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AUTHOR: WALFORD, EDWARD TITLE: A HAND-BOOK OF THE GREEK DRAMA PLACE: LONDON DA TE : 1856 COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY LIBRARIES PRESERVATION DEPARTMENT Master Negative # BIBLIOGRAPHIC MICROFORM TARGET Original Material as Filmed - Existing Bibliographic Record Restrictions on Use: ■^• ' ^ > , i ■ H f i j i mm^ ii i, i ^ y i p i »ij i u i|ii i »i . i M i^^ ^t ip ii ..U ji I I . I ff j , ii . p n iiii f mi tmmtmmmmmmimmm 880^29 ' ,\Y14 T/alford, Edward, 1823-1897 • .o'^'A hand-book of the Greek drama, by Edward Wal- ford««. London, Longman, 1856# XV, 242 p« 18 cm* ■ ^r:r=:r: 0-' ^l5Hi u . > I ■! I ..^ I <■ lasn :y TECHNICAL MICROFORM DATA FILM SlZE:__^J>_y}p_rn_ _ REDUCTION RATIO: IMAGE PLACEMENT: lA (H^ IB IIB DATE FILMED: fl'^i'5.^__ INITIALS___\/i.l^,;^^ HLMEDBY: RESEARCH PUBLICATIONS. INC WOODBRIDGE. 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M-KEY (for '/eachers only), 24mo. price 5s. «.» The KEY, being published for the sole use of those engaged in tuition, can only be procured by application to the Author, under cover to Messrs. Lo^GMAN and Co. 4. WALFORD'S PROGRESSIVE EXERCISES in LATIN ELE- GIAC VERSE. Second Series. To which is prefixed a Grammar of Latin Poetry, mainly based on the Work of Jani. 12mo. price 2s. 6d. *jfc* The Grammar of Latin Poetry may be had separately, price Is. WALFORD'S CARDS for CLASSICAL INSTRUCTION : - No. 1. CARD of LATIN ACCIDENCE, price Is. No. 2. CARD of GREEK ACCIDENCE, price Is. No. 3. CARD of the GREEK ACCENTS, 5th Edition, price Sixpence. No. 4. CARD of LATIN PROSODY, price Is. No. 5. CARD of GREEK PROSODY, price Is. 6. WALFORD'S PALiESTRA MUSARUM, a Series of Classical Fxamlnation Papers for Composition in Latin and Greek Verse and Prose. A n^w and cheaper Edition, price 8.. ; or in 4 Parts, price 2^. each. London : LONGMAN, BROWN, GREEN, and LONGMANS. i \ ) i li ' t HAND-.B,0,0,K , . » ' » i > OP THE 1 V 3 9 it* > • > 1 ) T ^ •# , ♦ • » • » ■ ^ .: . V > » • , > V •» ♦ ♦ ) V 4 GREEK DRAMA. * ft • > k V 1 9 ) ' BY EDWARD WALFORD, M.A. LATE SCHOLAR OF BALLIOL COLLEGE, OXFORD ; AND FORMERLY ASSISTAXT-MASTEU OP TUNBRIOGE SCHOOL. London : Printed by Spottiswoode & Co., New-street-Square. LOITDON: LONGMAN, BROWN, GREEN, AND LONGMANS. 1856. '*i*«"W mff i. < « • o (P ■ I PREFACE. V » *. t • » • * # • I t • I • « « • • i I I L\ (^ The Editor has long been persuaded that a brief and compendious Hand-Book of the Greek Drama would be welcomed by all persons who are engaged in Classical Tuition. The present work is one which aims rather at simple statement than at deep or original views : in fact to the latter it makes no pretensions. He has appended to the work a brief abstract or analysis of the Poetics of Aristotle, a treatise which, he fears, is but little studied in com- parison of its deserts, and of which he purposes to bring out an edition, with English notes, if he meets with encouragement from those who are better able than himself to judge of the want of such a work. He has in conclusion to express his regret at the long delay which has occurred in the publication of his little work; which he now sends forth to the public in the hope that it may be judged a useful addition to the educational literature of the day. 'I z^ 28. Old Burlington Street, London, ^ June 12. 1856. A 3 298521 i ) CONTENTS. CHAPTER I. Origin of the Greek Drama — Imitation — Eeligious Feel- ings — National Character — Era in National Religion.— Anthropomorphism — Connection of Grecian Art with Religion - - - * - - Page 1 CHAP. 11. Epic, Lyric, and Dramatic Poetry of Greece — The Rhap- SODISTS — Origin of the latter from the Worship op Bacchus — Doric Form of Tragedy — Worship of Apollo — The Dithyramb — Worship op Bacchus — Lyrical Drama - - - - - - - 10 > CHAP. HL Rise of Trochaic and Iambic Poetry — Union of Dorian Choral Poetry and the Dithyramb — Rise of the Dia- logue — Gnomic Poets — The Choral Element and the Dialogue united by Thespis - - - - 22 CHAP. IV. The earliest Greek Tragedians — Thespis — Chcerilus — Pratinas — Phrynichus — The Satyric Drama - 31 Time and Theatre - CHAP. V. Place — The Festivals of Bacchus — The The Poet — Actors — Audience - - 46 JEschylus CHAP. YL . A 4 - 68 ^7 • •• VIU Sophocles CONTENTS. CHAP. VIL Page 82 i CHAP. vin. Euripides — Comparison of the Three Tragedians - 91 CHAP. IX. Rise of Comedy — Aristophanes • - •112 CHAP. X. Decline of Greek Drama (Tragedy and Comedy) — Me- nander — Philemon — Alexis - - - - 127 CHAP. XL Analysis of Aristotle's Treatise on Poetry - - 133 * ■ CHAP. XII. Rhythm — Quantity — Tragic Verse — Tragic Dialect and Phraseology - — - • - 143 <, ^ APPENDIX. I. Person's Canons - - 194 II. Canons and Remarks by Dr. Blomfield : — Prometheus Vinctus ... Persse . - - - - Septem contra Thebas . - ^ Agamemnon . > - - Choephoroe • - * - - TIL Canons and Remarks in the " Hippolytus " and " Alcestis " of Prof. Monk - - - - - - 218 IV. On the Site and Construction of the Dionysiac Theatre at Athens, by T. Campbell - * - - 228 • 201 - 205 . 208 - 211 - 215 V. On the Chorus . . . - VL Aristophanes ; his History, Character, and Works • 232 . 238 CHRONOLOGY OF THE DRAMA, 485 I 484 483 PROM H. F. CLINTON'S FASTI HELLENICI. B.C. 01. 546 60 1.535 61 •525 63 523 64 520 65 519 511 67 508 68 500 70 • 499 J 495 71 i 490 72 487 73 74 Hipponax, an Ephesian, a writer of iambics, flourished in the times of Croesus and Solon. Thespis first exhibited tragedy. Birth of ^schylus. Choerilus first exhibited tragedy. Melanippides, a dithyrambic writer, flourished. ^ Birth of Cratinus, the comic poet Phrynichus, the tragic poet. Institution of the x^P^^ avlpwv. Epicharmus perfected comedy in Sicily, long before Chionides exhibited at Athens : he flourished in the reign of Hiero, and lived to the age of 97. ^schylus, aged 25, first exhibits. Birth of Sophocles. JEschylus present at Marathon : aet 35. Chionides, an Athenian, a writer of the old comedy, first exhibits. Dinolochus, a Syracusan or Agrigentine. Epicharmus continues to write comedy. Myles, or Mylus, a comic poet, exhibits at Athens. ^schylus gains the prize in tragedy. Birth of Achaeus, the tragic writer. Chcerilus had now exhibited tragedy 40 years ; Phry- nichus near 30 years. r- j^W I tiJ ' LJH B.C. I 480 '477 476 467 % 458 I 456 4 455 454 435 434 432 01. 75 76 472 77 I 468 78 80 81 ^ 451 82 j 450 448 83 V 447 ^ 441 84 / ^ 440 85 ^ 438 437 436 86 CHRONOLOGY OF THE DRAMA. CHRONOLOGY OF THE DRAMA. xi 87 Birth of Euripides. The Nacof of Epieharmus represented. Phrynichus i^ictor in tragedy. Simonides, set. 80, gains the prize apdpwv x^PV* ^schyli Uepdai, ^schylus gained the prize with the Phineus, Persse, Glaucus Potniensis, and the Pro- metheus Igniter, a satiric drama. First tragic victory of Sophocles over -^schylus. One of the pieces exhibited was probably the TpinTdXefios aarvpLKSs, Death of Simonides, set. 90. ^schyli 'Opcareia; the Agamemnon, Choephori, and Eumenides. Death of ^Eschylus, set. 69. Euripides exhibited his XleAzciSey, set. 25, and gained the third prize. Aristarchus, a writer of tragedies, of which he exhibited 70, and was twice successful ; he lived more than 100 years. Cratinus, famous as a comic writer. Ion of Chios began to exhibit tragedy. Crates, the comic poet, flourished. Cratinus exhibits his 'Apxi^oxoi. Achseus and Sophocles exhibit tragedy. Euripides gains the prize in tragedy. A decree to prohibit comedy. Sophocles was employed with Pericles in the Samian war. Sophocles becomes a general, set. 57. The prohibition of comedy is repealed. Cratinus, the comic poet, conquers. Three victories of Cratinus are on record after the repeal of the decree to prohibit comedy. He gained the second prize with the X€iiuLaC6fjL€voi, b.c. 425, and with the :^drvpot, B.c* 424. And the first prize with the Uvrivri, B.C. 423. Phrynichus, the comic poet, first exhibited. Lysippus, the comic poet, gains the prize. Hermippus prosecuted Aspasia-^Callias. B.C. % 431 I 430 429 » 427 , 426 I 425 X 423 422 421 420 419 01. 87 Euripidis M^Scia. Arg. Med. ^Mix^t) M TlvBolipov &PX0VT05 Karh rrjv oyho-qKOcrT^v kPdSjjLTjv oXvixirid^Oy TTpanos Evcpopiccu • Seurepos l,o(poK\rJ5 ' rplros EvpLirl^Tis. M-^Seia, *iAo/CTi^T7?s, AIktvs, ®€piara\ ffdrvpoi. The Philoctetes is noticed by Aristoph. Acham. 424. Aristomenes began to exhibit. Aristomenes exhi- bited the'A5^7jToy, b. c. 388. So that he wrote comedy upwards of 40 years, during the whole time of Ari- stophanes. Hermippus, the comic poet, ridiculed Pericles, after the first invasion of Attica. Eupolis and Phrynichus, the comic poets, exhibit. Eu- polis was probably born about B.C. 446, and was nearly of the same age as Aristophanes. 428 88 Euripidis 'linr6\vTos (rr^(pavT)iJK€s : and at devrepai N€, UaXafxij^rit Tpepdai, ^i(Tvdol. Koi ol Tpay(f)^ol, koI tj iirl Arjuaicf) irofiir^^ Kal ol rpaycfi^oi, Koi ol Kwimcfidol, Kal toIs iv darei Aiouv" aloLS 7j TTOfxn)) kolL ol TraTSes Kal 6 Kwfios, Kal ol KUfficpM, Kal ol Tfjayoj^ol, And they are mentioned in the order in which they occurred. 1. ra iv U€tpai€7: (at which Euripides had exhibited : ^lian. V. H. ii. 13. Uci- paiei ay(aviQ>fi4vov rod Evpiiribov :) otherwise ra Kar* aypovs. 2. ra A'f^vaia : otherwise ra eV Aifivais : in Anthesterion. Thuc. ii. 15. 3. tA iy "AcTei: other- wise Aioviaia Tpaycfj^oTs Kaivo7s, At this period the expense of tragic exhibitions was less than that of the Xophs avdpwu, Dem. Med. p. 565. Tpay(pdo7s Kexopii' yi\Ki TTore ovtos, iyu) §€ auAryraTs avdpd& HAND-BOOK OF THE GREEK DRAMA. in concrete and visible shapes and forms. Now this strong principle is especially characteristic of the more rude and uneducated ages of both national and individual existence. And the first idea which powerfully seizes upon the mind at such periods, is the idea of Deity, as recognised in his attributes of power, goodness, and wisdom, and in the outward manifestations of the natural world. Now, if this, as a matter of fact, be true of nations in general, it will be found to hold good in a still more striking degree of the Hellenic nation. From .the earliest times their " singular impatience of pure [thought,"* their love of marvel and of fiction, to- :ether with their lofty aspirations after the beautiful and the true, and the keenness of their religious susceptibilities, have marked out their race from the rest of mankind as religious and poetical in the very Ihio-hest desree. Their intense love of the fine arts lent a very powerful assistance to their efforts to realise the unseen world ; and from being thus con- nected with the all-absorbing theme of religion, the fine arts, in their turn, received an impetus in Greece which was unknown elsewhere. To the reli^iious principle, then, is to be ascribed the early progress which was made by them in poetry, in painting, in architecture, and in music, as being so many obvious methods in which their yearning after the unseen Deity found its natural outward expression. Here, then, in that same principle ♦ Donaldson's Theatre of Greeks, eh. i. ! ITS ORIGIN. which peopled eVery wood, and fountain, and hill of Hellas with beings more than mortal, in the in- fluence of a polytheistic religion upon the Hellenic mind, — here do we find the key that unlocks to us the origin and antiquity of the Grecian drama. Their wide-spread anthropomorphism *, their love of representing the unseen Deity under the human form, though with features and proportions of ideal beauty, was the true parent of the drama."^^ Hence came the earliest efforts of the Greeks in archi- tecture, poetry, and music, as necessary to supply the personal Deity with a worthy temple, and to celebrate his praises in befitting strains. Hence Strabo says that ^^ the whole province of poetry is the praise of the Gods ; " f and hence the word hymn (v/ivoi) has retained even down to our own days that distinctive meaning which points out its original connection with religious worship. Poetry, then, at first, was the mere organ, or rather the handmaid, of religion. But of what kind of religion ? We shall see. In every nation X the religious mind passes through several successive stages. At first, the innate idea of a God predomi- ♦ See Coleridge on the Greek Classical Poets, p. 15. (ed. 1834) : " The Greeks and Italians, from the earliest times to this hour, have, as nations, been contradistinguished from the northern tribes by a more sensuous conception of the Divinity, and by a craving after a visible and tangible representation of Him on earth." f Strabo, x. p. 468. ' X We speak, of course, only of heathen nations. Where a revelation has been vouchsafed by God, a very different order of things is to be discerned. « b3 6 HAND-BOOK OF THE GREElf DRAMA, nates ; next he Is worshipped In his works, that is, in the visible objects of nature; poly theisM^S the next stage in the religious development of the national belief; then, as intelligence advances, and as the laws of nature begin to be understood, the mind ascends from a worship of the objects of nature to the worship 01 iho^Q powers which direct its course: and the step from the worship of powers of a material kind to that of powers of a spiritual kind is easy and obvious. "In the earlier periods of Grecian polytheism, the former worship prevailed ; the latter at a subsequent period. The early deities of Hel- lenic worship are the children of earth, and sky, and ocean. In a word, the Saturnian gods of the elder mythology are the deified powers of nature ; while [in the mythology of the later poets and philosophers, jit Is spiritual power that rules the world from the top of Olympus, and the inferior deities are the spiritual faculties of man personified and embellished. • . . . Anthropomorphism takes the place of a deification of nature ; the popular gods are invested with personality, and have a common origin with their worshippers ; they are born, bred, and nursed like men, but immortal still. They preside over each department of nature, and each province of art. Dis rules over the abodes of the departed, Posidon over the ocean, Zeus over the land and sky. One divinity wakes into life the olive and the corn ; another has charge of the vine. One guides the day, from his chariot with golden wheels ; a sister deity walks in brightness through the sky by night. A ITS ORIGIN*. T I fountain in the shade, a brook leaping down the hills ; a sequestered vale fringed with trees, a lonely mountain walled in with savage rocks, — each is the residence of a god. The arts, too, have their patron deities. Phoebus Apollo inspires the poet and the artist ; the Muses, daughters of Memory and Zeus, fire the bosom from the golden urn of truth ; Ares has power in war ; a divinity presides over agricul-j ture, the work of the weaver, the flocks of the shep-j herd, and every art of life." * Every nation, city, and family, has its peculiar god — its Zeus, its Athena, or its Hera; but all are not of equal might, and One is king over all, though subject himself to the supreme power of unalterable Destiny or Fate.^f' This, then, it would seem, is the stage of nationali existence and religious belief during which a nation's poetry is exclusively devoted to the service of re- ligion. And it was precisely during this period in Grecian history that the drama rose into importance and flourished most vigorously ; just as it is from the era of the sophists and of the school of irreligious freethinkers who broke up the system of national faith at Athens, in order to introduce deities of a more subtle and philosophic kind, % that we may date the decay and downfal of Grecian religion and| Grecian poetry alike. * Parker on Religion, eh. v. t Herod, i. 91. t^v Treirpw/JLCvrfv fio7pav a^vuuTov icm airocpvydeiv Koi 0€cp. See Baehr's remarks on this subject, Comment. 12. ; and com- pare JEsch. Prom. Vinct. 515 — 518. (Dind.) + See the chapter on Euripides, below. b4 / 8 HAND-BOOK OP THE GREEK DRAMA. We have already mentioned the sister arts of rausic^ architecture, and painting, as constituting, together with poetry, the handmaids of religion in Greece. We have also seen how closely religion was interwoven with the very life of the Greek. But, in any inquiry into the origin of the Grecian drama, it would be scarcely fair to take no notice of another cause which concurred to produce it. We mean, of course, the social character of the national mind, and especially its gay and joyous disposition, its power of sympathy, and the exquisiteness of its taste for refined and intellectual pleasure. These found their fullest development and satisfaction in the splendour of those religious festivals which brought the nation together at stated periods of the > year. " Gay and brilliant as the over-arching skies, the Greeks, from the first dawn of civilisation, had loved to meet together for festal enjoyment — the *dance, the song, the games. Nature, prodigal in all things to these her darling children, had implanted in them so exquisite a taste and so great mental activity, that the intellectual occupation and excite- ment which give durability aind soul to pleasure were indispensable even amidst the throng and tumult of their gayest assemblies. Joyousness was acceptable to the gods; and joyous sports charac- terised all the festivals which the gods had instituted while on earth, in their tender sympathy with human enjoyment. The god being propitiated by prayer and sacrifice, man rested from his labours, and the ITS ORIGIN. 9 holiday was kept with gaiety and animation."* There was an soprr], which was celebrated with the song and the dance ; and even when this rude and primitive form of the festival was raised into the greater solemnity of a religious spectacle, these more diffnified and refined assemblies still retained their characteristic gaiety and cheerfulness. And especially was this the case with the susceptible Athenians, in whose breasts the religious element and the sense of the beautiful prevailed with so much greater vigour than in those of their Dorian brethren, thus leading them proportionably to consecrate to the love and worship of God the best and fairest productions of art and genius. It was doubtless in a spirit, not of reproof, but of refined sympathy, that St. Paul, at a far later period of history than that to which we now refer, alluded to the religious tendencies of the Athenian mind, when he spoke to the assembly on the Hill of Marsf ; and it was this peculiar feature of the national character which developed the drama at Athens to an extent unknown in the other cities o Greece. * Ease's Ancient Greeks, ch. viii. t Acts xvii. And compare the remarks of Conybeare and Howson, Life and Epistles of St. Paul, vol. i. p. 406. and note. 10 HAND-BOOK OF THE GREEK DRAMA. X y CHAP. 11. EPIC, LYRIC, AND DRAMATIC POETRY OF GREECE. THE RHAPSODISTS. — ORIGIN OP THE LATTER FROM THE WORSHIP OF BACCHUS. DORIC FORM OF TRAGEDY. — WORSHIP OF APOLLO. — THE DITHYRAMB. — WORSHIP OF BACCHUS. LYRICAL DRAMA. The highest energies of the Grecian mind, as we have said, were devoted to the worship of the gods from the very earliest times. At first, doubtless, this worship consisted, as Miiller remarks *, ^^ chiefly in mute motions of the body and symbolical gestures, and in broken ejaculations expressive of the inward feelings of the worshippers." The first outpourings of poetry were simple songs, which supplied these same excited feelings with a more appropriate form of expression. Songs, relating to the various seasons of the year at which each festival occurred, gave a natural expression to the religious feelings which these seasons called forth, — the periods of the harvest and the vintage being celebrated by songs of joy and gladness, while the rites of Demeter and Cora, and Ipossibly of Dionysus, falling in the winter, as 'naturally suggested, in a worship mainly directed to the phenomena of outward nature, the song of wailing and lamentation for the departed brightness * Literature of Ancient Greece, ch. iii. \ EARLY GREEK POETRY. 11 and splendtur of summer days. These, at first, were sung wildly and irregularly, as also were the glad hyraenseal, and the paean of Apollo, and the mournful threnos, and the dirge called by the name of Linus. It is uncertain how far they were extem- ^porised, and how far they consisted of a traditional form of words. One form of expression, which thei > worship of the gods more especially employed, was that of the dance ; and the chorus, of which we shall hear so much hereafter, so far from having anything to do with music, was ori ginall y the level space set a part in towns for sa cred d^cgsjlM other festivities.* By a common figure of speech, the term was afterwards applied to the body of youths and maidens who, hand in hand, performed their graceful and expressive dance round the citharist. The latter, seated in the midst, sang some lay of the gods or heroes, accompanying himself upon the cithara or phorminx, and was said "to begin the song and the dance," f because the chorus danced in concert with his measures, regulating their gestures and motions in accordance with the subject of the song. A choral dance of this kind, such, for instance, as that described by Homer as worked by Vulcan upon the shield of Achilles, was in fact a kind of hypor- cheme ; that is, one in which the action described by * XopSs is, etymologically, the same word as x^P^^- Hence the Homeric expression \€iaiveiv xopo^» to level or prepare a place fori dancing ; and x^P^^^^ UuaL, to join the dance : and hence cities haying spacious squares are called ehpuxopoi. f fjLoXTTTJs ^^apx^iv, Hom. II. xviii. 606. 12 HAND-BOOK OF THE GREEK DRAMA. EARLY GREEK POETRY. IS the song was at the same time outwardly expressed with mimic gestures by certain individuals^ who came forward for that purpose from the body of the chorus. This description of choral dance, though probably in early times it was very generally in use, never occurs in later periods, except in connection with the worship of Apollo ; and to it we shall have occasion to return I hereafter. We have mentioned the citharlst, and the lays which he sang at the festivals of the gods when seated in the midst of the choral troop, as affording the earliest vestiges of the choral element of the Greek drama. To trace the rise of the other element, the dialogue, our readers must now transfer themselves in mind from the worship of the gods to the feasts in the halls of the nobles of the Homeric times. They will remember, especially in the Odyssey, frequent mention being made of the 6aL09 aoiBoSf or *^ divine minstrel," who so often charmed the ear of the banqueters by the singing, or rather the recitation, of lays of gods or heroes. ^^ Though possessing less authority than the priests .... still, as servants of the Muses, and dedicated to their pure and innocent worship, the minstrels were held in peculiar esteem *, and always held an important post at every festal banquet ; for the song and the dance were the chief * Thus Ulysses, at the massacre of the suitors, respects the person of Phemius their aoihos (Odyss. viii. 479. and xxii. 344.); and it was to his faithful minstrel that Agamemnon en- trusted his wife during his expedition against Troy. {Odyss. iii. 1267.) ornaments of the feast, and were reckoned the highest pleasure by the nobles of the Homeric age." * The songs or lays which they sang were the first rudi- ments of the epos, the connection of which with the tragic dialogue we shall afterwards have occasion to explain. The connection, then, between epic poetry and the banquets of the nobles, was of very ancient date in Greece ; and, from being made so much a part of their social life, the epos lasted down to a period much more recent than the Trojan war, and only perished with the downfal of the ancient monar- chies. The spirit of epic poetry was strictly monar- chical, and wholly opposed to the enthusiastic spirit of civil freedom which in aftertimes became the master principle of the Hellenic mind. ^^ It is clear,'* observes Miiller, ^^ that the Homeric poems were intended for the especial gratification of princes, not of republican communities .... and though Homer flourished some centuries later than the heroic age, which appeared to him like some distant and mar- vellous world, from which the race of man had degenerated both in bodily strength and courage, yet the constitutions of the different states had not undergone any essential alteration, and the royal families, which are celebrated in the Iliad and the Odyssey, still ruled in Greece and in the colonies of Asia Minor. To these princes the minstrels naturally turned, for the purpose of making them acquainted • ♦ Miiller, Literature of Greece, eh. iv. \ . y 14 HAND-BOOK OF THE GREEK DBAMA. EHAPSODISTS. — CHORUS. 15 II' with the renown of their forefathers ; and whilst the pride of these descendants of heroes was flattered, epic poetry became the instrument of the most various instruction, and was adapted exclusively to the nobles of that age." * But the recital of epic poetry was customary, at least as early as the time of Homer, not only at the feasts of the nobles, but also at those poetical con- tests which formed part of the proceedings at public festivals. Those who entered these poetical contests were called rhapsodists (paylrcpSoc), f a term which seems gradually to have superseded the Homeric name of bards (aoiBol). As the term itself denotes, these rhapsodists recited continuous portions of their epic lays with an even and continuous flow, though probably in a sonorous recitative approaching to a high-pitched chaunt, with some simple and expressive modulations of the voice, and without any musical accompaniment.! The poems which these rhapso- dists recited were doubtless partly their own, and partly borrowed from traditional sources; but in either case, as the use of letters had not yet been in- * Miiller, Literature of Greece, ch. iv. f ^T^i^- t The phorminx was used in the introduction (aval3o\^), and merely served to give to the voice the necessary pitch. ** In the present day," says Miiller, *' the heroic lays of the Servians, who have most faithfully retained their original character, are delivered in an elevated tone of voice by wandering minstrels, after a few in- troductory notes, for which the gurla, a stringed instrument of the simplest construction, is employed." — Lit. of Greece, ch. iv. This description is identical with that which a great noble of the Homeric age in Greece would give of a rhapsodical recitation of his own day. troduced, they must have been entirely lecited from memory. It is almost needless to add that their recitation, from first to last, was chaunted in hexa - meter v erse, since that was the only reg ular form assum ed b y poetry, whether of t he epic or of the l yric s chool, unt il at least the 7th century B.C. But while the lays of bards and rhapsodists were thus cheering the festive halls of princes and nobles, and laying the foundation of the tragic dialogue, a parallel development was taking place in the^ ^7^3^ chorus.; and of this it is time to take notice. We have already shown that the dance, and not singing or music, was the province of the chorus, and that the latter was always connected, from the earliest ages, with the worship of the gods, and especially of Apollo. Now, at all events in historic times, Apollo was the distinctive god of the Dorian race ; and ac-^ cordingly it was in the Doric states of Greece that the chorus first assumed a position of importance. Apollo was at the same time also the god of music and the god of war. The leading feature of a Dorian state was its military organisation. To this end every separate portion of the system was made to contribute ; to it all education and every civil insti- tution were referred ; and accordingly we find that, among the Dorians, the chorus too was intimately connected with it. " The Dorians' chorus was com- posed of the same persons who formed their battle array. The best dancers and the best fighters were called by the same name (rrpvXss^); the back rows in each were called the light-armed (yjrcXsh); and the i. 16 HAND-BOOK OP THE GREEK DRAMA, figures of the dance were called by the same name as the evolutions of the army." * This Doric chorus, then, whose motions in honour of Apollo were ac- companied by the lyre, was the parent of the choral element of the Grecian drama. But its style and expression was not always uniform and unvaried. On the contrary, it employed three different kinds of choral dance, each of which was expressive of a dif- ferent feeling, namely, the Pyrrhic^ the Gymno- pcedic, and the Ilyporcheme. Of these the two former .Were, originally at least, more of a gymnastic than of a mimetic or expressive character, while the latter, as its name implies, was a dance expressing, by appropriate gestures, the words of the poem to which it was an accompaniment. When, however, the worship of Dionysus was introduced at a later period, a mimic spirit was infused into the two former dances also ; and thus eventually the rapid motions of the Pyrrhic, the staid and stately gymnopaedic, and the vivid hyporcheme, were developed respec- tively into the three corresponding dances of scenic poetry, the satiric, the stately Emmeleia of tragedy, and the comic. But if the chorus was originally devoted to the worship of Apollo, how are we to account for its connection in later times with that of the Dionysus or Bacchus of Athens and the Ionian race? We shall see. The Dorians, when they conquered any country, introduced the worship of their own gods, • Diet, of Greek and Roman Antiq., Art. " Chorus." See also Miiller's Dorians, iii. 12. § 10., iv. 6. § 4. WORSHIP OF BACCHUS. 17 but endeavoured at the same time to unite it with the religion which they found established in their settlements. Thus, even Apollo was not originally one of the Dorian gods, but a deity of the Achaean t, race, on whose settlements in Laconia they had seized. And just as they naturalised Apollo by identifying him with one of their ancestral deities, so also they acted in the case of Dionysus. And as at Sparta they adored Apollo and a sister deity of a cognate name*, just so the ancient Pelasgi in Greece and Italy worshipped two equivalent deities under ^ the titles of Helios and Selene f, while their de- scendants, at a more recent period, adored the veryj ^ same powers of nature under the names of Dionysus! or Bacchus, and Deo or Demeter. The former of these was the sun-god, the latter the moon : viewed in another light, the former was the god of fertility and generation, and hence of the vine; the latter represented the fertile earth, from which the vine sprang up. By a further stretch of poetical inven- tion, the sphere of his influence was enlarged, not only in heaven and on earth, but also in the lower world ; hence comes the double, and apparently con- flictino-, character of his worship, whiah we shall hereafter have to notice. " Bacchus, the bright and merry god, is also the superintendent of the black Orphic rites. The god of life, he is also the god of ♦ Probably Apella ; see Miiller's Dorians, ii. eh. 9. § 2. and notes. t '" HAtQs and ^eArjv n are conn ected^ like v\v and Syl v a ; Sol and (Se) Luna are the same words under ano ther form. — Donaldsorif Greek Theatre, p. 14. note. C A 18 HAND-BOOK OP THE GREEK DRAMA. CHORAL SONG. THE DITHYRAMB. 19 death. The god of light, he is also the ruling power in the nether regions." * Such being the double character of Dionysus him- [self, it is not surprising to find that his worship ex- hibited a similar double form. As the god of light and life, he was worshipped with mirth and revelry, iwhile as an infernal deity his sufferings were loudly land impressively bewailed. The worship of such a i deity must of necessity have been one of mimic ex- i pression ; and so, " if the sun and the ever-revolving i lio-hts of heaven were fit emblems and suggestions of I a heavenly deity, the circling dance of Sileni and ; satyrs round the blazing altar was an obvious copy I of the original symbols, and an equally apt repre- isentation below. The Sileni, or deities of the running 'streams, were the appropriate companions of the igod, as types of the productive and life-giving ele- ment of water, while the satyrs were grotesque representations of the original worshippers of the god himself, dressed up fantastically in the skin of the goat, which they had sacrificed upon his altar as a welcome offering. Such, then, was the elementary worship of Diony- sus or Bacehus ; and when we remember that the dances of Bacchus, as well as those of Apollo, were military f? and to some extent gymnastic :{:, we see at once how readily the two separate pairs of deities became united at Sparta, and how the worship of the one became to some extent merged in that of * Donaldson, Greek Theatre, ch.ii. p. 15. t Strabo, p. 466. t Paus. iii. 13. 7, / the other. The choral poetry used in the worship of Dionysus among the Ionian race was called the dithyramb. It was a wild and enthusiastic strain, of a melancholy cast, as may be guessed from the fact that it was accompanied by the flute ; and the subject of it, according to the consent of the best authorities * , was invariably the birth and misfor- tunes of the infant Bacchus. This choral song the Dorians seized on as a connecting: link between the two religious, when they adopted the worship of the Ionian Dionysus. It is with this mysterious dithyramb, of which we know so little, that the earliest efforts of tragedy are connected. Arion, who so far improved the former that he is even said to have been its author, is called by the father of history '^the inventor of the tragic style." f This expression itself is certainly vague and undefined enough ; the best solution, pro- bably, is that suggested by Dr. Donaldson, who sug- gests that by the rpayi/cbs rpoiros is meant the in- troduction of satyrs (called crdrvpoc, TirvpoCf and rpdyoi,) into the dithyramb ; a step which brought it nearer to the confines of tragedy. An approximation to it was also made by the lyric drama, which took the sufferings of Bacchus as its theme, and was danced by the cyclic chorus, though it was accom- panied by the lyre instead of the flute, and substi- tuted staid measures and regular action for the wild '•' Plato, de Leg. iii. 700. B. : Aiopvaov yiv^cris . . . diOvpafi^os \€y6fJL€V0S, t Herod, i. 23. : rpayiKov rpdnov ^vpeTri?^ C 2 / it 20 HAND-BOOK OF THE GREEK DRAMA. LYRICAL DRAMA. 21 and impressive movements of the elder Bacchic poetry. After a time the subject of Bacchus was dropped, and the lays of other heroes were intro- duced in its stead, so that in course of time the di- thyramb and the lyric drama may be supposed to have coalesced. How, then, did this lyrical drama differ from tragedy itself? As we learn from Athenaeus*, it had no regular actors {yiroKpLTai)^ as distinct from the chorus. But if so, then why was it called a drama ? Because it was mimetic, and contained the first rudiments of action. A comparison of certain passages of Homer satisfactorily shows us that the leader or exarchus of this chorus held a very marked and important post, and that he not only led off the dance itself, but began the song or lamentation with which it was accompanied. The exarchus of the dithyramb, too, recited the ode in the first person ; the chorus danced round the blazing altar to the tune of his song ; and before the song began, he played a voluntary or prelude, called Trpoolficov or (f>polfjLcov, — the very same term which was applied to his leading dance as exarchus. We are now in a position to understand the remark of Aristotle f^ and of Plato too, that tragedy was at first autoschediastic (i. e. that it employed extempore effusions), and that it was commenced by those who led off the dithyramb ; the coryphaeus or exarchus relating short fables in gesture or language, or in both, by way of prelude, and afterwards accompanying the song with corre- sponding mimicry. This prelude, it may be here observed, returns, though in an altered form, at a more advanced period of dramatic art, in the pro- logues of explanatory narrative addressed to the spectators in the dramas of Euripides.* * See below, ch. viii. It xiv, p. 630. C. t Poet. ch. iv. c3 / 22 HAND-BOOK OF THE GKEEK DRAMA. EPIC AND IAMBIC POETRY. 23 iv CHAP. HI. RISE OF TROCHAIC AND IAMBIC POETRY. — UNION OF DORIAN CHORAL POETRY AND THE DITHYRAMB. — RISE OF THE DIALOGUE. — GNOMIC POETS. — THE CHORAL ELEMENT AND THE DIALOGUE UNITED BY THESPIS. We have already mentioned the monarchical ten- dency of the Homeric poems, and their accommodation to that political state of things which lingered in Greece, as a tradition of the old heroic times, so late as the commencement of the 7th century. The republican movement of this period, extending alike over Ionian and Dorian nations, not only deprived the ancient princes and royal families of their here- ditary privileges, but also exercised a very marked influence on thgrtharacter of the national poetry. But another feature should also be mentioned : ^^ Of all the forms in which poetry can appear,'' says Miiller, " the Homeric poems possess in the highest degree what in 'modern times would be called objectivity; that is, a complete abandonment of the mind to the object, without any intervening consciousness of the situation or circumstances of the subject or, in other * words, of the individual himself." * This feature was henceforth to be reversed in Greece. The ancient epic was far from being in favour with those who ♦ Literature of Greece, eh. iv. / yearned for liberty, as having a tendency to keep the mind too steadily fixed in contemplation of the former generation of heroes. Cotemporary, therefore, with the first movements of republicanism, the poet, who in the epos was completely lost in his lofty subject, comes forth before the people as a man, with thoughts and objects of his own ; and gives a free vent to the struggling emotions of his soul in poetry of a diflferent kind, more suited to the events of everyday life. This style of poetry was that which is known as iambic. It was originated by an Ionian poet, and among citizens of a state just rejoicing in the dawn of liberty. While the livelier and tenderer emotions of the heart found their fit expression in the elegy, which sprang into being about the same period, the mor e vi gorous_fe_elin^s..ol ind^^ w ere wedded by Archilod bujJ'Nof JParo^ the iamb ic m etre, as co jmbining^together^^^ best proportio ns th e gravity of poetic diction with the plain l an- gua ge of common life . Hencefof thfj^s might be ex- pected, the iambic measure prevailed, f But though the epos as a living style had passed away, still the exclusive sway which it had exercised over the Hellenic mind in early times was never wholly effaced, so that even in the works of the tragedians of the 5th century we can trace an epic and Homeric tone. The dramatic poets still continued ♦ ** Archilochum Pario rabies armavit iambo," — Hor. Ars Poet. t It was a modification of the trochaic See Arist. Poet ch. iv. : Aeffws 56 y€voiJ.4pr}s ahr)) rj (pvais rh oIkhov fiirpov ivpe fxaXiara yap C4 24 HAND-BOOK OF THE GREEK DRAMA. LYRIC POETRY. RISE OF DIALOGUE. 25 to develope the characters of the Iliad and the Odyssey, though they put into their mouths a more homely and sententious style, and lowered them from ^ofty ideals and poetical conceptions into real and lenergising personages.* The subject of lyric poetry as such scarcely falls within the scope of our inquiry ; one or two obser- vations upon it, however, are necessary here. It would seem to have been characterised by a deeper and more impassioned feeling and more impetuous tone, than the iambic poetry of Archilochus and his jfollowers; and its effect was heightened by the addi- tion of the dance, and by appropriate vocal and instrumental music. The lyric poetry of the ^olian tribes was almost entirely subjective: it expressed the thoughts and feelings of a single mind ; and it was recited by a single individual, who accompanied himself upon the lyre. But among the Dorian tribes the case was far different. At an early period, as we said above, it was wedded to the chorus, and is, therefore, always known as clioral, not as lyric poetry. Instead of the individual character of the JEolian lyric poetry, the choral poetry of the Dorians allied itself with objects of public and general in- terest, such as religious festivals, the celebration of the gods or heroes of Greece, or of such citizens as had gained high renown among their countrymen for k* Thus the Agamemnon of iEschylus and the Ajax of Sophocles e very different characters from what they respectively appear in omer. noble deeds and virtuous conduct. As we have already shown, it was consecrated from a very early period to the worship of Apollo; but at a later period, when the traditional lays of antiquity ceased to delight, and the people in the ardour of their enthusiasm demanded new songs more completely expressive of their human feelings, the Dorian poetry assumed a double form ; and the union of the sacred song and dance, which we described at length in a former chapter, became divorced from the school ofj Alcman, Stesichorus, and Simonides. With this latter school we have no concern; and we must content ourselves, therefore, with referring such of our readers as wish for further information to the very full and satisfactory account of it which is given by Miiller in his ^^ Literature of Greece," chap. 14., and also in his *^ Dorians," b. iv. ch. 7. Meantime the Dorian choral poetry, as we showed in the previous chapter, united the worship of Dionysus with that of Apollo, and employed the dithyramb as its chief medium of expression. The leader of the dithyramb came by degrees not only to recite a prelude, but to maintain with the rest of the chorus a rude kind of dialogue. This, probably, at first was but an extempore effusion of wit, either grave or sportive, according to the twofold character of the god himself, to which we have alreadyj ' alluded. Such were the rudiments of the dialogue] in its earliest infancy. . In order, however, to ascertain the actual steps by which it grew into its full proportions, and became 26 HAND-BOOK OF THE GREEK DRAMA. such as we meet with it in the existing works of the Greek tragedians^ we must for a time return to the paylrcpSoLy of whom mention was made in the preceding chapter. Before the heroic ages had fairly passed away, the warlike lays of Homer, sung at festivals by the rhapsodists, were succeeded in their turn by the gnomic and didactic poetry of Hesiod — a nearer approach to the subjects of every-day life. As the moral sentiment increased, we cannot doubt that the musical accompaniment was gradually laid aside; and when this was done, no step was easier than to exchange the lofty hexameter, as was done in the time of Archilochus, for a metre better adapted to the expression of maxims and apophthegms. The |metre adopted was at first the trochaic; but afterwards this was superseded by the iambic*, as being far better adapted to action and feeling than its pre- decessor, of which it was, in fact, a very simple variation. Like the old hexameters, these trochaic and iambic verses were written for recitation ; and we are told by Athenaeusf that they were recited En public, and acted also. As the profession of a rhapsode was popular and profitable, the numbers of the body increased ; and when many of them were present at a time, it was an obvious improvement to assign to several rhapsodes the several portions of one poem, so that the whole poem was often recited • This metre is called by Aristotle (Poet. eh. iv.) TrdvTwp fxaAiarct \€KTiK6y, See note above, p. 23. f xiv. p. 620. C. ^. -^^ GNOMIC POETRY. THE DITHYRAMB, 27 at a single feast. Here was a still nearer approxi- mation to the tragic dialogue ; for, in the case of an epic poem like the Iliad, " if one rhapsode recited the speech of Achilles, in the first book, and another that of Agamemnon, we may be sure that they per- formed their parts with all the action of stage- players."* That the verses of the gnomic poets were the in- termediate step between the school of Hesiod and of the tragedians themselves, and afforded a model to the iambic writers of the succeeding age, is a fact which is established by the paraphrases of Theognis, Archilochus, and others, quoted by Donaldson and other writers as occurring in ^schylus and Sopho- cles. The same sentiments are frequently repeated, and often in almost the self-same words. The ex- archus or leader of the dithyramb, as is clear from Aristotle f* employed the trochaic tetrameter as the vehicle of his speech; he was, therefore, to all intents and purposes a rhapsode, and fell short of being a real actor {yTroKpiTYjs) in the strictest sense only from carrying on no regular dialogue. Now it is observed by Aristotle, that '^ tragedy arose from the exarchi of the dithyramb." $ But the dithyramb contained in it the twofold elements of recitation and of gnomic poetry, which had long been approaching the form of a regular dialogue,* and readily united with the Dionysian goat-song, which had already ♦ Donaldson Greek Theatre, p. 38., ed. 1836. f See Poet. ch. vi. t anh Tftjj/ i^apx^vToov rhv BiOvpa^Sov. — Poet. ch. iv. 28 HAND-BOOK OF THE GREEK DRAMA. assumed, as we have shown above, the form of a lyric tragedy, " The two parts were ripe for a more intimate connection ; each of them had within itself the seeds of an unborn drama, and they only needed blending in order to be complete." * Thespis, of the Attic demus of Icarius, is the person who is traditionally reported to have united these two elements together. It is possible, indeed, that the name of Thespis may not, after all, denote a real personage, as it is the usual Homeric epithet of the bard f, and may, therefore, only point to the aoedic or rhapsodic origin of tragedy. But if this be not the case, in other words, if Thespis really lived, It is to him that all antiquity ascribes the important office. His birth-place was an ancient seat of the worship of Dionysus ; and he was one of the Dia- crians who supported the faction of Pisistratus. The Diacrians had succeeded to the religious and political ties of the caste of ^gicores, or old Pelas- gian goat-herds, who worshipped their patron deity Dionysus with the sacrifice of goats. The JEgicores, at an early period, were reduced to a condition of vassalage by their Ionian conquerors; but in the course of time, as the spirit of freedom increased, they gained the full privileges of citizens. Emanci- pated from political degradation, they naturally as- cribed their delivety to their patron deity Dionysus lor Bacchus, and worshipped him under the title of * Donaldson, Greek Theatre, p. 35. No argument could be more Conclusive. f ^eairiu aoi^Sy. UNION OF BACCHIC WORSHIP AND RHAPSODES. 29 Eleutherus.* From that day forth the god became)» the object of peculiar honour among the Athenian commons; it was therefore both politically and religiously the interest of Pisistratus to foster the Bacchic worship. Now the dithyramb and the Dorian choral worship had been introduced into Attica at an earlier period by command of the Delphic oracle f ; and the recitation of epic poems was of old an esta- blished custom at Brauron in Attica, where, at the noisy and mirthful festival of the Brauronia {, rhap- sodes came forward in succession, and recited verses in honour of Bacchus. Hence, then, we can see how easily and naturally the worship of Bacchus, with its Dorian accompani- ment of choral dance and song, allied itself with the ( rhapsodic recitations in Attica. The political cir- cumstances connected with the ascendancy of Pisis- tratus doubtless gave a powerful impetus to both elements, and especially to the latter ; and Thespis, who was both an actor and a rhapsodist, is the person whose name (as we said above) has come down to us ' as the author of the important union of the twofold element. Appearing himself as an actor, he could scarcely have confined himself to mere narration ; the majestic simplicity and heroic grandeur of the old! epic style was now a bygone thing; the iambic metre demanded something more homely, more phi- losophic, more true to nature. Accordingly, what * The same as Liber, the Free-er. f See Pausan. i. 2. 5. J Arist. Pax, 874. and Schol. y 30 HAND-BOOK OF THE GKEEK DKAMA. more obvious than to address his speeches to the chorus, of which he was the leader, and which, by- means of its coryphaei, could sustain a sort of dialogue with him? It is possible that these speeches may have been at first extemporised, as is distinctly asserted by Aristotle*, when we consider the rude nature of the company who were gathered at the festival to be amused as well as to be instructed, and the ready wit of the Ionian race in matters which lay so near to the national heart ; but it is almost certain that these offhand effusions must speedily have given way to something of a more fixed and settled form, and that the dialogue before long must have been composed and committed to niemory-f * Poet. ch. iv. t A further question, with respect to the plays of Thespls, has been started in modern times, as to whether their real character was satiric or not. The former opinion has been maintained by no less an authority than that of Bentley himself, who gives it as his opinion that the plays of Thespis were all of a ludicrous kind, and that Phrynichus and iEschylus were the first introducers of grave and lofty subjects on the stage. But the voice of antiquity is decidedly against such an opinion, so far as it can be ascertained ; and the larguments adduced iu its refutation by Dr. Donaldson are complete. V EARLIEST GREEK TRAGEDIANS, 31 CHAP. IV. THE EARLIEST GREEK TRAGEDIANS. — THESPIS — CHCERILUS. PRATINAS. PHRYNICHUS. THE SATYRIC DRAMA. It is now time that we should say something con- cerning those tragedians at Athens whose early efforts paved the way for the tragedy of ^schylus and Sophocles. It is agreed on all hands, as we said in the last chapter, that Thespis was the first who was acknowledtjed as a trajjedian at Athens. We may not, indeed, be able to go so far as to assert with Horace, that tragedy before his time was ab- solutely " unknown," any more than we can accept as true the account which states that the poems or plays of Thespis were carried about the country in rustic waggons*, — a fact which, however true it may be of the earliest efforts of comedy, as we shall hereafter see, is incompatible with the ascertained origin of tragedy, and with the dances executed by the dithyrambic chorus round the altar of Bacchus. But we cannot reject the unanimous testimony of] both Greek and Latin authorities, who are explicit ♦ " Ignotum tragicae genus invenisse camcBnaB ' Dicitur, et plaustris vexisse poemata Thespis, Quae canerent agerentque peruncti faecibus ora." Ars Poet L 275. The emendation of Bentley, who purposes to read "qui" for " quae,'' is worth consideration. iSSmOiSmmaS. V 32 HAND-BOOK OF THE GREEK DRAMA. .in stating that Thespis of Icarius, the Diacrian partisan and supporter of Pisistratus, first caused tragedy to become a drama properly so called, although we have on the other side even the great name of Bentley, who argues, in his Dissertations* on Ithe letters of Phalaris, that some efforts were made in the tragic art before his time. >^ In the first place the Arundel marble, whose antiquity carries us up to the year B.C. 260, declares that Thespis was the first j who gave being to tragedy. Next, the epigram of Dioscorides ex- pressly asserts of tragedy, that it was the device of Thespis I ; and another ancient epigram is preserved, which runs as follows : — KWixTjTais P€apas KaiPOTOfioUp xapiras. From this we learn not only that Thespis was the earliest tragedian, but also that tragedy in his day was a new entertainment to the people. To these testimonies we may add that of Plutarch §, who says that " Thespis and his school began to call tragedy into existence." And if further evidence be needed, we have that of Clemens of Alexandria to the same * pp. 165—180. f 1. 465. : 'A9' ov (deairis 6 woltit^s .... irpSiTos %s koX eSiSafe. The word irpwroy is not in the pri»ted edition ; but it is legible on the marble. t ©eVTTiSos €Sp€juo TouTo. The epigram is printed at length at the commencement of Stanley's edition of ^schylus. § opx^/A^Vwi/ TOiv Trepl &4(nnv ijdrj r^v rpayc^diap Kivuv. — Plut. Vit. Solon. THESPIS THE FIRST TRAGIC POET. 33 # effect, who calls him the ^^ deviser of tragedy/' and of Athenseus^ who manifestly alludes to Thespis when he states that tragedy " had its origin in the Icarian dance/' f and in mentioning the early tragic poets, thus enumerates them, ^^ Thespis, Pratinas, Cratinus (Carcinus?), and Phrynichus," and adds, that they were called dancers {opxv^TLKol\ " because of the great use which they made of dancing in their choruses."^ Now, it is obvious to remark that, if Athenaeus had known of any earlier tragedian, he would have mentioned him. Suidas, moreover, distinctly asserts § that ^^ Phrynichus was the scholar of Thespis, who first introduced tragedy ; " and it is admitted by Bentley — and with great force, we think — that it is incredible that the belief of his first in- venting tragedy should so universally have obtained in the ancient world, if the tragedies of any earlier author had been extant. Having established this point, the next step is to consider in what sense we can allow Thespis to have been the first tragedian, or, in other words, what is the precise extent to which he altered and improved upon the traditionary form as it came into his hands. Even Plato himself admits that tragedy in some sense is of a far more ancient date than the sixth century B.C. ^' Tragedy," he says, " has of old been located here, and began not, as men imagine. * Strom, i. : iirevdrjae Tpaya>yiau, t p. 40. • J p. 22. id. Compare the words of Aristotle, Poet ch. 5. § In Yoce @€dia iarl iraXaihv iv- dd^e, ovx «5 oXovTai a-jrh ®4(nridos ap^ajmevrj, oude airh ^pvvixov, dxV d ^€\€iT ivvorjffaiy ira^'v ira\aihp avrh evprjaus hv rrjade rijs irdKcws evprifia. f v(TT€pov 54 ©eoTTTis eVa vnoKpir^iV e^cvpev, virhp rod diavairaveadat rhp xop6p. — Diog. Laert Plat. Ixvi. It is probable that this single actor was, in many instances, no other than himself. At all events, Plutarch, in his "Life of Solon" (ch. xxix.), states that the latter " saw Thespis himself performing as an actor, as was the custom with the ancient poets." The reader will do weU to compare with this passage the assertion of Aristotle, Rhet iii. 1. See also Livy, vii. 2. I Some writers, considering the leader of the chorus himself as an actor, speak of two vnoKpiral in the time of Thespis ; and conse- quently state that iEschylus introduced a third actor, instead of a second. (Themistius, Orat. xxvi. p. 382., ed. Dindorf.) THESPIS IMPROVES TRAGEDY. 35 Horace* to JEschylus), is generally attributed to\ Thespis ; and, as Miiller remarks, the importance of this improvement in tragic art can scarcely be over- estimated, since it enabled the actor to sustain in succession a variety of parts, and so substituted something of regular plot and action for the mere monologue or story spoken by the actor in the cha- racter of a herald or a messenger.f It is also as- serted, though it is uncertain with what amount of truth, that he invented the prologue and the prjcn^iy and first admitted female characters on the stage§, and committed his tragedies to writing. [| It is pro- bable that he used both trochaic and iambic metre. The names or titles of five of his plays have been preserved by Suidas and other writers.^. Some ex- tracts from the supposed remains of Thespis are pre- served in the pages of Plutarch and Clemens Alexan- drinus; but it has been satisfactorily shown that they are all forgeries. It is quite certain, however, in spite of these improvements, that under Thespis ♦ " personce pallseque repertor honestae ^schylus.' Ars Poet 1. 278. f The mask itself was of linen. \ J Themistius, p. 316. : — ©eVrrts 5c irp6\oy6u re Kal ftrjcriv i^€vp€V. § Suidas distinctly says: — Qianis irptaros yvvaiKuoy irpdaooirov €ia'f]yay€V, II Donatus expressly asserts that this was the case. (^De Comced. et Tragoed. ; Gronovii Thesaurus^ viii. p. 1387.) \. According to Themistius (Orat. p. 382.), they are as follows : — " The Alcestis ; " ' " The Funeral Games of Pelias ; " " Phorbas ; " " The Priests ; " and " The Youths." To this Suidas adds, that of their construction nothing is known, except that each seems to have commenced with a prologue. p 2 ••«MiflMMlttia mm 36 HAND-BOOK OF THE GREEK DRAMA. THESPIS. — CHCERILUS. 37 (the choral element strongly preponderated over the Idialogue*, and, in consequence, we can understand the meaning of the name given by Athenaeus to the early dramatists. In support of its appropriateness, we may here remark that, while all traces of his plays were forgotten, so far as concerns the plot and style, long before the age of Aristotle and Plato, the name of Thespis stands associated with some alterations in the choral dances, which once were deemed important, and that his choral songs and fi 3 MIM mamm 38 HAND-BOOK OF THE GREEK DRAMA. PHRTNICUDS. 39 is said to have been the author of 150 plays; but not even a fraffment of his writings has been preserved. Pausanias * mentions the name of one of his dramas called the Alope, in which Cercyon and Triptolemus are introduced ; and hence we should be inclined to suppose that his writings partook of the mythical as well as of the satyric character ; and he is said to have introduced some improvements in the dress of the actors on the stage- His name, we may here remark, is generally mentioned by ancient authors with some degree of contempt; but some modern writers have claimed for him, as probably his due, a higher rank, since he is mentioned by Alexis f in company with Orpheus, Homer, Hesiod, and Epi- charmus. The name of Phrynichus, which follows next in order, brings us once more within the region of well ascertained facts. The date of his birth and death are unknown ; but it is a well established fact that he contended for the tragic prize successfully in 511 B. C, and again, after an interval of thirty-five years, in 476 B.C. (when Themistocles was his choragusj), with a play called the Fhcenissce. In this play, which is generally thought to have been the source whence JEschylus borrowed his idea of the Persae, he cele- brated the exploits of Athens in the Persian war. The chorus was composed, as the name of the play denotes, of Phoenician women from Sidon and its coasts, who had been sent to the Persian court ; and * i. 14. § 3. t Atben. iv. p. 164. C. % See below, eh. v another part of it was formed of noble Persians, who in the king's absence consulted about the affairs of the kingdom, — a feature which possibly accounts for the title of XvvdcoKOi, or the " Councillors," under which it appears to be enumerated by Suidas.* In the interval, however, Phrynichus had exhibited a tragedy the results of which have immortalised his name in the pages of Herodotus. During the Ionian revolt, the city of Miletus had been taken by the Persians, B.C. 494; and Phrynichus chose as the subject of a tragedy the capture of that city, and the calamities consequent upon its fall. Miletus was a colony and ally of Athens; and so tender were the ties of friendship between the mother city and her colony, that when Phrynichus exhibited his Ml\t]tov aXcoaiSy Herodotus f informs us that "the whole theatre was moved to tears, and that the Athenian * With respect to this play, Miiller says : " At the beginning of this drama, a royal eunuch and carpet-spreader {(npfar-ns) came forward, prepared seats for the high council, and announced its meeting. The weighty cares of these aged men, and the passionate laments of the Phoenician damsels, who had been deprived of their fathers or their brothers by the sea-fight, doubtless made a contrast in which one of the main charms of the drama consisted. The chorus of Phoenician women, at its entrance upon the stage, sung a choral song commencing with the words ^ihviov 6,(Trv KnrdvTcs, or Kai StSwi'os TTpoXtirdpTa vaou, as we learn from the scholiast on Aristoph. Vesp. 220." It should be observed that iEschylus himself would seem to allude (Ran. 1299.) to a supposition that he borrowed from Phrynichus his idea of some tragedy or other : — tva [JL^ rhp avrhu ^pvvix

v ^pvvlxov* Koi yap icriv ay^p And Agathon in the Thesmoph. 164. speaks generally of the beauty of his .dramas. PHRYNICHUS. 41 he was plain and simple to a fault, is clear from a passage in the Ranae, and the comment of the scho- liast upon it: — ^^The very dicasts themselves, in * The Wasps^^ trill plaintive songs, those sweet old honied songs of Phrynichus and the Sidonians."* And Phrynichus is compared to a bee " feeding on the fruit of ambrosial melodies, and uttering the sweet- ness of song." t From all this it is clear that, while he fell short of ^schylus in grandeur, and of Sopho- cles in art, he had a beauty and a grace of his own which was not lost upon his countrymen, and which makes us re^-ret that, out of the fifteen or seventeen % tragedies ascribed to him, no fragments remain from which we can form an independent judgment on his merits. It is generally asserted, as we said above, that he was the first who admitted female parts upon the stage ; but these, according to the habits of the ancients, could only be acted by men. Like Thespis, he had only one actor, at all events in the early part of his career, before the innovations of his great fol- lower and rival, of whom we shall speak in another chapter. Some of his characters, to judge from the words of Euripides in the Ranae of Aristophanes §, ^i^ .6/ * apxO'LOfJL€\r)(ridajyo(ppvvixf}paTa, — v. 219. t Aves, 748. J Donaldson agrees with the majority of authors in considering that several of these tragedies are the works of two other dramatists of the same name, and who have heen confounded with the cotem- porary of Choerilus and JEschylus. Bentley, however, has argued very forcibly on the other side, that this supposition is untenable, and that there was only one tragic poet of this name. § Line 912. 42 HAND-BOOK OF THE GREEK DRAMA. ^ would appear to have been mutes upon the stage, such as Kiobe for instance ; and there need have been nothing ridiculous in such an arrangement, but on the contrary, much that was in strict keeping ^ with what we conceive to have been the leading feature in Phrynichus as a dramatist. But the ob- servation of Miiller is doubtless true, when he re- marks that in all probability his chief merit lay in dancing * and lyric compositions, and that, if his works were extant at the present day, we should feel in- clined to rank him rather among the lyric poets of the u^Eolian school than among the dramatists of Athens. In treating of Choerilus, we have already men- tioned the satyric drama as the branch of dramatic art in which he most excelled. But the complete separation of the satyric drama from tragedy in its more usual acceptation, was effected by Pratinas, a Phliasian, who came forward at Athens, about the year b. c. 500, as a rival of Choerilus and JEschylus. His preference for the satyric drama probably arose from the connection of his native Phlius with Co- * Plutarch (Symp. iii. 9.) has preserved part of an epigram said to have been written by Phrynichus himself, in which he thus com- memorates the fruitfulness of his fancy in devising figure dances : axhn-O''^^ 5' opxv<^^s T6(ra fioi irSpcv, ^aa^ iirl Tr6vT(f KVfioiTa iroiurai x^^M'Olti v^ oKoij, Compare Arist. Vesp. 1523 — 5.: Koi rb ^pvi/ix^iov iKKaKTiaaTO) tis» PRATINAS. — SATYRIC DRAMA. 43 rinth and Sicyon, where the tragedy of Arion and Epigenes had introduced a chorus of satyrs. We know but little of Pratinas, except what we learn from Suidas, namely, that he composed fifty dramas, of which no less than thirty-two were satyrical, and that his fellow-citizens at Phlius honoured him with a monument in their market place as a composer of satyric dramas second only to ^Eschylus. We are also informed that he wrote lyric poems of a hypor- chematic kind.* In connection with his name we may also mention that on one occasion, when he was acting at Athens, his wooden stage broke down, and that in consequence of this accident the Athenians were induced to build a theatre of stone. Such is the scanty amount of information that we possess concerning the four Greek tragedians whose names have come down to us as having flourished prior to the days of ^schylus. But before we close the present chapter, it will be necessary to add a few remarks on the satyric drama^ with which the names of two out of them are so intimately asso- ciated. The term adrvpo^ or rlrvpos — for the two words are etymologically the same — was identical in meaning with rpdyo^^ a goat, and was applied from the very earliest times to the worshippers of Bacchus, who danced in the cyclic chorus around the altar of the wine-god, clad in rude and grotesque dresses of the skins of goats, which probably they * See Miiller, Lit. of Greece, eh. xii. § 10. 44 HAND-BOOK OF THE GREEK DRAMA. SATYRIC DRAMA. 45 had sacrificed upon the altar ; thus representing the bands of Sileni and other fabulous divinities which the old poetic traditions had assigned to Bacchus as his customary train of attendants. Such, as we have already seen above *, was the original form which the worship of Dionysus assumed among the Ionian peasantry. But, as tragedy in its more usual accep- tation (to borrow the words of Miillerf) "constantly inclined to heroic fables in preference to subjects connected with Dionysus, and as the rude style of the old Bacchic sports yielded to a more dignified and serious mode of composition, the chorus of satyrs was no longer an appropriate accompaniment. But it was the custom in Greece to retain and cultivate all the earlier forms of poetry which had anything peculiar and characteristic, together with the newer varieties formed from them. Accordingly, in the course of time, a separate satyric drama was deve- loped in addition to tragedy, and, for the most part, three tragedies and one satyric drama at the conclu- sion were represented together, forming a connected whole. Th is satyric drama was not a comedy, bu t, as an ancient author aptly describes it, a pla yful tragedy. Its subjects were taken from the same class of adventures of Bacchus and the heroes as in tragedy ; but they were so treated in connection with rude objects of outward nature, that the pre- sence and participation of rustic petulant satyrs seemed quite appropriate. Accordingly, all scenes from free untamed nature — adventures of a striking character, where strange monsters and savage ty- rants of mythology are overcome by valour or stra- tagem — belong to this class; and in such scenes as these the satyrs could express various feelings of terror and delight, disgust and desire, with all the openness and unreserve which belong to their cha- racter. All mythical subjects and characters were not, therefore, suited to the satyric drama. The character best suited to this drama seems to have been the powerful hero Hercules, an eater and drinker and boon companion, who, when he is in good humour, allows himself to be amused by the petulant sports of satyrs and other similar elves." i But we shall hereafter have cause to say more con- cerning the satyric drama, when we come to examine in detail the plays of Euripides, and more especially his Alcestis and his Cyclops. * Page 18. t Literature of Greece, ch. vi. 46 HAND-BOOK OF THE GREEK DRAMA. IDEA OF THE GREEK DRAMA. 47 CHAP. V. TIME AND PLACE.— THE FESTIVALS OF BACCHUS. — THE THEATRE. — THE POET. ACTORS. — AUDIENCE, The Student of antiquity, and especially of the ancient drama, cannot be too often reminded that, if he would form to himself an adequate estimate of theatrical representations at Athens, or catch any- thing of their spirit and meaning, he must cast aside all the associations of modern habits and customs, and throw himself into the circumstances under which the Grecian dramas were performed. Our theatres are places of amusement, or at the best of instruction; they are open night after night for dramatical performances ; and our plays are, or aim at being, close representations of the actual manners of daily life— of human life as agitated by the actual passions of human nature, and corresponding as accurately as possible to the original in all its features. But it was not so at Athens. From the very earliest times, as we have already seen, the Grecian drama was connected with the rites of the national religion; and it must be remembered that this connection lasted throughout the whole period of its existence. '' The theatrical representations at Athens, even in the days of Sophocles and Aristo- phanes, were constituent parts of a religious festival; the theatre in which they were performed was sacred to Bacchus, and the worship of the god was always as much regarded as the amusement of the sovereign people."* Moreover, instead of adhering to ordi^ nary life, the Grecian drama aimed at departing as far as possible from it : its character is in the highest degree ideal. The very artistic costume f adopted by the actors and the chorus, was as far as possible removed from that worn by Athenian citizens of the day : though stiff and conventional, still it was heroic, and therefore ideal, and tended in no small degree to assist the illusion produced by other means to which we shall hereafter allude. The actors of tragedy wore long dresses reaching down to the ground, {ttsitXol, aroXal TroSjjpsLs), over which were thrown upper garments of purple and various colours of brilliant hues, with gay trimmings and ornaments of gold ; in fact their costume was the ordi- nary .dress worn at the Bacchic festivals by those who took part in the processions and choral dances. And further, as tragedy and in fact all dramatic exhibi- tions were performed only at the Dionysian festivals, the whole appearance of the theatre retained a Bacchic colouring, ^^ it appeared in the character of a Bacchic solemnity and diversion ; and the extra- ordinary excitement of all minds at these festivals, by raising them above the tone of every-day life, gave both to the tragic and the comic muse unwonted energy and fire." f ♦ Donaldson, Greek Theatre, ch. ii. § 1. f Miiller, Lit. of Greece, ch. xxii. § 1.^ 48 HAND-BOOK OF THE GREEK DRAMA. RELIGIOUS FESTIVALS. 49 It is a matter still of dispute, whether the Athe- nian festivals of Bacchus ( A^ovuo-ta *), were three or four in number. Bos, in his ^^Antiquities of Greece,"t admits only two; but he is certainly mis- taken. Muller admits three, the Lenjea, and the greater and lesser Dionysia|, all of which festivals were observed with greater pomp and solemnity at Athens than in any other part of Greece.§ To these three Dionysian festivals Donaldson adds a fourth, which was known as the Anthesteria, and which is called by Thucydides himself the * Hesych. in Liovvaia. These festivals were often called opyia and Ba/cxero. See Aristoph. Ranse, 360. f Part I. ch. xvi. X The h-nvala (also known as ra Aifiva7a, or ra h Alfivais) were SO caUed from being held in a part of the city near the Acropolis, where was a sacred irepiSoAos or enclosure sacred to Bacchus, and containing a Xtj^Ss or winepress associated with his worship from very early times. The ra /car aypovsy as their name imports, were celebrated in every ^fxos and village of Attica, in a more humble and rustic way. They are alluded to by Dicaeopolis in Aristophanes' "Achamians," line 202.: 2i|« ra /car' aypovs eiaic^v Aiovvaia. The greater Dionysia, Tct ao-TLKa, or ra iv dcrei, called also ra fieydXa, or simply ra Aiovucia, were celebrated in the spring, at the time when the allies were in Athens for the purpose of paying their fp6pos. This assertion is supported by a passage in the " Acharnians," 1. 477. &c., and the scholiast ad loc, as well as by the reproach of ^schines against Demosthenes, to the effect that he was too vain to be content with having the crown proclaimed at any other festival except the Great Dionysia, when all Greece was present. (Adv. Ctesiph.) t § For example, as we learn from Suidas, the years at Athens were numbered by them ; the chief archon had the management of them (^diaTLdevai Aiovvaia, Pollux, viii. p. m. 440. ) ; and the priest of Bacchus was honoured with the first seat at the public shows. {Schol Aristoph. Ran. 299.) greater festival of Bacchus.* But both he and Miil- ler are agreed in assigning the dramatic exhibitions to the three feasts originally mentioned, all of which were celebrated in the winter or early spring. From the extant Didascalia^ or registers of the victories of the lyric and dramatic poets as teachers {SiSdaKa- \ol) of their respective choruses f, Muller argues that at Athens new tragedies were exhibited at the Lena^a and the greater Dionysia, the latter of which, he adds, was a most brilliant festival, at which the allies of Athens and many foreigners also were present.^ Old tragedies also, he considers, were acted at the Lenaea; and none but old ones were acted at the lesser or rural Dionysia. To this Donaldson adds that comedies also were exhibited at the great Dionysia and the Leneean festival ; and he is inclined to believe that no actual representa- tions of dramas took place at the Anthesteria, although probably the tragedians may have then * ii. 15. Others consider that Thucydides refers in this passage to the Lenaea. f See below, near the end of this chapter. I This is clear from the words of the vS/ulos quoted by Demo- sthenes (contr. Midiam, p. 517.) : ^ ^Vl Arjpaicp irofxTrfj, koI o! rpa- 7w5ol KOL 01 KUficpdol, Kal to7s eV &(rT€L AiovvcrioLs rj tto/att^, koI ol waTdes KOL 6 Kccfxos, KOL ol Acctf^^Soi Koi 01 Tpaycpdoi The fact that none but new dramas were allowed to appear at the greater Dionysia would seem to be inferred in the words of the same orator (de Corona, p. 264.), amyopevaai rhv ardcpapov iv t^ &€dTpa> Aiouvalois, rpaycpdoh Kaivo7s. Donaldson adds a note informing us that "this custom continued down to the times of Julius Caesar, when a similar decree was passed in favour of Hyrcanus, the high priest and ethnarcli of the Jews," referring to Josephus, Ant. Jud. xiv. 8. 50 HAND-BOOK OF THE GREEK DRAMA. read to a select audience the tragedies which they had composed for the great festival of the follow- ing month. We may here remark that, although the rural Dionysia were celebrated with dramatic performances, it was only at the Lena3a and greater Dionysia that prizes were contested by the poets. We will suppose ourselves, then, suddenly trans- ported to the streets of Athens as they appeared some three and twenty centuries backward in the world's histoiy. It is early spring ; and the feast of the greater Dionysia is being celebrated.* The allies from a hundred subject cities are in Athens. Besides these, there are raetoecs and other strangers in hundreds and thousands: rough mountaineers from Arcadia, sturdy seamen from Rhodes and Crete, the dark swarthy faces of Egyptians, and the more polished and wealthy merchants from Cyprus and Phoenicia. The city is beside itself with joy ; and its inhabitants are vying with each other in doing honour to the fabled victories and the more tangtble bounties of Dionysus. There is silence indeed in the law courts and the prisons ; for how shall prisoners not be freed by the god whom the people worships under the title of Eleutherius ? But in the streets there is nothing to be heard but the Bacchic song, or to be seen save the Bacchic revelry of the Thiasus ; the gift of the wine-god is freely * A graphic and spirited picture of Athens during a Dionysian festival, may be found in Mr. J. T. Wheeler's Biography of Hero- dotus, vol. ii. ch. 29. (Longmans, 1856.) THE DIONYSIA AT ATHENS. 51 I drunk, and inspires his votaries with proportionate enthusiasm^ It is an ancient carnival outdone in the madness of its boisterous and extravagant merri- ment. There is the phallic procession, headed by a citizen who carries the thyrsus, and who, with his attendant train of revellers, has assumed the goat- skin of the ancient satyrs, and has daubed his face and arms with green and red juices, or painted them with stripes of soot and vermilion. Behind him walk in stately order some comely maidens of noble birth, who, with heads erect, bear aloft the mystic basket of sacred figs, while a \cfcvo(p6po9 carries the image of the god himself, and a motley crowd of male and female maskers, Bacchae, and Thyades, close the procession with the boisterous music of flutes, cymbals, and drums.* And again in the great public procession of the day, where the noblest of foreigners and citizens are collected, the god is represented by the most beautiful of the slave population, dressed out in the most expensive and fantastic of theatrical array sf, and the joyous crowd, with frantic cries of triumph and exultation, attend the principal train to the Temple of Bacchus. But it is towards the south-eastern side of the hill, which is crowned by the Acropolis, that the crowds are flocking thickest from every quarter of the city. The theatre of Bacchus is the great centre of attrac- * Bockh's Essay, Philol. Mus. vol. ii. t Plutarch, Nic. 3., relates that, on one occasion, a beautiful slave belonging to Nicias represented Dionysus. Compare Athe- naeus, v. p. 200. E 2 5 I 52 HAND-BOOK OF THE GREEK DRAMA. tion. It is no common building that can find space for so many thousand people ; and it is no ordinary scenic performance that is presently to add a high intellectual treat to the more sensual enjoyments of the festival. A new tragedy, upon an old heroic story of thrilling interest, of Pallas Athena, or of the old Mycenian kings of '' Pelops' line/' has gained the tragic prize; its praises have been highly sounded for some weeks in private ; and now it is about to be displayed for the first time. The choragus has munificently furnished his costly contingents; the poet has chosen the best actors of the city, and has decked them in the most gorgeous of tragic attire ; and, above all, the author himself is the popular favourite of the day. The people, too, during their muchJoved feast, have succeeded in breaking the chains that bound them to their common daily life ; with their keen poetic and religious feelings excited to the utmost, they have passed into an ideal and imaginary world; and so with breathless ea- gerness, and with their expectations raised to the highest pitch, 30,000 of their number enter the theatre, and seat themselves, and await the opening /of the drama. Such in few words, is a true picture of the scene which must have been witnessed at Athens upon each return of the greater Dionysia. We have stated the time at which this feast was celebrated ; we therefore now go on to add some account of the place in which these tragic displays were exhibited. In other words, we proceed next to a description of the I AN ANCIENT THEATRE. 53 theatre of Bacchus at Athens, the most perfect theatre of antiquity, and the model upon which those in the other cities of Greece and Italy were generally formed, though with more or less of strict resemblance in detail. I. In perusing the following pages the student, \re repeat, must dismiss from his mind altogether the idea of a modern theatre. An open-air exhibi- tion, attended by many thousands of spectators, and bearing the character of a great religious festival, is without any exact parallel in modern times. But as far as regards the general aspect of the building, and the whole assemblage, we may imagine them to have presented somewhat the same appearance as the crowded galleries rising round the circus of an Andalusian or Gallician bull-fight in the middle ages. The old wooden scaffolding erected within the Lenaeon, or enclosure sacred to Bacchus, having fallen down in the year 500 B.C., the Athenians commenced building that magnificent theatre of stone which it took 120 years to complete, although at an earlier period the work had proceeded far enough to admit of the performance of the great Attic dramas. The Theatre of Bacchus was built into the south-eastern side of the hill on the summit of which stood the Acropolis. From the foot of this eminence rose tier above tier a semicircular range of benches, capable of accommodating some 50,000 people. The lowest of these tiers was twelve feet above the level of the ground ; and this, with the one or two next above it, was appropriated to the use of the principal E 3 i I' > k 54 HAND-BOOK OF THE GREEK DRAMA. people of the city, and for that reason was called the ^ovksvTiKov. The body of the citizens were ar- ranged according to their tribes ; and the young men had a space set apart for themselves, entitled the E^rj^LKov.^ The passages which separated the different tiers were denominated Bta^cofiaray and the compart- ments formed by these and the staircases, which would cut them at right angles, KspKiSs^. The shape of the large open space which intervened between the spectators and the stage with its appurtenances, and which was called the orchestra, will be readily understood, by conceiving the private boxes of an English theatre to be removed, and the ground which they now occupy, as well as the pit, with a single exception, to be left entirely vacant.f This whole space was called the orchestra; the two wings or horns, on either side, were called TrdpoBot^ while the space which lay exactly between these, in front of the semicircular portion, and which would cor- respond to the place occupied in our theatres by the stalls and orchestra, was styled the Spofios. Just at the central point of the whole, halfway between either extremity of the amphitheatre, stood the thymele or representative of the old altar round which the chorus had danced, and where they now sat or stood during the progress of the drama : these were the only occupants of the orchestra. Imme- diately facing the thymele, and at the same height * Aristoph. Aves, 794., Sehol. f For the benefit of those to whom the interior of an English theatre may not be familiar, we have added the subjoined figure. THEATRE OF BACCHUS. 55 ^ t^^^^^^B^^^^Bj^ ^ ^^ q? ^ ^ 115 «^ ^ e^ PLAN OF THE THEATRE OF BACCHUS. A. Lower Portico. B. Upper or third Portico. C. The Scene. D. The Proscenium. E. The Hyposcenium. F. The Thymele. G. The Parascenium. H. The Orchestra. I. The Seats. K. The Staircases. L. Periactse. M. The Bouleuticon. from the ground as the lowest tier of the benches composing the amphitheatre, was the front portion of the stage, projecting a little from the rest, and called the Xoyelov : this w^as where the principal part of the dialogue was carried on. The Xoyslov itself was built of wood ; but the front and sides were adorned with columns and statues, which were called ra xrrro- 56 HAND-BOOK OF THE GREEK DRAMA. y oTK^vca. Next behind the Xoystov was the stage proper, or nTpoGKrjviov^ so called from being in front of the aKTjvTj, and built of stone. At the back of this stood the (TKT]vri * or scene, a stationary edifice of stonework representing a palace, with three entrances to the stage, of which the middle one, intended for the principal characters, was called jSaacXsLO^. The other two are called by Vitruvius hospitales^ as supposed to lead to the apartments of the King's guests. If an actor entered the Xoystov from the side near Athens, he was supposed to belong to the city in which the scene was laid ; if from the other side, he was supposed to be a stranger. These contrivances were necessary to a people who knew nothing of playbills. The sides of the proscenium consisted, like the back, of stationary stone buildings, having passages communicating with the rest .of the theatre, but not intended for the entrance of actors, f Behind * If we remember the exact meaning of this word we shall appreciate the beauty of Virgil's expression — " Tum silvis scena coruscis Desuper." ^w. i. line 164. t There is a passage in the oration of Demosthenes against Midias which has given rise to much difl&culty on this subject: Tohs X^P'^y^^^ (Tvvrjyev in ifA€, fioS>v, aireiXwv, o^vvovai iropearrj/c^s rots KpiTOis, rk wapaffK-hvia (ppdrrouv, irpoa'n\MV, Ididkrjs &p, to, ^rifxSiria KaKO, Koi wpdyfiara afjLvdrjrd fioi -napix^^ SteTeAeo-ci/. Wolfe, in his *'Analecta Literaria" has a long dissertation on this subject, in which he endeavours to prove that Vitruvius was mistaken in supposing that the itapaaKiiuia were the sides of the proscenium. It appears to us sufficient to consider that there were two kinds ofTrapaaK-fjvia and (TK7}valj — the permanent buildings of stone, and also the wooden / A GREEK THEATRE : PARTS ; MACHINERY. 57 the (TKrjv^ and irapaaKrjvia were the dressing-rooms of the actors, and what we should now call property rooms, containing the machinery, dresses, &c,* The entrances to the theatre {elaohoi) were at the sides of the irdpohoi^ and all round the outside was a space covered with turf, planted with trees, and encircled with a portico, where the chorus used to rehearse. There was a similar portico outside the top of the amphitheatre ; in both of these the audience took shelter in case of a sudden storm, and they also served as places in which slaves waited for their masters during the performances. II. The machinery of the Attic theatre consisted principally of the ecclyclema and periactae. We must remember that with them the chief object of scenery always was represented in the aK7]vr) or back- ground, while the openings into the distance lay on each side. The machinery for changing these was such as we have mentioned. The periactae were tri- angular pieces of woodwork revolving upon a pivot, which were used for changes in the side scenery, and of course stood in front of and concealed the stone buildings of the parascenia. These must, in some slides which were used when it was necessary to depart from the ordinary scene of the outside of a royal house. The meaning of the words (ppdrrwv and irpoa-rjKccp then becomes perfectly clear, and we see no necessity for plunging any farther into the perplexing though learned controversy which Wolfe has started. * See Miiller, Lit. of Greece, voL i. p. 301. note. The account above given seems the most simple and intelligible ; it is surely im- probable that these rooms should have been situated between the parascenia and the stage, as Donaldson represents them. 58 IIA]SD-BOOK OF THE GREEK DRA-MA. THE ACTORS AND AUDIENCE. 59 respects, have been more convenient than our own system of slides. The eccyclema was not in such frequent use. It was only required on those occa- sions when some extraordinary effect was to be pro- duced. Usually it was employed to bring to view the interior of a house ; for the (TKr}vrj itself never re- presented anything but the outside, — a plan which Was strictly in accordance with the Greek habit of living in the open air. The eccyclema itself was a movable scene, generally a house, which was placed behind the central entrance or /BaatksLov in the atcrjv^. This entrance was closed either by curtains or folding- doors; and at a given signal these were thrown open, and the eccyclema wheeled forwards. In shape it was concave; and thus the necessary effect was produced. Among the scenes supposed by Miiller to have been represented in this manner are that in the Agamemnon of ^schylus in which Clytem- nestra wath the bloody sword stands over the bodies of Agamemnon and Cassandra; that in the Choe- phoroe in which Orestes is seen on exactly the same spot, after the slaughter of ^^gisthus and Clytem- nestra; and that in the Ajax of Sophocles, in which the hero stands among the animals which he has slain in his frenzy, and contemplates the effects of his madness. * It must, of course, be borne in mind, that there were many Greek plays, in the representation of * Other instances may be found in the Eleetra of Sophocles, line 1450, and the Antigone, line 1293, et seq. which both the scena and parascenia were useless. In Sophocles alone, the CEdipus Coloneus, the Ajax, and the Philoctetes would require something different from the outside of a city mansion. Still, as this latter was the rule in their scenery, they kept the stationary aK7]vrj which we have described, and appear to have used wooden slides like our own, which formed a sort of false back and sides to the prosce- nium, when it was necessary to effect any such change.* III. We now proceed to our consideration of the actors and the audience. The state in which the drama had been left by Thespis has been already described. He had introduced a single actor {viroKpi- Trjs\), for the purpose, it is said, of resting the chorus; but it was yet uncertain whether the chorus or the dialogue should become the leading feature of Greek tragedy. This question was set at rest by ^schylus, who introduced a second actor; and it was then probably that the names of 7rp(OTaycovL(TTi]9 and Ssv- T£pay€ovLaT^9 were first conferred. In such of his * Various other contrivances were in use for special purposes ; such as the ^€o\oye7op, the alwpai, the [xvx^v'^y repavos, ^povrfLov, and K^pavvo^povrelov, ti^ikvkKiov, &c., which the student will find ex- plained in the " Dictionary of Grecian and Roman Antiquities." f On the derivation of the word vttokpltIjs, the reader may compare Eustathius ad Iliad. H. 407. : 'lareou 5e koI bn ovk oB^p^ "OlxTipos T^v \€^ip Tov aiTOKpivaaeai, c6s kol iv 6.\\ols (pav^lrai, aW avr' avTov T^ {fTTOKpipaaOai Kexprnar evdKr]\ which covered the head, and so left only one passage for the voice to escape from : ample folds down to the feet ; very broad embroidered girdles (ittaorxaAio-TrJpes) sitting on the breast ; upper robes, frequently of purple, with gold borders and other such-like decorations; the cothurnus, and the head-dress (^oyKos). As in the Dionysian cere- monies, so also in tragedy, there was but little distinction between the male and female apparel. In speaking of heroes, the tragedians very often call their dress iriirKos, a garb never worn at that period by males in common life. In the ancient mosaics, one is continually in danger of confounding heroes with heroines, unless where the old equestrian chlamydes are thrown over the long bright-coloured tunics, or weapons added, or masks characterised by some marked difference."— ilfw7/er, Eumen. p. 100. 62 HAND-BOOK OF THE GEBEK DRAMA. DRESS, MASKS, ETC., OP ACTORS. 6 O O this was termed the os rotundum. The wig was col- lected into a foretop, which was the 6yK09 proper, and thought by Donaldson to have been derived from the old Athenian top-knot (Kpco^vXov).* This, like the cothurnus, was intended to add to the actor's stature. Opinions diiFer as to the exact degree of resemblance which the mask bore to real life ; it was formed, however, of the very finest material, and coloured with great care, so that doubtless, at the great distance which separated the audience, the il- lusion was sufficient. But we must remember that in the tragedy, where gods and heroes or, if not heroes, still men melioris cevi, men of larger stature and more godlike aspect than their descendants, figm-ed as the principal characters, no strict similitude to the human faces around them was desirable. Neither, in the majority of cases, was the play of the passions necessary to be delineated ; for, in the first place, these exalted beings were not supposed to be subject to those rapid fluctuations of feeling which distin- guish ordinary mortals ; and in the second place there would generally be some one dominant emotion throuo*hout the tragedy, which would necessitate the same expression of countenance to the last. This could not have been successful in a smaller theatre, where decidedly we should require that the tempo- rary sadness of CEdipus in the first scenes of the Tyrannus should be differently displayed from the overpowering horror which he subsequently dis- * See Thucydides, i. 6. : rcTTlyav iveptra Kpw^vXov ava^o^ii^voi. covers at the revelations of the herdsman. But in the vast theatre of Bacchus, the same general ex- pression of gloom and grief would doubtless suf- fice throughout. ^^ All that exquisite acting which we can imaginVln Garrick, Kemble, or Siddons, as confidence gradually gave way to doubt, doubt to certainty, and certainty to despair, was of course wholly lost to an Athenian audience. It should be added, that their idea of the tragic drama did not extend to the representation of these emotions ; and when they punished Phrynichus for his Capture of 3IiletuSy as we have already remarked, they very plainly declared that tragedy must not seek for its materials in the ordinary world around us. They witnessed the plays of Sophocles and JEschylus with much the same feelings as we peruse ^^ Paradise Lost," which, if dramatised, would certainly depend very little on the finer accomplishments of the his- trionic art. I There were, of course, certain cases in which a change of masks between the acts was abso- lutely necessary, as in the mutilation of QEdipus in the play aforesaid; but this, as will be readily seen, scarcely forms.an exception to the custom which we have describedjt^ The pay of an actor at Athens was often veryi high indeed, and was generally defrayed by the state. Thus, for example, Polus, who acted the u characters of Sophocles, sometimes earned a talent^ (or nearly 500/.) in two days. When this was the case, as. we may suppose, the profession was held in no dishonour. Sophocles himself, who acted as well \ / ^ ^-r H V'i .* * 64 HAND-BOOK OF THE GREEK DRAMA. as wrote, was a man of rank, and was enti*usted with the command of a military expedition; and Aristodemus, another performer, was sent on a public pmbassy. IV. Our remarks on the character of Athenian acting, lead us by a natural transition to the subject of the chorus. The chorus, as its position might perhaps indicate, was the interpreter between the actors and the audience. In their countenance would doubtless be manifested the livelier expressions of fear, hope, and indignation — they would . in fact, supply the more purely human element. Perhaps, for the sake of an illustration, it would not be going too far to consider the play itself as partaking somewhat of a panoramic character, and the chorus in the light of the lecturer. If this comparison be thought un- dignified, we can only reply that, if it aids the reader to form a true conception of the subject, the good names of Sophocles and -zEschylus will not suffer any injury. But however this may be, if we consider the question from this point of view, we gain, it is probable, a clearer insight into the real necessity of tiie chorus, than by regarding more exclusively its religious and traditional features. The truth, as it seems to us, is that an Athenian tragedy would have been unsupportable without the addition of the choral element. The origin of the chorus, as mentioned in an iearlier chapter, was partly military, and is to be isought in the old Doric military discipline, of which a kind of stately war dance " to the sound of flutes 'I J! ORIGIN OF THE CHORUS. 65 and soft recorders," was an important element. This will explain the manner of its entrance on the stage, and the nature of the first choral song. In the military marches of the Greeks, the anapaestic metre was generally used ; and the parodos^ or first song sung by the chorus as it marched in at the side entrance, from which its name was derived, was orene- rally if not always written in anapaestics. The subse- quent clustering of the chorus round the thymele, and the introduction of the lyric element, denotes the other source from which the chorus derived its existence — i. e. religion, or the Bacchic worship ; while the songs which they uttered from this position, called stasimay bore a nearer resemblance to the poetry of Stesi- chorus, Pindar, and Simonides. All that part of the play which preceded the parodos was called the pro- logue; all between the parodos and the last stasimon, episodia ; all after the last stasimon, the exodus. The parodos and the stasima were confined to the full chorus ; but there was also a kind of choral lyric song common both to the chorus and the actors- this was known by the name of KOfjb[i69 {j>lanctus\ and was always devoted to lamentation. In the Persse and the Choephoroe, the ^ commos ' occupies a large portion of the entire tragedy. V. A very few words on the subject of the audience must close the present chapter. Originally there was no charge for admission, but subsequently two obols were fixed upon as the price. To such an extent, however, did the Athenians carry the worship of art, that they very soon adopted the practice of paying A ,"v. ^v'' .' ni )|, •MflEHK' ««i-li' « U^fr* I . f / \ y 7: %' \. 66 HAND-BOOK. OF THE GREEK DRAMA. jfor the admission of the poorer citizens out of a (public fund. It is probable, though not certain, that llwomen were admitted to witness theatrical represen- tations.* VI. The expense of theatrical representations was defrayed by the state.f The x^P^'i^^ ^^^^ ^^^ ^^ *^® reo-ular liturgies which devolved upon each tribe in turn. This was the Athenian method of levying rates and taxes; and this xopr]r^ia corresponded in principle with what a theatre rate would be among us. The tribe chose one of themselves to be its Yop7?7o^, and on him devolved the selection of its chorus and the superintendence of their instruction in their songs and dances. When however the %o- prfto^ was once named, he was left, within certain limits, to his own discretion as to the style in which his play was to be brought out. A citizen who gave great satisfaction to the people was frequently re- warded with a tripod ; and the office of choragus be- came in time a very common opportunity of courting the popular favour. The course pursued in order to lexhibit a play, was as follows : — The poet who had a play ready for representation applied to one of the archons. If it was at the Lenaea, to the archon ^a- (Ttkevs^ if at the Dionysia, to the chief archon ; and * Compare Plato, Gorg. p. 502., where he describes a tragedy a& TiTOpLKT^v Tiva TTphs BrifiovToiovTov olov Tro.i'^CtiV T€ biJLov KoX ywaiKwv KoX f This expense eventually became so heavy, that Athens is said to have spent more money on scenic representations than on all her ^ars- \i EXHIBITION OP A PLAY. 67 if his play was approved a chorus was assigned to him. This was called x^P^^ hthovai^ and the phrase ulti- mately became a general term for the approval or acceptance of a play. The poet was said %o/)w alralv. He also had assigned to him three actors, whom he taught himself. Hence the exhibitor of a play was said ScBda-Kecvy literally, to teach * ; and a play was said to be taught, BiBdaKaaOau • Thus Horace, Ars Poet. 1. 288.: *' Vel qui prsetextas, vel qui docuere togatas,'* p 2 ( y /^ 68 HAND-BOOK OF THE GREEK DRAMA. I CHAP. VL ^SCHYLUS. *^ The immense influence which scenic exhibitions and dramatic literature have exercised on the minds and manners of mankind, is a sufficient reason for profoundly venerating the author and originator of it. For so we may justly style the poet who, out of the uncouth banterings of a religious festivity, created the majestic and soul inspiring art which has softened the sternest hearts, and claimed for its votaries the proudest intellects. The drama is the manifestation of the invisible mind of man, the mirror in which, vhile we think that we are looking at others, we un- expectedly see ourselves reflected. To possess in our own native literature the greatest dramatist the world has perhaps ever seen, should in itself be an inducement to study one of kindred genius and scarcely less exalted sentiments." * Such are the concluding words of an essay on ^schylus, contained in the preface to a lately published volume of the *^ Bibliotheca Classica," a source of which we may, once for all, acknowledge that we have copiously availed ourselves in the following remarks. * Preface to Paley's iEschylus, re-edited with an English com- mentary for the Bibliotheca Classica, by Professor G, Long. % \ LIFE OF iESCHYLUS. 69 According to the testimony of ancient writers ^schylus was born of noble parents in the deme of Eleusis, in Attica, in the fourth year of the 63rd Olympiad, B.C. 525. He was a contemporary of Piildar, and fought at the battles of Marathon, Sala mis, and Plataea, and thus acquired that taste for, and technical knowledge of, military matters, so con- spicuous in many of his plays. His first appearance as a tragedian was in B.C. 499, when he contended with Choerilus and Pratinas, but did not obtain the prize. He first carried off that honour b. c. 484. Fourteen years afterwards he was defeated by a poet who then represented for the first time, and whose future celebrity was perhaps scarcely foreseen, — the author of the CEdipus Tyrannus and the Antigone. About this time he exchanged Athens for Sicily, but for what reason is uncertain. Some say it was from disgust at being beaten by a young and unknown writer like Sophocles ; others, that it was from his defeat by Simonldes in the elegy on those who died at Marathon. This first disappointment may certainly have rankled in his mind, and have reached to posi- tive disgust at a second failure in his own special province ; though it is hardly likely that his defeat by Simonldes alone would have caused his retirement from Athens. Another reason which has been as- signed, was his having so terrified the people of Athens by the tragic eflfect of his chorus in the Eu- menides, that infants died of fright, and women mis- carried. Be this, however, as it may, he seems to have spent six or seven years in Sicily, and to have r3 t I L \^ ^ -■■itf V _..- 70 HAND-BOOK OF THE GREEK DRAMA. contracted a certain Sicilian taint * in his language. Having returned to Athens for a short time, he quitted it again about B.C. 458, and finally died in Sicily B.C. 456, in the sixty-ninth year of his age. His second voluntary exile has been attributed to the offence given to the democratic party by the lofty, monarchical, and aristocratic tone of his later tragedies. It is very possible that the charge of impiety which is alleged to have been preferred against him before the Areopagus, if the story is worthy of credit, may have proceeded from this feel- ing. It is said that he was acquitted in consequence of the intercession of his brothers. Of the extant plays of ^schylus, it is doubtful which was first represented. It is difficult to get over the express testimony of Aristophanes in favour of the Septem contra Thebas (Kan. 1026.) and Din- dorf adopts this order in deference to his authority. Bockh, however, and with him Paley and Miil- ler, prefer to follow the opinion of the scholiast on tthe same passage, that the PersaD was his earliest [effort, and his Septem contra Thebas the second. f But at all events only a year intervened between the * According to Athenaus, Eustathius, and Macrobius. The words fiovvis and KapPava, which occur in the Supplices, supposed to be the first play published by iEschylus after his return, are still sub judice ; see Donaldson's New Cratylus, p. 659., where ^ovvis is connected with ^ovy, jSwAaf , P(afjL6s • other words, however, such asTTcSoopos, irc^dpaios, fxao-acav, k.t.k^ are less doubtful. See also Bockh, de Tragicis Gracis, cap. viii. f ol dh Uepcrai irpdrepSv etV; Behdayi^ipoL, elra at eWa inl ericas. Schol. >s. >i L THE PERSJE. 71 two plays, the one appearing B.C. 493, the other B.C. 492. Following the order adopted by Mr. Paley, we shall begin with the PersaB. Here again commen- tators are greatly at issue. Some think that this play was one of a trilogy of which the Phineus was- the first and the Glaucus (whether " Ponteus " or ^^Potnieus," is again disputed) the third. Others prefer to believe it a disconnected play, alleging that there is no proof that ^schylus invariably wrote in trilogies. It is also a matter of dispute whether the main object of the play is the evocation of Dariusj or the celebration of the defeat of the Persians. We confess that we incline to the simpler view in each of these cases. At all events in the latter, we think it is the mere wantonness of learning not to accept the triumph of Greece as the real design of the play.* ^* The Persae was probably composed in rivalry rather than in imitation of the Phoenissse of Phry- nichus, which had gained the prize. There can be little doubt that the poet's detailed account of the battle is circumstantially correct, even more so (as Blakesley with great reason argues) than the later and probably popularised narrative of Herodotus. It is the earliest specimen of Greek history we possess, though a history in verse. It is said that this play was acted a second time at Syracuse, at the instance of Hiero ; and indeed, from the very nature of the subject — the only one among extant Greek tragedies A: * Miillen Lit. Anc. Gr. chap, xxiii. 4. r4 .•' \ •r 72 HAND-BOOK OF THE GREEK DRAMA. Iwhich is not borrowed from heroic myths — it is not unlikely that it was repeatedly re-acted {dvsScBdxOijy. This tradition, indeed, has been discountenanced by modern critics ; yet there are good grounds for sus- picion that it has been to some extent remodelled (Scacr/csvacrOsp or dvaaKSvaaOsv) and some passages interpolated by a later hand; and hence, perhaps, we may explain the absence of a passage extant in the time of Aristophanes (Ran. 1028.), and of certain words quoted by ancient authors as from the Persse of ^schylus, vTr6^vXo9 and prjpLTorpocpov^ (schol. on Hermogenes and Athen. iii, p. 80. B.). The chorus consisted of twelve Persian elders. The tomb of Darius was represented by the thymele in the or- chestra, as may be inferred from v. 682, where Darius says to the chorus vfieis §€ bp7jv€7T^ iyyvs earwrcs Td(pov, Nor is V. 660. opposed to this, sXO' stt^ aKpov fcopv/jL^op o^Oov, for though the ghost must have appeared on the stage, the invocation is consistent with the Greek idea that the spirit hovered over the tomb. The speech of Atossa, at line 610., though highly coloured with Eastern imagery, ap- f)ears to describe Grecian ratlier than Persian rites. It is closely imitated by Euripides, Iph. Taur. 165."* The next play in order of chronology is the Septem contra Thebas, supposed to be the centre of a trilogy, of which the QEdipus and the Eleusinians would be the first and third. This is, perhaps, the * See Faley, quoted above. r^ \\ SErXEM CONTRA THEBAS, PROMETHEUS. 73 least poetical of all the plays of ^schylus ; but in dramatic merit, though not equal to the Orestea, where the form of tragedy had become fully deve- loped, it is superior to either the Persae or the Pro- metheus Vinctus. That this play should have been| so great a favourite with the ancients is curious ; for, though a spirit-stirring melodrama, it is undoubtedly the most bombastic of the author's works, while the plot is the simplest. The determination of Eteocles is the turning point of the whole; and this is artfully man- aged. The political opinions of ^schylus are thought by Miiller to be exhibited in this play by the character of Amphiaraus*, the spfco9 da(j>aXss being intended by the poet to ridicule the fortification of Athens, the favourite scheme of Themistocles. " The chorus consists of Theban maidens, who act as mourners to the suicide brothers. Eteocles enters upon the stage alone, and addresses a body of Thebans (either in the orchestra, or as mutes on the stage), who represent the citizens ; they perhaps form the secondary chorus according to Miiller's theory. There are but two actors to the piece." (Paley.) The Prometheus Vinctus appeared about the year 470 B.C., though the exact date is very uncertain. This date is supposed to be ascertained from a passing allusion | to the recent eruption of Mount * S. c. T. 588. They peeped out, according to him, in the Persfie in lines 347. et seq, •j- Kopvcpais 5' iv 6,Kpais iKpayfjaovral irore TTorafiol TTvphs ddirTOPT^s aypiais yudOois Trjs KoWiKapirov 24/c€Aiay \€vpous yvas. \ 1 ^^.. .^W'" ■ '^»> 1 ^^ 4^ '^"'^^^ ■[••••■I u^ l<— ,1 !■ I !<■ •^^^- i V > -^ " •/ 74 hand-book of the greek drama. I \\, ^tna. But as that took place as far back as the year 479 B.C., it is not very much to the point, as these lines might just as well have been written fourteen or fifteen years afterwards as seven or eight. The earlier date is, however, the more probable one of the two, as after B.C. 468 .^schylus was in Sicily, and we happen to know that the first play which he published on his return to Athens was the Supplices. The Prometheus is truly a sublime and magnificent drama. The remarkable resemblance which the legend of Prometheus most obviously bears to the central doctrine of divine revelation has been only slightly glanced at by Mr. Paley, and is not mentioned in Miiller's otherwise admirable critique. Prometheus ^^^^^.felt through the pursuit of knowledge ; he is in bondage, as man is in bondage to sin ; the agonies which he endures bear no fanciful resemblance to the stings of the human conscience when goaded by remorse ; and he knows that one born from the descendants of his fellow-sufferer lo shall deliver him. The condition of his release is the death of an immortal, announced to him by Hermes in the following striking words : — TOioGSe iJ.6x0ov repfia fxi] ri irpoa^SKa, irpXv hv Beoov tls didboxos twp awu irSuoiv (pav^f d€\7)(Tr) r els apavyTjrov fxoKuv 'Aidrjv, KV€(pa7a r afJLcpl Taprdpou Pddrj, 1047-50. " The legend," says Mr. Paley, ^^ which formed the subject of the Prometheus, probably belongs to the most ancient traditions of the human race; but whether mystical and allegorical, or connected in its PROMETHEUS, SUPPLICES. 75 origin with primeval revelation concerning the cre- ation of man, must remain undecided. There is much to to be said in favour of the latter opinion.'' The other two plays which made up the trilogy on this subject, were the li pofi7]6svs irvp^opos^ and the npofirjOem Xvopbavos, the latter of which may be sup- posed to have cleared up the difficulty which meets us in every page of the Prometheus Vinctus, we mean the position of Zem as a fierce, revengeful, and inexorable tyrant. The school of theology to which ^schylus belonged, recognised in the empire of Zeus the commencement of a happier era, the reign of mildness and mercy, and, if we may say so without profanity, of ^' peace on earth and goodwill towards men," with which the plot of the Prometheus Vinctus seems strangely at variance. " We must suppose that, at the end of the piece, the power and majesty of Zeus, and the profound wisdom of his decrees, are so gloriously manifested that the pride of Prometheus is entirely broken."* Hermann, it may be remarked, entirely refutes the opinion of Miiller, that a third actor appears in the opening scene of this drama. Prometheus himself was repre- sented by a huge effigy, while the person addressed as /3/a in verse 12. is a mere mute.f We now come to the Supplices, one of a trilogy entitled the Danais, of which the other two plays were the ^gyptii and the Danaides. The trial and acquittal of the women for the murder of their hus- 'f !| \} * Miiller, Lit. of Anc. Greece, ch. 23. t Paley. v\ u-V / ; f.-\ 1/ -^v^ 76 HAND-BOOK OF THE GREEK DRAMA. bands formed the subject of this trilogy. We have already stated that the Supplices was written after the return of ^schylus from his first visit to Sicily ; and we are probably not wrong in fixing the date some- where between 465 and 460 B.C. Miiller supposes that various expressions in it bear reference to the alliance with Argos, and impending war with Egypt, Egypt, B.C. 461.* But this system of determining dates is very apt to mislead. Of the play itself there is little to be said. Whether the chorus consisted of twelve suppliants or of fifty, is not very material. They fail to excite our sympathy in the slightest degree, though the songs put into their mouths are [many of them uncommonly beautiful, and the speech of Danaus (1. 957) is perhaps as truly poetical as any- ,thing which ^schylus has written. The grand trilogy of the Orestea now remains for us to notice. Of all that has been written on this subject, probably Miiller's dissertation is the best ; but the deep philosophical speculations of both aMiiller and Schlegel would be out of place here. We shall content ourselves with a few brief remarks on the various characters portrayed. There is a wide difference between the Homeric and ^schy- laean Agamemnon. The former provokes our hatred, the latter our contempt. The pride, injustice, and intolerable arrogance of the one, stand in marked contrast to the weak-minded and almost childish exultation of the other. Though we detest his » * See Thuc. 1. i. 102. 104. 7 n / v \ THE ORESTEAN TRILOGY. 77 V X y murderers, we are not shocked at his death ; for he has "^ previously forfeited our sympathies by the sacrifice I of Iphigenia. And though a cloud of gloom and \ horror and despair presses heavily upon us through- \ out the entire piece, there is no one individual in \ whose fate we feel much interested, except perhaps I Cassandra. This is a peculiarity shared to some _/ extent by Sophocles, but almost wholly thrown off by Euripides. The characters in the Orestean tri- logy are entirely subservient to the myth ; our -4:^ai- interest is lii speculating on what the gods will ultimately det^miinFTo^be^^^t^^ criminals. It is the principle to which we look, and not the intlividuab^ All this, which is of course the '^T^Tei^e of tnddefn tragedy, is signally conspicuous in the trilogy before us, and especially in the two first plays. In the Eumenides a ray of cheerfulness and humanity breaks in at the last ; and from the solemn constitution of the Areopagus, an Athenian ought to have returned home with emotions of pride and joy. Unfortunately, however, both for -^schylus and his country, such were not the emotions raised by the spectacle. At the time when this trilogy was exhibited, the democratic party was uppermost at Athens ; the Areopagus, with its an- cient privileges, was hateful to them. In spite of the efforts of ^schylus, the ancient jurisdiction of that court in questions of homicide was taken away from it much about the same time*, and the poet * This fact has been strenuously denied by other writers. See Drake's Eumenides, Introduction, part ii. ,/ MMflW^i/ J/ A^-- \ / f<- y> r 78 HAND-BOOK OF THE GREEK DRAMA. I DOCTRINES OF ^SCHYLUS. 79 went a second time into Sicily, where, as we have before stated, he died at Gela, in the year B.C. 456. Each of the three plays which together compose the Orestea, is much more complete as a tragedy than any of his other works: the third actor has been introduced; and the plot is more regularly con- structed. "Though only the secondary character (in the Agamemnon), the chief interest centres in Clytemnestra. Subtle, proud, daring, resolute, and \^ an accomplished hypocrite, she disguises a long / cherished hatred of her lord — resulting from the sacri- 1 fice of their daughter at Aulis — under the guise of af love-sick affection. The murder being perpetrated, she throws off the mask, and not only avows but glories in the deed, as an act of just retribution. With all this she is not the abandoned and shameless adulteress, but the deeply injured wife and mother ; not the merely vindictive and ferocious homicide, but the sophist who can justify, and the moralist \ who can reason on her conduct.'' (Paley.) This, however, seems rather too favourable a picture in the opinion of other writers. Orestes is very much y a passive instrument in the hands of destiny . He display»ja;s Paley truly observes, very little vindic-^^/ tiveness towards his mother, and puts her to death solely in deference to the peremptory commands of Apollo. There is something unpleasantly masculine in the character of Electra. She takes too much • after h er mother Cly temnestra ; and, we^cannot but suspect that under Ihe same circumstancfiSLshe would |Ka\^acted in the same way. The Furies themselves ] /» probably typify what we at present denominate superstition, the unreasoning conscience which will frequently torment a man who has committed the most innocent and even laudable homicide. By the equality of votes at the trial, is signified, says Mliller, ** that the duty of revenge and the guilt of matricide are equally balanced, and that stern justice has no alternative : but the gods of Olympus being of the nature of man, and acquainted and entrusted with /; the personal condition of individuals, can find and supply a refuge for the unfortunate who are so by no immediate guilt of their own." The difficulty of -^schylus as a writer is of a wholly different kind from what we experience in Sophocles or Euripides. With these the principal diflficulties with which we have to contend are those of construction ; in ^schylus the construction is usually simple. IBut therelife severaT*"caus^ which conspire to make him on the whole the most obscure of extant writers. The first of these is the mystic character of his religious belief ^ZEschyTus^ was Py t hagoreanT'aSri t Ts quite impossible for the un- initiated to enter fully into the spirit of much that he says on the subject of God, humajijnature, and fate. Secondly, he was by nature what we should now, perhaps, call a lover of the marvellous. He was a genuine believer in apparitions, prophecies, and omens ; and he loves to speak of these in the vague and shadowy language which their nature seems to demand, but which, as Paley says, is not! conducive to the formation of a lucid style. In the/ '^^^ A: N. X X. -"ll^ r^J 80 f HAND-BOOK OF THE GREEK DRAMA^ CHARACTER OF ^SCHYLUS. 81 third place is to be mentioned his love of figurative language — in which he surpasses all his contempo- raries except Pindar — and his attachment to equi- voquesy which has been noticed both by Miiller and Paley, such as Sept. c. Th. 930. and 950. Fourthly, he is difficult (and this of course is the great diffi- culty to young students) from grammatical careless- ness. *' Nominatives standing alone without their verbs^ clauses cut short by aposiopesis, the frequent use of particles which have a force depending en- tirely on something to be mentally supplied, and anomalous constructions and unusual meanings of words, are also frequent causes of perplexity/' Fifthly, no doubt his grandiloquence and inflated"^ epithets, though not a direct source of difficulty, are ' an indirect one, by fatiguing the mind and forcing it . to stand constantly on the alert to discover some-/ thing more than is really meant. But the general' wStyle of ^schylus, we mean his syntax, is peculiarly isimple, and rather epic than dramatic, as any one may see who reads the purely narrative speeches in [the Prometheus Vinctus, the Septem contra The- bas, and the Persae. The general tenor of -ZEschylus's poetry is W' ell bontrasted with that of Sophocles in the folio wing^^ passage : " We might almost call -ZEschylus the poet of the gods, Sophocles the poet of mankind. The one deeply studied the laws of divine action ; the other sounded the depths of the human heart. To reconcile the old law of inexorable justice wuth ;he newer law of mercy, seems to have been the leading idea of .S^schylus. To improve humanity by holding up to admiration the finer qualities of justice, fortitude under affliction, sympathy withi distress, firmness in duty, and generally all practical! goodness, was the cherished object of Sophocles." * ' Paley. G >\ ^i' i^-i •■«• ^IT!^ / 82 HANDBOOK OF THE GREEK DRAMA, \ SOPHOCLES, HIS LIFE AND PLAYS, 83 CHAR VIL SOPHOCLES. Sophocles, the son of Sophilus, was born at the Attic demus or village of Colonus, in 01. 71. 2., B. C. 495. At the age of fifteen, he was selected, on account of his personal beauty, to be exarchus of the chorus which sang the poem in honour of the battle of Salamis, ^ In his twenty-seventh year, he made his first appearance as a tragedian, becoming a competitor for the tragic prize with the established head of Athenian literature, ^schylus. // The young poet won the prize, by the award, as ut is said, of Cimon, with the play of the Triptolemus — a piece in which the Eleusinian hero is celebrated as pro- moting the cultivation of corn, and humanising the manners of even the wildest barbarians. Twenty- eight years after this event, Sophocles brought out the Antigone, the earliest of his extant plays ; and in consequence of the general admiration which it xcited, he was elected one of the ten Strategi, with eri^i^les and Thucydides, for the ensuing year — a iirious manner, as it would seem to us, of rewarding iterary eminence. In this capacity, Sophocles aided in carrying on the war against Samos, B. C. 440, 439 ; and it was on this occasion that he made the acquaintance of Herodotus, who was then living at Samos. The whole number of plays attributed to Sophocles is not less than 130. Bockh, however, reduces these to between 70 and 80, while Miiller thinks it possible that as many as 113 may be) genuine. With this question we have little to do ; for we undoubtedly possess the best of those which he wrote. Of the remainder of his life, extending as it did over thirty-four years, we know very little. In 413 B. C. he was appointed one of the wpo^ovkoi, or board constituted immediately after the Syra- cusan expedition to devise expedients for meeting the existing emergencies. Two years after this, he gave in his adhesion to the plans of Periander for establishing the Council of 400 — a policy which, according to Aristotle, he defended on the ground of expediency.* The story related in Cicero De Se- nectute concerning his reading the CEdipus Colo- neus to his judges, is said to be a fabrication. He' died in the beginning of the year 405 B. C. The chronological order of his extant plays is stated by Miiller as follows: — Antigone, Electra, Trachinia3, CEdipus Kex, Ajax, Philoctetes, CEdi- pus Coloneus. Of these, the first and the last are,J perhaps, the most general favourites. Yet there is somethino; in the classic delineation of the female character by Sophocles, which is never wholly sa- tisfactory : either it wants softness, or it wants nobility. Chrysothemis and Ismene, Electra and Antigone, are all instances of this truth. Such a * oif yap ?iv &\\a iSeAriw. (See Arist. Rhet. iii. 18.) Q 2 >■«- \, V X ^,^ 84 HANDBOOK OP THE GREEK DRAMA. ELECTRA, TRACHINIJE, (EDIPUS, 85 t onception as Shakspeare's Queen Catharine seems [to have been impossible to the Grecian dramatists. The nearest approach to that union of tenderness and strength which modern readers desiderate, is to be found in Iphigenia. For this reason, though the Antigone possesses rare and peculiar merits, we cannot help thinking it better suited to an Athenian than to an English audience. The description of Creon at the end of the play is, indeed, one of the very happiest efforts of dramatic art ; but his long conversations with Antigone partake something of the character of scolding, and prevent us from feeling all that love and sympathy for his heroine which the poet intended to excite. In excellence of plot the Electra is surpassed only by the CEdipus Tyrannus. There is, perhaps, a little too much resemblance in the machinery which brings about the premature exultation of Clytemnestra, and the premature exultation of Jocasta ; but the art is almost equally admirable in both. It has been finely observed by Miiller, that a trait js intro duced in the character of the former which would never have occurred to the mind of ^schylus, namelyjJlifi. outburst of maternal tend&rjjesa.wh§n.8hefirst^ea^^^ ^ the supposed death of Orestes, and which takes precedence of every other feeling in her bosom. The discovery of the lock of hair by Chrysothemis, and the damp which Electra throws upon her sudden joy, is skilfully narrated ; while the ultimate irspnrsTsia of the play, turning as it does on recognition of brother and sister, is one of those few scenes in which (1 Sophocles has drawn upon that deep fund of pathos which he evidently possessed. In fact, viewing it in the pathetic light, we know not whether we should not be justified in placing the Electra at the head ofj his extant tragedies. The Trachinije is confessedly an inferior produc-l tion. " The play of the Trachinian women," says' Schlegel, " seems to me so far inferior in value to the other extant plays of Sophocles, that I wished to find something to favour the conjecture that this trao-edy was composed in the age indeed, and in the school of Sophocles, but by his son lophon, and was by mistake attributed to the father. There are several suspicious circumstances, not only in its structure and its plan, but even in the style of writing : different critics have already remarked that the uncalled-for soliloquy of Dejanira at the com- mencement has not the character of the Sophoclean prologues. Even if, in the general structure, the maxims of this poet are observed, it is but a super- ficial observance ; the profound mind of Sophocles is missino-. But as the genuineness of the poem seems never to have been called in question by the ancients, and since, moreover, Cicero confidently quotes the sufferings of Hercules from this drama* as from a work of Sophocles, we must, perhaps, content our- selves with saying that the tragedian has in this one instance remained below his usual elevation." The CEdipus Tyrannus is one of the grandest * Tusc. Disp. 1). ii. ch. viii. G 3 , *. '-'--- - - \ (l 86 HANDBObK OF THE GREEK DRAMA. AJAX, PHILOCTETES. 87 / ^ \ exemplifications in all literature of the vulgar pro- verb, that pride goes before a fall : — " Tolluntur in altum, Ut lapsu graTiore ruant," might have been said by Claudian with almost as much truth of (Edipus as of Kufinus ; but the pride of (Edipus is the pride of a noble nature, which abhors trickery and meanness, and which shrinks not one moment from encountering the awful curses invoked by itself. The utter impossibility of his being him- self the guilty person, which so clearly sustains the mind of GEdipus throughout the play, is tho- roughly in accordance with human nature in its most generous aspect. But this very sentiment is but too frequently the cause of the most fatal blunders in our judgment of others ; and it is quite in keeping with the known character of Sophocles, that the rebuke of this thoughtless though high-minded con- fidence should have been one of the objects which he proposed to himself in this play. It is not the self-sufficiency of the Pharisee which is here intended to be exposed, but rather that half haughty, half o:ood-natured conviction of immunity from error, which frequently characterises good men. In this play the irspcTrireLa and avayvcoptafjLo^ or dvayvcopLais of Aristotle are perfectly managed. The part of the herdsman is one of the most felicitous devices which fiction has yet contrived; and one of the greatest of English critics* has ranked the * S. T. Coleridge, Literary Remains. plot of the (Edipus Tyrannus among the three besti with which he was acquainted. It is remarkable,' however, that Sophocles did not obtain the prize with this drama, being beaten by one Philocles.'^ In the Ajax, Sophocles has approached much nearer to the ideal of chivalry than any other hea- then writer; nearer we say, for even here he has not reached it. The good knight would have chosen to die in his harness on some well fought field ; nor would the reflection that he was thereby benefiting his enemies have been deemed worth a moment's consideration. This is a defect in that otherwise glorious speech commencing at line 430., which we must always deplore. Independent of this deficiency, the Ajax is one of the sublimest compositions of antiquity. In his Philoctetes, Sophocles has attempted a very difierent species of composition. The interest is very little dependent on diversity of incident, but consists almost entirely in development of character. Neo- ptolemus, at first persuaded by the consummate art of Ulysses, and then reappearing in his natural character and refusing to be a party to the deceit, is the central figure of the picture, while on either side Philoctetes, with his touching patience and simple anxiety (in which every reader shares) about his vow, and Ulysses, with his calm, cold, sophistical reasoning, make up as finely contrasted a group as the imagination can require. This, it is to be remarked. Boekh, de Trag. Grsec. cap. G 4 XI. Il (> 88 HANDBOOK OF THE GREEK DRAMA, is the only one of the extant plays of Sophocles in which the irspLirsTSLa is effected by the deus ex ma^ chindy or intervention of a god. We now come to the crowning labour of the poet's life — the serene and stately drama of the QEdipus at Colonus. As we have above stated, the story of his having read this piece to his judges, to refute a charge of insanity brought against him by his own son lo- phon, is now generally considered to be a fiction of antiquity.* But at all events we do not and cannot wonder at the effect attributed to the drama itself: a more cheerful and happy tone runs through the whole play than in the Eumenides of -/Eschylus. Even the opening lines would seem scarcely intended to excite our commiseration ; there is a placidity about them which rather challenges our envy, while the reply of Antigone to her father's first question as to what was the character of the spot at which they had arrived f, at once sheds a pleasant hue over the scene, and leads us to anticipate a happy event. The action of Pallas in the older play is here assigned to Theseus, than whom Attic genius never created a more gallant and noble character. The Furies, we must remember, had already been appeased; and their grove is pictured in that im- mortal song, which no man, comparatively ignorant * Theatre of the Greeks, p. 75. doi(pP7is, iXalaSf auiriXov, 'jrvKpSirrcpoL S' (Ed. Col. 16. (EDIPUS COLONEUS. 89 of the language, can read without rapture. The whole play from first to last is calm and quiet. The aged king who had rushed forth frantically from the scene of his accursed pollution, has regained his peace of mind, and his self-respect ; he is tended by the most affectionate of daughters ; and he prepares joyfully to lay down his life under pircumstances from which lasting welfare shall accrue to the people who have deceived him. Such is the character of the last production of the last great poet of Greece. In the estimation of his contemporaries, Sophocles ranked high; he was styled *^ the Attic bee." And the opinion put for- ward by Valcknaer relative to Plato's disparagement of him S9ems to have been satisfactorily refuted by Bockh.* His development of tragedy, by the addition of the third actor, has been already noticed ; and it must, we think, be admitted that his style is an im- yprovement on that of his predecessor. ' Miiller indeed, professes to think it nearer to the style of prose than that of ^schylus : it is certainly much more artificial ; yet it would seem better suited, notwithstanding, to the requirements of the drama in its improved stage. The dialogue of Sophocles is on the whole morel pleasing than that of JEschylus, and his metrical) flow more varied and ingenious. It is to be observed that he was the first extant writer who introduced the practice of cutting off a vowel at the end of an iambic line — in imitation, it is said, of the poet * De Trag. Graec. x., ad Plat. Legg. p. 182. '-^ f. / 90 HANDBOOK OF THE GREEK DRAMA. EURIPIDES. 91 Callias; and according to Hermann, the (Edipus Tyrannus was the first In which this elision appeared.* But in the Electra and Antigone, both of which are said to be prior to the QEdipus, we do find lines of this description.! Bockh thinks this a reason for assuming; that the Electra was of later date than the CEdipus, and that Sophocles brought out a second edition of the Antigone. The most numerous in- stances occur in the former — no less than five — which is a kind of evidence that our author was then pleased with a novelty which he afterwards partially discarded. But the argument is not worth much. * "Earn elisionem, Athenseo auctore, abjudicare debemus ab omnibus tragicorum fabulis, quae ante Sophoclis (Edipum edit® gunt." — Elisio, Doct Met pp. 16. et seq. t El. 1017., Ant. 1031. \ CHAP. VIIL EURIPIDES. Euripides, the son of Menarchus and Clito, of the demus of Pbyle in the Acropid tribes/was born in the year B.C. 485-7 The traditions about the mean- ness of his birth are now generally exploded, though we cannot hdp fancying that there must have been some foundation for the taunts of Aristophanes ; and yet it is said that while a boy, he was appointed to an oflSce for which noble blood was indispensable ; also he was taught rhetoric by Prodicus, who was considered to take none but aristocratic pupils. His first play, the Peliades, was acted b. c. 455 ; and he first gained the tragic prize B.C. 441. From this period he continued to exhibit plays down to the year 408 B. C, when he quitted Athens for the court of Archelaus king of Macedon : it was there that he died two years afterwards, B.C. 406, being, as some say, torn in pieces by the king's dogs. Scandal has been busy with the name of Euripides ; but the in- dustry of modern scholars has been successful in refuting the majority of those silly stories which entertained their grandfathers. In Hartung's ^^Eu- ripides restitutus," and in Keble's ^^ Praelectiones Academicse," will be found a very sufficient rebuttal both of his having hated women too much, and of ^_» ^j^yi^Ct' ,r '' '.;l. \ y^' 92 HANDBOOK OP THE GREEK DRAMA. )his having been excessive in his love for them. Of the actual daily life of Euripides we know but little : that he was a diligent disciple of Anaxagoras is generally agreed ; he is said also to have been a great book collector, and to have first introduced a manu- script of Heraclitus to the notice of Socrates. It does not fall within the scope of our present work to subject each of his plays to very accurate criticism. Euripides is styled by Aristotle the ost tragic (rpaycfccoTarosi) of poets * ; and although c '\ ^ Poet. 26.: — Ka2 6 Evpiiridv^, et /cat ra &\\a /x^ €u olKOVOfiUy aWa rpayiKd>TaT6s ye rwu iroi-qrcop (paiv^rai. The following is the opinion of Quintilian, Inst. Orat. x. 1. : — "Tragoedias primus in lucem protulit ^schylus, sublimis et gravis, et grandiloquus saspe usque ad vitium, sed rudis in plerisque et incompositus ; propter quod correctas ejus fabulas in certamen deferre posterioribus poetis Athenienses permisere, suntque eo modo multi coronati. Sed longe clarius illustraverunt hoc opus Sophocles atque Euripides, quorum in dispari dicendi via, uter sit poeta melior, inter plurimos quaeritur. Idque ego sane, quoniam ad praesentem materiam nihil pertinet, in- judicatum relinquo. Illud quidem nemo non fateatur necesse est, iis qui se ad agendum comparent, utiliorem longe Euripidem fore. Namque is et in sermorxe (quod ipsum reprehend unt, quibus gra vitas et cothurnus et sonus Sophoclis videtur esse sublimior) magis ac- cedit oratorio generi ; et sententiis densus, et in iis, quae a sapien- tibus tradita sunt, paene ipsis par; et in dicendo et respondendo, cuilibet eorum, qui fuerunt in foro diserti, comparandus. In affec* tibus vero cum omnibus mirus, turn in iis qui miseratione constant, facile prsecipuus." Compare with the above the following passage from Longinus XV. 3. : — "Eo-Ti fte»/ ovv (piXoTrovd^raros 6 Evpnrldr)Sy dvo ravrl TrddTj, fiavias T€ Koi Ipwras, inrpaycp^rja'ai, kolv tovtols, (as ovk dW ef tictlv irepois, iinrvx^o'TaTOS • ou fi^v dAAa Koi rals &\\ai5 iirniB^aQai (pavra- aiais OVK ^toAjuos. "HKKTrd yd roi iJ.€ya\o(l}v^s &u, '6fxoos r^v avrhs avTOv (pvaip eV ttoAAoTs yeveadai rpayiK^v irpoaTjvdyKaac, CHARACTER OF EURIPIDES. 93 it may be to a certain extent questionable how far this epithet be a just one, yet there can be no doubt that it points to a peculiarity which it is in vain for his detractors to gainsay. " He has approached nearer to the fountain of tears/' says Keble, ^^ than any other tragedian." This, as the testimony of one by no means disposed to flatter Euripides, must be held to be conclusive. Critics difier very widely as to the comparative merit of the extant dramas ; on the whole we believe we may safely follow the judgment of the author of the " Praelectiones " in considering the Medea, the Hecuba, and the Alcestis, as his three most striking and accomplished performances. The Hippolytus, the two Iphigenias, and the Troades, have all been pronounced by competent judges as excellent. It is a controversy into which we are not careful to,, enter. The plays of Euripides present so few dis- tinct salient points that their merits and their defects are much alike throughout. We must never forget that Euripides was an inti- k mate friend of Socrates; it is therefore idle to suppose that he belonged in reality to the school of the Sophists. If we remember that he was a pupil of Anaxagoras, we shall scarcely be willing to suppose that he doubted the immortality of the soul. But Euripides lived in an era in which simple faith was out of fashion. The old Greek world, during its summer of civilisation and literature, is to be measured by generations instead of by centuries. Changes, which in modern times are effected in 300j . * ,z -x'^ 94 HANDBOOK OP THE GREEK DBAMA. HIS RELIGIOUS OPINIONS. 95 If. m years, were then effected in thirty ; and it is scarcely too much to say, that there was at least as much dif- ference between ^schylus and Euripides as between Shakspeare and Coleridge. In the days of Euri- pides men were beginning to look at every question through the medium of metaphysics. He seems to a certain extent to have caught the jargon without the deeper meaning ; but, at the same time, he had his own peculiar views on the subject of the dealings of God with man. He appears to have thought that whatever was was right; but that, at the same time, it was totally impossible to fathom the ways of the Deity. This theory would seem to show itself in many of those half-sneering, half-desponding apophthegms, for which Euripides is famous. He felt to the full the significance of the well-known lines, — " In parts superior, what advantage lies ? Say, for you can, what is it to be wise ? 'Tis but to know how little can be known. To see all others' faults, and feel our own." Surely the spirit of this is the very spirit of Euripides. Unfortunately, however, the mind which has once Idrifted away from the sure anchorage of traditional and hereditary religion, is but too prone to fall into worse errors than even the disparagement of intel- lectual exertions. Such a man is ever apt to sur- render himself to the illusions of a heated imagination, and, having deserted the wisdom of ages, is driven to lay heavier stress upon the wisdom of the moralist. Thus Euripides, too, only shows himself the advocate of expediency : — 7j y\6o(T(f oix^fioK, aWa 6s, Suppl. 412. Hec. 1169. Ion. 832. Med. 579. Euripides, notwithstanding his defects, was the most universally admired of the ancient poets. Cicero was one of his most devoted adherents, and, it is said, was (reading the Medea at the moment of his death. It is impossible, therefore, to doubt that many of his faults have been exaggerated, and many of his pe- culiarities misunderstood. His leading deformities have been reduced by Mr. Keble to four : — first, his oratorical frigidity ; secondly, his scepticism ; thirdly, his hatred of women; and, fourthly, the weakness of his choral parts. On the second of these heads we have already said sufficient. On the third we can only refer our readers to the afore-mentioned writer Hartung, and the author of the critique now under observation, while the fourth we prefer to reserve to a future page. To the first we propose to devote a few observations. ^^ Shakspeare," says Keble, "gives to his characters attributes, which are propria; Euripides those which are communia: that is to say, the grief of Medea and Iphlgenia, >i A v=*- ^•-JirtS, - \ CHARACTER OF EURIPIDES. 97 though beautifully described, is still not different from the grief of any other women in the same cir- cumstances." This is a very fine observation ; but we are half inclined to doubt whether it may not be turned against himself. To illustrate what he means by oratorical frigidity, he compares the speech of Jason on hearing that he is deprived of his children, with that of Macduff, the latter of which he has translated into most elegant Latin. Now it appears to us that Jason would naturally express himself in a different manner from Macduff. In the first place, the relations between Jason and Medea, and Macduff and Lady Macduff, were com- pletely unlike. There was nothing at all domestic and innocent about the former. It is quite natural that a man who has formed a vicious connexion, should moralise in a certain artificial manner on its dissolution, or on its consequences. In fact, he would be the imperfect artist who should in- troduce the passionate lover of a Medea, lament- ing after the same fashion as an ancient British chieftain. It is also to be observed, that to whatever extent the highly educated critic may object to this same oratorical frigidity, it is by no means an obstacle to great and enduring popularity. No ancient poet has written so many quotable things as Euripides ; and we find that among modern poets also, this is one great source of lasting reputation. Many of our most familiar English quotations are derived from second and third rate productions. Witness Addison's '^ Cato, /! \ i^ V \l \ 98 ^.^ %y^^^^ HANDBOOK OF THE GRKEK DRAMA. "*"t Pope's « Essay on Man " (which, however great its merits, is scarcely great as a poem), and very many dramas of the 18 th century. The sort of popularity which Euripides obtained is obtainable by any one who writes for the masses. He "sought," says Keble, "to bring poetry down to common life, as Socrates did philosophy ;" but he sought it in a totally different manner. Socrates sought to state deep truths in a homely manner; Euripides, to state homely truths in an apparently deep manner. This latter is the secret of his popularity : common-place thoughts, put tersely and epigraramatically, are what attract the vulgar ; and Euripides has given us these sort of apophthegms on every conceivable subject interesting to humanity— birth, death, and mar- riage, — heaven, earth, and Hades — politics, poetry, and law,— on one and all of these subjects, some semi-philosophic observation is dropped by Euri- pides. Every young Athenian who declined the labour of investigating the mysterious utterances of JEschylus, or found no attraction in the deep calm of Sophocles, could still quote to his compa- nions such passages as this, rfs olSev d rh Cnv M*'' «^Tt KaTQcwitv or again. or else. . . . TOVS biOVS fX")" ■'■** ^'' /^' mtf [\ \ ^ f v.. 14' ^ 100 HANDBOOK OF THE GREEK DRAMA. the former being of a tumultuous and sweetly musical character, the latter what would be called ryvcofiiKci, or, in modern phrase, prosaic and sententious. In the matter of metre the same superiority is justly claimed by Sophocles. In his choruses JEschylus inclines too much to the use of the dochmiac, Euri- pides of the glyconic. The latter foot is scarcely ever to be found in JEschylus, and was judiciously introduced by Sophocles to temper the severity of his predecessor ; but Euripides runs riot in it. In the iambic metre there is perhaps room for greater difference of opinion ; we certainly prefer the easy and varied flow of Sophocles to the grand monotony of JEschylus ; but we are not certain that we prefer the versification of the former to that of Euripides : the sesquipedalia verba of the one are at all events infinitely more tiresome than the short syllables of the latter; but there are certain definite irregularities in his verse, which are as unpleasing to the ear as antagonistic to the rules of the Greek language — such as the anapaest in the first foot not confined to a single word, and the frequent transgressions of the ordinary rules of quantity*, as also the use of abnor- mal compounds, as also Sva6vrja-Kco, arrahoBpafiovjxai,, <7Vvaao(f)Ci>, k.t.X. In the matter of dialect, -^schylus is more fertile in loniclsms, owing to the more epic style of his poetry ; Euripides, on the contrary, is more apt to fall into Dorlclsms, especially in his monodies. * We may instance yevva, Hec. 160.; ^Sio*', Supp. 1101.; ira- \ai6y, Elect 479. - 1 t / I J ■^. ". 11— J^^^ •iU£^ J- .y "t^ ./' \ J THE ALCEStIs. 101 \ In the construction of his sentences, JEschylus is much the most simple of the three. He loves short sentences, and makes no display of dialectic. In his dialogues, many of his speeches have more the air of soliloquies than of an address to another person. His want of art is marked by the recurrence of such ex- pressions as r]K(jd Kal Karsp'xpfjbaL^ fc.r.X* : Euripides, on the contrary, is full of oratorical rotundity and dif- fuseness. Sophocles is, in some sense, a medium between these two. If we were to seek to express his peculiarity in one word, we should say he was compressive ; that is to say, he endeavours to throw as much meaning into what he says as he possibly can — every word he uses is pregnant with more than meets the eye. In this way he sought to exercise the intellect of his audience.f The ancients com- pared Sophocles to the sweetness and strength of good wine : ov yXv^iSy ou5' vttSxvtos, aAAa UpdjjLPLOS. I The first in point of time of the extant plays of Euripides is the Alcestis (b.c. 438.). It is said to have been originally a satyric drama added to a trilogy of tragedies-J Upon this hypothesis, the far- cical elements which it contains become perfectly ♦ The reader, however, should hear JEschylus in his own defence, by referring to Aristoph. Ranas. 1. 1128. et seq. f Marks of this intention are to be found in his constant use of | crasis and the elision of the final syllable of a verse, by which I means he avoided the use of many little words, which to Euripides ^ was rather welcome than otherwise. . X See above, p. 43. note. H 3 I > » '1 / 1 / / V;^' T \ \ ^~ • A .>''^> rmmmummmmf h 't i I 102 HANDBOOK o\ THE GKEEK DKAMA. intelligible, and the behaviour of Hercules natural and appropriate. The shortness of the drama and the simplicity of the plan, which requires only two actors, would convince us that it was not one of the jregular tragedies. In 431. B.C. was exhibited the Medea, which In the opinion of many is the best of all the poet's per- (forman^es. The character of Medea herself is very finely drawn ; and though the murder of the children is perhaps In excess of the legitimate bounds of tragedy, yet Medea's language is interspersed with 80 much that is touching and natural, that we are less shocked than might be expected : The mother Is here shown not one whit less strongly than the Incensed enchantress ; and It Is the union jof these two characters which constitutes the great interest of the play. The Hippoly tus, one of the best plays of Euripides, was brought out B. c. 428. The passion of Phaedra for her stepson Is just one of those monstrous sub- jects, the adoption of which betokens the decline of the drama In any country. The play, however. Is as good as it was possible to be under these circum- stances. The character of Hippoly tus himself Is beautiful In the extreme ; and his destruction through the anger of Yenus, whom he had despised. Inculcates a high moral lesson. The Hecuba is a play which exhibits many of the best and many of the worst characteristics of EurL r y J* -L.-«-^"'^*^-^ I HERACLID^, SUPPLICES. 103 pides's poetry. It Is full of elegant tenderness ; but the characters are not well sustained, and the action is faulty. The sacrifice of Polyxena and the murder of Polydorus would have sufficed separately for the catastrophe of the piece, whereas they are here drawn in together, and seem to point to a second symptom of decline which was now beginning to show Itself in Euripides, namely, the multiplicity of Incidents which he crowded into his dramas. The Hecuba was exhibited somewhere about the year 424 B.C. The only Interest of the Heracleldae is to be found in its political bearing. "The generosity of the Athenians to the Heracleidae Is celebrated In order to charge with Ingratitude their descendants, the Dorians of the Peloponnese, who were most bitter enemies to Athens ; and the oracle which Eurystheua makes known at the end of the play, that his corpse should be a protection to the land of Attica against the descendants of the Heracleidae when they should invade Attica as enemies, was obviously designed to strengthen the confidence of the less enlightened portion of the audience In regard to the Issue of this struo-gle. The drama was probably brought out at the time when the Argives stood at the head of the Peloponnesian alliance, and it was thought probable that they would join the Spartans and Boeotians in their march against Athens, about Olymp. 89. 3. B.C. 421."* In the Suppliants, brought out B.C. 420, we have ♦ Mullen n 4 t> I )i V i V / .../ / r-/ 'A / » iJ \! ^ iJU..A . f i^ 104 HANDBOOK OF THE GREEK DEAMA. the first evidence of another downward tendency, that, namely, of relying for success upon scenic effect rather than histrionic or dramatic excellence. The burning of the dead bodies and the immolation of Evadne were probably conducted with great pomp and with all the resources of the theatre. There is supposed to be a political allusion in this play also, to the battle of Delium between Athens and Thebes, B.C. 424, when the latter refused to give up the dead bodies for sepulture. I The Ion is one of the few plays of Euripides re- Imarkable for the excellence of plot. Creusa, the daughter of Erectheus, King of Athens, and wife of Xuthus, had before her marriage become mother of Ion by Apollo. The boy was separated from his mother, entrusted to the care of an old woman, and brought up as a priest of Diana. Apollo, wishing to secure to him the sovereignty of Athens, persuades Xuthus, by means of an ambiguous oracle, that he is his own natural son, begotten before his marriage with Creusa. The latter, enraged at the discovery, and also at the design of making a bastard king of Athens, endeavours to poison him. A recognition, however, is brought about between mother and son, by means of the old nurse ; and Xuthus, continuing in his delusion, receives Ion with joy, and the piece terminates happily. Ion is clearly an exception to the general tenor of Euripides's plays. Aristotle jpalled him the most tragic of poets, not, indeed, pneaning what we should mean by such an expression, jbut that his plays came nearer to his own definition • -- * •-* HERCULES FURENS, ANDROMACHE. 105 of tragedy than any others.* His dictum is that a tragedy terminates unhappily ; and many critics seem to have given themselves unnecessary trouble in ex- plaining why Aristotle spoke thus of Euripides, from not observing that he is only referring to the pre- ceding context. We should never lose sight of the fact that the ancients treated their subjects in the most strictly scientific way. Every sentence depends more or less on what has gone before ; and a wor that has once been used in a technical sense is use so throughout the treatise : in the passage quoted the \vord "tragic" has only the technical signification given above ; and we should doubt indeed whether in classical Greek it ever bore any other. The Hercules Furens is characterised by the same faults as the Hecuba, namely, the double action, in the rescue of the children of Hercules from Lycus, and in their subsequent murder. The goddess of madness was represented on the stage in this piece, ♦ See Poetics, ii. 12. The meaning of Aristotle here is well drawn out in an article in the Classical Museum, No. 1. ; we shall give the substance of it as briefly as possible. If we couple the words in Aristotle's famous definition of tragedy, viz. ^i i\4ov koX 6€ov ircpaipovcra tV rwv tolovtodv iradrifxaTcov KadapaLV, with the two fol- lowing — *ns 5' dnXafU unclp (po^epd iariv Zaa itp' erepoDP yLyv6/M€va fj fifWovra i\e€tvd iari' (lib. ii. 5. 12.); and Koi robs d/xolovs i\€ov(riv KttTcfc ri^iKiaP, Kara ^^, fcara efets, Kara aiiufiara, Kark yepri • iv vaffi yhp TovTOLS, fxaWov (paluerai Koi a\n(f Uv vwdp^ai. "OXws yhp Kal ivrav^ da Set \a€€7p '6tl Ua €>' avTwp (po^ovprai ravr hr* ISl\\u)P yiyp6fi€Pa ri\€ovaip (lib. ii. 8. 13.)— translating (p6§os, '^fear " and not terror, and Kddapais, " pleasurable relief from," we shall easily understand Aristotle's critique on Euripides. Neither of his predecessors wrote in a manner so nearly touching ourselves* fi I .^i -A / I / ^^^. !\ i 106 HANDBOOK OF THE GREEK DRAMA. and must have produced a surprising effect. The date of the Hercules Furens is about 420 b. C. The subject of the Andromache is well chosen. The widow of Hector, as the slave and concubine of Neoptolemus in Epirus, might have been worked up into a most interesting and affecting picture ; yet it is not an interesting play. The incidents are nume- rous without being complicated ; and the moral, if there be one, but faintly brought out. The misery caused by Hermione, doubtless, pervades the whole piece ; but it is nevertheless scarcely the prominent feature. In its political bearing it is a direct attack upon the Spartans, and seems to contain alkisions to the circumstances narrated by Thucydides (lib. v. 45.). The date of this play is about 418 B.C. The Troades, which was brought out B.C. 415, is totally deficient in dramatic interest, but was a mag- nificent spectacle. Some have classed it with the very best efforts of Euripides ; and that it contains some of his very best poetry will hardly be denied by any one. The Electra, the worst of all the poet's productions, was brought out about the year 413 B.C. The sub- ^ ject is the same as that of the Choephoroe of JEschy- lus and the Electra of Sophocles. Schlegel gives us Ian excellent critique of the three plays, though he has hardly pointed out with sufficient distinctness the remarkable superiority of Sophocles, whose dis- jtinctive excellence as an artist is nowhere so clearly manifested. Euripides has failed entirely. The cha- racters of ^gisthus and Clytemnestra are totally ( y \ ORESTES, PHCENISSiE, BACCHJS. 107 spoiled, and the tragic element completely eliminated. Was Euripides oppressed by a consciousness of in- feriority to his two great predecessors? It is the) only excuse that can be made for him. The Helena is founded on an old legend handed down by Stesichorus, that the Helen who crossed to Trov was an aSwXov of the true Helen, who had never left Greece. In Euripides she is supposed to have got no further than Egypt, and to be persecuted there by the addresses of the young king, from whom she is at length rescued by Menelaus. The Helena was exhibited B.C. 412. The Orestes and the Phoenissse are rather dull plays. The first was produced about the year 408 B. C, the second a very little while after. The subject of the former is the punishment of Orestes for matri- cide, by a decree of the Argive senate. Menelaus, who ought to have rescued him, deserts him ; Helen, whom he threatens to slay, is taken up to Heaven ; and Hermione, whom he seeks to kill in her place, is given to him as wife by the Dioscuri, who promise to deliver Orestes from the matricidal curse. The Phoenissaa is full of incident, but palls from its sameness and the absence of anything like plot The opening scene is fine ; but we care little for the character of Antigone in the hands of Euripides. The Bacchse, a play not represented till after the author's death, is one of his most interesting works, from the fact that it seems to betoken a change in the religious sentiments of Euripides, The subject of ) '/ x > v~ k Y- •^ J y f 108 HANDBOOK OF THE GREEK DRAMA. the play is the punishment of Pantheus; and the poet takes occasion to utter many reflections on the folly of those who would be overwise in their own conceit, and deride what they cannot understand. The subject, probably, occurred to his mind during his residence in Macedonia, where the worship of Bacchus was prevalent. Schlegel and Miiller differ as to the authenticity of the Khesus; but the question has been so well argued by Valcknaer, that little doubt remains on the subject. The Rhesus is not only wholly unlike Euripides ; but it also bears a curious resemblance to the style of Sophocles, which would seem to imply that it is the work of some late imitator of the latter poet. Scaliger has ventured, though dubiously, to ascribe it to Sophocles himself, principally on the ground of the resemblance of the prologue to those of the Ajax, Antigone, and the two CEdipi. This is, however, probably an erroneous view. It is entirely free from the peculiarities of Euripides — TO Tpayc/cbvj to yvco/jbiKov^ to aKpi^aSy to yXacf^vpou^ to SKXeyscv KOiva kolI SrjfjicoBr].^ ' We have purposely reserved to the last our remarks on the two Iphigeniae, which are in many respects the most beautiful productions of lEuripides. The Iphigenia in Tauris was brought out somewhere about the year 411 B.C. In this play, Iphigenia is the priestess of the Tauric Artemis, to whom the barbarous inhabitants of that region * Valcknaer. irHIGENIA IN TAURIS, 109 sacrificed all strangers thrown upon their coast. The recognition here between the brother and sister ia so contrived as to be surprising without being un- natural ; and the deceit of Thoas is, according to the Greek view, not at all unjustifiable. The following remarks of Miiller on this drama are so good that we quote them in their integrity : — '' The poet, too, has taken care not to spoil the pleasure with which we contemplate this noble picture, by representing Iphigenia as a priestess who slays human victims on the altar. Her duty is only to consecrate the victims by sprinkling them with water outside the temple ; others take them into the temple and put them to death.* Fate, too, has con- trived that hitherto no Greek has been driven to this coast.t When she flies, however, a symbolical repre- sentation is substituted for the rites of an actual sacrifice t, whereby the humanity of the Greeks triumphs over the religious fanaticism of the bar- barians. Still more attractive and touchmg is the connexion of Orestes and Pylades, whose friendship is exalted in this more than in any other play. The scene in which the two friends strive which of them shall be sacrificed as a victim and which shall return home', is very affecting, without any design on the part of the poet to call forth the tears of the spectators. According to our ideas, it must be con- fessed, Pylades yields too soon to the pressing en^ treaties of his friend, partly because the arguments of * V. 625. fol. f V. 260. fol. X V. 1471. foL ■.^ , w- «^-q^'' i! *r 110 HANDBOOK OF THE GREEK DRAMA. Orestes actually convince him, partly because, as having more faith in the Delphic Apollo, he still retains a hope that the oracle of the god will in the end deliver them both ; whereas we desire, even in such cases, an enthusiastic resignation of all thoughts to the one idea, in which no thought can arise except I the deliverance of our friend. The feelings of the people of antiquity, however, were made of sterner stuff; their hardihood and simplicity of character would not allow them to be so easily thrown off their balance, and while they preserved the truth of friend- ship, they could keep their eyes open for all the other Iduties and advantages of life." * The Iphigenia in Aulis was not acted till after the poet's death. The progress of the story and the denouement are admirable. The resolution of Achil- les forbids all idea of using compulsion towards his betrothed ; and the whole expedition is at a stand- still till at length Iphigenia announces herself as a voluntary victim — the noblest deus ex machina which ancient tragedy can boast. Her character Ihas been objected to on the ground of inconsistency : her lamentations are too rapidly succeeded, it is said, by her resignation ; the woman too quickly becomes the heroine — ovhev aoiKSv rj Ifcsrsvovaa rfj varspa. We cannot agree in the justice of this criticism. If it is not unnatural for the same person to lament at first, and to be resigned afterwards, neither is the rapidity with which the change takes place unnatural. * Lit Ant. Greece, vol. i. pp. 376, 377 IPHIGENIA IN AULIS, CYCLOPS. Ill Indeed, there are many instances on record of con-| demned persons, who, as long as there was the very slightest chance of escape, have spared no solicitation, and have given way to humiliating anguish, but who have nevertheless, when the conviction of their doom became certain, risen from the ground, as it were, in a moment, thrown off all appearance of terror, and assumed the cheerfulness of martyrs. Such appears to be the character of Iphigenia in Aulis, — in our opinion the nearest approach to a modern heroine to be found in classic poetry. In the Cyclops, Euripides has given us the onlyi extant specimen of the genuine satyric drama. This drama, as we have said above, was usually a kind of facetious epilogue to the tragic trilogy.* The chorus consisted of satyrs ; and the adventures of the hero were always those susceptible of laughable treatment. The subject of the Cyclops is the story of Poly-/ phemus. • But see note on p. 101. ^^/ m 112 HANDBOOK OF THE GREEK DRAMA. EPICHARMUS AND HIS SCHOOL. 113 CHAP. IX. RISE OP COMEDY. — ARISTOPHANES. The origin of comedy is radically the same as that of tragedy. But while the latter took its rise from the more urbane and polished element of the Bacchic worship, the former sprang from the rural remains of the old and more homely ritual. This was in Greece undoubtedly the more ancient of the two, and, as more exclusively connected with the generative and fertilising attributes of the gods, lingered longest among the villages and woods, and in the hearts of the agricultural population. The Phallic processions, and the rural celebration of the vintage, contained the elements from which sprung the graceful produc- tions of Aristophanes and Menander. Although, however, the sources from which comedy arose were more indigenous than those which gave birth to tragedy ; yet there is no doubt that the embodiment of the former in any permanent shape was posterior to that of tragedy. The honour of being the first inventor of comedy is usually supposed to lie between Susarion and Epicharmus. The truth, however, seems to be, that the latter was the first author of xcritten pieces, and therefore must technically be ad-^^^ mitted to be the first comic dramatist. The date of his birth is uncertain — it was probably about the year 520 or 530 b.c. ; and he was more than ninety when he died. The comedies of Epicharmus were parodies of sacred subjects, and partly also political. Plautus's play of the Men^chmi is said to be founded on one of the dramas of Epicharmus. Phormis and Dinolochus are the other two writers of the Sicilian school whose reputation has been preserved by their contemporaries. The first Attic comedian was Chi- ^^l^^^* "^^^ *^*^^^ ^^ *^^^® ^^ h^s plays have come ^wn to us; these were the ''H/3a)5^, the llBpcjai 9) 'AaavpLOL, and the UjcoxoL A contemporary of Chionides was Magnes, from whom Aristophanes borrowed the titles of two of his plays, the Frogs and the Birds, and of whom he speaks in a compli- mentary manner in the Knights.* Cratinus was born at Athens about the year 519 B.C., and died in 422 B.C., having more than once been a successful competitor against Aristophanes and Eupolis. Crates, Phrynichus, and Hermippus livecTabout Ihe same time. The first was originally an actor in the plays of Cratinus, but afterwards turned author. Aristophanes speaks very highly of him in the Clouds.t / Phrynichus was a man of inferior ability. He is ridiculed by Hermippus and Aristophanes. Her- mippus was a great opponent of Pericles; he prosecuted Aspasia for impiety. Eupolis was the im- mediate predecessor of Aristophanes, and, with Cra- tinus, seems to have been looked upon as the leading J * Line 5 IS. ii t Line 537. I X Hor. i. Sat. 4. I, 2. \ 114 HANDBOOK OF THE GREEK DRAMA. Nv man of the prae-Aristophanic period.^ His comedies are very virulent ; but as he was a warm admirer of Pericles, no harm came to him during that states- man's lifetime. The time and manner of his death are doubtful ; and there is probably no truth in the atory that he was thrown overboard by the order of Alclbiades on his way to Sicily in 415 B.C. ^ It is a very common though by no means a uni- versal opinion, that Aristophanes is on the whole the greatest of Athenian dramatists. To this opinion we ourselves subscribe. The fact is, that ancient tragedy was in want of many materials which con- tribute to the formation of a complete idea of hu- manity. To love, it was a stranger *; in its treat- ment of the relations between heaven and earth, God and man, it was hampered by a cumbrous mytho- logy t* the traditions of which it was as dangerous t(S neglect as it was difficult to dispose properly. There are marks of what might have been done. We see the outline not filled up ; the elements, but not their combination.^ With comedy, however, this was not the case. With the position of woman in society it could deal readily. Audacious reflections on the gods, which would have ruined a tragedian, were not only permitted but loudly applauded when issuing from the comic mask. The reason of this is very simple. Where the popular creed still retains a firm * A modern writer would not have missed the fine situation afforded by Antigone and Haemon. The love of Euripides is the Kaiyios epvs of Aristotle. . t Edinb. Rev. No. 58. | Ibid. AEISTOPHANES. 115 hold on the minds of the multitude, such displays arej( not dangerous or perhaps irreverent. The religious spectacles of the middle ages are an instance of this point. Thus we see that Aristophanes stood on a vantage ground as compared with his tragic contem- poraries ; and if we assent to the claim which has been advanced in his favour, we are not so much ex- alting his genius as simply doing justice to his/ opportunities. Aristophanes, the son of Philippus, was born ati Athens in the year 444 B. c. Of the rank and sta- tion of his father we know nothing ; but they are presumed to have been respectable. He brought out his first play, the Banqueters, b.c. 427, the following year the Babylonians, and the year following that the Acharnians. In 424 he brought out the Knights, and the next year the Clouds, which obtained neither the first nor second prize. In 422 he exhibited the Wasps, in 419 the Peace, and in 414 the Birds. The Lysistrata and the Thesmophoriazusae were per- formed in the year 411 ; the Plutus in 408, and the Ecclesiazusje in 392. The date of the Frogs is un- certain. The two last plays which Aristophanes wrote were called the ^olosicon and the Cocalus. The latter, it is said, approached so nearly to the standard of the new comedy, that Philemon was able to bring it again on the stage with very few varia- tions. Aristophanes died somewhere about the year 380 B. c. Aristophanes was a thorough conservative of the old school. He hated all change, without taking the I 2 116 HANDBOOK OF THE GEEEK DEAMA. trouble to discriminate between what was needless and what was necessary for the constitution. The evil done daily by the sophists and demagogues was 80 vast and so apparent, that there is certainly some excuse for the comedian, if he acted on the belief which is best expressed by the words ^' noscitur a sociisy^^ and waged an uncompromising war with So- crates and Euripides, whom he identified with the doctrines of the sophists to the fullest extent. Pos- terity has rectified the error in one case and his own contemporaries in the other. *^ The taunts of Ari- stophanes," says Hartung, " in no way affected the poet's popularity : " and while later ages endorsed with gladness his fiercest invectives against Cleon, ^Jiey have never ceased to venerate and to love the iiq,me of Socrates. There seem to have been three principal evils against which the mind of Aristo- jo(hanes was violently excited; and we shall notice his comedies according to their bearing on each of these three objects of his hostility. Aristophanes, as we have remarked, was essentially a conservative, and he regarded the Peloponnesian war as essentially opposed to his party views ; he detested it therefore on this political ground. But the war was also hateful to him as affording oppor- tunities of eminence to the demagogues of that day, who possessed all the ambition of Pericles, whom they professed to imitate, without his ability. Iso- crates called Pericles *^the greatest of the dema- gogues," not so much intending to reproach him as to show that he had initiated a policy which, though HIS POLITICAL OPINIONS. 117 perhaps capable of glorious results in his own hands J became, after his death, the readiest means in thd hand of the charlatan for deluding the people. It was this trade of political charlatanism that was odious to Aristophanes ; nor should we be doing him justice if we supposed that he did not anticipate many of those disasters which the war brought upon Athens, or understand that the policy of Cimon and Aristides was the one best adapted to her truest interests. The new hegemony which Pericles ad- vocated could only be maintained by force, and by a vast drain upon the national resources. The old one, founded as it was on respect for Athenian mo- deration and justice, would be less costly and more permanent, and one for which the allies would always be willing to fight against the aggressive ambition of Sparta. The present English policy of colonial self-government, combined with the established prin- ciple of non-interference on the continent, would very adequately represent the system which it was the design of Aristophanes to restore. With this object he wrote the Acharnians; a play which in point of literary merit stands considerably above the average in the list of his extant performances. This play was exhibited in the year 425 ; and in the suc- ceeding year he followed up the blow by a direct at- tack on Cleon, who at that time was the leading man of the ultra war party at Athens. The Knights "is perhaps the most famous play of Aristophanes ; 'yet, as Schlegel well observes, it is doubtful how far it is the best. " It may be," says he, ^^ that the I 3 118 HANDBOOK OF THE GREEK DRAMA. thought of the too actual danger in which he stood gave the poet a more earnest tone than was suitable to a comedian, or that the persecution which he had already undergone from Cleon provoked him to vent his wrath in • a manner too Archilochian. It is only after the storm of sarcastic abuse has somewhat spent itself, that droller scenes follow ; and droll they are in a high degree, where the two demagogues, the dealer in leather (/SvpcroSsTTTrji), i. e. Cleon, and the sausage seller (^dXKavTO'iTaiX'qs)^ by adulation, by oracle-quoting, and by dainty tit-bits, vie with each other in currying favour with the old dotard Demus, that is, the personified people; and the play ends with an almost touchingly joyous triumph, where the scene changes from the Pnyx, the place of the popular assemblies, to the majestic Propylaea, and Demus, wondrously restored to second youth, comes forward in the garb of the old Athenians, and along with his youthful vigour has recovered the old feel- ing of the days of Marathon." Cleon, who had just returned from his expedition to Sphacteria, was at this time so important a personage in the state, that no actor could be found to represent the character, which Aristophanes was obliged accordingly to as- sume himself, merely painting his face instead of wearing a mask. The next in chronological order is the Clouds, in lour opinion decidedly the poet's master-piece. The device by which Strepsiades is made to repent of dabbling in sophistry, is a triumph of comic in- genuity ; and a better " silly old man '' than himself THE KNIGHTS, THE CLOUDS. 119 was never placed upon the stage. The wit is in- imitable, flowing in an exuberant stream, and never strained or unnatural. We know not if we should be far wrong in classing the Clouds and the ^^ Merry Wives of Windsor" together, as the two very best comedies which the world has ever seen. It is very well known that the design of the Clouds was to ridicule Socrates as the chief of the sophists. Modern opinions have been much divided on this subject. Some have thought that the latter deserved all the censure of the poet, and even more than he received; others maintain that Aristophanes was blinded by prejudice, and knew not of what he was writing. Of the two views there is probably more truth in the latter than in the former ; yet we cannot go so far as the author of a recent life of Aristopha- nes % and pay a tribute to his honesty at the expense of his greatness. One fact is certain, that common sense was the distinguishing quality of the mind of Aristophanes. He saw that things at Athens were in a bad way, and he knew they had once been better. A set of men had arisen who pretended to reo'enerate the people by means of a novel education. Now, whatever it was that these men taught (a question which it is out of our province to discuss)^ it is very clear that they did the Athenians very little good. Day by day the latter were growind more irritable, capricious, covetous, and tricky ; was it not natural that any practical man of the world * See Biograpliical Dictionary, I 4 120 HANDBOOK OF THE GREEK DRAMA. RELIGIOUS OPINIONS* — WASPS, PEACE. 121 would connect this deterioration with the teaching of the school of the sophists? and when Socrates came, living the same manner of life as they, perplex- ing the minds of simple people with a novel style of questions, and generally seeming to attach great importance to words, it was equally natural that Aristophanes should have connected him with the sophists. The comic poet was not the man to make deep and sifting inquiries, any more than such a man as Pliny inquired into the alleged facts of Christianity. Had circumstances brought him into close intimacy with Socrates, we have not a doubt that the comedian would have found in him a kindred spirit; but seeing him only from a distance, and knowing him only as the friend of Euripides, it is not surprising if he classed the whole tribe together as impostors and pretenders, differing only in degree. As to Socrates himself, if we may trust the assertion of Xenophon, we know that so far from corrupting the youth of the city, he very soon got rid of such pupils as Alcibiades, Critias, and Theramenes — they left him when they found out that he taught austere morality and rigid self-control — while, in regard to the physical speculations so ridiculed in the Clouds, the Socrates of Xenophon was so notoriously averse to those profound researches into the fisrscopa — or, in other words, into the universe, the heavenly bodies, and atmospherical phenomena, which engross the master of subtleties in the Clouds — that he pro- nounced them to be a proof of mental aberration in all who, like Anaxagoras, were perpetually brooding on such topics! It is clear, then, that the poet has mistaken and misrepresented the philosopher ; but it is not so clear that he misrepresented him because he was prejudiced, and because he was narrow-minded. He did it because he was careless, neither seeing nor hearing anything in these men that should lead him to modify the opinions which he had always held. It was the misfortune of his position that he could not discover his mistake ; but he was one of that class who are the last to be reached by any novel doctrine, not, we repeat, on account of their bigotry, but purely from their love of ease, established order, and social refinement. In his play of the Wasps, Aristophanes exposes! the Athenian love of litigation. This, too, of course, was a fine field for an attack upon the sophists ; the aged dicast, who holds the prominent part, is excellent ; but the play as a whole is scarcely equal in merit to the majority of those preserved to us. Neither is the Peace by any means equal to the Acharnians, or the Knights. The subject, of course, is substantially the same as that of the former ; but the plot is not equally well sustained.- The commencement promises fair; but after the goddess of peace has been drawn up out of the well the action halts, and the sacrifices are spun out to too great a length. In the Birds, however, brought out B.C. 414i) Aristophanes shines forth again in the full splendour of his comic genius. Schlegel's view of this play, i. e. that it is just a *^ harmless hocus pocus, with a 1 122 HANDBOOK OP THE GEEEK DRAMA. THE BIRDS. 123 hit at everything," has not recommended itself to subsequent scholars; and for this there are two reasons. In the first place the old comedy was never merely literary ; this is a fact that cannot be borne in mind too constantly. It was mainly, indeed, a political engine ; and this circumstance alone would lead us to doubt any theory which claims for so elaborate an effort as the Birds a purely imaginative character. The second reason is to be found in the play itself; the characters and action fit so closely to those of certain politicians of the day, that it surprises us how the truth should have escaped the notice of Schlegel. In the previous year, b. c. 415, the Sicilian expedition had started, and Euripides had written the trilogy of which the Troades formed a part, in order to encourage the hopes of his coun- trymen. It was this delusive dream of universal conquest that the Birds was intended to ridicule. In Peisthetairus, we have a union of Alcibiades and the Leontine ambassador Gorgias; in Eulepid^s we see the sanguine Athenian citizen. The birds are the gaping Athenian multitude, easily persuaded by a couple of designing adventurers to build castles in the air.* The elegance and brilliancy of this play ♦ We are here speaking only of the opinion of Aristophanes, Had, however, Alcibiades been permitted to conduct the Sicilian expedition from beginning to end, it was ^' on the cards," we think, for Athens to have become mistress of the world. On the other hand, we must consider that Aristophanes knew the character of his countrymen, and felt that they had not the qualities requisite ifor conducting such an enterprise to a successful issue. But tKe have been universally celebrated ; it is a sort of aerial fau-y temple, sparkling with the brightness of an un- clouded sun. The choruses are rich in poetic beauty, especially the short one commencing •-n# * cfj^aifioy atj Athens in the year B.C. 341. His father was one of the last asserters of Athenian freedom ; and it was in his defence that Demosthenes made one of his best speeches — that on the Chersonese. He was a nephew of the comic poet Alexis, and a pupil of Theophrastus the favourite pupil of Aristotle, from whom, possibly, he derived his love of philosophising. The remains of Menander, however, are not suffi- ciently copious to enable us to judge with much^ precision of his distinguishing excellencies. We shall probably not be far wrong in supposing him to have partaken to a large extent of the Horatian rjOos, tempered by a considerable dash of the tender sen- timent of Tibullus. Comedy, in his hands, was comedy rather as dealing with every-day incidents K 2 132 HANDBOOK OF THE GREEK DRAMA. and ordinary men, than as being either laughable or witty. Abundant wit and abundant materials for laughter his plays of course contained ; but such was hardly an essential or necessary feature in them. Of his fragments that remain, many passages are in- tensely gloomy and full of despondency, and lead us to see that the gay and handsome youth, the lover of Glycera and the " unguento delibutus " of Phjedrus, in no way differed from that class which is to be found in all nations at the corresponding period of their civilisation, — a class of men too thoughtful and poetical really to enjoy the life of a voluptuary, though, nevertheless, that life is almost the only one which their temperaments can permit them to follow under existing circumstances. This was scarcely the character of Horace ; but, if we are not greatly mistaken, this was the character of Menander. Menander is said to have been drowned in the Pirjeus in the fifty-second year of his age ; and, as has been well said, we may fairly imagine " that as great a blank has been created by the subduction of Menander, as would have been caused if Horace were altogether erased from Latin letters, or if he lived but in his Odes and, in a few passages ill chosen from his better works, in here and there a moral line or a few lifeless passages of his Satires and his Epistles." ARISTOTLE'S TREATISE ON POETRY. 133 »y- r-y CHAP. XI. >c analysis of aristotle s treatise on poetry. Chap. L There are different kinds of poetry ; but all agree in one point, that they are imitationsy or rather expressions (fiLfjiTjasLs). They differ in (1.) the means, (2.) the objects, and (3.) the manner of their imitation. (1.) The means. These are rhythm, words, and harmony. Dancing imitates by rhythm alone; epic poetry by words : some kinds of poetry, however, employ all three means. Applicability of the terms iromv and Trotijrrjs : it is not the metre, but the expression, that constitutes a poet. Chap. II. (2.) The objects. These are either virtuous or vicious characters ; and we may imitate by represent- ing persons as either (1.) such as they are, or (2.) better than they are, or (3.; worse than they are. Tragedy adopts the second, and comedy the third, of these methods. k3 134 HAND-BOOK OF THE GREEK DRAMA. Chap. III. T (3.) The wanner. This may be either (1.) by as- suming the character intended to be expressed, or (2.) by narrating his words. Tragedy and comedy agree in adopting the former manner. Epic and other styles of poetry adopt the second manner. Origin of the term hpcifia from hpav, the Dorian word corresponding to Trpdrrstv. An argument hence derived in favour of the Doric origin of the drama. The same inference drawn from the term kco/jltj, which corresponded to the Attic 8r]/jL09. Chap. IV. Imitation or expression natural to man. Pleasure derived from the sight of sculpture and painting. Poetry first arose from spontaneous efforts (auro- ^^(shiaaTLKrj). . Good men imitated noble characters; bad men inferior ones. The ancient poets, accordingly, were writers of epic (e. e. heroic) or of iambic {i. e. satyric) verse. Homer the first writer in both styles ; his Margites. In course of time the epic writers developed into tragedians, the iambic into comic writers. Both tragedy and comedy at first extempo- raneous. Tragedy arose from the dithyramb ; comedy from the Phallic verses. Aristotle's treatise on poetry. 135 Tragedy reached its full growth under ^schylus. His improvements. Those of Sophocles. Gradual exchange of the trochaic for iambic verse in tragedy : character of the latter. Chap. V. Comedy imitates the bad, yet not as bad, but as ridiculous. Its early stages not known, neither who invented masks. Similarity between epic and tragic style; their points in common, and points of distinction. Tragedy embraces everything to be found in the epic. Chap. VI. Tragedy defined as '' the expression of a virtuous and complete action in pleasing language, employing imitation of several kinds, not narrated but acted, and purifying the passions by fear and pity. It must employ rhythm, harmony, and melody. It must also employ (1.) ornament (o^/ri^), (2.) music (fiekoTTouajy (3.) diction {Xs^is), (4.) plot (fivdoi), (5.) manners {rjOrj) ; and (6.) sentiment {Bidvota). Of these. Diction and music are the means^ Ornament is the manner^ Plot, manners, and sentiment are the objects k4 1 \)\ 136 HAND-BOOK OF THE GREEK DRAMA. Some poets use all these six parts of tragedy. The plot is the most important. Tragedy is an expression of certain actions and characters. The plot is worked out by revolutions (TrspiTrsrslac) and discoveries (avayvcopia-sii)* Manners next in importance; sentiments next; diction next. The other five parts are embellishments. Of these music is the highest, scenic decoration the lowest. Chap. VII. Tragedy is the expression of a complete action. It must be a dramatic w^hole, and must have a beginning, middle, and end. Beauty analysed, is magnitude combined with order. Its length should be such as to be easily grasped (^svo-vvotttov). It should, then, be of such a length as to afford time and space for a natural transition from good to, bad fortune, or vice versa. Chap. VIIL Dramatic unity. Unity not produced by taking the many actions of one character (e.g. Hercules going through his twelve labours, or the history of Ulysses). It is produced by taking one act, and making that the centre, and everything else subservient to it. Aristotle's treatise on poetry. 137 Chap. IX. Poetry does not differ from history, by the acci- dent of being written in verse or in prose ; but its real difference consists in relating what might have happened, not what has actually happened. Hence poetry more universal and philosophic, as relating to classes of characters, not to individuals. The traditional fables, therefore, which relate only what has been done, not to be too closely adhered to. The fable most important. It should not be full of episodes. The terrible an essential element in tragedy : de- finition of it. Chap. X. Plots are either simple or compound. Simple, where the event happens without devolu- tion or discovery. Complex, where it happens with revolution or discovery, or both. The event, however, should follow easily and naturally. Chap. XL • The event of a plot is either a revolution {irBpnri- TSLo) or recognition (ava^v(i>pL^) is called a Pyrrhic. 2. The Feet with which we are more especially concerned, are those of three and four Times, which are, (a.) Of three Times Iambus Trochee -^ (b) Of four Times Tribrach ^^^ Spondee — Dactyl Anapaest — v/v/ \J\J — The following foot of five Times, (-^-) is called a Cretic. IV. Iambic Ehythm. 1. The Iambic is an ascending Rhythm, and the converse of the Trochaic, which is descending. 2. Iambic (and Trochaic) Rhythms may be mea- TRA6IC IAMBIC VERSE. 145 sured either by single Feet, or by Lnrollat^ Dipo- dies (Double-feet). Each SciroSla is called a Metre (flSTpOv). 3. A poetical Rhythm is called a Verse. 4. A Verse of — 2 Feet or 1 Metre, is called a Monometer. 4 6 8 ^9 39 }y or 2 Metres, or 3 or 4 99 99 99 99 99 Dimeter. Trimeter. Tetrameter. Note. — 1. An Acatalectic Rhythm is one which has its Metres complete in their number of syllables. 2. A Catalectic Rhythm wants one syllable to com- plete its Metres. 3. A Brachycatalectic Rhythm wants two syllables to complete its Metres. 4. An Hypercatalectic Rhythm has one syllable beyond its complete Metres. V. Tragic Iambic Verse. 1. The Verse chiefly used in the Dialogue of Greek Tragedy, as measured by Metres, is called Tragic Iambic Trimeter Acatalectic : — or, as measured by Feet, Iambic Senarius, having three perfect metres, or six feet. 2. In its pure form it consists of six Iambi : — ird}al k\21\vo9 Olh^lirovs j /caXov^fjLSPos. (N.B. The last syllable of the verse is always regarded as long.) 3. But, in order to give more strength, weight, and variety to the Rhythm, the Tragic poets ad- 146 HAND-BOOK OF THE GREEK DRAMA. mitted a long instead of a short syllable in the first syllable of each Metre ; in other words^ a Spondee may be substituted for an Iambus in the 1st, 3rd, and 5th Feet: as, a\V d(r^(}>dXel\a rrjvh'' dvop\9co(Tdv^ 7rb\lv.\ 4. The Iambus (— ) may be resolved in any place except the last Foot, into a Tribrach (— ), but care must be taken not to make the Verse weak or inharmonious by admitting too large a number of short syllables. Examples : Tufjbsvd} Bs ^av\7rXXel^6v eK\7r\rjp6ov^ irXaTfj. o ydp^ fidKdpl\o9 Kov/c^ bv£l\8l^v.\ 6. The Spondee in the 1st Foot may be resolved into an Anapaest (^v-) : as, iKSTSv^bfMsy 1 as 7rdyWs9 qI\Bs TrpdaWpbirol. CiESURA. 147 7. When a Proper Name occurs which could not otherwise find a place in the Verse, an Anapaest m allowed in any Foot excepting the last : as, M.sy£Xd^b9 dyd ycop 'l&p^/ubyrjy | ^Trdprrj^^ dirb. VI. CiESURA. 1. By Caesura in Verse we understand the pause occasioned by the close of a Word before the close of a Foot. Note. — 1. The pause occasioned by the close of a Word and Foot at the same time is called Diaeresis. 2. Hence in Iambic Verse, a Caesura can only occur after a syllable in Thesis. 3. There are two principal Caesuras of the Iambic Trimeter: viz., (a) The Penthemimeral, after the Thesis of the 3rd Foot : as, & TSKva KaS/iou |j tov iraXai yea Tpo(f)7j, (b) The Hephthemimeral, after the Thesis of the 4 th Foot : as, iicTr}pioL9 KXdZoiaiv || s^soTSfifMsyot. Note. — Elision after the Thesis does not destroy the Caesura. 4. One or other of these Caesuras is considered generally essential to the perfection of the Tragic Senarius. Verses without Caesura sometimes occur , L 2 148 HAND-BOOK OF THE GREEK DRAMA. TRAGIC IAMBIC TRIMETER. 149 and may be justified by various reasons ; but they should be avoided by a young composer. 5. The Caesura may> however, be sometimes neg- lected without inelegance in cases where before the Thesis of the 4th Foot a syllable is elided, which, had it not been elided, would itself have formed that Thesis. This is called Quasi-caesura ; as, o5 (TTSfMfiaTa ^rjvaa || sTTSfcXcoasv 6ed. Note. — The 3rd and 4th Feet are never united in one word by the Tragic Poets. 6. If there be a Cassura after the Thesis of the 5th Foot, or in other words, if the verse end with a Cretic, the Tragic Poets avoid a Spondee in that place. Hence such rhythms as the following must be avoided : — 0)9 Bt] BsBrjjfiac ttjv ifjuavrov KapZiav. 7. To the foregoing Kule there are two principal exceptions*: viz., {a) When the Thesis of the 5th Foot is formed by a monosyllable capable of beginning a sentence ; {b) When the Arsis of the 5th Foot is formed by a monosyllable incapable of beginning a sentence. Hence the following rhythms are admissible : (a) ovfc ovBsv vycs9 art Xsyco rcov opyieov. KaXXiaTov r^jbap elaihatv sk 'x^SL/jLaT09. * This is generally known as " Person's Pause : " the reader will do well to consult the canons which he has laid down upon the subject^ in his Preface to the Hecuba. i I TTSLO'OfJbsO' orav he firj koX&s ov TrsLaofiaL. /jbTjrpoKTOVovPTas Kvpta 8' ^8' ri/jLepa. (i) dW' 0)9 Td'x^Lara 7rat8a9 v/uLsh fJbsv fiddpcov. olov rs fJbOL rdaS" iarl, Ovrjrots yap ye pa. el fjLOL XeyoLs rrjv oyjrLV eLTTOtfJU av rore. 7r(09 (f>y9 TLU* el7ra9 fivdov avdis /mol (j>pdaov. Note. — Although we do not treat in this place of Trochaic Rhythms, it may be noticed that, if we prefix a Cretic or its equivalent to the tragic Senarius, there results the Trochaic Verse used in Tragedy, viz. Tetrameter Catalectic ; as, Bevpo Btj I aKeyJraL /JueO* rjfjLcov /JLrjrep a)9 KoXSys Xeyco, Tov 'Fi}Jvrj9 I riaavras oXedpov tjvtcv ripiraaev Yidpts. Vn. Scheme of Tragic Iambic Trimeter acatalectic, measured by metres and Feet. Metre 1st. 2nd. 3rd. Foot 1st. 2nd. 3rd. 4th. 5ih. 6th. \j — v^ — v/ t ■" v.' r "" v/ — s^ "■ v^ v^v/ \j \J>^ \u • >^v>/ 03 \J wv-z — \^\J C3 \jy^ — • 1 phthem. Cae tS k L f { 150 HAND-BOOK OF THE GREEK DRAMA. VIII. Rules for the Management of Rhythm. Avoid (v^v/^) after (v.ws^) or (-^^). Avoid more than two Feet of three syllables in the same Verse. Avoid the frequency of Feet of three syllables in consecutive Verses. Avoid generally a Diaeresis* with stop after the 3rd Foot. Use sparingly a Diaeresis with stop after the 2nd Foot. Use sparingly a Diaeresis with stop after the 5 th Foot. Avoid generally a Caesura with stop after the Thesis of the 5th Foot. IX. Principal Rules of Tragic Prosody. L The Ionic l may be added to Datives Plural in 0C9 and a^y, as Xoyocat,. 2. The V i^eXKvariKov may be added before con- sonants as well as before vowels, for the sake of metre, as elTrav rdBs. 3. Hiatus of vowels is not allowable, excepting (sometimes) in the words av and t/, as sv cade, ri ovv. > 4. Elision of diphthongs does not take place, but only that of short vowels. Except oiy m for * See above, vi. 1. note. ELISION, CRASIS, ETC. 151 Obs. 1. Final t of the Dative Case is not elided ; nor of Tt, 0T6, TTSpU Obs. 2. The article is never elided, but under- goes Crasis, as raOXa. 5^ Prodelisjiion (the elision or aborption of a short vowel beginning a word, after a long vowel or diphthong ending the word before it) is frequent in Tragedy, as fjbrj '^ for firj s^ — fioX(o ^yco for fioXS> Jryot) — OLOV Wpd^r/s foY OLOV ETpd(}>r)9 — fJLOV ^(f)aXrjS for fjbov d^sXrj9 — Tv^p ^J^^V f^^ '^^XV ^y^^Vf &^' ^^* The limits which separate Prodelision from Crasis are not very accurately definable. 6. Crasis is the coalition of two words into one, when the former ends and the latter begins with a vowel or diphthong. The general laws of Crasis are, with some excep- tions, the same as those of contraction given in Greek Grammars. 7. The principal Crases of Greek Tragedy are as follows : — (a) Crasis of the Article, o and a into a, as 6 dv7]p = dvijpy to dXXo = raXXo. o and s into ou, as 6 eTrc^ovXsvcov = ovttl^ovXsikov, to SyKCOfJLLOV = TOir/KCO/JLLOV. and 7] into ?;, as to r/fiaTspov = drjf^aTapov. o and c into ocy as to l/juaTcov = OolfmTiov. and o into ou, as to ovoaa = Tovvoaa. o and at into at or a, as to aliMa = OalfMay t6 alTtov = TaT^OV. and av into au, as 6 ainos = avTosy to uvto =» Tat'TO. L 4 J 152 HAND-BOOK OF THE GREEK DRAMA. o and OL into o), as 6 ol^vpos = d>^vp6s. 7} and a into a, as t) apsxT^ = dpsrrjy rf) apsry = rapsry. rf and 5 into 77, as 97 svaslSsca = 'n^as/Bsca, rrj ififi = ou and a into a, as toO a^'Spw = ravSposy rod avrov - ravTOv. ov and € or o into ov, as roO ifiov = rovfiovy rov ovalSovs = Tovvaihovs. ov and ^ into 7;, as roO rfkiov = OrfKiov. ov and ou into ou, as toO ovpavov = rovpavov. (0 and a into o)^ as oi ai/af == o)va^* ft) and a into a. as tcS avanTi = rdvaKTCy tw avrw = CRASIS, ETC. 153 ft) and £ or o into ft), as to3 ifio) = rwfMS, to) ovsiptp = TCOZ^f/pft). ft) and 6 into ft), as rftJ IfiarLO) = Ocp/jLaritp. at or 06 and a into a, as ol dvSpS9 = avSpf 9, at apsrav = dpsraiy ol avroi = avroi. OL and f into ou, as ot i/zot = ou/i.ot, 6 iv = oui;. at and s into at, as al sfCKXTjcriaL = alicKkr^aiai. a and a, f, or at into a, as ra aXXa = TaWa^ ra avTCL = ravrdy jd sic = ra/t, ra alayjpd = raaxp^* a and 0, ft), ot, or ou into ft), as ra orrXa = O&ifka^ ra covta = Tft)J/ta, Ta ot^i^pa = Too^vpd, rd ovpdvia = Toopdvca. Ohs. The Crasis of the Article with hepos is peculiar : — Sing. djEpos, drspuy Odrepov, Odrspov, Odrsp^^ edrspa. Plur. drepot, drspac, ddrspa. (J) Crasis of /cat : — Before a, m, av, sc, ev, t, 7;, ot, ou, v, g), the crasis of Kal is formed by striking out at, as KdyaOos^ KalaxyyV9 i^civToSy Ksh^ ksvOvs, %tXfft)9, %^, x^'^> '^^^^ ypTTspy %^Tti^t. But /cat ftra = Kara. Kac and e into Ka (or j^a), as /cat hi = /cart, /cat £TSp09 = Xf^TSpOS. Kai and o into /cft) (or %ft)), as /cat o|u = /cw^v, /cat oca = y&aa. (c) The few instances of Crasis which occur in other words besides the above, follow for the most part the rules already given : as, syo) ol8a - i7ft)8a, rot dpa = rdpa, roc dv = rdv, fiot iari = fMovarL 7. Synecphonesis (or the metrical coalition of two syllables in different words without a formal crasis) sometimes occurs in Tragedy, The principal instances are, rj ov, firj ou, sttsI ov, /jutj elhsvaiy syco ov, iy^slfjLc. Here the beginner should adopt only such examples as rest on positive authority, and venture but rarely on analogies of his own drawing. 8. Synizesis (or the metrical coalition of two syl- lables in the same word without a formal contraction) sometimes occurs : for instance SCO, as iroXecos, ^AfJb(f)cdpS(09, vol : as Svolv. But the most frequent example is the word 6s69, which may be used as a monosyllable in any of its cases. 9. A short vowel becomes long before — 154 HAND-BOOK OF THE GREEK DRAMA. {a) a double consonant ; (b) two mute consonants ; (c) two liquid consonants; (d) ^fi, ^v, yfi, ^v, Bv ; (e) a combined with any other consonant. 10. A short vowel is common before 0\, I3py j\ yp, SfJL, Bp, ff\y 6 fly 6v, Op, Kky fCfl, KV, Kp, TtX, TT/i, TTVy TTp, t\, T/l, TV, Tpy ^\, fl, ^V, p. But a short vowel at the end of a word is seldom made long before any of these positions ex- cepting ^5 7\, and p. 11. A short vowel in Arsis at the end of a word may be lengthened by an initial p : as, si9 I sfjbs I psirov. 12. The interjections <^ev, acac and slev, sometimes occur extra metrum. 13. Urokis may be used for ttoXls to lengthen a preceding short vowel. 14. I is common in Xiav^ IdofjuaCy larposy opvL9, long in 6^i9y 6(})LVy kovls^ koviv. 15. O^ is common in irotsco, TotoaBs, tolovtos^ olos. 16. The final a may be lengthened in accus. of words in evs^ as ^aaCksd. 17. 'lAfiivy vfJLtP, may shorten the t by being written as oxytone instead of perispomenon, as ruAvy vfilv. X Dialect and Phraseology. 1. The Tragic dialogue exhibits a measured and severe dignity of style, equally removed from the TRAGIC dialect AND PHRASEOLOGY. 155 colloquial looseness of Comedy and the daring ex- cursiveness of Lyric poetry. Among many features common to a good prose style, it also contains numerous forms and phrases of a purely poetic character. -.7 2. The Dialect is the Middle Attic, like that of Thucydides. The Augment must therefore be always kept, the forms in aa preferred to those in tt, and the contracted forms only, with few exceptions, must be used. 3. Nevertheless some Ionic or Epic forms are used in Tragedy, as ^£cvo9, fjbovvosy aldy SpfjKe^y fisaao^, ^6r]y iposy ovvofia^ r^ovvara^ Bovph ttoXXo^, slXla-aayy shsKa^ ovvsKa, the uncontracted forms v6o9, pkdpov^ svpoo9y and the gen. £09 for scos^ as ttoXso^. 4. And some Doric forms : as ^AOdva^ Bapos^ I/cart, Kvvar/osy iroBayoSy Xo^xayos, 67raB69, Kdpavov^ apaps, ydfiopo9, yd7roT09. Also the ^olic forms ireBdpaio^, iraBdopoSj irsBai^^LO^^ /jbacraeov. 5. Note the following forms, as belonging to Tragedy : — (a) SCO 9 for aos, as Xs(09 for Xaos, vecos for vao^y XXms for 'CXaoSy MaviXacos for MevsXaos. (h) NaO^. Gen. vaosy vrjos^ or vadys. Dat. vat or V7)L Ace. vaOv, VTja or via. Plur. Nom. vaas^ vriasy or vam. Gen. vadv^ vrjcov or yacov. Dat. vavaL Ace. z^ay, vaas, or vavs. (c) Kdpa. Gen. Kparos. Dat. KparL Ace. to or Tov Kpara, or to Kdpa. Plur. Nom. Kdpa. Gen. Kpar&p. Ace. Kdpa or Kparas. {d) jovv. Gen. yovaros. Plur. Nom. yovara \ \ • \ 156 HAND-BOOK OF THE GREEK DRAMA. and r^ovvara. Gen. yovdrcov, (yovvdrcovy and / yovvcov. (e) ^KiroKKcov. Ace. ^AiroXkcova and ^AttoXXco. If) ''Apr)9. Gen. "A/Dfoy. Dat. ^Apst. Ace. ^ ''Aprjv and "Aprj. '(ff) Bopv, Gen. Sopos. Dat. 8opL Ion. Sovpi. (h) %f6p. Gen. %e^po^ or %e/)o^, &c. (i) z/tj/, (Tcps, him, her, or them ; kslvo^ for i/cf ?- z/o^; aeOsv for <7oO; otou, ory, orois for (A) et for i; in the 2nd Persons Sing. Pres. and Put. Mid. and Pass. — as BovXsc for ^ovXrj, oylrsL for oyjnj. (J) rja6a for r/^^ from sI/jlL (m) -ovTcov for -srcoaav, in 3rd Pers. Plur. Im- perat. Pres. Act. ; -adcov for -aScoo-av in 3rd Pers. Plur. Imper. Pres. Mid. and Pass. — as yaXcovTcov for ysXdrcoaaVy dcpaipsla-dcop for d^aLpsladcoaav. (n) soLKay Plur. sovyfisvy £l^acn. {o) olBa, olBa9y and olaOay olSsy taroVy Xdfievy tarSy taaac. — caOcy slBeirjVy slBcoy elBivaiy siB(09. — rjBrj or jjSstVy f]86L9 or fjBrjaOay yBsc or jjBsLVy rjGToVy yo'TTjVy ySscfjbsv or rja/MSV, ycrTS, ySsaav or yaav. Put. slaofiaL. (p) Attic Futures in & contracted from ^daco^ sacoy oaco (if the antepenultima is also short) as aysBco (cr^eSay, a')(aBay &c.) f€a\(o(^/caXec9y KoXal), ofjico {ofjbovfJLac). And in tco from Futures in laco, as oIktlS)^ ah^ sl^ &c. (?) 1^^ ^'^^ ^^^' ^^ ^'^^ ^^'^^ ^'^^ ^^^ ftVo), evt for fz;, 8ta4 virai for 8^a, utto. TRAGIC PHRASEOLOGY, 157 (r) ft'^iJ^ and svOv, fJi^sj(pL9 and /x^exp^, ^XP^^ and a%pt, aS^^^ and aSr^y. 6. The Rules of Attic Syntax are given in the Greek Grammars. The following constructions should be noted as peculiarly Tragic : — (a) Genitive. — 1. With sveKa understood, as rd- Xaiva T7]aBs avficpopd^. 2. After adverbs, as ttov yrj^i iroi yv(ofir]$: ovTO) 6pdcrov9. 3. After verbs of obtaining, as ri/y^az/o), KvpS), dvrdcOy aKOVcOy kXvco. Obs. But if a thing and person are expressed, then accusative of thing and genitive of person. (b) Accusative. — 1. Cognate, as svBsiv vTrvov, /cdfjiTTTSLv sBpas. 2. In apposition to sentence, as — Wvasv avTov iralBa, kircpBov ©prjKlcov drjfidrcov. KTSVCO (TSy ITOlvds TOV TTUTpOS. (c) Gender. — A female speaking of herself in the Plural Number uses the Masculine Gender, as irdrep (}>povovvTC09 irpo^ (f>povovvTas svpsttsls. {d) Adjectives. — 1. Often used adverbially. Verbals in tsos and tos very frequently. 2. Compounded with a privative govern a genitive, as akviros drrjSy d^jravaTOs syx^^^9 and are used by Oxymoron with the sub- l( 158 HAND-BOOK OP THE GREEK DRAMA. stantives from which they are derived, to reverse the idea which would otherwise be suggested, as /3/o^ a/3ta)T0^, vfisvaLOs dvvfJLsvaioSf /jLOvaa dfiovaos. 3. Limit a substantive used metaphorically, as^ — 4. Are used proleptically ( = &aT£ stvaC) as — £V(f>r]fjLov, & TaXaiva^ Koifirjaov arofjua. 5. With Article, for a Substantive, as to avverov for avvscTL^y ro aSx^pov for acocppoavvrj. 6. Superlative doubled, as TrpdoTcaros, Id^ar' {e) Pronouns. — 1. o8e for adverb; oS' a/^t, *here I am.' avrjp 2. T^is some one, = many a one, some person or thing of importance, some considerable part. 3. AvT09 avToVy frequently in juxta-position. 4. Olos or olos TS = toiovtos &aT£ ^ able to.' 5. M^ iTpos as 0so!)v understanding Xlaaofjuau 6. fjLT] crvySf understanding an Imperative Mood. 7. TaOra, ^ in this way.' koL ravra^ ^ and that too.' (/) Verb.— 1. Verb of sense governing object of another sense, as ktihtov BsBopKa. 2. Middle Future in Passive Sense, as Xs^ofiav^ TLfiriaeTau TRAGIC PHRASEOLOGY, 159 3. Imperative and Interrogative combined : olad" o Spaaop ; olaO^ a>s ttoltjo-ov ; 4. Infinitive, in prayers to deities, with ellipse of evxop^avj as, Oaoi iroTurac [iri fjLS BovXsias 5. Infinitive after adjectives, as koXos lBslp. 6. Infinitive with to for doars. 7. Infinitive used elliptically after co^, wairep^ as 0)9 sTreLKaaai — coaTrsp sucaaau. 8. Participle for Infinitive after olBa, Bsifcwfih ^alvofiat^ and other verbs, as a)v Bd^co <})L\09. 9. Participle in periphrasis with Tiry^avto, Kvpso). 10. Aorist Participle with I%g) for Perfect, as 11. ETryvsaa, sBscaUy sKXavaa^ aTTSTTTVca^ olBoy syvcoKu^ BsBopKa^ iri^vKUy used in a Present signification. 12. Participles absolute, as in the following phrases : — coy OVKST OVTCOV (t5)V TS KVCOV ^pOVTL^S Bt]. 0)9 Tolvvv OVTCOV TcovBs (Tol fjLaOslv TTapa. (g) Prepositions. — Note the following phrases : a/jL^l Tap^st, TTSpl (f>6^(pf ^ in terror ; ' — av0' &Vy ^ where- fore ; ' — (i)9 air o/jufiaTcov^ * as far as sight can judge ; ' — Bl aloyvos^ * for ever ; ' — Bua Taxovs, * quickly ; ' — Bca aTrovBrjs, ' zealously, eagerly ; ' — Bi opyrj^, ^ angrily ; ' — Bta tsXovs, ^ finally ; ' — S^* ^X^pas Isvm tlvI^ ^ to quarrel m''- ' ^ * ^ •mm ' " 160 HAND-BOOK OP THE GREEK DRAMA. with any one;' — Slu BIktj^ tsvac tlvl^ ^ to go to law with any one/ &c. &c. ; — ds X^pci^ s^Oslv TLviy ^ to come to blows ; ' sh Kacpop, £t9 Ssov, ^in needful time;' — sh aira^ ' once for all/ — i^ aiXinwv, ' unex- pectedly ; ' — SIC Tcov^s, ^ under these circum- stances ; ' — i| ov, ^ from the time when ; ' — i^ caov, ' equally ;'— sk jSLas, ' violently ; ' — Ik Iz^ias^ 'on the right hand;' — J^ aiToiTTov^ ^ at an invisible distance ; ' — tv<^\os EK BsBopKOTo^, ^ blind, after having had eye- sight/ &c. &c. ; — iv BsovTLj 69 hsoVi ' at a - iv viJbtv^ ' in your power ; ' — sv rdx^h * speedily ; ' — iv ofx/uiaaLy ^ before your eyes ; ' — sv Setvwy ^ at a fearful moment ; ' — sv (adverbial) 8i, ' and among them ; ' — ettI ^vpov tv^V^^ fTrl cr/jLCKpa^ poTrrjs^ ^ in imminent hazard ; ' — sir s^sip^ needful moment ; ' Jtt' ya(TfisvoL9y ' when the deed is done ; ' - ap^vp^y sttI KspZsai, ' for a bribe ; ' — i^' ypblv^ * in your power ; ' — stt' oXkov^ ' home- ward ; ' — TO SIT* sfjLs, ^ as far as in me lies ; — KUT rjfiap, ' daily ; ' — kut avOptoirov^ * suitably to a man ; ' — irap skiriha^ irapa \6yov, ^ contrary to expectation ; ' — Trap' ovSsv, ^ of no account : ' — Trpo? Oscov, * in heaven's name; ' — irpos tovtols, ' moreover; — 7rpo9. ravra^ ^ wherefore ; ' — irpos opyrjVj ' angrily ; ' — irpo^ rjBovrjv, ^ agreeably ;' — irpbs iBtaVj ' forcibly ; * — irapov, * when it is in one's power ; ' — %psW, * when one ought/ FIGURES OF SPEECH. 161 (A) The use of Conjunctions and other Particles forms too large a subject to be here introduced, but should be carefully noted and imitated by the be- ginner, with the aid of the "Indices in Tragicos Grsecos." He will find that very few sentences in Tragedy begin without some connecting particle or particles ; and by diligent observation he will discover the shades of meaning in which they are severally used, and learn where and how to introduce them in his own compositions. XI. The following Figures of Speech are in frequent use : — 1. Pleonasm. — avdc^ av — avOts av irakiv — ek6vts9 ovk aK0VTS9 — yvcoTu KovK a^vcdra — sv 6(}>daX/jiOL9 opcov, &c. 2. Ellipsis. — Hdpis yap ovts awTsXrj^ itoKls 7raTp09 TS KCLTTO fJLTJTpO^. 3. Periphrasis. — a. Verb with Object instead of a bare Verb, as /juv^fivv sx^cv for /xs/jLvfj' aOatf ajrovSrjv OsaOat for ctttsuBscv^ /^^XV^ TTOLslaOau for /jLaxeaOaCy &c. &c. b. Substantives: as Opjjvcov oSvpfiot — ^Xtov kvkXos — yrjs TTsSov — ovpavov dvairrvxcii — TSLX^COV irSpiTTTVXdl TTVp^COV (TTS^dvcO/jLa — CO kXslvov avTd8sXcf>ov ^la/jirjvrj^ /cdpa — AacaTL009 yrj^ (tx^I^cl — Trpoacoirov sir/svh TSKvcov — irarpos Kdpa — to firjrpb^ ovofia — ^vvacfMoy o/M/jua - — avo9 fisycarov XPV/^^> &C. &c. M 162 hand-book op the greek drama. 4. Epexegesis, Anacoluthon, Attraction, Hendiadys, Zeugma, are also very fre- quently used. The student should note examples of these in the course of his own reading, and arrange them In his note book for use. Analogy may be studied, but it should be cautiously applied. XII. Chorus. (a) The Dialect employed in the Chorus by the Greek Tragedians is Doric* (J) The Metres employed are various; among them are the following : — 1. Anapaestic. — {a) This originally consisted of nothing but Anapaests (^^") ; but gradu- ally the Spondee and Dactyl came to be admitted as its equivalents. (6) It generally occurs in systems, each verse consisting of four feet or two metres : as riK(o II hokix^s II ''"W^ Ka\Ksv6ov || hLai.LeL\^diJbevos \\ 7rpo9 as IIpo\fji7]6sv jj (c) Unlike other systems of verse, it avoids Csesura as much as possible : each foot may consist of a separate word : ANAP^STIC SYSTEM. 163 ) 8safJLOt9 I a\vT0L9 I ay plots \ iraKaaas (d) In this system, what is called Synapheia • The reason for this dialect being used in the chorus may be found above, Chap. II. page 16. 1 prevails throughout: in other words, the quantity of the last syllable in each line is affected by the word which commences the next ; as the final a is long before c\6\Tr)Td I cnrsvScov — And again on the same principle, the final syllable is elided in the following, — irarpos ^D\fcsavov ]| 8ep)(^9fJT j saiheaO^ ] r/ Ol(0 (e) Each system (generally) ends with a verse shorter by one syllable, generally termed a Versus JParoBmiacuSy from so frequently containing a TrapoLfjula, proverb or moral sentiment. To this verse is frequently prefixed a monometer, as irplv av i^ \ dypicov || BsafjLcop | ')(aXdari jj iToivas I T£ rlvuv || {Monometer.^ TTjaB al\f€la9 \\ 89akri\ay. ( Versus Parcamiacus.) Obs. 1. A monometer may occur anywhere in the system. Obs. 2. The final syllable of the Versus Paroemiacits is not subject to the above rule relating to Synapheia. Obs. 3. In the Anapaestic system, an Ana- paest can never follow a Dactyl. H 2 164 HAND-BOOK OP THE GREEK DRAMA. XIII. Trochaic Metres. The Trochaic metre of most frequent occurrence is the Tetrameter Catalectic. As has already been said, it may conveniently be considered as consisting of a Cretic, or its equivalent, prefixed to a Trimeter Iambic. ddaaov rj [x^ \ s^rjv irpo/SaiVSLVy Iko/jltjv Be aarsor (09 vlv lick\TEV(Ta) /MS adoaar to ys BUacov 0)8' f%ff iBlbv rj I KOLVOV irdkirais sTTC^spcov syKXrjfjid tu Ohs. 1. But this Trochaic Senarius admits no Anapsest even in the first place, and it must have the Penthemimeral Caesura. Indeed the break there is as decisive as if the verse were divided into two lines ; so that not only a compound word cannot be broken, but not even an article or a preposition is suffered to terminate the fourth foot. Thus the following verse is incorrect : ravrd /jlol BlttXt] fjLepcfJLV a \ ^paaros eariv iv (f>ps(n : For which we read, ravrd /jlol /jbEpifiv' dj>pa(TT6s \ ecniv h dpso-lv ScTrXr}* Obs. 2. The rule respecting the pause is also scrupulously observed: for instance in Eur. Hel. 1648. OcTTSp r] hUri ksXsvsl fju^' dXV d^\iaTaa0* \ sKTToBcov. (Porson reads d(f)iaraa.) * The following line of Sophocles Hermann considers to be excused by a change of person, the caesura being affected by the pause in the recitation (Phil. 1402.): TROCHAIC METRES. 165 Obs. 3. Anapaests are admissible only in the even places. The following is a scale of this metre : * 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. "">-/ •"V/ — ^/ — vy — vy -V "SJ v/v/v^ \^\j\y \JK/\^ \^\J\mf • 1 8. As the Tragic Trimeter Iambic admits Anapaests in proper names, so the Tragic Tetrameter Trochaic is supposed to admit Dactyls in similar circum- stances, and for the same reason, in every foot but the fourth and last. Only two instances, however, are to be found, viz. Eur. Iph. 882. and 1352. : . 819 dp* I I(})ly£\vscav ^EXsvrjs voaros dv Treirpcofispos : 7rdvTS9 ^^EXX7]VS9* a rparbs Bs | ^vpfuBo\i^a)v ovroc irap^v. In the construction of Trochalcs, if the first dipodia is contained in whole words, the second foot must be a Trochee : thus ^avspo9 0VTC09 ] s^sXsy^9al9 BscXo9 coy eltjs ^vclv is an objectionable verse: so also in Eur. Iph. A. 1340. For * " The later tragedy was negligent about rhythm in general and even admitted disyllabic words into a tribrach. Eur. Orest. 736.: Xp6vi05' a\?C ofxoos rdx^o'Ta | KaKhs il\ois. The more ancient did not indulge themselves in this licence, except in prepositions and certain other words closely connected, as — 5ta fcaKwv,— d Se ToiJo-Se." — Hermann on Metres^ p. 27. H 3 166 HAND-BOOK OF THE GREEK DRAMA. TLva Zs (j)£ir^£is \ rsKVOP ; 'A%t\Xia rovS' IBelv al aaTSivafCTos* ,, Hypercat. or Penthem : Ti TTOT av\daTs\\vsl9. Hec. 183. 2. Dim. Brachycat. or Ithyphallic : ZcLKTv^Kols s\kl(7&s. Orcst. 1431, 3, Catal. or Hephthem. : Twv d\rrdp6rj\T(ov iro^Kls. Eur. Hec. 894. (So in Horace : Non ejbur, iie|,que aurejum.) Dim. Hypercat. : as ^Yirni o II 7d^c\rds Tldlpls. Orest. 1408. 3. Trim. Brachycat. : ■■ V c5 TsiKvov^ ri\Kvdv Ta^divas || fuxTpos. Hec. 688. 95 Catal. : Kajdci^vsip Kd\Kos a a|7r5/cTfZ||m iro\(H$. Orest. 1467. DACTYLIC METRES. 167 Trim. Acatalect. : aW a|iXXaZ[|a Ta|;^i;^pa)|lo-To^ 7re\Kelds. Soph. (Ed. C. 1081. Koi Kc\al^vri\Tdv iTv\KvdaTi\iCT(ov o\irdZov. 1092. Trim. Hypercat. : rp^6ov\zls Zo\ixovSy lv\ av& l^\icdxTTd aol XeHyto. Eur. Or. 1397. Ohs. Bentley (on Cic. Tusc. iii. 12.) affirms that this metre is unknown to tragedy and comedy Gaisford thinks that the above are legitimate in- stances. XIV. Dactylic Metre. In Dactylic verse one foot constitutes a metre. 1. Monom. Hypercat. : OZStTToljSa. 2. Dim. Cat. on two syllables (called Adonic) : ■m' \ ToZcrS' ofw\^(!ivov. ^sch. Ag. 166# This verse concludes the Sapphic Stanza, as Risit Apollo. Dim. Acat. : tIs 8' sirl\TVfi^lo9 1 ov BslaWijvopd : rdySs yv^valKOOv. 3. Trim. Catal. on one syllable : "AprefMcWSos rs dtWds. Hec. 462. Tap Zsvs II d/JL(f>l7rv\\p^ 471. H 4 168 HAND-BOOK OP THE GREEK DRAMA. As Hor. Od. iv. 7. : arbori[busque colmse. Trim. Catal. on two syllables : iroXka ^ap || war aKa\fJbdvT09 TJ NoTOu II rj 'B6ps\\d tXs avpsl II KVfjLard |j ttovtw. Soph. Trach. 110. „ Acat. Zev^o/jiac || dpfidrl || ircioXovs. Hec. 467# 4. Tetram. Catal. on one syllable. CO iTokv\fckavTs <^l\\olal 6d\v6ov. ^sch. Pers. 680. „ Acat. with a Cretic at the end : VTTV ohv\vds dhd\rjss vttve || S' aXrfscov. Soph. Phil. 826. This is admissible only in single verses. In a system of this kind the final syllable is not common: * ad S' spX9 II ovic Epl9 II dXkd ^6||i/65 (f>bvo9 Olhc7rb\\8d hojjLov || (bXkak || KpdvOels al/j^drc II Seluo) \\ alfjudri \\ Xvyp^* Eur. Phoen. 1510. Sometimes a verse of a different kind is subjoined to a Dactylic system : d(f>6lT6p II a/ca/xa II rav d7rb\\TpvsTaCy 1\X6/jle\\vcoi^ dp6\\Tpd)v srb^ \\ sis erbs^ l7r7rsl\a) y8\val 7rb\Ksvd,v. Soph. Antig. 338. ♦ See above, Synapheia in Anapaestic Verse. DACTYLIC METRES. 169 The following is an instance of the Dactylic Tetrameter in Horace : Certus ejnim projmisit Apollo. Tetram. Hypercat. : ovS" ifirb II 7rdp6svL\\ds rbv v\\7rd ^s^d\\pol9. Eur. Phoen. 1501. 5. Pentam. Acat. : vdaol 6^ II al Kdra^TTptHv akl\dv iTepX\K\i(TTol. ^sch. Pers. 883. 6. Hexam. Acat. : Trpbs as 7i||maS6^, || co ^IXbs^ (o BoKtl/Jbcordrbs || EWdSc, dvrbfjLaX, \\ d/jL(j)t7rl\\TV0vad to || aov ybvv || Koi 'Xspd II hslKaldv. Eur. Suppl. 277. 288. See Soph. El. 134. 150. /i^Ss rb II 7rdpd"svl\bv irrspov \\ ovpsllov rspds jj sXOslv. Eur. Phoen. 819. Obs. 1. The Dactylic Hexameter is the metre of Homer and the other epic poets : and being scarcely used in the dramatic writers, needs not explanation here. Obs. 2. The Greek Elegiac Pentameter Is similar to the Latin, but admits a trisyllable word at the end: as dvfiov oTTOTrvslovT | dXKCfiov sv Kovly. 170 HAND-BOOK OF THE GREEK DRAMA. It is only once used in tragedy, viz. in Eur. Andr. 103. sqq. 7. Logacedic. — This appellation is given to verses which commence with Dactyls and end in Trochees, and is given to them, as Hermann remarks, because they appear to hold a middle station between song and common speech. lirjre irc^Tpaiiov X\koIt £9 \ oIkov. Hec. 938. eKToirt^os Gv\6el9 o \ jravrcov. Soph. QEd. C. 119. See ^sch. Prom. 138. 157. 173. 193. rjaOa (f)v\\TaXfjLl\d9 Bva\alcop. 151. w 7r6\?p, I c5 7ivf ||a Td\Xdlvd* | vvv as (lolpd Kd6\afihpl\d 6t\velf (f)6l\v£l. Electr. 1413, 1414. skff sirl I Kovpop f II/xoZp (f)l\Xotai \ irdvrcHs. Eur. Or. 1293. Ohs. 1. Spondees, instead of Dactyls, are not supposed to be admissible: otherwise we might refer to this description of verse, Hec. 900., — KrjhlK I olicrpoTd\Tdv Ks\xpoi(Tal : and also 455. 463. 466. 475. 629. The following verse, in which a Dactyl stands combined with three Trochees, frequently occurs in the tragedians : Brj^Ov/iop spoor 09 dp6o9. u3Esch. Ag, 720. XV. Ionic a Majore. (— w^) An Ionic verse a majore admits a Trochaic Syzygy IONIC A MAJORE. 171 promiscuously with its proper foot; the second P^on in the first place; also a Molossus in the second place of a Trimeter whole or catalectic. Resolutions of the long syllable are allowed in all possible varieties. Monom. Hypercat. or Penthem. : TTTcoaaovai p^v^X^^* Hec. 1048. Dim. Brachycat. : Kal aoocfypopd || 7rco\ol9. Phoen. 182. rj UoKXaZos | sv iroKsl. Hec. 465. M xjicat. . Zdj>vd 6^ ts\pov9 dpsyi||pft). Soph. Aj. 1232. Trim. Brachycat. : otKTpdp ^lolrdv s^ovadv \\ 0I1C0I9. Hec. 456. Xalpy fVTv;^t||a 8' avT09 o\pAXsl9. Or. 348. Trim. Acat. : jdv ov6^ v'jrpo9 II alpsl Trod* o || rrdvTcr/rjpm. Soph. Ant. 614. But this may be Choriambic, according to Hermann. If the three remaining Paeons, or the second 172 HAND-BOOK OF THE GREEK DRAMA, Pa3on In any place but the first, or If an Iambic Syzygy or an Epitrite be found in the same verse with an Ionic foot, the verse is then termed Epionicl XVI. Ionic a Minore. (v.^~) An Ionic verse a minore admits an Iambic Syzygy promiscuously ; and begins sometimes with the third Paeon; sometimes with a Molossus, which is ad- mitted in the odd places. Resolutions of the long syllable are also allowed. Monom. Hypercat. or Penthem. : fJbsXsd9 fjid\\rpb9. Hec. 185. Dim. Catal. or Hephthem. : sXards dKp\\oK6fiol9. Phoen. 1531. „ j^cax. * irdpaKXivova \ siraKpavsv. -^sch. Ag. 721. „ Hypercat. : hthhl<^psv\as ^vprlXov || (povov. Eur. Or. 984. Trim. Acat. : fjLovaB^ al6o\\va Bca^oi)\\a'a top aal. Phoen. 1537. The choruses in the Bacchae of Euripides are principally in this metre. This metre is once used by Horace, in Od. iii. 12., Miserarum est, &c. An Epionic verse a minore is constituted by inter- CHORIAMBIC METRES. 173 mixing with the Ionic foot a Trochaic Syzygy, an Epitrite, the second or fourth Paeon, or the third Paeon in any place but the first. XVII. Choriambic Metre. A Choriambic verse sometimes begins with an Iambic Syzygy ; as, TTs^pl/cd rdv II 6oksaiol\KOV. -^sch. S. c. Th. 717. and generally ends with one, either complete or Catalectic. It also sometimes ends with a Trochaic Syzygy : fjufjvss dyrjWpoos J(pova) Zv\vdaTds. Soph. Ant. 608. avTohai^KTol 6dv^cri Kal')(6ovld II Kovls TTcrj. ^sch. S. c.Th. 733, 734.* Monom. : ft) fjLol sy(jo. Eur. Hec. 1039. „ Hypercat. or Penthem. : rdvBs yvval\\K(iov. 1053, Dim. Brachycat. : a\Xo9 av\\yd^sc. 634. „ Catal. or Hephthem. : nrdpOpLov dl^\(o rdXds. 1088. * The verses corresponding to these in the antistrophe are— ' aloova 5' is 1| rpirov fi€V€i, i 174 HAND-BOOK OF THE GREEK DRAMA. Dim. Acat. : dfi(f)c K\aBol9 II E^fjLsvd. Phoen. 1532. 1. ^^The Catalectic Dimeter^ which consists of one Logaoedic order, occurs sometimes among the dramatic poets, repeated in systems, resolutions being rarely admitted, as in Euripides, Bacch. 105. : /8a6, arscpavovads KcaaS. ^pverSy ^pvsTS X^orjpa ciiCkaKi /caWtKapTTO). "(So in Horace : Lydia die j per omnes |.) " Systems of Acatalectic Dimeters are concluded with this verse, ^sch. S. c. Th. 924. ^^ halo^pcoVy ov (]>iXoya'' 07)9^ ETVfKOS BaKpVXSCOV Efc (})psvo9, a KXaco/jbsvas flOV fJbLVvOsL TOLvSs Svolv avdfCTOLvJ*^ See Hermann on Metres : p. 91. Dim. Hypercat. : rdv b fjLsyd9 \\ fivObs ds^\\sl. Soph. Aj. 226. 2. Trim. Brachycat. : TToXidp d(^dv&s II aldspo9 sl8\\(o\bv. CHORIAMBIC METRES. 175 Eur. Ph. 1559. 99 .zxcat. • vvv TsXsadi || rds 7r£pcdv\\iubov9 Knrdpds. ^sch. S. c. Til. 721 ^^ The latter form only of tragedy appears to have used resolved feet, as Eur. Iph. A. 1036. : ^^ rl9 dp viJLhval\o9 ^ta \(otov Kl^vos fisTa Ts (j>lXbxb\pov Kiddpas.^^ — Hermann. 3. Tetram. Catal. : d vabrds I| fiol cXbv a;^||^os', to Bs 7^||p«^ alsL Here. F. 639. ^^ Choriambic verses are found beginning with an Anacrusis, i. e^ a time or times extra metrum, and formino; a kind of introduction or prelude to the syllables which the Ictus afterwards begins, ^sch. S. c. Th. 313. : VTT I dv8po9 ^K')(aiov Osodav TTSpdofJLsvav drl/jLco^. Soph. Antig. 606. : Tav I OV0* v7rvo9 alpsc ttoG* 6 Travroyijpcos. 4. A verse composed of an Amphibrachys and Choriambus is common. JEsch. Ag. 725.: TrbiJLTra Alo9 ^evcov. Ohs. Horace has put a Trochaic Dipodia before Choriambi, and has chosen to make the last syllable of it always long, whereas it is probable that among the Greeks it was doubtful. Od. i. 8. : Te deos ojro, Sybarin cur properas amando. The most in use are Choriambics with a base, which the ignorance of ancient metricians ranked 176 HAND-BOOK OF THE GREEK DRAMA. CHORIAMBIC METRES. 177 among Antispastic verses. The shortest of these verses has one Choriambus. JEsch. Suppl. 42. : ^ 9 VVV SV I 7rOLOPOflOt9. Next is the Hypercatalectic, which is called Pherecratean. JEsch. S. c. Th. 282. : rot fjLSP I ^ap ttotI iTvp\yovs* rol ^ STT I afjL(})i^okoL\ 7rapd(f)p(op | fjbdvTLS e^vv \ kuI jva>fjLa9. Tj^ec I fcal 7ro\v7rov9 \ Kal TroXvxscp \ a Secvoh. This is done (ib. v. 129. 145.) in verses also without a base : CO yeve&Xa yevvaicov. VrjTTLOS OS tS)v ol/CTpa>9. Sophocles has used the Trimeter Hypercatalectic (Phil. 681.): aXKop I B' ovTiv eycoy \ olBa kXvcov^ | ovB' eacSop fjboipa. 9 Horace uses many Choriambics with a base, always putting a Spondee in the latter, and making a C^sura at the end of each Choriambus except the last : Ma3ce|nas, atavis | edite re|gibus. Nullam, Vare, sacra vite prius severis arborem. Once only, and that in a compound word, he has neglected the Cassura (i. 18. 16.) : N ad9 I KrjB6fisvov9 d(j> (OP TS ^\d(7\T6oa-cp^ d(f> (op r . k.t.X. Soph. EL 1058. KUl l30Trjpd9 I llTlTOPO[JLOVS. Aj. 232. ovhsv sXkfL\iTfi rfpms. Aut. 585. w Xi7Tdpd^(o\pov OvyaTEp. Phoen. 178. oXWpiop ^cb\Tdv Trpoadyels. Med. 989. XVIII. Antispastic Metre. An Antispast is composed of an Iambus and a Trochee (-- | — ). To lessen the labour of composi- * So also Theocritus, who employs this metre in the twenty- eighth Idyllium. •j- See Bentley on Hon Od. iv. 8. 17. CHORIAMBIC METRES. 179 tion, in the first part of the foot any variety of the Iambus, in the second any variety of the Trochee, is admitted. Hence we get the following kinds of Antispast : 1. 2. Instead of an Antispast, an Iambic or Trochaic Syzygy is occasionally used. The second foot of the Iambic Syzygy also admits a Dactyl : ■"^ — Vi/Vi/ Antisp. Monom. : ^> 99 99 (o iroTVC ripa* & (}>X "AiroXkop. ^sch. S. c. Th. 141. 147. Dim. Brachycat. : bfiol xprjp ^vfjL\\^6pdp. Hec. 627. Dim. Acat. : pofiop dvofjLOPf ol\d t19 ^ov0d* TV 8' e7rl(j)ol3d Bva\(f)dTQ} Kkarf/d. ^sch. Ag. IIU. 1121. Dim. Hypercat. : f/ioZ 'XP^^ iTri\iiovdv fysvs\(Tdal. Eur. Hec. 628. ToKaip ovks\\tI ct' Efi^dT£v\\a6o. 901. N 2 • 180 HANDBOOK OF THE GREEK DRAMA. Antisp. Trim. Brachycat. : raXalval Ta\\\alval Kopal || ^pvyaiv, 1046. 39 Trim. Catal. or Hendecasyllable : aOvpcTol 8' oZ||a vlv hpaiiov\rh ^aK')(al. Eur. Or. 1502. ^^ Euripides appears to have used a Trimeter in the Here. Fur, 919., followed by a verse composed of two Dochmii : \sySf TLva TpoTTov I savTO usoUsv STTL fjbsXaupa kc • 'Kc raSe, rXrjfibvds \ ts 7ral8(ov Ti);^a^." — Hermann. XIX. DocHMiAC Verses. ' A Dochmius consists of an Antispast and a long syllable (w— u-) ; therefore a simple Dochmiac is the same as an Antispastic Monom. Hypercat. : A pure Dimeter Dochmiac is not of frequent occurrence : the fourth of the following lines is one : akljisvov Tt9 (09 II s9 ovrXov TTSCrCOP Xe^to^ SKTTearj || (})lXd9 Kaphlds . * cfispad^ ^lov* \\ to yap virsyyvov hlKa Kol 6sol\\alv ov ^vfjbTrcTvsl. Hec. 1010—1013. * According to Hermann there are forty-eight varieties. DOCHMIACS. 181 Other varieties of the Dimeter Dochmiac may be found in the chorus in u^sch. S. c. Th. 79. ed. Blomf.— pal iroXifS ooBs Xscos || irpoBpofios I'Trirords. d/Jid^sTOV hlKdv || vhdjos oporvirov. dXsvadrs ^oa || 8' vifsp T6l')(sdov. tXs ape pvasraly \\ tIs dp" sTrdpKso'sl; 'TTETrXoOV Kal 0'TS(f>Sd)V II TTOT sl fJLTJ VVP, d/JL <^^ (TV T 'Ap7J9^ (f)SV, (}>SV, II K.a8fM0V STTOOVVfJLOV. ev TE fjid'x^als fidKalp || dvdacrd irpo ttoXsoos. coo TsXslol II TsXalal ts yds • — with an Iambic Syzygy. Also in Eurip. Hec. 681. 684. 688. 689. 690. 693. 702. 703. 707. 708. 709. The Dimeters do not always consist of separate Dochmii. iEsch. Prom. 590., S. c. Th. 479. : VTTO Bs /crip67rXaa\\T09 oTO^st Bova^. 6)9 S' virspav')(a 8d\tpv(7LV sttI irToXai. The following verses are also referred to the dochmiac system by Hermann de Metr. 1. ii. c. xxi . in which the final long syllable is resolved into two short (Eur. Or. 149.): KdTdyE^ KdTdySy irpoalff || dTpsfid9, dTpsfid9 idV XoyOV aiT0009i £(f> O TL || ')(pS09 SfJbOXSTS TTOTS^ 'Xpovld ydp irsaoov \\ 68' svvd^Tal. Also these, in the second of which a short syllable stands in place of the long, by the force of the pause on the vocative (Here. Fur. 870.): N 3 182 HANDBOOK OF THE GREEK DRAMA, "OtototoZ, arsvd^Wov* dTrofcslpsTol 26i/ dvdosy iroKlsy || 6 JSXos sKybvo^. A Dochmiac is sometimes connected with a Cretic, either pure or resolved : sTTTdTTvXbv I sBbs sirlppvov. ^sch. S. c. Th. 151. rdahs 7rvp\yo(f>v\dfcs9 ttoXIv. 154. Iksto Tspfiovlov II sttI ird^ov. Prom. 117. XX. P.EONI0 Metre. A Paeonic verse admits any foot of the same time as a Pseon, viz., a Cretic, a Bacchius, or a Tribrach and Pyrrhic jointly ; a Palimbacchius or third Pa^on is not often found. The construction of the verse is most perfect when each metre ends with a word. Dim. Brachycat. : bfioydfjids \\ Kvpel. Phoen. 137. 99 99 99 Catal. : ')(aKKbhsTd II T sfJL^bXd. 113. jjLcat. • BXolxbfisO^ II olybfiWd. Orest. 179. CpO/JLaOE9 ft) II lTTSpoq>OpOL. oll. Hypercat. : mdpo XlfwvvT^iols b^s\Tols. Orest. 779. dioiv vsiis\als fis ^Xk\vdv. 1356. P(EONIC METRE. Trim. Brachycat. : Kdrd^bcTTpvlybs bfifidal \\ 70^70^. Phoen. 146. Catal. : l3d\olfu Xpoji/ft) ^vydBd \ fJbsXsbv. 169. xxcar. . TO Bs KoKcos I KTdfjbsvov, CO \ fisya vaiav (TTOfuov, sv\Bos dvsBriv I hbfibv dvZpos. 183 99 35 XXL Versus Prosodiacus. This appellation is given to a verse in which Choriambics are mixed with Ionics or P^ons. Dim. Acat. : d 8e Xlvbv 1 ^XdKdrd. Eur. Or. 1429. vrjfidrd ff Zjero TrSSft). 1431. 99 Hypercat. : fibXirdv 8' dirb, I Koi xopoTToZJcov. Hec. 905. fidarbv v7rsp\T8XXoPT sa^Bcov. Or. 832. Trim. Catal.: Xdlvsols I 'Afi(f)lbvbs \ bpydvols. 114. 99 Hypercat. : iisydXd Sg I tIs BvvdfU9 \ Bl dX5(TTb\p(ov. Or. 1562. N 4 184 HANDBOOK OF THE GREEK DRAMA. ASYNARTE LINES. 185 XXII. Cretic Verses. Dimeter Cretics are very much used both by tragedians and comedians, and commonly conjoined in systems, so that the last syllable of the verses is neither doubtful, nor admits an Hiatus, and may be resolved. In these systems a Monometer too is assumed, ^sch. Suppl. 425. : (f)p6vTlO'0Pj Kol yspov I iravhiKcos rav (f)tjydSa | /jltj TrpoScS^, ray sfcadsv | i/c/SoXals Bvadsocs I opfjbivav. See also Eur. Orest. 1415. XXIII. Versus Asynarteti. Verses in which dissimilar species are united are ^0 called. Hec. 1080.: Sslvd^ Belvd II TTETrdvOd/jLsVy Troch. Syz. + Iam. Syz. Hec. 457. : SV0C TrpcoToWyovo^ rs ^ollvl^^ Troch. Syz. + lam. Penthem. A verse of this kind in which a Trochaic is followed by an Iambic Syzygy, or vice versa, is termed Periodicus. \ Eur. Or. 1404.: aTKlvoVy alklvov | dpyav ddvaroVf Dact. Dim. + Ahap. Monom. Or. 824. : rj jidrpoKTOvov || difia X^tpt 6sa6ai, Dact. Dim. + Troch. Ithyphallic. Hec. 915. : sTrlBsfjLvlop Q)s II TTsaolfJL ss svpdv, Anap. Monom. + Iamb. Penth. Or. 960. : aTpdrrjXaTOOV || "EXXaSos ttot ovtoov. Iamb. Monom. + Troch. Ithyph. Phoen. 1033.: ^8d9y s^dSy II o5 iTTEpovaac yds Xo^sviJidj Iamb. Monom. + Troch. Dim. Hec. 1083. : alOsp dp/TrTd\iiEV09 ovpavlov^ Troch. Monom. + Anap. Monom. Phoen. 1525. : rj TQ)V irdpolOsv \evyWkTdv srspos^ Iamb. Penth. + Dact. Penth., called also lamhe- legus. Obs. 1. The following are instances of Asynartete verses from Horace. Od. i. 4. : 186 HANDBOOK OF THE GREEK DRAMA. Solvitur acris hyems grata vice || veris et Favoni, of which the first part is a Dactylic Tetrameter, the last a Trochaic Dimeter Brachycatalectic. Epode xi, : Scribere versiculos || amore perculsum gravi, Dact. Trim. Cat. + Iamb. Dim. Ohs. 2. In these verses the final syllable of the Dactylic part is common, and elision is sometimes neglected : V. 6. Inachia furere || silvis, &c. 10. Arguit, et latere || petitus, &c. 14. Fervidiore mero || arcana, &c. 24. Vincere mollitia || amor, &c. • Epod. 13. : Occasionem de die : dumque virent genua, lam. Dim. + Dact. Trim. Cat., the reverse of the former metre. The same licence also occurs in this : V. 10. Levare diris pectora |1 soUicitudinibus. Archilochus is said to have been the inventor of Asynartete verges. COMIC METRES. 187 COMIC METRES. The Comic Senarius admits Anapaests into every place but the sixth, and a Dactyl into the fifth ; but here likewise a Tribrach or Dactyl immediately before an Anapaest is inadmissible. Caesuras are neglected, and a Spondee is admitted into the fifth place without scruple. Respecting the Comic Tetrameter Catalectic, Person gives the following rules : that the fourth foot must be an Iambus or Tribrach ^ ; that the sixth foot admits an Anapaest ^ ; but that the foot preceding the Catalectic syllable must be an Iambus, unless in the case of a proper name, when an Ana- paest is allowed ^ — in this case the same licence is allowed in the fourth foot.^ TTpcoTicrra fjbsv yap ha \ ^s Tiva ' ] KaOstasv a^Kokvy^as. ovx ^T"^ov Tj vvv ol \a\ovvTS9* ri\\t6L09^ I yap rjcrOa. iyspsTO MsXavLTTiras Trot&Vy ^alSpas rs^ XlT/li^fXo- t5)V vvv yvvaiK&v Il7}\vs\67rrjv^i \ ^aihpas S' aira^a* irdaas. Others are of opinion that in this kind of verse the comic poets admit Anapaests more willingly and frequently into the first, third, and fifth places, than into the second, fourth, and sixth ; but that Person is mistaken in restricting altogether to the case of proper names the use of Anapaests in the fourth place. V 188 HANDBOOK OF THE GREEK DRAMA. COMIC METRES. 189 The Caesura generally takes place at the end of the fourth foot. A writer In the Edinburgh Review states that ^^ Aristophanes occasionally introduces a very elegant species of verse, which we are willing to mention in this place because it differs from the Tetrameter Iambic only in having a Cretic or Paeon in the room of the third dipodia, and because it is fre- quently corrupted into a Tetrameter Iambic by the insertion of a syllable after the first Hemistich. In technical language, it is an Asynartete, composed of a Dimeter Iambic and an Ithyphallic. It is called ^vpcirlSstov TScraapsa/caiSsfcao-vWa^ov by Hephae- stion, ch. 15., who has given the following specimen of it 2 ^Ea>09 avi)^ iinroras | s^iXafi'y^sv aa-rrjp. Twenty-five of these verses occur together in the Wasps of Aristophanes, beginning with v. 248." — Edin. Rev. No. 37. p. 89. In Dimeter Iambics, with the exception of the Catalectic dipodia, the comic poets appear to admit Anapaests into every place, but more frequently into the first and third than into the second and fourth. The quantity of the final syllable of each Dimeter, as in Anapsestics, is not common. Like the tragic, the comic Tetrameter Trochaic may be considered as a common Trimeter Iambic, with a Cretic or Paeon prefixed ; but this Trochaic Senarius admits, although rarely, a Dactyl in the fifth place, and a Spondee subject to no restrictions. The verse is divided, as in tragedy, into two hemistichs, by a Caesura after the fourth foot. The comedians agree with the tragedians in excluding Dactyls except in proper names. In three verses Aristophanes has twice introduced a proper name by means of a Choriambus (-wv^-), and once by an Ionic a minore (w^ — ) in the place of the regular Trochaic dipodia. Ach. 220.: Ka6 iraXaiw | AaKparcBfj | to aKsXos ^apvvsrac. Equ. 327.: lJpS)T09 cjv; 6 8' I "iTTTroBafjiov | Xsi^srat Oaco/JLSvos. Pac. 1154.: ^vpplvas aLTTjaov s^ Ala\')(lva8ov tgov | KapirlfJiODV. The laws respecting Dimeter Anapaestics are in general accurately observed by comic writers. Aristophanes in two or three instances has neglected the rule of making each dipodia end with a word. Vesp. 750. : The Anapaestic measure peculiar to Aristophanes consists of two Dimeters, one catalectic to the other. T7]v8L In the three first places, besides an Anapaest and Spondee, a Dactyl is used ; so also in the fifth, but not in the fourth or sixth. Caesuras are accurately 190 HAND-BOOK OF THE GREEK DRAMA. COMIC METRES. 191 observed, subject to the same restrictions as in the tragic Trochaic, even so far that it must not take place after a preposition or an article. The Pro- celeusmatic is excluded. A Dactyl immediately before an Anapaest is unlawful ; so also when pre- fixed to an Ionic a minore (^^") in the end of a verse, as in these examples : Arist. PL 510.: El yap 6 JlXovT09 pkh^ue iraKiVy Scavsl/juec^ r ovT iv hcLTTLcnv • r/y yap vi^alvHv Wikrjo'ei^ '^valov V LCOV savTov. (Read BtavsLfiscsp r ccoi/ avrov.) Av. 491.: aKVTij^y ^a7uivf]9y a\(l>LTafiot^oly TopvevraavrcBoXvpO" TTTjyoL (Read ropvavroKvpaainhoTrqyoi.^ The rule of making each dipodia end with a word is sometimes violated; yet in this case, supposing the second foot a Dactyl, and the third a Spondee, the last syllable of the Dactyl cannot commence a word, whose quantity is either an Iambus or Bac- chius (^— ). Hence in Aristoph. Eccl. 518. : BiV/jL/3ovXoLaLV airdaais vfitv^ k. t. X. Brunck reads, BiVfi/SovKoco'LV irdaaLS vfuv^ k. t. X. The most frequent licence is that in which a long vowel or a diphthong is shortened before a vowel ; as, Aristoph. PL 528. : OVTOS. But Aristophanes rarely lengthens a vowel before a mute and a liquid, except when he introduces a passage from Homer or other authors, or in the case of a proper name. Thus the words of Homer are cited, in Nub. 402. : and Vesp. f)52. : 'Arap S) Trdrsp rjfjLSTsps KpoviSr]. •/ ^VX/\<4h 'tU-»r^A^ t^ 7yO*~^ APPENDIX. I. POESON'S CANONS. From the " Classical Journal," vol. xxxi. p. 136. r 1. The tragic writers never use pp for pcr^ nor tt for Kacriyvr)TOU ndpa^ and now uncover, sc. yourself. — Orest. 288. 25. The tragic writers used the form in -aipw^ not in -aiV«. Thus O 2 196 HAND-BOOK OF THE GREEK DRAMA. PORSON S CANONS. 197 they said ix^aipa, not ix^paipo). They also said iVxaiVw, not IcrxvO'ivto^ — Orest 292. 26. 06(5y, in the nominative and accusative singular, is not unfre- quently a monosyllable, and very often in the other cases : &T€pa ; where Creon's question is an implied affirmation that the messenger's previous remark was not true. But iras koI asks some additional informsition: as, ircos Koi ireirpaKTai Sitttux^^ TratSwJ' (pSvos; In this latter sense koI follows the interrogatives risy irtcs^ iro7, irov, iro7os. Sometimes between the interrogative and koI, Se is inserted, --Phoen. 1373. 39. 'Hs is never used for ets or irphs, except in case of persons. Homer has the first instance of this Atticism. Od. P. 218. 'n? aU\ rhp 6fjLo7oy &y€i (dehs ws rhv b^o7ov. — Phcen. 1415. 40. The copulative kcX never forms a crasis with eS, except in o 3 198 HAND-BOOK OF THE GREEK DRAMA. words compounded with 6? : it never makes a crasis with a^^.— - Fhcen. 1422, 41. No iamhic tetrameter occurs in the tragic writers which divides a spondee in the fifth foot so that koI forms the second part of the foot. Thus, there is no line like porson's canons. 199 / 1 I 2 I 3 I 4 I 5 I 6 I Koi yrjs (plXr^s ox^okti KpvtpQia koIX Tacpca, — Phcen. 1464. 42. 'AX\a fjL^v, Koi fi^jv, ouSe fjL^jv, oh fx^v, are frequently found in a sentence, with the addition of the particle 76, but never except where another word is interposed, thus : ov fi^v (TV y rj/j.as tovs rcKSvras tJScVoj. — JSur. Phcen, 1638. 43. The quantity of the penult of av^ip is nowhere long, except where it makes av4pos in the genitive case ; and as the tragic writers do not use the form av^pos in iambic, trochaic, or anapaestic verse, the penult of av^p is in these metres always short. — Phcen. 1670. 44. Porson prefers to adscribe, rather than subscribe the iota; a practice which was either universally adopted, or the iota entirely omitted in the more ancient MSS. The subscription of the iota does not seem to have been earlier than the 13th century* — Med. 6. 45. Porson writes ^vu instead of \oyu}^ and (pXayuirhs^ ad/n^s and Uidfiriros, 6,Cvi and &Cvyo9^ y€(J^u{ and v€6(vyos, €VKp^s and cvKparhs, and such others, are both Attic— Med. 1363. ^57, In words joined by a crasis, the iota ought never to be added, o 4 / \ 200 HAND-BOOK OF THE GREEK DRAMA. BLOMFIELD'S CANONS. 201 i unless Kul forms a crasis with a diphthong*, as K^ra for koI cfra.-^ Pre/, iv. 58. *A€l, cterbs, K\dov5f or wy Xiyouciv ol aotpoL 913. 8. In the active voice, ijl4\€iv signifies curcB esse, to be an object of care ; in the middle voice only iiiMaBai denotes curare, to take care. Gloss. 3. 9. ^rdpyo), cequo animo fero, to bear patiently [or rather to be content with, to submit to] ; in which sense ayairoLw is also used. 2Te^7w sometimes, though seldom, governs a dative case. Gloss. 11. 10. Tidy OS, a hill; from the old word iriyo), pango, to build; because in the first ages men were accustomed to build their huts on the more elevated situations ; whence, more anciently, irdyos was the same as the Latin pagus; the first syllable of which is long, being derived from the iEolic Trdyoj, sc. 7r^7a> : the first of irdyos is now short, because the more recent Greeks formed it after their usual manner from the 2nd aorist of vhyvvpA, Gloss. 20. 11. The last syllable of ir^pa is always long. Gloss. 30. 12. AiaropoSj or Aidropos, perforating or perforated, according as it is paroxyton, or proparoxyton ; it is used in both senses. Gloss. 76. 13. Kvk\oSj a circle, an orb is sometimes put simply for the sun Philoct. 815. Gloss. 91. 14. Mupia signifies TroWh, and is a metaphor taken from fluids ; from juLvpcc, to flow. Gloss. 94. 15. Tayhs is one who arranges; a military word, from rdaa'aj. The first syllable is always long ; but of ray^ and its compounds, short. Gloss. 96. 16. '05yu)/, the ancient Attic form for oo-fi^. Photius and Thomas Magister call it Ionic ; which is also true, for the Ionic and ancient Attic dialect were the same. Gloss. 115. 17. 'E/c7rA^(rera>, to drive out, is followed by an accusative either of the person or the thing. Gloss. 136. 18. Xa\d(a, to loosen, is properly said of ship ropes. Gloss. 183. 19. 1,Topia>, sterno, to spread, for which the Attics said a-rSpvufii, Hence the Latin word sterno. Gloss. 198. 20. AriB^v, scilicet: this particle, generally joined with ws and a participle, adds somewhat of irony to the sentence in which it occurs. Sometimes it is found without as, as Trach. 382. Gloss. 210. [ 1 21. Diminutives ending in {f\os have something of blandishment in them, as aifxvXos from aTftwv, rfivXos from rfivs, ^lkkvKos from fiiKKos or* fxiKpSs, ipooTvKos from epoos, octjulvKos, aiavKos, AttrxvAos, Kp€fAv\os. The form seems to be iEolic, because it is preserved in Latin ; as in the diminutives parvulus, tremulus, and especially «mulus, which is in fact nothing more than the Greek word alfivXos. All the words of this kind are paroxyton, and short in the penult. Gloss. 214. 22. Adverbs, of whatever form, are not derived from the genitive, as grammarians suppose, but from the dative case of nouns. The greater part of those deduced from the dative plural end in ws (sc. ots); some from the dative singular in €l or i. Those which were formed from nouns ending in t] or a, were anciently written with ei, since they were nothing else than datives, so written before the invention of the letters rj and w. Thus from fioe, gen. iSoes, dat. jSoe?, arose ouToj8o€i. But the dative of nouns ending in as was formerly thus formed; oJkos, dat. oXkoi, arparhs, dat. (nparoi; therefore all adverbs derived from words of this kind anciently ended in oi ; which is evident from the adverbs oXkoi, TreBo?, dpjjLo?, €vdo7, which still retain the old termination. Afterwards the o was omitted, lest the adverb should be confounded with the nominative plural. Thus from &iJLaxos is formed dfiaxt, not dfxax^l, from 6,paTos dyarl, from dfJLdxrjTOS rfjuax^Tl, from dcrreuaKros dareyaKTl, &c. The ancient form was frequently corrupted by transcribers, because they were not aware that the final i is sometimes long and sometimes short : short, as dfjLoyrjrX, Iliad A. 636.; fieyaKcoarl, 2. 26.; fteActo-rf, £1. 409.; dfrr^voJcrX, ^schyl. ap. Athen. vii. p. 303. C; doopX, Aristoph. Eccles. 737., Theocrit. x. 40., xxiv. 38.: long, as owSpwrl, Diad. O. 226 ; dffTrovdi, O. 47Q.; dvaifJLooTL, P. 363.; dvovTTjri, X. 371.; fi^raaroixl, ^» 358.; iyKvTi, Archilochus, Etym. M. p. 311. 40. (yet the last syllable of the same word is made short by Callimachus. Suid. v. i^xp^) 5 d(TTaKTl, CE. C. 1646.; dKpot/ux'i, Meleager, Brunck, Anal. i. p. 10.; djcXavTi, Callim. fr. ccccxviii. Gentile adverbs ending in n, as AoopidTt ^pvyiarl, &c., have the last syllable always short. Gloss. 216.* • There is, however, a class of adverbs ending in «s, as hacpepSv- Teas, irduTCDs, outcos, da(f>a\(Ss, d\7j66$s, &c. which seems more probably formed from the genitive than the dat. plural. See Dunbar's Article in the Class. Journ. vol. xiii. p. 75. 204 HAND-BOOK OF THE GREEK DRAMA. blomfield's canons. 205 23. Adjectives ending in us, when compounded with another word, change the vs into rjSy as fJL€\afxPa$^Sy irr^pvyooK^s, Kvvodapa^s, 8cc^ Gloss. 227. 24. 'AvTaficiPofiai, to requite, takes either a dative or a genitive case. Gloss. 231. 25. NijAews is formed from dvnXc^s hy aphseresis, not from the privative particle v^, which is not a Greek word. So there is vija-ris and &i/rja'TiSy vrjypcTos and avfiyp^Tos, vfive/xos and avfivcfios, vrj» kov(Tt4co and dv7jKov is short, Pers. 639., Agam. 55., (E. C 1767., Hec. 178. ; and long, Eumen. 841., (E. C. 304., Hec. 174-, Vesp. 516. 639. 9. The imperfect of anSWufii is but seldom used by the tragic writers. Soph. Electr. 1360.: d\V ifih A6yoLs ancaWvs. (E.R. 1454.: iy* i^ iK^lvcau, di /i* aircaWvTrjv, Bdvco. 658. 10. From (pdco is formed mcpdaKca, as from 5cta> ^iddaKco, from PdoD Pi^dcrKO), which should be replaced in Homer for the anomalousVord ^Pdadw. But the iEolic form irKpavaKCD is more frequently found in Homer. 668. 11. ^iQvvQ), not evdvvuj, is the more ancient Homeric and poetic word ; for the Attics used evSvyw, €tj6vi/os, evOvvr), &c., only in po- litical affairs. That Idvs was the ancient Attic word is proved by the compounds idvrev^s, l6v(f)a\\os, lday€V7js. 779. 12. The Greeks said ^aXafiLvides and ^aXafiivid^es, not 2aAa- fxmd^s; as also AetjUcwj/iSes and Xcifxcoj/iddes; Kpr)viB€s and Kprividdcs. 965. 13. ^Atpu^hs, opulentusj-wealihj : the more common form is axpueids* Gloss. 3. 14. neSoo-TiiSJ^s, terra mcecfew^^ walking on the ground. This word frequently occurs in Euripides. Compounds in o-tiPtjs sometimes have a passive signification; as riXioanP^s, P. V. 816. aaTifi^s, Theb* 857. Gloss. 132. 15. 'Ej/ vfup, penes te sunt, depend on you. The same meaning obtains, (E. R. 314.: 'Ev aol yhp eVAteV. See also Aj. Fl. 519., Phoeniss. 1265., Iph. A. 1379., Helen. 1441. Gloss. 177. 16. \^itol5vov, averta ; Anglice, a poitrel or breast-band, which performed the office of the collar with us. The word is formed from A€7rd(aj, decortico, to strip off the bark. Photius makes KewaBvov and ftao'xaAt(rT7?p the same. Gloss. 196. 17. SpaSafo), luctor, to struggle ; properly said of those who are in the agonies of death. Gloss. 199. 18. *avAos and (pXavpos are used in the same sense; but fiav instead of vv€VfjLa>v, but the lattef is the more recent Attic form. The gram- marians indeed side with Brunck ; but then it is well known that they derived their rules for the most part from -SElian, Libanius, Aristides, and other sophists, sometimes from Lucian, more rarely, from the historians or Plato, and very seldom indeed from the scenic poets. 61. 5. The Ionic ptj^s for vahs was not used in the iambic senarius. 62. 6. EfjxofJiai is frequently omitted before an infinitive mood, gee Sept. Theb. 239., Choeph. 304., Eurip. Suppl. 3. 75. 7. Tio) has the first syllable common in Homer, but short in ^schylus and Aristophanes. The first syllable of rha is always long. 77. 8. The first syllable of ""Ap-ns is sometimes long, as in 125. 336. 465. 9. Adjectives compounded of nouns in os generally retain the termination os : thus words compounded of \6yos, rpSxos, &c. in the trao-ic writers never end in as, that termination being more modern and less agreeable to analogy. 109. 10. Some adjectives have the three terminations, €ios, los, tfcoy, as 'linrcios, Unios, linriKSs ', SotAeios, 5ouAios, hovXiKhs, &C. The first of these three forms is used only on account of the metre. 116. 11. The last syllable of irSTvia is always short. 141. 12. The probable orthography of x^^^ is Kv6a. From Kveta is derived kvovs and Kv6a, as from ^ew, pods and fiSa ; from x^'"', X^vs and x<^«- ^^2. 13. M^ sometimes forms a crasis with u and els. 193. 14. The tragic writers never join dh and re. 212. 15. The words :^u tol are never construed except with the in- dicative. 220. 16. OijTi nowhere begins a sentence, unless fih, ^oO, or ttcDs follows, or when there is an interrogation, and then a word is always in- terposed between them. The formula aW othi is frequent at the head of a sentence. 222. 17. Ni;r is always an enclitic when it is subjoined to the particle /UT7. 228. 18. *Airo\4ya) is a word unheard of by the tragic writers. 259. 19. The Attics wrote S^i'os and hfjos, not daios and d^os, as is clear from the compounds dr)id\(»)Tos, Hdrjos, and the verb dri6co. AdXos however, is the proper orthography when it signifies &e\ios. 264. 20. Neay is a monosyllable. 316. 21. 'ny, in the sense of adeo ut, is only found with the infinitive 361. 22. 'TTrepKoiros, not inrcpKOfATros, is the form used by the tragic writers ; for there is no passage in them where the metre requires the latter form, some where it rejects it. A later age, as it seems, inserted the fx. 387. 23. ''Avoia and similar compounds very rarely produce the last syllable ; in iEschylus never. 398. 24. "A fi^ Kpdvoi e^Ss. In prayers of this kind the aorist is more usual than the present. 422. 25. 'Uls in the tragic writers has the first syllable common, but oftener short. 489. 26. Tep is never put for rovrep with a substantive. 505. 27. EWe yap is scarcely Greek. Utinam is expressed by el or cl yhp, never by eWe yap. 563. 28. Uo\4fiapxos, not UoKe^idpxas. That the Attics terminated compounds of this kind by xos may be inferred from the circum- stance that their proper names were "Jirnapxos, Neapxos, KXeapxos. 828. 29. In the Attic poets probably /x4\€oi in the vocative is always a dissyllable. 945. 30. Upayos is a more tragic word than irpay/xa. Gl. 2. 31. Words compounded of f>6eos were favourites with ^schylus, as voXvppodos, raxvppodos, inifipodos, aXippoBos, iraM^Podos, &c. Gl. 7.' ' ii 210 HAND-BOOK OF THE GREEK DBAMA. 32 From olfioi is derived ol^i, as from /xv, ^iC'" i froin^S, 6Ca> [from «t at, aldC.«Cu, ; from «&o7. *WCa.]. o;m«7^ is more frequently used than ox/xoO'Ma. 33 When 'EW^hto signifies rff'>;«o, absum, it requires a genitive ; -^.hen it signifies omitto, it is followed by an accusative. Gl. 10. 34 n,5p7a.M« is a fortification, or a collection of nvpyo, : just as xa''^"'M« and rp^x^Ma are a collection of x«^«' and Tp,;« 42. 2r.>. *«*"■««»' «"» '"^'"'"''' '' P'^^P"'^ ■which is water-tight- Gl. 202. 43. "EKr,xo. is formed from the obsolete verb .k.,voIo: as from ani^ or .(70., arv\oyos, BLOMFIELDS CANOXS. 211 XOopLTjcpSpos, and the like, instead of BavaTo, long. 1341. 19 The primary meaning of SUr, was probably likeness, simili- tude ': whence 5iK„Ao., an image ; and 5.'«r,., for Kara Skr,'', instar, ' 20 BoGs M yKd>acTV is a well-known proverb, and said of those ^ho being bribed do not mention those things they ought to disclose, and then applied to others who through dread or fear of punishment dare not speak out freely. The origin of the proverb may probably BLOMFIELD^S CANONS. 213 have been derived from the custom among the ancients of holding in their mouths the coins which they received from the sale of their wares. A similar phrase occurs in Soph. CEd. C. 1051. xputrca K\iis iivL yK(joiii|ii«i»ii ^- -y, .\^ .,.^;rA^m^M tm mwm ,^..'*j--»s-*-C;u " '■-' 214 HAND-BOOK OF THE GREEK DRAMA. cri/ios, and have a certain middle signification between the active and passive. Gl. 395. and Gl. 9. 30. *PiV is alvfjco) in Homer, and atVeVw in the tragic writers. Hipp. 37. 8. ""AprefiiP Ti/iwv Beav'] Not dehy, as Aldus edited and Valckenaer preferred: rj dehs occurs frequently in the tragic writers in the sense monk's canons. 219 ii| i of a goddess, but never when joined with the name of the goddess, as here. Hipp. 55. 9. *A^l6q> sometimes occurs in the sense of audeo, to dare, as in Heracl. 950., Pers. 335. and elsewhere. Hipp. 74. 10. ''Oaris in the singular is frequently followed by and referred to a plural. See Antig. 718. 720., Androm. 180., Ran. 714., Hec. 359, 360. Hipp. 78., comp. Horn. II. r. 279. 11. ©avfidCou signifies to pay homage to, or honor. Hipp. 105. 12. UoWcL x^'^P^^^ (ppoL(Tai denotes to bid good bye to, to quit, to reject, to discard. See Agara. 583., Acham. 200. Hipp. 112. 13. :^vyyv(jofjL'nv %x^^^ signifies (1) to grant pardon, and (2) to receive pardon or excuse. The former sense is the more frequent. (1) See Eur. Suppl. 252., Orest. 653., Soph. Electr. 400. (2) Phoen. 1009., Soph. Trach. 328. Hipp. 116. 14. The penult of ^dpos is generally short in the tragic writers, but always long in Homer. iEschylus has it long, Choeph. 9. ^opea is a dactyl in Iph. T, 1157. and Orest. 1434. Hipp. 125. 15. "hirXaKfiv, airKaKia, and airXaK-qfia, should be always written in tragic verse without m, as is manifest from the fact that there are many places in which the metre requires, none where it rejects these forms. Hipp. 145. 16. The penult ofyipaihs, ^eiXatos, 'Uraios, &c. is sometimes short. See Hipp. 170. and Comp. Gaisford's Hephsest. p. 216. 17. 'ApeV/ccw in Attic Greek requires either a dative or accusative case ; but the latter seems to be the more legitimate construction. Moeris, p. 175. says, ^'Hpeo-e ^e, 'AttlkSjs' iipead fioi,'E\\wiKW5, koI Koivm. Hipp. 184. 18. The active voice of (rwdirrw is sometimes used for the middle. See Phoen. 714., Heracl. 811., Pers. 888. 19. *iAos in the poets has frequently the sense of ifiSs. Hipp. 199. 20. Upda-TToXos signifies either a male or female attendant ; dfxcpi' vo\os only a female attendant. See Eustath. II. r., p. 394, 31=299, 1. Hipp. 200. 21. Uws hv denotes, in almost all the tragedies of Euripides, utinam, I wish, or, oh that ! but much more rarely in the other tragic writers. See, however, (E. R. 765., Aj. FL 388. and Philoct 794. Hipp. 208. 22. The iota at the end of the dative singular is very rarely -•"-■x^y^iqBgg— < *"»" " "'" — "J '' <> iil^ " 220 HAND-BOOK OF THE GREEK DRAMA. elided by the tragic writers : perhaps there are not more than six instances of such elision in all the remains of Greek tragedy. Hipp. 221.,comp. Ale. 1137. 23. The last syllable of kKitvs is short in the tragic writers, but long in Homer. Hipp. 227. 24. napaK6TrT€iv and i^avT\4(a are properly said of exhausting by means of an &vtKos or pump ; and metaphorically, of completing life. In the same sense the Latins used the derivative exantlare. Hipp. 902. 67. Noo-eTi/ in the tragic writers, is frequently said of those who labour under any evil, misfortune, or danger, [and may be rendered, *' to be distressed."] Hipp. 937. 68. KaTr-rjAcuo) denotes, to be an innkeeper ; and thence, to derive gain by fraudulent means. See Dr. Blomf. Sept. Theb. 551. Hipp. 956, 7. 69. Th ^a- tives. Alcest. 30. ^ 90. The ancient Greek writers never joined the particle tiy to the indicative mood of either the present or perfect Alcest. 48. 91. 'Uphs, in the sense of consecrated or sacred to, requires a genitive case. Alcest. 75. 92. In anapaestic verse the penult of fi4\aBpoy is always short. Alcest. 77. 93. The interrogative iriBeu has the force of a negative. Alcest 95. 94. In sentences where two nouns joined by a copulative are Q 226 HAND-BOOK OF THE GREEK DEAMA. MONKS CANONS. 227 governed by the same preposition, the preposition is frequently found with the latter noun ; — MeXAwj/ 5e iriiiir^iv jx Oldlnov K\€Lphs y6vos Phcen. 290. See also Heracl. 755., CE. R. 736. 761., Soph. Electr. 780., Sept. Theb 1034. 95. The plural forms Koipauoi, &vaKT€Sj Pa(Ti\€7s, rvpavvoi, in the tragic writers, frequently express only one king, or the retinue of one king. Alcest. 132. 96. There are many active verbs which have their futures of the middle, and nowhere of the active form, at least among the Attic writers: thus, ct/couw, aiyo), aiwirw, aSw, )8oa), a^xapTavw, Bvi^iTKca, ttitttcw, K\d(a, TTAew, ttj/cw, have the futures aKOiiao^ai, (riyijarofiat, aiwirijaonai, ^(TOfJLai, ^oiifTOfiai, ajtiapT-ntTOfiai, eavovfiai, Treaovfxai, K\avaofiai, irAeu- oofiai, irv^i(TOfxai. Alcest. 158. 97. Ov never forms a crasis with ofjirorc so as to make Sfjirore. Alcest. 199. 98. In the choral odes the sigma is sometimes doubled ; as, Med. 832. acpvaaafjLeuau, Eur. Suppl. 58. 'oaaov, Pers. 559. ^apiScco-t, (E. R. 1100. opcaffiPdra, Trach. 636. jweWai/, Aj. Fl. 185. t6(T(tov, 390. oAeVo-as, Philoct. 1163. 7r4\a(raop. Sophocles uses the form fiiaa-os twice in the iambic senary, viz., Antig. 1223. 1236. Alcest. 234. 99. It is very doubtful whether the Attic writers ever used ^ef« in the present tense. Alcest. 272. 100. ToA/AOj/ and the aorist TKrjuai signify, to endure, in spite of (1) danger, i. e. to have courage; (2) shame, i. e. to have the im- pudence ; (3) pride, i. e. to deign, condescend, submit ; (4) pain of mind, i. e. to prevail on oneself; {^)pity , i.e. to have the cruelty. Alcest. 285. The uses of posse are similar in Latin. 101. ''OSe av^p, for €70;, is a well-known formula. The feminine form ijSe and ^iSe yvv}), for iyw, occurs also in Agam. 1447. and Trach. 305. Alcest. 341. 102. The tragic writers were partial to the use of p^oaaol for children. See Androm. 442., Iph. A. 1248. Heracl. 240., Here. F. 224. 989. Alcest. 414. 103. Air€nt€7i/ with an accusative signifies to renounce ; with a dative, to fail or faint. Alcest. 503. ^ 104. With verbs of motion, the Greeks joined a future participle denoting the object. Alcest. 520. 105. The tragic writers allowed the omission of the augment in the choral odes. Alcest. 599. 106. AlO^p is found both in the masculine and feminine gender. Alcest. 610. 107. The penult of (pOivo) and os, " the philosopher of the theatre," " in iis," says Quintilian, " quae a sapi- entibus tradita sunt, ipsis paene par." With regard to Socrates, his friendship with this poet is universally known ; ib6K€i avfiTroieTv Ev- pivldri, says Diogenes Laertius. The comic poets of that time did not scruple to ascribe several of Euripides's plays to Socrates, as they afterwards did those of Terence to Lselius and Scipio. t Euripides being obliged to put some bold and impious senti- ments into the mouth of a wicked character, the audience were angry with the poet, and looked on-him as the real villain whom his actor represented : the story is told by Seneca. " Now if such ^ THE TRAGIC CHORUS. 235 rate and undistinguishing part of the audience from mistaking the characters, or drawing hasty and false conclusions from the incidents and circumstances of the drama ; the poet by these means leading them as it were insensibly into such sentiments and affections as he had intended to excite, and a conviction of those moral and religious truths w^hich he meant to inculcate. But the chorus had likewise another office*, whifch was to relieve the spectator, during the pauses and intervals of the action, by an ode or song adapted to the occasion, naturally arising from the in- cidents f, and connected with the subject of the drama: here the author generally gave a loose to his imagination, displayed his poetical abilities, and sometimes, perhaps too often, wandered from the scene of action into the regions of fancy : the audience notwith- standing were pleased with this short relaxation and agreeable variety ; soothed by the power of numbers, and the excellency of the composition, they easily forgave the writer, and returned as it were with double attention to his prosecution of the main subject : audience," says the ingenious writer, whom I quoted above, " could so easily misinterpret an attention to the truth of character into the real doctrine of the poet, and this too when a chorus was at hand to correct and disabuse their judgments, what must be the case when the whole is left to the sagacity and penetration of the people ? " * The office of the chorus is divided by Aristotle into three parts, which he calls 7rapo5os, (XTaffiyiov, and KoyL^xoi : the parados is the first song of the chorus ; the stasimon is all that which the chorus sings after it has taken possession of the stage and is incorporated into the action ; and the commoi are those lamentations so frequent in the Greek writers, which the chorus and the actors made together. See the second scene of the second act of Ajax, in my translation ; Phi- loctetes, act first, scene third ; the beginning of the (Edipus Coloneus, together with many other parts of Sophocles's tragedies, where the commoi are easily distinguishable from the regular songs of the chorus. t Neu quid medios intercinat actus Quod non proposito conducat et haereat apte. HoR. AP. 194. This connexion with the subject of the drama, so essentially ne- cessary to a good chorus, is not always to be found in the tragedies of iEschylus and Euripides, the latter of which is greatly blamed by Aristotle for his carelessness in this important particular ; the correct Sophocles alone hath strictly observed it. 236 HAND-BOOK OF THE GREEK DRAMA. to this part of the ancient chorus we are indebted for some of the noblest flights of poetry, as well as the finest sentiments that adorif the writings of the Greek tragedians. The number of persons com- posing the chorus was probably at first indeterminate, varying according to the circumstances and plot of the drama. iEschylas,' we are told, brought no less than fifty into his Eumenides, but was obliged to reduce them to twelve* ; Sophocles was afterwards per- mitted to add three ; a limitation which we have reason to imagine became a rule to succeeding poets. When the chorus consisted of fifteen, the persons composing it ranged themselves in three rows of five each, or five rows of three, and in this order advanced or retreated from the right hand to the left, which is called strophe f, and then back from the left to the right, which we call antistrophe ; after which they stood still in the midst of the stage, and sung the epode. Some writers attribute the original of these evolutions to a mysterious imitation of the motion of the heavens, stars, and planets ; but the conjecture seems rather whimsical. The dance, we may imagine (if so we may venture to call it), was slow and solemn, or quick and lively, according to the words, sentiments, and occasion ; and, in so spacious a theatre as that of Athens, might admit of such grace and variety in its motions as would render it extremely agreeable to the spectators : the petu- * lancy of modern criticism has frequently made bold to ridicule the use of song and dance in ancient tragedy, not coubidering (as Brumoy observes) that dancing is, in reality, only a more graceful way of moving, and music but a more agreeable manner of expres- sion ; nor, indeed, can any good reason be assigned why they should not be admitted, if properly introduced and carefully managed, into the most serious compositions. The chorus continued on the stage during the whole representa- ♦ The number of the chorus in the Eumenides was only fifteen : see Miiller on the origin of this error in his Dissertation prefixed to that play, p. 53. f It does not appear that the old tragedians confined themselves to any strict rules with regard to the division of strophe, antistrophe, and epode, as we find the choral songs consisting sometimes of a strophe only, sometimes of strophe and antistrophe, without the epode : the observing reader will find many other irregularities of this kind in a perusal of the Greek tragedies. THE TRAGIC CHORUS. 237 tion of the piece, unless when some very extraordinary* circum- stance required their absence : this obliged the poet to a continuity of action, as the chorus could not have any excuse for remaining on the spot when the affair which called them together was at an end : it preserved also the unity of time ; for if the poet, as Hedelin f ob- serves, had comprehended in his play a week, a month, or a year, how could the spectators be made to believe that the people, who were before them, could have passed so long a time without eating, drinking, or sleeping ? Thus we find that the chorus preserved all the unities of action, time, and place ; that it prepared the incidents, and inculcated the moral of the piece ; relieved and amused the spectators, presided over and directed the music, made a part of the decoration, and, in short, pervaded and animated the whole ; it ren- dered the poem more regular, more probable, more pathetic, more noble and magnificent ; it was indeed the great chain which held together and strengthened the several parts of the drama, which without it could only have exhibited a lifeless and uninteresting scene of irregularity, darkness, and confusion. * As in the Ajax of Sophocles, where the chorus leave the stage in search of that hero, and by that means give him an opportunity of killing himself in the very spot which they had quitted, and which could not have been done with any propriety whilst they were present, and able to prevent it : on these occasions the chorus fre- quently divided itself into two parts, or semichoruses, and sang alternately. t See his " Whole Art of the Stage," page 129. of the Enghsh translation. 238 HAND-BOOK OF THE GREEK DRAMA. VI. AEISTOPHANES ; HIS HISTORY, CHARACTER, AND WORKS. From " Cumberland's Observer," No. 138. Ut templum Charites, quod non labatur, haberent, Invenere tuum pectus, Aristophanes. J. SC4LIGER. This is a eulogy the more honorable to Aristophanes, as it fell from Plato, the disciple of Socrates. If I were to collect all the testimonies that are scattered through the works of the learned in behalf of the author we are now about to review, I should fill my pages with panegyric ; but this 1 am the less concerned to do, as the reader has a part of him in possession, which, as it is near a fourth of the whole man, he has more than the foot by which to measure this Hercules. Both the parentage and birth-place of Aristophanes are doubt- ful : he was au adopted, not a natural citizen of Athens, and I in- cline to think he was the son of Philippus, a native of ^gina, where our poet had some patrimony. He was in person very tall, bony, and robust ; and we have his own authority for his baldness ; but whether this was as disgraceful at Athens, as it was amongst the Romans, I have not been anxious to inquire. He was, in private life, of a free, open, and companionable temper ; and his company was sought after by the greatest characters of the age, with all pos- sible avidity : Plato, and even Socrates, shared many social hours with him : he was much the most popular character in Athens, as the great demagogue Cleon experienced to his cost, not to mention Socrates himself : every honor that could be paid to a poet was publicly bestowed on Aristophanes by the Athenian people ; nor . did they confine their rewards to honorary prizes only, but decreed him fines and pecuniary confiscations from those who ventured to ARISTOPHANES. 239 attack him with suits and prosecutions : Dionysius of Syracuse in vain made overtures to him of the most flattering sort, at the time when iEschines and Aristippus, Socratic philosophers, were retained in his court, when even Plato himself had solicited his notice by three several visits to Syracuse, where he had not the good fortune to render himself very agreeable. The fame of Aristophanes had reached to the court of Persia ; and his praises were there sounded by the great king himself, who considered him not only as the first poet, but as the most conspicuous personage at Athens. I do not find him marked with any other immorality than that of intempe- rance with regard to wine, the fashionable excess of the time and in some degree a kind of prerogative of his profession, a licentia poetica : Athenaeus the Deipnosophist says he was drunk when he composed ; but this is a charge that will not pass upon any man who is sober, and if we rejected it from Sophocles in the case of -^schy- lus, we shall not receive it but with contempt from such an accuser as Athenaeus. He was not happy in his domestic connexions. He was blessed with a good constitution, and lived to turn above seventy years, though the date of his death is not precisely laid down. Though he was resolute in opposing himself to the torrent of vice and corruption which overspread the manners of his country, yet he was far more temperate in his personal invective than his contemporaries. He was too sensitive in his nature to undertake the performance of his own parts in person, which was general with all the comic poets of his time ; and he stood their raillery for not venturing to tread the stage as they did. Amipsias and Aristony- mus, both rival authors, charged him with availing himself of the talents of other people, from consciousness of his own insufficiency. Their raillery could not draw him out, till his favorite actor Calli- stratus declined undertaking the part of Cleon, in his personal comedy of The Knights, dreading the resentment of that powerful dema- gogue, who was as unforgiving as he was imperious : in this dilemma Aristophanes conquered his repugnance, and determined upon presenting himself on the stage for the first time in his life. He dressed himself in the character ol this formidable tribune ; and having coloured his face with vermilion up to the hue of the brutal person he was to resemble, he entered on the part in such a style of energy and with such natural expression, that the effect was irre- / 240 HAND-BOOK OF THE GREEK DRAMA. sistible ; and the proud factious Cleon was stripped of his popularity, and sentenced in a fine of five talents by the knight's decree, as damages for the charge he had preferred against the author, touch- ing his right of citizenship, which was awarded and secured to him by the same instrument. Such was Aristophanes in person, manners, and character : as a poet I might refer the learned reader to his works, which speak so ably for themselves : they are not only valuable as his remains ; but when we consider them as the only remains which give us any ?:rrogam s/llfrsufflc.iency c^ tHe tragic poets, cuts with an edge that penctiates' the- eiaractci^, and leaves no shelter for either ignorance or criminality.^ ^ ^» > •,. A¥istophanes was author of above si^t^ eoThediea : Oi*^ comedies which remain are not edited aclcopdiigJo*th5 6rder bf tita'^, in J^hich they were produced ; there is reason to think that The Achar- nians was the first of its author ; it was acted in the last year of R i 242 HAND-BOOK OF THE GREEK DRAMA. Olymp. Ixxxv. when the edict was reversed which prohibited the representation of comedies ; and it is said that Aristophanes brought it out in the name of Callistratus the comedian. 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