MASTER NEGATIVE NO. 91-80023 MICROFILMED 1992 COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY LIBRARIES/NEW YORK as part of the "Foundations of Western Civilization Preservation Project" Funded by the NATIONAL ENDOWMENT FOR THE HUMANITIES Reproductions may not be made without permission from Columbia University Library COPYRIGHT STATEMENT The copyright law of the United States - Title 17, United States Code - concerns the maldng of photocopies or other reproductions of copyrighted material . . . Columbia University Library reserves the right to refuse to accept a copy order if, in its judgement, fulfillment of the order would involve violation of the copyright law. AUTHOR: HOWE, SON I A TITLE: SOME RUSSIAN PLACE: LONDON DA TE : 1916 COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY LIBRARIES PRESERVATION DEPARTMENT BIBLIOGRAPHIC MICROFORM TARGET Master Negative # ^\ '800 2^-5" Original Material as Filmed - Existing Bibliographic Record 947 H8383 Hon e, Sonia Elizabeth, 1871- Some Russiau heroes, saints and sinners, leirendary and Si? Vifli^r ''i V "" •• '''''' ^-^>-four illustratio" i^onclon, W ilhanis and Norgate, 1916. xvi, 370 p. front., Illus., plates, ports. 23 cru. "List of authorities" : p. 3G5-370. Restrictions on Use: 2JCusala— Hist. 2. Kussia— Ijlug. i. Title. DK^r.IlC -^ Library of Congress ; tuolhii 17—15658 TECHNICAL MICROFORM DATA FILM SIZE: 3S' REDUCTION RATIO:__/^J^ IMAGE PLACEMENT: lA /^aT IB IIB DATE FILMED: j/JX3l INITIALS i_Jr_l FILMED BY: RESEARCH PUBLICATIONS. INC WOODBRIDGH, CT c Association for information and Image Management 1 1 00 Wayne Avenue, Suite 1 1 00 Silver Spring, Maryland 20910 301/587-8202 El Centimeter 123456789 10 11 iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiliiiiliiiiliiiiliiiiliiiiliiiiliiiiliiiiliiiiliiiiliiiiliiiiliiiilii^ TTT Inches 1 1 1 1 1 1 TTT I rr I I I I I 1.0 IM 12.8 m 1^ 3.2 ^ m Utau 1.4 2.5 22 I.I 2.0 1.8 1.6 1.25 12 13 14 15 mm liiiiliiiiliiiili TTT T I MnNUFfiCTURED TO fillM STRNDRRDS BY fiPPLIEID IMRGEp INC. ■^ ^>-* THE LIBRARIES l>\ A"^ (^ 0^ \ SOME RUSSIAN HEROES SAINTS AND SINNERS LEGEND ^RT AND HISTORICAL BY . SONIA E. HOWE AUTHOR OF "a thousand years of RUSSIAN HISTORY," " THE FALSE DUITKI A RUSSIAN ROMANCE AND TRAGEDY*' IVJTH FORTY-FOUR ILLUSTRATIONS !|' LONDON WILLIAMS AND NORGATE 14 HENRIETTA STREET, COVENT GARDEN, W.C. 1916 _V.»-^'* ,--' j_- •*..-— »i5»,fc^_^-«>-.V;^ — ._J=—- , j // S3F3 Printbd in Qrkat Britain by Richard Clay & Sons, Limited, brunswick st., stamford 9t., 3.e. and bungay suffolk. a. lu TO THE MEMORY OF ALL HEROIC SOULS THAT HAVE ENRICHED THE STORY OF RUSSIAN LIFE IN THE PAST THESE TALES ARE OFFERED AND IN HONOUR OF THE PATIENT, GREATLY DARING RUSSIAN SOLDIER OF TO-DAY AUTHOR'S PREFACE While my first book, A Thousand Tears of Russian History^ was an attempt to trace on a large canvas the broad outlines of Russia's political development, and to sketch in the figures of rulers who stamped their personality on their era, this volume aims at the elaboration of some of these portraits, and also at filling in other, secondary, figures which give fulness to the general effect, and life to the picture. As Russia has so many more national heroes, legendary as well as historical, than those portrayed in the following pages, the qualifying word "Some" had to appear in the title. There are many other martial heroes whose deeds are chronicled in the annals of her history, as well as numerous noble and heroic souls whose names stand for all that makes life worth living ; there is a whole galaxy of saints — not canonized by the Church — ^whose memory has been enshrined in the hearts of those who witnessed their Christ-like lives, and a gallery could be filled with portraits of interesting sinners. The few characters set forth in chronological sequence in this volume must, however, suffice for the present. Of necessity only those historic personalities have been selected who are types of their generation and proto- types of the Russians of to-day. It may surprise some not to find special chapters devoted to Boris vu Vlll AUTHOR'S PREFACE Godounov and Awakum ; these I had prepared, but when my MS. was complete, the limits of space, which the publishers decided to adopt, made it necessary for me either to omit some chapters altogether, or to compress them all. I chose the former plan, but hope to publish the two monographs at some future time. Since temperament changes little with the centuries, it is hoped that these tales may help to make the present generation of Russians better understood — the bravery of the fighting men, the patient endurance of hardship by the masses, the deep religious feeling of the people — no less than the moral courage and strength of conviction displayed by those who have suffered in the cause of liberty. In order to convey a correct impression of the position the individuals portrayed in this book hold in the mind of the Russian people, and to give a true picture of their character and influence, not merely historical works or official records, but folklore and legend, as well as contemporary narratives and de- scriptions, foreign and native, have been searched out, studied, and in certain instances quoted in extenso. The illustrations have been taken from various sources — initials and tail-pieces from ancient Russian MSS. and from contemporary works on Russia, while the plates are mostly copies of pictures by modern Russian artists. My thanks are once more due to the same friends ' zho so kindly assisted me in my first effort. I hope, in a third book, to supply a more detailed background to the picture of Russian life ; in fact, AUTHOR'S PREFACE IX to deal with the history of Russian civilization from the earliest period up to the time of Peter the Great, when Muscovy began to come into line with the West. This series will, 1 trust, supply such information as may be desired by lovers of that Russia which is thus described by the poet — " Never can the reason master, Never shall the foot-rule measure Russia's own peculiar essence — Faith alone can fathom Russia." SoNiA E. Howe. 5/. Luke^s Vicarage, May ^thy 1916. ^ / I I '11 CONTENTS CHAP. , PACB author's preface V I PREHISTORIC RUSSIA I II OLEG THE WISE ,,14 III HOW OLGA, PRINCE IGOR'S WIDOW, AVENGED HIS DEATH, AND HOW SHE VISITED THE GREEK EMPEROR AT CONSTANTINOPLE . . . .24 IV HOW VLADIMIR, "FAIR SUN," BECAME ST. VLADIMIR. 36 V PREDSLAVA AND GRADISLAVA, DAUGHTERS OF THE PRINCE OF POLOTSK 55 VI THE MONGOL INVASION AND ALEXANDER NEVSKI . 69 VII DMITRI DONSKOI AND THE BATTLE OF KULIKOVO 92 VIII SERGEI RADONEJSKI, THE " WONDERFUL OLD MAN " . I08 IX IVAN THE TERRIBLE AND THE METROPOLITAN PHILIP 1 27 X HOW YERMAK CONQUERED SIBERIA . . * . I92 XI THE FALSE DMITRI 228 XII PATRIOTS ALL 29 1 XIII THE PROTOPOPE AWAKUM AND THE BOYARYINIA MOROZOV 323 EPILOGUE 360 LIST OF AUTHORITIES 365 xi LIST OF PLATES FUNERAL OF A RUSSIAN PRINCE .... Frontispiece From the fresco by G. T. Semiradski, on a wall of the Russian Historical Museum of Moscow. OLEG THE WISE ^ r^ » From the drawing by Bilibin. PROCESSIONAL IMAGE OF THE VIRGIN OF SMOLENSK . In the Archangel Cathedral of Moscow. "BOGATYRI." THREE BOLD KNIGHTS .... From the painting by V. M. Vaznetsov, in the Tretyakov (jallery, Moscow. ALEXANDER NEVSKI BEFORE GOING INTO BATTLE . . 8o From the painting by Kramskoi. DMITRI DONSKOI BEING BLESSED BY SERGEI RADONEJSKI . lOO From the painting by N. Novoskoltscv. THE LABOURS OF SERGEI From the painting by M. B. Nesterov, in the Tretyakov Gallery' Moscow. '* THE LAST MOMENTS OF THE METROPOLITAN PHILIP . From the painting by N. Novoskoltsev. IVAN THE TERRIBLE From the painting by V. M. Vaznetsov, in the Tretyakov Gallery. Moscow. '* THE CONQUEST OF SIBERIA From the painting by V. J. Sourikov, in the Emperor Alexander III Museum, Petrograd. STATUE OF YERMAK By Antakolski. ZAPOROGIAN COSSACKS From the painting by J. E. Repin, in the Emperor Alexander III Museum, Petrograd. xiu i8 46 118 176 186 200 220 250 *iw XIV LIST OF PLATES ■ ) rii "coming"— A MOSCOW CROWD .... From the painting by Ryaboushkin, in the Emperor Alexander III Museum. Wf^tmoraA '^ To /tee page 270 Museum, Petrograd. OLD MOSCOW. THE CATHEDRAL PLACE WITHIN THE KREMLIN IN THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY From a contemporary drawing. PRESENTATION OF THE CROWN TO MICHAEL ROMANOFF THE BOYARYINIA MOROZOV ^'°Mo^ow ^'""'"^ ^^ ^' ^' ^''""*'°^' "^ the Tretyakov Gallery,' 312 320 340 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS IN THE TEXT PAGE ARCHAIC GOLD ORNAMENT j Excavated in 1763 in the Cherson Government. SCYTHIAN TAMING HORSES j^ From a large silver vase of the fourth century B.C. excavated near the Dnieper. WARRIOR ^ .14 From a fresco in the Cathedral of St. Sophia, Kiev. VIKING SHIP 23 GREEK GRIVNA, OR IKON . . . . . . .24 Worn on a chain, tenth century. CROSS ^e From the illuminated cover of a Byzantine Gospel of the tenth century. » GROUP OF WARRIORS ^6 From a fresco in the cupola of St. Sophia, Kiev, eleventh century. THE COIN OF VLADIMIR ^^ Discovered in 1812. On the obverse is written : " Vladimir his Golden Coin"; on the reverse : "Jesus Christ." RUSSIAN PRINCESS cc Fresco from the staircase in the Cathedral of St. Sophia, Kiev, eleventh century. ILLUMINATION 53 From a Russian MS. Gospel of 1 164, in the Roumyantsev Museum, Moscow. CASTLE OF NOVGOROD, " WELIKI-NOVGOROD " ... 69 From an engraving in Olearius's Travels ^ 1635. TATAR ON HORSEBACK ^j From Ides-Isbrant, Three Years' Travel, 1706. XV (If xvi LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS PACE WARRIORS RIDING INTO BATTLE ..-••92 From the Life of Boris and Gleb, fourteenth century MS. BANNER OF DMITRI DONSKOI, WITH THE IKON OF OUR LORD 107 . 108 ILLUMINATION From a Russian MS. of the Gospels, fourteenth century, now in the Voskresensk Monastery, or *' New Jerusalem," m the Crovern- ment of Moscow. CLERGY AND LAITY AT MEAL ^^" From a fourteenth century MS. CHURCH OF VASSILI BLAJENYI, 1 55 S'^ 5^0 • • .127 THE TSAR IVAN RECEIVING VISITORS . • • - ^9^ From the MS. Chronicle Tsarstvennaya Kneega, describing the events of the reign of Ivan IV from the years 1 533-1 553- RUSSIANS CARRYING BUNDLES OF SABLE SKINS . • 1 9* s Taken from the facsimile of a contemporary woodcut representing the Russian Embassy to Regensburg in 1576. RUSSIAN SLEDGE * ^^7 From an engraving in Baron YitxhtxsXAXXisMuscoviter Wunderbare Historien, 1567' FOREIGN MERCENARY . . . • • • .225 By De Gheyn, after Goltzius, 1558-1617. THE SMALL PALACE 29I Built by Dmitri for himself and Marina, 1605. From Isaac Massa's Histoire des Guerres de la Moscovie, 1610. NIJNI-NOVGOROD ^9 2 From an engraving in Olearius's Travels, 1635. CATHEDRAL OF THE TRINITY OF THE TROITSA-SERGEI MONASTERY 321 Built in 1423. FIGURE OF PRIEST 32 2 From an engraving in Baron Herbcrstein's Muscoviter Wunderbare Historien, 1567. LADIES DRIVING 359 From the MS. Chronicle Tsarstvennaya Kneega of the sixteenth century. THE USPENSKI SOBOR OF MOSCOW 3^° Built by Fiorovante of Bologna in I47S-I479 ^y order of the Tsar Ivan III. DETAIL OF THE KREMLIN IN 160O . . . • • 3"3 SOME RUSSIAN HEROES, SAINTS AND SINNERS CHAPTER I PREHISTORIC RUSSIA URING the course of centuries, many nations and tribes had swept like waves of the sea over the vast plains of South-eastern Europe. In the earlier years of the era with which we are dealing, the Slav tribes penetrated into Europe, settling on tracts of land deserted ARCHAIC GOLD ORNAMENT. by the preceding races, who had either migrated further west or had ceased to exist altogether ; and there, where in classic times the Scythians and Sarmatians had lived, the Slavs now became the predominant race. As time went on, some of these tribes pushed on further west, north and south. 2 SOME RUSSIAN HEROES and formed a wedge between the Teutonic tribes in the west, the Finnish in the north and north-east, and the Greeks in the south. During this process of colonization they absorbed certain of the Finnish tribes, permeated others, and in some cases, as in the Balkan Peninsula, they gradually ousted the original inhabitants. Between them and their Teutonic neigh- bours, however, no fusion was possible ; for there has always been, from earliest times, an insurmountable barrier of race antagonism. Later on the Slavonic race split up into various nations, each consisting of many tribes, one of which the Polyans, or "People of the Plains," formed the nucleus of the future Russian nation. In close relation to the Polyans stood the Drevlyans, the Krivitchi, the Siviryans, the Tivertse and Dulibes, all of whom were eventually amalgamated into the Russian nation. The cradle of this new nation was the narrow strip of land on the middle reaches of the mighty river Boristhenes or Dnieper, where Kiev now stands. It has been suggested that the name " Russ " was derived from the tributary of that name which flows into the Dnieper. The exact origin of the Russian people is, however, shrouded in mystery, and authentic informa- tion concerning the Russians of prehistoric days has come down to us only through the writings of certain Byzantine Emperors or through reports of Jewish and Arab merchants ; for the earliest contact between the Slavs of the Dnieper region and other nations appears to have been primarily commercial. There on the northern shores of the Euxine, where .PREHISTORIC RUSSIA 3 Balaclava, Inkerman and Perekop now stand, first Phoenician and then Greek colonists had penetrated into the hinterland. Inside the funeral mounds [tumuli) of the earliest periods, archaeologists have found evidence of this intercourse with ancient Greek civilization. At a later date it was Byzantium which sent her mer- chandise into South-eastern Europe, and Byzantine silversmiths and goldsmiths wrought curious devices for the Slavonic barbarians, who loved to adorn them- selves with enamelled or jewelled ornaments and with gorgeous silks woven by Greek hands. Byzantine merchants were, however, forbidden to sell to the Russian traders any roll of silk material worth more than fifty pieces of gold ; evidently such rare silks were to be kept for the exclusive use of the Byzantine ilite. In return for these articles of luxury, the Russian merchants brought to the great city on the Bosphorus the more homely products of their native country — woodwork, honey, wax, furs, linen, and, last but not least, slaves. The middle-men for the slave-trade were mostly Jews ; the fair Russian maidens of whom they had to dispose were much in demand, and their charms have been vividly described by Persian connoisseurs of female beauty. In order to reach the world-market of Byzantium, Russian traders had to undertake a long, tedious and perilous journey in little boats which the forest- dwellers prepared by thousands during the long, dreary winter. In spring-time these were brought to Kiev, the commercial and, later on, also the 4 SOME RUSSIAN HEROES strategic centre of the new State — the " Russian Land." There merchants from all parts of the country met, and, having purchased at a kind of fair the goods brought thither by hunters and woods- men, they provided themselves with boats and started off in large parties down the Dnieper to the great markets of the South. These expeditions were by no means light or simple undertakings, but were full of danger and vicissitudes, for over the vast steppes on the eastern side of the river roamed the wild Petchenegs, who attacked and robbed the river caravans whenever possible, and in order to safeguard themselves against attack, the Russian merchants requisitioned the protection of armed men. It was not, however, only having to keep continually on the alert against the enemy that made the journey irksome, it was the nature of the river itself ; at a certain point, where thirteen rapids made navigation impossible, the boats had to be taken out of the water and dragged along the banks, or even carried upon the shoulders of the men. Besides all this, the harassed merchants had to keep an eye on their human merchandise — the slaves — who were chained together in order to prevent them from escaping. Thus, after a long, dangerous and wearisome journey, the Russians at last reached the open waters of the Black Sea — the " Russian Sea,'* as it was called by the Arabs. When the perils of the journey were over and their destination reached, the Russian traders proceeded to settle down in the quarters set apart for them outside PREHISTORIC RUSSIA 5 the city of Byzantium, for, as time went on, the Greeks began to fear lest their barbarian customers should settle down and form a permanent colony within their city. The few descriptions extant regarding the life and customs of the early Russians vary according to the period in which their Greek, Arab or Jewish con- temporaries came into touch with them. Yet all agree in their reports as to the physical characteristics of this race, which was said to be tall, handsome, fair- haired and rosy-cheeked. Good-natured and humane in ordinary life, these Russians were reported to be fierce and cruel in warfare, but never treacherous ; warrior-like and brave, with great powers of endurance, " they were," as a Greek writer said, " conquerable only through their internal dissensions." The same writer speaks of the proverbial love of freedom which was, however, a frequent cause of national weakness. Evidently, each individual had an innate objection to subordinate his personal opinion to that of the com- munity, and this led, only too naturally, to quarrels, and resulted in a lack of solidarity which was made good use of by the enemy. It seems, in fact, that the Russian tribes never united unless threatened by a common foe. It was also said of them that in order to arrive at a lasting understanding, " fear and presents " were far more effective than treaties, as the Russians seemed to dislike tying themselves down by agreements. The love of freedom showed itself also in their treatment of captives of war, who were kept as slaves only for a limited term of years, and then were given SOME RUSSIAN HEROES the option either of returning to their own country or of settling among their captors as free men. The Russians were also renowned for their hospitality to strangers, and it was even the custom for the host, on the departure of a guest, to accompany him on the journey in order to ensure his reaching his next destination in safety. The Slavs were a joyous, good-natured, warm- hearted, sociable race — a music and poetry-loving people. There was nothing gloomy either about them or their religious beliefs, which taught them to worship one great God, the Creator of the Universe. They believed, not in a blind fate, but in a destiny ordained by the will of God, and, to this day, the word for the future husband or wife is ** the destined one." They believed that by means of sacrifices and vows, which they were most punctilious in oflFering and fulfilling, the great God could be prevailed upon to grant their requests. This chief Deity was to them the director of all natural phenomena, and the other lesser gods which they worshipped were considered as spirits emanating from him. They were, so to speak, parts of him and not his rivals. Thus the Russians worshipped both a sun-god and a rain-god — the creative and regenerating powers. To their honour and glory they sang songs and held feasts, with music and dancing. In December, after the shortest day, they celebrated the re-birth of the sun, and in spring the regeneration of life. On June 24, the great feast of Kupela and Marena, the genii of fertility, was held. On that June night they believed that the secrets of nature were revealed to man ; it PREHISTORIC RUSSIA 7 was then that he could understand the language of A animals, that the fern blossomed, and that hidden treasures became visible. In that warm night, so full of wonder, big fires were lit ; and men and maidens, decorated with leaves and flowers, danced round the/ flames, jumping through them, in dedication of them-/ selves to the two spirits of the feast. Of Rerun, the chief of the lesser gods, whose special domain was thunder and lightning, they occasionally made images in human form ; representing him as a man holding a shield and having an eagle with out- stretched wings perched upon his head. They prayed to him in the forests and under gigantic oaks, where nature reigns supreme, and where the trunks of the trees form the pillars of temples not made with hands. They worshipped Volos, the god of cattle, or of wealth, since to an agricultural people cattle meant riches. They also believed in nymphs and water-sprites who were supposed to inhabit springs, wells and rivers, bogs, and hollow trees. In fact, they personified the phenomena of nature and peopled forest and field with mysterious beings. The Slavs required no priest, for every man sacrificed his own gifts, and every head of a household those of his family. There were, however, seers among them who could tell the future and interpret oracles. Every man prayed for himself : the merchant before starting on his journey offered up milk, bread, and other food, and with many genuflexions asked for a good sale for his wares, and on his return home he made a thank- off^ering and distributed food to the poor. The farmer prayed for his harvest, and, lifting up a bowl of golden 8 SOME RUSSIAN HEROES grain, would say, ** Lord, Thou hast given us food, give it to us in abundance." There can be no doubt as to their belief in a life after death, for their most solemn oath was, " If I do not keep my word, may I be a slave in this life and in the next." Life after death was merely a prolongation and continuation of existence, but in a land of light, warmth, beauty and good cheer. This Paradise, or *' Rai," was believed to be a beautiful garden, full of trees, verdure and flowers, and to be the place where the migratory birds spent the winter. It was, however, imperative for the relatives of a departed warrior to provide his soul with all the requisites of daily life. Thus, domestic implements, weapons, musical instru- ments, together with his horse and dog, had either to be placed in the grave over which the funeral mound was raised, or to be burned with the corpse — whichever happened to be the custom of the neighbourhood. A wife, too, had to accompany her dead lord, and the opportunity to do so was given to that one of the many wives who professed to have loved him the best. When the funeral mound had been erected, the family and friends of the departed would sit around it and feast and sing, or else listen to songs of his prowess ; while a year later they assembled to com- memorate his death. At all their feasts the Russians sang and drank deep of the golden mead, but they drank also on other occasions ; in fact, the verdict of the famous Arab writer was that " the Russian rejoices in drinking and cannot do without it," and that " many a man was called away by death with the goblet raised to his lips." PREHISTORIC RUSSIA 9 Under normal conditions, the growing of *' bread " occupied as important a place in the economic life of the Russians as did hunting. It was said at one time of the Slavs that they did not like the pursuit of agri- culture, and that they preferred poverty and peace to plenty and trouble. That must have been in a period when nomadic tribes from the East were raiding their fertile lands, making settled life insecure. Two hundred years of quiet followed on that period of stress and danger, and during this time the Slavs of South-eastern Europe had become agriculturists. Then, however, new dangers arose from the warlike Khazars, a Turkish people inhabiting the land east of the Volga, who were ousted in the course of centuries by the fierce Pet- chenegs, while these again were replaced by the Polovtsi or Cumans. It- was due to this state of in- security that many Russians relapsed into a semi- nomadic condition of life, while others deserted the insecure plains and went further west to the forest zone, where they were less exposed to raids. As there was always the danger of attack by these wild nomadic tribes, walled forts came to be built, into which the rural population could flee for protection when the need arose. As time went on these forts increased in number and size, for many people came to settle under their shadow, and thus in process of time cities developed. Although the primary object of these forts had been strategical, they soon also acquired commercial import- ance ; and those forts around which the greatest number of people settled gained the hegemony over the others, and thus their political ascendency increased. '/ lO SOME RUSSIAN HEROES Many tribes, who were still living without any terri- torial or civic organization, gradually recognized the supremacy of these cities. In this manner important centres developed, such as Novgorod, on the Volkhov, near Lake Ilmen ; Smolensk, at the source of the Dnieper ; Pskov, on Lake Peipus ; and Kiev, on the Dnieper. Greek writers comment on the fact that the form of government among the Russians was not at all mon- archical, but, on the contrary, very democratic. Yet it was associated with patriarchal rule ; for, in point of fact, the Elders — the older and more experienced men — governed the cities, while the whole land was under the rule of a Council, or Vietcha, to which each town sent its representatives ; and whatever course of action the leading towns decided upon, the lesser ones had to carry out. Thus urban republics developed. It was in times of danger only that the cities required the services of a military chief, and then some man, re- nowned for courage and bravery, was chosen by the Elders to protect the town against an attack, or was bidden to lead the warriors against the foe. His duty was to ward off aggressive attacks by the enemy, and to protect the trade of the citizens, and for this purpose he frequently hired mercenary troops of Scandinavians. For these Norsemen, in the same way as they had settled on the shores of Britain and France, had also reached the shores of the Gulf of Finland. They had penetrated through the River Neva into Lake Ladoga, and from there they had gone up the River Volkhov into Lake Ilmen, where they had even temporarily conquered Novgorod, the chief city of the northern PREHISTORIC RUSSIA II Russians. Other " Varangians," as these Vikings were called, took service under Kiev, and accompanied her trade caravans to Byzantium. As it not infrequently happened that members of the same family were chosen to be military chiefs, dynasties of " Knyazi " or princes developed, without, however, enjoying any territorial rights. The Knyazi who lived in the chief towns had to send their repre- sentatives to lesser forts, and thus a class of Governors was evolved — the Possadniki. The whole population of the Russian lands was divided into tens, hundreds, and thousands, and over each unit there was a head man, the "thousandth man " often acting as the civic assistant of the military chief. It was the possibility of securing a band of warriors ready to go anywhere in the hope of returning laden with booty, which enabled the military chiefs of Kiev and of other cities to undertake expeditions on their own account, and not only to follow the dictates of the city Elders. Thus, from being merely protectors, the princes became aggressors. They provided the Norsemen, who formed their personal following, with weapons and clothing, and gave them the opportunity of enriching themselves at the expense of the enemy. In this way, accompanied by their " Drujina," or band of friends, the princes made raids into neighbouring countries, and even into distant lands, such as Greece and the southern shores of the Black Sea, and as far as the Caspian. Having conquered new lands, they ruled over these by right of conquest ; and thus, having enriched themselves by means of spoils of war, t:sz^Ei::;^:3sr: 12 SOME RUSSIAN HEROES PREHISTORIC RUSSIA 13 and having become influential owners of territory, the elected military chiefs gradually became independent and hereditary rulers. Although Novgorod was a great town, yet the greatest and richest among the cities of prehistoric Russia was Kiev. Of the rise of this far-famed city nothing is known, but tradition says that it was so named after a chief called Kee who had settled on the high banks of the river Dnieper. By the time the full light of history falls on Russia, Kiev was already the acknowledged political centre of the Russian lands, although paying tribute to the Khagan of the Khazars, whose capital was Itil, on the Volga. On their way to Byzantium the traders from the north had to pass by it, and the route from the Baltic along the Dnieper down to the Euxine was known as the " Greek Way." From the eastern side, too, a road led up to Kiev. Persia, and even India, sent of their treasures to this famous city from which a road went to the west through Galicia to the markets of Italy and Germany. Within its walls and on the hills lived many rich patrician families of merchant-warriors. Gardens and orchards surrounded the town, into which the people of the outlying districts brought their produce. In the farmyards, fowls and pigeons, geese and swans provided food for the rich, while the forest-dwellers gathered the honey out of the hollow trunks of trees. The honey thus obtained went to the making of the golden mead for the f eastings of the great. The wax was sold to the traders, and also the valuable furs which the huntsmen brought to the city — black fox, and white squirrel, sable and marten. While the people worked, prince and bogatyr made war, hunted the boar and wild horse, or rode out to the chase, falcon on wrist. All, however, without dis- tinction, whether peasant, hunter, merchant or prince, loved good cheer, dancing and music, and were brave, generous and hospitable. SCYTHIAN TAMING HORSES. From a fourth-century B.C. vase. OLEG THE WISE 15 CHAPTER II OLEG THE WISE » • . • rr^RADITION tells that to 1 A',' * t « » I I • K % ■«>««> j' » » « ^ . ■ o» ..' »' *»•■ » .■•;a « ' t the hardy Norsemen of Scandinavia came mes- sengers from the people of Novgorod, saying, " Our country is vast and fertile, but there is no order in it ; come, therefore, and rule over us ! '* and, according to the chronicler, Varangians did not WARRIOR, FROM A FRESCO, KIEV. hesitate to accept this generous invitation. Thus it happened that only a few years earlier than the Vikings, Ingvar and Hubbar, said to be the sons of the great Scandinavian hero, Ragnar Lodbrog, were invading England, the Viking Rurik and his brothers, Sineus and Truvor, started for Russia. They left the shores of Scandinavia and,, sailing across the Gulf of Finland and up the Neva, they entered the great northern lake ; and where the river Volkhov flows into its crystal waters, Rurik founded, in 862, a town which he named Ladoga. To his brothers he gave Byelo-ozero and Isborsk, but as they died without 14 leaving any heirs, all the lands soon came again under his rule. Later on he left Ladoga, making Novgorod his capital and the centre of his dominions, whence his rule extended over many parts of Russia. Novgorod was surrounded by marshes and forests, and while the people living within the city were traders, those living around it were hunters, who brought thither costly furs which were carried south by the " Greek Way " to Byzantium, or down the Volga to Itil, the capital of the Khazars. There Arab merchants bought them to re-sell to the rich people of Baghdad, while in return the Russians purchased fine oriental blades and bright beads, much beloved by Russian women. On his deathbed Rurik entrusted his principality and his infant son Igor to the care of his trusted friend and kinsman Oleg, as true and bold a knight as legendary hero ever was. Fierce and mighty, brave and adventurous, Oleg was just the leader whom both Varangians and Russians loved to behold and to follow. Novgorod, however, under the grey northern skies, did not satisfy Oleg, whose imagination had been fired by tales of the beauty of Kiev and of the glory of Byzantium. Two bold Varangian knights, Askold and Dir, were at that time ruling over Kiev. Long ago they had left Rurik and gone further south, intending to go on to Byzantium ; but on their way thither they had taken Kiev and had made it their stronghold. Kiev stood as a queen among the Russian cities. From it the two knights made many expeditions against Byzantium, sometimes by way of attack and sometimes for purposes of trade. In order to make friends with these barbarians from the north, and to come to terms i6 SOME RUSSIAN HEROES with them, the Greek Emperor Basillus gave them costly presents of gold and silver and silk garments, and in the hope of taming these " unconquerable heathens '* he sent a Bishop to Kiev to preach to them the doctrines of Christianity. In 86 1, two hundred Russians were actually baptised. Among these was Askold the Viking, who, however, was less powerful than Dir, or " Al Din/' described by the Arab historian as the chief of the Slav kings, and as possessing many populous and great cities. Danger, however, was threatening Askold and Dir, for Oleg was irresistibly drawn towards the south, to sunnier climes ; taking the boy Igor with him, and accompanied by his faithful band of followers, the valorous knight started out for Kiev. They experienced many adventures on this expedition, till at last they reached that fair city on the high bank of the river Dnieper. On the other side stretched the endless steppes, decked in the full beauty of bright flowers, which made the meadows a joy to the eyes. Odysseus- like, Oleg decided to take possession of the fair city by guile, and therefore sent a message to her rulers, saying that some peaceful merchants from Novgorod, on their way to Byzantium, had arrived and craved hospitality. The unsuspecting chiefs came out of their walled city to hold speech with the far-travelled merchants, when suddenly they were surrounded by warriors, and Oleg, lifting the boy Igor on his shield, called out to Askold and Dir : "This is your liege lord, Igor, Rurik's son ; ye are but adventurers ! " Before they could even think of defending themselves they were treacherously stabbed. OLEG THE WISE 17 Thus Kiev fell into the hands of Oleg, who now forsook Novgorod for good, making Kiev his head- quarters, from which he ruled the Russian lands. Past Kiev flowed the mighty river Boristhenes or Dnieper, whose tributaries spread themselves like a network all over the country. Along these waterways travelled the boats of the traders bringing their wares to the fairs held in the city, which grew steadily in importance and power. Not for long, however, was Oleg satisfied with having taken Kiev ; his desire was for war and conquest, and thus, one after the other, tribes, peoples, and cities were conquered by him, all of which had to pay tribute, some in pieces of gold, others in furs. Many chiefs joined him, for this powerful leader of men attracted all who loved boldness and valour, danger and adventure. They rode with him to the hunt, and followed him on his expeditions. Clever and cunning, he was also a wise ruler : he built walled forts as shelters from the inroads of the dangerous nomadic tribes who roamed over the steppes, and entered into relations with other tribes, proving himself in every way a noble king. So wise was he, so far- seeing and shrewd, that the people called him Veshtchii — " he who sees." Many years passed, and when Igor, Rurik's son, was grown up his guardian gave him a beauteous maiden — Prekrasnaya — to wife, whom Oleg named Olga, after himself. However, even after Igor had reached manhood, Oleg still ruled in his stead — and Igor was content that he should do so. Although Oleg ruled in Kiev and was great and i8 SOME RUSSIAN HEROES OLEG THE WISE 19 mighty, he longed to see Byzantium, of whose beauty, riches and treasure he had heard so much. When, therefore, the Tsar of Bulgaria sent messengers begging assistance in his proposed attack on Byzantium, the valorous knight at once agreed to render it. Thus he started on his famous expedition, of which in after years the bards used to sing. With eighty thousand men in two thousand boats, and accompanied by a great number of horsemen, Oleg, clad in shimmer- ing armour, followed by his gallant Drujina, rode southward to victory. Unheeded was the tediousness of the river route, while dangers were welcomed. As he one day approached the dark forest a wizard came out to meet him, and, addressing the old man, Oleg spoke thus : " Tell me, O Wizard, thou favourite of Perun ! what will befall me in the future ? Shall I, ere long, lie buried beneath the cool earth to the joy of my enemies ? Be not afraid to open up before me the future. As a reward I will give thee the choice of my horses." . . . But the wizard declined the offer ; for, fearless, true, and not to be bought was the seer, and thus he spake to Oleg : " Dark loom before me the coming years, but bright appears thy fate in my vision. Yet, take this my warning to heart. Victory, gain, and renown will be thine, and thou shalt hang thy shield on the gates of Byzantium. Water and land will favour thee, safe shalt thou be both from dagger and arrow, and no wound shalt thou receive in battle. Thy horse, too, will be fearless and brave, and will carry thee safe over the field of battle ; and yet death will overtake thee through this thy steed.** At these words Oleg smiled, then, growing pensive, he jumped from his horse and, gently stroking the charger's beautiful neck, he bid his faithful friend a loving farewell. He entrusted the steed to the care of some servants, and bade them look well to its comfort. Then, mounting another horse, he proceeded on his way. At last the Russian boats reached the waters of the Black Sea, having overcome all the difficulties of the Dnieper, and as they sailed towards the Bosphorus, news of the barbarians* approach reached the citizens of Byzantium ; fear seized the population, for the tales of former raids had taught the people to dread the Russians, and, true to their reputation, Oleg and his followers spread ruin wherever they went. Nor did the manner of 01eg*s immediate approach to the capital tend in any way to reassure the Greeks ; for gigantic kites in the shape of horses and snakes and men were sent up from the boats of the Russians, and, terror-stricken, the citizens beheld these monsters in the air. Instead of meeting the enemy in fair fight, the Emperor trusted the safety of his city to a strange device : he caused a heavy chain to be stretched across the Bosphorus, in the hope of thereby keeping off the Russian ships. At this precaution Oleg the Wise only laughed ! Chains could not restrain him, and soon his cunning mind found a new way to victory ; he merely ordered his men to drag their boats on to the shore, there to put them on wheels, and then, with sails unfurled, they sailed over the dry land to the gates of the great metropolis. In abject fear the Emperor now sent an embassy to 20 SOME RUSSIAN HEROES OLEG THE \.ISE 21 Olcg, with offers of food and wine ; but Oleg, fearing lest the gifts might be poisoned, refused to accept them. This foresight as to their intentions appeared super- human to the Greeks, who now believed him to be Saint Demetrius in person ; and convinced of the futility of fighting against a leader who sailed over dry land, they asked for mercy and sued for peace, offering to pay him tribute. To this proposal the mighty prince readily agreed. The Emperor demanded, how- ever, that Oleg's warriors should be kept at a safe distance from the city, and that envoys should be sent to arrange the matter. By these an agreement was drawn up, and arrangements were made as to the pay- ment of the tribute. But heavy was the tribute demanded by Oleg, for not only for himself and all his men did he ask much gold, but also gifts for all those princes who had accompanied him on his campaign. He further secured great privileges for the Russian merchants, to whom were granted the right of free trade during their stay in Byzantium ; they were to be treated as guests of the city, which was to provide them with meats, fruit and wine. The merchants were also to have the right of visiting the public baths as often as they liked, and for the homeward journey they were to be provided with new ropes and anchors — in fact, with all that the merchants and sailors might require. The Greeks, on the other hand, safeguarded them- selves against the barbarous Russians by limiting the length of their stay in Byzantium to six months, during which they were given special quarters in a suburb on the island of St. Mamai. Welcome to arrive in spring, they were expected to leave these quarters in autumn and to return to Russia. The merchants were forbidden to enter the capital singly, and were to do so only in parties of fifty, and then under the guidance of a Greek. In order to prevent any abuse, all merchants had to produce on arrival a letter from their Prince in proof of their being genuine traders, and also a silver seal, while poHtical envoys had to bring one of gold. This agreement was sworn to on the part of Oleg by his weapons and by Perun and Voloss, his gods, while the Greek Emperor swore on the Gospel. Before Oleg left for home he hung his shield upon the gates of Byzantium as a sign that he had exacted tribute from the proud city. For the return journey the Russians made them- selves sails of gorgeous silks, but the winds at once tore them to ribbons, and good strong Russian linen had once more to do service and carry the men back to their homes. The chronicler reports that Oleg the Wise took away with him from Byzantium great riches, costly weapons and jewels, treasures and wines. He also states that Oleg and his hosts waged warfare as other warriors did in those days, for the times were cruel and barbaric. The verbal agreement with the Greek Emperor was later ratified in writing on behalf of "Oleg, the Great Russian Prince, and all the Princes and great Boyars who were subject to him." This treaty, whether spurious or genuine, supposed to be the first written agreement ever drawn up by Russia, and intended to regulate the political and commercial relations of the two nations, was written in Greek and '-''*«&^ i"«nnn ■». ij« 22 SOME RUSSIAN HEROES Slavonic. One copy of the document was brought to Kiev, the other was kept in Byzantium, where the Emperor, greatly honouring Oleg's envoys, presented them with costly presents. In order to impress the barbarians with the greatness of the Christian Faith, they were shown the beauty and glory of the churches. For thirty-three years Oleg reigned over Russia. He ruled men and conquered many peoples, and yet after all the wizard's prophecy with regard to the mode of his death was fulfilled. One day as he was feasting with his friends, and as they were talking of that famous expedition of five years earlier, he suddenly remembered the seer's words. When told, in answer to his question, that the horse had been dead for some years, he rode out to the place where its bones were said to lie. Tenderly the hero looked upon the bleached bones of his faithful steed, and gently putting his foot on the skull, he murmured, " Behold how false the prophecy ! Here am I still alive, whilst thou art dead ! " But even as he spoke a black snake secretly wriggled out of the skull, and with its poisonous bite fatally wounded the Prince. Thus in the year 912 Oleg the Wise died, as the seer had foretold. His friends buried him with honour, in great sorrow and grief. They raised over him a funeral mound, and, sitting around it, they solemnly bemoaned their loss. They lamented the death of so great a hero, and so beloved a man ; they sang of his prowess and of his glorious reign ; for was it not he who had made Russia great — he, whose rule extended from the rocky shores of the great lake Ladoga in the north to the sunny straits of the OLEG THE WISE 23 Bosphorus ? They talked of his courage and valour ; for had he not been truly great, wise and strong, every inch a king, and one who knew how to win the affections of his people ? Therefore it is not strange to read in the Chronicles which tell of Oleg the Wise that "the people wept for him with great weeping," and most bitterly was his loss bemoaned by Prince Igor and his wife, Olga the Beautiful. * VIKING SHIP. ■g rormw i CHAPTER III HOW OLGA, PRINCE IGOR's WIDOW, AVENGED HIS DEATH, AND HOW SHE VISITED THE GREEK EMPEROR AT CONSTANTINOPLE URING the lifetime of Oleg the Wise, Igor, Rurik's son, had not troubled at all about his lands, for were they not well cared for by his guardian? But now that his guar- dian was dead, Igor took up the rulership. The country, however, soon missed the strong hand of Oleg, and many of the tribes which he had conquered began to reassert their independence. Desirous of following in Oleg's footsteps, Igor in his turn undertook an expedition against Byzantium, and crossing Bulgaria on his way thither, he and his warriors caused widespread terror by burning cities, monasteries and churches, and killing numbers of people. The Emperor was away in Asia Minor when 24 GREEK GRIVNA, OR IKON. Tenth century. HOW OLGA AVENGED IGOR'S DEATH 25 the Russian barbarians were threatening his capital, but Byzantium was saved by a miracle, for the faithful people brought the image of the Virgin to the sea, and as her robes touched the waters a storm arose which helped to destroy the enemy's ships, many of which had been burned by the Greek " fire " which was flung upon them from the shore. In order to avenge this defeat Igor soon started on a second expedition, but before he had proceeded very far he was met by envoys of the Emperor. The effeminate Byzantine, fearing another invasion, and unwilling to resist it by force of arms, sent his emis- saries to the barbarian prince with the offer of an increased tribute greatly in advance of that which Oleg had levied. The condition, however, was an imme- diate cessation from further invasion. Following the advice of his Drujina, Igor accepted the gold and silver thus lavishly offered to him, and a new treaty was drawn up between the Russian Prince and the Emperor in 944. On this occasion presents were exchanged, the Greeks giving gold and silver, and the Russians furs, wax and slaves. Amongst the tribes which had reasserted themselves against the rule of the Prince of Kiev were the Drev- lyans, and against them Igor now made a successful punitive expedition. Not satisfied, however, with the tribute received, he decided to demand more. Sending the majority of his followers home, and accompanied by only a few of his Drujina, he returned towards Koresten, the capital of the Drevlyans. His greed was to cost him his life, for when the Drevlyans realized what his intentions were they resolved that 26 SOME RUSSIAN HEROES it was imperative to " kill the wolf, lest the whole flock be devoured." Led by Malu, their Prince, they attacked Igor, and, having taken him captive, tied the hapless Prince to two trees, and he thus died by being torn asunder. His head was cut ofl^, and the chief had the skull made into a drinking-cup, on which was engraved these words : " Thou camcst to take what was another's, and, coming, didst lose what was thine own." Svyatoslav was but a youth when his father lost his life and, because times were dangerous and evil, his mother, Olga, reigned in her son's stead from 945 to 955 ; at this time in England, Dunstan, afterwards Archbishop of Canterbury, was rising into prominence, and the Queen-mother was reigning for her delicate son Edwy. Although advanced in age, Olga was still fair in person, clever and crafty, and proved herself a success- ful ruler. Yet no easy task was hers, for Igor's feeble character and unsuccessful campaigns had weakened the dominion built up by his capable and enterprising pre- decessor. Olga had, however, the help of two Varangian heroes — Svenheld who led her warriors, and Asmund who acted as tutor to her boy Svyatoslav. The Drevlyans who had killed Igor naturally feared lest his widow should seek revenge, and the Chronicles report that in order to prevent her from attacking their city they sent an embassy to Kiev inviting Olga to become the wife of Malu, their chief. It was not likely that the wily and elderly princess would be taken in by such a proposal, but she made good use of the opportunity thus offered for revenge. Graciously she thanked the envoys for the off^er, saying that as she could not bring her husband back to life she might HOW OLGA AVENGED- IGOR'S DEATH 27 as well marry Malu, but promised to give a definite answer on the morrow, when she would show them great honour. She stipulated that, when sent for the next day, they were to come to her " neither on foot nor on horseback, nor yet driving ; but they were to let themselves be carried in their boats." And this they did. Proudly and boastfully they refused to walk, demanding to be carried by the messengers whom Olga had sent to fetch them. Meanwhile their hostess, intent on her revenge, had given orders for a large ditch to be dug within the courtyard of the palace ; and when the ambassadors had been carried into the castle square, instead of being put down gently on the ground, they were flung violently into the ditch. Looking down from her window, Olga called out to them, " How do you enjoy being honoured by me .'' " Too late did the envoys realize that they had been duped, that they had fallen a prey to Olga's revenge, and pitifully they begged for pardon ; but the vindictive princess took no heed of their piteous cries, and merely ordered her men to cover up the Drevlyans with earth, thus burying them alive. Not yet satisfied with this savage deed, Olga sent word to Koresten — " Send more envoys, for the people of Kiev will not let me depart ! " This the Drevlyans immediately did, choosing their best men, who, on arriving in Kiev, were graciously received by the prin- cess. Suspecting no treachery, the guests followed their host to the bath-house, where they were all burned to death. Olga's revenge demanded even more victims, and therefore she sent another message 28 SOME RUSSIAN HEROES to the murderers of her husband, telling them that she was already on her way to marry their king. Before, however, she could enter their town she wished to celebrate a memorial feast at her husband's grave, and there the new envoys of the Drevlyans were to meet her. This summons was obeyed, and great prepara- tions were made, and golden mead was brewed, which they brought to Olga, who was awaiting them at the scene of Igor's murder. Surprised at not seeing any of their own people in Olga's entourage, the Drevlyans asked where their envoys were, and were told that they were coming later. As Olga's retinue consisted of only 200 Boyars, the Drevlyans proceeded without suspicion or fear to accept her lavish hospitality. Her young men, while themselves abstaining from drink, plied their guests assiduously with mead, and when the Drevlyans were all heavily intoxicated it was an easy task for the Russians to kill every man. When these last victims did not return to the city, then, and only then, did the Drevlyans realize that all their efforts to appease Igor's widow had been in vain. Olga now besieged their city of Koresten, but fear of falling into her ruthless hands enabled them to endure a prolonged siege. After a year had passed she sent a message that, having now fully avenged her husband's death, she was willing to conclude peace and raise the siege. She would not even ask much tribute of them — merely three sparrows and three pigeons from each homestead. Overjoyed at such easy terms, every householder sent the required birds. These Olga handed to her men, who, by her orders, tied to the tail of each bird some sulphur and string ; HOW OLGA AVENGED IGOR'S DEATH 29 and at night, having been set fire to, the birds were let go, and, flying back to their homes, carried destruc- tion to their owners' property. A general conflagration broke out, and as each family was occupied in trying to quench the flames of its own homestead, it was impossible to give help to neighbours. At last, panic- stricken and in despair, the Drevlyans forsook the burning city, fleeing madly into the open, when Olga's warriors fell upon them, killing many and taking others captive. From the rest she levied a heavy tribute. Then she returned to Kiev, and the fire of her vengeance seemed at last to have burned itself out with the destruction of the city of her enemies. During the minority of her son, the Russians were ruled wisely and well by Olga, who proved herself possessed of great gifts of statesmanhip. She travelled throughout the length and breadth of the realm, estab- lishing law and order. She founded cities, regulated commerce, started fisheries, and introduced ferries across the rivers. Thus she reigned as a sovereign over the Russian lands, and when at last Svyatoslav was able to take the reins of government into his hands, her fame had spread far and wide. Freed from the cares and responsibilities of sove- reignty, Olga now turned her attention to religion. Evidently she had become interested in the Christian faith, which some Varangians and also some Russians at her court professed. She therefore decided to visit Byzantium in order to be taught Christianity, and, at the same time, to enter personally into diplomatic com- munications with the Emperor, as well as to develop commercial relations between the two countries. Ml -I'j, iJi-j fcii 30 SOME RUSSIAN HEROES In the year 955 the Princess Olga set out on her long and perilous journey, accompanied by her cousin, sixteen ladies, eight trusted men, twenty ambassadors, eighteen waiting-maids, one priest, two interpreters, forty-six merchants, and a large company of warriors whom Svyatoslav had given her as escort. Informed of the proposed visit of the Russian princess, the Emperor Leo, the Philosopher, had great preparations made in order to receive her in a manner worthy of Byzantine traditions, for it was the pride and glory of the Greek emperors to dazzle their visitors with a display of pomp and show. This visit, how- ever, was different from any other, and no precedent existed for the ceremonial of the reception. It was the first time that a princess was to visit Byzantium, for although Olga had handed over the actual rule to her son, the fact of having been regent gave her the status of a sovereign in her own right. It was also the first time that a Russian potentate was coming on a peaceful mission, and not, as formerly Askold, Oleg and Igor, to attack or to levy tribute. In September Olga arrived in the Greek capital, where rooms had been prepared for her and her suite in a palace. It seems that she had to wait some time before the first interview took place, but at last she was accorded the privilege of coming into the august presence of the Emperor. Pomp, show and luxury reigned in the palace, and on this occasion these were increased by a profusion of costly ornaments, vases, lamps, candelabra, jewelled bric-a-brac, carpets and hangings which had been brought to the palace from different churches, or had even been borrowed from HOW OLGA AVENGED IGOR'S DEATH 31 private houses. All along the passages and in the rooms through which the visitors had to pass to reach the great reception hall, warriors of every people and tribe were standing on guard, each in different array : some in shining armour, with shields and swords, others in flowing mantles on which lions, griffins, stags, eagles and peacocks were embroidered. The dazzled Russian barbarians walked on floors paved with mosaic strewn with roses, and from behind the costly hangings came sweet music to enchant the ear. Dressed in gorgeous robes sent her by the Emperor, Olga, preceded by eunuchs who were clad in costly laces and wore chains of pearls, appeared before his august presence. Her suite followed in order of rank, the merchants, who had to remain at the entrance of the throne-room, coming last of all. Everything was calculated to impress the barbaric visitors. On a golden throne sat the Emperor, im- movable, passive, silent. Each step leading up to the throne, which was standing in a bower of golden foliage, was flanked on either side by golden lions. All, with the exception of the Russian princess, pros- trated themselves before the Emperor, touching the ground with their foreheads ; but when they rose up, behold ! the Emperor and his throne had been miraculously raised to the ceiling, and even while their awe-struck gaze was fixed upon it, the throne slowly descended as if by magic. Then the Russian ambassadors addressed the Em- peror in the form prescribed by etiquette : " Peace, grace, joy, and fame may God grant to the Great Emperor ! Health and long life may the Lord grant 32 SOME RUSSIAN HEROES to the peaceable and gracious Emperor! As long as thou livest may righteousness and peace reign in abundance, O peace-loving and noble Emperor ! " To these words the Emperor listened with impassive mien. As it was contrary to etiquette for him personally to address any visitors, however exalted, the Logothetis, or Speaker, on his behalf put the following questions to the Russian princess : ** How is thy son, the noble Grand Duke ? How is the Council ? How are the people, and how art thou thyself ? How was the journey, and did anything unpleasant happen ? Wel- come ! and dine to-day with His Majesty." During this exchange of courtesies, machinery was set in motion : the lions suddenly began to beat the floor with their tails, and, opening their mouths wide, with tongues hanging out, they roared loudly, and at the same time a multitude of birds on the gilded trees began to sing the sweetest melodies. Astonishment and delight took hold of the simple Russian visitors, to whom such wonders were a revelation. For the first time in the history of Byzantium, the Empress also had to grant an ofllicial audience, and from the throne-room of the Emperor the visitors were led to her state-room, where the same cere- monial was gone through. The Empress, sitting on her throne, impassive and silent like her lord, received the Russian ladies. An informal reception, however, followed later in the private rooms of the Empress, where they met no longer as sovereigns but as women. On the same evening a feast was given in honour of the guests, the dinner being set out upon golden tables. While Olga's suite, on entering the banqueting hall. HOW OLGA AVENGED IGOR'S DEATH 33 bowed themselves to the ground in greeting, Olga, in virtue of her rank, merely bowed her head slightly, and was then placed at a small table not far from the Empress and her beautiful daughter-in-law, Theofani, who sat by themselves at a separate table. While hosts and guests were feasting surrounded with luxury, the air fragrant with the perfume of flowers, lovely harmonies proceeded from a golden organ and exquisite singing filled the room. Thus all the senses were gratified. Olga and her barbarians partook of the feast, at which only women were present, for all male members of the Russian Embassy were dining with the Emperor and his children in another hall. At dessert, however, all met in friendly intercourse, and, according to custom, presents — trea- sures of art, and even money — were presented to the foreign guests. To Olga was handed a golden bowl, studded with jewels and filled with coins, and this present greatly pleased her. Just before leaving, basins filled with scented water were brought for washing the hands, which were dried with the finest towels. Gifts of precious ointment, of attar of roses, and other rare perfumes were also presented to the Russian ladies. A few weeks later, on the eve of her departure, a farewell reception was held in honour of the barbarian" princess by his great Majesty the Emperor. During her stay in Byzantium, Olga had been dili- gently instructed by the Patriarch in the Christian faith. The chronicler reports that she " absorbed his teaching like a sponge." The Patriarch blessed her with these words : " Blessed art thou amongst Russian women because thou hast come to love the Light and 34 SOME RUSSIAN HEROES hast forsaken darkness. Thy descendants will bless thee to the end of their days." Whether Olga was baptised in Constantinople, or on her return to Kiev, history does not relate ; for, although minute de- scriptions of the visit and of the ceremonial of her reception are recorded in the Greek documents, no mention is made of her baptism. On becoming a Christian, Olga took the name Helena, and from that time forward she used all her influence to further the spread of Christianity in Russia. In her desire to obtain teachers for her people, she sent envoys to the Court of the German Emperor, Otto II. The bishop who came in response to this appeal found, however, no welcome awaiting him from the people whom he wished to enlighten, and he was therefore soon obliged to return home. At this period there was much intercourse with Tsargrad, as the Russians called Byzantium. As many Varangians in Russian service were Christians, and also many Russians who took service under the Greek Emperor became Christians, Christians were not now persecuted in Russia, but tolerated ; they had, however, to endure much ridicule. Olga pleaded with her son Svyatoslav to be baptised, but he refused, "for," said he, "my people would laugh at me." His mother, however, told him that he was mistaken, and that, on the contrary, all would follow his example. His refusal was a great grief to her, and "night and day she prayed for her son." Although unwilling to become a Christian himself, the Prince in no way hindered the efforts of his mother, who built several churches, chief among HOW OLGA AVENGED IGOR'S DEATH 35 them the church of St. Nicholas, over the grave of Askold. The Russian Church canonized Olga as the first to prepare the way for the triumph of Christianity, while historians praise her because of her great gifts of states- manship. She died in 955 at the age of seventy. A clever, wise, and far-seeing ruler, she consolidated the state, and ajthough she left no written code, she brought uniformity into the administration of the law. The writer of the oldest Chronicles of Russia, Nestor, compares her to "the morning star before sunrise," and to "the dawn before the daylight." I ILLUMINATED CROSS. From a tenth century Byzantine Gospel. HOW VLADIMIR BECAME ST. VLADIMIR 37 CHAPTER IV HOW VLADIMIR, " FAIR SUN," BECAME ST. VLADIMIR AMONG the many wives whom Svyatoslav, Prince of Kiev, had loved, was Malyusha, his mother's hand- maiden ; and her son Vladimir was treated by his princely father just the same as the other sons borne to him by his chief wives. The little lad grew up in the apartments of his clever grandmother Olga, who may have spoken to the h|:ight and high-spirited boy^about her own faith ; but it had evidently not made any impression on him, and Vladimir grew up into a most zealous worshipper of Perun, the god of thunder. While yet a child, his father appointed him Prince of Novgorod, for the people of that city had requested Svyatoslav to allow a prince of his house to come and live among them ; and Vladimir, under the guardian- ship of his mother's brother, one Dobrinya, spent his boyhood and early manhood in that ancient northern trading centre. GROUP OF WARRIORS. From an eleventh century fresco. So long as Svyatoslav, who reigned from 958 to 973, was alive all went well ; but when he died, in Jthe full bloom of manhood, quarrels broke out between his sons. Yarapolk, his eldest son, who had taken his brother Oleg's principality by force, was now going to make war on Vladimir in order to take possession also of Novgorod ; whereupon Vladimir fled to Scandinavia with his uncle, and for two years Yarapolk held un- disputed sway over all the Russian lands. Another cause for bitter strife between the two brothers was a beautiful maiden, Rogneda, the daughter of Rogvolod, Prince of Polotsk. Both brothers desired her, but it was to Yarapolk that she betrothed herself, having refused Vladimir with these scathing words : " Never will I unloose the shoe-latchet of the son of a slave " — referring to his mother's lowly position. Thb insult he decided to avenge, and, having gathered together a band of warriors ready to follow him anywhere, he returned to Russia. He conquered Polotsk, killed Rogneda's father and brothers, and took the proud damsel to wife. Not satisfied with having robbed his brother of his bride, Vladimir now aimed at depriving him of his principality, for he who ruled over Kiev was considered chief among the princes. Through the forests he and his Drujina rode on towards that famous city. As they approached it, Vladimir sent messengers before him to warn his brother of his coming, for it was against the code of honour of a Russian prince to take his enemy unawares. Yarapolk was, however, betrayed by one of his fol- lowers and killed. Kiev was then seized by Vladimir, who also took to himself his brother's young widow, a ^1 38 SOME RUSSIAN HEROES 1(1: fair and lovely Greek lady, formerly a nun, whom his father had brought back as a captive of war. He now reigned in Kiev, and soon the fame of his prowess, of his victorious campaigns, of his feasts and /'revellings, and of his merry, cheerful nature spread all over the country. Warriors and knights came from all parts to join his company of heroes — his Drujina. It was a time when the restless Norsemen were threading the seas in all directions, coming as invaders to Britain to be bought off with the Danegeld, and as welcome guests to Kiev. All the knights who joined Vladimir, or '*.Fair Sun," as they called him, were glad to follow so great a leader and so generous, genial and clever a ruler. The Russians loved fair women as well as brave men, and this led to his becoming a much- married man ; for, according to the chronicler, he had as chief wives Rogneda, the proud beauty of Polotsk, his brother*s Grecian widow, and also a Bohemian and a Bulgarian, and, besides them, eight hundred secondary wives, who were established in three different parts of the country. The first five years of his reign in Kiev were passed in campaigns, for '' Fair Sun " undertook many warlike expeditions, conquering tribes and levying tribute. On the west his dominions extended right up to the gates of Cracow and Przemysl ; he also took all Galicia and Volhynia, where he founded the town of Vladimir, and in the south his rule extended as far as the Carpathians. Under Vladimir the worship of the gods Perun, Daghbog, and Voloss was zealously practised. In various places the Grand Duke had images of these gods put up ; in one place a gigantic figure of Perun, HOW VLADIMIR BECAME ST. VLADIMIR 39 with a silver head and a heavy gold moustache. This revival of paganism made life more difficult for the small band of Christians who, during Svyatoslav's reign, had been left in peace, for now they were not only scoffed at but occasionally even persecuted. Although human sacrifices were not customary among the Slavs, Vladimir on one occasion desired to celebrate a victory by the sacrifice of a youth or maiden, the victim to be chosen by the casting of lots. The choice fell on a Christian boy, " beautiful in soul and body," but his father, a Christian Varangian, refused to hand him over, saying, "You say, 'Our gods want thy son ' ; well, these are not gods, but just pieces of wood which in a short time rot away. Your idols neither eat nor drink, nor do they speak. There is only one God, He whom the Greeks worship and serve, and Who has made heaven and earth, the stars, the sun and the moon, and all that has life. But your gods, what have they done ? They themselves have been made by you, and therefore I will not give my son to be sacrificed unto demons." This speech, and the father's refusal to give up the boy, greatly enraged the people, who fell upon the Christian and his son, killing both. Some years later this same father and son were canonized by the Church as the first Russian martyrs, and July 8 is the day dedicated to these two saints, St. Theodor and St. Ivan. A time came, however, when even Vladimir turned from his idols. In order not to be behind the times, and also to enhance his prestige and power, he decided to exchange his heathen faith for the religion of the 40 SOME RUSSIAN HEROES States with which he had come into political contact — the Byzantine Empire, Bulgaria, Hungary and Poland. It was difficult for him to decide upon a matter about which he knew so little, in spite of the fact that his grandmother had been a devout Christian, and that many of the merchants who traded with Kiev came from Christian countries. It is, however, possible that the chronicler is right in crediting Vladimir with partly spiritual motives. He tells us that — *' The Spirit of the Highest came upon him and enlightened his mind and heart so that he perceived the vanity and error of paganism, and therefore he turned to the one God who created all creatures visible and invisible." Whether this was so, or whether it was merely political wisdom that influenced Vladimir, who can tell .'' He was, however, evidently sincerely desirous of choosing the best religion, and therefore listened readily to the various missionaries who, according to the chronicler, came to him for the purpose of urging him to accept their creed. But perhaps these men had an eye to business as well, and were anxious to promote the interests of trade by winning over the famous prince to their own religion. The first men to speak to him on the subject were some Moslem Bulgars ; they told him that, although he was a great and wise ruler, he was nevertheless ignorant of the law and faith of the great Prophet. In reply to Vladimir's question, in what their law consisted, the Moslems told him that it consisted in the rite of circumcision, in abstention from all strong drink and from the flesh of swine ; but, in compensation for this self-denial, great pleasures awaited the faithful in HOW VLADIMIR BECAME ST. VLADIMIR 41 paradise, where at least seventy of the most beautiful women should be given to him by the prophet. The prohibition of the drinking of wine, that "joy of the Russians," was sufficient to prejudice the prince against Islam. When, therefore, some Germans in their turn brought messages from the Pope and ofl^ered to in- struct him in their faith, he willingly listened to them. " We have the true light," they said ; " and while we worship the Creator of all things, thou, O Prince, art bowing down to idols made of wood." So far, so good ! The hitch came when he asked for the rules of their religion. *' Fasting to the uttermost of one's strength, and all eating and drinking to be done only to the glory of God." This did not appeal to the pleasure-loving Russian any more than did the Moslem creed ; and he therefore bade the representatives of the Western Church depart. News that Vladimir was looking out for a new religion had also reached the Jews who dwelt among the Khazars, and they now felt it their duty to go and urge upon him the acceptance of their creed. " We hear that the Bulgars and Germans have come to lay before thee their several religions," they said. " We worship God, but the Christians worship One whom we have crucified." Just as Vladimir had enquired of the others, so now he questioned the Jews regarding their law, and also asked them which country was theirs. To the first question they replied that their law enforced circumcision and abstention from the flesh of swine and hares. To the second question their answer was "Jerusalem." But when he heard 1^ 42 SOME RUSSIAN HEROES I , from them that God had been angry with their fore- fathers, and because of their sins had scattered their people and had given their land to the Christians, Vladi- mir was wrath with them, and said, " How dare you even attempt to teach others while you yourselves are under the anger of your God. If He had really loved you and your law He would not have scattered you ; but now you want the same ill-fate to befall us ! " The next to come were Greeks from Byzantium, who put before Vladimir the beauty of their faith. They spoke of " Christ the Incarnate Word, of His death and passion,'* and as Vladimir listened he was over- come with awe and surprise, and asked, " Why did God come down upon earth, and why did He take such suffering upon Himself ? '* Perceiving that they had touched his heart, the Greek Christians " now told him all from the very beginning, until the Seventh Council." They also showed him a painting in which the Last Judgment was vividly depicted. There, at the right hand were the righteous going up into paradise with joy and gladness, while there, at the left, were the wicked going down into perdition. When the meaning of the picture had been explained to Vladimir, he sighed deeply and said, " How happy is the lot of those at the riorht hand, but woe unto those on the left ! " Seeing what a deep impression they had made on the prince, the missionaries told him that this blessedness could be his on condition that he would allow himself to be baptised. Although Vladimir took all this to heart, he was not going to be hurried into making a definite decision on so important a question, but promised to enquire still ^ HOW VLADIMIR BECAME ST. VLADIMIR 43 further into the mysteries of their faith. He was so much in earnest that he selected ten of his most trusted friends and sent them on a journey to Bulgaria, Rome and Byzantium, where they were to see for themselves how the various peoples worshipped God. When news reached the two Emperors, Constantine and Basil, at Byzantium that a Russian embassy had come to study the Christian religion on behalf of the famous Prince of Kiev, they gave orders to the Patriarch to hold a specially solemn service for the benefit of the pagan envoys, who were deeply im- pressed by the clouds of incense and by the wonderful singing of the choir. Delighted and enchanted by this pomp and beauty, they listened gladly to an explanation of the deep symbolic meaning of the service. The Emperors sent for the envoys, did them much honour, gave them presents and told them to return to their country and report to their prince all they had seen. This they did, and to the Grand Duke and his councillors, who were sitting round him listening with eager interest, these envoys now described the -squalid mosques of Bulgaria, and the lack of beauty in the churches at Rome ; when, however, they came to their visit to Tsargrad, joy welled up in their hearts at the memory of all the glory and beauty they had been privileged to behold at Byzantium. " We were taken to the place where the Greeks worship their God," they said, " and we almost thought we were already in heaven, for nowhere on earth had we beheld such beauty, nor can we describe it. But this we learnt : that God dwells everywhere with man, and that he is 44 SOME RUSSIAN HEROES (■^ 'I ! / 11,1 worshipped in many lands. Never shall we forget the beauty we have seen, and, just as no one willingly tastes the bitter after having tasted the sweet, so we also can no longer remain here, but must return to the place where God is worshipped in such beauty.*' This report greatly affected the boyars, who urged Vladimir to accept the faith of the Greeks ; and, to strengthen their plea, they reminded him of the fact that his grandmother Olga, who had been the wisest of women, had made this form of faith her own. So in the end Vladimir decided to become a Christian, and the only question remaining to be settled was where he should he baptised. Just about this time the two Emperors of Byzantium were being pressed on many sides by their enemies the Poles and the Germans, and in their need they called upon the mighty Ruler of Kiev for aid. As a reward they offered him the hand of their sister Anna, on condition, however, that he should first be baptised. Vladimir was glad to assist them ; but time went on, and the promised princess was not sent to him, for now that the danger of an attack was passed, it seemed unthinkable to give the ** purple-born " daughter of the "purple-born" Emperor in wedlock to the Russian barbarian. This enraged Vladimir, and he therefore laid seige to the city of Korsun in the Crimea, where Sevastopol now stands. He had, however, yet another reason for besieging the town ; for, having decided to become a Christian, he needed priests to baptise him and his people. But his pride rebelled against having to ask for them, so he meant to get them by force of arms. W HOW VLADIMIR BECAME ST. VLADIMIR 45 There were also important political reasons under- lying his action, for Vladimir knew that the Greek Emperors were only too ready to claim all orthodox Christians as their subjects ; and in order to avoid the danger of his being considered a vassal, he took this high-handed proceeding, intending to come before them as a conqueror instead of a suppliant^ LAftcr a siege of six months* duration, the town was forced to surrender, having been betrayed by a Greek, who gave certain information to the Grand Duke of Kiev, which enabled him to cut off the water-supply. Vladimir's threat to attack Byzantium unless the promised bride was brought to him influenced the terrified Byzantine rulers, and Anna's objections to the marriage were overriddei>* She was consoled for the sacrifice by the assurance that in marrying the Russian barbarian she would have a unique opportunity of influencing a heathen people to adopt Christianity. Before, however, the marriage ceremony could be performed, or even before he could become a, Chris- tian, Vladimir was obliged to get rid of his many wives ; among the principal of these four had been Christians when he married them. Predslava, a Var- angian, he sent to Novgorod ; Rogneda, the beautiful maiden of Polotsk, whom he had re-named Glorislava, retired into a nunnery ; Malfreda, the Bohemian, did not long survive the separation ; but there were still Adel (a Czech) and Milolika (a Bulgarian — his favourite) to dispose of, and these and his other eight hundred wives he gave in marriage to his vassals and boyars. Finally all was arranged, and the Greek princess \m \w. 46 SOME RUSSIAN HEROES i was married In Korsun to Vladimir, who, meanwhile, had been baptised. He did not retain the conquered town, but handed It over to his wife as a dowry, and in doing so restored It to Byzantium. After the wedding Vladimir left Korsun, carrying back with him to his capital not only priests to baptise and Instruct his people, but also holy pictures and vestments to help in furnishing the churches which he meant to build. For this latter purpose he also brought back with him Greek architects and builders. The first thing Vladimir set himself to do on arriving in Kiev was to have his subjects baptised. As there was no priestly caste among the heathen Russians, and as their faith contained no dogma, but consisted chiefly of superstitions, there were no particular objections to be overcome. The people In and around Kiev were the first to undergo the new rite. On a given day, in the year 988, when all had been summoned for the general baptism, the great statue of Perun was pulled down, tied to the tail of a horse, dragged down the hill, beaten with sticks, and finally flung Into the river. The vast crowd witnessed the degradation of their god, and saw for themselves that he was incapable of defending himself, not even seeming to resent the ill-treatment m^ied out to him. Trusting in the superior wisdom of their rulers, of the princes and the boyars, the people ''joyfully entered the river and received baptism, sure that what the great people had accepted must be good.'' True, the chronicler tells us that " Vladimir advised his people to be baptised, and those who did not do so from inclination did so from fear, as the Grand Duke's zeal ■^ o tfl , S! V V_ \w.> HOW VLADIMIR BECAME ST. VLADIMIR 47 for the faith was linked with violence, and no one dared disobey his pious command." In Novgorod, however, where Vladimir sent his uncle Dobrinya, together with a bishop and some priests, the change of religion was not so peacefully brought about. The people bitterly resented. the attacks on their idols by the emissaries of the Grand Duke, who preached to them in the streets and market- place ; and when called together by their chiefs, the crowds of heathen angrily refused to listen to this new doctrine, convinced that it was better for them to die than to let their gods be insulted. Influenced by the wonderful eloquence of their chief, the people broke out in riot, attacked Dobrinya^s house and killed his wife ; they also destroyed a church which had been built 'some time before by Christian Varangians. But by means of a ruse, Poutyata, one of Vladimir's men, managed to get the upper hand ; he sent for men from another town, and with this aid attacked Novgorod, and a regular battle ensued. It was only after many houses had been destroyed and many people killed that the citizens sued for peace, which was promised on condition that they would be baptised. X To this they consented, and Dobrinya promptly proceeded to destroy all the idols : those of stone were broken up and thrown into the river, and those of wood were burned. This caused great sorrow and anguish of heart to the heathen, who wept bitterly, and pleaded with Dobrinya to spare their gods. But he only laughed and said, " Ye unreasonable people, why do you worry about those who cannot help them- selves ? " Perun was especially badly treated, and as ( V, 48 SOME RUSSIAN HEROES he was being beaten and dragged to the river, a demon entered into him, who cried out, " Woe is me ; I am catching it soundly from unmerciful hands ! " The bishop strictly forbade anyone to give him help or shelter, and therefore when, the next day, Perun swam ashore and tried to climb up the banks, one of the newly-baptised Christians pushed him back into the river, saying, " Perun, thou hast eaten and drunk thy fill ; now just swim away ! " On a given day all the people had to present them- selves for baptism, and those who did not come voluntarily were dragged along by armed force. Thus everybody was baptised in the river, the men above, the women below, the bridge. Many, however, in order to escape baptism, pretended that they were already Christians. When this was found out, all who had been christened were commanded to have a cross hung around their necks, and whoever was detected without one was thereupon forcibly baptised. Thus quiet was restored in Novgorod, and Poutyata returned to Kiev ; but the people scofFed at the way in which Christianity had been introduced, saying : "Poutyata baptised with the sword, and Dobrinya with fire ! " ^ Gradually the new faith spread throughout the Russian lands, and all Vladimir's Slav subjects were baptised. For political reasons, however, he left the other tribes— especially those of the north-east of Russia, who clung to their old faith— undisturbed ; since his rule over them was not yet established, the prudent prince did not wish to irritate them. Thus the Russians became Christians outwardly, but HOW VLADIMIR BECAME ST. VLADIMIR 49 remained heathens in their hearts, retaining all their old customs. There were not suflficient priests to teach them, and the people merely added Christianity to their old beliefs. Just as they had been baptised them- selves, so in all good faith they also christened their gods. Perun, the Thunder God, they christened Elijah, and to this day the prophet celebrates his day with thunder. For quite two centuries the Russian people held this dual faith, much to the grief of their spiritual leaders. Vladimir realized the necessity of instructing the people in the new religion, but the great difficulty was to procure priests who could speak to them in their own tongue. Finally he sent to Bulgaria, where a language very similar to the Russian was spoken, whence priests came who brought with them the written Word — for Cyril and Methodius, the great missionaries to the southern Slavs, had invented an alphabet and had translated the Holy Scriptures into Slavonic. Vladimir built many churches in Kiev, some of wood and some of stone, besides a fine cathedral which he dedicated to *' the Mother of God." For the upkeep ^ of this cathedral, and for the support of the Metro^^-""'^ politan and his clergy, the Grand Duke set apart a tenth of all his princely revenues, whether in fur or honey, in corn or merchandise. Thus, the church of the " tenth," as it was called, stands to this day a witness to Vladimir's zeal and earnestness. He also commanded the boyars and the leading citizens to send their children to the newly-founded schools, where they were taught by the priests. The mothers wept over this order as though it were death, i. 50 SOME RUSSIAN HEROES and not instruction, that awaited their little ones. By this far-seeing policy Vladimir prepared a future generation of Christians, not only in name, but in reality ; and this first set of scholars provided Russia with native-born Christian leaders and priests. According to the Chronicle, " Vladimir prepared the soil, broke up the ground and made it soft and loose ; that is to say, he enlightened the people by introducing Christianity. To his son Yaroslav, however, it was given to sow the seed in the soil which was already prepared : he furthered instruction by means of books. Vladimir baptised, Yaroslav taught and established the people in the faith." In his desire to spread Christianity the Grand Duke travelled all over the country, urging the people to become Christians. " Thus," again to quote the chronicler," our land began to praise the Christ, the Father, and the Holy Ghost," and paganism became a forbidden creed. Most of those who adhered to it did so in secret. But there were others who rebelled against this change of faith, and openly clung to their old gods ; they fled into the forests, where they lived as outlaws, and thus the number of robbers enormously increased. Vladimir at first did not proceed against them with sufficient energy, for the erstwhile warlike prince had, since his baptism, become averse to fighting and was growing almost too lenient. But a strong hand was needed to keep down this lawlessness, and at last the Bishop of Kiev asked Vladimir why it was that he did not have these robbers put to death. " Because 1 do not wish to commit sin," was the Grand Duke's reply. Then he was told by the bishop that God had HOW VLADIMIR BECAME ST. VLADIMIR 51 entrusted him with power and had made him a judge over evildoers and a re warder of virtue, ''and that it was his duty to punish the robbers, but that a thorough enquiry should be made first." Thereupon Vladimir no longer merely imposed fines, but had the robbers put to death instead, until his counsellors, perceiving how much money was thereby lost, induced him to re- establish fines. " For," they said, '' we have frequent wars, and this money comes in usefully for the purchase of weapons and horses." The increased intercourse with Byzantium, now no longer merely commercial, deeply influenced Russian life and customs. The introduction of Christianity brought culture in its wake ; moreover, Vladimir loved beauty and art, and appreciated learning. A wise man, he knew how to retain the old and yet adapt it to the new conditions ; his generous and humane character, his desire to see all around him happy and content, the cheerfulness of his disposition and his love of merriment and social pleasure made him merciful and charitable. Formerly he and his Drujina and the boyars had revelled and feasted to their hearts' content, had eaten and drunk and been merry. Now the poor and needy, the orphan and the widow were remembered when the feast was spread ; and to those who were too sick to come to the palace he sent food. On all the great saints' day and holy days everybody was free to join the feasting in his palace yard, where prince and people, leaders and led, met in friendly intercourse. This also served the political purpose of drawing the classes / together. Valorous knights from all parts were drawn to Kiev srh • ? J 52 SOME RUSSIAN HEROES by the fame of Vladimir, for the renown of this merry, genial, and generous prince had spread far and wide. Thus it came about that while he remained at home organizing his lands, building up his dominion and fostering the peaceful arts, his Bogatyrs or knights went out to fight against enemies and oppressors, and returned to him to tell of great deeds done and of victories won. Vladimir's most bitter and dangerous foes were the Petchenegs, from whose raids his people suffered terribly. Tales of their fierceness and cruelty had spread even as far as Germany, and the missionary Brun writes in the year 1007 that he "went to the fiercest of all the heathen — the Petchenegs," and that " the Grand Duke of Kiev, who reigned over vast lands, pleaded with him not to go amongst those people, as he was sure that he, Brun, would be killed by them." He gratefully records that on his refusal to give up his intention, Vladimir himself accompanied him to the very borders of the Petchenegs' country, where they parted, the prince full of foreboding for the gentle Christian. Five months later, however, after a success- ful mission, Brun returned to Kiev, having not only baptised thirty heathen, but having also prevailed upon the Chief of the Petchenegs to make peace with Vladimir. This prince now sent one of his sons, accompanied by a bishop, as envoy to his former enemies, and for a while Russia was at rest. Towards the end of his reign Vladimir suffered much grief and sorrow on account of his sons, some of whom rebelled against him. For Vladimir had given to his twelve sons and several nephews land for their posses- HOW VLADIMIR BECAME ST. VLADIMIR 53 sion, laying thereby the foundation for much trouble in the future, and the realm he had so zealously striven to consolidate was to be rent asunder under the rule of his descendants. Yaroslav, to whom he had given Novgorod, caused him much trouble by his refusal to hand over the right proportion of the taxes gathered by him on behalf of his father. Vladimir then decided to go against his son and meet him in battle; but death overtook him, and "the devil was robbed of the pleasure of seeing father and son at war with each other." When the people heard of Vladimir's death they gathered in crowds and made great lamentation. "The boyars bemoaned the loss of their leader, the people of their protector, and the poor of their sustainer." Vladimir was a new type of ruler in Russia — not merely a knight amongst knights, or a greater chief amongst lesser chiefs — but an acknow- ledged king, the founder of a dynasty. He was also a true statesman, to whose wisdom and foresight ancient Russia owed her first consolidation as a state. It was he who introduced gold and silver coinage ; on one side of the coin was the figure of Our Lord, and on the other Vladimir in imperial robes, holding a cross in his hand. A Russian Metropolitan, one of the firstfruits^^ of the schools founded by Vladimir, wrote in praise of him in 1050 : "Rome sings the praise of Peter and Paul, all countries and cities and men honour and glorify their teacher who has taught them the faith. . . . Let us also, as much as in us lies, praise with humble thanksgiving our teacher and instructor, who has done great and wondrous teachings, the great M irf 54 SOME RUSSIAN HEROES Khan of our land, Vladimir, the grandson of Igor, the son of the glorious Svyatoslav. ..." Yet it was not until 1257, nearly two and a half centuries after his death, that this champion of the Christian faith was canonized ; for the very feasts, with their sumptuousness and good cheer, which had made him so popular with his people, were made a reproach to him by the ascetic clergy of a later date, and it was only after these festivities had been forgotten that his zeal for the faith was recognized by the Church, and he was made into St. Vladimir. In the memory of a loving people, however, he lives as the joyous, chivalrous, glorious " Fair Sun." Around his attractive personality and exploits, as well as those of the mighty men who surrounded him, whole cycles of romantic tales have been woven, and it is in these " Byilinas " that the life and soul of those heroic days have been preserved for all time. The most famous of Vladimir's bold knights were llya Mourometz, Dobryinia Nik:ititch,and Alesha Popovltch, whose names have become household words. Thus, in the story of the life of Vladimir, romance, tradition and history meet, and at one and the same time he is glorified as the valorous pagan knight, venerated as the christianizer of Russia, and appraised as the founder of the Russian Empire. THE COIN OF VLADIMIR. Discovered in 1812. CHAPTER V PREDSLAVA AND GRADISLAVA, DAUGHTERS OF THE PRINCE OF POLOTSK Y the twelfth century Russia had fallen on evil days ; the Russian land had gradually been divided up into numerous principali- ties, the rulers of which were perpetually at war with one another: just as it was at that time also in England, where unbridled feudalism was rampant, when the Barons were fighting for their own interests, and the weak Stephen proved unable to prevent anarchy. There was no unity, no solidarity amongst the princes of Russia, and the people were the chief sufferers from this state of affairs, for there was a chronic dearth of agricultural labourers, and each side strove to make good its deficiency by bringing back captives of war. As a natural result, ruin and misery prevailed, and sorrow reigned over the land ; families were separated, children became orphans, and wives 55 RUSSIAN PRINCESS. From an eleventh century fresco, Kiev. i'\i If] 56 SOME RUSSIAN HEROES were made widows, while fertile fields and pastures were laid waste. The great nobles, callous and in- different to the suffering around them, cared only for their own enrichment and glory, leaving the poor to groan in utter helplessness. In this they were not worse than their peers in Western Europe ; the Saxon chronicler writes that it is not easy to recount all the misery the poor people suffered from baronial tyranny. All, however, were not callous — at any rate, not Predslava, the lovely daughter of the Prince of Polotsk. From her earliest childhood this princess had witnessed grief and sorrow, had seen the wounded brought back on stretchers, had heard the weeping of the bereaved women, and had listened to the tales told by her father and brothers on their return from a raid — tales of enemies slain and booty captured. As the young girl listened, she wondered if it were really impossible for people to live in peace and unity. Was there not enough land for everyone ^ Her heart grew heavy at the thought of all the misery involved, and when she grew older she could no longer bear to hear the songs and rejoicings of her father's followers ; neither could she take pleasure in the costly presents brought to her from these raids. Like a lily amongst thorns and thistles was Predslava; sweet and pure was her life, but her spirit was weighed down by all the sorrow and wrong-doing she had to witness. Her one desire was to bring joy to others, to see everybody happy and good. Life to her young mind meant happiness, not misery ; and the problem ever nearest to her heart was how she could bring PREDSLAVA AND GRADISLAVA 57 peace to those around her who were in such dire need of it. Her greatest treasure was a copy of the New Testament which had been written out by some pious monks ; it was from this sacred book that the young princess had learned to read. The wonderful story of the life of the Saviour, who went about doing good, made a deep impression on the receptive mind and tender heart of the fair maiden. The more dis- tressed and perplexed she became by the misery around her, the more she turned to her only source of comfort — the Holy Book, whole pages of which she committed to memory. She wondered how it was that more people did not know of this solace, and on realizing that it was owing to the expense of having it copied that so few could possess the Holy Book, she decided to spend her time in making copies of it herself, to dis- tribute amongst those who could not otherwise obtain it. Surely people must grow better through reading the Gospel, she reasoned, being convinced that it was only because they were ignorant and unenlightened that her own dear people were so cruel and heartless. The young princess, like a ministering angel, spent her days in works of love and pity. She ordered food to be given to the captives brought to the castle by her father, and spoke to them words of encouragement and good cheer. With her own hands she washed the sores of the wounded, and did everything so gently and tenderly that all the poor and suffering looked upon her as an angel from heaven. Predslava s knowledge of how to care for the sick was gained not only by experience, but also by study- ing all that was known about the healing herbs and Jl 58 SOME RUSSIAN HEROES II i; \^ li roots from which she concocted her medicines. Her fame as a physician was noised abroad, and from towns and villages the sick and wounded began flocking to the castle at Polotsk, where they found Predslava always ready to help and succour all who came to her. She not only healed the sick, but fed the hungry and gave money to the poor. The Prince, her father, did not interfere with her activity ; he looked on and marvelled, pleased enough to hear his daughter spoken of on every hand as an angel of God. He was proud that she should be so be- loved by the people, to whom she seemed as necessary as the very sun itself, and allowed her to take from the granaries as much corn as she required. He also lent a ready ear to her pleading, and, at her request, many a captive was set free. Beautiful in person and lovely in mind, this daughter of a rich and powerful prince had many a princely suitor. But the question of marriage was a trouble to Predslava. How could she think of building her own nest when so many around her were in want and misery ? If she married she would have her own family and dependants to care for, and what would then become of the sick and miserable ? Might it not mean that " God's family " would be neglected for the sake of her own ? Predslava, therefore, postponed all idea of marriage as long as she could ; but at last her father, without consulting her, and in accordance with the custom of those days, betrothed her to a neighbouring prince. Great preparations were made for the marriage, and the sound of feasting and rejoicing was heard in the II PREDSLAVA AND GRADISLAVA 59 castle. But the bride-elect, sad and perplexed, retired to the solitude of her chamber, where, on the eve of her wedding-day, she prayed to her Saviour for definite guidance. Not that she was afraid of the marriage, for her betrothed was young, kind-hearted and hand- some, but that she dreaded having to surrender herself to the cares of the world. Hour after hour was thus spent in prayer, until at last the day began to break, and as her eyes beheld the first rays of the sun, Predslava cried out, " O Lord, Thou who dost direct the course of the sun, direct also the steps of Thy weak and helpless servant. Show me the path wherein I can best serve Thee and show forth Thy love 1 " As if in answer to her cry, the bell of the neigh- bouring convent rang out and broke the stillness of the morning air, and when Predslava heard the sweet sound of this call to prayer, all her doubts vanished. " The Lord is calling me 1 " she said, and rising from her knees, she flung a mantle around her and secretly left the castle. Swiftly covering the short distance which lay between it and the nunnery, she went straight to the Mother Superior, who was also her aunt, and, throwing herself at the feet of the Abbess, Predslava pleaded to be at once admitted as a nun. Her aunt, however, alarmed at this unexpected request, exclaimed, " What has befallen thee, my child.? Happiness, pleasure and riches are awaiting thee ; thy father is preparing a feast for thee, and thou askest for the black veil ! '' " It is the riches and glory which are weighing me down," whispered the maiden ; " for have they not been purchased at the cost of blood ? Think of '% ,1 i i 1^ 6o SOME RUSSIAN HEROES II (r 1 the times in which we live ! How could I be happy with a husband ? He would always be making cam- paigns or raids, and I should be hi constant fear of his being wounded or killed ; and if he returned, I should dread lest he had spilt his brother's blood." As she listened to Predslava*s words, the burden of her past life and the sorrow of her widowhood rose up before the aged princess, who felt the truth of what her niece was saying. Fearing, however, the anger of the girFs father, she sent for the Bishop, who also urged Predslava to reconsider her decision. " Thou art young and fair, my daughter, and dost not realize how heavy is the burden thou desirest to take upon thy shoulders. Thy parents will cast thee off, and thou wilt be left alone in the world." Looking straight into the eyes of the Bishop, the brave maiden reproved him thus : " Do not try to alarm a youthful soul which is bent on following God. The yoke of Christ is easy and his burden is light, and I shall never be alone, for God will be my Father, and the unhappy, the orphaned, and the sick shall be my people ! " No longer could the Abbess and the Bishop with- stand Predslava's appeal, and the monastic rite was performed ; she was shorn of her beautiful tresses, and a new name, that of Euphrosina, given to her. The sun had risen in all its glory on the wedding morning, but where was the fair Princess Predslava ? Nowhere could she be found. The greatest excite- ment prevailed, and the Prince sent his followers out in every direction to search for her, while he himself rode forth to seek his child. In front of the PREDSLAVA AND GRADISLAVA 6i convent gates he was met by the Bishop, cross in hand. " Do not seek Predslava,'' he said ; ** she is no more. It is the nun Euphrosina who dwells behind these walls." Furious with rage, the Prince threatened to destroy the nunnery and raze it to the ground, but the Bishop warned him that it was useless fighting against God, and that he could never get his daughter back by means of violence. '* Thou hast sinned much and often by thy campaigns, Prince ; Euphrosina will intercede for thee." The old warrior was moved to tears by these words, and turning his charger homewards, he rode to his castle, where he shut himself up in his room. At first he was inconsolable, but gradually became calmer and submitted to the will of God. The young nun Euphrosina soon became accustomed to her new life. The convent was famous, and many pilgrims came to visit it. All were welcome to stay for two or three days as guests of the nuns, who attended to their needs and saw to their comfort. The time of the nuns was also taken up in attending the services, in reading, and in doing needlework. But these occupations did not satisfy the young princess, who asked the Bishop to give her his blessing and set her apart for active work. " Let me follow the example of the Holy Anna who served in the Temple. Here, in the convent, there are many sisters ; no one will miss me ; permit me to serve in the cathedral, and let me live in one of the cells in the wall of that sacred building." The Bishop granted her request, giving her his |i| I 11 62 SOME RUSSIAN HEROES u blessing and the required permission, and she went to serve in the cathedral, spending her leisure hours in transcribing the Gospel in clear and beautiful hand- writing. Some of the copies were sent away as gifts to poor churches ; others she sold to rich people, who paid handsomely for them. All the money thus earned Euphrosina distributed amongst the poor, whom she had come to know well, for she visited them in their homes. She nursed the sick, fed the hungry, washed and clothed neglected children, and comforted the sorrow-stricken by reading the Gospel to them. The people flocked to her cell ; mothers brought their children to her in order that she might teach them, the sick came for medicine, and widows and orphans came to hear her tender, loving words of comfort. The Bishop noted all this with joy and satisfaction ; indeed, he so appreciated her wonderful character and remarkable powers of organization that he offered the young princess a village which belonged to the cathedral, having no. doubt that under her capable management the tithes would surely be forthcoming. Euphrosina rejoiced greatly over this generous gift, and, gathering together her large family of orphans, destitute souls and cripples, started off for her new abode. The whole town turned out to speed her on her journey, and to watch the departure of the file of carts which carried away her "family" of the sick, the wretched, the needy, and the homeless. There in her village Euphrosina found work for everyone. The blind made nets and shoes of plaited straw, the deaf split wood, the lame carved wooden vessels, the older men kept bees or went fishing to Ml PREDSLAVA AND GRADISLAVA 63 provide the large family with food, and those who were stronger than the rest sawed wood and built huts. Her fame spread far and wide, and from all parts the poor found their way to Euphrosina, as did also the rich, who brought with them gifts for the " Nourisher of the Poor." Many wealthy widows and spinsters took up their abode with her as fellow-workers. Thus an entirely new monastic establishment gradu- ally developed. In this settlement there was life and activity ; work and prayer went hand in hand, and God was praised both by word and deed. When the old Prince of Polotsk and his wife saw how God was blessing their daughter's life and labour, they ceased to bemoan her loss and began to take a real pride in her work. In the meantime, at the castle, Euphrosina's little sister, Gradislava, was growing up and developing into a lovely girl. Euphrosina, in order to save her sister from the sights and sounds which had grieved her so much in her own childhood, now suggested to her parents that the little maiden should be sent to her. " We will teach her to read, to pray, and to work, and I promise you that she will blossom like a rose in these healthy, happy surroundings." So Gradislava came and was brought up in the nunnery, far away from the tales of bloody warfare and the noisy revels of her father's home. Under the tender care of her elder sister, the maiden grew in sweetness and purity, hearing all that was good and holy and witnessing works of love and mercy. After a while the time came for Gradislava to be n 64 SOME RUSSIAN HEROES 'ii betrothed, but instead of joyfully responding to her parents* call to the wedding feast and marriage bells, she pleaded to be left where she was. Bitterly, in his grief and disappointment, did the old Prince reproach his elder daughter for bereaving him of his second child : " Thou didst offer merely to educate thy sister, not to withold her from us." Distressed by the sorrow of her parents, Euphrosina sent them a loving message inviting them to come and judge for themselves as to whether Gradislava was likely to be happier and of greater use in the castle or in the settlement. The old Prince and his wife decided to accept the invitation to visit their daughters, sure in their own minds that they would easily convince the younger one of the pleasures which awaited her in the home of a husband. On the day of their arrival — a saint's day — multitudes of people were thronging the square in front of the church. Suddenly there was a stir and move- ment amongst them as of anticipation, and joyful exclamations burst from many lips. In response to his enquiry as to whether a procession was expectedj the Prince was told that it was the Princess Gradislava who was coming to distribute gifts to the poor. And, sure enough, there, at the other end of the square, lay heaped up bags of corn, vegetables and bales of linen ; there stood horses, cows and sheep, as well as carts and agricultural implements. The crowd made way for the fair Gradislava and her attendants, who walked behind her carrying medicines and ointments for the sick. On reaching the place where all the gifts were deposited, she began to PREDSLAVA AND GRADISLAVA 65 distribute them according to each one's need. There were many to attend to, as there was much distress in the land, which had just passed through an evil year ; but Gradislava listened to all the pleading, carefully dealing with each case, considering it, discussing it and then acting accordingly. Thus she gave to one seed-corn, to another a horse, to a third a cart — to each what he required ; to some she gave more than they asked, while others had to go away empty- handed. The old Prince and his wife grew tired of waiting, for Gradislava was occupied with the people until late in the afternoon, and made their way to their night's resting-place, intending to take their child away with them on the morrow. But again they were dis- appointed, for they found next morning that their daughter had set off, at break of day, on her daily round of visits to the sick. As soon as her parents heard of this, they started to follow her, but at the first hut they entered there was no Gradislava, for she had already been and gone. " She flies in at sunrise like a bird," they were told, "and if she did not start early she would never go the round ; with her own hands she washes her patients, combs out their hair, and administers their medicine. She is a comfort, a cheer and a blessing to all," said the people. " She is the joy of our lives ; no mere girl is she, but an angel sent from God." And thus it was everywhere. Wherever the parents went they heard the same tale : " Our joy is Gradi- slava ; to us she is like a sunbeam. She is our guardian angel." F 3)1 It 66 SOME RUSSIAN HEROES 1 I )»i 1' 'I At last her parents found her kneeling on the floor of a hut by the side of an old man. His eyes were closed, and with every breath he drew there was a rattling sound in his throat. As he clung with his cold, withered fingers to the soft, warm hand of the maiden, he slowly and painfully gasped out, "Art thou there, Princess ? Do not leave me ... I am afraid ... I am so great a sinner ... I have slain . . . blood, blood, I see blood everywhere . . . pray for me . . . God will hear thy prayers . . . thou hast a pure and holy soul. . . .'* Tenderly Gradislava bent over him and told him the story of the Prodigal Son, of the woman who was a sinner, of Zaccheus, and of the penitent thief on the Cross. And as the dying man listened to these sweet words of comfort, his breathing grew easier ; but when Gradislava started to raise herself up from the ground, he implored her not to leave him. " Pray for me, thy prayer will save me," he whispered ; ** bless me, ere I breathe my last." It was then that Gradislava for the first time addressed her parents, who had witnessed the scene with wonder and awe : " Father and mother dear, do not ask me to go home with you to-day. I cannot leave this man. Wait until to-morrow, for he surely cannot last until dawn. Let me but close his eyes ; his life has been hard and weary, let him now die in peace." Softly the princely pair withdrew, for how could they resist such an appeal ? But when next morning they looked for Gradislava in her cell they did not find her there, but discovered her later surrounded by PREDSLAVA AND GRADISLAVA 67 a number of girls, to whom she was dictating the Gospel. Slowly and distinctly she read it out word by word, while twenty hands transcribed the holy words. Her parents stood still in amazement, listening to the clear, sweet tones of their daughter's voice as she dictated : " They brought children unto Him, that He should bless them. Suffer the little children to come unto Me, and forbid them not, for of such is the Kingdom of Heaven. . . ." Suddenly the old Prince turned to his wife and said, " Didst thou hear what the Saviour said ? ' Let the children come unto me and hinder them not.' Perhaps we, too, ought not to hinder our child — perhaps, after all, we ought to leave her here. There is so much sorrow in the world, and Gradislava seems to know how to help to lessen it. Although we shall miss her sorely, we must not take her with us ; for if we did, hundreds would feel lonely and orphaned instead of just us two." So they left her, and Gradislava remained at the settlement as her sister's helper. Many thousands she fed and rescued from want and sorrow ; many crippled and aged she provided with shelter, and hundreds of orphans were brought up under her hand. Better than all her good deeds, how- ever, was the influence of her daily life, for it infused light, warmth and love into the lives of all around her. Against the dark background of bloodshed and rapine of that period, these two sisters stood out in all the radiance of their personality as witnesses of the fact that there was another and a better life to be lived — a life of brotherly love. The example they set was an V, ! 1 i I i .(, 68 SOME RUSSIAN HEROES Inspiration, not only to their own generation, but to those that followed after. Like two lilies, pure and white, and exhaling the sweetest perfume, were Pred- slava and Gradislava, daughters of the fierce warrior- Prince of Polotsk. CHAPTER VI V r ILLUMINATION FROM A MS. GOSPEL OF II64. In the Roumyanzev Museum, Moscow. |i THE MONGOL INVASION AND ALEXANDER NEVSKI HE Crusades, which had united Christian kings and knights, had all but come to an end, and much Christian blood had been shed on holy soil. In Eng- land, Henry III was on the throne, and the first Parliament had met. Russian princes had not taken part in the Crusades, for, during the two centuries which had passed since Vladimir had consolidated his empire, there had been a time of internecine warfare, and after the court of Kiev had ceased to attract foreigners, Russia lost touch with Western Europe. Thus it came about that when, in the early years of the thirteenth century, news reached the Russian princes that a terrible enemy was approaching from the east, they never thought of calling upon the Knights of Western Europe to join them in resisting the pagan foe. Two of the Khans of the Polovtsi, whose territory 69 CASTLE OF NOVGOROD: "WELIKI- NOVGOECD." From a seventeenth century engraving. ! 70 SOME RUSSIAN HEROES .11" |»1 had already been conquered by the invaders, fled into Russia and brought the bad news to Galish, with whose ruler one of them was connected by marriage. There- upon, Prince Mstislav of Galish invited the other Russian princes, his near relatives, to a conference in Kiev, where the leading princes — those of Kiev, Smolensk, Volhynia and Galicia — met to discuss the situation. The fugitive Khan Khotyan told them of the advancing hordes, who, on being refused a free passage through his country, had invaded and devastated it. In order to gain from the Russian princes a promise of help, he presented them with horses, camels and female slaves, while the other Khan, Bastyi, asked to be baptised into the Christian faith. After long deliberation, the Russian princes decided that when spring came they would go out and meet the enemy, hoping thereby to prevent an invasion of their territory. At the time appointed they set off for the place where they had arranged to meet, and were there joined by other princes and their followers. Envoys from the Mongol leader also made their appearance there in order to offer terms of peace, assuring the Russian princes that, although they had fallen upon the Polovtsi — their *' slaves and grooms " — they had no designs on Russia herself, nor had they so much as touched any Russian towns or villages. The princes, however, took warning from the experience of the Polovtsi, who had been so cruelly deceived by the Tatars, and not only refused to listen to the envoys, but had them put to death. After this the princes moved down the Dnieper, where they were V i'_. THE MONGOL INVASION 71 met by new envoys, who informed them that they had brought war upon themselves by their refusal to believe in Tatar promises. After a few successful skirmishes on the part of the Russians, the Tatars withdrew eastward, luring them further and further into the Steppes, until they reached the River Kalka, near Lake Azov, where they were unexpectedly attacked by vast hordes of Mongols. Although the Russians made a brave stand, a horrible massacre ensued, in which ten thousand men from Kiev alone were slain, besides six princes and seventy knights. In spite of their valour, the surviving princes had no choice but to flee before the overwhelming forces of the enemy, especially as they wer^ utterly unprepared for such an onslaught. Three of the princes who had been taken alive were put under boards, upon which the Tatars sat and ate their dinner, while the unfortunate victims were slowly squeezed to death. This act was symbolic of the fate which awaited the country. The Tatars did not penetrate further into Russia, but, crossing the Steppes in a north-easterly direction, conquered the Bulgars on the Kama, and then returned through the Steppes of the Ural and along the shores of the Caspian into Asia, well satisfied with their achievement in having discovered an open road to Europe. The sudden appearance of these Asiatic hordes and the defeat of the princes had aroused feelings of terror and consternation in Russia. A contemporary chronicler thus voices the popular mind : " There appeared amongst us an unknown people ; no one 72 SOME RUSSIAN HEROES I, I seemed to know anything about them, their language, or their faith, who they were or whence they came, nor to what tribe they belonged. Some say they are Tatars, some Taurmens, while others take them for Petchenegs." The answer to these questions came fifteen years later at the cost of bitter experience, and the Russians found them what the conquered people of Asia had found the hordes of Ghengis Khan to be — arrogant, cruel, treacherous and bloodthirsty, lacking in gratitude and generosity, caring for nothing but robbery and loot. No wonder if they were consumed with pride, for had not this small Tatar tribe, a mere vassal of China, become a conquering race ? Ghengis Khan, with his horsemen, had made himself the terror of Asia, and all those whom he allowed to live bowed before him. These shepherd warriors who had come from the northern slopes of the Altai, or '' Golden Mountains,'* were ungainly in appearance, with long bodies and short legs, their wide-set eyes seemed to bulge out from horizontal slits in their faces ; the nose was wide and flat, and on the upper lip sprouted a few straggling hairs ; the front of the head was shaven in the form of a horse-shoe, as a symbol of their centaur power, and on either side were patches of long hair which hung in plaits over the ears. They were uncouth in manner, filthy in their habits, and their diet was disgusting : they ate all manner of vermin, they specially enjoyed the warm blood of horses, while their favourite drink was that most intoxicating beverage, fermented mare's milk — koumiss. The first expedition into Russia had merely whetted THE MONGOL INVASION 73 the appetite of the Tatars, and in 1236 Batu Khan, to whom Ghengis Khan had apportioned the western part of his Empire, invaded Russia with 300,000 men. This grandson of the great Mongol leader sent envoys to the Prince of Ryazan to demand in tribute one tenth of everything he possessed, men and horses included, but the answer he received was that all the Russian lands would be his when there was no longer a Russian prince left alive. Like a prairie fire the Tatars spread across Russia in different directions, and within thirty days fourteen towns fell into their hands — Ryazan, Suzdal, Vladimir, Moscow, Rostov, Yaroslav, Gorodetz, Galitch, Tver and others, the inhabitants of which were all massacred. These ruthless conquerors were adepts in the art of besieging towns : they cut off the water supply, threw up earthworks, used battering-rams, cast burning balls of naphtha, mixed with human fat, into the cities, and although they usually promised the besieged citizens life and property on condition of voluntary surrender, they rarely, if ever, kept their word. Even if they did not kill every inhabitant, as was frequently the case, all the wealthy people were sure to be put to death. When the premier prince of Russia, the Grand Duke Yuri of Vladimir, who had been assured that if he remained neutral his country would be unmolested, heard of the destruction of his capital and the murder of his family, whom the Tatars had burnt alive in a church, he went out to meet the cruel foe, intending to give battle ; but the horror of the Tatars fell upon his men, who became utterly demoralized and fled in confusion, while all those who stood by him were killed. I 74 SOME RUSSIAN HEROES mI 1' I The victorious Khan next captured the town of Torja in the face of strenuous resistance, and, having slaughtered all the inhabitants, he passed on, mowing down like grass the people who came in his way. All prisoners of war were killed, with the exception of artisans, who were taken away as slaves ; indeed, there was a regular system for the killing of prisoners, so many Mongols having so many prisoners handed over to them for slaughter. Terror had taken hold of the citizens of Novgorod, the rich and important trading centre of Russia, for they realized that their turn would come next ; there- fore, much prayer and supplication was offered up by the devout-minded people. To their intense relief, the city escaped the terrible fate which had been meted out to the others, for with the approach of spring the Khan, fearing lest he should be caught in the swamps surrounding Novgorod, turned away to the south-west and attacked and besieged Koselsk, where he met with a stubborn resistance. It was the only town which did not fall into his hands after a few days* siege, but held out for two months. The citizens had decided to withstand him to the uttermost, for *' although our Prince is but a boy," they said, *' we willingly lay down our lives for him and thus win glory in this world and heavenly crowns in the world to come." As elsewhere, however, so also here the walls finally fell before the battering-rams of the Tatars ; yet the resistance only came to an end when the last man was killed. No one knows what happened to the young Prince, but he was believed to have been drowned in the sea of blood which flowed down the streets of his city. Satisfied IWi }' 1' THE MONGOL INVASION 75 with the havoc wrought and with the booty taken, the Khan now returned to Asia, but two years later he swooped down again upon Russia. This time, however, It was the southern part which he and his hordes over- ran. It seemed as though nothing could arrest their progress, and at last they came to the banks of the Dnieper and stood facing Kiev, the fame of which had reached the ears of Batu. Struck by the beauty of the city, his nephew, who had been sent in advance, offered to spare it on condition of surrender, but his proposals were proudly rejected and his envoys killed. In the winter of 1240, Batu Khan began the siege of Kiev, and, to quote the words of the chronicler, " Men could not hear themselves speak for the screech- ing of cart-wheels, the grunting of innumerable camels, the neighing of horses, and the roar of voices from the great multitude of men." After an heroic resistance, the premier town of Russia fell into the hands of the ruthless foe, of whom an English contemporary relates that " they are above all men covetous, nasty, deceitful and merciless," and that " they think all things are created for their benefit." With fire and sword everything was destroyed. The beautiful ancient capital of Russia was turned into a heap of ashes, and the surrounding country devas- tated. So awful, indeed, was the state of Russia that a celebrated preacher of this period describes his unhappy fatherland thus : " Our churches are demo- lished, our sanctuaries desecrated, and the sacred vessels defiled; the bodies of monks have been cast out as carrion, and the land has been saturated with the blood 76 SOME RUSSIAN HEROES of our fathers and brothers as with water. Vanished are the strongholds of our princes and rulers, even the brave have fled in terror ; the majority of our brothers and of our children have been taken into captivity ; over our village streets the grass is growing, our land has become the prey of the alien, and the fruit of our labour is enjoyed by the infidel." After the sack of Kiev the victorious Mongol hordes passed on into Volhynia and Galicia, then crossed the Carpathians into Hungary, and, having devastated that country, turned northward into Silesia and Moravia. It was their custom to send some 5000 riders in advance, who, mounted on specially fleet horses, would often accomplish a three days* journey in a single night. This advance guard did not burn or plunder, but merely wounded or mutilated the peaceful inhabitants in order to strike terror into the hearts of the people, so that their rulers would be unable to ofl^er organized resistance — a thing they always tried to prevent. They did not like to be met man to man, but revelled in hacking their way through the people as they flew by them on horseback. An Englishman who had drifted into Tatary, and whom Batu Khan attached to his person as interpreter, thus describes the methods employed by the Mongols : *' They delude all people in times of peace, pretending to the princes of regions that for a cause — which, indeed, is no cause — they desire to pass through their land. In regard to which sleights and collusions certain indiscreet governors, concluding a league with them, have granted them free passage through their terri- tories ; which leagues, notwithstanding, being violated. THE MONGOL INVASION 77 were an occasion of ruin and destruction unto the aforesaid governors. ..." Leaving Moravia, Batu now returned to Hungary, intending to invade Austria, but on the borders of this country the Tatars received their first check. A great army under the leadership of the King of Moravia, the Duke of Austria and other famous warrior princes, " with mighty power and in battle array," advanced to meet them. Whereupon " that accursed crew imme- diately vanished, and all those Tatarian vagabonds retired themselves into the distressed and vanquished land of Hungaria, who, as they came suddenly, so departed also on the sudden, while their celerity caused all men to stand in horror and astonishment of them." Thus did Batu Khan turn tail before organized resistance. He and his hordes retraced their steps through southern Russia, along a path strewn with the bleaching bones of the victims of their former raid, until they reached the eastern banks of the Volga, where they settled down permanently. Here Batu founded Sarai, which became the capital of the Golden Horde (or Golden Camp), whence he held sway over Russia, whose princes had to travel from all parts of the country to pay him homage. Russia thus sank to the level of a mere province of the vast Mongol Empire, and not infrequently Batu would send Russian princes right into Central Asia to the Great Khan, whose representative he was in Europe. Western Europe was spared the horrors of a Tatar invasion ; but Russia, having succumbed, found out by bitter experience who were these ruthless, merciless hordes which, only a few years previously, had fallen in J.? 'U I 1 *1 V ii II 78 SOME RUSSIAN HEROES upon them suddenly like a plague of locusts. ** They are called Tatars," writes the painfully-enlightened chronicler, "and for our sins these pagans have come upon us." Indeed, the Mongol invasion was looked upon as a punishment to the nation for their '* unchristian morals," and as the consciousness of this grew upon the people they gradually " became established in the faith and more moral in conduct." The Mongols, however, were not the only foes with which the Russians had to contend, for Lithuanians, Germans and Swedes were also a constant menace. Of all the cities of northern Russia, Novgorod alone had escaped destruction at the hands of the Tatars ; but while Batu Khan was sacking Kiev, the Republics of Novgorod and Pskov were being invaded by Swedes and Germans. Prince Alexander Yaroslavovitch was at this time the military chief of Novgorod, where he had been known from childhood, for his father, Yaroslav, Grand Duke of Suzdal, had also ruled Novgorod in his day. In 1236, his eldest son, Alexander, was made Prince of Novgorod, and the memory of this noble character still lives in the hearts of the people. History and litera- ture, sacred and profane, speak of him as a great hero. Every inch a prince, his strength has been compared by the chronicler with that of Samson, and his beauty with that of Joseph. We read that " his eye was clear and penetrating, and his voice like a silver trumpet." The fame of his wisdom and statesmanship spread far and wide, and attracted to his side knights from distant lands, who remained to swell the number of his Boyars. THE MONGOL INVASION 79 li One of the Teutonic knights who had visited the youthful prince in the hope of settling peacably the perpetual feuds between his order and Novgorod, writes of Alexander Yaroslavovitch : "I have traversed many lands, and I know much of the world and its people and rulers, but never have I looked upon or listened to any one who has filled me with greater wonder than Alexander of Novgorod." The first to realize the correctness of the reports about Alexander were the Swedes, whose territories adjoined those of Novgorod at a point not far from the Neva, where the Swedes had built a fortress. The Pope himself had sent priests, skilled in building as well as in warfare, to erect this outpost against the schismatic Russians, whom he stigmatized as rebels because of their refusal to acknowledge his supremacy. In the year 1240 the Swedes, at his instigation, started a crusade against the Russians, and a large expedition, led by the Regent of Sweden, Birger Yarl, sailed down through the Gulf of Finland into the Neva ; the plan being to enter Lake Ladoga, and to proceed along the river Volkhof until Novgorod was reached, and then to attack and humble that proud city. The Swedish general was so sure of victory that when the ships had sailed only a little way up the Neva he sent the following message to Alexander : " If thou canst resist me, do so ; but I am close upon thee, and am already occupying thy lands." If this expedition was a crusade to the Swedes, it was no less a holy war to the Russians, and Alexander decided to go out in person to meet the foe. Before starting on his campaign he went to the cathedral, I ? 8o SOME RUSSIAN HEROES // )' ■I! r I i I' where, in earnest supplication, he prayed for success ; and having received the Archbishop^s blessing, the gallant Prince turned to his followers and encouraged them with these words : " God is not with Might but with Right. Some trust in weapons, some in horses ; but we will call on the name of the Lord." On Sunday, July 15th, 1240, he suddenly attacked the encamped Swedes, who, taken unawares, were flung into confusion. They had little chance of making a successful stand against the vigorous onslaught of the Russians, who fell upon them furiously with sword and battle-axe. One daring citizen of Novgorod succeeded in sinking three Swedish ships ; others with their swords slashed open the gorgeous tent of the Swedish general, and were mightily pleased to find it full of treasure. Birger Yarl himself escaped, but not before Alexander had thrust a lance into his face, thereby "putting his seal upon the foe." The battle raged the whole day, and only under cover of the night could the Swedes take to their ships and sail away. The Russians firmly believe that the victory was due to the assistance of two saints — Boris and Gleb, sons of St. Vladimir ; for, as Alexander was ncaring the border of Novgorod territories, he was met by a watchman from an outpost, who had come to report a wonderful vision which had appeared to him on the previous night. He had seen a rowing boat, in the middle of which stood two saints in shining garments, with glistening crowns on their heads. The lonely watcher heard St. Boris say to St. Gleb, "Brother Gleb, give orders to the rowers, for we must go to the assistance of our kinsman Alexander." THE MONGOL INVASION 81 V In honour of this wonderful victory on the Neva, the people of Novgorod bestowed upon Alexander the title of '' Nevski," or " Of the Neva." Yet, in spite of his having delivered their Republic, quarrels soon arose between the Vetche, or Council, and Alexander, who, disgusted with the ingratitude shown to him, shook the dust of Novgorod from oflF his feet and rejoined his father. Before long, however, the citizens regretted their quarrel, for although they were now safe from the Swedes, their other enemy, the German Knights of Livonia, were threatening them. This decided the Council of Novgorod to send messengers to the Grand Duke of Suzdal, imploring him to send his son Alexander to their rescue ; but it was another son, Andrew, who was sent in his stead. By no means satisfied, the Novgorodians despatched new envoys to plead for the return of the only man in whom they could place complete confidence. Attended by many nobles, the Archbishop appealed in person to Alexander, who yielded at last, promising to forgive and forget. He returned with the envoys to Novgorod, where his longed-for arrival was greeted with much rejoicing. Having quickly collected a large force, he defeated the German Knights, between whom and the Russians there had long been a growing animosity. These Knights had conquered Livonia, and christianized her heathen people by means of fire and sword, but, not content with converting pagans, they had also tried their hand on those Russians who, in the days of Yaroslav (i 01 5-1054) had settled in Livonia. This led to perpetual friction, for the intolerance of the Knights infuriated the people of Novgorod, who, in their turn, %\ II 11 82 SOME RUSSIAN HEROES were accused by Knights and Swedes of supporting the heathen in their opposition to Christianity. Quite recently the Knights had conquered Pskov, which was now ruled by a German Stadthalter, who was supported by several of the leading citizens, traitors to their country. The whole countryside was being kept in such a state of terror that all work in the fields had ceased. Even merchants travelling to Novgorod were taken captive and robbed of all their merchandise. Indeed Alexander realized that not only Novgorod but all Russia was endangered by these Teutonic raiders. After capturing the fort of Koporye, Alexander advanced upon Pskov, which he speedily wrested from the Germans, many of whom he sent in chains to Novgorod, where seventy of the Knights were beheaded as an example to the rest. The far-sighted Russian leader rightly assumed that the powerful German Order would make an endeavour to avenge this defeat, and early in 1242 the opposing forces met near Lake Tchoudovo which was still covered with ice, though spring was fast approaching. Before entering on this bloody contest, Alexander Nevski lifted up his hands and prayed aloud : ** Judge, O Lord, and settle the dispute between us and this overbearing people, and not unto us but to Thy Name be glory." The Germans attacked with fury, driving a wedge into the Russian ranks, with the intention of separating their enemy into two parts. For the moment it seemed as if they would be successful, but the valiant Russians held their ground ; and Alexander, making a flank counter-attack, routed the Germans, who fled. THE MONGOL INVASION 83 pursued by the victorious Novgorodians. Five hun- dred of the German Knights, besides innumerable Livonians and Finns, were slain, and for a stretch of seven miles the ice was strewn with corpses. There- fore this combat has ever since been known as " The Battle of the Ice," although some chroniclers speak of it as " The Blood Bath on the Ice " — for the surface was flooded with the blood of the defeated foe. Terror-stricken, and in momentary expectation of an invasion of Livonia by the victorious Alexander, the Grand Master of the Order sent an appeal for help to the King of Denmark. The Russian leader, how- ever, considered the lesson he had given the imperious Germans quite sufficient, and returned to Pskov in a triumphal procession, with fifty Knights walking behind him in full armour, but barefoot, with heads bowed and eyes cast on the ground. At the gates of the city he was met by the clergy and by a joyous, grateful people, who hailed him as their deliverer. Overcome with emotion, Alexander Nevski thus addressed the citizens : " O, ye people of Pskov, should you ever forget Alex- ander, and should even my most remote descendants fail in time of misfortune to find in you faithful sup- porters, ye will be for ever an example of ingratitude." Novgorod rejoiced with Pskov over her deliverance, and, not long after, peace was concluded between the two Republics and the Teutonic Order. Alexander Nevski had yet another enemy to contend with — the Lithuanians — who also attacked Novgorod, and several fierce battles had to be fought before this enemy was subdued. Delivered from all her external foes, Novgorod flourished as a trading centre, and 1 1 I SOME RUSSIAN HEROES increased more and more in power, riches and territory, until finally all Northern Russia to the shores of the White Sea and to the slopes of the Ural Mountains belonged to the Republics. All Russians were proud of Alexander Nevski, but what lent the greatest lustre to his name was the fact that he alone of all the Russian princes owed no allegiance to the Mongol Khan ; therefore the people called him their " Independent Prince." Batu Khan, however, resented this independence, and sent the following message to Alexander : " Prince of Nov- gorod ! Is it not known to thee that God has put many nations under my feet ? Wilt thou be the only one to deny me the homage that is my due ? If thou desirest to reign in peace, present thyself without delay before my tent, where thou shalt behold the pride and glory of the Mongols." Had Alexander followed the dictates of his proud and independent spirit, he would have refused to obey this arrogant command; but he loved his people, and desired above all things to spare them the misery that would surely ensue should he displease the Mongol Khan. He therefore decided to set out on his journey to Sarai, which he found on his arrival to consist en- tirely of tents, covering a large area of ground. In the midst of the camp stood the gorgeous tent of Batu, which he had carried away as booty from Hungary. As soon as he heard that Alexander had arrived, the Khan sent for him, but before being permitted to come into the Mongol's presence, the Russian was told to pass between two fires and bow in reverence before the sun. This, however, the Christian prince refused THE MONGOL INVASION 8S to do, and when his refusal was reported to the Khan, he was so impressed by his visitor's manly courage that he instantly gave orders for Alexander Nevski to be brought into his presence without further ceremony, and with all due honour and respect. On entering the tent, which was ablaze with oriental splendour, Alex- ander beheld the stately, magnificent Khan of the Golden Horde, sitting with two or three of his wives on a raised, gilded couch. Batu soon realized that the report which had reached his ears of Alexander Nevski's fame had not been exaggerated : he found this prince a head and shoulders above all the others who had been to his tent. After expressing his pleasure at meeting with the famous Russian, he granted his request that he might be allowed to buy off a number of his unfortunate fellow- countrymen who had been carried into captivity by the Khan ; but to Alexander's disappointment, Batu Khan, instead of letting him return to Russia, insisted upon his travelling on into Tatary to pay homage to the Emperor of the Mongols, then at his summer resi- dence in Karakorum, in the Desert of Gobi. It was a terrible journey, the Russians being tormented by hunger and thirst ; indeed, many of them fell by the way, and their bones increased the number of skulls and skeletons which already marked out the desert track. At the court of the Emperor, Alexander merely swelled the number of rulers and ambassadors who had come from far and near to bring tribute or to do obei- sance to the great Khan. All these representatives, whether of the Greek Emperor, the King of France, the King of Giorgia or the Pope, were exposed to the 86 SOME RUSSIAN HEROES THE MONGOL INVASION 87 insolence and extortions of the Mongol Emperor's entourage, of whom the Pope's legate wrote, " They are the most intolerable exacters, most covetous posses- sors, and most niggardly givers . . . and if a man bestow aught upon them, it is but generosity lost, for they are thankless wretches. They esteem themselves lords, and think nothing should be denied them by any man. . . . We departed from them. And in very deed it seemed to me that we were escaped out of the hands of devils." After an absence of nearly two years, Alexander Nevski returned to Russia, having received from the Great Khan the dignity of Grand Duke of Kiev ; but as this principality was in a state of utter ruin and in the hands of Mongol officials, he went to Novgorod, where he was received with joy by the people. Unfor- tunately, his stay amongst them was soon cut short, for again he had to undertake the journey to Sarai, this time to intercede for one of his brothers who had incurred the" displeasure of the Khan. Alexander suc- ceeded in his quest, and also obtained for himself the recognition of his right to the title of Grand Duke of Suzdal, which had been denied him on his first visit. On his return from this second journey, Alexander had to contend with various civic troubles, which he had hardly settled when the Swedes and Finns began to raid the country. Thereupon he sent an embassy to King Haakon of Norway, urging him to restrain his unruly subjects. This representation, backed up by some successful punitive expeditions, had at last the desired efFect, and Novgorod was left in peace by her northern foes. About this period Alexander was visited by two cardinals, who brought him a personal letter from the Pope, telling him that his father, while visiting the Khan, was on the point of accepting the Roman faith when death suddenly overtook him. This, the Pope said, he knew for certain, as his legate, Johannes de Piano Carpini, had met the Grand Duke in Kara- korum, and had been commissioned by him to urge his son Alexander to enter the true fold and obey the representative of God upon earth, and thereby save his own soul and secure happiness and blessing for his people. Besides, Russia would gain in every respect if in union with the Western Church. He added that Alexander, as a true servant of Christ, ought to advise the Livonian Knights of any new move or invasion on the part of the Mongols. The Pope concluded his letter with praise of Alexander's independent attitude towards the Khan, for he had not yet heard of his humiliating journey to the Great Khan. Having read the letter, Alexander called his coun- cillors together, and, after careful^liberation, sent the Pope a reply to the effecTtHat he and his people had the true teaching, and that he would have nothing to do with the Pope's proposals. Once again the Grand Duke was obliged to set off on an expedition to the Golden Horde, owing to the death of Batu Khan, whose successor was threatening to invade northern Russia and make it tributary to himself. In the hopes of saving his hitherto free country from this awful calamity, Alexander went laden with rich presents for the new Khan, who accepted them with alacrity ; nevertheless, he demanded that u i' 88 SOME RUSSIAN HEROES i I/! Novgorod also should henceforth pay tribute. As his one desire was to save the proud city from destruction, Alexander had no choice but to submit, and, accom- panied by Tatar tapc^atherers, he returned to his city, where the terrible task awaited him of informing the free citizens that they, too, must now bend under the Mongol yoke. The people were horror-stricken at the news, and, at the arrival of the Tatar officials who had come to take a census for the purpose of levying tribute, the Novgorodians offered passive resistance, while at the same time they forced presents upon the Tatars in order to get rid of them. Novgorod thus succeeded in gaining a respite, but, two years later, hearing that the Tatar hordes were on their way to coerce the rebellious republicans to obe- dience, the citizens bowed to the inevitable, and the last free Russian principality became a vassal state of the Khan. At first the Tatar officials themselves col- lected the tribute, but after a while they farmed it out to the Asiatic merchants from Khiva and other parts. These merchants ruthlessly exacted far more than their due from the unfortunate Russians, who, when unable to pay, were carried away into captivity. Suddenly, as if by design, but in reality quite spon- taneously, the exasperated people of northern Russia rose up with one accord and turned on these extor- tioners who had so tormented them. In Yaroslavl, a renegade monk and notorious tax-gatherer was mur- dered and his body thrown to the dogs. Adding insult to injury, and conscious of the Khan*s favour, he had not only oppressed the people, but had offended them by reviling their faith. THE MONGOL INVASION 89 This rising against the Mongol officials so incensed the Khan that, in order to placate his anger, Alexander Nevski travelled again to the Golden Horde to appeal to him in person, but it was only with the utmost difficulty that he succeeded in persuading the Khan to for 0-0 his revenge. The Prince managed at the same time to settle another matter which had greatly troubled him, namely, the Khan's desire that the Russian princes should send him troops to take part in his campaigns. For nearly a year the Russian ruler had to live in Sarai as a humble suppliant at the court of Batu Khan's successor. The strain of physical hardship as well as of moral suffering had gradually undermined the health of the Grand Duke to such an extent that, on his return journey, and before he could even reach his capital, he fell seriously ill. The Prince, who had given his strength so freely for his people, now desired to spend the short time left to him in preparation for his ap- proaching death, and, according to a custom prevalent at this time, he took the monastic vow. On his death-bed the noble warrior-prince gently requested his weeping people not to grieve so deeply, as their distress was troubling his soul ; and a few days later, surrounded by his devoted and now heart- broken friends and followers, he succumbed to a mortal disease. When the news of his death reached the Metro- politan of Vladimir, who was in the act of conducting a service in the cathedral, he addressed his congregation as follows, " My dear children, the sun has set for Russia ! " Then, breaking down with emotion, he ul n )ii 1 V 90 SOME RUSSIAN HEROES THE MONGOL INVASION 91 uttered these simple but ominous words, "Alexander is dead ! '* The full weight of this announcement was at once realized by all who heard it, for to everyone Alexander Nevski seemed indispensable ; he had been their shield and protector, their interceder and friend. The tears shed over his death came straight from the heart of a loving and grateful people, and so unre- strained was the sorrow at his funeral that the choir could not sing for emotion, and the " earth herself seemed to groan in sympathy." Even the proud citizens of Novgorod, with whom he had had frequent disputes, were unanimous in their sorrow over his decease. They prayed fervently for the soul of this valiant knight, " for," said they, " he has laboured much on behalf of Novgorod and all the Russian lands." Thus died, in 1263, Alexander Nevski, beloved and honoured. Although more than a century elapsed before he was canonized by the Church, the people at once be- stowed upon their beloved prince the tender and loving prefix of Saint, believing that as he had interceded for them on earth with the Khan, he would, now that he was in heaven, become their guardian angel. Soon many legends grew up around this famous national hero, and the pious thoughts of the people ascribed to his name many a deed of blessing to his country. He appeared in visions, and his relics were said to have cured many sick who visited his tomb ; but his actual canonization did not take place until the year 1380, and November 23 has ever since been dedicated to Alexander, the patron saint of Russia. Nearly three and a half centuries later, Alexander Nevski's descendant, Peter the Great, wrested from the Swedes the shores of the river Neva, and it seemed to him only fair that the remains of his great ancestor, who had won fame in the battle of the Neva, should rest in the new capital on that very river. Peter the Great also instituted the order of Alexander Nevski, and gave to it the noble motto, " For Labour and for the Fatherland," a permanent reminder of the great prince who spent his strength in labouring for his country. TATAR ON HORSEBACK. From Ides-Isbrant, Three Years' Travels, 1706. !' • y , CHAPTER VII DMITRI DONSKOI AND THE BATTLE OF KULIKOVO MORE than a century had passed since Russia had become a mere principality of the Mongol Empire, and Alexander Nevski had obeyed the command of Batu Khan to appear before him, as his father and the other princes had done. What Johannes de Piano Carpini, the Pope's legate to the Mongol Emperor, describes as having been witnessed by him at that far away court in Tatary in 1246 — "without the doore stoode Duke Yeroslaus of Suzdal in Russia " — was, unfortunately, still typical of the position of the Russian princes. They were but humiliated petitioners for Tatar favours, forced to bring presents, to bribe, to cringe before their overlord, under whose iron rule Russia groaned as under a burden too heavy to be borne. If princes wished to be unmolested by the Khan, 92 WARRIORS RIDING INTO BATTLE, From a fourteenth century MS. DMITRI DONSKOI 93 they had to bribe him until he gave, or more often sold, to them a "Yarlyik," or letters patent, which confirmed them in their position as rulers of their own principalities. As to the dignity of Grand Duke, this matter was usually settled by the Khan according to the value of the presents brought to him. Thus it became the custom for the princes to visit the Khan at Sarai, whence, however, many of them never returned, for the poisoned cup or the executioner's axe made short work of fractious or inconvenient dignitaries. ^ The representatives of the Khan in Russia were the Baskaki, whose favour the princes did their utmost to win, in the hope of obtaining advantages for them- selves and some slight concessions for their people. On the other hand, quarrels with these officials proved disastrous, for they had to be settled by the Khan, whose judgment was always in favour of the Baskak. The people of Russia, however, came very little into touch with the Tatars ; all they were conscious of was the fact that they had to pay taxes, which were ruth- ,lessly exacted from them, and woe to those who did not bring in the prescribed number of skins or other articles commandeered. The numerous Mongol officials lived oh the people, whom they sucked dry. Utterly helpless and unprotected, the common people groaned under the burden, for the road to Sarai was long, and who would listen to their complaints even if they succeeded in reaching that place ? Occasionally, however, some prince or bishop would plead for them, for high dignitaries of the Church frequently visited the Golden Horde. Some of the Metropolitans even ' ) 1! ll 94 SOME RUSSIAN HEROES acquired great influence, for, in conformity with the principles laid down by Genghis Khan, religious toleration was practised, all Church lands and monas- teries being exempt from taxation. vj[n course of time the Russian princes themselves became the chief tax-gatherers on behalf of the Khan, who was satisfied as long as tribute was duly delivered. This position of tax-gatherer proved, however, very demoralizing, since the princes often developed the habit of exacting more tribute than was demanded by their Mongol overlord ; some even extorted double the sum required, the surplus, of course, remaining in their own pockets. The influence of the Mongols degraded all who had to deal with them, and all true manliness and every desire for independence seemed to have died out of Russia. The princes were drawn more and more into intercourse with the Tatars, and gradually became satisfied to rule by favour of the Khans. Even marriage relations were entered into with the Mongols, and some princes went so far as to make use of Tatar troops in private feuds. Thus infidels were actually employed by Christian Russians against their own kith and kin. It was by these means that certain princes increased in power, especially those of Moscow, who frequently received the coveted Yarlyiks which conferred upon them the dignity of Grand Dukes, and as such they wielded authority over the others. Thus, unobserved by the Mongol rulers, a menace to their own domina- tion was arising in Muscovy, which was steadily increasing in power through the very favour of the Khans. As yet, however, though now and then some DMITRI DONSKOI 95 prince might have a vision of the day when Russia would be free from the Mongol domination, there was no solidarity amongst her rulers, and the herculean task of breaking the shackles, so securely fastened, was more than one man could accomplish alone. Such were the conditions of Russia in the fourteenth century, during which time England was engaged in the Hundred Years* War with France, and the Battle of Crecy was fought, while at home Wyclif was preaching against the priest, and Wat Tyler was heading his rebellion. At last there arose for Russia the man who was destined to strike a blow at the Tatars, and thereby permanently weaken their power. This man was Prince Dmitri Ivanovitch of Muscovy. When Dmitri was a child of nine years old, his father, a quiet, gentle prince, had died, and thereupon his uncle promptly usurped the title of Grand Duke. The boyars, however, brought the boy to the Golden Horde, where they purchased for him the Yarlyik which conferred upon him the dignity of Grand Duke. They took this step because they feared the loss of the hegemony enjoyed by Moscow since the days of Ivan Kallta (132 8-1 340), Dmitri's grandfather, under whose strong and unscrupulous rule Muscovy had risen to prestige and power. In the meantime a danger from the West was threatening the newly-acquired power of Muscovy — namely, Lithuania, whose princes, Gedemin and Olgerd, were great statesmen ; for many of the Russian princes had preferred to owe allegiance to these rulers rather than to recognize the Tatar-fostered superiority :\\ M u 1 /I 96 SOME RUSSIAN HEROES 1 '. 1 1 ' i: of the princes of Moscow. There were perpetual feuds between Moscow and other towns and princi- palities, especially those of Ryazan and Tver, while the arrogance of Muscovy was particularly galling to the people of Nijni-Novgorod. When, therefore, Dmitri took up the reins of government in 1363, he had no easy task before him ; for three foes had to be overcome — Tver, Lithuania and the Tatars. First it was Tver which gave him the most trouble. In spite of the fact that, during one of his visits to the Golden Horde, Dmitri had ransomed the young son of the Prince of Tver for ten thousand roubles, the sum for which his father had pawned him to the Tatars, but of which he now demanded repay- ment from the Prince of Tver. On the Tatar side, a new and hitherto undreamt of danger was menacing Russia. News spread that Mamai, the virtual ruler — although not yet the Khan — of the Golden Horde, was planning a new invasion into Russia, and this time for the purpose not only of devastating the land, but also of extirpating the Christian faith. The pretext for this invasion was punishment for what Mamai con- sidered Dmitri's ingratitude and independent attitude with regard to the payment of tribute ; for Dmitri, while visiting Sarai, had witnessed the weakening of the Khan's authority, and had refused to pay the same amount of tribute as in former days. Therefore, when Mamai became Khan, he decided to satisfy his feelings of revenge towards proud Muscovy. The power of the Khans, however, had been weakened to such an extent in consequence of gradual internal disintegration by the splitting up of the Golden Horde into lesser DMITRI DONSKOI 97 Khanates, that Mamai was obliged to follow the advice of his councillors, who said, " Thy horde is exhausted, but thou hast wealth, therefore hire Genoese, Tcher- kess, Yassi and others." This he did, but he proudly refused the assistance offered to him by Dmitri's arch- enemies, the Grand Duke of Lithuania and the Prince of Tver. These two rulers calculated that Dmitri would flee before Mamai's hordes, and that, after having levied another heavy tribute on Muscovy, the Mongols would withdraw. It would then be their opportunity to divide the weakened principality between them- selves. They had reckoned without their host. The approaching danger aroused in Dmitri all his latent powers of leadership, and he immediately called upon the nation to rally round him. From all parts his call found ready response, and from all over the country men flocked to his standard, and whole towns were arming in preparation for the contest. It seemed as though the nation had only been waiting for a deliverer, as if the people of Russia were awakening out of a deep sleep. The nightmare of the Tatar oppression was passing away, and at last they were beginning to feel themselves able to withstand the awful and hitherto invincible foe. With the exception of Oleg of Tver, who pretended to be on the side of Dmitri, but, in reality, meant to join Mamai, all the princes threw in their lot with Dmitri. Unity among the princes was a new and unprece- dented sight, and, according to the chronicler, for the first time in the annals of Russian history, her rulers preferred death to bondage. Vl H IS. il SOME RUSSIAN HEROES For the Russian people this was a holy war, and all were willing to die for their faith. Every one did his or her share towards serving the fatherland, " some with the sword, others with prayer ..." and on the zeal and devotion of the people rested the benediction of the clergy. When the Mongol leader heard of all these doings, he tried to settle matters amicably with the Grand Duke. He therefore sent envoys, who demanded an increased tribute as the price of staying his hand. Dmitri, however, proudly refused to pay one additional kopeck to the sum agreed upon during his last visit to Sarai. There had been some divergence of opinion amongst the princes who had joined Dmitri as to the best plan of action, some urging him not to venture to meet the foe, for they pointed out that besides the Tatars there were other enemies, the Lithuanians and the people of Tver. Others said, " Go forth to the Don ; " and this was the advice he followed, for, he maintained, " it is better to die an honourable death than to retain life at the cost of honour." Away from his capital rode the gallant prince to lead his warriors to victory. " God is with us," he cried, as he waved farewell to his weeping wife. But before starting he visited Sergei Radonejski, the venerable and saintly Abbot of the Troitsa Monastery, who gave him his blessing, saying, "Go forward, and the Holy Trinity will assist thee." He predicted victory to the Russian armies, but at the cost of terrible bloodshed : many heroes would fall, yet the Grand Duke himself would escape with his life. At DMITRI DONSKOI 99 the latter's request he selected two monks who, in former years, had been boyars and well fitted to stand by their leader, to go with him into battle. As they knelt before him for his parting blessing, Sergei per- formed the symbolic action of covering them with a monk's habit embroidered with a cross, saying, "This is your weapon, may it serve to protect you." The Bishop of Kolomna also blessed Dmitri in his crusade " against the accursed eaters of raw flesh, against the infamous Yagiello of Lithuania and the treacherous Oleg of Tver." On rode Dmitri until he reached the banks of the river Don where the Tatars were encamped. On the eve of the battle Dmitri and the other princes and leaders of the Russian Army stood on a hill to review the vast host. It was a glorious sight which presented itself to their gaze, for the helmets, inlaid with gold, had caught the rays of the sun. The icon of the Saviour on the Grand Duke's standard shone with a radiant light. Nature herself seemed to be in sympathy with the great event, for during that night the watching Russians heard beautiful music in the air, while from the Tatar camp came the howling of wolves and the croaking of ravens. Next morning the gallant Russians were drawn up ] in battle array. Dmitri stood on the hillock over- looking the field of Kulikovo, and the chronicler tells us that, when he heard the sound of thousands of Russian voices calling upon God — " Lord, give victory to our Leader ! " — he fell on his knees and, lifting up his eyes to the image of the Saviour on his standard, prayed again earnestly that his fatherland lOO SOME RUSSIAN HEROES DMITRI DONSKOI lOI h/'l might be delivered out of the hands of the infidel. Then he rode straight up to the lines and spoke words of encouragement to his men, calling them his faith- ful friends, and promising them glory in this life and a martyr's crown in the life to come. The princes implored Dmitri not to expose himself to danger ; " for," said they, " it is the duty of a leader to watch the battle, to take note of deeds of valour, so that those who deserve it may be rewarded. cWe are all willing to lay down our lives, but thou, beloved Prince, must live and pass on our memory to future generations. Without thee we cannot hope for victory." Suclfi advice, however, the gallant Grand Duke could not follow. ''Where you are, there must I be also. How can I ask others to die for the fatherland while I myself remain in safety. I must be your leader, not only in word but in deed." Then, with the words of the psalmist— *' God is our refuge and strength''— on his lips, he led his followers to the attack. It was not until the fight became general that he withdrew from the forefront of the battle which was more bloody and more awful than had ever been witnessed before in the history of Russia. The Tatar cavalry rode into the ranks of the Russian infantry, trampling them under their horses' feet, and mowing them down like grass. Blood flowed like water, and the corpses lay so thick upon the ground that many a living man was crushed to death under the heap of dead, and for a distance of ten versts the battle surged with fury. Some of the younger men of the Muscovite army, who had never been in action before, succumbed to panic and fled, thus leaving the way open for the Tatars to make a rush towards the Grand Duke's standard, and all seemed lost. Yet towards evening fortune favoured the Russians, and what had threatened to become a complete rout turned into a glorious though dearly-bought victory. At a little distance from the field of battle, hidden in a wood under cover of the trees, stood some picked regiments commanded by the young prince Vladimir, who longed to throw himself into the fray, but, on the advice of that experienced old warrior, Dmitri Bobrok of Volhynia, he restrained himself for a while, intently watching the furious combat. But at last he could endure it no longer, and called out, "Dmitri Bobrok, why arc we doing nothing? Who benefits by our standing here idle ? I tell you evil will come of it." "Yes," said the old warrior in reply, things are in a very bad way, but the time has not yet come for us to strike. He who attacks at the wrong moment does so to his hurt. Let us pray to God and wait until the eighth hour — then . . . may God help us to go forward." The plight of the Russians became worse and worse —it seemed as though the Tatars were annihilating them. The men in ambush, chafing at the restraint put upon them, began to protest vehemently against being held back, but Bobrok rebuked them, saying, **Wait, have patience, you silly Russian children." They fumed and fretted, but obeyed, having con- fidence in their gruff^ old leader ; and at the very moment when the Tatars seemed to have secured the victory, he called out, " Prince Vladimir ! and you, .P^ i ' 1/1 u , I r I02 SOME RUSSIAN HEROES ye sons of Russia, brothers and friends, the hour has come — now is our time to strike, and may the Holy Spirit help and guide us ! " Then he with his fresh troops rushed forth and attacked the foe. The Tatars, already exhausted by long hours of warfare, were taken aback by the unexpectedness of the onslaugHF, and seeing themselves attacked on both flanks, were seized with panic. They turned and fled. It is reported that when the great Tatar leader saw this rout of his army, he joined in the flight, crying, " Great is the God of the Christians 1 " Encouraged by this turn of the tide, the Russians pursued the enemy until they reached the river Metcha, where many more Tatars were slain and many were drowned. Their camp, full of treasure and booty, fell into the hands of the Russian victors. In this battle, the most famous of Russian history until the Batde of Poltava in 17 12, the Russians are said to have been outnumbered by four to one. When all was over. Prince Dmitri Bobrok gathered the princes together, but nowhere was the Grand Duke to be found. Dreading lest their be- loved leader should have fallen a prey to the foe, they searched for him in every direction. At last they found him lying on the ground under a tree, where he had been knocked off his horse by a blow. Bend- ing tenderly over the apparently lifeless form of the Prince, the victorious commander shouted into his ear, " Live ! Thou hast vanquished the foe ! " These words brought Dmitri back to life, and, look- ing up, he beheld the radiant faces of his faithful comrades in arms ; when he caught sight of the DMITRI DONSKOI 103 Christian standard floating over the Mongol dead, he was so overcome that he embraced the friends who stood around him, kissing even the common soldiers. Although his armour had been broken by the blows showered upon it, he himself had not been wounded, but only stunned, therefore he was soon able to mount his horse and ride across the battlefield. Dmitri did not pursue the Tatars any further ; perhaps because they were still in great numbers, and to follow them into the Steppes would have been to invite disaster on account of the lack of food. He may also have been influenced by the hope that Mamai had been so weakened that henceforth he would desist from attacking Russia. The defeated Mongol leader had started oflF on his return journey to Sarai, intending to gather new forces; but on the way he was attacked by a rival Khan, Tochtamyish, and on the river Kalka, where a hundred and forty years previously the Tatars had destroyed the first band of Russian princes who had dared to meet them in battle, Mamai was now defeated by his rival. He was soon afterwards killed in the Genoese colony, Kafi^a, in the Crimea, whither he had fled for refuge. The glorious victory on the field of Kulikovo in 1370 was, however, dearly bought, and many were the Russian heroes who there laid down their lives for faith and fatherland. The chronicler reported truly when he wrote, " Great was the joy in Russia, but great was also the mourning for those slain by the forces of Mamai on the Don." The news of the victory spread like wildfire, and all over Russia hearts II' 104 SOME RUSSIAN HEROES DMITRI DONSKOI 105 / I were lifted up to God in thanksgiving. It seemed as if the Tatar yoke had at last been definitely cast off and that Christian blood had not been spilled in vain. Great was the general rejoicing, men congratulated one another on being alive to see so glorious a day, and a grateful people bestowed upon Dmitri the title of "Donskoi"— of the Don. This campaign was the first real military under- taking organized by the Russians, not against Russians — against kith and kin — but against a common foe. The chronicler thus tersely describes this great event : " By the power of God and by Christian weapons fell the godless Tatars, and God upheld the right hand of the Grand Duke Dmitri Ivanovitch." The victory had far-reaching consequences, and from henceforth the tables were turned. Now the Tatars began to fear the Russians, and in future the Khans tried to keep their hold on Russia no longer by force, but by stealth and treachery. The hope that the Mongol domination had at last come to an end was, however, not fulfilled, and the Russian people had still much to suffer at the hands of the Tatars. Two years later they again invaded Russia, and besieged Moscow, when unspeakable horrors were perpetrated by these ruthless fiends, who gained entrance to the Kremlin by false pretences. Dmitri was far away from his capital when it fell a prey to the treacherous foe, and on his return he found the charred remains of his city strewn with the corpses of his massacred subjects. Thus writes the chronicler : " How can I describe Moscow, that rich and populous city, so recently teeming with life ? All her beauty vanished in a day ; what remained of her former glory but smoke and ashes — the empty walls of sacked and burned-out churches. The blood-soaked earth was covered with the bodies of her slaughtered citizens, and the only sounds that broke the silence hovering over this city of the dead were the groans of the few who had not yet succumbed to the terrible wounds inflicted on them." Unfortunately, the unity brought about by Mamai's invasion proved to be but short lived. New feuds broke out amongst the Russian princes, between town and town, and even the high ecclesiastics were at variance, and taking sides with the warring princesr So distressing was it to witness such an anti-climax that, to quote a contemporary, " the soul of Russia was sick at the remembrance of the disillusionment which followed on that great victory." Dmitri Donskoi, whose is the honour of having been the first prince to offer organized resistance to the arrogant and overbearing Tatars, was struck down by a sudden illness while still in his prime. When the news of his serious illness reached the ears of the citizens they were sorely distressed, for they dearly loved this gallant and pious prince. Although they did not at first know that his disease was fatal, Dmitri himself was well aware that his end was approaching, and to the faithful boyars, who in silent grief watched by his bedside, the dying hero addressed these words : "To you who witnessed my birth and childhood, to you is my innermost soul known. With you at my side, I have ruled over my people, defeating their enemies and protecting their welfare ; together we io6 SOME RUSSIAN HEROES DMITRI DONSKOI 107 11 I have rejoiced in times of prosperity, and together we have grieved when evil days have fallen upon us. I have loved you sincerely, and have rewarded you freely as was your just due. I have never wounded your honour nor touched your possessions. 1 have been careful not to offend you by a single word, and you have not been treated as boyars, but as princes of the Russian lands. It is now for you to prove by your actions the sincerity of the assurance so often made to me : * We will die for you and your children.' Therefore give your loyal service to my wife and to my youthful sons, and make their joys and sorrows your own." The death of this noble prince at the early age of forty, in 1389, cast a deep shadow over the Russian nation. The chronicler writes at great length of the great sorrow of the people, who felt that they had lost a father in Dmitri. He enlarges upon the Grand Duke's eminent powers of leadership, and speaks of his clear mind and his tender, loving heart. Dmitri was beloved for his greatness of soul and his devotion to the fatherland, as well as for his keen sense of justice ; by his thoughtful kindness also he had endeared him- self to all who knew him personally. Having been brought up from his earliest childhood amongst rough, unpolished fighting men, and reared in the din of clashing arms, he had never acquired any book-learning ; but his mental powers and the nobility and uprightness of his character fitted him to be a ruler of men, while by his humility he^won his way to all hearts. The chronicler makes but little of Dmitri's political mistakes, several of which might be cited by the historian, but to the first " defeater of the Tatars " a good deal could be forgiven, even so serious an error of judgment as his absence from Moscow during the siege of that city. Apart from his victory on the field of Kulikovo, which sounded the death knell of Mongol power in Russia, his historic importance lies in the fact that he developed the power of Muscovy, the seeds of which had been planted by his grandfather, Ivan Kalita, and the harvest of which was to be reaped by his great-grandson, Ivan III. BANNER OF DMITRI DONSKOI, WITH THE IKON OF OUR LORD CHAPTER VIII SERGEI RADONEJSKI, THE " WONDERFUL OLD MAN " EVIL, indeed, were the days upon which Ros- tov had fallen during the first half of the fourteenth century, for that clever schemer, Ivan Kalita (1328- 1340), Grand Duke of Moscow, had suc- ceeded in acquiring this lesser principality and in joining it on to his own dominions — a proceeding bitterly resented by the people of Rostov, who made no secret of their feelings. It was this attitude of independence which had proved their un- doing, for the Stadthalter sent to govern them not only ruled them with a rod of iron, but made the resentment of the citizens against Muscovite rule the pretext for a general slaughter of boyars as well as of common people. The Governor's action created a panic, and many families fled to other towns for safety. To one of these belonged the Boyar Cyril, who, 108 ILLUMINATION FROM A RUSSIAN MS. OF THE GOSPBLS, FOURTEENTH CENTURY. SERGEI RADONEJSKI 109 with his wife and three sons, forsook the place in which his people had dwelt for so many generations, and settled in the humble little town of Radonej. Another reason may have weighed with this boyar in leaving Rostov ; for, owing to a series of reverses, the erstwhile wealthy citizen had become poor, and his pride forbade him to live any longer in his native town under such altered circumstances. By selecting Radonej for his abode, Cyril was the means of bringing fame to that insig- nificant little township, for his youngest son, Bartho- lomew, under the name of Sergei Radonejski, was destined to become one of Russia's most popular saints. Among the many accounts of his life, the most im- portant is that written by his pupil, Ephiphani, and the following facts are based upon the chronicles com- piled by this loving and devoted follower of the « Wonderful Old Man," as St. Sergei Radonejski came to be called by his contemporaries. According to the reckoning of those days, this saint was born in the year 6825, counted from the creation of the world, or ,314 A.D. As was evidently the custom for boyars at that time, his parents employed tutors to instruct their children. Their youngest boy attended lessons with his older brothers, Stefan and Peter, but seemed too hopelessly stupid to grasp the intricacies of the Slavonic script. All his efforts to do so only ended in failure, and he was sorely disheartened by the gibes of his brothers; yet, though apparently unable to assimilate book-learning, he showed a marvellous understanding of the spiritual, and was filled with a great longing for goodness and truth. One day, so runs the story, the lad was sent by his '•1 no SOME RUSSIAN HEROES SERGEI RADONEJSKI III father to seek for some horses which had strayed from the pasture. Evidently in those early and more primitive days, life and customs were simpler and more homely, for there seems to have been nothing incon- gruous in the little son of a noble being entrusted with a task which, in later days, would have fallen to menials. While trying to find the horses, Bartholomew encountered a venerable and saintly-looking old monk, who, struck by the eagerness of his efforts, asked what he was looking for. Having told of his quest, the little lad looked earnestly at the holy man, and said, **Oh, father, there is another thing I am always searching for, and that is how to master book-learning." Where- upon the stranger placed his hands on the lad's head and prayed that God might enable His young servant to learn to read ; and then, with words of kindly en- couragement, he told Bartholomew that he was to have no fear, but to rest in full assurance that this desire would be granted. Happy in the prospect of the fulfil- ment of his ardent longing, and his heart overflowing with gratitude, the lad prevailed upon the stranger to come back with him to his parents' home, where the saintly guest was made welcome, and being invited to share in the mid-day meal, he did so, but not until he had offered up prayer in the private chapel of the boyar. From that day onward all Bartholomew's diffi- culties, as far as his studies were concerned, seemed to vanish. In those days religious zeal found its expression in monasticism, and those who, for some reason or other, were unable to take the vows, felt that at least they could carry out the monastic rules with regard to fasting. When Bartholomew was about twelve years old he decided to devote his life to the service of God, and apparently his parents put no obstacles in his way, but permitted him to abstain from all food on Wednes- days and Fridays, and on other days to live merely upon bread and water. In spite of this meagre fare the lad grew up into a tall, strong young man. When eighteen years old he thought that the moment had arrived for him to carry into practice those ideas of a life of devotion to God which had come to him as if by inspiration, but which were very different from those current at that time in the Russian Church. His intention was to go into the wilds, there to spend his time in communion with God. When, however, he informed his parents of this plan, they asked him to postpone his departure, "for," said they, " we are old and in delicate health ; your married brothers think only of their own families, and it is upon you that we rely to tend us in sickness and distress." So Bartholomew, who always put first things first, readily fell in with their wishes, and with tender care did all that he could for the welfare of his aged parents. About two years later, very shortly before their death, they entered one of the monastic establishments into which both sexes were admitted, a common practice in the evil days which followed the Mongol invasion. Because their lives were in per- petual jeopardy the people had begun to think more seriously about death and the life to come, and, accord- ing to the prevalent ideas, eternal salvation was assured to those who died as monks or nuns. Therefore, in order to prepare themselves for heaven, large numbers 1 112 SOME RUSSIAN HEROES SERGEI RADONEJSKI 113 took monastic vows. Sometimes princes took these vows on their deathbeds, as, for instance, Alexander Nevski. Freed from family ties, Bartholomew was now able to put his ideal of the religious life into practice. It was no morbid craving for solitude, nor any spirit of antagonism to the society of man, which led him into the wilderness, but a clear and definite perception of what was needed in days when monasticism had de- generated into selfishness, self-indulgence and sloth. Three hundred years earlier, when Christianity was introduced into Russia, the Greek form of monasticism, which did not include community of goods or life in common, was adopted there. Yet, even in those early days, three Russians — Hilarion, Antonius and Theodo- sius — broke away from Byzantine traditions and founded the famous Cave Monastery in the vicinity of Kiev, where the apostolic principle of "all things in common," coupled with the severe asceticism of the Egyptian anchorites, was lived out. Gradually, however, the Greek practice reasserted itself, and, by Bartholomew's time, only monasteries of the Greek order existed. There were many monastic establishments, but all of them resembled settlements, in which each monk lived in his separate hut. One might be rich, another poor, each looking after and providing for himself. All that they had in common was the vow of strict obedience to the abbot, otherwise they led a purely individualistic existence. All the monasteries were urban, and the capital of every principality contained a monastery. In villages, again, those who were desirous of taking monastic vows built themselves little huts around the church, the priest acting as their spiritual adviser. Thus, although supposed to be " not of the world," monks still remained " in the world," and came too much under its influence. All this was a cause of grief and disappointment to the young idealist, who decided to try and live out his own conception of consecrated life — a life of separation from the world and its temptations, led, therefore, far from the dwellings of man. In order to find a suitable place in which to build his cell, Bar- tholomew wandered away from Radonej, and pene- trated deeper and ever deeper into the sombre forest until he finally decided upon a spot near a clear spring of water, some fifty-four versts from Moscow. The next thing to do was to ask Prince Andrei Ivanovitch for permission to make a clearing in the forest where he could build himself a cell and a tiny chapel, and also prepare enough arable land for his support. His request having been granted, Bartholomew returned to the forest, accompanied by a carpenter who helped — and, indeed, taught him — to fell trees and to erect a shelter against rain and snow. A little chapel, also, was built, but, before services could be held in it, it had to be consecrated. For a consideration, the nearest village priest consented to perform this rite, and the chapel was dedicated to the Holy Trinity — the Troitsa. Bartholomew's idea of a holy life did not necessarily include loneliness, therefore he invited one of his brothers— who on losing his wife had become a monk — to join him. His descriptions of the blessedness of a life spent apart from the world and in communion with God evidently appealed to the imagination of Stefan, who followed the young enthusiast into the 114 SOME RUSSIAN HEROES SERGEI RADONEJSKI 115 wilderness. Very soon, however, the unaccustomed silence began to pall upon him, and after a while he frankly admitted his inability to lead a hermit's life, and went his way. Thus, when only twenty years of age, the young saint was left without human companionship — without even the sound of a human voice. But there was music in the air when the storm shook the great trees, or when in spring the birds were singing. The forest teemed with animal life. A pack of wolves would race past his cell, the elk stalk right up to it, the squirrel climb on the roof, the fox would peep through the open door, and the hare play round it. There were bears, too, but they ignored the harmless intruder while they searched for honey in hollow trunks of trees ; the young cubs, gambolling about among the fallen giants of the forest, would every now and then peer curiously in at the lonely man. Beast and bird soon grew accustomed to the tall young man who never tried to harm them, and they in their turn did not molest him. One day, however, a large bear, unable to resist the temptation, entered in at the open door, and man and beast gazed steadily at one another. The man made the first move, and breaking in two the bread which he was eating, handed one half of it to his furry visitor. This act of hospitality established a friendly relation- ship between the two, and for a whole year the bear came every day to visit his friend, who never forgot to place some bread on the trunk of a tree quite close to his hut. A sad time came, however, when there was nothing to share, and for two days the bear looked in vain for his dainty morsel and had to go away surprised and grieved. Still he did not lose heart, but came again on the third day, and this time he was not dis- • appointed, and for a whole year he never missed paying his daily call. Bartholomew abstained from all food on Wednesdays and Fridays, and for the rest of the week subsisted on water from the spring and on the bread which some kindly peasant deposited at a certain spot. But occa- sionally this supply failed— hence the disappointment of the bear. Some months after taking up his abode in the forest, Bartholomew was shriven by the same priest who had consecrated the church, and received the name of Sergei. For some time he continued to live alone, spending his days in meditation and prayer, in reading the Scriptures, clearing the forest, and converting waste land into fertile soil, on which he grew his daily supply of nourishment. It is not to be wondered at that such uninterrupted loneliness should have affected his imagination, and, according to the chronicler, the devil, attended by numerous demons, visited him on more than one occasion. One night, while Sergei was read- ing the Evening Service by the flicker of a wooden taper, a company of demons, dressed like Lithuanians (who were at that time enemies of Russia), crowded into the tiny chapel, and gnashing their teeth at the lonely watcher, seemed about to tear down the little building, when Sergei lifted up the Cross, and in the name of the Holy Trinity commanded th^m to depart — which they did. Two years had passed since the young man had left ii6 SOME RUSSIAN HEROES M his home to live alone with God in the wilderness, and his fame had reached the monks of a certain monastery, several of whom were not satisfied with their mode of living, and were delighted to hear that there was one man brave enough to strike out a new line, which they also believed to be the right one, but which none of them had been strong enough to take up of them- selves. Some of these monks sent a deputation to Sergei, asking him to allow them to join him in the wilderness. Their request was readily granted, and for many years this little colony consisted of thirteen men. Although newcomers frequently made their appearance, the number did not increase, as many found the solitude, which was so attractive in theory, impossible to endure for any length of time. The apostolic number was retained for some time, but suddenly there came a change. Reports of this simple and holy life reached the ears of the Archi- mandrite of Smolensk, who, forsaking the comforts and luxuries of urban life, and resigning his high position, came to Sergei as a humble suppliant, seeking to be admitted into this brotherhood. Many of the Smolensk monks followed in his train, and thus a large settle- ment sprang up in the forest. The Archimandrite of Smolensk, a rich man, handed over most of his trea- sures to Sergei, the actual, though not yet consecrated. Abbot of the community. This money was used to erect a church in place of the tiny chapel, which had served its purpose for many a long year. Sergei's brother also returned, bringing with him his twelve- year-old son, who, some years later, founded another famous monastery. SERGEI RADONEJSKI 117 Stefan's presence, however, soon gave rise to diffi- culties, for he considered that as his brother had never been consecrated Abbot, he, as the elder of the two, should wield supreme authority. Meek and lowly, and free from all self-seeking, Sergei did not oppose his brother, but matters came to a crisis when one day, during service in church, Stefan loudly upbraided one of the community for speaking of Sergei as the Abbot. Thereupon the gentle Sergei decided that, for the sake of peace, it was better for him to give place to his brother. So, without telling anyone of his decision, he secretly left the settlement and went to the Abbot of a neighbouring monastery, who was a friend of his, and of whom he asked permission to build himself a cell some ten versts further away in the depth of the forest. This request was granted, and once again the holy man found himself alone in the wilderness — but not for long. His absence was noticed almost imme- diately, and, rightly assuming that their beloved master had gone to visit his friend, the monks soon discovered his whereabouts, and having tracked him down, a number of his devoted followers begged of him to allow them to live near him. Thus history repeated itself. The Metropolitan of Moscow, Alexei, equally great as diplomat, ecclesiastic and statesman, was, for the time being. Regent of Russia on behalf of Dmitri Ivanovitch, the infant grandson of Ivan Kalita. Alexei was personally acquainted with Sergei, whom to know was to love, and he now used his influence to persuade Sergei to return to his bereft community, for Stefan ii8 SOME RUSSIAN HEROES proved himself far from acceptable, even to those monks who had at one time been his partisans and who had remained with him in Troitsa. Ever humble and tractable, Sergei consented to return and be consecrated Abbot. The Christlike life of the Abbot of the Troitsa Monastery could not remain secret, and gradually his fame spread all over northern or Muscovite Russia ; from far and near people came to visit him, and no one went away disappointed. The sad were comforted, the discontented cheered. Princes, too, who were at variance, brought their quarrels to him for arbitration, and he, as a wise peacemaker, always succeeded in settling the question so as to avoid bloodshed. He upheld the cause of the oppressed and fearlessly re- buked the wrong-doer, but with such wisdom and gentleness that even the most hardened could not withstand him. His monks found him invariably impartial, fair and just, never listening to gossip or slander. Devoid of hypocrisy, of a "boundless humility and adorned with good works," his life was as a shining light in one of the darkest periods of Russian history. Realizing how unsatisfactory the monastic life was, Sergei, whose ideals in this respect were shared and upheld by the Metropolitan, now decided to introduce the communal system. The Metropolitan and the Abbot, both wise and experienced men, knowing how bitterly such an innovation would be resented by the monks, sought and received the support of the Patriarch of Constantinople, from whom they obtained a letter addressed to Sergei, suggesting the introduction 4 O > o i«M^ ■ II I II IW »i ■ I SERGEI RADONEJSKI 119 of the Apostolic practice. This suggestion, coming from the Patriarch himself, disarmed opposition, and every member of the Troitsa Monastery handed over his possessions for the benefit of the community. Thus, instead of each man growing vegetables for himself, cooking for himself, and having his own belongings and keeping them for his own use, all was now devoted to the common good. A refectory was built, and the monks no longer laboured for themselves, but for each other ; and as the saintly Abbot never exacted of others a task which he would not undertake himself, he, too, did his share of boot-mending and working in field and garden. One day a peasant presented himself at the monas- tery. He had come from afar to see Sergei, of whose holiness and piety he had heard so much. On his arrival he inquired for the Abbot, and was told that he would find him working in the orchard. The only man he could see digging there, however, was a monk in a tattered habit. Failing to see the Abbot, the peasant turned and repeated his inquiry of some by- standers. From these he found out to his astonish- ment that the old man in the shabby garb was the great Sergei, whom he had expected to find amid a crowd of priests and attendants, enjoying pomp and dignity. Yet, though disappointed in his expectations, the peasant returned to Troitsa at a later date, to remain there as the follower of the humble Abbot. The humility of Sergei was manifested in various ways : many a thing too old and bad for the monks, he considered quite good enough for himself. In the early days of the settlement the small band of monks I! 5t I20 SOME RUSSIAN HEROES sufFered at times real privations, for he did not permit any of his followers to beg for alms. Thus it came about that, although they were allowed to accept gifts brought to the monastery by devout people, on one occasion he himself was without food for several days. At last, unable to endure starvation any longer, he offered his services as carpenter to a monk whom he knew to possess bread, but to be in need of assistance for the building of a little lean-to to his hut. The Abbot's offer was rather ungraciously accepted, and, after a whole day's work, he received a few mouldy loaves in return for his labour. As time went on and the fame of Sergei increased, princes and boyars visited him, as well as beggars, the rich gifts of the former being expended on the latter. His gracious hospitality and generosity attracted people from far and wide ; no stranger ever knocked at the portal in vain, and no wayfarer was ever denied shelter. He also revived the ancient practice of organizing relief for the poor and needy, and around his monas- tery he built almshouses, an orphanage and a hospital. During this period of general insecurity and of frequent recurrences of famine and plague, the misery of the poor was often acute ; but in Sergei they found a friend ever ready to help them in their hour of need. Thus he won the love and veneration of rich and poor alike. This meek and lowly servant of God firmly believed in the efficacy of prayer, and constantly people would ask him to make intercession for them. So great was the faith of Sergei that in answer to his prayers many sick were healed. In fact, the belief that he was SERGEI RADONEJSKI 121 endowed with supernatural gifts became more and more prevalent, and the numerous incidents quoted by Epiphani in proof of it were, for the most part, verified by the Abbot's disciples, to whom the smallest thing affecting their master was of the keenest interest. Remembering what a loving and sympathetic nature he had, we are hardly surprised to hear that a bond of telepathy should have united him with his most intimate friends. The biographer records, for example, the following experience : one day, during dinner, the Abbot suddenly rose to his feet, bent his head in silent prayer and then, bowing to some unseen person, said aloud, " Rejoice thou, also, O shepherd of the flock of Christ ! And may the peace of God abide with thee." No one for the moment dared to ask Sergei why he had acted in this manner, for the brothers realized that their Abbot had seen a vision ; but after- wards, when they reverently approached him on the subject of his strange behaviour, he replied, " At that moment my friend, the Bishop Stefan, of Perm, was passing the monastery, and, bowing to the Holy Trinity, he bestowed his blessing upon us humble folk." Sergei even described the spot where all this had taken place, and some of the monks, anxious to follow it up, ran after and overtook the episcopal party, who confirmed the statement that, at that given place and moment, the Bishop had stopped on his journey, had offered a prayer, and, turning towards the monastery, had exclaimed, ''Peace be unto thee, my spiritual brother ! " The monks were deeply impressed, and in com- memoration of this event they erected, on the spot ^ i\ /; 122 SOME RUSSIAN HEROES where the incident had occurred, a cross, and, later on, a small chapel. Also, in memory of the vision, it has become a custom in the Troitsa monastery for a bell to be rung during the dinner hour, just before the last course is served, as a signal to the monks to rise while the Abbot says the following prayer : " O Lord, hear, we beseech Thee, the petitions which Thy servants, Sergei and Stefan, are offering up on our behalf." It is quite natural that, with such a reputation for saintliness, the gentle Sergei should have been credited also with miracle-working, and that even during his lifetime the people should have spoken of him as " that wonderful old man." In spite of his humility, he proved himself a born ruler of men and a succesful organizer, but these gifts were exercised with such wisdom, courtesy and understanding of human nature, that he was rarely obliged to assert his authority. The Metropolitan, Alexei, realizing how great and beneficial would be the influence of Sergei over the whole of Russia were he to follow him in office, decided to appoint him his successor. For this purpose he sent for the Abbot, to whom he presented a golden vestment and cross. Sergei, quite unconscious of what these gifts portended, declined them, saying, " Ever since childhood's days I have abstained from adorning myself with ornaments of gold, and as I began my days, so I mean to end them." The Metropolitan then dis- closed his intentions, but the Abbot, overwhelmed with dread at the thought of such a prospect, replied, '* Vladyika, promise me not to do this, or else I shall flee into the depths of the forest and hide myself where no man shall find me." SERGEI RADONEJSKI 123 Lust of power, desire for popularity and fame were foreign to this lowly servant of a lowly Master ; yet there were times when he found himself constrained to come forward and take his share in political matters, using his great influence for the benefit of the father- land. On one of these occasions he sent a letter to Dmitri, Grand Duke of Moscow, urging upon him the necessity of going out to face the Tatar army which was threatening invasion, and it was this letter which led the wavering princes, who had all gathered round Dmitri to discuss the position of afl^airs, to decide on marching south to the Don, where they won the famous victory of Kulikovo in 1370. Within the walls of his monastery Sergei was undis- puted head, requiring implicit obedience from the members of the community ; yet every rule was enforced by means of gentle persuasion or mild reproof. He desired his monks to devote the time spent in their cells to studying the Word of God or to meditation and prayer, and, in order to be sure that his wishes were carried out, he would sometimes look in through the window of a cell, and if he saw the inmate occupied in the right way, would give a gentle tap on the pane, pronounce a blessing, and pass on. If, on the other hand, he found several of the brothers together in one cell, his tap would be followed by a request that the culprits would come and see him next day at a certain hour. At such an interview the faith- ful shepherd would try to convince the listeners of the un worthiness of gossip and the unfruitfulness of idle talk. The hours not devoted to prayer were spent by the I! I I II 124 SOME RUSSIAN HEROES monks in such handiwork as was necessary to provide for the needs of the community and in healthy out-of- door work, such as clearing the forest, working in the fields, orchard or kitchen garden. The wilderness into which the quiet Bartholomew had withdrawn himself fifty-five years previously had completely changed, and had become a fruitful oasis. The redeemed soil of the forest had been transformed into fields and meadows. People from all parts and of all kinds flocked to the monastery, peasants being especially desirous of living under its protection. Sergei did nothing to prevent this, although he maintained his ideal to the extent of not allowing the world to come too near ; yet, in course of time, a large settlement grew up in the vicinity, and Troitsa became a famous centre, to which visitors of every rank, from the highest to the lowest, gathered, and no one passed it by without enjoying the hospi- tality of the monastery, or receiving the Abbot's blessing. During Sergei's lifetime the Troitsa Lavra, as it came to be known, did not possess other immov- able property than the land which had been cleared and tilled by the monks ; but many gifts were bestowed upon it, which were expended in securing the barest necessaries of life for the inmates, in beautifying the large church erected beside the original chapel, and in providing for the poor and needy. After many years the monastery was enriched by gifts of land, villages, fisheries, etc., so that in time it became one of the wealthiest monasteries of the empire. Ever since the days of its founder it held the first place among Russian monasteries — hence its name of Lavra. It was not the only monastic establishment founded by SERGEI RADONEJSKI 125 Sergei ; among several others, he also built one which became the central school for ikon painting. Incon- gruously enough, the most cherished possession which its church contained was the celebrated ikon of Our Lord, the "ikon not made with hands,'* as it was called. In 1 39 1 Sergei died, in his seventy-eighth year, fifty-five years after he had taken up his abode in the sombre forest in his quest for a holy and consecrated life. Deep and widespread was the sorrow when this greatly beloved man "transferred his abode to the other world." In those days his pure, strong and self- less personality shone forth, not with the dazzling glitter of a cold, artificial light, but with the brightness of the sun which radiates warmth as well as light. Just as "a city that is set on a hill cannot be hid," so it was impossible for him to keep his light concealed, and however far he might penetrate into the forest, it could not but shine to the glory of God. The Troitsa Lavra formed the nucleus of a network of new monasteries. The experience of Sergei repeated itself, for many of his followers would leave the brotherhood in order to seek solitude in some far away spot, which in its turn would inevitably become the nucleus of a new settlement and religious centre. In this way forty monasteries were founded by followers of Sergei, and, from these forty, fifty more were developed as branch colonies. Thus was fulfilled the interpretation of the vision in which the saintly Abbot had seen a large flock of birds flying around him, for all over Muscovite Russia his spiritual descendants were carrying on his work. 126 SOME RUSSIAN HEROES *• In 1441, fifty years after his death, Sergei was canonized by the Church, and twenty-two years later a church was built in his honour and dedicated to his name. His biographer, Epiphani, waxes eloquent on the subject of his goodness, kindness and generosity, and, in describing him, enumerates just those virtues which go to the making of a truly Christian character. There is no weakness or sentimentality in this healthy and virile Russian Saint, of whom we may aptly say that he fulfils the qualifications mentioned in the Beatitudes : '* Blessed are the Poor in Spirit . . . Blessed are the Meek . . . Blessed are the Pure in Heart . . . Blessed are the Peacemakers." CLERGY AND LAITY AT MEAL. From a fourteenth century MS. CHAPTER IX IVAN THE TERRIBLE AND THE METROPOLITAN PHILIP MUCH had happened since the days when Dmitri Donskoi had gathered the princes of Russia for the first time round his banner. No longer were the rulers of Mos- cow Grand Dukes, but "Rulers of All Russia," with the courtesy title of Tzar; for, favoured by the Tatar Khans, and supported by the Church, Muscovy had become a great power. Thus, when the Tatar domination had come to an end, chiefly through internal disintegration, the rulers of Muscovy stepped into the place vacated by the Khans, whose spirit of despotism they adopted as their own. Although to all appearances Muscovy had become a mighty empire, yet at' the beginning of the sixteenth 127 CHURCH OF VASSILI BLAJENYI, 1555-1560. 128 SOME RUSSIAN HEROES IVAN THE TERRIBLE 129 century Russia was, in her turn, in a state of general disintegration. Foreign visitors to Russia were deeply impressed by the barbarism of her regime, and Giles Fletcher, the English ambassador, in his exhaustive treatise on the Russian Commonwealth, thus describes the condition in Muscovy, of ruler and ruled : " The state and forme of their government is plaine tyrannicall, as applying all to the behofFe of the prince, and that after a most open and bar- barous manner : as may appeare by the sophismata or secretes of their government, as well for the keeping of the nobilitie and commons in an under proportion, and for uneven balance in their severall degrees, as also in their impositions and exactions, wherein they exccede all just measure, without any regard of nobilitie or people." The people lived in the midst of such lawlessness, danger and hardship, that progress was impossible, and Fletcher was justified in writing that — " . . '. It makes the people (though otherwise hardened to beare any toile) to give themselves much to idleness and drinking : as passing for no more than from hand to mouth. . . ." The inhabitants of this vast realm lived, as they had done for centuries, in self-contained communities, having little or no communication with each other or with the central government, whose local representa- tives held absolute sway over them. Fletcher wrote — ''And for the dukes that are appointed to govern under them, they are but men of titular dignitie, of no power, authoritie, nor credit, save that which they have out of the office for the time they enjoy it. Which doth purchase them no favour, but rather hatred of the people, for as much as they see that they are set over them, not so much for any care to doo them right and justice, as to keepe them under in a miserable subjection and to take the fliece from them, not once in the yeare (as the owner from his sheepe), but to poule and clip them all the yeare long." It mattered very little to the people to whom they paid taxes, whether to the Khan or to the Tzar — the same thing always happened : "The common people, they are robbed con- tinually both of their harts and money (besides other means), sometimes by pretence of some service to be done for the common defence, sometimes without any shewe at all of any neces- sitie of commonwealth or prince. So that there is no meanes, either for nobilitie or people, to attempt any innovation, so long as the militarie forces of the emperour hold themselves fast and sure unto him and to the present state. Which needes they must doo, beyng of the qualitie of souldiers, and enjoying withall that free libertie of wronging and spoiling of the commons at their pleasure, which is permitted them of purpose, and to make them have a liking of the present state. " The great oppression over the poore commons, maketh them to have no courage in following their trades: for that the more they have the more danger they are in, not only of their goods but of their lives also. And if they have anything, they conceale it all they can, sometimes conveying it into monasteries, sometimes hiding it under the I30 SOME RUSSIAN HEROES ground and in woods, as men are woont to doo where they are in feare of forreine invasion. In so much that many times you shall see them afraid to be knowen to any boiaren or gentleman of such commodities, as they have to sell. . . . Fear made the people servile. . . . This may truly be said of the conditions of the commons and vulgar sort of people, that there is no servant nor bond slave more awed by his maister nor kept downe in a more servile subjection, then the poor people are, and that universally, not only by the Emperour, but by his nobilitie, chief officers and souldiers. So that when a poor mousik meeteth with any of them upon the high way, he must turne himselfe about as not daring to looke him in the face, and fall down with knocking of his head to the very ground. ..." The majority of the peasants, living in scattered villages on the outskirts of the sombre forests, were in perpetual jeopardy from raids ; so much so, that on every church tower a look-out was kept, and the moment the watchman observed a cloud of dust in the distance, the alarm-bell was sounded. Whereupon everybody fled into the forest, the men driving the cattle before them. When, therefore, the raiders — whether Tatars or robbers — appeared upon the scene, they found merely the empty shell. If they did burn the houses down — well, there was enough timber close at hand to rebuild them. Such a perpetual struggle for life, such a state of insecurity and of living from hand to mouth, does not tend to elevate, and small wonder that foreigners found the people of Russia "brutish.** There was nothing to raise them — no IVAN THE TERRIBLE 131 education, no strong religious feeling, for their religion was purely formal. " They serve God with crosses," wrote Fletcher, " after a crosse and vaine manner, not understand- ing what the crosse of Christ is, nor the power of it. . . . All this mischief commeth from the clergie, who being ignorant and godless themselues, are very warie to keepe the people likewise in their ignorance and blindnessc,for their living and bellies sake : partly also from the manner of government settled among them : which the emperours (whom it specially behoveth) list not to haue chaunged by any innovation, but to retaine that religion, that best agreeth with it." Russia had no Renaissance, no Reformation, no great spiritual movement to carry the nation out of the dark- ness of medieval days into the light of knowledge. To the English onlooker who had just experienced the effects of the Reformation in his own country, the reason for this darkness was — ** ignorance of the holy scriptures, which notwith- standing they have in the Polonian tongue (that is all one with theirs, some few wordes excepted), yet fewe of them read them with that godly care which they ought to doo : neither haue they (if they would) bookes sufficient of the Old and New Testament for the common people, but of their leiturgie onely, or booke of common service, whereof there are great numbers. . . . Which notwithstanding it is not to be doubted, but that having the word of God in some sort (though without the ordinarie meanes to attaine to a true sense and understanding of it) God hath also his number among them." -S rrTiiii'liti''f 132 SOME RUSSIAN HEROES IVAN THE TERRIBLE 133 The marvel is that there were still people, even in that sad country, who were good and true ; and in spite of the sombre colours in which Fletcher depicts conditions in Muscovy, he sees possibilities for the future : " As may partly appeare by that which a Russe at Mosko said in secret to one of my servants, speaking against their images and other supersti- tions : That God hath given unto England light to-day, and might give it to-morrow (if he pleased) to them. . . ." The observant ambassador admits that the stuff of which the Russians were made was good — it was the conditions that needed changing ; for, writes he — " As touching their behaviour and quality other- wise, they are of reasonable capacities, if they had those means that some other nations have to traine up their wittes in good nurture and learning. . . . For as themselves are verie hardlie and cruellie dealt withall by their chiefe magistrates and other supe- riours so are they as cruell one against an other, specially over their inferiours and such as are under them. So that the basest and wretchedest Chris- tianoe (as they call him) that stoupeth and crouch- eth like a dogge to the gentleman, and licketh up the dust that lieth at his feete, is an intoUerable tyrant where he hath the advantage. By this meanes the whole countrie is filled with rapine and murder. They make no account of the life of a man. You shall have a man robbed sometime in the very streats of their townes, if hee goe late in the evening, and yet no man to come forth out of his doores to rescue him, though hee heare him crie out. I will not speake of the straungenesse of the murders and other cruelties committed among them, that would scarsly bee beleeved to bee done among men, specially such as professe themselves Christians." That ordinary citizens were at least restrained in their dealings with their neighbours was due to fear of punishment, so cruelly meted out, for — " When any is taken for a matter of crime (as treasor, murder, thefte) the manner of examination in such cases is all by torture, as scourging with whips made of sinowes or whitleather as bigge as a mans finger, which giveth a sore lash and entreth into the flesh, or by tying to a spit and rosting at the fire; sometimes by breaking and wresting one of their ribbes with a payre of bote tongues, or cutting the flesh under the nayles, and such like. . . .'' Cruelty and brutality were the order of the day, and in the administration of the criminal law of the sixteenth century, recourse was had to tortures so horrible that they can only be compared to those of the Inquisition. " Their capitall punishments are hanging, bed- ding, knocking on the head, drowning, putting under the yse, setting on a stake and such like. But, for the most part, the prisoners that are con- demned in summer are kept for the winter,^ to be knockt on the head and put under the yse." Not so the nobles — "for theft and murder upon a poore mousick by one of nobilitie, are (not) lightly punished, nor yet is hee called to any account for it. Their reason is, because they are accounted their kolophey or bondslaves. If by some gentleman souldier, a murder or theft be committed, peradventure he shal be imprisoned at the emperours pleasure. If the ■^T" 134 SOME RUSSIAN HEROES IVAN THE TERRIBLE ^3S manner of the fact be verie notorious, he is whipped perchance, and this is commonly all the punishment that is inflicted upon them. If a man kill his owne servant, little or nothing is said unto him, for the same reason : because hee is accounted to be his kolophey or bondslave, and so to have right over his verie head. The most is some small mulct to the emperour if the partie be rich : and so the quarell is made rather against the purse then against the injustice. . . ." In warfare, however, all restraint fell away — the soldiers exhibited that same ferocity which so horrified the world in Ivan the Terrible. Against such a sombre background the sinister figure of Ivan the Terrible does not appear quite so abnormal as it would have seemed had he lived in more en- lightened days. He was, after all, but a product of his time — merely an exaggerated type of the Russian of that period of chaos. His position as Tsar enabled him to dispense with every vestige of restraint, and set him free to follow out every evil impulse and every perverted instinct. Was it not symbolical of the character of Ivan's reign that the period of his birth was marked by a season of continual thunderstorms ? That at the moment of his birth the darkened sky was illuminated by a lurid light, and, even as he was drawing his first breath, lightning flashed through the heavens, and deafening thunder- claps rent the air ? When the news of the birth of the prince reached the ears of the superstitious Muscovites, they exclaimed in pious submission, " God has sent a chastening rod into our midst ! " The fear occasioned at this time by the phenomena of nature was but a faint foretaste of the terror which was to seize many a brave heart during the reign of that same infant grown to manhood. After a long and uneventful reign of twenty-eight years, the Tsar Vassili III had died, having appointed his infant son Ivan, a boy only three years old, his successor. The child's mother, Helen, was proclaimed Regent in accordance with the old Slavonic law whereby the widow reigns on behalf of a minor. It was, how- ever, not she, but her lover, Ivan Ovtchina-Telepna- Obolenski, who became the virtual ruler of Russia ; and well matched were these two, who now wielded unlimited power. Ruthless and unrestrained by any scruples, he ruled in her name, committing atrocities such as had hitherto been unheard of in Muscovy, and in all this he was countenanced by the widow Regent. Under this regime life became unbearable for the boyars, and, driven to extremes, they caused the Regent to be poisoned, while they flung her lover into a dungeon, where he was starved to death. Wnile the little Tsar was passing through the years of childhood amid the intrigues and cabals of princes and boyars, he received no fit training, and was not seldom neglected altogether, being exposed even to gratuitous suflFering at the hands of the new Regent, Prince Ivan Shuiski. The nervous, highly imaginative boy noticed that, although his personal welfare and wishes seemed of no account to the Regent and the Council of the Boyars, yet everything was done ostensibly in his name, and gradually he found the solution to this otherwise inexplicable riddle, in his 13^ SOME RUSSIAN HEROES official position, in his title of " Ruler of All Russia.'* He began to brood over the apparent contradictions of his condition, and there was implanted in his heart the seed of hatred against the boyars which was to bring forth terrible fruit in after years. Shuiski was not left very long in the enjoyment of the influential position of Regent. The Metropolitan whom he had raised to that dignity turned against him and threw all the weight of his position on the side of Prince Byelski, one of the boyars left to languish in prison during Helen's regency. The Metropolitan's intrigue led to Shuiski's deposition, and Byelski's accession to power. He ruled wisely and well, but only two years later was overthrown by Shuiski, who caused his rival to be strangled. The time-serving Metropolitan was in his turn also deposed, and Makarius, a man endowed with great gifts, but utterly lacking in principle, was appointed. He became one of the most famous Metropolitans of Muscovy, and the autocratic power gained through him much of its enormous prestige. Prince Ivan Shuiski's enjoyment of his position was once more cut short, this time by illness. He handed over the reins of government to his brother Andrew, but the power was soon wrested from his family by Helen's brothers, the Glinskis, to whom the Metro- politan Makarius had transferred his allegiance. Andrew Shuiski fell a victim to the ferocity of the young Tsar Ivan, who had him torn to pieces by a pack of hounds. This outrage may have been suggested by the Tsar's uncles, but was evidently carried out with alacrity by the malicious boy who bore the proud IVAN THE TERRIBLE 137 ^1 title of Ruler of All Russia, and who became notorious in the history of mankind as the personification of ferocity, cruelty and lasciviousness. Can this be wondered at, for was he not the son of a mother whom the people called that "Drinker of Blood " ? Had he not her blood running in his veins? And what an example had been set him, first by his mother's lover, and then by his guardian. Prince Shuiski, of whose unbridled selfishness and utter callousness to the feelings of others Ivan complained in a letter written many years later ! Was not the very atmosphere of the Kremlin saturated with intrigue and reeking with blood .? No good plant could come forth from such soil — what could it produce but a poisonous fungus whose odour was deadly, and in whose vicinity nothing healthy could flourish ? Even during the days of his childhood Ivan delighted in causing suffering, but at that time his victims were limited to young animals, which he would fling to the ground from a balcony and then enjoy watching their agony. Such entertainment, however, soon became tame, and he began to crave for more exciting diversions. Thus, at the age of fifteen, the young Tsar, surrounded by playmates whom he had selected, would ride helter-skelter through a crowd of harmless citizens. Led by Ivan, the cavalcade would ride down the unsuspecting people, and numbers of wounded and dead would mark the track of the future ruler of Russia. No protest was made by his guardian against this barbarous pastime. On the contrary, his uncles and the fulsome flatterers who crowded round him praised him for his boldness. "What a k 1 " \ \ i ('! 138 SOME RUSSIAN HEROES IVAN THE TERRIBLE 139 a M magnificent horseman ! " they exclaimed. " What a brave and bold Tsar he will make ! " Such were the surroundings amid which Ivan passed his youth. No regular occupation was provided for him, but, left entirely to his own devices, he was at liberty to follow every whim which crossed his mind. No one impressed upon him the responsibilities and obligations of his position, and nothing was done to prevent this highly-strung, imaginative and clever boy from giving free rein to his desires and yielding to every impulse. It was as much as a man's life was worth to interrupt the Tsar with business of the State when he happened to be amusing himself. For such imprudence more than one man was strangled at the boy's command. According to Russian custom, the Tsar had been taught to read, the Bible being the text-book. Unfortunately, the only things that caught his eye and appealed to his imagination were the accounts of such rulers as Sennacherib and Nebuchadnezzar. They became his heroes and models of kingship, and he looked forward to the time when he, too, would have unlimited power and authority, and astonish the world with his display of might. The young Tsar read many books, historical as well as theological, with the result that his immature mind was full of an undigested mass of facts which, in after life, he drew upon at random when engaged in controversy. Early in life the youthful Ivan had shown signs of devout-mindedness, which, however, in no way acted as a restraint upon his desires, and from his fifteenth to his seventeenth year he spent his time alternately in riotous living with his wild companions and in frequenting monasteries. In fact, after a while, this habit of visiting monasteries and shrines became an obsession, and only fostered his superstitions. On reaching his seventeenth year Ivan came of age, but not satisfied with merely taking over the rudder of the State as his forebears had done, he decided to be crowned in solemn and impressive pomp. He was thus the first Russian ruler to have a coronation ceremony ; he loved pomp and show, and such an opportunity for display, for magnificent staging and for dazzling the eye of the crowd was too good to be lost. In the Metropolitan Makarius the young Tsar found a ready supporter of his ambitious claims. After the Coronation, the next matter to be attended to was the Tsar's marriage, and, in accordance with precedent and in order to facilitate his choice of a wife, all the most beautiful girls of noble birth and of a marriageable age were sent to the capital for his inspection. His choice fell on Anastasia Sacharjin-RomanoflF ; but although Ivan seems to have been greatly attached to his wife, his marriage did not in any way act as a deterrent to his voluptuous desires, and even after his oflficial assumption of power he made no attempt to alter his irresponsible manner of life. In this he was encouraged by his mother's relations, the Glinskis, who had been wielding the actual power and were anxious that this state of affairs, so profitable to themselves, should con- tinue. At the same time other favourites of the Tsar ruled without let or hindrance in various towns and dis- tricts, mercilessly exploiting or robbing the inhabitants. Those of Pskov, driven to despair by the tyranny to I4C SOME RUSSIAN HEROES which they had been exposed and hoping to find redress for their wrongs, sent two envoys to the Tsar to plead their cause before him. As ill-luck willed it, the envoys arrived at an unpropitious moment. Ivan was starting out on a hunting expedition, and the interruption so incensed him that he ordered the two unfortunate men to be stripped and held down on the ground, while raw spirits were poured over them, their beards and hair being then set on fire. Just as Ivan was watching this performance, news was brought to him that a church bell had fallen to the ground. To the super- stitious people of those days, the Tsar included, such a happening portended disaster, and, leaving his victims to their fate, he galloped away on horseback to see the fallen bell. The foreboding came true. Soon afterwards a terrible conflagration devastated the city of Moscow, in which at least nineteen hundred adults lost their lives, to say nothing of innumerable children. From the safe distance of his palace on the Sparrow Hills, Ivan callously watched the grandiose spectacle. The misery of his homeless subjects, whose all had fallen a prey to the hungry flames, left him utterly unmoved ; the only thing that troubled him was the loss of some of his own buildings, which he instantly gave orders to have re-erected. The ruined citizens did all they could to discover the origin of the disaster, and the enemies of the powerful Glinskis, taking advantage of this opportunity, assi- duously spread the report— which was only too readily believed— that the fire had been brought about by witchcraft. From mouth to mouth the rumour spread : IVAN THE TERRIBLE 141 "Princess Anna Glinski and her family had soaked human hearts in water, and the Princess herself had driven through the streets of Moscow sprinkling that water in all directions, and wherever the water fell, flames burst forth." The result of this rumour was that the exasperated populace broke out into rioting, and seizing any members of that family they could lay their hands on, promptly lynched them. No attempt was made to restrain the people, and when it became known that the Princess Anna had sought shelter at the palace, the crowd moved out towards the Sparrow Hills, clamouring for the surrender of the " witch." Yet this moment of extreme danger — when auto- cratic power might have been wielded with advantage — found the Tsar wanting in initiative and devoid of resourcefulness. It was at this crisis that a deus ex machina arose. Just when Ivan was trembling in im- potent fear, Sylvester, a priest from Novgorod, appeared before him, and cleverly utilizing the Tsar*s state of mind, worked on his imagination by depicting the tor- ments of hell which awaited the tyrant as the penalty of sin — torments for which the priest told him there was only one way of escape, namely, genuine repentance. Cowed by the threats administered in such a masterly way, Ivan promised to amend his life. Thereupon Sylvester undertook to rescue the Tsar from the peril which was threatening him at the moment : a few shots from a cannon dispersed the crowd, and the situation was saved. It was never known how the priest came to be at the Tsar*s palace at that moment, but it has been suggested that the Metropolitan, who also hailed from Novgorod, had sent him there. ii 1-^ I'* i, . \ i it! t I 142 SOME RUSSIAN HEROES r Sylvester's admonitions and threats had the desired effect : " the Tsar came to himself and repented in dust and ashes. It was as though his diseased soul had been cauterized by the fire of fear and thus become healed." Ivan clung to the man who had so miraculously appeared in the hour of need to save him, and practically handed to Sylvester the power which it was his right to wield. Prince Kourbski, the contemporary historian, writes that " in order that the Christian land might have a time of rest, God sent help in the person of a man — Sylvester, who spoke to the Tsar in the name of God." Poor Russia ! it was indeed high time for a change of policy, for " she"^ was beset by enemies without and within, by the lawlessness of the Tsar himself and of his favourites, which was turning the country into a desert and ruining the fatherland." For a period of ten years Muscovy was left in peace by the Tsar, who gave over the reins of government into the clean, capable hands of Sylvester. This priest, assisted by Adashev, a noble and upright youth, whom Kourbski compared to a lily growing upon a dung- heap, reorganized the disordered country. Theirs was no easy task, but, fortunately, the " time-servers " who surrounded Ivan fell in with the new regime, and the virtual Regent was soon able to cleanse the Augean stable. To aid him in the task of governing, Sylvester formed a council of picked men, nobles and citizens, which did excellent work, and on special occasions he also called a National Council. Two new codes of law were compiled — a civil code, and the Stoglav dealing ^rfrfa IVAN THE TERRIBLE H3 with ecclesiastical matters, which were once again in a deplorable state. The sagacious Metropolitan Makarius trimmed his sail to the wind and supported Sylvester, by whom he was always treated with the utmost deference. Sylvester also drew up rules for the regulation of social and domestic life, the *' Domo- stroi," in which, although many of the injunctions with regard to the treatment of children may seem over severe, consideration for slaves and dependants is earnestly recommended. This lawgiver was, however, as exacting with him- self as with others, and he proved the sincerity of his convictions by setting all his slaves free. His honest, generous nature shines out in all his writings, which are in perfect harmony with his moral and blameless life. He used every means in his power to restrain the bloodthirsty tendencies of the Tsar, and to make him realize the beauty of a sober, moral, active and generous life ; but in vain. Svlvester*s ultimate fall was inevitable. The only marvel is that he retained his position of trust for so many years. Friction had already arisen between him and the Tsar, owing to differences of opinion regarding the objective of certain minor military expeditions, and especially the war against Livonia. Ivan desired a maritime outlet, and this campaign was undertaken with that object ; Sylvester, on his part, strongly opposed this enterprise as a war of conquest, and urged the Tsar to concentrate all his efforts in putting an end to the Khanat of the Crimea, as the perpetual inroads of the Tatars were disastrous to Russia. He endeavoured to convince 144 SOME RUSSIAN HEROES Ivan that, as long as these birds of prey had their nests in such close proximity to Russia, it was impos- sible for her chief source of wealth — her fertile plains — to be developed. Sylvester realized the pre-eminent importance of a definite and complete conquest of the Tatars ; for, although no longer in a position to cite Russian princes to come before them, the hordes of the various Khans raided Russia so frequently, and with such success, that she was threatened with depopulation. The Tatars, both of Kazan and of the Crimea, made so many captives year by year that the Levantine and Oriental merchants who visited the slave-markets bought these Russians by droves, like so much cattle. Occasionally these traders would actually take their human wares back into Russia to sell them to their own countrymen, but when pur- chasers were not forthcoming the unfortunate Russians were carried back into Asia, where there was a great demand for them. There was safety for no man south of Moscow, and at a distance of only loo versts from that city the fertile lands were but sparsely populated by people who, in this perpetual fight against overwhelming odds, became more Asiatic than European. The war against the Khan of Kazan, in which the flower of Russian chivalry was engaged, displaying that courage and endurance for which they have always been renowned, ended in the conquest of Kazan. More than 100,000 Russian captives were thus set free, which fact alone ought to have proved to Ivan the urgent need for settling, once for all, the Tatar question. IVAN THE TERRIBLE HS The strict impartiality of Sylvester's administration aroused the ire of a certain faction of boyars. These men, realizing that the Tsar was beginning to chafe at the restraints imposed upon him, played upon his vanity as autocrat until they brought about the deposition of Sylvester, who had, however, of his own accord previously retired to a monastery. He was not allowed to remain in the retreat of his choice, for at Ivan's command he was sent away to the lonely monastery of Solovietsk in the White Sea, there to be kept prisoner in seclusion. It is one of the queer inconsistencies of Ivan's character that this despot nearly always sought a pretext for his crimes, so as to give them an appearance of legality, and he was fertile in inventing reasons to justify his actions. Yet surely one who claimed absolute power over the life of his subjects could have spared himself the trouble of making excuses. Thus, for the sake of appearances, a trial was instituted, at which Sylvester was not even permitted to appear, but was condemned for wizardry. Indeed, the boyars so worked upon the superstitions of the Tsar that, when the monarch seemed uncertain whether to let Sylvester appear before him or not, they prevented it, by assuring him that Sylvester's very presence might in itself be a danger, for they had already convinced Ivan that Sylvester's great influence over him had been due to a demoniacal spell. The consciousness of having been dominated was so galling to the pride of Ivan that his cowardly nature, in revenge for the long restraint put upon it, poured forth its fury upon all those who had been in sympathy 146 SOME RUSSIAN HEROES