection of Potidaia, and forti- 
 fication of Olynthus, into which the Greeks from Chalcis and 
 other cities are transplanted, 432. Potidasa being forced to 
 surrender to Athens, 431, Perdiccas contrives to play so skilful 
 a part in tlie Peloponnesian war just now commencing, that he 
 outwits the Athenians, parrying the attack of Sitalces by a 
 marriage of his sister with Seuthes, the heir to that prince, 429. 
 His alliance with Sparta, 424, is very detrimental to tlie Athe- 
 nians, Bra-sidas wresting Amphipolis from their hands ; never- 
 theless Perdiccas chooses rather to conclude a peace with Athens, 
 
168 MACEDONIAN MONARCHY. [book iv. 
 
 First 423, than to throw himself entirely into the arms of his new 
 Period, allies. 
 
 Archelaus 4. Archekus, the successor of Perdiccas, intro- 
 foundation ^lucecl agriculturc and civilization among the Mace- 
 ofMacedo- donians, who were never, however, recognised by 
 4i3_40o'. the Hellenes as their legitimate brethren : highways 
 and military roads were constructed ; forts were 
 erected ; and the court became the seat of literature. 
 In these days the Macedonian kingdom seems to 
 have comprised Emathia, Mygdonia, and Pelagonia, 
 to which may be added some of the neighbouring 
 tribes, who, although governed by their own kings, 
 were tributary. The power of the kings was insig- 
 nificant when unaided by the nobles, among whom, 
 as was the case with all the hereditary princes of 
 Greece, they merely held the right of precedence. 
 How difficult was it, even in Alexander's time, to 
 erase from the minds of the Macedonian nobility the 
 recollection of their former importance ! 
 
 5. The murder of Archelaus was followed by a 
 stormy period, wrapped in obscurity : the unsettled 
 state of the succession raised up many pretenders to 
 the throne, each of whom easily found the means of 
 supporting his claims, either in some of the neigh- 
 bouring tribes, or in one of the Grecian republics. 
 
 Aeropus, as guardian to the young king Orestes, usurps the 
 supreme power, B. C. 400 — 394. After his death, and the 
 murder of his son Pausanias, 393, the throne was seized by 
 Amyntas II., son of Philip, and brother to Perdiccas II., who 
 was nevertheless unable to maintain his power until he had 
 gained a victory over Argteus, the brother of Pausanias, who 
 was backed by the lUyrians, 390 — 369. The war with Olynthus, 
 383 — 380, could not be brought to a successful conclusion until 
 he had formed an alliance with Sparta. 
 
 6. The three sons of Amyntas H., Alexander, 
 Perdiccas, and Philip, successively ascended the 
 throne after the death of their father ; but so violent 
 were the commotions during the reigns of the two 
 former, that the future existence of Macedonia as a 
 kingdom might have been regarded as problematical : 
 it is certain that they were obliged to submit to the 
 payment of tribute to the Illyrians. 
 
PERIOD I.] MACEDONIAN MONARCHY. 169 
 
 Alexander, in opposition to his rival, Ptolemy of Alorus, First 
 placed on the throne by Pelopidas, sends his youngest brother Period. 
 Phihp as hostage to Thebes ; in the same year he is deposed by — I 
 Ptolemy, 368. Reign of Ptolemy, 388 — 365, with the stipula- 
 tion imposed, 367, by Pelopidas, that he shall only hold the 
 sceptre in reserve for the two younger brothers. Murder of 
 Ptolemy, 365, by Perdiccfis III., who is nearly overwhelmed 
 by Pausanias, another and earlier pretender to the crown ; he 
 is at last firndy seated on the throne by the Athenians, under 
 Iphicrates, 364. But as early as 360 he falls in the war against 
 the lUyrians, leaving behind him a son, Amyntas, still a minor, 
 and a younger brother Pliilip, who escapes from Thebes in order 
 to gain possession of the throne. 
 
 7. The reign of Philip, which lasted twenty-four PhiUp, 
 years, is one of the most instructive and interesting* ^33^^^^ 
 in the whole range of history, as well on account of 
 
 the prudence he displayed, as for the manner in 
 which his plans were arranged and executed. Though 
 it may be difficult to trace in his morals the pupil of 
 Epaminondas, yet it is impossible to view without 
 feelings of astonishment the brilliant career of a man, 
 who, under the almost hopeless circumstances in 
 which he commenced his course, never lost his firm- 
 ness of mind, and who in the highest prosperity pre- 
 served his coolness of reflection. 
 
 The history of Philip, even in his own days, was distorted to 
 his disadvantage by orators and historians. Demosthenes could 
 not, Theopompus would not, be impartial ; and the information 
 contained in Diodorus and Justin is mostly derived from the 
 work of the latter. 
 
 Olivier, Histoire de Philippe, roi de Mactdoine. Paris, 1 740, 
 2 vols. 8vo. A defence of Philip. 
 
 De Bury, Histoire de Philippe, et d^ Alexandre le grand. 
 Paris, 1760, 4to. A very mean performance. 
 
 Th. Leland, The History of the Life and Reign of Philip 
 king of Macedon. London, 1761, 4to. Dry, but exhibiting 
 much reading and strict impartiality. 
 
 In MiTFORD, History of Greece, vol. iv., Philip has found his 
 most zealous panegyrist and defender. It would seem that, 
 even in the present day, it is impossible to write an impartial 
 history of this monarch. 
 
 8. Melancholy posture of the Macedonian affairs 
 at the beginning of Philip's reign. Besides victo- 
 rious foes abroad, there were at home two pretenders 
 to the throne; Argseus, backed by Athens, Pausa- 
 nias, supported by Thrace ; and Philip himself, at 
 
170 
 
 MACEDONIAN MONARCHY. 
 
 [book IV. 
 
 First 
 Period. 
 
 Policy of 
 Philip : 
 
 possesses 
 himself of 
 Thessaly : 
 
 first, was merely regent, and not king. In the two 
 first years, however, every thing was changed, and 
 Macedonia recovered her independence. The newly- 
 created phalanx insured victory over the barbarians; 
 recourse was had to other means than force for suc- 
 cess against the suspiciousness of Athens and the 
 neighbouring Greek settlements, particularly against 
 the powerful Olynthus. It is in the conduct of these 
 affairs that the peculiar sagacity of Philip is displayed. 
 
 After the defeat of Arg^u.s, peace is purclmsed from Athens 
 by a momentary recognition of the freedom of Aniphipolis, 360. 
 — Removal of Pausanias by means of an accommodation with 
 Thrace. — By the conquest of the Piconians and lUyrians, 359, 
 the boundaries of INIacedonia are extended to Tln-ace, and west- 
 ward to the lake Lychnitis. — As early as 360 PhiUp was pro- 
 claimed king. 
 
 9. Development of Philip's further plans of ag- 
 grandizement. — By the gradual subjection of the 
 Macedo-Greek cities, he proposed, not only to make 
 himself sole master in Macedonia, but also to remove 
 the Athenians from his domain. — The first object of 
 his policy against Greece was to get himself acknow- 
 ledged as a Hellen, and Macedonia as a member of 
 the Hellenic league. Hence the subsequent tutelage 
 in which Macedonia held Greece was not converted 
 into a formal subjection, a proceeding which would 
 have savoured too much of barbarian origin. — The 
 execution of all these plans was facilitated by the 
 possession of the Thracian gold mines, which enabled 
 Philip to create finances as well as the phalanx. 
 
 Capture of Amphipolis, 358 ; in the mean while Athens is 
 amused with promises, and Olynthus with the momentary cession 
 of Potid«a, which had likewise been captured : this event is fol- 
 lowed by the conquest of the mountainous districts, abounding 
 in gold, which extend from the Nestus to the Strymon, and 
 furnished an annual income of nearly 1000 talents. 
 
 10. The interference of Philip in the affairs of 
 Thessaly dates from the year 357 ; the possession of 
 that country was an object equally important for the 
 furtherance of his views upon Greece, as for the im- 
 provement of his finances. He first stepped forth as 
 
PERIOD i] MACEDONIAN MONARCHY. 171 
 
 the deliverer of Thessaly, and ended in making it a F'rst 
 province of Macedonia. . L 
 
 Expulsion of the tyrants from Phera?, at the request of the ^^ 
 Aleuada3, 356 ; the tyrants, however, receive support in the sa- 
 cred war from the Phocians under Onomarchus. The final de- 
 feat of Onomarchus, 352, makes Philip master of Thessaly ; he 
 places Macedonian garrisons in the three chief places, and thus 
 supports his authority in the country until he is pleased to make 
 it entirely a Macedonian province, 344. 
 
 11. The protraction of the sacred war in Greece takes ad- 
 furnished Phihp with an excellent opportunity of''^"^"^^°f 
 
 i. Ill sacred 
 
 promotmg his views upon that country; althougli ^var: 
 his first attempt at an irruption, too precipitately un- 
 dertaken, was frustrated by the Athenians. The cap- 
 ture of Olynthus, notwithstanding the assistance af- 
 forded it by the Athenians, after a season of apparent 
 inaction, insured the safety of the frontiers in his 
 rear ; and by a master-stroke of policy, almost at the 
 very moment in which he was driving the Athenians 
 out of Euboea, he found means to enter with them in- 
 to negotiations, which, after repeated embassies, were 
 closed by a peace, opening to him the way through 
 Thermopylae, and enabling him to raise a party fa- 
 vourable to himself within the very walls of Athens. 
 
 12. First descent of Philip into Greece, and ter- invades 
 mination of the sacred war by reducing the Phocians. 
 
 The place wliich he now obtained in the Amphic- 
 tyonic council, had been the height of his wishes ; 
 and the humility of Sparta proved how firmly his 
 ascendency over Greece was already established. 
 
 13. Brief view of the state of Greece, and more festers u 
 particularly of Athens, after the sacred war ; descrip- Gn;ec'e"; 
 tion of the means by whicli Philip succeeded in 
 creating and supporting parties favourable to his 
 
 own interests in the Grecian states. Bribery was 
 not his only instrument ; what he gave he borrowed 
 from others ; the main feature of his policy was, that 
 he seldom or ever recurred to the same means. 
 Scheming and consistent even in his drunken revels, 
 he hardly ever appears under the same form. 
 
 Dreadful consequences to the morals of the Greeks, resulting 
 
m 
 
 MACEDONIAN MONARCHY. 
 
 [book IV 
 
 First 
 Period. 
 
 is thwarted 
 by Pho- 
 cion : 
 
 but obtains 
 the com- 
 mand in the 
 second sa- 
 cred war ; 
 
 and falls 
 
 upon 
 
 Greece. 
 
 from the spirit of party, the decline of religion, and the vast in- 
 crease in the circulating medium, produced by the treasures of 
 Delphi and Macedonia. — Estimate of the power of Athens dur- 
 ing the period of Demosthenes and Phocion. It seems that, un- 
 fortunately, the eloquence and political acuteness of the former 
 was not accompanied with sufficient talents for negotiation ; the 
 latter, perhaps, did not place confidence enough in his country, 
 while Demosthenes placed too much. In spite of public indo- 
 lence and effeminacy, Athens was still enabled to support her 
 rank as a maritime power, the navy of Philip not being equal 
 to hers. 
 
 ■j" A. G. Becker, Demosthenes as a Statesman and an Ora- 
 tor. An historico-critical introduction to his works : 1815. A 
 very useful work, both as a history and as an introduction to 
 the political orations of Demosthenes. 
 
 14. New conquests of Philip in Illyria and Thrace. 
 The Adriatic Sea and the Danube appear to have 
 been the boun(hiries of his empire on this side. But 
 the views of the Macedonian king were directed less 
 against the Thracians, than against the Grecian set- 
 tlements on the Hellespont ; and the attack of the 
 Athenian Diopithes furnished him a pretext for 
 making war against them. The siege, however, of 
 Perinthus and Byzantium, was frustrated by Phocion, 
 to the great vexation of Philip; an event which 
 aroused the Athenians, and even the Persians, from 
 their lethargy. 
 
 15. Policy of Philip after this check. — At the very 
 time that, engaged in a war against the barbarians on 
 the Danube, he appears to have wholly lost sight of 
 the affairs of Greece, his agents redouble their ac- 
 tivity. iEschines, richly paid for his services, pro- 
 poses in the Amphictyonic council, that, to punish 
 the sacrilegious insults of the Locrians to the Del- 
 phian oracle, he should be elected leader of the 
 Greeks in this new sacred war. Following his usual 
 maxim, Philip suffers himself to be entreated. 
 
 16. Second expedition of Philip into Greece. 
 His appropriation of the important frontier town of 
 Elatea soon showed that, for this time at least, he was 
 not contending merely for the honour of Apollo. — 
 Alliance between Athens and Thebes brought about 
 by Demosthenes. — But the defeat of Chseronea in 
 the same year decided the dependence of Greece. 
 
PERIOD 1.] MACEDONIAN MONARCHY. 173 
 
 Philip now found it easy to play the magnanimous F'Rst 
 character towards Athens. Period. 
 
 17. Preparations for the execution of his plan Philip's 
 against Persia, not as his own undertaking, but as a a^a'imt 
 national war of the Hellenes against the barbarians, p'ersia. 
 Thus, while Philip, by obtaining from the Amphic- 
 tyons the appointment of generalissimo of Greece 
 against the Persians, secured in an honourable man- 
 ner the dependence of the country, the splendour of 
 
 the expedition flattered the nation at whose expense 
 it was to be conducted. It is a question, indeed, 
 whether Philip's own private views extended much 
 further ! 
 
 18. The internal government of Macedonia, under internal 
 so skilful and successful a conqueror, must neces- ^^^cejo^i 
 sarily have been absolute. No pretender would dare under Phi- 
 lo rise up against such a ruler, and the body guard ^'^' 
 (hopv(}i6poi) established by him at the beginning of his 
 
 reign, and taken from the Macedonian nobility, con- 
 tributed much to keep up a proper understanding 
 between the prince and the nobles. The court be- 
 came a military staff, while the people, from a nation 
 of herdsmen, was converted into a nation of warriors. 
 — Philip was unfortunate only in his own family ; 
 but the blame is not to be attributed to him if he 
 could not agree with Olympias. 
 
 19. Philip murdered by Pausanias at iEgee, pro- Philip m.ir- 
 bably at the instigation of the Persians, while cele- JX'''336 
 brating the marriage of his daughter. 
 
 20. The reign of Alexander the Great, in the Alexander : 
 eyes of the historical inquirer, derives its great inter- ^^^~^-^- 
 est, not only from the extent, but from the perma- 
 nence of the revolution which he effected in the world. 
 
 To appreciate properly the character of this prince, 
 who died just as he was about to carry his mighty 
 projects into execution, is no easy task ; but it is to- 
 tally repugnant to common sense to suppose that the 
 pupil of Aristotle was nothing more than a wild and 
 reckless conqueror, unguided by any plan. 
 
 St. Croix, Examen critique des anciens historiens (TAlexan- 
 dre-le-grand, 2nd edition, considerahlement augmentee. Paris, 
 
174 MACEDONIAN MONARCHY. [book iv. 
 
 First 1804, 4to. The new edition of this, which is the principal work 
 Period, on the history of Alexander, and important in more respects 
 than one, contains more than the title implies, though by no 
 means a strictly impartial estimate of that prince's character. 
 
 Disturb- 21. Violent commotions at court, in the conquered 
 
 Maced!)^ *^''^ countries, and in Greece, after the death of PhiHp. 
 nian court. Great as his power appeared to be, the preservation 
 of it depended entirely on the first display of charac- 
 ter in his successor. Alexander showed himself 
 worthy to inherit the sceptre by his victorious expe- 
 dition against the Thracians ; (to whom, and more 
 especially to his alliance with the Agrians, he was 
 afterwards indebted for his light horse ;) and by the 
 example which he exhibited to Greece in his treat- 
 ment of Thebes. 
 Alexander, 22. Appointment of Alexander in the assembly at 
 ^mro/^' Corinth to be generalissimo of the Greeks. Yet what 
 Greece. ^ig father would probably have turned to a very dif- 
 ferent account, he allowed to remain a mere nominal 
 office. — Development of his plan of attack upon Per- 
 sia. — The want of a navy, soon experienced by Alex- 
 ander, would probably have frustrated his whole pro- 
 ject, had not Memnon's counterplan of an inroad 
 into Macedonia been thwarted by the celerity of 
 the Macedonian king. 
 Battle of the 23. Passagfe over the Hellespont, and commence- 
 ment of the war. The tranquillity of his kingdom 
 and Greece appeared to be secured, Antipater being 
 left at the head of affairs. — The victory on the Gran- 
 icus opens to Alexander a path into Asia Minor ; 
 but the death of Memnon, which soon after followed, 
 was perhaps a greater advantage than a victory. 
 Battle of 24. The victory of Issus, gained over Darius in 
 
 B.^c,333. person, appears to have given Alexander the first 
 idea of completely overturning the Persian throne, 
 as was proved by the rejection of Darius's offers of 
 peace. When, indeed, have not the plans of con- 
 querors been dependent on the course of events? 
 Yet Alexander must have been pretty certain of his 
 future victory, since he permitted Darius to escape, 
 332. while he sat down seven months before Tyre, in order 
 
PERIOD I.J MACEDONIAN MONARCHY. 175 
 
 to make himself master of the sea ; and, after the ^^^^'^ 
 conquest of Egypt without a battle, to which the ^^'°° ' 
 possession of Tyre opened the way, to build Alexan- 
 dria, and erect to himself a monument more lasting- 
 than all his victories. 
 
 Although Alexandria perhaps in the end may have surpassed 
 the expectations of the founder, yet the selection of the site, ftx- 
 vourable only for navigation and commerce, shows that an eye 
 was originally had to those objects. 
 
 25. Invasion of Inner Asia, facilitated by the tacit Decisive 
 submission of the ruling tribes, and by the state of a^rbLa,' 
 cultivation in which the country was found. On the 
 
 plains of Arbela the Macedonian tactics were com- Oct. i, 331. 
 pletely triumphant. It might now be said that the 
 throne of Persia was overturned ; and the unexpect- 
 edly easy capture of Babylon, Susa, and Persepolis, 
 was surely of more importance for the moment than 
 the pursuit of a flying king. 
 
 Insurrection of the Greeks quelled by Antipater ; Alexander 
 himself falls in with the malcontent envoys to Darius in the in- 
 terior of Asia. 
 
 26. The subjection of the north-eastern provinces Persia 
 
 of the Persian empire would perhaps have been at- ^^^^^^ ^"^" 
 
 tended with the greatest difficulties, had not the 
 
 astonishing activity of the conqueror crushed in 
 
 their birth the schemes of the treacherous Bessus, 
 
 who, after the assassination of Darius, wished to erect b. c. 330 
 
 a separate kingdom in Bactria. The Jaxartes was 
 
 now the northern boundary of the Macedonian mon- 329. 
 
 archy, as it had hitherto been that of the Persian. 
 
 Besides, the possession of the rich trading countries, 
 
 Bactria and Sogdiana, was in itself an object of vast 
 
 importance. 
 
 During this expedition, the execution of Philotas and his 
 father Parmenio took place, though both were, probably, guilt- 
 less of the conspiracy laid to their charge, 330. After the 
 death of Darius, Alexander met with almost constant oppo- 
 sition in his own army : the majority of the troops fancying 
 that that event precluded the necessity of any further exer- 
 tions. Cautious as Alexander was in his treatment of the 
 Macedonian nobles, we may discern, not however by the mere 
 example of Clitus, how difficult they found it to banish from 
 
176 
 
 MACEDONIAN MONARCHY. 
 
 [book IV. 
 
 First 
 Period. 
 
 Alexander 
 
 marches 
 
 asfainst 
 
 India. 
 
 328—326 
 
 their memory the relations in which they had formerly stood to 
 their kings. 
 
 27. Alexander s expedition against India had, no 
 doubt, its origin in that propensity to romantic en- 
 terprise which constituted a main feature in his 
 character. Yet what could be more natural than that 
 a close view of Persian splendour, the conquest of 
 such wealthy countries, and the desire of prosecuting 
 his vast commercial designs, should gradually mature 
 in the mind of the Macedonian king the plan of sub- 
 jecting a country which was represented as the golden 
 land of Asia. To this likewise the scantiness of geo- 
 graphic information must have greatly contributed ; 
 if he pressed forward to the eastern seas, the circle 
 of his dominion would, it was supposed, be complete. 
 ' — It appears very certain that Alexander was desti- 
 
 tute of a sufficient knowledge of the country when he 
 entered upon this expedition. 
 
 Alexander's invasion was directed against Northern India, or 
 the Panjab ; in those days a populous and highly cultivated 
 country ; now the seat of the Seiks and Mahrattas ; and then, 
 as now, inhabited by warhke races. He crossed the Indus at 
 Taxila, (Attock,) passed the Hydaspes, (Behut or Chelum,) 
 and, availing himself of the quarrels between the Indian 
 princes, defeated the king, Porus. He then proceeded across 
 the Acesines (Jenaub) and Hydraotes (Rauvee). The eastern 
 verge reached in this expedition was the river Hyphasis 
 (Beyah) ; here, having already proceeded half way to the 
 Ganges, the conqueror was, by a mutiny in his army, compelled 
 to retreat. His return was through the countiy of the Malli 
 (Multan) as far as the Hydaspes, when the majority of his 
 troops took ship, and were floated along that stream into the 
 Acesines, and from thence into the Indus, which they followed 
 down to its mouth. 
 
 Rennel, Memoir of a Map of Hindostan. London, 1793, 
 (3rd edit.,) and 
 
 St. Croix, Examen, etc., (see p. 173,) furnish all the neces- 
 sary historical and geographical explanations relative to the 
 Persian and Indian campaigns of Alexander. 
 
 Conse- 28. Although Alexander was obliged to give up 
 
 SHre'l^pecfi- ^^ project of conqucring India, yet the connexion 
 between Europe and the East, which has continued 
 from that time, was the work of his hands. While 
 the communication on land was secured by the estab- 
 
 tion 
 
PERIOD I.] MACEDONIAN MONARCHY, 177 
 
 lishment of various settlements, the communication F'^st 
 
 by sea was opened by the voyao;e of his admiral, ^'^'°°' 
 
 Nearchus, from the Indus to the Euphrates. In the 
 mean time Alexander himself proceeded to Persis 
 and Babylon, across the desert, and the unexplored 
 provinces of Gedrosia and Carmania. 
 
 Nearchus's voyage (our knowledge of which is derived from 
 his own journal, preserved in Arrian's Indica) lasted from the 
 beginning of October, 326, to the end of February, 325 : neai'ly 
 the same time was occupied in the almost incredible land march 
 of the king. 
 
 Vincent, The Voyage of Nearchus from the Indus to the 
 Euphrates. London, 1797, 4to. Exhibiting the most learned 
 researches, and illustrated with excellent charts. 
 
 29. After the abandonment of India, the whole Alexander's 
 circuit of Alexander's conquests was precisely that co,''*^J,e,'.y,|'*^ 
 of the former Persian empire; his later projects countries: 
 were probably directed against Arabia alone. How- 
 ever easy it had been to make these conquests, it 
 
 was a more difficult task to retain them ; for Mace- 
 donia, exhausted by continual levies of men, could 
 not furnish efficient garrisons. Alexander removed 
 this difficulty, by protecting the conquered from op- 
 pression ; by showing proper respect to their religion ; 
 by leaving the civil government in the hands of the 
 native rulers who had hitherto possessed it ; and by 
 confiding to Macedonians the command only of the 
 garrisons left in the chief places, and in the newly 
 established colonies. To alter as little as possible in 
 the internal organization of countries was his funda- 
 mental principle. 
 
 30. Simple as Alexander's plans were in the out- lüs views, 
 set, their simplicity was more than compensated by 
 
 the magnitude and importance of their results. Ba- 
 bylon was to be the capital of his empire, and con- 
 sequently of the world. The union of the east and 
 the west was to be brought about by the amalgama- 
 tion of the dominant races by intermarriage, by edu- 
 cation, and, more than all, by the ties of commerce, 
 the importance of which much ruder conquerors, in 
 Asia itself, soon learnt to appreciate. In nothing 
 
 N 
 
178 
 
 MACEDONIAN MONARCHY. 
 
 [bock IV. 
 
 First 
 Period. 
 
 Ueath of 
 Alexander, 
 April 21, 
 B. C. 323. 
 
 probably is the superiority of his genius more bril- 
 liantly displayed, than in his exemption from all na- 
 tional prejudice, particularly when we consider that 
 none of his countrymen were in this respect to be 
 compared with him. To refuse him this merit is 
 impossible, whatever judgment we may form of his 
 general character. 
 
 31. Sudden death of Alexander at Babylon by 
 fever; under the peculiar circumstances of the time, 
 the greatest loss mankind could experience. From 
 the Indus to the Nile the world lay in ruins ; and 
 where was now the architect to be found, that could 
 gather up the scattered fragments and restore the 
 edifice ? 
 
 Alexander's disorder may be easily accounted for by the 
 hardships he had undergone, and the impure air to which he 
 exposed himself in cleaning out the canals about Babylon*. He 
 certainly was not poisoned ; and in the charge of immoderate 
 drunkenness brought against him, we must take into account 
 the manners of the Macedonian and Persian courts. Was it 
 not the same with Peter the Great ? In estimating his moral 
 character we must bear in mind the natural vehemence of his 
 passions, ever inclined to the most rapid transitions ; nor should 
 we forget the unavoidable influence of constant success upon 
 mankind. 
 
 SECOND PERIOD. 
 
 Hifttory of the Macedonian monarchy, from, the death 
 of Alexander the Great to the battle of Ipsns, B. C. 
 323—301. 
 
 To enable the reader to take a general view, the history of 
 the European events is resumed below, under the head of the 
 histot-y of Macedonia Proper. 
 
 SorRCES. Diodorus, hb. xviii. — xx., is the great authority 
 for this portion of history. He compiled mostly, for this period, 
 from a contemporary historian, Hieronymus of Cardia. He is 
 followed by Plutarch in the Lives of Eumenes, Demetrius, and 
 Phocion ; and by Justin, lib. xiii., etc. Of Arrian's history of 
 Alexander's successors, nothing unfortunately remains but a 
 few fragments in Photius. 
 
 f Mannert, History of Alexander's successors. Nuremberg, 
 
PERIOD II.] TO THE BATTLE OF IPSUS. 179 
 
 1787. Composed A^th the usual judgment and learning of that Second 
 author. Period. 
 
 1. The ver}' first measure adopted after the death Measures 
 of Alexander contained within itself the seeds of all adopted at 
 the dire revolutions that afterwards ensued. Not Akxanden 
 only were the jealousy and ambition of the nobles 
 aroused, but even the interference of the army was 
 exhibited in the most terrific manner. Althoup;h 
 
 the idea of the supremacy of the royal family was 
 cast off only by decrrees, yet the dreadfully disturbed 
 state in which that family stood, rendered its fall un- 
 avoidable. 
 
 State of the royal family at the death of Alexander. He left 
 his wife Roxana pregnant, who at the end of three months 
 brought into the world the rightful heir to the sceptre, Alexan- 
 der ; he left likewise an illegitimate son, Hercules ; a bastard 
 half-brotlier, Arrhidi\jus ; his mother, the haughty and cruel 
 01}Tnpias, and a sister, Cleopatra, both widows ; the artful 
 Eurydice, (daughter to Cyane, one of Philip's sisters,) subse- 
 quently married to the king, Arrhidfeus ; and Thessalonica, 
 Philip's daughter, afterwards united to Cassander of ^lacedonia. 
 
 2. The weak Arrhidaeus, under the name of Philip, Arrhidaus 
 and the infant Alexander, were at last proclaimed *"'! "^'.^"'^\ 
 
 . r ^ ander joint 
 
 kings, the regency beinp; placed in the hands of Per- kiugs: 
 diccas, Leonnatus, and Melcager ; the last of whom 
 was quickly cut off at the instigation of Perdiccas. Peruicc.vs 
 Meanwhile Antipater, with whom Craterus had been '■^^''"'• 
 joined as civil ruler, had the management of aflairs Antip.^ter 
 
 E^ in Europe. 
 
 urope. ^ 
 
 3. The spquel of the histor}' becomes naturally violent re- 
 that of satraps, who fell out among themselves, all '°'"'''''^'* 
 being ambitious to rule, and none willing to obey. 
 Twenty-two years elapsed ere any massy edifice arose 
 
 out of the ruins of the Macedonian monarchy. In 
 few periods of history are the revolutions of affairs so 
 violent, in few periods, therefore, is it so difficult to 
 unravel the maze of events. For this purpose the 
 most convenient division of the history is into three 
 periods : the first extending to the death of Per- 
 diccas, 3'21 : the second to the death of Eumenes, 
 315 : the third to the defeat and death of Antigonus 
 at the battle of Ipsus, 301. 
 
 N 2 
 
180 MACEDONIAN MONARCHY. [bock iv. 
 
 Second 4. First grant of the provinces made by Perdiccas. 
 
 ^^"°°' The vanity of this man seems to have induced him to 
 
 Division of select the office of regent, in order that no separate 
 
 B V.^Sr province might lall to his share ; he placed his whole 
 
 reliance on having the command of the royal army, 
 
 although it had already given so many proofs of its 
 
 determination to command rather than to obey. 
 
 In this division Ptolemy son of Lagus received Egypt ; Leon- 
 natus, Mysia ; Antigonus, Phrygia, Lycia, and Pamphylia ; 
 Lysimachus, Macedonian Thrace ; Antipater and Craterus re- 
 mained in possession of Macedonia. — The foreigner, Eumenes, 
 woukl hardly have received Cappadocia, although yet to be con- 
 quered, had Perdiccas been able to dispense with his services. 
 Tlie remaining provinces either did not come under the new- 
 division, or else their governors are unworthy of notice. 
 
 First acts of ß fhc first acts of Perdiccas's government showed 
 Porciccas. ^^^ j.^^j^ dependence he could place on the obedi- 
 ence of men who hitherto had been his colleagues. 
 The general insurrection among the mercenaries who 
 insurrec- had bccn Settled by Alexander in Upper Asia, and 
 P^Asia^''' now wished to return to their homes, was, no doubt, 
 quelled by Python s destruction of the rebels ; but it 
 was not Python's fault that he did not make himself 
 independent master of the scene of mutiny. 
 Disobedi- 6. Still more refractory was the behaviour of Le- 
 enceofAn- ^ and Anticcouus, whcn they received orders 
 
 tigonus and .0 ' . J . 
 
 Leonnatus. to put humeucs m posscssion 01 his provmce. Anti- 
 gonus was too haughty to obey ; and Leonnatus pre- 
 ferred going over into Europe to marry Cleopatra ; 
 there, however, he almost immediately met with his 
 death in the Lamian war. (See below. Book IV. 
 Period III. parag. 2.) Perdiccas, therefore, was him- 
 self obliged to undertake the expedition with the 
 B. c. 322. royal army ; he succeeded by the defeat of Ariarathes. 
 Perdiccas 7. AmlDitious vicws of Pci'diccas, who, in order to 
 
 mat-y'c°eo- »sccnd the throuc by a marriage with Cleopatra, re- 
 patra, but is pudiatcs Nicsea, the daughter of Antipater. Cleo- 
 ' patra actually came over to Asia ; but Perdiccas, 
 being obliged, at the request of the army, to marry 
 Eurydice, Philip's niece, after the murder of her 
 mother Cyane, to the king Arrhidaeus, found her a 
 troublesome rival and opponent in the government. 
 
PERIOD II.] TO THE BATTLE OF IPSUS. 181 
 
 8. Attempts of Perdiccas to overthrow Antigonus Second 
 and Ptolemy, by accusing them before the army. ^^^°°' 
 Antigonus passes over to Antipater in Macedonia ; seeks to 
 and gives rise to the league between Antipater, Cra- ^.oirus^rnd 
 terus, and Ptolemy, against Perdiccas and Eumenes. Ptolemy. 
 
 9. Commencement and termination of the first War be- 
 war. Perdiccas himself marches against Egypt, Iwo^parties, 
 leaving his friend Eumenes to command in Asia Mi- 32i. 
 nor: meanwhile Antipater and Craterus fall upon 
 
 Asia ; the former advances towards Syria against 
 Perdiccas ; the latter is defeated and slain by Eu- 
 menes. Before the arrival, however, of Antipater, 
 Perdiccas, after repeated and vain attempts to cross 
 the Nile, falls a victim to the insurrection of his own 
 troops. — Thus three of the principal personages, Per- 320. 
 diccas, Craterus, Leonnatus, were already removed 
 from the theatre of action ; and the victorious Eu- 
 menes, now master of Asia Minor, had to maintain, 
 unaided, the struggle against the confederates. 
 
 10. Second period, from the death of Perdiccas to b. c. 320— 
 that of Eumenes. — Python and Arrhidaeus quickly 
 resigning the regency, it is assumed by Antipater. — Antipater 
 New division of the provinces at Trisparadisus in goff"^" 
 Syria. Seleucus receives Babylon ; Antigonus is 
 promised, besides his former possessions, all those of 
 
 the outlawed Eumenes. 
 
 11. War of Antigonus with Eumenes. The lat- 
 ter, defeated by treachery, shuts himself up in the 
 mountain fastness of Nora, there to await more fa- 
 vourable times ; and Antigonus remains master of all 
 Asia Minor : in the mean time Ptolemy ventures to 
 take possession of Syria and Phoenicia. 
 
 12. Death of the regent Antipater, in the same Antipater 
 year (320) ; he bequeaths the regency to his friend, '^^^• 
 
 the aged Polysperchon, to the exclusion of his own Polysper- 
 son Cassander. Antigonus now begins to unfold his 
 ambitious plans ; he endeavours vainly to win over 
 Eumenes, who deceives him in the negotiations, and sio 
 seizes the opportunity of leaving his mountain fastness. 
 
 13. Eumenes's plan to strengthen himself in Up- 
 per Asia ; as he is on the way he receives tidings of 
 
 CHON re- 
 'ent. 
 
182 MACEDONIAN MONARCHY. [book iv. 
 
 second liis being appointed generalissimo of the royal troops. 
 L What better man could Polysperchon have selected 
 
 for the office, than he who in his conduct towards 
 Antigonus exhibited so striking an example of attach- 
 ment to the royal house ? 
 
 14. Exertions of Eumenes to maintain himself in 
 Lower Asia, ineffectual, the naval victory won by 
 
 B. c. 318. Antigonus over the royal fleet, commanded by Cli- 
 
 tus, depriving him of the empire of the sea. He 
 
 bursts into Upper Asia ; where, in the spring, he 
 
 317. unites with the satraps, who had taken arms against 
 
 the powerful Seleucus of Babylon. 
 
 15. Antigonus following up the royal general, 
 Upper Asia becomes the theatre of war. Victorious 
 as was at first the stand made by Eumenes, neither 
 valour nor talent were of any avail against the insub- 
 ordination of the royal troops, and the jealousy of the 
 other commanders. Attacked in winter-quarters by 
 Antigonus, he was, after the battle, delivered into the 
 hands of his enemy by the mutinous Argyraspidse, 
 
 315. who had lost their baggage : he was put to death, 
 and in him the king's family lost its only loyal sup- 
 porter. 
 
 16. Great changes had also taken place in the 
 royal family. Her enemy Antipater having deceased, 
 Olympias, invited by Polysperchon, who wished to 
 strengthen himself against Cassander, had returned 
 
 317. from Epirus, and put to death Arrhidseus together 
 with his wife, Eurydice : in the year following she 
 was besieged in Pydna by Cassander, and being 
 315. obliged to surrender, was in her turn executed ; 
 meanwhile Cassander held Roxana and the young- 
 king in his own power. 
 315—301. 17. Third period, from the death of Eumenes to 
 nancHf ^^^^^ ^^ Aiitigouus. — The rout of Eumenes seemed to 
 Antigonus. havc established for ever the power of Antigonus in 
 Asia ; still animated with the fire of youth, though 
 full of years, he saw himself revived in his son De- 
 metrius, fond of boisterous revelry, but gallant and 
 B. c. 315. talented. — Even Seleucus thought it time to consult 
 his safety by flying from Babylon into Egypt. 
 
PERIOD II.] TO THE BATTLE OF IPSUS. 183 
 
 18. Changes introduced by Antlgonus into the Second 
 upper provinces ; return to Asia Minor, where his ^^^°°' 
 presence seemed indispensable, by reason of the ag- 
 grandizement of Ptolemy in Syria and Phoenicia, of 
 
 the Macedonian Cassander in Europe, of Lysimachus 
 in Mysia, and the Carian Cassander in Asia Minor. 
 — He repossesses himself of Phoenicia, a country of 
 the first importance for the construction of a fleet. 
 
 Siege of Tyre, 314 — 313 : it lasts fourteen months ; a proof 
 that the city was certainly not razed by Alexander. 
 
 19. The fugitive Seleucus forms a league against 
 Antigonus and Demetrius, between Ptolemy, the 
 two Cassanders, and Lysimachus. But Antigonus 
 frustrates their combination, himself driving out the 
 Carian Cassander, and his son marching against 
 Ptolemy. 
 
 Victory won by Ptolemy over Demetrius at Gaza, 312 ; after 
 which Seleucus marches back to Babylon, and, although subse- 
 quently followed up by Demetrius, permanently maintains his* 
 footing in Upper Asia. — On the other hand, Ptolemy, at the 
 first approach of Antigonus with the main body, surrenders back 
 Syria and Phcenicia, 312. 
 
 20. A general peace concluded between Antigo- Peace 
 nus and his enemies, Seleucus only excepted, from ^0^^=^11*1^^'' 
 whom Upper Asia is to be again wrested. The first 
 article, that each should retain what he had, demon- 
 strates pretty evidently that the treaty was dictated 
 solely by Antigonus ; the second, that the Greek 
 
 cities should be free, was pregnant with the seeds of 
 a new war, ready to burst forth at every favourable 
 opportunity ; the third, that the young Alexander 
 should be raised to the throne upon attaining his ma- 
 jority, was probably the death-warrant of the hapless 
 prince, who, that same year, together with his mother, 
 was murdered by Cassander. — Shortly after, at the 
 instigation of Antigonus, Cleopatra was put to death, 
 in order that Ptolemy might be thwarted in his ob- 
 ject, which depended on a matrimonial connexion 
 
 with that princess. Disputes on 
 
 21. Even the execution of the articles must have the libera- 
 given rise to hostilities ; Ptolemy wishing to force Greece. 
 
184 
 
 MACEDONIAN MONARCHY. 
 
 [book IV. 
 
 Second 
 Period. 
 
 Antigonus, and he, on his side, to compel Cassander, 
 to withdraw the garrisons from the Grecian towns ; 
 a condition which neither party felt inclined to fulfil. 
 Grecian freedom was now but a name ; this, how- 
 ever, is not the only example history furnishes of po- 
 litical ideas making the greatest stir long after they 
 have survived their own existence ; for then they be- 
 come excellent tools in the hands of artful designers. 
 
 Expedition of Demetrius to liberate Athens, 308. The day 
 when he announced freedom to the Athenians, must have been 
 the happiest of his hfe ! Few portions of history present such 
 a scope for the contemplation of human nature as the twofold 
 sojourn of Demetrius at Athens. 
 
 22. The growing power of Ptolemy on the sea, 
 and the capture of Cyprus, determines Antigonus to 
 an open rupture : he commands his son to drive Pto- 
 lemy out of the island. 
 
 Naval victory of Demetrius off Cyprus, 307, perhaps the 
 -•greatest and most bloody in history ; nevertheless, as little de- 
 cisive to the general question as are most naval battles. The 
 assumption of the royal title, first by the conqueror, afterwards 
 by the conquered, and ultimately by all the rest, was but a 
 mere form now that the royal family was extirpated. 
 
 Rhodes 
 besieged 
 
 23. The conquerors having failed in their project 
 of subduing Egypt, made the wealthy republic of the 
 Rhodians, as an ally of that country, the victim of 
 their fury. But though in the renowned siege of 
 their capital, Demetrius earned his title of Polior- 
 B. c. 305. cetes, the noble defence of the Rhodians afforded an 
 illustrious example of the power of discipline in con- 
 junction with well-guided patriotism. The invitation 
 of the Athenians came seasonably to Demetrius ; he 
 raised the blockade and proceeded to complete the 
 3U4. liberation of Greece, the necessity of which became 
 every day more pressing. 
 Demetrius 24. Sccoud sojoum of Dcmctrius in Greece. The 
 again visits exDulsion of Cassandcr s garrisons from the Grecian 
 
 Greece. . r • i i r^ i • rt i 
 
 Cities, and more particularly irom those in relopon- 
 nesus ; the appointment of Demetrius i s generahssimo 
 of Greece, for the conquest of Macedonia and Thrace ; 
 proved not only to Cassander, but also to the other 
 
rEUioD a.] TO THE BATTLE OF IPSUS. 185 
 
 princes, that their common interest loudly called Second 
 upon them to resist tiie over- powerful Antigonus. 
 
 25. Third grand league of Cassander, Ptolemy, League 
 and Seleucus, against Antigonus and his son ; brought SiVonus, 
 about by Cassander. How easily, even after the vio- •"«uj." 
 lent irruption of Lysimachus into Asia Minor, might 
 Antigonus have dispersed the gathering storms, had 
 
 not his presumption led him to place an overweening 
 reliance on his own oood fortune ! 
 
 26. Junction of Seleucus of Babylon and Lysima- Junction of 
 chus, in Phrvoia. Antio'onus, to concentrate his ^'"'f'"""^ 
 forces, recalls his son, who hatl pushed on to the bor- muchJs, 
 ders of Macedonia. The cautious Ptolemy, on the '^'^^' 
 other hand, is afraid to invade Syria ; and, in conse- 
 quence of a false report, that Lysimachus luul been 
 defeated, retires full of alarm, into Egypt. 
 
 27. Great and decisive l)attle fought at Ipsus in r.attio of 
 Phrygia, in the spring of 301, which costs Antigonus ^"'^'''.jm 
 his life, and annihilates his empire, as the two con- 
 querors divide it between themselves, without taking 
 
 any account of the absent confederates. Asia Minor, 
 as far as Mount Taurus, falls to the share of Lysima- 
 chus ; and all the rest, with the exception of C^ilicia, 
 which is given to Plisth(>nes, Cassander's brotlier, is 
 left to Seleucus. — Demetrius, by the help of his navy, 
 escapes into Greece. 
 
 28. The almost unbroken series of wars which had Domestic 
 raged from the time of Alexander, must have pre- "[^'^„{^he 
 eluded the possibility of much being effected with mouarci))-. 
 respect to domestic organization. It appears to have 
 
 been nearly, if not wholly, military. Yet were the 
 numerous devastations in some measure compensated 
 by the erection of new cities, in which tliese princes 
 vied with one another, impelled partly by vanity to 
 immortalize their names, partly by policy to support 
 their dominion, most of the new settlements being 
 military colonies. Nevertheless this was but a sorry 
 reparation for the manifold oppressions to which the 
 natives were exposed by the practice of quartering 
 the army upon them. The spread of the language 
 and civilization of the Greeks deprived tiiem of all 
 
Second 
 Period. 
 
 186 
 
 MACEDONIAN MONARCHY. 
 
 [book IV. 
 
 national distinction ; their own languages sinking into 
 mere provincial dialects. Alexander's monarchy af- 
 fords a striking example of the little that can be ex- 
 pected from a forced amalgamation of races, when 
 the price of that amalgamation is the obliteration of 
 national character in the individuals. 
 
 Heyne, Opum regni 3Iacedo?nci auctarum, attritarum et 
 eversarum, catisce probabiles ; in Opusc. t. iv. This collection 
 contains several other treatises on Grecian and Macedonian 
 history, which cannot be all separately enumerated. 
 
 THIRD PERIOD. 
 
 History of the kingdoms and states which arose iipon the 
 dismemberment of the Macedonian Monarchy after the 
 battle of Ipsus. 
 
 I. History of the Sybian empike under the Seleucid.e, 
 B. C. 312—64. 
 
 Third SOURCES. Neither for the history of the Syrian, nor for that 
 
 Period, of the Egyptian and Macedonian kingdoms, has any eminent 
 writer been preserved. The fragments of the lost books of Dio- 
 dorus, and, from the time that these kingdoms became allies of 
 Rome, those of Polybius, several narratives of Livy, the Syriaca 
 of Appian, and a few of Plutarch's Lives, are the principal au- 
 thorities ; too frequently we are obliged to rely upon the ex- 
 tracts of Justin. For the history of the Seleucida?, in conse- 
 quence of the political connexion between these princes and the 
 Jews, the Antiquities of Josephus and the Book of Maccabees 
 become of importance. Besides these authorities, the many 
 coins that have been preserved of these kings, afford much in- 
 formation respecting their genealogy and chronology. 
 
 Of modern publications on the subject, the principal work is 
 Vaillant, Imperium Seleucidarum sive historia reffum Sy- 
 ria;, 1681, 4to. The inquiry is principally grounded on coins, 
 as is the case with 
 
 Froelich, Annales rerum et regum SyricB. Vienna3, 1754. 
 
 Seieucus 1. The kingdom of the Seleucidse was founded ni 
 
 Nicator, Uppgj. Asia by Seleucus Nicator. It was an exten- 
 sive empire ; but, being composed of various coun- 
 tries united only by conquest, it could possess but 
 
PERIOD III. J 
 
 I. SELEUCID^. 187 
 
 Period. 
 
 little internal stability except what it derived from J"jf^° 
 the power of its rulers. That power fell with the 
 founder ; and the transfer of the seat of empire from 
 the banks of the Tigris to Syria, entangled the Se- 
 leucidae in all the political disputes of the western 
 world, and facilitated the insurrection of the upper 
 provinces. The history of this kingdom divides it- 
 self into the periods before and after the war with 
 Rome ; although at the breaking out of this war the 
 seeds of its decline and fall had already been sown. 
 
 Seleucus received, 321, Babylon as his province ; but after 
 the defeat of Eumenes was obliged to take to flight, 315, in 
 order to avoid subjection to the conqueror Antigonus. But his 
 moderate government had rendered him so popular, that after 
 the victory won by Ptolemy over Demetrius at Gaza, 312, he 
 could safely venture to return witli only a few adherents to Ba- 
 bylon. In this year commences the kingdom of the Seleucidae. 
 
 2. In the ten following years, and while Anti- founds the 
 gonus was busied in Asia Minor, Seleucus laid the tile'seTu" 
 foundation of his power over all Upper Asia, with a cWae. 
 facility to which the detestation excited by the rigid 
 government of Antigonus mainly contributed. After B, c. 3i3. 
 his victory over Nicanor of Media, all in that quarter 
 declared spontaneously for him ; and the unsuccess- 311. 
 
 ful expedition of Demetrius taught Antigonus himself, 
 that it would no longer be prudent to assert his claims. 
 As early as 307, Seleucus was in possession of all the 
 countries between the Euphrates, Indus, and Oxus. 
 
 3. Great campaign in India undertaken by Se- Campaign 
 leucus against King Sandracottus. He penetrated i^j-"^^ 
 
 as far as the Ganges, and the close alliance he formed ß- <-'. 3ü->. 
 with the Indian sovereign lasted a long time after, 
 and was kept up by embassies. The great number 
 of elephants which he brought back with him was not 
 the only advantage accruing from this expedition ; 
 the intercourse with the East seems to have been per- 
 manently re-established. 
 
 4. By the battle of Ipsus Seleucus added to his seat of go- 
 dominions the greater part of the territories of An- removed' 
 tigonus ; — Syria, Cappadocia, Mesopotamia, and Ar- '»to Sjnu, 
 menia. Ihifortunately Syria now became the head 
 
188 MACEDONIAN MONARCHY. [book iv. 
 
 Third provincc, notwithstanding Coele-Syria and Phoenicia 
 ^^^'°°' were left in the hands of Ptolemy. How widely dif- 
 ferent would have been the course of historic events, 
 had the seat of empire remained at Seleucia on the 
 Tigris, and the Euphrates continued to be the western 
 boundary of the Seleucidee ! 
 
 5. Reciprocal relations between the several kings,- 
 who now combine in forming a kind of political sys- 
 tem, in which continued exertions to maintain a ba- 
 lance of power by alliance and mai'riage are plainly 
 discernible. 
 
 Connexion between Seleucus and Demetrius Poliorcetes, by 
 the marriage of the former with the beautiful Stratonice, daugh- 
 ter of the latter ; made with a view of counterbalancing a si- 
 milar connexion between Ptolemy and Lysimachus ; Lysima- 
 chus and his son Agathocles having united themselves with two 
 daughtei's of Ptolemy. 
 
 Long peace 6. The eighteen years of tranquillity enjoyed by 
 
 aoi'^oss Asia after the battle of Ipsus, prove that Seleucus 
 was one of the few followers of Alexander who had 
 any genius for the arts of peace. He either founded 
 or embellished a vast number of cities, the most im- 
 portant of which were the capital, Antiochia in Syria, 
 and the two Seleucias, one on the Tigris, the other on 
 the Orontes : the flourishing prosperity of several of 
 these places was the result of the restoration of eastern 
 trade ; new channels for which appear to have been 
 opened at this period on the main streams of Asia, 
 and more particularly on the Oxus. 
 
 The empire 7. The homc department of his empire was organ- 
 ized into satrapies, of which there were seventy-two. 
 But Alexander s maxim, " to give the satrapies to na- 
 tives," was wholly forgotten by his followers ; and the 
 Seleucidge were not long before they experienced the 
 evil consequences of swerving from that practice. 
 Under such a prince as Seleucus scarce any king- 
 dom could of itself fall to pieces ; but the king him- 
 self paved the way for the dismemberment of his em- 
 
 B. c. 293. pire, by ceding Upper Asia, together with his consort 
 Stratonice, to his son Antiochus ; not, however, with- 
 out the previous approbation of the army. 
 
 divided into 
 satrapies 
 
PERIOD III.] I. SELEUCID^. 189 
 
 8. War with Lysimachus, kindled by ancient jea- Third 
 lousy, and now fomented by family feuds. The battle ^^^^^°- 
 
 of Curopedion cost Lysimachus his throne and his Conquest of 
 life; and Asia Minor became a part of the Syrian 4^i'*-^^'"°'"" 
 realm. But as Seleucus was crossing over to Eu- 
 rope, to add Macedonia to his dominions, he fell by 
 the hand of an assassin, Ptolemy Ceraunus, and with 28i. 
 him the splendour of his kingdom was extinguished. 
 
 9. The reign of his son, Antiochus I., surnamed Antiochus 
 Soter, seemed not unprosperous, inasmuch as the 281—262 
 empire preserved its former extension ; but in any 
 
 btate founded upon conquest, the failure of new at- 
 tempts at an increase of territory is a sur token of 
 approaching ruin ; and this was the case here. — In 
 such a state the more immediately all depends on the 
 person of the ruler, the more rapid and sensible are 
 the effects of degeneration in a family like that of the 
 Seleucidae. 
 
 The late conquests of his father in Asia Minor entangled An- 
 tiochus in new wars ; although, hy he marriage of his step- 
 daughter Phila witli Antigonus Gonatas, lie ceded his claims on 
 Macedonia, 277. — Fruitless attempt at subjecting Bithynia, 279; 
 the king of that country, Nicomedes, calls in the Gauls, who had 
 invaded Macedonia, and giv s tliem a settlement in Galatia, 277, 
 where they keep tlieir footing, even after the victory won over 
 them by Antioclius, 275, and by tlieir participation in the wars, 
 as mercenaries, become of importance. — The newly risen state 
 of Pergamus likewise thrives, at the expense of the Syrian em- 
 pire, in spite of Antiochus's attack, 263 ; and the inroad into 
 Egypt, for the purpose of supporting the rebel Magas, is antici- 
 pated by Ptolemy II., 264. 
 
 10. Antiochus II., surnamed öeo'?. Durino- his Antiochus 
 reign the sway was in the hands of women ; and the b'' c^'Wi 
 diseased state of the interior of the empire became — 2i7. 
 palpable by the secession of various eastern provinces, 
 
 out of which arose the Parthian and Bactrian king- Rise of the 
 doms. The boundless luxury of the court hurried Z'Hihlc. 
 on the decline of the ruling family ; having once be- "■'^» ^'^^s- 
 gun to sink, it could not without difficulty have re- ''°'"^' 
 trieved its virtue independently of the matrimonial 
 connexions now constantly formed from within itself 
 
 Ascendency of his step-sister and wife Laodice, and of his sister 
 Apame, relict of Magas ; the latter involves him in war with 
 
190 MACEDONIAN MONARCHY. [book iv. 
 
 Third Ptolemy II. to vindicate her claims upon Cp'ene ; it ends by 
 Period. Antioehus's man'iage with Berenice, dauiihter of Ptolemy, and 
 his repudiation of Laodice. 260 — 252. Ilaving, after tlie death 
 of Ptolemy, 247, put away Berenice and taken back Laodice, the 
 latter, distrusting his motives, cuts him off by jjoison. The se- 
 cession of Parthia happened in consequence of the expulsion of 
 the ^Macedonian governor by Arsaces, founder of the house of 
 the Arsacida^ : tliat of Bactria, on the other hand, was brought 
 about by the Macedonian governor himself, Theodotus, who as- 
 serted his independence. (Concerning these two kingdoms, see 
 below, Book IV. Period III. Dist. Kingdoms iv. parag. 4, 5.) 
 At first, the former of these kingdoms comprised but a part of 
 Parthia ; the latter only Bactria, and perhaps Sogdiana ; both, 
 however, were soon enlarged at the expense of the Seleucidie. 
 
 Seieucus 11. Seleucus II. sumamed Callinicus. His reign, 
 
 CaUiincus^ tweiity ycai's in duration, is one unbroken series of 
 227. wars ; in which the kingdom, ah'eady enfeebled, was 
 
 subverted, partly by the struggle with Egypt, caused 
 by the hatred between Laodice and Berenice ; partly 
 by the jealousy of his brother Antiochus Hierax ; and 
 partly by vain attempts at recovering the upper 
 provinces. 
 
 Assassination of Berenice, and most unfortunate war thereby 
 kindled with Ptolemy Evergetes of Eg}-})t, 247 — 244. The as- 
 sistance wliich Seleucus obtains from his junior brother, Antio- 
 chus, governor of Asia ]Minor, induces Ptolemy to a truce, 243 ; 
 but another war ensues between the two brothers, in which 
 Antiochus, at first conqueror, is himself soon afterwards con- 
 quered in his turn, 243 — 240 ; and during this contest, Eu- 
 menes of Pergamus greatly increases his territory at the expense 
 of Syria, 242. — His first campaign against Arsaces, who had 
 formed an alliance with the Bactrian king, ended in a defeat, 
 238, regarded by the Parthians as the real epoch of the found- 
 ation of their kingdom. In the second campaign, 236, he him- 
 self fell into the hands of the Parthians, and remained a prisoner 
 till the day of his death, 227. 
 
 Seleucus 12. His elder son Seleucus III., surnamed Ce- 
 
 Cerauuus, p^^^j^^j,^ qj^ ^\^q point of taking the field against At- 
 tains, king of Pergamus, was removed by poison. 
 2'J4. But the dominion of the Seleucidse was re-established 
 in Asia JNIinor by his mothers fraternal nephew, 
 Achseus ; and the crown insured to the younger 
 brother Antiochus, governor of Babylon. 
 Antiochus 13. The long reign of Antiochus III., surnamed 
 B.^c. 22^i' the Great, is not only the most eventful in Syrian 
 187 history, but likewise marks an epoch, by the rela- 
 
PBMOD m.] I. SELECCID^. 191 
 
 tions now commencino: betvTeen Syria and Rome. — Tehbd 
 To earn the title of great was a task of no extreme ^^^^- 
 difficulty in such a line of princes. 
 
 14. Great power of Hermias the Carian. who soon fason«- 
 became so formidable to the younor monarch, that he ?" ™ Me- 
 was obliged to rid himself of him by murder. The Perei*. 
 great stand made by the brothers, Molo and Alexan- ''"" 
 
 der, satraps of EMedia and Persia, who probably had 
 an understanding with Hermias, threatened the king 
 with the loss of all the upper proyinces ; it ended in 
 the defeat of Molo, Hermias beinor at last no longer 
 able to hinder the king from marching against him 220. 
 in person. 
 
 15. The intrigues of Hermias excited Achaeus to warwito 
 rebellion in Asia Minor : but Antiochus held it more *? ^'!*^ 
 important, first to execute the plan he had previously sanfwäon 
 traced, of ejecting the Ptolemies firom their posses- 5l^^22o 
 sions in Syria ; great as the success which at first 219. 
 attended this expedition, it was completely traversed 
 
 by the battle oi Raphia, — Combining with Attalus of -i' 
 Pergamus, Antiochus then defeated Achseus, who, 
 being shut up in the citadel of Sardes, was treacher- 216. 
 ously delivered into his hands. 
 
 16. Great campai^rn of Antiochus in the upper Cimpaign 
 provinces, in consequence of the seizure of Media by ^^J'Z^ 
 Arsaces HI. — Hostilities ended in a compact, by ]*»<«. 
 which Antiochus agreed formally to cede Parthia " ' " 
 and H\Tcania ; Arsaces, on his side, pledgins: him- -lo. 
 self to turnish assistance asrainst Bactria. — But the 
 
 war with Bactria was also followed by a peace, leav- 
 ing the kinof. Euthydemus, in possession of his crown 
 and dominions. — The expedition now undertaken by 206. 
 Antiochus, in company with Demetrius of Bactriana, 
 against India, extended probably hi up the country, 
 and was attended with irap>ortant consequences to 
 Bactriana. (See below, history of Bactria, Book IV. 
 Period HI. Dist- Kingdoms iv. parair. 5.) 
 
 The result of these great expeditions was the 
 estabUshment of the supremacy of the Seleucidae in 
 I pper Asia : those countries excepted which had 
 been formally resigned. 
 
192 MACEDONIAN MONARCHY. [book iv. 
 
 Third On his return through Arachotus and Carmania, where he 
 
 Period, wintered, he likewise undertook a naval expedition on the Per- 
 sian Gulf: here Gerrha, in possession of its freedom, appears a 
 flourishing place of trade. 
 
 War with 17. Resumption of the plan against Egypt, after 
 
 ^öipt. • ^|jg death of Ptolemy Philopator ; and alliance with 
 Philip of Macedonia, then carrying on war in Asia. 
 Antiochus, it is true, attained his end in the expulsion 
 of the Ptolemies from their possessions in Syria, 
 Coele-Syria, and Phoenicia ; but then, his success 
 
 203—198. brought him in contact with Rome, an event of de- 
 cisive importance to himself and his successors. 
 
 War with 18. Growtli of the disputes between the king 
 °'"^' and Rome, proceeding from the conquest of the 
 major part of Asia Minor and the Thracian Cher- 
 197. sonesus ; meanwhile Hannibal had taken refuge 
 at the Syrian court, and the probability daily in- 
 creased of a great league being formed against 
 B. c. 195. Rome, although that power, after conquering Car- 
 thage, 201, and Macedonia, 197, had succeeded in 
 winning over Greece even, by the magic spell of 
 freedom. But Antiochus ruined all ; instead of fol- 
 lowing Hannibal's advice, and attacking the Romans 
 on tlieir own ground, he stood on the defensive, and 
 suffered himself to be invaded by them in Asia. His 
 defeat at Magnesia near Mount Sipylus compelled 
 190. him to accede to such conditions as Rome chose to 
 dictate, and the power of the Syrian empire was for 
 ever broken. 
 
 For the history of this war see below in the Roman history, 
 Book V. Period 11. parag. 10, 11. 
 
 Conditions 19. The couditioiis of the peace were: 1st, That 
 wit'hRome. Autiochus should cvacuatc Asia Minor (Asia eis 
 Taurum). 2nd, That he should pay down 15,000 
 talents ; and to Eumenes of Pergamus four hundred. 
 3rd, That Hannibal and some others should be deli- 
 vered up, and the king's younger son, Antiochus, be 
 given as an hostage. — The loss of the surrendered 
 countries was a consequence of this peace, less disad- 
 vantageous to the Syrian kings, than the use made of 
 it by the conquerors. By adding the greatest part 
 
PERIOD III.] I. SELEUCID^. 193 
 
 of the ceded territories to those of the kings of Per- Third 
 gamus, the Romans raised up alongside of their ene- ^^'"°" ' 
 my a rival, whom they might at their own will use as 
 a political engine against him. — Rome took care like- 
 wise that the stipulated sum should be paid by instal- 
 ments in twelve years, to the end that Syria might 
 be kept in a permanent state of dependence. 
 
 20. Murder of the king, 187. The reign of his Seieucus 
 elder son, Seieucus IV., surnamed Philopator, was a fsyllne'' 
 period of tranquillity ; peace arising from weakness. 
 
 — Though once he unsheathed his sword in defence 
 of Pharnaces king of Pontus, against Eumenes, his 
 fear of Rome soon compelled him to restore it to the 
 scabbard. He exchanged his son for his brother at 
 Rome ; but fell a victim to the ambition of his minis- 
 ter Heliodorus. 
 
 21. Antiochus IV., surnamed Epiphanes. Edu- Antiochus 
 cated at Rome, he sought to combine the popular no— feT' 
 manners of a Roman with the ostentatious luxury of 
 
 a Syrian ; and thereby became an object of universal 
 hatred and contempt. Our information respecting 
 his history is too meagre to allow of our deciding 
 whether most of the evil reported of him, in the Jew- 
 ish accounts especially, may not be exaggerated. At 
 any rate, among all his faults, we may still discern in 
 him the germs of good qualities. 
 
 22. War with Egypt, springing out of Ptolemy His war 
 Philometor's claims upon Coele-Syria and Palestine. ggj.",J^^ 
 Obscure as many parts are in the history of this war, 172—168: 
 yet it is evident that success attended the arms of 
 Antiochus, and that he would have become master 
 
 of Egypt had not Rome interfered. 
 
 The pretext for war, on the Egyptian side, was, that those 
 provinces had by Antiochus III. been promised as a dowry to 
 Cleopatra, sister of Antiochus and the mother of Philometor : 
 Antiochus Epiphanes, on his side, laid claim to the regency of 
 Egypt, as uncle to the young king, who, however, was soon de- 
 clared of age. — Opening of the war, and victory won by Antio- 
 chus at Pelusium, 171 ; in consequence of which Cyprus is 
 betrayed into his hands. — Pelusium is fortified with a view of 
 insuring the possession of Coele- »Syria, and of facilitating an 
 irruption into Egypt. — Another victory, 170, and Egypt sub- 
 dued as far as Alexandria. Philometor driven by a sedition out 
 
 O 
 
194 
 
 MACEDONIAN MONARCHY. 
 
 [book IV. 
 
 his intoler 
 ance : 
 
 Third of Alexandria, Avhere his brother Physcon is seated on the 
 Period, throne, falls into the hands of Antiochus, who concludes with 
 him a most advantageous peace, and takes his part against 
 Physcon. Hence siege is laid to Alexandria, 169 ; attended 
 with no success. Upon the retreat of Antiochus, Philometor, 
 concluding a separate peace with his brother, according to which 
 both are to rule in conjunction, is admitted into Alexandria. 
 Antiochus, bitterly enraged, now declares war against both bro- 
 thers, who crave assistance from Rome : he once more pene- 
 trates into Egypt, 168 ; where the Roman ambassador, Popil- 
 lius, assumes so lofty a tone, that the Syrian king is glad to 
 purchase peace by the surrender of Cyprus and Pelusium. 
 
 23. The religious intolerance of Epiphanes, exhi- 
 bited in his wish to introduce the Grecian worship 
 every where among the subjects of his empire, is the 
 more remarkable, as such instances were less fre- 
 quent in those times. This intolerance seems to have 
 taken its rise, not only in the love of pomp, but in 
 the cupidity of the king, who by that means was en- 
 abled to appropriate to himself the treasures of the 
 temples, no longer inviolate, since the defeat of his 
 father by Rome. The consequent sedition of the 
 
 B. c. ifi7. Jews, under the Maccabees, laid the foundation of 
 the future independence of that people, and contri- 
 buted not a little to weaken the Syrian kingdom. 
 
 See below ; History of the Jews, Book IV. Period IV. ; Small 
 states Jews, parag. 6. The deep decay of the finances of the 
 Seleucidte, palpable from the latter days of Antiochus the 
 Great, may be accounted for well enough, by the falling off of 
 the revenue, accompanied with increased luxury in the kings, 
 (an instance of which is furnished in the festivals celebrated by 
 Antiochus Epiphanes at. Daphne, 166,) and in the vast presents 
 constantly sent to Rome, in addition to the ti'ibute, for the pur- 
 pose of keeping up a party there. 
 
 24. His expedition also into Upper Asia, Persis 
 especially, where great disorders were likewise ex- 
 cited by the introduction of the Grecian religion, had 
 for its object not only the recovery of Armenia, but 
 the rifling of the temples. He died, however, on his 
 way to Babylon. 
 
 25. The real heir to the throne, Demetrius, being 
 detained at Rome as an hostage, Epiphanes was first 
 succeeded by his son Antiochus V., surnamed Eupa- 
 tor, a child nine years old. During his short reign, 
 
 his death, 
 B. C. 165. 
 
 Antiochus 
 Eupator. 
 
 164—161. 
 
PEKioD in.] I. SELEUCID^. 195 
 
 the quarrels of his guardians, the despotism of the Third 
 Romans, the protracted war with the Jews, and the ^'^'"°' 
 commencing conquests of the Parthians, reduced the 
 kingdom of the Seleucidae to a powerless state. 
 
 Contest between Lysias, regent in the absence of Epiphanes, 
 and Philip, appointed by the king, previously to his death, as 
 guardian of the young prince, terminated by the defeat of Philip, 
 162. — Eupator's right acknowledged at Rome, in order that the 
 guardianship might fall into the hands of the senate, who ad- 
 minister the government by means of a commission sent over 
 into Syria, and completely deprive the king of all power of re- 
 sistance. Octavius, head of the commission, put to death, pro- 
 bably at the instigation of Lysias. — While the Parthian king, 
 Mithridates I., is prosecuting his conquests at the expense of 
 the Syrian kingdom in Upper Asia, Demetrius secretly escapes 
 out of Rome, takes possession of the throne,*and causes Eupator 
 and Lysias to be put to death, 161. 
 
 26. Demetrius I., surnamed Soter. He succeeded Demetrius 
 in getting himself acknowledged at Rome, on which iöi!Üi5o 
 all now depended. The attempts to extend his power, 
 
 by supporting Orofernes, the pretender to the crown 
 of Cappadocia, against the king Ariarathes, had their 
 origin partly in family relations, but still mon;, as 
 was the case with almost all political transactions of 
 those times, in bribery. By this act he only drew 
 upon himself the enmity of the kings of Egypt and 
 Pergamus ; as, moreover, he was hated by his sub- 
 jects on account of his intemperance, the chances of 
 success were greatly in favour of the shameful usurp- b. c. 154. 
 ation of Alexander Balas, brought about by Hera- 
 clidas the expelled governor of Babylon, and backed 
 by the yet more shameful conduct of the Roman 
 senate, who acknowledged his title to the throne. 
 The Syrian kingdom was now fallen so low, that both 
 king and usurper were obliged to court the favour of 
 the Jews under Jonathan, hitherto regarded as rebels. 
 In the second battle Demetrius lost his life. 
 
 27. The usurper Alexander Balas endeavoured to Alexander 
 confirm his power by a marriage with Cleopatra, fl^u'i^s. 
 daughter of Ptolemy Philometor : but he soon evinced 
 himself more unworthy even than his predecessor of 
 wielding the sceptre. While he abandoned the go- 
 vernment to his favourite, the detested Aramonius, 
 
 o 2 
 
196 MACEDONIAN MONARCHY. [book iv. 
 
 Third the eldest remaining son of Demetrius succeeds not 
 ^'^^°°' only in raising a party against the usurper, but even 
 
 in prevailing on Philometor to side with himself, and 
 give him in marriage Cleopatra, whom he takes away 
 from Balas. The consequence of this alliance with 
 145. Egypt was the defeat and downfal of Balas, although 
 it cost Philometor his life. 
 
 The account, that Philometor wished to conquer Syria for 
 himself, must probably be understood as meaning that he had 
 formed the design of recovering the ancient Egyptian posses- 
 sions, Ccele- Syria and Phoenicia. Otherwise, why should he 
 have given his daughter to a second pretender to the throne ? 
 
 Demetrius 28. Demctrius IL, surnamed Nicator, 145 — 141, 
 
 U5-126. and for the second time, 130—126. The disband- 
 ing: of his father's mercenaries having; roused the in- 
 dignation of the army, the cruelty of his favourite 
 Lasthenes kindled a sedition in the capital, which 
 could not be quenched without the assistance of the 
 Jews, under their high priest and military chieftain, 
 Jonathan. — While affairs were in this posture, Dio- 
 
 B. c. 145. dotus, subsequently called Triphon, a dependent of 
 Balas, excited an insurrection, by bringing forward 
 Antiochus, the latter's son, and even, with the help 
 of Jonathan, seating him on the throne of Antioch : 
 144. soon after, Tryphon, having by treachery got Jona- 
 143. than into his power, removed Antiochus by murder, 
 142. and assumed the diadem himself. — Notwithstanding 
 Demetrius kept his footing only in a part of Syria, 
 he was enabled to obey the call of the Grecian colon- 
 ists in Upper Asia, and support them against the Par- 
 thians, who had overrun the country as far as the 
 Euphrates. — Although victorious in the commence- 
 ment of the contest, he was soon after taken by the 
 
 140—130. Parthians, and remained ten years a prisoner, though 
 treated meanwhile as a king. 
 
 Antiochus 29. In order to maintain herself against Tryphon, 
 Cleopatra marries the younger and better brother, 
 Antiochus of Sida (Sidetes) ; he being at first in alli- 
 ance with the Jews, — who, however, were soon after 
 subdued, — defeats and overthrows Tryphon. Being 
 now lord and master of Syria, he undertakes a cam- 
 
 of Sida. 
 1.39. 
 
I'KI(|()I> III. 
 
 I. .si:i,i;ii(;ii)/i-',. 1!)7 
 
 paip^li ii^iiiiisl, llic l'iiflliüiiis ; ;il IIk; ('(»rMinrnccirinil, i imiid 
 
 Ix'Tricndcd hy llic siihjccts of llic I'lirlliiiitis, lie issue- ' ' 
 
 crssful, l)iil, soon iillcrwiifcls is ii.l,liic.k(!(l in vviiilcr- i:i^. 
 
 (|iiiirl,('i-s hy f.li()S(^ very IriciKls, and cut lo piece's, i:u. 
 lordlier wil.li jiII Ins nrniy. 
 
 ir tlic uccoiiiiIh oI" tlw vvmiUfii licfiitioiisiicHH «if liis iiniiy uro 
 }U)l, i:\;\<^y^i:vn\.\i)i\^, tln-y luiiii.sli Liu; rlcuiCMl. pidol" of (lu; iiiililiiry 
 <l(!S|)o(,iHiii ol' lliMMc, l,iiiic,s. l»y coiilimii'd |>illiij;c iiiid cxlortioii, 
 tilt; wciilUi of liir coiiiilry liiid hern (■oIIccIimI in llir liaiids ol.' (Iii^ 
 Holdicrs ; and tin-, coiidiliDii ol' Syria iihimI. Imvr been jncUy 
 nearly tlic Haiiic. iih liiiil of I'-^rypI umlcr ijn- Muiiiliik .hiiIIumm. 
 
 .'iO. M(!unwlnle Denielnus II. Ii;ivnifj:; (!S(;aped from D-iMcirin« 
 prison, aoiiiii HcaUid liirnsel("(>n tlie llirone. I>ut Im;- fl' """','" "'" 
 in^- now still more overt )eiirni|j,- llian iieioic, nnd n. <. im 
 nieddlni«;- iu the I'lnypliini aliiiu's, I'loleniy I'liyscon 
 set up iin'iunst Inni a nvid in llie p(!rson ol" Alexander 
 ZehniJis, !i, |)retended son of Alexander l>al;is; hy \->r,. 
 Inni li(! was delented and shun. 
 
 Tlic. I'jirlliiiUi kiii^"; l'lirii;ilfs IF., liiid, iil, lirsl, Jili.'ralcd Dn- 
 rrifitriu.M, lo vvlioin lii.s Hi.nlcr IMiodo^ninc was imilcil hy iiiariiii<.f(% 
 ill order tlial,, hy appfariii^ in Syria, lie nii^rlil, oldi^^r Aiilio<diiis 
 to rclrcal. Anliocliiis having lallen, I'liraat.c.s would lain liavo 
 n'ca|itnrcd hcinrlriii,^, lint, lie, escaped. 
 
 .'{I. Tlie ensinn^' history of the Sehüicidie is a i'J(j_h5 
 (»icliin! of civil wars, family lends, iind deeds of hor- 
 ror, such ns are scnrcetly lo he piu-iilleled. The ut- 
 most ver^v; of iIm! empin; was now the l'ji|)lir;iles ; 
 nil Upper Asia aeknowled<j^iiin- the dominion of ihe 
 I'iirliiMins. The .lews, moreover, havin<i,' coinj)letely 
 vindi(^at«!d their indep(;nd(!nc(!, the kinjj^dom was con- 
 sequently conlined to Syria Jind I'lio'iiicia. So 
 thoronnhly decayed was tlu; state, that ev(!n tla- Ro- 
 m;iiis whether hecansr; then; vviis no lom^cr uny 
 tiling' to phnider, or JM'cau.sc thc^y conceived it inon; 
 pi'iident to sull'er tlu! Sfileucidjc to wear themselves 
 out in muliiiil (|iiarrels do not .seem to hav(t taken 
 any account of it, until, at the conclusion of tin; last ^>'''' '""■ 
 war with Mithridates, they ihon^ht proper fornadly 'ii„'m.n/ 
 to annex it to their empire as a province;, i.K.viiKrc, 
 
 War liclvvcen Al(!.\and(!r Z(;l)iiiiiH and the, ainI»ili((ii.M relict of 
 DcnielriiiH, (>l(^opa(ra, who with her own hand iiiiirders her 
 eldcHl Hon ScIciiciim, 1>. ( '. WiT), \'<,\- prelcnijin;.' (o I he crown, 
 
198 MACEDONIAN MONARCHY. [book iv. 
 
 Third which she now gives to her youngest son, Antiochus Gryphus ; 
 
 Period, ti^g ^ew king, however, soon saw himself compelled to secure 
 his own life by the murder of his mother, 122 ; Alexander Ze- 
 binas having been the year before, 123, defeated and put to 
 death. After a peaceful rule of eight years, 122 — 114, Anti- 
 ochus Gryphus is involved in war with his half-brother Anti- 
 ochus Cyzicenus, son of Cleopatra by Antiochus Sidetes : it 
 ends. 111, in a partition of territory. But the war between the 
 bi'others soon burst out anew, and just as this hapless kingdom 
 seemed about to crumble into pieces, Gryphus was murdered, 
 97. — Seleucus, the eldest of his five sons, having beaten and 
 slain Cyzicenus, 96 ; the eldest son of the latter, Antiochus Eu- 
 sebes, prosecuted the war against the sons of Gryphus ; Eusebes 
 being at last defeated, 90, the surviving sons of Gryphus fell to 
 war among themselves, and the struggle continued until the 
 Syrians, weary of bloodshed, did what they ought to have done 
 long before, viz. made over the sovereign power to Tigranes 
 the king of Armenia, 85. Yet Eusebes's Avidow, Selene, re- 
 tained Ptolemais till 70 ; and her elder son Antiochus Asiaticus, 
 at the time that Tigranes was beaten by Lucullus, in the Mith- 
 ridatic war, took possession of some provinces in Syria, 68 ; 
 these were wrested from him after the total defeat of Mithri- 
 dates by Pompey, when Tigranes was obliged to give up his 
 claim, and Syria became a province of the Roman empire, 64. 
 Antiochus Asiaticus died 58 ; his brother Seleucus Cybiosactes, 
 having married Berenice, was raised to the Egyptian throne, 
 but murdered at her command, 57 ; and thus the family of the 
 Seleucidee was completely swept away. 
 
 II. History of the Egyptian kingdom tinder the Ptolemies, 
 323—30. 
 
 The sources of this history are for the most part the same as 
 in the foregoing section ; see above, p. 186 ; but unfortunately 
 still more scanty : for in the first place, less information can here 
 be derived from the Jewish writers ; secondly, as on the coins 
 struck under the Ptolemies no continuous series of time is 
 marked, but only the year of the ki-ng's reign, they are by no 
 means such safeguards to the chronology as those of the Seleu- 
 cidfe. With respect to some few events, important illustrations 
 are supplied by inscriptions. 
 
 By modern writers, the history of the Ptolemies has been com- 
 posed under a form almost entirely chronological, and by no 
 means treated of in the spii'it which it deserves. 
 
 Vaillant, Historia PtoleriKzorum, fol. Amstelodam. 1701. 
 Illustration by the aid of coins. 
 
 Champollion Figeac, Annales des Lagides, ou Chronologie 
 des Rois d^Egypte, successeurs d' Alexandre le Grand. Paris, 
 1819. 2 vols. This treatise, which was honoured with a prize 
 
PERIOD III.] II. PTOLEMIES. 199 
 
 by the Academie des Inscriptions, has by no means exhausted Third 
 the whole of the subject. See Period. 
 
 J. Saint-Martin, Examen Critique de Vouvrage de M. Ch. 
 
 F. intitule Annales des Lagides. Paris, 1820. 
 
 Letronne, Recherch.es pour servir a Thlstoire de VEgypte 
 pendant la domination des Grecs et des Romains, tirtes des in- 
 scriptions Grecques et Latines, relatives a la chronologic, ä Vetat 
 des arts, aux usages civils et religieux de ce pays. Paris, 1828. 
 It cannot be denied that the author has thrown a much clearer 
 light on the subjects mentioned in his title. 
 
 1. Egypt, under the Ptolemies, fulfilled, and per- rionrishin^ 
 haps more than fulfilled, the designs projected by e-a^^ 
 Alexander ; it became not only a mighty kingdom, "n'l" the 
 but likewise the centre of trade and of science. The ■^'°'^'"^^^- 
 history of Egypt, however, confines itself, almost sole- 
 ly, to that of the new capital, Alexandria ; the found- 
 ation of that city produced, imperceptibly, a change 
 
 in the national character, which never could have 
 been wrought by main force. In the enjoyment of 
 civil welfare and religious freedom, the nation sunk 
 into a state of political drowsiness, such as could 
 scarce have been expected in a people who so often 
 rose up against the Persians. 
 
 Alexandria, originally, was no doubt a military colony ; it was 
 not long, however, before it became a general place for resort 
 for all nations, such as was scarcely to be met with in any other 
 town of that day. The inhabitants were divided into three 
 classes ; Alexandrines, (that is to say, foreigners of all nations, 
 who had settled in the place ; next to the Greeks, the Jews were, 
 it appears, the most numerous,) Egyptians, and Mercenaries in 
 the king's service. The Greeks and Macedonians, divided into 
 wards, (^vXac,) constituted the citizens ; they were under mu- 
 nicipal government ; the others, such as the Jews, formed bodies 
 corporate acco-rding to their respective nations. The more im- 
 portant, in so many respects, that Alexandria is for history, the 
 more it is to be regretted that the accounts respecting it, which 
 have reached us, are so far from satisfactory I — Concerning the 
 topography of ancient Alexandria : 
 
 BoNAMY, Description de la ville cTAlexandrie in the 3Icni. de 
 V Academie des Inscript. vol. ix. Compare, 
 
 t J. L. F. Manso, Letters upon ancient Alexandria, in his 
 Vermischte Schriften, vol. i. 
 
 2. Ptolemy I., urnamed Soter, the son of Lagus, Ptolemy 
 received Egypt for his share, at the first division after |° e'"'323 
 the death of Alexander. Aware of the value of his —284. 
 
200 MACEDONIAN MONARCHY. [book iv. 
 
 Third lot, he was the only one of Alexanders successors 
 
 ^'^'°°' that had the moderation not to aim at grasping all. 
 
 No doubt he was, by the ambition of the other princes, 
 
 entangled in their quarrels ; but his conduct was so 
 
 cautious, that Egypt itself was never endangered. 
 
 321. Twice attacked in that country, first by Perdiccas, 
 
 307. afterwards by Antigonus and Demetrius, he availed 
 
 himself successfully of his advantageous position, and 
 
 moreover, in this period, added to his dominion several 
 
 countries without Africa, such as Phoenicia, Judaea, 
 
 Ccele-Syria, and Cyprus. 
 
 The possession of Phoenicia and Coele- Syria, by reason of their 
 forests, was of indispensable necessity to Egypt as a naval power. 
 They frequently changed masters. The first occupation of those 
 provinces by the Egyptian government occurred in 320, soon 
 after the rout of Perdiccas by Ptolemy's general, Nicanor, who 
 took the Syrian satrap Laomedon prisoner, established his foot- 
 ing in the Avhole of Syria, and placed garrisons in the Phoenician 
 cities. In 314 it was again lost to Antigonus, after his return 
 out of Upper Asia, and the siege of Tyre. Ptolemy having 
 defeated Demetrius at Gaza, 312, repossessed himself of those 
 countries, but soon after evacuated them on the appearance of 
 Antigonus, to whom they were ceded by the peace of 311. At 
 the conclusion of the last grand league against Antigonus, 303, 
 Ptolemy once more occupied them : but alarmed at a false re- 
 port, that Antigonus had gained a victory, he retreated into 
 Egypt, leaving nevertheless troops in the cities. After the bat- 
 tle of Ipsus, 301, those countries Avere made over to him, and 
 continued in the hands of the Ptolemies until they were lost at 
 the second invasion of Antiochus the Great, 203. 
 
 Cyprus, (see p. 124,) like most other islands, acknowledged 
 submission to those who possessed the sovereignty of the sea, 
 and therefore could not escape the dominion of the Ptolemies. 
 It was taken possession of by Ptolemy as early as 313. Still 
 the separate cities of the islands preserved their kings, among 
 whom Nicocles of Paphos, having entered into a secret league 
 with Antigonus, was put to death, 310. After the great sea- 
 iight, 307, Cyprus fell into the hands of Antigonus and Deme- 
 trius. Subsequently to the battle of Ipsus, 301, it remained in- 
 deed at first in the power of Demetrius ; but that prince being 
 gone over to Macedonia, Ptolemy, 294, seized an opportunity of 
 recovering it, and the island from that time remained under the 
 dominion of Egypt. Availing themselves of their naval strength, 
 the Egyptian kings frequently exerted sovereign power over 
 the coasts of Asia Minor, especially Cilicia, Caria, and Pamphy- 
 lia, which appear to have absolutely formed a part of their terri- 
 tory under the second Ptolemy. It is, howevei', hardly possible 
 
PERIOD III.] 11. PTOLEMIES. 201 
 
 to define with accuracy what were their real possessions in Third 
 those quarters. Period. 
 
 3. Ptolemy likewise extends his territory within Cyreneand 
 Africa, by the capture of Cyrene ; in consequence ^'^^^ '*''- 
 of which Libya, or the neighbouring countries be- i£Tt.*° 
 twixt Cyrene and Egypt, fell under his dominion. 
 
 It is probable, also, that even in his reign the fron- 
 tier of the Egyptian empire was advanced into 
 Ethiopia ; but for this assertion we have no positive 
 authority. 
 
 The fall of Cyrene was brought about by domestic broils : at 
 the time the place was besieged by Thimbron, a portion of the 
 exiled nobles fled to Ptolemy ; the Egyptian prince commanded 
 that they should be reinstated by his general Ophelias, who 
 took possession of the town itself, 321. An insurrection in 
 312 was quelled by Agis, Ptolemy's general : nevertheless it 
 would appear that Ophelias had almost established his inde- 
 pendence, when, by the treachery of Agathocles, with whom he 
 had entered into a league against Carthage, he perished, about 
 308. Cyrene was now seized by Ptolemy, and given to his 
 son Magas, who ruled over it fifty years. 
 
 4. With respect to the internal government of Constitu- 
 Egypt, our information is far from complete. The go^er"^ 
 division into districts or nomes was continued ; sub- '"^"^ 
 ject perhaps, in some cases, to alterations. The 
 power of the king appears to have been unlimited ; 
 the extreme provinces were administered by go- 
 vernors, appointed by the sovereign ; similar officers 
 were probably placed at the head of the various 
 districts of Egypt itself; but hardly any document 
 relative to the home department of that country has 
 reached our time. High public situations, at least 
 in the capital, appear exclusively reserved to Mace- 
 donians or Greeks ; no Egyptian is ever mentioned 
 as holding office. 
 
 There were four magistrates at Alexandria : the Exegetes, 
 whose office was to provide for the wants of the city ; the Chief 
 Judge ; the Hypomnematographus — (Registrar of the archives ?) 
 — and the Srparr/yoc vvKrepivoc, no doubt, the supervisor of the 
 police, whose duty it was to watch over the peace of the city at 
 night. We have the express testimony of Strabo, that these 
 offices, which continued under the Romans, had already existed 
 under the kings ; whether their establishment can be dated as 
 
 tion of the 
 govern- 
 
202 
 
 MACEDONIAN MONARCHY. 
 
 [book IV. 
 
 Third 
 Period. 
 
 The priest- 
 caste and 
 religion re- 
 main. 
 
 Character 
 of the first 
 of the Pto- 
 lemies. 
 
 Literature 
 encouraged. 
 
 far back as the time of Ptolemy I. is a question that does not 
 admit of a solution. — The number of the districts or noraes ap- 
 pears to have been augmented ; probably with a political view, 
 in order that no governor or monarch should be invested with 
 too great a share of power. 
 
 5. Be that as it may, it is an undoubted fact, that 
 the ancient national constitution and administration " 
 were not entirely obliterated. The caste of priests, 
 together with the national religion, continued to 
 exist; and though the influence of the former was 
 considerably diminished, it did not entirely cease. 
 A certain sort of worship was, by appointed priests, 
 paid to the kings, both in their lifetime and after 
 their death. Memphis, though not the usual resi- 
 dence of the court, remained the capital of the 
 kinodom ; there the ceremony of coronation was 
 performed ; and its temple of Phtha was still the 
 head sanctuary. What influence had not the reli- 
 gion of the Egyptians upon that of the Greeks ! It 
 were difücult to say which nation borrowed most 
 from the other. 
 
 6. The regeneration of Egypt from the state of 
 general ruin into which she had been plunged, and 
 the permanent tranquillity she enjoyed during nearly 
 thirty years, the duration of the reign of Ptolemy I., 
 — at a time when the rest of the world was harassed 
 by continual wars, — must have heightened her pros- 
 perity under so mild and beneficent a ruler. But 
 Ptolemy was certainly the only prince who could 
 have taken advantage of these favourable circum- 
 stances. Though a soldier by profession, he was 
 highly accomplished, was himself a writer, and had a 
 genius for all the arts of peace, which he fostered 
 with the openhanded liberality of a king; while 
 amidst all the brilliant splendour of his court, he led 
 himself the life of a private individual. 
 
 Increase of Alexandria by the importation of vast numbers of 
 colonists ; especially Jews. — Erection of several superb build- 
 ings, more particularly the Serapeum. — Measures taken for the 
 extension of trade and navigation.- — The twofold harbour on 
 the sea, and on the lake Mareotis. — The Pharus built. 
 
 ^ But what more tlian any thing else distin- 
 
PERIOD III.] II. PTOLEMIES. 203 
 
 guished Ptolemy from his contemporaries was his Third 
 regard for the interests of science. The idea of ^^^'"°' 
 founding the Museum sprung out of the necessities 
 of the age, and was suited to the monarchical form 
 of government now prevalent. Where in those days 
 of destruction and revolution could the sciences have 
 found a shelter, if not under the protection of a 
 prince ? But under Ptolemy they found more than 
 a shelter, they found a rallying point. Here, accord- 
 ingly, the exact sciences were perfected : and although 
 the critic's art which now grew up could not form a 
 Homer or a Sophocles, should 7ce, had it not been 
 for the Alexandrines, be at present able to read either 
 Homer or Sophocles ? 
 
 Foundation of the Museum, (Society of the learned,) and of 
 the first library in Brucliiuni, (afterwards removed to the Sera- 
 pcuni,) probably under tlie direction of Demetrius Phalereus. 
 A proper estimation of the services rendered by the INIuseum is 
 yet wanting : what academy in modern Europe, however, has 
 done so much ? 
 
 Heyne, De genio ScbcuU Ptohmceorum. In Opuscnl. t. i. 
 
 INIatter, Essai historiquc sur Vecole (TAlexandrie. 1820. 
 
 8. Ptolemy H., surnamed Philadelphus, son of Ptolemy 
 Berenice, the second wife of his father, had ascended ^1^'^!'^'^' 
 the throne in 286 as joint king. His reign, which b.c.'284- 
 lasted thirty-eight years, was more peaceful even ^^^' 
 than that of his predecessor, whose spirit seemed to 
 inspire him in every thing, save that he was not a 
 warrior : but, by that very reason, the arts of peace, 
 trade, and science were promoted with the greater 
 energy. In his reign Egypt was the first power by 
 sea, and one of the first by land, in the world ; and 
 even though the account given by Theo(;ritus of its 
 thirty-three thousand cities may be regarded as the 
 exaggeration of a poet, it is very certain that Egypt 
 was in those days the most flourishing country in 
 existence. 
 
 The commerce of Alexandria was divided into three main 
 branches; 1. The land-trade over Asia and Africa. 2. The 
 sea-trade on the Mediterranean. 3. The sea-trade on the Ara- 
 bian Gulf and Indian Ocean. With regard to the land-trade 
 of Asia, especially that of India carried on by caravans, Alex- 
 andi-ia was obliged to share it with various cities and countries : 
 
204 MACEDONIAN MONARCHY. Lbook iv. 
 
 Third since one of its chief routes traversed the Oxus, and Caspian, 
 Period, to the Black Sea ; while the caravans travelling through Syria 
 
 and Mesopotamia, spi-ead for the most part among the sea-ports 
 
 of Phoenicia and Asia Minor. — The trade over Africa extended 
 far west, and still farther south. Westward it was secured by 
 the close connexion between Cyrene and Alexandria ; and no 
 doubt followed the same roads as in earlier times : of far greater 
 importance was that carried on with the southern countries, or 
 Ethiopia, into the interior of which they now penetrated, prin- 
 cipally for the purpose of procuring elephants. The navigation 
 on the Arabian and Indian Seas had likewise for its immediate 
 object the Ethiopian trade, rather than the Indian. — The mea- 
 sures taken by Ptolemy with this view, consisted partly in the 
 building of harbours (Berenice, Myos-Hormos) on the Arabian 
 Gulf ; partly in establishing a caravan from Berenice to Coptos 
 on the Nile, down which latter the goods were further trans- 
 mitted to their destination ; for the canal connecting the Red 
 Sea with the Nile, although, perhaps, completed at this time, 
 was nevertheless but little used. The grand deposit for these 
 wares was the lesser harbour of Alexandi-ia, united by a canal 
 with the lake Mareotis, which in its turn communicated by an- 
 other canal with the Nile ; so that the account we receive of the 
 lesser harbour being more thronged and full of bustle than the 
 larger one, need not excite our surprise. With regard to the 
 trade on the Mediterranean, it was shared between Alexandria, 
 Rhodes, Corinth, and Carthage. The chief manufactories ap- 
 pear to have been those of cotton stuffs, established in or near 
 the temples. 
 
 The best inquiry into the trade of Alexandria will be found 
 in J. C. D. De Schmidt, Opuscula, res maxime Aegyptiorum 
 illustrantia, 1765, 8vo. 
 
 Revenue of 9. It would be important to know what, in a state 
 
 Egypt. iji^^ Egypt, was the system of imposts, which, under 
 
 Philadelphus, produced 14,800 silver talents, (four 
 
 millions sterling,) without taking into account the 
 
 toll paid in grain. In the extreme provinces, such 
 
 as Palestine, the taxes were annually farmed to the 
 
 highest bidder, a mode of levy attended with great 
 
 oppression to the people. The case appears to have 
 
 been very different with regard to Egypt itself; the 
 
 customs, however, constituted the main branch of 
 
 the revenue. 
 
 Events of 10. The wars waged by Ptolemy IL were limited 
 
 PhiiaSi- ""^ to those against Antiochus IL of Syria, and Magas 
 
 phus. of Cyrene, half-brother to the Egyptian king; the 
 
 former sprung out of the latter. Luckily for Egypt 
 
 Ptolemy IL was of a weak constitution, and by his 
 
PERIOD III.] II. PTOLEMIES. "205 
 
 state of health was incapacitated from commanding i hikd 
 his armies in person. — Under his reign the first '''!'""'_ 
 foundation was laid, by means of reciprocal embas- 
 sies, of that connexion with Rome which afterwards 
 decided the fate of Egypt. 
 
 Magas had, after the defeat of OpheUas, received Cyrene, 
 308. He had married Apanie, daugliter of Antiochus I., and 
 in 266 had raised the standard of rebellion with tlie intention of 
 invading Kgypt itself, when an insurrection in Marniarica eoni- 
 pelled him to retreat ; he contrived, notwithstanding, to prevail 
 upon his father-in-law to undertake an expedition against 
 Egypt, which, however, was frustrated by Piiiladelphus, 264. 
 To terminate tliis contest, Magas was about to unite his daugh- 
 ter Berenice with the eldest son of I'liiladcdphus ; Apame, wish- 
 ing to thwart the negotiation, fled over to her brother, Antiochus 
 II., whom, after her husband's death, 258, she excited to a war 
 against Egypt, which closed in 252. — The embassy to Rome 
 originated in the victory won by the Romans over Pyrrhus, 
 273 ; it was answered by another from the Romans, 272. 
 
 11. The son inherited from his father all but the charartor 
 simplicity of domestic life : under the reign of Phila- phihiliei"'^ 
 delphus, the court was first thrown open to that i'''"»- 
 efieminate luxury, which soon wrought the destruc- 
 tion of the Ptolemies, as it had previously done that 
 
 of the Seleucidtc ; at the same time was introduced 
 the pernicious practice of intermarriages in the same 
 family, by which the royal blood was more foully 
 contaminated here even than in Syria. Philadelphus 
 set the first example, by repudiating Arsinoe the 
 daughter of Lysimachus, and then marrying his own 
 sister, likewise; named Arsinoe ; this princess pre- 
 served her influence over the king as long as she 
 lived, although she did not bring him an heir, but 
 adopted the children of her predecessor. 
 
 12. Ptolemy III., surnamed Evergetes. Under rtoicmy 
 him, Egypt, froi^ci being merely mercantile, assumed b^c.^'Img— 
 the character of a conquering state ; notwithstanding ^^i- 
 
 his warlike spirit, he was not uninspired with that 
 genius for the arts of peace peculiar to his family. 
 His confjuests were directf^d partly against Asia in 
 the war with Seleucus II., and extended as far as the 
 borders of Bactria ; and partly, it is probable, against 
 the interior of Ethiopia, and the western coast of 
 
206 MACEDONIAN MONARCHY. [book iv. 
 
 Third Arabia. Countries so wealthy, and with which com- 
 ^^^'°"' merce had made men so well acquainted, could hardly 
 
 escape the arms of such a formidable power as Egypt ; 
 
 yet she seems to have made scarcely any other use of 
 
 this extension of territory, than to insure the safety 
 
 of her commercial routes. 
 
 The main source of the history of Ptolemy Evergetes, is the 
 inscription on the monument erected by that prince at Adule 
 in Ethiopia : it contains a chronological list of his conquests, a 
 copy of which has been preserved to us by Cosmas Indico- 
 pleustes ; modern researches, however, have shown the proba- 
 bility of its having consisted of two inscriptions, one referring 
 to Evergetes, the other to a later king of Abyssinia. — Accord- 
 ing to this monument, Ptolemy inherited from his father, be- 
 sides Egypt itself, Libya, that is to say, western Africa as far 
 as Gyrene, Coele-Syi-ia, Phcenicia, Lycia, Caria, Cyprus, and 
 the Cyclades. — War with Seleucus Callinicus caused by the 
 murder of Berenice, (see above, p. 190,) lasted until the ten 
 years' truce, 246 — 240. During this war he conquered the 
 whole of Syria as far as the Euphrates, and most of the mari- 
 time countries in Asia Minor, from Cilicia to the Hellespont : 
 an easy prey to a naval power. Whether the conquest of the 
 countries beyond the Euphrates, Mesopotamia, Babylonia, Per- 
 sis, Susiana, and Media as far as Bactria, was effected in these 
 four years, or not till between 240 and 230, is a question which 
 cannot be determined with certainty. If we may judge by the 
 booty brought back, this campaign was rather a foray tlian a 
 regular expedition for conquest, though Ptolemy, indeed, ap- 
 pointed governors in Cilicia and Babylonia ; yet the peculiar 
 situation of affairs in Asia at the time, Seleucus being at war 
 with his brother Antiochus Ilierax, and the Parthian and Bac- 
 trian kingdoms being also in a state of infant feebleness, af- 
 forded unusual opportunities for an expedition of this sort. 
 
 The southern conquests, so far as they may be referred to 
 Evergetes, were effected during the last period of his reign, in 
 a separate war. They comprised: 1st, The greatest part of 
 modern Abyssinia, — for as the catalogue of nations commences 
 with that of Abyssinia, it necessarily follows that Nubia had 
 already been subjected to Egypt. — The mountain range along 
 the Arabian Gulf, the plain of Sennaar as far as modern Dar- 
 fur, the lofty chain of mountains to the south, beyond the foun- 
 tains of the Nile. All these conquests were made by the king 
 in person ; and from those distant lands to Egypt, commercial 
 roads were opened. 2nd, The western coast of Arabia, from 
 Leuke Kome to the southern point of Arabia FeUx, was con- 
 quered by his generals and admirals : here, likewise, the secur- 
 ity of the commercial roads was established. 
 
 Monwmentum Adulitanum, published in Fabeicius, B. Grac. 
 t. ii. 
 
PERIOD III.] II. PTOLEMIES. 201 
 
 MoxTFAUCON, Coll. Pair. t. i., and in Chishull, Antiquit. Third 
 AsiaticiB. Peuiod. 
 
 The assertion that the monument beai'S two different inscrip- 
 tions is made hy Salt, in the narrative of his travels contained 
 in the Travels of Lord Vulentia. 
 
 13. Egypt was singularly blessed in having three 
 great kings, whose reigns filled one whole century. 
 A change now ensued ; but that change was brought 
 about by the natural course of events ; in fact, it 
 could scarcely be expected that the court should re- 
 main untainted by such luxury as must have pre- 
 vailed in a city, which was the main seat of trade, and 
 the deposit of the treasures of the richest countries. 
 
 14. Ptolemy IV., surnamed Philopator. A de- Ptolemy 
 bauchee and a tyrant, who, during the greater por- b'."c!'22i— 
 tion of his reign, remained under the tutelage of the 234. 
 crafty Sosibius, and, after the decease of that indi- 
 vidual, fell into the yet more infamous hands of Aga- 
 thocles and his sister Agathoclea. Philopator being 
 contemporary with Antiochus the Great, the dangers 
 
 that threatened Egypt under such a reign seemed to 
 be doubled ; they were, however, averted by the ill- 
 deserved victory of Raphia (see above, p. 191). 
 
 15. Agathocles and his sister would fain have Ptolemy 
 taken into their own hands the guardianship of his ^oiil'il,'^^* 
 son Ptolemy V., surnamed Epiphanes, a child only 
 
 five years old ; but the people having risen up and 
 made a terrible example of them, the office of 
 guardian was confided to the younger Sosibius and 
 to TIepolemus. The reckless prodigality of the 
 former soon gave rise to a feud between him and his 
 colleague, who was at least cunning enough to keep 
 up appearances. Meanwhile the critical posture in 
 which the kingdom was placed, by the attack of the 
 enleagued kings of Syria and Macedonia, compelled b. c.2ü3. 
 the nation to defer the regency to Rome and the 
 senate, who had hitherto carefully cherished an ami- 202. 
 cable connexion with Egypt. 
 
 The regency confided to M. Lepidus, 201, who hands over 
 the administration to Aristomenes of Acarnania. The sequel 
 will show how decidedly important this step was for the ulte- 
 rior destinies of Egypt. By the war of the Romans against 
 
208 MACEDONIAN MONARCHY. [book iv. 
 
 Thibd Philip, and their differences with Antiochus, Egypt was, no 
 Period, doubt, for the present extricated from her embarrassment ; but 
 nevertheless in 198 she lost her Syrian possessions, notwith- 
 standing Antiochus III. had promised to give them as a dowry 
 to Cleopatra, the affianced bride, and subsequently the consort 
 of the young king of Egypt. 
 
 To this time, or about 197, belongs the celebrated inscrip- 
 tion on the Rosetta stone, erected by the caste of priests as a 
 tribute of gratitude for past benefits, after the consecration of 
 the king at Memphis upon his coming of age : a monument im- 
 portant alike for palaeography, and for the knowledge of Egyp- 
 tian administration. 
 
 Ajmeilhon, Eclaircissemens sur V inscriptio Grecque du mo- 
 nument trouve ä Rosette. Paris, 1803. 
 
 Heyne, Commentatio de inscriptione Grceca ex Aegypto Lon- 
 dinum apportata, in the Commentat. Societ. Gotting. vol. xv. 
 
 Character of 16. The hopes conceived of Epiphanes, were 
 Epiphanes. prrievously disappointed as he grew up to manhood. 
 184. His guardian Aristomenes fell a victim to his ty- 
 ranny ; nay, his cruelty drove even the patient 
 Egyptians to rebel, although the insurrections were 
 B. c. 183. stilled by his counsellor and general, Polycrates. 
 His reign happened during the period in which 
 Rome crushed the power of Macedonia and Syria ; 
 and notwithstanding the close alliance between Epi- 
 phanes and Antiochus HI., the Romans succeeded in 
 holding the Egyptian king in dependence ; he was, 
 however, in the twenty-eighth year of his age, brought 
 to an early grave by intemperance and debauchery. 
 Ptolemy 17. Of his two SOUS, the elder, a child five years 
 
 " liiometor. qM, was his immediate successor ; this prince, by 
 the title of Ptolemy VI., surnamed Philometor, 
 ascended the throne under the guardianship of his 
 mother Cleopatra, who fulfilled the duties of her 
 office to the satisfaction of all, until 173. But after 
 her death, the regency having fallen into the hands 
 of Euleeus an eunuch, and Lenseus, these individuals, 
 asserting their claims to Coele-Syria and Phoenicia, 
 engaged with Antiochus Epiphanes in a war exceed- 
 ingly detrimental to Egypt, until Rome commanded 
 peace to be made. 
 
 Antiochus, after the victory of Pelusium, B. C. 171, and the 
 treacherous surrender of Cyprus, having possessed liimself of 
 Egypt as far as Alexandria, a faction arose in the city ; Philo- 
 
 Ph 
 
 18 
 
PERIOD in.] II. PTOLEMIES. 209 
 
 metor was expelled, and his younger brother Physcon seated on Third 
 the throne, 170. — The exile Philometor fell into the power of Period. 
 Antiochus, who compelled the fugitive to sign a separate peace, 
 highly injurious to the interests of Egypt. The articles were 
 not, however, ratified ; Philometor secretly entering into an 
 agreement with his brother that they should both rule in com- 
 mon, 169. Antiochus having in consequence again made an 
 inroad into Egypt, the two kings addressed themselves for as- 
 sistance to the Achseans and to the Komans ; the latter forth- 
 with despatched an embassy to Antiochus, commanding him to 
 evacuate the territory of their allies, which happened accord- 
 ingly, 168. 
 
 18. In the contest, which soon afterwards ensued Disputes 
 between the two brothers, the younger was driven 50^^ Epu 
 out, and sought a refuge at Rome ; when a partition phanes. 
 of the kingdom between the princes was determined 
 
 upon : the senate, however, after due consideration, 
 refused to confirm the decision, so that the disputes 
 between the two kings were rekindled and protracted, 
 until the younger fell into the power of the elder. 
 
 In the first division, 164, Philometor received Egypt and Cy- 
 prus : and the infamous Physcon had for his share Cyrene and 
 Libya. But, during his stay at Rome, Physcon, contrary to all 
 justice, obtained the promise of Cyprus ; Philometor refusing 
 to give up that portion of his share, and Cyi-ene having risen 
 up against its king, Physcon ran the risk of losing the whole of 
 his dominions. In the war which, supported by Rome, he 
 waged against his brother, Physcon fell, 159, into the hands of 
 Philometor, who not only forgave him, but, leaving him in pos- 
 session of Cyrene and Libya, added some cities in the place of 
 Cyprus, and promised him his daughter in marriage. 
 
 19. During the last period of his reign, Philome- Philometor 
 tor was almost exclusively busied with Syrian affairs, |n\'j[e"ff^,s 
 He supported Alexander Balas against Demetrius, of Syria. 
 and even gave him his daughter Cleopatra. Never- 
 theless, he afterwards passed over to the side of De- 
 mxCtrius, seated him on the throne, gave him in mar- 
 riage this same Cleopatra, who had been taken away 
 
 from Balas. But in the battle in which Balas was 
 overthrown, the Egyptian king also received his death- 
 wound. He may be regarded as one of the good b. c. 145. 
 princes of the Ptolemaic dynasty, especially if com- 
 pared with his brother. 
 
210 MACEDONIAN MONARCHY. [book iv. 
 
 Third 20. His younger brother Ptolemy VII., surnamed 
 Physcon, and likewise Evergetes II., a monster both 
 
 Ptolemy in a moral and a physical sense, who had hitherto 
 B. c,'^i45— been king of Cyrene, now possessed himself of the 
 ^^'^' throne of Egypt by marrying his predecessor s widow 
 
 and sister, Cleopatra, whom, however, after having 
 murdered her son, he repudiated for her daughter of 
 the same name. This prince, accordingly, once more 
 united the divided kingdom ; but at the same time 
 that he was purchasing the sanction of Rome by vile 
 adulation, he maintained himself at Alexandria by 
 means of military law, which soon converted the city 
 into a desert, and obliged him to attract foreign colo- 
 130. nists by large promises. Another bloody massacre, 
 however, produced an insurrection in the town, which 
 compelled the king to flee to Cyprus, the Alexan- 
 drines, meanwhile, raising to the throne his repudi- 
 ated wife Cleopatra. Physcon, nevertheless, with the 
 assistance of his mercenaries, recovered the sceptre, 
 and wielded it to the day of his death. 
 
 That a prince of such a character should nevertheless be a 
 friend to science, and himself an author, must ever be regarded 
 as a singular phenomenon ; yet his exaction of manuscripts, and 
 his treatment of the learned, whole crowds of whom he expelled, 
 betray the despot. 
 
 Ptolemy 21. His widow, the younger Cleopatra, to gratify 
 
 116—81^' ^^^^ Alexandrines, was obliged to place on the throne 
 
 the elder of her two sons, Ptolemy VIII., surnamed 
 
 Lathyrus, who was living in a sort of banishment at 
 
 116. Cyprus : to the younger, Ptolemy Alexander I., who 
 
 was her favourite, she accordingly gave the island of 
 
 Cyprus. But Lathyrus not choosing to obey her in 
 
 every thing, she compelled him to exchange Egypt 
 
 107. for Cyprus, and gave the former to her younger son. 
 
 But neither was the new king able to brook the 
 
 tyranny of his mother : as she threatened even his 
 
 life, he saw no other means of escape than to antici- 
 
 89. pate her design ; but failing in his project, he was 
 
 obliged to take to flight, and, after a vain attempt to 
 
 BP. recover the throne, perished. The Alexandrines 
 
 then reinstated in the government his elder brother 
 
PERIOD III.] II. PTOLEMIES. 211 
 
 Lathyrus, who ruled till the year 81, possessing both '^h'rd 
 Egypt and Cyprus. 1 
 
 Revolt and three years' siege of Thebes in Upper Egypt, still 
 one of the most wealthy cities even in those days, but after its 
 capture almost levelled to the earth ; about 86. — Complete se- 
 paration of Cyrenaica from Egypt : this province had been 
 bequeathed by Physcon as a separate branch-state to his illegiti- 
 mate son, Apion, 117 ; that prince, after a tranquil reign, be- 
 queathed it, in his turn, to the Romans, 96, who at first allowed 
 it to retain its independence. 
 
 22. Lathyrus left one daughter born in wedlock, obscure 
 Berenice, and two illegitimate sons, Ptolemy of Cy- fhThlton 
 prus and Ptolemy Auletes. Besides the above, there 8i— er, 
 was a lawful son of Alexander I., of the same name 
 as his father, and at that time residing at Rome with 
 the dictator Sylla. The following history is obscured 
 by clouds, which, amid the contradiction of accounts, 
 cannot be entirely dispelled. Generally speaking, 
 Egypt was now a tool in the hands of powerful in- 
 dividuals at Rome, who regarded it but as a financial 
 speculation whether they actually supported a pre- 
 tender to the Egyptian crown, or fed him with vain 
 hopes. All now saw that Egypt presented a ripe 
 harvest ; but they could not yet agree by whom that 
 harvest should be reaped. 
 
 The first successor of Lathyrus in Egypt was his legitimate 
 daughter Cleopatra Berenice, 81 : at the end of six months, 
 however, Sylla, then dictator at Rome, sent his client Alexan- 
 der II. to Egypt, 80 ; that prince married Berenice, and with 
 her ascended the throne. Nineteen days after Alexander mur- 
 dered his consort, and, according to Appian, was himself about 
 the same time cut ofi" by the Alexandrines, on account of his 
 tyranny. We afterwards hear, notwithstanding, of a king 
 Alexander, who reigned until 73, or, according to others, until 
 66 ; when, being driven out of Egypt, he fled to Tyre, and 
 called upon the Romans for that aid, which probably, through 
 Caesar's intercession, would have been granted, had not the sup- 
 plicant soon after died at the place of his refuge. He is said to 
 have bequeathed by will his kingdom to Rome ; and although 
 the senate did not accept the legacy, it does not appear to have 
 formally rejected the ofi^r ; in consequence of which, frequent 
 attempts were made at Rome for effecting the occupation. — 
 Either, therefore, Appian's account must be false, and this per- 
 son was the same Alexander II., or he was some other person 
 bearing that name, and beloi ging to the royal house. — Be this 
 as it may, after the death of Lathyrus the kingdom was dismem- 
 
 p 2 
 
212 
 
 MACEDONIAN MONARCHY. 
 
 [book IV. 
 
 Third 
 Period. 
 
 Cleopatra, 
 B. C. 51— 
 31. 
 
 bered : nnd- one of his illegitimate sons, Ptolemy, had received 
 Cyprus, but that island was taken from him, 57, and converted 
 into a Eoman province : the other, Ptolemy Auletes, seems to 
 have kept his footing either in a part of Egypt, or in Cyrene, 
 and was probably the cause of Alexander's expulsion, at whose 
 decease he ascended the throne ; although the Syrian queen 
 Selene, sister to Lathyrus, asserted her son's claims at Rome, as 
 legitimate heir to the throne of Egypt. With Caesar's assist- 
 ance, Auletes, however, succeeded in obtaining the formal ac- 
 knowledgment of his right at Rome, 59. But the measures 
 taken by the Romans with regard to Cyprus, gave rise to a se- 
 dition at Alexandria, 57, in consequence of which Auletes, being 
 compelled to flee, passed over into Italy : or, perhaps, he was 
 ordered to take this step by the intrigues of some Roman gran- 
 dees, anxious of an opportunity to reinstate him. Pompey's 
 attempts, with this view, are thwarted by Cato, 56. Meanwhile 
 the Alexandrines placed Berenice, the eldest daughter of Au- 
 letes, on the throne ; she married first Seleucus Cybiosactes, as 
 being the lawful heir ; and after putting that prince to death, 
 united herself to Archelaus, 57. — Actual restoration of Auletes 
 by the purchased assistance of Gabinius, the Roman governor 
 of Syria : and execution of Berenice, whose husband had fallen 
 in the war, 54. Not long after, this miserable prince, no less 
 effeminate than tyrannical, died, 51. 
 
 J. R. FoKSTER, Commentatlo de successoribus PtolemcBi VII. 
 Inserted in Comment. Soc. Gotting. vol. iii. 
 
 23. Auletes endeavoured by his last testament to 
 insure the kingdom to his posterity, nominating as 
 his successor, under the superintendence of the Roman 
 nation, his two elder children, Ptolemy Dionysos, 
 then thirteen years old, and Cleopatra, seventeen, 
 vf\\o were to be united in wedlock : his two younger 
 children, Ptolemy Neoteros and Arsinoe, he recom- 
 mended to the Roman senate. Notwithstanding 
 these measures, Egypt would not have escaped her 
 fate upwards of twenty years longer, had not the im- 
 pending calamities been diverted by the internal pos- 
 ture of affairs at Rome, and still more by the charms 
 and policy of Cleopatra, who through her alliance 
 with Caesar and Antony not only preserved but even 
 aggrandized her kingdom. From this time, however, 
 the history of Egypt is most closely implicated with 
 that of Rome. 
 
 Feuds between Cleopatra and her brother, excited and fo- 
 mented by the eunuch Pothinus, in whose hands the adminis- 
 tration was : they lead to open war : Cleopatra, driven out, 
 
PERIOD HI.] II. PTOLEMIES. 213 
 
 flees to Syria, where she levies troops : Caesar in pursuit of the Third 
 conquered Pompej arrives at Alexandria, and in the name of Period. 
 Rome, assumes the part of arbitrator between the king and '~ 
 
 queen, but suffers himself to be guided by the artifices of Cleo- 
 patra, 48. Violent sedition in Alexandria, and Caesar besieged 
 in Bruchium, the malcontent Pothinus having brought Achillas, 
 the commander of the royal troops, into the city. The hard 
 struggle in which Cajsar was now engaged, demonstrates not 
 only the bitterness of the long rankling grudge of the Alex- 
 andrines against Rome, but shoAvs also how decisive, to the 
 whole of Egypt, were the revolutions of the capital. Ptolemy 
 Dionysos having fallen in the war, and Caesar being victorious, 
 the crown fell to Cleopatra, 47, upon condition of marrying her 
 brother, when he should be of age : but as soon as the prince 
 grew to manhood, and had been crowned at Mempliis, she re- 
 moved him by poison, 44. 
 
 24. During the life of Caesar, Cleopatra remained Egypt be- 
 under his protection, and consequently in a state of ''^^^^ 
 dependence. Not only was a Roman garrison sta- I'lovmce. 
 tioned in the capital city, but the queen herself, to- 
 gether with her brother, were obliged to visit him at 
 Rome. After the assassination of Caesar, she took 
 the side of the triumviri, not without endano-erino: 
 Egypt, threatened by Cassius who commanded in 
 Syria ; and after the death of her brother, succeeded 
 in getting them to acknowledge as king, Ptolemy 
 Caesarion, a son whom she pretended to have had by 
 Caesar. — But the ardent passion conceived by Antony 
 for her person, soon after the discomfiture of the re- 
 publican party, now attached her inseparably to his 
 fortunes ; which, after vainly attempting to win over 
 the victorious Octavius, she at last shared. 
 
 The chronology of the ten years in which Cleopatra lived, for 
 the most part, with Antony, is not without difficulty, but, ac- 
 cording to the most pi-obable authorities, may be arranged in 
 the following manner. Summoned before his tribunal on ac- 
 count of the pretended support afforded by some of her generals 
 to Cassius, she appears in his presence at Tarsus, in the attire, 
 and with the parade, of Venus, 41 : he follows her into Egypt. 
 In the year 40, Antony, called back to Italy by the breaking 
 out of the Perusine war, is there induced, by political motives, 
 to espouse Octavia ; meanwhile Cleopatra abides in Egypt. In 
 the autumn of 37, she goes to meet him in Syria, where he Avas 
 making ready for the war against the Partiiians, until then pro- 
 secuted by his lieutenants ; here she obtained at his hands Phoe- 
 nicia, — Tyre and Sidon excepted, — together with Cyrene and 
 
S14 
 
 MACEDONIAN MONARCHY. 
 
 [book IV. 
 
 Third 
 Period. 
 
 Fiourishint 
 state of 
 Egypt. ■ 
 
 Cyprus ; and in 36 went back to Alexandria, where she re- 
 mained during the campaign. The expedition ended, Antony 
 returned into Egypt and resided at Alexandria. From thence 
 it was his intention to attack Armenia in 35 ; this design, how- 
 ever, he did not effect until 34, when, after taking the king pri- 
 soner, he returned in triumph to Alexandria, and presented to 
 Cleopatra, or to his three children by her, all the countries of 
 Asia from the Mediterranean to the Indus, already conquered 
 or to be conquered. Preparing then to renew, in conjunction 
 with the king of Media, his attack on the Parthians, he is pre- 
 vailed upon by Cleopatra to break with Octavia, who was to 
 bring over troops to him, 38. A war between him and Octa- 
 vius being now unavoidable, the Parthian campaign already 
 opened is suspended, and Cleopatra accompanies Antony to 
 Samos, 32, where he formally repudiated Octavia. From hence 
 she followed him in his expedition against Octavius, which was 
 decided by the battle of Actium, fought September 2, 31. — Octa- 
 vius having pursued his enemy into Egjqit, Alexandria was be- 
 sieged, 30, and after Antony had laid violent hands on himself, 
 the place surrendered ; and Cleopatra, not brooking to be drag- 
 ged a prisoner to Rome, followed the example of her lover, and 
 procured her own death. 
 
 ; 25. Even in this last period, Egypt appears to 
 have been the seat of unbounded wealth and effe- 
 minacy. The line of infamous princes who had 
 succeeded to the third Ptolemy were unable to de- 
 stroy her prosperity. Strange, however, as this 
 seems, it may be easily accounted for when we con- 
 sider that the political revolutions scarcely ever over- 
 stepped the walls of the capital, and that an almost 
 perpetual peace ruled in the country : that Egypt 
 was the only great theatre of trade : and that that 
 trade must have increased in the same proportion as 
 the spirit of luxury increased in Rome, and in the 
 Roman empire. The powerful effects wrought on 
 Egypt by the growth of Roman luxury, are most 
 convincingly demonstrated by the state of that coun- 
 try when it had become a Roman province ; so far 
 from the trade of Alexandria decreasing in that pe- 
 riod, — though the city suffered in the first days after 
 the conquest, — it subsequently attained an extraordi- 
 nary and gigantic bulk. 
 
PERIOD III.] III. MACEDON AND GREECE. 215 
 
 Third 
 III. History of Macedonia and of Greece in general, Period. 
 from the death of Alexander to the Roman conquest, 
 B. C. 323— ] 46. 
 
 The sources for this history are the same as have been quoted 
 above : see p. 186. Until the battle of Ipsus, 301, Diodorus is 
 still our grand authority. But in the period extending from 
 301 to 224, we meet with some chasms ; here almost our only 
 sources are the fragments of Diodorus, a few of Plutarch's Lives, 
 and the inaccurate accounts of Justin. From the year 224, 
 our main historian is Polybius ; and even in those parts where 
 we do not possess liis work in its complete form, the fragments 
 that have been preserved must always be the first authorities 
 consulted. Livy, and other writers on Roman liistory, should 
 accompany Polybius. 
 
 Among modern books, besides the general works mentioned 
 above, p. 1, we may here in particular quote, 
 
 John Gast, D. D. The Histoi-y of Greece, from the acces- 
 sion of Alexander of Macedon, till the final subjection to the 
 Roman power, in eight books. London, 1782, 4to. Although 
 not a masterpiece of composition, yet too important to be passed 
 over in silence. 
 
 1. Of the three main kingdoms that arose out of Extent of 
 Alexander's monarchy, Macedonia was the most in- ''^^'^^^'^°"^'^- 
 significant, not only in extent, — particularly as till 
 
 B. C. 286 Thrace remained a separate and inde- 
 pendent province, — but likewise in population and 
 wealth. Yet, being, as it were, the head country of 
 the monarchy, it was considered to hold the first 
 rank ; and here at first resided the power which, 
 nominally at least, extended over the whole. As 
 early, however, as the year 311, upon the total ex- 
 termination of Alexander's family, it became a com- 
 pletely separate kingdom. From that time its sphere 
 of external operation was for the most part confined 
 to Greece, the history of which, consequently, is 
 closely interwoven with that of Macedonia. 
 
 Posture of affairs in Greece at Alexander's decease ; Thebes 
 in ruins : Corinth occupied by a Macedonian garrison : Sparta 
 humiliated by the defeat she had suffered at the hands of Anti- 
 pater in her attempt at a revolt against Macedonia, under Agis 
 IL, 333 — 331 : Athens on the other hand flourishing, and al- 
 though confined to her own boundaries, still by her fame, and 
 her naval power, the first state in Greece. 
 
 2. Although at the first division of the provinces, Antiimter. 
 
216 
 
 MACEDONIAN MONARCHY. 
 
 [book IV. 
 
 Third 
 Period. 
 
 Lamian 
 
 war, 
 
 B. C. 323. 
 
 Olympias 
 retires to 
 Epirus, 
 
 Craterus, as civil governor, was united with Anti- 
 pater, the latter had the management of affairs. And 
 the termination, as arduous as it was successful, of the 
 Lamian war, — kindled immediately after the death of 
 Alexander, by the Greeks, enthusiastic in the cause 
 of freedom, — enabled him to rivet the chains of 
 Greece more firmly than they had ever been before. 
 
 The Lamian war — the spai-ks of which had been kindled by 
 Alexander's edict, granting leave to all the Grecian emigrants, 
 twenty thousand in number, nearly the whole of whom were in 
 the Macedonian interest, to return to their native countries — 
 was fanned to a flame by the democratic party at Athens. 
 Urged by Demosthenes and Hyperides, almost all the states of 
 central and northern Greece, Boeotia excepted, took up arms in 
 the cause ; and their example was quickly followed by most of 
 those in Peloponnesus, with the exception of Sparta, Argos, 
 Corinth, and the Achoeans. Not even the Persian war pro- 
 duced such general unanimity ! The gallant Leosthenes headed 
 the league. — Defeat of Antipater, who is shut up in Lamia ; 
 Leosthenes, however, falls in the siege of that place, B. C. 323, 
 and although Leonatus — who, with the view of ascending the 
 throne by his marriage with Cleopatra, had come to the assist- 
 ance of the Macedonians — was beaten and slain, 322, the Greeks 
 were finally overwhelmed by the reinforcements, bi'ought to 
 Antipater out of Asia, by Craterus. And Antipater having 
 fully succeeded in breaking the league, and negotiating with 
 each separate nation, was enabled to dictate the terms. Most 
 of the cities opened their gates to Macedonian troops ; besides 
 this, Athens was obliged to purchase peace through the medi- 
 ation of Phocion and Demades, by an alteration in her constitu- 
 tion, — the poorer citizens being excluded from all share in the 
 government, and for the most part translated into Tln-ace, — and 
 by a pledge to deliver up Demosthenes and Hyperides ; whose 
 place Phocion occupied at the head of the state. — The ^tolians, 
 the last against whom the Macedonian wars were directed, ob- 
 tained better terms than they had ventured to expect, Antipater 
 and Craterus being obliged to hurry over to Asia in order to 
 oppose Perdiccas. 
 
 8. That hatred which, even in the lifetime of Alex- 
 ander, had sprung up between Antipater and Olym- 
 pias, in consequence of his not permitting the dowager 
 queen to rule, induced her to withdraw to Epirus ; 
 her rankling envy being still more imbittered by the 
 influence of the young queen Eurydice. See above, 
 p. 180. Antipater, dying shortly after his expedition 
 against Perdiccas, in which his colleague Craterus 
 
PERIOD III.] III. MACEDON AND GREECE. 217 
 
 had fallen, and he himself had been appointed regent, Third 
 nominates his friend, the aged Polysperchon, to sue- '^"'°°' 
 ceed him as regent and head guardian, to the exclu- Antipater 
 sion of his own son Cassander. Hence arose a series n'am'erpo- 
 of quarrels between the two, in which, unfortunately lysperchon 
 for themselves, the royal family were implicated and sör/"^*^^^" 
 finally exterminated, Cassander obtaining the sove- bc. 320— 
 reignty of Macedonia. 
 
 Cassander having secured the interest of Antigonus and 
 Ptolemy, makes his escape to the former, 319: he had pre- 
 viously endeavoured also to raise a party in Macedonia and 
 Greece, particularly by getting his friend Nicanor to be com- 
 mander at Athens. — Measures taken by Polysperchon to oppose 
 him ; in the first place, he recalls Olympias out of Epirus, but 
 the princess dares not come without an army ; in the next place, 
 he nominates Eumenes commander of the royal troops in Asia 
 (see above, p. 181) ; he likewise endeavours to gain the Grecian 
 cities, by recalling the Macedonian garrisons, and changing the 
 governors set over them by Antipater. These latter, however, 
 were in most of the cities too firmly established to suffer them- 
 selves thus to be deposed ; and even the expedition into Pelo- 
 ponnesus, undertaken by Polysperchon to enforce his injunctions, 
 was attended but with partial success. — In the same year occurs 
 a twofold revolution in Athens, whither Polysperchon had sent 
 his son Alexander, nominally for the purpose of driving out 
 Nicanor, but virtually to get possession of that important city. 
 In the first place, Alexander and Nicanor appearing to unite 
 both for the attainment of one and the same object, the demo- 
 cratic party rise up, and overthrow the rulers, hitherto taken 
 from Antipater's party, and headed by Phocion, who is com- 
 pelled to swallow poison : soon after, however, Cassander occu- 
 pies the city, excludes from the administration all that possess 
 less than ten mines, and places at the head of affairs Demetrius 
 Phalereus, who, from 318 to 307, ruled with great prudence. — 
 Not long after, Olympias returns with an army from Epirus ; 
 the Macedonian troops of Philip and Eurydice having passed 
 over to lier side, she wreaks her revenge on the royal couple, 
 and on the brother of Cassander, all of whom she puts to death, 
 317. Cassander, nevertheless, having obtained reinforcements 
 in Peloponnesus, takes the field against her ; she is besieged in 
 Pydna, where, disappointed in the hope of being relieved either 
 by Polysperchon or by ^acidas of Epirus, both of whom were 
 forsaken by their men^ she is obliged to surrender, 3 1 6. Cas- 
 sander, having caused her to be condemned by the Macedonian 
 people, has her put to death. 
 
 4. Cassander being now master, and, from 302, cassander. 
 king of Macedonia, confirmed his dominion by a 
 
218 MACEDONIAN MONARCHY. [book iv. 
 
 Third marriage with Thessalonice, half-sister to Alexander, 
 ' and at the same time endeavoured to corroborate as 
 
 far as possible his authority in Greece. Polysper- 
 chon and his son Alexander, it is true, still made 
 head in Peloponnesus ; but the states without the 
 peninsula, ^tolia excepted, were all either allies of 
 Cassander, or occupied by Macedonian troops. Aft iv 
 B. c. 314. tl^e defeat of the league against Antigonus, in which 
 Cassander had borne a part, general peace was con- 
 cluded, with the proviso, that the Grecian cities should 
 be free, and that the young Alexander, when of age, 
 should be raised to the throne of Macedonia : this 
 
 311. induced Cassander to rid himself both of the young 
 prince and his mother Roxana by murder : but he 
 thereby exposed himself to an attack from Polysper- 
 chon, who, availing himself of the discontent of the 
 Macedonians, brought back Hercules, the only re- 
 maining illegitimate son of Alexander. Cassander 
 diverted the storm by a new crime, instigating Po- 
 lysperchon to murder the young Hercules, under 
 promise of sharing the government : Polysperchon, 
 however, unable to possess himself of the Pelopon- 
 nesus, which had been promised him, appears to have 
 preserved but little influence. Cassander met like- 
 wise with formidable opponents in the persons of 
 Antigonus and his son ; and although delivered by 
 
 308. the breaking out of the war with Ptolemy from the 
 danger of the first invasion of Greece by Demetrius, 
 his situation was more embarrassing at the second 
 
 307. irruption ; from which, however, he was extricated 
 by the circumstance of Antigonus being obliged to 
 recall his son, on account of the newly-formed league 
 (see above, p. 185). 
 
 Antigonus, on his return from Upper Asia, declares loudly 
 against Cassander, B. C. .314 ; despatches liis general Aristode- 
 mus to Peloponnesus, and frames a league with Polysperchon 
 and his son Alexander ; the latter, however, Cassander succeeds 
 in winning over by a promise of the command in Peloponnesus. 
 Alexander was soon after murdered, but his wife Cratesipolis 
 succeeded him, and commanded with the spirit of a man. Mean- 
 while, Cassander carried war against the ^Etolians, who sided 
 with Antigonus, 313 ; but Antigonus, 312, having sent his ge- 
 
PERIOD III.] III. MACEDON AND GREECE. 219 
 
 neral Ptolemy into Greece with a fleet and army, Cassander lost Third 
 his supremacy. In the peace of 311, the freedom of all the Period. 
 
 Grecian cities was stipulated ; but this very condition became 
 
 the pretext of various and permanent feuds ; and Cassander hav- 
 ing murdered the young king, together with his mother, drew 
 upon himself the arms of Polysperchon, who wished to place 
 Hercules on the throne, 310 ; but the pretender was removed in 
 the manner above described, 309. — Cassander now endeavour- 
 ing to re-establish his power over Greece, Demetrius Poliorcetes 
 was by his father sent into that country, in order to anticipate 
 Ptolemy of Egypt, in the enforcement of the decree for the free- 
 dom of the Greeks, 308 ; the result at Athens was the restora- 
 tion of democracy, and the expulsion of Demetrius Phalereus. 
 — From any further attack of Demetrius, Cassander was de- 
 livered by the war which broke out between Antigonus and 
 Ptolemy, (see above, p. 184,) and had the leisure once more to 
 strengthen his power in Greece, until 302, when Demetrius ar- 
 rived a second time, and, as generalissimo of liberated Greece, 
 pressed forward to the borders of Macedonia ; Demetrius was, 
 however, recalled by his father into Asia, and at the battle of 
 Ipsus, 301, lost all his dominions in that quarter of the world. 
 Yet although Athens closed her hai'boui's against him, he stiU 
 maintained his possessions in Peloponnesus, and even endea- 
 voured to extend them ; from thence, in 297, lie sallied forth, 
 and once more took possession of his beloved Athens, and after 
 driving out the usurper Lac'iares, forgave her ingratitude. 
 
 5. Cassander survived the establishment of his Cassander 
 throne by the battle of Ipsus only three years ; and f^^l' ^^^ 
 bequeathed Macedonia as an inheritance to his three throne to 
 sons, the eldest of whom, Philip, shortly after followed ^'^ ""''"• 
 his father to the grave. 
 
 6. The two remaining sons, Antipater and Alex- Antipater 
 ander, soon worked their own destruction. Anti- ^""l ^^^'^' 
 
 , ander 
 
 pater having murdered his own mother Thessalonice, 
 on account of the favour she showed his brother, was 
 obliged to flee; he applied for help to his father-in- 
 law, Lysimachus of Thrace, where he soon after died. 
 Meanwhile Alexander, fancying that he likewise 
 stood in need of foreign assistance, addressed himself 
 to Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, and to Demetrius Po- 
 liorcetes, both of whom obeyed the call only with 
 the expectation of being paid. After various snares 
 reciprocally laid for each other, the king of Macedonia 
 was murdered by Demetrius, and with him the race 
 of Antipater became extinct. ^- ^- ^^•^• 
 
 7. The army proclaimed Demetrius king ; and in 294—287.^* 
 
220 MACEDONIAN MONARCHY. [book iv. 
 
 Third his person the house of Antigonus ascended the 
 .'_ throne of Macedonia, and, after many vicissitudes, 
 
 estabhshed their power. His seven years' reign, in 
 vv^hich one project succeeded the other, was a con- 
 stant series of wars ; and as he never could learn 
 how to bear with good fortune, his ambition was at 
 last his ruin. 
 
 The kingdom of Demetrius comprised Macedonia, Thessaly, 
 and the greatest part of the Peloponnesus ; he was also master 
 of Megara and Athens. — Twofold capture of Thebes, which had 
 been rebuilt by Cassander, 293, and 291 ; unsuccessful attempt 
 upon Thrace, 292. His war with Pyrrhus, 290, in whom men 
 fancied they beheld another Alexander, had already alienated 
 the affections of the Macedonians ; but his grand project for the 
 recovery of Asia induced his enemies to get the start of him ; 
 and the hatred of his subjects compelled him secretly to escape 
 to Peloponnesus, to his son Antigonus, 287. Athens, taking 
 advantage of his misfortunes, drove out the Macedonian garri- 
 son, and, by the election of archons, re-established her ancient 
 constitution ; although Demetrius laid siege to the town, he 
 allowed himself to be pacified by Crates. Having once more 
 attempted to prosecute his plans against Asia, he was obliged, 
 286, to surrender to Seleucus his fiither-in-law, who, out of 
 charity, kept him till the day of his death, 284. 
 
 Pyninis of 8. Two claimants to the vacant throne now arose, 
 
 b' c"''87 ^'^■^- Pyrrhus of Epirus and Lysimachus of Thrace ; 
 
 286. but although Pyrrhus was first proclaimed king, with 
 
 the cession of half the dominions, he could not, being 
 
 a foreigner, support his power any longer than the 
 
 year 286, when he was deposed by Lysimachus. 
 
 The sovereigns of Epirus, belonging to the fomily of the 
 ^acidfe, were properly kings of the Molossi. See above, p. 
 121. They did not become lords of all Epirus, nor conse- 
 quently of any historical importance, until the time of the Pelo- 
 ponnesian war. After that period Epirus was governed by 
 Alcetas I. about 384, who pretended to be the sixteenth de- 
 scendant from Pyrrhus, the son of Achilles ; Neoptolemus, 
 father to Olympias, by whose marriage with Philip, 358, the 
 kings of Epirus became intimately connected with Macedonia, 
 d. 352 ; Arymbas, his brother, d. 342 ; Alexander I., son of 
 Neoptolemus, and bi'other-in-law to Alexander the Great ; he 
 was ambitious to be as great a conqueror in the west as his 
 kinsman was in the east, but he fell in Lucania, 332. ^acides, 
 son of Arymbas, d. 312. Pyrrhus IL, his son, the Ajax of his 
 time, and, we might almost say, ratlier an adventurer than a 
 king. After uninterrupted wars waged in Macedonia, Greece, 
 Italy, and Sicily, he fell at last at the storming of Argos, 272. 
 
PERioL III] III. MACEDON AND GREECE. 221 
 
 He was followed by his son Alexandei- IL, in the person of Third 
 whose successor, Pyrrhus III., 219, the male line became ex- Pe^^od- 
 
 tinct. Although the daughter of this last prince, Deidamia, 
 
 succeeded to the throne, the Epirots were not long before they 
 established a democratic government, which endured till such 
 time as they were, together with JMacedonia and the rest of 
 Greece, brought under the Roman yoke, 146. 
 
 9. In consequence of the accession of Lysimachus, Ljsima- 
 Thrace, and for a short time even Asia Minor, were *^^"^- 
 annexed to the Macedonian kingdom. But rankling b. c. 282 
 hatred and family relations soon afterwards involved 
 Lysimachus in a war with Seleucus Nicator, in 
 which, at the battle of Curopedion, he lost both his 
 throne and his life. 
 
 Execution of tlie gallant Agathocles, eldest son of Lysima- 
 chus, at the instigation of his step-mother Arsinoe : his widow 
 Lysandra and her brother Ptolemy Ceraunus, who had already 
 been driven out of Egypt by his step-mother Berenice, go over, 
 followed by a large party, to Seleucus, whom they excite to war. 
 
 10. The victorious Seleucus, already lord of Asia, Seieucus. 
 now causing himself to be proclaimed likewise king 
 
 of Macedonia, it seemed as if that country was again 
 about to become the head seat of the whole monarchy. 
 But shortly after he had crossed over into Europe, 
 Seleucus fell by the murderous hand of Ptolemy Ce- b. c. 28i. 
 raunus, who, availing himself of the treasures of his 
 victim, and of the yet remaining troops of Lysima- 
 chus, took possession of the throne ; by another act 
 of treachery he avenged himself of Arsinoe, his half- 
 sister ; but just as he conceived himself securely 
 established, he lost both his crown and his life by the 
 irruption of the Gauls into Macedonia. 
 
 The irruption of the Gaids, threatening desolation not only 
 to Macedonia, but to the whole of Greece, took place in tliree 
 successive expeditions. The first under Cambaules, (probably 
 280,) advanced no further than Thrace, the invaders not being 
 sufficiently numerous. The second in three bodies ; against 
 Thrace, under Ceretrius ; against Pteonia, under Brennus and 
 Acichorius ; against Macedonia and Illyria, under Belgius, 279. 
 By the last-mentioned chieftain Ptolemy was defeated ; he fell 
 in the contest. In consequence, Meleager first, and Antipater 
 subsequently, were appointed kings of Macedonia ; but both, on 
 account of incapacity, being soon afterwards deposed, a Mace- 
 donian noble, Sosthenes, assumed the command, and this time 
 liberated his country. But the year 278 brought v/ith it the 
 
MACEDONIAN MONARCHY. 
 
 [book IV. 
 
 Third 
 Period. 
 
 Antigen us 
 Gonuatas, 
 
 B. C. 274. 
 
 main storm, wliich spent its fury principally on Greece : Sos- 
 thenes was defeated and slain : and although the Greeks 
 brought all their united forces into the field, Brennus and Aci- 
 chorius burst into Greece on two different sides, and pushed 
 on to Delphi, the object of their expedition ; from hence, how- 
 ever, they were compelled to retreat ; and most of them Avere 
 cut off by hunger, cold, or the sword. Nevertheless a portion 
 of those barbarians stood their ground in the interior of Thrace, 
 wliich, consequently, was for the most part lost to Macedonia : 
 another portion, consisting of various hordes, the Tectosagas, 
 Tolistobii, and Trocmi, crossed over to Asia Minor, where they 
 established themselves in the country called after them Galatia 
 (see above, p. 236). Although there can be no doubt that the 
 Tectosag« must have come from the innermost parts of Gaul, 
 the mode of attack demonstrates that the main tide of invaders 
 consisted of the neighbouring races ; and, in fact, in those days 
 the countries from the Danube to the Mediterranean and Adri- 
 atic were mostly occupied by Gauls. — Greece, though she 
 strained every nerve, and with the exception of Peloponnesus, 
 was united in one league, could scarcely bring forward more 
 than 20,000 men to stem the torrent. 
 
 11. Antigonus of Gonni, son to Demetrius, now 
 seated himself on the vacant throne of desolated Ma- 
 cedon; he bought off his competitor, Antiochus I., 
 named Soter, by treaty and marriage. Successfully 
 as he opposed the new irruption of the Gauls, he was 
 dethroned by Pyrrhus, who, on his return from Italy, 
 was a second time proclaimed king of Macedonia. 
 That prince, however, having formed the design of 
 conquering the Peloponnesus, and, after an ineffect- 
 
 272. ual attack on Sparta, which was repelled with heroic 
 gallantry, wishing to take possession of Argos, fell at 
 the storming of the latter place. 
 
 Extraordinary as these frequent revolutions appear, they may 
 be easily accounted for by the mode of warfare in those days. 
 Every thing depended on the armies ; and these were composed 
 of mercenaries, ever willing to fight against him they had de- 
 fended the day before, if they fancied his rival to be a more 
 valiant or fortunate leader. Since the death of Alexander, the 
 Macedonian phalanx was no longer dependent on its captains, 
 but they on their men. The impoverishment of the countries, 
 in consequence of war, was such, that the soldier's was ahnost 
 the only profitable trade ; and none prosecuted that trade more 
 ardently than the Gauls, whose services were ever ready for 
 any one who chose to pay for them. 
 
 12. After the death of Pyrrhus, Antigonus Gon- 
 
PERIOD III.] III. MACEDON AND GREECE. 
 
 natas recovered the Macedonian throne, of which he Third 
 and his descendants kept uninterrupted possession, ^^'^'°°' 
 yet not till after a violent contest with Alexander, 
 the son and successor of Pyrrhus. But no sooner 
 were they secure from foreign rivals, than the Ma- 
 cedonian policy was again directed against Greece, 
 and the capture of Corinth seemed to insure the de- 
 pendence of the whole country, when the formation 
 of the iEtolian, and the yet more important Achaean, 
 league, gave rise to relations entirely new, and of the 
 highest interest, even for the universal history of the 
 world. After so many storms, the sun of Greece was 
 about to set in all his splendour ! 
 
 The ancient confederacy of the twelve Achasan cities (see 
 above, p. 117) had subsisted until the death of Alexander, but 
 was dissolved in the subsequent commotions ; particularly when, 
 after the battle of Ipsus, 301, Demetrius and his son made Pe- 
 loponnesus the principal seat of their power. Some of these 
 cities were now garrisoned by those princes, while in others 
 arose tyrants, generally favourable to their interests. In 281, 
 four asserted their freedom and renewed the ancient federation ; 
 which, five years afterwards, was gradually joined by the rest, 
 Antigonus being busied elsewhere, in consequence of his occu- 
 pation of the Macedonian throne. But the league did not be- 
 come formidable till the accession of foreign states. This took 
 place, in the first instance, with Sicyon, through the exertions 
 of the liberator of that town, Aratus, who now became the 
 animating spirit of the federation ; and in 243 brought over 
 Corinth, after the expulsion of the Macedonian garrison, and 
 Megara. AfterAvards the league gradually acquired strength, 
 by the junction of several Grecian cities, Athens among others, 
 229 ; and thereby excited the jealousy of the rest. And as 
 Aratus, who was more of a statesman than a general, and pos- 
 sessed but little independence, had in the very outset joined the 
 party of Ptolemy II., the league soon became involved in the 
 disputes of the great powers, and was too often but a mere tool 
 in their hands. The main principles on which it was founded 
 were the following : 1. Complete political equality of all the 
 federate cities : in this respect it essentially diflfered from all the 
 earlier federations in Greece. 2. Unconditional preservation 
 of the domestic government in every one of the cities. 3. The 
 meeting twice a year of deputies fi*om all the cities, at ^gium, 
 and afterwards at Corinth ; for transacting all business of com- 
 mon interest, particularly foreign affairs, and also for the pur- 
 pose of electing the strategus, or military leader and head of 
 the union, and the ten demiurgi, or supreme magistrates. — But 
 what more than all contributed to exalt this league, founded on 
 
224 
 
 MACEDONIAN MONARCHY. 
 
 [book IV. 
 
 Third 
 Period. 
 
 Demetrius 
 H. B. C. 
 243—233. 
 
 Antigonus 
 Doson, 
 B. C. 233 
 —221. 
 
 pure liberty, was the virtue of Aratus, 213, Philopoemen, 183, 
 and Lycortas, 170 ; men who breathed into it the spirit of union, 
 until, enfeebled by Roman policy, it was overthrown. 
 
 •j- Breitenbauch, History of the AchcBans and their League, 
 1782. 
 
 The ^tolian league was formed about 284, in consequence 
 of the oppressions of the Macedonian kings. The ^tolians 
 had likewise a yearly congress, panajtolium, at Thermus ; where 
 they chose a strategus and the apocleti, who constituted the 
 state council. They had, besides, their secretary, ypa^fiarevg ; 
 and supervisors, i(popoi, whose particular functions are, however, 
 matter of doubt. This federation did not increase like the 
 Achaean, none but iEtolians being admitted. The more un- 
 polished this piratical nation remained, the more frequently it 
 was used as the tool of foreign, and particularly of Roman, 
 policy. 
 
 13. Antigonus, in the latter part of his reign, had 
 recourse to various means, and more especially to an 
 alliance with the iEtolians, for the purpose of coun- 
 terpoising the Achseans. He died in his eightieth 
 year, and was succeeded by his son, Demetrius II., 
 who waged war upon the T^tolians, now, however, 
 supported by the Achseans ; and endeavoured to re- 
 press the growth of the latter, by favouring the ty- 
 rants of particular cities. The remainder of the 
 reign of this prince is little more than a chasm in 
 history. 
 
 The vulgar assertion that this prince conquered Cyrene and 
 Libya, originates in a confusion of names ; his uncle Demetrius, 
 son of Poliorcetes of Ptolemais, being mentioned by Plutarch 
 as king of Cyrene. The history of that town, from 258 to 142, 
 is enveloped in almost total darkness : cf. Prolog. Trogi, 1. xxvi. 
 ad calcem Justini. 
 
 14. Demetrius's son Philip was passed over ; his 
 brother's son, Antigonus II., surnamed Doson, being 
 raised to the throne. This king was occupied the 
 most of his time by the events in Greece, where a 
 very remarkable revolution at Sparta, as we learn 
 from Plutarch, had raised up a formidable enemy 
 against the Achseans ; and so completely altered the 
 relative position of affairs, that the Macedonians, 
 from having been opponents, became allies of the 
 Achaeans. 
 
PERIOD III.] III. MACEDON AND GREECE. 225 
 
 Sketch of the situation of Spartan affairs at this period : the Third 
 ancient constitution still continued to exist in form ; but the Period. 
 plunder of foreign countries, and particularly the permission to 
 transfer landed estates, obtained by Epitadeus, had produced 
 great inequality of property. The restoration of Lycurgus's 
 constitution had, therefore, a twofold object ; to favour the poor 
 by a new agrarian law and release from debts, and to increase 
 the power of the kings by repressing that of the ephori. — First 
 attempt at reform, 244, by King Agis III. ; attended in the be- 
 ginning with partial success, but eventually frustrated by the 
 other king, Leonidas, and terminating in tlie extinction of Agis 
 and his family, 241. Leonidas, however, was succeeded, 236, 
 by his son Cleomenes, who victoriously defeated the plans of 
 Aratus to force Sparta to accede to the Achaean league, 227 : 
 this king, by a forcible revolution, overthrew the ephori, and 
 accomplished the project of Agis, at the same time increasing 
 the Spartans by the admission of a number of perijeci ; and en- 
 forcing the laws of Lycurgus referring to private life ; but as 
 in a small republic a revolution cannot be confirmed without 
 some external war, he attacked the Acha^ans as early as 224 ; 
 these being defeated, implored, through Aratus, the help of An- 
 tigonus ; Cleomenes in consequence was, at tlie battle of Sellasia, 
 222, obliged to yield to superior force, and with difficulty escaped 
 over to Egypt ; while Sparta was compelled to acknowledge 
 her independence as a gift at the hands of Antigonus. Such 
 was the miserable success of this attempt made by a few great 
 men on a nation already degenerate. The quarrels between 
 the ephori and King Lycurgus and his successor ]\Lichanidas, 
 placed Sparta in a state of anarchy, which ended, 207, in the 
 usurpation of the sovereign power by one Nabis, who destroyed 
 the ancient form of government. Let him who would study 
 great revolutions commence with that just described ; insignifi- 
 cant as it is, none perhaps furnishes more instructive lessons. 
 
 Plutarchi Agis et Cleomenes. The information in which is 
 principally drawn from the Commentaries of Aratus. 
 
 15. Philip IL, son of Demetrius. He ascended Phüip ii. 
 the throne at the early age of sixteen, endowed with ^^j^' ^~^~ 
 many qualities, such as might, under favourable cir- 
 cumstances, have formed a great prince. Macedonia 
 had recruited her strength during a long peace ; and 
 her grand political aim, the supremacy of Greece, 
 secured by the connexion of Antigonus with the 
 Achseans, and by the victory of Sellasia, seemed to 
 be already within her grasp. But Philip lived in a 
 time when Rome was pursuing her formidable plans 
 of aggrandizement ; the more vigorous and prompt his 
 efforts were to withstand that power, the more deeply 
 
 Q 
 
226 
 
 MACEDONIAN MONARCHY. 
 
 [book IV. 
 
 iHip.n 
 Period. 
 
 "War of the 
 two leagues, 
 B. C. 221— 
 
 211 
 
 Negotia- 
 tions be- 
 tween Phi- 
 lip and 
 Hannibal, 
 214. 
 
 was he entangled in the new maze of events, which 
 imbittered the rest of his hfe, and at last brought 
 him to the grave with a broken heart, converted by- 
 misfortune into a despot. 
 
 16. The first five years of Philip were occupied 
 by his participation in the war between the Achseans 
 and i^tolians, called the war of the two leagues ; 
 notwithstanding the treachery of his minister Apellas 
 and his dependents, the prince was enabled to dictate 
 the conditions of peace, according to which both par- 
 ties were to remain in possession of what they then 
 had. The conclusion of this peace was hastened by 
 the news of Hannibal's victory at Thrasymenus, Phi- 
 lip being then instigated to form more extensive pro- 
 jects by Demetrius of Pharus, who had fled before 
 the Romans, and soon acquired unlimited influence 
 with the Macedonian king. 
 
 The war of the two leagues arose out of the piracies of the 
 iEtolians on the Messenians, the latter of whom the Achasans 
 undertook to protect, 221. The errors committed by Aratus 
 compelled the Achteans to have recourse to Philip, 220 ; whose 
 progress, however, was for a long time impeded by the artifices 
 of Apellas's faction, who wished to overthrow Aratus. The 
 Acarnanians, Epirots, Messenians, and Scerdilaidas of lUyi'ia, 
 (who, however, soon after declared against Macedonia,) com- 
 bined with Philip and the Acha^ans ; the iEtolians, on tlie other 
 hand, commanded by their own general, Scopas, had for their 
 allies the Spartans and Eleans. — The most important conse- 
 quence of this war for Macedonia was, that she began again to 
 be a naval power. — About the same time a war broke out be- 
 tween the two trading republics of Byzantium and Rhodes, (the 
 latter supported by Pi'usias I. of Bithynia,) insignificant in it- 
 self, but which, as a commercial war, originating in the duties 
 imposed b)'^ the Byzantines, was the only one of its kind in this 
 age, 222. The Rhodians, so powerful in those days by sea, 
 compelled their adversaries to submit. 
 
 17. The negotiations between Philip and Hanni- 
 bal concluded with an alliance, in which reciprocal 
 help was promised towards annihilating Rome. But 
 Rome contrived to excite so many foes against Philip 
 on the borders of his own kingdom, and availed her- 
 self so skilfully of her naval power, that the execution 
 of this plan was prevented until it became possible to 
 attack the Macedonian king in Greece ; where he 
 
PERIOD III] III. MACEDON AND GREECE. 227 
 
 had made himself many enemies, by the domineering Third 
 tone he had assumed towards his allies at the time '. 
 
 that, sensible of his power, he was about to enter 
 upon a wider sphere of action. 
 
 Commencement of hostilities by Rome, against Philip : imme- 
 diately that the alliance of Philip and Hannibal was known, a 
 squadron with troops on board was stationed off the coast of 
 Macedonia, by which the king himself was defeated at Apollo- 
 nia, 214. — Alliance of Rome with the iEtolians, joined likewise 
 by Sparta and Elis, Attains king of Pergamus, and Scerdilaidas 
 and Pleuratus, kings of Illyria, 211. On Philip's side were the 
 Achajans, with whom Pliilopoemen more than supplied the loss 
 of Aratus, occasioned, 213, by the Macedonian king ; to them 
 were joined the Acarnanians and Btjeotians. — Attacked on every 
 side, Phihp successfully extricated himself from his difficulties ; 
 in the first place, he compelled the iEtolians, who had been 
 abandoned by Attains and Rome, to accept separate terms, 
 which, shortly after, Rome, consulting her o-\^ti convenience, 
 converted into a general peace, inclusive of the allies on either 
 side, 204. 
 
 18. New war of Philip against Attains and the War with 
 Rhodians, carried on for the most part in Asia Minor ; b"q "oy3_ 
 and his impolitic alliance with Antiochus III. to at- 200. 
 tack Egypt. But can Philip be blamed for his en- 
 deavours to disarm the military servants of the 
 Romans? Rome, however, did not grant him time 
 
 to efibct his designs ; the Macedonian king was taught 
 at Chios, by woeful experience, that his navy had not 202. 
 increased proportionably with that of tlie Rhodians. 
 
 19. The war with Rome suddenly hurled the war with 
 Macedonian power from its lofty pitch ; and by lay- ^"J^lg- 
 ing the foundation of Roman dominion Sn the East, 
 wrought a change in almost all the political relations 
 
 of that quarter. The first two years of the war 
 showed pretty evidently, that mere force could 
 scarcely overturn the Macedonian throne. But T. 
 Quintius Flaminius stepped forward ; with the magic i98. 
 spell of freedom he intoxicated the Greeks ; Philip 
 was stripped of his allies ; and the battle of Cynosce- 197. 
 phalsD decided every thing. The articles of the peace 
 were : 1. That all Grecian cities in Europe and Asia 
 should be independent, and Philip should withdraw 
 his garrisons. 2. That he should surrender the whole 
 
 Q 2 
 
228 MACEDONIAN MONARCHY. [book iv. 
 
 Third of his navj, and never afterwards keep more than 
 ^'''''°°- 500 armed men on foot. 3. That he should not, 
 without previously informing Rome, undertake any 
 war out of Macedonia. 4. That he should pay 1000 
 talents by instalments, and deliver up his younger 
 son Demetrius as an hostage. 
 
 The Roman allies in this war were : the ^tolians, Athenians, 
 Rhodians, the kings of the Athamanes, Dardanians, and Perga- 
 nius. — The Acha3ans at the beginning sided with Philip, but 
 were subsequently gained over by Flaminius. See below, in the 
 Roman history. 
 
 20. Soon after, the freedom of Greece was solemn- 
 B. c. 196. ly proclaimed at the Isthmian games by Flaminius : 
 but loud as the Greeks were in their exultations, this 
 measure served merely to transfer the supremacy of 
 their country from Macedonia to Rome : and Grecian 
 history, as well as the Macedonian, is now interwoven 
 with that of the Romans. To foster quarrels between 
 the Greek states with the especial view of hindering 
 the Ach<3eans from growing too formidable, now be- 
 came a fundamental principle at Rome; and Ro- 
 man and anti-Roman parties having quickly arisen 
 in every city, this political game was easily played. 
 
 Flaminius even took care that the Achfeans should have an 
 opponent in the person of Nabis, although under the necessity 
 of waging war against him previous to his return into Italy, 194. 
 — In 192, war between Nabis and the Achaeans ; followed after 
 the murder of Nabis, at the hands of the iEtolians, by the acces- 
 sion of Sparta to the Achaean league. — But about the same time 
 Greece once more became the theatre of foreign war ; Antio- 
 chus having fifmly seated himself in the country, and enleagued 
 himself with several tribes, but more particularly the ^tolians, 
 inspired with bitter and long-standing hatred against the Ro- 
 mans. These last, however, after the expulsion of Antiochus 
 from Greece, 191, paid dearly for their secession ; nor was peace 
 granted them by Rome till after long and unsuccessful suppli- 
 cations, 189. 
 Fate of 21. While war was pending between the Romans 
 
 Philip. Q^^^ Antiochus, Philip, in the character of one of the 
 numerous allies of Rome, ventured to increase his 
 territory at the expense of the Athamanes, Thracians, 
 and Thessalians. To keep him in good humour he 
 was permitted to effect those conquests; but after 
 
PERIOD 111.] Ill, MACEDON AND GREECE. 229 
 
 the termination of the war, the oppression of Rome Third 
 became so gaUing-, that it could not be otherwise than ^^^'°°- 
 
 that all his thoughts should centre in revenge, and b. c. i90. 
 all his exertions be directed towards the recovery of 
 power. Meanwhile the violent measures adopted 
 for repeopling his exhausted kingdom — such is the 
 punishment of ambition which usually awaits even 
 the victorious ! — the transplantation of the inhabitants 
 of whole cities and countries, and the consequent 
 and unavoidable oppression of several of his neigh- 
 bours, excited universal complaints ; and where was 
 the accuser of Philip to whom Rome would not now 
 lend a ready ear ? — His younger son, Demetrius, the 
 pupil of Rome, and by her intended, it is probable, 
 to succeed to the crown, alone diverted the impend- 
 ing fate of Macedonia. But after the return of that i83. 
 prince from his embassy, the envy of his elder and 
 bastard brother, Perseus, grew into an inveterate ran- 
 cour, such as could not be quenched but by the death 
 of the younger. The lot of Philip was indeed hard, isi. 
 compelled as a father to judge between his two sons ; 
 but the measure of human woe was filled, when after 
 the death of his favourite child he discovered that he 
 was innocent ; are we to wonder that sormw should no. 
 soon have hurried him to a premature grave? 
 
 22. The same policy which was observed by the Roman po- 
 Romans towards Philip, they pursued towards the thilchUn 
 Achaeans, with whom, since the termination of the war ^,g^|"^- 
 with Antiochus, they had assumed a loftier tone ; and 
 this artful game was facilitated by the continual quar- 
 rels among the Greeks themselves. Yet the great 
 Philopoemen, worthy of a better age, maintained the. 
 dignity of the league at the very time that the Ro- 
 mans presumed to speak as arbitrators. After his 
 decease they found it easy to raise a party among the 
 Acheeans themselves, the venal Callicrates oifering \s:i. 
 his services for that purpose. 
 
 The Aclifeans were continually embroiled either with Si)arta 
 or with J\Iessene : the grounds of difference were, that in both 
 of those states there were factions headed by persons who, out 
 of personal motives, and for the most part hatred to Philopoe- 
 men, wished to secede from the league ; on the other hand, the 
 
JO 
 
 MACEDONIAN MONARCHY. 
 
 [book IV. 
 
 Third 
 Period. 
 
 Perseus, 
 B. C. 179 
 
 —168. 
 
 Defeat of 
 Perseus at 
 Pydna. 
 
 prevailing idea among the Achfeans was, that this league ought 
 to comprise the whole of the Peloponnesus. In the war against 
 the Messenians, 183, Philopcemen, at the age of seventy, was 
 taken prisoner by the enemy and put to death. 
 
 Plutarchi, Philopcemen. Nearly the whole of which is 
 compiled from the lost biography of Polybius. 
 
 23. The last Macedonian king, Perseus, had in- 
 herited his father's perfect hatred of the Romans, 
 together with talents, if not equal, at least but little 
 inferior. He entered into the speculations of his 
 predecessor, and the first seven years of his reign 
 was occupied in constant exertions to muster forces 
 against Rome ; with this view he called the Bastarnae 
 out of the north, in order to settle them in the terri- 
 tories of his enemies the Dardanians ; he endeavoured 
 to form alliances with the kings of Illyria, Thrace, 
 Syria, and Bithynia ; above all, he strove by nego- 
 tiations and promises to re-establish the ancient in- 
 fluence of Macedonia in Greece. 
 
 The settlement of the Bastarna3 (probably a German race, 
 resident beyond the Danube) in Thrace and Dardania, in order 
 with them to carry war against the Romans, was one of the 
 plans traced out by Philip, and now partially executed by Per- 
 seus. — In Greece the Macedonian party, which Perseus formed 
 chiefly out of the great number of impoverished citizens in the 
 country, would probably have gained the upper hand, had not 
 the fear inspired by Rome, and the active vigilance of that 
 power, interposed an effectual bar. Hence the Achajans, ap- 
 parently at least, remained on the Roman side ; the ^tolians, 
 by domestic factions, had worked their own destruction ; the 
 case was the same with the Acarnanians ; and the federation of 
 the Boeotians had been completely dissolved by the Romans, 
 171. On the other hand, in Epirus the Macedonian party was 
 superior ; Thessaly was occupied by Perseus ; several of the 
 Thracian tribes were friendly to him ; and in King Gentius he 
 •found an ally who might have been highly useful, had not the 
 Macedonian prince, by an ill-timed avarice, deprived himself of 
 his assistance. 
 
 24. The commencement of open hostilities was 
 hastened by the bitter hatred existing between Per- 
 seus and Eumenes, and by the intrigues of the latter 
 at Rome. Neglect of the favourable moment for 
 taking the field, and the defensive system, skilfully 
 in other respects as it was planned, caused the ruin 
 of Perseus, as it had done that of Antiochus. Never- 
 
PERIOD III.] III. MACEDON AND GREECE. 231 
 
 theless he protracted the war to the fourth year, Third 
 when the battle of Pydna decided the fate both of ^^^'^'^' 
 
 himself and his kingdom. b. c. 172 
 
 — 168. 
 Miserable condition of Perseus until his capture at Samo- 
 
 thrace; and afterwards until his death at Rome, 166. 
 
 25. According to the system at that period fol- 
 lowed by Rome, the conquered kingdom of Mace- 
 donia was not immediately converted into a pro- 
 vince ; it was first deprived of all offensive power, 
 by being republicanized and divided into four dis- 
 tricts, wholly distinct from one another, and bound 
 to pay Rome half the tribute they were before wont 
 to furnish to their kings. 
 
 26. It was in the natural order of things that the Fail of the 
 independence of Greece, and more especially that of ^''^,^^^ 
 the Achaean league, should fall with Perseus. The 
 political inquis'Uiou of the Roman commissaries not 
 
 only visited with punishment the declared partisans 
 of Macedonia ; but even to have stood neutral was a 
 crime that incurred suspicion. Rome, however, 
 amid the rising hatred, did not deem herself secure 
 until by one blow she had rid herself of all opponents 
 of any importance. Above a thousand of the most 
 eminent of the Achaeans were summoned to Rome 
 to justify themselves, and there detained seventeen 
 years in prison without a hearing. While at the Caiiicrates, 
 head of the league stood the man who had delivered ^®^— ^^°- 
 them up, Callicrates, {d. 150,) a wretch who could, 
 unmoved, hear " the very boys in the streets taunt 
 him with treachery." — A more tranquil period, it is 
 true, now ensued for Greece, but it was the result of 
 very obvious causes. 
 
 27. The ultimate lot both of Macedon and Greece c^ieece be- 
 was decided by the system now adopted at Rome, "^o^ln 
 that of converting the previous dependence of na- P|;o^'i"';e, 
 tions into formal subjection. The insurrection of ^ ~ ' 
 Andriscus in Macedonia, an individual who pretended 
 
 to be the son of Perseus, was quelled by Metellus, 
 the country being constituted a Roman province ; 
 two years afterwards, at the sack of Corinth, vanished 
 the last glimmer of Grecian freedom. 
 
OQC) 
 
 MACEDONIAN MONARCHY. 
 
 Third 
 Period. 
 
 The last war of the Achajans arose out of certain quarrels 
 with Sparta, 150, fomented by Dia^us, Critolaus, and Damocritus, 
 who had returned bitterly enraged from the Roman prison ; in 
 these disputes Rome interfered, with the design of wholly dis- 
 solving the Achasan league. The first pretext that offered for 
 executing this scheme was the ill-treatment of the Roman am- 
 bassadors at Corinth, 148 ; war, however, still raging with 
 Carthage and Andriscus, the Romans preserved for the present 
 a peaceful tone. But the party of Difeus and Critolaus would 
 have war ; the plenipotentiaries of Metellus were again insult- 
 ed ; and the Acha3ans declared war against Sparta and Rome. 
 In the very same year they were routed by Metellus, and their 
 leader Critolaus fell in the engagement ; Metellus was replaced 
 in the command by Mummius, who defeated Dia^us the suc- 
 cessor of Critolaus, took Corinth and razed it to the ground, 
 146. The consequence was, that Greece, under the name of 
 Achaia, became a Roman province, although to a few cities, 
 such as Athens, for instance, some shadow of freedom was still 
 left. 
 
 IV. Hiatory of some smaller or more distant Kingdoms 
 and States erected out of the Macedonian monarchy. 
 
 Sources. Besides the writers enumerated above, (see p. 186,) 
 Memnon, an historian of Heraclea in Pontus, deserves particu- 
 lar mention in this place (see p. 131): some extracts from his 
 work have been preserved to us by Photius, Cod. 224. In 
 some individual portions, as, for instance, in the Parthian his- 
 tory, Justin ' is our main authority ; as are likewise Ammianus 
 Marcellinus, and the extracts from Arrian's Parthica, found in 
 Photius. The coins of the kings are also of great importance ; 
 but unfortunately Vaillant's Essay shows, that even with their 
 assistance the chronology still remains in a very unsettled 
 state. For the Jewish history, Josephus (see p. 29) is the 
 grand writer ; of the Books of the Old Testament, those of 
 Ezra and Nehemiah, together with the Maccabees, although the 
 last are not always to be depended upon. 
 
 The modern writers are enumerated below, under the heads 
 of the diiferent kingdoms. Much information is likewise scat- 
 tered about in the works on ancient numismatics. 
 
 Smaller 1. Besides the three main empires into which the 
 
 ouro/AiTf- nionarchy of Alexander was divided, there Hkewise 
 aader's em- arosc in thosc cxtensivo regions several branch king- 
 
 pire. 
 
 ' As Justin did no more than extract from Trogus Pompeius, a 
 question presents itself of great consequence to various portions of 
 ancient history; what authorities did Trogus Pompeius follow? The 
 answer will be found in two treatises by A. H. L. Heeren : Bcfon- 
 tibus et auctoritate Troc/i Pompeii, ejusque epitomatoris Justini, insert- 
 ed in Comment. Soc. Gott. vol. xv. 
 
PERIOD III.] IV. PERGAMUS, ETC. Xido 
 
 doms, one of which even grew in time to be among Thiud 
 the most powerful in the world. To these belong ^^^°°' 
 the kingdoms of, 1. Pergamus. 2. Bithynia. 3. 
 Paphlagonia. 4. Pontus. 5. Cappadocia. 6. Great 
 Armenia. 7. Little Armenia. 8. Parthia. 9. Bac- 
 tria. 10. Jewish state subsequent to the Mac- 
 cabees. 
 
 We are acquainted with the history of these kingdoms, the 
 Jewish state alone excejited, only so far forth as they were im- 
 plicated in the concerns of the greater empires ; of their internal 
 history we know little, often nothing. With respect to many 
 of them, therefore, little more can be produced than a series of 
 chronological data, indispensable, notwithstanding, to the gene- 
 ral historian. 
 
 2. The kingdom of Pergamus, in Mysia, arose Kingdom of 
 during the war between Seleucus and Lysimachiis. b!c\ 283' 
 It owed its origin on the one hand to the prudence — 133. 
 of its rulers, the wisest of whom luckily reigned the 
 longest ; and, on the other, to the weakness of the 
 Seleucidae : for its progressive increase it was indebt- 
 ed to the Romans, who in aggrandizing the power 
 of Pergamus acted with a view to their own interest. 
 History exhibits scarcely one subordinate kingdom 
 whose princes took such skilful advantage of the 
 political circumstances of the times ; and yet they 
 earned still greater renown by the anxiety they show- 
 ed in rivalling the Ptolemies, to foster the arts of 
 peace, industry, science, architecture, sculpture, and 
 painting. How dazzling the splendour with Avhich 
 the small state of Pergamus outshines many a mighty 
 empire ! 
 
 Philetaerus, lieutenant of Lysimachus, in Pergamus, asserts 
 his independence ; and maintains possession of the citadel and 
 town, 283—263. His nephew, Eumenes I., 263—241, defeats 
 Antiochus I. at Sardes, 263, and becomes master of -ÄColis and 
 the circumjacent country. His nephew, Attains I., 241 — 197, 
 after his victory over the Galatians, 239, becomes king of Per- 
 gamus : a noble prince, and one whose genius and activity em 
 braced every thing. His wars against Achajus brouglit him in 
 alliance with Antiochus III., 216. Commencement of an alii 
 ancc with Rome, arising out of his participation in tlie iEtoliau 
 league against Macedon, 211, in order to thwai't Philip's project 
 of conquest. Hence, after Philip's irruption into Asia, 203, 
 
234 MACEDONIAN MONARCHY. [book iv. 
 
 Third participation on the side of Rome, in the Macedonian war. His 
 Period, gon Eumenes II., the inheritor of all his father's great qualities, 
 
 succeeds him, 197 — 158. As a reward for his assistance against 
 
 Antiochus the Great, the Romans presented him with almost 
 all the territories possessed by the vanquished king in Asia Mi- 
 nor, (Phrygia, Mysia, Lycaonia, Lydia, Ionia, and a part of Ca- 
 rla,) which thereafter constituted the kingdom of Pergamus ; 
 this prince extended his frontiers, but lost his independence. 
 In the war with Perseus he was scarce able to preserve the good 
 will of the senate, and therewith his kingdom. His brother 
 Attains II., 158 — 138, a more faithful dependent of Rome, took 
 part in nearly all the concerns of Asia ]\Iinor, more especially 
 Bithynia. His nephew, Attains III., 138 — 133, a prince of 
 unsound mind, bequeathed his kingdom to the Romans, who, 
 after vanquishing the lawful heir, Aristonicus, 130, took pos- 
 session of it, annexing it to their empire, under the shape of a 
 province called Asia. — Great discoveries and vast establishments 
 made at Pergamus. Rich library ; subsequently transferred by 
 Antony to Alexandria, as a present for Cleopatra. Museum. 
 Discovery of parchment an invaluable auxiliary to the preserv- 
 ation of works of literature. 
 
 Choiseuil Gouffier, Voyage jnttoresque de la Grece, vol. 
 ii. 1809. Containing excellent observations, both on the mo- 
 numents and history of Pergamus, as well as on those of all the 
 neighbouring coasts and islands. 
 
 Sevin, Recherches sur les rois de Pergame, inserted in the 
 Mem. de VAcad. des Inscript. vol. xii. 
 
 From the fall of Tyre and the unsuccessful attempt of De- 
 metrius, B. C. 307, to the establishment of Roman dominion in 
 the East, 300 — 200, was the brilliant period of Rhodes ; alike 
 important for political wisdom, naval power, and extensive 
 trade. At the head of the senate (ßovX))) were presidents, 
 (irpv-ai'tlg,) who went out of office every half year, and were 
 honoured with precedence in the meetings of the commons. 
 Friendship with all, alliance with none, was the fundamental 
 maxim of Rhodian policy, until subverted by Rome. Thus was 
 preserved the dignity of the state, together with its independ- 
 ence and political activity — where do we not meet with Rhodian 
 embassies ? — and permanent splendour, resulting from the cul- 
 tivation of arts and sciences. What proofs of general com- 
 miseration did not Rhodes enjoy after that dreadful earthquake, 
 which tlirew down even the famous Colossus ! 227. Long 
 did her squadrons command the ^gean ; over that sea, the 
 Euxine, and the western parts of the Mediterranean as far as 
 Sicily, her commerce extended, consisting in the rich exchange 
 of commodities between the three quarters of the globe. Her 
 revenue proceeded from the customs, and was abundant ; until, 
 blinded by avarice, she sought to obtain at Pera^a a territory on 
 the mainland ; an ambition of which the Romans availed them- 
 selves to her detriment, by presenting her with Lycia and Ca- 
 rla, 190. And yet did this repubHc outlive that of Rome ! 
 
PERIOD III. J IV. PERGAMUS, ETC. 235 
 
 Great, indeed, is the chasm left in general history by the loss Third 
 of the internal history of this island ! Period. 
 
 P. D. Ch. Paulsen, Commentatio exhibens RJiodi descrip- 
 tionem Macedonica cetate, Gottingce, 1818. A prize essay. 
 
 3. The other small kingdoms of Asia Minor are 
 fragments rather of the Persian than of the Macedo- 
 nian monarchy ; for Alexander's march following 
 another direction, they were not formally subjugated 
 by that conqueror. The lines of their kings are ge- 
 nerally traced back to an early period of the Persian 
 age ; but properly speaking, their rulers in those days 
 were nothing more than viceroys : selected indeed, 
 for the most part, from the royal family, they bore 
 the title of princes, and, in the gradual decline of the 
 empire, not unfrequently threw up their allegiance. 
 Nevertheless these kingdoms do not appear as really 
 independent until after the time of Alexander. Con- 
 nected with the Grecian republics Heraclea, Sinope, 
 Byzantium, etc., they formed, both in the Macedonian 
 and Roman ages, a system of small states, often dis- 
 tracted by internal wars, and still oftener mere tools 
 in the hands of the more powerful. 
 
 1. Bithynia. As early as the Persian period, mention is 
 made of two kings in Bithynia, Dydalsus and Botyras. The 
 son of the latter, Bias, B. C. 378 — 328, made head against Ca- 
 ranus, one of Alexander's generals ; as did also his son Zipoetas, 
 d. 281, against Lysimachus. — Nicomedes I., d. 248. He called 
 the Gauls over from Thrace, 278, and with their assistance de- 
 posed his bi'other Zipoetas ; the Gauls in consequence kept their 
 footing in Galatia, and were for a long time an object of terror 
 to Asia Minor. Zelas, d. about 232 ; established his dominion 
 after a war with his half-brothers. Prusias I., son-in-law and 
 ally of Philip II. of Macedon, d. 192. He sided with the Rho- 
 dians in the commercial war against Byzantium, 222, (see above, 
 p. 226,) and directed his arms, 196, against Heraclea, a Gre- 
 cian city in Bithynia, with a respectable territory along shore. 
 Prusias II., waged war against Eumenes II., at the instigation 
 of Hannibal, who had fled to his court, 184 ; he was subse- 
 quently about to deliver up the fugitive to the Romans, had 
 not Hannibal put a period to his existence, 183 : this king like- 
 wise waged war against Attains II., 153 ; in both these contests 
 Rome acted as mediator. Prusias, who had the meanness to 
 style himself a freedman of the Romans, was dethroned by his 
 own son, Nicomedes II., d. 92 ; a confederate of Mithridates 
 the Great, with whom, nevertheless, he afterwards fell out 
 concerning the ajjpropriation of Paphlagonia and Cappadocia. 
 
236 MACEDONIAN MONARCHY. [dook iv. 
 
 Third Nicomedes was murdei'ecl by his son Socrates, who was, how- 
 Teriod. ever, compelled to flee ; in consequence of which Nicomedes 
 
 III. succeeded to the crown. Deposed by Mithridates, who 
 
 supported his half-brother Socrates, he was reinstated by Rome, 
 90. Having, however, at the instigation of the Romans, 89, 
 attacked Mithridates, he was defeated and expelled in the first 
 Mithridatic war, now kindled ; but in the peace of 85, he was 
 again reinstated by Sulla. At his death, 75, he bequeathed 
 Bithynia to the Romans ; and this legacy gave rise to the third 
 Mithridatic Avar. 
 
 Vaillant, Imperium Arsacidarum, vol. ii. See below. 
 Sevin, Recherches sur le rois de Bithynie ; inserted in the 
 3Iem. de V Acadhnie des Inscript. vol. xii, 
 
 2. Paphlagonia. Even in the Persian age the rulers of this 
 country were but nominally subject. After Alexander's death, 
 B. C. 323, it fell into the hands of the kings of Pontus ; it was, 
 however, subsequently, again ruled by its own monarchs ; among 
 whom we hear of Morzes, about 179 ; Pyla;menes I., about 131 ; 
 who assisted the Romans in the war against Aristonicus of Per- 
 gamus. — Pylajmenes II., d. before 121 ; who is said to have be- 
 queathed his kingdom to Älithridates V. of Pontus. Hence 
 Paphlagonia came to be implicated in the fortunes of Pontus, 
 (see just below,) until, after the fall of Mithridates the Great, 
 63, that kingdom was converted into a province, with the ex- 
 ception of one of the southern districts, to which the Romans 
 left some shadow of freedom. 
 
 3. Pontus. The later kings of this country derived their 
 origin from the family of the Achfcmenida^, or house of Persia. 
 In the Persian age they remained dependent or tributary 
 princes : and as such we must consider Artabazes, son of Hys- 
 taspes, d. 480, Mithridates I., d. 368, and Ariobarzanes, d. 337, 
 mentioned as the earliest kings of Pontus. Mithridates II., sur- 
 named Ctistes, d. 302, was one of the first to acknowledge sub- 
 jection to Alexander ; after the death of the conqueror he sided 
 with Antigonus, who treacherously caused him to be murdered. 
 His son, Mithridates III., d. 266, (the Ariobarzanes of Mem- 
 non,) not only maintained himself after the battle of Ipsus 
 against Lysimachus, but likewise possessed himself of Cappado- 
 cia and Paphlagonia. Mithridates IV., father-in-law to Anti- 
 ochus the Great, waged an unsuccessful war against Sinope ; 
 the year of his death is undetermined. Pharnaces, d. about 156. 
 He conquered Sinope, 183 ; and that town then became the 
 royal residence. War with Eumenes II., whom Rome had 
 made so powerful, and with his allies ; terminated by a treaty, 
 according to which Pharnaces ceded Paphlagonia, B. C. 179. 
 Mithridates V., d. about 121. He was an ally of the Romans, 
 from whom, after the defeat of Aristonicus of Phrygia, he con- 
 trived to obtain Great Phrygia. Mithridates VI., surnamed 
 Eupator, about 121 — 64. He bore the title of Great, an epi- 
 thet to which he was as fully entitled as Peter I., in modern 
 history; indeed he resembled the Russian prince in almost 
 
PERIOD III. 
 
 IV. PONTUS, ETC. 237 
 
 every thing except in good fortune. His reign, although of the Third 
 highest importance to general history, is, particularly in the por- Period. 
 tion previous to the wars with Rome, replete with chronological 
 difficulties. — At the age of twelve years he inherits from his 
 father not only Pontus, but likewise Phrygia, and a reversion- 
 ary title to the throne of Paphlagonia, vacated by the death of 
 Pyltemenes II. — During his nonage, 121 — 112, Avhile by volun- 
 tarily inuring himself to hardships, he contrived to elude the 
 treacherous hostility of his guardians, Rome deprived him of 
 Phrygia. His conquests in Colchis and on the eastern side of 
 the Black Sea, 112 — 110. — Commencement of the Scythian 
 wars. Called by the Greeks of Crimea to their assistance, he 
 expelled the Scythians ; subjected several insignificant Scythian 
 princes on the mainland ; and entered into alliances with the 
 Sarmatic and even Germanic races as far as the Danube, 108 — 
 105, having already a view to the invasion of Italy from the 
 north. — This war ended, he travels over Asia, (Asia Minor ?) 
 about 104 — 103. — At his return, after punishing with death 
 his faithless sister and wife, Laodice, he makes good his preten- 
 sions to Paphlagonia, which he divides with Nicomedes II., 102. 
 The Roman senate demanding the restoration of that province, 
 Mithridates not only refuses to accede, but likewise takes pos- 
 session of Galatia ; meanwhile Nicomedes places on the throne 
 of Paphlagonia one of his own son.s, whom he gives out to be a 
 son of Pylaemenes IL, and denominates Pylaamenes III. — Rup- 
 ture with Nicomedes II., 101 ; the subject of dispute, Cappado- 
 cia, which, after removing the king, Ariarathes VII., his bro- 
 ther-in-law, with the assistance of Gordius, Mithridates himself 
 now wished to possess ; he is anticipated, however, by Nico- 
 medes II., who marries Laodice, Ariarathes's widow. — Mithri- 
 dates, notwithstanding, expels his rival, under pretence of holding 
 the kingdom for his sister's son, Ariarathes VIII., whom at the 
 end of a few months he puts to death at a private conference, 
 94 ; he defeats the brother of the murdered prince, Ariarathes 
 IX., and then places on the throne, under the name of Ariara- 
 thes X., his own son, Avho is given out to be a third son of 
 Ariarathes VII. ; in opposition to whom Nicomedes sets up an- 
 other pretended Ariarathes. The Roman senate, meanwhile, 
 declare both Paphlagonia and Cappadocia free, B. C. 92 ; at- 
 tending, however, to the desires of the Cappadocians, they sanc- 
 tion the election of Ariobarzanes to the crown ; and he is put 
 in possession of tlie kingdom by Sylla, as propraetor of Cilicia, 
 likewise in 92. — Mithridates, on the other hand, forms an alli- 
 ance with the king of Armenia, Tigranes, to whom he gives his 
 daughter in marriage ; and employs him in expelling Ariobar- 
 zanes. — He himself, after the death of Nicomedes II., 92, sup- 
 ports the claims of the deceased king's exiled son, Socrates 
 Chrestus, against the bastard Nicomedes III., and in the mean 
 time takes possession of Paphlagonia. Nicomedes and Ariobar- 
 zanes are reinstated by a Roman embassy, 90, Mithridates, in 
 order to gain time against Rome, causing Socrates to be put to 
 
238 MACEDONIAN MONARCHY. [book iv. 
 
 Third death. The hostilities of Nicomedes, instituted by Rome, gave 
 Period, j,jgg ^.^ ^j^g ßj,g^ Roman war, 89 — 85, carried on in Asia and 
 Greece, and brought to a conchxsion by Sylla. By the peace of 
 85, Mithridates restores Bithynia, Cappadocia, and Paphlago- 
 nia. — War with the revolted Colchians and Bosporans, 84. — 
 Second war with Rome brought about by the Roman governor, 
 Murena, 83 — 81. Mithridates hereupon appoints his son. Ma- 
 chares, king of Bosporus, (Crimea,) whom he aftei'wards him- 
 self causes to be put to death, 66 : he was likewise, in all pro- 
 bability, the instigator of the migration of the Sarmatfe out of 
 Asia into Europe, in order to maintain his conquests in that 
 quai'ter, about 80. Fresh disputes with Rome about Cappado ■ 
 cia, of which Tigranes takes possession, and third war with Rome, 
 75 — 64. The contest ended in the downfal of Mithridates, 
 caused by the treachery of his son Pharnaces ; Pontus became 
 a Roman province ; although the Romans, in the sequel, ap- 
 pointed over a portion of the country princes from the royal 
 house, Darius, Polemo I., Polemo II., until Nero reduced it 
 again wholly to the state of a province. 
 
 Vaillant, Imperium Achcemenidarum in his Imperium Arsa- 
 cidarum, tom. ii. With the assistance of the coins. 
 
 For the history of Mithridates the Great, previously treated 
 without sufficient chronological accuracy, see De Brosses, His- 
 toire de la Rep. Romaine; and more especially 
 
 Joan. Ernst. Woltersdorf^ Commentatio vitam Mithridatis 
 Magni, per annos digestam, sistens; prcemio ornata ab A. Phil. 
 Ord. Gottingce, A. 1812. 
 
 4. Cappadocia. Until the time of Alexander this country 
 remained a province of the Persian empire, although the govern- 
 ors occasionally made attempts at insurrection. The ruling 
 family was here likewise a branch of the royal house ; Ariara- 
 thes I. was particularly distinguished about B. C. 354. The 
 prince contemporary with Alexander was Ariarathes IL, who, 
 being attacked by Perdiccas and Eumenes, fell in the contest, 
 322. Nevertheless, his son, Ariarathes III., supported by the 
 Armenians, recovered the sceptre about 312. The son of this 
 king, Ariaramnes, formed a matrimonial connexion with the 
 Seleucida3, uniting his son Ariarathes IV. with the daughter of 
 Antiochus Qtöq. Ariarathes IV., during his life-time, associated 
 in the government his son Ariarathes V., d. 162, who married 
 Antiochis, daughter to Antiochus the Great : this princess find- 
 ing herself at first barren, procured two supposititious sons, one 
 of whom, Orophernes, subsequently wrested the sceptre from 
 the legitimate and later born son, Ariarathes VI., but was after- 
 wards expelled by the rightful heir, 157. In the war against 
 Aristonicus of Pergamus, 131, he fell, as an ally of the Romans, 
 leaving behind him six sons ; five of whom were cut oiF by his 
 ambitious relict Laodice ; the sixth, however, Ariarathes VII., 
 ascended the throne, and was married to Laodice, sister of Mith- 
 ridates the Great, at whose instigation he was murdered by 
 Gordius, under pretence of placing on the throne his sister's 
 
TERioD III.] IV. PARTHIA, ETC. 239 
 
 son, Ariarathes VIII. ; this last prince was soon after treaehcr- Third 
 oiisly put to death by IMitliriilates, 94, and his brother Aria- 1'kriod. 
 ratlies IX. doicated, 93, died of broken heart ; INIitliriihites then 
 placed on the throne his own son, Ariaratlies X., a lad eight 
 years old. The independence of Cappadoeia having meanwhile 
 been proclaimed at Rome, the inhabitants of the country, in 
 order to preclude domestic broils, themselves elect a king, ap- 
 pointing to that dignity Ariobarzanes I., who was installed by 
 Sylla, 92, and, backed by the Romans, kept his footing in the 
 Mithridatic wars. In 63 he made the crown over to his son, 
 Ariobarzanes II., who was slain by the army of Brutus and Cas- 
 sius, 43, as was his brother Ariobarzanes III., 34, by Älark An- 
 tony ; Antony then appointed Archelaus to be king, who, enticed 
 to Rome by Tiberius, A. I). 17, was there assassinated; and 
 Cai)padocia then became a Roman province. 
 
 5. Armenia wa^ a province of the Syrian empire until the de- 
 feat of Antiochus the Great by Rome, 190. Tliat defeat was 
 followed by the secession of Antiochus's lieutenants, Artaxias 
 and Zariadras ; and now arose the two kingdoms of Armenia 
 INIajor and Armenia Minor (the latter on the west bank of the 
 LIpper Euphrates). In Armenia ]\Iajor the family of Artaxias 
 kept possession of the throne, under eight (according to others 
 ten) consecutive kings, until B. C. 5. — The only remarkable 
 prince of this line was Tigraues I., 95 — 60, son-in-law and ally 
 of Mithridates the Great, and lord of Armenia Älinor, Cappa- 
 doeia, and Syria. He was, however, at the peace of 63, obliged 
 to give up all, so that Armenia was dependent on the Romans, 
 and remained so until B. C. 5, when it became the object of 
 contention between the Romans and Rarthians, being ruled at 
 intervals by kings appointeil by both parties, who endeavoured 
 thereby to protect their own provinces. Finally, in A. D. 412, 
 Armenia became a province of tlie new Persian empire. — In 
 Armenia Minor the descendants of Zariadras ruled dependently 
 on Rome; after its defection inider INlithridates the (!reat it 
 usually formed part of some one of the neighbouring kingdoms, 
 xnitil in the reign of Vespasian it was converted into a province 
 of the Roman empire. 
 
 Vaillant, Elenchus reg man Armenice Majoris, In his Ilist. 
 Imp. Arsacidarum. 
 
 4. Besides the above small kingdoms, two mi<2:hty Kactiian 
 empires aroso in Tnnor Asia, botli out of Alexander's |'£/em'. 
 monarchy, and at tiie same time ; these were the I'i'es. 
 Parthian and the Bactrian ; each having previously 
 constituted a ])art of the empire of the Solcucida% 
 from which tliey seceded under Antiochus II. The 
 Parthian kingdom, or that of the Arsacidac», B. C. 256 
 — A. D. 'l^iS, at the maximum of its extension, com- 
 prised the countries between the Euphrates and Indus. 
 
240 MACEDONIAN MONARCHY. [book iv. 
 
 Third Jts historj, SO far as we are acquainted with it, is di- 
 .^___L vided into four periods (see below); but unfortunately 
 our information is so imperfect respecting all that 
 relates to the Parthians, except their wars, that even 
 the most important particulars are beyond the reach 
 of conjecture. 
 
 Main facts in tbe history and constitution of the Parthian 
 kingdom, a. Like the ancient Persian empire, the Parthian 
 arose out of the conquests made by a rude mountain race of 
 Central Asia, whose Scythian (probably Tartarian) origin be- 
 trayed itself even in later times by their speech and mode of 
 life : their conquests, however, were not effected with the same 
 rapidity as those of the Persians, h. This empire increased at 
 the expense of the Syrian in the west, and of the Bactrian in the 
 east ; but its dominion was never permanently established be- 
 yond the Euphrates, Indus, and Oxus. c. The Avars with Rome, 
 commencing in B. C. 53, and springing out of disputes for the 
 possession of the Armenian throne, were for a long time unfor- 
 tunate for the Romans. Success did not accompany the arms 
 of Rome until she had discovered the art of raising her own 
 parties within the kingdom itself, by lending her support to 
 pretenders, an art rendered comparatively easy by the unfa- 
 vourable situation of the Parthian capital Seleucia and the 
 neighbouring town of Ctesiphon, the real head-quarters of the 
 court, d. The empire was indeed divided into satrapies, eigh- 
 teen of which are enumerated ; nevertheless it comprised like- 
 wise several small kingdoms, wliich preserved their own rulers, 
 only that they were tributary, such, for instance, as Persis, etc. 
 The Grajco-Macedonian settlements were also in possession of 
 great privileges, and of their own civic governments ; Seleucia 
 more especially, where the coins of the Parthian sovereigns were 
 struck, e. The constitution was monarchal-aristocratic, some- 
 thing like that of the Poles, in the period of the Jagellons. At 
 the king's side sat a supreme state council, {senatus, in all pro- 
 bability what was called the megistanes,) who had the power 
 of deposing the king, and the privilege, it is supposed, of con- 
 firming his accession previous to the ceremony of coronation, 
 performed by the field-marshals (surenas). The right of suc- 
 cession was only so far determined as belonging to the house of 
 the Arsacida3 ; the many pretenders to which this uncertainty 
 gave rise, produced factions and domestic wars, doubly injuri- 
 ous to the empire when fomented and shared by foreigners, f. 
 With regard to Asiatic commerce, the Parthian supremacy was 
 of importance, inasmuch as it interrupted the direct intercourse 
 between the western and eastern countries : it being a maxim 
 of the Parthians not to grant a passage through their country 
 to any stranger. This destruction of the trade occurs in the 
 third period of the empire, being a natural result of the many 
 wars with Rome, and the distrust thence ensuing. The East 
 
PERIOD III.] IV. PARTHIA, ETC. 241 
 
 India trade, in consequence, took another road though Palmyra TiiiRn 
 and Alexandria, which were indebted to it for their splendour Period. 
 and prosperity, g. It is probable that this was the reason why 
 excessive luxury took a less hold on the Parthians than on the 
 other ruling nations of Asia, notwithstanding their predilection 
 for Grecian manners and literature, at that time generally pre- 
 valent throughout the East. 
 
 Line of the kings. I. Syrian period ; that of reiterated wars 
 with the Seleucidaj, until 130. Arsaces I., 256 — 253, founder 
 of the Parthian independence, by procuring the death of the 
 Syrian viceroy, Agathocles, to which he was instigated by the 
 insult offered to his brother Tiridates. Arsaces II., (Tiridates 
 I.,) brother of the foregoing, d. 216. He posses!;ed himself of 
 Hyrcania about 244, confirmed the Parthian power by a victory 
 over Seleucus Callinicus, 238, whom he took prisoner, 236. 
 Arsaces III., (Ai-tabanus I.,) d. 196. In his reign occurred the 
 unsuccessful attempt of Antiochus III., who, in the treaty of 
 210, was obliged to renounce all claims on Parthia and Hyrcania, 
 in return for which Arsaces lent his assistance to Antiochus 
 in the war against Bactria. Arsaces IV., (Priapatius,) d. about 
 181. Arsaces V., (Phraates I.,) d. about 144: he conquered 
 the Mardians on the Caspian. His brother, Arsaces VI., 
 (Mithridates I.,) d. 136. He raised the hitherto confined king- 
 dom of Parthia to the rank of a mighty empire, having, after 
 the decease of Antiochus Epiphanes, 164, by the capture of 
 Media, Persis, Babylonia, and other countries, extended the 
 frontiers westward to the Euphrates, and eastward to the Hy- 
 daspes, beyond the Indus. The invasion of Demetrius II. of 
 Syria, supported by an insurrection of the conquered races, 
 ended, 140, in the capture of the aggressor. Arsaces VII., 
 (Phraates II.,) d. about 127. Invasion of Antiochus Sidetes, 
 132, who was at first successful, but being soon afterwards cut 
 off together with his whole army, 131, the Parthian empire was 
 for ever freed from the attacks of the Syrian kings. 
 
 II. Period of the eastern nomad wars ; from 130 — 53. After 
 the fall of the Baetrian empire, which had hitherto formed the 
 eastern rampart of the Parthians, violent Avars took place with 
 the nomad tribes of Central Asia, (Scytha?, Dahas, Tochari, etc.,) 
 in which Arsaces VII. was slain. Arsaces VIII. (Artabanus 
 II.) shared the same fate about 124. Arsaces IX. (Mithri- 
 dates II.) d. 87. This prince appears to have restored tran- 
 quillity to the East after bloody wars ; he met, however, with a 
 powerful rival in Tigranes I., of Armenia. In his reign oc- 
 curred the first transactions between the Parthians and Romans, 
 92, Sylla being proprcetor of Cilicia. Arsaces X., (Mnasciras,) d. 
 about 76, waged a long war for the succession with his follower 
 on the tlirone, the septuagenarian, Arsaces XI., (Sinatroces,) d. 
 about 68. Unsuccessful war with Tigranes I. In consequence 
 of civil wars, and ofthat with Tigranes, together with the formid- 
 able power of Mithridates the Great, the Parthian empire was 
 now greatly weakened. Arsaces XII., (Phraates III.,) d. 60, 
 
 R 
 
242 MACEDONIAN MONARCHY. [book iv. 
 
 Third contemporary with the third Mithridatic war. Although both 
 Period, parties eagerly courted his alliance, and he himself was engaged 
 in the contest with Tigranes, he, notwithstanding, observed an 
 armed neutrality, and made the Parthian empire continue to be 
 respected as far as the Euphrates. Neither Luculhis nor Pom- 
 pey durst attack him. The fall of Mithridates and of his em- 
 pire, 64, constitutes, however, an epoch in the Parthian history, 
 the Romans and Parthians having now become immediate neigh- 
 bours. — Arsaces XIII., (Mithriclates II.,) d. 54, deposed, after 
 several wars, by his younger brother Orodes, and at last put 
 to death, after the capture of Babylonia, where he had taken 
 refuge. 
 
 III. Roman period ; from B. C. 53, to A. D. 226 ; compris- 
 ing the wars with Rome. Arsaces XIV., (Orodes I.,) c?. 36. In 
 his reign the first war with Rome, caused by the invasion of 
 Crassus ; it ends in the annihilation of the invading army and 
 general, 53. In consequence of this victory the Parthians ac- 
 quired such preponderance, that during the civil wars they 
 were frequently masters on this side of the Euphrates, and in 
 52 — 51 proceeded to attack Syria. — In the war between Pom- 
 pey and Caesar they sided with the former, and thus furnished 
 the latter with a pretext for his Parthian expedition, which, 
 however, was prevented by his murder in 44 ; again, in the war 
 between the triumviri and Brutus and Cassius, 42, they took 
 the republican side. After the defeat of Brutus and Cassius, 
 the Parthians, at the instigation of the Roman general and am- 
 bassador Labienus, and commanded by him and Pacorus, (eldest 
 son to Arsaces,) spread over the whole of Syria and Asia Mi- 
 nor, 40 ; but, after violent exertions, were driven back by Ven- 
 tidius, Antony's general, 39, 38 ; Pacorus lost his life, and his 
 father died of grief. Arsaces XV., (Phraates IV.,) d. A. D. 4, 
 contemporary of Augustus. He confirmed his power by mur- 
 dering his brothers and their dependents ; his views were like- 
 wise furthered by the failure of Antony's expedition, B. C. 36, 
 which ended pretty nearly in the same manner as that of Cras- 
 sus. The i-emainder of his reign was disturbed by a pretender 
 to the throne, Tiridates, who, after his defeat, 25, found an 
 asylum at the court of Augustus. The threatened attack of 
 Augustus was diverted by Phraates's restoration of the stand- 
 ai'ds taken from Crassus, 20 ; a dispute, however, subsequently 
 arose respecting the possession of the Armenian throne, A. D. 
 2, on which account Caius Ccesar was despatched into Asia, and 
 accommodated matters by a treaty. The ultimate fiite both of 
 the king and the empire was principally decided by a female 
 slave, Thermusa, sent as a present from Augustus ; this woman, 
 wishing to insure the succession to her own sou, prevailed upon 
 the king to send his four sons to Rome as hostages, under the 
 pretext of anticipating domestic troubles, 18. — A practice which 
 from that time became frequent, the Parthian kings thinking it 
 a convenient mode of ridding themselves of dangerous competi- 
 tors, while the Romans knew how to make the proper use of 
 
PERIOD III.] IV. PARTHIA, ETC. 243 
 
 tliem. — Thermusa's son having grown up, she removed the Third 
 king, and seated Phraataoes on the throne, under the name of Period. 
 
 Ai-saces XVI. ; he was, however, put to death by the Parthi- "" — 
 
 ans, A. D. 4 ; and the crown given to one of the Arsacid^e, 
 Orodes II., (Arsaces XVII.,) who was, however, immediately 
 afterwards slain by reason of his cruelty. In consequence, 
 Vonones I., the eldest of the sons of Phraates sent to Rome, Avas 
 called back and placed on the throne (Ai'saces XVIII.) ; but 
 that prince having brought with him Roman customs and lux- 
 ury, was expelled, A. D. 14, with the assistance of the northern 
 nomads, by Artabanus III., (Arsaces XIX.,) d. 44, a distant re- 
 lation : the fugitive took possession of the vacant throne of Ar- 
 menia, but was soon after di-iven from thence likewise by his 
 rival. Tiberius took advantage of the consequent disorders, to 
 send Germanicus into the East, A. D. 17, from whence he was 
 never to return. The remainder of the reign of Artabanus was 
 very stormy ; Tiberius on the one hand taking advantage of the 
 factions between the nobles to support pretenders to the crown, 
 the revolts of the satraps, on the other hand, giving proof of the 
 declension of the Parthian power. After his death war raged 
 between his sons ; the second, Vardanes, (Ai-saces XX.,) d. 47, 
 made good his pretensions to the crown, and took North jVIedia 
 (Atropatene) ; he was succeeded l)y his elder brother Gotarzes, 
 (Arsaces XXI.,) d. 50, to whom Claudius unsuccessfully op- 
 posed JNIeherdates, educated as an hostage at Rome. Arsaces 
 XXII., (Vonones II.,) succeeded, after a reign of a few months, 
 by Arsaces XXIII., (Vologeses I.,) d. 90. The possession of 
 the Armenian throne, given by this prince to his brother Tiri- 
 dates, by the Romans to Tigranes, grandson of Herod the Great, 
 excited a series of disputes, which began so early as the reign 
 of Claudius, A. D. 52, and under Nero broke out into open war, 
 waged with some success on the Roman side by Corbulo, 56 — 
 64, and closed by Tiridates going, after the death of Tigranes, 
 to Rome, and there accepting the crown of Armenia as a gift 
 at the hands of Nero, 65. Arsaces XXIV., (Pacorus,) d. 107, 
 contemporary with Domitian. All that we know of him is, 
 that he embellished the city of Ctesiphon. Arsaces XXV., 
 (Cosroes,) d. about 121. The claims to the throne of Armenia 
 implicated him in a war with Trajan, 114, during which Ar- 
 menia, together with Mesopotamia and Assyria, were converted 
 into Roman provinces. Trajan's consequent and successful in- 
 road into the interior parts of the Parthian dominions, 115 — 
 
 116, followed by the capture of Ctesiplion, and the appointment 
 of Parthamaspates as king, appears to have been facilitated by 
 the domestic commotions and civil wars which had for a Ion«- 
 time harassed the empire. Nevei'theless, in the following year, 
 
 117, Hadrian was compelled to give up all the conquered 
 country ; the Euphrates was again acknowledged as the bound- 
 ary ; Parthamaspates was appointed king of Armenia; and 
 Cosroes, who had taken refuge in the upper satrapies, was rein- 
 stated on tlie throne, of which he seems ever after to have kept 
 
 R 2 
 
244 
 
 MACEDONIAN MONARCHY. 
 
 [l300K IV. 
 
 Third 
 Period. 
 
 Bactria. 
 
 quiet possession. Arsaces XXVI., (Vologeses II.,) d. 149. Par- 
 thia under his reign, and Rome under that of Antoninus Pius, 
 remained on good terms. Arsaces XXVII., (Vologeses III.,) 
 d. 191. Under the reign of this king, the contemporary of 
 Marcus Aurelius and L. Verus, the war with Rome was again 
 kindled, 161, by Verus, and carried on in Armenia and Syria; 
 Cassias, the legate of Verus, at last got possession of Seleucia, 
 and demolished that city, 165. — Arsaces XXVIII., (Ardawan 
 or Vologeses IV.,) d. 2Ö7. This king having taken the part 
 of Pescenninus Niger, in the war between him and Sep- 
 timius Sever us, was, after the defeat of his friend, 194, routed 
 in a war with Septimius Severus, 197, and the chief towns of 
 Parthia were sacked by the invaders. He is, without authority, 
 represented as succeeded by a Pacorus, Avho took the name of 
 Arsaces XXIX. : his real successor, however, appears to have 
 been Arsaces XXIX., (Vologeses V.,) rf. 216. Domestic wars 
 among his sons, fomented by Caracalla. Arsaces XXX. (Ar- 
 tabanus IV.) At the beginning of his reign, this prince like- 
 wise was contemporary with Caracalla, who, in order to pick a 
 quarrel, demanded his daughter in marriage ; according to some, 
 Arsaces refused her, in consequence of which the Roman empe- 
 ror undertook a campaign into Armenia ; according to others, 
 Arsaces having assented, and escorted his daughter to Caracalla, 
 was, by an abominable stroke of treachery, cut off, together 
 Avith all his train, A. D. 216. Caracalla having been murdered, 
 217, his successor, Macrinus, signed a peace with the Parthians. 
 But Arsaces subsequently raised his brother Tiridates to the 
 throne of Armenia ; this act spurred the Persian Artaxerxes, 
 son of Sassan, to rebellion ; the Parthian king, defeated in three 
 battles, fell in the last, thus putting a period to the family and 
 dominion of the Arsacidse, 226, and Artaxerxes became the 
 founder of the new Persian kingdom, or that of the Sassanid«. 
 The revolution was accompanied not only with a change of dy- 
 nasty, but with a total subversion of the constitution. 
 
 Vaillant, Imperium Arsacidarum et Achamemdarum, Paris, 
 1725, 2 vols. 4to. The first part comprises the Arsacidis ; the 
 second the kings of Bithynia, Pontus, and Bosporus. It is an 
 attempt, not altogether faultless, to arrange the series of kings, 
 by the assistance of coins. 
 
 j" C. F. Richter, Historico-critical essay upon the dynasties 
 of the ArsacidcB and Sassanidce, according to the Persian, Gr-e- 
 cian, and Roman authorities. A prize essay. Leipzic, 1804, 
 A comparative research into the eastern and western sources. 
 The chronology in the above sketch has been corrected by this 
 work, in conjunction with 
 
 Th. Chr. Tychsen, Commentationes de Nummis Persarum 
 et Arsacidarum ; inserted in Commentat. Nov. Soc. Sc. Got- 
 ting. vol. i. iii. 
 
 5. The Bactrian kingxlom arose nearly at the same 
 time as the Parthian, 254 ; its origin, however, was 
 
PERIOD III.] IV. PARTHIA, ETC. 245 
 
 of a difterent nature, — the- independence of this state Third 
 being asserted by the Grecian governor, who was ^^'^^"°' 
 consequently succeeded by Greeks; — its duration 
 likewise was much shorter, extending only from B. C. 
 254 to B. C. 126. Scarce any fragments have been 
 preserved of the history of this empire, the borders 
 of which appear at one time to have extended to the 
 banks of the Ganges, and the frontiers of China. 
 
 Founder of the empire, Dioclatus or Theodotus I., B. C. 254 ; 
 he threw off his allegiance to the Syrian king, under Antiochus 
 II. He appears to have been master not only of Bactria, but 
 also of Sogdiana. He likewise threatened the Parthians ; after 
 his decease, 243, his son and successor, Theodotus II., signed a 
 treaty and alliance with Arsaces II., but was nevertheless de- 
 prived of his crown by Euthydemus of Magnesia, about 221. 
 Antiochus the Great, at the conclusion of the Parthian war, 
 directed his arms against Euthydemus, 209 — 206 ; the contest 
 ended in a peace, by which Euthydemus, after delivering up his 
 elephants, was not only left in possession of the crown, but was 
 allied to the Syrian family by the marriage of his son Deme- 
 trius with a daughter of Antiochus. Demetrius, though a great 
 conqueror, does not seem to have been king of Bactria ; his do- 
 minions comprised, it is probable. North India and Malabar, 
 whose history now becomes closely connected with that of Bac- 
 tria, although consisting only of mere fragments. The throne 
 of Bactria fell to Apollodotus, and after him to IMenander, who 
 extended his conquests as far as Serica, while Demetrius was 
 establishing his dominion in India, [as sovereign of which coun- 
 try he is represented in a medal lately discovered,] and where, 
 about this time, several Greek states appear to have existed, 
 perhaps ever since the expedition of Antiochus III., 205. Me- 
 nander was succeeded, about 181, by Eucratidas, under whose 
 reign the Bactrian empire attained its greatest extension ; after 
 defeating the Indian king, Demetrius, who had been the ag- 
 gressor, he, with the assistance of the Parthian conqueror, 
 Mithridates, (Arsaces VI.,) annexed India to his own empire, 
 148. On his return, he Avas murdered by his son ; the same, 
 probably, that is mentioned afterwards by the name of Eucrati- 
 das II. He was the ally of Demetrius II. of Syria, and the 
 main instigator of his expedition against the Parthians, 142 ; 
 Demetrius being defeated by Arsaces VI., Eucratidas was, in 
 consequence, deprived of a portion of his territory ; overpowered 
 soon after by the nomad races of Central Asia, the Bactrian 
 empire fell to the ground, and Bactria itself, together with the 
 other countries on this side of the Oxus, became a prey to the 
 Parthians. 
 
 Tii. Sieg. Bayer, Historia regni GrcBcorum Bactriani. Pe- 
 tropol. 1738, 4to. The few remaining fragments are in this 
 work collected with industry and arranged with skill. 
 
246 MACEDONIAN MONARCHY. [book iv 
 
 Third [Tod, Account of Greek, Parthian, and Hindu Medals, in 
 
 Period. Transactions of the R. Asiatic Society, vol. i. part ii. p. 316. 
 Tychsen, De Nummis Gracis et Barbaris in Bochara mcper 
 retectis, in Comment. Nov. Soc. Sc. Gotting. vol. vi.] 
 
 Kingdom of 6- The restorcd kingdom of the Jcws WQS likewise 
 the Jews, -j fragment of the Macedonian monarchy ; and al- 
 though it ranked only with the smaller states, its his- 
 tory in various respects deserves our attention, few 
 nations having had so powerful an influence on the 
 progress of human civilization. The foundation of 
 the independence of the Jews was not, it is true, laid 
 before the year 1 67 ; yet their domestic constitution 
 had previously assumed its main features, and their 
 history, reckoning from the return of the Babylonian 
 captivity, accordingly divides itself into four periods : 
 1. Under the Persian supremacy, 536 — 323. 2. 
 Under the Ptolemies and Seleucidse, 323 — 167. 3. 
 Under the Maccabees, 167 — 39. 4. Under the 
 Herodians and Romans, B. C. 39 to A. D. 70. 
 
 First period under the Persians. By permission from Cyrus, 
 a colony of Jews belonging to the tribes of Benjamin, Judah, 
 and Levi, returned to the land of their forefathers, 536 : this 
 colony, headed by Zorobabel, of the ancient royal family, and 
 the high priest Joshua, consisted of about 42,000 souls ; the 
 far more important and wealthy portion of the nation preferred 
 to remain on the other side of the Euplirates, where they had 
 been settled for seventy years, and continued to be a numerous 
 people. The new settlers found it difficult to keep their foot- 
 ing, principally in consequence of differences, produced by the 
 intolerance tliey themselves evinced at the building of the tem- 
 ple, with their neighbours and kinsmen the Samaritans, to whom 
 the colony was only a cause of expense. The Samaritans sub- 
 sequently, having erected a separate temple at Garizim, near 
 Sichern, about 336, not only separated completely, but laid the 
 foundation of an inveterate hatred between the two nations. 
 Hence the prohibition to rebuild the city and temple, brought 
 about by their means, under Cambyses, 529, and Smerdis, 522, 
 and not taken off until 520, in the reign of Darius Hystaspes. 
 The new colony did not receive a permanent internal constitu- 
 tion till the time of Ezra and Nehemiah ; both brought in fresh 
 colonists, the former in 478, the latter in 445. The country 
 was under the dominion of the satraps of Syria ; but in the in- 
 creasing domestic declension of the Pei'sian empire, the high 
 priests gradually became the virtual rulers of the nation. Ne- 
 vertheless, even at the time of Alexander's conquest, 332, the 
 'Jews seem to have manifested proofs of fidelity to the Persians. 
 
 Second period under the Ptolemies and Seleucidte, 323 — 167. 
 
PERIOD III.] IV. JUD^A. 247 
 
 After the death of Alexander, Palestine, in consequence of its Third 
 situation, generally shared the fate of Phoenicia and Coele-Syi-ia, Period. 
 (see above, p. 200,) being annexed to Syria. — Capture of Je- ' ' 
 rusalem, and transplantation of a vast colony of Jews to Alex- 
 andria by Ptolemy I., 312 ; from thence they spread to Cyrene, 
 and gradually over the whole of North Africa, and even into 
 Ethiopia. From 311 — 301 the Jews remained, however, sub- 
 ject to Antigonus. After the overthrow of his empire, they 
 remained, 301 — 203, under the dominion of the Ptolemies ; the 
 most conspicuous of their high priests during this interval were 
 Simon the Just, d. 291, and aftenvards his son, Onias I., d. 
 218, who, by withholding the tribute due to Ptolemy III., ex- 
 posed Judaea to imminent danger. — In the second war of Anti- 
 ochus the Great against Egypt, 203, the Jews of their own free 
 will acknowledged themselves his subjects, and assisted in 
 driving out the Egyptian troops, who, under their general, Sco- 
 pas, had again possessed themselves of the country, and the 
 citadel of Jerusalem, 198. Antiochus confirmed the Jews in 
 the possession of all their privileges ; and although he promised 
 their country, together with Coele-Syria and Phoenicia, to Pto- 
 lemy Epiphanes, as the future dowry of his daughter, Judaea 
 still remained under the Syrian supremacy ; except that the 
 revenue was for a time divided between the Syrian and Egyp- 
 tian kings. — The high priests and self-chosen ethnarchs or ala- 
 barchs were at the head of the people ; and we now find men- 
 tion made for the first time of a senate, or the sanhedi-im. But 
 the rout of Antiochus the Great by the Romans was also the 
 remote cause of the subsequent misfortunes of the Jews. The 
 consequent dearth of money in which the Syrian kings found 
 themselves, and the ri(;hes of the temple treasures, the accumu- 
 lation of the sacred income and gifts, made the ofiice of high 
 priest an object of purchase under Antiochus Epiphanes : hence 
 arose quarrels between the pontifical families, and out of those 
 sprung factions, which Antiochus Epiphanes was desirous to 
 turn to his own account, by the introduction of Grecian insti- 
 tutions among the Jews, in order thereby to promote the sub- 
 jection of that people, now raised by its privileges almost to the 
 rank of a state within that of Syi'ia. Deposition of the high 
 priest, Onias III., 175 ; his brother Jason having obtained the 
 mitre by purchase, and the introduction of Grecian customs : 
 Jason, however, was in his turn supplanted by his brother Me- 
 nelaus, 172. During the civil war arising out of these events, 
 Antiochus Epiphanes, at that time conqueror in Egypt, (see 
 above, p. 193,) takes possession of Jerusalem, 170, being pro- 
 voked by the behaviour of the Jews to Menelaus, the high priest 
 of his own appointment : the consequent oppression of the 
 Jews, who now were to be Hellenized by main force, soon oc- 
 casioned tlie rise under the Maccabees. 
 
 Third period under the Maccabees, 167 — 39. Commence- 
 ment of the rebellion against Antiochus IV., brought about by 
 the priest Mattathias, 167, who was almost immediately sue- 
 
248 MACEDONIAN MONARCHY. [book iv. 
 
 Third ceeded, 166 — 161, by bis son Judas Maccabseus. Supported 
 Period. \)y ti^g fanatacism of his party, Judas defeats in several battles 
 the generals of Antiochus, who was absent in Upper Asia, where 
 he died, 164 ; the Jewish leader is even said to have been fti- 
 voured by Rome. The primary object of the insurrection was 
 not, however, political independence ; they fought only for re- 
 ligious freedom. Under Antiochus V. the sedition continued 
 successful, both against the Syrian king and the high priest 
 Alcimus, his creature, 163 ; Judas having died soon after his 
 defeat by Demetrius I., was succeeded by his brother Jonathan, 
 161 — 143. The death of the high priest, Alcimus, 160, opened 
 the path of Jonathan to that office, which he received in the 
 ensuing war between Demetrius I. and Alexander Balas, 143, 
 (see above, p. 195, 196,) both rivals courting his alliance : Jona- 
 than sided with Balas, and consequently, from being merely the 
 leader of a party, came to be head of the nation, which still, ne- 
 vertheless, continued to pay tribute to the kings. Notwithstand- 
 ing the favour he had shown to Balas, after the overthrow of that 
 pretender, he was confirmed in his high dignity by Demetrius 
 I., 145 ; to whose assistance he marched at tlie subsequent great 
 revolt in Antioch. Jonathan, however, in 144, passed over to 
 the side of the usurper, Antiochus, the son of Balas, (see above, 
 p. 196,) and was by embassy presented with the friendship of 
 the Romans in the same year, but by the treachery of Tryphon 
 was taken and put to death, 143, His brother and successor, 
 Simon, 143 — 135, having declared against Tryphon, was by 
 Demetrius II. not only confirmed in his dignity, but excused 
 from paying tribute ; he likewise received the title of prince, 
 (ethnarch,) and appears to have struck coins. After the cap- 
 ture of Demetrius, Antiochus Sidetes allowed Simon to remain 
 in possession of those privileges so long as he stood in need of 
 his assistance against Tryphon ; but after the death of that 
 usurper, he caused him, 130, to be attacked by Cendeboius, who 
 was defeated by the sons of Simon. Simon having been mur- 
 dered by his son-in-law, Ptoleraa^us, who aspired to the govern- 
 ment, 135, was succeeded by his son, John Hyrcanus, 
 135—107, who was compelled again to acknowledge submis- 
 sion to Antiochus Sidetes ; but after the defeat and death of 
 that prince by the Parthians, 130, he asserted his entire inde- 
 pendence. The deep decline of the Syrian kingdom, the con- 
 stant civil wars by which it was distracted, and the renewed 
 league with the Romans, not only enabled Hyrcanus easily to 
 maintain his independence, but likewise to increase his territory, 
 by the conquest of the Samaritans and Iduma^ans. But with 
 liim ended the heroic line. Scarcely was he delivered from 
 foreign oppression, Avhen domestic broils arose ; the Pharisees 
 and Sadducees had hitherto been mere religious sects, but were 
 converted into political factions by Hyrcanus, who, ofiended 
 with the Pharisees, probably in consequence of their wish to 
 separate the pontifical and princely offices, went over to the 
 Sadducees ; the former sect, the orthodox, were as usual sup- 
 
PERIOD III.] IV. JUD^A. 249 
 
 ported by the many; the latter, the innovators, in consequence Third 
 of the laxity of their principles, were favoured by the wealthy. Period. 
 Hyrcanus's eldest son, the cruel Aristobulus, 107, assumed the 
 royal title, but soon after dying, 106, was succeeded by his 
 younger brother Alexander Jannreus, 106 — 79. His reign was 
 an almost unbroken series of insignificant Avars with his neigh- 
 bours, this prince wishing to play the conqueror ; and having 
 likewise had the impudence to irritate the powerful party of 
 the Pharisees, these made him the object of public insult, and 
 excited a tumult, 92, Avhieh was followed by a bloody civil war, 
 which lasted six years. JannoBus, it is true, maintained himself 
 during the struggle ; but the opposite party was so far from 
 being annihilated, that, at his death, when passing over his 
 sons, the feeble Hyrcanus, (who possessed the pontifical dig- 
 nity,) and the ambitious Aristobulus, he bequeathed the crown 
 to his widow Alexandra, it Avas Avith the understanding that 
 she should join the party of the Pharisees : during her reign, 
 therefore, 79 — 71, the Pharisees held the reins of government, 
 and left her only the name. Provoked at this, Aristobulus, 
 shortly before the death of the queen, endeavoured to obtain 
 possession of the throne, and ultimately obtained his ends, not- 
 withstanding Alexandra nominated Plyrcanus to be her suc- 
 cessor. Hyrcanus, at the instigation of his confidant, the Idu- 
 mrean Antipater, who was the progenitor of the Ilerodians, and 
 assisted by the Arabian prince Aretas, Avaged Avar against his 
 brother, 65, and shut him up in Jerusalem : but the Romans 
 were arbitrators, and Porapey, then all-poAverful in Asia, decided 
 for Hyrcanus, 64 ; the party of Aristobulus, however, refusing 
 to accede, the Roman general took possession of Jerusalem ; 
 made Hyrcanus high priest and prince, under condition that he 
 should pay tribute ; and took as prisoners to Rome Aristobulus 
 and his sons, who, however, subsequently escaped and caused 
 great disturbances. The JcAvish state being now dependent on 
 Rome, remained so, and the yoke Avas confirmed by the policy 
 of Antipater and his sons, Avho foUoAved the general maxim of 
 entire devotion to Rome, in order thereby to succeed in AvhoUy 
 removing the reigning family. As early as 48, Antipater Avas 
 appointed procurator of Judaja by Caesar, Avhom he had support- 
 ed at Alexandria, and his second son Herod, governor in Galilee, 
 soon became sufticiently poAverful to threaten Hyrcanus and 
 the sanhedrim, 45. He gained the fiivour of Antony, and thus 
 maintained himself amid the tempest Avhich, after the assassina- 
 tion of Ca3sar, 44, shook the Roman Avorld, poAverful as the 
 party opposed to him were : that party hoAvever, at last, in lieu 
 of the ill-fated Hyrcanus, the only surviving son of Aristobulus, 
 placed Antigonus at their head, and, assisted by the Parthians, 
 then flourishing in poAver, seated him on the throne, 39. Hei'od 
 having fled to Rome, not only met Avith a gracious reception at 
 the hands of the triumviri, but was by them appointed king. 
 
 Fourth period, under the Herodians, B. C. 39 to A. D. 70. 
 Herod the Great, B. C. 39 to A. D. 1, put himself in possession 
 
250 MACEDONIAN MÜNAHCIIY. [iwok iv 
 
 Third of Jerusalem and all Jmlea, B. C. 37, and eonlirmed his power 
 Period. \yy marrying Älarianme of the house of the INIaeeabees. Not- 
 withstanding his severity shown to the party of Antigonus, and 
 the house of the Maecabees, the total extinction of which llerod 
 deemed necessary for his OAvn safety ; yet so greatly did the 
 wasted eountr}- stand in need of peace, tluit for that very reason 
 his reign may be said to have been a ha]ipy one. Availing 
 himself of the liberality of Augustus, whose iavonr he contrived 
 to obtain after the defeat of Antony, B. C. 31, llerod gradually 
 increased the extent of his kingdom, which at last comprised 
 Judaea, Samaria, Galilee, and beyond the Jordan, Perani, Itu- 
 ra^a, and Trachonitis, (that is to say, the whole of Palestine,) 
 together with Idumani ; from these countries he derived his in- 
 come without being obliged to pay any tribute. The deference 
 consequently shown by Herod to Rome, was but the effect of a 
 natural policy, and his conduct in that respect could be objected 
 to him only by bigoted Jews. To his whole fomily, rather than 
 to himself individually, are to be attributed the executions which 
 took place among its members ; happy had it been if the sword 
 had smitten none but the guilty and spared the innocent. In 
 the last year but one of his reign is placed the birth of Christ 
 (according to the usually adopted computation, made in the 
 sixth century by Dionysius Exiguus. But the more accurate 
 calculations of modern chronologists show that the real date of 
 the Saviour's birth was probably four years earlier). — Accord- 
 ing to his will, with some few alterations made by Augustus, 
 his kingdom was divided among his three surviving sons ; Ar- 
 chelaus, as ethnarch, receiving the greater moiety, Judaea, Sa- 
 maria, and Idunifea ; the two others, as tetrarchs, Pliilip a part 
 of Galilee and Trachonitis, Antipas the other part of Gahlee, 
 and Pera^a, together with Itura^a ; subsequently to which divi- 
 sion, the various parts did not, in consequence, all share the 
 same fate. — Archelaus, by misgovernment, soon lost his por- 
 tion, A. D. 6 ; Judaea and Samaria were consequently annexed 
 as a Roman province to Syria, and placed under procurators 
 subordinate to the Sp'ian governors ; among these procurators, 
 the most famous is Pontius Pilate, about A. D. 27 — 36, under 
 whom the founder of our religion appeared and suffered, not as 
 a political — although accused of being so — but as a moral re- 
 former. On the other hand, Philip retained his tetrarchy until 
 the day of his death, A. D. 34, when his country had the same 
 lot with Juda-a and Samaria. Soon after, that is to say, in 
 A. D. 37, it was, however, given by Caligula, with the title of 
 king, to Agrippa, (grandson of Herod by Aristobulus,) as a re- 
 compence for his attachment to the fiunily of Gerraanicus ; and 
 when Antipas, who wished to procure a similar favour for him- 
 self, but instead of it was deposed, 39, Agrippa received his 
 tetrarchy also, 40, and soon afterwards, by the possession of the 
 territory which had belonged to Ai'chelaus, became master of 
 the whole of Palestine. Agrippa having died in A. D. 44, the 
 whole country being appended to Syria, became a Roman pro- 
 
PEKIOD iii.l IV. JUD-ä^A. 251 
 
 vince. and received procurators, although Chalcis, 49, and sub- Third 
 sequently also, 53, Philip's tetrarchy, were restored as a kingdom J^eriod. 
 
 to his son Agrippa II., d. 90. The oppression of the procur- 
 
 ators, and of Gessius Florus in particular, who obtained the 
 office, A. D. 64, excited the Jews to rebellion, which, 70, ended 
 in the capture and destruction of their city and temple by Titus. 
 The sprea^l of the Jews over the whole civilized world of that 
 time, although previously commenccfl, was by this event still 
 further increased ; and at the same time the extension of Chris- 
 tianity was prepared and facilitated. Even after the conquest, 
 Jerusalem not only continued to exist as a city, but was also 
 still considered by the nation as a point of union ; and the at- 
 tempt, under Adrian, to establish a Roman colony there, pro- 
 duced a fearful sedition. 
 
 Basxaoe, Histoire des Juifs depuis J. C. jusquC a present. 
 La Haye, 1716, 15 vols. ]2mo. The first two parts only, pro- 
 perly speaking, belong to this period ; but the others likewise 
 contain several very valuable historical researches. 
 
 Prideaux, The Old and Neic Testament connected in the 
 history of the Jews and their neighbouring nations. Lond. 1714, 
 2 vols. This work, together with that above quoted, have al- 
 ways been esteemed the grand books on the subject. The 
 French translation of Prideaux's Connexion is, by its arrange- 
 ment, more convenient for use than the original : this transla- 
 tion was published at Amsterdam, 1722, 5 vols. 8vo, under the 
 title of PuiDEAUX, Histoire des Juifs et des peuples volsins de- 
 puis la decadence des lioyaumes d! Israel et de Juda, jusqu^ a la 
 rnort de J. C. 
 
 t J. D. Michaelis, Translation of the Books of Esdras, Ne- 
 hemiah, and Maccabees, contains in the observations several 
 historic discussions of high importance. 
 
 f J. Remoxd, Essay towards a history of the spread of Ju- 
 daism, from Cyrus to the total decline of the Jewish state. 
 Leipzig, 1789. The industrious work of a young scholar. 
 
 To the works enumerated, p. 29, must be added, for the 
 more ancient history of the Jews, 
 
 J. L. Bauer, Manual of the history of the Hebrew nation, 
 from its rise to the destruction of its state. Nuremberg, 1800, 
 2 parts, 8vo. As yet the best critical introduction, not only to 
 the history, but also to the antiquities of the nation. 
 
 t In the works of J. J. IIess, belonging to this subject, 
 namely, History of Moses; History of Joshua ; History of the 
 Rulers of Judah, 2 parts ; History of the Kings of Judah and 
 Israel: the historj- is thi'oughout consideied in a theocratic point 
 of view. 
 
FIFTH BOOK. 
 
 HISTORY OF THE ROMAN STATE. 
 
 Introductory remarks on the Geography of Ancient Italy. 
 
 General Italy coDstitutes R peoiiisula, bounded on the 
 
 ita?'"" °^ north by the Alps, on the west and south by the 
 Mediterranean, and on the east by the Adriatic Sea. 
 Its gTeatest lenoth from north to south is 600 geogr. 
 miles ; its greatest breadth, taken at the foot of the 
 Alps, is 320 geogr. miles ; but that of the peninsula, 
 properly so called, is not more than 120 geogr. miles. 
 Superficial contents, 81,920 sq. geogr. miles. The 
 principal mountain range is that of the Apennines, 
 which diverging occasionally to the west, or east, 
 stretch from north to south through Central and 
 Lower Italy. In the earlier times of Rome, these 
 mountains were covered with thick forests. Main 
 streams : the Padus (Po) and the Athesis, (Adige,) 
 both of which discharge their waters in the Adriatic; 
 and the Tiberis, (Tiber,) which falls into the Medi- 
 terranean. The soil, particularly in the plains, is one 
 of the most fertile in Europe ; on the other hand, 
 many of the mountain tracts admit but of little culti- 
 vation. In that period when the Mediterranean was 
 the grand theatre of trade, Italy, by her situation, 
 seemed destined to become the principal mart of Eu- 
 rope ; but she never in ancient times availed herself 
 sufficiently of this advantage. 
 Divisions of It is divided into Upper Italy, from the Alps to 
 ^^^'^■- the small rivers of Rubicon and Macra ; (this part, 
 
 however, of Italy, until presented with the right of 
 citizenship under Caesar, was, according to the Ro- 
 man political geography, considered as a province ;) 
 into Central Italy, from the Rubicon and the Macra 
 
BOOK v.] GEOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT ITALY. 253 
 
 clown to the Silarus and Frento ; and into Lower 
 Italy, from those rivers to the southern land's end. 
 
 I. Upper Italy comprises the two countries, Gallia 
 Cisalpina and Liguria. 
 
 1. Gallia Cisalpina, or Togata, in contradistinction cisaipiae 
 to Gallia Transalpina. It bears the name of Gallia, ^^"'• 
 in consequence of being for the most part occupied 
 
 by Gallic races. This country is one continuous 
 plain, divided by the Padus into two parts, the north- 
 ernmost of which is therefore denominated Gallia 
 Transpadana, (inhabited by the Taurini, Insubres, 
 and Cenomani,) while the southern part (inhabited 
 by the Boii, Senones, and Lingones) is known by the 
 name of Gallia Cispadana. Various streams contri- 
 bute to swell the Padus ; from the north the Duria, 
 (Durance,) the Ticinus, (Tessino,) the Addua, (Ad- 
 da,) the OUius, (Oglio,) the Mintius, (Minzio,) and 
 several less important rivers ; from the south, the 7^a- 
 narus, (Tanaro,)the Trebia, etc. The Athesis, (Adige,) 
 the Plavis, (Piave,) and a number of smaller mountain 
 streams, roll their waters directly into the Adriatic. 
 
 The cities in Gallia Cisalpina were, generally 
 speaking, Roman colonies ; and most of them have 
 preserved to this day their ancient names. Amono- 
 these are reckoned in Gallia Transpadana, principally, 
 Tergeste, Aquileia, Patavium, (Padua,) Vincentia, 
 Verona, all east of the Athesis ; Mantua, Cremona, 
 Brixia, (Brescia,) Mediolanum, (Milan,) Ticinum, 
 (Pavia,) and Augusta Taurinorum, (Turin,) all west 
 of the Athesis. In Gallia Cispadana we meet with 
 Ravenna, Bononia, (Bologna,) Mutina, (Modena,) 
 Parma, Placentia (Piacenza). Several of the above 
 places received municipal rights from the Romans. 
 
 2. Liguria. This country deduced its name from Liguria, 
 the Ligures, one of the old Italic tribes : it extended 
 from the river Varus, by which it was divided from 
 Gallia Transalpina, down to the river Macra ; north- 
 ward it extended to the Padus, and comprised the 
 modern territory of Genoa. — Cities : Genua, an ex- 
 
254 ROMAN STATE. [book v. 
 
 tremely ancient place ; Nicsea, (Nice,) a colony of 
 Massilia ; and Asta (Asti). 
 
 II. Central Italy comprises six countries; Etruria, La- 
 tinm, and Campania on the west; Umbria, Picenum, 
 and Samnium on the east. 
 
 Etruria. 1. Etruria, Tuscia, or Tyrrnenia, was bounded 
 
 north by the Macra, which divided it from Liguria ; 
 south and east by the Tiberis, which separated it 
 from Latium and Umbria. Main river, the Arnus 
 (Arno). It is for the most part a mountainous 
 country ; the seashore only is level. This country 
 derives its name from the Etrusci, a very ancient 
 people, composed, it is probable, of an amalgamation 
 of several races, and even some early Grecian colo- 
 nies, to which latter they were indebted, not indeed 
 for all their arts, but for that of writing ; to com- 
 merce and navigation the Etrusci were indebted for 
 their opulence and consequent splendour. Cities : 
 between the Macra and Arnus, Pisse, (Pisa,) Flo- 
 rentia, Fsesulse i between the Arnus and Tiberis, 
 Vollaterrae, (Volterra,) Volsinii, (Bolsena,) on the 
 Lacus Volsiniensis, (Lago di Bolsena,) Clusium, 
 (Chiusi,) Arretium, (Arrezzo,) Cortona, Perusia, 
 (Perugia,) in the neighbourhood of which is the La- 
 cus Thrasimenus, (Lago di Perugia,) Falerii, (Falari,) 
 and the wealthy city of Veii. Each of the above 
 twelve cities had its own individual ruler, liicumo ; 
 although frequent associations were formed among 
 them, yet no firm and lasting bond seems to have 
 united the nation into one. 
 
 Latium. 2. Latium, properly the residence of the Latini, 
 
 from the Tiberis north, to the promontory of Circeii, 
 south ; hence that country was likewise denominated 
 Latium Vetus. Subsequently, under the name of 
 Latium was likewise reckoned the country from Cir- 
 ceii down to the river Liris (Latium Novum) ; so 
 that the boundaries came to be, north, the Tiberis, 
 south, the Liris : the seat of the Latins, properly 
 speaking, was in the fraitful plain extending from 
 
BOOK v.] GEOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT ITALY. 255 
 
 the Tiber to Circeii ; around them, however, dwelt 
 various small tribes, some eastward, in the Apen- 
 nines, such as the Hernici, Sabini, iEqui, and Marsi ; 
 others southward, such as the Volsci, Rutuli, and 
 Aurunci. — Rivers : the Anio (Teverone) and Allia, 
 which fall into the Tiber, and the Liris, (Garigliano,) 
 which empties itself into the Mediterranean. Cities 
 in Latium Vetus : Rome, Tiber, Tusculum, Alba 
 Longa, Ostia, Lavinium, Antium, Gabii, Velitrse, the 
 capital of the Volsci, and several smaller places. In 
 Latium Novum : Fundi, Terracina, or Anxur, Ar- 
 pinum, Minturnae, Formiae. 
 
 3. Campania. The country lying between the Campania. 
 Liris, north, and the Silarus, south. One of the 
 most fruitful plains in the world, but at the same time 
 greatly exposed to volcanic eruptions. Rivers : the 
 Liris, the Vulturnus, (Voltorno,) the Silarus (Selo). 
 Mountain : Vesuvius. Campania derived its name 
 from the race of the Campani. Cities : Capua the 
 principal one ; and also Linternum, Cumse, Neapo- 
 lis, Herculaneum, Pompeii, Stabile, Nola, Surren- 
 tum, Salernum, etc. 
 
 The three eastern countries of Central Italy are as follows: 
 
 1. Umbria. It is bounded, north, by the river Umbria. 
 Rubico ; south, by the river iEsis, (Gesano,) dividing 
 
 it from Picenum, and by the Nar, (Nera,) dividing it 
 from the Sabine territory. It is for the most part 
 plain. The Umbrian race had in early times spread 
 over a much larger portion of Italy. Cities : Ari- 
 minium, (Rimini,) Spoletium, (Spoleto,) Narnia, 
 (Narni,) and Ocriculum (Otriculi). 
 
 2. Picenum. Bounded, north, by the iEsis; south, picenum. 
 by the Atarnus (Pescara). The people are called 
 Picentes. This country consists in a fertile plain. 
 Cities : Ancona and Asculum Picenum (Ascoli). 
 
 3. Samnium, the name of a mountain tract ex- Samnium. 
 tending from the Atarnus, north, to the Frento, 
 
 south ; although that country reckoned among its in- 
 habitants, not only the rude and powerful Samnites, 
 
256 
 
 ROMAN STATE. 
 
 [book v. 
 
 but also several less numerous races ; for instance, 
 the Marrucini and Peligni in the north, the Frentani 
 in the east, and the Hirpini in the south. Rivers : 
 the Sagrus and the Tifernus. Cities : Alifse, Bene- 
 ventum, and Caudium. 
 
 Lucania. 
 
 Bruttium. 
 
 Apulia. 
 
 Calabria. 
 
 III. Lower Italy, or Magna GrcBcia, coinprised four 
 countries ; Lncania and Bruttium on the western side, 
 Apulia and Calabria on the eastern. 
 
 1. Lucania. Boundaries: north, the Silarus; south, 
 the Laus. For the most part a mountain tract. It 
 derived its name from the race of the Lucani, a 
 branch of the Ausones, or chief nation of Lower 
 Italy. Cities : Psestum, or Posidonia, still renowned 
 for its ruins, and Hslia, or Velia. 
 
 2. Bruttium, (the modern Calabria,) or the west- 
 ern tongue of land from the river Laus to the south- 
 ern land's end at Rhegium. The river Brandanus 
 constitutes the eastern frontier. A mountainous 
 country, deriving its name from the Bruttii, (a half 
 savage branch of the Ausones,) who dwelt in the 
 mountains, while the sea-shores were occupied by 
 Grecian settlements. Cities : Consentia, (Cosenza,) 
 Pandosia, Mamertum, and Petilia. (Concerning the 
 Greek colonies, see above, p. 125.) 
 
 3. Apulia. The country ranging along the eastern 
 coast, from the river Frento to the commencement of 
 the eastern tongue of land ; an extremely fertile 
 plain, and particularly adapted to grazing cattle. 
 Rivers : the Aufidus (Ofanto) and the Cerbalus. 
 This country is divided into two parts by the Aufidus, 
 the northern called Apulia Daunia, the southern 
 called Apulia Peucetia. Cities : in Apulia Daunia ; 
 Sipontum and Luceria : in Apulia Peucetia ; Bari- 
 um, Cannae, and Venusia. 
 
 4. Calabria or Messapia, the smaller eastern tongue 
 of land, which terminates in the promontory of 
 lapygium. Cities : Brundusium (Brindisi) and Cal- 
 lipolis (Gallipoli). Concerning Tarentum and other 
 Grecian colonies, see above, p. 125. 
 
PERIOD I.] TO THE CONQUEST OF ITALY. 257 
 
 Three large islands are likewise reckoned as ap- 
 pertaining to Italy : they are Sicily, Sardinia, and 
 Corsica. According to the political geography of I 
 
 the Romans they were, however, considered as pro- 
 vinces. Although the above islands were, along the 
 coasts, occupied by aliens, the aboriginals, under their 
 own kings, maintained a footing in the inland parts ; 
 among these the Siculi, said to have migrated from 
 Italy, were the most celebrated ; they remained in 
 Sicily, and gave their name to the whole island. Con- 
 cerning the cities, the more important of which were, 
 some of Phoenician, but the most part of Grecian, 
 origin, see above, p. 25, and p. 125, sqq. 
 
 FIRST PERIOD. 
 
 From the foundation of Rome to the conqiient of Italy and 
 the commencement of the wars with Carthage, B. C. 
 754—264, or A. U. C. 1—490. 
 
 Sources. The most copious author, and, if we except his First 
 system of deducing every thing connected with Rome from Period. 
 
 Greece, the most critical of all those who have written on the 
 
 earUer history of Rome and Italy, is Dionysius Ilalicarnassensis, 
 in his Arch(Eologia : of this work only the first eleven books, 
 reaching down to the year 443, have l)cen preserved ; to these, 
 however, must be added the fragments of the nine following 
 books, xii. — xx., discovered in 1816, and published by the 
 Abbate Mai of Milan. Next to Dionysius is Livy, who, as far 
 as lib. iv. c. 18, is our main authority, till B. C. 292. Of the 
 Lives of Plutarch the following belong to this period, Romulus, 
 Numa, Coriolanus, Poplicola, and Camillus ; which for the 
 knov/ledge and criticism they display, are perhaps more import- 
 ant even than Livy and Dionysius, see A. H. L. Heeren, De 
 fontibiis et aiictoritate vitarum Plutarchi, inserted in Comment. 
 Recentiores Soc. Sclent. Gott. Comment. I. II. GrcBci, III. 
 IV. Romani; reprinted also as an appendix to the editions of 
 Plutarch by Reiske and Hutten, Gottingen, 1821, op. Dieterich. 
 The sources of the most ancient Roman history were extremely 
 various in kind. The traditions of the Fathers were preserved 
 in historical ballads ; (no mention is ever made of any grand 
 epic poem ;) and in this sense there existed a bardic history ; 
 by no means, however, wholly poetic, for even the traditions of 
 Numa's Institutes are without the characteristics of poetry. 
 
 S 
 
258 ROMAN STATE. [book v. 
 
 First The art of writing was in Italy of earlier origin than the city 
 Period, of Rome : how far, consequently, the public annals, such as the 
 Lihri Pontißcum, extended back in early time, remains undeter- 
 mined. Several of the memorials are, beyond a doubt, mere 
 family records, whether preserved by vocal tradition or in writ- 
 ten documents. To the above must be added monuments, not 
 only buildings and works of art, but also treaties engraved on 
 tables ; of which, nevertheless, too little use seems to have 
 been made. The Romans having learnt the art of writing from 
 the Greeks, their history was as frequently written in Greek as 
 in Latin ; and that not only by Greeks, such as, in the first 
 place. Diodes of Peparethus, but likewise by Romans, such as 
 Fabius Pictor, at an early period. From these last sources Dio- 
 nysius and Livy compiled. The more ancient Roman history 
 given by these authorities rests, therefore, in part, but by no 
 means entirely, on tradition and poetry ; still further amplified 
 by the rhetoric style, that of the Greeks more especially. At 
 what epoch the Roman history lays aside the poetic character 
 can hardly be determined with certainty ; it may be traced even 
 in some parts of the period extending from the expulsion of 
 the kings to the conquest by the Gauls. — For the purposes of 
 chronology, great importance attaches tothe fasti Bomani, con- 
 tained partly in inscriptions, (fasti Capitoli?ii,) partly in manu- 
 scripts. They have been collected and restored by Pighius, 
 Noris Sigonius, etc., in Gr^evii, T/ies. A. R. vol. xi. ; likewise 
 in Almeloveen, Fast. Rom. I. II. Amstel. 1705, etc. 
 
 PiGHn Annales Romanorum. Antwerp, 1615, fol. 2 vols. 
 An essay towards a chronological arrangement ; it reaches 
 down to Vitellius. 
 
 The Roman histoiy has been copiously treated of by the mo- 
 derns in many works besides those on universal ancient history 
 before enumerated (p. 2). We shall mention only the more 
 important. 
 
 RoLLiN, Histoire Romaine, Depuis la foundation de Rome 
 jusqu' ä la bataille d'Actium. 13 vols. 8vo. Paris, 1823, edit, 
 revue par Letronne. This history, which extends to B. C. 89, 
 has been continued and terminated by Crevier. Although the 
 critical historian might suggest much that is wanting in this 
 Avork, it nevertheless contributed to advance the study. 
 
 Ed. Ferguson, The History of the Progress and Termina- 
 tion of the Roman Republic. London, 1783, 4to. On the 
 whole, the best work on the history of the Roman republic ; it 
 has superseded the earlier work of Goldsmith. 
 
 P. Ch. Levesque, Histoire de la Rcpubliqiie Romaine, 3 vols. 
 Paris, 1807. He who would still wish to admii-e with blind en- 
 thusiasm the glory of ancient Rome, had better not read this 
 work. 
 
 B. G. NiEBUHR, Roman History. 
 
 Rather criticism than history ; the author seems to be perpe- 
 tually endeavouring to overthrow all that has hitherto been ad- 
 mitted. The spirit of acuteness is not always that of truth ; 
 
PERIOD I.J TO THE CONQUEST OF ITALY. 259 
 
 and men do not so lightly assent to the existence of a constitu- First 
 tion which not only is contrary to the broad view of antiquity Period. 
 
 — inferences drawn from some insulated passages not being 
 
 sufficient to overturn what is corroborated by all the others 
 
 but likewise, according to the author's own avowal, stands op- 
 posed to all analogy in history. But truth gains even where 
 criticism is wrong ; and the value of some deep researches will 
 not for that reason be overlooked. — Consult on this subject : 
 
 f W. Wachsjiutu, Researches into the more Ancient History 
 of Rome. Halle, 1819. 
 
 C. F. Th. Lachmann, Commentatio de fontibus T. Livii in 
 prima Historiarum Decade. Gottingaj, 1821. A prize essay. 
 
 For the works upon the Roman constitution see below, at the 
 end of this and at the beginning of the third period. 
 
 Abundance of most important writings upon Roman antiqui- 
 ties will be found in the great collections : 
 
 Gr-^vii Thesaurus Antiquitatum Romanarum. Lugd. Batav. 
 1694, sq. 12 vols, fol., and likewise in 
 
 Saxengke, Thesaurus Antiquitatum Romanarum. Venet 
 1732, 3 vols. fol. 
 
 Many excellent papers, particularly in 
 
 Memoires de VAcadtmie des Inscriptions. 
 
 With the exception of Nardini, Roma Vetus, inserted in 
 Gk^vii Thes. A. R. t. iv. the best work on the topography of 
 ancient Rome is 
 
 Venuti, Descrizione Topografica delle Antichita di Roma. 
 P. I. II. Roma, 1763 ; and especially the now edition of that 
 work by Visconti, 1 803. There is also, 
 
 t S. H. L. Adleu, Description of the City of Rome. Altona, 
 1781, 4to. 
 
 The best representation of the monuments of ancient Rome 
 will be found in 
 
 PiRANESi, Antichita di Roma, 3 vols. fol. 
 
 1. In certain respects, the history of Rome is General 
 always that of one town, inasmuch as until the pe- f^^^'l!^,^ 
 riod of the Ceesars, the city continued mistress of man Ms 
 her extensive territory. The main parts of the inter- ' 
 nal constitution of Rome were formed during this 
 first period ; which, considered in an historical point 
 of view, can hardly be said to be void of interest. 
 Whether every fundamental institution had its origin 
 precisely at the epoch to which it is attributed, is a 
 question of little importance ; it is sufficient to ob- 
 serve, that they certainly arose in this period ; and 
 that the steps by which the constitution was develop- 
 ed are, upon the whole, determined beyond the pos- 
 sibility of a doubt. 
 
 s 2 
 
 Ro- 
 
 hi 
 tory. 
 
260 
 
 ROMAN STATE. 
 
 [book v. 
 
 First 
 Period. 
 
 Romans 
 of Latin 
 orisjin. 
 
 Kings of 
 Rome. 
 
 2. Exao-crerated and embellished as the most an- 
 cient traditions of the Romans respecting their origin 
 may be, they all agree in this, that the Romans be- 
 longed to the race of the Latini, and that their city 
 was a colony of the neighbouring Alba Longa. 
 Long before this, the custom seems to have obtained 
 with the Latini, of extending the cultivation of their 
 country by colonies. 
 
 The primitive history of Rome is as difficult to reduce to 
 pure historic truth as that of Athens, or any other city of an- 
 tiquity ; this proceeds from its being principally founded on 
 traditions, handled by poets and rhetoricians, and likewise dif- 
 fering from one another ; as may be seen in Plutarch's Romu- 
 lus. As the knowledge of those traditions, such as they are 
 found in Dionysius and Livy, attaches to so many other sub- 
 jects, it would be improper to pass them over in silence ; and 
 that they contained truths as well as poetic fictions is proved 
 most evidently by the political institutions of which they nar- 
 rate the origin, and which certainly reached back to those times. 
 To attempt to draw a line of demarcation between mythical and 
 historic times would be to mistake the real nature of mythology. 
 
 L. DE Beaufort, Sur rincertitude des cinq premiers siecles 
 de Vhistoire Romaine, nouv. ed. ä la Haye, 1750, 2 vols. 8vo. 
 Every thing that can be said against the credibility of the pri- 
 mitive Roman history has been developed by Beaufort with 
 abundant, and often with laboured, acuteness. 
 
 3. During the first two hundred and forty-five 
 years subsequent to its foundation, this city was un- 
 der the rule of governors, denominated kings ; these, 
 however, were not hereditary, still less were they in- 
 vested with unlimited power, although they exerted 
 themselves to become both perpetual and absolute. 
 On the contrary, in this period was framed a muni- 
 cipal constitution, demonstrative of the existence, 
 even at this early date, of a considerable degree of 
 political civihzation ; in its principal parts this con- 
 stitution was, no doubt — as in every colony — copied 
 from that of the mother city. Its principal features 
 were : a. Establishment and internal oro;anization of 
 the senate, b. Establishment and progress of the 
 patrician or hereditary nobility, which, supported by 
 the privilege of administering the sacred aifairs, and 
 by the introduction of family names, quickly formed, 
 in opposition to the plebeians, a political party, ever 
 
PERIOD I.] TO THE CONQUEST OF ITALY. 261 
 
 growing in power, although not, therefore, a mere f»rst 
 sacerdotal caste. c. Organization of the people, '^"^°"' 
 (populas,) and modes of popular assembly {comitia) 
 founded thereupon ; besides the original division ac- 
 cording to heads into tribus and ciir'uf, another was 
 subsequently introduced according to property into 
 classes and centuria', out of which, besides the more 
 ancient comitia curiata, arose the very artificially 
 constructed comitia centuriata. d. Religious insti- 
 tutions, (religio/ies,) which, being most closely con- 
 nected with the political constitution, formed a state 
 religion, by means of which every thing in the state 
 was attached to determined forms, and received a 
 higher sanction. Nor must we omit, e. the relations 
 in private life established by law, the clientship, mar- 
 riage, and especially paternal authority. In conse- 
 quence of those domestic relations, a spirit of sub- 
 ordination and discipline, from the earliest times, 
 pervaded the people ; and to that spirit the Romans 
 were indebted for the glory to which they attained. 
 
 4. Notwithstanding many little wars with their Destruction 
 immediate neighbours the Sabines, iEqui, and Volsci, Lo'uga! 
 together with various cities of the Etrusci, and even 
 with the Latins themselves, Rome added but little to 
 her territory : nevertheless she took tlie first step to- 
 wards her aggrandizement ; from the time of the de- 
 struction of Alba Longa, she aimed at being the head 
 of the collected cities of the Latins, and finally at- 
 tained the object of her ambition. 
 
 Line of kings. Romulus, 754 — 717. First establishment of 
 the colony ; augmentation in the number of the citizens, pro- 
 duced by the establishment of an asylum, and a union Avith part 
 of the Sabines. Nunia Ponipilius, d. 679. By representing 
 this prince as the founder of the religion of the Roman state, 
 that religion received the high sanction of antiquity. Tullus 
 Hostilius, d. 640. The conquest and destruction of Alba lays 
 the foundation of Roman supremacy in Latium. Ancus Mar- 
 tins, d. 618. He extends the territory of Rome to the sea ; the 
 foundation of tlie port of Ostia proves that Rome already ap- 
 plied to navigation, the object of whicli was perhaps as yet 
 rather piracy than trade. Tarquinius Priscus, d. 578. A Gre- 
 cian by descent. Under his conduct Rome was already able to 
 enter the field against the confederate Etrusci. Servius Tul- 
 lius, d. 534. The most remarkable in the line of Roman kings. 
 
262 
 
 ROMAN STATE. 
 
 [book V 
 
 Consular 
 govern- 
 ment, 
 B. C. 509 
 
 First He placed Rome at the head of the confederacy of the Latins, 
 Period, which he confirmed by communia sacra. On his new division 
 of the people according to property were raised the highly ^im- 
 portant institutions of the census and comitia centuriata. The 
 necessity of this measure is demonstrative of the great and in- 
 creasing prosperity of the Roman citizens ; there can be no 
 doubt, however, that by its adoption the frame of the republic 
 was already completed. Tarquinius Superbus, (the tyrant,) — 
 509. This individual, having taken forcible possession of the 
 throne as nephew to Priscus, endeavoured to confirm his power 
 by a close connexion with the Latins and Volsci ; by this, as 
 well as by his tyranny, he ofiended both the patrician and ple- 
 beian parties. His deposition, and the consequent reformation 
 of the government, were however, properly speaking, brought 
 about by the ambition of the patricians. 
 
 Algarotti, Saggio sopra la diirata de' regni de' re di Roma. 
 (Op. t. iii.) Chronological doubts. Can the raising of diffi- 
 culties deserve the name of criticism. 
 
 5. The only direct consequence to the internal 
 constitution of Rome, proceeding from the abolition 
 of royalty, was, that that power, undetermined as it 
 had been while in the hands of the kings, was trans- 
 ferred to two consuls, annually elected. Meanwhile 
 the struggle for liberty, in which the new republic 
 was engaged with the Etrusci and Latins, contributed 
 much to arouse the republican spirit, which hencefor- 
 ward was the main feature of the Roman character — 
 the evils of popular rule being in times of need reme- 
 408. died by the establishment of the dictatorship. The 
 party, however, which had deposed the ruling family, 
 took wholly into their own hands the helm of state ; 
 and the oppression of these aristocrats, shown princi- 
 pally towards their debtors, who had become their 
 slaves, {ne.vi,) — notwithstanding the le.v de provoca- 
 tmie established by Valerius Poplicola, insuring to 
 the people the highest judicial power, — was so gall- 
 ing, that after the lapse of a few years it gave rise to 
 507. a sedition of the commons, (plebis,) the consequence 
 493. of which was the establishment of annually elected 
 presidents of the people {tribuui plebis). 
 
 First commercial treaty with Carthage, 508, in which Rome 
 appears certainly as a free state, but not yet as sovereign of all 
 Latium ; the most important monument of the authenticity of 
 the earlier Roman history. 
 
 Heyne, Fmdera Carthaginiensium cum Romanis super navi- 
 
Roman 
 constilu- 
 
 TERioD i.J TO THE CONQUEST OF ITALY. 263 
 
 gatione et mercatura facta : contained in his Opusc. t. iii. Cf. First 
 1 A. H. L. Heeren, Ideas, etc. Appendix to the second vol. Period. 
 
 6. The further development of the Roman consti- Rise of the 
 tution in this period, hinges almost wholly on the 
 struggle between the new presidents of the commons tion. 
 and the hereditary nobility ; the tribunes, instead of 
 confining themselves to defend the people from the 
 oppression of the nobles, soon began to act as ag- 
 gressors, and in a short time so widely overstepped 
 their power, that there remained no chance of putting 
 an end to the struggle but by a complete equalization 
 of rights. A long time elapsed ere this took place ; 
 the aristocracy finding a very powerful support both 
 in the clientship and in the religion of the state, 
 operating under the shape of auspices. 
 
 Main facts of the contest : 1 . In the trial of Coriolanus the 
 tribunes usurp the right of summoning some patricians before 
 the tribunal of the people. — Hence arise the comitia tributa ; 
 that is to say, either mere assemblies of the commons, or assem- 
 blies so organized that the commons had the preponderance. 
 This institution gave the tribunes a share in the legislation, 
 subsequently of such high importance, those officers being al- 
 lowed to lay proposals before the commons. 2. More equitable 
 distribution among the poorer classes of the lands conquered 
 from the neighbouring nations, (the most ancient leges agrarice,) 
 suggested by the ambitious attempts of Cassius, 486, 3. Ex- 
 tension of the prerogatives of the comitia tributa, more espe- 
 cially in the election of the tribunes, brought about by Volero, 
 472. 4. Attempts at a legal limitation of the consular power 
 by Terentillus, {lex Terentilla,) 460, which, after a long strug- 
 gle, at last leads to the idea of one common written code, 452, 
 which is likewise realized in spite of the opposition at first made 
 by the patricians. 
 
 f Chr. F. Schulze, Struggle between the Democracy and 
 Aristocracy of Rome, or History of the Romans from the Ex- 
 pulsion of Tarquin to the Election of the first Plebeian Consul. 
 Altenburgh, 1802, 8vo. A most satisfactory development of 
 this portion of Roman history. 
 
 7. The code of the twelve tables confirmed the C'"if "f"'e 
 ancient institutions, and was in part completed by the ijfs.'^ 
 adoption of the laws of the Greek republics, among 
 which Athens in particular is mentioned, whose coun- 
 sels were requested by a special deputation. In this, 
 however, two faults were committed ; not only were 
 the commissioners charged with drawing up the laws 
 
264 
 
 ROMAN STATE. 
 
 [book v. 
 
 First 
 Period. 
 
 Its enact- 
 ments. 
 
 elected from the patricians alone, but they were hke- 
 wise constituted sole magistrates, with dictatorial 
 power, {sine provocatioue,) whereby a path was 
 opened to them for a usurpation, which could be 
 frustrated only by a sedition of the people. 
 
 Duration of the power of tlie Decemviri, 451 — 447. The 
 doubts raised as to the deputation sent to Athens are not suffi- 
 cient to invalidate the authenticity of an event so circumstan- 
 tially detailed. Athens, under Pericles, was then at the head 
 of Greece ; and, admitting the proposed design of consulting the 
 Greek laws, it was impossible that Athens should have been 
 passed over. And indeed, why should it be supposed, that a 
 state which fifty years before had signed a commercial treaty 
 with Carthage, and could not be unacquainted with the Grecian 
 colonies in Lower Italy, might not have sent an embassy into 
 Greece ? 
 
 The yet remaining fragments of the code of the twelve tables 
 are collected and illustrated in Bachii Hist. Jurisprudentice 
 Romance ; and in several other works. 
 
 8. By the laws of the twelve tables the legal rela- 
 tions of the citizens were the same for all ; but as 
 that code seems to have contained very little in refer- 
 ence to any peculiar constitution of the state, the 
 government not only remained in tlie hands of the 
 aristocrats, who were in possession of all offices, but 
 the prohibition, according to the new laws of mar- 
 riage between patricians and plebeians, appeared to 
 have raised an insurmountable barrier between the 
 two classes. No wonder, then, that the tribunes of 
 the people should have immediately renewed their 
 attacks on the patricians ; particularly as the power 
 of those popular leaders was not only renewed, but 
 even augmented, as the only limit to their authority 
 was the necessity of their being unanimous in their 
 acts, while each had the right of a negative. 
 
 Besides the other laws made in favour of the people at the 
 renewal of the tribunicia potestas, 446, that which imported ut 
 quod tributim plebes jussisset, populum teneret, frequently re- 
 newed in subsequent times, and meaning in modern language, 
 that the citizens constituted themselves, must, it would appear, 
 have thrown the supreme power into the hands of the people ; 
 did not the Roman history, like that of other free states, afford 
 examples enough of the little authority there is to infer from the 
 enactment of a law that it will be practically enforced. 
 
PERIOD I.] TO THE CONQUEST OF ITALY. 265 
 
 9. The main subjects of the new dissensions be- ^'"^"^ 
 tween patricians and plebeians, excited by the tribune 
 
 Canuleius, were now the connubia patriim cum plebe, Dissensions 
 and the exclusive participation of the patricians in ISdanTürd 
 the consulship, of which the tribunes demanded the plebeians. 
 abolition. The repeal of the former law was obtain- 
 ed as early as 445 (Jej: Canukia) ; the right of ad- 
 mission to the consulship was not extended to the 
 plebeians till after a struggle annually renewed for 
 eighty years ; during which, when, as usually was 
 the case, the tribunes forbade the military enrolment, 
 recourse was had to a transfer of the consular power 
 to the yearly elected commanders of the legions ; a 
 place to which plebeians were entitled to aspire (tri- 
 buni m'ditum conmlari potestate). — Establishment of Censors, 
 the office of censors, designed at first for nothing 
 more than to regulate the taking of the census, and 
 invested with no liigher authority than what that re- 
 quired, but who soon after, by assuming to them- 
 selves the censura moriim, took rank among the most 
 important dignitaries of the state. 
 
 10. Meanwhile Rome was engaged in wars, in- Petty wars. 
 significant but almost uninterrupted, arising out of 
 the oppression, either real or imaginary, which she 
 exercised as head of the neighbouring federate cities, 
 (socii,) comprising not only those of the Latins, but 
 likewise, after the victory of lake Regillus, those of 
 the other nations : the cities embraced every oppor 
 tunity of asserting their independence, and the con- 
 sequent struggles must have depopulated Rome, had 
 not that evil been diverted by the maxim of in- 
 creasing the complement of citizens by admitting the 
 freed men, and not unfrequently even the conquered, 
 to the enjoyment of civic privileges. Little as these 
 feuds, abstractedly considered, deserve our attention, 
 they become of high interest, inasmuch as they were 
 not only the means by which the nation was trained 
 to war, but also led to the foundation of that sena- 
 torial power, whose important consequences will be 
 exhibited hereafter. 
 
 Among these wars attention must be directed to the last. 
 
5266 ROMAN STATE. [book v. 
 
 First that against Veii, the richest city in Etruria ; the siege of that 
 Period, place, which lasted very nearly ten years, 404 — 395, gave rise 
 to the introduction among the Roman military of winter cam- 
 paigning, and of pay ; thus, on the one hand, the prosecution of 
 wars more distant and protracted became possible, while on the 
 other the consequences must have been the levy of higher taxes 
 {tributd). 
 
 Romebumt 11. Not long after, however, a tempest from the 
 Gauu! north had nearly destroyed Rome. Tlie Sennonian 
 Gauls, pressed out of northern Italy through Etruria, 
 possessed themselves of the city, the capitol excepted, 
 and reduced it to ashes ; an event which made so 
 deep an impression on the minds of the Romans, 
 that few other occurrences in their history have been 
 more frequently the object of traditional detail. Ca- 
 millus, then the deliverer of Rome, and in every re- 
 spect one of the chief heroes of that period, laid a 
 double claim to the gratitude of his native city, by 
 overruling, after his victory, the proposal of a general 
 mio-ration to Veii. 
 Feu.is re- 12. Scarccly was Rome rebuilt ere the ancient 
 ^'^^ ■ feuds revived, springing out of the poverty of the 
 citizens, produced by an increase of taxation conse- 
 quent on the establishment of military pay, and by 
 the introduction of gross usury. The tribunes, Sex- 
 tius and Licinius, by prolonging their term of office 
 to five years, had established their power ; while 
 Licinius, by an agrarian law, decreeing that no indi- 
 vidual should hold more than five hundred jw^yt« of 
 the national lands, had insured the popular favour ; 
 A consul so that at last they succeeded in obtaining, that one 
 the^com-°"^ of the consuls should be chosen from the commons ; 
 moiis. and although the nobility, by the nomination of a 
 praetor from their own body, and of cediles curules, 
 endeavoured to compensate for the sacrifice they 
 were obliged to make, yet the plebeians having once 
 made good a claim to the consulship, their participa- 
 tion in the other magisterial offices, (the dictatorship, 
 353, the censorship, 348, the prsetorship, 334,) and 
 even the priesthood, (300,) quickly followed as a 
 matter of course. Thus at Rome the object of po- 
 litical equality between commons and nobles was at- 
 
PERIOD I.] TO THE CONQUEST OF ITALY. 267 
 
 tained ; and although the difference between the pa- First 
 trician and plebeian families still subsisted, they soon ^^^^°°' 
 ceased to form political parties. 
 
 A second commercial treaty entered into with Carthage, 345, 
 demonstrates that even at this time the navy of the Romans was 
 anything but contemptible ; although its principal object as yet 
 was mere piracy. Roman squadrons of war however appear 
 more than once within the next forty years. 
 
 13. Far more important than any wars in which Samnite 
 Rome had hitherto been engaged, were those soon "'^'^" 
 about to commence with the Samnites. In former 
 contests the object of Rome had been to establish her 
 supremacy over her immediate neighbours; but in 
 these, during a protracted contest of fifty years, she 
 opened a way to the subjugation of Italy, and laid 
 
 the foundation of her future greatness. 
 
 Commencement of the wars against the Samnites, the Cam- 
 panians having called the Romans to their assistance against that 
 nation, 343. These wars, carried on with vigorous exertion and 
 various success, lasted, with but short intermissions, till 290. 
 This is the true heroic age of Rome, ennobled by the patriotic 
 valour of Decius Mus, (father and son both voluntary victims,) 
 Papirius Cursor, Q. Fabius Maximus, etc. The consequences 
 of this struggle were : a. The Romans learnt the art of moun- - 
 tain warfare, and thereby for the first time acquired a peculiar 
 system of military tactics ; not, however, till they had been, 321, 
 obliged to pass under the f ureas Caudinas. b. Their relations 
 were more firmly established with their neighbours the Latins 
 and Etrurians, by the complete conquest of the former, 340, and 
 by repeated victories over the latter, more especittUy in 308. c. 
 Great national federations having arisen in Italy, particularly 
 during the last period of the Samnite wai-s, the Romans entered 
 into connexion with the more distant nations of the country ; 
 with the Lucanians and Apulians, by the first league, 323, with 
 the Umbri, from the year 308 ; and although the nature of this 
 connexion frequently varied, the different nations were per- 
 petually struggling for independence, and Avere consequently at 
 enmity with Rome. In this period, moreover, commenced the 
 practical illustration of the leading ideas of Rome upon the po- 
 litical relations in which she placed the conquered with regai'd 
 to herself. 
 
 14. After the subjection of the Samnites, Rome, war against 
 wishing to confirm her dominion in Lower Italy, was Jh^es^^^-h"" 
 thereby, for the first time, entangled in war with a ^'e assisted 
 foreign prince ; the Tarentines, too feeble to maintain ^*^ ^•^"■^"^• 
 alone their footing against the Romans, called Pyr- 
 
268 ROMAN STATE. [book v. 
 
 First rhus of Epirus to their assistance. He came, indeed, 
 ^^'°°' but not so much to further the views of the Taren- 
 tines as to advance his own ; but even in victory, he 
 learnt by experience that the Macedonian tactics 
 gave him but a shght preponderance, which the Ro- 
 mans soon transferred to their own side, exhibiting 
 the truth of the principle, that a good civic militia, 
 sooner or later, will always get the upper hand of 
 mercenary troops. 
 
 The idea of calling upon Pyrrhus for assistance was the more 
 natural, as the predecessor of that prince, Alexander I., (see 
 above, p. 220,) had endeavoured, but without success, to etTect 
 conquests in Lower Italy. In the first war with Pyrrhus, 280 
 — 278, two battles were fought, the first at Pandosia, 280, the 
 other at Asculum, 279 ; in both of which Rome was unsuccess- 
 ful. But Pyrrhus, after crossing over into Sicily, 278, (see 
 above, p. 140,) once more returned into Italy, 275, when he 
 was defeated by the Romans at Beneventum, and compelled 
 to evacuate Italy, leaving a garrison at Tarentum. That city, 
 however, soon afterwards, 272, fell into the hands of the Ro- 
 mans, whose dominion was consequently extended to the ex- 
 tremity of Lower Italy. 
 Romance- ]5. The chicf mcans to which, even from the 
 earliest times, tlie Romans had recourse for the found- 
 ation of their dominion over the conquered, and at 
 the same time for the prevention of the too great in- 
 crease of the needy classes of Rome, was the estab- 
 lishment of colonies of their own citizens, which, being 
 settled in the captured cities, served likewise as gar- 
 risons. Each colony had its own distinct internal 
 constitution, modelled, for the most part, upon that 
 of the mother city itself; hence to keep the colonies 
 in perfect dependence naturally became an object ot 
 Roman policy. This colonial system of the Romans 
 necessarily and spontaneously arising out of the rude 
 custom of bereaving the conquered of their lands 
 and Hberty, assumed its main features in the Samnite 
 war, and gradually embraced the whole of Italy. 
 Closely connected with this system was the construc- 
 tion of military highways, [vico militares,)' one of 
 which, the Appian way, was constructed so early as 
 312, and to this day remains a lasting monument of 
 the greatness of Rome at that period. 
 
 lonies. 
 
PERIOD I.] TO THE CONQUEST OF ITALY. 269 
 
 Even at the time of Hannibal's invasion, the number of Ro- First 
 man colonies amounted to 53 : but several which had been Period. 
 settled returned to the mother city. ' 
 
 Heyne, De Romannrum prndentia in coloniis regendis: in- 
 serted in Opusc. vol. iii. Cf Prolusiones de veterum colonia- 
 rumjure ejusque causis, in his Opusc. vol. i. 
 
 16. But the relations existing between Rome and Relations 
 the Itahan nations were extremely various in kind, l^f ^'^y . 
 1. A few cities and nations enjoyed the full privi- the Italian 
 les^es of Roman citizenship ; in some instances, how- '^'^''°"^- 
 ever, without the riglit of voting in the comitia 
 {inunicipia). 2. The privileges of the colonies [jus 
 coloniarum) were of a more restricted nature ; the 
 colonists were indeed in possession of their own civic 
 government, but had no further share whatever either 
 
 in the comitia or magistracies of Rome. The other 
 inhabitants of Italy were either federates [socii^foedere 
 jiincti) or subjects [dedititii). The first [a) preserved 
 their internal form of government ; but on the other 
 hand (/;) were obliged to furnish tribute and auxiliary 
 troops (trihutis et armis juvare rempuhlicam). Their 
 further relation with Rome depended upon the terms 
 of the league. The most advantageous of these terms 
 were, 3. in favour of the Latins, altiiough each of 
 their cities had its own separate league [jus Latii) ; 
 as, 4. the rest of the Italian nations had their jus 
 Italicum. On the other hand, 5. the subjects, ded'i- 
 titii, were deprived of their internal constitutions, 
 and were governed by Roman magistrates, [prcefecti,) 
 annually renewed. 
 
 C. SlGOXius, De antiquo jure civium Romanorum ; and his 
 treatise De antiquo jure Italicc, inserted both in his Opera and 
 in Grvevii Thes. Ant. Rom. t. ii., contain the most learned re- 
 searches on the details of these relations. 
 
 17. The internal constitution of Rome itself, now The Roman 
 completed, bore the character of a democracy, inas- a'd'e^o^cr'a-" 
 much as equality of rights existed both for nobles cy. 
 
 and commons. Yet this democracy was modified by 
 expedients so various and wonderful — the rights of 
 the people, of the senate, of the magistrates, fitted so 
 nicely into each other, and were so firmly supported 
 by the national religion connecting every thing with 
 
270 ROMAN STATE. [eook v 
 
 First determinate forms — that there was no reason, at that 
 _f^^L^ time, to fear the evils either of anarchy, or, what is 
 much more astonishing when we consider the warhke 
 character of the people, those of military despotism. 
 
 The rights of the people consisted in the legislative power, 
 so far as fundamental national principles were concerned, and 
 in the election of the magistrates. The distinction between the 
 comitia trihuta (as independent of the senate) and the comitia 
 centuriata (as dependent on the senate) still existed as to form, 
 but had lost all its importance, the difference between patricians 
 and plebeians being now merely nominal, and the establisliment 
 of the tribus itrbancB, 303, excluding the too great influence of 
 the people {forensis factio) upon the comitia trihuta. The 
 rights of the senate consisted in administering and debating all 
 transitory national affairs, whether foreign relations, (war and 
 peace only excepted, in which the consent of tlie people was 
 requisite,) financial concerns, or matters regarding domestic 
 peace and security. But the manner in which the senate was 
 supplied must have made it the first political body at that time 
 in the world. The rights and rank of magistrates were founded 
 on the greater or lesser auspicia, no public affair being entered 
 upon except auspicato. Consequently he only Avho was in pos- 
 session of the former could hold the highest civic and military 
 power ; {imperium civile et militare ; suis auspiciis rem gerere ;) 
 as dictator, consul, prcetor : such was not the case with those 
 who had only the lesser auspicia. The union of civil and 
 military power in the person of the same individual was not 
 without its inconveniences, but military despotism was in some 
 measure guarded against by the prohibition of any magistrate 
 possessing military command within Rome itself We must 
 not dismiss this subject without observing, that as the Roman 
 constitution arose merely out of practice, there never having 
 been any completely written charter, we cannot expect that all 
 the details should be clearly ascertained ; to attempt, therefore, 
 in default of such authority, to desci'ibe all the minutiae would 
 be the surest way to fall into error. 
 
 Of the numerous Avorks on the Roman constitution and on 
 Roman antiquities, we shall mention : 
 
 De Beaufort, La Republique Romaine, ou plan generale 
 de Fanden gouvernement de Rome. La Haye, 1766, 2 vols. 
 4to. A most copious work, and one of the most solid in regard to 
 the matters discussed ; although it does not embrace the whole 
 of the subject. 
 
 Histoire critique du gouvernement Remain ; Paris, ] 765. 
 Containing some acute observations. 
 
 Du Gouvernement de la republique Romaine, par A. Ad. de 
 Texier, 3 vols. 8vo. Hamburg, 1796. This contains many 
 inquiries peculiar to the writer. 
 
 Some learned researches respecting the principal points of 
 
PERIOD II.] TO THE GRACCHI. 271 
 
 the Roman constitution, as Sigonius and Gruchtds de comitiis First 
 Romanorum, Zamocius de Senatu Romano, etc., ^vill be found Period. 
 collected in the first two vols, of Gr^vius, Antiq. Roman. ' " 
 
 For the popular assemblies of the Romans, an antiquarian 
 essay by Chr. Ferd. Schulze, Gotha, 1815, chiefly according to 
 Niebuhr, may be consulted. 
 
 Among the numerous manuals of Roman antiquities, Nieu- 
 PORT, explicatio rituum Romanorum, ed. Gesner, Berol. 1743, 
 promises at least as much as it performs. Of those which pro- 
 fess to treat of Roman antiquities in general, none have yet 
 risen above mediocrity. Jurisprudence, however, has been 
 much more successfully handled. We cite the two following 
 excellent compendiums : 
 
 Bachii, Historia Jurisprudentice Romance. Lips. 1754. 
 1796. 
 
 t C. Hugo, Elements of the Roman Law ; 7th edit. Berlin, 
 1820. 
 
 SECOND PERIOD. 
 
 Fro7n the Commencement of the war with Carthage to the 
 rise of the civil broils under the Gracchi, B. C. 264 — 
 134. Year of Rome, AdO—QIQ. 
 
 Sources. The principal writer for this highly interesting Second 
 period, in which was laid the foundation of the universal domi- Period. 
 
 nion of Rome, is Polybius, as far as the year 146, not only in 
 
 the complete books preserved to us, which come down to 216, 
 but also in the fragments. He is frequently followed by Livy, 
 lib. xxi. — xlv., 218 — 166. Appian, who comes next, does not 
 confine himself merely to the history of the war ; Florus gives 
 us only an abridgement. The Lives of Plutarch which relate 
 to this portion of history, are Fabius Maximus, P. ^milius, 
 Marcellus, M. Cato, and Flaminius. 
 
 Of modern writers we dare only mention one ; and who is 
 worthy to be ranked beside him ? 
 
 Montesquieu, Coyisiderations sur les causes de la grandeur 
 et de la decadence des Romains. 
 
 1. The political division of Italy laid the found- 
 ation for the dominion of Rome in that country ; 
 the want of union and political relations in the world 
 paved the way to her universal empire. The first 
 step cost her much, the succeeding followed easily 
 and rapidly ; and the history of the struggle between 
 
^'72 ROMAN STATE. [book v. 
 
 Second Rome and Carthage only shows on a larger scale 
 what the history of Greece exhibits on a smaller. The 
 
 Struggle whole of the following history confirms the fact, that 
 cl'nha'^e ^^^^ republics cannot exist near each other, without 
 and Rome; onc being dcstroycd or subjected ; but the vast ex- 
 its extent, tcnt of this Struggle, the important consequences 
 which followed, together with the wonderful exertions 
 made, and the great men engaged on both sides, gave 
 it an interest which cannot be found in that of any 
 State of the Other uatious. Though the power and resources of 
 two parties. ^^^^ states wcrc nearly equal in appearance, they 
 were widely different in quality and circumstances. 
 Carthage, besides her dominion over the seas, had 
 also a better furnished treasury, by which she was 
 enabled to enlist into her service as many mercena- 
 ries as she pleased : Rome, on the contrary, strong 
 in herself, had all the advantages possessed by a 
 nation of warriors over one partly commercial, partly 
 military. 
 The first 2. The first war of twenty-three years between 
 
 r'-threr*^^' ^'^^ ^^^ republics, arose from very slight causes ; it 
 years, B. c. soon, howcvcr, bccamc a struggle for the possession of 
 264—241. gi(,jiy^ which in the end naturally extended itself to 
 the dominion of the sea. Rome, by the aid of her 
 newly-built fleet, having obtained for some time this 
 power, was enabled to attack Africa, and succeeded 
 in driving the Carthaginians from Sicily. 
 
 The occupation of Messina by the Romans, 264, gave rise to 
 this war. The defection of Hiero king of Syracuse from the 
 side of Carthage, and his joining the Romans, first gave the lat- 
 ter the idea of expelling the Carthaginians from the island. 
 The victory near Agrigentum, and capture of that city in 262, 
 seemed to facilitate the execution of this project: it also con- 
 vinced the Romans of the necessity of their having a naval 
 power. We shall the less wonder at their forming a fleet in 
 Italy, where wood was then plentiful, if we remember their 
 previous experience in naval affairs ; these were not the first 
 vessels of war which they constructed, but only the fii'st large 
 ones which they built upon a Carthaginian model. The first 
 naval victory of the Romans under Duilius, by the aid of grap- 
 pling machines, 260. The project then conceived of carrying 
 the war into Africa was one of the great ideas of the Romans, 
 and from that time it became a ruling maxim of the state, to 
 attack the enemy in his own territory. The second and very 
 
PERIOD II.] TO THE GRACCHI. 273 
 
 remarkable naval victory of the Komans, 257, opened the way Second 
 for them to Africa, and shows their naval tactics in a very bril- Period. 
 
 liant liglit : but the unfortunate issue of their expedition to 
 
 Africa, restored the equilibrium ; and the struggle for the do- 
 minion of the sea became the more obstinate, as success did not 
 altogether favour one party. The result of the contest appears 
 to have turned upon the possession of the western promontories 
 of Sicily, Drepanum and Lilyba3um, which were in a manner 
 the bulwarks of the Carthaginians, and seemed impregnable 
 since Hamilcar Barca had taken the command of them, 247. 
 The last naval victory of the Romans, however, under the con- 
 sul Lutatius, 241, having cut off the communication between 
 Sicily and Carthage, and the finances of both parties being 
 completely exhausted, a peace was concluded upon the condi- 
 tions : 1. That the Carthaginians should evacuate Sicily and 
 the small islands adjacent. 2. That they should pay to Rome, 
 by instalments in ten years, for the expenses she had been at in 
 carrying on the war, the sum of 2200 talents. 3. That they 
 should not make war against Hiero king of Syracuse. 
 
 3. The issue of this war placed the pohtical con- 
 nexions of Rome in a new situation, and necessarily 
 extended her influence abroad. The length of the 
 war and the manner of its conclusion had, moreover, 
 inspired a national hatred, such as is only found in 
 republics ; the conviction also tliat they could not 
 remain independent of one another, must have be- 
 come much more striking, as the points of contact 
 had greatly increased since the beginning of the war. 
 Who does not know the arrogance of a republic after 
 the first essay of her power has been crowned with 
 success ! Rome gave a striking example of this by 
 
 her invasion of Sardinia in the midst of peace. These Effect of 
 successes had also a sensible effect on the Roman ^^""'^ '"''■ 
 
 " • CGSSGS Oil 
 
 constitution. For although in appearance its form the cousti- 
 was not in the least changed, yet the power of the ^"^'°''' 
 senate now acquired that preponderance which the 
 ruling authority of a republic never fails to do after 
 long and successful wars. 
 
 Origin and nature of the governments of the first Roman 
 provinces, in part of Sicily and in Sardinia. 
 
 4. An opportunity was soon afforded the Romans, Chastise- 
 in the Adriatic Sea, of making use of their superior ^f".j^°f ^f^ 
 naval power, in chastising the pirates of Illyria under rates. 
 their queen Teuta. By effecting this, they not only 
 
 T 
 
274 
 
 ROMAN STATE. 
 
 [book v. 
 
 Second 
 Period. 
 
 Relations 
 
 with 
 
 Greece. 
 
 secured their authority over that sea, but at the same 
 time formed their first pohtical relations with the 
 Grecian states ; relations which soon afterwards be- 
 came of great importance. 
 
 Commencement of the first Illyrian war, 230, which ended 
 with the subjugation of Teuta, 226. The war, however, again 
 broke out, 222, against Demetrius of Pharus, who conceived 
 himself inadequately rewarded by Rouk; for the services he had 
 rendered her in the preceding war. The Romans found him a 
 much more dangerous adversary than had been expected, even 
 after his expulsion and flight to Phihp, 220 (see above, p. 226). 
 Throughout this war, Rome appeared as the deliverer of the 
 Grecian states, which had suffered extremely from the plunder 
 of these freebooters ; Corcyra, Apollonia, and other cities placed 
 themselves formally under her protection, while the Acha^ans, 
 -^tolians, and Athenians vied with each other in showing their 
 gratitude. 
 
 5. In the mean time, while Carthage endeavoured 
 to make up for the loss of Sicily and Sardinia by ex- 
 tending her Spanish dominions, which the jealousy 
 of Rome restrained her from carrying beyond the 
 Ebro, (p. G8,) Rome herself had a new war to main- 
 tain against her northern neighbours the Gauls, which 
 ended after a violent contest with the establishment 
 of her authority over the north of Italy. 
 
 From the first Gallic war to the burning of Rome, 390, the 
 Gauls had repeated their attacks in 360 and 348, even to the 
 conclusion of the peace in 336. But in the latter part of the 
 Samnite war, a formidable confederacy having taken place among 
 the Italian tribes, some of the Gauls enlisted as mercenaries in 
 the service of the Etruscans, while others allied themselves to 
 the Samnites. This led them to take part in these wars in 306, 
 302, and 292, until they were obliged, together with the Etrus- 
 cans, to sue for peace in 284, before which time the Romans 
 had sent a colony into their country, near Sena. This peace 
 lasted till 238, when it was disturbed by the incursion of the 
 transalpine Gauls ; without, however, their coming to any war 
 with Rome. But in 232, the proposition of Flaminius the tri- 
 bune, {lex Flaminia,) to divide the lands conquered from the 
 Senones, became the cause of new disturbances. Upon this 
 occasion, the Gauls entered into an alliance with their transal- 
 pine countrymen, the Ga3sates on the Rhone, who had been ac- 
 customed to engage as mercenaries. These having crossed the 
 Alps, the dreadful war of six years (226 — 220) began, in which, 
 after defeating the Gauls near Clusium, 225, the Romans pur- 
 sued them into their own territory, and encamped upon the Po, 
 223. The Gauls having been again comi)letely overthrown 
 
PERIOD II.] TO THE GRACCHI. 2iD 
 
 by Marcellus, were obliged to sue for peace ; when the Roman Second 
 colonies of Placentia and Cremona were estabhshed. The num- Period. 
 ber of men capable of bearing arms in all Italy subject to the 
 Romans during this war amounted to 800,000. 
 
 6. Before this storm was totally appeased, in which Hannibal 
 it is probable that Carthao'inian policy was not alto- ^"'^^^ ^^^ 
 
 • . . . com rTi3.n(i 
 
 gether inactive, Hannibal had obtained the chief in Spain, 
 command in Spain. From the reproach of having 
 first begun the war, he and his party cannot be 
 cleared ; Rome, in the situation she then was, could 
 hardly desire it ; he however who strikes the first 
 blow is not always the real aggressor. The plan of 
 Hannibal was the destruction of Rome ; and by and makes 
 makinp- Italy the principal seat of the war, he neces- ''""'Z 'i"" 
 sarily turned the scale in his favour; because Rome, 
 obliged to defend herself, left to him all the advan- 
 tages of attack. The preparations she made for de- 
 fence, show that it was not believed possible he could 
 execute his enterprise by the route which he took. 
 
 The history of this war, 218 — 201, of which no later trans- 
 action has been able to destroy the interest, is divided into three 
 I)arts : the history of the war in Italy ; the contemporary war 
 in Spain ; and from 203, the war in Africa. Hannibal's in- 
 vasion of Italy in the autumn, 218 — engagement near the river 
 Ticinus and the battle of Trebia, in the same year. Battle near 
 the lake Thrasymenus, in the spring, 217. Seat of the war 
 transferred to Lower Italy, and tlie defensive system of tlie dic- 
 tator Fabius until the end of the year. Battle of Canna?, 216, 
 followed by the conquest of Capua and the subjection of the 
 greater part of Lower Italy. The defensive mode of warfare 
 afterwards adopted by the Cartliaginian, arose partly from his 
 de-sire to form a junction with his brother Asdrubal and the 
 Spanish army, and partly from his expectation of foreign sup- 
 port by means of alliances, with Syracuse, after the death of 
 Hiero, 215, and with Philip of Macedon, 216. These hopes, 
 however, were frustrated by the Romans. — S}Tacuse Avas be- 
 sieged and taken, 214 — 212, (see above, p. 140,) and Philip 
 kept employed in Greece (see above, p. 226). In addition to 
 this, the Romans retook Capua, notwithstanding the audacious 
 march of Hannibal towards Rome, 211, and he had now no 
 succour left except the reinforcement which Asdrubal was 
 bringing from Spain. The latter, hoAvever, was attacked im- 
 mediately upon his arrival in Italy, near Sena, by the consuls 
 Nero and Livius, and left dead on the field, 207. From this 
 time the war in Italy became only of secondary importance, as 
 Hannibal was obliged to act on the defensive in Bruttium. 
 
 T 2 
 
276 ROMAN STATE. [book v. 
 
 Second The Course of Ilannihal over the Alps ascertained, by J. 
 
 Peuiod. Wiiittakek. London, 1794, 2 vols. 8vo. The author endoa- 
 ~ vours to prove that the passage of Hannibal was over the great 
 
 St. ]i(?rnard, and criticises the opinions of other writers. 
 
 [We may likewise mention the learned treatise, — 
 
 A Dissertation on the Passage of Hannibal over the Alps. 
 By II. L. WicKiiAM, M. A. and the Rev. J. A. Cramer, M, 
 A. second edition, Oxon.] 
 
 The war in Spain began nearly about the same time between 
 Asdrul>al and tlie two l)rothers, Cn. and P. Cornelius Scipio, 
 and was continued with various success, till the year 216, the 
 issue depending much ujion the disposition of the Spaniards 
 themselves. The plan of Carthage after the year 216, was to 
 send Asdrubal with the Spanish army into Italy, and to supply 
 its place by an army from Africa-, two victories, however, 
 gained by the Scipios near the Ebro, 216, and the lUiberis, 215, 
 prevented this from being effected, till at last both fell under 
 the superior power and cuuning of the Carthaginians, 212. But 
 the arrival of the youthful P. Cornelius Scipio, who did not 
 appear merely to his own nation as an extraordinary genius, 
 entirely changed the face of affairs, and the fortunes of Rome 
 soon b(!came attached to his name, whi(;h alone seemed to pro- 
 mise victory. During his command in Spain, 210 — 206, he 
 won over the inhabitants while he defeated the Carthaginians, 
 and for the furtherance of his great design, contracted an alli- 
 ance Avitli Syphax in Africa, 206. lie was unalde, however, 
 to prevent tlie march of Asdrubal into Italy, 208, wliich never- 
 theless rendered it an easy taslc for him to subdue all Cartha- 
 ginian Spain as far as Gades, 206, and thus procured him the 
 consular dignity at his return, 205. 
 
 The carrying of the war into Africa by Scipio, notwithstand- 
 ing the opposition of the old Roman generals, and the desertion 
 of Sypliax, who at the persuasion of Sophonisba again went 
 over to the Carthaginians, (whose loss however was well repaid 
 by Masinissa, whom Scij)io had won over to his side in Spain,) 
 was followed by an im{)ortant consequence ; for after he had 
 gained two victories over Asdrubal and Sy[)hax, 203, and taken 
 the latter prisoner, the Carthaginians found it necessary to re- 
 call Ilainiibal from Italy, 202 ; and the battle of Zama termi- 
 nated the war, 201. The following were the conditions of 
 peace: 1. That the Carthaginians should only retain the terri- 
 tory in Africa annexed to their government. 2. That they 
 should give up all tluiir ships of war, except ten triremes, and 
 all their elephants. 3. That they should pay, at times specified, 
 10,000 talents. 4. That they should commence no war without 
 the ctmsent of Rome. 5. That they siiould restore to Masinissa 
 all the houses, cities, and lands that had ever been possessed by 
 himself or his ancestors. — Tlie i-eproach usually cast upon the 
 Carthaginians, of having left Hannibal unsupported in Italy, in 
 a great measure vanishes, if we remember the plan formed in 
 216, to send the Spanish army into Italy, and to replace it by 
 
PERIOD II.] TO THE GRACCHI. 277 
 
 an African one: a plan formed with mueh ability, and followed Second 
 
 with as much constancy. We may add to this, that the Barciiie Period. 
 
 faction maintained its influence in the government even to the 
 
 end of the war. But wliy they, who by the treaty of peace 
 
 gave up five hundred vessels of Ayar, suffered Scipio to cross 
 
 over from Sicily without sending one to oppose him, is ditiäcult 
 
 to explain, 
 
 7. Notwithstanding her great loss of men, and the Power of 
 devastation of Italy, Rome felt herself much more creased by 
 powerful at the end of this war than at the begin- ^'^® ^^^'■• 
 ning. Her dominion was not only established over 
 Italy, but extensive foreign countries had been 
 brought under it ; her authority over the seas was 
 rendered secure by the destruction of the naval power 
 of the Carthaginians. The Roman form of govern- 
 ment, it is true, underwent no change, but its spirit 
 much, as the power of the senate became almost un- 
 limited ; and although the dawn of civilization had 
 broken over Rome, since her intercourse with more 
 civilized foreigners, the state still remained altogether 
 a nation of warriors. And now, for the first time, she be- 
 appears in the page of history the fearful phenome- »"^^"uary re- 
 non of a great military republic; and the history of Public. 
 the next ten years, in which Rome overthrew so 
 many thrones and free states, gives a striking proof, 
 that such a power is the natural enemy to the inde- 
 pendence of all the states within tlie reach of her 
 arms. The causes which led Rome from this time 
 to aspire after the dominion of the world, are to be 
 found neither in her geographical situation, which 
 for a conquering power by land seemed rather un- 
 favourable, nor m the inclination of the people, who 
 were opposed to the first war against Philip ; but 
 singly and entirely in the spirit of her government. 
 The means, however, whereby she obtained her end, 
 must not be sought for merely in the excellence of 
 her armies and generals, but rather in that uniform, 
 sharp-sighted, and dexterous policy, by which she iior policy. 
 was enabled to frustrate the powerful alliances formed 
 against her, notwithstanding the many adversaries 
 who at that time sought to form new ones. But 
 where could be found such another council of state. 
 
278 ROMAN STATE. [book v. 
 
 Second embodying such a mass of practical political wisdom, 
 ^'"''°°' as the Roman senate must have been from the very 
 
 State of the naturc of its organization? All this, however, would 
 rest of the ^^^ ^.^^^ ^^^^ sufficicnt to havc subjugated the world, 
 if the want of good government, the degeneracy ot 
 the military art, and an extremely corrupt state of 
 morals among both rulers and people, in foreign 
 states, had not seconded the efforts of Rome. 
 
 View of the political state of the world at this period. In 
 the west, Sicily, (the whole island after 212,) Sardinia, and Cor- 
 sica, from the year 237, and Spain, divided into citerior and 
 ulterior, (the latter rather in name than in fact,) had become 
 Roman provinces, 206 ; the independence of Carthage had been 
 destroyed by the last peace, and her subordination secured by 
 the alliance of Rome with Masinissa ; Cisalpine Gaul, formed 
 into a province, served as a barrier against the inroads of the 
 more northern barbarians. On the other side, in the East, the 
 kingdom of Macedonia, and the free states of Greece, forming 
 together a very complicated system, had opened a connexion 
 with Rome since the Illyrian war, 230, and Philip's alliance 
 with Hannibal, 214. Of the three powers of the first rank, 
 Macedonia, Syria, and Egypt, the two former were allied against 
 the latter, who, on her part, maintained a good understanding 
 with Rome. The states of secondary rank were, those of the 
 ^tolian league, the kings of Pergamus, and the republic of 
 Rhodes, with some smaller, such as Athens : these had allied 
 themselves to Rome since the confederacy against Philip, 211. 
 The Acheean league, on the contrary, was in the interests of 
 Macedonia, which Rome always endeavoured to attach to her- 
 self, in order to make head against those of the first rank. 
 
 War against 8. A dcckratiou of war against PhiHp, notwith- 
 
 RC.'^m. standing the opposition of the tribunes of tlie people, 
 
 and an attack upon Macedonia itself, according to 
 
 the constant maxim of carrying the war into the 
 
 enemy's country, immediately followed. They could 
 
 not, however, drive Philip so soon from the fastnesses 
 
 of Epirus and Thessaly, which were his bulwarks. 
 
 T. Quintius But Romc posscsscd in T. Quintius Flaminius, who 
 
 rkmnuus, ^^Y^.\^Q^ against Philip as the deliverer of Greece, a 
 
 statesman and general exactly fitted for a period of 
 
 lays the great rcvolutious. By the permanency of his politi- 
 
 !"T"'l^^i°f cal influence he became indeed the true founder of 
 
 power in thc Romau powcr in the East. Who could better 
 
 the East. pyJQJg jjjgn and nations, while they were erecting 
 
 altars to him, than T. Quintius ? So artfully indeed 
 
PERIOD II. J TO THE GRACCHI. 279 
 
 did he assume the character of a great genius, such Second 
 
 as had been given by nature to Scipio, that he has L 
 
 almost deceived history itself. The struggle between 
 him and Philip consisted rather in a display of talents 
 in political stratagem and finesse than in feats of 
 arms : even before the battle of Cynoscephalse had 197. 
 given the finishing stroke, the Romans had already 
 turned the balance in their favour, by gaining over 
 the Achaean league. i98. 
 
 The negotiations between Rome and Macedonia, from the 
 year 214, give the first striking examples of the ability and ad- 
 dress of .the Romans in foreign policy ; and they are the more 
 remarkable, as the ti-eaty with the iEtolians and others, 211, 
 (see above, p. 227,) was the remote cause of the ti-ansactions 
 which afterwards took place in the East. The peculiar system 
 adopted by the Romans, of taking the lesser states under their 
 protection as allies, must always have given them an opportunity 
 of making war on tlie more powerful whenever they chose. This 
 in fact happened in tlie present case, notwithstanding the peace 
 concluded with Philiji, 204. The chief object of the Romans 
 in this war, both by sea and land, was to drive Philip completely 
 out of Greece. The allies on both sides, and the conditions of 
 peace, were similar to those concluded with Carthage (see above, 
 p. 227). The destruction of the naval power of her conquered 
 enemies became now a maxim of Roman policy in makin^ 
 peace; and she thus maintained the dominion of the seas with- 
 out any great fleet, and without losing the essential character of 
 a dominant power by land. 
 
 9. The expulsion of Philip from Greece brought 
 that country into a state of dependence upon Rome ; 
 an event which could not have been better secured 
 than by the present of liberty which T. Quintius con- 
 ferred upon its inhabitants at the Isthmian games. 
 The system of surveillance, which the Romans had 
 already established in the West over Carthage and 
 Numidia, was now adopted in the East over Greece 
 and Macedonia. Roman commissioners, under the 
 name of ambassadors, were sent into the country of 
 the nations in alliance, and were the principal means 
 by which this system of espionage was carried on. 
 These however did not fail to give umbrage to the 
 Greeks, particularly to the turbulent ^'Etolians ; more 
 especially as the Romans seemed in no hurry to with- 
 
280 ROMAN STATE. [book v. 
 
 Second draw their troops from a country which thev had de- 
 clared to be free. 
 
 Period. 
 
 Liberty was expressly granted to the state which had taken 
 the part of Phihp, namely, to the Achaeans ; to the others it was 
 naturally understood to belong. It was nevertheless three years, 
 194, before the Roman army evacuated Greece, and withdrew 
 from the fortified places. The conduct of T. Quintius during 
 this period fully shows what he was. The Greeks indeed had 
 much want of such a guardian if they wished to remain quiet : 
 liis conduct, however, in the war against Nabis, 195, shows that 
 he had not really at heart the tranquillity of Gi'eece. 
 
 War with 
 Syria. 
 
 10. The treaty of peace with Phihp contained the 
 seeds of a new and greater war with S3a"ia ; but 
 though this seemed inevitable at that time, it did not 
 break out till six years afterwards ; and in but io-v^ 
 periods of the history of the world is so great a poli- 
 tical crisis to be found, as in this short interval. The 
 fall of Carthage and Macedonia had shown the rest 
 of the world what it had to expect from Rome ; and 
 there was no lack of great men sufficiently endowed 
 Danger of a will] couragc and talents to resist her. The danger 
 forinidabie ^f ^ formidable leao;ue between Carthag^e, Syria, and 
 acj-Tinst perhaps Macedonia, was never so much to be feared, 
 Rome; ^g when Hannibal, now at the head of affairs, labour- 
 ed to effect it with all the zeal which his hatred of 
 Rome could inspire ; and they might calculate with 
 certainty beforehand on the accession of many smaller 
 which she states. Rome, however, by her equally decided and 
 artful policy procured Hannibal's banishment from 
 Carthage, amused Philip by granting him some tri- 
 fling advantages, and gained over the smaller states 
 by her ambassadors. By these means, and by taking 
 advantage of the intrigues in the court of Syria, she 
 prevented this coalition from being formed. Antio- 
 chus was therefore left without assistance in Greece, 
 except from the ^tolians, and a few other unim- 
 portant allies ; while Rome drew from hers, especially 
 the Rhodians and Eumenes, advantages of the great- 
 est consequence. 
 
 The first cause of contention between Rome and Antiochus 
 was the liberty of Greece, which the former wished to extend 
 to the Grecian cities of Asia, and to those in particular which 
 
 frustrates. 
 
PERIOD II.] TO THE GRACCHI. 281 
 
 had belonged to Philip, and afterwards to Antiochus ; while Si-.cond 
 the latter contended, that Rome had no right to intermeddle Period. 
 
 with the affairs of Asia. The second cause of dispute was the 
 
 occupation of the Thracian Chersonesus by Antiochus, 196, in 
 right of some ancient pretensions ; and Rome, on her part, 
 would not tolerate him in Europe. This quarrel therefore 
 commenced as early as 196, but did not become serious till the 
 year 195, when, in consequence of Hannibal's flight to Anti- 
 ochus, together with the turbulence and excitement of the JEto- 
 lians, whose object it was to embroil the rival powers, the poli- 
 tical horizon was completely overcast. Wliat a fortunate thing 
 it was for Rome that such men as Hannibal and Antiochus 
 could not understand each other ! 
 
 Heine, de feeder urn ad Romanornm opes imminuendas inito- 
 rum eventis eorumque causis ; in Opusc. vol. iii. 
 
 11. This war was much sooner brought to a ter- 
 mination than the Macedonian, owing to the half- 
 measures adopted by Antiochus. After having been b. c. loi. 
 driven from Greece by Glabrio, and after two naval 
 victories had opened to the Romans the way to Asia, 
 
 he felt inclined to act on the defensive ; but in the 
 battle near Magnesia at the foot of Mount Sipylus, Battle of 
 L. Scipio gathered the laurels which more properly S'"''"''*' 
 belonged to Glabrio. The total expulsion of Antio- 
 chus from Asia Minor, even before this victory, had 
 been the chief object of the war. The conditions of Conditions 
 peace (see above, p. 227) were such, as not only weak- ''*" J'^'"''^- 
 ened Antiochus, but reduced him to a state of de- 
 pendence. 
 
 During this contest in the East, a sanguinary war was going 
 on in the West ; from the year 201 in Spain, where the elder 
 Cato commanded ; and from 193 in Italy itself, against the 
 Ligurians. Whatever may be said upon the means made use 
 of by Rome to increase tlie number of her citizens, it will always 
 be difficult to coinpreliend, not only how she could support all 
 these wars without being thereby weakened, but how at the 
 same time she could found so many colonics ! 
 
 1 2. Even after the termination of this war, Rome Moderation 
 refrained with astonishing moderation from appear- °^ ^'""^• 
 ing in the light of a conqueror : it was only for the 
 liberty of Greece, and for her allies, that she had con- 
 tended ! Without keeping a foot of land for herself, 
 
 she divided, with the exception of the free Grecian 
 cities, the conquered Asia Minor between Eumenes 
 
282 ROMAN STATE. [book v. 
 
 Second and the Rlioclians ; the manner, however, in which 
 ^''"'°°' ghe dealt with the .Etolians, who after a long suppli- 
 cation for peace were obliged to buy it dearly, shows 
 that she also knew how to treat unfaithful allies. The 
 War against War agaiust the Gauls in Asia Minor was not less 
 the Gauls in neccssarv for the preservation of tranquillity in that 
 
 Asia Minor, -^ , . ^ . . . , ^i i i • 
 
 B.C. 189. country, than it was injurious to the morals and mi- 
 litary discipline of the Roman army. They here 
 learned to levy contributions. 
 
 200-190. 13. Thus, within the short space often years, was 
 laid the foundation of the Roman authority in the 
 East, and the general state of affairs entirely changed. 
 
 Rome the If Romc was'not yet the ruler, she was at least the 
 
 the wodd°^ arbitress of the world from the Atlantic to the Eu- 
 phrates. The power of the three principal states was 
 so completely humbled, that they durst not, without 
 the permission of Rome, begin any new war ; the 
 fourth, Egypt, had already, in the year 201, placed 
 herself under the guardianship of Rome; and the 
 lesser powers followed of themselves: esteeming it 
 an honour to be called the allies of Rome. With 
 this name the nations were lulled into security, and 
 brought under the Roman yoke ; the new political 
 system of Rome was founded and strengthened, 
 partly by exciting and supporting the weaker states 
 against the stronger, however unjust the cause of the 
 former might be, and partly by factions which she 
 found means to raise in every state, even the smallest. 
 
 Although the policy of Rome extended itself every where by 
 means of her commissioners, or ambassadors, yet she kept a 
 more particular guard against Carthage by favouring Masinissa 
 at her expense, against the Achaean league by favouring the 
 Spartans, and against Pliilip of Macedon by favouring every one 
 vpho brought any complaint against him (see above, p. 229). 
 
 14. Although these new connexions and this in- 
 tercourse with foreign nations greatly aided the diffu- 
 sion of knowledge and science, and was followed by 
 a gradual improvement in her civilization, yet was it 
 nevertheless, in many respects, detrimental to the 
 internal state of Rome. The introduction of the 
 scandalous Bacchanalia, which were immediately dis- 
 
PERIOD II.] TO THE GRACCHI. 288 
 
 covered and forbidden, shows liow easily great vices Second 
 
 may creep in among a people who are only indebted L 
 
 for their morality to their ignorance. Among the 
 higher classes also the spirit of intrigue manifested 
 itself to an astonishing degree ; particularly by the 
 attacks directed against the Scipios by the elder Cato, 
 whose restless activity became the instrument of his 
 malignant passions. The severity of his censorship 
 did not repair the evils caused by his immorality and 
 pernicious politics. 
 
 Voluntary exile of Scipio Africanus to Linternum, 187. He 
 (lies there, 183, the same year in which Hannibal falls under 
 the continued persecution of Rome, His brother Scipio Asiati- 
 cus is also unable to escape a trial and condemnation, 185. One 
 would have expected a sensible effect from the exile of these 
 two great men ; but in a state where the ruling power is in the 
 hands of a body like what the Roman senate was, the change of 
 individuals is but of little consequence. 
 
 15. Fresh disputes arose as early as 185, with Newbvoiis 
 Philip of Macedon, who soon found that they had i^^^^'^' 
 spared him no longer than it suited their own conve- 
 nience. Although the intervention of Philip's young- 
 est son, upon whom the Romans had formed some 
 design, prevented the powers from coming to an im- 
 mediate rupture, and war was still further delayed by 
 Philip's death, yet the national hatred descended to His death, 
 his successor, and continued to increase, notwith- ^^^* 
 standing an alliance concluded with him, until the Open war, 
 war openly broke out (see above, p. 230). 
 
 The first circumstance which gave umbrage to Philip was the 
 small portion they permitted him to conquer in Athamania and 
 Thessaly during the war against Antiochus. But what sliarp- 
 ened his animosity, much more than tiie object in dispute, was 
 the conduct of the Roman commissioners, before whom he, the 
 king, was called upon to defend himself as an accused party, 
 184. The exclamation of Philip, that "the sun of every day 
 had not yet set," showed his indignation, and at the same time 
 betrayed his intention. The interval previous to the breaking 
 out of the war was any thing rather than a time of peace for 
 Rome ; for besides that the Spanish and Ligurian wars con- 
 tinued almost without intei'mission, the revolts which broke out 
 in Istria, 178, and in Sardinia and Corsica, 176, produced much 
 bloodshed. 
 
284 
 
 ROMAN STATE. 
 
 [book v. 
 
 Second 
 Period. 
 
 Second Ma- 
 cedonian 
 ■war, ends 
 with the 
 ruin of the 
 kingdom, 
 168. 
 
 Its conse- 
 quences. 
 
 16. In the second Macedonian war, which ended 
 with the destruction of Perseus and his kingdom, (see 
 above, p. 231,) it required the active efforts of Ro- 
 man pohcy to prevent a powerful confederacy from 
 being formed against her; as Perseus used all his 
 endeavours to stimulate, not only the Grecian states, 
 and Thrace and Illyria, but also Carthage and Asia, 
 to enter into alliance with him. Where was it that 
 Rome did not at this crisis send her ambassadors ? 
 She did not, indeed, succeed so far as to leave her 
 enemy quite alone, but prepared new triumphs for 
 herself over the few allies she left him. The devas- 
 tated Epirus, and Gentius king of Illyria, suffered 
 dearly for the assistance they had lent him ; the states 
 also which had remained neuter, the Rhodians and 
 Eumenes, were made to feel severely that they were 
 the mere creatures of Rome. 
 
 Beginning of the Macedonian war, 171, before Rome was 
 prepared ; a deceitful truce, which raised the indignation even 
 of the elder senators, was the means resorted to for gaining 
 time. Notwithstanding this, the war at first, 170 and 169, was 
 favourable to Perseus ; but he Avanted resolution and judgment 
 to enable him to turn his advantages to account. In 168, 
 Paulus iEmilius, an old general, against the usual custom of the 
 Romans, took the command. Bloody and decisive battle near 
 Pydna, June 22, 168. So completely may one day overturn a 
 kingdom which has only an army for its support ! Contempo- 
 rary with this war, and highly fortunate for Rome, was the war 
 of Antiochus Epiphanes with Egypt. No wonder that Rome 
 did not, till 168, through Popilius, command peace betAveen 
 them ! (See above, p. 209.) 
 
 17. The destruction of the Macedonian monarchy 
 was attended with consequences equally disastrous to 
 the conquerors and the conquered. To the first it 
 soon gave the notion of becoming the masters of the 
 world, instead of its arbiters ; and it exposed the lat- 
 ter, for the next twenty years, to all the evils insepar- 
 able from such a catastrophe. The system of poli- 
 tics hitherto pursued by Rome could not last much 
 longer ; for if nations suffered themselves to be 
 brought under the yoke by force, it was not to be 
 expected that they would long be held in dependence 
 under the specious name of liberty. But the state 
 
PERIOD 11.] TO THE GRACCHI. 285 
 
 of things after this war was such as contributed to Second 
 hasten a change in the form of the relations which ^'^^°°' 
 existed between Rome and her alhes. 
 
 The republican constitution given to the ah-eady ruined and 
 devastated Macedonians (see above, p. 231) and Ill}a-ians, and 
 which, according to the decree of the senate, " showed to all 
 people that Rome was ready to bestow liberty upon them," was 
 granted upon such hard conditions, that the enfranchised nation 
 soon used every endeavour to procure themselves a king. Gi'eece 
 however suffered still more tlian Macedonia. Here, during the 
 war, the spirit of faction had risen to the highest pitch ; and 
 the arrogant insolence of the Roman party, composed for the 
 most part of venal wretches, was so great, that they persecuted 
 not only those who had espoused an opposite faction, but even 
 those who had joined no faction at all. Rome nevertheless 
 could not believe herself secure, until she had destroyed, by a 
 cruel artifice, all her adversaries (see above, p. 231). 
 
 18. Entirely in the same spirit did Rome proceed 
 against the other states from whom she had any thing 
 to fear. These must be rendered defenceless ; and 
 every means of effecting that purpose was considered 
 justifiable by the senate. The quarrels between the 
 successors to the throne of Egypt were taken advan- 
 tage of to cause dissensions in that kingdom (see 
 above, p. 208) ; while Syria was retained in a state 
 of tutelage, by keeping the rightful heir to the throne 
 at Rome ; and its military power neutralized by 
 means of their ambassadors (see above, p. 195). 
 
 19. From these facts we may also conclude, that 
 the injuries now meditated against Carthage were 
 not separate projects, but rather formed part of the 
 general system of Roman policy at this period, al- 
 though particular events at one time retarded their 
 execution, and at another hastened it. History, in 
 recounting the incredibly bad treatment which Car- 
 thage had to endure before her fall, seems to have 
 given a warning to those nations who can take it, of 
 what they may expect from the domination of a 
 powerful republic. 
 
 Cato was chief of the party which sought the destruction of 
 Carthage, both from a spirit of envy against Scipio Nasica, 
 whom he hated for his great influence in the senate ; and be- 
 cause, when ambassador to Carthage, he thought they did not 
 treat him with sufficient respect. But Masinissa's victory, 152, 
 
286 ROMAN STATE. [cook v. 
 
 Second (see above, p. 71,) and the defection of Utica, brought this pro- 
 Period. ject into immediate play. Beginning of the war, 150, the Car- 
 
 ~~~ thafinians having been previously inveigled out of tlieir arms. 
 
 The city, however, was not captured and destroyed till 146, by 
 P. Scipio ^milianus. The Carthaginian territory, under the 
 name of Africa, was then made a Roman province. 
 
 A new war 20. DuHng tliis third war with Carthage, hostili- 
 with Mace- |.jgg apfaiii broke out in Macedonia, which brought on 
 
 donia and O ■ ^ /~i i • i i i ^i 
 
 Greece. a ncw War With (jrreece, and entirely changed the 
 state of both tliese countries. In Macedonia, an im- 
 postor named Andriscus, who pretended to be the 
 son of Phihp, placed himself at the head of that 
 liighly disaffected people, assumed the name of Phi- 
 lip, and became, particularly by an alliance with the 
 B. c. 148. Thracians, very formidable to the Romans, until 
 overcome by Metellus. Rome wishing to take ad- 
 vantage of this crisis to dissolve the Achaean league, 
 the Achaean war broke out (see above, p. 232). This 
 war was begun by Metellus, and terminated by 
 Terminated Mummius with the dcstructiou of Corinth. By re- 
 snuc'tioirof ducing both Macedonia and Greece to the form of 
 Coiiuth, provinces, Rome now gave evident proof that no ex- 
 isting relations, nor any form of government, can 
 prevent nations from being subjugated by a warlike 
 republic, whenever circumstances render it possible. 
 
 It might have been expected, that the destruction of the two 
 first commercial cities in the world, in the same year, would have 
 been followed by important con-tquences to the course of trade; 
 but the trade of Carthage and Corinth had alread}»- been drawn 
 to Alexandria and Rhodes, otlierwise Utica might, in some re- 
 spects, have supplied the place of Carthage. 
 
 War in 21. While Rome was thus destroying thrones and 
 
 Spain, 146. pepublics, shc met in Spain with an antagonist — a 
 
 simple Spanish countryman named Viriathus — whom, 
 
 after six years' war, she could only rid herself of by 
 
 140. assassination. The war, nevertheless, continued after 
 
 his death against the Numantines, who would not be 
 
 subjected, but were at last destroyed by Scipio iEmi- 
 
 133. lianus. 
 
 The war iigainst the Spaniards, wl)o of all the nations subdued 
 by the Romans defended their liberty with the greatest obsti- 
 nacy, began in the year 200, six years after the total expulsion 
 of the Carthaginians from their country, 206. It was exceed- 
 
PEHioD II.] TO THE GRACCHI. 287 
 
 ingly obstinate, partly from the natural state of the country, Second 
 which was thickly populated, and where every place became a I^hriod. 
 fortress ; partly from the courage of the inhabitants ; but above " 
 all, owing to the peculiar policy of the Romans, who were wont 
 to employ their allies to subdue other nations. This war con- 
 tinued, almost without interruption, from the year 200 to 13.3, 
 and was for the most part carried on at the same time in His- 
 pania Citerior, where the Celtiberi were the most formidable 
 adversaries, and in Hispania Ulterior, where the Lusitani were 
 equally powerful. Hostihties were at the highest pitch in 19.5, 
 under Cato, who reduced Hispania Citerior to a state of tran- 
 quilHty in 18.5 — 179, when the Celtiberi were attacked in their 
 native territory ; and 155 — 1.50, when the Romans in both pro- 
 vinces were so often beaten, tliat nothing was more dreaded by 
 the soldiers at home than to be sent there. The extortions and 
 perfidy of Servius Galba pLiced Viriathus, in the year 14G, at 
 the head of his nation, the Lusitani : the war, however, soon 
 extended itself to Hispania Citerior, where many nations, parti- 
 cularly the Numantines, took up arms against Rome, 143. Vi- 
 riathus, sometimes victorious and sometimes defeated, was never 
 more formidable than in the moment of defeat ; because he 
 knew how to take advantage of his knowledge of the country, 
 and of the dispositions of his countrymen. After his murder, 
 caused by the treachery of Ciepio, 140, Lusitania was subdued ; 
 but the Numantine war became still more violent, and the Nu- 
 mantines compelled the consul Mancinus to a disadvantageous 
 treaty, 137. When Scipio, in the year 133, put an end to this 
 war, Spain was certainly tranquil ; the northern parts, however, 
 were still unsubdued, though the Romans penetrated as far as 
 Galatia. 
 
 22. Towards the end of this period, the Romans Attaius in. 
 obtained at a much cheaper rate the possession of ''^^''^* '''^ 
 one oi their most important provinces ; for the pro- the Ro- 
 fligate Attahis III., king of Pergamus, bequeathing ™^°^- 
 them the whole of his kingdom, (on what account is 
 uncertain, see above, p. 234,) they immediately took b. c. 1:33 
 possession of it, and kept it in spite of the resistance ~^^*^- 
 of the legitimate heir Aristonicus, merely ceding, as 
 a recompence, Phrygia to Mithridates V., king of 
 Pontus. .Thus, by a stroke of the pen, the largest 
 and finest part of Asia Minor became the property of 
 Rome. If this extraordinary legacy was the work of 
 Roman policy, she paid dearly enough, in the long- 
 run, for this accession to her power and riches, by 
 the destruction of her morals, and the dreadful wars 
 to which this legacy gave rise under Mithridates 
 
288 
 
 ROMAN STATE. 
 
 [book 
 
 Second 
 Period. 
 
 Roman 
 provinces. 
 
 How ?;o- 
 verned. 
 
 Roman vc- 
 veiiue. 
 
 23. The foreign possessions of Rome, besides Italy, 
 comprised at this time under the name of provinces, 
 a name of much higher signification in the Latin 
 language than in any other, Hispania Citerior and 
 Ulterior, Africa, (the territory of Carthage,) Sicily, 
 Sardinia, and Corsica, Liguria, and Cisalpine Gaul, 
 in the west ; and in the east, Macedonia, Achaia, and 
 Asia (territory of Pergamus). The inhabitants of 
 these countries were entirely subject to Rome. The 
 administration of them was carried on by those who 
 had enjoyed the office of consul, and by prsetors, sub- 
 ordinate to whom were the queestors, or collectors of 
 the revenue. The highest military and civil powers 
 were united n these governors ; a principal cause of 
 that horrible oppression which was soon felt. Troops 
 were always kept up in the provinces ; and the Latin 
 language every where introduced, (except only where 
 Greek was spoken,) that the inhabitants might be 
 made as much like Romans as possible. 
 
 Till nearly the end of this period, prastors were expressly ap- 
 pointed to each province. It was not till after the origin of the 
 qucestiones perpetuce, that it became the custom for the praetors 
 who had vacated office, to succeed to the provinces, {proprcetores,) 
 a principal cause of the degeneracy of the Roman constitution. 
 
 C. SiGOXiüS, de Antiquo jure provinciarum in Grcevii Thes. 
 Antiq. Rom. vol. ii. 
 
 24. The acquisition of these rich countries natu- 
 rally had great influence in augmenting the revenue 
 of the Romans. Though Rome was not indeed 
 a state like Carthage, altogether dependent upon 
 finances, yet she kept these adjusted in a wonderful 
 manner ; a spirit of nice order being observed in this 
 as well as in every other department of her adminis- 
 tration. If in extraordinary emergencies recourse 
 were had to native loans, to a change in the value 
 of money, or a monopoly of salt, order was soon 
 restored ; while the booty obtained from conquered 
 countries was also a great source of the public in- 
 come, so long indeed as it was reserved for the state, 
 and did not become the prey of the generals. 
 
 Sources of the Roman revenue {yectigalia) were : 1. Tribute 
 a. from the Roman citizens ; that is to say, a property-tax im- 
 
PERIOD II.] TO THE GRACCHI. 289 
 
 posed by the senate according to the urgency of the case (which, Second 
 however, was remitted for a long time, after the war with Per- Period. 
 sens, 168, being no longer necessary), b. Tribute of the allies 
 (socii) in Italy : which seems also to have been a property-tax ; 
 differing in different places, c. Tribute of the provinces : in 
 some a heavy poll-tax, in others taxes on property ; in all, how- 
 ever, they were paid in natural productions, mostly ordinary, 
 though sometimes extraordinary, as well for the salary of the 
 governor as for the supply of the capital. 2. The revenue from 
 the national domains, {ager publicus,) both in Italy (especially 
 Campania) and in the provinces ; the tithes {decumce) of which 
 were paid by means of leases for four years, granted by the cen- 
 sors. 3. The revenue from the customs, (portoria,) collected in 
 the seaports and frontier towns. 4. The revenue arising from 
 the mines, (tnetalla,) particularly the Spanish silver mines ; the 
 proprietors of which were obliged to pay a duty to the state. 
 5. The duty upon enfranchised slaves (aurum vicesimarium). 
 All receipts flowed into the national treasury, the cerarium ; all 
 outgoings were exclusively ordered by the senate ; and the peo- 
 ple were consulted as little with regard to them as they were re- 
 specting the imposts. The officers employed were the qttces- 
 tores, under whom were the scribce, divided into decurias, who, 
 though certainly subordinate, had nevertheless great influence. 
 Their services, as they were not yearly changed, must have been 
 indispensable to the qncestores for the time being ; and the 
 whole management of affairs, at least in detail, must have fallen 
 into their hands. 
 
 Upon the finances of Rome, the best work at present is : — 
 
 P. Bvii'siA^j<i,Vectigalia Populi Romani. Leyden, 1734, 4to. 
 
 Two excellent ti'eatises have since appeared in German upon 
 this subject : — 
 
 f D. H. Hegeavisch, Essai/ upon Roman Finances, An- 
 tona, 1804, and 
 
 f R. Bosse, Sketch of the System of Finance in the Roman 
 State. Brunswick, 1803, 2 parts. Both include the periods of 
 the republic and the monarchy. 
 
 THIRD PERIOD. 
 
 From the beginning of the civil broils under the Gracchi, 
 to the fail of the Republic. B. C. 134—30. Year of 
 Rome, 620—724. 
 
 Sources. Concerning the first half of this important period Third 
 of the republic, down to the time of Cicero, we are sadly in Period. 
 want of precise information. Not one of the contemporary 
 writers has been preserved to us, nor indeed any one of the 
 
 u 
 
290 
 
 ROMAN STATE. 
 
 [book v. 
 
 Third 
 Period. 
 
 Civil wars. 
 
 Power of 
 the senate 
 creates an 
 aristocracy, 
 which is 
 opposed by 
 
 later historians who have compiled a history of the whole period. 
 Appian, de Bellis Civilibus ; Plutarch, in his Lives of the 
 Gracchi ; and the spirited Compendium of Vel. Paterculus, 
 are, for this portion, our principal authorities ; and even the 
 imperfect summaries of the lost books of Livy, so masterly sup- 
 plied by Freinshemius, here become of importance. For the 
 times which follow, the Jugurtha and Catiline of Sallust are 
 two excellent historical cabinet pieces, and become the more 
 valuable for the insight they at the same time give us of the 
 internal condition of Rome. His great work, however. The 
 Histories, is, with the exception of a few precious fragments, 
 unfortunately lost. For the times of C^sar and Cicero, we 
 have the Commentaries of the first, and the Orations and Let- 
 ters of the latter ; both fertile sources of information. What is 
 left us of Dio Cassius's History, begins with the year 69 be- 
 fore Christ. Of Plutarch's Lives, besides those of the Grac- 
 chi, the following are connected with this period : C. ]\Iarius, 
 Stlla, Lucullus, Crassus, Sertorius, Cato of Utica, Ci- 
 cero, Brutus, and Antonius. Upon the sources for these 
 lives, see my treatises cited above, p. 257. 
 
 Among the moderns, the greater part of this period is parti- 
 cularly treated of by : — 
 
 De Brosses, Histoire de la Repuhlique Romaine dans le 
 cours du VII^ Sil'cle par Salluste, ä Dijou, 1777, 3 vols. 4to. 
 
 In German by J. C. Schleuter, 1790, etc., with remarks, 
 4 vols. The editor of this capital work had an idea of trans- 
 lating Sallust, and supplying Avhat is lost. It contains, besides 
 a translation of Jugurtha and Catiline, the period between both, 
 of which Sallust treats in his Histories : that is, from Sylla's 
 abdication, B. C. 79 — 67 ; and is equally important for its own 
 merits and for the period to which it belongs. 
 
 Vertot, Histoire des revolutions arrivees dans le gouverne- 
 ment de la Repuhlique Romaine. Paris, 1796, 6 vols. 12mo. Al- 
 though this justly esteemed work includes the foregoing period, 
 it is particularly valuable for the present. 
 
 Mably, Observations sur les Romains. Geneve, 1751, 2 
 vols. 8vo. A survey of the internal history ; ingenious, but as 
 superficial as the Observations sur les Grecs by the same author. 
 
 1. The foregoing period is composed of the history 
 of foreign wars alone ; in this, on the contrary, Rome 
 appears in a continual state of internal commotion. 
 And if foreign hostilities interrupt this state of things 
 for a short time, it is only that it may be renewed 
 with more violence, till at last it ends in a furious 
 civil war. As the almost boundless power of the 
 senate had laid the foundation of an exceedingly hate- 
 
 the tribunes fu} family aHstocracy, against which the tribunes of 
 peopfe. the people arrayed themselves in the character of 
 
PERIOD in.] TO THE FALL OF THE REPUBLIC. 291 
 
 powerful demagogues, there arose a new struggle third 
 between the aristocratic and democratic parties, ''"'°°' 
 which almost immediately grew into two powerful 
 factions. This contest, from its extent and its con- 
 sequences, soon became much more important than 
 the ancient one between the patricians and the 
 plebeians. 
 
 This family aristocracy gradually arose from the power of the 
 magistrates, who now not only enjoyed a very high political 
 importance, but, by the government of the provinces, acquired 
 immense wealth. The present aristocracy, then, consisted of 
 the ruling families (nohiles) concentrated in the senate. The 
 struggle with the opposite party, the people, (plebs, ) became so 
 much the more violent in consequence of the gi*eat abuses which 
 had crept into the administration, particularly in the division of 
 the lands of the republic ; the ruling families securing to them- 
 selves the fruits of all the victories and conquests, while the 
 power of the democracy, by the vast accumulation of people, 
 (without the means of livelihood, although voting in the comitia,) 
 especially of enfranchised slaves, who, though sti-angers, mostly 
 without power or property, formed, nevertheless, the greater 
 part of what was then called the Roman people. 
 
 G. Al. Ruperti, Stemmata gentium Romanarum. Goett. 
 1795, 8vo. Almost indispensable for obtaining a clear insight 
 into the history of the Roman families, and of course into that 
 of the state. 
 
 2. Commencement of the disturbances under the First dis- 
 tribunate of Tib. Sempronius Gracchus, whom former un'der'x 's 
 connexions had long made the man of the people. Gracchus. 
 His desire was to relieve the distress of the lower ^' ^' ^^^' 
 orders ; and the means whereby he hoped to do this to relieve 
 was a better division of the lands of the republic, now the distress 
 almost exclusively m the hands of the aristocracy, orders, 
 His reform, therefore, naturally led at once to a 
 struggle with that party. Tib. Gracchus however 
 soon found, by experience, that a demagogue cannot 
 stop where he would, however pure his intentions 
 may be at first ; and no sooner had he obtained a 
 prolongation of his term of office, in opposition to 
 the usual custom, than he fell a sacrifice to his un- and dies in 
 dertaking. the attempt. 
 
 The first agrarian law of Gracchus was confirmed by the 
 people, notwithstanding the fruitless opposition of his colleague 
 Octavius, who was deposed ; it decreed that no person should 
 
 u 2 
 
292 
 
 ROMAN STATE. 
 
 [book 
 
 B. C. 132. 
 
 Third possess above five hundred acres of land, nor any child above 
 Period, \^r^\{ tliat quantity. This law was, in fact, only a renewal of 
 the ancient lex Licinia ; in the condition, however, in which 
 Rome now was, it bore much harder upon the property usurped 
 by the great families, than it did in former times. Appoint- 
 ment of a committee for dividing the national lands, and for 
 inquiring also at the same time which were the property of 
 the state {ager publicus) and which were not. New popular 
 propositions of the elder Gracchus, especially that for the divi- 
 sion of the treasures left by king Attains of JPergamus, with the 
 view of securing his continuance in office ; great insurrection 
 of the aristocratic party under Scipio Nasica, and murder of 
 Tiberius Gracchus, on the day of electing the new tribunes of 
 the people. 
 
 Hisfaiidoes 3. The fall of the chief of the new party, however, 
 wJ^party"^ occasioiied any thing rather than its destruction. Not 
 only was there no mention of an abrogation of the 
 agrarian law, but the senate was obliged to allow 
 the place in the commission, which had become va- 
 cant by the death of Gracchus, to be filled up ; and 
 Scipio Nasica himself was sent out of the way, under 
 the pretext of an embassy to Asia. The party of 
 the senate did, indeed, find a powerful support for a 
 short time in the return of Scipio iEmilianus {cl. 129) 
 from Spain ; but its greatest support was found in 
 the difficulties of the law itself, which prevented its 
 execution. 
 
 Great revolt of the slaves in vSicily under Eunus, 134 — 131. 
 This contributed not a little to keep alive the dissensions, as it 
 showed the necessity of a reform. 
 
 4. Evident endeavours of the tribunes of the peo- 
 ple to increase their power, Gracchus having now 
 awakened them to a sense of it. Not satisfied with 
 a seat and voice in the senate, Carbo wished that the 
 renewing of their dignity should be passed into a law. 
 By the removal, however, of the chiefs of the lower 
 party, upon honourable pretexts, new troubles were 
 put off" for some years. 
 
 First establishment of the Roman power in Transalpine Gaul 
 by M. Fulvius Flaccus, on the occasion of his being sent to the 
 assistance of Massilia, 128. Southern Gaul became a Roman 
 province as early as 122, in consequence of the defeat of the 
 Allobrogi and Averni by Q. Fabius, who had been sent against 
 them to support the JEdui, the allies of Rome. Capture of the 
 
 The tri- 
 bunes en- 
 deavour to 
 increase 
 their power. 
 B. C. 130. 
 
PF.RioD HI ] TO THE FALL OF THE REPUBLIC. 293 
 
 Balearian isles by Metellus, 123. Quasstorship of C. Gracchus Third 
 in Sicily, 128—125. Period. 
 
 5. These palliative remedies, however, availed c. Giac 
 nothing after the return of C. Gracchus from Sicily ^^^^' 
 with a full determination to tread in the footsteps of 
 
 his brother. Like him, it is true, he fell a victim to 
 his enterprise ; but the storm that he raised during 
 the two years of his tribunate fell so much the more 
 heavily, as the popular excitement was more general, 
 and from his possessing more of the shining talents 
 necessary to form a powerful demagogue than his 
 brother. 
 
 First tribunate of C. Gracchus, 123. Renewal of the agra- 
 rian law, and rendering its pi'ovisions more strict. Neverthe- 
 less, as he increased the fermentation by his popular measures 
 and by acting the demagogue, and obtained the renewal of the 
 tribunate for the following year, 122, he so far extended his 
 plan, as to render it not only highly dangerous to the aristocracy, 
 but even to the state itself. Establishment of distributions of 
 corn to the poor people. Plan for the formation of the knights 
 (ordo equestris) into a political body, as a counterbalance to the 
 senate, by conferring on it the right of administering justice, 
 {judicia,) which was taken from the senate. Still more im- 
 portant project of granting to the Italian allies the privileges of 
 Roman citizenship ; and also the formation of colonies, not only 
 in Campania, but also out of Italy, in Carthage. The highly 
 refined policy of the senate, however, by lessening this man of 
 the people in the eyes of his admirers, through the assistance of 
 the tribune Livius Drusius, prevented his complete triumph ; 
 and, once declining, Gracchus soon experienced the fate of every 
 demagogue, whose complete fall is then irretrievable. General 
 insurrection, and assassination of C. Gracchus, 121. 
 
 6. The victory of the aristocratic faction was this victorj of 
 time not only much more certain and bloody, but cratiTiS 
 they turned the advantages it gave them to such good tion. 
 account, that they eluded the agrarian law of Grac- 
 chus, and indeed, at last, completely abrogated it. 
 
 But the seeds of discord already disseminated, espe- 
 cially among the Italian allies, could not be so soon 
 checked, when once the subjects of these states had 
 conceived the idea that they were entitled to a share 
 in the government. How soon these party struggles 
 might be renewed, or indeed a civil war break out, 
 
294 
 
 ROMAN STATE. 
 
 [book v. 
 
 Effects of 
 this ])arty 
 spirit in 
 
 Third depended almost entirely upon foreign circumstances, 
 ^^^"""^ and the chance of a bolder leader being found. 
 
 Agrarian law evaded : at first by repealing an act which pro- 
 hibited the transfer of the national lands already divided, where- 
 by the patricians were enabled to buy them again ; — afterwards 
 by the lex Thoria ; complete stop put to all further divisions, a 
 land-tax, to be distributed among the people, being instituted in 
 its stead ; but even this latter was very soon annulled. 
 
 f D. H. Hegeayisch, History of the Civil Wars of the Grac- 
 chi. Altona, 1801. 
 
 f History of the Revolution of the Gracchi in my Miscellane- 
 ous Historical Works. 
 
 7. Visible effects of this party spirit upon public 
 morals, which now began to decline the more rapidly 
 
 corrupting in proportiou to the increase of foreign connexions. 
 
 the nauou. jygj^jjgj. ^\^^ severity of the censorship, nor the laws 
 against luxury, {leges smntiiarice,) nor those which 
 now became necessary against celibacy, could be of 
 much service in this respect. This degeneracy was 
 not only to be found in the cupidity of the higher 
 ranks, but also in the licentiousness of the lower 
 orders. 
 
 Luxury in Rome was first displayed in the public administra- 
 tion (owing to the excessive accumulation of wealtli in the trea- 
 sury, especially during the Macedonian wars) before it infected 
 private life ; and the avarice of the great long preceded the lat- 
 ter. The sources from whence they satisfied this passion wer«^ 
 found in the extortions of the governors of provinces, their 
 great power, and the distance from Rome, rendering the leges 
 repetundarum of but little effect. Probably the endeavours of 
 the allied princes and kings to gain a party in the senate was a 
 still more fruitful source, as they could obtain their end only by 
 purchase, and so gave a new impulse to the cupidity and in- 
 triguing disposition of the members of that council. But pri- 
 vate luxury requires every where some time to ripen. It at- 
 tained its height immediately after the Mithridatic wars. 
 
 •j" D. Meiner, History of the Corrvption of the Morals and 
 Constitution of the Romans. Leips. 1782. 
 
 I Meierotto, Morals and Manners of the Romans at differ- 
 ent periods of the Republic. Berlin, 1776. Which considers 
 the subject in several points of view. 
 
 I C. A. Bottiger, Sabina, or morning scenes at the toilette 
 of a rich Roman lady. Leips. 1806, 2 vols. A true and lively 
 description of the luxury of the Roman ladies, but principally at 
 its most brilliant period. It has been translated into French. 
 
 8. This corruption was manifested in a striking 
 
PERIOD III.] TO THE FALL OF THE REPUBLIC. 295 
 
 manner in the next great war that Rome entered into, Third 
 which was in Africa, against Jugurtha of Numidia, '^"^°" ' 
 the adopted grandson of Masinissa ; and soon after The African 
 against his ally Bocchus of Mauritania. This war, JuguXa"^' 
 kindled and maintained by the avarice of the Roman B- ^- us 
 nobles, which Jugurtha had already had an oppor- ~ 
 tunity of knowing at the siege of Numantia, paved 
 the way to the aggrandizement of C. Marius, a new c. Marius 
 demagogue, who, being also a formidable general, 
 did much more harm to the state than even the 
 Gracchi. 
 
 Commencement of the quarrel of Jugurtha with the two sons 
 of Micipsa, and assassination of Hiempsal, one of them, 118. — 
 When the other, Adherbal, arrived at Rome, 1 1 7, the party of 
 Jugurtha had already succeeded, and obtained a partition of the 
 kingdom. New attack upon Adherbal, who is besieged in Cirta, 
 and, notwithstanding the repeated embassies of Rome to Jugur- 
 tha, is compelled to surrender, and is put to death, 112. The 
 tribune C. Memmius constrains the senate to declare war against 
 Jugurtha ; but Jugurtha purchases a peace of the consul Cal- 
 purnius Piso, 111. — Nevertheless Memmius hinders the ratifi- 
 cation of the peace, and Jugurtha is required to justify himself 
 at Rome. He would probably, however, have bought his ac- 
 quittal, if the murder of his kinsman Massiva, 1 10, by the help 
 of Boinilcar, had not rendered it impossible. The war is re- 
 newed under the consul Sp. Albinus and his brother Aulus, 
 110, but with very little success, until the incorruptible Q. Me- 
 tellus took the command, 109, who would have put an end to 
 it, notwithstanding the great talents now displayed as a general 
 by Jugurtha, and his alliance with Bocchus, 108, had he not 
 been supplanted by Marius, who obtains the consulship by his 
 popularity, 107. Marius is obliged to have recourse to perfidy 
 to get Jugurtha into his hands, who is betrayed by Bocchus, 
 106. Numidia is divided between Bocchus and two grandsons 
 of Masinissa, Hiempsal and Hiarbas. 
 
 9. The elevation of Marius to the consulate not obtains the 
 only humbled the power of the aristocracy, but also ''°°*"''^'^' 
 showed, for the first time, that the way was open to a 
 man of low birth (Jiomo iwvus) to the highest offices ; 
 the method, liowever, which he had taken to form his 
 army, entirely against the Roman custom, that is, of 
 composing it of the lower orders (capite censis) must 
 have rendered him doubly formidable. Nevertheless, 
 he would scarcely have effected so great a change in 
 the constitution, if a new and terrible war had not 
 
296 
 
 ROMAN STATE. 
 
 [book v. 
 
 Third 
 Period. 
 
 defeats the 
 Cimbri and 
 Teutones : 
 
 buys his 
 sixth con- 
 sulate. 
 
 rendered his services indispensable : — this was the 
 threatened invasion of the Cimbri and Teutones, the 
 most powerful nations of the north, during which a 
 new and violent rebellion of the slaves was raging in 
 Sicily : — for after the defeat of so many Roman 
 armies, the people believed that no one but the con- 
 queror of Jugurtha could save Italy ; and Marius 
 knew so well how to turn this to account, that he re- 
 mained consul during four successive years. 
 
 The Cimbri, or Cimmerians, probably a nation of German 
 origin, from beyond the Black Sea, originated a popular migra- 
 tion which extended from thence as far as Spain. Their march 
 was perhaps occasioned, or accelerated, by the Scythian war of 
 Mithridates ; and their course, like that of most nomad races, 
 was from east to west along the Danube. They had already, 
 in 113, defeated the consul Papirius Carbo, near Noreia in Sty- 
 ria. In their progress towards the west they Avere joined by 
 German, Celtic, and Helvetic tribes (the Teutones, Ambrones, 
 and Tigurians). — Attack Roman Gaul, 109, where they de- 
 mand settlements, and defeat Junius Silanus the consul. — De- 
 feat of L. Cassius Longinus and J\I. Aurelius Scaurus, 1 07. — 
 Great defeat of the Romans in Gaul, 105, occasioned by the 
 disagreement of their generals, the consuls, Cn. Manlius and Q. 
 Servius Cajpio. Marius obtains the command, and remains 
 consul from 104 — 101. The migrations of the Cimbri — a part 
 of whom reach the Pyrenees, but are driven back by the Celti- 
 berians, 103 — give Marius time to complete his army. In 102, 
 after dividing themselves, they first attempted to penetrate into 
 Italy : the Teutones through Provence, and the Cimbri by Ty- 
 rol. — Great defeat and slaughter of the Teutones by Marius, 
 near Aix, 102. — The Cimbri, on the contrary, effect an invasion 
 and make progress till Marius comes to the help of Catulus. 
 Great battle and defeat of the Cimbri near the Po, July 30, 101. 
 
 J. Müller, Bellum C'mibricum. Tigur, 1772. A youthful 
 essay of that celebrated historian. Compare 
 
 f Majinert, Geography, etc., part iii. 
 
 10. Although during this war the power of the 
 popular party had sensibly increased, yet the storm 
 did not break out until Marius bought his sixth con- 
 sulate. Now, even in Rome itself, he wished to 
 avenge himself upon his enemies ; and what could 
 the senate do, when it had at its head a demagogue 
 m the consul himself? — His league with the tribune 
 Saturnius, and the praetor Glaucias, forming already 
 a true triumvirate, would have overthrown the re- 
 
PERIOD III.] TO THE FALL OF THE REPUBLIC. ^97 
 
 public, after the expulsion of Metellus, if the un- Third 
 bridled licentiousness of the rabble connected with ^"^°"' 
 
 his allies had not obliged him to break with them, 
 lest he should sacrifice the whole of his popularity. 
 
 The measures of this cabal, who wished to appear as if tread- 
 ing in the steps of the Gracchi, were principally directed 
 against Q. Metellus, the chief of the party of the senate, and 
 who, since the African war, had been the mortal foe of Marius. 
 After the exile of Metellus, occasioned by his opposition to a 
 new agrarian law, this faction usurped the rights of the people, 
 and lorded it in the committees ; until, at a new election of con- 
 suls, a general revolt, favoured by Marius himself, took place 
 of all the well-disposed citizens against them ; Saturnius and 
 Glaucias were besieged in the capitol, forced to surrender, and 
 executed. The return of Metellus from his voluntary exile 
 soon followed, 99, much against the will of Marius, who was 
 obliged to retire into Asia. 
 
 11. The few years of tranquillity which Rome b. c. 98- 
 now enjoyed, brought to maturity many benefits and ^^' 
 many evils, the seeds of which had been already 
 sown. On one hand the rising eloquence of Anto- 
 nius, Crassus, and others, was employed with eflfect 
 against the oppressors of the provinces in the state 
 trials [questioiies) ; and some generous spirits used 
 all their endeavours to heal the wounds of Sicily, 
 Asia, and other provinces, by a better administration ; 
 while, on the other hand, the power of the ordo 
 equestris became a source of much abuse : for be- 
 sides their right to sit in the tribunals, (jiidiciis,) which 
 C. Gracchus had conferred upon them, they had also 
 obtained the farming of the leases, and thereby the 
 collection of the revenue in the provinces ; by which 
 means they were enabled not only to oppose every 
 reform that was attempted in the latter, but even at 
 Rome to hold the senate in a state of dependence. 
 The struggle which now arose between them and the 
 senate respecting the judicia (or right to preside in 
 the tribunal) was one of the most fatal to the repub- 
 lic, as this right was abused by them for the purpose 
 of satisfying their personal rancour, and oppressing 
 the greatest men. The tribune M. Livius Drusus 
 the younger, it is true, wrested from them half their 
 power ; but, alas ! the manner in which he did it 
 
298 ROMAN STATE. [book v. 
 
 Third kindled into a flame the fire which had been smoulder- 
 ing from the time of the Gracchi. 
 
 Period 
 
 Acquisition of Cjrene by the testament of King Apion, 97 ; 
 notwithstanding which it maintained its independence, although 
 probably by paying a tribute. Adjustment of the differences 
 between the kings of Asia Minor by the prastor Sylla, 92 (see 
 above, p. 235). 
 
 War of the 12. Rcvolt of the Italian tribes, who desire to ob- 
 91Ü.88. ' ' tain the right of Roman citizens ; whereupon the 
 bloody züar of the allies ensues. Although the op- 
 pression of Rome had been preparing this war for a 
 long time, yet it was an immediate consequence of 
 the intrigues of the Roman demagogues, who, since 
 the law of the younger Gracchus, had, with the view 
 of making themselves popular, continually flattered 
 the allies with the hope of sliaring the privileges of 
 Roman citizenship. It was however soon seen that 
 the allies were not at a loss among themselves for 
 leaders, capable of forming great plans and executing 
 them with vigour. Italy was about to become a re- 
 public, with Corfinium for its capital instead of Rome. 
 Neither could Rome have saved herself from such an 
 event, but by gradually permitting the allies to enjoy 
 the complete freedom of the city. 
 
 After the civil wars of the Gracchi, large bands of the allies 
 were continually flocking to Rome, These were in the pay of 
 the demagogues, whom the lex Licinia, 95, had banished from 
 Rome, and thereby laid the foundation of the revolt. From 
 that time the conspiracy among these tribes began, and attained 
 without interruption such a degree of maturity, tliat the care- 
 lessness of Rome can only be accounted for from the party fury 
 which then existed, and which the lex Varia, 91, enacted 
 against the promoters of rebellion, served only to inflame the 
 moi'e. The murder of the tribune Livius Drusus, 91, a very 
 ambiguous character, brought the affair to an open rupture. In 
 this alliance were the Marsi, Picentes, Peligni, Marrucini, 
 Frentani, the Samnites, who played a principal part, the Hir- 
 pini, Apuli, and the Lucani. In this war, which was so much 
 the more bloody, as it was mostly composed of separate contests 
 and sieges, especially of the Roman colonies, Cn. Pompeius the 
 elder, L. Cato, Marius, and, above all, Sylla, particularly dis- 
 tinguished themselves on the side of the Romans : and among 
 the generals of the allies Pompadias, C. Papius, etc. — Con- 
 cession of the freedom of the city, first to such allies as remained 
 faithful, the Latins, Umbrians, etc., by the lex Julia, 91 ; after- 
 
PEnioD III.] TO THE FALL OF THE REPUBLIC. 299 
 
 wards, by degrees, to the remainder by the lex Plotia. Some, Third 
 nevertheless, still continued in arms. Period. 
 
 Heyne, de Belli Socialis causis et eventu, in Opusc. t. iii. 
 
 13. The war now just ended, essentially changed 
 the constitution of Rome, as she no longer remained, 
 as hitherto, the exclusive head of the whole state ; 
 and although the new citizens were only formed into 
 eight tribes, yet their influence must soon have been 
 felt in the committees, on account of the readiness 
 with which they promoted factions. Besides this, 
 the long-cherished private hatred between Marius 
 and Sylla was greatly strengthened by this war, as 
 Sylla's fame was considerably raised thereby, while 
 that of Marius was proportionably diminished. An 
 opportunity was only wanted, like that which the first 
 Pontine war soon furnished, to stir up a new civil 
 war, which threatened to destroy the liberty of Rome. 
 
 14. Alliance of Marius with the tribune Sulpicius, Alliance of 
 with the view of wresting from Sylla the command suipiciuV ' 
 of the forces against Mithridates, already conferred ^^'^'"^^^ 
 upon him by the senate. The ease with which Sylla, b! c.'ss. 
 at the head of an army on which he could depend, 
 expelled the chiefs of this party, seems to have left 
 
 him ignorant of the fact, that the party itself was not 
 thereby destroyed. However judicious may have 
 been his other measures, the elevation of Cinna to 
 the consulship was an error in policy of which Italy 
 had still more reason to repent than himself How 
 much blood might have been spared if Sylla had not 
 unseasonably wished to become popular ! 
 
 Proposition of Sulpicius for an indiscriminate distribution of 
 the new citizens and freemen among all the tribes of Italy, that 
 he might thereby gain a strong party in his favour, which, by a 
 violent assembly of the people, transfers the command from Sylla 
 to Marius. March of Sylla upon Rome, and expulsion of Ma- 
 rius, who, by a series of adventures almost surpassing belief, 
 escapes to Africa, and is proscribed, with his son and ten of his 
 partisans. Re-establishment of the power of the senate, whose 
 number is made up by three hundred knights. Sylla, after 
 having caused his friend C. Octavius and his enemy L. Cinna 
 to be elected consuls, hastens back to Greece. 
 
 15. First war against Mithridates the Great. Sylla f^JJ^^^ mi- 
 
500 
 
 ROMAN STATE. 
 
 [book v. 
 
 Third 
 Period. 
 
 thridates, 
 89—8.5. 
 His great 
 power : 
 
 that of 
 Rome di- 
 vided. 
 
 gains several victories over that king's generals in 
 Greece ; wrests from him all his conquests, and re- 
 stricts him to his hereditary dominions. Rome since 
 the time of Hannibal had met with no such powerful 
 opponent as the king of Pontus, who in a few months 
 had become master of all Asia Minor, Macedonia, 
 and Greece, and threatened even Italy itself; we must 
 besides consider, that the war on the side of Rome 
 was carried on in a manner altogether different from 
 that of any previous one ; as Sylla, after the victory 
 of the opposite party, being himself proscribed in 
 Rome, was obliged to continue it with his own army, 
 and his own private resources. The unfortunate 
 countries which were the theatre of this war, felt as 
 many calamities during the struggle, as Italy was 
 doomed to suffer after its close. 
 
 Commencement of the war by Mitliridates before the termina- 
 tion of that of the allies, 89, by taking possession of Cappadocia 
 and Paphlagonia. He was not less formidable by his alliance 
 with the tribes along the Danube, and his navy, than by his land 
 forces ; and the irritation of the people of Asia against Rome 
 rendered his enterprise still more easy. Double victory over 
 Nicomedes king of Bithynia and the Roman general M. Aqui- 
 lius, followed by the conquest of all Asia Minor except the isle 
 of Rhodes. Massacre of all the Roman citizens in the states of 
 Asia Minor. Expedition of the king's army into Greece, under 
 the command of his general Archelaus, who makes Athens the 
 theatre of the war, 88. Siege and capture of that unfortunate 
 town by Sylla, 1st March, 87. Repeated great defeats of Mith- 
 ridates's army under the command of Archelaus, near Chalcis, 
 and afterwards near Orchomenus, by Sylla, 86, whose general 
 plan was formed upon the entire destruction of his enemies. 
 Negotiations for peace commenced by Archelaus, and finally 
 settled at a personal conference between Sylla and Mithridates. 
 The adverse party in Rome, however, had in the mean time 
 sent a new army into Asia Minor, to act as well against Sylla 
 as against Mithridates, under the command of L. Valerius Flac- 
 cus, who, however, is assassinated by his lieutenant Fimbria. 
 The latter gains some advantages over the king, but being shut 
 up by vSylla, kills himself Owing to the licentiousness of his 
 army, which vSylla dared not restrain ; and the heavy contribu- 
 tions exacted by him in Asia Minor after the peace, in order to 
 carry on the war in Italy, 84 ; together with the bodies of pi- 
 rates formed out of the fleet disbanded by Mithridates, these 
 unfortunate countries were almost ruined ; the opulent cities 
 more especially. 
 
PERIOD III J TO THE FALL OF THE REPUBLIC. 301 
 
 16. But during this war a new revolution took Third 
 place in Rome, which not only overthrew the order 
 
 re-established by Sylla, but also, by the victory of the New revo- 
 democratic faction under Cinna and Marius, gave rise ^j^^m" "^ 
 to a wild anarchy of the people, and which the death under cin- 
 of Marius, alas, too late for Rome ! only rendered Marhis. 
 more destructive ; as the leaders themselves could no 
 longer restrain the savage hordes of their own party. 
 However dreadful the prospect of the return of Sylla 
 might seem, it was nevertheless the only hope that 
 remained for all those who had not joined the popular 
 faction, or had not some connexion with its leaders. 
 
 Revolt of Cinna, brought on by the proscriptions, soon after 
 the departure of »Sylla ; Cinna, by distributing the new citizens 
 into all the tribes, hoped to raise himself a party ; but C. Octa- 
 vius, at the head of the senate and ancient citizens, drove him 
 from Rome, and forced him to give up the consulship, 87. He, 
 however, soon raised a powerful army in Campania, and recalled 
 Marius from exile. Capture and pillage of Rome, already weak- 
 ened by famine, and horrible massacre of the inhabitants ; after 
 which Marius and Cinna name themselves consuls and banish 
 Sylla. Death of Marius, 13th Jan., 86. C. Papirius Carbo 
 succeeds him in the consulship. The mediation of the senate 
 is useless, as the chiefs of both parties can only hope for secur- 
 ity by the annihilation of their adversaries. The murder of 
 Cinna by his own soldiers, 84, entirely deprives the dominant 
 faction of a competent leader. Neither the cowardly Carbo, 
 although he remained consul alone, nor the stupid Norbanus, 
 nor the youth C. Marius, (the son,) had sufficient personal au- 
 thority for that purpose ; and Sertorius leaves Italy in good 
 time to kindle a new flame in Spain. 
 
 17. Return of Sylla to Italy, and a terrible civil Syiia's re- 
 war, which ends only with the extermination of the bSrclvii 
 democratic faction, and his own elevation to the per- yar, b. c. 
 petual dictatorship. Although his enemies had so 
 much advantage over him in point of numbers, yet 
 their party was so little consolidated, that he with his 
 veterans could not fail to obtain an easy victory. 
 The slaughter during this war fell for the most part 
 upon the Italian tribes, who had joined the party of 
 Marius, and this afforded Sylla the means of giving 
 settlements to his own soldiers ; but most of the hor- 
 rors of this revolution which fell to the share of Rome, 
 were reserved till the day of victory was past. Sylla's 
 
50S 
 
 ROMAN STATE. 
 
 [book 
 
 Third 
 Period. 
 
 Sylla's pro- 
 scription. 
 
 Reform in 
 the consti- 
 tution : 
 B. C. 81— 
 79. 
 
 Power of 
 the senate 
 restored. 
 Sylla's ab- 
 dication, 79. 
 
 proscription, which should only have punished his 
 personal enemies, was the signal for a general mas- 
 sacre, as every one took that opportunity to rid him- 
 self of his private foes : and avarice did as much as 
 vengeance. Who in these days, so terrible to Italy, 
 was sure of his life or property ? And yet, when we 
 consider the dreadful circumstances which attended 
 the foreo'oing dominion of the people, deduct all that 
 was done without Sylla's knowledge, and consider 
 how much he was obliged to do in order to satisfy 
 his army, we shall find it difficult to say how far he 
 deserves the reproach of wanton cruelty. 
 
 Sylla's arrival ; victory over Norbanus immediately after, and 
 seduction of the army of the consul Scipio, 82. After this al- 
 most every person of distinction declared in his favour, and the 
 young Pompey having brouglit to him an army which he had 
 himself raised, his party acquired more consideration, and him- 
 self more power. Victory over the younger INIarius, near Sa- 
 criportinn, who throws himself into Prajneste, where he is 
 besieged. But the great and decisive battle gained before the 
 gates of Rome, over the Samnites under the command of Teli- 
 sinus, is followed by the fall of Pra^neste and the capture of 
 Rome. After the proscription which immediately ensued, Sylla 
 is created perpetual dictator, and secures his power in Rome by 
 the emancipation of ten thousand slaves, whose masters he had 
 proscribed ; and in Italy by colonies of his veterans, whom he 
 establishes at the expense of his enemies. 
 
 18. Great reform in the constitution during the 
 two years' dictatorship of Sylla. The aristocracy of 
 the senate, which he filled up with knights, was not 
 only re-established, but he also stopped the sources 
 from which the great disorders of the democracy had 
 hitherto proceeded. It seems probable that his na- 
 tural indolence, which led him to prefer a life of lux- 
 urious ease to one of laborious activity, when he was 
 no longer spurred to the latter by his passions, was 
 the chief cause of his voluntary abdication. He had, 
 however, the great advantage over Marius, of not 
 being the sport of his own feelings. The conduct of 
 Sylla, indeed, was so consistent throughout, that it 
 satisfactorily shows he knew very well what was his 
 ultimate aim — which Marius never did. 
 
 Internal regulations of Sylla by the leges Cornelice. 1 . Law 
 
lERioD 111.] TO THE FALL OF THE REPUBLIC. 303 
 
 to restrain the influence of the tribunes, by taking from them Third 
 their legislative power. 2. Law respecting the succession to Period. 
 the magistracy ; the number of prgetors fixed to eight, and the ~ 
 quaestors to twenty. 3. Lex de majestate, especially to limit 
 the power of the governors of provinces, and to abolish their 
 exactions. 4. Lex de judiciis, whereby the judicia were again 
 restored to the senate. 5. Several police regulations, de sicarüs, 
 de veneficiis, etc., for the preservation and ti'anquillity of Rome, 
 upon which every thing depended. 6. The lex de civitate, 
 taking from the Latins and several Italian cities and tribes the 
 privileges of Roman citizens, upon which they set so much store, 
 although we scarcely know in what they consisted. Foreign 
 wars : war in Africa against the leaders of the democratic fac- 
 tion, Cn. Domitius and King Hiarbas, which is ended by a tri- 
 umph to Pompey, 80. Second war against Mithridates begun 
 by Murena, in hopes of obtaining a triumph, to whom Archelaus 
 came over ; but which, under the command of Sylla, terminates 
 in an accommodation. 
 
 19. Nevertheless it was impossible that the enact- a state like 
 ments of Sylla should be long observed ; as the evil j,o™d to^" 
 lav too deep to be eradicated by laws. A free state convui- 
 
 • sious 
 
 like that of Rome, witli no middle class, must, from 
 its nature, be exposed to continual convulsions, and 
 these will be more or less violent in proportion to its 
 greatness. Besides, as in the last revolution almost 
 all property had changed hands, there was spread 
 over all Italy a powerful party, who desired nothing Counter- 
 50 much as a counter-revolution. And to this we de^irr,]' by 
 may add, that there were many young men, such as many. 
 Lucullus, Crassus, and above all Pompey, who had 
 opened to themselves a career during the late trou- 
 bles, which they would scarcely yet wish to bring to 
 a close. It will not then appear strange, that imme- 
 diately after the death of Sylla, (t 88,) a consul, M. ^miiius 
 iEmilius Lepidus, should form the design of becom- l^p"^'^^- 
 ing a second Marius ; a design which could only be 
 frustrated by the courage and activity of such a pa- 
 triotic citizen as Q. Lutatius Catulus, his colleague. 
 
 Attempt of Lepidus to rescind the acts of Sylla, 78. Defeat- 
 ed, finst before Rome and again in Etruria, by Catulus and 
 I'ompey, 77, after which he dies in Sardinia. 
 
 20. But much more dangerous for Rome might civii war of 
 have been the civil war kindled by Sertorius in splin.'"*" '" 
 
304 
 
 ROMAN STATE. 
 
 [book v. 
 
 Third Spain, if the plan of that exalted republican to invade 
 
 L Italy had succeeded. Even Pompey himself, after a 
 
 B. c. 77— six years' struggle, would hardly have prevented it, had 
 it not been for the worthlessness of the Roman vaga- 
 bonds who surrounded him, and his assassination by 
 Perpenna. The rapid termination of the war after 
 the fall of its conductor, is a circumstance much 
 more creditable to Sertorius than to the conqueror 
 Pompey. 
 
 The forces of Sertorius in Spain, consisted not only of the 
 party of Marius which he had collected, but more essentially of 
 the Spaniards, particularly the Lusitanians, whom he had in- 
 spired with an unbounded confidence in himself. Very variable 
 success of the war against Metellus and Pomjiey, who receive 
 but very little support from Rome, 77 — 75. Negotiation of 
 Sertorius with Mithridates the Great, and interchange of em- 
 bassies without any impoi'tant result, 75. Sertorius assassinated 
 by Perpenna, 72. 
 
 The third 21. Bcforc, howevcr, the flame of war was totally 
 war; com- cxtiuguished iu the West, Mithridates kindled a new 
 billed with ^^^ much fiercer one in the East ; at the same time 
 a war of slaves and gladiators was raging with terri- 
 ble fury in Italy itself; and whole fleets of pirates 
 not only ravaged the Italian coasts, but threatened 
 Rome herself with a famine, and obliged her to have 
 recourse to a mode of naval warfare altogether pecu- 
 liar. All these enemies were not without intelli- 
 gence with one another ; and colossal as was the 
 power of the republic at that time, and rich as Rome 
 was in distinguished men, it seems probable that the 
 storm which beat on every side between 75 — 71, 
 orRo^Je'.'^''^ would have razed her to the ground, if a stricter alli- 
 ance could have been formed between Sertorius, 
 Spartacus, and Mithridates. But the great difficulty 
 of communication which at that time existed, and 
 without which probably a republic such as the Ro- 
 man never could have been formed, proved of more 
 assistance at this crisis than at any other. 
 
 The third Mithridatic war, occasioned by the will of Nico- 
 medes king of Bithynia, who had bequeathed his kingdom to 
 Rome, (see above, p. 236,) was carried on in Asia Minor, first 
 by LucuUus, 74 — 67, and afterwards by Pompey, 66 — 64. 
 
 war, and 
 that of the 
 pirates, 
 
 threatens 
 
PEuiOD III.] TO THE FALL OF THE REPUBLIC. 305 
 
 Mithridates, being better prepared, had ah-eady concluded an Third 
 alliance with Sertorius in Spain, 75. But the deliverance of Period. 
 Cyzicus by LucuUus, 73, and the defeat of the king's fleet, in- 
 tended to act against Italy, not only frustrated all his original 
 plans, but were followed by the occupation of his own dominions, 
 72 and 71, by the enemy, notwithstanding a new army which 
 Mithridates collected, mostly from the nomad hordes of Northern 
 Asia, Flight of Mithridates to Tigranes, 71, who positively 
 refused to deliver him up, and formed an alliance with him, 70 ; 
 while the Parthian, Arsaces XII., held both parties in suspense 
 by negotiations. Victory of LucuUus over the allied sovereigns, 
 near Tigranocerta, 69, and Artaxata, 68 ; but the mutinies 
 which now broke out among his troops not only hindered him 
 from following up these advantages, but turned the scale so 
 much in Mithridates's favour, that in 68 and 67 he quickly re- 
 gained almost ail his dominions, even while the Roman commis- 
 sioners were on their route to take possession of them. Lu- 
 cuUus, by his reform in the finances of Asia Minor, raises a 
 powerful party against himself in Rome, and thereby loses his 
 command. 
 
 22. The war of the slaves and gladiators, which The servile 
 happened nearly at the same time, was, from the the- ^^■^^■^i'.^' 
 atre of action beino^ in its neighbourhood, equally 
 dangerous to Rome ; it became still more terrible 
 from the violence with which these outraged beings 
 sought to revenge their wrongs, and more formidable 
 from the talents of their leader, Spartacus ; and the 
 conclusion of this struggle seemed, therefore, of so 
 much importance to Rome, that it gave M. Crassus terminated 
 a much higher influence in the state than he could ^^ ^'^«sus. 
 ever have obtained by his riches alone. 
 
 Commencement of this war by a number of runaway gladia- 
 tors, who, being strengthened by an almost general revolt of 
 the slaves in Campania, 73, soon became very formidable. The 
 defeat of four generals, one after the other, throws open to Spar- 
 tacus the road to the Alps, and enables him to leave Italy ; but 
 the greediness of booty manifested by his hordes, who wished to 
 plunder Rome, obliged him to return. Crassus takes the com- 
 mand and rescues Rome, 72 ; upon which Spartacus retires into 
 Lower Italy, hoping to form a junction with the pirates, and 
 to carry the war into Sicily, but is deceived by them, 71. His 
 complete overthrow near the Silarus, 71. Pompey then return- 
 ing from Spain, finds means to seize a sprig of the laurel chap- 
 let which by right should have adorned only the brow of Cras- 
 sus ; hence arises a misunderstanding between these two 
 commanders, during their consulate, 70, which threatened to 
 be dangerous to the state. 
 
306 
 
 ROMAN STATE. 
 
 [book v. 
 
 Third 
 Period. 
 
 The war 
 aguinst the 
 pirates 
 
 23. The war against the pirates of Sicily and Isau- 
 ria was not only very important in itself, but still 
 more so in its consequences. It procured for Pom- 
 pey a legal power such as no Roman general had 
 ever before enjoyed ; and the quick and glorious 
 
 terminated i^^uncr in which he brought it to a close, opened for 
 by Pompey. him thc Way to the great object of his ambition — the 
 conduct of the war in Asia against Mithridates. 
 
 The extraordinary power acquired by these pirates was owing 
 partly to the great negligence of the Romans in sea affairs, (see 
 page 272,) partly to the war against Mithridates, who had taken 
 the pirates into his pay, and partly also to the Roman oppres- 
 sions in Asia Minor. War had been undertaken against them 
 as early as 75, by P. Servilius ; but his victories, though they 
 procured him the title of Isauricus, did them but little harm. 
 They were to be dreaded, not only for their piracies, but be- 
 cause they also offered an easy means of communication between 
 the other enemies of Rome fi-om Spain to Asia. The new at- 
 tack of the prietor M. Antonius upon Crete, proved a complete 
 failure ; but it was the cause of that hitherto independent island 
 being again attacked, 68, by Metellus, and reduced to a Roman 
 province, 67. Pompey takes the command against the pirates 
 with extraordinary privileges, obtained for him by Gabinius, 
 and finishes the war in forty days, 67. 
 
 24. After these triumphs over so many enemies, 
 Mithridates was the only one which now remained ; 
 and Pompey had here again the good fortune to 
 conclude a struggle already near its end ; for not- 
 withstanding his late success, Mithridates had never 
 been able completely to recover himself. His fall 
 undoubtedly raised the power of Rome in Asia Mi- 
 nor to its highest pitch ; but it brought her, at the 
 same time, into contact with the Parthians. 
 
 Pompey obtains the conduct of tlie war against IMithridates, 
 with very extensive privileges, procured for him by the tribune 
 Manilius, {lex Manilia,) notwithstanding the opposition of Ca- 
 tulus, 67. His victory by night, near the Euphrates, 66. 
 Subjection of Tigranes, while Mithridates flies into the Crimea, 
 65, whence he endeavours to renew the war. Campaign of 
 Pompey in the countries about the Caucasus, 65 ; he marches 
 thence into Syria, 64. Mithridates kills himself in consequence 
 of the defection of his son Phraates, 63. Settlement of Asiatic 
 affairs by Pompey : besides the ancient province of Asia, the 
 maritime countries of Bithynia, neatly all Paphlagonia and 
 Pontus, are formed into a Roman province, under the name of 
 Bithynia ; while on the southern coast Cilicia and Pamphylia 
 
 Fall of Mi- 
 thridati's. 
 
PERIOD III] TO THE FALL OF THE REPUBLIC. 307 
 
 form another under the name of Cilicia ; Phoenicia and Syria Third 
 compose a third, under the name of Syi'ia. On the other hand, I'kriod. 
 Great Armenia is left to Tigranes ; Cappadocia to Ariobarzanes : " 
 the Bosphorus to Pharnaces ; Judeea to Hyrcanus (see page 
 249) ; and some other small states are also given to petty 
 princes, all of whom remain dependent on Rome. The tribes 
 inhabiting Thrace during the Mithridatic war, were first de- 
 feated by Sylla, 85, and their power was afterwards nearly de- 
 stroyed by the proconsuls of Macedonia : as by Appius, in 77 ; 
 by Curio, who drove them to the Danube, 75 — 73 ; and espe- 
 cially by M. Lucullus, while his brother was engaged in Asia. 
 Not only the security of Macedonia, but the daring plans of 
 Mithridates rendered this necessary. 
 
 25. The fall of Mithridates raised the republic to state of 
 the highest pitch of her power: there was no longer ^^""*®5 
 any foreign foe of whom she could be afraid. Out 
 
 her internal administration had undergone great 
 changes during these wars. Sylla's aristocratic con- changes in 
 stitution was shaken by Pompey, in a most essential ^^'i^nT'' 
 point, by the re-establishment of the power of the the restom- 
 tribunes, which was done because neither he nor any powe°rofthe 
 leading men could obtain their ends without their fj^'unes. 
 assistance. It was by their means that Pompey had 
 procured such unlimited power in his two late expe- 
 ditions, that the existence of the republic was thereby 
 endangered. It was, however, a fortunate circum- 
 stance for Rome, that Pompey's vanity was suf- 
 ficiently gratified by his being at the head of affairs, 
 where he avoided the appearance of an oppressor. 
 
 Reiterated attempts of the tribune Sicinius to annul the con- 
 stitution of Sylla defeated by the senate, 76. But as early as 
 75 Opimius obtained that the tribunes should not be excluded 
 from honourable offices, and that the judgments (Jtidicia) should 
 be restored to the knights (equites). The attempts of Licinius 
 Macer, 72, to restore the tribunes to all their former powers, 
 encountered but a short opposition ; and their complete re- 
 establishment was effiicted by Pompey and Crassus during their 
 consulate, in 70. 
 
 26. This victory of the democratic faction, how- This victory 
 ever, in consequence of the use made of it by some ^Va!,t^^' 
 leading men, necessarily led the way to an oligarchy, leads to an 
 which after the consulate of Pompey and Crassus ;j[j|'"'''^'''J • 
 became very oppressive. Catiline's conspiracy, which CatiUne-s 
 was not matured till after several attempts, would ''°"^''"^*'^^ • 
 
 X 2 
 
308 
 
 ROMAN STATE. 
 
 [DOOK V. 
 
 Third 
 Period. 
 
 Cicero. 
 
 Effects of 
 the Asiatic 
 war on the 
 Roman 
 manners. 
 
 Great men 
 of this ])e- 
 riod : Cato. 
 
 Pompey. 
 
 have broken up this confined aristocracy, and placed 
 the helm of state in the hands of another and still 
 more dangerous faction ; a faction composed in part 
 of needy profligates and criminals dreading the pun- 
 ishment of their crimes, and partly of ambitious no- 
 bles. It occasioned a short civil war ; but procured 
 Cicero a place in the administration. With what 
 pleasure do we forgive the little weaknesses and fail- 
 ings of one so gifted wnth talents and great virtues ! 
 of one who first taught Rome, in so many ways, what 
 it was to be great in the robe of peace ! 
 
 Catiline's first conspiracy, in which Coesar and Crassus seem 
 to have been imi^licated, 66, as well as in the second, 65 : failure 
 of the former by chance — of the latter through Piso's death. 
 The third broke out in 64, as well in Rome, where the conspi- 
 rators, having no armed force, were soon suppressed by the 
 vigilance and activity of Cicero, 63, as in Etruria, where a vic- 
 tory of the proconsul Antonius over Catiline, who was left dead 
 on the field, concluded it, 62. 
 
 27. The suppression of this conspiracy, however, 
 did not stay the effect which the recently concluded 
 Asiatic war had upon Roman manners. The luxury 
 of the East, though united with Grecian taste, which 
 had been introduced among the great by Lucullus ; the 
 immense riches poured into the treasury by Pompey; 
 the tempting examples of unlimited power, which 
 single citizens had already exercised ; the purchase 
 of the magistracy by individuals, in order, like Verres, 
 after the squandering of millions, to enrich themselves 
 again in the provinces ; the demands of the soldiers 
 upon their generals ; and the ease with which an army 
 might be raised by him who had only money enough 
 to pay it ; all these circumstances must have foreboded 
 new and approaching convulsions, even if the preced- 
 ing storms in this colossal republic, in which we must 
 now judge of virtues and vices, as well as of riches and 
 power, by a very magnified standard, had not formed 
 men of that gigantic character they did : — men like 
 Cato, vvho struggled alone to stem the impetuous tor- 
 rent of the revolution, and was sufficiently powerful to 
 retard its progress for a time ; or, like Pompey, who by 
 good fortune and the art of acquiring influence, arose 
 
PERIOD III. 
 
 TO THE FALL OF THE REPUBLIC. 309 
 
 to a degree of authority and power never before attain- Third 
 ed by any citizen of a free state; or, like Crassus, "who _ ^'^^°°- 
 only considered him as rich that could maintain an Ciassus. 
 army by his own private means," founding their pre- 
 tensions on wealth ; or, finally, like the aspiring and 
 now powerful Caesar, whose boundless ambition could Casar. 
 only be surpassed by his talents and courage, " who 
 would rather be the first in a village than the second 
 in Rome." The return of Pompey from Asia, threat- 
 ening the senate with a new dictator, appeared an 
 eventful moment. 
 
 Attempt of Pompey, through the tribune MeteUus Nepos, to 
 be allowed to return to Rome at the head of his army, frustrated 
 by the firmness of Cato, 62. 
 
 28. The arrival of Pompey in Rome renewed the Pompej's 
 struggle between the senate and that powerful general, ^h^rthT 
 although he had disbanded his army on landing in struijgie be- 
 Italy. The ratification of his management of afi'airs l"r7tiie "se- 
 in Asia, which was the chief point of contention, was "ate, b. c. 
 opposed by the leading men of the senate, Cato, the 
 
 two Metelli, and Lucullus, which induced Pompey 
 to attach himself entirely to the popular party, by 
 whose means he hoped to obtain his end ; Caesar's Ca?sar's re- 
 return, however, from his province of Lusitania, en- i""' ''"'" 
 tirely changed the face of anau's. 6l 
 
 29. Close union between Ceesar, Pompey, and Triumvi- 
 Crassus ; that is, a secret alliance, formed by the in- sar*^p[,^f' 
 terposition of Caesar. That which formed the height pej, and 
 of the ambition of Pompey and Crassus was only re- ^■■**^"'*' ^^• 
 garded by Caäsar as the means by which he might be 
 
 able to effect his. His consulate — a kind of dictator- Cxsar's 
 ship under the mask of great popularity — necessarily ^«"''"'=»f«. 
 paved the way to his future career, as by giving him obtains him 
 the government of the two Gauls and Illyria for five ^enrof the 
 years, it opened a wide field for conquest, and gave t«o Gauis 
 him an opportunity of forming an army devoted to fö" Hve^"* 
 his will. J^'"^'"^- 
 
 Ciesar's abode and campaign in Gaid from the spring of 58 
 till the end of the year 50. By arresting the emigration of tlie 
 Helvetians, and by the expulsion of the Germans, under Ario- 
 vistus, from Gaul, 58, Caesar gained an opportunity of inter- 
 
310 ROMAN STATE. [book v.. 
 
 Third meddling in the internal affairs of tliat country, and afterwards 
 Period, of subduing it, which was completed by his victory over the 
 Belg£e, 57, and the Aquitani, 56 ; so that Ca?sar was at liberty 
 to undertake his several expeditions, as well in Britain, 55 and 
 54, as in Germany, 54 and 53. But the repeated revolts of the 
 Gauls, 53 — 51, especially under Vercingetorix, 52, occasioned 
 a war no less obstinate than their first conquest. Roman policy 
 continued the same throughout. The Gauls were subdued, by 
 the Romans appearing as their deliverers ; and in the country 
 they found allies in the -^dui, AUobroges, etc. 
 
 30. The triumvirate, in order to establish their 
 power upon a solid foundation, took care, by the 
 management of the tribune Clodius, to get rid of the 
 leaders of the senate, Cato and Cicero, before the de- 
 parture of Caesar ; and this they did by giving the 
 former a kingdom to govern, and by procuring the 
 banishment of the latter. They must, however, soon 
 have discovered, that so bold a demagogue as Clodius 
 could not be used as a mere machine. And, indeed, 
 after Caesar's departure he raised himself so much 
 above the triumvirs, that Pompey was soon obliged, 
 for his own preservation, to permit Cicero to return 
 from exile, which could only be effected by the most 
 violent efforts of the tribune Milo. The power of 
 Clodius, however, was but little injured thereby, al- 
 though Pompey, to put a stop to the source of these 
 disorders, and revive his own popularity, procured 
 the nomination of himself as prcefectus amioncE, or 
 superintendent of provisions. 
 
 Exile of Cicero, the greater part of which he spent in Mace- 
 donia, from April, 58, till 4th Sept., 57. Ptolemy king of Cy- 
 prus deposed, and that island reduced to a Roman province by 
 Cato, on the proposition of Clodius, 57 (see page 212). The 
 personal dislike of Clodius and the riches of the king were the 
 causes that brought upon him this misfortune. 
 
 Middleton's Life of Cicero, 2 vols. 8vo. This work is al- 
 most a complete history of Rome during the age of Cicero ; for 
 whom the writer discovers an undue partiality. 
 
 f M. TuLLius Cicero, all his Letters translated, in chrono- 
 logical order, and illustrated with notes, by C. M. Wieland. 
 Zurich, 1808. With a preliminary view of the life of Cicero. 
 Of all Germans the writings of Wieland, whether original or 
 translations, (and to which can we give the preference ?) afford 
 the most lively insight into Greek and Roman antiquity at vari- 
 ous periods. What writer has so truly seized its spirit, and 
 
PEPaoD HI.] TO THE FALL OF THE REPUBLIC. 311 
 
 placed it so faithfully and elegantly before his readers ? His Third 
 labours on the Letters of Cicero (whose foibles he exposes with Period. 
 a rigorous and unflinching hand) serve to make us much better ' 
 
 acquainted with Rome, as it then was, than any Roman history. 
 
 31. A jealousy arises between the triumvirate, as Jealousy of 
 Caesar, though absent, still found means to keep up J^'-rate'"'"' 
 his party at Rome in such watchful activity, that 
 Pompey and Crassus considered it impossible to main- 
 tain their own influence, except by procuring such 
 concessions as had been made to him. Harmony 
 
 once more restored by an accommodation at Lucca, 
 as the parties found it necessary to preserve a good 
 understanding with each other. 
 
 The terms of this accommodation were ; that Cassar should 
 have his government prolonged for another five years ; and that 
 Pompey and Crassus should enjoy the consulship for the ensuing 
 year, the former receiving the provinces of Spain and Africa, 
 and the latter that of Syria, for the purpose of carrying on a war 
 against the Parthians. In proportion as these conditions were 
 kept secret, there remained less secrecy respecting the alliance 
 itself. 
 
 32. Second consulate of Pompey and Crassus. It Second 
 was only amidst violent storms that they could effect ">"'*"''*'« of 
 
 . 11 . . i om])(_-'Y 
 
 their purposes ; as it depended upon which faction and t:ras- 
 should first gain or keep possession of the forum. 55^' ^' ^" 
 The resistance they met wntli from the inflexible dis- 
 position of Cato, who in his austere virtue alone found 
 means to secure himself a powerful party, shows how 
 unfairly those judge who consider the power of the 
 triumvirate as unlimited, and the nation as entirely 
 corrupted. 
 
 Campaign of Crassus against the Parthians, undertaken at his 
 own expense, 54. Instead, however, of gathering laurels like 
 CfEsar, he and his whole army were completely overthrown in 
 Mesopotamia, 53 ; and the Parthians from this time maintain a 
 powerful preponderance in Asia (see above, p. 242). 
 
 33. As the triumvirate by this failure of Crassus pompey 
 was reduced to a duumvirate, Pompey, (who remain- aspires to 
 ed in Rome, and governed his provinces by lieute- head of the 
 nants,) in the midst of continual domestic broils, '■epu^^'''^; 
 which he cunningly took care to foment, was evident- 
 ly aiming to become the acknowledged head of the 
 
Civil war 
 inevitable. 
 
 312 ROMAN STATE. [book v. 
 
 Third senate and republic. The idea that a dictator was 
 
 Period. -i i i i • i 
 
 necessary prevailed more and more during an anarchy 
 
 B. c. 53. of eight months, in which no appointment of a con- 
 sul could take place ; and notwithstanding the oppo- 
 sition of Cato, Pompey succeeded, after a violent 
 commotion, in which Clodius was murdered by Milo, 
 
 is appointed in getting hiiuself nominated sole consul; a power 
 
 so e consu , gq^^j ^q ^\^^^ ^f dictator. 
 
 Consulate of Pompey, 52, in which, at the end of seven months, 
 he took as colleague his father-in-law, Metellus Scipio. The 
 government of his provinces, which afterwards became the chief 
 seat of the republicans, is prolonged for live years. 
 
 34. From this time civil war became inevitable; 
 for not only thi chiefs of the parties, but also their 
 adherents desired it. The approach of the time when 
 Caesar's command would expire, necessarily hastened 
 the crisis. Could it be supposed that the conqueror 
 of Gaul would return to a private life, and leave his 
 rival at the head of the republic ? The steps taken 
 on both sides towards an accommodation were only 
 made to escape the odium which would attach to him 
 who struck the first blow. But Pompey, unfortunate- 
 ly, could never understand his opponent, who did all 
 himself, all completely, and all alone. The brilliant 
 light in which Pompey now appeared, as defomkr of 
 the repuhUc, delighted him so much, that it made 
 him forget what belonged to its defence ; while CcBsar 
 avoided, with the greatest care, every appearance of 
 usurpation. The friend, the protector of the people 
 against the usurpations of their enemies, was the cha- 
 racter which he now chose to assume. 
 
 Commencement of the contest upon Ctesar's demand to be 
 allowed to hold the consulship while absent, 52. Csssar, by the 
 most lavish corruption, had increased his adherents in Rome, 
 gained the tribunes, and among them especially the powerful 
 speaker C. Curio (whom he did not think too dearly purchased 
 at the price of about half a million sterling) ; by this man it was 
 suggested to Ccesar that he should give up his command, and 
 leave a successor to be appointed in his place, 51, if Pompey 
 would do the same: a proposition which created a prejudice 
 much in his favour. Repeated, but insincere offers of both 
 parties for an accommodation, 50, till at last a decree of the 
 senate was passed, Jan. 7, 49, by which Csesar was commanded 
 
PERIOD III] TO THE FALL OF THE REPUBLIC. 313 
 
 "to disband his army under the penalty of being declared an Third 
 enemy to the republic," without regard to the intercessions of ' 
 
 the tribunes, whose flight to him gave an appearance of popu- 
 larity to his party. Cajsar crosses the Rubicon, the boundary 
 of his province. 
 
 35. The civil war now about to break out, seemed Civii war 
 likely to spread over nearly all the countries of the SlrTud 
 Roman empire ; as Pompey, finding it impossible to Pompey. 
 maintain himself in Italy, had chosen Greece for the 
 principal theatre of the war ; while his lieutenants, 
 
 with the armies under their command, occupied Spain 
 and Africa. Caesar, by the able disposition of his 
 legions, was every where present, without exciting be- 
 forehand any suspicion of his movements. A com- 
 bination of circumstances, however, carried the war 
 into Alexandria, and even as far as Pontus ; indeed it 
 might be called rather a series of six successive wars 
 than merely one, all of which Caesar, by flying with 
 his legions from one quarter of the world to the 
 other, ended, within five years, victoriously and in 
 person. 
 
 Rapid occupation of Italy in sixty days, (when the troops un- 
 der Domitius surrendered at Corfinus,) which, as well as Sicily 
 and Sardinia, were subdued by Ca?sar almost without opposi- 
 tion ; Pompey, with his troops and adlierents, having crossed 
 over to Greece. Caasar's first campaign in Spain against Pom- 
 pey's generals, Afianius and Petreius, whom he forces to sur- 
 render ; this, hoAvever, is counterbalanced by the loss of the 
 legions under Curio in Africa. In December, 49, however, 
 Caesar is again in Italy, and named dictator, which he exchanges 
 for the consulate. Spirited expedition into Greece with the 
 ships he had been previously collecting together, Jan. 4, 48. 
 Unfortunate engagement at Dyrrachium. Removal of the war 
 into Tiiessaly, and decisive battle of Pharsalia, July 20, 48, 
 after which Pompey flies to Alexandria, where he is killed on 
 his landing. Caesar arrives three days after him at Alexandria. 
 
 36. Caesar, after the victory of Pharsalia, again Ctesar again 
 nominated dictator, with great privileges. The death 
 
 of Pompey, however, does not destroy his party ; 
 and the six months' war of Alexandria, as well as the 
 expedition into Pontus against Pharnaces, gave them 
 time to rally their forces both in Africa under Cato, 
 and in Spain under the sons of Pompey. 
 
314 ROMAN STATE. [book v. 
 
 Third During the Alexandrine war (see above, p. 213) and the ex- 
 
 Period. peclition against Pharnaces, the son of Mithridates, — who had 
 obtained the kingdom of his father, but was shiin by Cfe^ar im- 
 mediately after his arrival, 47, — great disorders had broken out 
 in Rome, caused by the tribune Dolabella's flattering the people 
 with the abolition of debts, {novcB tabulce,) notwithstanding the 
 military power of M. Antony, whom Ca3sar had sent to Rome as 
 master of the horse, {magister equitum,) as this abandoned sen- 
 sualist at first actually favoured the projects of the tribune. 
 Csesar's return to Rome, December, 47, put an end, it is true, to 
 these disorders ; but the increase of the opposite party in Africa, 
 and an insurrection among his soldiers, obliged him to set out 
 for Africa immediately, January, 46. Victory near Thapsus 
 over Scipio and Juba ; after which Cato kills himself at Utica. 
 Numidia, the kingdom of Juba, becomes a Roman province. 
 Caesar after his return to Rome in June, is only able to stay 
 there four months, as, before the end of the year, he is obliged 
 to set out for Spain to crush the dangerous eiforts of Pompey's 
 two sons. Bloody battle at Munda, March, 45, after which 
 Cneius is killed, but Sextus escapes to the Celtiberians. 
 
 Inquiry 37. Notliing seems more evident than that Caesar 
 
 viewfof ^^^ "°^' ^^^^ Sylla, overthrow the repubhc for the 
 Csesar. purpose of re-cstabhshing it ; and it is perhaps im- 
 possible to say what could be the final views of a 
 childless usurper, who throughout his whole career, 
 seemed only to be. guided by an inordinate, ambition, 
 springing from a consciousness of superior powers, 
 and to satisfy which, no means seemed to him diffi- 
 cult or unlawful. The period of his dictatorship was 
 so short, and so much interrupted by war, that his ulti- 
 mate plans had not time for their development. He 
 endeavoured to establish his dominion by popular 
 measures ; and although his army must still have 
 been his main support, yet no proscription was grant- 
 ed to satisfy it. The re-establishment of order in 
 the distracted country of Italy, and particularly in the 
 capital, was his first care ; and he proposed to follow 
 that by an expedition against the powerful Parthian 
 empire. His attempts, however, to obtain the 
 diadem, seemed to place it beyond a doubt that he 
 wished to introduce a formal monarchy. But the 
 destruction of the form of the republic was shown to 
 be more dangerous than the overthrow of the re- 
 public itself. 
 
PERIOD III.] TO THE FALL OF THE REPUBLIC. 315 
 
 The following were the honours and privileges granted to Third 
 Caesar by the senate. After the battle of Pharsalia, 48, he was Period. 
 nominated dictator for one year, and consul for five years ; and ' 
 obtained the potestas trihunicia, as well as the right of making 
 war and peace, the exclusive right of the committees, with the 
 exception of the tribunes, and the possession of the provinces. 
 The dictatorship was renewed to him, 47, for ten years, as well 
 as the prcefectura moriim, and was at last, 45, conferred upon 
 him for ever, with the title of iinperator. Although Caesar 
 thus became absolute master of the republic, it appears to have 
 been done without laying aside the republican forms. 
 
 38. Conspiracy against Csesar, formed by Brutus Conspiracy 
 and Cassius, and terminating in the death of Csesar. a°aTns1him, 
 Men so exalted as were tlie chiefs of this plot, easily b- c. 44, 
 understand one another ; and it was quite in accord- cLsius.el'c. 
 ance with their character not to meditate upon the 
 consequences of their deed. Ceesar's death was a His death, 
 great misfortune for Rome. Experience soon showed ^^^'^'^^ ^^' 
 that the republic could not be re-established thereby ; 
 
 and his life might probably have spared the state 
 some of those calamities which now, by its change to 
 a monarchy, became unavoidable. 
 
 We still want a discriminating life of Caesar, who in modern 
 times has been as extravagantly praised as Alexander has been 
 unjustly censured. As generals and conquerors, both were 
 equally great — and little ; as a man, however, the Macedonian, 
 in the brilliant period of his life, to which Caisar never attained, 
 was superior ; to the great political ideas which developed them- 
 selves in Alexander, we know of none corresponding in Caesar; 
 who knew better than any how to attain dominion, but little of 
 preserving it. 
 
 Kistoire de la Vie de Jules CcEsar, par M. de Bury, Paris, 
 1758, 2 vols. 8vo. 
 
 f Life of C. Julius Ccesar, by A. G. Meissner, continued by 
 J. Ch. L. Haken, 1811, 4 parts. At present the best. 
 
 Caius Julius Ccesar, from original sources, by Professor 
 SÖLTL. A short biography, judiciously executed. 
 
 39. Notwithstanding the amnesty at first declared, Amnesty 
 the funeral obsequies of Csesar soon showed, that 1,^^ '„ot ap- 
 peace was of all things the least desired by his P''o^eci by 
 generals, M. Antony and M. Lepidus, now become L^pkTus.^" 
 the head of his party ; and the arrival of Caesar's 
 nephew, C. Octavius, (afterwards Caesar Octavianus,) 
 
 whom he had adopted in his will, rendered aflkirs 
 still more complicated, as every one strove for him- 
 
316 ROMAN STATE. [uook v. 
 
 Third self; Antony's particular object being to raise him- 
 __f^L^ self into Caesar's place. However earnestly they 
 sought to gain the people, it was in fact the legions 
 who decided, and the command of them depended, 
 for the most part, upon the possession of the pro- 
 vinces. We cannot therefore wonder, that while 
 they sought to revenge the murder of Csesar, this 
 became the chief cause of the struggle, and in a few 
 months led to a civil war. 
 
 At the time of Cassar's death, M. Antonius was actual con- 
 sul and Dolabella consul-elect; M. Lepidus, magister eqriitum 
 (master of the horse); M. Brutus and Cassius, praetors (the 
 first, prcBtor urbanus). Ctesar had given to the former the 
 province of Macedonia, and to the latter that of Syria, which 
 had been confirmed to them by the senate. INI. Lepidus had 
 been nominated to Transalpine, and D. Brutus to Cisalpine 
 Gaul. But soon after the murder of Cfesar, Antony obtained, 
 by a decree of the people, Macedonia for himself, and Syria for 
 his colleague Dolabella, with whom he had formed a close con- 
 nexion ; instead of which the senate decreed to Cassius, Cyrene, 
 and to Brutus, who now had the important charge of supplying 
 Rome with provisions, Crete. But soon after, (June 1, 44,) 
 Antony desired, by a new change, to obtain Cisalpine Gaul for 
 himssif, and Macedonia for his brother C. Antony, both of 
 which he procured from the people. 
 
 Antony en- 40. As M. Antouy sought by force to establish 
 establish himsclf in Cisalpine Gaul, and D. Brutus refused to 
 himself in g|yg j|; ^p to him, and retired into Mutina, a short, 
 ^isa^pine jj^^jggj^ ^^^ ygj,y bloody civil war arose (bellum 
 7nutiuense). The eloquence of Cicero had caused 
 Antony to be declared an enemy of the republic ; 
 and the two new consuls, Hirtius and Pansa, to- 
 gether with Caesar Octavianus, were sent against 
 him. The defeat of Antony compelled him to seek 
 refuge beyond the Alps with Lepidus; but the two 
 consuls being slain, Octavianus at the head of his 
 legions was too important to be refused the consul- 
 ship, and soon convinced the defenceless senate, how 
 impossible it was to re-establish the commonwealth 
 by their powerless decrees. The employment, more- 
 over, of the magistratus sujfecti, which soon after 
 arose, was in itself a sufficient proof that it was now 
 no more than the shadow of what it had formerly been. 
 
PERIOD III.] TO THE FALL OF THE REPUBLIC. 317 
 
 The Mutine war begins in December, 44, and closes with the Third 
 defeat of Antony at Mutina, April 14, 43. Octavius obtains Period. 
 the consulate, Sept. 22. 
 
 41. Octavianus, desertino; the party of the senate, Formation 
 enters into a secret negotiation with Antony and Le- °[,.ateTy"c 
 pidus ; the consequence of which is a meeting of the Octavianus 
 parties at Bononia, and the formation of a new trium- aiui^'epi"^ 
 virate. They declare themselves the chiefs of the ^us. 
 republic for five years, under the title of triumviri 
 reipitblicce constituoidce ; and dividing the provinces 
 among themselves according to their own pleasure, 
 
 they make the destruction of the republican party 
 their principal object. A new proscription in Rome 
 itself, and a declaration of war against the murderers 
 of Caesar, were the means by which they proposed to 
 effect it. 
 
 The agreement of the triumvirate was concluded Nov. 27, 43, 
 after which the march of the triumvirs upon Rome gives the 
 signal for the massacre of the proscribed, which soon extends all 
 over Italy, and in which Cicero perishes, Dec. 7. The cause 
 of this new proscription was not party hatred alone, but was as 
 much, perhaps more, owing on the one hand to the want of 
 money for carrying on the war they had undertaken, and on the 
 other to a desire of satisfying the turbulent demands of the le- 
 gions. Where is to be found a time so full of terror as this, 
 when even tears were forbidden ? 
 
 42. The civil war, now on the eve of breaking Civii war 
 out, may be considered therefore as a war between oHj,^rchy '^ 
 the oligarchy and the defenders of the republic, and repub- 
 The Roman world was, as it were, divided between 
 
 the two ; and although the former had possession of 
 Italy, and the western provinces, that advantage 
 seemed counterbalanced to the chiefs of the opposite 
 party by the possession of the eastern countries, and 
 the naval power of Sextus Pompey, which seemed to 
 assure them the dominion of the sea. 
 
 M. Brutus had taken possession of his province of Macedonia 
 as early as the autumn of 44 ; while Cassius, on the contrary, 
 had to contend for that of Syria with Dolabella, who by the 
 murder of the proconsul Trebonius had possessed himself of 
 Asia. Being, however, for this offence, declared an enemy by 
 the senate, and shut up in Laodicea by Cassius, he killed him- 
 self, June 0, 43. From this time Brutus and Cassius were 
 masters of all the eastern provinces, at whose expense they 
 
318 
 
 ROMAN STATE. 
 
 [book 
 
 Third 
 Period. 
 
 Its seat in 
 Macedonia. 
 
 Quarrels of 
 the oligar- 
 chy among 
 themselves. 
 
 Fulvia 
 causes a 
 civil war ; 
 
 maintained their troops, though not without much oppression. 
 S. Pompey, after the victory of Munda, 45, having secreted 
 himself in Spain, and afterwards become a chief of free- 
 booters, had grown very powerful ; when the senate, after 
 Caesar's assassination, having made him commander of the sea- 
 forces, he with them took possession of Spain, and, after the 
 conclusion of the triumvirate, of Sicily, and then, very soon 
 after, of Sardinia and Corsica. It was a great thing for the tri- 
 umvirate, that C. Pompey did not know how to reap half the 
 profit he might have done from his power and good fortune. 
 
 43. Macedonia became the theatre of the new 
 civil war, and together with the goodness of their 
 cause, superior talents, and greater power both by- 
 land and sea, seemed combined to insure the victory 
 to Brutus and Cassius. But in the decisive battle at 
 Philippi, fortune played one of her most capricious 
 tricks, and with the two chiefs fell the last supporters 
 of the republic. 
 
 Double battle at Philippi towards the close of the year 42 ; 
 voluntary death of Cassius after the first, and of Brutus after 
 the second engagement. 
 
 Plutarchi Vita Bruti ; from the narratives of eyewitnesses. 
 
 44. The history of the eleven years intervening 
 between the battle of Philippi and that of Actium, is 
 little more than an account of the quarrels of the 
 oligarchy among themselves. The most subtle was, 
 in the end, victorious ; for M. Antony possessed all 
 the sensuality of Caesar without his genius ; and the 
 insignificant Lepidus soon fell a sacrifice to his own 
 vanity and weakness. While Antony went into Asia 
 to arrange the aftairs of the eastern provinces, and 
 from thence with Cleopatra to Alexandria, Octavi- 
 anus returned to Rome. But the famine which then 
 reigned* in that city through Pompey's blockade of 
 the sea-coast ; the misery spread throughout Italy by 
 the wresting of patrimonial lands from the proprie- 
 tors to distribute among the veterans ; and the insa- 
 tiable covetousness of the latter, rendered his situa- 
 tion as dangerous now as it had been before the war. 
 Besides all this, the hatred of the enraged consort of 
 Antony, who had entered into an alliance with her 
 brother-in-law, the consul L. Antony, brought on, 
 towards the end of the vear, a civil war, which ended 
 
PERIOD III.] TO THE FALL OF THE REPUBLIC. 319 
 
 with the surrender and burning of Perusium, in which Third 
 L. Antony had shut himself up, and which was al- ^'''°°' 
 ready much weakened by famine. 
 
 The bellum Perusinum lasted from the end of the year 41 till 
 April, 40. 
 
 45. This war, however, had nearly led to one still 
 greater ; for M. Antony, as the enemy of Octavianus, 
 had come to Italy in order to assist his brother, and 
 with the intention of forming an alliance with S. b. c. 40. 
 Pompey against the former. But fortunately for the 
 world, not only was harmony restored between the 
 triumvirs, but on account of the great famine which 
 prevailed at Rome, a peace was also concluded with 
 Pompey, although it lasted but a very short time. 
 
 The principal object of the peace between the triumvirs was 
 a new division of the provinces, by which the city of Scodra, in 
 Illyria, was fixed upon as the boundary. Antony obtained all 
 the eastern provinces ; Octavianus all the western ; and Lepi- 
 dus Africa. Italy remained in common to them all. The mar- 
 riage of Antony with Octavia, Fulvia being dead, was intended 
 to cement this agreement. In the peace concluded with S. 
 Pompey at Misenum, he obtained the islands of Sicily, Sardinia, 
 and Corsica, and the promise of Achaia. 
 
 46. Pompey, however, was not long in finding p 
 
 omppy re- 
 
 that an alliance between him and the triumvirs would commences 
 only end in his own destruction ; and the war which 
 he soon commenced, and which Octavianus could 
 not bring to a close but with the assistance of Agrip- which 
 pa, was of so much the more importance, as it not 'i^"^'^^ ^.'^ 
 
 i ' 1 ' cl9st ruction 
 
 only decided the fate of Pompey, but by leading to 38 ; and 
 dissensions, and the expulsion of Lepidus, reduced ^x^'^ut'ion 
 the triumvirate to a duumvirate. 39. 
 
 After a doubtful engagement at sea, 38, and the formation 
 of a new fleet, Pompey was attacked on all sides at the same 
 time ; Lepidus coming from Africa, and Antony sending also 
 some ships. Final overthrow of Pompey, who flies to Asia and 
 there perishes. — Lepidus wishing to take possession of Sicily, 
 Octavianus gains over his troops, and obhges him to retire from 
 the triumvirate. 
 
 47. The foreign wars in which Octavianus as well Foreign 
 as Antony were engaged in the following ye;rs, pre- ^entwus 
 vented for some time their mutual jealousy from tusandAn. 
 
320 
 
 ROMAN STATE. 
 
 [book v. 
 
 Greece the 
 seat of war 
 between 
 Antony and 
 Octaviiuius. 
 Antony de- 
 feated at 
 Aetium, 2d 
 Sept., 31 ; 
 
 his deatli, 
 30, leaves 
 Octavianus 
 without a 
 rival. 
 
 coming to an open rupture. Octavianus, to tame 
 his unruly legions, employed them with some success 
 against the nations of Dalmatia and Pannonia; whilst 
 Antony undertook an expedition against the power- 
 ful Parthians and their neighbours. But in offend- 
 ing Rome by his conduct in these wars, he only 
 armed his opponent against himself; and his formal 
 separation from Octavia, loosened the only tie which 
 had hitherto held together the two masters of the 
 world. 
 
 After Lis first stay in Alexandria, 41, Antony returned to 
 Italy, 40, and then, having made peace with Octavianus, he car- 
 ried his new wife Octavia with him into Greece, where he re- 
 mained till the year 37. Although his lieutenant Ventidius 
 had fought with success against the Parthians, Avho had invaded 
 Syria, (see above, p. 242,) Antony determined to undertake an 
 expedition against them himself, 36. But although in alliance 
 with Artavasdes, king of Armenia, (whom he soon after accused 
 of treachery,) in seeking to effect an entrance into Parthia, by 
 passing through Armenia and Media, a different route from tliat 
 taken by Crassus, he was very nearly meeting with the same 
 fate, and the expedition completely faUed. He then revenged 
 himself upon Artavasdes, who fell into his hands in a fresh ex- 
 pedition which he made, 34, and deprived him of his kingdom. 
 After his triumphal entrance into Alexandria, he made a grant 
 of this as well as other countries to Cleopatra and her children. 
 (See above, p. 214.) In 33, he intended to renew his expedi- 
 tion against the Parthians, in alliance with the king of Media; 
 but having, at the instigation of Cleopatra, ordered Octavia to 
 return home, when she had already come as far as Athens on 
 her way to meet him, Octavianus and Antony recijirocally ac- 
 cused each other before the senate, and war was declared at 
 Rome, though only against Cleopatra. 
 
 48. Greece became again the theatre of war ; and 
 although the forces of Antony were most consider- 
 able, yet Octavianus had the advantage of having, at 
 least in appearance, the better cause. The naval 
 victory of Aetium decided for Octavianus, who could 
 scarcely believe it, till he found that Antony had for- 
 saken h s fleet and army, the latter of which sur- 
 rendered without striking a blow. The capture of 
 Egypt followed, (see above, p. 214,) and that coun- 
 try was reduced to a Roman province; the death of 
 Antony and Cleopatra ended the war, and left Octa- 
 vianus absolute master of the republic. 
 
PEKioD IV.] GEOGRAPHICAL OUTLINE. 321 
 
 The history of the last days of Antony, principally after his Third 
 decline, having been written under the rule of his enemies, must Period. 
 be received with that mistrust which all such histories I'equire. 
 It has furnished abundant matter for the retailers of anecdote. 
 The history of Cleopatra rests partly on the accounts of her 
 physician Olympus, of which Plutarch made use. 
 
 FOURTH PERIOD. 
 
 HISTORY OF THE ROMAN STATE AS A MONARCHY TO THE 
 
 OVERTHROW OF THE WESTERN EMPIRE. B. C. 30 
 
 A. C. 476. 
 
 Geographical outline. View of the Roman empire and 
 provinces, and other countries connected with it hij war 
 or commerce. 
 
 The ordinary boundaries of the Roman empire, Boundaries 
 which, however, it sometimes exceeded, were in °^ '^® ^°" 
 
 _, ' ' . piTji- ITA nian em- 
 
 JciUrope the two great rivers of the Rhine and Da- pire. 
 nube ; in Asia, the Euphrates and the sandy desert 
 of Syria ; in Africa hkewise, the sandy regions. It 
 thus included the fairest portions of the earth, sur- 
 rounding the Mediterranean Sea. 
 
 European Countries : I. Spain (Hispania). European 
 Boundaries : on the east the Pyrenees : on the south, ^°""t'''es: 
 north, and west, the sea. Principal rivers : the Mi- 
 nius, (Minho,) Durius, (Douro,) Tagus, (Tejo,) Anas, 
 (Guadiana,) Bsetis, (Guadalquiver,) which flow into 
 the Atlantic ; and the Iberus, (Ebro,) which falls into 
 the Mediterranean. Mountains : besides the Pyre- 
 nees, the Idubeda along the Iberus, Orospeda (Sierra 
 Morena). Divided into three provinces. 1. Lusi- Lusitania. 
 tania : northern boundary the Durius ; southern, the 
 Anas. Principal tribes : Lusitani, Turdetani. Prin- 
 cipal town : Augusta Emerita. 2. Baetica : bound- B^iica. 
 aries on the north and v/est the Anas, on the east the 
 mountains of Orospeda. Principal tribes : Turduli, 
 Bastuli. Principal towns : Corduba, (Cordova,) His- 
 j)alis, (Seville,) Gades, (Cadiz,) Munda. 3. Tarra- Tanaco- 
 conensis, all the remainder of Spain. Principal °''"'''*- 
 
 Y 
 
ROMAN STATE. [book v. 
 
 tribes : Callseci, Astures, Cantabri, Vascones, in the 
 north ; Celtiberi, Carpetani, Ilergetes, in the inte- 
 rior ; Indigetes, Cosetani, etc., on the Mediterranean. 
 Chief towns : Tarraco, (Tarragona,) Cartago Nova, 
 (Carthagena,) Toletum, (Toledo,) Ilerda (Lerida) ; 
 Saguntum and Numantia (Soria) were already de- 
 Baiearic stroyed. The Balearic Isles, Major, (Majorca,) and 
 Isles. Minor, (Minorca,) were considered as belonging to 
 
 Spain. 
 Transalpine II. Transalpine Gaul. Boundaries : on the west 
 ^^"'' the Pyrenees; on the east the Rhine, and a line 
 drawn from its source to the little river Varus, toge- 
 ther with that river itself; on the north and south 
 the sea. Principal rivers : the Garumna, (Garonne,) 
 Liger, (Loire,) Sequana, (Seine,) and Scaldis, 
 (Scheldt,) which empty themselves into the ocean ; 
 the Rhodanus, (Rhone,) which is increased by the 
 Arar, (Saone,) and falls into the Mediterranean ; and 
 the Mosella (Moselle) and Mosa, (Meuse,) which flow 
 into the Rhine. Mountains : besides the Alps, the 
 Jura, Vogesus, (Vosge,) and Cebenna (Cevennes). 
 Gallia Nar- Divided into four provinces. 1 . Gallia Narbonensis, 
 bonensis. ^j, Braccata. Boundaries : on the west the Pyrenees, 
 on the east the Varus, on the north the Cevennian 
 mountains. Principal tribes : AUobroges, Volcse, 
 Calyes. Principal towns : Narbo, (Narbonne,) To- 
 losa, (Toulouse,) Nemausus, (Nimes,) Massilia, (Mar- 
 Gaiiia c-'i- seilles,) Vienna. 2. Gallia Lugdunensis, or Celtica. 
 ^^'''''' Boundaries : to the south and west the Liger, (Loire,) 
 
 to the north the Sequana, to the east the Arar, 
 Principal tribes : ^dui, Lingones, Parisii, Cenomani, 
 etc., all of Celtic origin. Principal towns : Lugdu- 
 num, (Lyons,) Lutetia Parisiorum, (Paris,) Alesia 
 Gallia (Alise). 3. GaUia Aquitanica. Boundaries : the 
 Aquiianica. pyj-g^^ggg q^ ^\^q south, the Ligcr on the north and 
 east. Principal tribes : Aquitani, (of Iberian origin,) 
 Pictones, Averni, etc., of Celtic descent. Principal 
 Gallia Bel- towns I ClimbeHs, Burdegala (Bourdeaux). 4. Gal- 
 ^"'*' lia Belgica. Boundaries : on the north and east the 
 
 Rhine, on the west the Arar, on the south the Rho- 
 danus as far as Lugdunum, so that it comprised at 
 
PERIOD IV.] GEOGRAPHICAL OUTLINE. -323 
 
 first the countries bordering on the Rhine and Hel- 
 vetia. The latter, however, were afterwards separated 
 from it under the names of Germania Inferior and 
 Superior. Principal tribes : Nervii, Bellovaci, etc., 
 in the north, of Belgic origin ; Treviri, Ubii, of Ger- 
 man origin ; Sequani, Helvetii, in the interior, of 
 Celtic origin. Principal towns : Vesentio, (Besan- 
 ^on,) Verodunum, (Verdun,) etc. Along the Rhine 
 in Germania Inferior : Colonia Agrippina (Cologne). 
 In Germania Superior : Mogontiacum, (Mayence, or 
 Mentz,) and ArQ;entoratum (Strasburg). 
 
 III. Gallia Cisalpina, or Togata (Lombardy, see cisalpine 
 above, p. 253). But as from the time of Cassar the ^^"^• 
 inhabitants enjoyed all the privileges of Roman citi- 
 zens, it may be reckoned as forming part of Italy. 
 
 IV. Sicilia : divided into Syracuse and Lilybseum. Sidiy. 
 
 V. Sardinia and Corsica, see above, p. 257. Sardinia, 
 
 VI. The Insulee Britannicse (British islands) ; but Bluish 
 of these, only England and the southern part of 'viands. 
 Scotland were reduced into a Roman province in the 
 time of Nero, under the name of Britannia Romana. 
 Principal rivers : Tamesis (Thames) and Sabrina 
 (Severn). Cities : Eboracum (York) in the north, 
 Londinum (London) in the south. Into Scotland, 
 Britannia Barbaria, or Caledonia, the Romans often 
 penetrated, but without being able completely to 
 conquer it ; and as for Hibernia, lerne, (Ireland,) it 
 
 was visited by Roman merchants, but never by Ro- 
 man legions. 
 
 VII. Tlie countries south of the Danube, which Countries 
 were subdued under Au2:ustus and formed into the south of tiie 
 
 T- 1- ■ -r» 1 ■ Danube: 
 
 following provinces : 1. Vindehcia. Boundaries; on Vindeiida. 
 the north the Danube, on the east the .^nus, (Inn,) 
 on the west Helvetia, on the south Rhaetia. Principal 
 tribes : Vindehci, Brigantii, etc. Principal towns : 
 Augusta Vindelicorum, (Augsburg,) Brigantia (Bre- 
 genz). 2. Rhsetia. Boundaries : on the north Vin- Rhaitia. 
 delicia, on the east the Inn and the Salza, on the 
 south the chain of the Alps from Lacus Verbanus 
 (Lago Maggiore) to Belinzona, on the west Helvetia. 
 Principal tribe : Rhaeti. Principal towns : Curia, 
 
 Y 2 
 
324 
 
 ROMAN STATE. 
 
 [book v. 
 
 (Chur,) Veldidena, (Wilden,) Tridentum (Trent). 
 
 Noricum. 3. Noricum. Boundaries : on the north the Danube, 
 on the west the J^iUus, on the east the mountain 
 Cetius, (Kahlenberg,) and on the south the Juhan 
 Alps and the Savus (Save). Principal tribes : Boii. 
 Cities: Jovavum, (Salzburg,) Boiodurum (Passau). 
 4. Pannonia Superior. Boundaries : on the north 
 and east the Danube, on the south the Arrabo, 
 (Raab,) on the west the mountain Cetius. Cities : 
 Vindobona, (Vienna,) Caruntum. 5. Pannonia In- 
 ferior. Boundaries : on the north the Arrabo, on 
 the east the Danube, on the south the Savus. Cities : 
 Taurunum, (Belgrade,) Mursa, (Esseg,) and Sir- 
 mium, 6. Mcesia Superior. Boundaries : on the 
 north the Danube, on the south Mount Scardus, or 
 Scodrus, on the west Pannonia, on the east the river 
 Cebrus (Ischia). Cities : Singidunum, (Semlin,) and 
 Naissus (Nissa). 7. Mcesia Inferior. Boundaries : 
 on the north the Danube, on the west the Cebrus, on 
 the south Mount Hsemus, (the Balkan,) and on the 
 east the Pontus Euxinus. Cities : Odessus, (Varna,) 
 Tomi (Tomisvar). 
 
 VIII. Illyricum, in its most extensive signification, 
 comprised all the provinces south of the Danube, 
 together with Rhaetia and Dalmatia : but Illyricum 
 Proper comprehends only the lands along the coast 
 of the Adriatic, from Rheetia in Italy to the river 
 Drinus, and easterly to the Savus. Principal towns : 
 Salona, Epidaurus, (near the present Ragusa,) Scodra 
 (Scutari). 
 
 Macedonia. IX. Maccdouia. Bouudarics : on the north Mount 
 Scodrus, on the south the Cambunian mountains, on 
 the west the Adriatic, and on the east the iEgean 
 Sea. Rivers : the Nestus, Strymon, and Halyacmon, 
 which fall into the ^Egean Sea, and the Apsus and 
 Aous, which fall into the Adriatic. Principal tribes: 
 Pseones in the north, Pieres and Mygdones in the 
 south. Principal towns : Pydna, Pella, Thessalonica, 
 Philippi, with other Greek colonies (see above, p. 
 132). Dyracchium and Apollonia on the western 
 coast. 
 
 Pannonia 
 Superior. 
 
 Pannonia 
 lulerior. 
 
 ZkloBsia 
 Superior. 
 
 Älocsia 
 Interior. 
 
 Ill\ ricuin. 
 
PUHIOD IV. 
 
 GEOGRAPHICAL OUTLINE. 325 
 
 X. Thrace had for some time kings of lier own, Thrace. 
 though dependent on Rome, and was first reduced to 
 a Roman province under Claudius. Boundaries : on 
 the north Mount Hsemus, on the west the Nestus, on 
 the south and east the sea. River : Hebrus. Princi- 
 pal tribes : Triballi, Bessi, and Odrysae. Cities : 
 Byzantium, Apollonia, Bercea. 
 
 XL Achaia, (Greece,) see above, p. 106. Achaia. 
 
 XII. To the north of the Danube the province of Dacia. 
 Dacia was brought under the Roman empire by 
 Trajan. Boundaries : on the south the Danube, 
 on the west the Tibiscus, (Theiss,) on the east the 
 Hierasus, (Pruth,) on the north the Carpathian moun- 
 tains. Principal tribe : Daci. Chief cities : Ulpia 
 Trajana and Tibiscum. 
 
 Asiatic Provinces : I. Asia Minor contained the Asiatic 
 provinces: 1. Asia (see above, p. 235.) 2. Bithy- pX'SiTuo,-. 
 nia, together with Paphlagonia and part of Pontus. 
 3. Cilicia, with Pisidia (see above, p. 15.) II. Syria Syria. 
 and Phoenicia. III. The isle of Cyprus. Several isie of Cy- 
 other states, likewise dependent, still preserved their '"■"'• 
 kings : as, Judeea, (became a Roman province, A. D. 
 44,) Commagene, (province A. D. 70, and, together 
 with Judaea, added to Syria,) Cappadocia, (province 
 A. D. 17,) Pontus (completely a province under 
 Nero). Free states at this time : Rhodes, Samos, free states. 
 (provinces A. D. 70,) and Lycia (province A. D. 
 43). Beyond the Euphrates, Armenia and Mesopo- 
 tamia were reduced to provinces by Trajan, but, as 
 early as the time of Adrian, were abandoned. 
 
 African Provinces. I. Egypt. II. Cyrenaica, African 
 with the isle of Crete. III. Africa, Numidia (see £°ypt"'" 
 above, p. 39). Mauritania still had its separate king, Cyrenaica. 
 but he was set aside, A. D. 41, and the country di- MaurUania. 
 vided into two provinces : 1. Mauritania Caesariensis. 
 Boundaries : on the east the river Ampsaga, on 
 the west the Mulucha. Principal places : Igilgilis 
 and Ceesaria. 2. Mauritania Tingitana, from the 
 river Mulucha to the Atlantic Ocean. Capital : 
 
 Tingis. , , , ^ , . T states on 
 
 Principal states on the borders ot the empire : 1. the borders 
 
326 
 
 ROMAN STATE. 
 
 [book v. 
 
 Germany. 
 
 Alemanni. 
 
 Suevi. 
 
 Scandi 
 navia. 
 
 Germania. Boundaries : on the south the Danube, 
 on the north the sea, on the west the Rhine, on the 
 east undetermined, though the Vistula is generally 
 regarded as such. Principal rivers : the Danubius, 
 Rhenus, (Rhine,) Albis, (Elbe,) Visurgis, (Weser,) 
 Viadrus, (Oder,) and the Vistula ; the Lupias (Lippe) 
 and Amisia (Ems) are likewise frequently mentioned. 
 Mountains and forests : the Hercynian forest, a ge- 
 neral name for the forest mountains, particularly of 
 eastern Germany ; Melibocus, (the Hartz,) Sudetus 
 (the Thuringian forest) ; the forest of Teutoburg, to 
 the south of Westphalia, etc. It would be useless to 
 seek for a general political division, or for the cities 
 of ancient Germany : we can only point out the 
 situation of the principal tribes. It is necessary, 
 however, to precede this by two observations : 1. 
 The same territory, in the tide of forcible emigration 
 and conquest, and particularly after the second cen- 
 tury, often changed its inhaliitants. 2. The names 
 of some of the principal tribes often became that of 
 a confederacy. The principal tribes in the period 
 of Augustus were, in northern Germany ; the Batavi 
 in Holland ; the Frisii in Friesland ; the Bructeri 
 in Westphalia ; the lesser and larger Chauci in Old- 
 enburg and Bremen ; the Cherusci, likewise the 
 name of a confederation, in Brunswick ; the Catti in 
 Hesse. In southern (central) Germany ; the Her- 
 munduri in Franconia ; the Marcomanni in Bohemia. 
 The Alemanni, not the name of a single tribe, but 
 of a confederation, are first mentioned in the third 
 century : in the period of Augustus these tribes, and 
 the principal of those of eastern Germany, which 
 gradually became known, were included under the 
 general name of Suevi. 
 
 The northernmost countries of Europe were con- 
 sidered as isles of the German Ocean, and therefore 
 regarded as belonging to Germany. They were 
 Scandinavia, or Scandia, (southern Sweden,) Neri- 
 gon, (Norway,) and Eningia, or probably Finningia 
 (Finland). The northernmost island was called 
 Thule. 
 
PERIOD ]v.] FROM CiESAR TO COMJilODUS. oZt 
 
 The north of Europe, from the Vistula to the 
 Tanais, (Don,) was comprised under the general 
 name of Sarmatia : but beyond the territory about Saimatia. 
 the Danube, and especially Dacia, (see above, p. 
 325,) they were only in a slight degree acquainted 
 with the coast of the Baltic, by the amber trade. 
 
 In Asia tlie Roman empire was bounded by Great 
 Armenia, (see above, p. 16, and 240,) the Parthian Parthia. 
 empire from the Euphrates to the Indus, (see above, 
 p. 16 — 19,) and the peninsula of Arabia (see above, 
 p. 16). 
 
 Eastern Asia, or India, became known to the Ro- imiia. 
 mans by a commercial intercourse carried on between 
 them, and which began soon after the conquest of 
 Egypt. It was divided into India on this side the Gan- 
 ges, that is, 1. The territory between the Indus and 
 Ganges ; 2. The peninsula on this side, the western 
 coast of which in particular, (Malabar,) was very 
 well known ; and, 3. The island of Taprobana, (Cey- 
 lon,) and India beyond the Ganges, to which also the 
 distant Serica belonged : but of all these countries 
 they had but a very imperfect knowledge. 
 
 The boundaries of Africa were Ethiopia above Africa. 
 Egypt, and Geetulia and the great sandy desert of 
 Libya above the otlier provinces. 
 
 FIRST SECTION. 
 
 Froi7i Augustus Ccesar to the death of Commodus, B. C. 
 30—^. C. 193.^ 
 
 Sources. For the whole of this period Dion Cassius, lib. Fourth 
 li. — Ixxx., is our historian ; though of his last twenty books we Period. 
 have only the abridgement of Xiphilinus. For the history of 
 the emperors from Tiberius to the beginning of Vespasian's 
 reign, the principal writer is Tacitus, in his Annals, A. C. 14 
 — 63 ; (of which, however, part of the history of Tiberius, 32 
 — 34, all of Caligula, and the first six years of Claudius, 37 — 
 47, as well as the last year and a half of Nero, are unfortunately 
 lost ;) and in his History, of which scrarcely the first three years, 
 69 — 71, are come down to us. Suetonius's Lives of the Cce- 
 
ROMAN STATE. [cook v. 
 
 Fourth sars, down to Domitian, are so much the more valuable, be- 
 Period. cause in a state like the Roman it becomes of imi>ortance to 
 ~ know the character and domestic life of the ruling men. For 
 
 the reigns of Augustus and Tiberius the History of Velleius 
 Paterculus is not of less consequence, although written in a 
 court-like tone. The sources for the history of the separate 
 Caesars will be given as we come to them. 
 
 The following are the labours of modern writers : 
 
 Histoire des Empereurs et des autres Princes qui out rcgne 
 dans les six premiers sil'cles de FEglise, par M. Lenain de 
 TiLLEMONT. ä Bruxelle, 1707, 5 vols. 8vo. (An earlier edition 
 in 4to, 1700, 4 vols.) The work of Tillemont has some worth 
 as a laborious compilation, but is superseded in its execution by 
 the following : 
 
 Histoire des Empereurs Romains, depuis Auguste jusqu^ a 
 Constantin, par M. Crevier. Paris, 1749, 12 vols. 8vo. 
 [Translated into English.] A continuation of RoUin's Roman 
 History, (see above, p. 258,) quite in the spirit of tliat writer, 
 and by one of his school. 
 
 Dr. Goldsmith's Roman History, from the foundation of 
 the city of Rome to the destruction of the loestern empire. Lon- 
 don, 1774, 2 vols. Svo. Rather a sketch than a detailed his- 
 tory (see above, p. 257, sqq.). 
 
 f History of Rome under the Emperors, and of the contem- 
 porary nations, by M. D. G. H. Hubler. Fryburg, 1803, 3 
 parts. Continuation of the work cited p. 2 : it reaches down 
 to Constantine. 
 
 Augustus 1. Octavianus Csesar, on whom the senate con- 
 B^'c'so— f^''i'6cl the honourable title of Augustus, which they 
 A. c. 14. periodically renewed, and which descended to his 
 successors, possessed the sole dominion of the em- 
 pire during forty-four years. The government, not- 
 withstanding the great revolutions by which the re- 
 public had been converted into a monarchy, was not 
 yet, either in fact or in form, altogether a despotic 
 one. The private interest of the ruler required that 
 the republican form should be preserved to the ut- 
 most, as without that he could not make an entire 
 change ; and the rest of his history sufficiently shows, 
 that the cruelty with which he may be reproached in 
 the early part of his career, was rather owing to cir- 
 cumstances than to his natural disposition. But 
 during a reign so long, so tranquil, and so fortunate, 
 could it be otherwise than that the republican spirit, 
 which at the beginning existed only in a few indi- 
 viduals, should evaporate of itself! 
 
PERIOD IV.] FROM CESAR TO COMMODUS 329 
 
 The forms under which Augustus held the different branches Fourth 
 of supreme power (dictatorship excepted) were ; — the consulate, I^eriod. 
 which, till B. C. 21, was annually renewed ; and the potestas 
 consularis, which, in B. C. 19, was settled on him for ever ; — 
 the tribu icia potestas, which was, 30, granted him for ever, 
 rendered his person sacred, (sacrosancta,) and prepared the way 
 to the judlcia majestatis (accusations of high treason). As im- 
 perator, 31, he continued commander of all the forces and ob- 
 tained the imperium proconsulare (proconsular power) in all 
 the provinces. He assumed tlie magistratura morum, (censor- 
 ship,) 19 ; and became pontifex maximus, (high priest,) 13. 
 To avoitl all appearances of usurpation, Augustus at first ac- 
 cepted the sovereign power only for ten years, and afterwards 
 had it renewed from time to time, for ten or five years, which, 
 at a later period, gave rise to the sacra decennalia. 
 
 2. The senate, indeed, remained a permanent The senate. 
 council of state, and Augustus himself endeavoured 
 to increase its authority by more than one purifica- 
 tion {lectio) ; but the connexion between him and 
 that* assembly seemed of a very fragile nature, as it 
 was undetermined, and could not at this time be 
 settled, whether Augustus was over the senate, or the 
 senate over Auo-ustus. All matters of state could not 
 be brouo-ht before the senate, as even the most im- 
 portant often required secrecy. It naturally followed, 
 that a prince, as yet without a court, and who had no 
 proper minister, but only his friends and freedmen, 
 should consult with those whom he thought most 
 worthy his confidence, a Msecenas, or an Agrippa, 
 &c. Hence afterwards was formed the secret coun- 
 cil of state {conciliu?}i secret nm p)-iticipis). Among 
 the republican magistrates the highest lost most ; 
 and as so much now depended upon the preservation 
 of peace in the capital, the offices of prsefect of the 
 city (pt'cefectus iirbis) and prsefect of provisions 
 {prcefectus annonce) were not only made permanent, 
 but became, especially the former, the principal 
 oflBces in the state. 
 
 The spirit of monarchy shows itself in nothing more than in 
 its strict distinction of ranks ; hence, therefore, the magistrates, 
 especially the consuls, lost nothing. Hence also the long-con- 
 tinued custom of nominating under-consuls, {consutes suffecti,) 
 which in time became merely a formal assumption of the ortia- 
 menta consularia et triumphalia (consular and triumphal orna- 
 
330 
 
 ROMAN STATE. 
 
 [book v. 
 
 Fourth 
 Period. 
 
 Introduc- 
 tion of 
 standing 
 armies. 
 
 The pro- 
 vinces di- 
 vided be- 
 tween the 
 emperor 
 and tlie 
 senate. 
 
 Finanies : 
 
 ments). Other offices were created for the purpose of rewarding 
 friends and dependents. 
 
 3. The introduction of standing armies, already 
 long prepared, naturally followed a dominion acquired 
 by war ; and became, indeed, necessary to guard the 
 frontiers and preserve the newly-made conquests; 
 the establishment of the guards and militia of the 
 city {cohortes prwtoricüKE and cohortes iirhance) were 
 measures equally necessary for the security of the 
 capital and the throne. The creation of tzvo prseto- 
 rian prsefects, however, instead of one, diminished 
 for the present the great importance of that office. 
 
 Distribution of the legions over the provinces in castra sta- 
 tiva, (fixed camps,) which soon grew into cities, especially along 
 the Rhine, the Danube, and the Euphrates {legiones Germaniccp., 
 lllyrica;, et Syriacce). Fleets also were stationed at Misenum 
 and Ravenna. 
 
 4. The government, as well as the administration 
 and revenue of the provinces, Augustus willingly 
 divided with the senate ; keeping to himself those 
 on the frontiers, {provincice principis,) in which the 
 legions were quartered, and leaving to that assembly 
 the others {provincice senatiis). Hence his deputies 
 {legafi, lieutenants) exercised both civil and military 
 authority in his name ; while those of the senate, on 
 the contrary, (proco/isiiles,) only administered in 
 civil affairs. Both were, in general, attended by 
 commissioners {prociü^atores et quwstores). The 
 provinces were unquestionably gainers by this new 
 arrangement, not only because their governors were 
 more carefully looked after, but because they were 
 paid by the state. 
 
 The fate of the provinces naturally depended, in a great de- 
 gree, upon the disposition of the emperor and governor ; but 
 there was also an essential difference between the provinces of 
 the emperor and those of the senate (provincice principis et 
 senatiis) : in the latter there was no military oppression as there 
 was in the former ; and to that may be ascribed the flourishing 
 state of Gaul, Spain, Africa, etc. 
 
 5. There is little doubt but that the finances of 
 the treasury remained, upon the whole, much the 
 same as before ; but in its internal administration 
 
TERIOD IV. 
 
 FROM C^SAR TO COMMODUS. o31 
 
 Augustus made many alterations, of which we have ^°"^J" 
 but a very imperfect knowledge. Of course there 
 
 would be at first an obvious difference between the the private 
 privy and military chest of the emperor, (ßscus,) He^oi^I 
 which was at his immediate disposal, and the state emperor; 
 
 . • the stätG 
 
 chest, {cerarium,) which he disposed of indirectly chest 
 through the senate, though it must afterwards follow 
 as a natural consequence of increasing despotism, swallowed 
 that the latter should progressively become merged f^Jj^er! *" 
 in the former. 
 
 The great disorder into Avhich the treasury had been thrown 
 during the civil wars, and especially by giving away the state 
 lands in Italy to the soldiers, together with the heavy sums re- 
 quired for the maintenance of the standing army now established, 
 must have rendered it much more difficult for Augustus to ac- 
 complish the reform he so happily executed ; and in which it 
 seems to have been his chief aim to place every thing, as far as 
 possible, upon a solid and lasting foundation. The principal 
 changes which he made in the old system of taxation seem to 
 have been : 1. That the tithes hitherto collected in the provinces 
 should be changed into a fixed quota, to be paid by each indi- 
 vidual. 2. The customs, partly by re-establishing former ones, 
 and partly by imposing new ones as well as an excise, {centesima 
 rerum venaUum^) were rendered more productive. The posses- 
 sion of Egypt, which was the depot of nearly all the commerce 
 of the East, rendered the customs at this time of great import- 
 ance to Rome. 3, All the state lands in the provinces were, 
 by degrees, changed into crown lands. Of the new taxes the 
 most considerable were the vigesima hereditatum, (the twentieth 
 of inheritances,) though with important restrictions; and the 
 fines upon celibacy by the lex Julia Poppcea. — The greater part 
 of these state revenues most likely flowed, from the very first, 
 into the Jiscus : that is, the whole revenues of the provincice 
 principis, as Avell as of those parts of the provincics senatus 
 which were appropriated to the maintenance of the troops ; the 
 revenues arising from the crown domains ; the vigesima, etc. 
 To the cerarium (now under three prcefecti cerarii) remained a 
 part of the revenues of the prorincicB senatus, the customs and 
 the fines. Thus it appears that Augustus was master of the 
 finances, of the legions, and thereby of the empire. 
 
 See above, p. 289, the writings of HEGEA^^SCH and Bosse. 
 
 6. The extension of the Roman empire under Extension 
 Augustus was very considerable ; being genei-ally of °|/j'^ '""■ 
 such a nature as conduced to the security of the 
 interior, and to the safeguard of the frontiers. The Spain and 
 complete subjugation of northern Spain, and western ^''"'' ~''- 
 
332 ROMAN STATE. [i^ook v. 
 
 Fourth Gaul, sGcured tlie frontiers on that side ; as did the 
 _!^!^i!!!L threatened but never executed expedition agahist 
 20. the Parthians, and the one actually undertaken against 
 Coimtries Armenia, A. C. 2. But the most important con- 
 Da"nubeV^^ quest iu tliis quarter was that of the countries south 
 15—35.' of the Danube, viz. Rhsetia, Vindelicia, and Noricum, 
 29. as w^ell as Pannonia, and aftervi^ards Mcesia. To 
 counterbalance these, the expedition against Arabia 
 24. Felix completely failed : and that against Ethiopia 
 was of no further consequence than to strengthen the 
 frontiers. 
 Unsuccess- 7. All thcsc conqucsts together, however, did not 
 fui attempt ^^^^ ^\^^ Romaus SO much as their fruitless attempt 
 Germany! to subjugato Germany, first, by the sons-in-law of 
 Auü:ustus, Drusus and Tiberius Nero, and afterwards 
 by the son of the former, Drusus Germanicus. Whe- 
 ther or not this undertaking was a political fault, 
 must always remain a problem, as it is now impossi- 
 ble to say how far the security of the frontiers could 
 be preserved without it. 
 
 Rome commenced her hostile attack upon Germany under 
 the command of Drusus, B. C. 12 ; Lower Germany (West- 
 phalia, Lower Saxony, and Hesse) being in general the theatre 
 of the war ; while the Lower Rhine was attacked both by sea 
 and land at the mouths of the Ems, the Weser, and the Elbe, 
 on account of the great assistance aiforded the Romans by their 
 alliance with the nations on the coasts, the Batavi, Frisii, and 
 Chauci. The intrepid Drusus, in his second expedition, 10, 
 penetrated as far as the Weser, and, 9, even as far as the Elbe, 
 but died on his return. His successors in the command, (Tibe- 
 rius, 9 — 7, Domitius, ^nobarbus, 7 — 2, M. Vinicius, 2— A. C. 
 2, then again Tiberius, A. C. 2 — 4, who was followed by 
 Quintilius Varus, A. C. 5 — 9,) endeavoured to build on the 
 foundation laid by Drusus, and, by erecting forts and intro- 
 ducing the Roman language and laws, gradually to reduce into a 
 province the part of Germany they had already subdued ; but 
 the craftily organized revolt of the young Arminius, (Hermann,) 
 a prince of the Cherusci, son of Siegmar, and son-in-law of 
 Segestes, a friend of the Romans, together with the defeat of 
 Varus and his army in the Teutoburg wald, or forest, near 
 Paderborn, A. C. 9, rescued Germany from slavery, and its 
 language from annihilation. It moreover taught the conquerors 
 (what they never forgot) that the legions were not invincible. 
 Augustus immediately despatched Tiberius, who had just quell- 
 ed a furious insurrection in Pannonia, together with Germani- 
 
PEKIOD IV. 
 
 FROM C^SAR TO COMMODUS. 333 
 
 cus, to the Rhine ; but these confined themselves to simple Fourth 
 incursions, till Gerraanicus, A. C. 14 — 16, again carried his 1'eriod. 
 arms further into the country, and certainly penetrated as far " " 
 
 as the Weser. Yet, notwithstanding his victory near Idista- 
 visus, (Minden,) the loss of his fleet and part of his army by a 
 tempest on his return, and the jealousy of Tiberius at his vic- 
 tory, obliged him to give up his command. From this time the 
 Germans were left at rest in this quarter. 
 
 j" Mannert, Geography of the Greeks and Romans, part iii. 
 
 8, The long and, for Italy itself, peaceable reign Rei-n of 
 of Augustus, has generally been considered a fortunate binu"anr' '^ 
 and brilliant period of Roman history ; and, when rei'od f^r 
 compared with the times which preceded and fol- 
 lowed, it certainly was so. .Security of person and 
 property were re-established ; the arts of peace flour- 
 ished under the benign patronage of Augustus and 
 
 his favourite Maecenas ; and we may add, that, as 
 the formal restoration of the republic would only 
 have been the signal for new commotions, the go- 
 vernment of Augustus, if not the very best, was, at 
 least, the best that Rome could then bear. Should it 
 be said his private life was not blameless, it may be 
 replied, that he inflexibly maintained an outward 
 decency, to which, indeed, he sacrificed his only 
 daughter ; and if laws could have bettered the pub- 
 lic morals, there was no lack of decrees for that 
 purpose. 
 
 Among his most important laws to this end are, the lex Julia 
 de adidteriis and the lex Papia Poppcea against celibacy. The 
 latter excited many murmurs. 
 
 9. Nearly all that remains of the history of Au- Augustus s 
 gustus, is an account of his domestic troubles ; the ^'^'"''J- 
 most unhappy family being that of the emperor. 
 
 The influence of Livia, his second wife, was very Livia. 
 great, but does not seem to have been perverted to 
 any worse purpose than raising her sons, Tiberius 
 and Drusus, to the throne. The naturally unsettled 
 state of the succession in a government such as that 
 of Rome now was, became much increased by cir- 
 cumstances. After the untimely death of his nephew b. c. 23. 
 and son-in-law Marcellus, whom he had adopted, his 
 widow Julia, the only child of Augustus by his wife ried to 
 
J34 
 
 ROMAN STATE. 
 
 Fourth 
 Period. 
 
 Agrippa, 
 B. C. 17. 
 
 12, 
 
 6— A. C. 9. 
 
 A. C. 2. 
 
 2—4. 
 
 Tiberius 
 adopted by 
 Augustus, 
 4, 
 
 August 14, 
 19— Marcli 
 16, 37. 
 
 Changes in 
 the consti- 
 tution : 
 
 power of 
 the comitia 
 reduced ; 
 
 Scribonia, was married to Agrippa. The two eldest 
 sons of this marriage, C. and L. Caesar, were adopted, 
 upon the death of their father, by the emperor, who 
 showed so much fondness towards them as they grew 
 up, that Tiberius, who in the mean time had married 
 their mother, Julia, — afterwards banished by Augustus 
 for her licentious conduct, — left the court in disgust. 
 The death of the two young princes, however, again 
 revived the hopes of Tiberius, who was adopted by 
 Augustus upon the condition that he should also 
 adopt Drusus Germanicus, the son of his deceased 
 brother Drusus ; after which Augustus, with the con- 
 sent of the senate, formally associated him with him- 
 self in the government, making him an equal partner 
 in the imperial privileges : called by his successors, 
 le.v regia. 
 
 Marmor Ancyranum ; or inscriptions in the temple of Au- 
 gustus at Ancyra. A copy of the account given of his govern- 
 ment, which Augustus latterly caused to be set up at Rome as 
 a public memorial : unfortunately much mutilated. It is to be 
 found in Chishull, Antiq. Asiatic. 
 
 Memoirs of the Court of Augustus, by Thojias Blackwell. 
 London, 1760, 3 vols. 4to, divided into fifteen books. The last 
 vol. was published after the death of the author, by Mr. Mills. 
 The last two books of this prolix work contain a description of 
 the contemporary affairs of Augustus ; the others go back to 
 earlier times. A just appreciation of Augustus requires a pre- 
 vious critical examination of the sources from which Suetonius 
 has drawn the materials for his biography. 
 
 Histoire des triumviruts augmentte de Thistoire dAuguste, 
 par Larry. Trevoux, 1741, 4 parts, 8vo. The last part of 
 this simple narrative contains the history of Augustus from the 
 death of Catiline. 
 
 10. The reign of Tiberius Claudius Nero, or, as 
 he was called after his adoption, Augustus Tiberius 
 Csesar, from his fifty-sixth to his seventy-eighth year, 
 changed rather the spirit than the form of the Roman 
 constitution. He succeeded quietly to the vacant 
 throne at Rome, although the legions in Pannonia, 
 and still more in Germany, felt that they could make 
 emperors. Under him the comitia, or assemblies of 
 the people, were reduced to a mere shadow ; as he 
 transferred their duties to the senate, which also be- 
 came the highest tribunal for the state crimes of its 
 
PERIOD IV. 
 
 FROM C^SAR TO COMMODUS. 3-35 
 
 own members : this assembly, however, had now been Fourth 
 so much accustomed to obey the will of the prince, 
 
 the senate. 
 
 that every thing depended on his personal character. 
 Tiberius founded his despotism upon the judicia ma- despotism 
 jestatis, or accusations of high treason, now become b"!',°,'^"^J.'^ 
 an engine of terror, the senate also sharing his guilt dida majes- 
 with a pusillanimity and servility which knew no cC/^aded 
 bounds. This degraded assembly, indeed, from the character of 
 moment that it ceased to be the ruling authority of a 
 free state, necessarily became the passive instrument 
 of the most brutal tyranny. Notwithstanding the 
 military talents and many good qualities of Tiberius, 
 his despotic character had been formed long before 
 his fifty-sixth year, when he mounted the throne ; al- 
 though exterior circumstances prevented him from 
 entirely throwing off the mask which he had hitherto 
 worn. 
 
 The foundation of the judicia majestatis, which soon became 
 so terrible by the unfixed state of crime, had been laid during 
 the reign of Augustus by the lex Julia de majestate, and the 
 cognitio7ies extraordinarice, or commissioners appointed to take 
 cognizance of certain crimes : it was, however, the abuse of them 
 by Tiberius and his successors, which rendered them so dreadful. 
 
 12. The principal object of Tiberius's suspicion, Ruin of 
 and therefore of his hate, was Germanicus, a man cmTnd his 
 almost adored by the army and the people. This family. 
 brave general he soon recalled from Germany, and 
 
 sent into Syria to quell the disorders of the East. 
 After having successfully put an end to the commo- 
 tions which called him there, he was poisoned by the A.c. lo. 
 contrivances of Cn. Piso and his wife ; and even that 
 did not shelter the numerous family which he left be- 
 hind, with his widow Agrippina, from persecution 
 and ruin. 
 
 The expeditions of Germanicus in the East not only gave a 
 king to Armenia, but also reduced Cappadocia and Commagene 
 to Roman provinces, A. C. 17. 
 
 Histoire de Ccesar Germayiicus, par M. L. D. B[eaufort]. 
 a Leyden, 1741. An unpretending chronological narrative. 
 
 13. Rome, however, soon experienced to her cost l. .eüus 
 the powerful ascendency which L. ^Elius Sejanus, the fhf^ruei 
 prsefect of the praetorian guard, had acquired over minister of 
 
336 
 
 ROMAN STATE. 
 
 [book v. 
 
 Fourth 
 Period. 
 
 Tiberius ; 
 23—31. 
 
 Tiberius re- 
 tires to Ca- 
 prese, 26. 
 
 Fall of 
 Sejanns 
 attended 
 with great 
 carnage, 31, 
 Tiberius 
 becomes a 
 despotic 
 monster. 
 
 Caligula, 
 Marcli 16, 
 37 — Jan. 
 24, 41. 
 
 Claudius, 
 Jan. 24, 21 
 — Oct. 13, 
 54, 
 
 the weak 
 tool of his 
 wives and 
 freednicn. 
 
 the mind of Tiberius, whose unlimited confidence he 
 possessed the more, as he enjoyed it without a rival. 
 The eight years of his authority were rendered terri- 
 ble not only by the cantonment of his troops in bar- 
 racks near the city, {cast r a prcEtoriana^) but (having- 
 first persuaded Tiberius to quit Rome for ever, that 
 he might more securely play the tyrant in the isle of 
 Caprese) by his endeavouring to open a way for him- 
 self to the throne by villanies and crimes without 
 number, and by his cruel persecution of the family 
 of Germanicus. The despotism he had introduced 
 became still more dreadful by his own fall, in which 
 not only his whole party, but every one that could be 
 considered as connected with it, became involved. The 
 picture of the atrocious despotism of Tiberius is ren- 
 dered doubly disgusting by the horrid and unnatural 
 lust which he joined to it in his old age. 
 
 Tiberius's misfortune was, tliat he came too late to the throne. 
 His early virtues made no compensation for his later cruelties. 
 It is properly the former which Vel. Paterculus praises, whose 
 flattery of Tiberius, in whose reign he flourished, is more easily 
 justified than his prais:; of Sejanus. 
 
 14. At the age of twenty-five Caius Csesar Caligula, 
 the only remaining son of Germanicus, ascended the 
 throne ; but the hopes which had been formed of 
 this young prince were soon woefully disappointed. 
 His previous sickness and debaucheries had so dis- 
 torted his understanding, that his short reign was one 
 tissue of disorder and crime. Yet he did still more 
 harm to the state by his besotted profusion than by 
 his tiger-like cruelty. At length, after a career of 
 nearly four years, he was assassinated by Cassius 
 Chserea and Cornelius Sabinus, two oflicers of his 
 guard. 
 
 15. His uncle Tiberius Claudius Caesar, who, at 
 the age of fifty, succeeded him, was the first emperor 
 raised to the throne by the guards ; a favour which 
 he rewarded by granting them a donative. Too weak 
 to rule of himself, almost imbecile from former neg- 
 lect, profligate, and cruel from fear, he became the 
 tool of the licentiousness of his wives and freedmen. 
 
TEBiOD IV.] FROM C^SAR TO COMMODUS. 337 
 
 Coupled with the names of Messalina and Agrippina, Foueth 
 we now hear, for the first time in Roman history, of 
 
 a Pallas and a Narcissus. The dominion of Messa- Messalina; 
 lina was still more hurtful to the state by her rapa- 
 cious cupidity, to which every thing gave way, than 
 by her dissolute life ; and the blow which at last 
 punished her unexampled wantonness, left a still 
 more dangerous woman to supply her place. This Agrippina 
 was Agrippina, her niece, widow of L. Domitius, who KronTfoi'^ 
 joined to the vices of her predecessor a boundless her son, 
 
 «^ , . . , 1 /» TT 1 • r ■ with the as- 
 
 ambition, unknown to the former, ner cniet ami «istance et- 
 was to procure the succession for Domitius Nero, her .^^'^j'"'^''*' 
 son by a former marriage — who had been adopted ' 
 by Claudius, and married to his daughter Octavia — 50. 
 by setting aside Britanniens, the son of Claudius; 
 and this she hoped to eftect, by poisoning Claudius, poisons 
 having already gained Burrhus, by making him sole 54^" '"^' 
 prsefect of the praetorian guard. Notwithstanding 
 the contentions with the Germans and Parthians (see 
 above, p. 243) were only on the frontiers, the 
 boundaries of the Roman empire were in many coun- 
 tries extended. 
 
 Commencement of the Roman conquests in Britain (whither 
 Claudius himself went) under A. Plautius, from the year A. C. 
 43. Under the same general, iSIauritania, A. C. 42, Lycia, 43, 
 Judsea, 44, (see above, p. 250,) and Thrace, 47, were reduced 
 to Roman provinces. He also abolished the prtefectures which 
 had hitherto existed in Italy. 
 
 16. Nero Claudius Csesar, supported by Agrip- Nero, Oct. 
 pina and the prsetorian guard, succeeded Claudius at j^^^^ jj, 
 the age of seventeen. Brought up in the midst of «s- 
 the blackest crimes, and, by a perverted education, tion and 
 formed rather for a professor of music and the fine character. 
 arts than for an emperor, he ascended the throne like 
 a youth eager for enjoyment ; and throughout his 
 whole reign his cruelty appears subordinate to his 
 fondness for debaucheries and revelry. The unset- 
 tled state of the succession first called into action his 
 savage disposition ; and after the murder of Britanni- Destroys 
 cus the sword fell in regular order upon all those and airihe^ 
 who were even remotely connected with the Julian Julian fa- 
 
 z 
 
338 ROMAN STATE. [book v. 
 
 FoLRTH family. His vanity as a performer and composer ex- 
 
 ^^'■'■°^- cited in an equal degree his cruelty; and, as among' 
 
 miiy : his all tyrauts, every execution gives occasion for others, 
 maklshim ^^ uccd not wondcr at his putting to death every 
 cruel: one that excelled him. His connexion, however, in 
 the early part of his reign, with Agrippina, Burrhus, 
 and Seneca, during which he introduced some useful 
 regulations into the treasury, kept him within the 
 bounds of decency. But Poppsea Sabina having 
 murders his drivcn him ou to the murder of his mother and his 
 mother- wifc Octavia, and Tigellinus being made his confi- 
 dant, he felt no longer restrained by the fear of pub- 
 lic opinion. The executions of individuals, nearly all 
 of which history has recorded, was not, perhaps, upon 
 plunders the whole, the greatest evil ; the plunder of the pro- 
 linceMo vinccs, uot ouly to support his own loose and effe- 
 support his minate pleasures, but also to maintain the people in 
 pio igacy. ^ continual state of intoxication, had nearly caused 
 the dissolution of the empire. The last years of Nero 
 were marked by a striking and undoubted insanity, 
 which displayed itself in his theatrical performances, 
 A. c. 68. and even in the history of his fall. It appears that 
 both around and upon a throne like that of Rome, 
 heroes were formed for vice as well as vii^tue ! 
 
 Discoveiy of the conspiracy of Piso, 65, and the revolt of Ju- 
 lius Vindex in Celtic Gaul, 68, followed by that of Galba in 
 Spain, who is there proclaimed emperor, and joined by Otho, in 
 Lusitania. Nevertheless, after the defeat of Julius Vindex in 
 Upper Germany by the lieutenant Virginius Rufus, these in- 
 surrections seemed quelled, when the praetorian guard, instigated 
 thereto by Nymphidius, broke out into rebellion in Rome itself. 
 Flight and death of Nero, June 11, 68. Foreign wars during 
 his reign : in Britain, (occasioned by the revolt of Boadicea,) 
 great part of which was subdued and reduced to a Roman pro- 
 vince, by Suetonius Paulinus ; in Armenia, under the command 
 of the valiant Corbulo, against the Parthians (see above, p. 
 243) ; and in Palestine against the Jews, 66. Great fire in 
 Rome, 64, which gives rise to the first persecution against the 
 Christians. 
 
 The principal cause why the despotism of Nero and his pre- 
 decessors was so tamely submitted to by the nation, may un- 
 doubtedly be found in the fact, that the greater part of it was 
 fed by the emperors. To the monthly distributions of corn 
 were now added the extraordinary congiaria and visrerationes 
 
PERIOD iv.l FROM CzESAR TO COMMODUS. 339 
 
 (supplies of wine and meat). The periods of tyranny were very Fourth 
 likely the golden days of the people. Period. 
 
 17. By the death of Nero the house of Csesar be- Extinction 
 came extinct, and this gave rise to so many commo- ifan^|^anj"i'. 
 tions, tliat in somewhat less than two years, four causes 
 emperors by violence obtained possession of the ^^l^J ^'^""^ 
 throne. The right of the senate to name, or at least 
 
 to confirm, the successors to the throne, was still in- 
 deed acknowledged ; but as the armies had found out 
 that they could create emperors, the power of the 
 senate dwindled into an empty ceremony. Servius Gaiba, 
 Sulpicius Galba, now seventy-two years of age, hav- ^j'^i/'j'j*"^ 
 ing been already proclaimed emperor by the legions 69, 
 in Spain, and acknowledged by the senate, gained 
 possession of Rome without striking a blow, the at- 
 tempt of Nymphidius having completely failed, and 
 Virginius Rufus voluntarily submitting to him. Gal- 
 ba, however, having given offence both to the praeto- küied by 
 rian p'uard and the German leg-ions, was dethroned ^'."^ v^^^^o- 
 
 ^ ...^Pi-p p-i ^^^^ guard. 
 
 by the guards, at the instigation of his former friend 
 Otho, at the very time when he thought he had se- 
 cured his throne by adopting the young Licinius 
 Piso, and had frustrated the hopes of Otho. 
 
 18. M. Otho, aged thirty-seven, was indeed ac- otho, Jan., 
 knowledged emperor by the senate, but wanted the ^^— Apni 
 sanction of the German legions, who, proclaiming 
 
 their general, A. Vitellias, emperor, invaded Italy. 
 Otho marches against him, but after the loss of the 
 battle of Bedriacum kills himself — whether from fear 
 or patriotism, remains uncertain. 
 
 The special sources for the history of Galba and Otho, are 
 their Lives by Plutakch. 
 
 19. Vitellius, in his thirty-seventh year, was ac- viteiiius, 
 knowledged emperor not only by the senate, but o|!^''.,Ij''crj 
 likewise in the provinces ; his debaucheries and 
 cruelty, however, together with the licentiousness of 
 
 his troops, having rendered him odious at Rome, the 
 Syrian legions rebelled and proclaimed their general, 
 T. Flavins Vespasian, emperor, who, at the solicita- Vespasian 
 tion of the powerful Mutianus, governor of Syria, P|i,°pe^.|,'r.''^ 
 accepted the imperial diadem. The troops on the 
 
 z 2 
 
340 ROMAN STATE. [book v 
 
 Fourth Dtinube declaring for him shortly after, and marching 
 into Italy under their general Antonius Primus, de- 
 
 feated the army of Vitellius at Cremona. Vitellius 
 was immediately hurled fi'om the throne, though not 
 till after some blood had been spilt by the commo- 
 tions that took place at Rome, in which Flavius 
 Sabinus, the brother of Vespasian, was slain, and the 
 capitol burnt. 
 ■Vespasian, 20. Flavius Vcspasian ascended the throne in his 
 —June 24, fifty-ninth year, and became thereby the founder of a 
 ''•^- dynasty which gave three emperors to Rome. The 
 
 state, almost ruined by profusion, civil'war, and suc- 
 cessive revolutions, found in Vespasian a monarch 
 Fixes the -^yell suitcd to its uuhappy condition. He endeavoured, 
 seTate; as far as he could, to determine the relations between 
 himself and the senate, while, by a decree, he restored 
 to it all the rights and privileges which had been 
 conferred upon it by his predecessors of the family 
 of Caesar, and settled and added some others [lex 
 regia). He made a thorough reform in the corn- 
 improves pletely-exhausted treasury, which he recruited in 
 part by reducing the countries Nero had made free, 
 together with some others, into provinces; partly by 
 restoring the ancient customs, by increasing others, 
 and by imposing new ones ; without this it would 
 have been impossible for him to have re-established 
 founds pub- the disciphue of the army. His liberality in the 
 iugs,"lnd foundation of public buildings, as well in Rome as in 
 promotes other cities, and the care with which he promoted 
 ' education, by granting salaries to public teachers, 
 are sufficient to free him from the reproach of avarice ; 
 and although, on account of their dangerous opinions, 
 banishes he bauishcd the Stoics, (who since the time of Nero 
 the Stoics ; ^^^^ bccome very numerous, and retained nearly all 
 the principles of republicanism,) the annulling of the 
 and annuls jucücia majestatis and the restoration of the authority 
 ^majestatis. ^f the Senate show how far he was from being a 
 despot. 
 
 Rhodes, Samos, Lycia, Achaia, Thrace, Cilicia, and Comma- 
 gene, were brought by Vespasian into the condition of provinces. 
 Foreign wars : that against the Jews, which ended with the de- 
 
 the trea- 
 sury 
 
rEUlOD IV. 
 
 FROM C^SAR TO COMMODUS. 341 
 
 struction of Jerusalem, A. C. 70 ; and a much greater war Fourth 
 against the Batavians and their allies under Civilis, who, during Feuiod. 
 tlie late civil wars, sought to shake oif the Roman yoke, 69 ; ~ 
 but were reduced to an accommodation by Cerealis, 70. Ex- 
 peditions of Agrieola in Britain, 78 — 85, who not only subdued 
 all England, and introduced the Roman manners and customs, 
 but also attacked and sailed round Scotland. 
 
 D. Vespasianus, sive de vita et legislatione T. Flavii Vespa- 
 siani Imp. commentarius, auctore A. G. Crazier. Jenje, 1785. 
 An excellent inquiry, with illustrations of the fragments of the 
 lex regia. The second part, de legislatione, contains a learned 
 commentary upon the senatus consulta, during his reign. 
 
 21, His eldest son, Titus Flavius Vespasian, who Titus, _ 
 in the year 70 had been created Caesar, and reigned 79Tse,,t. 
 from his thirty-ninth to his forty-second year, gives ^'^' ^^• 
 us the rare example of a prince becoming better on 
 
 the throne. His short and benevolent reign was, 
 indeed, only remarkable for its public calamities : an 
 eruption of Mount Vesuvius, overwhelming several 
 cities, was followed by a destructive fire, and a dread- 
 ful plague at Rome. His early death secured him Dreadful 
 the reputation of being, if not the happiest, at least plague, 79. 
 the best of princes. 
 
 22. His vounger brother and successor, L. Flavius Domitian, 
 Domitian, who reigned from his thirtieth to his forty- _!sept. is, 
 fifth year, gives an example quite opposite to that of ^6; 
 Titus ; beginning with justice and severity, he soon 
 degenerated into the completest despot that ever a complete 
 swayed the Roman sceptre. His cruelty, joined to despot;"^ 
 an equal degree of pride, and nourished by suspicion 
 
 and jealousy, made him the enemy of all who excelled 
 him by their exploits, their riches, or their talents. 
 The mortifications to which his pride must have unsuccess- 
 been subjected in consequence of his unsuccessful ^"^ ^° ^^'^''5 
 wars against the Catti, and more particularly the 
 Daci, increased his bad disposition. His despotism 
 was founded upon his armies, whose pay he aug- 
 mented one fouilh ; and that he might not thereby raises the 
 diminish the treasury, as he had too much done at p°j.'p* 
 first, he multiplied the judicia majestatis, rendering 
 it still more terrible by the employment of secret in- employs in- 
 formers, (delatores,) in order, by confiscations, to 
 augment the wealth of his private treasury (Jiscits). 
 
342 ROMAN STATE. [book v. 
 
 ■ Fourth By confining his cruelty chiefly to the capital, and 
 ' by a strict superintendence over the governors of 
 provinces, Domitian prevented any such general 
 disorganization of the empire as took place under 
 Nero. His fall confirmed the general truth, that 
 tyrants have httle to fear from the people, but much 
 from individuals who may think their lives in danger. 
 
 The foreign wars during this reign are rendered more worthy 
 of remark by being the first in which the barbarians attacked 
 the empire with success. Domitian's ridiculous expedition 
 against the Catti, 82, gave the first proof of his boundless va- 
 nity ; as did the recall of the victorious Agricola, 85, from 
 Britain, of his jealousy. His most important war was that 
 against the Daci, or Getfe, who, under their brave king Derce- 
 bal, had attacked the Roman frontiers : this again occasioned 
 another with their neighbours, the Marcomanni, Quadi, and 
 Jazygi, 86 — 90, which turned out so unfortunate for Rome, 
 that Domitian was obliged to purchase a peace of the Daci by 
 paying them an annual tribute. 
 
 Nerva, 23. M. Cocceius Ncrva, aged about seventy years, 
 
 Jan. 24 96 ^r^g I'aiscd to the throne by the murderers of Domi- 
 98. " ' tian ; and now, at last, seemed to break forth the 
 u! Vuraof ^^^^^ of a more happy period for the empire. The 
 a iiappy prcccdiug Tcigu of terror completely ceased at once ; 
 period. ^^^ i^g endeavoured to impart fresh vigour to indus- 
 try, not only by diminishing the taxes, but also by 
 distributing lands to the poor. The insurrection of 
 the guards certainly cost the murderers of Domitian 
 their lives ; but it was at the same time the cause of 
 Nerva s securing the prosperity of the empire after 
 his death, by the adoption of Trajan. 
 Trajan, 24. M. Ulpius Trajan, (after his adoption, Nerva 
 
 — Aug.'ii, Trajan,) a Spaniard by birth, governed the empire 
 ii'7. from his forty-second to his sixty-second year. He 
 
 the Roman was thc first foreigner who ascended the Roman 
 monarchs. throuc, üud at the same time the first of their mon- 
 archs who was equally great as a ruler, a general, and 
 a man. After completely abolishing the Judicia ma- 
 Jestatis, he made the restoration of the free Roman 
 Restores coiistitutiou, SO far as it was compatible with a mon- 
 lonsüt.!^''" archical form, his peculiar care. He restored the 
 tion; elective power to the comitia, complete liberty of 
 
 speech to the senate, and to the magistrates their 
 
PEKIOD IV. 
 
 FROM C^SAR TO COMMODUS. o43 
 
 former authority ; and yet he exercised the art of Fourth 
 
 ruhng to a degree and in a detail which few princes 1- 
 
 have equalled. Frugal in his expenses, he was ne- his frugality 
 vertheless splendidly liberal to every useful institu- aiitj ;' '^^ 
 tion, whether in Rome or the provinces, as well as in 
 the foundation of military roads, public monuments, 
 and schools for the instruction of poor children. By 
 his wars he extended the dominion of Rome beyond 
 its former boundaries; subduing, in his contests with 
 the Daci, their country, and reducing it to a Roman conquers 
 province ; as he likewise did, in his wars against tlie '"''^' 
 Armenians and Parthians, Armenia, Mesopotamia, MeTopöu- 
 and part of Arabia, Why was so great a character mia, and 
 disfigured by an ambition of conquest ? Aa-ab'i'a, 
 
 The first war against the Daci, in which the shameful tribute 
 was withdrawn and Dercebal reduced to subjection, lasted fi'om 
 101 — 103, But as Dercebal again rebelled, the war was re- 
 newed in 105, and brought to a close in 106, when Dacia was 
 reduced to a Roman province, and many Roman colonies estab- 
 lished therein. The war with the Parthians arose from a dis- 
 pute respecting the possession of the throne of Armenia, (see 
 above, p. 243,) 114 — 116 : but although Rome was victorious, 
 she gained no permanent advantage thereby. 
 
 The especial source for the history of Trajan is the Panegyricus 
 of Pliny the Younger : the correspondence, however, of the 
 same writer, while governor of Bithynia, with the emperor, af- 
 fords us a much deeper insight into the spirit of his government : 
 Plinii Epist. lib. x. Who can read it without admiring the 
 royal statesman ? 
 
 RiTTERSHUSii Trajanus in lucem reproductus. Ambegoe, 
 1608. A mere collection of passages occurring in ancient authors 
 respecting Trajan. 
 
 Res Trajani Imperatoris ad Daniibium Gestce, auctore CoN- 
 RAX> IVIannert, Norimb, 1793 ; and 
 
 JoH, Christ, Engel, Commentatio de Expeditionibus Tra- 
 jani ad Danulmim, et origine Valachorum. Vindob. 1794, — 
 Both leai-ned dissertations, written for the prize offered by the 
 Royal Society of Gottingen ; the first of which obtained the 
 prize, and the other the accessit, i. e, was declared second best. 
 
 25. By the contrivances of Plotina, his wife, Tra- Adrian, 
 jan was succeeded by his cousin and pupil, whom he 
 is said also to have adopted, P, ^lius Adrian, who 
 reigned from his forty-second to his sixty-third year. 
 He was acknowledged at once by the army of Asia, 
 
344 ROMAN STATE. [book v. 
 
 Period ^^^^ whicli he then was, and the sanction of the 
 
 senate followed immediately after. He differed from 
 
 his predecessor in that his chief aim was the preserv- 
 ation of peace ; on which account he gave up, (rare 
 moderation !) directly after his accession, the newly 
 conquered provinces of Asia, Armenia, Assyria, and 
 Mesopotamia, and so put an end to the Parthian war 
 (see above, p. 243). He retained, though with some 
 unwillingness, that of Dacia, because otherwise the 
 Roman colonies would have become exposed. He 
 well made up for his pacific disposition, however, in 
 seeking, by a general and vigorous reform in the in- 
 ternal administration, and by restoring the discipline 
 of the army, to give greater solidity to the empire. 
 For that purpose he visited successively all the pro- 
 vinces of the Roman empire ; first the eastern, and 
 afterwards the western ; making useful regulations 
 and establishino; order wherever he came. He im- 
 proved the Roman jurisprudence by the introduction 
 of the edictum perpetuum. Passionately fond of and 
 well instructed in literature and the fine arts, he gave 
 them his liberal protection, and thus called forth an- 
 other Augustan age. Upon the whole, his reign was 
 certainly a salutary one for the empire ; and for any 
 single acts of injustice of which he may be accused, he 
 fully compensated by his choice of a successor. After 
 having first adopted L. Aurelius Verus, (afterwards 
 ^lius Verus,) who fell a sacrifice to his debaucheries, 
 he next adopted T. Aurelius Antoninus, (afterwards 
 T. iElius Adrianus Antoninus Pius,) upon condition 
 that he should again adopt M. Aurelius Verus, (af- 
 terwards M. Aurehus Antoninus,) and L. Cesonius 
 Commodus, (afterwards L. Verus,) the son of iElius 
 Verus. 
 
 During his reign a great revolt broke out in Juclfea, under 
 Barcochab, 132 — 135, occasioned by the introduction of pagan 
 worship into the Roman colony of ^lia Capitolina (the ancient 
 Jerusalem). 
 
 The especial source for the history of Adrian, is his Life and 
 that of jEUus Verus by ^lius Spartiai^üs in Script. Hist. 
 Aug. Minores, already« quoted. 
 
PERIOD IV. I 
 
 FROM C^SAR TO COMMODUS. 345 
 
 26. The reign of Antoninus Pius, from his forty- Fourth 
 seventh to his seventieth year, was without doubt the 
 
 happiest period of the Roman empire. He found Antoninus 
 every thing ah-eady in excellent order ; and those lö^^iss".!!^ 
 ministers which Adrian had appointed, he continued March 7, 
 in their places. His quiet activity furnishes but 
 little matter for history ; and yet he was, perhaps, 
 the most noble character that ever sat upon a throne. 
 Although a prince, his life was that of the most 
 blameless individual ; while he administered the 
 affairs of the empire as though they were his own. 
 He honoured the senate ; and the provinces flourish- 
 ed under him, not only because he kept a watchful 
 eye over the conduct of the governors, but because 
 he made it a maxim of his government to continue in 
 their places all those whose probity he had sufficiently 
 proved. He observed rigid order in the finances, 
 and yet without sparing where it could be of service 
 in the foundation or improvement of useful institu- 
 tions ; as his erection of many buildings, establish- 
 ment of public teachers with salaries in all the pro- 
 vinces, and other examples, fully show. He carried 
 on no war himself; on the contrary, several foreign 
 nations made choice of him to arbitrate their differ- 
 ences. Some rebellions which broke out in Britain 
 and Egypt, and some frontier wars excited by the 
 Germans, the Daci, the Moors, and the Alani, were 
 quelled by his lieutenants. 
 
 The principal and almost the only source for the history of 
 Antoninus Pius, Dion Cassius's history of this period being lost, 
 is his Life by Julius Capitolinus in the Script. Hist. August. 
 And even this refers to his private character rather than his 
 public history. Compare the excellent Reflections of Marcus 
 AuRELius, i. 16, upon tliis prince. 
 
 Vie des Empereurs Tite Antonin et Marc Aurele, par M. 
 Gautier de Sibert. Paris, 1769, 8vo. A valuable essay on 
 the lives of the two Antonines. 
 
 27. He was succeeded by Marcus Aurelius Anto- Marcus 
 ninus, the philosopher, (aged 40 — 59 years,) who March"?^,' 
 immediately associated with himself, under the title 101— 
 of Augustus, L. Verus, (aged 30 — 40 years, '\ 169,) iso^*" 
 to whom he gave his daughter in marriage. Not- 
 
346 
 
 ROMAN STATE. 
 
 Fourth 
 Period. 
 
 161— IGG 
 
 The north- 
 em nations 
 bey:in to 
 press for- 
 ward. 
 
 Avidius 
 
 Cassius's 
 
 rebellion, 
 
 and death, 
 175. 
 
 withstanding the differences of their character, the 
 most cordial union existed between them during the 
 whole of their common reign ; L. Verus, indeed, be- 
 ing almost always absent in the wars, took but a very- 
 small share in the government. The reign of M. 
 Aurelius was marked by several great calamities : a 
 dreadful pestilence, a famine, and almost continual 
 wars. Nothing short of a prince like Aurelius, who 
 exhibited to the world the image of wisdom seated 
 on a throne, could have made so much misery toler- 
 able. Soon after his accession, the Catti made an 
 irruption upon the Rhine, and the Parthians in Asia. 
 L. Verus was sent against them. But the wars on 
 the Danube with the Marcomanni and their allies in 
 Pannonia, and other northern nations, who now be- 
 gan to press forward with great force upon Dacia, 
 were of much greater consequence. They occupied 
 M. Aurelius from the year 167, with but little inter- 
 mission, to the end of his reign. He succeeded, in- 
 deed, in maintaining the boundaries of the empire ; 
 but then lie was the first who settled any of the bar- 
 barians within it, or took them into the Roman ser- 
 vice. In the internal administration of affairs he 
 closely followed the steps of his predecessor, except 
 that he was rather too much influenced by his freed- 
 men and family. The only rebellion which broke 
 out against him, was that of Avidius Cassius, his lieu- 
 tenant in Syria, occasioned by a false report of his 
 death ; but it was quelled by the destruction of that 
 general, as soon as the truth was made known. 
 
 The war against the Parthians (see above, p. 244) was in- 
 deed brought to a successful issue by Verus, the principal cities 
 of the Parthians falling into the hands of the Romans ; Verus 
 left them, however, to be carried on by his lieutenants, while 
 he rioted in debaucheries at Antioch. The first war against the 
 Marcomanni, carried on in the beginning and until the death of 
 Verus, by the two emperors together, was highly dangerous for 
 Pome, as many other nations had joined the Marcomanni, par- 
 ticularly the Quadi, Jazygi, and Vandals, and penetrated as far 
 as Aquileia. M. Aurelius ended tliis war by a glorious peace, 
 174, as he found it necessary to stop the progress of Cassius's 
 rebellion ; in 178, however, the Marcomanni again commenced 
 hostilities, and before their close M. Aurelius died at Sirmium. 
 
PERior, IV.] FROM CiESAR TO COMMODUS. 347 
 
 Contemporary with these wars, yet, as it seems, Avithout any Fourth 
 connexion with them, were the attacks of other nations upon P^i^^o"- 
 Dacia, the Bastarnfe, Alani, etc., who poured in from the north, 
 probably pressed forward by the advance of the Goths. This 
 tons the first symptom of the great migration of nations now 
 beginning. 
 
 The especial sources for the history of M. Aurelius, are the 
 Biogi'aphies of him and L. Verus, written by JuLros Capitoli- 
 Nus, as well as that of Avidius Cassius, by Vülcatiüs Galli- 
 ca:^t:s in Script. Hist. August. The letters discovered in INIilan, 
 among and together with the writings of Froxto, are of no 
 historical service. — His principles are best learnt from his 
 Meditations on himself 
 
 Ch. Meiners de M. Aurel. Antonini ingenio, moribus, et 
 scriptis, in Commentat. Soc. Gotting. vol. vi. 
 
 28. By means of adoption the Roman empire had t. Commo- 
 been blessed, during the last eighty years, with a i^^'JJj"^'*^ 
 succession of rulers such as have not often fell to the Dec. 3i, 
 lot of any kingdom. But in T. Commodus, the son ^^~' 
 of M. Aurelius, (probably the offspring of a gladia- 
 tor,) who reigned from his nineteenth to his thirty- 
 first year, there ascended the throne a monster of 
 cruelty, insolence, and lewdness. At the commence- 
 ment of his reign he bought a peace of the Marco- 
 manni that he might return to Rome. Being himself 
 unable to support the burden of government, the 
 helm of state was placed in the hands of tiie stern 
 and cruel Perennis, praefect of tlie preetorian guard ; Perennis, 
 but who, being murdered by the discontented sol- ^ ^*^^- 
 diers, was succeeded by the freed man Oleander, who oleander, 
 put up all for sale, till he fell a sacrifice to his own ^ ^ * 
 insatiable avarice, in a revolt of the people caused by 
 their want of provisions. The extravagant propen- 
 sity of Commodus for the diversions of the amphi- 
 theatres, and the combats of wild beasts and gladi- 
 ators, wherein he himself usually took a part in the 
 character of Hercules, became a chief cause of his 
 dissipation, and thereby of his cruelty ; till at last he 
 was killed at the instigation of his concubine Marcia, 
 Laetus the praefect of the praetorian guard, and Elec- 
 tus. The wars on the frontiers durino; his reio;n, in i82— 184. 
 Dacia, and especially in Britain, were successfully 
 carried on by his lieutenants, generals who belonged 
 to the school of his father. 
 
348 ROMAN STATE. [rook v. 
 
 FouuTH The especial soui'ce for the history of Commodus is his pri- 
 
 Pekiod. vate life by JEi.. Lampridius, in the Script. Hist. August. — 
 The history of Herodian begins with his reign, 
 
 em^'rell^^ 29. The disasters under M. Aurelius, and the ex- 
 this period, travagances of Commodus, had injured the empire, 
 but not enfeebled it. Towards the close of the pe- 
 riod of the Antonines it still retained its pristine 
 vio-our. If wise regulations, internal peace, mode- 
 rate taxes, a certain degree of political, and unre- 
 strained civil liberty, are sufficient to form the happi- 
 ness of a commonwealth, it must have been found in 
 the Roman. What a number of advantages did it 
 possess over every other, simply from its situation ! 
 Proofs of it appear on every side. A vigorous popu- 
 lation, rich provinces, flourishing and splendid cities, 
 and a lively internal and foreign trade. But the most 
 solid foundation of the happiness of a nation consists 
 in its moral greatness, and this we here seek for in 
 vain. Otherwise the nation would not so easily have 
 suffered itself to be brouglit under the yoke of Com- 
 modus by praetorian cohorts and the legions. But 
 what best shows the strength which the empire still 
 retained, is the opposition it continued to make, for 
 two hundred years longer, to the formidable attacks 
 from without. 
 
 D. II. HEGE\\^SCH upon the Epochs in Roman History most 
 favourable to Humanity. Hamburg, 1800 — 8. 
 
 Foreign commerce, so flourishing in this period, could only 
 be carried on, to any extent, with the East — mostly with India 
 — as the Roman empire spread over all the West. This trade 
 continued to be carried on through Egypt, and also through Pal- 
 myra and Syria. Information thereupon will be found in 
 
 W. Robertson's Disquisition concerning the Knoivledge 
 ivhich the Ancients had of India. London, 1791, 4to. Often 
 reprinted. And particularly upon Egypt, in 
 
 W. Vincent, the Periplus of the Erythrean Sea. London, 
 1802, 4to, 2 vols. A very instructive work. 
 
 Heeren, Commentationes de Grfecorum et Romanorum de 
 India, notitia, et cum Indis commerciis : in Commentat. Soc. 
 Gott. vol. X. xi. 
 
PERIOD IV ] FROM COMMODUS TO DIOCLETIAN. o49 
 
 SECOND SECTION. 
 
 From the death of Commodus to Diocletian, 
 A. C. 193—284. 
 
 Sources. The Extracts of Xiphilinus from Diox Cassius, Fourth 
 lib. Ixxiii. — Ixxx., though often imperfect, reach down as low as Period. 
 
 the consulate of Dion himself under Alexander Severus, 229. — 
 
 Herodiani Ilisf. libri viii. compri.se the period from Commodus 
 to Gordian, 180 — 238. — The Scriptures HistoricB Augiistce Mi- 
 nores contain the private lives of the emperors down to Diocle- 
 tian, by Julius CAnxoLiNus, Flavius Vopiscus, etc. — The 
 Breviaria Ilistorite Romance of Eutropius, Aurelius Victor, 
 and S. RuFUS, are particularly important for this period. — Fi- 
 nally, the important information that may be derived from the 
 study of medals and coins, not only for this section, but for the 
 whole history of the emperors, may be best learnt by consulting 
 the writers upon those subjects : J. Vaillant, Numismata Au- 
 gustorum et Ctpsarum, cura J. F. Balüino. Rome, 1743, 3 vols. 
 The MedalUc History of Imperial Rome, by W. Cooke. Lon- 
 don, 1781, 2 vols. — But al)ove all, the volumes belonging to 
 this period in Eckiiel, Doctrina Nummorum Veterum. 
 
 With the period of the Antonines begins the great work of 
 the British historian, 
 
 The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, ■ 
 by Edward Gibbon. Oxford, 1828, 8 vols. 8vo. In worth 
 and extent this work is superior to all others. It embraces the 
 whole period of the middle ages ; but only the first part belongs 
 to this period. 
 
 1. The extinction of the race of the Antonines by Pertinax, 
 the death of Commodus, was attended with convid- M^-'chYg 
 sions similar to those which took place when the i9^- 
 house of Caesar became extinct at the death of Nero. 
 It is true that P. Helvius Pertinax, aged sixty-seven, 
 praefect of the city, was raised to the throne by the 
 murderers of Commodus ; and that he was acknow- 
 ledged, first by the guards, and afterwards by the 
 senate. But the reform which he was obliged to 
 make at the beginning of his reign in the finances, 
 rendered him so odious to the soldiers and courtiers, 
 that a revolt of the first, excited by Laetus, cost him 
 his life before he had reigned quite three months. 
 This was the first commencement of that dreadful 
 military despotism which forms the ruling character 
 
350 ROMAN STATE. [look v. 
 
 Fourth of this period ; and to none did it become so terrible 
 ^^^^°°' as to those who wished to make it the main support 
 of their absohite power. 
 
 The insolence of the prtetorian guard liad risen very high 
 during the reign of Commodus ; but it had never, even in the 
 time of tlie Antonines, been entirely suppressed. It was only 
 by large donatives that their consent could be purchased, their 
 caprice satisfied, and their good humour maintained ; especially 
 at every new adoption. One of the greatest reproaches to the 
 age of the Antonines is, that those great princes, who seem to 
 have had the means so much in their power, did not free them- 
 selves from so annoying a dependence. 
 
 Jul. Capitolini Pertinax Imp. in Script. Hist. Aug. 
 
 Didias 2. When, upon the death of Pertinax, the rich and 
 
 juiiauus. profligate M. Didius Juhanus, aged fifty-seven, had 
 
 outbid, to the great scandal of the people, all his 
 
 competitors for the empire, and purchased it of the 
 
 praetorian guard, an insurrection of the legions, who 
 
 were better able to create emperors, very naturally 
 
 followed. But as the army of Illyria proclaimed 
 
 Septimius their genisral Septimius Severus, the army of Syria, 
 
 Severus, Pesccnnius Niffer, and the army of Britain, Albinus, 
 
 Ni-er, nothing; less than a series of civil wars could decide 
 
 All" 
 
 Aiumus. ^ ^1^^ should maintain himself on the throne. 
 
 JEh. Spartiani Didius Julianus, in Script. Hist. Aug. 
 
 3. Septimius Severus, however, aged 49 — 66, was 
 the first who got possession of Rome, and, after the 
 execution of Didius Julianus, he was acknowledged 
 by the senate. He dismissed, it is true, the old prse- 
 torian guard, but immediately chose, from his own 
 army, one four times more numerous in its stead. 
 And after he had provisionally declared Albinus em- 
 peror, he marched his army against Pescennius Ni- 
 ger, already master of the East, whom, after several 
 contests near the Issus, he defeated and slew. Never- 
 theless, having first taken and destroyed the strong 
 city of Byzantium, a war with Albinus soon followed, 
 whom the perfidious Severus had already attempted 
 to remove by assassination. After a bloody defeat 
 Albinus near Lyons, Albinus kills himself These civil wars 
 kills him- ^vere followed by hostilities against the Parthians, 
 
 sell, beb. "' Ö . . ' 
 
 19, 197. who had taken the part of Pescennius, and which 
 
PERIOD IV.] FROM COMMODUS TO DIOCLETIAN. 351 
 
 ended with the plundering of their principal cities I'qurth 
 (see above, p. 244). Severus possessed most of the __!__'_ 
 virtues of a soldier ; but the insatiable avarice of his 
 minister Plautianus, the formidable captain of the 
 praetorian guard, robbed the empire even of those 
 advantages which may be enjoyed under a military 
 government, until he was put to death at the instiga- 204. 
 tion of Caracalla. To keep his legions employed, 
 Severus undertook an expedition into Britain, where, 
 after extending the boundaries of the empire, he died 
 at York, (E/wracum,) leaving his son the maxim, " to 
 enrich the soldiers, and hold the rest for nothing." 
 
 Agricola had already erected a line of fortresses, probably 
 between the Firth of Clyde and the Firth of Forth. These 
 were changed by Adrian into a wall along the present bound- 
 aries of Scotland. Severus again extended the frontiers, re- 
 established the forti'esses of Agricola, and afterwards built a 
 wall from sea to sea ; his son, however, gave up the conquered 
 country, and the wall of Adrian again became the boundary of 
 the empire. 
 
 ^L. Spartiani Septlmms Severus et Pescetinias Niger. 
 
 Jul. Catitolini Claudius Albinus in Script. Hist. Aug. 
 
 4. The deadly hatred which reigned between the Caracaiia, 
 two sons of Severus, M. Aurelius Antoninus Bassi- ^^\- \ ^^^ 
 
 . — April 4, 
 
 anus Caracalla, aged 23 — 29, and his young step- 217. 
 brother Geta, aged twenty-one, led to a dreadful 
 catastrophe ; for at their return to Rome, and after a 
 fruitless proposition had been made for a division of 
 the empire, Geta was assassinated in the arms of his Geta mui- 
 mo.ther Julia Domna, together with all those who ^^^,^j^'4 
 were considered as his friends. The restless spirit 212. 
 of Caracalla, however, soon drew him from Rome, 
 and in traversing first the provinces along the Danube, 
 and then those of the East, he ruined them all by his 
 exactions and cruelty, to which be was driven for 
 money to pay his soldiers, and to purchase peace of 
 his enemies on the frontiers. The same necessity 
 led him to grant the right of citizenship to all the 
 provinces, that he might thereby gain the duty of 
 the vicesima hereditatum et manumisslonum, (twenti- 
 eth upon inheritances and enfranchisements,) which 
 he very soon afterwards changed into a tenth [clecima). 
 
352 ROMAN STATE. [book v. 
 
 Fourth — With respect to his foreign wars, his first was 
 ^'^^'°^- ao;ainst the Catti and Alemanni, among whom he re- 
 
 mained a long time, sometimes as a friend, and some- 
 
 215. times as an enemy. But his principal efforts, after' 
 having previously ordered a dreadful massacre of the 
 inhabitants of Alexandria, to satisfy his cruel ra- 
 
 216. pacity, were directed against the Parthians (see 
 above, p. 244) ; and in his wars against them he was 
 assassinated by Macrinus, the praefect of the praeto- 
 rian guard. 
 
 The praefect, or captain, of the prcetorian guard became, from 
 the time of Severus, the most impoi-tant officer in the state. Be- 
 sides the command of the guards, the finances were also under 
 his control, together with an extensive criminal jurisdiction. A 
 natural consequence of the continually increasing despotism. 
 
 JEiL. Spaktiani Atitoninus Caracalla et Ant. Geta, in 
 Script. Hist. Aug. 
 
 Macnnus, 5. His murdercr, M. Opelius Macrinus, aged 
 217— jlne fiftj-three, was recognised as emperor by the soldiers, 
 8,218. and forthwith acknowledged by the senate. He 
 immediately created his son, M. Opelius Diadumenus, 
 aged nine years, Caesar, and gave him the name of 
 Antoninus. He disgracefully terminated the war 
 against the Parthians by purchasing a peace, and 
 changed the dec una (tenth) of Caracalla again into 
 the vicesima (twentieth). However, while he still 
 remained in Asia, Bassianus Heliogabalus, grand- 
 nephew of Julia Domna, and high priest in the 
 temple of the Sun at Emesa, whom his mother gave 
 out for a son of Caracalla, was proclaimed emperor 
 by the legions, and after a combat with the guards, 
 subsequently to which Macrinus and his son lost 
 their lives, they raised him to the throne. 
 
 Msesa, the sister of Julia Domna, had two daughters, both 
 widows ; Soaemis, the eldest, was the mother of Heliogabalus, 
 and Mammasa, the youngest, the mother of Alexander Severus. 
 
 Jul. Capitolini Opelius Macrinus, in Script. Hist. Aug. 
 
 Heiiogaba- 6. Hcliogabalus, aged 14 — 18, who assumed the 
 j"une 8 additional name of M. Aurelius Antoninus, brought 
 218— ' with him from Syria the superstitions and volup- 
 222'''^ ^'' tuousness of that country. He introduced the wor- 
 ship of his god Heliogabal in Rome, and wallowed 
 
PERIOD IV.] FROM COMMODUS TO DIOCLETIAN. 353 
 
 openly in such brutal and infamous debaucheries, fourth 
 that, history can scarcely find a parallel to his disso- '^^'"°' 
 lute, shameless, and scandalous conduct. How low 
 must the morality of that age have been sunk, in 
 which a boy could so early have ripened into a 
 monster ! — The debasement of the senate, and of all 
 important offices, which he filled with the degraded 
 companions of his own lusts and vices, was system- 
 atically planned by him ; and he deserves no credit 
 even for the adoption of his cousin, the virtuous 
 Alexander Severus, as he shortly after endeavoured 
 to take away his life, but was himself for that reason 
 assassinated by the praetorian guards. 
 
 ^L. Lajvipridu Ant Heliogabalus, in Script. Hist. Aug. 
 
 7. His young cousin and successor, M. Aurelius Alexander 
 Alexander Severus, aged 14 — 27, who had been ji'uxh n 
 carefully educated under the direction of his mother 222— 
 Mammsea, proved one of the best princes in an age ^"°' ^^^' 
 and upon a throne where virtues were more dangerous 
 than vices. Under favour of his youth he endeavoured 
 to effect a reform, in which he was supported by the 
 co-operation of the guards, who had elevated him to 
 the throne. He restored the authority of the senate, 
 from among whom he chose, with rigid justice, his 
 privy council of state, banishing the creatures of 
 Heliogabalus from their places. The revolution in War against 
 the Parthian empire, out of which was now formed ^'""*'*' ^-*^- 
 the new Persian, was of so much importance to 
 Rome, that it obliged Alexander to undertake a war 
 against Artaxerxes, in which he was probably vie- 231—2.33. 
 torious. But while marching in haste to protect the 
 frontiers against the advance of the Germans upon 
 the Rhine, his soldiers, exasperated at the severity of 
 his discipline, and incited by the Thracian Maximin, 
 murdered him in his own tent. His praefect of the 235. 
 praetorian guard, Ulpian, had already, for the same 222. 
 cause, fallen a victim to this spirit of insubordination, 
 which was not checked even by the immediate pre- 
 sence of the emperor himself. 
 
 The revolution in Parthia, whereby a new Persian empire 
 was formed, (see above, p. 244,) became a source of almost per- 
 
 2 A 
 
354 ROMAN STATE. [book v. 
 
 Fourth petual war to Rome ; Artaxerxes I., and his successors, the 
 Period. Sassanides, claiming to be descendants of the ancient kings of 
 Persia, formed pretensions to the possession of all the Asiatic 
 provinces of the Roman empire. 
 
 ^Lil Lajipridii Alexander Severus, in Script. Hist Aug. 
 Heyne de Alexandro Severo Judicium, Comment, i. ii., in 
 Opuscula Academica, vol. vi. 
 
 Maximinus, g. The death of A. Severus raised military despot- 
 
 May,' 238. Jsm to the highcst pitch, as it placed on the throne 
 
 the half savage C. Julius Maximinus, by birth a 
 
 Thracian peasant. At first he continued the war 
 
 against the Germans with great success, repulsing 
 
 236. them beyond the Rhine ; and resolved, by crossing 
 
 237. Pannonia, to carry the war even among the Sarma- 
 tians. But his insatiable rapacity, which spared nei- 
 ther the capital nor the provinces, made him hateful 
 to all ; and Gordian, proconsul of Africa, in his 
 eightieth year, was, together with his son of the same 
 name, proclaimed Augustus by the people, and im- 
 mediately acknowledged by the senate. Upon this, 
 Maximinus, eager to take vengeance on the senate, 
 
 April, 238. marched directly from Sirmium towards Italy. In 
 the mean time, the legions of the almost defenceless 
 
 The Gor- Gordiaus were defeated in Africa, and themselves 
 slain by Capellianus the governor of Numidia. Not- 
 withstanding this, as the senate could expect no 
 mercy, they chose as co-emperors the prtefect of the 
 
 Baibinus city, Maximus Pupienus, and Clodius Balbinus, who, 
 
 nus. "^'^" ill conformity with the wishes of the people, created 
 the young Gordian III., Caesar. In the mean while 
 Maximinus, having besieged Aquileia, and the enter- 
 prise proving unsuccessful, was slain by his own 
 troops. Pupienus and Balbinus now seemed in quiet 
 possession of the throne ; but the guards, who had 
 already been engaged in a bloody feud with the peo- 
 ple, and were not willing to receive an emperor of the 
 senate's choosing, killed them both, and proclaimed 
 as Augustus, Gordian, already created Caesar. 
 
 Jul. Capitolini Maximinus Gordiani tres, Pupienus et Bal- 
 
 ^ ,. binus, in Script. Hist. August. 
 
 Gordian ^ ^ 
 
 iTi., July, 9^ Xhe reign of the young M. Antoninus Gordia- 
 244. ^ ' nus lasted from his twelfth to his eighteenth year. 
 
PERIOD IV.] FROM COMiMODUS TO DIOCLETIAN. 355 
 
 He was grandson of the proconsul who had lost his Fourth 
 life in Africa, and in the early part of his reign, ac- 
 
 quired a degree of firmness from the support of his 
 father-in-law, Misitheus, prsefect of the prsetorian Syrian ex- 
 guard, as well as from the successful expedition which ^4j!!l24'5 
 he undertook into Syria against the Persians, who 
 had invaded that province. But after the death of 
 Misitheus, Philip the Arabian, being made preefect 
 of the guards in his stead, found means to gain the 
 troops over to himself, and, after driving Gordian 
 from the throne, caused him to be assassinated. 
 
 10. The reign of M. Julius Phihppus was inter- Phiiippns, 
 rupted by several insurrections, especially in Panno- sept'/oli" 
 nia ; until at length Decius, whom he himself had 
 
 sent thither to quell the rebellion, was compelled by 
 the troops to assume the diadem. Philip was soon 
 after defeated by him near Verona, where he perished, 
 together with his son of the same name. In this 
 reign the secular games, liidi sceculares, were cele- 
 brated, one thousand years from the foundation of 
 the city. 
 
 11. Under the reign of his successor, Traj anus 247. 
 Decius, aged fifty, the Goths for the first time forced Sept., 249 
 their way into the Roman empire by crossing the ^q'^^'^^'' 
 Danube ; and although Decius in the beginning op- 
 posed them with success, he was at last slain by them 
 
 in Thrace, together with his son, CI. Herennius De- 
 cius, already created Caesar. Upon this the army 
 proclaimed C. Trebonianus Gallus emperor, who Gaiius. 
 created his son, Volusian, Caesar ; and having invited 
 Hostilian, the yet remaining son of Decius, with the 
 ostensible purpose of securing his co-operation, he 
 nevertheless soon contrived to get rid of him. He 
 purchased a peace of the Goths ; but, despised by 
 his generals, he became involved in a war with his 
 victorious lieutenant, iEmilius ^milianus, in Moesia, ^miiianus, 
 and was slain, together with his son, by his own army. ^^''J' ^•^"*- 
 In tln-ee months, however, iEmilianus shared the 
 same fate ; Publius Licinius Valerianus, the friend 
 and avenger of Gallus, advancing against him with 
 the legions stationed in Gaul, Both the people and 
 2 A 2 
 
356 ROMAN STATE. [book v. 
 
 Fourth army hoped to see the empire restored under Valerian, 
 
 L. already sixty years of a^-e ; but, although his generals 
 
 Valerian, defended the frontiers against the Germans and Goths, 
 he himself had the misfortune to be defeated and taken 
 prisoner by the superior forces of the Persians. Upon 
 this event his son and associate in the empire, P. Li- 
 Gaiiienus, ciuius Gallicnus, who knew every thing except the 
 259— 2t)8. ^^^ Q^- governing, reigned alone. Under his indo- 
 lent rule the Roman empire seemed on one hand 
 ready to be spUt into a number of small states, while 
 on the other it seemed about to fall a prey to the 
 barbarians ; for the lieutenants in most of the pro- 
 vinces declared themselves independent of a prince 
 whom they despised, and to which, indeed, they were 
 driven, like Posthumius in Gaul, for their own se- 
 curity. — There were nineteen of these ; but as many 
 of them named their sons Caesars, this period has 
 been very improperly distinguished by the name of 
 the thirty tijrants, although their intolerable oppres- 
 sions might well justify the latter expression. The 
 Persians at the same time were victorious in the East, 
 and the Germans in the West. 
 
 The German nations which were now become so formidable 
 to the Roman empire, were : 1. The great confederation of tribes 
 under the name of Franks, who spread over Gaul along the 
 whole extent of the Lower Rhine. 2. The allied nations of the 
 Alemanni on the Upper Rhine. 3. The Goths, the most power- 
 ful of all, who had formed a monarchy upon the banks of the 
 Lower Danube and the northern coasts of the Black Sea, which 
 soon extended from the Boristhenes to the Don ; and who be- 
 came formidable, not only by their land forces, but also by their 
 naval power, especially after they had captured the peninsula of 
 Grim Tai'tary (C/iersonesus Taurica) ; and by means of their 
 fleets they not only kept the Grecian, but likewise the Asiatic 
 provinces in a continual state of alarm. 
 
 Trebelli Pollionis Valerianus, GalUeni duo, triginta ty- 
 ranni, in Script. Hist. Aug. 
 
 I Concerning the thirty tyrants under the Roman emperor 
 Gallienus, by J. C. F. Manso ; at the end of his Life of Con- 
 stantine. 
 
 Claudius, 12. Gallienus losing his life before Milan, in the 
 
 — Oct^''z7ü. war against Aureolus, a usurper, had nevertheless re- 
 commended M. Aurelius Claudius (aged 45 — 47) 
 for his successor. The new Augustus re-established 
 
PEiiioD IV.] FROM COMMODUS TO DIOCLETIAN. 357 
 
 in some degree the tottering empire ; not only by Fourth 
 
 taking Aureolus prisoner and defeating the Ale- ! L 
 
 manni, but also by a decisive victory gained at Nissa 
 over the Goths, w^ho had invaded Moesia. He died, 269. 
 however, soon after, at Sirmium, of a pestilential dis- 
 ease, naming for his successor Aurelian, a hero like 
 himself, who mounted the throne upon the death of 
 Quintillusthe late emperor s brother, who had at first 
 proclaimed himself Augustus, but afterwards died by 
 his own hand. 
 
 Tkebellii Pollionis divus Claudius, in Script. Hist. Aug. 
 
 13. During the reign of L. Domitius Aurelianus, Aureiiaii, 
 which lasted almost five years, those countries which Mar^h, W. 
 had been partly or entirely lost to the empire were 
 restored. Having first driven back the Goths and 
 the Alemanni, who had advanced as far as Umbria, 
 he undertook his expedition against the celebrated 
 Zenobia, queen of Palmyra, who at that time possess- 271. 
 ed Syria, Egypt, and part of Asia Minor. These 
 countries he again brought under the dominion 
 of the empire, after having defeated Zenobia and Zenobia de- 
 made her prisoner. The western provinces of Gaul, ^Jj" ,"''•! 
 Britain, and Spain, which since the time of Gallienus s°'^e'> -"^ 
 had been governed by separate rulers, and were '" 
 now under the dominion of Tetricus, he reduced 274. 
 to their former obedience. Dacia, on the contrary, 
 he willingly abandoned ; and as he transported the 
 Roman inhabitants across the Danube into Moesia, 
 the latter henceforward bore the name of Dacia Aure- 
 liani. Hated for his severity, which in a warrior so 
 easily degenerates into cruelty, he was assassinated 
 in Illyria at the instigation of his private secretary 275. 
 Mnestheus. 
 
 Flav. Vopisci divus Aurelianus in Script. Hist. Aug. 
 
 Palmyra in the Syrian desert, enriched by the Indian trade, 
 and one of the most ancient cities in the workl, became a Roman 
 colony in the time of Trajan. Odenatus, the husband of Zeno- 
 bia, had acquired so much celebrity by his victories over the 
 Persians, that Gallienus had even named him Augustus vv^ith 
 himself. He was murdered, however, by his cousin Ma^onius, 
 267. Zenobia now took possession of the government for her 
 sons Vabalathus, Herennianus, and Timolaus, without, however, 
 
358 ROMAN STATE. [book v. 
 
 Fourth being acknowledged at Rome. After this, in the time of Clau- 
 
 Period. dixis, she added Egypt to her dominions. Aurelian, having first 
 
 defeated her near Antioch and Emesa, soon afterwards took 
 
 Palmyra, which, in consequence of a revolt, he destroyed. — 
 
 Even in its ruins Palmyra is still magnificent. 
 
 The Ruins of Palmyra, by R. Woou, London, 1753 ; and 
 the Ruins of Balbec, otherwise Heliopolis, by the same author, 
 London, 1757, give us clear and certain ideas of the splendour 
 and magnitude of these cities. 
 
 A. H. L. Heeren, de Commercio urbis Pahnyrce vicinarum- 
 que urhium in Comment, recent. Soc. Gotting. vol. vii., and the 
 Appendix to Heeren's Researches. 
 
 Tacitus, 14. j^n interregnum of six months followed upon 
 
 275— ~ * the death of Aurelian, till at length the senate, at 
 April, 276. ^}jg repeated solicitations of the army, ventured to fill 
 up the vacant throne. The object of their choice, 
 however, M. Claudius Tacitus, the worthiest of the 
 senators, was unfortunately seventy-five years old, 
 and perished after a short reign of six months, in an 
 expedition against the Goths. Upon this event the 
 army of Syria raised M. Aurelius Probus to the 
 purple ; while Florianus the brother of Tacitus, who 
 had already been acknowledged at Rome, was put 
 to death by his own people. 
 
 Flav. Vopisci Tacitus; ejusd. Florianus, in Script. Hist. 
 Aug. 
 
 Probus, 15. The six years' reign of Probus was a warlike 
 
 — Au'-ust, one. He defeated the Germans, and forced them 
 2b2. beyond the Rhine and Danube ; strengthening the 
 
 278* frontiers by building a strong wall from the Danube, 
 near Regensburg, to the Rhine. He also obliged 
 the Persians to make peace. Nevertheless, the 
 number of towns which he re-established and peo- 
 pled with prisoners of war, and the vineyards which 
 he caused his soldiers to plant on the Rhine, are 
 proofs that he had taste and inclination for the arts 
 of peace. This policy, however, would not suit the 
 legions ! After he had perished, therefore, by the 
 hands of his soldiers, they proclaimed the praefect of 
 Carus, the praetorian guard, M. Aurelius Cams, emperor, 
 Aug., 282. ^iiQ created his two sons Caesars — men very unlike 
 each other in disposition, M. Aurelius Carinus being 
 
FEuioD IV.] FROM COMMODUS TO DIOCLETIAN. 359 
 
 one of the greatest reprobates, while M. Aurelius fourth 
 
 Numerianus was gentle by nature, and had a mind well '_ 
 
 formed by study. The new emperor, having defeat- 
 ed the Goths, marched against the Persians, but was 
 shortly afterwards killed, it is said, by a flash of light- Aug., 283. 
 ning. Nor did his son Numerianus long survive 
 him, being murdered by his own father-in-law, Arrius 284. 
 Aper, the praetorian prsefect. 
 
 Flav. Vorisci Probus imper. ejusd. Cams, Numerianus et 
 Carinus, in Script. Hist. Aug. 
 
 16. Although this period gives us a finished pic- Review of 
 ture of a complete military despotism, it is still evi- menrdur"' 
 dent that this was owing to the entire separation of iugthis 
 the military order from the rest of the people, by the ^''^" 
 introduction of standing armies, and the extinction of 
 
 all national spirit among the citizens. The legions 
 decided because the people were unarmed. It was, 
 indeed, only among them, situated far from the soft 
 luxuries of the capital, and engaged in almost a con- 
 tinual struggle with the barbarians, that a remnant 
 of the ancient Roman character was still preserved. 
 The nomination of their leaders to the purple became 
 a natural consequence, not only of the uncertainty of 
 the succession, which could not be fixed by mere 
 ordinances, but often of necessity, from their being 
 in the field under the pressure of urgent circum- 
 stances. Thus a succession of disting-uished generals 
 came to the throne : what authority, indeed, would 
 an emperor at that time have had who was not a 
 general? All durable reform, however, was rendered 
 quite impossible by the quick succession of rulers. 
 Even tlie best among them could do but very little 
 for the internal administration ; as all their energies 
 were required to protect the frontiers, and defend 
 themselves against usurpers, who, with the exception 
 of the formality of being acknowledged by the senate, 
 had claims as well founded as their own. 
 
 17. The decline of the empire also became so Luxury 
 much the more rapid, in proportion as in these days decUneof^ 
 of terror luxury had increased not only in the splen- the empire, 
 dour and profligate effeminacy of private life, but 
 
360 
 
 ROMAN STATE. 
 
 [book V, 
 
 Fourth 
 Period. 
 
 Progress 
 and effects 
 of the 
 Christian 
 religion. 
 
 more particularly in public, to a pitch almost beyond 
 belief. The latter was especially shown in the exhi- 
 bitions of the amphitheatre and circus ; by which not 
 only every new ruler, but even every new magistrate, 
 was obliged to purchase the favour of the people. 
 Thus these remnants of a free constitution served 
 only to accelerate the general ruin ! What enjoy- 
 ments, indeed, could be found under the rod of des- 
 potism, except those of the grossest sensuality ; and 
 to satisfy this the intellectual amusements of the the- 
 atre, (mimes and pantomimes,) and even those of 
 rhetoric and poetry, were made to contribute. 
 
 18. Yet, during this general decay, the gradual 
 spread of the Christian religion was working a reform 
 altogether of a different nature. Before the end of 
 this period it had opened itself a way into every pro- 
 vince, and, notwithstanding the frequent persecutions, 
 had made converts in every rank of society, and was 
 now on the eve of becoming the predominant form 
 of worship. We shall be better able to estimate its 
 value, if we consider it as the vehicle by which civil- 
 ization made its way among the rude nations that 
 now appeared on the scene, than if we merely con- 
 sider it as the means of improving the manners and 
 morals of the Roman world. In a political view it 
 became of the greatest importance on account of the 
 hierarchy, the framework of which was now in a 
 great measure constructed among its professors. It 
 was afterwards adopted as a state religion ; and al- 
 though the ancient creed of Rome had formerly been 
 on the same footing, yet it was only calculated for 
 the republic, and not at all for the now existing mon- 
 archy. The overthrow of paganism was necessarily 
 attended with some violent convulsions, yet its loss 
 was nothing to be compared with the support which 
 the throne afterwards found in the hierarchy. 
 
 The dispersion of the Jews, and especially the persecutions 
 which were renewed from time to time after the reign of Nero, 
 (but which only served to kindle enthusiasm,) strongly co-oper- 
 ated in spreading the Christian religion. These persecutions 
 were principally called forth against the Christians on account 
 of their forming themselves into a separate society, which 
 
PERIOD XV.] FROM DIOCLETIAN TO A. C. 476. 361 
 
 caused them to be regarded as a dangerous sect at Rome, not- Fourth 
 withstanding the general toleration granted to every other sys- Pkriod. 
 tem of religious belief. Although towards the end of this period, 
 only a very small proportion of the inhabitants of the Roman 
 empire as yet professed the Christian faith, it nevertheless had 
 followers in every province. 
 
 ■j" History of the Social Constitution of the Christian Church, 
 by D. G. J. Planck, 4 parts, 1800. It is the first part of this 
 excellent work which relates to this period. 
 
 THIRD SECTION. 
 
 From Diocletian to the overthrow of the Roman empire in 
 the West, A. C. 284—476. 
 
 Sources. It now becomes of importance to inquire whether 
 the historians were Christians or pagans. ZosiMUS, the imi- 
 tator of Polybius, belonged to the last. He describes the fall 
 of the Roman state, as his model does the previous part. Of 
 his Histories only five books and a half, to the time of Gratian, 
 410, have descended to us. He was certainly a violent anta- 
 gonist of the Christians, yet, nevertheless, the best writer of this 
 period. — Ammiani Marcellini Historiarum, lib. xiv. — xxxi., 
 from the year 353 — 378 (the first thirteen books are lost). 
 Probably a Christian, but yet no flatterer ; and, notwithstand- 
 ing his tiresome prolixity, highly instructive. Together with 
 the writers of general history already noticed at p. 348, we must 
 here especially add to the abbreviators, Pauli Orosii Hist. lib. 
 vii. and Zonar^ Annates. The Panegyrici Veteres, from Di- 
 ocletian to Theodosius, can only be used with circumspection. 
 — The writers of church history, such as Eusebius, in his Hist. 
 Eccles. lib. X., and in his Vita Constantini Magni, lib. v., as 
 well as his continuators, Socrates, Theodoret, Sozomenus, 
 and EvAGRius, are also highly important for the political history 
 of this pei'iod, though, fi-om their partiality towards the Chris- 
 tian emperors, they should ratlier be classed with the panegy- 
 rists than the historians. To these may be added another prin- 
 cipal source, viz., the Constitutions of the emperors, which have 
 been preserved in the Codex Theodosianus and Justinianeiis, 
 from the time of Constantine the Great. 
 
 Besides the works quoted at pages 328, 348, the Byzantine 
 historians here become of importance. We shall mention also, 
 
 Histoire du Bas-Empire depuis Constantin, par M. le Beau, 
 continuee par M. Ajieilhon. Paris, 1824, 20 vols. 8vo. The 
 first seven parts only belong to this period. 
 
 f The German translation of Guthrie and Gray's Universal 
 
362 
 
 ROMAN STATE. 
 
 [ BOOK V. 
 
 Fourth 
 Period. 
 
 Diocletian, 
 Sept. 17, 
 284— May 
 1, 305. 
 
 Carinua, 
 t 28.3. 
 
 Maximian 
 associated 
 ill the go- 
 vernment, 
 286. 
 
 Carausius, 
 288—293. 
 
 Galerius 
 and Ciilorus 
 created 
 Cffisars, 
 292. 
 
 History, 5 sections, 1 vol. Leipsic, 1768. Rendered very useful 
 by the labours of Ritter. 
 
 Histoire du Bas-Empire, depuis Constantin jusqu^ d la prise 
 de Constantinople en 1453, joar Carentin Royou, Paris, 1803, 
 4 vols. 8vo. A useful abridgement, without much research. 
 
 1. The reign of C. Valerius Diocletian, aged 39 — 
 60, proclaimed emperor after the murder of Nume- 
 rianus, by the troops in Chalcedon, begins a new 
 section in Roman history. To the period of military 
 despotism succeeded the period of partitions. After 
 Diocletian had defeated Carinus, the yet remaining 
 Caesar, in Upper Moesia, where he was assassinated, 
 he made M, Valerius Maximianus Herculius, a rough 
 warrior who had hitherto been his comrade in arms, 
 the sharer of his throne, Herculius now contended 
 with the Alemanni and Burgundians on the banks of 
 the Rhine, while Diocletian himself made head against 
 the Persians. Nevertheless, the two Augusti soon 
 found themselves unable to withstand the barbarians, 
 who were pressing forward on every side, more espe- 
 cially as Carausius had usurped and maintained the 
 title of Csesar in Britain. Each of them, therefore, 
 created a Caesar: Diocletian chose C. Galerius, and 
 Maximianus Flavins Constantius Chlorus, both of 
 whom had distinguished themselves as generals, at 
 that time the only road to advancement. The whole 
 empire was now divided between these four rulers ; 
 so that each had certain provinces to govern and de- 
 fend ; without detriment, however, to the unity of 
 the whole, or to the dependence in which a Caesar 
 stood as the subordinate assistant and future successor 
 of his Augustus. 
 
 In the partition, 292, Diocletian possessed the eastern pro- 
 vinces ; Galerius, Thrace, and the countries on the Danube 
 (Illyricum) ; Maximianus, Italy, Africa, and the islands ; and 
 Constantius, the western provinces of Gaul, Spain, Britain, and 
 Mauritania. 
 
 2. This new system could not but have a striking 
 effect upon the spirit of the government. It was 
 now not only in fact, but also in form, entirely in the 
 hands of the rulers. By their continual absence from 
 Rome they became freed from that moral restraint in 
 
PERIOD IV.] FROM DIOCLETIAN TO A. C. 476. 363 
 
 which the authority of the senate, and the name of Fourth 
 the republic, not yet entirely laid aside, had held be- ^^'^'°°' 
 fore them. Diocletian formally assumed the diadem, 
 and, with the ornaments of the East, introduced its 
 luxuries into his court. Thus was laid the founda- 
 tion of that structure which Constantine the Great 
 had to complete. 
 
 3. The consequences of this new system became 
 also oppressive to the provinces, inasmuch as they 
 had now to maintain four rulers, with their courts, 
 and as many armies. But however loud might be 
 the complaints of the oppression occasioned tliereby, 
 it was, perhaps, the only means of deferring the final 
 overthrow of the whole edifice. In fact, they suc- 
 ceeded not only in defeating the usurpers, Alectus in 296. 
 Britain, (who had murdered Carausius in 293,) Julian 293—296. 
 in Africa, and Acliilleus in Egypt ; but also in de- 
 fending the frontiers, which, indeed, by the victories 
 
 of Galerius over the Persians, they extended as far 
 as tlie Tigris. Did not, however, the gloomy per- 
 spective present itself, that among so many rulers, 
 and the undefined relations which existed between 
 the Caesars and the emperors, the union could not be 
 of long continuance ? 
 
 4. Diocletian voluntarily abdicated the throne, 
 (although the growing power and encroaching dis- 
 position of Galerius might perhaps have had some 
 influence,) and obliged his colleague Maximianus 
 
 to do the same. The two Caesars, Constantius and Const-m- 
 Galerius, were proclaimed Augusti, and altered the äoi'.'^^''~ 
 division of the empire, so that the former possessed paierius, 
 all the western countries, of which, however, he freely ''^ 
 ceded Italy and Africa to Galerius, who had all the 
 remaining provinces. The latter, during the same 
 year, created Flavins Severus, Csesar, and confided 
 to him the government of Italy and Africa; as he 
 did also C. Galerius Maximin, to whom he gave the 
 Asiatic provinces. The administration of the two 
 emperors, however, was very different ; Constantius 
 was as much beloved for his mild and disinterested 
 government, as Galerius was hated for his harshness 
 
364 ROMAN STATE. [book v. 
 
 Fourth and prodigality. Constantius died very soon after at 
 ^'^^'°"' York, leaving his son Constantine heir to his do- 
 
 22, 337. 
 
 minions, who was immediately proclaimed Augustus 
 by the legions, although Galerius would only acknow- 
 ledge him as Csesar, 
 Constantine 5. Thus Constautinc, who afterwards obtained the 
 j!d)^2T^' surname of Great, began to rule, aged 33 — 64, 
 306— May though at first only over Britain, Spain, and Gaul ; 
 nevertheless, after seventeen years of violence and 
 warfare, he succeeded in opening himself a way to 
 the sole dominion of the empire. The rulers dis- 
 agreed among themselves; and formidable usurpers 
 started up and rendered war inevitable. 
 
 The history of the first seven years of Constantine, 306 — 313, 
 is very complicated ; after that he had only one rival to strug- 
 gle with, 314 — 323. At his accession, Galerius, as Augustus, 
 was in possession of all the other provinces ; of which, however, 
 he had given to Csesar Maximin the government of those of 
 Asia, and to Caesar Severus, now created Augustus, Italy and 
 Africa. The latter, however, rendering himself odious by his 
 oppression, Maxentius, the son of the former emperor, Maxi- 
 mianus, assumed the title of Augustus at Rome, (Oct. 28, 306,) 
 and associated his father with himself in the government ; so 
 that at this time there were six rulers : Galerius, Severus, Con- 
 stantine, Maximin, and the usurpers Maxentius and his father 
 Maximianus. But in the year 307, Severus, wishing to oppose 
 Maxentius, was abandoned by his own troops, upon which he 
 surrendered himself to Maximianus, who caused him to be exe- 
 cuted. In his place Galerius created his friend Licinius Au- 
 gustus ; and Maximin obtained the same dignity from his army 
 in Asia. In the mean time, Maximianus, after having endea- 
 voured to supplant his own son in Rome, fled to Constantine, 
 who had crossed over into Gaul and there defeated the Franks, 
 306 ; but having made an attempt upon the life of Constantine, 
 who had married his daughter Fausta, that emperor caused him 
 to be put to death, 310. As the excesses of Galerius soon 
 brought him to the grave, 311, there only remained Constantine, 
 Licinius, and Maximin, and the usurper Maxentius. The latter 
 was soon defeated and slain, 312, before the gates of Rome, by 
 Constantine, who thereby became master of Italy and the capital. 
 A war having broken out about the same time between Maximin 
 and Licinius, Maximin was defeated near Adrianople, and then 
 killed himself, 313. The year 314 brought on a war between 
 the two remaining emperors, Constantine and Licinius, which, 
 however, ended the same year in an accommodation, by which 
 Constantine obtained all the countries on the south bank of the 
 Danube, as well as Thrace and Mcesia Inferior ; it broke out 
 
PERIOD IV.] FROM DIOCLETIAN TO A. C. 476. 365 
 
 again, however, in 322, and was finally terminated by a decisive Fourth 
 victory in Bitbynia, and tbe total overthrow of Licinius, whom Period. 
 Constantine put to death, 324. 
 
 6. However opposite may be the opinions formed 
 respecting the reign of Constantine the Great, its 
 consequences are perfectly plain. Although he an- 
 nihilated military despotism, he established in its 
 stead, if not completely, yet in great measure, the 
 despotism of the court, and likewise the power of the 
 hierarchy. He had already, during his expedition 
 against Maxentius, decided in favour of the Chris- 
 tian religion ; and since he thereby gained a vast 
 number of partisans in all the provinces, and weak- 
 ened at the same time the power of his co-emperors, 
 or competitors, it was the surest way he could have 
 taken to obtain sole dominion, the great object of his 
 ambition. This change must nevertheless have had 
 very considerable influence on every part of the go- 
 vernment, as he found in the previously established 
 hierarchy a powerful support of the throne ; and since 
 he, in concert with it, settled what was and what was 
 not tlie orthodox doctrine, he introduced a spirit of 
 persecution heretofore unknown. 
 
 At a period in which religious parties must almost necessarily 
 have become political parties, we can by no means venture to 
 judge of the importance of the sect by the importance of their 
 points of doctrine. The quarrels of the Arians, which arose at 
 tliis time, gave Constantine, by the council of Nice, 325, the 
 opportunity ho wished for, of making good his authority in re- 
 ligious legislation. 
 
 7. The removal of the seat of empire from Rome 
 to Constantinople was connected with this change in 
 the form of worship — as a Christian court would have 
 been awkwardly situated in a city still altogether pa- 
 gan — although the need there was of protecting the 
 frontiers a2:ainst the Goths and Persians had a con- 
 siderable share therein. It did, indeed, become the 
 principal means of establishing the despotism of the 
 court ; but those who regard it as one of tlie causes of 
 the decline of the empire, should remember, that for 
 an empire fallen so low as the Roman was at this time, 
 despotism was almost the only support that remained. 
 
366 ROMAN STATE. [book v. 
 
 Fourth The various partitions of the empire from the time of Diocle- 
 Period. tian, had led the way to this change of the capital ; because a 
 
 natural result of that system was, that the emperors and Ctesars, 
 
 when not with the army as they usually were, Avould reside in 
 ditferent cities. The seat of Diocletian's government was at Ni- 
 comedia ; of Maximian's, at Milan ; even Constantine himself 
 remained but very little at Rome. In these new residences they 
 felt themselves unfettered ; and therefore, although the Roman 
 senate existed till after the time of Constantine, its authority 
 must have fallen of itself from the time of Diocletian. 
 
 8. We ought not, therefore, to wonder that the 
 consequence of this removal was so complete a 
 change in the whole form of government, that after 
 a short time it seemed to be altogether a different 
 state. A partition of the empire was made, which, 
 though it might in part have been founded on those 
 which had previously existed, was yet so different, 
 that it not only changed the ancient divisions of the 
 provinces, but completely altered their mode of go- 
 vernment. — The court, with the exception of poly- 
 gamy, assumed entirely the form of an eastern court. 
 — A revolution also had taken place in the military 
 system, by the complete separation of the civil and 
 military authorities, which the praetorian prsefects had 
 hitherto possessed, but who now became merely civil 
 governors. 
 
 According to the new division, the whole empire was divided 
 into four prcefectures, each of which had its dioceses, and each 
 diocese its provinces. The prgefectures were : I. The eastern 
 (prcefectura Orientis); it contained five dioceses; 1. Orientis; 
 2. jhgijpti; 3. AsicB ; 4. Ponti ; 5. Thracice ; forming alto- 
 gether forty-eight provinces, and comprising all the countries of 
 Asia and Egypt, together with the frontier countries of Libya 
 and Thrace. II. Prcefectura lUyrici, containing two dioceses ; 
 1. Macedofiice; 2. DacicB ; forming eleven provinces, and com- 
 prising Mcesia, Macedon, Greece, and Crete. III. Prcefectura 
 ItalicB, containing three dioceses; 1. ItalicB ; 2. lllyrici; 3. 
 AfriccB; forming twenty-nine provinces, and comprising Italy, 
 the countries on the south of the Danube, as far as the bounda- 
 ries of Moesia ; the islands of Sicily, Sardinia, and Corsica, and 
 the African provinces of the Syrtis. IV. Prcefectura Galli- 
 arum, containing three dioceses; 1. Gallice ; 2. HispanicB ; 3. 
 BritannicB; forming altogether twenty-eight provinces, and 
 comprising Spain and the Balearian islands, Gaul, Helvetia, 
 and Britain. — Each of these prsefectures was under a prcefectus 
 prcEtorio, (praetorian pra3fect,) but who was merely a civil go- 
 
PERioE IV.] FROM DIOCLETIAN TO A. C. 476. 367 
 
 vernor, and had under him vicarios, in the dioceses, as well as Fourth 
 the rectores provinciarum, of various ranks and titles. They Period. 
 were named proconsules prcesides, etc. Besides these, Rome 
 and Constantinople, not being included in any of the four prte- 
 fectures, had each its prtefect. 
 
 As principal officers of statSe and the court, (s. cubiculi,) we 
 now for the first time meet with the prcepositiis s. cubiculi, 
 (grand-chamberlain,) under whom were all the comites palatii 
 and cubicularii, in four divisions ; these, at a later period, were 
 frequently eunuchs of great influence ; the magister ojficiorum 
 (chancellor, minister of the interior) ; the comes sacrarutn laryi- 
 tiorum (minister of the finances) ; the qucestor (the organ of the 
 emperors in legislation ; minister of justice and secretary of 
 state) ; the comes rei principis (minister of the crown-treasury) 
 [privy-purse] ; the two comites domesticorum, (commander of 
 the household guards,) each of whom had his corps (sc/iolas) 
 under him. The number of the state officers and courtiers was 
 continually increasing. If the good of a commonwealth con- 
 sisted in forms, ranks, and titles, the Roman empire must at 
 this time have been truly happy ! 
 
 At the head of the troops were the magistri peditum. (masters 
 of the infantry) and the magistri equitum, (masters of the horse,) 
 under the magister utriusque militce (general in chief of the 
 whole army). Their subordinate commanders were called co- 
 mites and duces. Constantine considerably reduced the army. 
 In the arrangement of the troops he also made great alterations ; 
 these, however, were but of slight consequence compared with 
 that which was produced by admitting into the service a con- 
 tinually increasing number of barbai'ians. 
 
 Notitia dignitatem utriusque Imperii cum not. Pancirolu 
 Gr^v. Thesaur. Antiquität. Horn. vol. vii. 
 
 9. It would naturally be expected that these great Taxes, 
 changes should lead to others in the system of tax- 
 ation. New taxes, or old ones revived, were added 
 to those already existino-, and became, by the manner 
 in which they were collected, doubly oppressive. 
 We shall particularly notice, a. The annual land-tax 
 (indictio). h. The tax upon trade (aurum lustrak). 
 c. The free gift, {don. gratiiit.,) now grown into an 
 obligatory tax (aurum coronarium). To these we 
 must add the municipal expenses, which fell entirely 
 upon the citizens, and especially upon the civic of- 
 ficers, (decuriones,) places which must have been 
 generally held by the rich, as Constantine had in 
 great measure appropriated the wealth of the cities to 
 the endowment of churches, and the support of the 
 clergy. 
 
368 
 
 ROMAN STATE. 
 
 [book v. 
 
 Fourth 
 Period. 
 
 Spread of 
 the Chris- 
 tian reli- 
 gion. 
 
 Constan- 
 tine, Con- 
 stantius, 
 and Con- 
 stans. 
 
 a. The land-tax, or indiction, which if not first introduced by 
 Constantine, was entirely regulated under him, was collected 
 after an exact register, or public valuation, of all the landed 
 estates. Its amount was yearly fixed and prescribed by the 
 emperor, {indicebatur,) and levied by the rectors of provinces 
 and the decurions ; an arbitrary standard {caput) being taken 
 as the rate of assessment. 
 
 As this register was probably reviewed every fifteen years, it 
 gave rise to the cycle of indictions of fifteen years, wliich be- 
 came the common era, beginning from September 1, 312. In 
 this manner the tax included all those who were possessed of 
 property, b. The tax on commerce ; which was levied on al- 
 most every kind of trade. It was collected every four years, 
 whence the aurum lustrale. c. The aurum coronarium grew 
 out of the custom which obtained of presenting the emperors 
 with golden crowns on particular occasions ; the value of which 
 was at last exacted in money. Every considerable city was 
 obliged to pay it. 
 
 10. The rapid spread of the Christian rehgion, the 
 promulgation of which was enforced as a duty upon 
 all its professors, was now accelerated by the endea- 
 vours of the court. Constantine forbade sacrifices, 
 and shut up the temples ; and the violent zeal of his 
 successors unfortunately soon turned them into ruins. 
 
 Histoire de Constantin-le- Grand, par le R. P. Bern, de Va- 
 EENNE. Paris, 1778, 4to. 
 
 Vita di Constantino il Grande deW Abb. Fr. Gusta. Fu- 
 ligno, 1786. Both these works, especially the first, are written 
 in a tone of panegyric ; the latest, and by far the l)est, is 
 
 t Life of Constantine the Great, by J. C. F. Manso. Bresl. 
 1817. With several very learned appendixes, which clear up 
 some particular points. 
 
 11. The three Caesars and sons of Constantine the 
 Great, Constantine, 337 — 340 ; Constantius, 337 — 
 361 ; and Constans, 337 — 350; had been carefully 
 educated, and yet resembled one another as much in 
 their vices as they did in their names. They indeed 
 divided the empire again upon the death of their 
 father ; but were so eager after territory, which nei- 
 ther of them was qualified to govern, that a series of 
 wars followed for the next twelve years, till at last 
 Constantius was left master of the whole ; and by the 
 murder of most of his relations secured the throne to 
 himself. 
 
 In the partition of the empire Constantine obtained the prce- 
 
PERIOD IV.] FROM DIOCLETIAN TO A. C. 476. 369 
 
 fectura Galliurum, Constans the prafecfura Italice et Illyrici, Fourth 
 and Constantius the prcpfectura Orientis. But as Constantine Period. 
 desired to add Italy and Africa to his portion, he attacked Con- 
 stans, and thereby lost his life, so that Constans came into the 
 possession of the western countries. In consequence, however, 
 of his wretched misgovernment, Magnentius, a genei-al, pro- 
 claimed himself emperor in Gaul, and Constans was slain in en- 
 deavouring to escape, 350. A war with Constantius, who was 
 then occupied in the East, became inevitable, and broke out 351. 
 The usurper was defeated first at IMursa in Pannonia, then re- 
 treating into Gaul he was again defeated, 353 ; upon which he 
 slew himself, together with his family. 
 
 12. As Constantius, however — sunk in effeminacy Constantius 
 and debauchery, and surrounded and governed by ''^°"'^- 
 eunuchs — w^as unable to sustain the w^eight of govern- 
 ment alone, he took his cousin Constantius Gallus, 35i. 
 hitherto a state prisoner, and whose father he had 
 formerly slain, to his assistance, created him Csesar, 
 
 and sent him into the East against the Parthians. 
 But his excessive arrogance, which was fomented by 
 his wife Constantina, rendered him so dangerous that 
 Constantius recalled him, and caused him, upon his 
 return, to be put to death in Istria. His younger 
 brother Fl. Juhan, from whom the suspicious Con- 
 stantius believed he had nothing to fear, was promoted 354. 
 in his place, created Caesar, and sent to defend the Nov. e, 
 frontiers on the Rhine. Although Julian passed sud- ^^^' 
 denly from study to warfare, he not only fought 
 against the Germans with success, but also made a 
 deep inroad into their country. In the mean time 
 Constantius, after his generals had been beaten by 
 the Persians, who wished to reconquer the provinces 
 they had ceded, was preparing an expedition against 
 them in person, and with that view endeavoured gra- 
 dually to withdraw the troops of Julian, in conse- 
 quence of which the latter, suspecting his design, 
 was induced to accept the diadem presented by his 
 soldiers. While marching, however, along the Da- 36i. 
 nube against Constantius, he received information of 
 that prince's death in Asia. 
 
 13. Fl. Julian, (the apostate,) who reigned from JuUa«, 
 his twenty-ninth to his thirty-second year, was the ^j^^; Jf° 
 last and most highly-gifted prince of the house of 363. 
 
 2 B 
 
370 ROMAN STATE. [book v. 
 
 Fourth Constantine. Instructed by misfortunes and study, 
 ^^^°'°' he yet had some faults, though certainly free from 
 great vices. He began with reforming the luxury of 
 the court. His abjuration of the religion now be- 
 come dominant, and which he wished to annihilate 
 by degrees, was an error in policy, which he must 
 have discovered to his cost had his reign been pro- 
 longed. Wishing, however, to terminate the war 
 against the Persians, he penetrated as far as the Ti- 
 gris, where he lost his life in an engagement, after a 
 reign of three years. 
 
 ■j" The Emperor Julian and his Times, by August. Neajstder. 
 Leipsic, 1812. An historical sketch. 
 
 Jovian, 14. Fl. Joviauus, now thirty-three years of age, 
 
 3G3— F^eb ^^^ immediately raised to the purple by the army. 
 21, 364. He concluded a peace with the Persians, by which 
 he restored them all the territory that had been con- 
 quered from them since the year 297. After a short 
 reign of eight months he was carried off by a sudden 
 disorder ; and the army proclaimed Fl. Valentinian 
 Vaientinian at Nicc in his stcad. Valentinian almost immediately 
 and Valens, associated his brother Valens with himself in the go- 
 vernment, and divided the empire by giving him the 
 prcefectura Orientis, and retaining the rest for 
 himself 
 Valentinian 15. The rcio^u of Valentinian I. in the West, who, 
 364I.N0V. ^^ ^^^ y^^i' 367, created his son Gratian Augustus 
 17, 375. with himself, is distinguished by the system of tole- 
 ration which he followed with regard to the affairs 
 of religion, though in other respects a cruel prince. 
 Nearly the whole of his reign was taken up in almost 
 continual struggles with the German nations, who 
 had recovered from the losses they had suffered un- 
 der Julian. His first efforts were directed against 
 the Franks, the Saxons, and the Alemanni on the 
 Rhine ; and afterwards against the Quadi and other 
 nations on the Danube ; where he died of apoplexy 
 at Guntz in Hungary. 
 Valens, 16. In the mean time his brother Valens (aged 
 
 38 — 52 years) had to contend with a powerful insur- 
 rection which had broken out in the East. A certain 
 
 364—378. 
 
rERiOD IV.] FROM DIOCLETIAN TO A. C. 476. 371 
 
 Procopius had instigated the people to this, by takino- Fourth 
 advantag'e of the discontent occasioned by the oppres- ^'^'°°' 
 sion of Valens, who, having adopted the opinion of 
 the Arians, was more disliked in the East than his 
 brother was in the West. His war against the Per- 373. 
 sians ended with a truce. But the most important 
 event that happened during his reign, was the en- 
 trance of the Huns into Europe, which took place 
 towards its close. This, in its turn, gave rise to the 
 great popular migration, by which the Roman em- 
 pire in the West may properly be said to have been 
 overthrown. The immediate consequence was the 
 admission of the greater part of the Visigoths into 
 the Roman empire, and this occasioned a war which 
 cost Valens his life. 
 
 The Huns, a nomad people of Asia, belonged to the great 
 Mongolian race. Having penetrated to the Don, 373, they sub- 
 dued the Goths upon that river as far as the Theiss. The 
 Goths, divided into Ostrogoths and Visigoths, were separated 
 from one another by the Dnieper. The former, driven from 
 their country, fell upon the Visigoths, in consequence of which 
 the emperor Valens was requested by the latter to grant them 
 admission into the Roman empire, and with the exception of 
 the Vandals, who had been seated in Pannonia from the time of 
 Constantine, they were the first barbarian nation that had been 
 settled within the boundaries of the empire. The scandalous 
 oppression of the Roman governor, however, drove them into 
 rebellion ; and as Valens marched against them, he was defeated 
 near Adrianople and lost his life, 378. 
 
 17. During these events, Gratian (aged 16 — 24 Gratian, 
 years) succeeded his father Valentinian I. in the and~"^^^' 
 West, and immediately associated his brother, Valen- vaientiuian 
 tinian II. (aged 5 — 21 years) with himself in the }^■''■^''^— 
 emp\ve ; giving him, though under his own superin- 
 tendence, the prcefectura Italice et Illjjrici. Gratian 
 
 set forward to the assistance of his uncle Valens 
 against the Goths, but receiving on his march an ac- 
 count of his defeat and death, and fearing the East 
 might fall a prey to the Goths, he raised Theodosius, 
 a Spaniard, who had already distinguished himself as 
 a warrior, to the purple, and gave him the iprwfectiira 
 Orientis et Illyrici. 
 
 18. The indolent reign of Gratian led to the re- Revolt of 
 
 2 B 2 
 
372 
 
 ROMAN STATE. 
 
 [book 
 
 Fourth 
 Period. 
 
 Maximus, 
 383. 
 
 Eugenius. 
 
 Theodosius 
 the Great, 
 Jan. 19, 
 379— Jan. 
 17, 395. 
 
 bellion of Maximus, a commander in Britain, who, 
 crossing into Gaul, was so strongly supported by the 
 defection of the Gallic legions, that Gratian was 
 obliged to seek safety in flight. He was, however, 
 overtaken and put to death at Lyons. By this event, 
 Maximus found himself in possession of all the pr(E- 
 fectura Galliarum ; and by promising Theodosius 
 not to interfere with the young Valentinian II. in 
 Italy, he prevailed upon him to acknowledge him 
 emperor. But having broken his promise by the in- 
 vasion of Italy, he was defeated and made prisoner 
 388. by Theodosius in Pannonia, and soon after executed. 
 Upon this Valentinian II., a youth of whom great 
 hopes were entertained, became again master of all 
 the West. But, unfortunately, he was murdered by 
 the offended Arbogast, his magister militum ; who, 
 thereupon, raised to the throne his own friend Euge- 
 nius, magister qfßc'iorum. Theodosius, however, so 
 far from acknowledging, declared war against him 
 and made him prisoner. He himself thus became 
 master of the whole empire, but died in the following 
 year. 
 
 19. The vigorous reign of Theodosius in the East, 
 from his thirty-fourth to his fiftieth year, was not less 
 devoted to politics than to religion. The dexterity 
 with which he at first broke the power of the victori- 
 ous Goths (though they still preserved their quarters 
 in the provinces on the Danube) procured him con- 
 siderable influence, which the strength and activity 
 of his character enabled him easily to maintain. The 
 blind zeal, however, with which he persecuted Arian- 
 ism, now the prevailing creed in the East, and re- 
 stored the orthodox belief, as well as the persecutions 
 which he directed against the pagans, and the de- 
 struction of their temples, occasioned the most dread- 
 ful convulsions. His efforts to preserve the bound- 
 aries of the empire, not a province of which was lost 
 before his death, required an increase of taxes ; and 
 however oppressive this might be, we cannot impute 
 it to the ruler as a crime. In an empire so enfeebled 
 in itself, and which, nevertheless, had powerful foes 
 
PERIOD IV.] FROM DIOCLETIAN TO A. C. 476. 373 
 
 on every side to contend with, it followed that every Fourth 
 
 active reign would be oppressive. Yet never before '^ 
 
 had the internal depopulation of the empire made it 
 necessary to take so many barbarians into Roman 
 pay, as under this reign ; whence naturally followed 
 a chang-e in the arms and tactics of the Roman armies. 
 
 p. Erasm. Müller, de genio sceculi Theodosiani. Havnite, 
 1798, 2 vols. A very learned and in every respect excellent 
 description of the deeply-decayed Roman world as it now stood. 
 
 20. Theodosius left two sons, between whom the Final divi- 
 empire was divided. Both parts, however, were Roman ^em- 
 certainly considered as forming but one empire — an pire. 
 opinion which afterwards prevailed, and even till late 
 
 in the middle ages had important consequences — yet 
 never since this period have they been reunited under 
 one ruler. The Eastern empire, comprising the 
 prcefectura Orientis et Illyrid, was allotted to the 
 eldest son, Arcadius, (aged 18 — 31,) under the guard- Arcadius, 
 ianship of Rufinus the Gaul. The Western, or the 395-408. 
 prcefectura GaUiarum et Italiw, to the younger, 
 Honorius, aged 11 — 39, under the guardianship of ^g^^j^g'» 
 the Vandal Stilico. 
 
 21. The Western empire, to the history of which 
 we shall now confine ourselves, suffered such violent 
 shocks during the reign of Honorius, as made its 
 approaching Vail plainly visible. The intrigues of 
 Stilico to procure himself the government of the 
 whole empire, opened a way for the Goths into its 
 interior, just at a time when they were doubly formi- 
 dable, fortune having given them a leader greatly 
 superior to any they had hitherto had. Alaric king ^^'^J^'^^.^f 
 of the Visigoths established himself and his people in g^JJ. 
 the Roman empire, became master of Rome, and 
 mounted the throne : it was the mere effect of chance 
 
 that he did not overthrow it altogether. 
 
 Both Honorius and Arcadius, especially the latter, belonged 
 to that class of men who never come to years of maturity ; their 
 favourites and ministers therefore governed according to their 
 own inclination. Stilico, who made Honorius his son-in-law, 
 was not deficient, indeed, in abilities for governing ; and his en- 
 deavour to obtain the management of the whole empire, arose, 
 perhaps, from the conviction that it was necessary he should 
 
374 ROMAN STATE. [eook v. 
 
 Fourth have it. He could not, however, gain his object by intrigue ; 
 
 Peiuod. foi- rafter the murder of Rufinus, 395, he found a still more 
 powerful opponent in the eunuch Eutropius, his successor in 
 the East. Under the regency of StiHco, Gaul, in consequence 
 of its troops being withdrawn to oppose Alaric, 400, was inun- 
 dated by German tribes — by Vandals, Alani, and Suevi — who 
 from thence penetrated even into Spain. Nevertheless, he pre- 
 served Italy from their attacks by the victory which he gained, 
 403, over Alaric at Verona ; and again over Radagaisus, 405, 
 who had advanced with other German hordes as far as Florence. 
 But Stilico, having entered into a secret alliance with Alaric, 
 for the purpose of wresting eastern lUyrica from the empire of 
 the East, was overreached by the intrigues of the new favourite 
 Olympius, whose cabal knew how to take advantage of the 
 weakness of Honorius, and of the jealousy of the Roman and 
 foreign soldiers. Stilico was accused of aspiring to the throne, 
 and was executed August 23, 408. Rome lost in him the only 
 general that was left to defend her. Alaric invaded Italy the 
 same year, 408, and the besieged Rome was obliged to purchase 
 peace ; the conditions, however, not being fulfilled, he was 
 again, 409, before Rome, became master of the city, and created 
 Attains, the priefect of the city, emperor instead of Honorius, 
 who had shut himself up in Ravenna. In 410 he assumed the 
 diadem ; and, making himself master of the city by force, gave 
 it up to be plundered by his troops. Soon afterwards, while 
 projecting the capture of Sicily and Africa, he died in Lower 
 Italy. His brother-in-law and successor, Adolphus, together 
 with his Goths, left Italy, now completely exhausted, 412, went 
 into Gaul, and from thence proceeding into Spain, founded there 
 the empire of the Visigoths : he carried with him, however, 
 Placidia the sister of Honorius, either as prisoner or as hostage, 
 and married her in Gaul. During these events a usurper 
 arose in Britain and Gaul named Constantine, 407 : he was 
 vanquished, and put to death, 411, by Constantius, one of 
 Honorius's generals. This latter prince not only gave Con- 
 stantius his sister Placidia, who had become a widow and was 
 restored in 417, in marriage, but also named him Augustus in 
 421. He died, however, a few months after, so that Placidia 
 henceforward had a considerable share in the government. She 
 went, nevertheless, 423, to Constantinople, where she remained 
 until the death of Honorius. 
 
 ■j" Fl. Stilico, or the Wallenstein of Antiquity, by CiiK. Fr. 
 Schulze, 1805. Not written by way of comparison. 
 
 22. In this manner was a great part of Spain and 
 
 part of Gaul cut off from the Roman empire during 
 
 423. the reign of Honorius. After his death the secretary 
 
 425. John usurped the government, but was defeated by 
 
 Vaientinian the Eastcm cmperor Theodosius II. The nephew of 
 
 4Ö5. ""^~ Honorius, Vaientinian HI., a minor, (aged 6 — 36,) 
 
PERIOD IV.] FROM DIOCLETIAN TO A. C. 476. 375 
 
 was then raised to the throne, under the guardian Fourth 
 care of his mother Placidia (f 450). Under his ^^•^'°"- 
 miserable reign the Western empire was stripped of 
 almost all her provinces with the exception of Italy. 
 Yet the government of his mother, and afterwards 
 his own incapacity, were as much the cause as the 
 stormy migration of barbarous tribes, which now 
 convulsed all Europe. 
 
 Britain had been voluntarily left by the Romans since 427. 
 In Africa, the governor Boniface having been driven into rebel- 
 lion by the intrigues of the Roman general TEtius, who pos- 
 sessed the ear of Placidia, invited tlie Vandals from Spain, 
 under the command of Genseric, to come to his assistance. 
 The latter then obtained possession of the country, 429 — 439 ; 
 indeed, even as early as 43o, Valentinian was obliged to make 
 a formal cession of it to them. Valcntinian's wife Eudoxia, a 
 Grecian princess, was purchased by the cession of western Illy- 
 ricum (Pannonia, Dalmatia, and Noricum) ; so that of all the 
 countries south of the Danube there now only remained those 
 which belonged to the praefecture of Italy, Rliajtia and Vinde- 
 licia. On the south-east of Gaul was formed, 435, the king- 
 dom of the Burgundians, which, besides the south-cast part 
 of France, comprised also Switzerland and Savoy. Tlie south- 
 west was under the dominion of the Visigoths. There remain- 
 ed only the territory north of the Loire which still submitted to 
 the Roman governors ; the last of whom, Syagrius, survived 
 the fall of the empire itself ; holding out till the year 486, when 
 he was defeated near Soissons by Clodovicus, or Clovis, king 
 of the Franks. 
 
 23. But while tliß Western empire seemed thus The Huns. 
 of itself almost to fall to pieces, another impetuous 
 rush of nations took place, which threatened tlie whole 
 of western Europe. The victorious hordes of Huns 
 who now occupied the territory formerly the seat of 
 the Goths, between the Don and the Theiss, and even 
 as far as the Volga, had united themselves since the 
 year 444, under one common chief, Attila ; who, by Attiia. 
 tliis union and his own superior talents as a warrior 
 and ruler, became the most powerful prince of his 
 time. The Eastern empire having bought a peace 
 by paying him a yearly tribute, he fell with a mighty 45o. 
 army upon the Western provinces. The united forces, 
 Iiowever, of the Romans under ^tius and the Visi- 
 goths, obliged him near Chalons (/*;? camp'hs Catalan- 45i. 
 
376 ROMAN STATE. [book v. 
 
 Fourth nicis) to retreat. Nevertheless, the following year 
 ^^'^'°°' he again invaded Italy, where he had a secret under- 
 standing with the licentious Honoria, Valentinian's 
 
 453. sister. The cause of his second retreat, which was 
 soon followed by his death, is unknown. The miser- 
 able Valentinian soon after deprived the Roman em- 
 pire of its best general, being led by his suspicions 
 
 454. to put iEtius to death. He himself, however, was 
 soon doomed to undergo the punishment of his de- 
 
 455. baucheries, being murdered in a conspiracy formed 
 by Petronius Maximus, whose wife he had dishonour- 
 ed, and some friends of ^tius, whom he had executed. 
 
 24. The twenty years which intervened between 
 the assassination of Valentinian, and the final de- 
 struction of the Roman empire in the West, was 
 nearly one continued series of intestine revolutions. 
 No less than nine sovereigns rapidly succeeded one 
 another. These changes, indeed, were but of little 
 importance in this troublesome period, compared to 
 the terror with which Genseric king of the Vandals 
 filled the Roman empire : he by his naval power 
 having become master of the Mediterranean and 
 Sicily, could ravage the coasts of the defenceless 
 Italy at his pleasure, and even capture Rome itself. 
 While in Italy, the German Ricimer, general of the 
 foreign troops in Roman pay, permitted a series of 
 emperors to reign in his name. It would have been 
 his lot to put an end to this series of Augusti, but for 
 mere accident, which reserved that glory for his son 
 and successor, Odoacer, four years after his father's 
 death. 
 
 After the death of Valentinian, Maximus was proclaimed 
 emperor ; but as he wished to compel Eudoxia, Valentinian's 
 widow, to marry him, she called over Genseric from Africa, 
 who took and pillaged Rome, and Maximus perished after a 
 reio-n of three months, 455. He was succeeded by M. Avitus, 
 who ascended the throne at Aries ; and he again was soon de- 
 posed by Ricimer, 456, who, just before, had defeated the fleet 
 of the Vandals. Ricimer now placed upon the throne, hrst Ju- 
 lianus Majorianus, April 1, 457 ; but he, having distinguished 
 himself in the wars against the Vandals, 461, was set aside, and 
 Libius Severus put in his place, who, however, died in 465, pro- 
 "^ bably of poison. His death was followed by an interregnum of 
 
PERIOD IV.] FROM DIOCLETIAN TO A. C. 475. 377 
 
 two years, during which Ricimer ruled, thongli without the title Fourth 
 of emperor. At length the patrician Anthemius, then at Con- J^eriod. 
 stantinople, (where they never gave up their pretensions to the 
 right of naming or confirming the sovereigns of the West,) was, 
 though not Avithout the consent of the powerful Ricimer, named 
 emperor of the West, April 12, 467, by the emperor Leo. But 
 differences having arisen between him and Ricimer, the latter 
 retired to j\Iilan, 469, and commenced a war, in which he took 
 and pillaged Rome, and Anthemius was slain. Ricimer himself 
 followed soon after, fAug. 18, 472. Upon this, Anicius Oly- 
 brius, son-in-law of Valentinian III., was proclaimed Augustus, 
 but dying in three months, Oct., 472, Glycerius assumed the 
 purple at Ravenna, without, however, being acknowledged at 
 Constantinople, where they in preference named Julius Nepos 
 Augustus. The latter, in 474, having expelled Glycerius, be- 
 came also in his turn expelled by his own general Orestes, 475, 
 who gave the diadem to his son Romulus Momyllus, who, as 
 the last in the succession of Augusti, acquired the surname of 
 Augustulus. In 476, however, Odoacer, the leader of the Ger- 
 mans in the Roman pay at Rome, sent him, after the execution 
 of Orestes, into captivity, and allowed him a pension. Odoacer 
 now remained master of Italy till the year 492, when the Os- 
 trogoths, under their king Theodoric, founded there a new 
 empire. 
 
 25. Thus fell the Roman empire of the West, 
 "W'hile that of the East, pressed on every side, and in 
 a situation almost similar, endured a thousand years, 
 notwithstanding its intestine broils, which would 
 alone have sufficed to destroy any other, and the 
 hosts of barbarians who attacked it during the middle 
 ages. The impregnable situation of its capital, which 
 usually decides the fate of such kingdoms, joined to 
 its despotism, which is not unfrequently the main 
 support of a kingdom in its decline, can alone, in 
 some measure, explain a phenomenon which has no 
 equal in the history of the world. 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 CHRONOLOGY OF HERODOTUS TO THE TIME OF CYRUS, 
 EXTRACTED FROM THE RESEARCHES OF M. VOLNEY. 
 
 See Preface. 
 
 Although Herodotus did not write his work in 
 chronological order, yet we cannot doubt that he had 
 some general plan of computing time. By carefully 
 selecting and comparing the separate data scattered 
 through his work, this plan to a certain extent may 
 be traced out, and early history, with regard to set- 
 tled chronology, must necessarily gain a good deal. 
 The following essay is founded upon a procedure of 
 this kind ; it is drawn entirely from Herodotus, and 
 only from data which he has precisely determined, 
 the passages of his work being always referred to. 
 
 The year B. C. 561, in which the fall of Astyages 
 and the Median empire took place, as may be proved 
 from Herodotus himself, is a fixed point of time from 
 which we may ascend into higher antiquity. This 
 point of time may be determined by the chronological 
 data respecting the battle of Marathon, four years 
 before the death of Darius, (Herodotus, VH. 1. 4.,) 
 agreeing with the general data of the Greeks, who fix 
 it in the third year of the 72nd Olymp. B. C. 490. 
 By adding to this the thirty-two years of Darius's 
 reign that had already elapsed, (Herodotus, ibid.,) the 
 eight months of Smerdis, (Herodotus, HI. 68.,) the 
 seven years and five months of Cambyscs, (Herodo- 
 tus, HI. 66.,) and the twenty-nine years of Cyrus, 
 (Herodotus, I. 214.,) we obtain the year 560 as the 
 first year of Cyrus. 
 
APPENDIX. 379 
 
 IL CHRONOLOGY OF THE ASSYRIAN EMPIRE. 
 
 B. C. 
 
 End of the Median empire . . . . . 561. 
 
 Duration of the Median empire one hundred and 
 fifty-six years (Herodotus, I. 130.) 
 
 The beginning of it, therefore, after their separation 
 
 from the Assyrians, "would be . . . . 717. 
 
 In this period, at first, six years of anarchy^ . . 716 — 710, 
 
 Reign of Deioces fifty-three years (Herodotus, 1. 102.) 710 — 6ö7. 
 
 Reign of Phraortes, twenty-two years (ibid.) . . 6ö7 — 635. 
 
 Cyaxares, forty years (I. 106.) .... 635 — 595. 
 
 Irruption and dominion of tlie Scythians, twenty- 
 eight years (I. 203. 106.) .... 625—595. 
 
 Conquestof Nineveh (I. 106.) .... 597. 
 
 Astyages reigned thirty-five years (I. 130.) . . 595 — 561. 
 
 The succession of Median kings given by Ctesias, 
 which entirely diticrs from this, the author thinks 
 might be explained by a duplication ; see f Gott. 
 Gell. Anz. 1810, p. 4. 
 
 I. CHRONOLOGY OF THE MEDIAN EMPIRE. 
 
 The dominion of the Assyrians over Asia, or tlieir 
 empire, ended with the revolt of the Medes (Herodo- 
 tus, I. 95.) ; although the existence of their state did 
 not then end, but terminated with the capture of 
 Nineveh by Cyaxares, B. C. 597. 
 
 B. C. 
 
 Revolt of the Medes, as above . . . . 717. 
 Tlie dominion of the Assyrians had endured five 
 
 hundred and twenty years (Herodotus, I. 95.) 
 
 The Assyi'ian empire lasted therefore from . . 1237 — 717. 
 
 As Herodotus intended to write the history of this 
 empire in a separate work, (I. 184.,) he only casually 
 mentions (I. 7.) its founder Ninus, who began to 
 reign 1*237 ; and afterwards Sennacherib and his ex- 
 pedition (II. 141.) ; and the last king, Sardanapalus 
 (II. 150.). 
 
 " These are certainly not determined from Herodotus ; but they 
 remain after subtracting the one hundred and fifty years' reign of 
 the four Median kings. 
 
380 APPENDIX. 
 
 The mention of Sennacherib and his expedition 
 furnishes a point of time for comparino; the chro- 
 nology of Herodotus with that of the Bible, or the 
 Jews. According to the latter, Sennacherib's expe- 
 dition took place B. C. 714 (see above, p. 22); his 
 death takes place immediately after, and he has for 
 his successor Esar-haddon, 2 Kings xix. 37. Here 
 then is certainly a contradiction, since, according to 
 Herodotus, the Assyrian dominion had ceased three 
 years before, namely, 717. M. Volney endeavours 
 to reconcile this difficulty by the restoration of an 
 ancient reading in the sacred text ; according to 
 which Amon, king of Judsea, reigned twelve years 
 instead of two (2 Kings xxi. 10) ; from which it 
 would follow, that the expedition of Sennacherib took 
 place in 724. As this would leave seven years after 
 his death for his successor Esar-haddon, who agrees 
 both in time and name with the Sardanapalus of the 
 Greeks (the Greek name being formed from Esar- 
 haddon-pal, i. e. Esar, the lord, son of Pal,) the two 
 chronologies are thus made to agree exactly. But 
 even in following the ancient usual reading, the great- 
 est difference between the two statements is only ten 
 years ; quite as little as can be reasonably expected 
 under such circumstances. 
 
 With regard to the Assyrian chronology of Ctesias, 
 M. Volney has satisfactorily shown that it is full of 
 contradictions, and unworthy of any credit. 
 
 III. CHRONOLOGY OF THE LYDIAN EMPIRE. 
 
 The arrangement of the Lydian chronology rests 
 upon the settlement of two principal facts : first, the 
 great eclipse of the sun under Alyattes, foretold by 
 Thales (Herodotus I. 74.) ; and secondly, the con- 
 quest of Sardes, and overthrow of the empire under 
 Croesus, by Cyrus ; both of which Herodotus certain- 
 ly mentions, but without any precise date. But by 
 a careful comparison of all the data it has been proved, 
 that the great eclipse in Asia Minor (according to 
 the tables of Pingre) happened in the year 625 ; and 
 
APPENDIX. 381 
 
 the conquest of Sardes, and the end of the Lydian 
 empire, B. C. 557, or in the fourth year of Cyrus. 
 Therefore : 
 
 B. C. 
 
 End of the Lj.dian empire ..... 557. 
 
 It subsisted under tliree houses ; under that of the 
 Atyadae (fabulous and uncertain) ; under that of the 
 Herachdae, five hundred and five years (Herodotus, 
 I. 7.) ; and under the last, that of the Mermnadse, 
 one hundred and seventy years. 
 
 The Heraclidse and Mermnadse, then, reigned al- 
 together six hundred and seventy-five years. There- 
 fore : 
 
 B. c. 
 
 Commencement of the reign of the Heraclidas, with 
 
 Agron the son of Ninus (I. 7.) . . . . 1232. 
 
 End of this house with the murder of Candaules, by 
 
 Gyges 727. 
 
 By fixing the time of Agron son of Ninus, Hero- 
 dotus verifies himself (I. 7.) ; as, by the preceding 
 data, Ninus began his reign in Assyria, 1237 ; con- 
 sequently it must have been in the fifth year of his 
 reign that he conquered Lydia, and placed his son 
 Agron upon the throne. 
 
 B. c. 
 
 Dominion of the IMermnada?, one hundred and se- 
 venty years, under Icings of that liouse . . 727 — 557 
 
 Gyges, thirty-eight years (Herodotus, I. 14.). . 727 — 689. 
 
 Ardys, forty-nine years (Herodotus, I. 16.) . . 689 — 640. 
 
 First irruption of the Cimmerians . . . 670. 
 
 vSadyattes, twelve years (Herodotus, I. 16.) . . 640 — 628. 
 
 Alyattes, fifty-seven years (Herodotus, I. 25.) . 628 — 571. 
 
 War with Cyaxares, ending with the great eclipse, 
 
 and second irruption of tlie Cimmerians . . 625. 
 
 Croesus, fourteen years and fourteen days (Herodo- 
 tus, I. 86.) .... . 571 — 557. 
 
 IV. CHRONOLOGY OF THE BABYLONIANS. 
 
 For this as well as for the Egyptians there is no 
 evidence to guide us, the data being very scanty, and 
 taken from Herodotus alone. The cltronology of 
 
382 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 the Babylonians, according to the canon of Ptolemy, 
 begins with Nabonassar, 747, who was succeeded by 
 twelve kings, (mentioned in the same canon,) down 
 to Nabopolassar (see above, p. 24). 
 
 B. c. 
 Nabopolassar 627 — 604. 
 
 Nebuchadnezzar 
 
 Evil-Meroclach 
 
 Neriglissar . 
 
 Labynetus . 
 
 Conquest of Babylon by Cyrus 
 
 604—561. 
 561—559. 
 559—555. 
 555—538. 
 538. 
 
 V. CHRONOLOGY OF THE EGYPTIANS. 
 
 M. Volney very properly commences this with the 
 dodecarchy — as of the earlier periods only the time 
 of Sesostris, 1365, is ascertained; — and arranges it 
 
 in the following manner : 
 
 B. c. 
 
 Dodecarchy 671 — 656. 
 
 Psammetichus's sole dominion thirty-nine years . 656 — 617. 
 
 Eeign of Neco, sixteen years .... 617 — 601. 
 
 Psammis, six years .... 601 — 595. 
 
 ■ Apries, twenty-five years . . • 595 — 570. 
 
 Amasis, forty-four years . . . 570 — 526. 
 
 Psamraenitus, six months ..... 525. 
 
 Conquest of Egypt by Cambyses. 
 
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INDEX. 
 
 Acarnania, the most western country in 
 Hellas, 92. general outline of its history, 
 120. 
 
 Achcean League, The, its formation, history, 
 and overthrow, '223, 224. war with the 
 iEtoIian League, 226. in the war be- 
 tween Rome and Philip II., sided first 
 with the latter, and aftenvards with 
 Rome, 228, 279. war with Nabis, ih. ac- 
 cession of Sparta to the League, ih. Ro- 
 man policy against them, 229. fall of the 
 Leagae, 2.31, 2HÖ. 
 
 Achteans, a principal branch of the Hel- 
 lenes, 96. Aigos, Sparta, Messene, and 
 Corinth wrested from them by the Do- 
 rians, 10-3, IDG. expel the lonians, and 
 settle in Achaia, ib. 
 
 Achcemenes, brother to Arlaxerxes I., 8.3. 
 defeated by the revolted Egj'ptians, ib. 
 
 Achmus, cousin of Seleucus III. king of 
 Syria, 190. on the death of that monarch 
 re-establishes tlie kingdom of the Seleu- 
 cidaj in Asia Minor, ih. 
 
 Achaia, a country of Peloponnesus, 9-3. 
 geographical outline, ib. general outline 
 of its history, 1 17. 
 
 Ackelotis, one of the principal rivers of 
 Greece, 90. 
 
 Achilleus, 36.3. 
 
 Acichorins, a leader of the Gauls in their 
 irruption into Greece, 221. with Brcnnus 
 invades Pajonia, ib. subsequently bursts 
 into Greece and pushes on for Delphi, 
 but is defeated, 222. 
 
 AcrcE, a city of Sicily, 142. 
 
 Adrian, P. JElius, a Roman emperor, 34.3. 
 his reign, 344. 
 
 j^gina, a Greek island in the Saronic Gulf, 
 94. sometimes contended with Atlieiis, 
 114. historical outline, 122. 
 
 uHmilianus, yEmilixis, a Roman emperor, 
 3.5.5. 
 
 JEolians, a principal branch of the Hel- 
 lenes, 96. begin the colonization of Asia 
 Minor, 103. their colonies, 127. 
 
 ^Ethiopia, 40. lies next above Ecypt, ib. 
 
 and from the earliest times was closely 
 connected with it, ib. 
 
 yEtolia, a country in Central Greece, 92. 
 the least cultivated oi any, ib. general 
 outline of its history, 119. 
 
 yEtolian League, The, 224. war with the 
 Achffian League, 226. alliance with 
 Rome, Sparta, and Elk?, 227. compelled 
 by Philip II. to accept peace, ib. 
 
 Africa, Ancierit, general geographical out- 
 line, 37. only the northern part known to 
 antiquity, ib. ihis better kno^vn by them 
 than by the modems, ib. difiers greatly 
 from Asia, ib. forms a world in itself, ib. 
 its physical geography, ib. not comprised 
 in any political division, .38. circum- 
 navigated by the Phoenicians at the com- 
 mand of Neco, 57. 
 
 Agathocles, eldest son of Lysimachus, 221. 
 executed at the instigation of his step- 
 mother, Arsinoe, ib. 
 
 Agesilaus, after the death of Agis, seizes 
 the regal dignity at Sparta, 160. his ex- 
 pedition into Asia, ib. recalled out of 
 Asia, 161. sent to Egypt to support the 
 insurrection of Tachos, 164. 
 
 Agricola, his expedition into Britain, 341. 
 
 Agrigenhim, a colony of Gela, in Sicily, 
 141. its history, ib. 
 
 Agrippa, grandson of Herod, made king by 
 Caligula, 250. 
 
 Agrippa IL son of Philip the tetrarch, 250. 
 
 Agrippina, a wife of Claudius Ces;ir, 337. 
 
 Alaria, or Alalia, a Greek settlement in 
 Corsica, 142. 
 
 Alaric, the Visigoth, 373, 374. 
 
 Alba Longa, a. city of the Latini, from which 
 R ome was a colony, 260. its destruction, 
 201. 
 
 Albimis, a Rom.an general commanding in 
 Britain, and proclaimed emperor by his 
 army after the death of Commodus, 350. 
 defeated by Severus, kills himself, ib. 
 
 Alcibiades, obtains the management of af- 
 fairs at Athens, 157. his character, ib. 
 incites to a project for conquering Sicily, 
 
390 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 ib. sent on the expedition with Nicias 
 and Lamachus, ib. defeated, ib. flies to 
 Tissaphernes, 158. negociates with the 
 Athenian generals at Samos, ib. named 
 leader by the army, ib. repeated victories 
 over the Spartans, ib. is deposed, and 
 goes into voluntary exile, 159. defeated 
 at Notium, ib. and deprived of the com- 
 mand, ib. 
 
 Alcimus, a high priest of the Jews, 248. 
 
 Alcmceon, the last of the Athenian archons, 
 110. 
 
 Alectus, 363. 
 
 Alemanni, The, 326. wars with Caracalla, 
 352. become formidable to Rome, 356. 
 defeated by Aurelius Claudius, 357, 
 driven back by Aurelian, ib. 
 
 Alexander the Great, succeeds his father 
 Philip on the throne of Macedon, 173. 
 commotions thereupon, 174. his expe- 
 dition against Thrace, ib. appointed ge- 
 neralissimo of the Greeks, ib. his plan of 
 attack on Persia, ib. passage of the Hel- 
 lespont, ib. battle of the Granicus, ib. 
 battle of Jssus, ib. siege of Tyre, ib. con- 
 quest of Egypt, 175. reduction of Tyre, 
 ib. builds Alexandria, ib. battle of Ar- 
 bela, ib. wholly subjects Persia, ib. the 
 opposition he subsequently met with in 
 his own army, ib. expedition against In- 
 dia, 176. originated in his propensity to 
 romantic enterprise, ib. the course of his 
 invasion, ib. defeats Porus the king, ib. 
 is compelled by mutiny in his army to 
 return, ib. the modern connexion of Eu- 
 rope with the East the work of his hands, 
 ib. proceeds to Persis and Babylon across 
 the desert, 177. the extent of his do- 
 minions, ib. his policy in the conquered 
 countries, ib. his views, ib. his death, 178. 
 his character, ib. state of his family at his 
 death, 179. the example which his mon- 
 archy affords, 186. 
 
 Alexander, the posthumous son of Alex- 
 ander the Great, proclaimed king jointly 
 with Arrhidseus, 179. murdered, with 
 his motlicr, by Cassander, 183, 218. 
 
 Alexander, son of Polysperchon, regent of 
 the Macedonian empire, 217. sent by 
 his father to gain possession of Athens, 
 ib. expelled by the democratic party, ib. 
 won over by Cassander, 218. murdered, ib. 
 
 Alexander, a son of Cassander, murdered 
 by Demetrius Poliorcetes, 219. 
 
 Alexander Balas, a usurper of the Syrian 
 throne in the reign of Demetrius Soter, 
 195. his character, ib. defeated and de- 
 throned by Demetrius II. aided by Phi- 
 lometor, l96. 
 
 Alexander Zebinas, a pretended son of the 
 preceding, 197. set up by Ptolemy Phys- 
 con as a rival to Demetrius II., ib. war 
 with Cleopatra, 198. 
 
 Alexandria, built by Alexander the Great, 
 
 175. its increase under Ptolemy Soter 
 202. siege by Julius Cassar, 213, 313. 
 massacre of the inhabitants by Cara- 
 calla, 352. 
 
 Amestris, queen of Xerxes I., 82. her in- 
 trigues in his court, ib. and in that of 
 Artaxerxos I., 84. 
 
 Amisus, a Greek colony of the Black Sea, 
 and mother city of Trapezus, 131. 
 
 Amnion, an Egyptian deity, confounded by 
 tlie Greeks with their Jupiter, 47. 
 
 Amphictyonic council, the most important 
 public association of the Greeks, and 
 which continued the longest, 100. it pro- 
 moted tlie national feeling of unity, 105. 
 not a states-general, ib. its immediate 
 office to attend to the temples and oracles 
 of Delphi, ib. hence it was enabled to 
 take a share in the affairs of different 
 states, ib. none but Hellenes were ad- 
 mitted to it, ib. abxises its authority in 
 kindling the Sacred war, 164. its sen- 
 tence against Sparta, 165. Phocians be- 
 ing expelled from the council, Philip 
 takes their place and vote, 165. its sen- 
 tence on the Locrians, ib. 
 
 Amphipolis, a city on the coast of Mace- 
 donia, a colony from Athens, 132. 
 
 AmyrtcEus, an Egyptian, who excited his 
 country to the second revolt against 
 Persia, 83. defeated by Megabyzus, ib. 
 takes refuge in the morasses, and con- 
 tinues to make head against the Persians, 
 ib. issues forth and expels tlie Persians 
 from Egypt, 85. 
 
 Amytis, queen of Artaxerxes I., 84. her in- 
 trigues, ib. 
 
 Annals, one source of history, 8. 
 
 Antigonus, one of the generals of Alex- 
 ander the Great, 180. receives Phrygia, 
 Lycia, and Pamphylia at his master's 
 death, ib. refuses to obey Perdiccas, ib. 
 attempts of Perdiccas to overthrow him, 
 181. he passes over to Antipater, ib. war 
 with Eumenes, ib. becomes master of 
 Asia Minor, ib. victory over the royal 
 fleet, 182. returns to Asia Minor, 183. 
 frustrates the league of Ptolemy, the 
 two Cassanders, and Lysimachus against 
 him, ib. peace with his enemies, ib. in- 
 stigates the death of Cleopatra, ib. rup- 
 ture with Ptolemy, 184. new league 
 against him and his son, 185. he loses 
 his life, and his kingdom is anniliilated, 
 at the battle of Ipsus, ib. 
 
 Antigonus Gonnatas, son of Demetrius 
 Poliorcetes, seated himself on Üie Mace- 
 donian throne after the first irruption of 
 the Gaxüs, 222. buys off his competitor 
 Antiochus Soter, ib. dethroned by Pyr- 
 rhus, ib. again obtains the crown after 
 the death of Pyrrhus, 223. his designs 
 upon Greece, ib. allies himself with tJie 
 iEtolians, 224. his death, ib. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 391 
 
 Antigonus Doson, king of Macedonia, 224. 
 Antigonus, a king of the Jews, 249. 
 Antiochis, daughter to Antiochus the Great, 
 
 married to Ariarathes V. king of Cap- 
 
 padocia, 238. 
 Antiochus I., sumamed Sotcr, son of Se- 
 
 leucus Nicator. His father cedes to 
 
 him Upper Asia, and his wife Stratonice, 
 
 188. succeeds his father in the Syrian 
 empire, 189. entangled in wars by the 
 late conquests of Seleucus, ih. attempts 
 in vain to subject Bithynia, ib. inroad 
 into Egypt, ib. 
 
 Antiochus IL, sumamed Geos, succeeded 
 Antiochus Soter in the Syrian empire, 
 
 189. the state swayed by women during 
 his reign, ib. the Parthian and Bactrian 
 kingdoms grow out of secessions from 
 his kingdom, ib. war Avith Ptolemy II., ib. 
 repudiates his wife Laodice, and mar- 
 ries Berenice, daughter of Ptolemy, 190. 
 puts away Berenice and takes back La- 
 odice, ib. by whom he is poisoned, ib. 
 
 Antiochus III., sumamed the Great, 
 younger son of Seleucus Callinicus, 
 king of Syria, 190. war with his brother 
 Seleucus Ceraunus, ib. on the death of 
 Seleucus, the crown is insured to him 
 by means of Achaeus, ib. his reign the 
 most eventful in Syrian history, and 
 marks a new epoch, 191. in such a line 
 of princes not difficult to earn the title 
 Great, ib. insurrection in Media and 
 Persia quelled by him in person, ib. re- 
 bellion of A<cha;us in Asia Minor, ib. war 
 with the Ptolemies, ib. defeats Achajus, 
 ib. campaign in the upper provinces, ib. 
 peace with Arsaces, ib. war and peace 
 with Bactria, ib. expedition into India, 
 ib. his supremacy in Upper Asia estab- 
 lished, ib. naval expedition on the Per- 
 sian Gulf, 192. war with Egj-pt, ib. ex- 
 pels the Ptolemies from Syria, Coele- 
 Syria, and Phoenicia, ib. disputes with 
 Rome, ib., 280. Hannibal takes refuge 
 at his court, 192, 281. neglects Hanni- 
 bal's advice, is defeated by the Romans 
 at Magnesia, and the Syrian empire for 
 ever broken, 192, 281. the conditions of 
 the peace, ib. murdered, 193. 
 
 Antiochus, a younger son of Antiochus the 
 Great, delivered to the Romans as an 
 hostage, 192. exchanged by Seleucus 
 Philopator, for his son, as an hostage at 
 Rome, 193. 
 
 Antiochus IV., surnamed Epiphanes, suc- 
 ceeded his father, while a minor, in the 
 Syrian empire, 193. had been exchanged 
 as an hostage at Rome for his uncle by 
 his father, ih. meagre information re- 
 specting his history, ib. war with Egypt 
 and its causes, ib. the Romans interfere, 
 and Antiochus is compelled to make 
 peace, and relinquish Cyprus and Pe- 
 
 lusium, 194. his religious intolerance, 
 ib. sedition of the Jews, ib. decay in the 
 finances of the Seleucidae, ib. expedition 
 into Upper Asia, ib. his death, ib. 
 Antiochus V., surnamed Eupator, a younger 
 son of Antiochus Epiphanes, succeeds 
 at the age of nine years to the throne, 
 the true heir, Demetrius, being detained 
 as an hostage at Rome, 194. his short 
 and troubled reign, ib. put to death by 
 Demetrius, 195. 
 Antiochus Sidetes, yovmger brother to De- 
 metrius II. of Syria, 196. marries Cle- 
 opatra, ib. overtlu-ows the usurper Try- 
 plion, ib. becomes king of Syria, ib. 
 campaign against Parthia, 197. is cut to 
 pieces with his army, ib. 
 Antiochus Gryphus, youngest son of Cleo- 
 patra the Syrian queen, 198. raised by 
 her to the throne, ih. murders his mother, 
 ib. involved in war with his half-brother, 
 Antiochus Cyzicenus, ih. partition of 
 territory between them, ih. is murder- 
 ed, ih. 
 Antiochus Cyzicenus, sou of Antiochus 
 Sidetes and Cleopatra, 198. war with 
 the preceding, his half-brother, ib. slain 
 by Seleucus, son of Gryphus, ih. 
 Antiochus Asiaticus, 198. 
 Antipas, son of Herod, made tetrarch by 
 
 Augustus, 250. 
 Antipater, one of the generals of Alexander 
 the Great, 179. after the death of Alex- 
 ander obtains with Craterus the manage- 
 ment in Europe, ib. the Samian war, its 
 causes, progress, and results, 216. Per- 
 diccas divorces his daughter, ISO. league 
 with Craterus and Ptolemy, 181. advances 
 towards Syria against Perdiccas, ib. on 
 tlie death of Perdiccas assumes the re- 
 gency, ib. his death, ib. appoints Poly- 
 sperchon regent, 217. 
 Antipater, a son of Cassander, and grand- 
 son of the preceding, 219. 
 Antipater, appointed king of Macedonia 
 after the deposition of Meleager during 
 the irruption of the Gauls, 22 1 . soon de- 
 posed on account of incapacity, ih. 
 Antipater of Idumjea, confidant of Hyr- 
 canus, and afterwards procurator of Ju- 
 daea, 249. 
 Antotiinus Pius, T. ^lius Adrianus, em- 
 peror of Rome, 345. 
 Aiitoninus, Marcus Aurelius, successor of 
 
 the preceding, his reign, 345, .346. 
 Antony, M., a Roman general, 315. tries to 
 raise himself into the place of Cffisar, 
 316. defeated in Cisalpine Gaul, ib. forms 
 a triumvirate with Octavianus and Lepi- 
 dus, 317. quarrels with Octavianus, 318. 
 reconciliation, 319. wars in Parthia, 320. 
 his attachment to Cleopatra, ib., 213, 214. 
 his defeat at the battle of Actium, 320. 
 and death, ib. 
 
392 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Antony, C, a brother of the preceding, 316. 
 
 Apollodotus, a king of Bactria, 245. 
 
 Apulia, a country in Lower Italy, 256. 
 
 Arabia Felix, unsuccessful attempt of the 
 Romans upon it, 332. part of Arabia con- 
 quered by Trajan, 343. 
 
 Arcadia, a country of Peloponnesus, 92. 
 geographical outline, ib. general outline 
 of its history, 114. 
 
 Arcadius, a Roman emperor, 373. 
 
 Arces, youngest son of Artaxerxes III., 
 raised to the tlirone of Persia by Bagoas, 
 88. by whom he is after two years de- 
 posed, ib. 
 
 Archelaus, son of Herod, obtains part of 
 his kingdom, 250. 
 
 Archo7is, at Athens, governors appointed 
 after the death of Codrus, the last king, 
 110. the first taken from the family of 
 Codrus, ib. succeeded by hiheritance, but 
 were responsible, ib. 
 
 Areopagus, a court at Athens, intended by 
 Solon to be the main buttress of the 
 constitution, 110. 
 
 Argalis, a country of Peloponnesus, 93. 
 geographical outline, ib. 
 
 Argonauts, their expedition, 100. 
 
 Argos, with Messene and Tegca, sometimes 
 rivalled Sparta, 114. general outline of 
 its early history, 115. 
 
 Arians, 365. 
 
 Ariaratnnes, a king of Cappadocia, 238. 
 
 Ariarathes, the name of ten kings of Cap- 
 padocia, 238. 
 
 Ariobarzanes, a king of Pontus, tributary 
 to Persia, 236. also the name of three 
 kings of Cappadocia, 239. 
 
 Aristides, manages the state affairs of 
 Athens, 147. his dishiterestedness, ib. 
 banished, ib. his recall, 148. accompa- 
 nies Pausanias and Cimon in the expe- 
 dition against Cyprus and Byzantium, 
 ib. his death, 151. 
 
 Aristobuliis, the cruel son of John Hyr- 
 canus, 249. also the son of Alexander 
 Jannaeus, ih. 
 
 Aristomenes of Acarnania, appointed to 
 the administration of Egypt during the 
 minority of Ptolemy Epiphanes, by M. 
 Lepidus the regent, 207. a victim to the 
 tyranny of Epiphanes, 208. 
 
 Armetiia, its history as a kingdom, 239. 
 divided into Major and Minor, ib. con- 
 quered by Trajan, 343. relinquished by 
 Adrian, 344. 
 
 ArrhidfBus, a bastard half-brother of Alex- 
 ander the Great, 179. proclaimed king, 
 with the younger Alexander, ih. mar- 
 ried to Eurydice, Philip's niece, 180. 
 murdered with his wife by Olympias, 182. 
 
 Arsaces, the name of thirty kings of Par- 
 thia, 241—243. 
 
 Arsinoe, daughter of Lysimachus, married 
 by Ptolemy Philadelphus, and repudiated 
 
 by him that he might marry his own sister 
 of the same name, 205. 
 
 Artaba7ies, conspires with the eunuch Spa- 
 mitres, and destroys Xerxes I., 82. as- 
 sassinated by Artaxerxes, 83. 
 
 Artabazes, a king of Pontus, tributary to 
 Persia, 236. 
 
 Artabazus, a Persian satrap in the reign of 
 Artaxerxes II., 87. the feud between him 
 and Iphicrates defeats the attempt to re- 
 cover Egypt, ib, foments a rebellion in 
 Asia Minor, ih. favourably received by 
 Philip of Macedon, 88. 
 
 Artaxerxes I., succeeded to the Persian 
 throne after the murder of his father and 
 elder brother, 83. and by assassinating 
 Artabanes, ib. Megabyzus revolts against 
 him and makes his own terms of recon- 
 ciliation, 84. Artaxerxes kept in a state 
 of tutelage by the dowager and reigning 
 queens till his death, ih. 
 
 Artaxerxes II., surnamed Mnemon, suc- 
 ceeded his father Darius H. on the Per- 
 sian throne, 85. the rebellion of his bro- 
 ther Cyrus, ih, kept in tutelage by his 
 mother Parysatis, 86. unfit for military 
 command, 87. died in the midst of com- 
 motions for the succession, ih. 
 
 Artaxerxes III., the name assumed by 
 Ochiis, youngest son of Artaxerxes II., 
 on taking possession of the Persian 
 throne, 87. destroys the whole of the 
 royal family, ib, undertakes an expe- 
 dition in person against Egypt, 88. re- 
 duces it to a province, ib. held in subjec- 
 tion by Mentor and Bagoas, ib. poisoned 
 by the latter, ih. 
 
 Artaxias, a lieutenant of Antiochus the 
 Great, 239. 
 
 Artoxares, a eunuch in the court of Da- 
 rius II., conspired against his sovereign, 
 and is put to death, 84. 
 
 Asdrubal, the Carthaginian general, 275. 
 
 Asia, its contents, 13. situation, ih. na- 
 tural features, ih. divisions into Northern, 
 Central, and Southern, 14, et seq. diflers 
 greatly from Africa, 37. 
 
 Asia Minor, 15. the reason why it was never 
 united into one empire, 24. its most im- 
 portant divisions, ih. its divisions into 
 Roman provinces, 325. 
 
 Asiatic emjnres, their history and constitu- 
 tion, 19. revolutions, ih. short existence, 
 ih. similarity of constitution, ih, effects 
 of polygamy, ih. 
 
 Associations, political, reflections on their 
 rise, 15. 
 
 Assyrian empire, its chronology according 
 to Herodotus, 379. 
 
 Assyrians, of the Greeks and of the Jews 
 different, 21. their respective histories 
 before Cyrus, ib., 22. 
 
 Athens. Its early history important rather 
 for domestic revolutions than foreign 
 
INDEX. 
 
 393 
 
 aggrandizement, 110. begins properly 
 with Theseus, ib. period of kingly go- 
 vernment, ih. establishment of archons 
 for life, ib. decennial archons, 1 1 ] . archons 
 annually chosen, ib. rise of an oppres- 
 sive aristocracy, ib. Draco's criminal 
 code, ib. anarchy from political factions, 
 ib. Salamis taken by the Megarians, ib. 
 ■wrested from them by Solon, ib. Solon 
 appointed archon, and commissioned to 
 remodel the constitution of the city, ib. 
 principal features of his legislation, ib. 
 it did not effect a total extinction of 
 party spirit, 113. tyranny established by 
 Pisistratus, ib. changes in Solon's con- 
 stitution, jo. struggle with Sparta, which 
 attempts to restore monarchy, 114. with 
 Sparta takes the lead of the other Gre- 
 cian states, ib. with rivals occasionally 
 in Megara and ^gina, ib. with Sparta 
 alone, of the Greek states, rejected the 
 Persian yoke, 146. were the saviours of 
 Greece, ib. expedition against Paros, ib. 
 the fall of Miltiades, a means of happi- 
 ness to Athens, ib. raised by Themis- 
 tocles as a maritime power, 147. burnt 
 by Xerxes, 148. rebuilt and fortilicd by 
 Themistocies, ib. formation of the Pirai"- 
 us, ib. expedition against the Persians 
 in Cyprus and Byzantium, 148. jealousy 
 with Sparta, 149. supremacy of Athens, 
 ib. the power of the state gradually 
 centered in the power of ten generals 
 annually elected, 150. the brilliant pe- 
 riod of the city, ib. political greatness 
 her fundamental principle, ib. civiliza- 
 tion, ib. Cimon at the head of atiairs, 
 151. his banishment, ib. death of Aris- 
 tides, and elevation of Pericles, ib. va- 
 rious rivals set up to oppose him, 152. 
 change in the administration of affairs, 
 ib. the precedence of Athens advancing 
 to supremacy, ib. war with Corinth and 
 Epidaurus, ib. first rupture with Sparta 
 and Bccotia, ib. recall of Cimon, ib. his 
 death, 153. the formation of a league 
 against Athens, 154. Peloponnesian Avar, 
 ib. sketch of the internal state of Athens, 
 155. financial system, ib. at first unsuc- 
 cessful in the Peloponnesian war, 156. 
 suffers from the plague, ib. governed by 
 Cleon, ib. unrestrained democracy, ib. 
 death of Cleon, 157. peace concluded, 
 ib. Alcibiades succeeds to the head of 
 affairs, ib. battle of Mantinea, ib project 
 against Sicily, ib. failure in this the 
 first great blow suffered by Athens, ib. 
 unsuccessful siege of Syracuse, and an- 
 nihilation of the Athenian fleet, 158. 
 revolutions at Athens, ib. reformation of 
 government, and recall of Alcibiades, ib. 
 repeated victories over the Spartans, ib. 
 rejects the proposals for peace made by 
 Sparta, ib. defeat by Lysander at No- 
 
 tium, 159. ten new leaders appointed, 
 ib. decisive defeat at .lEgospoiamos, ib. 
 besieged and taken by Lysander, ib. de- 
 prived of her walls, her navy reduced, 
 and the constitution commuted to an 
 oligarchy, ib. expulsion of the thirty 
 tyrants, 160. restoration and reform of 
 Solon's constitution, ib. engages in the 
 Corinthian war, 161. the Athenian and 
 Persian fleets defeat the Spartan at 
 Cnidus, 161. the advantage made use of 
 by Conon to re-establish the independ- 
 ence of Athens, ib. Sparta in distress 
 makes an alliance with Athens, 163. in 
 the war with Thebes, loses the greater 
 part of her allies and three leaders, J 64. 
 their place taken by Chares, ib. sufiers 
 from his cabals, ib. participates in the 
 insurrection of Artabazus, lö. repel Philip 
 in his attempt to push through Ther- 
 mopylte into Greece, 165. makes peace 
 with him, ib. alliance with Thebes against 
 Pjiilip brought about by Demosthenes, 
 172. flourishing condition at the death 
 of Alexander the Great, 215. Cassander 
 gets his friend Nicanor to be command- 
 er, 217. a two-fold revolution, and De- 
 metrius Phalereus placed at the head of 
 affairs, ib. democracy restored, and De- 
 metrius driven out, 219. after the battle 
 of Ipsus closes her harbours against De- 
 metrius Poliorcetes, ib. on his gaining 
 the throne of Macedonia, he becomes 
 her master, 220. and in his misfortunes, 
 she drives out the Macedonian garrison, 
 and re-establishes her ancient constitu- 
 tion, ib. besieged by him, and he is paci- 
 fied by Crates, i'b. joins the Achaean 
 league, 223. the probability that a depu- 
 tation from Rome sought counsel in 
 forming the code of the twelve tables, 
 264. 
 
 Atossa, daughter of Cyrus, and wife of 
 Darius, 81. her boundless influence 
 over her husband, ib. 
 
 Attains, the name of three kings of Per- 
 gamus, 234. 
 
 Attica, a foreland in Central Greece, 91. 
 gcogiaphical outline, ib. 
 
 Attila, 375, 376. 
 
 Augustus, the honourable title conferred by 
 the senate on C. Octavianus after the 
 battle of Actium, 328. See Octavius 
 Cepsar. 
 
 Azcreliantis, L. Dmnitius, an emperor of 
 Rome, 357. 
 
 Aureolus, a usurper in the reign of Galli- 
 enus, 356. 
 
 Babylon, its history before Cyrus, 23. re- 
 volts and is regained by Darius, 77. 
 
 Babylonians, their chronology, according to 
 Herodotus, 381. 
 
 Bactria, history of the kingdom, 245. 
 
394 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Batica, a province of Spain, 321. 
 
 Bagoas, a eunuch in the court of Arta- 
 xerxes III., who held him long in subjec- 
 tion, 88. and finally poisons him, ib. 
 raises to the throne the king's youngest 
 son Arces, ih. deposes him and raises 
 Darius Codomannus, ih. by whom he is 
 put to death, ib. 
 
 Balblnus, Cloditis, 354. 
 
 Baleares, The, a colony of Carthage, 61 . con- 
 sidered a part of the Roman province of 
 Spain at the time of Augustus, 322. 
 
 Bards, mainly instrumental in the civiliza- 
 tion of the ancient Greeks, 99. 
 
 Bedouins, overrun ancient Egypt, 49. their 
 dominion lasted about 200 years, 50. 
 finally expelled, ib. 
 
 Belgius, a leader of the second expedition 
 of the Gauls, in their irruption into 
 Greece, 221. he defeats Ptolemy Cerau- 
 nus, ib. 
 
 Berenice, daughter of Ptolemy Evergetcs, 
 married to Antiochus Oeos, 190. repudi- 
 ated by him after the death of Ptolemy, 
 ib. hatred between her and Laodice 
 caused struggles with Egypt which aided 
 in subverting the Syrian empire, ib. as- 
 sassinated, ib. 
 
 Berenice, eldest daughter of Ptolemy Au- 
 letes, king of Egypt, 212. 
 
 Bias, son of Botyras, king of Bithynia, 235. 
 
 Bithynia, its history as a kingdom, 235. 
 
 Black Sea, its shores covered with Greek 
 colonies, 130. nearly all from the city of 
 Miletus, ib. 
 
 BoBotia, a country in Central Gi'eece, 91. 
 gcograjjliical outline, ib. of all the Grecian 
 states, contained the greatest number of 
 cities, ih. general outlme of its history, 
 118. 
 
 Botyras, a king of Bithynia, 235. 
 
 Brenmis, a leader in the second expedition 
 of the Gauls in their second irruption 
 into Greece, 221. with Acichorius invades 
 Paeonia, ib. leads in a subsequent inva- 
 sion, and pushes on for Delphi, but is 
 defeated, 222. 
 
 Britain, the commerce of the Carthaginians 
 extended as far, 64. Cffisar's expedition 
 into Britain, 310. reduced to a Roman 
 province in the time of Nero, 323, 337. 
 the expedition of Agricola, 341. of Se- 
 verus, 351. abandoned by the Romans, 
 375. 
 
 Britanniens, a son of Claudius Caesar, mur- 
 dered by Nero, 337. 
 
 Bruttium, a country in Lower Italy, 256. 
 
 Brutus, M., his conspiracy against Ceesar, 
 315. takes possession of Macedonia, 317. 
 defeated at Philippi, 318. death, ib. 
 
 Burgimdians, their kingdom formed, 375. 
 
 Casar, J., his power, ambition, talents, and 
 courage, 309. Lis xinion with Pompey 
 
 and Crassus, ib. his campaign in Gaul, 
 309. in Britain and Germany, 310. raises 
 himself above the triumvirs, ib. jealousy 
 between them, 311. terms of their ac- 
 commodation, ib. contest with Pompey, 
 312. the means by which Caesar main- 
 tained his interest at Rome, ih, is com- 
 manded to disband his army, and crosses 
 the Rubicon, 313. defeats Pompey, ib. 
 war in Alexandria, and in Pontus, ib. 
 his views and purposes, 314. conspiracy 
 against him, 315. his death, ib. 
 
 C<Esar, Octavius, afterwards C. Octavianus, 
 nephew of Julius Caesar, 315. adopted 
 in the will of his uncle, ib. sent against 
 Antony, 316. obtains the consulate, ib, 
 forms a triumvirate with Antony and 
 Lepidus, 317. quarrels between them, 
 318. peace effected, 319. compels Lepi- 
 dus to retire, ib. wars in Dalmatia and 
 Pannonia, 320. war with Antony, whom 
 he defeats at the battle of Actium, ib, 
 becomes absolute master of the republic, 
 ib. the title of Augustus conferred on 
 him by the senate, 328. the nature of his 
 government, and the forms under which 
 lae held supreme power, 329 — 331. ex- 
 tension of the empire under him, 331, 
 332. his reign the brilliant period for 
 Rome, 333. his family, ib, 
 
 Ccesars, The, genealogical table, 387. 
 
 Calabria, or Messapia, a small country in 
 Lower Italy, 256. 
 
 Caligula, Caius Ccesar, son of Germanicus, 
 336. his reign, ib, 
 
 Cambaules, a leader of the first expedition 
 in their irruption into Thrace in the 
 time of Ptolemy Ceraunus, 221. 
 
 Cambunian mountains, the northern bound- 
 ary of Greece, 90. 
 
 Cambyses, the Persian king, son of Cyrus, 
 75. destroyed the empire of the Pha- 
 raohs in Egypt, at the battle of Pelusium, 
 58, 75. persecuted the Egyptian priest- 
 hood from policy, 75. his death, ih, 
 
 Camirus, a city and Dorian colony in the 
 island of Rhodes, 130. 
 
 Campa7iia, a country in Central Italy, 255. 
 geographical outline, ih. 
 
 Canaries, The, probably a colony of Car- 
 thage, 61. 
 
 Cappadocia, its history, 238. 
 
 Caracalla, M. A, A, B., emperor of Rome, 
 351. 
 
 Carausius, 362. 
 
 Cariniis, M. Aurelius, 358, 362. 
 
 Carthage, a colony of Phoenicians, 26. its 
 history divided into three periods, 59. 
 1st, to commencement of wars with Sy- 
 racuse, B. C. 480 ; 2nd, to the wars with 
 Rome, B. C. 264 ; 3rd, to its destruc- 
 tion, B. C. 146, 60. Vast extent of the 
 Carthaginian dominions, ib, protected 
 the Tyrian colonies in Africa and Cy- 
 
INDEX, 
 
 395 
 
 rene, 61. her colonies, ib. her fleets and 
 armies, 62. the latter chiefly mercena- 
 ries, ib. Her political constitution an 
 aristocracy with a certain admixture 
 of democracy, 63. finances, ib. her 
 commerce extended as far by sea as 
 Britain and Guinea, 64. by land, to the 
 interior of Africa, ib. extended her do- 
 minion in Africa, 65. wars with Sicily, ib. 
 wars with Rome, 66, 272. contrast of 
 the tAvo states, 272. first war, its origin 
 and results, 273. the terms of peace, ib. 
 expelled from Sicily, ib. endeavours to 
 compensate the losses thus sustained by 
 extending her Spanish dominions, 274. 
 second war with Rome, 275. Hannibal 
 carries the war into Italy, «6. the Cartha- 
 ginians defeated in Spain and in Africa, 
 276. the terms of peace granted by Rome, 
 ib. Carthage becomes a trading city under 
 the tutelage of Rome, ib., 69. the vigilant 
 guard kept over her, 282. new projects 
 against her and bad treatment by Rome, 
 285. her destruction, 71, 286. produced 
 rather by party spirit and the avarice of 
 the gi-eat than by the debased state of 
 the nation, 71. 
 Cams, M. Aiirelius, a Roman emperor, 
 
 358. 
 Casmante, a city of Sicily, 142. 
 Cassander, the name of two of the generals 
 of Alexander the Great, 183. one the S(jn 
 of Antipater, whom his f\ither, at his 
 death, excluded from the regency, 217. 
 escapes to Antigonus, ib. occupies A thens, 
 ib. besieges and takes Olympias at Pyd- 
 na, ib. puts her to death, ib. obtains the 
 sovereignty of Macedonia, ib. marries 
 Thessalonice, half-sister to Alexander, 
 218. murders Roxana and her son Alex- 
 ander, fi. instigates Polysperchon to mur- 
 der Hercules, ib. war with Antigonus 
 and Demetrius, 219. strengthens his 
 power in Greece, ib. his death, ib. 
 Cassius, conspires against Ca'sar, 315. pro- 
 vince of Syria given him after Cajsar's 
 death, 316. war with Dolabella, 317. de- 
 feated at Philippi, 318. death, ib. 
 Caste, the complete division of the Egyp- 
 tians into castes effected in the second 
 period of their history, 54. tlie Greeks 
 had no sacerdotal caste, 99. 
 Catana, a city in Sicily, 142. 
 Catiline, his conspiracies, defeat, and death, 
 
 307, 308. 
 Cato, the Elder, his immorality, malignant 
 passions, and pernicious politics, 283. 
 heads the party seeking the destruction 
 of Carthage, 285. 
 Cato, the Younger, 308. his death, 314. 
 Catti, The, unsuccessful expedition of Do- 
 mitian against them, 342. their irruption 
 in the time of Aurelius, 346. wars with 
 Caracalla, .352. 
 
 Censors, ofiicers established at Rome, 265. 
 
 their importance, ib. 
 Cephalonia, a Greek island, 94. 
 Ceretrius, a leader in the second expedi- 
 tion of the Gauls in their irruption into 
 Thrace, 221. 
 Chabrias, a celebrated Athenian general, 
 
 164. falls at the siege of Chios, ib. 
 Chcerea, Cassius, assassinates Caligula, 336. 
 Chalcis, a city on the coast of Macedonia, 
 
 founded by Athens, 132. 
 Chares, an Athenian commander, 164. his 
 cabals against Iphicrates and Timotheus 
 his colleagues, ib. 
 Charilaus, king of Sparta, nephew and 
 
 ward of Lycurgus, 107. 
 Chios, an island of Asia Minor, in which 
 a colony was founded by the lonians, 
 130. 
 Christianity, its progress and efl"ects in the 
 Roman empire, 360. its rapid spread to 
 the time of Constantine, 368. 
 Chro?ücles. See Annals. 
 Cicero, has a place in the administration, 
 308. defeats, at Rome, the conspiracy of 
 Catiline, ib. banished by the triumvirate, 
 310. his return, ib. his death, 317. 
 Cilicia, made a Roman province, 340. 
 Cimbri, or Cimmerians, 296. tlieir invasion 
 
 of Italy, ib. 
 Cimon, son of Miltiades, 151. supplies the 
 place of Themistocles at Athens, ib. his 
 character, ib. instigates the Athenians to 
 send help to the Spartans in the third 
 Messenian war, ib. he is banished, ib. 
 recalled at the suggestion of Pericles, 
 152. endeavours to restore domestic tran- 
 quillity and renew war with Persia, ib. 
 defeats them by land and at sea, 153. 
 dies at the siege of Citium, ib. 
 Claudius, Tiberius, an emperor of Rome, 
 
 336, 337. 
 Claudius, M. Aurelius, an emperor of Rome, 
 
 356. 
 Clazomene, a city and Ionian colony in Asia 
 
 Minor, 128. 
 Cleomenes, king of Sparta with Demaratus, 
 
 109. 
 Cleon, a currier, succeeded Pericles at 
 
 Athens, 156. his death, 157. 
 
 Cleopatra, sister to Alexander the Great, 
 
 IbO. comes over to Asia in order to 
 
 marry Perdiccas, ib. murdered at the 
 
 instigation of Antigonus, 183. 
 
 Cleopatra, daughter of Antiochus III. of 
 
 Syria, marries Ptolemy Epiphanes, 208. 
 
 Cleopatra, sister and wife of Ptolemy 
 
 Philometor, 209. after his death marries 
 
 Physcon, ib. by whom she is afterwards 
 
 repudiated that lie may marry her 
 
 daughter of the same name, ib. 
 
 Cleopatra, daughter of Cleopatra the widow 
 
 and sister of Ptolemy Philometor, 210. 
 
 married by Ptolemy Physcon after he had 
 
396 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 repudiated her mother, ib. after his death 
 she is compelled to place her eldest son 
 on the throne, ib. and gives Cyprus to 
 the younger, ib. afterwards exchanges 
 them, ib. her tyranny, ib. 
 
 Cleopatra, daughter to Ptolemy Philometor, 
 married to the Syrian usurper Alexander 
 Balas, 195, 209. taken from him and 
 married by Demetrius Nicator, 196, 2U9. 
 in order to strengthen herself against 
 Tryphon, marries Antiochus of Sida, 196. 
 ■war with Alexander Zebinas, 197. with 
 her own hand murders her son Seleucus, 
 ib. gives the crown to her youngest son, 
 Antiochus Gryphus, 198. by whom she 
 is murdered, ib. 
 
 Cleopatra Berenice, daughter and successor 
 of Ptolemy Lathyrus, 211. married to 
 Alexander II., and murdered by him, ib. 
 
 Cleopatra, daughter of Ptolemy Auletes, 
 who was left by her father under the 
 Roman superintendence and to marry 
 her brother Ptolemy Dionysos, 212. feuds 
 with her brother, ib. is driven out, 213. 
 Caesar, assuming the part of arbitrator, 
 is guided by her artifices, ib. sedition in 
 the capital, ib. Csesar being victorious the 
 crown falls to her, ib. she poisons her 
 brother, ib. protected by Caesar and de- 
 pendent upon him, ib. after his death 
 takes part with the triumvii'i, ib. sum- 
 moned before Antony, she fascinates him, 
 ib. he follows her to Egypt, ib. had three 
 children by him, 214. prevails on him to 
 break with Octavia, ib. accompanies him 
 to Samos, ib. follows him in his expedi- 
 tion against Octavius, ib. battle of Ac- 
 tium, ib. procures her own death, ib. 
 
 Clovis, or Clodovicus, 375. 
 
 Cnidus, a city and colony of the Dorians 
 in Asia Minor, 130. 
 
 Coins, one source of history, 6. 
 
 Colonies, essential to a seafaring and com- 
 mercial people, when their trade extends 
 to distant countries, 26. 
 
 Colonies, Grecian, 125. founded by the 
 Hellenic race, ib. their origin and re- 
 lations with the mother cities, 126. their 
 independence promoted the civilization 
 of the Hellenic race, ib. the most an- 
 cient and most important were those on 
 the western coast of Asia Minor, 127. 
 JEolian, described, ib. Ionian, 128. 
 Dorian, 130. those of the Propontis, 
 131. of the Black Sea, ib. of Thrace 
 and Macedonia, 132. the western ones 
 founded later than those in the ^gean 
 and Black Seas, 1-32. in Lower Italy, 
 133. in Sicily, 136. on other islands or 
 coasts of the Mediterranean, 142. on the 
 coast of Gaul, ib. on the Spanish coast, 
 ib. on that of Africa, 143. 
 
 Colophon, a city and Ionian colony in Asia 
 Minor, 128. 
 
 Commagene, made a Roman province, 340. 
 
 Commodus, L.Ccesonius, afterward L. Verus, 
 adopted by Marcus Aurelius, 344. asso- 
 ciated with him in the government, 345. 
 sent against the Parthians, 346. his de- 
 baucheries, ib. his reign, 347. 
 
 Co7istans, 368. 
 
 Constantine the Great, 364 — 368. 
 
 Constatitine, son of the preceding, 368. ge- 
 nealogical table of his house, 388. 
 
 Co7istantinople, removal of the seat of em- 
 pire to, 365. 
 
 Co7istantius Chloriis, Fl., created Caesar by 
 Maximian, 362. proclaimed Augustus, 
 363. his death, 364. 
 
 Co7istantixis, son of Constantine the Great, 
 368, 369. 
 
 Corcyra, a Greek island in the Ionian Sea, 
 opposite Epirus, 94. historical outline, 
 122. 
 
 Corinth, a coimtry of Peloponnesus, 93. 
 geographical outline, ib. general outline 
 of its history, 116. 
 
 Corinth, the chief city of the country of the 
 same name, 93. its siege and destruction 
 by the Romans, 286. 
 
 Corsica, probably a colony of Carthage, 61. 
 an island pertaining to Italy, 257. 
 
 Cos, an island, and city of the same name, 
 founded by the Dorians, 130. 
 
 Crnssus, a Roman general, 307, 309. his 
 expedition into Parthia, and overthrow, 
 311. 
 
 Craterus, one of the generals of Alexander 
 the Great, 180. with Antipater, retains 
 Macedonian Thrace, at the partition of 
 the empire, ib. league with Antipater 
 and Ptolemy, 181. falls on Asia, and is 
 defeated and slain by Eumencs, ib. 
 
 Cremona, a colony founded by the Romans 
 after the overthrow of the Gauls, 275. 
 
 Crete, a Greek island, 94. general outline 
 of its history, 123. 
 
 Croton, a Grecian settlement in Lower 
 Italy, founded by the Achaeans, 133. 
 
 Cumce, a city in Lower Italy, a colony 
 from Chalcis in Euboea, 136. 
 
 Cyclades, a group of Greek islands in the 
 J&geaw Sea, 94. historical outline, 123. 
 
 Cyprus, a Greek island, 94. delivered into 
 the possession of Persia after the peace 
 of Antalcidas, 86. general outline of its 
 history, 124. 
 
 Cyre7iaica, a Roman province, with the 
 isle of Crete, at the accession of Augus- 
 tus, 325. 
 
 Cyrene, a Greek colony on the coast of 
 Africa, founded by the island of Thera, 
 143. its history, ih. 
 
 Cyrus, the founder of the Persian mon- 
 archy, 73. his history obscured under 
 the veil of romance, ib. elected chief of 
 the Persian tribes, and became a mighty 
 conqueror, ib. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 397 
 
 Cyms, younger son of Darius II., 85. sup- 
 ported by liis mother, Parysatis, rebels 
 against his brotlier, Artaxerxes II., ih. 
 is defeated and killed at the battle of 
 Cunaxa, 86. 
 
 Cythera, a Greek island off the south 
 coast, 94. 
 
 Cyzicus, a city and Grecian colony on the 
 Propontis, 131. in the Roman age, one of 
 the most flourishing cities of Asia, ib. 
 
 Dada, 327. unsuccessful expedition of Do- 
 mitian against the Daci, 342. conquered 
 by Trajan, 343. abandoned by Aurelian, 
 357. 
 Damascus, the kingdom of, comprised the 
 greatest part of Syria, 28. and was extend- 
 ed at the expense of the kingdoms of Ju- 
 dah and Israel, ih. 
 Danube, a boundary of the Roman empire 
 
 at the accession of Augiistus, 321. 
 Darius I., of the family of the Acha?me- 
 nides, raised to the Persian throne, 76. 
 a great statesman and warrior, 77. first 
 carried the Persian arms into Europe, ib. 
 regains possession of Babylon, ib. expe- 
 dition against the Scythians, ih. his 
 power established in Thrace and Mace- 
 donia, 78. campaign against Western 
 India, ib. and Barca in Africa, ib. cam- 
 paign against Greece, 79. perfects the 
 internal organization of Persia, ib. his 
 death, 81. the influence over him of his 
 wife Atossa, ib. 
 
 Darius II., the title assumed by Ochus, a 
 bastard son of Artaxerxes I., who mur- 
 dered his brother Sogdianus, and ascend- 
 ed the Persian throne, 84. reigned nine- 
 teen years under his wife's tutelage, ib. 
 state rapidly declines under his reign, ib. 
 
 Darius III., Codomatinus, a distant relation 
 of the reigning family of Persia, 88. raised 
 by Bagoas to the throne after the de- 
 position of Arces, ib. puts Bagoas to 
 death, ib. attacked by Alexander the 
 Great, ib. battle of the Granicus, 174. 
 battle of Issus, ib. battle of Arbela, 175. 
 falls under the treachery of Bessus, 89. 
 
 David, king of the Jews, 32. the Jews com- 
 pletely formed as a nation under him, ib. 
 
 Decius, Trajanus, an emperor of Rome, 
 355. 
 
 Decius, CI. Herennius, his son, 355. 
 
 Delphi, the seat of the most celebrated 
 Greek oracle, 99. 
 
 Demaratus, king of Sparta and colleague 
 of Cleomenes, 109. 
 
 Demetrius, son of Antigonus, 182. his cha- 
 racter, ib. his victory at Gaza over Pto- 
 lemy, 183. expedition to liberate Athens, 
 184. his twofold sojourn there, 26., 219. 
 his victory off Cypriis, 184. besieges 
 Rhodes, and gains the title of Poliorcetes, 
 ib. appointed generalissimo of Greece, i&., 
 
 219. after the battle of Ipsus, escapes 
 into Greece, 185. murders Alexander, 
 son of Cassander, 219. and is proclaimed 
 by the army king of Macedonia, ih. his- 
 tory of his seven years' reign, 220. his 
 ambition and death, ib. 
 Demetrius IL, king of Macedonia, son of 
 
 Antigonus Gonnatas, 224. his reign, ih. 
 Demetrius, surnamed Soter, eldest son of 
 Antiochus Epiphanes, 194. being de- 
 tained at Rome as an hostage at the death 
 of his father, his younger brother suc- 
 ceeds to the throne, ib, escapes from 
 Rome, takes the throne, and puts to 
 death Lysias and Eupator, 195. gets him- 
 self acknowledged at Rome, ih. attempts 
 to extend his power, ib. compelled to 
 court the Jews, ih. killed in battle, ib. 
 low state of the Syrian kingdom, ib. 
 De?netrius II., surnamed Nicator, son of 
 Demetrius I., 196. marries Cleopatra, 
 daughter of Ptolemy Philometor, ib. de- 
 thrones the usurper, Alexander Balas, ib. 
 insurrection of Tryphon, ih. keeps his 
 footing in only part of Syria, ib. taken 
 prisoner by the Parthians and kept ten 
 years prisoner, ib. escapes from prison, 
 and regains the throne, 197. his over- 
 bearing conduct, and meddling in Egyp- 
 tian affairs, caused Ptolemy Physcon to 
 set up Alexander Zebinas, by whom he 
 is defeated and slain, ib. 
 
 Demetrius, son of Philip II. of Maccdon, 
 229. ambassador at Rome, and intended 
 to succeed his father, ih. destroyed by 
 the env}' and hatred of his bastard bro- 
 ther Perseus, ih. condemned by his fa- 
 ther, being innocent, ih. 
 
 Demetrius, the name of a Bactrian con- 
 queror, 245. 
 
 Demosthenes, an Athenian orator, 169. his 
 eloquence wards oft' for a time the fate 
 of Greece, 165. brings about an alliance 
 between Athens and Thebes, 172. ex- 
 cites the Lamian war, 216. Athens agrees 
 to deliver him up to Antipater, ih. 
 
 Demotic mode of writing used by the com- 
 mon people of Egj'pt, 42. only a running 
 hand derived from the hieroglyphic sys- 
 tem, ih. never used in the public monu- 
 ments in the time of the Pharaohs, ih. 
 
 Despotism, defined, 20. cannot long be con- 
 tinued among a mercantile and coloniz- 
 ing people, 26. 
 
 Diadumemis, M. Opelius, son of Macrinus, 
 created Cffisar by his father, 352. 
 
 Diocletian, C. Valerius, a Roman emperor, 
 his reign, 362. his abdication, 363. 
 
 Diodatus. See Thendotus I. 
 
 Diodorus, derived his Egyptian history 
 partly from oral and written documents 
 of the priests of Thebes, partly from old 
 Greek authors, 44. 
 
 Diodotus. See Tryphon. 
 
398 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Dioscurias, a city and Greek colony on the 
 eastern coast of the Black Sea, 131. 
 
 Dodona, the seat of a Greek oracle, 99. 
 
 Domitian, L. Flavius, emperor of Rome, 
 341. 
 
 Domtia, Julia, wife of Septimius Severus, 
 351. 
 
 Dorians, a principal branch of the Hel- 
 lenes, 96. expel the Acha^ans from Ar- 
 gos, Sparta, Messene, and Corinth, 103, 
 106. their colonies, 130. 
 
 Doris, a small country in Central Greece, 92. 
 
 Drusus, son-in-law of Augustus, 332. 
 
 Drusus, Germanicus, son of the above, 
 334. the hatred of Tiberius, 335. is 
 poisoned, ib. 
 
 Dydalsus, a king of Bithynia, 235. 
 
 Egypt, its geography, 39. one of the more 
 extensive countries of the globe, ih. varies 
 in its physical properties, ih. divided into 
 Upper and Lower Egypt, 40. was from 
 the earliest times closely connected with 
 Ethiopia, ib. its history divided into three 
 periods, 1st, to the Sesostridse, B.C. 1500, 
 2nd, to Psammetichus, B. C. 650, 3rd, 
 to the Persian conquest, B. C. 525, 41. 
 political civilization commenced in Egypt 
 earlier than history reaches, 45. doubtful 
 whether earlier than in India, ii. causes of 
 its early civilization, 46. its commerce, ih. 
 its civilization came from the south, ih. a 
 caste of priests introduce their religion and 
 civilization, 47. Egypt anciently divided 
 into nonies, 48. and into small states, ih. 
 which according to Manetho first existed 
 in Upper and Middle Egypt, ib. overrun 
 by the Bedouins, 49. who were finally 
 expelled from Upper Egypt by Thumosis, 
 50. the whole kingdom united under the 
 Pharaohs, 52. this the brilliant age of 
 Egypt, i&. the great monuments of Thebes 
 erected at this time, ib. its greatest splen- 
 dour due to Sesostris, 53. division of the 
 people into castes probably completed in 
 the second period of its history, 54. the 
 monarchy changed into a Dodecarchy, 
 55. and again by Psammetichus into one 
 kingdom, ib. continued united till the 
 Persian conquest, 56. conquered by Cam- 
 byses at the battle of Pelusium, 58. be- 
 came a Persian province, ib. revolts un- 
 der Darius I., 81. again subjected under 
 Xerxes I., ib. and treated with severity 
 by the satrap Achcemenes, ib. again re- 
 volts under Artaxerxes I., 83. partly 
 quelled by Megabyzus, ib. Persians ex- 
 pelled by Amyrtfeus, 85. who is acknow- 
 ledged by the Persians, ib. Artaxerxes II. 
 attempts to recover Egypt, 87. made a 
 province by Artaxerxes III., 88. con- 
 quered by Alexander the Great, 175. 
 given to Ptolemy Soter in the partition 
 of Alexander's dominions, 199. Cyrene 
 
 and Libya annexed by Ptolemy, 201. 
 the empire advanced into Ethiopia, ib. 
 constitution of the government under 
 Ptolemy, ib. under the reign of Ptolemy 
 Philadelphus became the most flourish- 
 ing country in existence, 203. its com- 
 merce and revenue, 204. wars with An- 
 tiochus II. of Syria, and with Magas of 
 Cyrene, 205. emljassy to and from Rome, 
 ib. under Ptolemy Evergetes Egypt be- 
 comes a conquering state, ib. her con- 
 quests in Asia, Ethiopia, and Arabia, 
 chiefly used to secure her commercial 
 routes, 206. change in the condition of 
 the country under the luxurious reign of 
 Ptolemy III. and his successors, 207. in 
 the reign of Ptolemy IV. the country in 
 gi-eat danger, ih. averted by the battle of 
 Rapliia, ib. rising of the people against 
 Agathocles and his sister, the guardians 
 of Ptolemy Epiphancs, ib. critical con- 
 dition of Egypt, ib. attack of the Syrian 
 and Macedonian kings, ih. Rome com- 
 mands peace, ib. regency given to M. 
 Lepidus, and the administration to Aris- 
 tomenes of Acarnania, ih. important 
 bearing of this on the future destiny of 
 Egypt, ih., 285. loses the Syrian posses- 
 sions, 208. insurrections in consequence 
 of the tyranny and cruelty of Epiphanes, 
 ib. accession of Ptolemy Philometor, ih. 
 war Avitli Antiochus Epiphanes, ib. de- 
 feat at Pelusium, ib. Egypt, as far as 
 Alexandria, gained by Antiochus, ib. 
 Philometor expelled and Physcon seated 
 on the throne, 209. the government di- 
 vided between them, and Antiochus com- 
 pelled by Rome to make peace, ib. war 
 between the brothers, and reconciliation, 
 ih. division of the kingdom, ih. accession 
 of Ptolemy VII., 210. his cruelty and 
 tyranny, ih. insurrections, ib. accession 
 of Ptolemy Lathyrus, ib. intrigues and 
 changes in the government effected by 
 his mother, ib. separation of Cyrenaica 
 from Egypt, 211. obscure history of the 
 country, which has become a harvest 
 ready for the Romans, 212. history of 
 Egypt till Cfesar is called in to arbitrate 
 between Ptolemy Dionysos and Cleo- 
 patra, 213. sedition at Alexandria, ib. 
 Caesar besieged at Bruchium, ib. hatred 
 against Rome, ib. revolutions in the 
 capital decisive to the whole of Egypt, 
 ib. the country dependent on Rome, ib. 
 unbounded wealth and effeminacy of the 
 kingdom, 214. a Roman province at the 
 accession of Augustus, 325. 
 
 Egyptians, fii-st adopted the use of hiero- 
 glyphics, 42. history so recorded liable 
 to misinteqjretation, ib. their chronology 
 according to Herodotus, 382. 
 
 Elis, a country of Peloponnesus, 93. geo- 
 graphical outline, ib. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 399 
 
 Elis, a Grecian state — general outline of its 
 history, 117. 
 
 Eningia. See Finningia. 
 
 Epamino7idas, a Theban, 162. his lofty cha- 
 racter formed by the philosophy of Py- 
 thagoras, ib. his long struggle against 
 Sparta, ib. invented a new system of 
 tactics, ib. defeats the Spartans, and 
 makes his way to the gates of their city, 
 163. attempt on Corinth and the Pelo- 
 ponnesus defeated by the alliance of 
 Athens with Sparta, ib. falls at the battle 
 of Man tinea, 164. 
 
 Ephesus, a city in Asia Minor, founded by 
 the Carians, and afterwards occupied by 
 the lonians, 129. its constitution, ib. 
 
 Epirus, the western country in Northern 
 Greece, 91. general outline of its history, 
 121. 
 
 Eras, necessity to fix on a common one, 9. 
 to compute before and after Christ the 
 most certain and convenient, ib. 
 
 ErythrfB, a city in Asia Minor, founded by 
 the lonians, 128. 
 
 Etruria, a country in Central Italy, 254. 
 geographical outline, ib. 
 
 Euboea, a Greek island opposite Bocotia, 94. 
 general outline of its history, 122. 
 
 Eucratidas, the name of two kings of Bac- 
 tria, 245. 
 
 Eumenes, one of the generals of Alexander 
 the Great, 180. receives Cappadocia after 
 his master's death, ib. supports Perdic- 
 cas, the regent, against the other generals, 
 181. commands in Asia Minor, ib. de- 
 feats and kills Craterus, eft. war of An- 
 tigonus against him, ib. defeated by 
 treachery, shuts himself up in the fast- 
 ness of Nora, ib. appointed generalissi- 
 mo of the royal troops, 182. unable to 
 maintain himself in Lower Asia, ib. de- 
 feated through the insubordination of 
 his troops, ib. delivered to Antigonus by 
 the Argyraspida?, and put to death, ib. 
 the only loyal supporter of the family 
 of Alexander the Great, ib. 
 
 Eumenes I. of Pergamus, nephew of Phi- 
 letffirus, defeats Antiochus I. at Sar- 
 des, 233. and becomes master of .^olis 
 and the adjoining country, ib. 
 
 Eumenes II., son of Attains I., king of Per- 
 gamus, 234. his character and reign, ib. 
 
 Eunus, heads a revolt of the slaves in Sici- 
 ly, 292. 
 
 Euphrates, a boundary of the Roman em- 
 pire, at the accession of Augustus, 321. 
 
 Eurydice, daughter of Philip of Macedon, 
 
 179. married to the king Arrhidactis, 
 
 180. murdered with him by Olympias, 
 182. 
 
 Euthydevius, a king of Bactria, 245. 
 Ezra, 246. 
 
 Finningia, Finland, 326. 
 
 Flaminius, T. Quintius, a Roman states- 
 man and general, 228, 278. 
 
 Florus, Gessitis, a Roman procurator in 
 Judaea, 251. 
 
 Galba, S. S., a Roman emperor, 339. 
 
 Galerius, C, made Caesar by Diocletian, 
 362. proclaimed Augustus, 363. his 
 death, 364. 
 
 Gallia Cisalpina, or Togata, a coimtry in 
 Upper Italy, 253. geographical descrip- 
 tion, ib., 323. 
 
 Gallia Narbonensis, Celtica, Aq^dtatiica, 
 Belgica, the four provinces of Transal- 
 pine Gaul at the time of Augustus, 322. 
 
 Gallienus, an emperor of Rome, 356. 
 
 Gallus, C. Trebonianus, a Roman emperor, 
 355. 
 
 Gallus, Constantius, 369. 
 
 Garalis, a Greek settlement in Sardinia, 
 142. 
 
 Gaul, a Roman province at the time of 
 Augustus, 322. its boundaries and di- 
 visions, ib. its complete subjugation un- 
 der Augustus, -332. 
 
 Gauls, their irruption into Greece in three 
 expeditions, 221. its issue, 222. a second 
 irruption defeated by Antigonus Gonni, 
 ib. 
 
 Gela, a city in Sicily, 142. 
 
 Genseric, 376. 
 
 Geography, indispensable to the study of 
 history, 8. in ancient, care needed to dis- 
 tinguish the fabulous from the true, 10. 
 
 Germanicjis. See Drusus. 
 
 Germans, to what chiefly they owe their 
 superiority in the science of antiquity, 5. 
 
 Germany, geogi-aphical outline at the ac- 
 cession of Augustus, 326. frxutlcss at- 
 tempts of the Romans to conquer it, 
 332. war Avith Maximin, 354. nations 
 become formidable to Rome, 356. de- 
 feated by Probus, 358. 
 
 Geta, son of Septimius Sevcrus, assassin- 
 ated, 351. 
 
 Goi-dianus, the name of the proconsul of 
 Africa in the reign of Maximin, 354. 
 proclaimed emperor Avith his son, ib. 
 
 Gordiamts, M. Ant07iinus, grandson of the 
 preceding, emperor of Rome, 355. 
 
 Goths, force their way into the Roman 
 empire by crossing the Danube, in the 
 reign of Decius, 355. peace purchased by 
 Gallus, ib. the most powerful of the Ger- 
 man nations, 356. defeated by Aurelius 
 Claudius, 357. and by Aurelian, ib. and 
 by Cams, 359. divided into Ostrogoths 
 and Visigoths, 371. their power broken 
 by Theodosius, 372. 
 
 Governmetit, three different kinds of, tho 
 despotic, autocratic, and republican, 20. 
 
 Gracchus, T. Semp., a Roman tribune, 291. 
 his efforts to relieve the distresses of the 
 lower orders, ib. his fall, 292. 
 
400 
 
 INDEX, 
 
 Gracchus, C. brother of the preceding, 
 treads in his brother's steps, and meets 
 a similar fate, 293, 
 
 Gratian, a Roman emperor, 371, 372. 
 
 Greece, geographical outline, 90. divisions, 
 ib, its islands, 93. the principal original 
 tribes, the Pelasgi and Hellenes, 96. 
 Pelasgi first extended their dominion in 
 Greece, ib. Hellenes afterwards drove 
 them from almost every part, ib. peopled 
 also by colonies from Egypt, Pha?nicia, 
 and Mysia, 97. History of Sparta, lUG. 
 of Athens, 110. of the other States, 114. 
 Arcadia, ib. Argos, 115. Corinth, ib. 
 Sicyon, 116. Achaia, 117. Elis, ih. Me- 
 garis; 118. Boeotia, ib. Phocis, 119. 
 Locris, ib. .^Etolia, ib. Acarnania, 120. 
 Thessaly, ib. Epirus, 12] . Corcyra, 122. 
 .^gina, ib. Euboea, ib. the Cyclades, 
 123. Crete, ib. Cyprus, 124. its colonies, 
 125. See Colonies. General posture of 
 affairs at the death of Alexander the 
 Great, 215. its history henceforth inter- 
 woven with that of the Macedonian king- 
 dom, ib. becomes a Roman province, 231. 
 
 Greeks, and Romans alone of antiquity 
 had acquaintance with philosophical his- 
 tory, 8. their use of the name Medes, 22. 
 The Greeks received improvements in 
 civilization and religion from foreigners, 
 but stamped upon them their own cha- 
 racter, 99. had no sacerdotal caste, ib. 
 the bards instiiimental in their civiliza- 
 tion, ib. and the oracles, 100. and the re- 
 ligious festivals, ib. by means of which 
 they became associated for their com- 
 mon intei'ests, ib. navigation aided in 
 civilizing them, ib. their chivalrous age, 
 101. the Trojan war, ib. kindled one 
 common national spirit, ib. changes re- 
 sulting from the wars and return of the 
 Heraclidae, 103. Greek colonies estab- 
 lished in Asia Minor, ib. republics took 
 the place of clanship, ib. amongst these 
 small states there was no common politi- 
 cal bond, but they were united by a na- 
 tional spirit, 105. founded more colonies 
 than any other ancient nation, 125. the 
 principal Hellenic colonies founded 
 Asia Minor, Thrace, Lower Italy, and 
 Sicily, 126. the independence of the co- 
 lonies promoted the civilization of the 
 race, ib. The unity and splendour of 
 the nation a result of the Persian inva- 
 sion, 146. its causes, ib. battle of Mara- 
 thon, ib. second Persian invasion, 147. 
 the glory of defeating it due to Themis- 
 tocles alone, ib. union of the Hellenic 
 states, ib. battle of Thermopylae, ib. naval 
 engagement off Artemisium, ib. burning 
 of Athens, 148. battle off Salamis, ib. 
 battles of Plataefe and of Mycale, ib. Per- 
 sians driven for ever from Greece, ib. 
 change thereby effected in the internal 
 
 and external relations of Greece, ib. be- 
 come aggressors on Persia, ib. expedi- 
 tion against Cyprus, and Byzantium, ib. 
 Supreme command assumed by Athens, 
 149. Permanent confederacy of the 
 Greek states, ib. its consequences, ib. its 
 effects in Sparta and Athens, ib. Cimon 
 attempts to restore domestic tranquillity 
 to the country, and to renew war with 
 Persia, 1 53. victorious expedition against 
 Persia, ib. peace with Persia, and death 
 of Cimon, ib. renewal of internal strife, 
 ib. formation of a league against Athens, 
 ib. the Peloponnesian war, 154. its pro- 
 gress and conclusion, 159. Athens dis- 
 mantled, and the Spartans at the head of 
 confederate Greece, ib. revolutions in most 
 of the Grecian states, ih. Corinthian war, 
 161. peace of Antalcidas, ib. predomi- 
 nance and arrogance of Sparta, ib. rivalry 
 of Thebes and Sparta, 162. general peace 
 concluded, mediated by Persia, ib. re- 
 jected by Thebes, ib. state of Greece after 
 the war between Sparta and Thebes, 164. 
 no state predominant, ib. The sacred 
 or Phocian war, ib. its causes, ib. it 
 annihilates the remaining morality and 
 patriotism of the country, 165. the grow- 
 ing ascendency of Philip of Macedonia, 
 ib., 171. the battle of Chaeronea completes 
 it, 165, 172. preparations by Philip of 
 Macedon for a national war against Per- 
 sia, 173. Alexander the Great appointed 
 generalissimo, 174. The Lamian war, 
 after the death of Alexander the Great, 
 216. its progress and results, ib. Cassan- 
 der strengthens himself among the Gre- 
 cian cities, 217. Polysperchon endeavours 
 to gain them, ib. war between Antigonus 
 and Cassander, 219. battle of Ipsus, ib. 
 irruption of the Gauls into Greece, 221. 
 The Greeks, who were all, except the 
 Peloponnesians, united in one league, 
 unable to bring more than 90,000 men 
 into the field, 222. poverty of the coun- 
 tries, ib. the designs of the Macedonian 
 kings upon Greece, 223. the capture of 
 Corinth, ih. formation of the .^Etolian 
 League, ib. and of the Acha;an, ib. their 
 important results in the history of Greece 
 and of the world, ib. war of the Leagues, 
 226. interference of Rome in the affairs 
 of Greece, 227. battle of Cynoscephalae, 
 ib., 279. the Grecian cities in Europe and 
 Asia declared independent, 227. freedom 
 of Greece proclaimed at the Isthmian 
 games by T. Q. Flaminius, 228, 279. 
 supremacy of the Greeks transferred 
 from this time to Rome, and her history 
 interwoven with that of the Romans, ib. 
 the Roman policy fostered by the con- 
 tinual quarrels of the Greeks, 229. battle 
 of Fydna, 231. Greece becomes a Ro- 
 man province, ib. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 401 
 
 Guinea, coast of, the commerce of the 
 Carthaginians extended as far, 64. 
 
 Halenosus, a Greek island off Thessaly, 94. 
 
 Halicarnassus, a city and colony of the 
 Dorians in Asia Minor, 130. 
 
 Hannibal, the Carthaginian general, obtains 
 the chief command in Spain, 275. in- 
 vades Italy, ih. his plan of action, 276. 
 attempts to form a league between Car- 
 thage, Syria, and Macedonia, against 
 Rome, 280. is banished from Carthage 
 and flies to Antiochus, 192, 280, 281. 
 Antiochus neglects his advice, 192, 281. 
 his continued persecution hy Rome, 
 283. 
 
 Heliogabalus, Bassianus, 352. his reign, ih. 
 
 Hellas, the name of Central Greece, 91. 
 
 Hellenes, one of the ancient tribes of Greece, 
 96. named from Hellen, one of their chief- 
 tains, ib. first appeared in Phocis, ib. 
 migrate to Thessaly, drive out the Pe- 
 lasgi, and spread over all Greece, ib. 
 subdivided into ^olians, lonians, Do- 
 rians, and Achaeans, ib. were at first 
 savages, 98. at the time of the Trojan 
 war were barbarians, ib. were indebted 
 for the foundation of domestic civiliza- 
 tion to strangers, ib. and the same of re- 
 ligion, 99. but they stamped all these 
 improvements with their own character, 
 ib. from the time of the Trojan war al- 
 ways regarded themselves as one people, 
 101. the race were always united by a 
 national spirit, 105. they alone were 
 permitted to join in the national festivals 
 and games, 105. and in the Amphictyonic 
 council, ib. the colonies founded by 
 them, 126. their civilization promoted 
 by the independence of the colonies, 
 126. See Greece. 
 
 Helos, a city of Laconia, 106. its inhabit- 
 ants reduced to slavery by the Spar- 
 tans, ib. 
 
 Heraclea, a city and Greek colony, on the 
 southern coast of Bithynia, 131. 
 
 Heraclidce, descendants of Heracles, exiled 
 from Argos, 102. establish their claims 
 in Peloponnesus, 103. 
 
 Herod, son of Antipater, appointed king of 
 the Jews, 249, 250. 
 
 Herodotus, his Egyptian history derived 
 solely from public monuments in or near 
 Memphis, 43. justly called the Father of 
 History, 95. his chronology, 378. 
 
 Hieratic mode of writing used by the priests 
 of Egypt, 42. only a running hand de- 
 rived from the hieroglyphic system, 42. 
 never used in the public monuments in 
 the time of the Pharaohs, ib. 
 
 Hiero, king of Syracuse, 272. 
 
 Hieroglyphics, first adopted by the Egyp- 
 tians, 42. the properties and defects of 
 this mode of writing, ib. liable to be 
 
 2 D 
 
 misinterpreted, ib. the Egyptian priests 
 sometimes unable or unwilling to ex- 
 plain it, 44. 
 
 Hiniera, a city of Sicily, 142. 
 
 Hipparchus, with Hippias, sons of Pisis- 
 tratus, succeed their father in the posses- 
 sion of power at Athens, 113. is murdered 
 by Harmodius and Aristogiton, ib, 
 
 Hippias, son of Pisistratus, rules jointly 
 \nth his brother Hipparchus in Athens, 
 till the latter is murdered by Harmodius 
 and Aristogiton, 113. being himself de- 
 posed, he flies to the Persians, ib. 
 
 Historia anfediluviana, 4. why omitted from 
 this work, ib. 
 
 History, its sources, oral traditions, or 
 mythology, and written documents, 5. 
 the latter including inscriptions on public 
 documents, and coins ; annals and chro- 
 nicles ; philosophical works on the sub- 
 ject, 6. geography and chronology indis- 
 pensable to its study, 8. 
 
 History, philosophical, flourishes most under 
 free governments, 8. the Greeks and Ro- 
 mans alone of antiquity had acquaintance 
 with it, ib. 
 
 History, political, its objects, 3. divided 
 into ancient, that of the middle ages, and 
 modern, 4. does not commence till after 
 the formation of states, ib. 
 
 Honoria, 376. 
 
 Honorius, a Roman emperor, 373. 
 
 Hostilius, Tullus, a king of Rome, 261. 
 
 Huns, their entrance into Europe, 371. sub- 
 due the Goths, ib. united under Attila, 
 375. fall on the western provinces of the 
 Roman empire, ib. 
 
 Hybla, a city in Sicily, 142. 
 
 Hyrcanus, John, son of Simon Maccabaeus, 
 248. 
 
 Hyskos, the Egyptian title of the Bedouin 
 Arabs, 49. contemporary with Moses, 
 50. finally defeated and expelled from 
 Egypt, ib. 
 
 Hystaspes, brother of Artaxerxes I., 83. 
 rebelled against his brother, and defeated 
 in two battles, ib. 
 
 lalyssus, a city and Dorian colony in the 
 island of Rhodes, 130. 
 
 Illyricum, its boundaries as a Roman pro- 
 vince, 324. 
 
 Imbrus, a Greek island, 94. 
 
 Inarus, of Marea, king of Libya, excites 
 the revolt of Egypt against the Persians, 
 83. defeated by Megabyzus and capitu- 
 lates, ib. executed in violation of the 
 promise of Megabyzus, ib. 
 
 India, Alexander's expedition against it, 
 176. relinquished in consequence of 
 mutiny in his army, ib. the modern con- 
 nexion of Europe with the East a result 
 of this expedition, ib. communication by 
 sea opened by his admiral, ib. 
 
402 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Inscriptions on public monuments, one 
 source of history, 6. 
 
 lonians, a principal branch of the Hellenes, 
 96. expelled by the Achseans, are re- 
 ceived by the Athenians, 103. their 
 colonies, 128. 
 
 Iphicrates, an Athenian commander, 164. 
 
 Israel, kingdom of, 33. its relations with 
 the kingdom of Judah, ib. summary of 
 its history, 34. 
 
 Italy, geographical outline, 252. its division 
 into Upper, Central, and Lower, ib. the 
 countries comprised in each division, 
 253—256. its islands, 257. 
 
 Ithaca, a Greek island, 94. 
 
 Jannceus, Alexander, son of John Hyr- 
 canus, 249. 
 
 Jason, a high priest of the Jews, 247. 
 
 Jerusalem, captured by Ptolemy I., 246. 
 
 Jewish history of the Assyrians, 22. 
 
 Jeios, their history before Cyrus, 28. its 
 divisions, ib. their nomad state, 29. a 
 federative republic, 30. a monarchy, 31. 
 under Saul a mere agricultural and pas- 
 toral race, but gradually assuming the 
 character of a warlike nation, 32. com- 
 pletely formed as a nation under David, 
 ib. aggrandized by conquest, ib. declen- 
 sion of the state under Solomon, 33. it 
 is divided under Rehoboam, ib. their 
 state as a divided kingdom, ib. history 
 of their restored kingdom after Cyrus, 
 246 — 251. war against them by Vespasian 
 and their city destroyed, 341. synopsis 
 of their reigning houses, 386. 
 
 Jonathan, a high priest and leader of the 
 Jews, 248. 
 
 Joshua, a high priest of the Jews, who, 
 with Zorobabel, headed the colony of 
 Jews on their return to Juda;a by per- 
 mission of Cyrus, 246. 
 
 Jovianus, FL, a Roman emperor, 370. 
 
 Judah, the kingdom of, 33. relations be- 
 tween it and Israel, ib. summary of its 
 history, 35. 
 
 Judas MaccabcEus, 248. 
 
 Jugurtha, of Numidia, his war with Rome, 
 295. 
 
 Juliii,, the daxighter of Augustus, 333, 334. 
 
 Julian, 363. 
 
 Julian, FL, (the apostate,) a Roman em- 
 peror, 369, 370. 
 
 Julianus, M. Didius, purchases the Roman 
 empire from the prstorian guard, 350. 
 executed, ih. 
 
 Laconia, a country of Peloponnesus, 92. 
 geographical outline, ib. 
 
 Lampsacus, a city on the Propontis, a Gre- 
 cian colony, l3l. 
 
 Laodice, wife of Antiochus Gtos, 189. re- 
 pudiated by him on his marriage with 
 Berenice, 190. being taken back she 
 
 poisons him, ib. the Syrian kingdom 
 subverted, partly by the struggle with 
 Egypt, caused by the hatred between her 
 and Berenice, ib. 
 
 Laodice, the name of two queens of Cappa- 
 docia, 238. 
 
 Latini, the race to which the Romans be- 
 longed, 260. it was their ancient practice 
 to extend the cultivation of their country 
 by colonies, ib. 
 
 Latium, a country in Central Italy, 254. 
 geographically described, ib. 
 
 Lebedus, a city and Ionian colony in Asia 
 Minor, 128. 
 
 Leninos, a Greek island, 94. 
 
 Leonidas. ,'Rn.ii\e of Marathon, 147. his 
 heroism contributed to the greatness of 
 Greece, as much as the victory off Sa- 
 lamis, ib. 
 
 Leo7inatus, one of the generals of Alexan- 
 der the Great, 179. made one of the re- 
 gents after his master's death, ib. receives 
 Mysia at the distribution of the empire, 
 180. refuses to obey Perdiccas, ib. goes 
 to Europe to marry Cleopatra, and dies 
 in the Lamian war, ib. 
 
 Leontini, a city in Sicily, 142. 
 
 Lepidus, M., appointed by Rome regent of 
 Egypt in the minority of Ptolemy Epi- 
 phanes, 207. 
 
 Leucadia, a Greek island off Acarnania, 94. 
 
 Licinius, 364, 365. 
 
 Ligtiria, a country in Upper Italy, 253. 
 geogTaphical outline, ib. 
 
 Lindus, a city and Dorian colony in the 
 island of Rhodes, 130. 
 
 Livia, the second wife of Augustus Cassar, 
 .333. 
 
 Locri Epizephyrii, a Grecian colony in 
 Lower Italy, 135. 
 
 Locris, a country, divided into two parts, 
 in Central Greece, 92. general outline 
 of its history, 119. 
 
 Lucania, a country in Lower Italy, 256. 
 
 Ltisitania, a province of Spain, 321. 
 
 Lycia, a free state at the accession of 
 Augustus, became a Roman province, 
 A. D. 43, 325, 340. 
 
 Lycurgus, the Spartan legislator, 107. the 
 principal features of his constitution, ib. 
 
 Lydian empire before Cyrus, 25. three 
 dynasties, ib. its proper history com- 
 mences with that of the Mermnadae, 
 ib. empire destroyed by Cyrus, 73. its 
 chronology according to Herodotus, 380. 
 
 Lysander, a Spartan commander, 159. de- 
 feats the Athenians at Notium, ib. suc- 
 ceeded by Callicratidas, ib. restored to 
 the command, and gloriously terminates 
 the Peloponnesian war, ib. besieges 
 Athens, and takes it, ib. alters its con- 
 stitution, ib. alters the constitution of 
 most of the Grecian states, ib. his death 
 at the battle of Haliartus, 161 . 
 
INDEX. 
 
 403 
 
 Lysias, regent of Syria, in the absence of 
 Antiochus Epiphanes, 195. contests with 
 Philip, ib. put to death by Demetrius, ib. 
 
 Lysimachus, one of the generals of Alex- 
 ander the Great, 180. receives Macedo- 
 nian Thrace at the partition of the em- 
 pire, ib. his aggi-andizement in Mysia, 
 183. league with Ptolemy and the tv.-o 
 Cassanders,i6. irruption into Asia Minor, 
 185. after the liattle of Ipsus, obtains 
 Asia Minor as far as Mount Taurus, ib. 
 deposes Pyrrhus of Epirus from the 
 throne of Macedonia, and adds that 
 kingdom to his own, 221. war with 
 Seleucus Nicator, 189. killed at the 
 battle of Curopedion, ib., 221. 
 
 Macedonia, origin of the kingdom, 166. its 
 early history, ib. its kings tributary to 
 Persia, ib. its independence restored by 
 the battle of Plataea?, ib. its exposure to 
 the attacks of its neighbours the means 
 of its being early involved in the affairs 
 of Greece, ib. differences with Athens, 
 167. peace restored with Athens, ib. 
 civilization promoted by Archelaus, 168. 
 his murder, ib. followed by a stormy pe- 
 riod, which renders its existence as a 
 kingdom dotibtful, ib. progress till the 
 reign of Philip, 169. melancholy posture 
 of affairs, ib. the change effected within 
 two years, 170. he makes Macedonia the 
 arbiter of Greece, ib. its internal govern- 
 ment under Philip absolute, 17.3. he is 
 murdered, ib. accession of Alexander the 
 Great, ib. commotions in the country 
 thereupon, 174. ruin of the monarchy at 
 the death of Alexander, 179. the cotmtry 
 falls to Antipater and Craterus, 180, 216. 
 the death of both, ib. Polysperchon re- 
 gent, 217. the sovereignty obtained by 
 Cassander, ib. on the death of Cassander 
 and his sons, Demetrius Poliorcetes pro- 
 claimed king by the army, 219. his reign 
 of seven years, 220. Pyrrhus of Epirus 
 proclaimed king, ib. deposed by Lysi- 
 machus of Thrace, ib. his defeat and 
 death at the battle of Curopedion, 221. 
 Seleucus Nicator proclaimed king, ib. 
 murdered by Ptolemy Ceraunus, who 
 takes possession of the throne, ib, the 
 irruption of the Gauls, 221, 222. death of 
 Ptolemy and of Meleager, 221. Sosthenes 
 assumes the command, ib. after his death 
 Antigonus of Gonni king, 222. dethroned 
 by Pyrrhus, ib. at his death Antigonus 
 again takes the crown, 223. and renews 
 his designs against Greece, ib. obscure 
 reign of his son Demetrius II., ib. reign 
 of Antigonus Doson, 224. reign of Philip 
 II., 225. the country recruited by a long 
 peace, ib. her grand aim, the supremacy 
 of Greece, seems within her grasp, to. 
 interference of Rome, 226. war of the 
 
 2 
 
 Leagues, ib. attacked by Rome, 227. bat- 
 tle of Cynoscephalee, ib. the Macedonian 
 history becomes interwoven with that of 
 Rome, 228. death of Philip, 229. acces- 
 sion of Perseus, 230. his policy and ex- 
 ertions against Rome, ib. battle of Pydna, 
 231, 284. the country becomes dependent 
 on Rome, and is ultimately converted 
 into a Roman province, ib., .324. synopsis 
 of the reigning houses, 383. 
 Macrinus, M. Opelius, emperor of Rome, 
 
 .352. 
 Madeira, probably a Carthaginian colony, 
 
 61. 
 Mayas, son of Ptolemy I., 201. Cyrene 
 given to him, ib. marries Apame, daughter 
 of Antiochus I., 205. his rebellion and 
 war with Ptolemy Philadelphus, ib. 
 
 Maynentius, 369. 
 
 Manetho, high priest at Heliopolis, WTOte 
 the JEyyptiaca, 44. the authenticity of 
 his history now perfectly established, ib. 
 
 Marcellus, a Roman general, who overthrew 
 tlie Gauls, 275. 
 
 Marcomanni, their first war with Rome, 
 346. peace with them bought by Corn- 
 modus, 347. 
 
 Marius, C, a Roman general, 295. obtains 
 the consulship, ib. forms his army from 
 the lower orders, ib. defci'its the Cimbri 
 and Teutones, 296. buys his sixth con- 
 •sulate, ib. attempts to overthrow the re- 
 public, 297. compelled to retire into Asia, 
 ib. hatred between him and Sylla, 299. 
 tries to wrest from him the command in 
 the Pontine war, ib. expelled from Rome, 
 ib. escapes to Africa, and is proscribed, 
 ib. his death, 301. 
 
 Martins, Ancus, a king of Rome, 261. 
 
 Masinissa, king of Numidia, 69. disputes 
 with the Carthaginians, 70. won over to 
 the Roman cause by Scipio, 276. included 
 in the peace with Carthage, ib. employed 
 by the Romans as an instrument in sub- 
 jugating Carthage, 69, 282. his victory 
 and its results, 71, 285. 
 
 Massilia, a Greek colony founded by the 
 Phocaeans on the coast of Gaul, 142. 
 
 Mattathias, a priest of the Jews, 247. 
 
 Manrita7iia, Ccesariensis and Singitana, two 
 Roman provinces in Africa, 325. 
 
 Maxentius, a Roman usurper, 364. 
 
 Maximinianus HercuUus, M. Valerius, an 
 emperor of Rome, 362 — 364. 
 
 Maximimis, C.Galerius, created Caesar, 363. 
 Augustus, 364. 
 
 Maximinus, C. JuHiis, an emperor of Rome, 
 .354. 
 
 Maximus, 372. 
 
 Medes, different uses of the name, 22. their 
 history before Cyrus, ib. Herodotus's 
 history, ib. 
 
 Median empire, its chronology according 
 to Herodotus, 379. 
 D 2 
 
404 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Medon, the first of the Atlienian arohons, 
 110. 
 
 Megabyzus, satrap of Syria, under Arta- 
 X(;rxes I., 83. 
 
 Megara, sometimes eontended willi Athens, 
 114. 
 
 Megaris, the smallest of tlie Grecian coun- 
 tries, 91. general outline of its history, 
 118. 
 
 Meleager, appointed king of Macedonia 
 after the fall of Ptolemy Ceraunus in tlie 
 irruption of the Gauls, '2'2l. soon deposed 
 for his incapacity, ib. 
 
 Mem7ion, a Persian general under Darius 
 111., whose death defeated the invasion 
 of Macedonia, H'J. 
 
 Memphis, a state in Ee;ypt founded by the 
 slate of Thel)cs, 49. was powerful in 
 Joseph's time, ib. continues under Pto- 
 lemy the cai)ital of the kingdom, 2U2. 
 
 Menander, a king of Baetria, 24.''). 
 
 Menclaus, a higli priest of the J(;ws, 247. 
 
 Mesopotamia, con(|uered by Trajan, 343. 
 relinquished by Adrian, 314. 
 
 Messalina, the wife of Claudius Cajsar, 337. 
 
 Messana. See Zancle. 
 
 Messapia. Sec Calabria. 
 
 Messene, with Arf^os and Tegea, sometimes 
 rivalled Sparta, 114. 
 
 Messenia, a country of Peloponnesus, 93. 
 geographical outline, ib. 
 
 Milan, the seal of Maximian's government, 
 3GG. 
 
 Miletus, a city in Asia, founded by the Ca- 
 rians, and afterwards occu])ied by the 
 lonians, 12><. was, next to Tyre and Car- 
 thage, the lirst emporium in the W(jrld, 
 129. implicated in the insurrection of 
 Aristagoras against the Persians, ib. and 
 destroyed, ib. established colonies on the 
 shores of the Propontis, Black Sea, and 
 Palus Ma^otis, 130. 
 
 Miltiades, lh(! leader of Uk; Athenians in 
 rejecting the demands of Persia, and in 
 repelling tlieir invasitm, 14G. battle of 
 Marathon, ib. the expedition against Pa- 
 ros undertaken at his instigation, ib. its 
 failure, and his unjust punishment, ib. his 
 fall the source of hap])iness to Athens, ih. 
 
 Mithridates, the name of six kings ofPon- 
 tus, 23(). of whom the VI. th was suniamed 
 the Great and Eupator, ib. liis history, 
 237. his first war with Rome, .300. se- 
 cond, 303. third, 304. his fall, 30G. 
 
 Mitylcne, a city in Lesbos, the jn'incipal of 
 all the Ionian colonii s, 127. was almost 
 razed by i\\v. Athenians, 128. 
 
 Mwsia, Siiperior and Inferior, Roman pro- 
 vinces south of the Danube, 324, 332. 
 
 Monuments, inscriptions on tluim, one source 
 of history, 6. 
 
 Morzes, a king of Pa])hlagonia, 23G. 
 
 Mythology, includes, besides historical facts, 
 the general notions of nations in their in- 
 
 fancy, .'). to be used by the historian 
 with great caution, ih. its fables usually 
 collected by grammarians from the works 
 of the poets, 6. 
 Myus, a city and Ionian colony in Asia 
 Minor, I'ZH. 
 
 Naxus, a city in Sicily, 142. 
 
 Nearchus, the admiral of Alexander the 
 Great, 177. his voyage from the Indus 
 to the Euphrates, ib. 
 
 Nectabenus I., king of Egypt, in whose 
 rei^ii Artaxerxes II., king of Persia, 
 made an unsuccessful attempt to reduce 
 K^-ypt, H7. 
 
 Nectabenus II., defeated by Artaxerxes III. 
 at the battle of Pt'lusium, and his king- 
 dom made an Egyptian province, 88.^ 
 
 Nehemiah, 24G. 
 
 Nerigon, Norway, 326. 
 
 Nerva, M. Cocceius, em])eror of Rome, 342. 
 
 Nicanor, the friend of Cassander, procured 
 by him to be commander at Athens, 217. 
 overthrown by the democratic i)arty, ib. 
 
 Nicias, an Athenian general, 1.'j7. his pru- 
 dence, ih. sent with Lamachus and Al- 
 cibiades against Sicily, 158. 
 
 Nicomedes I., IL, III., kings of Bithynia, 
 2.3;'), 23G. 
 
 Nicomedia, the seat of Diocletian's govern- 
 ment, 3G6. 
 
 Niger, Pescennius, a Roman general com- 
 manding in Syria, and proclaimed by his 
 army em])eror after the death of Com- 
 modns, 'SM. defeated and slain by Sep- 
 tiiuius SevcTus, ib. 
 
 Nomad nations, their influence on political 
 history, 14. probably one half of the hu- 
 m.an race must always remain in a nomad 
 state, ih. 
 
 Nomad empires, their rise, progress, and 
 fall, 20. 
 
 Nomes, districts into whic'h Egypt was very 
 anciently divided, 48. connected with the 
 chief temples, ih. 
 
 Noricum, a Roman province south of the 
 Danube, 324, 3.32. 
 
 Nutna Pompilins, king of Rome, 2G1. 
 
 Nifmerianus, M. Aurelius, 359. 
 
 Ochus. See Darius II. 
 
 Octavia, sister of Ca;sar Octavianus, m.ir- 
 ried to M. Antony, 319. rejected by 
 him, 320. 
 
 Odenatus, the liusband of Zenobia, 357. 
 
 Odoacer, 37G, 377. 
 
 Olbia, a city and Greek colony at the 
 mouth of the Borysthenes, 131. another 
 in Sardinia, 142. 
 
 Olympia, the seat of a Greek oracle, 100. 
 
 Olympias, the queen of Philip of Maccdon, 
 173. her cruelty, 179. after the death of 
 Alexander, Antipater not permitting her 
 to rule, she withdrew to Epirus, 216. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 405 
 
 recalled by Polysperchon, 182, 217. but 
 dares not come without an army, 217. 
 returns fmni ICpinis, ih. is l)(\sicn;(;(l hy 
 Cassander iu I'ydna, «6. and beinp; taken 
 is condemned and put to death, ih. 
 
 Olynthus, a city on tlie coast of Macedonia, 
 named after its founder, a son of Her- 
 cules, 132. 
 
 Onias, the name of three high priests of 
 the Jews, 217, 2 IS. 
 
 Onomarchus, a Phocian pencral who suc- 
 ccckIs his brotlier PhiU)melus, lüf). killed 
 in the war with Philip, ib. 
 
 Oracles, powerful in thi' civilization of 
 ancient (Jreece, lüO. the direction of 
 public affairs depended principally upon 
 tliem, ib. 
 
 Orophernes, a king of Cappadocia, 238. 
 
 Osiris, an Efiyptian deity, confounded by 
 the Greeks with their Pacchus, 47. 
 
 Ostrof/oths, a division of the Gotlis, 371. 
 found a new eniiiirc; in Italy, 377. 
 
 Otlio, a Roman emperor, 339. 
 
 Palmyra, Roman trade with India carried 
 on through it, 348. coiKincred by Aure- 
 lian, 3r)7. 
 
 Pains Mfcods, its sliores covered with 
 Greek colonies, 130. nearly all from 
 the city of Miletus, ib. 
 
 Panno7iia, Superior and Inferior, Roman 
 provinces south of the Danube, 32 1, 332. 
 
 PanticapcEum, a city and Greek colony in 
 the Chersonesus Taurica, 131. capital 
 of the kingdom of Bosporus, ib. 
 
 Paphlagonia, its history as a kingdom, 23.'j. 
 
 Papyrus, employed for writing, in the 
 liighest antiquity, 42. 
 
 Parchment, its discovery at Pergamus, 
 234. 
 
 Parthians. Their kingdom formed out of 
 the secession of the eastern provinces of 
 the Syrian empire in the reign of An- 
 tiochus Ofoy, l!sy. war with Selcncus 
 CaUinicus, whom they take prisoner, 
 190, 241. regarded by them as the real 
 date of the foundation of their kingdom, 
 190. main facis in tin- liistory and con- 
 stitution of the kingdom, 240 — 214. con- 
 (juered by Trajan, 3 13. their irruption 
 in the time of Aurelius, 34(5. war with 
 Caracalla, 352. peace purchased by Ma- 
 crinus, ib. revolution and formation of 
 the new PiTsiau emiiire, 3r)3. 
 
 Parysatis, ([ueen of Darius II., 84. keeps 
 her husband in a state of tutelage, ih. 
 incites her son Cyrus to rebel against 
 liis brother Artaxerxes II., 85. keeps 
 Artaxerxes in a stale of tutelage, and 
 commits horrible excesses, 86. 
 
 Pasargadrr, the i)rincip:il of the clans into 
 which the Persians were ilivided, 73. 
 
 Paiisanias the Sjiartan, who, jointly with 
 Aristides the Athenian, conunanded at 
 
 the battle of Plata;«;, 148. his treachery 
 and fall, ih. 
 
 Pelasgi, one of the principal ancient trib(!S 
 of Greece, 96. first extend their domi- 
 nion in the country, ih. are driven by the 
 Hellenes first from Tliessaly, and after- 
 wards from alnu)st all the country, ih. 
 they maintain their ground only in Ar- 
 cadia and Dodona, ib, some migrate to 
 Italy, Crete, Ac., ib. 
 
 Pelopidas, a Theban commander, 1G2. li- 
 berales Thebes from the Spartan nde, ih. 
 the defensive war conducted by him, ih. 
 his expedition into Tliessaly, 103. sent 
 ambassador to Macedonia, and taken pri- 
 soner by Alexander, ih. rescued by V.\v.\- 
 minondas, ih. accomplishes an alliaiuH^ 
 of Thebes with Persia, ih. last exiiedition 
 against Alexander, in which he falls, lü4. 
 
 Peloponnesus, a peninsula in Greece, 92. 
 geograpliical outline, ib. 
 
 Peiieus, one of the principal rivers of 
 Greece, 90. 
 
 Perdiccas, one of tin; generals of Alexander 
 the Great, 179. made one of the regents 
 after the death of Alexander, ih. nuikes 
 grants of tin; provinces, 180. his first 
 acts, ih. re])U(liates his wife Nica^i, and 
 wishes to marry Cleopatra, ib. attemi)ts 
 to overthrow Antigonus and Ptolemy, 
 181. falls in an insurrection of his 
 troops, ib. 
 
 Pergamus, in Mysia, the origin and history 
 of the kingdom, 23.3. 
 
 Pericles, suceei-ds to the head of affairs at 
 Athens on the d(\ith of Aristides and 
 l)anishment of Ciinon, 151. his character, 
 152. his administration, ib. his death by 
 the plague, 15Ö. 
 
 Verscpolis, built, 7G. burnt, 89. 
 
 Perseus, an illegitiinate son of Philip II., 
 king of Macedon, 229. his hatred to De- 
 metrius his brother, «6. causes his death, 
 ib. siu'ceeds his father on the tiirone, 
 230. his talents, and hatred to tlu; Ro- 
 mans, ib. his exertions to opi)ose them, 
 ih. hostilities with Rome caused by the 
 hatred of Kumenes, (7;. defeated at the 
 battle of Pydna, 231, 284. his capture at 
 Samothrace, 231. miserable condition 
 and death at Rome, ih. 
 
 Persians, before the time of Cyrus, a high- 
 laiul peo])le, in a nonnid state, subject to 
 the Mtides, 73. divided into ten elans, ib. 
 their gov(!rnment therefore jjalriarchal, 
 ib. the monarchy fbundi;d by Cyrus, ih. 
 the donnnion rises on the destruction of 
 the Medo-Paclrian empire, ib. Persians 
 adopt th(! religion, laws, and general sys- 
 tem of the Medes, 74. ])olilical constitu- 
 tion of th(! empires by Cyrus, ii. standing 
 armies kept in pay, 75. reign of Cam- 
 l)yses, ih. aecessi<in of Darius, 7(1. expe- 
 ditions against the Scythians, 77. against 
 
406 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Western India, 78. Barca, ib. and Greece, 
 79. In the reign of Darius the kingdom 
 was weakened, but its internal organiza- 
 tion perfected, ib. the empire divided into 
 twenty satrapies, ib. the system of Per- 
 sian tinance, 80. military system, ib. from 
 the time of Darius the government con- 
 centrated in the seraglio, ib. Expedition 
 against Greece under Xerxes I., 81. suc- 
 cessive defeats and retreat of the armies, 
 
 82. the empire thereby weakened and 
 depopulated, ib. bribery of the Greek 
 chieftains more successful, ib. death of 
 Xerxes I., 82. accession of Artaxerxes I., 
 
 83. during his reign, Persia on the de- 
 cline, ib. the second revolt of Egypt part- 
 ly quelled by Megabyzus, ib. fleet and 
 army defeated by Cimon, ib. disgraceful 
 peace made with Athens, ih. rebellion 
 of Megabyzus in Syria, 84. revolutions 
 rapidly succeed in the reigns of Xerxes 
 II., Sogdianus, and Darius II., ib. the 
 state rapidly declines, ib. Persians ex- 
 pelled from Egypt, 85. policy of Persians 
 from this time to foment quarrels among 
 the Greeks, ib. accession of Artaxerxes 
 II., ib. rebellion and defeat of his brother 
 Cyrus, ib., 86. war with Sparta, 86. 
 Grecian colonies of Asia Minor again 
 delivered to Persia, ib. friendly relations 
 with Thebes, ib. tlie political relations 
 with Greece now determined chiefly by 
 the satraps of Asia Minor, 86. attempt 
 to recover Egypt, 87. the empire nearly 
 destroyed by disputes for the succession, 
 ib. death of Artaxerxes II., and succes- 
 sion of his son Ochus, ib. insurrection 
 in Asia Minor, 88. of the Phoenicians 
 and Cyprians in conjunction with Egypt, 
 ib. Egypt again a Persian province, ib. 
 Artaxerxes III. poisoned by Bagoas, ib. 
 Arces raised to the throne, ib. deposed 
 and succeeded by Darius III., Codoman- 
 nus, ib. invasion of Alexander the Great, 
 ib. after the loss of two battles, Darius 
 treacherously killed, Persepolis burnt, 
 and the Persian empire destroyed, 89. 
 
 Pertinax, P. Helvius, emperor of Rome, 
 349. 
 
 Phanagoria, a city and Greek colony on 
 the eastern coast of the Black Sea, 131. 
 
 Pharaohs, their dynasty the brilliant age of 
 Egypt, 52. they united the whole king- 
 dom, ib. the great monuments of Thebes 
 erected in their age, ib. their empire 
 overthrown at the battle of Pelusium 
 by Cambyses, 58. 
 
 Pharus, The, built by Ptolemy Soter, 202. 
 
 Phasis, a city and Greek colony on the 
 eastern coast of the Black Sea, 131. 
 
 Phaylliis, a Phocian general who succeeded 
 Onomarchus in the Sacred war, 165. 
 
 Philetarus, lieutenant of Lysimachus in 
 Pergamus, asserts his independence. 233. 
 
 Philip, son of Perdiccas III., king of Mace- 
 don, 169. contemporary with Artaxerxes 
 II. king of Persia, 87. receives Artabanus 
 with favour, 88. sent as an hostage to 
 Thebes, 169. a pupil of Epaminondas, ib. 
 escapes from Thebes to gain the throne, 
 ib. governs at first only as regent, 170. 
 the successful commencement of his 
 reign, ib. his sagacity, ib. his policy, ib. 
 possesses himself of Thessaly, ib. takes 
 advantage of the Sacred war to promote 
 his views, ib. his growing power, 164. 
 repelled by the Athenians in attempting 
 to pTish through Thermopylae, 165, 171. 
 makes peace with Athens, ib. makes 
 himself master of Thessaly, 171. takes 
 the place of the Phocians in the Am- 
 phictyonic council, 165, 171. fosters a 
 party in Greece, 171. makes conquests 
 in lUyria and Thrace, 172. thwarted by 
 Phocion, ib. obtains the supreme com- 
 mand in the second Sacred war, 165, 172. 
 second expedition against Greece, 172. 
 Athens and Thebes combine against 
 him, ib. battle of Clueronea, 165, 172. his 
 designs against Persia, 173. obtains from 
 the Amphictyonic council the supreme 
 command against Persia, 165, 173. un- 
 fortunate in his family, 173. is murdered 
 by Pausanias, ib. 
 Philip II., son of Demetrius II., king of 
 Macedonia, 225. his character and acces- 
 sion to the throne, ib. favourable condi- 
 tion of his coimtry, ib. entangled by the 
 Roman power, and his life imbittered, 
 226. in the war of the Achsean and 
 ^tolian leagues the former have re- 
 course to him, ib. he dictates the terms 
 of peace, ib. negotiations with Hannibal, 
 ib. hostilities against him commenced by 
 Rome, 227, 283. war with Attalus, 227. 
 defeat at Chios, ib. war with Rome, ib. 
 battle of Cynoscephaloe, ib. the articles 
 of peace, ib. increases his territory, 228. 
 oppression of Rome, 229. his misfortunes 
 public and domestic, ib. and death, ib. 
 Philip, son of Herod, made tetrarch by 
 
 Augustus, 250. 
 Philippus, M. Julius, emperor of Rome, 355. 
 Philomelus, a Phocian general, 164. killed 
 
 in the war with Thebes, 165. 
 Phocica, a colony of the lonians in Asia 
 
 Minor, 129. 
 Phocioti, an Athenian general who frus- 
 trates the plans of Philip of Macedon 
 at the siege of Perinthus and Byzantium, 
 172. the democratic party overthrow the 
 rulers headed by him, and compel him 
 to swallow poison, 217. 
 Phocis, a country in Central Greece, 92. 
 geographical outline, ib. general outline 
 of its history, 119. 
 Phoenicia, its history before Cyrus, 25, con- 
 sisted of several states, ib, each state had 
 
INDEX. 
 
 40: 
 
 its own government, by kings and magis- 
 trates associated with them, 26. its colo- 
 nies, ib. geographical sketch of them, ib. 
 
 rhcenicians, their commerce took its rise 
 in piracy, 27. the principal objects of 
 their commerce, ih. their manufactures, 
 ib, circumnavigate Africa at the com- 
 mand of Neco, .57. 
 
 Phrygian empire before Cyrus, 24. 
 
 Phtha, an Egj'ptian deity, confounded by 
 the Greeks with their Vulcan, 47. under 
 Ptolemy the temple continues the chief 
 sanctuarj', 202. 
 
 Physcon, younger son of Ptolemy Epi- 
 phanes, 209. on the invasion of Egypt 
 by Antioclius Epiphanes, he is seated on 
 the throne, ib. agrees with his brother 
 to rule in common with him, ib. in sub- 
 sequent contests he is driven to take 
 refuge in Rome, ib. obtains the promise 
 of Cyprus, ib. Cj'rene rebels against 
 him, ib. he falls into the hands of Phi- 
 lometor, who pardons him, leaves him 
 Cyrene and Libya, and adds some other 
 cities, ib. succeeds his brother, and as- 
 sumes the name of Ptolemy "VII. and 
 Evergetes II., 210. marries his brother's 
 widow, murders her son, repudiates her, 
 and marries her daughter, ib. unites the 
 divided kingdom, ib. his monstrous wick- 
 edness, cruelty, and tyranny, ib, is com- 
 pelled by insurrection to flee to Cyprus, 
 but recovers the throne and holds it 
 till his death, ib. a friend of science, 
 and an author, ib. 
 
 Picermm, a country in Central Italy, 255. 
 
 Pisistratus, tyrant of Athens, headed the 
 commons, and obtained supreme poAver, 
 11.3. expelled, ib. again exalted by means 
 of his matrimonial connexion with the 
 family of Megacles, ib. again expelled 
 by Megacles, ib. again obtains the power 
 and maintains it till his death, ib. 
 
 Placentia, a colony founded by the Ro- 
 mans after the overthrow of the Gauls, 
 275. 
 
 Plautianus, the minister of Septimius Se- 
 verus, .351. 
 
 Plotina, the wife of Trajan, 343. 
 
 Poetry generally supplied the place of 
 •WTiting among infant nations, 5. 
 
 Polysperchon, the regency of Alexander's 
 empire bequeathed to him by Antipater, 
 181. quarrels with Cassander, 217. mea- 
 sures taken to oppose him, ib. instigated 
 by Cassander to murder Hercules, an 
 illegitimate son of Alexander the Great, 
 218. appoints Eumenes commander of 
 the royal troops, 182, 217. invites Olj-m- 
 pias from Epirus, ib, sends his son Alex- 
 ander to get possession of Athens, 217. 
 
 Pompey, a Roman general, 302, .303. com- 
 mands against Sertorius, and in the third 
 Mithridalic war, 304. jealousy between 
 
 him and Crassus, 305. closes the war 
 against the Pirates, 306. brings the last 
 Mithridatic war to a glorious end, and 
 settles the affairs of Asia, 306. 307. he 
 restores the tribunes, .307. and forms an 
 oligarchy, ib. 
 
 Pompey, the name of sons of the preceding, 
 318, 319. 
 
 Pojitius Pilate, 250. 
 
 Pontus, its history as a kingdom, 236 — 2.38. 
 
 Porus, king of India, defeated by Alexan- 
 der the Great, 176. 
 
 Potidasa, a colony from Corinth, a city 
 on the coast of Macedonia, 132. 
 
 Priene, a city and Ionian colony in Asia 
 Minor, 128. 
 
 Priesthood, no separate order of, in Greece, 
 99. 
 
 Prisons, Tarquiniits, a king of Rome, 261. 
 
 Probus, M. Aurelius, a Roman emperor, 
 .358. 
 
 Propontis, The, its shores covered with 
 Greek settlements, 130. nearly all from 
 Miletus alone, ib, 
 
 Prusias J, and //., kings of Bith}'nia, 235. 
 
 Psammetichus, a member of the Egj'ptian 
 oligarchy, compelled to take flight, 55. 
 by the help of Greek and Carian mer- 
 cenaries became sole ruler, ib. 
 
 Ptolemy, son of Lagus, one of the generals 
 of Alexander the Great, 180. on the 
 death of his master received Egj'pt, ib., 
 200. Perdiccas attempts to overthrow 
 him, 181, 200. his league with Antipater 
 and Craterus, ib. takes possession of 
 Syria and Phoenicia, ib. his victory over 
 Demetrius, 183. surrenders Syria and 
 Phoenicia, ib. desires to marry Cleopa- 
 tra, ib. his growing power at sea, 184. 
 league with Cassander and Seleucus, 
 185. retires into Egj'pt, ib. after the 
 battle of Ipsus, Phoenicia and Ccele-Syria 
 made over to him, 200. Cyprus taken 
 and ultimately retained, ib. captures Cy- 
 rene and Libya, 201. he regenerates 
 Egypt, 202. the administration he estab- 
 lished, ib. his character, ib. his regard 
 for the interests of science, 203. 
 
 Ptolemy II., sumamed Philadelphus, son 
 of the former, and joint king with him, 
 203. reigned thirty-eight years, ib. pro- 
 moted the arts of peace, trade, and 
 science, ib. made Egj-pt the most flourish- 
 ing country in the world, ib. his measures 
 for promoting commerce, 204. his re- 
 venue, ib, war -with Antiochus II. of 
 SjTia, and Magas his half-brother, ib. 
 embassy to and from Rome, 205. the 
 luxury of his court, ib. repudiates his 
 wife, and marries his sister Arsinoe, ib. 
 
 Ptolemy III., sumamed Evergetes, son of 
 the former, 205. his warlike spirit, and 
 genius also for the arts of peace, ib. his 
 conquests, 206. 
 
408 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Ptolemy IV,, sumamed Philopator, suc- 
 ceeded the preceding, 207. a debauchee 
 and a tyrant, ib. his tutelage to So- 
 sibius, and afterwards to Agathocles and 
 his sister, ib. ill-deserved victory of 
 Raphia, ib. 
 
 Ptolemy V., surnamed Epiphanes, when he 
 was five years old, Agathocles and his sis- 
 ter seek to obtain his guardianship, 207. 
 this being prevented, the office is con- 
 fided to Sosibius and Tlepolemus, ib. the 
 regency deferred to Rome, ib. and given 
 to M. Lepidus, ib. marries Cleopatra, 
 daughter of Antiochus III., 208. cha- 
 racter of Ptolemy, tyranny and cruelty, 
 ib. killed at the age of 28, by his in- 
 temperance and debauchery, 208. 
 
 Ptolemy VI., surnamed Philometor, at five 
 years of age ascended the throne imder 
 the guardianship of his mother, 208. at 
 her death Eulaeus and Lenfcus became 
 guardians, ib. involved in war with An- 
 tiochus Epiphanes, ib. who obtains the 
 victory of Pelusium, and possesses him- 
 self of Egypt as far as Alexandria, 208. 
 Ptolemy is expelled from Alexandria, 
 and Physcon seated on the throne, 209. 
 falls into the hands of Antiochus, ib. 
 signs an injurious peace with him, ib. 
 agrees with Physcon to divide the em- 
 pire, ib. Antiochus makes an inroad, 
 and the Romans command him to make 
 peace, ib. quarrel with his brother Phys- 
 con, who ultimately falls into his hands, 
 ib. pardons him, gives him part of his 
 dominions, and promises him his daugh- 
 ter in marriage, ib. busies himself in 
 Syrian afi'airs, gives his daughter to 
 Alexander Balas, ib. afterwards sup- 
 ports Demetrius, and gives him his 
 daughter, ib. is killed in battle, ib. 
 
 Ptolemy VII. See Physcon. 
 
 Ptolemy VIII., surnamed Lathyrus, placed 
 on the throne of Egypt by his mother 
 Cleopatra, widow of Ptolemy VII., 210. 
 compelled by her to exchange with his 
 brother for the government of Cyprus, 
 ib. reinstated on the throne after the 
 death of his brother, ib. 
 
 Ptolemy Alexander I., the brother of 
 Ptolemy VIII., 210. had the govern- 
 ment of Cyprus given him by his mother, 
 ib. she makes him king of Egypt, ib. 
 unable to bear her tyranny, he attempts 
 to take her life, but fails, and perishes, ib. 
 
 Ptolemy of Cyprus, and Ptolemy Auleies, 
 illegitimate sons of Ptolemy Lathyrus, 
 
 211. their history, 212. 
 
 Ptolemy Dionysos, son of Ptolemy Auletes, 
 
 212. poisoned by his sister Cleopatra, 213. 
 Ptolemy Neoteros, another son of Ptolemy 
 
 Auletes, 212. 
 Ptolemy Cermmus, brother of Lysandra, 
 wife of Agathocles, 221. driven out of 
 
 Egypt by his step-mother Berenice, ib. 
 goes over to Seleucus Nicator, ib. mur- 
 ders him, 189, 221. takes possession of 
 the Macedonian throne, 221. loses his 
 life by the irruption of the Gauls, ib. 
 
 Ptolemies, genealogical table, .385. 
 
 Pupienus, Maximus, 354. 
 
 Pylamenes I. and //., kings of Paphlago- 
 nia, 236. 
 
 Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, son of ^acides, 
 220. the Ajax of his time, and rather an 
 adventurer than a king, ib. his descent, 
 ib. his wars in Macedonia, Greece, Italy, 
 and Sicily, ib. proclaimed king of Mace- 
 donia after the death of Demetrius Po- 
 liorcetes, but retains the throne only one 
 year, ib. 
 
 Python, his destruction of the rebels in the 
 insurrection of the mercenaries settled 
 by Alexander the Great in Upper Asia, 
 180. his ambition, ib. resigns the regency 
 under the son of Alexander, 181. 
 
 Quintillus, 357. 
 
 Rehoboam, king of the Jews, 33. 
 
 Rhmtia, a Roman province, south of the 
 Danube, 323, 3.32. 
 
 Rhegium, a city in Lower Italy, a colony 
 from Chalcis in Euboea, 136. 
 
 Rhine, a boundary of the Roman empire 
 at the accession of Augustus, 321. 
 
 Rhodes, its history subsequent to the par- 
 tition of Alexander's kingdom, 234. a 
 free state at the accession of Augustus, 
 and became a Roman province, A. D. 
 70, 325, 340. 
 
 Ricimer, 376. 
 
 Rome, Rotnans. General characteristic of 
 Roman history, 259. the Romans be- 
 longed to the race of the Latini, and the 
 city was a colony of Alba Longa, 260. 
 early government by kings, and the insti- 
 tutions framed during this period, 260, 
 261. wars with neighbouring people, 261 . 
 succeed in becoming the head of the col- 
 lected cities of Latins, ib. abolition of 
 royalty and establishment of consular 
 government, 262. oppression of the aris- 
 tocrats, and establishment of the tribuni 
 plebis, ib. rise of the constitution, 263. 
 the code of the twelve tables, ib. its en- 
 actments, 264. deputation probably sent 
 to Athens and other Grecian cities, ib. 
 wars with the neighbouring nations, 265. 
 siege of Veil, 266. Rome burnt by the 
 Sennonian Gauls, ib. delivered by Camil- 
 lus, ib. rebuilt, ib. feuds between the 
 nobility and the commons, ending in 
 political equality between them, 267. 
 wars with the Samnites, ib. the true 
 heroic age of Rome, ib. war with the 
 Tarentines, who call Pyrrhus to their 
 aid, 268. his victories at Pandosia and 
 
INDEX. 
 
 409 
 
 Asculum, and liis defeat at Bencventiim, 
 ib. the establishment of colonies, and 
 the colonial system adopted, ib. construc- 
 tion of military highways, ib. relations 
 ■with the Italian nations, 269. internal 
 constitution of the state, ib. struggle with 
 Carthage, and contrast of the two powers, 
 272. first war, and the Carthaginians ex- 
 pelled from Sicily, ib., 273. effect of the 
 success of this war on the constitution, 
 ib. lUyrian war, and chastisement of the 
 IlljTian pirates, 274. renewed war ■«ith 
 the Gauls, ib. who are finally overthrown 
 by Marcellus, ib. second war with Car- 
 thage, 275. invasion of Italy by Hanni- 
 bal, ib. defeat of Asdrubal, ib. the Car- 
 thaginians defeated in Spain and in Italy, 
 275. the terms granted to Carthage, ib. 
 the power of Rome increased by this 
 war, 277. the power of the senate almost 
 unlimited, ib. Rome now becomes the 
 first military republic, ib. from this time 
 aspires to universal dominion, ib. her 
 policy in accomplishing this, ib. state of 
 the other civilized states, 278. war with 
 Philip of Macedonia, ib. the power of 
 Rome in the East really founded by T. 
 Quintius Flaminius, ib. the ability and 
 address of the Romans in their foreign 
 policy, 279. Greece made dependent, ib. 
 war with Sj-ria, 280. the attempt to form 
 a league between Carthage, Sj'ria, and 
 Macedonia defeated, ib. defeat of Anti- 
 ochus, and conditions of peace, reducing 
 him to dependence, 1 92, 281 . war in Spain 
 and ^^^th the Ligurians, 281. her moder- 
 ation after her victories, ib. war -with the 
 Gauls in Asia Minor, 282. becomes the 
 arbitress of the world, ib. improvement 
 in civilization and increase of immorality, 
 ib., 283. disputes and war with Mace- 
 donia, 283. ruin of the Macedonian 
 kingdom, 284. its consequences, ib. the 
 Romans aspire to become the masters of 
 the world, ib. change in the relations of 
 Rome with her allies, 285. projects against 
 Carthage and bad treatment of that city, 
 ib. destruction of Carthage, 286. new war 
 in Macedonia, ib. fall of the Achaean 
 league and destruction of Corinth, z'ft. war 
 in Spain, ib., 287. Pergamus bequeathed 
 to Rome by Attains III., 287. the Roman 
 provinces, 288. their government, ib. the 
 revenue of the state, ib., 289. struggles 
 between the aristocratic and democratic 
 parties, 291. the attempts of T. S. Grac- 
 chus to relieve the lower orders, ib. the 
 first agrarian law, ib. his fall, 292. his 
 party remains, ib. revoll of the slaves in 
 Sicily, ib. tribimes endeavour to increase 
 their power, ib. Roman power established 
 in Transalpine Gaul, id. Baleares con- 
 quered, 293. tribunate of C. Gracchus, 
 ib. renews the agrarian law, ib. he is as- 
 
 sassinated, ib. victorj' of the aristocratic 
 faction, ib. the pernicious effects of party 
 spirit on the nation, 294. war with Ju- 
 gurtha, elevation of Marius, 295. who 
 defeats the Cimbri and Teutones, 296. 
 he buys his sixth consulate, ib. after va- 
 rious cabals and insurrections he is com- 
 pelled to retire to Asia, and the state 
 enjoys some years of tranquillity, 297. 
 acquisition of Cyrene, 298. revolt of the 
 Indian tribes, and War of the Allies, ib. 
 the allies gradually admitted to the free- 
 dom of the city, ib. feuds between Ma- 
 rius and Sylla, 299. the latter marches 
 to Rome and expels Marius, ib. -war 
 with Mithridates, ib. new revolution 
 at Rome, pillage of the city and mas- 
 sacre of the inhabitants, 301. death of 
 Marius, ib. return of Sylla to Italy, and 
 dreadful civU war, ib. proscription, 302. 
 dictatorship of Sylla, reform in the 
 constitution, the power of the senate 
 restored, ib. second war begim against 
 Mithridates, 303. attempt of M. Lepi- 
 dus to rescind the laws of Sylla, ib. 
 war with Sertorius in Spain, 304. third 
 Mithridaticwar, ib. the Servile war, ter- 
 minated by Crassus, 305. the war agaiast 
 the Pirates, 306. close of the Mithridatic 
 war by Pompey, who settles the Asiatic, 
 affairs, to. Rome at the highest pitch of 
 her power, 307. the constitution of Sylla 
 shaken by Pompey, ib. formation of an 
 oligarchy, ib. Catiline's conspiracy, ib. 
 the luxury introduced into the state', 308. 
 Pompey's return to Rome, and struggle 
 with the senate, 309. imion of Caesar, 
 Pompey, and Crassus, ib. consulate of 
 Caesar, ib. his expeditions in Gaul, Bri- 
 tain, and Germany, 310. jealousy of the 
 triumvirate, 311. campaign of Crassus 
 against the Parthians, and total defeat, 
 ib. Pompey appointed sole consul, 312. 
 beginning of the contest between him and 
 Caesar, ib. civu war between them, and 
 defeat of Pompey, 313. Caesar appointed 
 dictator, ib. his views, 314. his death, 
 315. results, 316. the trium-N-Lrate of Oc- 
 tavianus, Antony, and Lepidus, 317. civil 
 war between the oligarchy and republi- 
 cans in Macedonia, 318. battle of Phi- 
 lippi, ib. quarrels and wars between the 
 trium^-irs, ib. Antony's expedition into 
 Parthia, 320. his defeat and death, ib. 
 Octavianus absolute master of the re- 
 public, ib. Geographical outline of the 
 Roman empire and provinces at this 
 period, 32 1 — 32 7. the nature of the govern- 
 ment under Augustus, 328. the "senate, 
 329. introduction of standing armies, 330. 
 government of the provinces, ib. finances, 
 a. extension of the empire, 332. unsuc- 
 cessful attempts on Germany, 332. the 
 reign of Augustus the brilliant period 
 
410 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 for Rome, 333 reign of Tiberius, 334. he 
 changes the spirit of the constitution, ih. 
 his tyranny, 335. cruelty of Sejanus, ih. 
 his fall, and the carnage which accom- 
 panied it, 336. accession and reign of 
 Caligula, ih. of Claudius, ib. of Nero, 
 337. the greater part of Rome was fed 
 by the emperors, 338. reigns of Galba, 
 Otho, Vitellius, 339. of Vespasian, ib. 
 the reforms he effected, 340. reign of 
 Titus and Domitian, 341. of Nerva and 
 Trajan, 342. Trajan restores the consti- 
 tution, ib. his conquests, 343. reign of 
 Adrian, who relinquishes part of Trajan's 
 conquests, 344. reigns of Antoninus Pius, 
 and of Marcus Aurelius, 345. of Com- 
 modus, 347. condition of the empire, 348. 
 reign of Pertinax, 349. commencement of 
 military despotism, 349, 350. Didias Ju- 
 lianus, Septimius Severus, Pescennius 
 Niger, and Albinus, proclaimed by dif- 
 ferent armies, 350. reign of Severus, 351. 
 of Caracalla, 351, 352. of Heliogabalus, 
 353. of Alexander Severus, ib. war with 
 Persia, ib. reign of Maximinus, 354. war 
 with the Germans, ih. proclamation of 
 the two Gordians, Pupienus, B albinus, 
 and Gordian 111., ib. reign of Philippus, 
 Decius, Gallus, .^milianus, 355. Va- 
 lerian taken by the Parthians, 356. reign 
 of Gallienus, ih. the thirty tyrants, ib. 
 of Aurelius Claudius, 357. of Aurelian, 
 ib. defeat and capture of Zenobia, ib. 
 interregnimi of six months, 358. reigns of 
 Tacitus, Probus, and Cams, ib. review 
 of the government, 359. decline of the 
 empire, ib. progress and eftects of Chris- 
 tianity, 360. reign of Diocletian, 36'2. 
 Maximian associated with him, ih. Gale- 
 rius and Constantius created Caesars, ih. 
 consequences of the new system, ib. ab- 
 dication of Diocletian and Maximian, 
 363. Constantius and Galerius pi-oclaim- 
 d Augusti, ih. Constantino proclaimed 
 Augustus, 364. his reign, ib. establishes 
 his authority in religious legislation, 365. 
 removal of the seat of empire to Con- 
 stantinople, ib. new division of the em- 
 pire, 366. change in the form of govern- 
 vernment, ib. taxes, 367. spread of the 
 Christian religion, 368. reign of Constan- 
 tius, 369. of Julian, ih. of Jovian, Va- 
 lentinian, and Valens, 370. entrance of 
 the Huns into Europe, 371. reign of 
 Gratian and Valentinian 11., ib. of Max- 
 mus, Eugenius, and Theodosius the 
 Great, 372. final division of the empire 
 between Arcadius and Honorius, 373. 
 Alaric, king of the Visigoths, establishes 
 himself in Rome, ib. invasion of the 
 Huns and Goths, 375. final destruction of 
 the Western empire, 376. 
 Romans, and Greeks, alone of antiquity, had 
 acquaintance with philosophical history,8 . 
 
 Romulus, founder of Rome, 261. 
 
 Rosetta Stone, The, its date and import- 
 ance, 208. 
 
 Roxana, wife of Alexander the Great, 179. 
 pregnant at the time of his death, ib. 
 murdered with lier son by Cassander, 
 183, 218. 
 
 Rufimis, 373. 
 
 Sabinus, Corn., witli Chasrea, assassinates 
 Caligula, 336. 
 
 Sagimtum, a Greek colony, from the island 
 of Zacynthus, on the coast of Spain, 142. 
 
 Salamis, a Greek island on the Saronic 
 Gulf, 94. 
 
 Samaritans, their separation from the Jews, 
 246. the hatred between them, ih. 
 
 Samnium, a country in Central Italy, 255. 
 
 Samos, an island in Asia Minor, in which 
 the lonians founded a flourishing colony, 
 129. a free state at the accession of 
 Augustus, became a Roman province, 
 A. D. 70, 325, 340. 
 
 Samothrace, a Greek island, 94. 
 
 Sanctuaries, probable that many among 
 the Greeks Avere settlements of priests 
 from Egypt, 99. 
 
 Sardinia, an island pertaining to Italy, 
 257. a Carthaginian colony, 61. iuTasion 
 by the Romans, 273. a Roman province 
 at the time of Augustus, 323. 
 
 Sarmatia, the north of Europe, 327. 
 
 Saul, king of the Jews, 31. 
 
 Scandinavia, 326. 
 
 Scipio, the name of several Roman com- 
 manders, 276, 279, 281, 283, 285, 286, 
 287. 
 
 Scyathus, a Greek island off" Thessaly, 94. 
 
 Sejanus, L. jEUus, the minister of Tibe- 
 rivis, 335, 336. 
 
 Seleucidce, the successors of Seleucus Ni- 
 cator in the Syrian empire, 187. ge- 
 nealogical table of them, 384. 
 
 Seleucus Nicator, one of the generals of 
 Alexander the Great, receives Babylon 
 in the new division of the provinces, 
 
 181, 187. flies from Babylon to Egypt, 
 
 182. forms a league between Ptolemy, 
 the two Cassanders, and Lysimachus, 
 against Antigonus, 183. marches back 
 to Babylon, and maintains himself in 
 Upper Asia, ib., 187. excluded from the 
 general peace between Antigonus and 
 his enemies, 183. third league with Cas- 
 sander and Ptolemy, 185. junction with 
 Lysimachus in Phrygia, ib. at the defeat 
 of Antigonus part of Asia Minor falls to 
 him, ib., 187. his campaign in India 
 against king Sandracottus, 187. removes 
 the seat of government to Syria, 188. mar- 
 ries the daughter of Demetrius Polior- 
 cetes, ib. his genius for the arts of peace, 
 ib. organizes the home department of 
 his empire of satrapies, ib. cedes Upper 
 
INDEX. 
 
 411 
 
 Asia and his wife to his son Antiochus, 
 ib. war with Lysimachus, 189, 221. battle 
 of Curopedion, 189, 221. gains the throne 
 of Macedonia, 221. assassinated by Pto- 
 lemy Ceraunus, 189, 221. 
 
 Seleuciis II., surnamed Callinicus, suc- 
 ceeded Antiochus Otos in the Syrian 
 empire, 190. history of reign, ib. an un- 
 broken series of wars, ib. taken by the 
 Parthians, and remains a prisoner till 
 his death, ib. 
 
 Seleuctis III., surnamed Ceraunus, elder 
 son of the preceding, ib. poisoned as he 
 was about to take the field against At- 
 talus, ib. 
 
 Seleiicus IV., named Philopator, son of 
 Antiochus the Great, 193. succeeded his 
 father, ib. his reign a time of peace 
 arising from weakness, ib. fell a victim 
 to the ambition of Heliodorus, 193. 
 
 Seleucus, eldest son of Antiochus Gryphus, 
 198. 
 
 Seleucus Cybiosactes, 198. 
 
 Selimis, a city of Sicily, 142. 
 
 Seneca, 338. 
 
 Serapeum, The, erected by Ptolemy Soter, 
 202. 
 
 Sertorius, 304. 
 
 Sesostris, king of Egypt, 53. the splendour 
 of the kingdom mainly due to him, ib. 
 
 Severus, Septimius, emperor of Rome, 351. 
 
 Severus, Alexander, emperor of Rome, 353. 
 
 Severus, Flavins, created Caesar, 363. Au- 
 gustus, 364. 
 
 Sicily, an island pertaining to Italy, 25, 125, 
 257. the Carthaginians never succeeded 
 as they desired in the conquest of it, 61. 
 their expulsion by the Romans, 273. a 
 Roman province at the time of Augustus, 
 323. 
 
 Sicyotiia, a country of Peloponnesus, 93. 
 geographical outline, ib. general outline 
 of its history, 116. 
 
 Simon, surnamed The Just, a high priest 
 of the Jews, 247. also the brother and 
 successor of Jonathan, 248. 
 
 Sinope, a Greek colony in Paphlagonia, 131. 
 the most powerful of all the Grecian set- 
 tlements in the Black Sea, ib. 
 
 Sogdianus, a bastard son of Artaxerxes, 
 who killed his brother Xerxes II., 84. 
 and reigned in Persia six months, ib. 
 deposed by another bastard brother, 
 Ochus, ib. 
 
 Solomon, king of the Jews, 32. his govern- 
 ment and character, ib. decline of the 
 kingdom under his reign, 33. 
 
 Solo?i, chosen archon of Athens, and ap- 
 pointed to remodel its constitution. 111. 
 the whole human race deeply indebted 
 to him, ib. prominent features of his 
 legislation, ib. 
 
 Sosthenes, a Macedonian noble, who, during 
 Üie irruption of the Gauls, assumed the 
 
 command after the deposition of Anti- 
 pater and liberated his country, 221. de- 
 feated and slain in a subsequent irruption 
 of the same people, 222. 
 
 Spai?i, its boundaries and divisions at the 
 accession of Augustus, 321. the northern 
 part completely subjugated under Au- 
 gustus, 331. the kingdom of the Visi- 
 goths founded, 374. 
 
 Spamitres, a eunuch in the seraglio of 
 Xerxes 1. who conspired to destroy him, 
 82. 
 
 Sparta, first inhabited by the Achaeans, 106. 
 governed by princes of the house of Per- 
 seus, afterwards by those of the house of 
 Pelops, ib. the Achaeans expelled by the 
 Dorians, ib. repeated wars with the Ar- 
 gives, ib. received a constitution from 
 Lycurgus, 107. described, ib. wars with 
 the Messenians fostered by the ambition 
 of tlie Spartan kings, 108. takes the lead 
 among the Dorian states, 109. and, with 
 Athens, of all Greece, 114. meets with 
 rivals in Messene, Argos, and Tegea, ib. 
 with Athens alone of the Greek states 
 rejected the Persian yoke, 146. suffers 
 by the insanity of one king, Cleomenes, 
 and the arrogance of the otlier, 147. the 
 honour of the command in repelling the 
 second Persian invasion left to the Spar- 
 tans, ib. battle of Thermopylae, ib. battles 
 of PlatEBK and Mycale, 148. the chief 
 command devolves upon Athens, ib. jea- 
 lousy with Athens, 149. the establishment 
 of the Greek confederacy, ib. counter- 
 league headed by Sparta, ib. changes in 
 the internal organization, ib. intrigues 
 for the expulsion of Thcmistocles from 
 Athens, 150. contrast of her condition 
 with that of Athens, ib. the develop- 
 ment of genius arrested by rude customs 
 and laws, ib. wars Avith Athens, 152, 153. 
 sketch of the internal condition of Sparta, 
 155. conceives the idea of an alliance 
 with Persia, 156. finds a general in Bra- 
 sidas, 157. becomes a naval power, ib. 
 war in Sicily with Athens, 15S. repeat- 
 edly defeated by the Athenians, ib. offers 
 proposals of peace which the Athenians 
 reject, ib. Lysander wins over Cyrus to 
 the Spartan interest, 159.triumphantcon- 
 clusion of the twenty-seven years' war, ib. 
 decisive victory over the Athenians, ib. 
 Sparta at the head of Grecian affairs, ib. 
 its oppressive conduct, and revolutions 
 in Grecian states, ib. engages in a war 
 with Persia, 160. war against Corinth, 
 Thebes, and Argos, 161. defeat at Hali- 
 artus, ib. endeavours to bring over the 
 Persians to her interests, ib. peace of 
 Antalcidas, which gives Sparta the pre- 
 dominance, ib. her arrogance to the weak- 
 er states, ib. rivalry with Thebes, 162. 
 long struggle with that city, ib. her power 
 
412 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 is abased, ib. her supremacy annihilated, 
 163. Epaminondas makes his way to her 
 gates, ib. Sparta in distress applies to 
 Athens, ib. Dionysius I. of Syracuse 
 helps them, ib. loses Messene, 164. sen- 
 tence of the Amphictyons against her, 
 165. after the death of Alexander the 
 Great, revolts against Macedonia, and is 
 defeated by Antipater, 215. remarkable 
 revolution in the reign of the Macedonian 
 king Antigonus Doson, 224. sketch of the 
 affairs of the state at this period, 225. in 
 the war of the Achaean and .^tolian 
 leagues joins the latter, 226. alliance 
 ■with Rome in the war with Philip II., 
 227. by the Roman policy continually 
 embroiled with the Achceans after the 
 defeat of Philip, 229. 
 
 Spartacus, 304, 305. 
 
 Stilico, 373, 374. 
 
 Stratojiice, the beautiful daughter of De- 
 metrius Poliorcetes, 188. marries Seleu- 
 cus Nicator, ib. ceded by him to his son 
 Antiochus Soter, ib. 
 
 Suevi, The, .326. 
 
 Suffetes, the Carthaginian name of their 
 two kings, 63. 
 
 Sybaris, a city founded by the Achaeans in 
 Lower Italy, 134. 
 
 Sylla, a Roman general, distinguishes him- 
 self in the War of the Allies, 298. the 
 hatred between him and Marius, 299. 
 marches upon Rome, expels Marius, and 
 hastens back to Greece, ib. carries on 
 the first war against Mithridates, and is 
 proscribed at Rome, 300. returns to Italy, 
 and after a bloody civil war is made dic- 
 tator, 301. proscribes his enemies, 302. 
 reforms the constitution, and abdicates 
 power, ih. his death, 303. 
 
 Syracuse, a city of Sicily, the most power- 
 ful of all the Greek colonies, 137. its 
 history, ih. 
 
 Syrians, their history before Cyrus, 28. 
 dwelt in cities as early as B. C. 2000, ib. 
 often subject to foreign conquest, ib. 
 
 Tachos, king of Egypt, supports a rebel- 
 lion in the western half of Persia, 87. 
 
 Tacitus, M. Probus, emperor of Rome, 358. 
 
 Tanais, a city and Greek colony on the 
 northern coast of the Black Sea, 131. 
 
 Taprobana, Ceylon, 327. 
 
 Tarentum, a Grecian settlement in Lower 
 Italy, 133. its history, ib. 
 
 Tarquinius Superbus, the last king of 
 Rome, 262. 
 
 Tarraconensis, a province of Spain, 321. 
 
 Tegea, with Messene and Argos, sometimes 
 rivalled Sparta, 114. 
 
 Temples, Roman, shut up by Constantine, 
 and destroyed by his successors, 368. 
 
 Teas, a city and Ionian colony in Asia 
 Minor, 128. 
 
 Teuta, a queen of the Illyrians, 273. 
 
 Thasus, a Greek island, 94. 
 
 Thebes, the most ancient state in Egypt, 
 49. its great monuments erected in the 
 age of the Pharaohs, 52. 
 
 Thebes, a city of Greece, liberated from 
 the Spartan rule, 162. its rivalry with 
 Sparta, ib. her greatness the work of two 
 men, Epaminondas and Pelopidas, ib. 
 they reject the proposal for a general 
 peace, ib. her long struggle against 
 Sparta, ib. battle of Leuctra, 163. ex- 
 pedition of Pelopidas into Thessaly, ib. 
 second expedition by Epaminondas, ib. 
 alliance with Persia, ib. her greatness 
 swept away by the death of her two 
 great men, ib. alliance with Athens 
 against Philip brought about by Demos- 
 thenes, 172. 
 
 Themistocles, an Athenian general and 
 statesman, 147. his character, ib. prose- 
 cutes the design of Miltiades against 
 the islands, ib. and pursues the plan of 
 making Athens a maritime power, ib. 
 the glory of defeating the second Persian 
 invasion his alone, ib. victory off Salamis, 
 ib. his expulsion, 150. and flight to the 
 Persians, ib. 
 
 Theodoric, 377. 
 
 Theodosius the Great, a Roman emperor, 
 371, 372. 
 
 Theodosius II., a Roman emperor, 374. 
 
 Theodotus, the founder of the Bactrian 
 empire, 245. 
 
 Theodotus II., his son and successor, ib. 
 
 Thermusa, a female slave of Arsaces XV. 
 king of Parthia, 242. 
 
 Theseus, son of ^geus, the real founder of 
 the Athenian state, 110. 
 
 Thessalo7iice, half-sister of Alexander the 
 Great, married to Cassander, 218. mur- 
 dered by her son Antipater, 219. 
 
 Thessaly, the eastern country of Northern 
 Greece, 90. geographical outline, 91. his- 
 torical outline, 120. 
 
 Thrace, its boundaries as a Roman pro- 
 vince, 325, 340. 
 
 Thule, 326. 
 
 Thurii, a city near the ancient Sybaris, in 
 Lower Italy, 135. 
 
 Tiberius Clatidiiis Nero, the son-in-law of 
 Augustus, 332. his command in Ger- 
 many, ib. leaves the court of Augustus, 
 334. adopted by Augustus, ib. at his 
 accession is called Augustus Tiberius 
 Caesar, ib. his reign, 334 — 336. 
 
 Tigraiies I., a king of Armenia, 239. 
 
 TimotJieus, an Athenian commander, 164. 
 
 Tissaphernes, satrap of Asia Minor under 
 Artaxerxes II., 86. by his severity against 
 the Asiatic Greeks excites a war with 
 Sparta, in which he falls, 86. 
 
 Titus, Flavins Vespasian, emperor of Rome, 
 341. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 413 
 
 Trajan, M. Ulpius, emperor of Rome, 342. 
 restores the Roman constitution, 342, 
 343. his conquests, ib. 
 
 Tribimi plebis, or Presidents of the Com- 
 mons, among the Romans, their estab- 
 lishment, 262. their struggles with the 
 aristocracy 263. 
 
 Trcjan War. From this time the Hellenes 
 looked upon themselves as one people, 
 101. 
 
 Tro]i, its history, 24. 
 
 Tryphon, the name assumed by Diodotus, 
 a dependant of Alexander Balas, the 
 Syrian usurper, 196. excites insurrection 
 against Demetrius Nicator, and seats 
 Antiochus, son of Balas, on the Syrian 
 throne, ib. gets into his power Jonathan 
 the Jew, murders Antiochus, and assumes 
 the crown, ib. defeated by Antiochus of 
 Sida, ib. 
 
 Tullius, Servius, the most remarkable in 
 the line of Roman kings, 261. 
 
 Tuscia. See Etruria. 
 
 Tyre, besieged and reduced by Alexander 
 the Great, 174, 175. 
 
 Tyrrhenia. See Etruria. 
 
 Umbria, a country in Central Italy, 255. 
 
 Valens, a Roman emperor, 370. 
 Valentinian, Fl., a Roman emperor, 370. 
 Valentinian II., brother of the preceding, 
 
 .371. 
 Valentinian III., a Roman emperor, 375. 
 Valeriamts, Publius Licinius, a Roman 
 
 emperor, 355. taken by the Parthians, 
 
 356. 
 Vandals, the first barbarian nation admitted 
 
 to the Roman empire, 371. seated in 
 
 Pannonia in the time of Constantiue, ib. 
 Vespasian, T. Flavins, a Roman emperor, 
 
 339. his reign, 340. 
 
 Vvndelicia, a Roman province south of the 
 Danube, 323, 332. its boundaries, 323. 
 
 Viriathus, a Spaniard who carried on war 
 with the Romans for six years, and was 
 murdered by the treachery of Cspio, 287. 
 
 Visigoths, a division of tlie Goths, 371. the 
 first barbarian nation (except the Van- 
 dals) admitted to the Roman empire, ib. 
 rebel against Valens, and defeat him, ib. 
 established with Alaric their king in the 
 Roman empire, 373. their kingdom found- 
 ed in Spain, 374. 
 
 Vitellius, A., a Roman emperor, 339. 
 
 Volusian, son of Gallus, 355. 
 
 Writing, its place usually supplied among 
 infant nations by poetry, 5. 
 
 Writing, Alphabetical, its invention com- 
 monly ascribed to tlie Phcenicians, 7. 
 probably due to the interior of Asia, ib. 
 
 Xerxes I., grandson of Cyrus, 81. nominated 
 by Darius for his successor, ib. his ex- 
 pedition against Greece, ib. retreat, 82. 
 destroyed by intrigues in the seraglio, ib. 
 was he the Ahasuerus of the Jews ? ib. 
 
 Xerxes II., son and successor of Artaxerxes 
 I., 84. killed after a reign of forty-five 
 days, ib. 
 
 Zacynthus, a Greek island opposite El is, 94. 
 
 Zancle, afterwards called Messana, the 
 earliest Greek colony in Sicily, 142. 
 
 Zariadras, a lieutenant of Antiochus the 
 Great, 239. 
 
 Zelas, a king of Bithynia, 235. 
 
 Zenobia, queen of Palmyra, 357. 
 
 Zipcctas, brother of Nicomedes I., king of 
 Bithynia, 235. 
 
 Zorobabel heads the colony of Jews who 
 returned to Judoea by permission of Cy- 
 rus, 246. 
 
 THE END. 
 
JOHN CHILDS AND SOX, BUNGAY. 
 
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